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LIBRARY

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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

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NATURAL HISTORY

BoiT.dat

A.M.N.H.

1939

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. I

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Bulletin 130

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN

WILD FOWL

5^2^ I A

ORDER ANSERES (Part)

By ARTHUR CLEVELAND BENT

Of Taunton, Massachusetts

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1925

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF TfflS PUBUCATION MAY BE PROCURKD FROM

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

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AT

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ADVERTISEMENT

The scientific publications of the United States National Museuni
consist of two series, the Proceedings and the Bulletins.

The Proceedings^ the first volume of which was issued in 1878,
are intended primarily as a medium for the publication of original,
and usually brief, papers based on the collections of the National
Museum, presenting newlj^-acquired facts in zoology, geology, and
anthropology, including descriptions of new forms of animals, and
revisions of limited groups. One or two volimies are completed an-
nually and copies of each paper, in pamphlet form, are distributed,
as soon as published, to libraries and scientific organizations, and to
specialists and others interested in the different subjects. The date
of publication is recorded in the tables of contents of the volumes.

The Bulletins^ the first of which was issued in 1875, consist of a
series of separate publications comprising chiefly monographs of
large zoological groups and other general systematic treatises (oc-
casionally in several volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions',
and catalogues of type-specimens, special collections, etc. The ma-
jority of the volumes are octavos but a quarto size has been adopted
in a few instances in which large plates were regarded as indis-
pensable.

Since 1902 a series of octavo volumes containing papers relating to
the botanical collections of the Museum, and known as the Contribu-
tions frotn the National Herharium^ has been published as bulletins.

The present work forms No. 130 of the Bulletin series.

William deC. Ravenel,
Administrative Assistant to the Secretary.,
In Charge of the United States National Museum.

Washington, D. C, May 13, 1925.

INTRODUCTION

This is the fifth in a series of bulletins of the United States
National Museum on the life histories of North American birds.
Previous numbers have been issued as follows :

107. Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, 1919^.
113. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns, 1921.
121. Life Histories of North American Petrels, Pelicans, and

their Allies, 1922.
126. Life Histories of North American Wildfowl, 1923.

The same general plan has been followed and the same sources
of information have been utilized. Nearly all those who con-
tributed material for former volumes have rendered similar service
in this case. In addition to those whose contributions have been
previously acknowledged our thanks are due to the following new
contributors :

Photographs have been contributed by Charles Barrett, W. J.
Erichsen, Audrey Gordon, W. E. Hastings, A. B. Klugh, G. M.
McNeil, C. W. Michael, J. A. Munro, J. R. Pemberton, J. K. Potter,
M. P. Skinner, and F. W. Walker.

Notes and data have been contributed by H. P. Attwater, A. C.
Bagg, D. B. Burrows, K. Christofferson, H. B. Conover, M, S.
Crosby, S. T. Danforth, A. D. Henderson, R. W. Jackson, J. W.
Jacobs, W. DeW. Miller, Catharine A. Mitchell, J. A. Munro, J. E.
Pemberton, F. J. Pierce, R. D. Camp, A. J. van Rossem, William
Rowan, M. P. Skinner, T. C. Stephens, W. A. Strong, and C. L.
Whittle.

Completed manuscript for this bulletin Avent to the publishers in
March, 1923. Material received since then will be acknowledged
later. Much new matter published since then can not now be in-
cluded.

The sixth volume, containing the life histories of the herons and
rails, is now well along toward completion, but it is not too late
to add anything of importance, if it is sent in promptly. The
seventh volume will contain the shore birds. If contributors wish
to have their names kept on the mailing list, they are urged to
send any photographs or notes they have to offer for use in these

two volumes, at once, to —

The Author.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Family Anatidae 1

Glaucionetta clangula americana 1

American goldeneye 1

Habits 1

Distribution 13

Glaucionetta islandica 1-i

Barrow goldeneye 14

Habits 14

Distribution 23

Charitonetta albeola 24

Bufflehead 24

Habits 24

Distribution 31

Clangula hyemalis 32

Oldsquaw 32

Habits 32

Distribution 49

Histrionicus histrionicus histrionicus 50

Atlantic harlequin duck 50

Habits 50

Distribution 57

Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus 58

Pacific harlequin duck 58

Habits 58

Distribution 61

Camptorhynchus labradorius 62

Labrador duck 62

Habits 62

Distribution 67

Polysticta stelleri 67

Steller eider 67

Habits^ 67

Distribution 73

Arctonetta fischeri 74

Spectacled eider 74

Habits 74

Distribution 78

Somateria mollissima borealis 79

Northern eider 79

Habits 79

Distribution 93

Somateria mollissima dresseri 94

American eider 94

Habits 94

Distribution 102

Somateria v-nigra 102

VII

VIII CONTENTS

Family Anatidae — Continued. Page

Pacific eider 102

Habits 102

Distribution 107

Somateria spectabilis 107

King eider 107

Habits 107

Distribution 118

Oidemia americana 119

American scoter 119

Habits 119

Distribution 127

Melanitta fusca 128

Velvet scoter 128

Habits 128

Distribution 131

Melanitta deglandi 131

White-winged scoter 131

Habits 131

Distribution 142

Melanitta perspicillata 143

Surf scoter 143

Habits 143

Distribution 151

Erismatura jamaicensis 152

Ruddy duck 152

Habits 152

Distribution 160

Nomonyx dominicus 161

Masked duck : 161

Habits 161

Distribution 163

Chen hyperborea hyperborea 164

Snow goose 164

Habits - 164

Distribution 170

Chen hyperborea nivalis 173

Greater snow goose 173

Habits 173

Distribution . 178

Chen caerulescens 178

Blue goose 178

Habits : 178

Distribution 184

Exanthemops rossi 185

Ross goose 185

Habits 185

Distribution 188

Anser albifrons albifrons__- 188

White-fronted goose 188

Habits 188

Distribution 195

Anser albifrons gambelli 196

CONTENTS IX

Family Anatidae — Continued. Page

Tule goose 196

H&bits 196

Distribution 198

Anser fabalis 198

Bean goose 198

Habits 198

Distribution 200

Anser brachyrhynchus 200

Pink-footed goose 200

Habits 200

Distribution 1 203

Brauta canadensis canadensis 204

Canada goose 204

Habits 204

Distribution 222

Branta canadensis hutchinsi 223

Hutchins goose 223

Habits 223

Distribution 226

Branta canadensis occidentals 227

White-cheeked goose 227

Habits 227

Distribution 230

Branta canadensis minima 231

Cackling goose 231

Habits 231

Distribution 236

Branta bernicla bernicla 237

Brant 237

Habits 237

Distribution 248

Branta bernicla nigricans 249

Black brant 249

Habits 249

Distribution 257

Branta leucopsis 258

Barnacle goose 258

Habits 258

Distribution 262

Philacte canagica 263

Emperor goose 263

Habits 263

Distribution 268

Dendrocygna autumnalis 269

Black-bellied tree-duck 269

Habits 269

Distribution 272

Dendrocygna bicolor 272

Fulvous tree-duck 272

Habits 272

Distribution 277

Cygnus cygnus 278

100449—25 2

X CONTENTS

Family Anatidae — Continued. ^*se

Whooping swan 278

Habits 278

Distribution 280

Cygnus colunabianus 1 281

Whistling swan 281

Habits 281

Distribution 292

Cygnus buccinator 293

Trumpeter swan 293

Habits 293

Distribution 300

References to bibliography 303

Explanation of plates 312

Index 373

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL
ORDER ANSERES (PART)

By Arthur Cleveland Bent
of Taunton^ Massachusetts

Family ANATIDAE, Ducks, Geese, and Swans

GLAUCIONETTA CLANGULA AMERICANA (Bonaparte)
AMERICAN GOLDENEYE

HABITS

Sfring. — With the breaking up of winter in Massachusetts, when
the February sun has loosened the icy fetters of our rivers and the
ice cakes are floating out of our harbors, the genial warmth of ad-
vancing spring arouses amorous instincts in the breasts of the
warm-blooded goldeneyes. The plumage of the drakes has reached
its highest stage of perfection; their heads fairly glisten with
metallic green luster, in sharp contrast with their spotless white
under parts; and their feet glow with brilliant orange hues. They
must seem handsome indeed to their more somber companions of
the opposite sex, as they chase each other about over the water,
making the spray fly in ardent combat. They are strenuous, active
suitors, and their courtships are well worth watching.

Oourtship. — This interesting performance, the most spectacular
courtship of any of the ducks, has been fully described in detail by
Mr. William Brewster (1911). Rather than attempt to quote
from such an exhaustive account, I would refer the reader to this
excellent article, which is well illustrated and worthy of careful
study. I prefer to quote Dr. Charles W. Townsend's (1910) account
of it, which is more concise and yet quite complete; he writes:

One or more males swim restlessly back and forth and around a female.
The feathers of the cheeks and crest of the male are so erected that the head
looks large and round, the neck correspondingly small. As he swims along,
the head is thrust out in front close to the water, occasionally dabbling at
it. Suddenly he springs forward, elevating his breast, and at the same time
he enters on the most typical and essential part of the performance. The
neck is stretched straight up, and the bill, pointing to the zenith, is opened
to emit a harsh, rasping double note, zzee-at, vibratory and searching in

2 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

character. Tlie head is then quickly snapped back until the occiput touches
the rump, whence it is brought forward again with a jerk to the normal
position. As the head is returned to its place the bird often springs forward
kicking the water in a spurt out behind, and displaying like a flash of flame
the orange-colored legs.

As these courtships begin on warm days in February and last
through March, probably many pairs are mated before they migrate
to their breeding grounds in April. Doctor Townsend writes me
that he saw a pair copulating at Barnstable, Massachusetts, on March
28. Mr. Charles E. Alford (1921) writes:

Though the habit of lying more or less prone upon the water is common
to most females of the Anatidae when they desire to pair, the duck goldeneye
carries this performance beyond all normal bounds ; her behavior on such oc-
casions being, indeed, scarcely less amazing than that of the drake. With
neck outstretched and her body quite limp and apparently lifeless, she allows
herself to drift upon the surface exactly after the manner of a dead bird.
When first I witnessed this maneuver I was completely deceived, for she re-
mained thus drifting toward the shore, and with the male swimming round
her for fully 15 minutes before actual pairing took place. This occurred
on February 2, 1920, a beautiful springlike day, the whole of that month
being unusually mild and sunny.

Nesting. — The American goldeneye, so far as I know, invariably
places its nest in a cavity in a tree, preferably in a large natural
cavity and often entirely open at the top. Considerable variation is
shown in the .selection of a suitable nesting site, which depends on
the presence of hollow trees. Near Eskimo Point, on the south
coast of the Labrador Peninsula, I found a nest on June 10, 1909,
in a white birch stub on the bare crest of a gravel cliff over 100 feet
above the beach. The stub, which stood in an entirely open place,
was 6 feet in circumference and about 18 feet high, broken and open
at the top down to about 12 feet from the ground. A female golden-
eye flew out of the large cavity, in which were 15 handsome, green
eggs on a soft bed of rotten chips and white down. The nest was
about a foot below the front edge of the cavity. I have never seen
another nest in such an open and exposed situation.

Mr. Brewster (1900) found this species breeding abundantly at
Lake Umbagog, in Maine, in 1907, and made some valuable and
interesting observations on its breeding habits. About the location
of its nest, he says :

All the whistlers' nests which I have examined have been placed over
water at heights varying from 6 or 8 to 50 or 60 feet and in cavities in
the trunks of large hardwood trees such as elms, maples, and yellow or canoe
birches. As the supply of such cavities is limited, even where dead or decay-
ing trees abound, and as the birds have no means of enlarging or otherwise
improving them ; they are not fastidious in their choice, but readily make use
of any opening which can be made to serve their purpose. Thus it happens
that the nest is sometimes placed at the bottom of a hollow trunk, 6, 10, or
even 15 feet below the hole at which the bird enters, at others on a level

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 3

with and scarce a foot back from the entrance, which is usually rounded,
and from 6 to 15 inches in diameter, but occasionally is so small and irregular
that the whistler must have difficulty in forcing its bulky body through. I
remember one nest to which the only access was by means of a vertical slit
so narrow and jagged that it would barely admit my flattened hand.

In North Dakota, in 1901, we found goldeneyes nesting commonly
in the timber belts around the shores of the lakes and along the
streams in the Stump Lake region.

The goldeneyes choose for their nesting sites the numerous natural
cavities which occur in many of the larger trees. They seem to show
no preference as to the kind of tree and not much preference as to
the size of the cavity, any cavity which is large enough to conceal
them being satisfactory.

The occupied cavity can usually be easily recognized by the pres-
ence of one or two pieces of white down clinging to its edges; some-
times considerable of the down is also scattered about on the nearest
branches. The first nest that we found, on May 30, was in an ex-
ceedingly small cavity in a dead branch of a small elm, about 10
feet from the ground. We heard a great scrambling and scratching
going on inside, as the duck climbed up to the small opening, through
which she wriggled out with some difficulty and flew away. I
measured the opening carefully and found it only 3 inches wide by
41/2 inches high; the cavity was about 3 feet deep and measured
6 inches by 7 inches at the bottom. The fresh eggs which it con-
tained were lying on the bare chips at the bottom of the cavit}^, sur-
roimded by a little white down.

On June 1 we explored a large tract of heavy timber on a promon-
tory extending out into the lake for about half a mile, where we
located five nests of the American goldeneye. The first nest was
about 20 feet up in a cavity in the trunk of a large swamp oak and
contained 4 eggs, apparently fresh. The second was in the trunk of
a large elm and held only 1 egg, evidently a last year's egg. The
third, which held 5 eggs, was in an open cavity in an elm stub about
12 feet from the ground. None of these eggs were taken and doubt-
less the sets were incomplete. While climbing to a Krider hawk's
nest I noticed an elm stub nearby with a large open cavity in the
top, which on closer investigation was found to contain a golden-
eye's nest with 10 eggs buried in a mass of white down. The stub
was about 10 feet high and the cavity about 2 feet deep; the bird
was not on the nest, but the eggs proved to have been incubated about
one week. A pair of western house wrens also had a nest in the
dead branch above the cavity.

The fifth and last nest was found while walking along the shore,
by seeing the goldeneye fly out over our heads from a small swamp
oak on the edge of the woods. I could almost reach the large open

4 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

cavity from the ground; the opening was well decorated with the
tell-tale down, and at the bottom of the cavity, 2 feet deep, was a set
of 14 eggs, in which incubation had begim, and one addled last year's
egg, completely buried in a profusion of white down, so well matted
together that it could be lifted from the eggs without falling apart,
like a soft warm blanket.

In the Lake Winnipegosis region in Manitoba, where large hollow
trees are scarce, we found the goldeneyes making the best of rather
poor accommodations. We examined four nests all of which were in
small, hollow burr oaks {Quercus macrocarpa) which were about the
only trees in which suitable hollows could be found ; the entrances to
all of these nests were not over 5 feet from the ground; in some cases
the trees were so badly split that the eggs were partially exposed to
wind and rain and much of the down from the nests had been blown
out onto surromiding trees and bushes; two such nests, foimd on
June 2, with incomplete sets, were at the bottoms of large cavities,
practically on a level with the ground in old stubs so badly cracked
that the eggs were plainly visible. We were told that the " wood
ducks," as they are called, would desert their nests if the eggs were
handled, which proved to be true in the only two instances where
we tried it.

According to Mr. John Macoun (1909) a nest was found by Mr.
y/illiam Spreadborough " in a hollow cottonwood log on the
ground," near Indian Head, Saskatchewan. He also quotes Mr. G.
E. White as saying that the " nest is composed of grass, leaves, and
moss and lined with feathers." I have never seen anything but rotten
chips and down in a golcleneye's nest, and I doubt if any outside
material is ever brought in. Probably the duck does not always take
the trouble to clean out a cavity, but lays its eggs on whatever accu-
mulation of rubbish happens to be there. The down is added as incu-
bation advances until a thick warm blanket is provided to cover the
eggs, when necessari^, during the absence of the bird. I have a beauti-
ful nest of this species in my collection, taken in 1901, with a thickly
matted down quilt over the eggs which, though repeatedly handled,
has retained its shape and consistency up to the present time.

According to Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain the goldeneye has been fre-
quently induced to nest in nesting boxes in Germany. Mr. A. D.
Henderson tells me that he has tried the experiment successfully near
Belvedere, Alberta.

The down in the goldeneye's nest is large, light and fluffy; it is
practically pure white in color. The breast feathers in it are pure
white.

Eggs. — The goldeneye ordinarily lays from 8 to 12 eggs; 5 or 6
eggs sometimes complete the set; I have found as many as 15 and

LIFE HISTORIES OF jSTOETH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 5

Mr. Brewster has found 19. Mr. Brewster (1900) thinks that two
females sometimes lay in the same nest, and says '' several of the
rounded, pure white, thick shelled eggs of the hooded merganser
are somtimes included in a set of the green, thin-shelled eggs of the
whistler."

The eggs of the goldeneye are handsome and easily distinguished
from those of any other North American duck except its near rela-
tive, the Barrow goldeneye. In shape they vary fi-om elliptical oval
to elliptical ovate; a few specimens before me are almost ovate. The
shell is thin, with a dull luster. The color is usually a clear, pale
" malachite green," varying in the darker specimens to a more oliva-
ceous or •' pale chromium green " ; various shades of color often occur
in the same set. The measurements of 84 eggs, in various collections,
average 59.7 by 43.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes
measure 65 by 44, 59 by 45.5, 48.8 by 43.5, and 59 by 41.2 millimeters.

Young. — Incubation is performed entirely by the female and lasts
for a period of about 20 days. Only one brood is raised in a season.
The young remain in the nest for a day of two, imtil they are
strong enough to make the perilous descent to the ground or water.
Many of the earlier writers have asserted that this, and other species
of tree-nesting ducks, carry the young to the nearest water in their
bills, but their observations seem to be based largely on hearsay or on
insufficient evidence. Mr. Brewster's (1900) study of this species has
given us positive evidence to the contrary. Although he personally
missed the opportunity of seeing the performance, his trustworthy
assistant, E. A. Gilbert, gave the following graphic account of what
he saw, when the young were ready to leave the nest :

At 6.45 the old duck appeared at the entrance to the nest, where she sat
for five minutes moving her head continually and looking about in every direc-
tion included within her field of vision ; then she sank back out of sight, re-
appearing at the end of a minute and looking about as before for another
five minutes. At the end of this second period of observation she flew down
to the water and swam round the stub three times, clucking and calling.
On completing the third round she stopped directly under the hole and gave
a single loud cluck or call, when the ducklings began scrambling up to the
entrance and dropping down to the water in such quick succession as to fall
on top of one another. They literally poured out of the nest much as shot
would fall from one's hand. One or two hesitated or paused for an instant
on reaching the mouth of the hole, but the greater number toppled out over
the edge as soon as they appeared. All used their tiny wings freely, beating
them continuously as they descended. They did not seem to strike the water
with much force.

While this was going on the old duck sat motionless on the water looking up
at the nest. When the last duckling dropped at her side she at once swam
off at the head of the brood, quickly disappearing in a flooded thicket a fev/
rods away.

6 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Dr. W. N. Macartney (1918) observed a similar performance near
Dundee, Quebec ; he writes :

On the afternoon of July 7 the old duck was seen at the foot of the tree,
standing on the ground. She gave several low quacks or calls, and out of the
hole in the tree overhead promptly tumbled about a baker's dozen of fledgling
ducks. They were unable to fly, but were sufiiciently grown to . be able
to ease their fall to the earth, and not unlike a flock of butterflies, they came
down pell-mell, fluttering and tumbling, some of them heels over head, until
they reached the ground, unharmed. The tree was nearly but not quite
perpendicular, so they were unable to scramble down. The old bird gathered
them in a bunch and piloted them along the fence for some 3 or 4 rods to the
river. Down the rocky shore they went and into the water. The old duck
then sank low in the water and the ducklings gathered over her back in a
compact clump. She took them across the bay to a bed of rushes, some 10
rods distant, where they disappeared from sight.

Very little seems to be known about the food of the young, but
probably they are fed largely on insects and soft animal food. Dr.
Charles W. ToAvnsend (1913) gives the following account of the be-
havior of a mother goldeneye and her }■ oung on a Labrador stream :

The old bird crouched low in the water, her golden eyes shining very prom-
inentlj^ and uttei'ed hoarse rasping croaks. The young, whose eyes were
gray-blue and inconspicuous, at once scattered, diving repeatedly, and dis-
appeared in the bushes, while the mother kept prominently in view within
20 yards of the canoe leading us downstream. After repeatedly swimming
and flying short distances ahead of the canoe for half a mile or so, croaking
all the time, she disappeared around a bend and undoubtedly flew back to the
young. Near at hand the young made no sound, but at a distance a loud
beseeching peep was uttered.

PluTuages. — The downy young goldeneye is quite distinctively
colored and marked; it also has a carriage all its own, for it walks
in a more upright position than other young ducks and it carries
its head in a more loftly and perky attitude, which gives it a very
smart appearance. The upper part of the head, down to a line run-
ning straight back from the commissure to the nape, is deep, rich,
glossy " bone brown " ; the throat and cheeks are pure white, the
white spaces nearly meeting on the hind neck ; the upper parts vary
from pale " clove brown " on the upper back to deep " bone brown "
on the rump ; these colors shade off to " hair brown " on the sides
and form a ring of the same around the neck ; the posterior edges of
the wings are white, and there is a white spot on each scapular re-
gion and one on each side of the rump; the belly is white. The
colors become paler with age.

The first feathers appear on the flanks and scapulars and then in
the tail while the bird is very small. According to Millais (1913) :

Three nestlings hatched by Mr. Blaauw, at Gooilust, in Holland, on June
20, 1908, began to show feathers on the scapulars on July 18th. On August

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 7

8 they were completely feathered except for the fli.irht feathers, which were
just beginning to grow. At this date the irides were chocolate brown and the
legs and toes yellowish. On August 25 the young birds were able to fly.

Early in the fall, as soon as the young birds have attained their
full growth, the first winter plumage begins to develop. This
plumage in the male is entirely different from the adult plumage
and closely resembles that of the female. The young male may be
distinguished from the female by its decidedly larger size; it also
has less gray on the breast (which decreases toward spring), the
back is darker gray, the head is darker and more or less mottled with
dusky, and there is a more or less distinct suggestion of the white
loral spot, which increases toward spring. This plumage is worn
all through the first winter and spring, with slight and gradual
changes toward maturity by a limited growth of new feathers; the
head becomes darker and greener, the loral spot whiter, and the
scapulars are changed. Individuals vary greatly in the time and
extent of these changes. I have a young male in my collection, taken
on May 27, which is still in the first winter plumage. In July the
young male passes into the eclipse plumage, in which it can be dis-
tinguished from the adult by the wings, which are not molted until
later. The change from the eclipse into the adult winter plumage
is very slow in young birds, lasting well into the winter, and it is
not until this molt is completed that old and young birds become
indistinguishable.

The adult male assumes a semieclipse plumage late in July or in
August, involving principally the head and neck, which becomes
brown and mottled like that of the young male ; the white loral spot
partially disappears; the scapulars resemble those of the young
male, and there are brownish feathers in the flanks. This is fol-
lowed by a complete molt into the winter plumage, which is some-
times prolonged until late in the fall, but not so late as in the young
bird.

The molts and plumages of the female are parallel wath those of
the male, but old and young birds are not so easily recognized. I
believe that specimens showing the orange zone in the bill and the
well-marked black band across the white space in the wing are old
birds. The white neck of the adult female is acquired during the
first spring.

Food. — While with us on the coast the goldeneye feeds largely on
small mussels and other mollusks, which it obtains by diving in deep
water or by dabbling in the shallows near the shore, it feeds to some
extent also on the seeds of eel grass {Zostera marina). The stomach
of a bird taken by Dr. John C. Phillips (1911) in a lake in Massa-

8 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

chiisetts "contained seeds of pondweed, water lily, bayberry, and
burr reed, buds and roots of wild celery, and bits of water boatmen,
and dragonfly nymphs."

On the Pacific coast Mr. W. L. Dawson ( 1909 ) found it feeding on
mussels, crabs, marine worms, and on the remains of decayed salmon.
On inland streams it may often be seen in the rapids chasing young
trout fry or other small fish ; tadpoles, fish spawn, and the larvae of
insects are also eaten. Audubon discovered it hunting for cray-fish
in the clay banks of our inland rivers. Throughout the interior, in
fresh-water lakes and streams, it lives largely on vegetable food; it
feeds on a great variety of aquatic plants, such as teal moss {Livino-
biu7n), flags (Iris), duckweed, pondweed, water plantain, and blad-
derwort, according to Doctor Yorke (1899).

Behavior. — The flight of the goldeneye is exceedingly swift and
strong. About its breeding grounds among the lakes and streams of
eastern Canada it is very active on the wing, circling high in the air
about the lakes or flying up and down the streams above the tree tops,
singly or in pairs, the female usually leading ; it seems to show some
curiosity or anxiety as to the intentions of the intruder, for it often
repeats its flight again and again over the same course. The vibrant
whistling of its wings in flight is audible at a long distance and has
earned for it the popular name of " whistler " or " whistle-wing."

Mr. W. L. Dawson (1909) has thus graphically described it:

Of all wing music, from the droning of the rufous hummer to the startling
whirr of the ruffed grouse, I know of none so thrilling sweet as the whistling
wing note of the goldeneye. A pair of the birds have been frightened from the
water, and as they rise in rapid circles to gain a view of some distant goal they
sow the air with vibrant whistling sounds. Owing to a difference in wing beats
between male and female, the brief moment when the wings strike in unison
with the effect of a single bird is followed by an ever-changing syncopation
which challenges the waiting ear to tell if it does not hear a dozen birds instead
of only two. Again, in the dim twilight of early morning, while the birds are
moving from a remote and secure lodging place to feed in some favorite stretch
of wild water, one guesses at their early industry from the sound of multi-
tudinous wings above, contending with the cold ether.

When migrating, goldene3^es travel in small flocks usually high in
the air. When rising from a pond they usually circle about for a few
times, gradually climbing upward, and fly off at a considerable
height; even on the seashore they are seldom seen flying for any
distance close to the water. They can usually be recognized by their
short necks, large heads, and stout bodies, as well as by the large
amount of white in their plumage. This latter character has given
them the name of " pied duck " or " pie bird " among the natives of
the eastern Provinces.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 9

The goldeneye is an expert diver; and although at times it uses
both wings and feet under water, its method of diving, with wings
pressed close to the sides, shows that it generally uses its feet alone.
Dr. Arthur A. Allen writes to me that he has " seen goldenej^es using
their wings, half spread, when feeding normally." When undis-
turbed it dives with great ease; the bill is pointed forward until it
touches the water, when the bird slips out of sight without an effort,
causing hardly a ripple. But when alarmed it plunges forward and
downward with great vigor, cleaving the water as it does so.

Mr. F. S. Hersey timed a goldeneye diving and found that it dove
with great regularity, remaining under for 21 seconds and on the
surface for 13 seconds between dives. Although it usually feeds in'
rather shallow water, it can dive to great depths in search of shell-
fish if necessary ; for this reason it is called " le plongeur " by the
French residents of southern Labrador.

J. G. Millais (1913) narrates the following interesting incident,
illustrating its power as a plunger:

No ducks are more bold in the " headers," they will take from the clouds
■when pursued by a raptorial bird. I was collecting birds one day in February,
1882, on Loch Leven, the Inverness-shire sea loch, when I heard the sound of
goldeneye, accompanied by a peculiar hum of something passing through the
air. On looking up I was just in time to see tlie interesting spectacle of a
peregrine making a stoop at three goldeneyes. The ducks at this moment
were high, I should say 80 yards in the air, and closed their wings as they
lieard or saw the peregrine coming, and dropped as if shot to the surface of
the water. On striking the water there was no pause, they just passed out of
sight, rising nearly 100 yards away, and flying low over the water. The
peregrine, after its unsuccessful " stoop," did not pursue them. Like the
long-tailed duck, but scarcely with the same skill in starting, the goldeneye
has the power of opening its wings immediately on reaching the sui-face of
the water, and commencing to fly. I have seen other ducks act in a similar
manner when chased by peregrines, but none displayed such promptitude or
fell from such a height as did these goldeneyes.

He says further :

In clear water it is easy to note the powerful strokes of the legs of these
ducks, which seem to beat with great rapidity under water and much power.
The stroke is more or less parallel to the wings ; the head is held out straight in
front. I have watched for hours the male goldeneye that lived for three
^ears on the island below Perth bridge, and used to find his food at the bot-
tom of the river in some 8 to 10 feet of water. In summer this water was as
clear as crystal, and from the bridge above the observer could note every
movement on the part of the bird. It always proceeded to a depth of 8 to 10
Ifeet of water, and began to dive. On reaching the bottom, it at once com-
menced to turn the stones over with the bill, and from under these various
water insects vvere found or caught as they attempted to escape. Sometimes
it would find a small batch of young fresh-water mussels, and these it would
<levour very quickly one after the other, like a duck taking grain out of a pan.
It never stayed under water more than a minute, even when finding food
.abundant in one spot, but came up, rested a moment or two on the surface.

10 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

and dived again. All food was swallowed where it was found, and small
pebbles and fairly large stones were pushed over in the search. Several times
I saw the bird just move a flat stone. It would go all around it and try it from
every point. If unsuccessful it would come to the surface and rest awhile,
and then go down again for another effort. In a lake the goldenej^e will dive
in perpendicular position, but in flowing water it dives in a slant against the
stream or tideway. Their bodies are very light, and bounce up to the surface
like a cork immediately they cease to push downward with the feet. In still
water the goldeneye often dives in circles to get to the bottom.

The goldeneye is not much given to vocal performances. The court-
ship note of the male has been described by Doctor Townsend (1910)
as " a harsh, rasping, double note, zzee-at, vibratory and searching in
character." Elon H. Eaton (1910) says that the male when startled
or lost has a sharp cur-r-rew. Edward H. Forbush (1912) credits
the female with " a single whistling peep." And Ora W. Knight
(1908) has " heard the parents utter a low-pitched quack to call their
3'Oung." M. P. Skinner says that "the quack of this duck seems
harsher than the mallard's."

Game. — During the four years that I lived on the coast our most
interesting winter sport was whistler shooting. Long before day-
light we braved the winter's cold and pushed out our skiff to our
blind among the ice cakes. We wore white nightgowns over our
clothes, white caps and gloves, and sometimes had our gun barrels
whitewashed, for the goldenej^es are very wary birds and it is neces-
sary to remain motionless and invisible to be successful. The wooden
decoys are placed, as soon as it is light enough to see, in some con-
venient open space, preferably off the mouth of some fresh-water
creek. The blind is made of ice cakes or snow, high enough to con-
ceal the gunners. With the coming of the daylight birds begin to
move; large gray gulls are seen flapping slowly up the bay to feed
on the mud flats ; a flock of black ducks flies out from an open spring-
hole where it has been feeding all night. The winter sunrise is beau-
tiful, as the rosy dawn creeps up from the cold, gray sea and sends
a warm glow of color over floating ice and banks of snov/. Our eyes
are trained seaward to catch the first glimpses of incoming whistlers.
At last a black speck is dimly discerned in the distance against a
pink cloud ; on it comes straight toward the blind, and we recognize
it as an old cock wkistler, the advance guard of the morning flight ;
he circles, sets his wings and scales doAvn over the decoys; in our
eagerness Ave betray ourselves by a sudden movement ; he sees us and
scrambles upward into the air to escape, but it is too late, the guns
speak and the first kill is scored. Soon a small flock of five birds
comes in, the shrill whistling of their wings sending a thrill of pleas-
ure through our chilled veins; they scale down toward the decoys,
but see the blind, wheel, and fly off without offering us a shot ; they
settle in the water away off among the floating ice and it is useless

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 11

to stalk tliern. We have been too conspicuous to the keen eyes of the
birds and must conceal ourselves better; so v^'e pile up more ice
around the blind and keep more quiet. Better luck follows in con-
sequence, for the ducks decoy well, if their suspicions are not aroused,
and during the next two hours we have good sj^ort. By the time
the early morning flight is over, an hour or two after sunrise, we
have had enough of it and are glad to retTirn home with a small bag
of the keen-witted goldeneyes.

Winter. — To the residents of Xew England the hardy goldeneye,
or " whistler " as it is more often called, is known chiefly as a winter
resident or an early spring and late fall migrant, mainly along the
seacoast now, though formerly, when less persecuted by gunners, it'
was often seen in inland ponds, where it is now seldom seen. It is
an exceedingly wary and sagacious bird, soon learning to desert
dangerous localities, but frequenting f reel}^ and regularlj- such places
as the Back Bay basin in the city of Boston, w^here it is free from
molestation.

On the coast, goldeneyes spend their days playing or feeding off
the beaches, just bej^ond the breakers, swimming about among the
ice cakes or flying into the tidal estuaries to feed. At night they
usually fly off shore, where they can sleep in safety, bedded on the
open ocean. They leave the marshes or ponds near the sea at, or
within a few minutes of, sunset.

Goldeneyes linger to spend the winter as far north as they can
find open water, in the interior as well as on the coast. In the swift
rapids and open air holes of our large rivers they find congenial
resorts as far north as Iowa, where they congregate in thousands.
E. S. Currier (1902) says of the winter habits of the goldeneye on the
jMississippi River :

The goldeneyes are very playful aud, as spring approaches, noisy. The
gwift current is constantly forcing them toward the ice at the lower end of
the pool, so that they are obliged to take wing and go to -the other end of the
air hole frequently. They rise on rapidly beating wings, the clear whistling
ringing across the dark water and white ice fields, and scurrying upstream in
irregular groups, drop in again with a noisy splash. This drifting down and
flying back again seems to be enjoyed as much by the ducks as is coasting by
the children.

Each group of arrivals is received with many bows and much flapping of
wings by the ones on the water, and the penetrating cry of the drakes " speer "
" speer " reaches to a great distance. It is a scene of great activity from day-
light iintil darkness sets in. and makes winter less dreary to the birds of this
locality.

The greatest movements take place about sundown when they all head for a
favorite air hole (usually the largest) on whirring wings. Here they settle
in with much bustle and confusion, playing and feeding until darkness sets in.
They spend a great part of the night on thin, new ice at the edge of the open
water. As a rule, unless migration is on or the ice is running, there is little

12 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

movement during the night ; but frequently you hear the noisy whistling of the
wings of some belated or disturbed bird, soon followed by the distant splash as
it strikes the water again.

As winter abates and the increasing warmth causes the ice to give way, fol-
lowed by the great break-up as the ice goes out, the duck is at its best. The
moving ice fields then keep them on the watch, and as the open water they
are in narrows, they spring up and fly over the grinding, churning mass, drop
into the next clear space upstream.

The instant they hit the water they go to playing, chasing each other, and
diving to great distances. At times a part of the flock will rise and depart
for some distant open water, soon followed by others, and then perhaps by the
remainder, and that particular place will be deserted by them for the time
being. Again they will congregate in an open space with the ice rumbling and
roaring around them on all sides, seemingly loath to leave, but when another
change takes place in the ice and a block sweeps toward them they are forced
to leave.

Goldeneyes are often common on the larger northern lakes as
long as they remain unfrozen; sometimes they are caught in the ice
or perish through inability to find open water ; but they are so hardy
and such strong fliers that they do not suffer so much in this way as
some other species.

M. P. Skinner has sent me the following notes on the winter habits
of the goldeneye in the Yellowstone National Park :

The goldeneye is a winter visitor in the proportion of one male to three
females. Usually these ducks frequent the larger lakes and streams, but I
once found some in a pool of Pelican Creek under the lee of a high bank, and
frequently on the reservoir near Mammoth where they dive for their food.
Once I flushed a single bird from an irrigation ditch 6 feet wide. In winter,
the only time they are at all common, they frequent the streams (Gardiner,
Firehole, and Gibbon Rivers) kept open by hot water from hot springs and
geysers. They are seldom seen on shore or standing on stones, although I have
seen them on the edge of the ice along the Lamar River.

These birds are wilder than the more common Barrow goldeneye ; they are
here so short a time that they remain exceptions to the general rule that the
wildfowl become extremely tame under the absolute protection afforded. When-
ever they see me approaching they will swim together in a dense flock. They
like swift water and are experts at shooting down the rapids. They are at
times associated with bufSeheads and mallard ; sometimes this goldeneye and
the Barrows are together, but more often the two species keep apart. Possibly
rivalry of males extends to their cousins, but this is a weak explanation, for the
Barrow males are often amicable among themselves when in small flocks con-
taining both sexes.

The European goldeneye, which is supposed to be subspecifically
distinct from our bird, may be added to our list on the strength of
the capture of a female, supposed to be of the European race, on
St. Paul Island, Alaska, on November 27, 1914, reported by Dr. G.
Dallas Hanna (1916). He says of this specimen:

It is the same size as specimens from the Commander Islands and China ;
and while these are somewhat larger than birds from the Atlantic coast region
of Europe, they are smaller than those from continental North America.

LIFE KISTORIES OF XORTH AMEEICAN WILlD FOWL 13

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — The North American form breeds mainly north
of the United States, entirely across the continent. South to New-
foundland (Humber and Sandy Eivers), northern New Brunswick
(Northumberland County), central Maine (Washington to Oxford
Counties), New Hampshire (Umbagog Lake and Jefferson region),
northern Vermont (St. Johnsbury), northern New York (Adiron-
dacks), northern Michigan (Neebish Island, Sault Ste. Marie),
northern Minnesota (Lake County), northern North Dakota (Devils
Lake), northwestern Montana (Flathead Lake and Glacier National
Park), and the interior of British Columbia.

North to the limits of heavy timber in central Alaska (Yukon
Valley), southern Mackenzie (Fort Rae, Great Slave Lake), the
southwest coast of Hudson Bay (York Factory), and the north-
east coast of Labrador (near Nain). Replaced in northern Europe
and Asia by a closely allied race.

yiinter range. — Cold coasts and large lakes south of frozen areas.
On the Atlantic coast commonly from Maine to South Carolina;
more rarely north to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland
and south to northern Florida (Wakulla County). Rarely to the
Gulf coasts of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. On the Pacific
coast from the Commander and Aleutian Islands to southern Cali-
fornia (San Diego) and casually'' to central western Mexico (Mazat-
lan). On the Great Lakes (Michigan, Erie, and Ontario). Ir-
regularly north in the interior to southern British Columbia (Okan-
ogan Lake), northwestern Montana (Teton County), and the valleys
of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, as far as Nebraska and Iowa ;
and south to Colorado (Beasley Lake and Barr Lake) and Arkansas
(Big Lake) and occasionally to Arizona (Tucson) and Texas (Gal-
veston and Corpus Christi).

Spring migration. — Northward and northwestward and away
from the coasts. Earlj^ dates of arrival: Southern Maine, inland,
March 27; Quebec, Montreal, March 19; Ontario, Ottawa, February
14; Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 14; Manitoba, southern, March
29; Alberta, Edmonton, April 6; Montana, Great Falls, March 9;
Mackenzie, Fort Resolution, May 7, and Fort Simpson, April 28;
Alaska, Nulato, May 3.

Average dates of arrival: Southern Maine, inland, April 5;
Quebec, Montreal, April 4, and Lake Mistassini, May 3; Ontario,
Ottawa, April 12; Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 25; northern
North Dakota, April 20; southern Manitoba, April 21. Leaves the
Massachusetts coast by May 1 or earlier.

Fall migration. — Southward and southeastward and toward the
coasts.

14 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Early dates of arrival : Massachusetts, October 8 ; Virginia, Alex-
andria, October 8. Average dates of arrival : Massachusetts, Woods
Hole, November 15; Virginia, Alexandria, October 26; Iowa, Keo-
kuk, November 24, Late dates of departure: Quebec, Montreal,
November 7; Manitoba, Aweme, November 10.

Casual records. — Four records for Bermuda (April 10, 1854;
December 29, 1874; February 5, 1875; and January 22, 1876). Two
records for Pribilof Islands (May 6, 1917, and January 1, 1918).
Accidental in Cuba and Barbados.

Egg dates. — North Dakota : Nineteen records. May 10 to June 11 ;
10 records. May 21 to June 1. Manitoba: Five records, June 2 to
July 5. Labrador Peninsula : Three records. May 3 to June 30.

GLAUCIONETTA ISLANDICA (Gmelin)
BARROW GOLDENEYE

HABITS

Xhis species has been well named, the Roclvy Mountain golden-
eye, for outside of the vicinity of the Continental Divide in the
northern States and in southern Canada it is nowhere in this
country an abundant species at any season. It is so rare throughout
most of its American range that few ornithologists have ever seen
it in life.

For this reason it is not strange that it was overlooked by some
of the earlier writers and that until recently its distribution was so
poorly understood. Wilson makes no mention of the species, and
it was entirely overlooked by Audubon, who may have regarded it
as a summer plumage of the common species. Even Coues (1874)
refers to it as " the most northerly species of the genus, having ap-
parently a circumpolar distribution, breeding only (?) in high
latitudes, and penetrating but a limited distance south in interior " ;
the question mark is his and it is interesting to note that his doubt
was removed by finding it breeding in the Roclry^ Mountains of
Montana. It is now loiown to breed in these mountains as far
south as Colorado, east in Canada to the north shore of the St.
Lawrence, in Greenland, and in Iceland; but it is far from being
circumpolar, for it occurs on the Old World continent only as a
straggler; and it is not known to breed north of the Arctic Circle.

Courtship. — J. A. Munro (1918) has given us an interesting ac-
count of this species, in British Columbia, from which I quote
as follows :

The birds first begin to appear on Okanogan Lake early in March, but are
not plentiful until the small mountain lakes are free of ice, early in April.
The lakes selected for courtship, and later for the rearing of the young, are
usually quite open and free of tules ; hence the goldeneyes are always con-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 15

spicuous and much easier to study than ducks that breed in the sloughs
and hide their young in the thick vegetation. Generally by the 15th of
April each little lake has its flock of courting goldeneyes, often 30 or 40
on a sheet of water of 50 acres extent or less. In these flocks adults and
immatures are present in about equal numbers. The young of either sex do
not breed until the second year, and do not assume their breeding dress
until the second fall after they are hatched ; that is, when they are over a year
old.

The courtship display is witnessed in the flocks just prior to their splitting
up into pairs. It is attended by much solemn bowing on the part of the
drake, with a frequent backward kick, sufficiently strong to send a jet of
water several feet into the air. His violet head is puffed out to the greatest
possible extent, and altogether he is a handsome bird as, in a frenzy of
sexual excitement, he swims up to the soberly attired duck. Sometimes the
entire flock will commence to feed as if at a given signal, and again all
the birds will simultaneously take wing and circle about the lake several
times before once more splashing down to resume their courtship.

He also contributes the following note :

Two mated pairs in a small lake in the hills were under observation for two
hours. The males acted as if extremely jealous of each other and on several
occasions left their mates and engaged in spirited encounters. They rushed
together over the surface with much splashing, and when about to meet rose
upright and buffeted each other with their wings. A female, whose mate had
been killed on an adjacent pond, flew into this lake and immediately one of
the mated drakes left his mate and dropped in beside her, when he began
bowing, but the strange female did not respond. The male then dove several
times trying to rise beneath her, at which she flew some distance away and
the drake then rejoined his mate.

M. P. Skinner contributes the following:

Early in the winter the ducks outnumber the drakes ; but as spring ap-
proaches the proportion becomes more equalized. By February 1 the ten-
dency of the flocks to pair off becomes noticeable; courting begins about the
same time and lasts until June in some cases. Almost all the flocks are
broken up by April 1. While the drakes do most of the " chasing " and
" dancing," the females sometimes go through similar movements. The drake
swims across the water with jerky motions, not necessarily toward the duck,
occasionally an extra kick raises the breast above the surface and at the
same time the bill is pointed up and opened and shut twice. Then the neck
is stretched backward until the head rests on the lower back, then forward
to the normal position, ending with a kick backwards that throws up a
little spurt of water. The duck is frequently chased by the drake, with his
head and neck stretched out horizontally in front and almost on the water
surface.

Nesting. — Dr. T. M. Brewer (1879) published an interesting paper
on this species which added greatly to our knowledge of it at that
time. Edwin Carter, " who was probably the first to actually se-
cure the nest and eggs of this species within the limits of the United
States," sent to Doctor Brewer considerable information about the
breeding habits of the Barrow goldeneye in Colorado. He says:

They nest in hollow trees, and it is surprising to see to what small cavi-
ties, in some instances, they can accommodate themselves. The present season

16 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

(1877) I have examined a great many trees, and every one that had a suit-
able opening either contained an occupant or indicated recent nesting by egg-
shells and other marks.

Maj. Allan Brooks (1903) found the Barrow goldeneye breeding
quite commonly in La Hache Valley, in the Cariboo district of
British Columbia. He says :

One set of eggs was taken from a hole in a dead Douglas fir, 50 feet
from the ground, probably the deserted nest of a flying squirrel. The tree
stood about 400 yards from the nearest water. The eggs (7) at this date
(17th June) contained large embryos. I saw another nesting hole but was
unable to reach it. Tlie female brought 14 young ones out from this.

Mr Munro (1918) says of the nesting habits of this species:

By May 1 all breeding birds are mated and scattered over the country,
seldom more than one or two pairs on a lake. The Barrow goldeneye shows
a marked predilection for lakes that are strongly alkaline, even if they are
poor in aquatic vegetation and in the midst of an open country with the
nearest timber a half mile or more away. Such lakes are rich in small
crustaceans, the chief food of this duck, and no doubt the lakes are occupied
on account of the food provided, without reference to the availability of nest-
ing sites.

An abandoned flicker's hole is usually selected for the nest, frequently in
a dead yellow pine, for in this tree decay is rapid, and the hole soon be-
comes much enlarged. One can generally tell if the hole is occupied, by the
fragments of down adhering to the rough bark at the entrance. The tree is
often so much decayed that a single tug at the bark near the hole will re-
move the whole adjacent surface, exposing the gray-green eggs w^here they
lie in the clinging soft down. It is rather hard to locate the nest when the
tree selected by the bird is in heavy timber a half mile or more from the
lake, but when the female is sitting it may be done by making an early morn-
ing trip to the lake, remaining under cover, and waiting for her to come to
the lake to feed. She generally arrives between 9 and 11 and immediately
joins the drake. After splashing and preening lier feathers, she feeds most
industriously for perhaps an hour and then flies directly back to the nest. I
include here data for three nests taken in the Okanogan region.

Okanogan, British Columbia, May 12, 1916. A nest containing 11 fresh
eggs was found in the hayloft of a deserted log barn, on the shore of a lake.
The eggs were placed in a hollow scooped in the straw under a heavy beam
which rested on the piled-up straw. The loft was well lighted through the
spaces between the logs and by a large opening at one end. This situation is,
of course, most unusual, but it had apparently been used some years before
the nest was found. I had seen broods of young on this lake in previous
years, when I was not able to find the nest. The birds would generally alight
on top of a chimney in an unused house close by before flying into the barn.

Farneys Lake, Okanogan, May 31, 1912. A nest with seven partly incu-
bated eggs was placed in a large cavity in a yellow-pine stump, standing
in 8 inches of water on the shore of the lake. The cavity containing the
eggs was 18 inches above the water, and the eggs were in plain view of a
person standing several feet away.

Rollings Lake, May 26, 1917. A. nest containing seven fresh eggs was
found in an old fir stub standing in 18 inches of water near the shore of
the lake. The top of the stub had rotted out to a depth of 2 feet and the

LIFE HISTORIES OF iSTORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 17

eggs were at the bottom of this cavity. Down could be seen protruding
through a small hole in the stub, a few inches above the eggs.

John G. Millais (1913) says of the breeding habits of this species
in Iceland :

Barrow's goldeneye arrive at their breeding places about the end of March,
in flocks, and at once proceed to pair. I have been unable to discover any
ornithologist who has seen the courtship display of this species, but I have
little doubt that when we are able to procure specimens alive from Iceland,
and keep them in good health, we shall find that it is much the same as
that of the common goldeneye. The nest is usually placed in a hole in the
bank of a stream flowing into a lake, in a hole in the lava rocks close to
the water, or on some low Island under bushes of dwarf willow, dwarf
birch, amongst coarse grass or low scrub, such as Empetrum nigrum or
Azalea procum'bens. I found two nests just tucked in under large
stones, and not 2 feet above the level of the stream. They are also said to
nest in the turf walls of the sheep shelters.

He also quotes Riemsclineider as saying :

The nest was always placed in more or less of a hollow, in natural hollows
of the rocks, in covered-over cracks in the lava, or, as already mentioned,
in the outer walls of peat shelters, erected for sheep, where a few blocks
of peat have been taken out to form a nesting place, and even, and that
not seldom, inside the shelter, in which case the food rack or a place like
it would serve as a nesting place ; as exit for flight the door of the shelter
would in such a case be used. Such customs have given rise to the Iceland
names for the species. In the natural hollows, holes in the rocks, fissures,
etc., the nest is placed now in the foreground, now so far inside that you
could not reach to it from the entrance opening, but were obliged to lift
off the stones covering it for this purpose. Whilst as a rule the position of
the nest is to be found approaching the level of the surface of the ground,
I saw a nest in the Kalvastrond which was built in a hollow in the lava
at more than twice a man's height. In the nest trough, which was formed
to begin with in the food racks of the stalls, by pulling together dry grass
stalks and other remnants of food round the nest, there was a very ample,
delicate lining of whitish down, which had a very small admixture of fine,
dry parts of plants. The eggs, 12 to 15 in number, and only exceptionally
more, are distinguished from other ducks' eggs by their pure, blue-green
color, are rather bulgy in shape, and have a smooth, not very shining shell.

From the above accounts it will be seen that the Barrow golden-
eye prefers to nest in hollows; the absence of suitable trees in
Iceland forces it to select other cavities; but in this country it
seems to nest in situations similar to those chosen by the conunon
goldeneye and, like that species, it lines the nest cavity with pure
wliite down, scantily at first, but more profusely as incubation ad-
vances; probably no otker material is brought into the cavity, but
undoubtedly whatever material it finds there is not wholly removed.
The down in the nest is indistinguishable from that of the common
goldeneye.

Eggs. — The set consists of anywhere from 6 to 15 eggs, but
probably the usual number is in the neighborhood of 10. The eggs

18 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

are practically indistinguishable from those of the common golden-
eye, though they may average slightly larger. The shape varies
from elliptical ovate or elliptical oval to nearly oval. The color
varies from " deep lichen green " to " pale olivine " or " pale glass
green " ; when freshly laid some of the darkest eggs may approach a
pale shade of " malachite green." The measurement of 79 eggs,
in various collections, average 61.3 by 44 millimeters ; the eggs show-
ing the four extremes measure 66.6 by 42, 61 by 47.2, 57.3 by 42, and
61.9 by 41.4 millimeters.

Eev. F. C. R. Jourdain, who has studied the Barrow goldeneye in
Iceland, writes me that incubation is performed by the female alone
and that it is said to last for four weeks ; he says that the female sits
very closely and at times has to be removed by force, if one wants to
see the eggs. The male remains close at hand during incubation.

Mr. Munro, however (1918), writes:

Immature males leave the country with the adult males in May, soon after
the females have begun to brood their eggs. I have never seen an adult male
at this season. Mr. Allan Brooks is of the opinion that the males go directly
to the coast at this time.

Young. — He says of the young:

May 22 is the earliest date on which I have seen the young, and by August 1
they are full grown. At this time they are remarkably tame, allowing an
approach to within a few yards and then, if alarmed, swimming to the middle
of the lake, rather than taking wing. This fearlessness is characteristic until
the shooting season opens in September, when they soon become wary. At
this time, the birds rise from the water as one approaches, but almost in-
variably circle about the lake several times and then fly toward anyone stand-
ing on the shore, thus affording an easy shot. By the last week in October,
when the common goldeneye, redhead, and scaups are returning from the
north, the last of the Barrow goldeneyes have left.

Plumages. — The downy young of the Barrow goldeneye is very
much like that of the common goldeneye. The upper half of the
head, from below the eyes, and the hind neck are deep " bone brown "
or " seal brown " ; the upper parts are " bone brown," relieved by
white on the edge of the wing and by scapular and rump spots of
white; the lower half of the head and the under parts are white;
there is a brownish gray band around the lower neck.

The plumage changes are similar to those of the common golden-
eye. Of the development of the plumage in the young male, Mr.
Millais (1913) says:

In November the new inner scapulars appear, and these at once give a char-
acter to the identification of the species. The black portion of the inner
scapulars is much extended in Barrow's goldeneye, whereas in the common
goldeneye it is confined to the margin of the feathers. At this date, too, the
first white feathers come in between the bill and the eye. These increase in
number throughout the winter, whilst numbers of pure white feathers come

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 19

on the chest until the brown of immaturity disappears. Thus the advance of
plumage continues to take place until March, when the young male has gained
a considerable portion of its first spring dress, which is more or less similar
to the adult male, except that the black and white scapulars are never fully
attained, nor are the hind neck or flanks complete. The wings and tail still
show the bird to be immature until the latter part of June or early July, when
the usual complete molt takes place, the whole of the bird going into a partial
eclipse similar to the adult male. In September the eclipse is shed, and all
traces of immaturity have disappeared, so that in the following month, or,
more correctly speaking, November, the bird is adult, at about 16 months.

The same writer describes the semieclipse plumage of the male, as
follows :

At the beginning of July the adult male undergoes a fairly complete change
to an eclipse plumage, although the white feathers in front of the eye are
never completely lost. In this month the head and neck become a somewhat
dirty gray brown, very light in the throat ; the flanks, hind neck, and upper
mantle, also portion of the lower neck and chest are brown with gray edgings ;
mantle, scapulars, brown, with light brown or gray edgings or tips ; the whole
bird now resembles a somewhat dirty-looking female, but its sex can easily
be recognized by its superior size, small white feathers on the head, and by
the wings, which always remain the same, which, with the tail and part of
the back and tail coverts, are only molted once in the season. The adult
male has scarcely assumed its eclipse dress before it again commences to
molt into winter plumage, and in the case of all these ducks the process of
change at this season may be said to be practically continuous.

The female undergoes the same sequence of plumage to maturity
as the female goldeneye, attaining full maturity at an age of about
15 months. The females of these two species are very difficult to dis-
tinguish at any age. Mr. Millais (1913) says:

The characters of the female Barrow's goldeneye, apart from superior size,
are the black back and tail, blackish head and longer crest, and general dif-
ference of a more intensified black and white. The yellow bill spot is also
more extensive.

William Brewster (1909^) has made an exhaustive study of this
subject, and I would refer the reader to his excellent paper on it.
I would refer the reader also to a paper on this subject b}^ IT. F.
Witherby (1913) and a still more exhaustive treatise by Maj. Allan
Brooks (1920).

Food. — The food of the Barrow goldeneye seems to be the same
as that of the common species. Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899) records
it as feeding on minnows and small fishes, slugs, snails, and mussels,
frogs, and tadpoles, in the way of animal food ; he has also found in
its food considerable vegetable matter, such as teal moss, blue flag,
duckweed, water plantain, pouchweed, water milfoil, water starwort,
bladderwort, and pickerel weed. Mr. Munro (1918) says:

The feeding habits of the two species of goldeneye are identical. Both
species are greatly attracted by the small crawfish lurking under large stones
in shallow water. While hunting these shellfish, the ducks work rapidly along

20 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

the shore, diving every few minutes, to probe under the edges of the large
stones. They invariably try to submerge even if the water is not deep enough
to cover their backs, and I have never seen them dipping as redheads and
scaups frequently do. One can follow the goldeneye's movement as it en-
circles the large stones, by the commotion on the surface and by frequent
glimpses of the duck's back. In shallow water, the birds remain below from
15 to 20 seconds, the crawfish being brought to the surface to be swallowed.
By the end of winter the feathers on the forehead are generally worn off,
through much rubbing against stones in this manner of foraging. When
feeding in deep water, over the beds of Potaniogeton, they stay in the same
place until satisfied. In such places the small snails and Crustacea that at-
tach themselves to the stems of Potamogeton form their chief food, but little
vegetable matter being taken beyond what is eaten with the shells. The
small shellfish are swallowed while the birds are below the surface of the
water, unlike the procedure followed with the larger crawfish. Their stay
under water is of fairly uniform duration, ranging from 50 to 55 seconds.
At the beginning of the dive the tail is raised and spread to its full extent.

Behavior. — He writes of its habits:

As far as I have been able to observe, there is no difference in the flight of
the two species of goldeneye. Both have the same clumsy way of rising, and
of flying cl®se to the surface before attaining any speed ; once under way they
travel swiftly, and one's attention is held by the distinctive, musical whistle
of their wings. Both the Barrow goldeneye and the American goldeneye are
less gregarious than others of our ducks with the exception of the mergansers,
I have never seen the Barrow goldeneye in large flocks except in the mating
season. When feediag, two or three birds together are the rule, and five or
six the maximum number noted.

Dr. D. G. Elliott (1898) writes of its behavior:

I have found it at times quite numerous on the St. Lawrence near Ogdens-
burg, and have killed a goodly number there over decoys, and some specimens,
procured on these occasions, are now in the Museum of Natural History in
New York. The two species were associated together on the river, and I never*
knew which one would come to the decoys, but I do not remember that both
never came together, unless it might be the females, for, as I have said, it was
difiicult to distinguish them without an examination.

The birds would fly up and down the river, doubtless coming from, and go-
ing to, Lake Erie, stopping occasionally in the coves to feed, and floating
down with the current for a considerable distance, when they would rise and
fly upstream again. My decoys were always placed in some cove or bend of the
stream where the current was least strong, for I noticed the birds rarely
settled on the water where it was running swiftly. This duck decoys readily
in such situations, and will come right in, and if permitted, settle among the
wooden counterfeits. They sit lightly upon the water and rise at once with-
out effort or much splashing. The flight is very rapid, and is accompanied
with the same whistling of the wings so noticeable in the common goldeneye.
In stormy weather this bird keeps close to the banks, seeking shelter from
the winds. It dives as expertly as its relative, and frequently remains under
water for a considerable time. The flesh of those killed upon the river was
tender and of good flavor, fish evidently not having figured much as an article
of their diet.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 21

Maj. Allan Brooks writes that "the note is a hoarse croak. They
have also a peculiar mewing cry, made only by the males in the
mating season."

Mr. Millais (1913), who studied this species extensively in Ice-
land, writes of its behavior there as follows :

On the water the male of this species looks a larger, clumsier, and blacker
bird than the common goldeneye. It seemed to me that it sits higher on the
water, and was a bird that commanded instant attention. In summer the
males, which, when the ducks have begun to sit, consort in small parties of
two to six, or more, are exceptionally tame, and will permit an approach to
within a few paces, if the observer moves slowly to the banks of the river
where they are feeding or resting. In rising to tly they are somewhat clumsy,
and run along the surface with considerable splashing, but they did not seem
to me to make nearly so much noise in flight as the common species. The
" singing " or " ringing " note is heard, but it is neither so loud nor so metallic.
On June 27 the males were still in their breeding dress. A few seem to keep
on the river near the nesting females, as if for form's sake, but the majority
were resorting to the great lake of Myvatn, where the parties seemed to in-
crease in size day by day. Females, with young, often floated past me while
I was trout fishing, and once I had to draw in my line to prevent hooking a
too confiding mother. Wliilst watching males on feed, it struck me that they
were less expert than the common goldeneye, and had more difficulty in get-
ting under water. There was more noise and splash to get under, but once
below the surface they seemed to be skilled performers of the highest order,
I saw them more than once, from the high bank where my tent was pitched,
feeding in exactly the same manner as the common species, turning over all
the small stones, and probing beneath all large ones, and into holes. They
stay less time under water in shallows than in the deep water of the lake,
the time occupied being a half to one minute. On the river they reappeared
again and again at the same spot, only pausing for a moment's rest and
splash down again, whereas on the lake they would often keep moving for-
ward in their dives, and take up a fresh position every time. They will stay
and fish in very rough streams, edging into the current and out again as soon
as they rise, but do not like such wild places as the harlequin.

In Iceland their enemies seem to be Richardson's skua, Stercorarius para-
siticus L., which regularly attacks the females of all diving ducks and seizes
their young, and the Iceland falcon, Falco rusticolus islandicus, which kills
a few of the adults. There was hardly a morning or evening when I stayed at
Myvatn, in June-July, 1889, that we did not see one or other of these two
species harrying the ducks. Sitting in the tent to escape the awful plague of
flies, a sudden roar of startled ducks would be heard, and on my going to inves-
tigate there was the falcon, with perhaps two young birds in attendance, bear-
ing off some victims of its prowess. None of the ducks seemed to be unusually
scared when the falcons passed by, as they often did, by day and night. They
crouched on the water or rushed with their broods under the banks and hid
as well as possible. It was only after the stoop and kill, when tlie bird of
prey came on to their own level, that there was a general stampede of these
ducks in the immediate vicinity of the murder.

Mr. Lucien M. Turner, in his unpublished notes, says :

These goldeneyes are common along the entire coast of Labrador and occur in
scattered flocks of two or three to rarely more than a dozen in number. I have

22 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

never found the nest or eggs of this species and am not positive that it breeds
on the coast; although it occurs during the summer season, arriving by the 1st
of June and remains until early November. During the latter part of its
stav it frequents the places of swift tide currents where it dives with wondrous
celerity to procure its food from the bottom of soundings. Numbers of these
birds were seen in a pocket some 2 miles from the mouth of the Koksoak River
and on the left band. This place is locally known as Partridge's fishing place.
I was camped there while delayed by stormy weather, and early each morn-
ing great numbers of these birds frequented the inner portion of the cove.
Strange to say, these birds never made the same noise with their wings when
they flew into the cove that they did when they flew out. The tempestuous
weather and great distance prevented me from securing any specimens in that
locality This was late in September, and tliese birds congregated in large
numbers, for some of the flocks certainly contained 200 individuals and were
doubtless preparing to journey to the southward. None were seen after the
last of September. I observe that these ducks are nocturnal in their habits
and e'^peciallv noisv toward the approach of day. They search for fresh feed-
ing grounds from daylight to sunrise and appear to be very quiet, unless dis-
turbed, during the midday hours.

Mr. Skinner says, in his notes :

I usually find these ducks by ones and twos and small groups, but once I
found a flock of 85 swimming in a compact group off the shore of Yellowstone
Lake. AVhen in pairs, it is the female that takes alarm and flushes first. They
take great delight in " shooting the rapids " ; nothing in the Gardiner River, at
least, being too rough for them. They drop down over a fall 3 feet high, and
at the bottom go out of sight in the foam and spray, but nevertheless keep
right on swimming along. Should they tire of this boisterous sport, they are
quick to take advantage of any eddy, or rest behind a bowlder. As a rule
these are the tamest of our ducks ; on the reservoir and other roadside waters
they are unalarmed even while the big autos go thundering past. If I approach
a flock too closely, the Barrows swim away, or go coasting down the rapids,
instead of flushing as the mallards do. But if they do flush, they go only a
little way, come back, and drop down again into the water without hesitation
or fear.

I do not believe the Barrows seek the society of other ducks, but common
tastes bring them to many other ducks, mostly deep-water ducks, such as mal-
lards, mergansers, buffleheads, ruddy ducks, bluebills, and American golden-
eyes. Sometimes the last named and the Barrows are together, but more
often the two species keep apart, possibly due to the rivalry of the males.

Flight is low and labored at first, as they rise against the wind, and they
are often compelled to kick the water for tlie first 20 or more wing strokes.
I have seen them start and later strike the water again where the average
pitch of the rapids was 6 per cent or less. Rising against a strong head wind,
they do much better, and then they may fly at a greater height than in calm
weather, say of 30 or 40 feet. Once I was passing up a narrow stream with
the wind behind me when I found a half dozen Barrows before me. They
could not fly up into my face and the canyon was too high and narrow to fly
out sideways, so the ducks were obliged to swim down past me and rise behind
my back. Apparently they can not jump up as the mallard does so frequently.
But once under way, fliglit is swift and powerful, giving rise to a distinct
whistling sound.

These ducks bathe by standing almost erect on the water and rapidly flap-
ping their wings so as to throw the water forward and over them ; later by

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 23

plunging under and shaking tliemselves at the same time. They usually dress
their feathers while on the water, turning far over, first on one side, then
on the other, to get at places ordinarily under the surface. Once I found a
Barrow preening on a half submerged bowlder.

Winter. — The winter home of the Barrow goldeneye is not far
south of its summer range, and its migration is not much more than
a movement off its nesting grounds to more satisfactory feeding
grounds. It seems to be fairly common on the Gulf of St, Lawrence
in winter, where it frequents about the same resorts as the common
goldeneye, but farther south on the Atlantic coast it is rare. It
winters on some of the large lakes and rivers of the interior, as well
as on the Pacific coast.

J. A. Munro (1918) says that "throughout the winter months it
is found on the seacoast, in the many sheltered estuaries from Puget
Sound to Hecate Strait and Dixon Inlet." He also writes to me
" that a few birds winter on the Okanogan River below Okanogan
Falls in a rapid stretch of water with strong bottom, where craw-
fish are very abundant. They are usually in company with the com-
mon goldeneye."

Mr. Skinner writes to me:

While the majority migrate on the freezing of the waters, a few remain
along the Gardiner and Yellowstone Rivers all winter, and become even
tamer than usual, entitling them to be rated as resident (in Montana) at all
seasons. Barrows that had wintered along the Gardiner in 1920-21 began
leaving about February 25, or about the time that waters elsewhere were be-
ginning to open. First to go were the males, then the females and imma-
tures ; until only one was left on March 1, and that one went next day. But
cold, freezing temperature brought them back, a female on the 7th and six
drakes and five females on the 12th ; then they decreased again. By the 24th
they were abundant at the outlet of Yellowstone Lake at 1,000 feet higher
altitude or just over 7,700 feet above sea level.

DISTRIBUTION

Breed'mg range. — In North America, a few breed on the Labrador
Peninsula from the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Point des Monts) to
northern Labrador (Davis Inlet). But the main breeding range is
in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains. East to western Alberta
(Banff), northwestern Montana (Glacier National Park) and cen-
tral northern Colorado (Boulder County). South to southwestern
Colorado (Dolores County). West to southwestern Oregon (Crook
County and Douglas County), central British Columbia (Okanogan
and La Hache Valleys), to the coast of southern Alaska (Chilkat
and Sitka), and south central Alaska (Lake Clark). North to
northern Mackenzie (Fort Anderson rarely) and Great Slave Lake
100449—25 3

24 BULLETIX 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

(Fort Rae and Providence). Breeds abundantly in Iceland and
in Greenland up to 69° or 70° K

Winter range. — From the Gulf of St. Lawrence southward along
the coast regularly to eastern Maine (Washington County), rarely
to southern New England and as a straggler beyond. On the Pacific
coast from southern Alaska (Wrangell and Portage Bay) to central
California (San Francisco Bay). Rarely and irregularly in the in-
terior, south to southern Colorado (La Plata Eiver), and north to
southern British Columbia (Okanogan Lake) and northern Mon-
tana (Great Falls).

SpHng migration. — Dates of arrival : Quebec City, April 14 to 16 ;
Mackenzie, Fort Anderson, June 14. Late dates : Ontario, Toronto,
April 18, 1885; North Carolina, near Asheville, May 6, 1893.

Fall migration. — Dates of arrival: Quebec, Montreal, October
23; Connecticut, East Haven, November 14; Massachusetts, Ware-
ham, November 27 ; District of Columbia, November 22, 1889 ; Wis-
consin, Lake Koshkonong, November 14, 1896.

Casual records. — All records east of the Rocky Mountain region
and south of New England must be regarded as casual. Most of
these records are based on females, incorrectly identified. Tlie rec-
ords given above, under migrations, are believed to be authentic, as
are also the following : Michigan, Ottawa County, 1907, and Detroit
River, April 1, 1905.

Egg dates. — Iceland : Fourteen records, May 19 to June 30 ; seven
records, June 2 to 17. British Columbia : Five records, May 12 to
31. Alberta : Two records. May 28 and 30.

CHARITONETTA ALBEOLA (Linnaeus)
BUFFLEHEAD

HABITS

The propriety of applying the name " spirit duck " to this sprightly
little duck will be appreciated by anyone who has watched it in its
natural surroundings, floating buoyantly, like a beautiful apparition,
on the smooth surface of some pond or quiet stream, with its striking
contrast of black and white in its body plumage and with the glisten-
ing metallic tints in its soft fluffy head, relieved by a broad splash of
the purest white ; it seems indeed a spirit of the waters, as it plunges,
quickly beneath the surface and bursts out again in full flight, dis-
appearing in the distance with a blur of whirring wings.

Spring. — Although a hardy species and generally regarded as a
cold-weather bird, the bufflehead is rather slow in making its spring

LIFE HISTORIES OF XORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 25

migration; it follows gi'adiially the retreat of winter, but lingers on
the way. Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899) says:

The first issue of these birds appears iu the interior above the frost line late
in the spring, a sliort time before the bluewinged teals arrive ; and with the
ruddy ducks are the last of the divers to travel northward. They soon depart to
the far north, where they are followed by the second and third issues, which
scatter over the country before they also follow the advanced flight.

Courtship. — Although the biifflehead lingers in some of our ponds
until quite late in the spring and during some seasons is fairly com-
mon, I have not been particularlj^ successful in studying its courtship
on accoimt of its shyness. On bright, warm da^^s during the latter
part of April or early in May the courtship of this species may be
studied with some hope of success, though long and patient watching
through powerful glasses may be necessary. The males are quite
quarrelsome at this season and fight viciously among themselves for
the possession of the females. The male is certainly a handsome
creature as he swims in and out among the somber females, his bill
pointing upward, his neck extended, and his beautiful head puffed
out to twice its natural size and glistening in the sunlight. Standing
erect he struts about, as if supported by his feet and tail, with his
bill drawn in upon his swelling bosom, a picture of pride and vanity,
which is doubtless appreciated by his Avould-be mate. Suddenly he
dives beneath her and on coming up immediately deserts her and
flies over to another female to repeat the process. He seems fickle or
flirtatious in thus dividing his attentions, but perhaps they have not
been graciously received or he has been rebuffed. Sometimes he be-
comes coy and swims away until she shows interest enough to follow
him. Eventualh^ he finds the one best suited to him and the conjugal
pact is sealed.

Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1916) describes the courtship of the
bufSehead as follows :

A group of 35 or 40 of these birds, with sexes about equally divided, may
have been actively feeding, swimming together in a compact flock all point-
ing the same way. They dive within a few seconds of each other and stay
under water 14 to 20 seconds, and repeat the diving at frequent intervals.
Suddenly a male swims vigorously at another with flapping wings, making
the water boil, and soon each male is ardently courting. He spreads and
cocks his tail, puffs out the feathers of his head and cheeks, extends his
bill straight out in front close to the water and every now and then throws^^
it back with a bob in a sort of reversed bow. All the time he swims rapidly,
and, whereas in feeding the group were all swimming the same way in an'
orderly manner, the drakes are now nervously swimming back and forth and
in and out through the crowd. Every now and then there is a commotion in.
the water as one or more drakes dive, with a splashing of water, only tC'
come up again in pursuit or retreat. As the excitement grows a drake flaps:
his wings frequently and then jumps from the water and flies low with out-

26 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

stretched neck toward a duck who has listlessly strayed from the group. He
alights beside her precipitately, sliding along on his tail, his breast and head
elevated to their utmost extent and held erect. He bobs nervously. And so
it goes.

Nesting. — The center of abimdance of the bufflehead in the breed-
ino^ season seems to be in the wooded regions of Canada lying; west
and north of the Great Plains, ^vhere it is well distributed and in
some places quite common. Sidney S. S. Stansell (1909) says that
in central Alberta it is " about as common as the mallard ; nearly
every small pond has its pair, and some of them two pairs, of this
beautiful little duck. "When two or more pairs occupy a single pond,
the males are u.sually very pugnacious, often quarreling and trying
to drive each other off the pond for hours at a time." A set of 12
eggs in my collection collected by Mr. Stansell, near Carvel, Alberta,
on June 11, 1912, was taken from an old flicker's nesting hole, 20
feet from the ground; as the eggs were nearly fresh, there w'as
no lining in the nest except the chips left hy the previous occupant.

Herbert JSIasse}' has sent me some data regarding a set of 10 eggs
in his collection, taken by Mr. W. H. Bingaman, at Island Lake,
Saskatchewan, 50 miles west of Prince Albert, on May 28, 1905. The
nest was in an enlarged flicker excavation 15 feet from the ground
and 2 feet from the broken-off top of a dead poplar tree; the
eggs lay 15 inches below the very irregular opening, among rotten
wood dust, flicker feathers, and light-colored down of the duck;
the tree was 10 yards from the shore of the lake; the female was
sitting and was secured. The collector says :

I found this species nowhere abundant in Saskatchewan, and two sets are
the complete result of my season's work among this species. I took one other
set at Montreal Lake, 95 miles northeast of Island Lake, and the nesting site
was almost a duplicate of this one ; it also contained 10 eggs.

Maj. Allan Brooks (1903) thus describes the breeding habits of
the bufflehead in the Cariboo district of British Columbia :

Almost every lake has one or more pairs of these charming little ducks.
Unlike Barrow's goldeneye, the nests were always in trees close to or but a
short distance away from water. These nests were invariably the deserted
nesting holes of flickers, and in most cases had been used several years in
succession by the ducks. The holes were in aspen trees, from 5 to 20 feet
from the ground, and the entrance was not more than 31/4 inches in diameter.
The number of eggs ranged from 2 to 9, 8 being the average ; in color they
resemble old ivory, without any tinge of green. I have several times seen
the eggs of this duck described as " dusky green," but these have evidently
been the eggs of some species of teal. The female bufflehead is a very close
sitter, never leaving the nest until the hole was sawed out, and in most cases
I had to lift the bird and throw her up in the air. when she would make a
bee line for the nearest lake, where her mate would be slowly swimming up
and down unconscious of the violation of his home. In many cases the eggs
had fine cracks, evidently made by the compression of the bird's body when
entering the small aperture.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 27

J. A. Miinro found a nest —

in an old pileated woodpecker's hole near the top of a yellow pine stub, with-
out bark or branches and broken off 40 feet from the ground. It stood among
young Murray pines and poplars 20 yards from the shore of the lake. Down
adhering to the entrance of the hole identified the nest as belonging to the
bufflehead. The nest had been used the previous year by buffleheads and during
the following winter by flying squirrels. This was indicated by a quantity of old
bufflehead down, with fragments of eggshell adhering, lying at the bottom of
the tree. To this down the flying squirrels had added a quantity of moss. Ap-
parently the female bufflehead had removed the mixture of moss and down
before commencing to lay.

Where trees are scarce, as in certain parts of Saskatchewan, the
bufflehead is said to lay its eggs in a hole in a bank, after the manner
of the belted kingfisher, using for this purpose the deserted burrow
of a gopher near some small lake. Such cases must be exceptional,
however. The down in the nest is small, light, and flimsy ; it is " pal-
lid purplish gray " in color, with small white centers. The breast
feathers in it are pure white.

Eggs. — The bufflehead lays from 6 to 14 eggs, but 10 or 12 seems
to be the usual number. M. P. Skinner writes to me that he " en-
countered a female on Yellowstone River with 16 well-grown young,
and, as I could not find another parent, I have always assigned this
extraordinary brood to the one mother.''

The shape is bluntly ovate, elliptical ovate, or nearly oval. The
shell is smooth and slightly glossy. The color varies from " ivory
yellow " to " marguerite yellow '' or "pale olive buff." The measure-
ments of 86 eggs in various collections, average 48.5 by 34.7 milli-
meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 55 by 37, 53.5 by
38, and 40 by 26 millimeters.

Phtmages. — As might be expected, the downy young bufflehead
closely resembles the young goldeneye in color pattern. The upper
parts, including the upper half of the head from below the lores and
eyes, the hind neck, the back and the rump, are deep rich " bone
brown," with a lighter gloss on the forehead and mantle; the inner
edge of the wing is pure white; there is a large white spot on each
side of the scapular region and on each side of the rump ; and an in-
distinct whitish spot on each flank. The under parts, including the
chin, throat, cheeks, breast, and belly are pure white, shading off
gradually into the darker color on the sides of the body and with an
indistinct brownish collar around the lower neck.

In the Juvenal plumage the sexes are much alike and resemble the
adult female, except that the colors are duller and browner and the
white cheek patches smaller than in the adult. The young male soon
begins to differentiate from the young female, by increasing faster
in size and by the development of the head, with a more consx^icuous

28 BULLETIN 130, UISriTED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

white patch. The progress toward maturity is very slow, and even in
May the young male has only partially assumed the adult plumage;
the tail and much of the body j)lumage has been renewed, the wings
■are still immature, and the head has acquired large white patches,
but only a few of the purple feathers of the adult. A complete
summer molt occurs in July and August, after which the adult
plumage is gradually assumed and is completed in November and De-
cember. The young male thus becomes adult at an age of 17 or 18
months. The young female makes practically the same progress to-
ward maturity.

I have never seen the eclipse plumage of the bufflehead, but accord-
ing to Mr. Millais (1913) both old and young males assume " a fairly
complete eclipse, resembling a similar stage of plumage in the
goldeneye.*'

Food. — The bufflehead obtains its food by diving, usually feeding
in small companies so that one or more remain on the surface to
watch for approaching dangers while the others are below; some-
times only one remains above, but it is only rarely that all go below
at once; should the sentinel become alarmed it communicates in
some way with the others which come to the surface and all swim
or fly away to a safe distance.

Neltje Blanchan (1898) describes its feeding habits very neatly,
as follows :

A bufflehead overtakes and eats little fish under water or equally nimble
insects on the surface, probes the muddy bottom of the lake for small shell-
fish, nibbles the seawrack and other vegetable growth of the salt-water inlets,
all the while toughening its flesh by constant exercise and making it rank by
a fishy diet, until none but the hungriest of sportsmen care to bag it.

Audubon (1840) says:

Their food is much varied according to situation. On the seacoast, or in
estuaries, they dive after shrimps, small fry, and bivalve shells ; and in
fresh water they feed on small crayfish, leeches, and snails, and even grasses.

Ora W. Knight (1908) says that in the inland regions of Maine
" they feed on chubs, shiners, small trout fry, and other small fish.
Along the coast their diet is very similar."' Other writers include
in their food various small moUusks, crustaceans, beetles, locusts,
grasshoppers, and other insects.

Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899) lists the following genera of plants
among the food of the bufflehead: Limnohium^ Mynoj^hyllum^
CaUitTiche, Utricularia^ and Pontederia. Vegetable matter seems
to form only a small part of the food of this species and is eaten
mainly during the summer.

Behavior. — The flight of the bufflehead is exceedingly swift and
direct, generally at no very great elevation above the water, and is
performed with steady and very rapid beats of its strong little

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 29

wings. It rises neatly and quickly from the surface of the water and
sometimes from below it, bursting into the air at full speed. Wlien
alighting on the water it strikes with a splash and slides along the
surface. It generally travels in small irregular flocks made up
largely of females and young males, with two or three old drakes.

It is one of the best of divers, disappearing with the suddenness
of a grebe, with the plumage of its head compressed and its wings
closely pressed to its sides. It can often succeed in diving at the
flash of a gun and thus escape being shot. Under water it can swim
with closed wings swiftly enough to catch the small fish on which
it feeds so largely; but I believe that it often uses its wings under
water for extra speed. It can also dive to considerable depths to
secure its food from the bottom. Charles E. Alford (1920) says
that it seldom or never dives to a greater depth than 2 fathoms..
He timed a large number of dives and found that the period of im-
mersion varied from 15 to 23 seconds, usually it was about 20, and
the interval between dives varied from 4 to 8 seconds.

The following incident, related by Mr. Samuel Hubbard, jr.
(1893), shows that its diving powers are sometimes taxed to the
limit :

A broad, sandy bay made in from the harbor, the upper end of which
terminated in a shallow slough about 18 inches deep. I waded across and was
proceeding toward the beach, when my attention was attracted by a small
bufflehead duck (Charitonetta albeola) commonly called butterball. He was
swimming around in the slough and obtaining his food in the way common to
his kind, by diving and picking up that which came his way. With an admir-
ing glance at his beautiful plumage, I was about to pass on, when one of
those pirates of the air, a duck hawk (Falco peregrinus anatum) came in
sight. Without hesitating an instant, he made straight for my little friend
and swooped at him. His long talons came down with a clutch, but they
closed on nothing, for the duck was under the water. Undaunted the hawk
hovered overhead, and as the water was clear and shallow, he could follow
every movement of his prey. Again the duck came up ; the hawk swooped to
seize him, each move being repeated in quick succession and each dive be-
coming shorter and shorter. It was evident that the poor little hunted
creature was getting desperate, for the nest move he made was to come out
of the water flying. The hawk promptly gave chase. There was some clever
dodging in the air, but the duck, frightened and tired, soon saw that his swift
pursuer was getting the best of it, so he closed his wings tight against his
body and dropped like a stone into the water and plunged out of sight. Now
comes the beginning of the end. While he was under water he either saw
the hawk hovering over him or else he became bewildered, for he came again
out of the water flying. Like lightning the hawk struck ; there was a muffled
" squawk," and the tragedy was ended.

Dr. J. G. Cooper (1860) writes:

I once saw a male that I had just wounded dive in clear water, and, seizing
hold, by its bill, of a root growing under water, remain voluntarily submerged
for almost five minutes, until he supposed all danger past, when, again as-
cending to the surface, he paddled off with great rapidity.

30 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

I cannot remember that I have ever heard its note, but Dr. D. G.
Elliot (1898) says that "it utters at times a single guttural note,
which sounds like a small edition of the hoarse roll of the canvas-
back and other large diving ducks."

L. R. Dice (1920) says of its notes:

As a rule they are silent ; only on a few occasions were any calls heard.
Once while driving a pair in front of a blind to take pictures, the male and
female became separated. Then the male gave a squeaky call, which the
female answered with a hoarse quack, quack, and the male immediately flew
to her side. At another time a female alighted in an eddy of the river and
gave a low call, quk, quk, quk, quk, quk, quk, quk, slowly, and the male in a
few minutes appeared and alighted beside her.

Fall. — In the fall this species is one of the later migi'ants, coming
along with the hardier winter ducks. It is not of much account as
a game bird; its body is small and its flesh is not particularly de-
sirable, as it feeds so largely on animal food. It is, however, often
very fat, from which it has derived the name of " butterball." It
is apparently not regularly hunted or sought for by gunners, but is
often shot while hunting other species.

Winter. — ^W. L. Dawson (1909) says of the habits of this species
on the coast of Washington :

Buffleheads are among our most abundant ducks in fall and winter through-
out the State. They are found alike in swift rivers and on placid mill ponds.
Brackish pools and tide channels, tide flats, and tossing billows, all are alike
to these happy and hardy little souls. Perhaps the greatest number, however,
are found upon the bays and shallower waters of Puget Sound. They associate
chiefly in little flocks of from half a dozen to 50 individuals, and they venture
inshore, as often as they dare, to feed on the rising tide. When they reach
us in October they are fat as butter (whence, of course, "butterball"), but
they have gained their flesh on the cleaner feeding grounds of the northern
interior. On a fare of fish and marine worms, which they obtain in salt water
almost entirely by diving, their flesh soon becomes rank and unprofitable.

M. P. Skinner has sent me the following notes on the habits of
buffleheads in Yellowstone Park :

As a rule these ducks are on the larger waters such as Yellowstone Lake
and Yellowstone River, resorting to smaller lakes and ponds at very infre-
quent intervals. In stormy times, they are driven to quieter waters, but even
then prefer to find a calm spot near shore of Yellowstone Lake or a back
water on the river. When on streams, they do not care for the swifter water.
They are fond of sitting on sand bars, gravel bars, mud points, and on the
beaches about Yellowstone Lake. Many of these birds are to be seen all winter
in openings in the ice on the lake, and on the river where kept ice-free by
the current, along the Firehole Eiver kept open by hot geyser water, and on
tlie Gardiner River below the mouth of warm Boiling River. They are social
and keep together, in small, compact flocks. Similar food habits bring them
in close contact with some ducks and the limited open water in winter with
others. In these ways, they are often with mergansers, Barrow goldeneye,
American goldeneye, canvasbacks, redheads, bluebills, coot, grebes, mallard,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 31

green-winged teal, baldpate, shovellers, ruddy ducks, geese, and swans. On
the sandy beaches, they are often near spotted sandpipers, or pelican, if not
actually with them.

From tlie above it will be inferred that the bufflehead winters
as far north as it can find open water in the interior. On the coasts
it is found as far north as New England and British Columbia.
It seems to prefer to be on or near the frost line and does not go
much south of the United States in winter.

Dr. Leonard C. Sanford (1903) Avrites:

The butterball is common on ))oth coasts, and is fond of shallow, sandy
bays, frequenting the tide rips and mouths of rivers, remaining through the
coldest weather. A few years ago this bird was common all along the New
England shore. Large numbers wintered on the sound between New Haven
and Stratford, where the coast is shallow and sandy, early in the morning
leaving the outer flats and feeding up the rivers. It was a simple matter
to shoot them on their flight, as they came over the bars, low down and usually
in the same course. Recently the butterball seem to have largely disappeared
from the New England coast, though still common on bays farther south.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Mainly in the interior of Canada. East to north-
ern Ontario (probably), said to breed in New Brunswick and re-
corded once as breeding in southeastern Maine (Washington County).
Has been recorded as breeding formerly, and probably only casualW,
south to southeastern Wisconsin (Pewaukee Lake), northern Iowa
(Clear Lake, etc.), and Wyoming (Meeteetse Creek); but it evi-
dently does not breed now anywhere south of the Canadian border
except in northern Montana (Milk River, Flathead Lake, and
Meagher County). West to central British Columbia (Sumas and
southern Okanogan). There is a recent breeding record for Cali-
fornia (Eagle Lake). North to west central Alaska (Kuskokwim
River and the Yukon Valley), northern Mackenzie (nearly to the
mouth of that river). Great Slave Lake (Forts Rae and Resolution)
and the southwestern coasts of Hudson Bay and James Bay.

Winter range. — Mainly in the LTnited States, entirely across the
continent. South casually to Cuba; commonly to South Carolina,
northern Florida (Leon County), the Gulf coasts of Louisiana
and Texas ; and less commonly or rarely to central Mexico and Lower
California (San Quintin). North to the Aleutian and Commander
Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, southern British Columbia (Okano-
gan Lake) , northwestern Montana (Tetlow County) , the Great Lakes
(Michigan, Huron, and Ontario) and the coast of Maine.

S'pring migi-ation. — Northward and inland. Early dates of
arrival : Pennsylvania, Renovo, February 29 ; Massachusetts, March
11; Ontario, Ottawa, March 26; Illinois, Shawneetown, February

10044&— 2.5 i

32 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

27; Iowa, southern, March 1; Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 6;
Alberta, Alix, April 24; Alaska, Cross Sound, April 13, and Craig,
May 9; Pribilof Islands, May 19. Average dates of arrival: Penn-
sylvania, Renovo, March 18; Massachusetts, March 11; New Bruns-
wick and Nova Scotia, March 22; Indiana, central, March 2; Illi-
nois, northern, March 21; Michigan, southern, March 31; Ontario,
southern, April 7, and Ottawa, April 24; Nebraska, Omaha, March
15; Iowa, southern, March 22; Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 26;
South Dakota, central, April 8; Manitoba, southern, April 25;
Saskatchewan, Osier, May 2; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 11.
Late dates of departure: North Carolina, Smith's Island, April 15;
Massachusetts, Taunton, May 2; California, Los Angeles County,
April 22.

Fall migration. — Gradual southward movement, mainly inland.
Dates of arrival: Ontario, Ottawa, October 26; Nova Scotia, Sable
Island, November 7 ; Massachusetts, October 8 ; Rhode Island, Octo-
ber 13; Pennsylvania, November 10. Late dates of departure:
Alaska, Fort Reliance, October 7; Quebec, Montreal, November 1;
Ontario, Ottawa, November 8.

Casual records. — ^Accidental in southern Greenland (Godhaven,
1827, and Frederikshaab, 1891). Two records for Bermuda (No-
vember, 1875, and December, 1845). Accidental in Cuba, Porto
Rico, and Hawaiian Islands (Maui).

Egg dates. — British Columbia : Six records, May 15 to June 4.
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba: Five records. May 31 to
tfune 11. Alaska : Two records, June 6 and 12.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus)

OLDSQUAW
HABITS

Spring. — Oldsquaws, or long-tailed ducks, as I should prefer to
have them called, are lively, restless, happy-go-luckj^ little ducks,
known to most of us as hardy and cheery visitors to our winter sea-
coasts, associated in our minds with cold, gray skies, snow squalls,
and turbulent wintry waves. Though happ}^ and gay enough during
the winter, the height of their merriment is seen in the spring or
when the first signs of the breaking up of winter announce the com-
ing of the nuptial season and arouse the sexual ardor of these warm-
hearted little ducks. Early in the spring they become more restless
than ever, as they gather in merry flocks in the bays and harbors of
the New England coasts; the males, in various stages of budding
nuptial plumage and fired with the enthusiasm of returning passion,
gather in little groups about some favored female in fantastic pos-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 33

tures, rushing, flying, quarreling, and filling the air with their musi-
cal love notes. If noisy at other times, they are still more so now,
vieing with each other to make themselves seen and heard; it is a
lively scene, full of the springtime spirit of joy, love, and life.

The increasing warmth of the April sun and the stimulus of the
courtship activities start the restless birds on their spring migration
by various routes to their summer homes on Arctic shores. While
cruising along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence on May
23, 1909, we saw what was probably the last of the spring migration
on the south coast of Labrador ; between the Moisie River and Seven
Islands we saw numerous large flocks of from 50 to 200 birds each,
j^erhaps 1,000 or 1,500 birds in all. They were noisy and very active,
on the water and flying about high in the air, and many seemed to be
in summer plumage or changing into it. They were evidently pre-
paring for their overland flight to Hudson Bay ; we saw none farther
east along the coast, and, from what we could learn from the natives,
we inferred that very few migrate around the eastern coast of
Labrador and that the bulk of the flight passes overland northwest-
ward to Hudson Bay. Oldsquaws no longer breed on the south coast
of Labrador, where Audubon found them, and probably very few
still breed on the northeast coast; I saw none during the summer of
1913 even as far north as Cape Mugford, but I obtained a skin of a
male in full breeding plumage from an Eskimo at Okak and saw a
set of eggs in Rev. W. W. Perrett's collection, taken at Ramah.
Lucien M. Turner's unpublished notes state that " they arrive at the
mouth of the Koksoak River as soon as the ice breaks up ; this being
a variable date, of course influences the time from the 20th of May to
the 10th of June. Their first appearance is usually in the smaller
fresh-water ponds and lakes from which the ice earlier disappears,
long before the sea ice in the coves and bays begins to move out."
Probably these birds reach this portion of Ungava by the Hudson
Bay route rather than by an outside route and through Hudson
Straits, which are badly icebound at this season.

There is an extensive northward migration through the interior.
E. A. Preble (1908) writes:

In the spring of 1904 I first saw this species at Fort Simpson May 10, from
which date it was common. The birds, usually in small flocks, floated down
with the current among the ice floes, occasionally rising and winging their way
swiftly upstream to regain lost ground. The males played about on the water,
chasing each other and uttering their loud, clear notes, which soon became
associated in the mind with the long, cool evenings of the Arctic spring, with
the sun hanging low in the northwestern horizon. W^hen they are lightly swim-
ming about, the long tails are elevated at an angle of about 45°, and with
their striking color pattern the birds present a very jaunty appearance. They
are usually rather tame, sometimes rising and coming to meet the canoe, and
actually becoming less wild if shot at. When slightly wounded they are

34 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

among the most expert of divers and are difficult to secure. The males played
together considerably before the females arrived, but after that important
event their gymnastic and vocal performances knew no bounds.

Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) says that this is the first of the diiclis
to reach high northern latitudes in Alaska.

The seal hunters find them in the open spaces in the ice off St. Michaels
from the 1st to the 20th of April, and the first open water in shore is sure to
attract them. After their arrival it is no uncommon occurrence for the tem-
perature to fall to 25° or 30° below zero, and for furious storms of wind and
snow to rage for days, so the first comers must be hardy and vigorous to with-
stand the exposure.

W. Elmer Ekblaw has sent me the following attractive account of
the arrival of the oldsquaws in northern Greenland:

The distinctive resonant call of the oldsquaw announces the arrival of real
spring to the far Arctic shores. The earlier herald, the snow bunting, comes
while yet the land is covered with snow, while still the ice lies solid and un-
broken throughout the wind-swept fjords, and while yet the midnight sun is
new and even the noonday is chill ; the oldsquaw comes wheu the snow is gone
from the valleys and the slopes, and the first saxifrage and willow have burst
into blossom, when great dark leads and pools of open water break the white
expanse of fjord ice, and when tlie sun at midsummer height is warm at mid-
night as at noon. When the challenging clarion of the oldsquaw rings out
over the great north, spring has come.

The first few oldsquaws come winging noisily in along tlie open leads the
first week in June. The males predominate in the first fiocks, but by mid-June,
wheu the immigratioji i.s at its height, the females appear to be :vs numerous
as the males. Until the inland ponds and lakes are open, the oldsquaws fre-
quent the leads and open pools in the fjord ice ; they are most numerous along
the shore where the tidal crack open§ up the ice, and where the warmer fresh
water coming down the slopes and hills melts away the ice foot from the shore.
In this along-shore water they apparently find more food, or food more to
their liking — generally Crustacea and small fish.

From mid-June to the 1st of July the ice on the inland lakes melts away
rapidly. Just as soon as the belts of open water show along the banks, the
oldsquaws begin to leave the sea and enter the fresh-water lakes. In fiight
the female always leads, distinguishable by her plumper, dull-colored body and
shorter tail ; in swimming the male usually leads. Every lakelet lias its pair or
two of oldsquaws. Some of the pairs seems to be mated when they arrive
in the northland, but many mate after their arrival. In the last two weeks
of June the local mating season is at its height. Because the males are the
more numerous, the rivalry for the females is very keen, and the fighting con-
tinuous. During this time, the lake-dotted plains and valleys in the flats about
North Star Bay resound with the clamor and din of mating oldsquaws, and the
birds may be seen flying swiftly from pool to pool, from point to point. The
Eskimo consider them the swiftest flying birds of the northland.

Courtship. — The season of courtship is much prolonged or very
variable with this species. This is one of the few ducks that have a
spring molt and nuptial plumage; the time and extent of the molt
varies greatly in different individuals ; and the flush of sexual ardor
is probably contemporary with the change of plumage. Conse-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 35

quentl}^ some individuals molt and mate before they start on the
spring migration and others not nntil after they have reached their
breeding grounds. Many males apparently do not acquire a full
nuptial plumage during the whole summer and probably do not mate
that season; I have seen males in Alaska in midsummer in practi-
cally full winter plumage and in various stages between that and
full nuptial plumage; the full development of the latter seems to be
rather rare.

John G. Millais (1913) writes:

As previously stated, the actual courtship of the male is generally aroused
and brought about by the sexual desire of the female, and amongst ducks
the females are very irregular as to the time of their coming into season.
Thus only one or perhaps two females in a large flock may be well advanced
in their summer plumage and their breeding instincts, and these are the spe-
cial objects of desire of all the males. I have noticed a bunch of 8 or 10
females swimming apart and not a male going near them, whilst 10 or 15
males will crowd round some particular female and lavish upon her all their
arts of charm. The most common attitude of the male in courtship is to
erect the tail, stiffen the neck to its fullest extent, and then lower it toward
the female with a sudden bow, the bill being held outward and upward. As
the head curves down, the call is emitted. Sometimes the head is held out
along the water before the female, who herself often adopts this attitude, or
makes a " guttering " note of appreciation with head held in close to the
body. Another common attitude of the male is to throw the head right back
till it almost touches the scapulars, the bill pointing to tb.e heavens. As the
bird throws the head forward again the call is emitted. iMany males will
closely crowd round a female, all going through the same performance. It
is not long before a fight starts amongst the males, so that the lady of the
tourney is in the midst of a striiggling clamorous mass of squabbling knights,
each endeavoring to show his qualifications to love by his extravagant gestures
or strength. To add to the confusion, any male long-tails in the neighbor-
hood are sure to hear the noise and come flying in all haste to take part
in the jousts. Even males still in full winter plumage will come and be almost,
if not quite, as active as the rest. They advance with all haste, swaying from
side to side, their sharp-pointed wings being only arrested when almost
above the contest. Then they close the wings in mid-air and dash into
the fray with all their ardour. So impetuous and gallant are males of this
species that they will chase each other for long distances, falling often in
the sea and sending the spray flying; down they go under the water and
emerge almost together on the surface to continue the chase in mid-air. I
have twice seen a male when flying seize another by the nape and both come
tumbling head over heels into the sea in mad confusion.

In Mr. Hersey's notes, made at the mouth of the Yukon, I find
the following account of the later courtship, observed on June 19,
1914, which shows that the birds are not all paired when they ar-
rive on their breeding grounds.

To-day I watched the courtship of a pair of this species. A male and two
females were swimming about in a small pond. As the male began calling
another female joined the party. The male, however, paid all his attentions
to one of the females and did not notice either of the others. As this favored

36 BULLETIX 130, UjN'ITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

bird swam slowly about her admirer followed, his head drawn in close to his
shoulders and the bill pointing downward, the tip not more than an inch or
two from the surface of the water. When within 6 or 7 feet of the female
he would raise his head till it pointed straight upward and give a succession
of deep notes not unlike the baying of hounds heard at a distance. These
notes were usually in series of four or five, and with each the head was thrown
still farther back. The long tail was carried straight out horizontally as
a general thing, or depressed slightly, but at times was elevated to an angle
of about 45°. After calling, the bird dropped his head to its former position
close to the water. All this time the female kept up a low quacking. After
several of these sallies she would face her suitor, extend the neck and head
flat upon the water and swim toward him, turning when within a foot or two,
and pass him whereupon he turned and the performance began all over again.
After about an hour of this the female took flight closely followed by the male,
and after circling the pond several times both birds returned to the water.
The other two females had retired to the other end of the pond where they
had been quietly feeding, but the male now chased both of these birds out of
the pond and then returned to the remaining bird. I have several times seen
a female flying closely pursued by two males, all three twisting and turning
so that it was difficult for the eye to follow them, but the female always
kept in the lead.

Mr. Ekblaw, in his notes, writes :

On July 1, 1914, near the little Eskimo village, Umanak, on North Star Bay,
I was able to study the mating antics of the oldsquaw at close range. The
day was ideally calm, clear, and mild, and the birds were unusually stirred
by the " cosmic urge."' Just across the steep ridge southeast of the house
lies the broad, terraced, flood plain of a creek which now is a mere remnant
of a stream uuquestiojiably much larger in the past. The lowest terrace of
this plain is one of such imperfect drainage that ponds and swales are nu-
merous. About the shallow ponds and wet swales grasses and sedges grow
in abundance. The ponds teem with tiny animal life. Here the oldsquaws
breed and nest in numbers. It is one of their favorite haunts. I was con-
cealed among the rocks of a ledge some 50 yards from a rather large, compara-
tively deep pond, where the ice was melted along the edges. In the open
water, on the edge of the ice, and along the grass-covered banks, seven pairs of
oldsquaws were distributed, and two males were struggling strenuously for
an unmated female. The paired birds were swimming contentedly about the
pool, busily preening their feathers on the ice, or sleeping cosily on the banks ;
the unmated female and the two males were strenuously sweeping the water
or chasing over the pond in swift zigzag flight. Whenever one of the males
attempted to mate with the female, the other invariably attacked, much to
the evident displeasure of the female, who would then take quick wing,
noisily protesting, and pursued by both males. Settled in the pool the males
fought fiercely, splashing and churning the water. Neither seemed able to
vanquish the other, and when I left my hiding place they were still struggling.

Nesting. — Audubon's (1840) historic account of finding the old-
squaw breeding on the southern coast of Labrador is now ancient
history, but it is worth quoting as a record of conditions which no
longer exist. He writes:

In the course of one of my rambles along the borders of a large freshwater
lake, near Bras-d'Or, in Labrador, on the 2Sth of July, 1833, I was delighted
by the sight of several young broods of this species of duck, all carefully at-

LIFE HISTORIES OF XORTH AMERICAlSr WILD FOWL 37

tended to by their anxious ^,nd watchful mothers. Not a male bird was on the lake,
which was fully 2 miles from the sea, and I concluded that in this species, as
in many others, the males abandon the females after incubation has commenced.
I watched their motions a good while, searching at the same time for nests,
one of which I was not long in discovering. Although it was quite destitute
of anything bearing the appearance of life, it still contained the down which
the mother had plucked from herself for the purpose of keeping her eggs
warm. It was placed under an alder bush, among rank weeds, not more than
8 or 9 feet from the edge of the water, and was formed of rather coarse gi*ass,
with an upper layer of finer weeds, which were neatly arranged, while the
down filled the bottom of the cavity, now apparently flattened by the long
sitting of the bird. The number of young broods in sight induced me to search
for more nests, and in about an hour I discovered six more, in one of which I
was delighted to find two rotten eggs.

The following extracts from Mr. L. M. Turner's notes will illus-
trate the nesting habits of this species in Ungava, where it probably
still breeds regularly:

To the freshwater ponds, around whose margins high grasses and sedges
grow, the oldsquaws resort to build their nests. The nest is composed of grass
stalks and weeds to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, in which the first egg is de-
posited. This is covered with down plucked from the bird, and to it a greater
quantity is added as the number of eggs increases. The eggs, in the clutch,
vary from 5 to 17 ; 9 to 13 being the usual number. The distance of the nest
from salt water varies greatly, for I have seen a nest, on a small, low island,
not more than a yard from the edge of the water, and again I have found one
that was more than half a mile, where a large lake on the level of the higher
land was connected by a swampy tract with the head of a long and deep but
narrow gulch through which a small stream coursed.

A few pairs breed on the Pribilof Islands. I saw a pair on
the village pond on St. Paul Island, but did not have time to hunt
for its nest. Mr. William Palmer (1899) found a nest and nine eggs
about 40 feet from this pond on June 12.

It was placed on a little hillock on the killing ground. When flushed,
about 10 feet olT, the bird flew directly to its mate in the pond. Leaving
the eggs, I returned soon, to find that she had been back, had covered them
completely with down and dry, short grass, and returned to the pond.

The main breeding grounds of the oldsquaw, in North America,
extend from the mouth of the Yukon all around the coast of
northern Alaska and all along the Arctic coast of the continent
and the northern islands to Greenland. Throughout the whole
of this region it is one of the most abundant ducks. The nests are
widely scattered over the tundra, but are more often found near
the shores of the small ponds or on little islands in them; the nest
is usually well concealed in thick grass or under small bushes, but
it is often found in open situations. The female is a close sitter,
and when she leaves the nest she covers it so skillfully with the
dark sooty brown down, grass, and rubbish that it matches its sur-
roundings and is about invisible. It is well that she does so for

38 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

she has many enemies, wandering natives, roving dogs and foxes,
jaegers, gulls, and other nest robbers that are always on the look-
out for eggs. Mr. Hersey found a nest near St. Michael on July
5, 1915, containing six eggs; it was in an open situation in short
grass 20 feet from the shore of a small pond, and while going for
his camera, only a short distance away, some short-billed and
glaucous gulls found the nest and destroyed the eggs.
Mr. Ekblaw, in his notes, says:

The nests are built in small-cup-like hollows, sometimes in the grass near
the pools, but more frequently among the rocks at considerable distances
from any water. The sites are selected with a view to concealment. The
nest is well lined with mottled brown down from the female's breast. When
the eggs are covered with the down in the absence of the bird, or when
she is brooding them, the nest is well-nigh impossible of detection. The
female is not readily frightened from her nest ; when she is driven off she
simulates injury and distress to draw away the intruder, in the manner com-
mon to so many birds. The foxes take toll of the oldsquaw eggs as of the
eggs of all the birds.

The down in the oldsquaw's nest is very small: it varies in color
from " bister " to " sepia," and has small but conspicuous whitish
centers.

Eggs. — The oldsquaw is said to lay as many as IT eggs, but the
set usually consists of from 5 to 7. Only one brood is raised in a
season. In shape the eggs are ovate, elliptical ovate, elongate ovate,
or even cylindrical ovate; they are often more pointed than ducks'
eggs usually are. The surface is smooth, but not very glossy. The
color varies from " deep olive buff " to " olive buff " or from " water
green " to " yellowish glaucous." The measurements of 139 eggs, in
the United States National Museum collection, average 53 by 37
millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 60 by 39,
58 by 40, 48 by 37.5, and 51.5 by 35.5 millimeters.

Young. — The period of incubation is said to be about three and
a half weeks. It is performed by the female alone, but the male
does not wholly desert her, remaining in the nearest pond and
encouraging her with demonstrations of affection. About the time
that the young are ready to hatch he flies away and joins others of
his kind on the seacoast. As soon as the eggs are hatched and the
j^oung are strong enough to walk, the mother leads them over the
perilous journey to the nearest water. Mr. Turner watched a mother
bird conducting her brood of 13 young for more than half a mile from
a swampy tract through a long and deep but narrow gulch, through
which a small stream flowed, down to a cove into which it opened.
His notes state :

The old bird was much disturbed when I came upon her and she pretended
to be wounded. She fluttered and waddled about in a frantic manner, but
while chasing her I saw the young and could then have easily taken the old

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 39

bird in my baud, as she actually fluttered at my feet, so intent was she to
withdraw my attention from her young. I retired, and with peculiar call she
gathered the young ones and began her march. I foUov/ed them to the salt
water where the mother seemed frantic with joy, as she flopped around like
a tame duck at the approach of rain. The young were not more than two
days old and had awaited until they had sufficient strength to undertake the
long journey. They took to the water as though they had been accustomed
to it for weeks. I must confess that I felt pleased that I did not molest them
for I have seldom seen anything that afforded me greater satisfaction than
to witness the pleasure evinced .by the old bird when she had her young on
the bosom of the sea where she felt so secure.

There are so many enemies to be contended with at this critical
period that it is a wonder that any of these ducks ever succeed in
raising a brood. It is only by good luck in many cases that the nest
is not discovered and robbed; and only eternal vigilance and a con-
stant struggle on the part of the devoted mother serves to protect the
little ones from their enemies. In the instance just related several
occupied fox dens were within a short distance of the nest, yet the
eggs were hatched and the young were conducted away in safety.

The following incident is related by Mr. Millais (1913) :

I watched a newly hatched brood of long-tailed ducks one day for a long time
and noticed that they took very little food for themselves. They caught a few
flies, but most of their food was obtained by the mother diving incessantly
and bringing up substances from the bottom and placing it before her brood.
When she appeared they all kept up a gentle " peeping " sound and kept close
together in a bunch, seldom running to catch flies as other young ducks do.
After watching these birds for some time I wandered up the river to the Lake
of Myvatn to look at a scoter's nest, and on returning witnessed the attack of
two Richardson's skuas, a black and a white bellied one, on the same brood of
long-tailed duck. The method of attack was exactly the same as I have seen
employed by carrion crows in Hyde Park. One skua swooped down and dis-
tracted the mother's attention to one side by hovering over the water. The
anxious parent opened her bill and gave a series of grating calls. As the
marauder came to the level of the water the long-tailed duck with raised crest
made a fierce rush of a few yards at it and in this short space of time the
second skua swooped down, picked up a nestling, and swallowed it alive, head
first. The frantic mother then darted in the other direction when the skua that
had first attacked nimbly picked up a duckling and swallowed it whilst mount-
ing into the air. These skuas, which are plentiful at Myvatn, must commit con-
siderable havoc amongst the very young ducks and doubtless constitute their
chief enemies. Mr. Manniche, whom I had the pleasure of meeting in Denmark
in 1911, tells me that the glaucous gull is equally mischievous in destroying
the young of long-tails and king eiders in East Greenland and probably Buffon's
skua is another successful pirate.

The young are taught to dive at an early age, but at first they
are not ver}^ successful. Mr. Hersej^'s notes state that on July 5, 1915,
a female and eight recently hatched young were " seen on a small
pond. The female did not fly but swam around the yoimg calling
softly to them. At an apparent signal from the mother all would

40 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

dive, but the young were unable to stay below the surface more than
four or five seconds. The parent would then come to the surface and
again try to coax them to follow her below. She did not attempt to
lead them to the shore." Wlien the young are fully grown and
able to fly they all leave the small ponds and sheltered places where
they have been living and move off to the shore. This often occurs
quite late in the season, for small downy young are often to be found
up to the middle of August or later; the hatching date is very
variable, as the eggs are so often disturbed and a second or third
laying made necessary. The lateness of the fall migration gives a
long breeding season and plently of time to make several attempts
at raising a brood.
Mr. Ekblaw's notes state that :

While the females are brooding the eggs the males and the sterile females
fly and swim about the pouds in promiscuous flocks. These sterile females are
restless and active, quite different from the mated females during the mating
season. In the mating season the female of a pair usually rests quietly on
the bank of the pond, apparently heavy with eggs, while her mate swims about
near her. The sterile females are noisy and uneasy.

These sterile females and the males leave the land and the environs of the
shore about the 20th of July and seek the outer skerries and open water. The
nesting females take their little ducklings down to the salt water as soon
as they can toddle along, and from then until they hie themselves away to
the southland they spend all their time along the rocky shores in the pleasant
coastal bays and fjords or about the icebergs and floes. "Very frequently two
mother birds join their flocks, and then, when swimming about in the open
sea, one mother leads the flock while the other brings up the rear.

The young birds grow fast and quickly develop strength for swimming far
and fast. They can dive as well as they can swim. They soon lose their
first down and take on a juvenal dark-brown downy covering, into which the
feathers gradually come. It is not until they are fully grown, about the
last week in August or first week in September, that they are able to fly, and
then, fat and plump and strong, they start southward by easy stages, de-
veloping wing power as they go. Long before the eiders begin leaving, the
oldsquaws are gone from the coast, and then winter soon sets in.

Plumages. — The downy young oldsquaw is very dark-colored
above, very deep, rich " clove brown," becoming almost black on
the crown and rump, and paler " clove brown " in a band across tho
chest. This dark color covers more than half of the head, includ-
ing the crown, hind neck, and cheeks; it is relieved, however, by a
large spot below the eye and a smaller one above it of whitish, also
an indistinct loral spot and postocular streak of the same. The
throat is white and the sides of the neck and auricular region are
grayish white. The belly is white. Both the dark and the light
brown areas become duller and grayer with age.

The plumage appears first on the under parts; the breast and
belly are fully feathered first, then the flanks and scapulars: the
plumage covers the back, head and neck before the wings are grown,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 41

in September. All this takes place while the old birds are molting
their wings and are flightless. Both old and young birds are able to
fly by October and are then ready to start on their migrations.
Mr. Millais (1913) describes the juvenal plumage, as follows:

In first plumage, in September, the young male has the crown dark brown;
the back of the neck is grayish-brown till it meets the mantle, which, with
the wings, back, and tail, are black, with a dark-gray suffusion. A dark
band of grayish-black also crosses the upper part of the chest, and these
feathers, as well as the gray and spotted ones on the sides of the chest, are
edged with light sandy-brown ; the scapulars blackish-brown, edged with light
sandy-brown ; flanks gray, tinged with sandy-brown ; thighs gray ; breast,
belly, and vent white. In many specimens only the center tail feathers are
black, the rest being brown, edged with white, whilst some have a few sandy
edged feathers on the upper tail coverts. Round the eye and lores whitish-
gray ; cheeks, throat, and chin brown-gray. In many specimens the secon-
daries are brown, and the breast spotted with brownish-gray. In this month
the young male is no larger than the female, but by the end of October it has
grown to nearly the full size of the adult male. By the end of this month,
and during November, new feathers are rapidly coming in, and the immature
feathers of the head are being replaced by others resembling those of the adult.

From this time on during the winter and spring there is a slow
but steady progress toward maturity of plumage by a practically
continuous molt. The crown, throat, and neck become gradually
whiter, the brownish-black cheek patches develop and brownish-
black feathers appear in the chest ; the gray face begins to show, the
back becomes blacker and the grayish-white scapulars and flank
feathers appear. By the end of March the young male begins to
look like the winter adult, but the colors are not so pure or so intense.
In April the molt into the first nuptial plumage begins, in which the
yoimg bird can be distinguished from the adult by the faded and
worn wings, the imperfect and mottled appearance of the breast, and
the absence of the long tail feathers. During August and Septem-
ber a complete molt occurs, at which the wings and tail are renewed,
the long tail feathers are acquired and the adult winter plumage is
assumed ; by the end of November, at the latest, this plumage is com-
plete and the young bird may be said to be adult at seventeen months
of age.

The seasonal changes of plumage in the adult male oldsquaw are
unique, striking, and very interesting; it is one of the few ducks in
the world to assume a distinctlj^ nuptial plumage. The molt into
this plumage begins in April and in the oldest and most vigorous
birds it is completed in May; but in the younger birds and less
vigorous individuals, the molt is prolonged into the summer and is
often incomplete. Some birds acquire the full nuptial dress (in
which the face is " smoky gray," with a white space around and be-
hind the eye, the feathers of the upper back and scapulars are broadly

42 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

edged with "sayal brown" and the rest of the head, neck, breast,
back and wings are deep, rich " seal brown,"' nearly black on the up-
per surfaces) before they migrate north in the spring; I have seen
birds in the full perfection of this plumage as early as May 10 ; but
most birds reach their breeding grounds in various stages of transi-
tion, showing more or less white or gray feathers in the dark areas.
There is no real eclipse plumage in the oldsquaw, but Mr. Millais
(1913) says:

During August the male long-tailed cluck completely changes the wing, tail,
back, and black portion of the mantle and black breast band, these parts being
replaced by the new winter plumage. The head, neck, and upper mantle, show-
ing worn and faded plumage feathers, remain until shed at the end of Sep-
tember. The elongated scapulars are shed and not renewed until late Sep-
tember, but in late July a considerable number of new blackish and brown
feathers come into the upper scapulars and mix with the old worn summer
plumage feathers, whilst a number of new dark-gray feathers, similar to those
worn by the scaup, tufted duck, and golden.eye male in eclipse, come unto the
flanks and remain until shed again in early October. The reason of this, I
take it, is that since Nature abhors sudden changes of color from dark to
light, whilst the landscape is still under the warm colors of summer and
autumn, the male long-tail only renews those parts of its plumage to the full
winter dress which are directly in harmony with its surroundings, adding,
however, tempc)rary feathers, as it were, to carry it over the three temperate
months when it hides in the shadows of banks or rocky inlets. Thus all the
dark parts of its plumage are renewed once, and once only, and the light parts
which would be noticeable are delayed by a temporary makeshift until such a
time as concealment is no longer necessary.

Of the plumage changes of the female he says :

In first plumage the immature female closely resembles the young male, ex-
cept that the color is somewhat paler. They are also easily recognized by
October by the incoming feathers of the respective sexes. In the case of the
young female the advance of plumage is somewhat slower than that of the
male, and she only obtains a few of the winter dress feathers. In April the
greater part of the adult summer plumage is assumed, but there is little or no
change on the back, breast, and lower parts, whilst the wings and tail are not
shed at all until the principal molt in July and August. The young female
then gradually assumes her winter dress, which is complete in October. She is
thus adult at 16 months, and will pair and breed the following summer.

Young females may be recognized during their first year by their
imperfect and more or less mottled head pattern and by the broad,
gray edgings of the upper back and scapulars. Adult females in
winter have the feathers of the back, scapulars, and wing coverts
broadly edged with " tawny " or " cinnamon brown," and the uppei'
chest and flanks are suffused with lighter shades of the same. The
partial prenuptial molt occurs in April, leaving the wings worn and
faded ; the head becomes largely brownish black, with whitish spaces
before and behind the eye, and the upper parts are nearly uniform
brownish black. In August and September a complete molt pro-
duces the winter plumage.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 43

Food. — Most of the oldsquaw's food is obtained by diving in water
of moderate depths to the beds of mussels {Mytelis edulis) and other
bivalve and univalve mollusks, but many of these are picked up in
shallow water, as the rising tide co^^ers the ledges; as the mussels
open their shells to procure food they are picked out by the ducks.
Much food is also picked up along the beaches, such as shrimps,
sand fleas, small mollusks, crustaceans, beetles, and marine insects,
together with some seaweeds and a quantity of sand. On their
breeding grounds the food consists largely of the roots, leaves, buds,
and seeds of various aquatic plants ; the young live largely on insects,
larvae, and soft animal food which abounds in the tundra pools. Dr.
F. Henry Yorke (1899) includes in their vegetable food teal moss
{Limnohium) ., blue flag (h^is), duckweed, water plantain, pond-
weed, and pickerel weed.

George H. Mackay (1892), writing of the habits of this bird on
the Massachusetts coast, says :

Oldsquaws do uot seem to be at all particular iu regard to their food, eating
quite a variety, among which are the following : A little shellfish, very small,
resembling a diminutive Quahog {Venus niercenaria) , but not one; sand fleas;
short razor shells (Siliqua costata) ; fresh-water clams; small white perch;
small catfish; penny shells {Astarte castariea) ; red whale bait (brit) ; shrimps;
mussels ; small blue-claw crabs ; and pond grass. It was during the early part
of the severe winter of 1888 that many oldsquaws sought the land. Alighting
on the uplands adjacent to the north shore of the island, they came in flocks
of a hundred or less, in order that they might obtain and eat the dried fine top
grass {AnthoxaiithinH odoratmn) which grows wild there; when engaged in
plucking it their movemeiits while on the ground were far from awkward, in
fact rather graceful, as they ran quickly about gathering the grass, some of
which was still in their mouths when shot.

William B. Haynes (1901) observes:

Most authorities agree that the oldsquaw is unedible when killed on the
Great Lakes, but here (Ohio) they vary their diet with worms and are far
better eating than scaup or goldeneye. I have found the common angleworm
and a large green worm resembling a cutworm in their throats.

Edwin D. Hull (1914) says that in Jackson Park, Chicago, in
winter :

The plants, rocks, and piers constitute a very favorable habitat for immense
swarms of silvery minnows {Notropis atherinoides) , which seem to be almost
if not entirely the sole source of food for the old squaw in this locality. The
stomach of an adult female found floating in a lagoon April 1, 1912, contained
approximately 140 of these minnows, all entire, besides many fragments of
the same fish, but no other food. The fish averaged about 2 inches in length.

Behavi&r. — When migrating, old squaws fly high in the air in ir-
regular flocks or in Indian file, but at other times they fly close to
the water or a few feet above it, but almost never in a straight line ; '
they twist and turn suddenly, showing the breast and belly alter-
nately^ like shore birds, swinging in broad circles most unex-

44 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

pectedly. Their flight is so swift and so erratic that it is very dif-
ficult to shoot them, but they are often very tame or stupid and are
quite as likely to swing in toward a gunners boat as away from it ;
then in turning they often bimch together so closely that a tempting
shot is offered; I have seen as many as nine dropped out of such a
bunch at one sliot. I have seen them, when shot at, dive out of the air
into the water, swim for a long distance under water, and then come
out of the crest of a wave flying at full speed, as if they had never
broken their flight. They can rise readily off the surface of even
smooth water, and when alighting on it often drop in abruptly with
an awkward splash. If there is a strong wind blowing they are more
inclined to circle into the wind, glide down gently against it on
set wings and alight with a sliding splash. Old squaws can generally
be recognized at a long distance by 'their peculiar method of flight
and by their striking color pattern, the white head and neck and the
short, sharp-pointed, black wings being very conspicuous.

Toward spring they are particularly restless and active on the
wing and often indulge in aerial evolutions, such as Mr. Mackay
(1892) describes, as follows:

These ducks have a habit of towering both in the spring and in the autumn,
usually in the afternoon, collecting in mild weather in large flocks if un-
disturbed, and going up in circles so high as to be scarcely discernible, often
coming down with a rush and great velocity, a portion of the flock scattering
and coming down in a zigzag course similar to the scoters when whistled down.
The noise of their wings can be heard for a great distance under such condi-
tions. In one such instance, at Ipswich Bay, Mass., a flock of several hundred
went up twice within an hour.

The old squaw swims low in the water, but makes rapid progress
even in rough water; it rides easily over the ordinary waves, but
dives under the crest of a breaker with good judgment and precision.
It is one of the most expert of the diving ducks and will often dodge
under at the flash of a gun ; in diving the wings are partially opened
as if they were to be used under water ; probably they generally are
so used, but not always. It can dive to great depths if necessary.
Prof. W. B. Barrows "(1912) says:

Several observers mention the fact that it is often caught in the gill nets
set in deep water for lake trout and whitefish (in the Great Lakes.) One
fisherman at St. Joseph told me most positively that he had seen it caught
repeatedly in net set at a depth of 30 fathoms (180 feet).

Dr. A. W. Butler (1897) and Mr. E. H. Eaton (1910) both make
similar statements, and the latter says that " at Dunkirk, N. Y., be-
tween five and seven thousand have been taken at one haul " ; this
seems almost incredible.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 45

When feeding in flocks their diving tactics are interesting to watch.
L. M. Turner (1886) writes:

Wlien searching for food tliey string out in a long line and swim
abreast. At a signal one at the extreme end goes down, the rest follow in
regular time, never all at once, and rarely more than two or three at a time.
The last one goes down in his turn with the regularity of clockwork. As they
dive they seem to go over so far as to throw the long tail feathers until they
touch water on the other side. They remain under water a long time and
usually come up near each other.

His notes state that they " remain under water for periods varying
from 40 to 92 seconds." This last figure seems as if it might be an
error, for the following observations by Mr. Seton Gordon (1920)
seem to indicate great regularity in the diving periods of this spe-
cies ; he says :

On one occasion, December 16, I timed a drake during six dives, as follows :
37, 37, 37, 30, 37, 37 seconds. As will be seen, his periods of submersion were
extremely regular. On December 18 I watched for some time a pair diving
energetically. The drake kept under longer than the duck, half a dozen of
his dives being as follows : 37, 42, 36, 35, 33, 32 seconds, and those of the
duck, 33, 37, 35, 33, 33, 32 seconds. On emerging, the duck seemed to shoot
up more buoyantly than the drake. In the afternoon I timed the drake for
four dives, as follows : 42, 40, 42, 45 seconds. The periods during which the
birds were above water between the dives I timed as follows : 10, 8, 6, 8, 7, 11
seconds. On December 21 I timed a pair diving and emerging almost simultane-
ously, as follows: 34, 32, 37, 38, 40, 43, 36 seconds. Before the two longest
of these dives, the birds swam for some time on the surface of the water.

If there is any one thing for which the old squaw is justly notori-
ous it is for its voice. It certainh^ is a noisy and garrulous species
at all seasons, for which it has received various appropriate names,
such as old squaw, old injun, old wife, noisy duck, hound, etc. The
names south-southerly, cockawee, quandy, coal and candle light, as
well as a variety of Indian and Eskimo names have been applied
to it as suggesting its well-known notes; all of these are more or
less crude imitations of its notes, which are difficult to describe satis-
factorily, but when once heard are afterwards easily recognized, for
they are loud, clearly uttered, and very distinctive. Mr. Francis H.
Allen has given me the best description of it as " ow-owdle-ow and
ow-ow-owdle-oio with a Philadelphia twang; that is, with a short a
sound in the ow. The last syllable is higher pitched than the rest
and is emphasized."

Rev. J. H. Langille (1884) describes it very well in the following
words :

To my ear it does not recall the common name " south-southerly " given it
on the Atlantic coast, but is well expressed by an epithet given it by the Ger-
mans about Niagara. River, who call it the " ow-owly." Otv-ow-ly, ow-owly,
oic-owly, frequently repeated in succession, the first two notes considerably

46 BULLETIX 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

mouthed, and the last syllable in a liigli. shrill, clarion tone, may suggest
the queer notes to anyone whose ear is familiar with them. Not infrequently
the last syllable is left out of the ditty, the bird seeming somewhat in a hurry,
or the note becomes a mere nasal, ah, ah, ah, rapidly uttered.

Doctor Nelson (1887), referring to the notes heard on their breed-
ing grounds, writes :

During all the spring season until the young begin to hatch, the males have
a rich musical note, imperfectly represented by the syllables A-Uedle-a, a-
Uedle-a, frequently repeated in deep, reedlike tones. Amid the general hoarse
chorus of waterfowl at this season, the notes of the old squaw are so harmoni-
ous that the fur traders of the Upper Yukon have christened it the " organ
duck," a well-merited name. I have frequently stopped and listened with deep
pleasure to these harmonious tones, while traversing the broad marshes in
the dim twilight at midnight, and while passing a lonely month on the dreary
banks of the Yukon delta I lay in my blankets many hours at night and
listened to these rhythmical sounds, which with a few exceptions were the
only ones to break the silence. These notes are somewhat less common during
the day.

Mr. Ekblaw, in the notes, describes them as follows :

The call is a loud, ringing onrj, ong-onk that carries far and clear. The call
is given with a quick hard recoil of the head with the emission of each syllable,
as if requiring considerable force. Tbe vibrant resonance of the call is un-
doubtedly due to the peculiar development of the voice bos. At the base of
the trachea, just at the junction of the bronchial tubes, is a coiled enlargement
resembling a mellophone, with a tightly stretched membrane along one side,
probably the mechanism by which the volume and quality of the call are
produced.

Oldsquaws fly in flocks by themselves, but in their winter haunts
the}^ are associated more or less with red-breasted mergansers,
scoters, eiders, and goldeneyes, frequenting similar feeding grounds.
They are said to show a decided antipathy to cormorants and to
leave their feeding grounds when these birds visit them. Mr. Mil-
lais (1913) says:

The principal enemies of the species are the cowardly white-tailed eagles,
who kill numbers of half-grown young and wounded birds, the Greenland and
Iceland falcons, the three long-tailed skuas, and the great blackback and
glaucous gulls. Arctic foxes and polar bears also account for a good many be-
fore they can fly.

Fall. — By the time that the young birds are strong on the wing,
during the early part of the fall, both old and young leave their
breeding grounds in the north and begin to gather in large flocks
on the Arctic coast. John Murdoch (1885) says, of the beginning
of the migi'ation at Point Barrow :

Through July and August they vary in abundance, some days being very
plenty, while for two or three days at a time none at all are to be seen. At
this season they fly up and down not far from the shore and light in the sea.
Toward the end of August they are apt to form large " beds " near the station,
and this habit continues in September whenever there is sufficient open water.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 47

Many come from the east in September and cross the isthmus at Pergniak,
and continue on down the coast to the soutliwest. AVe noticed them going
southwest past Point Franklin, August 31, 1883, in very large flocks. After
October 1 they grow scarcer, but some are always to be seen as late as there
is any open water.

In northern Labrador similar movements take place ; " from the
last of August to the middle of October immense numbers of these
birds assemble in Hudson Straits," according to Mr. Turner's notes ;
he says that they disappear from Fort Chimo about the middle of
November.

On the New England coast the first cold storm of late October
brings a few scattering flocks of oldsquaws, but it is not until late
in the fall or when early winter conditions are almost here that the
heavy flight comes along ; driven like snowflakes ahead of a howling
norther, flock after flock of these hardy little sea fowl sweep and
whirl over the cold gray waves; or high in the air they twist and
turn, twinkling like black and white stars against the leaden sky.
The shore birds' whistles are no longer heard; they have passed on
to warmer climes ; but like the cries of a distant pack of hounds the
merry notes of the oldsquaws cheer the gunner's heart as he sits in
his anchored boat behind a string of wooden decoys waiting for a
shot at passing "'coots." The main flight of scoters has passed, an
occasional V-shaped flock of geese passes overhead, honking its
warning of approaching winter, and soon long lines of brant will
be looked for winging their apparently slow and heavy flight close
to the water. As Walter H. Rich (1907) puts it:

Winter is close at hand. There is a sting in the wind, a nip in the air, and
the fingers are numb and blue as they hold the gun barrels. But out on the
water, careless of wind or wave, rides a flock of " squaws " making always a
merry clatter. Ever and anon some of their number rise against the breeze
to dart off at lightning speed, apparently in the mere enjoyment of flight, for,
circling a half a mile about, they plump down again among their comrades, all
the time noisily calling to each other. We might almost say they are the only
song birds among the ducks, for really their notes are very pleasant to hear
and quite musical in comparison with the usual vocal production of the
family.

Game. — Oldsquaws are not held in much esteem as game birds;
their flesh is rank, fishy, and tough; but there are gunners that will
eat them. Many are shot, however, every fall by gunners who are
out after scoters; later in the season large flocks of oldsquaws fre-
quently pass over or along the line of boats anchored in their path.
They decoy well to the wooden blocks used for this kind of shooting,
and are often quite tame or full of curiosity. They often ofl^er tempt-
ing shots, and their flight is so swift and erratic that it requires con-
siderable skill and practice to hit a single bird ; when they are flying
before the wind one must hold well ahead of them. They are so

48 BULLETIX 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

(ough that only a small portion of the birds shot down are killed,
and it is almost useless to pursue the wounded ones, as they are
more than a match for the gunner in rough water.

Winter. — Oldsquaws are common in winter as far north as south-
ern Greenland and the Diomede Islands in Bering Straits, where
they can find open water among the ice, but they are more abundant
below the regions of frozen seas. Even on the New England coast
they sometimes encounter ice conditions too severe for them. Mr.
Mackay (1892) writes:

Although, as their Latin name expresses, they are particularly a cold-
weather bird, it is a matter of interest that ducks with such Arctic proclivities
should find the effects of the climate so rigorous at times on the New Eng-
land coast that they are unable to sustain life and are in consequence obliged
to succumb. Yet such is the case. It was during the winter of ISSS, when,
standing on the high land of Nantucket Island and looking seaward in any
direction, nothing but ice was visible ; for a moutJi the harbor was closed and
there was sleighing on it. There was no open water in sight except an oc-
casional crack in the ice caused by the change of tides ; most of the sea fowl
had left this locality during the early stage of the severely cold weather.
Many oldsquaws remained, however, until they were incapacitated through
lack of food and consequent loss of strength from doing so. As a result it
was a common occurrence to find them lying around dead or dying on the
shore. Those that were alive were so weak they could not fly, and on ex-
amination proved to be nothing literally but skin and bone, others apparently
had starved to death.

Referring to their habits here, he says :

Off the south side of Nantucket Island the oldsquaws collect in countless
myriads. On February 19, 1891, I saw a flock of oldsquaws estimated to
contain 2,000 birds of£ the south shore of Nantucket about 5 miles from the
island, and I know of no better place to observe them in numbers. They
arrive about the third to the last week in October, according to the weather,
and remain until the latter part of November ; most of them then move farther
south. The height of their abundance is the first half of November. They
congregate on " Old Man's Rip" and on " Miacomet Rip," shoal ground 2 to 3
miles from the south shore of the island, the water there being 3 to 4 fathoms
deep. Here they live in security, with an abundance of food, during the day.
About 3 o'clock p. m. they commence to leave this place for the Sound (the
movement continuing until after dark) where they regularly roost, flying
around that part of the island which affords them at the time the greatest
shelter from the wind, returning on the following morning to their feeding
ground by which ever route is the most favorable. An examination of the
stomachs of some of those oldsquaws which I shot in the early morning com-
ing from the Sound, showed them to be empty. I think occasionally on clear
calm nights they remain on their feeding grounds, and do not go into the
Sound to roost. They apparently prefer to feed in water not more than
3 to 4 fathoms deep, or shallower, unless compelled in order to obtain food.
I have noticed north of Cape Cod during the winter months that some old-
squaws will feed and remain just back of the line of breakers on the beaches,
and also around the rocks, but generally they are in small and detached groups
of but few individuals.

OFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 49

Many olclsqiiaws spend the winter in the Great Lakes and in other
large bodies of water in the interior, but it is decidedly a maritime
species by preference. For a study of the habits of this species on
Lake Michigan in winter, I would refer the reader to an excellent
paper on this subject by Edwin D. Hull (1914) based on observa-
tions for three seasons at Chicago. I can not afford the space to
quote from it as freely as it deserves. Severe winter conditions
sometimes drive a few birds as far as the southern borders of the
United States. Messrs. Beyer, Allison, and Kopman (1907) record
the capture of one in Louisiana on February 13, 1899. " At the time
of the capture of this specimen a severe blizzard was sweeping the
South. Zero temperatures were reported at points near the Louisiana
coast."

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Arctic coasts of both hemispheres. On the Lab-
rador Peninsula south, in Audubon's time, to the southeastern coast
of the peninsula (Bras d'Or), but now probably not much south of
northern Labrador (Okak and Nain). Ungava Bay and the lower
Koksoak River (Fort Chimo) and down the eastern shore of Hud-
son Bay, perhaps as far as Cape Jones. On Southampton Island
and other lands north of Hudson Bay, and on the west coast of
the bay at least as far south as Cape Fullerton and perhaps as far
as Churchill. Along the entire Arctic coasts and barren grounds
of Canada and Alaska. South on the Alaskan and Siberian coasts
of Bering Sea to the Aleutian and Commander Islands and on all
the islands in that sea. Along the Arctic coasts and barren grounds
of Asia and Europe, south in Scandinavia to about 60° north. On
the Faroe Islands, on Iceland, and on both coasts of Greenland.
North on practically all Arctic lands as far as they have been ex-
plored up to 82° north.

Winter range. — In North America south on the Atlantic coast
abundantly to southern New England, commonly to Chesapeake
Bay and North Carolina, more rarely to South Carolina, Florida
(Brevard and Leon Counties) and occasionally to the Gulf coast of
Louisiana; north, when open water is to be found, to the Gulf of
St. Lawrence and sometimes southern Greenland. On the Pacific
coast south regularly to Washington, less commonly to California,
as far south as San Diego ; north to the Aleutian Islands, and some-
times to the Diomede Islands. In the interior it winters abundantly
on the Great Lakes and more rarely or irregularly on other large
bodies of water west and south to Nebraska (Omaha), Colorado
(Barr Lake) , and Texas (Lake Surprise) . In southern Europe south
to about 40° north, on the Black and Caspian Seas; and in Asia,
south to Lake Baikal, China, and Japan.

50 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Spring tnigr'ation. — Mainly coastwise, but also overland to north-
ern coasts. Dates of arrival : New Brunswick, Grand Manan, March
9; Ontario, Ottawa, April 2; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 10;
northern Greenland, Etah, May 20; Boothia Felix, latitude 70°,
June 12; Winter Harbor, latitude 75°. June 22; Cape Sabine, lati-
tude 78°, June 1: Fort Conger, latitude 81°, June 6. Dates of ar-
rival in Alaska: Chilcat, March 11; Admiralty Island, April 17;
St. Michael, April 1; Cape Prince of Wales, April 22; Kowak
River, May 22; Humphrey Point, May 20; Point Barrow, May 15.

Late dates of departure: Rhode Island, May 4; Massachusetts,
May 22; Maine, May 21; Gulf of St. Lawrence, May 23; Pennsyl-
vania, Erie, May 18; Alberta, Fort McMurray, May 15; southern
Alaska, May 19.

Fall migration. — Reversal of spring routes. Early dates of ar-
rival: Great Bear Lake, August 28; Pennsylvania, Erie, September
13; Massachusetts, September 30; New York, Long Island, October
8 (average October 16). Late dates of departure: Northern Green-
land, latitude 82°, September 16; Alaska, Point Barrow, December
9, and St. Michael, October 20.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada: Fifty-three records. June 7 to July
18 ; 27 records, June 19 to July 4. Alaska : Sixteen records. May 22
to July 28; eight records, June 16 to July 9. Labrador: Three
records, June 16, 17, and 27.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS (Linnaeus)
ATLANTIC HARLEQUIN DUCK

HABITS

The harlequin duck is a rare bird on the Atlantic coast of North
America, where its chief summer home is in Labrador and Ungava.
Comparativelj' little is known about it even there, as veiy little
thorough ornithological work has been done in that largely unex-
plored region. But in western North America the species is widely
distributed and in some sections of Alaska, notably the Aleutian
Islands, it is very abundant. W. Sprague Brooks (1915) has re-
cently separated the western bird, as a distinct subspecies, under the
name pacificus. As this seems to be a well-marked form with a
distinctly separate range. I have compiled a separate life history
for it. Except for the descriptions of the eggs and plumages, which
are the same for both forms, the following remarks refer mainly
to the Atlantic foi'm.

Sjyrlng.—Mr. Lucien M. Turner's notes state that —

They arrive at Fort Chimo by the 25th of May and then frequent the
smaller fresh-water ponds and lakes. They retire to the seashore by the
5th of June, or even earlier if the ice has cleared from the beach. The out-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 51

lying islets are favorite places in the earlier days after their arrival ; but
when the water is mostly clear of ice they prefer the rugged shores of the
larger islands and shores of the mainland where the reefs and jagged,
sunken rocks are to be found ; these birds are rarely to be seen along shingly
beaches unless they may be merely passing from one point to another.

He says of their behavior :

The males are extremely pugnacious and quickly resent the approach of
auotlier male toward their mates. They flop through the water with sur-
prising speed toward the intruder with open mouth, uttering a hissing sound,
and seize the offender by the body and quickly pluck out a beakful of
feathers if the pursued bird does not dive or flutter away.

Nesting. — Audubon (1840) claims to have found them breeding
on islands in the Bay of Fundy; he writes:

There they place their nests under the bushes or amid the grass, at the
distance of 20 to 30 yards from the water. Farther north, in Newfoundland
and Labrador, for example, they remove from the sea, and betake themselves
to small lakes a mile or so in the interior, on the margins of which they
form their nests beneath the bushes next to the water. The nest is composed
of dry plants of various kinds, arranged in a circular manner to the height
of 2 or 3 inches, and lined with finer grasses. The eggs are five or six,
rarely more, measure 2-i5 by Its inches, and are of a plain greenish-yellow
color. After the eggs are laid, the female plucks the down from the lower
parts of her body and places it beneath and around them, in the same
manner as the eider duck and other species of this tribe.

Dr. C. Hart Merriam (1883) contributes the following:

While in Newfoundland last winter I learned that these birds, which are
here called " lords and ladies," are common summer residents on the island,
breeding along the little-frequented watercourses of the interior. I was
also informed, by many different people, that their nests were built in hollow
trees, like the wood duck's with us. Mr. James P. Howley, geologist of
Newfoundland, has favored me with the following response to a letter ad-
dressed to him on this subject : " I received your note inquiring about the
harlequin duck, but delayed answering it till the arrival of one of our In-
dians. It is quite true the birds nest in hollow stumps of trees, usually
on islets in the lakes or tarns of the interior. They usually frequent the
larger lakes and rivers far from the seacoast, but are also found scattered
all over the country."

Most of the eggs of the harlequin duck in collections came from
Iceland, where the species breeds abundantly and where many nests
have been found. John G. Millais (1913) gives the following at-
tractive quotation from Eeimschneider, illustrating the behavior
and nesting habits of this species in Iceland :

This is the finest of all the species here. Their movements both on land
and water are quick, skillful, and graceful ; they run swiftly on dry land,
and their gait reminds one very little of the waddling of other ducks, but in
walking the small head with its beautiful beak is stretched rather forward,
and the long tail pointing downward, with the proportionately slender body
and the peculiar coloring, all give this bird a rather foreign appearance,
though certainly not an unlovely one. The plumage of this small duck charmed

52 BULLETIX 130, UXITED STATi:S NATIONAL MUSEUM

me particularly wlien I saw it swimming upstream with unparalleled swift-
ness through the frothing foam of the Laxa, winding about through the
eddies of the strongest breakers, and making use of the quieter places in the
most skillful way. I then always had in mind the other much less common
Icelandic name Brindufa (breaker dove). I have never seen the harlequin
duck make an even temporary stay on the lake, but they always keep to the
swiftly flowing rivers of the neighborhood ; e. g., on the Laxa, where I visited
a small breeding colony near the Helluvad farm. When I came to this place
on June 24 I was several times obliged, in order to reach the nests, to ride
through the water of the river to a series of small heath-overgrown rock
islands upon which the ducks breed. Here I found, in addition to several nests
of the FuUgula marila, four nests of the F. histrionica; it is certain that
there were still more nests to be found close to. I put the number of pairs
nesting at this place at from 10 to 12. The first nest, standing under a thick
clump of heath, had a sort of bank of dry heath around the shallow hollow of
the site of the nest. This hoUowed-out basin contained the first half -finished
lining of gray down mingled with fine dry grass. In the nest lay five eggs,
which I took away, and which proved not to have been sat on at all. This
nest had been hitherto untouched by human beings, but not so the others
which I saw, and which had already lost some of their eggs. The next nest
showed exactly the same construction, and in this the down lining was still
altogether wanting. This one contained only two eggs. While the two first
nests we have just described were some paces from the edge of the island,
the next, unprotected by heath growth, was placed on a small piece of rock
jutting out over the river. The basin contained a complete lining of gray
down mixed with grass, and the loose edge of this was carefully pulled down
over three eggs which were in the nest. The duck fiew away from the fourth
nest which I visited as soon as I was quite close to it, and this one again was
placed more in the middle of the island under a clump of heath, and was very
plentifully lined with down with an unusually small admixture of parts of
pL'ints ; it contained three eggs.

The doAvn in the harlequin duck's nest is " olive brown " or " drab,"
with rather large, but not very conspicuous, whitish centers. Small
whitish breast feathers, with a pale brov\-nish central spot and pale
brownish tip, are usually found in the down.

Eggs. — The harlequin duck laj^s from 5 to 10 eggs, usually about
6. The shape varies from blunth^ ovate to elongate ovate, and some
eggs are quite pointed. The shell is smooth and slightly glossy.
The color varies from " light buff " or " cream color " to paler tints
of the same. The measurements of 90 eggs, in various collections,
average 57.5 by 41.5 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes
measure 61 by 42.5, 59 by 44, 52 by 39, and 56.2 by 37.5 millimeters.

Young. — Incubation is performed entirely by the female, who
also assumes full care of the young. Audubon (1840) writes:

The male leaves her to perform the arduous but, no doubt to her, pleasant
task of hatching and rearing the brood, and, joining his idle companions,
returns to the seashore, where he molts in July and August. The little ones
leave the nest a few hours after they burst the shell, and follow their mother
to the water, where she leads them about with the greatest care and anxiety.
When about a week old she walks with them to the sea, where they continue.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 53

in the same manner as the eiders. When discovered in one of these small
inland lakes, the mother emits a lisping note of admonition, on which she and
the young dive at once, and the latter make for the shores, where they conceal
themselves, while the former rises at a good distance, and immediately taking
to wing, leaves the place for awhile. On searching along the shores for the
young, we observed that, on being approached, they ran to the water and dived
toward the opposite side, continuing their endeavors thus to escape, until so
fatigued that we caught four out of six. When at sea, they are as difficult
to be caught as the young eiders.

Mr. Millais (1913) says that the period of incubation is said to
be three and one-half weeks.

It is presumed that the young are at first fed by the old bird direct from
the bill, as newly hatched young always hold their bills upward to the beak
of the foster parent, and will not at first pick up food for themselves. At
first the food is principally the larvae of Ephemerae. The down period of the
young is said by Faber to be about 40 days.

Mr. O. J. Miirie has sent me the following interesting notes on
the behavior of young harlequin ducks:

The harlequins acquire their love for rough water early, for the young are
brought up among the rapids of northern rivers. Several broods of these
ducklings were found on the Swampy Bay River, in northern Ungava. I saw
the first family one day when we had paddled across the swift current above
a rapid, to hunt for a portage. As we floated into a sheltered eddy near
shore, a band of ducklings swam quietly out past our canoe. They appeared
singularly unconcerned and unafraid. At first I did not recognize them as
harlequins and they all looked the same size to me. But one of the Indians
declared one of them was the mother. They swam around the base of a huge
bowlder and headed deliberately into the swift water. In astonishment I
watched them go bouncing down the rapid, around the bend out of sight.

A few days later I witnessed a still better exhibition. We stopped to camp
at the head of a rapid which culminated in an abrupt fall of 20 or 30 feet.
Here we found some more harlequins. I got two young and the mother be-
tween me and the fall and attempted to corner them for a photograph. There
was but a narrow lane of comparatively quiet water near shore. As I neared
the little group the mother flew upstream, and the little ones spattered up
over the water, actually entering the edge of the swift current in order to
get by me. Upon repeating the performance several times, I had an oppor-
tunity to perceive their wonderful knowledge of currents and their skill in
navigating them. Finally, when pressing them close for a near approach,
they again entered the swift water. At the same time the mother came flying
low and passed downstream. This time the youngsters were evidently caught,
for the current carried them out of sight over the falls. With a feeling of
remorse I looked below. I had not intended to be the means of their destruc-
tion. At first I could distinguish nothing among the ripples and the foam-
flecked current below. Then I saw them floating along, rising to shake the
water from their down, then quietly preening themselves. Although they had
clearly endeavored to avoid the falls, they were none the worse for the accident
when it did happen.

Plumages. — The downj^ young is " bister " or " Front's brown "
above, including the top of the head down to the level of the eyes,

54 BULLETIN 180, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

the lores, hind neck, back and rump ; the under parts, including the
cheeks up to the eyes, are pure white ; there is a white spot above and
in front of the eye and an indistinct whitish streak on each scapular
region; the front of the wing is margined with white. The juvenal
plumage comes in first on the flanks and scapulars; the former are,
at first, " olive brown " Avith white tips and the latter are " warm
sepia.*'

In the juvenal plumage in the fall the young male resembles the
adult female, but can bq recognized by the looser texture of the
plumage, the worn tail, the gray instead of brown flanks, and by
having less white on the breast. J. G. Millais (1913) says:

Toward the end of November the young male begins to assume the adult
dress rapidly ; the tail and tail coverts are replaced by adult feathers ; a tinge
of burnt sienna appears on the long flank feathers ; tlie wing coverts, the scapu-
lars, mantle, and the whole of the adult feathers on head and neck come in,
so that by the end of January a young male in my possession is almost like an
adult, except for the smaller black and white bars on the sides of the chest,
a brown rump and bill, mottled and immature under parts, and immatiu'e wings.

The change then proceeds very slowly. From specimens in Mr. Schioler's
collection it is clear that the male harlequin follows the same course of
plumage as the long-tailed duck and the goldeneye. A greater or lesser part of
the immature under parts are shed between the months of March and June, and
the last signs of immaturity in the shape of the wings are not shed until late
July or August, when the young male goes into an eclipse similar to the adult
male. By September the new wings are obtained and the portions that were
assumed as eclipse are being shed, so that it is not until November — that is, at
14 months — that the young male stands in full dress. It will breed in the fol-
lowing spring.

This does not agree with what specimens I have seen, which indi-
cate that the young male makes but little progress toward maturity
during his first year. Among the large flocks of immature males
which we saw in the Aleutians in June very few birds showed any-
thing approaching the adult plumage, and most of them could hardly
be distinguished from females, except at very short range. Most of
the specimens seen and collected were in worn immature plumage,
dull brown above, with lighter edgings, wholly mottled below, and
with varying amounts of the slaty feathers and the white markings
of the adult on the head. Perhaps these were especially backward
birds, and others, which we took to be adults, were normal or ad-
vanced young birds; but the latter were certainly in a very small
minority.

The young female requires about the same time to reach maturity —
about 16 months. Mr. Millais (1913) says:

There seems to be less difference between the young and adult female harle-
quin than almost any of the diving ducks. Yet the immature female, prior to
February, when the new tail is assumed, can always be recognized by the worn

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 55

ends and lighter colors of the tail and under parts. The under parts are not
nearly so broadly speckled as the adult, and there is a greater area of white.
The flanks are grayer, and have a sandy tinge. Also the white spaces about
the eye are always more heavily edged with slaty-brown.

I should add to this that in the young female the head is usually
duller brown and the feathers of the back show more light edgings.
Of the eclipse plumage Mr. Millais (1913) says:

The whole plumage of the adult male in eclipse is a uniform dark slate gray,
the head and neck being somewhat darker, as well as the rump, under and
upper tail coverts, which are almost black ; the single white ear covert spot is
retained, and the white space in front of the eye is dull white, both these parts
being edged with black ; long scapulars, lower neck, upper and lower flanks,
sooty brown; about the end of August the wings and tail are shed (as usual
only once). Like all the diving ducks, the male harlequin is practically in a
state of molt from July 1 until it reaches the full winter plumage early in
October.

Food. — Most of the harlequin duck's food is obtained by diving,
but much of it is picked up along the shores or about the rocky
ledges. On the inland streams where it breeds it consists largely
of water insects and their larvae, among which the caddis fly is
prominent; it also includes fish spawn, small fishes, small frogs, tad-
poles, small fresh-water crustaceans and mollusks, and some aquatic
plants. On the seacoast it feeds on similar kinds of marine animal
life which it picks up on the kelp-covered rocks at low tide or obtains
by diving in the surf along the shore or over the ledges; it ap-
jDarently does not often dive for its food in deep water. The com-
mon black mussel {Mytelus edulis) is one of its main food supplies;
these mollusks grow in immense beds on shallow ledges and are
easily obtained; occasionally a large mussel has been known to trap
the duck and cause its death by drowning. Small crustaceans, such
as sand fleas and small gasteropods, are also picked up.

R. P. Whitfield (1894) gives the following account of the con-
tents of a bird's stomach, taken on Long Island :

In December, 1893, Mr. William Dutcher brought to me the stomach contents
of a harlequin duck {Histrionicusf histrionicus) shot at Montauk Point,
Long Island, about the 3d of the month. An examination of the material
showed what an industrious collector the bird must have been, for it had in
its crop remains of no less than three individuals of the small mud crab of
our coast, Panopeus depressa Smith, one carapace being almost entire ; besides
remains of some other forms of Crustaceans. Of the little shell Columbella
lunata {Astyris lunata of the Fish Commission Reports), there were no less
than 39 individuals represented, besides several small Littorinas. This shell
is seldom more than one-sixth of an inch long, and is usually quite rare on
our shores. It could only have been obtained in such numbers by a sort
of sifting of the bottom mud of the bays by the duck, and indicates how
carefully the process had been carried on in order to obtain so small an article
of food.

100449—25 5

56 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

BehaA)ior. — Mr. Millais (1913) describes the flight of this species
as follows:

The, beautiful markings of the male of this species are only noticeable when
the observer is close at hand, so that they are not the easiest duck to identify
except when in flight. The flight, at first somewhat laborious, is very rapid.
The short, pointed wings are beaten swiftly, and the bird constantly swings
from side to side, even more frequently than the long-tailed duck. The eleva-
tion is moderately high, performed at an altitude similar to the goldeneye,
but when passing up or down stream it zigzags and turns, to accommodate its
line to every bend of the stream, however slight. The harlequin never thinks
of cutting off corners, and it would seem that it imagines its life depends
on keeping exactly over the water, however much it bends or twists. I have
seen harlequins fly religiously above a bend in a stream that formed almost
a complete circle in its course, and yet the birds did not cut across it to
shorten their route.

I have watched harlequin ducks in flight many times and have
shot quite a few of them, but I never noticed any swinging from
side to side, as referred to above, and several writers have re-
ferred to their flight as straight. They usually fly close to the
water and often in such compact flocks that a large number may be
killed at a single shot. They also swim in close formation, some-
times with their bodies almost touching.

Walter H. Kich (1907) says:

If a shot is fired at a flock on the wing they will sometimes plunge from
the air into the water and after swimming below the surface again take wing,
coming up a hundred yards away — seeming, the instant they reappear, to
dash from the depths into the air at full speed, leaving the gunner inexperienced
in their ways, and who perhaps had thought that by some miraculous chance
he had killed the entire flock, to find that he doesn't care for that kind of duck
after all. I passed through just such an experience once, and remember
yet how disgusted and surprised I was when after steaming up to where the
whole flock should have been dead — no duck — and what may have been their
ghosts rising from their watery graves 60 yards away.

Harlequin ducks are fond of feeding in rough water along rocky
shores or in the surf just off the beaches, where they ride the waves
lightly and dive through the breakers easily and skillfully. They
dive so quickly that they often escape at the flash of a gun. In
diving the wings are usually half opened as if they intended to
use the wings in flight under water, which they probably do.

The peculiar whistling note of this duck has been likened to the
cry of a mouse, whence it has been called the " sea-mouse " on the
coast of Maine. Mr. Bretherton (1896) describes it as "'a shrill
whistle descending in cadence from a high to a lower note, commenc-
ing with two long notes and running off in a long trill."'' Mr. Mil-
lais (1913) writes:

When first arriving at the breeding grounds in flocks in early May they
are very restless, constantly flying to and fro, whilst the females utter their

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 57

usual call of " Ek-ek-ek-ek," to which the males respond with a low or hoarse
" Hu " or " Heh-heh." These calls they also frequently make in winter, and
I have heard single females uttering their cry constantly when flying, as if they
had lost their companions and were seeking them. When they are paired
both sexes utter a different note, " Oi-ak," and this note is used at all times
when the pair meet, until the males leave the females at the end of June.

Mr. Aretas A. Saunders writes me :

I heard these birds call several times. The call note is usually uttered when
on the wing. It sounded to me like " oii-oy-oy-oy " rapidly repeated, usually
seven or eight times. I never heard the note from any but the males, and it
was usually uttered when in pursuit of one of the females.

Winter. — The winter home of the harlequin duck is on the sea-
coast. On the Atlantic coast they are not common south of Maine
and not abundant even there. They 'are often seen about the rocky
bays of the eastern Provinces in winter, but more often they fre-
quent the outlying rocky islands and ledges. In spite of the brilliant
coloring of the males they are surprisingly inconspicuous among the
kelp-covered rocks and the wet, shiny seaweeds of varied hues. On
the Atlantic coast they are widely known as " lords and ladies," and
by the French inhabitants of Quebec they are called " canards des
roches " or " rock ducks." They usually flock by themselves in small
flocks, but are frequently associated with oldsquaws.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Iceland, southern Greenland (north on the east
coast to Scoresby Sound and on the west coast to Upernavik), the
Labrador Peninsula (Nain, Lance au Loup, Fort Chimo, etc.), and
Newfoundland (Hawks Bay, etc.). Birds said to breed in the Ural
Mountains 'and the Yaroslav Government may be of this subspecies,
but the breeding birds of eastern Siberia are probably referable to
paciftcus.

Winter range. — The Atlantic coast of North America, south regu-
larly to the Bay of Fundy and the coast of Maine, more rarely to
Long Island Sound and casually farther south. Resident in Ice-
land.

Spring migration. — Atlantic coast birds retire northward in Feb-
ruary and some reach Greenland in March. Arrive at Fort Chimo,
Ungava, May 25. Seen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence as late as
May 29.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Maine, October 19 ; Massa-
chusetts, November 1 ; Ehode Island, November 28.

Castbal records. — Eare or casual on Lake Ontario (Toronto. Oc-
tober 20, 1894, and December 4, 1920). Accidental as far south as
South Carolina (Mount Pleasant, January 14-16, 1918) and Florida

58 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

(Pensacola, M'arch 20, 1886) . Rare or casual in Scandinavia, Russia,
Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Great Britain.

Egg dates. — Iceland : Twenty-three records. May 20 to July 9 ;
twelve records, June 6 to 30. Labrador: Two records. June 3 and
10. Greenland : One record, June 24,

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS PACIFICUS Brooks

! PACIFIC HARLEQUIN DUCK

; HABITS

I had always supposed that the harlequin duck was a compara-
tively rare and somewhat solitary species until I visited the Aleutian
Islands in the summer of 1911; here we found this subspecies to be
one of the commonest and most widely distributed of the ducks ; we
saw them in large or small flocks about all of the islands wherever
they could find the rocky shores that they love to frequent. I saw
more harlequin ducks here in one day than I have ever seen elsewhere
in my whole life. Most of the birds were in large flocks, some of
them in immense flocks, but they were also frequently seen in pairs,
feeding about the kelp-covered rocks at low tide, among which they
were surprisingly inconspicuous and were easily approached. Even
the large flocks were not wild or shy, and we had no difficulty in
shooting all we wanted. The large flocks were made up almost
wholly of females and immature males, but they were usually led by
two or three adult males. The presence of mated pairs and some
small flocks of adult males led us to suppose that they were breeding
there, perhaps back in the interior in the rocky canyons of the moun-
tain streams, but we found no signs of nests around the shores.
Similar gatherings of harlequin ducks are found all summer about
the Pribilof Islands and all along the southern coasts of Alaska and
British Columbia, as far south as Puget Sound. Nearly all, if not
all, of these birds are probably immature birds which are not yet
ready to breed, or unmated or barren birds, mainly the former.
Some may be birds which have bred early, have lost their broods or
their mates, and have returned to join their fellows in these summer-
flocking resorts, which are practically the same as the winter resorts.
The migrations of this species do not amount to much more than a
brief withdrawal into the interior during the nesting season.

Courtship. — The best account that I have seen of the courtship of
this species is by B. J. Bretherton (1896), as follows:

The writer has often watched the males in spring, calling, and the actions of
these birds may justly be said to resemble the crowing of a rooster. In giving
forth their call the head is thrown far back with the bill pointed directly up-
ward and widely open ; then with a jerk the head is thrown forward and down-
ward as the cry is uttered, and at the same time the wings are slightly ex-
panded and drooped. Afterwards they will rise in the water and flap their
wings.

LIFE HISTOPJES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 59

Charles W. Michael (1922), Avho has had exceptional opportunities
to study the behavior of harlequin ducks at short range, describes
another courtship performance, as follows:

When the birds appeared in front of camp on the moi'uing of April 12 they
were acting strangely. Apparently they were making love. They were bobbing
and bowing to one another, swirling around, touching their bills together, and
uttering little chatty sounds. One of the moves on the female's part was to
slowly submerge her body until just her head and neck appeared above the
surface of the water — a bold invitation on her part for attention. In spite of
the wanton actions of the female, the love-making failed to reach the climax,

NestiiKj. — I have never found the nest of the harlequin duck, and
I infer that few others have succeeded in doino; so in North America,
for surprisingly little is to be found in print about the nesting habits
of this species. None of the well-known Alaskan explorers speak of
finding nests, except Turner (1886), who says:

The nest and eggs were not procured, and the only nest I ever saw was near
Iliuliuk village, on Unalaska Island. Two immense blocks of rock had become
detached from the cliff above, and when they fell their edges formed a hollow
place beneath. In under this I discovered a deserted nest, which the native
who was with me asserted was that of a bird of this species. The form was
similar to that of the nest of C. hyemaUs, and in fact so closely resembled it
that I persisted in it being of this bird until the native asked me if I did not
know that the oldsquaw did not build in such places.

Major Bendire wrote to Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898) :

The harlequin duck undoul)tedly nests both in our mountain ranges in the
interior — Rockies and Sierra Nevadas — as well as on many of the treeless
islands of the Alaskan Peninsula and the Kurile Islands, and I have not the
least doubt that it breeds both in hollow trees, where such are available, and
either on the ground or in holes made by puffins where it can find such, not far
from water.

Dr. E. W. Xelson (188T) writes of the breeding haunts of this
species :

Among the host of waterfowl which flock to the distant breeding grounds of
Alaska in .spring, this elegantly marked bird is the most graceful and hand-
somely colored. As if conscious of its beauty, the harlequin duck leaves the
commonplace haunts sought by the crowd of less noble fowls, and along the
courses of the clear mountain streams, flowing in a series of rapids into the
larger rivers, they consort with the water ouzel, Swainson's thrush, and such
other shy spirits as delight in the wildest nooks, even in the remote v»'ilderneis
of the far north. Dark lichen-covered rocks, affording temporai-y shelter to
the broad-finned northern grayling or the richly colored salmon ti-out as they
dart from rapid to rapid, steep banks overhung Ity w^illows and alders, with
an occasional spruce, forming a black silhouette against the sky, and a stillness
broken only by the voices of the wind and water, unite to render the summer
home of these birds, along the Yukon, spots devoted to nature alone, whose
solitude is rarely broken, and then only by the soft footsteps of the savage
in pursuit of game.

60 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Mr. D. E. Brown has sent me the following note :

On May 7, 1924, a fisherman flushed a female western harlequin duck from
a set of seven eggs. This nest was near Port Angeles, Clallam County, Wash-
ington, and was on a rocky point of a swift running mountain stream.

Eggs. — Eggs of the Pacific harlequin duck are scarce in collections,
and I have no measurements available for comparison, but they prob-
ably do not differ essentially in color, shape, or size from those of
the Atlantic bird.

Plumages. — The sequence of molts and plumages of this western
subspecies are apparently the same as those of its eastern relative.

Behavior. — Aretas A. Saunders writes me from Montana that :

While fishing they sit in midstream, facing the current, often where it is
swiftest, paddling just enough to keep themselves stationary. Whenever they
see a fish, they dive for it, and usually appear again, a considerable distance
downstream with the fish. They dive down into the middle of swift rapids, in
places where one would expect them to be dashed in pieces against the rocks,
yet they always emerge again, unharmed. Whenever the birds go downstream
they usually swim down, and from what I have observed, do this largely under
water. As soon as they come to the surface they generally turn and face the
current. I have never seen them swim upstream, even where the water is
not swift, and believe that when they wish to go upstream they nearly al-
ways rise and fly. One afternoon I watched a male bird fishing at the edge
of a large pool where the water was not swift. He took up a position to watch
at the edge of the pool, standing witli his feet and under parts in the water
but his head and breast out. From this position he dove after fish whenever
he saw them, but I could not make out that he was always successful in catch-
ing the fish.

Mr. Michael (1922) says:

Harlequins are expert swimmers and divers. They dive and swim under
water with all the ease of a grebe, besides possessing the ability of the water
ouzel to walk about on the river bed against the swift currents. When feeding,
so far as we were able to ol)serve, they show no preference as to depth of water.
When working upstream along the shore they wade in the shallow water, pry-
ing among the stones. Where the water is deeper they tip up in the manner of
mallard ducks, and where the water is still deeper they dive. They dive in
water a foot deep and they dive in water 6 feet deep, always going down where
there is a gravelly bottom. Most often they stay under water not more than 15
seconds. Often they stay down 20 seconds, and occasionally they remain under
the water as long as 2-5 seconds. To leave the surface of the water they use
their mry tails as a spring to make the plunge and as they go down both
wings and feet are used as a medium of propulsion. When once on the gravelly
bottom the wings are closed, the head is held low, and the progress is made
against the current, as they walk along poking amongst the stones. When
coming to the surface they float up like bubbles, without movement of wings
or feet. Their biUs break the water and their bodies pop suddenly onto the
surface where they rest a moment. While poising on the surface between
plunges their bodies float high. When earnestly feeding, seldom more than 10
seconds elapse between plunges. The birds seldom dive simultaneously. The
female usually acts first.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 61

At times the harlequins choose the swiftest riffles, and when feeding there
their method is the same as when in the less joyous waters. They apparently
dive from any position with equal ease, but always as they go down they
turn upstream, and even in the swiftest currents they come up in about the
same spot at which they went down. When feeding in these racing waters
they merely hesitate on the surface, and four or five dives are made in rapid
succession. Such work as this is strenuous, but the birds are quite at home
in the swiftest currents, and when tired from their exertions they swing
into an eddy behind some snag or bowlder and rest as they bob about on the
surface.

M. P. Skinner writes to me that they have been observed coasting
down on the Yellowstone River almost to the brink of the Lower
Falls, 308 feet high, and then, when it seemed as if they would surely
go over, they would fly upstream again and repeat the performance.

Game. — As a game bird the harlequin duck is of little importance.
It is a comparatively rare bird, or entirely unknown, in most of
the regions frequented by gunners; and even where it is fairly com-
mon its haunts are rather inaccessible. Moreover, it lives so largely
on animal food that its flesh is not particularly palatable. Among
the natives of the Aleutian Islands and other parts of Alaska,
however, large numbers are killed for food, Mr. Bretherton (1896)
describes the method of hunting employed by the natives of Kodiak
Island, as follows:

When first the writer went to Kodiak he tried hunting with a boat,
relying on wing shooting to get his birds, but without much success ; and
seeing that the natives always got more birds, he changed his plan and took
to the natives' method, as follows : When a band of ducks was seen feeding,
a landing was made and the beach approached from the laud, the hunter
being careful not to be seen. By watching the flock it would be seen that
they all dived about the same time, and the time they remained down was
about the same length each time. When the last duck dives, the hunter
runs toward them, dropping in the grass or behind a rock about the time
he calculates the first duck should be coming up again. In this manner
he can approach close to the flock, that ndarly always feed in the shallow
water along the shore. When the last run is made, the hunter, if an old
hand, stands on the edge of the water, the gun at " ready," and a couple of
extra shells in the hollow of his right hand, the flock all being down. The
first duck that comes up gets it, and the second one gets the second barrel,
and in this way, by sharp practice, it is often possible to bag six or seven
out of one flock,

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Western North America and northeastern Asia.
East in northwestern Canada probably to the Mackenzie Valley and
Great Slave Lake, but nowhere else east of the Rocky Mountain
region. South in the Rocky Mountain region to Montana (Glacier
National Park, Chief Mountain Lake, etc.), Wyoming (Shoshone
River), and Colorado (Blue River near Breckenridge) . West to

62 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

central California (west slope of Sierra Nevada Mountains) and
Washington (Cascade and Selkirk Mountains) and the mountain
regions of British Columbia, and Alaska (Sitka region, Sanaldi
Island, etc.). Westward throughout the Aleutian, Commander, and
Kurile Islands. Probably on St. Matthew and St. Lawrence Islands.
West in Siberia to Lake Baikal and the Lena Kiver and east to
Kamchatka and northeastern Siberia (Providence Bay, Marcova,
etc.). North in summer and probabl}^ breeding to the Arctic coasts
of Alaska (Barter Island) and Canada (Mackenzie Bay).

Winter range. — Mainly on the seacoasts, but also on inland waters,
not far from the southern parts of its breeding range. Winters
sparingly in its Eocky Mountain breeding range; other interior
records are regarded as casuals. On the Pacific coast south to cen-
tral California (Monterey Bay) and north to the Aleutian and
Pribilof Islands. On the Asiatic side from the Commander Islands
south to Japan.

Spri.ng nvigi'ation. — First arrivals reached Fort Simpson, Macken-
zie, on May 26, 1904. Usually arrives at the mouth of the Yukon,
Alaska, about June 1. A late date for Pierce County, Washington
is June 5, 1915.

Fall migration. — ^Early dates of arrival: Washington, Kitsap
County, September 10; California, San Louis Obispo County, Octo-
ber 8.

Casual records. — Rare or accidental in the interior as far south as
Nebraska (Omaha, September 16, 1893 and 19, 1895) and Missouri
(St. Louis, October 29, and Montgomery County, March 21, 1897).

Egg dates. — ^Alaska: Four records, June 13 to July 1. Macken-
zie Bay : One record, June 20. Montana : One record. June 10.
Washington: One record. May T.

GAMPTORHYNCHUS LABRADORIUS (Gmelin)
LABRADOR DUCK

HABITS

What little there is known about the life history of this extinct
species has already been published and repeatedly quoted by various
writers. Probably nothing more of importance will ever be learned
about its former abundance or its habits. It is doubtful if any more
specimens will ever be brought to light. Therefore, in writing this
obituary notice, it is necessary only to compile what has already
been written in order to make its life history as nearly complete as
possible.

Nesting. — It is supposed to have bred, formerly, from the south
coast of Labrador northward, but there is very little positive evi-
dence on which to substantiate even this indefinite statement and

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 63

much less evidence on which to elaborate it. We might infer from
what Coues (1861) says that the Labrador duck bred farther north
and passed through Labrador on its migrations ; he says :

I was informed that though it was rarely seen in summer, it is not an un-
common bird in Labrador during tlie fall.

William Dutcher (1894) undertook to obtain some further infor-
mation regarding the occurrence of the species in Greenland,
through Mr. Langdon Gibson, who accompanied the Peary expedi-
tion to that region in 1891, acting as ornithologist of the party. Al-
though Mr. Gibson made numerous inquiries and showed pictures
of the bird to various people along the coast, he could find no evi-
dence to indicate that the Labrador duck had ever been seen there.
A portion of his report is worth quoting in full :

In August, 1892 (the latter part, I believe), on our way home we touched
at Godthaab, the largest town in Greenland. Here we were entertained by
Herr Anderson, the Danish inspector of South Greenland, an accomplished
naturalist, and at his house I had the pleasure of inspecting one of the finest
collections of Arctic birds I had ever seen. I showed him my little pamphlet
on the Labrador duck, and also presented it to him on my departure. He told
me that his collection represented 20 years' work, and all the hunters in
South Greenland (some 500 men) had instructions to bring to him any
strange birds that they might get. In this way he has added to his collection
from time to time many rare birds and eggs. In all this time he claims to
have heard nothing of the Labrador duck, which I consider is substantial
proof that within the last 20 years the Labrador duck has not visited Green-
land. From Godthaab we came directly home to Philadelphia, and this ended
my ineffectual attempts at learning something more definite regarding this
species.

Audubon (1840) did not see a living specimen of this duck in
Labrador, where it was supposed to be breeding commonly. It
hardly seems likely that he could have overlooked it, if it had been
there. Therefore, his brief account of its breeding habits must be
considered unsatisfactory and unreliable. He says:

Although no birds of this species occurred to me when I was in Labrador,
my son, John Woodhouse, and the young friends who accompanied him on the
2Sth of July. 1833, to Blanc Sablon, found, placed on the top of the low
tangled fir bushes, several deserted nests, which from the report of the English
clerk of the fishing establishment there, we learned to belong to the pied duck.
They had much the appearance of those of the eider duck, being very large,
formed externally of fir twigs, internally of dried grass, and lined with down.
It would thus seem that the pied duck breeds earlier than most of its tribe.

Professor Newton (1896) writes:

This bird, the Anas labradoria of the older ornithologists, was nearly allied
to the eider duck, and like that species used to breed on rocky islets, where
it was safe from the depredations of foxes and other carnivorous quadrupeds.
This safety was, however, unavailing when man began yearly to visit its
breeding haunts, and, not content with plundering its nests, mercilessly to
100449—25 6

64 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

shoot the birds. Most of such islets are, of course, easily ransacked and de-
. populated. Having no asylum to turn to, for the shores of the mainland were
infested by the four-footed enemies just mentioned, and (unlike some of its
congeners) it had not a high northern range, its fate is easily understood.

Maj. W. Ross King (1866), who spent three years shooting in and
about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, previous to 1866, says: "The pied
duck or Labrador duck is common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and breeds on its northern shore, a short distance inland." The
foregoing quotations, though meager and unsatisfactory, contain
about all we know about the breeding habits of the Labrador duck.

Food. — Very little seems to have been recorded about its food
and feeding habits. Audubon (1840) says:

A bird stuffer whom I knew at Camden had many fine specimens, all of
which he had procured by baiting fishhooks with the common mussel, on a
trot-line sunk a few feet beneath the surface, but on which he never found
one alive, on account of the manner in which these ducks dive and flounder
when securely hooked. It procures its food by diving amidst the rolling
surf over sand or mud bars ; although at times it comes along the shore and
searches in the manner of the spoon-bill duck. Its usual fare consists of
small shellfish, fry, and various kinds of seaweeds, along with which it
swallows much sand and gravel.

Other writers say that it fed on shellfish which it obtained by
diving on the sand shoals, whence it derived the common name of
"sand shoal duck."

Mr. S. F. Cheney, of Grand Manan, wrote to William Dutcher
(1891) in 1890:

The female Labrador duck I gave to Mr. Herrick was with some oldsquaws
or long-tailed ducks when I shot it, and I think there were no others of the
kind with it. This one had small shells in its crop. It dove to the bottom
with the squaws.

Behavior. — Audubon (1840) wrote:

Its flight is swift, and its wings emit a whistling sound. It is usually seen
in flocks of from 7 to 10, probably the members, of one family.

Col. Nicholas Pike sent to William Dutcher (1891) the following
interesting account of his experiences with the Labrador duck:

I have in my life shot a number of these beautiful birds, though I have
never met more than two or three at a time, and mostly single birds. The
whole number I ever shot would not exceed a dozen, for they were never
plentiful. I rarely met with them. The males in full plumage were ex-
ceedingly rare ; I think I never met with more than three or four of these ;
the rest were young males and females. They were shy and hard to approach,
taking flight from the water at the least alarm, flying very rapidly. Their
familiar haunts were the sandbars where the water was shoal enough for
them to pursue their favorite food, small shellfish. I have only once met
with this duck south of Massachusetts Bay. In 1858, one solitary male came to
my battery in Great South Bay, Long Island, near Quogue, and settled among
my stools. I had a fair chance to hit him, but in my excitement to procure

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 65

it I missed it. This l>ircl seems to liave disappeared, for an old comrade,
who has hunted in the same bay over 60 years, tells me he has not met with
one for a long time. I am under the impression the males do not get their
full plumage in the second year. I would here remark, this duck has never
been esteemed for the table, from its strong, unsavory flesh.

Probably the Labrador duck was never abundant or even very
common throughout its known winter range; certainly we have
very little positive evidence to that effect. The statement, so often
quoted, of Thomas Morton in his New English Canaan (1637) may
not refer to this species at all. In writing of the birds noted bj^ him
in New England between 1622 and 1630, he says " Ducks there are of
three kinds, pide ducks, gray ducks and black ducks in great abun-
dance." It seems to be taken for granted that by the name "pide
ducks " he referred to the Labrador duck. It seems to me much more
likely that he referred to the goldeneye, which is still called the " pied
duck " all along our northern coasts, or to one of several other species
called by that name or, perhaps, to a number of species in general
having more or less black and white plumages. Audubon (1840)
considered it rather rare, although he says : "Along the coast of New
Jersey and Long Island it occurs in greater or less number every
year."

Dekay (1844), writing of this species in New York, says:

This duck, well known on this coast under the name of skunk head, and sand-
shoal duck on the coast of New Jersey, is not, however, very abundant.

Walter J. Hoxie wrote to me a few years ago, as follows :
During my youthful experience among the ponds and creeks about the
mouth of the Merrimac we sometimes got a duck which we called a " black-
belly " and many of the gunners considered it a cross with the " sea coots." In
the brackish ponds it was commonly found in company with the gadwall, or
as we called it, the " gray duck." We rather disdained it, and I remember too
it was hard to pick. Lots of down under the feathers that perhaps made us
think it was akin to the scoters. One I remember in " Bushy Pond " with a
gray duck on a frosty November evening. Did not seem to be as shy as its
companion, but kept moving about watching me as I crawled down with a
pine sapling for shelter. The old flintlock hung fire a little longer than usual,
and though they were both in line when I sighted the gray was too quick. To-
day that black-belly would not have been such a disappointment, though I had
to wade for it and the water was almost freezing. It must have been in 1S62.
In 1870 I saw one — perhaps more — in Boston market. But one I know was tied
up with an American merganser. I bought the merganser and stuffed it.

George N. Lawrence, in a letter to Mr, Dutcher (1891), wrote:

I recollect that about 40 or more years ago it was not unusual to see them in
Fulton Market, and without doubt killed on Long Island ; at one time I re-
member seeing six fine males, which hung in the market until spoiled for the
want of a purchaser ; they were not considered desirable for the table, and
collectors had a sufficient number, at that time a pair being considered enough
to represent a species in a collection. No one anticipated that they might be-

66 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

come extinct, and if they have, the cause thereof is a problem most desirable
to solve, as it vs^as surely not through man's agency, as in the case of the
great auk.

Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898) saw a considerable number of Labrador
ducks, mostly females and young males, in the New York markets
between 1860 and 1870, but full plumaged males were exceedingly
rare.

George A. Boardman endeavored to get some specimens for Doctor
Elliot from his collectors about Grand Manan, but found that these
ducks had all gone ; the last one taken in that vicinity was shot by
S. F. Cheney in April. 1871 ; this specimen was sent, by Mr. Board-
man, to John Wallace, of New York, to be mounted for the Smith-
sonian Institution, but, not knowing its value, Wallace parted with
.the skin, and all trace of it was lost. The last specimen taken and
preserved was shot on Long Island in the fall of 1875, purchased,
from J. G. Bell, by George N. Lawrence and presented by him to the
Smithsonian Institution; it was a young male and possibly its
parents or others of the same brood may have survived for a few
years; but probably the Labrador duck became an extinct species
at about that time.

Since then only one specimen has been recorded as taken: Dr.
W. H. Gregg (1879) reported the capture of a Labrador duck, near
Elmira, New York, on December 12. 1878 ; the duck had been eaten
before he heard about it and he was able to procure and save only
the head and neck; these remnants were preserved for some years,
but finally lost; it is unfortuate that this recoi*d can not now be
verified.

William Dutcher (1891. 1893. and 1894) has made a careful study
of the records relating to the Labrador duck and a thorough investi-
gation as to the number of specimens in existence, so far as known,
in American and European collections. He published a number of
papers on the subject and finally succeeded in locating, up to 1894,
only 42 specimens, 31 of which were in American collections at that
time. How many specimens have come to this country since. I have
made no effort to determine. Many specimens were shipped abroad
between 1840 and 1850, which have not been located, and some may
turn up later in private collections. J. H. Gurney (1897) recorded
a specimen in the museum at Amiens in France, which was ap-
parently unknown to Mr. Dutcher; this, with one since discovered
by Winthrop S. Brooks (1912) in the Boston Society of Natural
History, brings the published record of specimens up to 44.

There has been considerable speculation among ornithological
writers as to the causes which led to the disappearance of this
species, which was apparently as well fitted to survive as several
other species of ducks. It was a swift flyer, rather shy and diffi-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 67

cult to approach in its offshore resorts ; it was essentially a maritime^
species and seldom resorted to inland bays or rivers, though Audubon
said that it was known to ascend the Delaware River as far as Phila-^
delphia; it was not particularly popular as a table bird and often
proved ^ drug in the market, when other more desirable ducks were
obtainable; for the above i^asons it is fair to assume that it was not
exterminated by gunner- and never was sliot in very large numbers.
AVhat evidence we have goes to show that it never was a numerous
species and that it probably had a very limited breeding range. If
this breeding range was, as it appears, restricted to the southeast
coast of Labrador, its disappearance may easily be charged to the
wholesale destruction of bird life which took place on that coast
during the last century. Continued persecution on its breeding
grounds, where its nests and eggs were apparently conspicuous and
where both young and old birds were easily killed in summer^
when unable to fl}', is enough to account for it. That certain other
species, which are known to have wider breeding ranges, survived
the same persecution is no proof that the Labrador duck did not
succumb to it.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range, — Unknown. Supposed to have bred in Labrador,
probably in some very restricted range on the south coast of the
Labrador Peninsula.

Winter range. — On the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to New
Jersey and probably to Chesapeake Bay. Most of the specimens
with known data were taken near Long Island. New York.

Casual record. — A specimen, since lost, is said to have been taken
at Elmira, New York, December 12, 1878.

POLYSTICTA STELLERI (Pallas)
STELLER EIDER

HABITS

This beautiful and oddly marked duck was first described by the
Russian naturalist, Pallas, who named it after its discoverer. Steller
obtained the first specimens on the coast of Kamchatka, which is near
the center of its abundance and not far from its principal breeding:
grounds in northeastern Siberia. Illustrating the abundance of this
species on the Siberian coast of Bering Sea, Dr. E. W. Nelson (1883)
writes :

The first night of our arrival was calm aud misty, the water having that
peculiar glassy smoothness seen at such times, and the landscape rendered in-
distinct at a short distance by a slight mistiness. Soon after we came to-
anchor before the native village this body of birds arose from the estuary a

68 BULLETIN 130, UISTIIED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

mile or two beyond the natives' huts and came streaming out in a flock which
appeared endless. It was fully 3 to 4 miles in length, and considering the
species which made up this gathering of birds it was enough to make an
enthusiastic ornithologist wild with a desire to possess some of the beautiful
specimens which were seen fding by within gunshot of the vessel.

Mr. F. S. Hersey's notes of July 26, 1914, state : **

As we steamed into St. Lawrence Bay there appeared in the distance a long
low, sandy island known as Lutke Island. As we drew nearer we could see a
cloud of birds hovering above it which our glasses showed us were Arctic terns.
The island itself was very low, hardly above the sea level, and as we looked at
it seemed to be strewn with small black rocks. With our glasses, however, we
could see some movement among these black objects. At last we made them
out to be birds, then suddenly they arose and swept out toward us, their black
and white plumage flashing in the sunlight, and we saw that they were eiders.
There were many kings and Pacifies among them, and these separated from
the main flock and went out to sea, but the remainder, which were Steller
eiders, returned to the farther side of the island. A boat was soon lowered
and a party of us put off from the ship. When we landed and started to walk
across the island the eiders again took flight but soon settled on the water a
short distance offshore. They were not at all shy. While we stayed on the
island small parties of from 2 or 3 to 8 or 10 were constantly flying back and
forth, often close to us, although we were in plain sight at all times, for the
island offered no concealment. We had no difiiculty in obtaining all the
specimens we wanted.

Sfring. — From their winter home in the Aleutian Islands the main
flight of the spring migration seems to pass westward through the
Commander Islands, where they are very abundant in April, to the
Siberian coast and northward. There is also a northward migration
through Bering Straits to the Arctic coast of Alaska. Mr. John
Murdoch (1885) found these eiders common at Point Barrow; he
says:

Early in June they are to be found at the " leads " of open water at some
distance from the shore, and perhaps the majority of them pass on in this
way to their breeding grounds. From the middle to the end of June they
appear on land in small parties scattered over the tundra. At this time they
are in full breeding plumage, and the males are generally in excess in the
flocks. They are generally to be found in small " pond-holes," frequently sitting
on the bank asleep, and are very tame, easily approached within gunshot, and
generally swimming together when alarmed, before taking wing, so that sev-
eral can be secured at one discharge. I have stopped a whole flock of five
with a single shot.

Mr. Alfred M. Bailey writes to me :

At Cape Prince of Wales, during the spring of 1922,' the first Steller eiders
were seen May 12. At this time the straits are still choked with pack ice
and salt water freezes on the leads. On May 18 a few birds were seen and
again on May 29, but the big migration past this westernmost point was on
June 3. We had been walrus hunting in the straits for two days and were
returning heavily loaded with meat when the wind suddenly died down and a
slick calm prevailed — a very unusual occurrence. Immediately great strings
of birds appeared on their northward journey, gulls, loons, ducks, and geese,

LIFE HISTORIES OF XORTH AMEBICAIS' WILD FOWL 69

and among them were many of this si^ecies. The natives said, " Plenty birds
come from south, bime bye — mebbe one, two hours^ — plenty south wind." It
was true ; the birds seemed to be going just ahead of the storm from the south.
I learned to foretell a change in the wind by the migration of the birds, for
invariably a large migration occurred just before a south wind. We feared a
south wind, for if caught offshore, we could not sail back to Wales, and would
be forced to drift into the Arctic, so the migration of birds was watched with
interest.

Nesting. — Nothing seems to be known about the courtship of the
Steller eider and very little has been published about its nesting
habits, which is not strange considering the remote and inaccessible
regions in which it makes its summer home.

The following brief references to the nesting habits of this species
are given by John G. Millais (1913) :

Middendorff found nests on flat tundra in the moss, and describes them as
deep, round, and lined with down. The male keeps in the vicinity of the
female, who sits closely and leaves the nest unwillingly, and when disturbed
flies off " with a harsh cry reminiscent of our teal, but still more harsh."
>Stener found a nest in Kamchatka amongst precipitous rocks near the coast.

Personally I have had no experience with this species, and Mr.
Hersey never found its nest. I had five sets of eggs sent to me by
my correspondent, T. L. Richardson, who collected them near Point
Barrow, Alaska, during the summer of 1916. Unfortunately no
data came with them, but one of the sets was accompanied by the
nest, or rather the nest lining. This nest, which contains 10 eggs,
consists of a bulky mass of curly, coarse grasses and various mosses
and lichens, such as grow on the tundra, thoroughly mixed with
considerable very dark brown down and a few feathers from the
breast of the duck. Evidently the female plucks the down from
her breast, together with such feathers as casually come with it,
and mixes it with the coarser nesting material, as incubation ad-
vances. The nest is quite different from any other duck's nest that
I have seen, and is easily identified by the peculiar breast feathers
of the female Steller eider. The down varies in color from " benzo
brown " to " fuscous.''

Eggs. — The five sets referred to above consist of two sets of 6
eggs and one set each of 7, 8, and 10 eggs. They are typical eider's
eggs in appearance. The prevailing shape is elliptical ovate, some
are elongate ovate, and a few are nearly elliptical oval or approach-
ing oval. The shell is smooth, with little or no gloss. The color
varies from " light yellowish olive " to " water green " or from
" deep olive buff " to " olive buff." Many of the eggs are clouded or
mottled with darker shades of the above colore and many are quite
badly nest stained.

70 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The measurements of 75 eggs, in various collections, average

61.4 by 42 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure

70.5 by 45.5; 66.9 by 47.1, 55.5 by 40.5, and 59.2 by 37 millimeters.
Plumages.— The downy young Steller eider is easily recognizable,

as it is quite different from the young of other species. The bill,
even in the smallest specimens, shows the characteristic shape pecu-
liar to the species, tapering evenly from forehead to tip, slightly
compressed in the middle, with an overhanging upper mandible
near the base ana near the tip. The color is decidedly dark; the
upper parts, including the crown, hind neck, back, and rump are
very dark, glossy " bone brown " or " clove brown " ; slightly lighter
shades of the same colors extend downwards on the sides of the
head to the chin and throat, on the sides of the body and across the
chest ; there is a " buffy brown " spot above the eye, a whitish spot
below it and a stripe of "buffy brown" behind it; the throat and
chin are "light vinaceous cinnamon" or "pinkish buff" in the
youngest birds, grayer in older birds, the colors merging gradually
into the darker colors above; the breast and belly are dull, silvery,
grayish brown, invaded on the sides with darker browns. The bill
and feet are black in dry skins.

In the Juvenal plumage, during the first fall young males and
females are very much alike and somewhat resemble the adult
female except that they are lighter colored, redder, and more mottled
below; in the young male the breast and flanks are heavily barred
with rich reddish brown or " chestnut " ; while in the young female
the under parts are barred with paler browns ; in the young male the
w ing is much like that of the adult female, with the curved tertials ;
but in the young female there is less blue in the speculum and the
tertials are straighter, less curved. In both sexes the feathers of the
back and scapulars have brownish buff edgings; and the under
parts are wholly mottled or barred, instead of being uniform dark
brown as in the adult female.

During the first winter and sjDring the sexes begin to differentiate
more. The .young male becomes lighter colored ; the dusky throat
patch and the black neck ring begin to show; the breast begins to
assume a tawny shade; and in some forward birds some of the
white-edged scapulars and long curved tertials appear before sum-
mer. But, on the whole, there is not much change until the sum-
mer molt occurs in July and August. This produces what might
be called a first eclipse plumage, relatively similar to that of the
common eider. The plumage is completely changed during this
molt, after which old and young birds are practically indistinguish-
able.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 71

Adults have one complete molt each year, which j)i"oduces in the
male a fairly complete double molt and eclipse plumage of the
head, neck, and upper parts. It apparently occurs in July and
August, as I have in my collection males in full nuptial plumage up
to the end of June and a series of nine adult males, taken July 20,
showing various stages of the eclipse plumage. In full eclipse the
striking colors of the head and neck — white, green, and black — are
wholly replaced by " bister '" or " mummy brown," darker above
and lighter below, with only a trace left on the hind neck of the
X^urplish black collar. The back becomes dull black and the showy
scapulars are replaced by plain " clove brown " feathers which over-
hang the showy wings. The wings are still further concealed by
" clove brown " feathers on the flanks and by a sufl'usion of dusky
and brown barred feathers on the shoulders and chest, some of
which invade tlie breast. The remainder of the under parts and
the wings remain as they were and are apparently molted only once.
Specimens showing the change into the full plumage are not avail-
able.

Food. — Referring to their feeding habits, Mr. Murdoch (1885)
says :

When open water forms along siiore, that is, in the latter part of July and
early part of August, they are to be found in large flocks along the beach,
collecting in beds at a safe distance from the shore, feeding on marine in-
vertebrates, especially gephryean worms.

Mr. Bernard J. Bretherton (1896) says that at Kodiak Island in
winter they feed largely on decapods and moUusks, which they ob-
tain in deep water, seldom feeding near the shore. Mr. Millais
(1913) writes:

They feed on fish spawn, young fish, crabs, and possibly on vegetable growths,
but principally on concliylia and mussels. These they obtain by diving, and
their favorite resorts are mussel banks lying at the same depths as those fre-
quented by eiders and long-tailed ducks.

Behavior. — Referring to their behavior on the Siberian coast,
Doctor Nelson (1883) writes:

Flocks of tiiousands were found about Cape Wankarem during our stay
there the first of August, 1881, and, in company with an equal number of
king eiders and a few of the Pacific eider, were seen passing out and in each
evening to and from the large estuary back of the native village. This vil-
lage was built upon the spit cutting this estuary from the sea at this place,
and lay directly in the track of flight followed by these eiders as they passed to
or from the sea. As these flocks passed back and forth the birds were being
continually brought down by the slings thrown into the midst of the passing
birds by the natives; yet, notwithstanding this, the birds continued from
day to day the entire season to pass and repass this place. Their heedless-
ness in this respect may be accounted for from the fact that these people were

72 BULLETIN L30, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

without guns of auy kind, and were thus unable to frighten them by the noise
of tlie discharge. The birds were easily called from their course of flight, as
we repeatedly observed. If a flock should be passing a hundred yards or more
to one side, the natives would utter a long, peculiar cry, and the flock would
turn instantly to one side and sweep by in a circuit, thus affording the coveted
opportunity for bringing down some of their number. These flocks generally
contained a mixture of about one-twentieth of the number of Pacific eiders, and
the remainder about equally divided of stellers and the king eiders. At
times the entire community of these birds, which made this vicinity their
haunt, would pass out in a solid body, and the flock thus formed exceeded in
size anything of the kind I ever witnessed.

Fall. — At Point Barrow, according to Mr. Murdoch (1885), the
fall migration, or rather the movement away from their breeding
grounds begins early.

Birds that have bred, judging from the looks of the ovaries, begin to come
back from the first to the middle of July, appearing especially at Pergniak
and flying in small parties up and down the coast. They generally keep to
themselves, but are sometimes found associating with small parties of king
ducks. They disappear from the first to the middle of August, and when
gathered in large flocks are exceedingly wild and hard to approach.

The main migration route in the fall is southward along the
Siberian coast of Bering Sea to their winter homes in the Kurile,
Commander, and Aleutian Islands. But Doctor Nelson (1887) says
that —

In autumn, as they pass south, stray individuals and parties are found in
Norton Sound. Those taken there are usually young of the year. When
found at St. Michael they usually frequented outlying rocky islets and ex-
posed reefs, and fed in the small tide rips. The shallow turbid water of
Norton Sound seems to be offensive to the majority of these birds, as their
chosen haunts are along coasts where the water is clear and deep close to
the shore.

Winter. — Steller eiders are almost as abundant in their winter
resorts about the Aleutian Islands as they are in summer on the
'Siberian coast. Here they gather in large flocks, associated with
king eiders, about the harbors which are free from ice. They resort
to the vicinity of sunken ledges and rocky islets where they can
obtain their food by diving to moderate depths, although they can
dive in deep water if necessary. They are rather shy at this season
when in large flocks. The winter range extends eastward to Kodiak
Island, where this species is said to be abundant. Chase Littlejohn,
in some notes sent to Major Bendire in 1892, writes :

These ducks are by far the most numerous of any duck during the winter,
and a few were nesting at Morzhovia Bay in June. They are known locally
as soldier ducks, from their habit of swimming single file and then as if by
a given signal they all disappear beneath the surface in search of food,
where they remain for some time, but when they arise they usually form a
solid square or, in other words, a compact bunch, and then single file and

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 73

repeat. Such chances are taken advantage of by men in search of game ; if
near shore they run to the nearest point where the clucks disappeared, and
when they come to the surface shoot into the flock, sometimes killing a
large number. The same tactics can be employed using a boat. They are not
bad eating if the skin is removed.

Westward the winter range extends at least to the Commander
and Kurile Islands. Probably all the birds which breed in eastern
Siberia and Alaska winter in some of the resorts named above. But
there is evidently a westward migration also, along the Arctic coast
of Europe to a well-known winter resort in the unfrozen waters off
the coast of Norway ; this flight is probably made up of birds which
breed in western Siberia or northern Europe.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Coasts of northwestern America and northern
Asia. East on the Arctic coast of America to Point Barrow, Alaska,
and perhaps farther. South regularly, in the Bering Sea region,
to St. Lawrence Island, Anadyr Bay, and Kamchatka; recorded as
breeding on the Aleutian and Shumagin Islands and on the Alaska
Peninsula, (Morzhovia Bay), but probably only sparingly and
irregularly. The main breeding range is on the Arctic coast of
Siberia from Bering Straits westward, at least as far as the Taimyr
Peninsula, and perhaps on Nova Zembla.

Winier range. — The vicinity of the Aleutian Islands, eastward on
the south side of the Alaska Peninsula to the Shumagin Islands and
the Kenai Peninsula. Westward to the Commander and Kurile
Islands. North in Bering Sea as far as open water extends. A few
winter in northern Europe, as far west as Scandinavia, Heligoland,
Denmark, and the Baltic Sea.

Spring migration, — Arrivals have been noted at Point Barrow,
Alaska, as early as June 5 and at Nijni Kolymsk, northern Siberia,
June 9. First seen at Cape Prince of Wales, May 12, and a heavy
flight on June 3. The last birds leave the Commander Islands from
May 25 to 31, and leave Nushagak, Alaska, about May 20.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival in the Bering Sea region :
St. Michael, September 21 ; Nushagak, October 8 ; Commander Is-
lands, November 1. Late dates of departure : Point Barrow, Septem-
ber 17; St. Michael, October 15; Ugashik, November 28. No dates
are available for the migrations to and from the European winter
range, which is probably occupied by birds breeding in western Si-
beria.

Casual records. — Accidental in Greenland (Disco Bay, August,
1878), Quebec (Godbout, February 17, 1898), England (Norfolk,

74 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

February 10, 1830 and Yorkshire, August 15, 1845), France, Ger-
many and Japan (Yezzo, March 9, 1894 and May 3, 1894).

Egg dates. — Alaska : Eleven records, June 17 to July 10 ; six
records, June 22 to July 6.

ARCTONETTA FISCHERI (Brandt)
SPECTACLED EIDER

HABITS

If the preceding life history was unsatisfactor}% this will be more
so, for still less is known about the habits of the oddly marked spec-
tacled or Fischer eider, which occupies such a restricted breeding
range in northwestern Alaska and northeastern Siberia. Few
naturalists have ever seen it in life. Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887), to
whom we are indebted for most of our laiowledge of the habits of
this species, says on this point :

Its restricted range has, up to the present time, rendered this bird among
the least known of our waterfowl. Even in the districts where it occurs it is
so extremely local that a few miles may lead one to places they never visit.

In Mr. Ball's paper upon the birds of Alaska he limits the breeding ground
of the spectacled eider to the marshes between the island of St. Michael and the
mainland. This, with the statement made to him by natives that they are
never found north of St. Michael, is not borne out by my observations, for
these eiders breed from the head of Norton Bay south to the month of the
Kuskoquim, at least. St. Michael may be noted as the center of abundance.
The spectacled eider is so restricted in its range and so local in its distribution,
even where it occurs, that, like the Labrador duck and the great auk. it may
readily be so reduced in numbers as to become a comparatively rare bird.
A species limited in the breeding season to the salt marshes between the head
of Norton Bay and the mouth of the Kuskoquim River occupies but a very
small territory, and a glance at the map will show this coast line not to exceed
400 miles, even following its indentations. The width of the breeding ground
will not exceed 1 or 2 miles, and there are long stretches where it does not
breed at all.

In addition to the natural struggle for existence the species has to contend
against thousands of shotguns in the hands of the natives. The diminution in
all the species of waterfowl breeding along the coast is more and more marked
each season ; and while this may mean a desertion of one region for another
in the case of the great majority of geese and ducks, yet for such narrowly
limited species as the spectacled eider, and to a less extent the Emperor goose,
this diminution is but the beginning ef extermination. Moreover, the present
scarcity of large game along the coast is having great effect in causing the
natives to wage a continually increasing warfare upon the feathered game.

Apparently Doctor Nelson's fears have been realized, as the spec-
tacled eider has nearly disappeared from the vicinity of St. Michael
and from the Yukon delta. My assistant, Mr. Hersey, spent the
season of 1914 at the mouth of the Yukon and the summer of 1915
in the vicinity of St. Michael with this species as one of the things

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 75

es23ecially wanted; and during the two seasons he succeeded in
securing only one pair of the birds and did not find a single nest.
I doubt very much if they breed there at all at the present time, for
he saw only a few in the canal early in June, at which time they
seemed to be already mated; they soon disappeared and were not
seen again during the season. Wherever the center of abundance
may have been in Doctor Nelson's time, it is now to be found some-
where in northeastern Siberia, where it is one of the commonest
eiders.

gyring. — Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

Although living so far north, yet it is one of the last among the waterfowl
to reach its breeding ground at the Yukon delta and the coast of Norton
Sound. My observations show this species to be strictly limited to the salt
marshes bordering the east coast of Bering Sea, and thus favoring the shallow,
muddy, coast waters, which appear to be so distasteful to Steller's eider. Very
soon after reaching their destination the flocks disband and the birds quietly
pair, but the first eggs are rarely laid earlier than the first days of June.

When first paired the birds choose a pond on the marsh, and are thence-
forth found in its vicinity until the young are hatched. Their love-making
is very quiet. I have never heard any note uttered except by the female while
conducting the brood out of danger. As the grass commences to show greeu
and the snow and ice are nearly gone, although the other denizens of the
marsh are already well along in their housekeeping, these ducks choose some
dry, grassy spot close to the pond, and making a slight hollow with a warm
lining of grass, they commence the duties of the season.

Nesting. — The same writer gives us the following account of the
nesting habits of the spectacled eider :

One nest found on June 15 was on a bed of dry grass within a foot of the
water on the border of the pond, and when the female flew off the single egg
could be seen 20 yards away. Tussocks of dry grass, small islands in ponds,
and knolls close to the water's edge are all chosen as nesting places, and as
a rule the nest is well concealed by the dry grass standing about. If the nest
contains but one or two eggs the female usually flies off and remains until
the intruder is gone ; but if the set is nearly completed or incubation is begun
she will soon return, frequently accompanied by the male, and both circle
about, showing the greatest uneasiness. The female will sometimes alight in
the pond, within easy range, and both parents may be obtained by watching
near the nest.

A set of 9 eggs of this species, sent me by Rev. A, R. Hoare, was
collected at Point Hope, Alaska, on June 15, 1917, on a small islet,
about 3 feet square, in a tundra pond, in which the water was from
3 to 4 feet deep ; the nest was concealed in the long grass at the edge
of the islet and was composed of grass and very little down ; the eggs
were fresh and more down would probably have been added later.

Mr. T. L. Richardson sent we several sets of spectacled eider's
eggs from Point Barrow, Alaska. The nest shown in the accom-
panying photograph was evidently in plain sight, in a depression
in the tundra moss and grass, about 10 feet from the shore of a

76 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

small pond; it was lined with a little moss and down; the 5 eggs
that it contained were collected on June 26, 1917. He says that
down is added to the nest as incubation advances, so that there is a
heavy lining of it before the eggs hatch. The down is soft and
closely matted; it varies in color from "bister" to "sepia," with
inconspicuous, slightly lighter centers ; small mottled breast feathers
and dusky tipped belly feathers are usually found in it.

Eggs. — The spectacled eider lays from 5 to 9 eggs, the smaller
sets being apparently commoner than the larger ones. In shape
they vary from ovate to elongate ovate, but the prevailing shape is
elliptical ovate. The shell is smooth with a slight gloss. The color
varies from " deep olive buif " or " olive buff " to '' water green " or
" yellowish glaucous." The measurements of 101 eggs in various col-
lections average 65.4 by 44,6 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four
extremes measure 73 by 45.7, 70.5 by 47.8, and 59.5 by 40.5 milli-
meters.

Young. — Doctor Nelson (1887) says of the young:

The male is rarely seen after the young are hatched, but the female shows
the greatest courage in guarding her brood, as the following incident will
show : A brood was swimming away fi'om me, and the female tried to protect
them by keeping between the young and myself. I fired two charges of No.
12 shot, killing all the young, yet, in spite of the fact that the parent received
a large share of the charge each time, she refused to fly, and kept trying to
urge her dead offspring to move on, until a charge of larger shot mercifully
stretched her among her offspring. Upon removing the skin her back was
found to be filled with fine shot, and her desperate courage in defense of her
brood shows the strength of parental feeling. Other similar instances attest
the courage and devotion of this species.

Mr. Koren, while collecting for me, near the Kolyma Delta in
northeastern Siberia, on July 21, 1916, saw a female spectacled eider
swimming in a tundra pool followed by two downy young white-
fronted geese, which she had evidently adopted and was carefully
guarding; she allowed him to come near enough to photograph
them, after which he shot all three of them and sent them to me.

Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

The middle of August young birds are frequently seen from a few days
old to those nearly ready to take wing. During this month the adult birds
pass through the summer molt, and with the half-grown yovmg desert the
marshes and tide creeks for the seacoast and outlying rocky islands.

By September 1 scarcely a single individual can be found on the marshes,
and by the 20th they are scarce along the coast.

Plumages. — The downy young is easily recognized by the shape
of the bill and the feathering at its base, which are jus.t as they
are in the adult; the bill slopes gradually to a point, with straight
edges: the nail at the tip is light colored, but the bill is black in
dried skins; the feathering extends to the nostrils and beyond them

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 77

to a point above. The " spectacles " also are conspicuous. The
colors on the upper parts shade from " warm sepia " on the crown
and rump to " snuff brown" on the mantle, hind neck, and flanks;
the dark color of the crown extends down over the lores and auric-
ulars ; a circular space around the eye is " wood brown," surrounded
by a broken circle of " cinnamon buff," forming the " spectacles" :
the lower cheeks, chin, and throat are pale " cinnamon buff," shad-
ing off to dull grayish buff on the breast and belly, into which the
darker colors of the upper parts blend.

In the Juvenal plumage the sexes are much alike, but they are
quite different from the adult female. In the young male the head
and neck are much like those of the adult female, with the " spec-
tacles " only indicated ; but the upper parts are darker, the feathers
of the back and scapulars being " warm sepia " or " bister," edged
with " clay color " or " cinnamon buff " ; the under parts are uni-
formly, but rather faintly, barred with dusky, not strongly barred,
as in the adult female; the wings are brownish black, with brown-
ish buffy edgings on the greater and lesser coverts, secondaries and
tertials. In the young female the juvenal plumage is much the
same, except that the under parts are spotted rather than barred;
the wings are like those of the adult female, but more brownish, with
more buffy-brown edging in the coverts.

Specimens are lacking to show the progress toward maturity dur-
ing the first winter, but probably it is similar to what takes place
in the young conmaon eider. The young male assumes during the
following summer a first eclipse plumage, quite different from that
of the adult male. In this plumage the " spectacles," lower cheeks,
and throat are j)ale buff fading off to grayish buff on the neck,
faintly mottled with dusky; the rest of the head and neck are "hair
brown " or " mouse gray," becoming " fuscous " on the crown and
occiput and mottled with huflj shades on the sides of the head; the
back, scapulars, and flanks are " hair brown " or " deep mouse gray " ;
the wings are like the juvenal wings until they are molted in August
or September; and the under parts are as in the juvenal plumage.

I have not been able- to trace the immature plumages beyond this
stage, but probably the second winter plumage, as in other eiders,
is not fuU}^ adult, but very much like it. The perfection of the adult
plumage is probably acquired after the second eclipse, when the
young bird is over 2 years old.

The adult male apparently has but one complete molt each sum-
mer, at which most, if not all, of the contour plumage is molted
twice, involving a nearly complete eclipse plumage. The adult
eclipse, and probably the second eclipse, can easily be distinguished
from the first eclipse by the wings, which are molted but once, and

78 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

by the under parts, both of which remain as in the fully adult plum-
ao^e. During the spring the plumage of the male becomes very much
worn and in June it begins to molt into the eclipse. The brilliant
plumage of the head and neck entirely disappears ; the " spectacles "
become " mouse gray," mottled with buff, and the rest of the head
and neck become mottled and variegated with various shades of gray,
buff, and dusky ; the white mantle is entirely, or nearly all, replaced
by plain " wood brown " or '* deep mouse gray " feathers ; many
feathers barred with dark brown and buffy shades appear on the
chest and shoulders; the white rump spots disappear; the conspic-
uous white wing coverts and white curving tertials are concealed by
the dark scapulars and flank feathers while the bird is not in flight.

Food. — All that I can find published as to the food of this species
is the short statement by Doctor Nelson (1887) that: "Their food in
summer consists of small Crustacea, grass, seeds, and such other food
as the brackish pools afford."

Behavior. — The same writer says:

They fly in small compact flocks, rarely exceeding 50 birds in a flock, and
skim close along the surface of the ice or marsh with a flight very similar to
that of other heavy-bodied sea ducks.

Winter. — The winter home of the spectacled eider does not seem
to be well known, but, as it has been recorded in winter in both the
western and the eastern Aleutian Islands, its main winter range is
probably in the vicinity of these islands, where so many other north-
ern sea fowl are known to spend the winter in the comparatively
mild open wat«r, tempered by the Japan current.

UISTKIBUTION

Breeding range. — ^Arctic coasts of Alaska and Siberia. East to
Point Barrow at least. South to the Bering Sea coast of Alaska to
the mouth of the Kuskokwim River. Westward along the north
coast of Siberia to the mouth of the Lena River and to the Xew
Siberia Islands.

Winter range. — Mainly in the vicinity of the Aleutian and Prib-
ilof Islands, and more sparingly eastward along the south side of
the Alaska Peninsula to Sanakh Island.

Sfring migration. — Early dates of arrival in Alaska : St. Michael,
May 6 ; Point Hope, May 4 ; Cape Prince of Wales, May 16 ; Wain-
wright, May 28 ; Point Barrow, May 26.

Fall migration. — Latest date of departure from Point Barrow is
September 17.

Egg dates. — Alaska : Twelve records, June 8 to July 4 ; six records,
June 15 to 26.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 79

SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA BOREALIS (Brehm)
NORTHERN EIDER

HABITS

Spring. — Winter lingers on the outer coast of Labrador well into
the summer months; all through the month of June and part of
July the northeast winds and the Arctic current drive the drifting
pack ice onto these exposed and barren rocky^ coasts. Long before
the icy barriers yield to the soft west winds and as soon as the lanes
of open water begin to break up the fields of ice, flocks of these
heavy-bodied sea ducks may be seen wending their way northward
in the opening leads, flying with slow and labored wings beats close
to the cold, dark waves or resting in flocks on the larger pans of
ice until the way opens for further progress. Many of them have
been wintering just beyond the ice floes and are seeking the first
opportunity to find open water near their northern breeding grounds.

Regarding their arrival in Cumberland Sound, Kumlien (1879)
says:

As soou as there is any open water they are found in spring : still they are
not common at Annanactook till the latter days of May. Eskimos from the
south reported them on the floe edge near Niantilie early in May, and I saw
a few on an iceberg near the Middliejuacktwack Island on the 30th of April.
They can stand almost any temperature if they can find open water.

W. Elmer Ekblaw writes to me of their arrival in northern Green-
land, as follows :

The all-winter residents are probably the first eiders to appear along the
mainland shore in early spring, wherever open water may be found off the
outermost capes and islands, usually about April 20. The number of eiders
frequenting these open places gradually increases, but slowly, until the last
week in May, when the immigration begins in earnest and continues until
mid-June, when apparently the last comers have arrived. The females come
later than the males, but the last females come with the last males. They
are usually rather shy and wary and will not permit near approach.

By mid-June the mating season is usually at its height, but in years of
heavy snow when the islets are covered until late, the season is retarded.
The summer of 1914 was a summer of late melting of snow and the nesting
season of the eiders had hardly begun by the 20th of June.

Courtship. — John G. Millais (1913) describes the courtship of
the European subspecies, as follows:

The courtship of the eider is a very simple one, and somewhat undemonstra-
tive. It is essentially in accordance with the gentle disposition of the bird.
The female seems to be at least as amorous as the male, and pays consider-
able court to the object of her affections. Having selected a mate, she follows
him round and round in all his movements, stretching her neck out and sink-
ing low in the water, calling and pushing herself against his side until he
responds. The male, on his part, makes a very slight " lift " in front, the bill

80 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

being lowered and the neck drawn up. At the same time he inhales, and on
releasing the air as he slightly sinks forward, he utters a gentle " Pu-ivTioo "
or " Aa-ti," almost a dove-like cry. At the moment the call is emitted, the
mouth is slightly opened. The call of the male is repeatedly uttered and is
often made without " lifting " in front. At such times the head is held for-
ward, then erected to the normal position as the cry is given. At the moment
of calling, the whole throat is somewhat distended. When a general display
is in progress amongst a flock of eiders the males and females are in a con-
stant state of movement and activity. The males often make half turns and
bows toward their inamorata, and utter a high soft note like the syllable
" whoop."

Lucien M. Turner found northern eiders very abundant in Hudson
Straits ; his notes say :

They were by far the most abundant duck, probably exceeding all others to-
gether. The islands of Ungava Bay are crowded with them. During the
mating season the males are irascible and when the mate is chosen he care-
fully resents an intrusion from another male. Severe and, often fatal, en-
counters take place between rival males, resulting in complete defeat to the
one or the other. They fight by seizing with the beak and slapping with the
wings ; more of a kind of wrestle in which they endeavor to get the head of the
adversary under the water. When enjoying quiet the male is fond of utter-
ing a cooing sound Oo oo, spreading one wing out while he rolls on his side,
then recovering and kicking rapidly through the water that makes it fly on
both sides. This note with a curring sound made in their contests are the
only ones I have heard the males produce.

The immature males, during the breeding season, do not associate with the
adults. They keep aloof and are usually solitary. Not until the fully adult
plumage of the male is assumed does he enter into contest for the female.

Nesting. — The same observer describes two interesting nesting
localities as follows:

A few miles below Mackay's Island, about 18 miles up the Koksoak River,
is a deep cove on the left bank and nearly opposite " Pancake " point. I gave
the name of Eider Cove to that locality from the number of eider's nests I
discovered in it during my first visit there — June 17, 1883. The cove is about
400 yards deep and 75 yards wide, preserving a nearly unifoi'm width to the
head, where a lively stream dashes down over the jagged rocks. The south
side is inaccessible, formed by a steep wall of granite sloping very slightly
to the summit, which is about 400 feet high. The northern side or wall is
composed of ledges and projections covered with rank grasses, weeds, and
ferns. On these ledges and rocks 14 nests of the common eider were found.
Tlie first nest was at the base of the rock on a flat scarcely above high-tide
mark. This nest contained 5 eggs. Near by were 2 other nests, one of 3, and
the other of 1 egg. Farther within were 11 nests each containing from 3 to
11 eggs. Only in the nests containing the gi'eater number of eggs were they
unfitted for food. I secured 49 eggs perfectly fresh and about a dozen that
were too far advanced to be eaten.

On that same trip I visited the islands off the mouth of Whale River.
Here James Irvine and myself collected, in less than an hour and a half, over
500 eggs from a single island and could, doubtless, have obtained many more,
but a storm was near by and and we had to make for a larger island where
we could secure the heavy whaleboat we had with us. As we approached that
island the number of male eiders in the surrounding water and occasional

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 81

females flying from the water and settling on the land gave promise of a
great nesting place. We hauled the boat on a shelving ledge and quickly
scrambled to the top of the bank. Here an immense ice cake and drifted snow
had collected on the edge of the bank and extended for several hundred feet
in length and over 30 yards wide. The height of the seaward edge was then,
June 29, over 4 feet. The dripping water and slippery rock made it difficult
to surmount in our anxiety to get at the eiders, which had taken alarm and
were scurring in hundreds by wing and walk from the land to the sea. In a
moment a nest was found and then another and so on until hundreds were
discovered. Some with 1 or 2 eggs, others with 6 or 7, these being the more
numerous ; others with as many as 12. Every grass patch in the depressions
of the rocks was examined and the eggs put into piles to be taken to the boat.
Several small ponds surrounded by high grasses which were given a luxuriant
growth by the droppings of these birds where they had come to bathe or drink
tor many successive seasons. Among these patches were also the nests of a
few Phalaropes, Phalaropus loMtus, which twittered and flitted before us.
A single nest of a gull was also found. The nests of the eiders were so dif-
ferently constructed even on this one island that it would be impossible to
describe them all. The materials of which they were composed were grasses,
weeds, stalks, and down. The amount of the vegetable matter depended on
the particular situation of the nest, for if in the midst of plenty of such
material, the nest was often several inches high, resting on a mound formed
from the decayed mass of material used as a nest many years ago. At times
merely a slight depression was cleared of vegetation and on the bare earth
the egg was deposited and covered with down.

On my trip down the coast of Labrador in 1912 I found eiders
common all along the coast from the Straits of Belle Isle northward,
but generally they were so shy that it was impossible to shoot any.
The largest breeding colony I saw was on one of the outer islands
off the coast near Hopedale, which we visited on July 22. It was a
small, low, rocky island with a very little grass and a few mosses
growing in the hollows and crevices between the rocks. Xo male
eiders were seen on or about the island, but the females began flying
off as we landed and we flushed many from their nests as we walked
over the flat rocks. We found between 20 and 30 nests with eggs,
varying in number from 1 to 5. Some natives had visited the island
a fortnight or more previously and had collected about 150 eggs;
there must have been between 30 and 40 nests on the island at that
time. The nests were on the ground, in the grass or moss, or in hol-
lows between the rocks ; some of them were well made, with a gener-
ous supply of pure down, but in most of them the down was mixed
with grass and rubbish, and in some of the nests the supply of down
was very scanty. Apparently these nests were second or third at-
tempts at raising broods, and evidently the supply of down was
becoming exhausted. A drizzling rain was falling all the time that
we were on the island, so my attempts at photographing the nests
were not as successful as they might have been. We shot five of the
duclfs as they flew from the nests, all of which proved to be the

82 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

northern eider. A pair of great black-backed gulls were breeding
on the island; we saw the old nest and a young gull running about,
as well as the old birds flying overhead. There is generally a pair
of these gulls on every island where the eiders are breeding. The
natives, who rob the duck's nests regularly, never disturb the gull's
nest, for they believe that if the gulls are driven off the ducks will
not return to the island to lay again. They say that the black-backed
gulls are good watch dogs, to warn the eiders of approaching danger
and to keep away the ravens and other gulls which might rob the
nests. The great black-backed gulls are notorious nest robbers and
destroj^ers of young eiders elsewhere, but perhaps they do not in-
dulge in highway robbery and murder so near home. Perhaps, how-
ever, the gulls do lev}^ their toll in eggs and young eiders, which the
latter are too stupid to avoid.

On the coast of Greenland the northern eider frequently nests
on cliffs, according to J. D. Figgins, as the following quotation from
his notes, published by Dr. Frank M. Chapman (1899) will
illustrate :

It prefers the small islands lying some distance offshore, but also breeds
on the mainland. Its nest is usually well up the cliffs, and in some cases
quite a distance from shore. One nest containing 4 eggs was at an altitude of
about 450 feet, and more than three-quarter of a mile from shore.

Dalrymple Rock is the favorite breeding place of this species, it is much
broken, and the many ledges offer fine nesting sites. Therei is a heavy
growth of grass on these ledges, and the nest, when it has been used for
many years, is a depression in the sod, lined with the down from the breast
of the female. As soon as incubation begins the male birds form into
flocks of from 4 or 5 to 20, and seem to be always on the wing. There is
a constant line of the male birds fljing around Dalrymple Rock, all going
in the same direction. As soon as incubation is completed, the young are
transferred to the water, where they seem perfectly at ease, even when
there is a heavy sea running.

Mr. Ekblaw thus describes, in his notes, a A'isit to one of the
great breeding resorts of these birds in northern Greenland:

On June 23 and 25, 1914. we went in a whaleboat to the Eider Islands, be-
tween Wolstenholme Island and Saunders Island. These are favorite nesting
places of the eiders. In normal years the islands are covered with thousands
of nests, but we found a relatively small number of the birds at this time.

As we approached the largest islet of the group flock after flock of eiders
flew about us, skimming fast and low over the water. The males and females
seemed about equal in number. The bright-colored plumage of the male con-
trasts vividly in the sunlight with the dark, uniformly barred coat of the
female, both awing and alight.

Numerous pairs of the eiders were swimming about in the sea or idly preen-
ing their feathers or wooing on tlie ice pans. Their wooing " song " very
closely resembles the cooing of our domestic pigeons. The noise from a flock
together in the mating season might readily be mistaken for the " music "

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 83

from a dovecot. The sound is audible for a long distance ; from the time
we left Saunders Island until we returned we were not beyond reach of these
"" love songs."

As we set foot upon the islet hundreds of eiders flew about us. The snow
still left on the ice foot and on the slopes of th,e low, rocky hills was beaten
<Jown by their footprints. We scrambled hastily over the islet in search of
■eggs, but found only a dozen all told, where last year on June 15 several
thousand were collected. The fact that no nest held more than one egg indi-
<?ated that the lateness of the season and the heavy snow on the islet liad
retarded the nesting season. On the other hand, it may have been that the
heavy inroad upon the nests last year discouraged the return of the birds to
the islet this year. They may have gone to some other, more remote islet
to nest.

The eiders nest on all the small skerries and islets and many favorable places
along the mainland. The Eider Islands, Dalrymple Rock, Lyttleton Island,
McGarys Rock, the small islets in the bay south of Cape Hatherton, Suther-
land Island, Hakluyt, and the Gary Islands are all frequented by large num-
bers of nesting eiders. They may nest in large numbers close together where
conditions are favorable, but many nest alone far from any other companions,
■either on the mainland, sometimes far inland, though more frequently near the
«hore, or on the larger islands. Safety from depredations by foxes, jaegers,
and ravens is a factor in the choice of nesting sites.

The nest of the eider is profusely lined, around, under, and some-
times over the eggs with a thick bed of soft, fluffy down, densely
matted, a famous product of considerable commercial value; in color
it is " drab," " light drab," or " drab gray," with poorly defined
lighter centers and light tips; mixed with it are occasional bits of
pure white down, dusky belly feathers, and barred breast feathers.

Eggs. — The northern eider raises but one brood in a season and
lays ordinarily from 4 to 6 eggs; larger numbers have been found,
-even as many as 19, in one nest, but probably the larger numbers
are the product of more than one female. In this connection the
following notes from Mr. Turner are of interest :

The number of eggs in a nest is not always a safe index to the number of
birds having made the deposit. It frequently happens that a single female
will be attended by as many as five males; although it is scarcely probable
that they all enjoy equal rights. One of the males is always the leader and
the others appear to be entirely under his guidance. I have again, and on
repeated occasions, known a single male to have as many as three females
binder his charge. It is, of course, difficult with these wild birds to determine
whether under such circumstances two or more of these ducks have a nest
in common or whether they make separate nests.

The eggs of all three of the large eiders, moUissirrui^ dresser^ and
V-nigra., are indistinguishable in size, shape, or color, so one de-
scription will serve for all three. In shape they vary from ovate to
elliptical ovate. The shell is smooth, with only a slight gloss, which
increases with incubation. The color varies from " olive " to " deep
olive buff," or from "yellowish glaucous" to " vetiver green." The
eggs are often mottled or clouded with darker shades of green, olive.

84 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

or biiffy olive, through which the ground color sometimes shows in
washed-out spots. The measurements of 76 eggs, in various collec-
tions, average 75.4 by 50.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the four
extremes measure 83 by 53, 67.8 by 47, and 73.2 by 46 millimeters.

Young. — The period of incubation of the European eider has been
ascertained by several observers to be about 28 days. It is performed
wholly b}^ the female. The males are said to desert the females at
this time and form small flocks by themselves; but the following
observation by Kumlien (1879) is interesting:

I have often lain behind a rock on their breeding islands and watched them
for a long time. On one occasion we disturbed a large colony, and the ducks
all left the nests. I sent my Eskimos away to another island, while I re-
mained behind to see how the ducks would act when they returned. As soon
as the boat was gone they began to return to their nests, both males and
females. It was very amusing to see a male alight beside a nest, and with a
satisfied air settle himself down on the eggs, when suddenly a female would
come to the same nest and inform him that he had made a mistake — it was
not his nest. He started up, looked blankly around, discovered his mistake,
and with an awkward and very ludicrous bow. accompanied with some suit-
able explanation, I suppose, he waddled off in search of his own home, where
he found his faitliful mate installed.

Mr. Turner's notes state that :

The young teave the nest when about 3G hours old and immediately accom-
pany the parent to the edge of the water. The distance to be traveled varies
from a few feet to half a mile. I have not on the Atlantic coast found the
nests so far from the water as were found at St. Michael, Alaska. In some
instances the nest is placed on ledges that have no path by which the delicate
young can reach the water excepting by plunging several feet to the next
ledge or else be assisted by the parent. The latter I have not seen the old
ones do or have I seen it so recorded. The young remain with the mother
during the summer and probably do not leave her at all, but join with other
broods to compose the flocks seen in the fall of the year. As soon as the
young are hatched the males separate from the females and do not join them
again until fall.

Mr. Ekblaw says in his notes:

The first nesting birds hatch their eggs soon after July 1. The most are
hatched about July 15 to 20. On Sutherland Island as late as August 16,
1912, I found a nest of four eggs still hatching in a single isolated nest. In
this nest one little fellow had hatched and dried, and when I flushed the
mother he followed her to the water. Another little fellow just hatched was
not yet dry, but even so, he sensed the alarm and tried to hide in the down
with which the nest was lined. A third duckling was just cutting the shell ;
later in the evening when I came back to the nest he had come safely into
the world. The fourth egg was not even cracked, but a vigorous peeping
within the shell indicated that on the morrow the last of the brood would
follow the mother into the water.

The downy little ducklings get into the water just as soon as they can.
They paddle after their mothers like animated little black balls of fur, keeping
always close to her. Even when tiny, they dive like a flash, and come up like

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 85

a bubble. Like the oldsquaws, the eider mothers join their little flocks, and one
mother leads the file while the other brings up the rear. From the time they
are hatched until they leave for the South, they keep to the open sea, coming
in to the shore sometimes to rest, but more frequently resting on ice floes.

While the young birds are developing in strength and ability to swim, the
mothers constantly lead them southward. From mid-August to mid-September
a constant procession of eiders swims outward from the bays and fjords and
goes on southward. The southward flight migration is late, beginning about
the 1st of September and continuing until the ice freezes, often in October.
Even so, many of the young birds are still unable to fly when the fjords freeze
over, and frequently flocks of them are caught by sudden freezes and im-
prisoned in little pools where they finally freeze to death or fall prey to the
foxes, bears, or Eskimo.

Plumages. — The downy young of the three eiders, inollissima,
dresseri^ and V-nigra^ 'are all practically indistinguishable. The
upper parts are " olive brown," deepening to " clove brown " on the
crown and rump, and paling to " light drab " on the sides and to
" pale drab-gray " on the throat and belly ; there is a broad supercil-
iary stripe of " light drab " or dull " wood brown " above the eyes
and the cheeks, and lores are abruptly darker than their surround-
ings. Before the young bird is half grown the first dusky, brown-
tipped feathers of the juvenal plumage appear on the flanks and
scapulars; the tail feathers start next, then the breast plumage and
the head; the young bird is nearly fully grown before the last of
the down disappears from the upper back and rump ; the wings ap-
pear last of all, so that both old and young birds are flightless to-
gether in August.

In the juvenal plumage the sexes are much alike; this plumage is
worn by the young male through the fall and resembles that of the
young female, but not that of the adult female. Sometimes as early
as October, but more often not until December, the young male
begins to differentiate by acquiring a few black feathers in the
flanks and scapulars and a few white feathers on the lower neck or
chest. These two colors increase in purity and extent by a prac-
tically continuous molt throughout the winter and spring, with
considerable individual variation. The tail is molted during the
winter, the time varying with different birds, and some white
feathers appear in the scapulars and rump, in early spring or before
that. By April many young males have the throat, neck, and chest
almost wholly white, the back almost wholly black and white, and
the head nearly all black above, but the wings and the under parts
are still wholly immature; at this stage, the sea-green patch over
and behind the ear coverts is often completely developed or inter-
mixed with black and brown feathers of the first stage.

The next change takes place at the summer molt, in July and
August. This is a complete molt involving a double molt of much

86 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

of the contour plumage and producing a first-eclipse plumage,
which Mr. Millais (1913) describes as follows:

The feathers of the whole head and neck are shed and replaced in a few
days by a plumage resembling, but somewhat darker than, that of the juve-
nile ; eye-stripe dull white with blackish markings ; crown, upper parts of
cheeks, and back of head and neck black ; rest of cheeks and throat grey-brown ;
mantle and scapulars blackish-brown. In a bird killed on July 6 at
Fitfulhead, Shetland, which has effected the above change, the wings,
tail, and nearly all the lower parts are still in juvenile plumage, much worn
and faded ; the white-and-bufi! shield on the upper chest and its sides is re-
placed by a new set of feathers — white with brown-black bars, and edged with
reddish-brown ; the long faded scapulars are still unshed and sandy-yellow
as well as the primaries.

During the fall this first eclipse plumage is replaced by the second
winter jDlumage, which is not completed until November. This re-
sembles the adult plumage in a general way, but it can be easily recog-
nized by its imperfections. The center of the crown is mottled with
grayish brown ; the green areas on the head are paler and more re-
stricted ; the white of the back is broken by scattering dusky feathers ;
the lesser wing coverts are brownish and the greater wing coverts
are edged with dusky, both of which are pure white in adults;
the curving tertials are less developed and edged with dusky,
instead of being pure white; and the under parts, which are clear,
deep black in adults, are now dull, brownish black, with the anterior
border broken and mottled. This plumage is worn without much
change until the second eclipse plumage appears the next summer.
This is less complete than the adult eclipse plumage and can be dis-
tinguished from the first eclipse by the wings. The fall molt out
of this plumage produces the adult winter plumage, characterized
by the pure white back, wing coverts, and curved tertials. The
young bird thus becomes adult at an age of 28 or 30 months. A few
birds, otherwise adult, retain signs of immaturity during their third
winter, chiefly in the form of dusky-edged feathers in the cream-
colored breast.

The adult male has one complete molt each year, reaching its
climax in August; the plumage of the head and neck is all molted
twice to produce and to replace the eclipse plumage, that of the
breast and back partially twice and the rest of the plumage only
once. The eclipse plumage is very striking and very interesting, as
it is beautifully^ adapted to conceal the brilliant colors of the male
during the time when he is quite incapable of flight and obliged to seek
refuge by swimming and diving on the open sea. The bright colors
of the head and neck are completely replaced by blacks and browns
in mottled effect, a complete molt of these parts beginning in July;
the white back is screened by a new growth of grayish white feathers,
broadly tipped with dusky; and the breast is completely concealed

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NORTH AMEKICAlSr WILD FOWL 87

by new feathers, subterminally barred with the black and tipped
with brown. In the fall the winter plumage is reproduced by a com-
plete new growth of feathers on the head and neck ; the plumage of
the back and the breast is restored partly by molt and partly by
wearing away of the dark tips; the whole process is a beautiful
illustration of the maximum of concealment with the minimum of
molt.

Mr. Millais (1913) says the young female can be distinguished
from the male, even in the downy stage, being "generally dai'ker
on the under parts and the eye stripe narrower and shorter." In
the Juvenal plumage she has a " smaller eye stripe, paler upper parts
and darker upper breast." The young female remains largely in
the Juvenal plumage through much or all of the first winter; speci-
mens collected in February show the molt into the first spring plum-
age in various stages; but by March most of the birds have ac-
quired a semiadult plumage. In this the dull-brown feathers, with
narrow sandy-brown edges, of the juvenal plumage have been re-
placed by the dusky or dusky-barred feathers, with broad edges of
deeper and richer browns, of the adult plumage. But birds in this
plumage can always be distinguished from adults by their juvenal
wings, which still retain the old, worn, dusky secondaries, tertials,
and long scapulars; the long, curved, brown-edged tertials and the
white-tipped secondaries and secondary coverts of adults are lack-
ing; the belly plumage also remains largely immature. At the
next summer molt, which is complete, a second winter plumage is
assumed, which is nearly adult; but the white tips of the second-
aries and secondary coverts are smaller and narrower; and the
birds are usually more heavily barred above and more uniformly
dark brown below. At the next molt, when a little over 2 years old,
the fully adult plumage is acquired. Some females probably breed
during their second spring, but probably most of them do not do
so until they are nearly 3 years old.

The foregoing account of the molts and plumages of this species
will suffice equally well for the American eider and the Pacific
eider, as the sequence is the same in all three species, or subspecies,
and the inamature plumages of all three are practically indistin-
guishable.

Food. — Eiders obtain their food almost wholly by diving to
moderate depths; almost any kind of marine animal life is accept-
able and easily digested in their powerful gizzards; most of it is
found on or about the sunken ledges or submerged reefs off rocky
shores, which support a rank growth of various seaweeds and a pro-
fusion of marine invertebrates. They prefer to feed at low tide

100449—25 7

88 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

when the food supply is only a few fathoms below the surface ; they
often dive to depths of 6 or 8 fathoms and sometimes 10 fathoms,
but when forced by the risini; tide to too great exertion in diving,
they move off to some other feeding ground or rest and play until
the tide favors them again. They are usually very regular in their
feeding habits, resorting to certain ledges every day at certain stages
of the tides, as long as the food supply lasts. They seem to prefer
to feed by daylight and to roost on some inaccessible rock to sleep
at night. Many other ducks are forced to feed at night, as they are
constantly disturbed on their feeding grounds during the day; but
the eider's feeding grounds are so rough and inaccessible that they
are seldom disturbed. Even in rough weather these tough and
hardy birds may be seen feeding about the ledges white with
breakers; they are so strong and so expert in riding the waves and
in dodging the breakers that they do not seem to care how rough
it is. I have seen them feeding, off our eastern coasts in winter,
in water so rough that no boat could approach them.

Their favorite food seems to be the common black mussel {Mytelis
edulis), which grows in such extensive beds as to furnish abundant
food for myriads of sea fowl ; the eiders devour these in such large
quantities that their crops are most uncomfortably distended. Peri-
winkles, limpets, and a great variety of other univalve and bivalve
mollusks are eaten ; their stomachs are crammed full of such hard-
shelled food, mixed with pebbles, all of which is ground up by the
strong muscular action of the stomach, assisted by the chemical
action of the gastric juices; the soft parts are digested and the pul-
verized shells pass out through the intestines. They are said to
eat small fish occasionally, as well as fish roe and that of crustaceans.
Starfish, sea urchins, and crabs are eaten, even the great spider
crab and other large crabs measuring 2 inches across the carapace.
Mr. Millais (1913) says:

I remember once, in Orkney, running down to a flock of feeding eiders that
for the moment had vanished beneath the waves. One rose near the boat
with something like a thick stick projecting 5 or 6 inches from its mouth,
which it was unable to close. I shot the bird, an old female, and found that
the obstruction, when drawn out, was a razor shell {Ensis siliqua), 10 inches
long and 3 inches in circumference. How any bird, even with the digestion
of a sea duck, could assimilate so tough a morsel with a hard and thick shell
seemed a marvel, but it is doubtless the case that they are able to break them
up and eject the shells as pellets.

Kumlien (1879) writes:

Their food in autumn consists almost entirely of mollusks. I have taken
shells from the oesophagus more than 2 inches in length ; from a single bird I
have taken out 43 shells, varsdng from one-sixteenth to 2 inches in length.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 89

The adult birds in spring did not seem to be quite so particular; in tliem I
found almost all the common forms of marine invertebrates, and sometimes
even a few fish {Liparls, and the young of Cottus scorpius).

Mr. Andrew Halkett (1905) found the following material in the
gizzards of some 20 eiders :

Numerous shells of Acmaca testudinalis, numerous fragments of valves of
Tonicella marmorata, a few shells of Margarita cinerea, a number of shells of
other small gastropods, a few opercula of a gastropod, egg capsules of a gastro-
pod, numerous valves of Crenella, fragments of valves of various small and
medium sized lamellibranchs, various parts of the shells of Hyas and other
crustaceans, a few pieces of the arms of an ophiurian, a few bones of a very
small teleost, fragments of alga, numerous small stones.

Behavior. — The flight of the northern eider is apparently slow,
heavy, and labored, but in reality it is much stronger and swifter
than it appears and exceedingly straight and direct. Its heavy head
is held low, with the bill pointing slightly downward, a character-
istic and diagnostic attitude. Eiders usually fly in small flocks, in
Indian file, close to the water, often following the indentations of
the shore line, but very seldom flying over the land. In rough
weather a flock of eiders is apt to follow the trough of the sea and
is often lost to sight between the waves. I have seen one, when shot
at and perhaps wounded, dive out of the air into the water and not
show itself again. It is an expert at diving and hiding below the
surface ; if there is only the slightest ripple on the water it can con-
ceal itself and swim away with only a portion of its bill protruding
and almost invisible.

As stated above, eiders are capable of diving to depths of 8 or 10
fathoms if necessary. In diving the wings are partially opened
and used to a limited extent in swimming under water, but the wings
are not wholl}^ spread ; progress seems to be made mainly by the use
of the feet, and there is nothing like the full subaqueous flight prac-
ticed by some of the Alcidae. Mr. Millais (1913) relates the follow-
ing interesting incident:

Personally I have the gravest doubts of the truth of the statement made by
many writers that the eider and other sea ducks " hold on " to the seaweed
at the bottom of the ocean rather than allow themselves to come to the surface
and be shot. One morning in February, 1866, 1 pursued an old male eider, which
I had winged from a flock, into some shallows off the island of Reisa Little,
in thei Orkneys. The white back of the bird could be plainly seen under water
entering some dark weeds amongst small rocks near the shore. Presently it
disappeared in the tangle, and as the bird did not again come to the surface
I leaned over the side of the boat and made search for it. I had seen it enter
a comparatively small area of dark ground round which there were sand
spaces, so I concluded it must be hidden amongst the fronds, and after a
short search I saw the white back gleaming beside a small rock, the head and
neck being concealed under the seaweed. It occurred to me that it would be
interesting to see whether the bird would voluntarily leave this position or

90 BULLETIN 130, UiSTITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

not; so after waiting for a quarter of an hour, during which it did not move,
I gave it a lift with my long seal gaff, when it at once floated to the surface
quite dead. The mouth was half open: some thin weeds encircled the neck.
Doubtless this bird allowed itself to be drowned, as its half -open bill showed ;
but that it was actually holding on to the weeds I could see no sign. I could
narrate several instances of a similar character which would only tend
to show that whilst the birds both voluntarily get into positions under water
from which they will not move until death overtakes them and also into
crannies and encircling weeds from which they can not escape owing to lack
of strength, yet there is not actual proof that they hold on to the weeds at the
bottom of the sea, as Naumann suggests.

Outside of the vocal performances indulged in during the mating
season, eiders, particularly males, are decidedly silent birds. Mr.
Turner says:

The females utter a grating croak while flying to or from their nests and a
hiss while on the nest. This hissing sound gives rise to the Eskimo name of
this species, Mitik.

Mr. Millais (1913) says:

In winter eiders are very silent birds, like all the sea ducks except the long-
tail, and their voice is not often heard except when single individuals are
searching for their friends. The male when swimming occasionally utters a
hoarse, grating call like the words ''Kor-er-korkorr-kor," and the female a
slightly higher note, "Kar-er-karkar-kaa." The female also utters this call
when she is flying.

Referring to the enemies of eiders, Mr. Millais (1913) writes:

In the winter eiders have few enemies except man, though sea eagles often
attack them along the coast line in Noi-way, whilst the great black-backed gull
has a wonderful eye for a " picked " bird and will hunt it until it falls a prey
owing to exhaustion. In the summer eiders have many enemies in their Arctic
home, and a few in our islands. Even in the Orkneys and Shetlands a few of
the young fall a prey to both lesser and greater black-backed gulls ; whilst
Richardson's skua is not wholly above suspicion. In Unst the great skua has
been seen to attack and swallow young eiders. In Iceland numbers of young
eiders are killed by Richardson's skua, sea eagles, and a few by the Iceland
falcons. Arctic foxes are not numerous here, as they are in the Russian
islands, Greenland, and Labrador, where these animals levy heavy toll on the
old birds on the nests as well as the young. Polar bears also kill quantities
of young eiders, and will break and eat their eggs. In West Greenland the
harp seal is said to catch eiders on the water, coming up and seizing them from
below, and it is possible that the small whale, Orca gladiator, kills a few. In
northeast Greenland the chief marauder of all sea birds is the glaucous gull,
which creates much havoc amongst young ducks.

Dr. I. I. Hayes' (1867) gives the following graphic account of the
predatory habits of the glaucous gulls:

A rugged little ledge, which I named Eider Island, was so thickly colonized
that we could hardly walk without treading on a nest. We killed with guns
and stones over 200 birds in a few hours ; it was near the close of the breeding
season. The nests were still occupied by the mother birds ; but many of the
young had burst the shell, and were nestling under the wing, or taking their
first lessons in the water pools. Some, more advanced, were already in the

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 91

ice-slieltered channels, greedily waiting for the shellfish and sea urchins which
the old bird busied herKself in procuring for them. Near by was a low isolated
rock ledge, which ^^•e called Hans Island. The glaucous gulls, those cormorants
of the Arctic seas, had made it their peculiar homestead ; their progeny,
already fully fledged and voracious, crowded the guano-whitened rocks; and
the mothers, with long necks and gaping yellow bills, swooped above the
peaceful shallows of the eiders, carrying ofC the young birds, seemingly .lust
as their wants required. The gull would gobble up and swallow a young
eider in less time than it takes me to describe the act. For a moment you
Avould see the paddling feet of the poor little wretch protruding from the
mouth ; then came a distension of the neck as it descended into the stomach ;
a few moments more and the young gulls were feeding on the ejected morsel.

J. D. Figgins (1902) says that, in northwest Greenland, " eider
ducks are much prized by the natives and are killed by spearing
from the kayak. The spear is simply a sharpened rod of iron set
into the end of a light shaft. At 15 or 20 yards the hunter seldom
misses his mark."

Keferring to the food value of eider's eggs to the Eskimos, Dr.
Donald B. MacMillan (1918) writes:

How impatiently we awaited the discovery of those first golden nuggets
in the nests. Can we ever forget those annual pilgrimages to the shrine at
historic Littleton and Eider Duck Islands and McGarys Rock. Here, among
a laughing, jolly company of men, women, and children, we pitched our tents
among the nests ; we boiled eggs, and we fried eggs, and we scrambled eggs,
and we shirred eggs, and we did everything to eggs. In a few hours 4,000
delicious fresh eggs were gathered from one small island alone. Cached
beneath the rocks, away from the direct rays of the sun, they remain perfectly
fresh ; they become chilled in August ; and freeze hard as so many rocks in
September — a much-appreciated delicacy during the long winter months. The
shells are often broken and the contents poured or squirted from the mouth
of tlie Eskimo into the intestinal sheath of the bearded seal or the walrus,
a most nutritious sausage to be eaten on the long sledge trips.

The Moravian missionaries of northern Laborador showed me some
beautiful eider-down blankets which were made by the Eskimos of
Greenland for sale in the Danish markets; they Avere made of the
breasts of eiders from which the feathers had all been plucked, leav-
ing the doAvn on the skins, which had been cured so that they were
very soft and pliable ; the edges of the blankets were trimmed with
the cured skins of the heads of many northern and king eiders,
making very attractive borders. They were the softest, lightest,
warmest, and most beautiful blankets I had ever seen, and I was
told that they brought such fancy prices that they were beyond the
reach of ordinary mortals. I belie-ve the natives also use these
plucked skins for winter underwear, wearing them with the down
side next to the skin ; eider-down underwear and Arctic-hare stock-
ings must be very soft and warm.

The eider-down industrj'^ has never been so highly developed on the
American side of the Atlantic as it has on the other side. It would

92 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

undoubtedly prove a profitable industry and would also serve to
protect the birds if properly conducted. The following account of
how it is done in Iceland, written by C. W. Shepard, is published
by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884) :

The islands of Vigr and Oedey are their headquarters in the northwest of
Iceland. In these they live in undisturbed tranquility. They have become
almost domesticated, and are foiuid in vast multitudes, as the young remain
and breed in the place of their birth. As the island (Vigr) was approached we
could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds, and could hear their cooing
at a great distance. We landed on a rocky, wave-worn shore. It was the
most wonderful ornithological sight conceivable. The ducks and their nests
were everywhere. Great brown ducks sat upon tlieir nests in masses, and at
every step started from under our feet. It was with difiiculty that we avoided
treading on some of the nests. On the coast of the opposite shore was a wall
built of large stones, just above the high-water level, about 3 feet in height,
and of considerable thickness. At the bottom, on both sides of it, alternate
stones had been left out so as to form a series of square compartments for
the ducks to nest in. Almost every compartment was occupied, and as we
walked along the shore a long line of ducks flew out, one after the other.
The surface of the water also was perfectly white with drakes, who welcomed
their brown wives with loud and clamorous cooing. The house itself was a
marvel. The earthen walls that surrounded it and the window embrasures
were occupied by ducks. On the ground the house was fringed with ducks.
On the turf slopes of its roof we could see ducks, and a duck sat on the door
scraper. The grassy banks had been cut into square patches, about 18 inches
having been removed, and each hollow had been filled with ducks. A windmill
was infested, and so were all the outhouses, mounds, rocks, and crevices. The
ducks were everywhere. Many were so tame that we could stroke them on
their nests ; and the good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the
island that would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear. Our
hostess told us that when she first became possessor of the island the produce of
do\^Ti from the ducks was not more than 15 pounds in a year ; but that under
her careful nurture of 20 years it has risen to nearly 100 pounds annually.
Most of the eggs are taken and pickled for winter consumption, one or two
only being left in each nest to hatch.

Fall. — By the middle of the summer, or as soon as the egg-laying
season is over, the adult eiders desert their mates and begin to
move away from their breeding grounds. This might be called
the beginning of the fall migration. The immature males of the
previous year keep by themselves all summer in large flocks and
do not even now mingle with the old males; they spend the summer
well out at sea near the drift ice. The young eiders often are late
in hatching and are slow in developing, so that it is often quite late
in the fall before they are able to fly away with their mothers and
join the mixed flocks in their winter resorts. All have to undergo
the annual summer double molt, which lasts well into the fall and
delays migration, for they are absolutely flightless for a few weeks
while the wing quills are molting. So the fall migration is very
irregular and much prolonged; many birds spend the winter not

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 93

far away from their breeding grounds, moving only far enough
away to find open water and good feeding grounds.

Winter.— On the coast of Greenland many northern eiders spend
the winter in the open waters of the fjords. Near Ivigtut, Hagerup
(1891) observed that:

In October, 1886, the females began to come into the fjord singly, and in
November they came in small flocks. As the weather grew colder the number
increased, and it became still larger after Christmas, the period of greatest
abundance being March and April. The males did not come in as great
numbers into the fjord that winter. I saw, indeed, none at Ivigtut until March,
while they were quite numerous at Christmas of the following year.

In the evening these birds generally go as far inland as there is open
water, and during the night they are almost constantly on the move. Then
their cries may be plainly heard, as also their splashing near the shore; but
if a match be lit, they fly aloft with a great uproar.

Eiders are at all seasons essentially sea ducks, but especially so
in winter. Low temperatures have no terrors for them ; their winter
resorts extend from Greenland to the coast of Maine, wherever
they can find open water and plenty of food. Even in the roughest
winter storms they brave the rigors of the open sea, riding at ease
among the white caps, diving for food among the surf-swept
ledges, safe from the molestation of the hardiest gunners, and
retiring at night to rest on some lonely rock or drifting iceberg.

Mr. Ekblaw writes:

A few eiders stay all through the four months winter night in the open
waters of Smith Sound. Like the guillemots, the eiders find sufficient food
in the upwelling of the tidal currents about the Gary Islands to maintain them-
selves throughout the coldest winters. These strong swift tidal currents
running back and forth through Smith Sound between Baffin Bay and Kane
Basin prevent the formation of widespread ice, and are the controlling factor
which permits a luxuriant far-Arctic plant and animal life, including a
pleasant homeland for the polar Eskimo, in this habitat a thousand miles
within the Arctic Circle, far beyond the usual northern limit of life.

The far northern coasts of Greenland afford a sanctuary for the eider,
where this splendid species of the duck family may save itself from total
extermination. To the lonely, inaccessible rocks and islets of these far nor-
thern shores, the egg hunters, and down gatherers are not likely to come in
numbers enough or often enough to destroy the species. The natives are too
few and the value of the eider in their economic needs is too small to con-
stitute any serious menace to the species. Farther south, in Greenland, and
elsewhere, the eider is threatened with extinction, though in Danish Green-
land the Danes are vigilantly safeguarding the birds as far as it lies in
their power to do so. It is fortunate that the eiders have their far northern
habitats, relatively safe from man's devastation.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Coastal islands of Greenland and northeastern
America. South on the Atlantic coast of Labrador to the vicinity of
Hamilton Inlet and, in the regions north of Hudson Bay, to Baflin

94 BULLETIN 130, LTNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Land, Ungava Bay, Southampton Island, and Cape Fullerton, in-
tergrading at these points with dresseri. West about 100° west
longitude, where it may intergrade, somewhere in the Arctic Archi-
pelago, with V -nigra. North to northern Ellesmere Land (81° 40')
and northern Greenland (82° on the west coast and 75° on the
east coast). Represented in Iceland and Europe by closely allied
forms.

Winter range. — South along the coast to Maine and rarely to
Massachusetts. North to southern Greenland, as far as open water
extends.

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival: Labrador, Battle
Harbor, May 1; Cumberland Sound, April 30; northern Greenland,
Etah, April 20; Wellington Channel, latitude 76°, May 17; Cape
Sabine, latitude 79°, May 28; Thank God Harbor, latitude 81°,
June 4. Late dates of departure : Massachusetts, April 3 ; Maine,
April 6.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Maine, October 19 ; Mas-
sachusetts, late October. Late dates of departure : Thank God
Harbor, November 4 ; Etah, November 1 ; Cumberland Sound,
November 17.

Egg dates. — Labrador: Eight records, Jime 15 to August 2.
Greenland : Two records, June 23 and July 2.

SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA DRESSERI (Sharpe)
AMERICAN EIDER

HABITS

Contributed by Charles Wendell Townsend

The eider is a duck of which the Americans should well be proud.
Large and splendid in plumage, interesting in courtship display,
pleasing in its love notes, susceptible to kind treatment by m-an,
and capable of furnishing him with a product of great value; not-
withstanding all this, the bird is so incessantly persecuted, espe-
cially on its breeding grounds, that it is rapidly diminishing in
numbers. If the senseless slaughter is not stayed the eider will con-
tinue to diminish until it is extinct. Happily, even now there are
signs of a better era. On the Maine coast — the bird's most southern
breeding station — there were less than a dozen pair breeding in
1905. As a result of protection, however, through the efforts of the
Audubon Society, their numbers are now increasing, and Bowdish
(1909) in 1908 reported as many as 60 eiders breeding on Old Man
Island alone. Farther north the persecution still goes on; on the
Nova Scotia coast not more than two or three remain to breed, while
on the coast of Newfoundland and of the Labrador Peninsula south

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 95

of Hamilton Inlet, where they formerly bred in immense numbers,
but a remnant is left. All the ornithologists from the time of
Audubon to the present day who have visited the Labrador coast
have bewailed the fact that the eider was singled out for destruc-
tion. In ''A Plea for the Conservation of the Eider " (Townsend,
1914) occurs the following:

There is uo reason why the eider, which furnishes the valuable eider down
of commerce, should not be made a source of considerable income without any
reduction of its natural abundance. The principle of conservation can as
well be applied to the eider as to a forest. The conservation of the common
eider of Europe (Somateria violUssuna), a species that differs but very slightly
from the American bird, has been practiced for many years in Iceland and
Norway. The birds are rigidly protected during the nesting season and
offered every encouragement. They are not allowed to be shot, and even the
discharge of a gun in their vicinity is forbidden by law. Suitable nesting
sites are furnished close to the houses and the birds become semi-domesticated,
losing all fear of man. The people are allowed to take the eggs and down
during the first of the season, but the birds are permitted to hatch out and
rear a few young in order to keep up the stock. The last down is taken after
the birds have left.

Many quotations are given from various authors showing what
is being accomplished in Iceland and Norway. For example
(Annandale, 1905) :

The one offense against the Icelandic bird laws which a native can not com-
mit with impunity is the slaughter of the eider duck. What is more important
than many laws, namely public opinion, protects the species, and there seems
to be a sentimental interest in it Probably it is due to the great tameness
of the bird, which appears actually to seek the vicinity of a human dwelling
for its nesting place and to frequent those parts of the coast which are more
frequented by man. The Icelandic eider farms are frequently situated on little
islands off the coast. Small circular or oblong erections of rough stones are
made among the hummocks, to protect the brooding ducks from wind and
driving rain. All the sea fowl in these farms become exceedingly tame, as no
gun is allowed to be lired and everything liable to disturb the ducks is care-
fully banished. Those who know how to handle them can even stroke the
backs of the ducks as they sit on their eggs. On such farms there is a sepa-
rate building or large room entirely devoted to cleaning the down. It was
formerly the custom to take away all the down supplied by the female ; but
this practice was said to lead to great mortality among the ducks through
exhaustion, and nowadays each nest is generally rifled only once before the
eggs are hatched, and then again after the young have left it.

Townsend (1914) then goes on to say:

Eiderdown is not only extremely light and elastic but is also one of the
poorest conductors of lieat. It is therefore an ideal substance for preserving
warmth and is the best material for coverlets, puffs, cushions, etc. Its money
value is considerable, and there is always a demand for it in the markets of
the world. The down obtained from dead eiders, however, soon loses its elas-
ticity and is of little value. The retail price in Boston at the present time of
well-cleaned Iceland or Norwegian eiderdown is $14 a pound. It is probable
10044&— 25 8

96 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

that each nest furnishes — as a very conservative estimate — from an ounce to
an ounce and a third of doAvn ; therefore 12 to 16 nests or breeding females
are needed for each pound. Burton states that the annual supply of down in
Iceland rose from 2,000 pounds in 1806 to 7,000 pounds in 1870. One can
easily understand the great value of this product even if the producer receives
only one-half of the retail price. He could count on at least 50 cents a season
for each breeding female in his eider fold.

Imagine the pleasure as well as the profit that could be obtained along the
coast of Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Maine if these birds were
treated in the manner above described and flocked and nested about the habi-
tations of man. Then, each dweller in suitable localities by the sea could have
his own flock of these beautiful birds, for the female is as beautiful in her
modest dress of shaded and pencilled brown as is the male in his striking
raiment of jet black and cream and snow white, delicate sea green and dark
navy blue. The cooing notes, so long few or absent in many places, would
again resound over the waters, and best of all, to the practical minded, the
birds would pay well for their protection by gifts of eggs and of valuable
eider down.

How can the present senseless habit of destruction be stopped and this
desirable state of affairs brought about? As a preliminary step in Labrador
and Newfoundland, I would suggest that a few islands scattered along the
coast should be made bird reservations, and carefully guarded by one or two
families who live on or near the islands. These people should be allowed
to take the first set of eggs and down, as well as the down left behind after
the duck has hatched out the second set and has left for the season, but
should not be allowed the use of firearms, and their Eskimo dogs must be
confined during the nesting season. In other words, these people must not
frighten the birds and must treat them kindly. The object of the experiment
should be spread broadcast along the coast with the request for fair play, so
as to restrain others from poaching and frightening the ducks on the reser-
vation.

The rapidity with which the birds will respond to this treatment and the
intelligence they will display in the recognition of the safety spots will sur-
prise the people. This is the case wherever bird reservations are established.
At Ipswich, Massachusetts, the shores of a small, protected pond are thronged
with shore birds of many species which display almost no fear of man, while
on the neighboring beaches, where they are shot, they are very wary. In
the city of Boston the Charles River Basin and Jamaica Pond are the resort
of numerous ducks that pay but little attention to the people, while in the sea
and ponds near by, where shooting is allowed, the ducks show their usual
wildness.

It is useless to pass laws if they are not observed or if the sentiment of the
community is against them. This reform, which will be of such great value to
our northern seacoast, can only be accomplished by education, and these bird
reservations with their eider farms will be one of the best means to that end.

Spring. — ^The spring migration occurs on the New England coast
in the latter part of March or early in April. The birds have been
wintering south to Nantucket and in rare cases to Delaware and
Virginia. The adult males go north two or three weeks or a month
ahead of the females and immature. In the latter part of May and
early in June we found them abundant on the southern coast of the
Labrador Peninsula. Some of them were nesting, but it was prob-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 97

able that many of them were on their way farther north along the
coast.

Courtship. — The courtship of the eider has a certain resemblance
to that of the goldeneye, but it is not so spectacular. It can be
observed during the latter part of May and in June along the south-
ern coast of the Labrador Peninsula. It is thus described by Doctor
Townsend (1910) :

The actual courtship of the eider may be recognized from afar by the love
note of the male, which can be expressed by the syllables aah-ou or ah-ee-ou,
frequently repeated, and, while low and pleasing in tone, its volume is so great
that it can be heard at a considerable distance over the water. On a calm
day when there were many eiders about, the sound was almost constant.
While the syllables aah-ou express very well the usual notes, there is much
variation in tone, from a low and gentle pleading to a loud and confident asser-
tion. In fact, the tones vary much as do those of the human voice, and there
is a very human quality in them, so much so that when alone on some solitary
isle I was not infrequently startled with the idea that there were men near at
hand.

But the showy drake eider does not depend on his voice alone ; he displays
his charms of dress to best advantage and indulges in well-worn antics. It
always seemed to me a pity that the magnificent black belly should disappear
when the drake is swimming on the water, and the bird evidently shares my
sentiment, for during courtship he frequently displays this black shield by
rising up in front, so that at times in his eagerness he almost stands upon his
tail. To further relieve his feelings he throws back his head and occasionally
flaps his wings. The movements of the head and neck are an important part
of the courtship, and although there is considerable variation in the order
and extent of the performance, a complete antic is somewhat as follows : The
head is drawn rigidly down, the bill resting against the breast; the head is
then raised up until the bill points vertically upward, and at this time the
bill may or may not be opened to emit the love notes. Directly after this
the head is occasionally jerked backward a short distance, still rigidly, and
then returned to its normal position. All this the drake does swimming near
the duck, often facing her in his eagerness, while she floats about indifferently,
or at times shows her interest and appreciation by facing him and throwing
up her head a little in a gentle imitation of his forcefulness.

In walking around the shore of Eskimo Island, one of the Mingan
group of southern Labrador, on June 3, 1909, we found the water
everywhere dotted with these splendid birds, all intent on courtship.
In one cove there were 104 birds, in another 80. Only one eider was
in partially immature plumage. The birds were for the most part
in pairs, but there were frequent groups of 3 or 4 males ardently
courting 1 female. There were also occasional coteries of 15 or 20
where the sexes were about evenly divided.

Nesting. — It is evident that the eider prefers to nest in communi-
ties, but where diminished in numbers from persecution they nest
singly. On some small islands off the southern coast of Labrador
we found, in 1909, 20 or 30 nests in the space of an acre; this, too,
when the birds were much harassed and evidently less numerous than

98 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

in former years. The nests are placed on the ground, generally
close to salt water and almost always on islands; we have found
them, however, a hundred yards or more from the water. The
nesting site may be open to the sky in a depression among the rocks
of a barren island, but it is often partially or wholly concealed
among and under spruce, alder, and laurel bushes or in the grass
and rushes.

Mr. Harrison F. Lewis (1922) refers to a nest which he found in
an unusual situation, as follows:

On June 24 I found an eider's nest with six eggs on a busli-covered rock
in tlie midst of the second falls of the Kegashka River, more than a mile
from the sea. In an expansion of the river near by I saw seven female
eiders swimming about. Itesidents of the vicinity informed me that consider-
able numbers of young eiders descended this river each autumn. It would
be interesting to know just how and at what age the young eiders from the
nest which I found left their birthplace, situated as it was in the midst of a
foaming cataract.

The nest itself is made of seaweeds, mosses, sticks, and grasses
matted together, but is chiefly distinguished for the famous eider
down which is plucked by the mother from her breast. The down
is of a dull gray color, very soft, light, and warm, and is supplied
in such liberal amounts that the eggs can be entirely covered when
the sitting bird is absent. If the departure of the mother is sudden
and forced, the eggs are left exposed. The female can supply
plenty of down for two sets if the first is stolen, but the story that
the male is called upon to supply down for the third set is not true,
for he does not go near the nest. The down is rarely clean, as it
generally contains bits of moss, twigs, and grasses. If the nests are
repeatedly robbed of their down the poor bird is obliged to use
other material in its place, and some of the nests under these
circumstances at the end of the season are practically destitute of
down.

Eggs. — Under normal circumstances only one set of eggs is laid.
Five eggs constitute a setting which, however, varies from 4 to 6
and in one instance, that came under our observation, to 7 eggs.

The eggs are nearly oval in shape, of a rough and lusterless ex-
terior, as if the lime had been put on with a coarse brush. Their
color is a pale olive green with patches and splashes of dull white.
Sometimes their -color is pale brownish or olive. The measurements
of 59 eggs in various collections average 78 by 50.7 millimeters; the
eggs showing the four extremes measure 83.5 by 54.8, 65 by 44.5,
and 66,4 by 41.5 millimeters.

[Author's note. — As the eggs, young, and plumage changes of
the common eider are exactly like those of the northern eider, no
further attempt will be made to describe them here, and the reader

LIFE HISTOFJES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 99

is referred to what has been written on this subject under the fore-
going subspecies.]

Ycmng. — The period of incubation is 28 days, and the incubation
is performed only by the female. The young as soon as hatched are
led to the water by the female, who is also said to help them over
difficult places by carrying them in her bill. From the first they are
expert divers in shallow water, and are assiduously tended by the
mother who draws them from danger, or acts the part of the
wounded duck to distract attention while they hide among the rocks
or in the grass. The downy young are of grayish brown color,
lighter on the belly. There is a pale line along the side of the head
over and under the eye.

Plumages. — In his full nuptial plumage the male eider is a
splendid sight, a very conspicuous object. It has been said by Thayer
that the drake's plumage is in reality concealing, as the white
matches the snow, the green and dark blue the ice and the water, and
the black the rocky cliffs. But to one who is familiar with the
bird, either among snow and ice, on the open sea, or under the
beetling crags, on rocks or among mosses and dwarf spruces of the
northern bogs, such an idea does not appeal, for the bird is always
conspicuous. The display he makes of his plumage in courtship, and
the fact that he retires after this season is over into the eclipse
plumage which is similar to that of the female, is good proof — if
proof were needed — that the courtship dress is for show only and
not for protection. The eclipse plumage worn by the males and
the nearly similar brown plumage of the females and young is in-
deed an inconspicuous one, and the birds Avearing this are to a large
extent protectively colored. I have almost stepped on the nesting
female and did not see her until she ran from the nest; and at a
distance on the ocean, one may see a band of eiders of which only
the males are visible until a nearer approach, when one is surprised
to find an equal number of females.

After the nesting season is over the males retire to the outer islands
and rocks, where they are for a time unable to fly owing to the ex-
tensive molt into the eclipse plumage. According to Audubon the
sterile females molt at the same time, but the females with broods do
not molt until fully two weeks later.

With rare exceptions all the eiders in the region of the Mingan
Islands in southern Labrador we found to be in full adult plumage
in the last half of May and the first half of June. In the first half
of July, on the southern part of the eastern coast, many birds were
seen that were molting from the nuptial drake plumage into the
eclipse, while in the last part of July and early in August, in the
Mingan region, we found nearly all the eiders to be in the brown
plumage; only a very few showed traces of the brilliant nuptia)

100 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

dress of the drakes. Native hunters say that the drakes leave the
coast about the last of July, but it is probable that this is apparent
only, and that the brown birds are females and immature birds of
both sexes, as well as adult drakes in the eclipse plumage. The
change from the eclipse to the nuptial plumage occcurs in November
and December and from the immature to the first nuptial dress in
the spring, after the 1st of March. It probably takes three years
before the full drake plumage is acquired, although there is con-
siderable variation in this.

Eiders with V-shaped marks under the chin suggestive of
iSomateria v-nigra of the Pacific coast have been reported on the
Atlantic coast by W. A. Stearns (1883). Arthur H. Norton (1897)
says that "the black lancet is a character of frequent occurrence in
the young drakes of S. dresseri, and there are strong reasons for the
belief that it occurs in S. mollisima borealis.^^ He describes four
specimens where the mark occurs in S. dresse7'i. He states that they
are all immature birds and " show nothing than can be considered
as of a hybridic nature."

Food. — The favorite food of the eider is the edible mussel {Mytelis
edulis), although various other mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms,
and worms are taken with avidity. Mr. Mackay (1890) reports the
finding of sculpin spawn in the stomach of the eider. Such food
is particularly abundant around rocky ledges, and the birds gather
there from all sides during the day, but toward evening they fly out
to sea to sjjend the night.

Behavior. — The eider is an expert diver and uses the wings under
water. This is evident from the fact that it flaps open the wings for
the first stroke. If alarmed when diving it often comes out of the
water flying, merely changing from subaqueous to aerial flight.

Floating or swimming on the water, the head and neck are gen-
erally drawn down as if resting at ease. Wlien on the alert the neck
is stretched up and is much elongated. The tail is often cocked up at
an angle.

The flight of the eider is generally close to the water, swift and
powerful, but in the absence of a head wind the bird often flaps along
the surface of the water for several yards before it is able to rise.
The neck is stretched out and the bill is pointed obliquely downward
at an angle of 45°, a field mark of some value in the recognition of
the bird.

The speed of flight was estimated by Cartwright (1792), who
recorded it in his Labrador Journal, as follows :

In my way hither I measured the flight of the eider ducks by the following
method, viz, on arriving off Duck Island, 6 miles distant from Henry Tickle, I
caused the people to lie on their oars, and when I saw the flash of the guns,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 101

which were fired at a flock of ducks as they passed through, I observed by my
watch how long they were in flying abreast of us. The result of above a dozen
observations ascertained the rate to be 90 miles an hour.

The male, aside from his courtship notes or love song already de-
scribed, appears to be a silent bird. The female utters at times a roll-
ing quack or a succession of sharp huh huh huhs; the latter is heard
when she is suddenly disturbed at the nest.

The great black-backed gull is probably the greatest enemy of the
eider, aside from the arch enemy, man. Nesting in the same region
and having a voracious progeny to support this gull takes frequent
opportunities of pillaging the nest and capturing the downy young.
The raven also eats both eggs and young. Another enemy, which is
now entirely extirpated from the Labrador region south of Hamilton
Inlet, is the polar bear. Cartwright (1792) gives several instances of
their depredations. Hie says in his Journal, under date of June 18,
1777:

On examining the paunches of the bears (an old bitch polar bear and her
cub), found them well filled with eggs. I had often heretofore observed that
all the nests upon an island had been robbed and the down pulled out, but I
did not know till now how those things happened.

~Winter. — In the fall migration eiders arrive on the New England
coast late in November or early in December. The eider winters
throughout its range wherever there is open water and as far south
regularly as Nantucket, rarely as far as Delaware and Virginia.
Along the Maine coast it is still abundant in winter, although its
numbers are much reduced over those of former days. On the
Massachusetts coast the eider may be found off Cape Ann and Cape
Cod, and especially in the tempestuous and shallow seas about
Nantucket.

Mackay (1890) records the shooting of 87 eiders in a December
day in 1859 by one man near the Salvages, small rocky islands off
Eockport, on the end of Cape Ann. I was told that in 1875 a
hundred eiders were shot there by a gunner in January. Of late
years one is lucky to find any, but on March 14, 1909, I saw a flock
of 17 near the Salvages. Mackay (1890) says that as the birds
come in to feed in the morning they alight some distance outside these
rocks and swim in in a compact body. They dive for the mussels
outside the breakers. On March 18, 1875, he saw a flock between
Muskeget and Nantucket Islands that he estimated contained 12,000
birds, and a flock near the harbor of Nantucket in 1890 of about
1,500. In March, 1894, he estimated about 200 eiders near Muskeget
and 2,000 near Cape Poge, Marthas Vineyard. Also between 4,000
and 5,000 near Woods Hole, attracted by the great beds of the edible
mussel.

102 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Game. — Eiders are shot in winter off the Maine coast from blinds
among the rocks off the islands and occasionally from boats. Wooden
decoys are used and the sport requires much energy and endurance
in the winter seas. The birds are very shy, easily taking alarm, and
with their strong flight and well-made armor of thick feathers and
down are very difficult to kill. Cripples are rarely recovered, as
they escape by rapid diving and long swimming under water. Their
value for down should, however, preserve them from persecution at
all seasons.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Islands along the coasts of Labrador (south of
Hamilton Inlet), Newfoundland, eastern Quebec (north shore of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence), Nova Scotia, and Maine (west to Penobscot
Bay). Also in the southern half of Hudson Bay and James Bay at
least as far north as Richmond Gulf, Southampton Island, and Cape
Fullerton. It intergrades with horealis at the northern limits of its
breeding range.

Winter range. — Northeastern coasts, from Newfoundland and tlie
Gulf of St. Lawrence south regularlj^^ to Massachusetts (Vineyard
Sound and Nantucket), rarely to New Jersey, and casually farther
south.

Spring migration. — Northward movement starts late in March or
early in April. Usual date of departure from Massachusetts is about
April 20; unusually late dates are, Connecticut, Milford, May 29;
Massachusetts, May 18.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival in Massachusetts: Essex
Coimty, September 20 ; Cohasset, September 18 ; usual date of arrival
is early in November.

Casual records. — Inland wanderings have occurred as far west as
Wisconsin (Lake Koshkonong, November, 1891), Iowa (Sioux City,
November 1, 1901), and Colorado (Loveland).

Egg dates.- — Labrador Peninsula : Twenty-five records. May 26 to
July 9; thirteen records, June 5 to 20. Maine, New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia: Ten records, May 25 to July 5; five records, June 12
to July 1.

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray

PACIFIC EIDER
HABITS

The common eider of the Pacific coast is closely related to the
eiders of the Atlantic coast, perhaps more closely than its present
status in nomenclature would seem to indicate. The ranges of the
Pacific eider and the northern eider on the Arctic coasts of North

LIFE HISTORIES OP NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 103

America come veiy close together and perhaps overlap, with a good
chance for hybridizing or intergrading as subspecies.

Some interesting specimens have been taken in eastern waters
which are worth considering. Hagernp (1891) mentions specimens
of Soniateria mollisshna^ taken by Holboell in Greenland, which
showed the black lancet-shaped figure on the throat so characteristic
of S. v-nigra. Holboell supposed that these were hybrids with S.
spectabilis which also has this black V. Mr. Arthur H. Norton
(1897) obtained several specimens of immature males of S. dresseri
on the coast of Maine, from which he inferred " that the black lancet
is a character of frequent occurrence in the young drakes of S.
dresseri; and there are strong reasons for the belief that it occurs
in S. mollisshna horealis.'''' Mr. W. A. Stearns (1883) obtained
similar specimens on the coast of Labrador and even recorded the
Pacific eider as of regular occurrence there. The occasional appear-
ance of this mark in immature males might perhaps indicate an
occasional cross between two species, but it seems more reasonable
to regard it as a reversion to an ancestral type, which would mean
that at some date, probably not very remote, these three eiders be-
longed to a single species and perhaps even now they are merely
intergrading subspecies. In this connection I would refer the reader
to Dr. Charles W. Townsend's (1916ff) interesting paper and plate
showing inter gradation between S. moUissma horealis and S. dresseri.

Whatever the S3'stematic status of the Pacific eider may prove to
be, its habits and its lift historj^ are practically the same as those
of the Atlantic species, and nearly everything that has been written
about the latter would apply equally well to the former. Therefore
I shall not attempt to write a full life history of this species, which
would be largely repetition.

Nesting. — By the time that we reached the Aleutian Islands, early
in June, the vast horde of eiders that winter in the open waters
of this region had departed, to return to their extensive breeding
grounds farther north. But we found the Pacifip eider well dis-
tributed, as a breeding bird, on all of the islands west of Unalaska.
They were particularly abundant about Kiska Harbor in small flocks
and mated pairs. They frequented the roclry beaches at the bases
of the cliffs, where they sat on the loose rocks, fed in the kelp beds
about them, and built their nests among the large boulders above
high-water mark. Here on June 19, 1911, I examined two nests of
this species; one, containing 5 fresh eggs, was concealed in a hollow
under or between two tufts of tall, rank grass which grew back of
a large boulder on the beach at the foot of a high grassy cliff; the
other, containing 4 fresh eggs, was hidden in the long grass at the
top of a steep grassy slope ; both nests were well supplied with down.

104 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

A pair of Peale falcons were flying about some cliffs, and probably
had a nest, not very far from where we found these eiders' nests.
This reminds me of what Mr. Lucien M. Turner (1886) says, on
this subject :

Another peculiarity that was brought to my notice by a native, was that
these birds (the eiders) usually seek some slope where the duck hawk has its
nest on the high point forming one end of the slope. This was true in three
instances that came under my observation. The eiders were more numerous
in such localities than otherwise. The natives always are glad when the hawk
comes screaming overhead, as the canoe is being paddled along the shore, for
they know the nest of the hawk is near and that many nests of the eider will
be found close by.

About St. Michael the nesting habits of the Pacific eider are some-
what different. Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) says:

Their courtship must be conducted before the birds reach the breeding
ground, as I have never seen any demonstrations such as are usual among
mating birds. The small flocks seen at first glance give place at once to soli-
tary pairs, which resort to the salt marshes. The nesting site is usually a dry
spot close to a small pond or a tide creek and not often in close proximity
to the seashore. The moss-grown slope of some small knoll, a grassy tussock,
or a depression made on an open flat, but hidden by the thin growth of sur-
rounding vegetation, are all chosen as nest sites.

The first evening after my arrival at St. Michael I walked back on the flat
about 200 yards from the fort and put up a female from 5 fresh eggs. The
nest was thickly lined with down and concealed by dwarf willows and other
low Arctic vegetation. This was the only instance noted by me where the
nest was so near human habitations. The nest is usually lined with dead
grasses and sometimes fragments of moss when the first egg is laid, and the
down is added as the eggs multiply. The male is a constant attendant of the
female until her eggs are nearly all deposited, when he begins to lose interest
in family affairs, and dozens of them may be found at all hours sunning them-
selves upon the long reefs about shore, and if we are behind the scenes on the
marshes they may be seen flying silently back to their partners as the dusky
twilight of night approaches from 8 to 10 in the evening.

Mr. F. Seymour Hersey contributes the following notes :

Unlike the spectacled, Steller, and king eiders, which spend considerable time
and frequently nes"t among the tundra ponds some distance back from salt
water, I found the Pacific eider to be almost exclusively a bird of the seacoast
during the breeding season. About St. Michael Bay, portions of the shore of
which is covered by volcanic rocks, these birds were quite abundant and were
often seen about the rocky island at the entrance to the " canal," swimming
in the surf or resting on the rocks and preening their feathers. They were
also frequently met with in pairs flying up or down the canal near the
entrance, but did not seem to follow it farther than the point where it begins
to narrow, a mile or so from the bay. The land at this point is 6 or 7 feet
above the reach of normal high tides, level, and quite dry, and with very few
ponds. The ground is thickly and softly carpeted with a growth of mosses,
creeping vines, and such Arctic vegetation as is common to this region. Here
the birds nest, making a deep cup-like hollow in the thick mosses, the edge
flush with the surface and abundantly lined with a thick wall of soft gray
down.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 105

Apparently the most extensive breeding grounds of this species
are in the vicinity of Franklin and Liverpool Bays, where MacFar-
lane (1891) collected and sent to Washington over a thousand eggs.
He says :

The nest is usually a shallow cavity in the ground, more or less plentifully
lined with down. We found some nests on a sloping bank at a distance of
300 or more feet from the sea. Others were also on the mainland, but the
bulk of those secured by us were obtained from sandy islets in the bays.

Eggs. — The Pacific eider has been credited with laying anywhere
from 5 to 10 eggs, but probably the larger sets are exceptional. The
eggs are indistinguishable in every way from those of mollissiTna
horealis and dresseid, so I will not attempt to describe them here.
The measurements of 85 eggs in the United States National Museum
and the writer's collections average 75.9 by 50.4 millimeters ; the eggs
showing the four extremes measure 86.5 by 52, 74.5 by 55.5, 70 by
48.5 and 71.5 by 47 millimeters.

Young. — Although incubation is performed wholly by the female,
and although the male usually deserts the female after the eggs are
all laid, he sometimes remains near her during the process of incuba-
tion and may help to guard the nest or young.

Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

From the 15th to the 20th of June nearly all the males desert their partners
and are thenceforth found at sea or about outlying reefs and islands in large
flocks, as already described. Toward the end of June the first young appear,
but the majority are not hatched until the first of July. As the young are
hatched they are led to the nearest large pond or tide creek and thence to
the sheltered bays and mouths of streams on the seacoast. About this time
the females lose their quill feathers and, like the young, are very expert in
diving at the flash of a gun. At this time the Eskimo amuse themselves by
throwing spears at the young, but the latter are such excellent divers that
they are rarely hit. As a rule the young do not fly before the 10th of Sep-
tember, and broods with the female are often seen unable to fly even later.

Mr. Hersey's notes on the young of this species say :

When the young are hatched the female leads her brood to some small
pond or lagoon just back from the coast, and apparently they do not take
to the open sea or even the outer bays until well grown. I never saw any
young birds on St. Michael Bay until they had become strong on the wing.
A female with a brood of young was found in a small lagoon just back from
the beach on Stuart Island on July 8, 1915. In her endeavors to lead her
brood to safety the mother bird was absolutely fearless. I stood on the bank
within 30 feet of her and watched for about 20 minutes. She splashed about
in the water, making quite a commotion, all the while calling in a low' gut-
tural tone. Some of the young swam around her while others dove. Those
that went under seemed unable to stay down more than the smallest fraction
of a minute and reappeared almost instantaneously, bobbing up as buoyantly
as corks. After considerable difficulty she got her brood around her and
started to swim away, but the young did not follow and, after swimming
some 12 or 15 feet and calling, she returned and the performance was repeated.

106 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Whether the actions of the young were due to panic or inability to realize the
presence of danger I could not tell, but they appeared to me to be decidedly
stupid. I know of no other duck, not excepting the oldsquaw, which at times
seems to be devoid of any sense of danger, that would not have led her young
to safety in a fraction of the time it took this eider.

Plumages. — The downy young are absolutely indistinguishable^
so far as I can see, from those of either tnoUisswia or dresseri^ and
the molts and plumages of all three are practically identical.

Mr. Hersey secured for me a fine specimen of an adult male in full
eclij^se plumage, of which he says, in his notes :

The molt of the males into eclipse plumage takes place during July, and
by August 1 the birds are flightless. This flightless period is probably spent
on the open sea where they are practicallj' safe. On August 11, 1915, a bird
in full eclipse plumage was secured on St. Michael Bay. The new primaries
were about 3 inches long, but the bird was still unable to fly. Its diving
and swimming powers fully compensated for its loss of flight, and it was
captured only after more than four hours' pursuit, when a mistake in
judgment brought it to the surface, after a long dive, within range of oui*
boat.

Food. — The Pacific eider apparently does not differ from its At-
lantic relative in its food and feeding habits.

Behavior. — Pacific eiders have similar enemies and as meekly sub-
mit to their depredations as do their eastern relatives. MacFarlane
(1891) saw a snowy owl eating the eggs in an eider's nest. Mr.
Turner (1886) writes:

The bird is very shy except when on land during boisterous weather. At
that time the natives of the western islands of the Aleutian chain used small
handnets to throw over the birds as they sat stupidly on the shore. A bright
night with a hard gale of wind was the best time to secure them. The
birds then sit in a huddle and many are caught at one throw of the net.
The natives assert that the common hair seals catch these birds when on
the water and drag them under to play with them ; hence, these birds are
constantly on the alert for seals and take flight as soon as a seal is dis-
covered near .

Winter. — The Pacific eider has a more decided migration than the
Atlantic species, for, though it breeds abundantly on the Arctic
coast of Alaska and eastward to the Coppermine River, it is not
known to winter north of Bering Straits, as there is no open water
to be found in this portion of the Arctic Ocean. The main winter
resort of the Pacific eider is in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands,
though it has been detected in winter as far north as the Diomedes.
This means a migration route of about 2,000 miles from the remotest
breeding grounds. On the other hand, the birds which breed in the
Aleutian Islands and south of the Alaska Peninsula probably do not
migrate far from their breeding grounds.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 107

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Coasts of northwestern America and northeast-
ern Asia. East to Coronation Gulf and west to Cape Irkaipij,
Siberia. South on both coasts of Bering Sea to the Commander and
Aleutian Islands, and eastward along the south side of the Alaskan
Peninsula to Kodiak Island and Cook Inlet (Chugachick Bay).
North to Banks Land (Cape Kellett) and Victoria Land (Walker
Bay). It may intergrade with horealis at the eastern extremity of
its breeding range, in the vicinity of 100° west longitude.

Winter range. — Mainly in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and
the Alaska Peninsula, extending but little south of its breeding range
and north as far as open water extends, sometimes as far as the Dio-
mede Islands.

Sjxnng inigration. — Early dates of arrival: Alaska, Point Hope,
April 15; Point Barrow, May 16; and Demarcation Point, May 26;
northeastern Siberia, May 28. Usual date of arrival at St. Michael,
Alaska, is from May 10 to 20.

Fall migration. — Birds which breed in Coronation Gulf leave in
September and migrate about 2,000 miles. Last seen at Point Bar-
row November 4.

Casual records. — Has wandered as far south on the Pacific coast
as Washington (Tacoma, January 6, 1906), and has been recorded a
number of times in the interior of Canada, as follows : Severn House,
1858 ; Fort Eesolution, 1861 ; Fort Good Hope, June 14 and 30, 1904 ;
and Manitoba (Giroux, November 11, 1911, and Lake Manitoba,
October 23, 1911).

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Thirty records, June 6 to July 15 ;
fifteen records, July 2 to 8. Alaska : Sixteen records, June 10 to July
12 ; eight records, June 20 to 29.

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus)
KING EIDER

HABITS

Although generally regarded as one of the rarer ducks and al-
though comparatively few naturalists have ever seen it in life, this
beautiful and showy species is astonishingly abundant in certain por-
tions of its northern habitat. Among the vast hordes of wild fowl
which migrate in the spring from Bering Sea, through the straits,
to their Arctic summer homes the king eider takes a prominent and
a conspicuous place, as the following observations by Mr. John Mur-
doch (1885), at Point Barrow, will illustrate:

This is by all means the most abundant bird at Point Barrow. Thousands
hardly describes the multitudes which passed up during the great migrations,
within sight of the station, and yet equally great numbers passed up along the

108 BULLETIISr 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

" lead " of open water several miles off shore. They appear in the spring be-
fore there is any open water except the shifting " leads " at a distance from the
shore, and travel steadily and swiftly past Cape Smythe to the northeast, fol-
lowing the coast Some flocks cross to the eastward below Point Barrow, but
the majority follow the barrier of grounded ice past the point. It is probable,
however, that they turn to the east after passing Point Barrow, because all the
returning flocks in the autumn come from the east, hugging the shore of the
mainland.

The first ducks in the spring of 1882 were seen on April 27, a comparatively
warm day, with a light southerly wind blowing. They were flying parallel to
the coast over the barrier of grounded ice. The natives said they were all
" kingaling," "nosy birds," or males (referring to the protuberance at the base
of the bill), and the first flocks of the migration appear to be composed exclu-
sively of males. There were six great flights in 1882, the first on May 12 and
the last on June 11, and five in 1883, the first on May 17 and the last on June 4.

As a rule, these flights took place on comparatively warm days, with light
westerly or southwesterly winds. On one day each year, however, there was a
large flight with a light breeze from the east. A warm southwest wind is pretty
sure to bring a large flight of eiders. The flight seldom lasts more than two or
three hours, beginning about 8 or 9 in the morning, or between 3 and 4 in the
afternoon. More rarely a flight begins about 10 in the morning and lasts till
afternoon. During the flights, the great flocks in quick succession appear to strike
the coast a few miles from the station, probably coming straight across from
the Seahorse Islands, and then follow up the belt of level ice parallel to the
coast toward Point Barrow, going pretty steadily on their course, but swerving
a little and rising rather high when alarmed. Their order of flight was gen-
erally in long diagonal lines, occasionally huddling together so that several
could be killed at one discharge. A few flocks in a great flight usually followed
up the line of broken ice a mile or two from the shore, and a flock occasionally
turned in at the mouth of the lagoon and proceeded up over the land.

He further says :

The majority of them are paired by the middle of May, and the flocks are
made up of pairs flying alternately, ducks and drakes. If a duck is shot
down, the drake almost immediately follows her to the ice, apparently sup-
posing that she has alighted.

Mr. W. Elmer Ekblaw contributes the following notes on his
observations in northern Greenland:

The most strikingly beautiful of all the Arctic birds is undoubtedly the
male king eider. His regal plumage warrants fully his royal name. He is
almost as rare as he is royal. Only a relatively small number of his gorgeous
family appears to be left, if ever it was plentiful. His mate is soberly dressed,
quite undistinguishable from her cousin, the female of the common eider.

The king eiders reach the Smith Sound shores somewhat later in the season
than do the common eiders. Because the males are so conspicuous they attract
immediate attention ; and since my first record for them is June 22, I feel
confident that they do not arrive much earlier than that date. Probably
June 15 would be a reasonable date for their first appearance in the land of
the polar Eskimo. I can not say with certainty that the females arrive as
early as the males, but I am inclined to think that they do, because the first
males that we recorded were apparently paired with females. I believe that the
king eiders are paired when they arrive, and that the sexes arrive together.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 109

When the king eiders arrive, the inland ponds are already open, and to these
fresh-water pools the king eiders go at once. They do frequent the open
sea somewhat, but their favorite haunts through the mating and nesting
season are the inland lakelets.

Courtshi'p. — Mr. W. Sprague Brooks (1915) describes the court-
ship of this species as follows :

Once I found this species courting. On June 14, when approaching a small
lagoon, but still unable to see it owing to a slight elevation of the tundra
before me, I heard a strange sound on the other side of the elevation. This
peculiar noise came in series of three " JJrrr-urrr-URRR," the last being the
loudest, a sort of drumming call as when one expels air forcibly through the
mouth with the tongue lightly pressed against the palate. I had heard this
noise once before during the winter made by an Eskimo and used with indiffer-
ent results for encouraging his dog team. I thought this call was an inven-
tion of his own at the time, but when in sight of the lagoon I found
that the disturbance came from a small flock of king eiders, three fe-
males and five males. They were on the beach, and three males were
squatted in a triangle about a female, each about a yard from her. They did
much neck stretching, as many male ducks do in the spring, and frequently
bowed the head forward. The males constantly uttered the above drumming
note. During this time the female was very indifferent to the attentions of
her suitors, doing nothing more than occasionally extending her head toward
one of them. After a brief period of these tactics, one or more of the males
would enter the water and bathe vigorously, with much bowing of heads and
stretching of necks, to return to the beach in a few moments and repeat the
foregoing performance. Finally they all took wing, uttering the croaking
sound similar to the Pacific eider.

Nesting. — ^Although the eggs of the king eider are not rare in
collections, I am surprised to find that remarkably little has been
published regarding the details of its nesting habits. I have three
sets in my collection from Point Barrow, Alaska, but unfortunately
no particulars came with them. MacFarlane secured over 200 eggs
from Franklin Bay and Liverpool Bay, and says in a letter that
when on Island Point, as he was walking along the sea beach, a
female of this species got up and flew violently away to a short
distance, where she alighted on the ground. He at once discovered
her nest, which was a mere hole or depression in the ground, about
50 yards from the beach, wholly composed of eider down, and con-
taining 6 eggs. Other nests were found on the coast during several
seasons, and also among the islands of the Arctic Sea. All appear
to have been similar to the one described, and 6 is the largest number
of eggs mentioned as having been found in any one nest.

Messrs. Thayer and Bangs (1914) report that:

On June 26 a nest was found (by John Koren) in a tuft of grass 10 feet from
the edge of a small lake on one of the islands in the delta of the Kolyma
(northeastern Siberia). It contained the broken shells of two fresh eggs, evi-
dently destroyed by a pair of glaucous gulls that were nesting nearby. The
pair of eiders were swimming about in the lake.

110 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

A. L. V. Manniche (1910), on his explorations in northeastern
Greenland, found two nests " on the slopes of the low rocks by the
coast not far from the mouth of the river. The fresh down and
eggshells proved that they had lately been inhabited." Again he
states that the king eider —

always stayed in the fresh waters on the mainlaud, on which it undoubtedly
exclusively nests. I did not succeed in finding nests with eggs, but all the old
nests I found at Stormkap proved that this bird nests singly. The nests were
placed on the lower slopes, with luxuriant vegetation, or on small hills in the
lowland, with large stones surrounded by grass. None of the observed nests
were far from the bay (as a maximum 1 kilometer).

According to Kev. C. W. G. Eifrig (1905), this species breeds com-
monly on the islands north of Hudson Bay and " places its soft,
down-lined nest on tussocks of grass along the shores and on islands
of inland ponds."

In northern Greenland Mr. Ekblaw noted that :

About July 1 the breeding season is at its height. In one day's tramp over
the lake-dotted valleys about North Star Bay I saw some 20 pairs swimming
about the ponds or resting on the grassy banks, feeding on the abundant life
of the pools, preening their feathers, or sleeping either on land or water with
their bills tucked under their wings. The birds were all paired. The females
were very shy, indeed, and both females and males were shier than the old-
squaws and common eiders.

The nests are placed at some distance from the pools ; the nearest I found
was about 200 yards from any water and 2 miles from the sea ; the farthest
at least a mile from any pool and 4 miles from the sea. Some of the nests
were concealed in the sedges and grasses of the wet swales, usually on a hum-
mock ; some were placed in small hollows in the gravel of old glacial moraines.
The nest is well-lined with down, much lighter in color than the down from the
oldsquaws, and somewhat lighter than the down from the common eiders.

Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain writes to me as follows :

It is very remarkable that, although the king eider is found in fair numbers
in several districts in Spitsbergen, hardly anything was known as to its breed-
ing habits there until quite recently. The reason seems to be that it was
surmised that its breeding habits were similar to those of the common eider,
whereas they are really very different. While the common eider generally
nests in thickly populated colonies on low flat islands in the fjords or off
the coast, the king eider prefers to nest among the moss and lichen-covered
expenses of flat tundra on the mainland. Instead of 100, or several hundred,
nests being found crowded together on an acre or two of ground, the female
king eiders are scattered over the tundra, perhaps half a mile of monotonous
moorland intervening between the nests, and, as tliey squat closely in the moss,
in most cases they are invisible till approached within a few yards. On the
eider holms, too, the drakes, with their boldly contrasted plumage of black and
wliite, stand close to the hens and always accompany them when they leave
the nest to wash and feed, while, on the other hand, the male king eiders are
never seen in the vicinity of the nest, but after the ducks have begun to sit
they congregate in flocks and haunt the open fjords. When the young are

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NORTH AMEEICAN" WILD FOWL 111

hatched out the female king eiders lead them to some fresh-water lake in the
vicinity of the nest, unlike the common eiders, which at once take to the sea.
On a moderate-sized lagoon or fresh-water lake on the tundra scores of broods
of young eiders may be found congregated together late in the summer, accom-
panied by the ducks, and Doctor Van Oort observed that the ducks, by adroit
splashing and feigned attacks, were able to preserve their young from the
powerful sledge dogs which haunted the camp.

Summing up what little data we have on the subject, it seems that,
whereas the other eiders of the north Atlantic nest on the seacoast
exclusively, preferably on islands and often in densely populated
colonies, the king eider seems to prefer to nest near the shores or on
the islands of fresh-water ponds and streams, and its nests are usually
widely scattered. Some writers have said that the nest resembles
that of the common eider, and others have called attention to the
darker down in the nests of the king eider. This character is very
well marked in the only nest I have of this species, in which the down
is dark " bone brown " or dark " clove brown " ; mixed with the down
are numerous bits of moss, lichens, and grass froni the tundra, a few
dry leaves of willows, and a few breast feathers of the duck.

Eggs. — The king eider lays from 4 to 7 eggs, usually 5. These
resemble the eggs of the common species, but thej^ are decidedly
smaller, somewhat more elongated, and rather more pointed. The
shape is elliptical ovate or elongate ovate. The shell is smooth, but
without much gloss. The color varies from " darl . olive buff " to
" deep olive buff " or even " olive buff." The eggs are often clouded
or mottled with darker shades of olive or brown and are frequently
much nest stained, giving them a darker appearance.

The measurements of 152 eggs, in various collections, average
67.6 by 44.7 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four extremes measure
79.5 by 47, 78.5 by 52, 61.3 by 45, and 62.5 by 41.5 millimeters.

Incubation is performed by the female alone. The males desert
the females at this season and fly out to sea, where they form in large
flocks, often far from land and about the edges of the sea. Mr.
Manniche (1910) writes:

The females would, in the breeding season, sometimes leave the nest for a
short while and fly to the nearest pond for the purpose of bathing and seeking
food. Like many other birds, the king eider is irritable and quarrelsome at
this period. One evening I observed a female which had just left her nest.
She flew quickly straight toward me and so low that she seemed to touch the
earth with the tips of her wings. I was standing on the beach of a pond with
shallow water. Uttering an angrs^ grunting she circled around and quite near
to me and then flew to the pond. Having quenched her thirst and by a pair of
quick bounds under the surface put her feathers in order, she swam straight
towai'd me, all the while uttering a peculiar growling and hissing; the feathers
on her head were erected, and she seemed to be very much displeased at my
presence; now and then she cackled in the shallow water like a domestic duck,
again to show her displeasure.

112 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Young. — Referring to the care of the young, the same observer
says:

On the arrival of the expedition at the ship's harbor on August 17 several
females, accompanied by their still downy young ones, were lying in the small
openings in the ice. Three days later I met with 5 broods of ducklings at
the mouth of Stormelven ; one of these broods was scarcely 1 week old. These
broods all contained 5 ducklings — in one case 6 were seen. The old birds
behaved very anxiously when I approached and swam, grunting, around quite
near me and the coast, while the young ones, with a surprising rapidity, moved
outwards, swimming and diving till they at last disappeared far out in the bay.

Immature birds do not breed during their first spring and perhaps
not during their second, as the full plumage is not acquired until the
third winter, or when the young bird is about 2^ years old. These
yotmg birds flock by themselves until they become of breeding age, and
frequent different resorts. They do not go as far north in the sum-
mer, are never seen on or near the breeding grounds, and they usually
winter farther south. Most of the straggling inland records are
made by birds of this class. Kumlien ( 1879 ) saw in July large num-
bers of these immature birds in Cumberland Sound, on the west coast
of Davis Straits, and around Disko Island. They were in various
stages of immature plumage, and the sexual organs of those he exam-
ined were not developed. Apparently these are the summer resorts
of the immature birds not yet ready to breed.

Plumages. — The downy young king eider bears a superficial re-
semblance to the young of the common eider, but it can be easily
recognized by the shape of the bill, head, and feathered tracts at the
base of the bill. The bill is longer and more slender ■ the forehead
is more rounded and prominent, less sloping ; the feathered points on
the sides of the bill do not extend so far forward ; and there is a long,
slender feathered point extending out onto the culmen to the outer
end of the nostrils. The under parts are more extensiveW lighter,
and the upper parts are tinged with more yellowish buff. The color
pattern of the head is also different ; the crown is " bister," paling to
" Saccardo's umber " on the hind neck ; there is a broad superciliary
stripe of " pinkish buff," and a paler tint of the same color extends
down the sides of the head and neck, paling almost to white on the
throat ; there is a dark postocular stripe of " sepia," and the cheeks
and lores are washed with a paler tint of the same, leaving the lower
half of the pointed feather tract nearly white, as on the throat.
The colors on the upper parts shade from " Saccardo's umber "
anteriorly to " bister " on the rump. The under parts are grayish
white.

The progress toward maturity in the young male king eider ad-
vances by similar stages and at the same rate as in the common eider.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 113

The plumage changes are parallel, and yet the two species can be
easily recognied at any age in both sexes. In the brown stage,'
during the first fall and early winter, the young male king eider is
much darker above and the shape of the bill and its feathered bor-
ders are distinctive. During the late winter and early spring the
back, scapulars, and flanks become nearly black; the crown and neck
become darker brown; a variable amount of white appears in the
chest, each feather tipped with duslcy; and some white, dusky-
bordered feathers appear in the rump patches. Some forward birds
show considerable white on the neck and throat, with a suggestion
of the black V during the first spring. The under parts remain
dull mottled brown and the immature wings, with dusky, light-
edged coverts, are retained until the complete summer molt.

This molt involves the first eclipse plumage, which does not en-
tirely disappear until November. The young bird is then in its
second winter plumage, which is similar to the adult winter plumage,
but duller and less complete. This plumage can be easily recognized,
however, by the wing; in the adult male the lesser wing-coverts,
except for a dusky border around the bend of the wing, and the
median wing-coverts are pure white; but in the second- winter male
these white feathers are more or less margined or shaded with dusky.
At the next summer molt these wings are shed and the yoimg male
becomes adult as soon as the second eclipse plumage disappears in
the fall, when about 28 months old.

The eclipse plumage of the adult male king eider is very similar
in appearance, extent, and duration to that of the common eider;
it begins to appear early in July or even in June, with the growth of
dull-brown feathers in the head and neck; dark-brown or blackish
feathers in the white area of the back, and buffy brown feathers
barred with dusky on the breast. The brilliant colors of the head,
including the black V, disappear entirely ; the white rump spots are
nearly or quite obliterated; there is very little white left in the
back; and the buff breast shield is nearly concealed by the barred
feathers. In this plumage, which is complete in August, the wings
and the rest of the plumage are molted. The adult winter plumage
is completely renewed again by the end of November.

The plumage changes of the female king eider are similar to those
of the common eider. .This species can always be easily recognized
by its smaller size, smaller head and bill, and by the pattern of the
feathering at the base of the bill, the central feathered point ex-
tending down to the nostrils. The colors of young females are
always duller, particularly on the under parts. Adults are richer
brown in winter and paler in summer or spring, owing to the wear

114 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

and fading of the brown edgings, particularly on the scapulars,
"vvings, and flanks.

Food. — Referring to the food of this species on its breeding
grounds, Mr. Manniche (1910) says:

lu the season in which the king eider lives in fre.sli water its food consists
principally of plants. In the stomachs which I examined I found, however,
many remnants of insects, especially larvae of gnats. In the stomachs of
downy young ones I found indeterminable remnants of crustaceans, plants, and
small stones.

At other seasons king eiders are essentially salt-water birds and
spend much of their time out on the open sea. They obtain their
food by diving, generally at moderate depths, to the rocky shoals
and ledges where the}'^ find the bulk of their food, which consists
mainly of mollusks, conchylia, bivalve, and univalve shellfish of a
great variety of species. They are also said to eat a number of
crustaceans, shrimps, starfish, small fishes, and fish spawn. On the
coast of Maine in winter, Arthur H. Norton (1909) found that one
" had its gullet filled with large specimens of Gaminarus locusta^
the comm.on sea flea of our shores. Another was similarly filled with
young crabs {Cancel' irrorahcs), in both instances to the exclusion
of other food.'' Ora W. Knight (1908) says: "They are said to
feed in rather deeper water than the other eiders, and Mr. Norton
has recorded the fact that certain individuals had been eating sea
cucumbers {Pentacta frondosa) to the practical exclusion of other
material. While a few I have examined also evidenced some fond-
ness for such a diet, they also had been eating great quantities of
mussels." Apparently almost any kind of animal food to be found
in the sea is a welcome addition to the food of this bird.

Behavior. — The flight of the king eider is similar to that of the
other eiders, but the male can be easily recognized, even at a long dis-
tance, by the larger amount of black in the back and wings. The
adults are usually very shy. but the immature birds are often very
unsuspicious. As this species has to fly inland to its breeding places,
it has less fear of the land than the common eider and does not object
to flying over points of land which lie in its line of flight.

F. Seymour Hersey says, in his n'^^as :

The flight of the king eider, like all tne eiders with which I am familiar, is
swift. The wings are moved very rapidly and the large heavy body is pro-
pelled with a speed and directness that is bulletlike. A bird shot on the wing
will frequently strike the water and bound along the surface for a consider-
able distance before coming to a stop. A bird which I shot at Cape Dyer just
as it was about to round a turn in a small inlet it was flying over at the time,
continued straight ahead from the momentum it had acquired and struck the
tundra several yards from the water, where I found it nearly hidden from
sight in the tundra mosses into which the impact of its fall had embedded it.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 115

It always seemed to me that with the exception of the yellow-billed loon the
king eider is the strongest flyer of any of the northern waterfowl I met.

As a diver it is an expert and can penetrate to great depths ; birds
are said to have been taken in gill nets at a depth of 150 feet. In
diving it partially opens its wings and probably uses them, as well as
its feet, in swimming under water.

Keferring to the behavior of this species in Greenland, Mr. Man-
niche (1910) writes: " Every day they used to fly from the lakes and
ponds inland down to the bay, and especially to the mouth of Storm-
elven, in which they would lie and dive for food. They used to lie
for hours on the grass-clad beaches of the lake in order to rest or to
sleep, with their heads hidden under their wings. During their
excursions in the field, they always flew very low and sometimes
uttered a slight growling or grunting sound." Hagerup (1891) says
that "its only note is a single cooing sound, heard especially at
night."

Fall. — ^Mr. Murdoch (1885) says of the fall migration at Point
Barrow :

By the second week in July, before the ice is gone from the sea or from
Elson Bay, the males begin to come back in flocks from the east, and from that
time to the middle of September there is a flight of eiders whenever the wind
blows from the east. The flocks are all males at first, but mixed flocks grad-
ually appear, and the young of the year were first observed in these flocks on
August 30, 1882.

Most of the flight birds make no stay, but continue on to the southwest,
generally a couple of miles out at sea, though they occasionally stop to rest,
especially when there is much drifting ice. Between the regular flights they
continue to straggle along, coming off the land, and occasionally sitting ap-
parently asleep on the beach. Small flocks and single birds are to be seen
till the sea closes, about the end of October, and in 1SS2 many were seen as
late as December 2, when there were many holes of open water.

When the birds are flying at Pergniak, it is quite a lively scene, as there is
a large summer camp of Eskimos close to the point where the ducks cross when
the conditions are favorable. When the wind is east or northeast, and not
blowing too hard, the birds come from the east and strike the land at a point
which runs out on the shore of the bay about half a mile from Pergniak, close
to where the lagoons begin.

They would be apt to turn and fly down these lagoons were it not for a row
of stakes, set up by the natives, running round the semicircle of the bay to
the camp. As soon as the flock reaches this critical point, all the natives, and
there may be 50 of them on the watch, with guns and slings, just at the nar-
rowest part of the beach above the tents, immediately set up a shrill yell.
Nine times out of ten the flock will waver, turn, follow round the row of
stakes, and naturally whirl out to sea at the first open place, where, of course,
the gunners are stationed. With a strong wind, however, the ducks do not
follow the land, but come straight on from the east and cross wherever they
happen to strike the beach, so that the shooting can not be depended on.

116 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The flocks during the fall flight are not so large and do not follow one an-
other in such rapid succession as in the spring; and though they arrive from
the east in the same stringing order, they liuddle into a compact body as they
whirl along the line of stakes and out over the beach.

Mr. Hersey contributes the following notes on the fall migration :

No one who has not observed the migration of the king eider along the Arc-
tic coast of Alaska can realize the enormous abundance of this species in the
north. The southward migration was well under way when we left Kotzebue
Sound early in August, 1914, and started northward for Point Barrow. When
we reached Icy Cape we encountered ice, and by the time we were ofC Wain-
wright Inlet the ice conditions were so bad and the wind so unfavorable that
the captain decided it was not prudent to go further until the wind changed.
We spent the time from August 10 to 20 lying off Wainwright Inlet waiting
for a change of wind, and during these days migrating flocks of king eiders
were constantly passing. The birds travel mostly in large flocks of 75 to
350 birds, following the shore line but keeping at least a mile from land.
They spread out in a long line, the birds flying nearly abreast, but in the larger
flocks quite a few will be bunched toward the center, or sometimes two or three
small parties of 10 to 20 birds will follow directly in back of the main line.
There is an undulating motion to these flocks when seen at a distance similar
to that of a flock of Canada geese. They fly some 30 or 40 feet above the
water or ice and follow in what appears to be the exact course of the flock
that had passed a few moments before. During the 10 days that this migra-
tion was under observation there appeared to be no diminution in the numbers
of birds coming out of the north. A flock would appear on the horizon to
the northeast, fly steadily toward us to a certain point where they always
swerved away from the ship, pass at a distance of a quarter of a mile, and a
moment later disappear in the southwest. Turning our faces to the northeast
again another flock would be seen coming into view at the same point on the
horizon where the last birds had appeared and pressing steadily on along the
same flight line. Throughout the entire 10 days there was hardly a quarter
hour in which a flock of birds was not passing, and often more than one
flock was in sight. The migration moved on without interruption from day-
break, which at this time of year takes place between 3 and 4 in the morning,
until the sun sets, about 9 p. m. The flight of one of these migrating flocks
seems slow, probably on account of the wavy motion of the line of birds, but
when they finally sweep past it is seen that they are really flying swiftly,
and there is a roar of wings audible for a long distance.

Winter. — To visit the winter haunts of the king eider on the New
England coast, one must be prepared to brave the rigors of the cold,
rough sea in the most exposed places; for these hardy birds do not
come until wintry conditions have made offshore boating far from
comfortable, and they prefer to frequent the outer ledges which at
that season are almost always unapproachable. I can well remember
a December morning on the coast of Maine, the first chance after a
week of waiting for a day smooth enough to reach the outer islands,
when we started long before daylight for a little eider duck shooting.
Fifteen miles or more we had to go in our little launch to reach the
ledges where we were to shoot. With the first signs of daylight and

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 117

for an hour before sunrise we could see small flocks of scoters, darkly
painted on the lightening slcy, flying from their bedding grounds
at sea up into Jericho Bay to feed on the mussel beds in shallow
water With the coming of the dawn the gulls became active, and
and their shadowy forms could be made out against the rosy clouds.
The black figure of an occasional cormorant was seen flying high
in the air, and scurrying flocks of oldsquaws flew past us at safe
distances. We soon realized, as we began to reach the outer islands,
that it was none too smooth ; a heavy ocean swell was rolling in and
breaking on the ledges ; and the west wind, coming up with the sun,
Avas stirring up a troublesome cross chop. As we approached Spirit
Ledge, where we intended to do our shooting, all hope of landing
was dispelled, for the waves were breaking over it with clouds of
spray and all around it the submerged ledges were white with comb-
ing breakers. It was no place for us, this wild scene of ocean fury,
but for the birds it held no terrors. There, just beyond our reach
were hundreds of American eiders, surf and white-winged scoters,
flocks of oldsquaws, and a few of the black-backed king eiders;
flocks were going and coming, settling in the water among the
breakers or circling about the rocks. It was a wild and attractive
scene, but we could only view it from a distance, and we were finally
obliged to retire to a more sheltered ledge where we succeeded in
landing and setting out our decoys in the lee. Here only occasional
flocks, pairs, or single birds came in to us, as we lay concealed among
the rocks while our boatman was anchored at a distance. Off around
the outer ledges we could still see the flocks of eiders feeding in the
surf, riding at ease among the angry waves, paddling backwards or
forwards to avoid the breaking crests, or diving under a combing
breaker. There were both old and young birds in the flocks, but the
latter decidedly in the majority ; the old birds were too shy to come
to us, but we secured young males ^jn various stages of plumage.
Before long it became too rough to stay even here, and our boatman
insisted on our leaving before it was too late; as it was we lost one
oar and nearly lost our skiff'; we were glad to leave the sea ducks
alone in their glory.

On the southern coasts of New England and Long Island the
king eider is an irregular winter visitor, and during some seasons it
is quite common. I have a small series of immature males and
females taken in midwinter about Hen and Chickens Keef , partially
submerged ledges a few miles off the coast of Westport, Massachu-
setts; here these birds are known as "cousins," owing to their re-
semblance to the common eiders, which are known as " wamps." On
Long Island they are known as " Isle of Shoal ducks " ; William
Dutcher (1888) received, in January, 1887, a female king eider from

118 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Capt. J. G. Scott, keeper of the lighthouse at Montauk Point, who
reported them :

Living off the Point since early in November (11), when I saw a flock of
4 ; the next day I saw 10 at one time. They appear less shy than the other
wild fowl and will permit a nearer approach in a boat. In this locality it is
seen occasionally in the winter months on the ocean from one-quarter to one-
half mile from shore. It is not a common duck, and I believe it is only a few
years since they have been seen off Montauk Point, but this winter they have
been more than usually common. There is a shoal, with a depth of water
from 15 to 20 feet, about one-quarter of a mile ofC the Point, where I go to
shoot ducks, but can only do so when the surf will permit. Every time I have
visited this spot this winter I have seen from 4 to 20 king eiders.

The king eider spends the winter as far north as it can find open
water; in southern Greenland it associates with the northern eider
in the open water in the fjords, but probably the greater number
spend the winter at sea on the edges of the ice packs or in the open
leads. On the western side of the continent the principal winter
resort of this species is in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands, where
so many other sea ducks find congenial surroundings and abundant
food. Some few birds winter as far north as the Diomede Islands,
and many resort to the islands south of the Alaska Peninsula.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Arctic coasts of both hemispheres. On both
coasts of Greenland, north to 82° 30', less abundantly in southern
Greenland. In North America south to northern Labrador
(Nachvak), Hudson Straits (Wales Sound), northern Hudson Bay
(Southampton Island and Cape Fullerton), and the entire Arctic
coasts of Canada and Alaska. On St. Lawrence and St. Matthew
Islands, in Bering Sea. All along the Arctic coast of Siberia, on
Nova Zembla, and on Spitsbergen. North on Arctic islands to
Melville Island and probably others up to at least 76° N.

Winter range. — South on the Atlantic coast more or less regularly
to Massachusetts (Vineyard Sound) and New York (Long Island),
more rarely to New Jersey, and casually farther south. South in
the interior frequently to the Great Lakes (Ontario, Erie, and
Michigan) and casually beyond. On the Pacific coast south to the
Aleutian, Kodiak, and Shumagin Islands. North as far as open
water extends in Bering Sea and around southern Greenland. In
the Eastern Hemisphere it visits Iceland, the Faroes, Norway, Den-
mark, Great Britain, Holland, and the Baltic Sea, and has occurred
in France (twice) and Italy (four times).

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival: Greenland, Igloolik,
latitude 69°, April 16, and Etah, May 1; Wellington Channel, lati-
tude 76°, June 9; Fort Conger, latitude 82°, June 11. Late dates

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 119

of departure: Georgia, Brunswick, May 5; New York, Long Island,
June 8, and Waterford, April 30 ; Maine, May 29 ; Ontario, Ottawa,
May 8. Dates of arrival in Alaska : Point Hope, March 17 ; Point
Barrow, April 27; Humphrey Point, May 15. Arrival at Banks
Land, Mercy Bay, June 1.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Massachusetts, October
21 ; New York, Cayuga, November 3 ; Pennsylvania, Erie, November
13; Ontario, Toronto, November 25; Ohio, Columbus, November 1:
North Carolina, Dare County, December 3; Virginia, Cobb Island,
Pecember 19. Late dates of departure : Alaska, Point Barrow,
♦December 2, and Wainwright, November 9; Mackenzie, Fort Simp-
son, October 25.

Casual records. — Has wandered south on the Atlantic coast to
Georgia (Ossabaw Island, December 1, 1904, St. Catherine Island,
December 3, 1904, and Brunswick, April 25 and May 5, 1890) , on the
Pacific coast to central California (San Francisco, winter of
1879-80), and in the interior to Alberta (Calgary, November 4,
1894), and to Iowa (Keokuk, November 18, 1894).

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Sixteen records, June 27 to July 8.
Alaska : Twelve records, June 10 to July 5 ; six records, June 20 to
July 3. Greenland : Four records, July 11 to 25.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson
AMERICAN SCOTER

HABITS

This is the least known and the rarest of the three species of
scoters or " coots " which migrate up and down our coasts on both
sides of the continent ; it is also the hardest of the three to identify
in life, as it has no distinctive marks visible at a distance; hence
it is commonly referred to by nearly all observers in connection with
the other two, and it is Very difficult to separate much that is appli-
cable to this species alone. This group as a whole seems to be
rather unpopular among naturalists, as it is among sportsmen; con-
sequently comparatively little effort has been devoted to the study of
its habits.

Spring. — The spring migration of the American scoter, on the
Atlantic coast, is eastward and northward along the seacoast; I car
find no evidence of an overland flight to the interior, which is so
conspicuous in the white-winged scoter. During April and the early
part of May large numbers may be seen migrating eastward through
Vineyard Sound and around Cape Cod. On the south coast of
Labrador we saw them flying eastward during the latter part of May
and the first half of June. While migrating the three species usually

100449—25 9

120 BULUETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

keep in flocks by themselves, but mixed flocks are occasionally seen ;
such mixed flocks are more apt to contain American and surf
scoters than white-winged scoters.
Nesting. ~Dy. E. W. Nelson (1887) writes:

At St. Michael these ducks are never seen in spring until the ice begins to
break offshore and the marshes are dotted with pools of open water. May 16
is the earliest date of arrival I recorded. Toward the end of this montli they
leave the leads in the ice and are found in abundance among the salt and
fresh water ponds on the great marshes from the Yukon mouth north and
south. The mating is quickly accomplished and a nesting site chosen on the
border of some pond. The spot is artfully hidden in the standing grass, and
the eggs, if left by the parent, are carefully covered with grass and moss.
At the Yukon mouth Dall found a nest of this species on June 17. The nest
contained two white and rather large eggs, and was in a bunch of willows
on a small island, and was well lined with dry grass, leaves, moss, and
feathers.

Edward Adams (1878) found this species breeding in the same
general region, and says of its nesting habits :

These birds were rather late in their arrival ; I met with none until the
19th of May. Toward the end of the month several pairs had taken possession
of the larger lakes near Michalaski ; here they remained to breed, seldom
going out to sea, but keeping together in small flocks in the middle of the
lake. Their nests were well secreted in the clefts and hollows about the
steep banks of the lakes, close to the water; they were built of coarse grass,
and well lined with feathers and down. They had not laid when I last ex-
amined the nests.

Audubon's (1840) historic account of the nesting of the Ameri-
can scoter on the south coast of Labrador is interesting as showing
that it once bred farther south than it now does and as illustrating
its method of nesting in Labrador, where it probably still breeds
abundantly in the more remote sections; he writes:

On the 11th of July, 1833, a nest of this bird was found by my young com-
panions in Labrador. It was placed at the distance of about 2 yards from
the margin of a large fresh-water pond, about a mile from the shore of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, under a low fir, in the manner often adopted by the
eider duck, the nest of which it somewhat resembletl, although it was much
smaller. It was composed externally of small sticks, moss, and grasses, lined
with down, in smaller quantity than that found in the nest of the bird just
mentioned, and mixed with feathers. The eggs, which were ready to be
hatched, were 8 in number, 2 inches in length, an inch and fivereighths in
breadth, of an oval form, smooth, and of a uniform pale yellowish color.

We did not observe this species on the south coast of Labrador
except as a migrant, but on the east coast we found it fairly common
all summer all along the coast, at least as far north as Hopedale,
Flocks made up entirely of males were seen in many of the inner
bays and in the mouths of rivers in July and August; probably
their deserted mates were incubating on their eggs or tending broods
of young about the inland ponds a few miles back from the coast.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 121

It is surprising that none of the numerous ornithologists who have
visited Labrador have ever found and identified a nest of the Ameri-
can scoter since Audubon's time, but anyone who has ever attempted
to explore into the interior of this discouraging country will appre-
ciate why. The region is so vast, so hopelessly impassable, and so
exceedingly poor in bird life that one soon gives it up in despair.
This and all other species are so widely scattered that the chances
of finding their nests are very small. I doubt if the American scoter
migrates very far north to breed; we did not see it north of Hope-
dale, though we did see the surf scoter; it has never been found
breeding abundantly about Hudson Bay in the northwest territories
or on the Arctic coast, and Turner reported it as very scarce about
Ungava Bay. Its main breeding grounds have apparently never
been found. One would naturally infer then that the large num-
bers of this species which winter on our eastern coasts must breed in
the interior of the Labrador peninsula, probably in the southern
half of it, and perhaps near the marshy coasts of James Bay and
the southern half of Hudson Bay ; all of which regions are sadly in
need of further exploration.

The American scoter undoubtedly breeds regularly, but not abun-
dantly in Newfoundland. My friend, J. R. Whitaker, told me that
he had seen this duck on Grand Lake with a brood of young,
though his attempts to find a nest have proved unsuccessful. This
is another vast region, difficult to travel in and largely unexplored.

I have a set of 9 eggs in my collection, said to be of this species,
taken by Rev. C. E, Whitaker on Gary Island, Mackenzie Baj^, on
June 10, 1910 ; the nest is described as made of down in a tussock of
grass. The down is rather dark in color, varying from "bone
brown " to " dusky drab " and is flecked with bits of whitish down,
uniformly mixed with the dark down; the down is mixed with bits
of dry leaves, pieces of grass, and small sticks.

Eggs. — The American scoter is said to lay from 6 to 10 eggs.
They vary in shape from ovate to elliptical ovate. The shell is clean
and smooth, but without gloss. The color varies from " light buff "
or " pale pinkish buff " to " cartridge buff." The measurements of
58 eggs, in various collections, average 61.9 by 41.7 millimeters;
the eggs showing the four extremes measure 72.5 by 46, 63 by 46.2,
and 53 by 33.6 millimeters.

Young. — Nothing seems to be known about the period of incuba-
tion. This duty is performed solely by the female, who is entirely
deserted by the male at this season. Doctor Nelson (1887) writes:

As the set of eggs is completed, the male gradually loses interest in the
female and soon deserts her to join great flocks of his kind along the sea-
shore, usually keeping in the vicinity of a bay, inlet, or the mouth of some
large stream. These flocks are formed early in June and continue to grow

122 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

larger until the fall migration occurs. Males may be found in the marshes
with females all through the season, but these are pairs which breed late.
A set of fresh eggs was taken on August 3, and a brood of downy young was
obtained on September 9. The habits of these flocks of males are very similar
to those of the male eiders at this season. They are good weather indica-
tors, and frequently, 10 or 20 hours in advance of a storm, they come into the
sheltered bays, sometimes to the number of a thousand or more. At such
times they show great uneasiness, and frequently pass hours in circling about
the bay, sometimes a hundred yards high and again close over the water, the
shrill whistling of their wings making a noise which is distinctly audible
nearly or quite half a mile. Until the young are about half grown the female
usually keeps them in some large pond near the nesting place, but as August
passes they gradually work their way to the coast and are found, like the
eiders of the same age, along the reefs and about the shores of the inner
bays until able to fly.

Regarding the care of the young, Audubon (1840) says:

I afterwards found a female with seven young ones, of which she took such
effectual care that none of them fell into our hands. On several occasions,
when they were fatigued by diving, she received them all on her back, and
swimming deeply, though very fast, took them to the shore, where the little
things lay close among the tall grass and low tangled bushes. In this species,
as in others, the male forsakes the female as soon as incubation commences.

Plumages. — The downy young, when first hatched, is dark colored
above, varying from " Front's brown " or " verona brown " to " bis-
ter," darkest on the crown and rump; the throat and cheeks, below
the lores and the eyes, are white ; the under parts are grayish white
centrally, shading off on the flanks into the color of the upper parts ;
the bill is broadly tipped with dull yellow. The plumage appears
first, when about half grown, on the breast and scapulars; the tail
appears next and the wings are the last to grow.

The following remarks are based largely on two papers by Gurdon
Trumbull (1892 and 1893) and one by Dr. Jonathan Dwight (1914)
on the molts and plumages of the scoters, all of which are well worth
reading, and to w^iich I would refer the reader for details. In the
Juvenal plumage the sexes are practically alike, the female averaging
slightly smaller. The upper parts, including the crown, back, wings,
and tail, are deep, rich brown, varyifig from " Front's brown " to
"mummy brown," darkest on the scapulars and tertials and palest
on the neck, chest, and flanks, where it fades into the light color of
the under parts ; the lower half of the head and the belly are grayish
white, mottled with lighter browns. This is the plumage in which
the birds are known to the gunners as " gray coots " ; it is worn dur-
ing the fall and often well into the winter without change. Some-
times as early as November, but more often not until January or
later, the sexes begin to differentiate ; a growth of black feathers be-
gins in the head and neck of the young male and a similar growth of
brown feathers appears in the young female. The growth of black

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 123

feathers in the male increases during the winter and spring until
some of the most advanced birds become nearly all black except on
the belly and wings. Doctor Dwight (1914) says:

Shortly after new feathers appear, the bill of the young male begins to take
on the colors of the adult and still more gradually assumes its shape. The
colors may closely approximate, by the end of the winter, those of the adult, but
the shape is not perfected for at least a year, the swelling of the hump not be-
ing marked in the first winter birds, although the yellow color may be brilliant.
The bill of the female and the legs and feet of the male remain dusky, adults
differing very little from young birds.

No matter how black the plumage may be nor how bright the colors of bill
or feet, young males may infallibly be told from adults by the shape of the
first primary, which is not replaced until the first postnuptial molt. The iris
in americana is always brown in both sexes at all ages.

At the first complete postnuptial molt, the following summer, the
young bird becomes practically adult ; the plumage is wholly black in
the male and wholly dark brown in the female. At this molt the adult
wing is acquired, in which the outer primary is deeply emarginated ;
the broad tipped outer primary is worn by the young bird for one
year only.

Adults have two molts each year, a partial prenuptial molt in
March and April, involving the body feathers and the tail, and a
complete postnuptial molt in August and September. There is no
evidence of anything like an eclipse plumage in this or in the other
scoters. The plumages described as such by European writers are
probably produced by wear and fading or by left-over traces of a
former plumage.

Food. — Writing of the feeding habits of the three species of
scoters on the Massachusetts coast, George H. Mackay (1891) says:

These scoters are the most numerous of all the sea fowl which frequent
the New England coast, collecting in greater or less numbers wherever their
favorite food can be procured — the black mussel (Modiola modiolus), small
sea clams (Spisula solidissima) , scallops (Pecten concentricus) , and short
razor shells (Siliqua costata), about an inch to an inch and a half long, which
they obtain by diving. Mussels measuring 2^2 inches by 1 inch have been
taken from them ; but usually they select sea clams and scallops varying in
size from a 5-cent nickel piece to a quarter of a dollar. They can feed in
about 40 feet of water, but prefer less than half of that depth. As these
mussels are frequently difficult to detach, and the sea clam lives embedded
endwise in sand at the bottom with only about half an inch above the sand,
the birds are not always successful in obtaining them, it requiring considerable
effort on their part to pull the mussels off or to drag out the clams. Eight
or ten of these constitute a meal, but the number varies according to the size.
I have heard of a mussel closing on a scoter's tongue, which was nearly severed
at the time the bird was shot (Muskeget Island, about 1854). The fishermen
frequently discover beds of shellfish (scallops) by noticing where these birds
congregate to feed. In the shoal waters adjacent to Cape Cod, Nantucket.

124 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES- NATIONAL MUSEUM

and Marthas Vineyard, these mollusks are particularly abundant, and conse-
quently we find more of the scoters in those localities than on any other part
of the coast or perhaps than on all the rest of the coast combined.

E. H. Forbush (1912) writes:

Its food consists largely of mussels, and when feeding on fresh water it
prefers the Unios or fresh-water clams to most other foods. Thirteen Massa-
chusetts specimens were found to have eaten nearly 95 per cent of mussels;
the remaining 5 per cent of the stomach contents was composed of starfish and
periwinkles. It is a common belief that all scoters feed entirely upon animal
food, but this is not a fact. Along the Atlantic coast they appear to subsist
mostly on marine animals, but, in the interior, vegetable food also is taken.
Mr. W. L. IMcAtee found the scoters in a Wisconsin lake living almost ex-
clusively for a time on the wild celery, but he does not state definitely what
species of scoter was repi-esented there.

• Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899) says that, while on the lakes and
ponds of the interior, this species eats minnows and small fish, slugs,
and snails, larvae of insects, fish spawn, crawfish, small frogs, and
polliwogs; also a variety of vegetable food such as duckweed, pond-
weed, flags, water milfoil, bladderwort, and several other water
plants. Probably the young are fed largely on insect food.

Behavior. — The American scoter is not easily recognized in flight ;
its size, shape, gait, and general appearance are all much like those
of the surf scoter, from which only the adult males can be distin-
guished by the head and bill markings at short range; the females
and young of these two species can not be distinguished in life at any
considerable distance, and many gunners do not recognize them in
the hand. Its flight is not quite so heavy as that of the white-winged
scoter. All the scoters fly more swiftly than they appear to be going,
but at nothing like the speed at which they have been reported to
fly; I doubt if they ever fly at over 60 miles an hour or even attain
that speed except under the most favorable circumstances. Migrat-
ing flocks in the fall usually fly high in fair vreather. but in stormy
or very windy weather the flocks sweep along close to the water and
usually well in shore, following the indentations of the coast line
and seldom flying over the land, except on their occasional visits to
inland ponds. The flocks vary greatly in size and form, some are
great irregular masses or bunches, others are strung out in long
straight or curving lines, and sometimes ih&y form in more or less
regular V or U shapes. The wings make a whistling sound in flight,
which the gunners imitate to attract the attention of passing flocks.
All the scoters are strong, fast, and tireless swimmers, either on
the surface or below it ; they dive quickly and neatly and can remain
under water for a long time. Mr. Mackay (1891) writes:

In these shallow waters the tide runs rapidly over the shoal ground and
sweeps the scoters away from where they wish to feed, thus necessitating their
flying back again to it ; consequently there is at such times a continual move-
ment among them as they are feeding. When wounded and closely pursued,

LIFE HISTORIES OP NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 125

they will frequently dive to the bottom (always using their wings as well as
feet at such times in swimming under water) and retain hold of the rock-
weed with the bill until drowned, prefering thus to die than to come to the
surface to be captured. As an instance of this, I may mention that on one
occasion I shot a scoter when the water was so still that there was not even
a ripple on its surface; after iDursuing the bird for some time I drove it
near the shore, when it dove and did not reappear. I knew it must have
gone to the bottom, as I had seen the same thing i-epeatedly before. As the
occasion was a favorable one for investigation, the water being clear and not
more than 12 or 15 feet in depth, I rowed along carefully, looking continu-
ally into the water near the spot where the bird was last seen. My search
was at last successful, for on getting directly over where the bird was I
could look down and distinctly see it holding on to the rockweed at the bot-
tom with its bill. After observing it for a time I took one of my oars, and
aiming it at the bird sent it down. I soon dislodged it, still alive, and cap-
tured it. I have often seen these birds, when wounded and hard pressed,
dive where the water was 40 to 50 feet deep, and not come to the surface again.
I therefore feel much confidence in stating that it is no uncommon occui'rence
for them under such ci-rcumstances to prefer death by drowning to capture.
This they accomplish by seizing hold of the rockweed at the bottom, holding
on even after life has become extinct. I have also seen all three species
when wounded dive from the air, entering the water without any splash.
All are expert divers, it requiring considerable experience to retrieve them
when wounded.

Scoters are usually silent birds; I can not remember having
heard any notes from any of them, but Mr. Mackay (1891) says:
" The American scoter makes a musical -whistle of one prolonged
note, and it can frequently be called to the decoys by imitating the
note." Rev. J. H. Langille (1884) says: "The note of the scoter
in spring is like lohe-oo-hoo^ long drawn out."

Maj. Allan Brooks (1920) writes:

In British Columbia this scoter is an exclusively maritime duck ; at least
I have not come across a single reliable inland record. Not only is it a
maritime bird, but it is seldom found in the small bays and inlets where
the other species swarm, but frequents the exposed shores and outer reefs
together with the harlequin. It has many points in common with that duck,
rising easily from the water and doing much flying about in small lots of four
or five — mostly males — seemingly for the pleasure of flying, usually returning to
the point they started from. In flight the silvery undersurface of the primaries,
in both sexes, is very conspicuous. In fine, calm weather they call a great
deal and their plaintive cour-loo is the most musical of duck cries, very dif-
ferent from the croaking notes of most diving ducks.

Fall. — The fall migration of the American scoter is somewhat
earlier than that of the other two species. On the Massachusetts
coast the flight begins in September, and during the latter half of
that month there is often quite a heavy flight which consists almost
entirely of adult birds. The young birds, which are known as
" gray coots," come along with the other scoters in October. Each
species usually flocks by itself, and flocks of adults are often sepa-
rated from flocks of young birds; but mixed flocks are often seen,

126 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

particularly of young American and surf scoters. The American
scoter is more often seen in fresh-water ponds a few miles back from
the coast than are the other two, though all three are often seen on
our large inland lakes.

Game. — From the sportsman's standpoint the American scoter is
a more desirable game bird than the other two scoters. The young
birds particularly, when they first arrive from their northern feed-
ing grounds in the interior, are fatter, more tender, and less strongly
flavored than are the others. The value of " coots " as food has been
much maligned and in my opinion unjustly; if young and tender
birds are selected and if they are properly cooked their flesh is much
more palatable than is generally supposed; the popular prejudice
against them is largely due to an erroneous impression that they
must be parboiled, which is a pernicious practice and will render
any oily seaduck unfit for food by saturating the flesh with the oily
flavor. There are only two proper ways to cook a sea duck; one is
to skin it and broil it ; and the other is to scrape as much oil out of
the skin as possible and then roast it quickly in a hot oven, letting
the oil run off.

The Massachusetts method of " coot shooting," in which I have
often indulged, is described under another species, so I shall quote
from Walter H. Rich (1907) as to the methods employed on the
Maine coast ; he writes :

Probably the least wary of the duck family, they may be approached quite
readily as compared with other members of the tribe. Gunners use many
methods for capturing the coots, but the greater number are killed over decoys.
A string of " tolers " is set in a promising place just off some rocky point or
ledge in the deep water, the gunner is well bidden, and if the birds are flying
there is every prospect of good shooting, for the coot is one of the best of
birds to decoy. Often in the early part of the season, before the birds have
become shy from constant peppering, the gunner may set his decoys on a
line from his boat, only keeping below the gunwale when the flocks are coming
in. And they will come in. I have often seen them fly close enough to be
struck with an oar — I may say that they make it an invariable rule to do this
when the gunner has taken the shells out of his gun or laid it aside to pick
up his decoys after a morning's cootless waiting in the cold. One oddity in
the gentle art of duck shooting is the practice of " hollerin' coots " — that is,
of making a great noise when a flock is passing by out of shot — when they
will often turn and come to the decoys. The report of a gun sometimes has
the same effect, but we New Englanders are too thrifty to waste powder
and lead where our vocal organs will serve as well.

Next to decoying, the use of the " gunning float " is the most effective
method of killing coots. The " gunning float " is a long, low craft, drawing
but little water and showing only a foot or so above the surface when properly
trimmed down with ballast. In the fall, for use in the open water, they are
" trimmed " with " rockweed " ; in the marshes with " thatch." In the spring
and winter months the proper thing is snow and ice to represent a drifting
ice cake. It takes sharp eyes to detect the dangerous one among the many

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 127

harmless pieces of ice when the gunner, clad in his white suit, is working his
cautious way along toward the feeding flocks. The deception is so complete
that I have known that crafty old pirate, the crow, to almost alight on the
nose of a float when it was being pushed after a flock of sea fowl. This float
gunning is the method most used for all duck and goose shooting on the
eastern New England coast' line.

Winter. — There is not a month in the year during which scoters
may not be seen on the Massachusetts coast; straggling birds,
crippled, sick, or nonbreeding birds are present more or less all
summer; the heavy migration flights last all through the fall and
during much of the spring; and in winter this is one of the main
resorts of all three species. The waters lying south of Cape Cod
and in the vicinity of Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard are particu-
larly congenial to these birds in winter^ where the numerous islands,
bays, and reefs offer some shelter from the winter storms, where
they are not much disturbed by gunners at that season, and where
they can find extensive beds of mussels, scallops, clams, and quahogs
within easy reach on the numerous shoals and ledges. Here they
congregate in enormous numbers, the three species associated to-
gether and often with eiders and oldsquaws. They have their
favorite feeding grounds, to which they resort regularly every day
at daybreak, feeding, playing, and resting during the day and flying
out again at night to sleep on the bosom of the ocean, or on some
more sheltered portion of the sound, far enough from land to feel
secure.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Northern North America and northeastern
Asia. East to the coast of Labrador (north of the Straits of
Belle-Isle) and Newfoundland (Grand Lake). South nearly or
quite to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to James Bay, to an unknown
distance in the interior of Canada and Alaska and to the base of
the Alaska Peninsula (Lake Clark). On the Aleutian and Kurile
Islands. West to the Bering Sea coast of Alaska and to north-
eastern Siberia (Gichiga). North to northern Alaska (Kowak
River), northern Canada (Mackenzie Bay) and probably north in
the Labrador Peninsula to Ungava Bay and perhaps Hudson Straits.

Winter range. — Mainly on the seacoast. On the Atlantic coast regu-
larly south to Long Island Sound and New Jersey, rarely to South
Carolina, and occasionally to Florida. North regularly to Maine
and more rarely to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland.
On the Pacific coast from the Pribilof and Aleutian Islands south
to southern California (Santa Barbara Islands) and from the Com-
mander Islands south to Japan and China. In the interior it
Avinters on the Great Lakes more or less regularly and has occurred

100449—25 10

128 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

irregularly or casually as far west and south as Wyoming
(Cheyenne), Colorado (Fort Collins), and Louisiana (Lake
Catherine).

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival : Gulf of St. Lawrence,
March 25; Ontario, Ottawa, May 4; Alaska, St. Michael, May 16,
and Bering Straits, May 8. Late dates of departure : South Carolina,
Bulls Bay, May 7; Virginia, Cobb Island, May 19; New York,
Shelter Island, June 5; Massachusetts, Woods Hole, June 10;
Alaska, Admiralty Island, June 10.

"Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Ontario, Ottawa, Sep-
tember 1; Massachusetts, September 8; Minnesota, Heron Lake,
October 5; Colorado, Denver, October 2. Main flight passes Massa-
chusetts in October. Late date of departure : Alaska, St. Michael,
October 15.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Five records, June 10 to 21. Alaska :
Four records, June 2 to August 3. Labrador: Two records, June
10 and 17.

MELANITTA FUSCA (Linnaeus)
VELVET SCOTER

HABITS

This is strictly an Old World species which owes its somewhat
questionable place on the American list to the fact that it has
been recorded as a straggler in Greenland. I have never been able
to understand why the birds of Greenland should be included in our
North American fauna, while those of Cuba and the Bahamas, which
are both geographically and faunally much closer to us, are exclud-
ed. Greenland both geographically and faunally is but a little
nearer North America than Europe; it is intermediate. If we
exclude cosmopolitan species, common to both hemispheres, about
three-fifths of the breeding birds of Greenland are also North Ameri-
can and about two-fifths are also European.

As the velvet scoter is practically unknown, as an American bird,
I can not do better than quote its life history from one of the best of
the European writers, an eminent authority on ducks, Mr. John G.
Millais (1913) as follows:

Nesting. — Velvet scoters ari'ive on the lakes of Norway and Sweden about
the end of April, in fact, as soon as the ice breaks up, and even earlier on the
lake swamps of Lithuania, which seems to he about the southern limit of
nesting birds. The male and female are much devoted to one another and
keep close together during the early part of the nesting season. It has often
been noticed that if one of the pair is shot the other will fall to the water
and dive or stay close to its fallen mate.

They seem to prefer inland lakes and small ponds on which to breed. CoUett
has found them breeiling in large numbers in the hill lakes of Gudbrandsda,
Valders, Osterdal, and north to Finmark, and I have myself seen females and

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 129

young birds on the lakes of Vaklers and Trondhjem in September, tlie males
having departed.

The nest is often found in a depression of the dry ground in the open ; at
other times sheltered by brushwood such as salix or juniper. C. E. Pearson
found one nest in a clump of marram grass amongst sand hills. Others were
placed deej) down in cracks of the ijeat, overgrown by Enipctrum nigrum, so
that the sitting duck was carefully concealed. Seebohm found several nests in
the Siberian tundra far from the water, whilst Knoblooh says the velvet
i^coter sometimes breeds in forests. The nest is usiially a deep hollow
lined with grass and leaves. The earliest clutches are to be met with in the
Baltic, and are to be found from May 25 onward, but in Lapland it is more
usual to find eggs in June, and generally in the second half of that month. H.
F. Witherby took a clutch of eggs on July 22 in Russian Lapland, and Seebohm
found eggs on the Petschora in July. Six to ten eggs are usually laid, and in-
cubation is by the female alone. As to the period of incubation no data are
available.

Eijgs. — Six to ten, as a rule, but clutches of 11 have been recorded. Simon-
son says that clutches of 10 to 14 may be met with. Oval in shape, creamy
white with a warm " apricot " tinge when fresh, which fades after a time.
Average size of 90 eggs, 70.8 by 47.9 mm. (2.78 by 1.88 inches). Max., 76.5
by 49.5 and 71.2 by 51.5; min., 64.3 by 46.9, and 68.3 by 44.8 mm. (F. C. R.
Jourdain).

Young. — The males appear to deseit the females about the time the young
are hatching. E. F. von Homeyer says: "I have often seen 'locks of 60
to 100, consisting of old males only, in the months of July and August, and
these spent the day on the high sea and at dusk came to the shallower water
on the coasts in the bays of the island of Riigen."

According to Pleske, they nest in such numbers in the island of Rugoe
in Esthland (Russian Baltic Provinces), that the inhabitants make ornaments
for their rooms with the blown eggs. All the habits of this duck, the up-
bringing of the young, and the early departure of the males for the sea, seem
to be similar to other true sea ducks. Late in September, when the young are
able to fly, the female takes them to the nearest seacoast, where she stays
with them until the migration commences in late October.

Plumages. — The sequence of plumages from the downy stage to
maturity and the subsequent molts and plumages are so similar to
those of our white-winged scoter that it seems hardly necessary to
describe them here. For a full account of the molts and plumages of
the velvet scoter, I would refer the reader to the excellent work by
Mr. Millais (1913).

Food. — On this he saj^s:

The food of this species consists chiefly of conchylia and Crustacea, which
they gain from a considerable depth. I have found their stomachs filled with
large numbers of the common mussel, which seems to be their principal food,
mixed with quantities of sand and small pebbles. They are also very partial
to the razor shell in Orkney. I have also seen them bring to the surface
quite large crabs, which they break up before swallowing. The great black-
backed gull often waits on in attendance of feeding velvet scoters, and I have
more than once seen these clever robbers swoop down and steal the crab, the
duck merely gazing round in surprise when he finds his treasure gone.

130 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

BehavHor. — I have never found the velvet scoter a very wild bird, except in
rough weather, when it is easy for them to take to wing, and this is probably
accounted for by the fact that their bodies are very heavy, and they seem to
experience considerable difficulty in taking to flight if there is little or no
headwind. They are as a rule much tamer than either the surf or common
scoter; and if a boat is carefully maneuvered so as not to press them at first,
a shot is certain. They rise head to wind with the usual run-up, and can not
turn away from a boat until they have traveled some 30 to 50 yards. The
flight is at first accompanied with much noise and flapping, and usually per-
formed at a very low elevation. Unlike the other scoters, they usually adopt
a "string" formation, and seldom move about in large flocks. It is most
common to see single birds or flocks of from 3 to 15, each bird following the
leader at a yard or so apart, and only 2 or 8 feet above the water. In
the morning and evening these flocks or single birds may often be seen coming
lip the tideway from the deep sea, where they have been resting, preening, or
sleeping during the hours of high tide, and moving toward their regular feeding
grounds. On settling they seem to sink into the water with a heavy splash and
glide for some distance over the element before coming to rest.

The velvet scoter has no superior in swimming and diving. Its powerful legs
and feet enable it to i>ass rapidly Iieneath the water, and reach the bottom at
depths of 40 feet, and even more. They seem to prefer to search for their food
in deep places, probably because mussel beds situated in such spots are far
offshore, and consequently safe. I do not think they use the wings under
water, at any rate to the same extent as the eider.

Both the male and female velvet scoter make a hoarse guttural cry like
the words " kt-a-kra-kra." The male probably had a distinct call during court-
ship, but no one, so far as I know, has ever seen the mating display of these
birds.

In our islands the velvet scoter is strictly a sea duck, is only very rarely
killed on fresh water, and then only on migration. As a rule these birds
frequent the neighborhood of mussel banks at some distance offshore, appar-
ently caring little whether these situations are exposed or protected, for they
come with the utmost regularity to the same places year after year. Most of
the places known to me in Scotland and the islands where these birds spend
the winter months are more or less protected by outlying islands or headlands,
but in some cases, such as St. Andrews Bay and the Tay estuary, their feeding
grounds are usually exposed to north and easterly winds. They seem to be
capable, however, of standing as much buffeting by wind and weather as the
hardy eiders and long-tailed ducks, and will ride out great storms at sea with-
out coming in for protection.

Winter. — Herr Giitke (1895) gives the following account of the
winter home of this and other sea ducks about Heligoland :

During the severe winter all the flocks of birds which, during ordinary
winters, are in the habit of staying in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and
under the shelter of the west coast of Holsten, now congregate on the
open sea outside of this ice field. Wherever the eye roams it alights upon
sea ducks of all possible species, near and far, high and low, in smaller or
larger flocks, singly or in pairs. These consist of myriads of common and
velvet scoters, flights of from 5 to 50 gay-colored red-breasted mergansers,
smaller companies of the beautifully colored goosander, mixed with bands of
from 20 to 100 or more scaups {A. marila), which flights again may be crossed
by from 3 to 5 of the brilliant white, green-headed males of the goldeneye,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 131

and the still rarer and elegant eider duck ; and travelling high overhead
long chains of whooper swans send forth their loud and resonant trumpet
calls. The wide surface of the sea presents a scene of aquatic bird life
equally rich and varied. Velvet and common scoters assemble in dense
crowds near the ice, while large flocks of scaups, all keeping close together,
dive and swim about among the rocks off the eastern and western sides of the
island.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Northern Europe and Asia, from Norway east-
ward to northeastern Siberia (Marcova and Gichiga) and on Nova
Zembla.

Winter range. — Temperate Europe and Asia, south to Spain,
Morocco, Egypt, northern Persia, and Turkestan.

Casual records. — Accidental in the Faroe Islands and Greenland.

Egg dates. — Lapland : Five records, May 25 to July 22. Norway
and Sweden : Two records, June 18 and July 4.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte)
WHITE-WINGED SCOTER

HABITS

Spring. — The northward movement of scoters on the New Eng-
land coast begins early in March, but the main flight comes along
during the first half of May and continues in lessening numbers all
through that month. It has long been known to gunners that a
local westward flight of white-winged scoters takes place on the
south coast of New England in May, consisting wholly of fully
plumaged adult birds, recognized by the gunners as "May white
wings." This undoubtedly indicates an overland migration route
to their breeding grounds in the Canadian interior. I have seen
several thousand of these birds gathered in large flocks in the waters
about Seconnet Point, Rhode Island, early in May, preparing for
this flight.

Mr. George H. Mackay (1891) refers to this flight as follows:

This movement is a peculiar one, inasmuch as it takes place about the
middle of Maj% aiid after the greater portion of the migration of this group
has passed by, as also ignoring the coast route accepted by all the rest. My
attention was first directed to this unusual movement during the spring of
1870, while shooting at West Island, off Seconnet Point, Rhode Island, and it
has occurred regularly every year since that date, as was undoubtedly the
case earlier. These birds are apparently all adults and do not seem to heed
the regular migration to the eastward of many of their own kind, which has
no effect in hastening their own departure for the north. When the time
arrives for them to set out on their migration, and the meteorological condi-
tions are favorable — for it must be clear at the westward — they always start
late in the afternoon, from 3 to 5 o'clock, and continue the flight during the
night, passing by Marthas Vineyard, Woods Hole, Seconnet Point, Point Judith,

132 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

and Watch Hill, quite a number frequently going over tlie land near the
coast, they being very erratic at such times in their movements. This flight
lasts for from three to seven days, according to the state of the weather. I
have never heard of their starting before the 7th of May, which is unusually
early; the customary time being from the 12th to the 15th, and the latest the
25th. They usually fly at a considerable altitude, say, from 200 to 300 yards,
fully two-thirds of them being too high to shoot. They prefer to start during
calm warm weather, with light southerly, southeasterly, or easterly winds ;
though they will occasionally fly when the wind is strong. They never fly in
the forenoon ; but when once they have determined to migrate they leave in
large flocks, some of which number from five to six hundred birds, while as
many as 10,000 have been estimated as passing in a single day, I have never
heard of, or seen, any similar flight to the eastward after this western flight
has taken place. A few of the other two scoters are seen with the white
wings during this western movement. No perceptible difference is noted in
their numbers from year to year, and I have never heard of a year when
such a flight as above described did not take place.

On the south coast of Labrador we saw migrating flocks of scoters
flying eastward all through the month of June, but probably some
of these were not breeding birds. Flocks of nonbreeding scoters are
frequently seen in summer on the coast of New England and from
California northward. Probably the bulk of the breeding birds
arrive on their nesting grounds early in June, although the nesting
season does not begin until the middle or last of the month.

What becomes of the vast hordes of scoters that migrate along
our coasts has long been a mystery to the gunners. Although they
are widely distributed over an extensive breeding range, they have
never been found breeding abundantly anywhere; probably their
main breeding grounds have never been discovered. On the south
coast of Labrador we saw no evidence of their breeding, and Audu-
bon found them there but sparingly. Judging from what I saw and
what I learned from other observers on the northeast coast of Labra-
dor in 1912, I am inclined to think that this species breeds more or
less commonly in the interior of that great peninsula. Among the
vast flocks of scoters, seen all along that coast in summer, numerous
flocks of this species were observed, but they were not nearly as
abundant as the other two species. These flocks were composed
almost entirely of adult males, which probably meant that the
females were incubating or tending their broods of young in inland
ponds. I was told that they breed far inland and at long distances
from any water.

Nesting. — In the Devils Lake region, in North Dakota, Herbert
K. Job found white- winged scoters breeding quite commonly; on
June 27, 1898, he found several nests of this species on some small
islands in Stump Lake, containing from 1 to 14 fresh eggs and one
empty nest. I visited these islands with him in 1901, and on May
31 we did not find a single egg, although we saw a few of the birds

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 133

flying about in pairs; evidently they had not yet laid. On June 15
we again explored the islands quite thoroughly, finding only one
incomplete set of 5 eggs, cold and fresh. This nest was in the center
of a small j^atch of rosebushes, where a hollow had been scraped in
the ground and the eggs buried under a lot of dry leaves, sticks, soil,
and rubbish, so as to be completely concealed from view. No attempt
had been made to line the nest with down which is generally added
after the set is complete. The scattered clumps of rosebushes on
these islands, where they grew tall and thick among masses of large
boulders, formed excellent nesting sites for the scoters and doubtless
concealed several nests. One nest we certainly overlooked, which
on June 22, was found to contain 12 eggs.

In the Crane Lake region in southwestern Saskatchewan we found
a few pairs of white-winged scoters breeding in 1905 and 1906, but
only one nest was found on June 28, 1906. While walking through
an extensive patch of wild rosebushes near a small slough the female
was flushed from the nest almost underfoot and shot by my com-
panion. Dr. Louis B. Bishop. The nest consisted of a hollow in
the ground under the rosebushes, profusely lined with dark-gi-ay
down; it contained 9 fresh eggs. All of the nests that Mr. Job
and I have seen were placed under wild rosebushes or other small
deciduous shrubs, but others have found them in somewhat different
situations.

Macoun (1909) records a nest found by Walter Eaine as follows:

On June 26, 1893, Mr. G. F. Dippie and myself found a nest containing 9
eggs on an island at the south end of Lake Manitoba. The nest was built
between loose bowlders and consisted of a hollow in the sand lined abun-
dantly with dark down. The eggs were very large and of a deep, rich, buff
color. The bird sat very close upon the nest and did not fly up until I
almost trod upon her. It appears to be a late breeder, nesting late in June
on the islands of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipeg. Mr. Newman sent me an
egg of this bird which he took from a female he had shot at Swan Lake,
northern Alberta, on June 2.5, 1897.

The nest down of the white-winged scoter is larger than that of
the American scoter ; in color it varies from " clove brown " to
" olive brown," with small and inconspicuous whitish centers.

Eggs. — As this scoter is a late breeder, probably some of the
smaller sets referred to were incomplete. I think that the normal
number of eggs in a full set varies from 9 to 14. The eggs are
elliptical ovate in shape. The shell is smooth but not glossy; in
some eggs it is very finely granulated or minutely pitted. When
first collected, even after being blown, the color is a beautiful " pale
ochraceous salmon " or " sea shell pink," but this color fades to
" pale pinkish buff " or " cartridge buff " in cabinet specimens. The
pitted eggs are minutely dotted with "pinkish cinnamon," giving

134 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

them a darker appearance. The measurements of 71 eggs, in various
collections, average 65.3 by 45.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the
four extremes measure 72.5 by 47, 68.5 by 49, 55.4 by 37.7, and 58.9
by 35.7 millimeters.

Plumages. — The downy young of the white-winged scoter is thickly
covered with soft, silky down. The upper parts, including the
upper half of the head, down to the base of the lower mandible and
a space below the eye, are uniform " clove brown," shading off to
" hair brown " on the flanks and into a broad collar of " hair brown "
which encircles the lower neck. The chin and throat are pure white,
which shades off to grayish white on the lower cheeks and the sides
of the neck. The under parts are silvery white, and there is an in-
distinct, tiny white spot under the eye. The feather outline at the
base of the bill is much like that of older birds. Doctor Dwight
(1914) mentions a "white patch of down, foreshadowing the white
wing patch," but I can find no trace of it in my one specimen.

In the Juvenal plumage the sexes are alike, dark brown above,
lighter and more mottled brown below; there are conspicuous whit-
ish patches on the lores and on the auriculars, varying in intensity
and extent; the white secondaries, forming the speculum, are tipped
with dusky, which often invades much of the inner web. This
plumage is often worn without much change all through the winter
and into the spring. But usually in December, or a little later, the
sexes begin to differentiate by the growth of black feathers in the
male and brown feathers in the female, starting in the head, obliter-
ating the whitish head patches, and spreading to the back, scapulars,
and flanks, the latter being dark brown in both sexes. The bill in
the young male now begins to show color, about as in the adult
female, but not the swollen shape of the older male.

A complete post ju venal molt takes place during the next summer,
July, August, and September, at which the black plumage of the
male is assumed, with the white eye patches and the pure white sec-
ondaries ; the flanks are still dark brown in this and in all subsequent
plumages that I have seen; the bill now becomes highly colored and
approaches the adult bill in shape. The bird is now practically
adult, at an age of 14 or 15 months, but the full development of the
bill and highest stage of plumage will not be perfected for about
a year more. The iris, which is brown in young birds, becomes
white at this age. The female also assumes a practically adult
plumage, at this molt, which is uniform dark brown; and she will
be ready to breed the following spring.

Adult birds have an incomplete prenuptial molt in early spring,
involving the head and body plumage and tail, and a complete post-
nuptial molt in late summer, at which time they become incapable
of flight. There is no real eclipse plumage, but the appearance of

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 135

one is created by the mixture of old, worn, faded feathers with
fresh, new ones. There is also no marked seasonal change in any of
the scoters.

Food. — The food of the white-winged scoter includes a varied bill
of fare, differing greatly in the various localities which it visits.
On the New England coast, where it is so abundant in the winter,
it is strictly maritime and seems to feed mainly on small mussels and
other small mollusks which it obtains by diving about the submerged
ledges, often to a depth of 40 feet, tearing, with its powerful bill,
the shellfish from the rocks to which they are firmly attached. I
have seen the crojj of one of these birds crammed full of mussels
nearly an inch long, and have often wondered whether the tough
shells were ground up in their muscular stomachs or chemically dis-
solved ; probably both actions are necessary. Some of our fishermen
have claimed that scoters are injurious to the shellfish interests on
our coast, accusing them of feeding on young scallops and clams,
but I doubt if they do much damage in this way; they certainl};
could not obtain many clams, which are usually buried in the sand.
Sea clams, which are sometimes found on the surface of a sand flat,
are probably more often taken by these birds. J. C. Cahoon (1889)
recorded an instance where the clam was too big for the scoter, which
was found floating on the water with a large sea clam firmly clasped
on its bill ; probably the weight of the clam had kept the bird's head
under water until it was drowned. On inland lakes and ponds they
live largely on crawfish, slugs, snails, and mussels. They have been
known to eat, according to Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1889), small fishes,
frogs, tadpoles, fish spawn, and the larvae of insects. On the western
sloughs and marshes they evidently feed largel}'^ on vegetable food,
such as flags, duckweed, pondweed, and pickerel weed. Doctor Yorke
reports the following families of plants as identified among their
foods: Lemnaceae, Naiadaceae, Selaginellaceae, Salviniaceae, Glati-
naceae, Gentianaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Pontederiaceae, and Maya-
ceae ; also the following genera : Iris, Myriophyllum, Callitriche, and
Utricularia.

Behavior. — The flight of the white-winged scoter is heavy and
apparently labored ; it seems to experience considerable difficulty in
lifting its heavy body from the surface of the water; except when
facing a strong wind, it has to patter along the surface for some
distance, using its feet to gain momentum. But, when well under
way, it is much swifter than it seems, is strong, direct, and well
sustained. Migrating flocks, in all sorts of irregular formations,
fly high under favorable circumstances; but when flying against the
wind or in stormy weather (northeast storms seem to be particularly
favorable for the migration of the scoters) they fly close to the

136 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

water and in rough weather they take advantage of the eddies be-
tween the Avaves. The flight is usually along the seacoast, follow-
ing all the large indentations of the coast and crossing the smaller
bays; but, where considerable distance is to be gained they often
fly across capes or necks of land, usually all at about the same
place. There is a regular crossing place on Cape Cod, Massachu-
setts, from Barnstable Harbor to Craigville beach, a distance of
about 3 miles; this is one of the narrowest points on the cape and
it saves them many miles of flight around the horn of the cape.
Gunners take advantage of this confirmed habit and assemble there
in large numbers to shoot at the passing flocks; when flying against
a strong south wind here they usually fly low enough to shoot, but,
if not. a loud shout from the gunners often brings them scurrying
down to within range.

Edwin 8. Bryant (1899) describes an interesting flight habit of
this species, as follows :

This bird has some habits unlike those of other ducks. The most prominent
habit is the morning fliglit. This does not occur so regularly as at first I
supposed. But if a person is so fortunate as to be present when a great
flight is in progress, he will witness what I consider to be a fascinating picture
of bird life on the prairie.

Imagine if you can a body of water some 6 or 7 miles long and 2 miles Avide
where it leaves the main lake, extending northward, bounded on both sides
by undulating prairie. Take for a background the steep hills on the far side
of the lake, or the heavy timber of Grahams Islands — let the time be sunrise,
with the dewdrop jewel accompaniment that the poets rave about. Fill the
air with hundreds of scoters, circling and quartering after the manner of
swallows, most of them fanning the weed tops in their flight. Flying by pairs,
side by side, and in companies of pairs, they often circle about a person sev-
eral times, within easy gunshot range; and if one is so disposed, he may shoot
a pair with one discharge of the gun, so closely do they keep together. As
would be supposed, the white wins patch is very conspicuously displayed as
the birds glide around. In half an hour the performance is at an end.

In two minutes time the scene changes as if by magic. All the birds are
making offshore together. With a glass I follow them. Their dark bodies
stand out in contrast with the whitecaps, and the flash of a wing patch against
a green wave is the last seen of them as they settle down far out in the lake.
Later in the day they will swarm along shore or congregate on the numerous
sandy points.

A. D, Henderson has sent me the following notes on the habits
of this species in northern Alberta :

These birds are much esteemed by the halfbreed Indian population, and up
to a few years ago residents in the northern part of the Province were allowed
to kill them at any time for food by a special provision in the game act.
They make the best wing shooting of all the ducks, as they seldom swerve from
the gunner. They seem to be the most amorous of the ducks, readily decoy-
ing to a wounded female and chasing her on the water within easy range of a
canoe in the breeding season. In spring they fly from daylight until about 9
o'clock, and it is then they are shot as they round the points on the lake or

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 137

pass between narrows. Small flocks can be seen on the vrater, the males pur-
suing the females; then they will make a short flight and alighting again
resume the sport with much splashing on the water. At this time they make
a sound like tinkling ice, but whether this is made with their wings or voice
I do not know. When flying during courtship their wings whistle like a
goldeneye's, but much louder. They also utter a short croak while flying.
Though hundreds of them breed here, I have never found a nest, but have
heard of several being found, usually at quite a distance back from the large
lakes and near smaller ones. It is said that Lac LaNoune takes it name from
these ducks owing to the resemblance of their black and white coloring to
the garb of the nuns.

J. M. Edson has sent me the following interesting notes :

This species is found at all seasons in the Puget Sound region, being par-
ticularly abundant during winter. Like 0. perspiciUata, this species has a
habit of leaving the water and taking a daily flight off over the land, during
the summer season. These flights are particularly noticeable in pleasant
weather and in late afternoon. The birds rise in considerable flocks to an
elevation of 200 or 300 feet, stringing out in line, or in converging lines, some-
times forming a V. The whistling of their wdngs can be heard for some
distance. Often this sound is punctuated by the slapping together of inter-
fering wings. They sometimes fly considerable distances inland before return-
ing to the water. So far as known they do not nest in this region, although
birds in the full adult plumage are frequently seen throughout the summer.

An instance of peculiar behavior of birds of this species came under my
notice not long ago. Watching the sea birds from a bluff overlooking Belling-
ham Bay, on a calm evening in December (the 24th), my attention was at-
tracted by unusual activity in a little group of white-winged scoters. They
were about 50 yards from the beach. Ten of these birds were bunched to-
gether and actively swimming and plunging about within a circle of perhaps
10 or 12 feet in diameter. I was unable to distinguish the sexes with certainty,
and have no knowledge to the effect that December is their courtship season.
It looked like a game of tag of some sort. At the center of the group two birds
would assume a pose as if billing and caressing each other, one with its head
elevated, the other's depressed, the bills coming in contact. Tlie pose would
last only two or three seconds, till some other bird would approach one of
them from behind, when the latter would suddenly turn upon it and chase
it away, the pursued bird taking a circular course around the flock. Some-
times both the posing birds would be simultaneously approached, and each
would turn upon his assailant. The other birds w'ould hover close about,
watching for a chance to tag the posers from behind. The two main actors
would again come to the center and resume their pose, only to be promptly
interrupted again with the same result. So far as I could observe, the same
pair took the central part all the time. I watched them for perhaps half an
hour, and the game was still in progress when I left. On February 11 I saw
the same performance enacted at a greater distance from shore. There were
about the same number of birds in the group and the play was as before.
Although there were numerous other birds of the same species scattered about
in the near vicinity, these paid no attention to the game.

Like the other scoters, this species is a strong swimmer and an
expert diver. It dives to considerable depths for its food when
necessary, though it prefers to feed at low tide when the mussel beds

138 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

are nearer the surface. Wlien wounded it can swim for such long
distances under water that its pursuit is almost useless.

I have never heard any vocal sound from the white- winged scoter,
but Dr. Charles W. Townsend has sent me the following notes from
E. P. Richardson:

In regard to the bell note of the white-winged scoter, I have only as much as
this to say : On still nights in the fall, when we might be listening for black
ducks, we would occasionally hear the rush of a flock of ducks overhead,
with an occasional bell-like, low whistle, recurring at intervals in series of
six or eight notes, entirely distinct from the rush of wings. The old gunner
who took charge of our place at Eastham used to say that these birds were
old white wings, and would add, " some call them bell coots." The sound is
rather more slowly repeated than the usual wing beat of the black duck, but
the impression that it always gave me was that it was produced by the wings
and not by the voice of the fowl. At any rate, it is a very clear and distinct
sound, a series of low, bell-like sounds which might occur repeated two or
three times and then be lacking. These birds were crossing Cape Cod on their
fall migration. I have not heard it for some years now, but it used to be a
frequent experience. As I said, these birds were going over in the night and we
could never, of course, identify them.

Game. — The time-honored sport of coot shooting has for genera-
tions been one of the most popular and important forms of wild-
fowl hunting on the New England coast. Next to the black duck,
which undoubtedly stands first in the estimation of our sportsmen,
there are probably more scoters killed on our coasts than any other
of the Anatidae. Aside from the fact that the scoters are not of
much value for the table, coot shooting has much to recommend it;
it is a rough and rugged sport, testing the strength, endurance, and
skill of an experienced boatman ; the birds are strong fliers and hard
to kill, requiring the best of marksmanship, under serious difficulties,
and hard-shooting guns; during good flights game is almost always
within sight, giving the sportsman much pleasant anticipation; and
chances are frequently offered to show his skill at difficult and long
shots. I was born and bred to be a coot shooter, inheriting the in-
stinct from three generations ahead of me, and I only wish that I
could impart to my readers a small fraction of the pleasure we
have enjoyed in following this fascinating sport.

Rudely awakened at an unseemly hour, soon after midnight it
seems, the party of gunners are given an early breakfast before
starting out. It is dark as midnight as we grope our way down to
the beach, heavily laden with paraphernalia, launch our boats in a
sheltered cove among the rocks, and row out onto the ocean. The
crisp October air is cool and fresh, as the light northeast wind comes
in over the ledges, fragrant with the odors of kelp and rockweed.
There is hardly light enough at first to see the line of boats,
strung out straight offshore from the point, but soon we find our

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 139

place in the line, anchor our several strings of wooden decoys, and
then anchor our dorj'^ within easy gunshot of the nearest decoys,
which if correctly placed are the smallest and most life-like; the
largest decoys are merely to attract the birds from long distances.
Perhaps before our decoys are set we have seen a few shadowy forms
flitting past us in the gloom, or heard the whistle of their wings in
the dark, the beginning of the morning flight ; occasionally the flash
of a gun is seen along the line and the day's sport has begun. As
the gray of early dawn creeps upward from the sea we can clearly
distinguish the long line of boats, perhaps a dozen or fifteen, an-
chored at regular intervals, a little less than two gunshots apart so
that birds can not slip through the line, and extending for several
miles offshore, an effective barrier to passing flocks. Every eye is
turned northward, looking up the coast and straining to discover
the minute specks in the distance, as the first flock appears several
miles away. " Nor'ard," the warning signal is passed along the
line, as some keen eye has made the longed-for discovery, and every
gunner crouches in his boat to watch and wait and hope for a shot.
Soon we can make them out, an irregular, wavering bunch of black
specks, close to the water and well inshore. The boom of distant
guns tells us that other gunners up the coast have seen them and
perhaps taken their toll. On they come, now strung out in a long
line headed straight for us, big black birds with flashing white wing
patches, " bull white wings," as the males of this species are called ;
we shall surely get a shot. But no, they have seen us and swerved,
flying along the line seaward; a shot from the next boat drops a
single bird and they pass through the line beyond, dropping two
more of their number. A bunch of young surf scoters, "gray coots,"
is headed for the next boat, and we try to attract their attention
by imitating the whistling of their wings; they turn and swing in
over our decoys, dropping their feet and preparing to alight; four
barrels are fired in quick succession and three of them drop in the
water. Two of them will die as they are lying on their backs with feet
kicking the air, but the other has its head up and is swimming
away. We throw over our anchor buoy and give chase, but cripples
are hard to hit in the water and we have a long pull and plenty of
shooting before we land him. Meantime we have missed a magni-
cent shot at a large flock of " skunk heads," surf scoters, which
circled over our decoys and escaped through the gap, and on our
return we find only one of our " dead " birds.

A temporary lull in the flight gives us a chance to rest and admire
the beauty of the scene around us ; the delicate blush of dawn deepens
and brightens as the gorgeous hues of sunrise spread from the eastern
horizon over the broad expanse of sky and sea, a rapidly changing

140 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

play of colors until the sun itself appears over the water and brigrht
daylifjht gfilds the ocean. Bird life is not lacking in the scene;
herrino; gulls are flying about on all sides, often coming near enough
to tempt us to shoot at them, but never quite near enough to kill;
they seem to know just how far a gim will shoot. Occasionally a
black-backed or a few kitti^vake gulls are seen. Loons are fre-
quently passing, generally high in the air, with long outstretched
necks, flying swiftly in a straight line, their bodies propelled by
rapid wing strokes; they often fly within gunshot, but are tough
and hard to kill. Large flocks of oldsquaAvs make interesting shoot-
ing, as they twist and turn and wheel in compact bunches; they are
swift of wing and not easy to hit; their weird cries add a tinge of
wildness to the scene. On rare occasions the sport is enlivened by a
shot at a flock of brant, and our pulse runs high when we see a long
line of big black birds with white bellies headed for our boat, flying
close to the Avater ; we are lucky if we get any for they are very shy.

The little " gray coots," the young of the American and the surf
scoters, give the best shooting and are the best for the table; they
decoy well, particularly when in small flocks, and are easilj' killed;
a pair or a single bird will often circle about the decoys again and
again, giving plenty of chances for long single shots. " Butter bills "
and " skunk heads," the adults of these two species, decoy well in
small flocks, but large flocks are usually wild and either pass the
line high in the air or circle out around the end of it. Fifteen or
twenty birds is considered a good daj'^'s sport, but as many as 135
birds have been killed in a day by two gunners in one boat, or over
90 by a single gunner. Althougli they are thus persecuted year after
year throughout the whole lengtli of their migration route, they do
not seem to have diminished materially in numbers since the time of
our earliest records, and vast numbers of them still migrate along
our coast.

FaJJ. — The fall migration on the New England coast begins in
September, a few early flocks sometimes appearing in August; the
main flight is in October Avhen, under favorable weather conditions,
it is very heavy; before and duriiig northeast storms large flocks of
scoters are almost constantly in sight migrating southward; the
flight is prolonged in lessening numbers during November, and by the
end of that month they have reached their winter quarters.

Winter. — Their winter range extends from the Gulf of St. Law-
rence southward along the Atlantic coast to South Carolina, and on
the Pacific coast they winter from the Aleutian Islands to Lower
California. White-winged scoters are particularly abundant in
winter on the waters of Long Island and Vinej'ard Sounds, the cen-
ter of their winter range, where they find an abundant food supply

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 141

in the beds of shellfish which abound in this region. Great rafts
of them may be seen bedded on the water way offshore where they
sleep and rest. At certain stages of the tides, when the water is not
too deep over their feeding grounds, they % in regularly, day after
day, to the same spot to feed on the mussel beds on the submerged
ledges and sunken rocks along the shores and even in the harbors.
Scallop fishermen are often guided by their movements in locat-
ing their quarry. Gunners soon learn to locate their feeding grounds
and take advantage of their regular flights.

Winthrop Sprague Brooks (1915) described, under the sub-
specific name, dixoni, a subspecies of the white-winged scoter, the
type of which was collected by Joseph Dixon at Humphrey Point,
Alaska. He assumes that all of the white-winged scoters, which
breed in Alaska and migrate down the Pacific coast, are referable
to this subspecies, which he characterizes as "similar to deglandi,
with the exception of the size and shape of bill, which in dixoni is
shorter and broader in proportion to its len^h and more blunt at
the tip, with the angles from its greatest width to the tip more
abrupt." He says further : " On examining a large series of white-
winged scoters from both sides of the continent there is no diffi-
culty in separating Atlantic and Pacific birds by means of this
character of the bill."

In order to establish a winter range for this subspecies I wrote
Dr. Joseph Grinnell for his opinion on the status of California
birds. He replied as follows :

I know nothing about Oidcmia deglandi dixoni. I have not used this name
for any of the birds iu this museum, because the authenticity of the alleged
race has not been verified by anyone else. I have just looked at our birds,
with Brooks's drawings of bills before me. I see every sort of variation from
the narrow extreme to the broad extreme among birds taken in California.
There are only three eastern birds here, and each of them finds a counter-
part among California-taken specimens.

From this statement I should infer that the subspecies is unten-
able and that the characters ascribed to it are due to individual
variation. The study of more specimens from the supposed breeding
range of dixoni might establish a local breeding race, which mingles
in its winter range with the commoner form. A careful study of a
large series from many localities is necessary to settle the question.

Dr. H. C. Oberholser and I have recently made a careful study
of the large series of white- winged scoters in the collections of the
United States Xational Museum and the Biological Survey, con-
taining birds from many different parts of Xorth America, and find
that the characters on which dixoni are supposed to be based can
be matched in many birds from the Atlantic coast, and that they
are no more prevalent in birds from the Pacific coast or the interior

142 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

than elsewhere. We therefore came to the conclusion that these char-
acters represent merely individual variation and should not be re-
garded as establishing a subspecies.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Northern North America. East to the Labrador
coast (Hamilton Inlet and Nain), occasionally in Newfoundland
(Gaff Topsail). South to the north shore of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, southern Manitoba (Shoal Lake), central North Dakota
(Devils and Stump Lakes), and northeastern Washington (east of
the Cascade Mountains). West to northwestern British Columbia
(Stikine Eiver) and sparingly to northwestern Alaska (Kotzebue
Sound). Seen in summer and perhaps breeding in the Aleutian
Islands as far west as Tanaga Island. North to the barren grounds
of northern Alaska and Canada.

Winter range. — Mainly on the seacoasts. On the Atlantic coast
from the Gulf of St. Lawrence southward to South Carolina and
rarely to Florida. On the Pacific coast from the Commander,
Pribilof, and Aleutian Islands southward to Lower California (San
Quintin Bay). In the interior on the Great Lakes and irregularly
or casually as far west and south as southern British Columbia
(Okanogan Lake), Colorado (9 records), and Louisiana.

Spring migration. — Northw^ard along the Atlantic coast to Labra-
dor and northwestward from the coast to the interior; also north-
ward in the interior and along the Pacific coast. Early dates of
arrival: Ontario, Toronto, April 13; Ohio, Lorain, April 27; Ken-
tucky, Bowling Green, April 6; Minnesota, April 5; Manitoba,
Aweme, April 15; Alberta, Alix, May 10; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson,
May 18. Late dates of departure: Connecticut, May 15; Massachu-
setts, May 25 ; Ontario, Ottawa, May 4, and Toronto, May 26 ; Penn-
sylvania, Pittsburgh, May 13; Ohio, Lorain, May 3. The main
flight up the Pacific coast and across British Columbia to the inte-
rior is in May.

Fall migration. — Apparentl}^ a reversal of spring routes. Early
dates of arrival : Massachusetts, September 6 ; Maryland, Baltimore,
September 12; Ontario, Beamsville, October 8; Minnesota, Heron
Lake, October 11; Colorado, Loveland, October 11; Idaho, Coeur
d'Alene, October 22; Utah, Bear Eiver, October 8. Late dates of
departure : Mackenzie, Nahanni River, October 14 ; Ontario, Beams-
ville, November 26 ; Idaho, Coeur d'Alene, December 1.

Egg dates. — North Dakota : Thirteen records, June 18 to August
10 ; seven records, June 29 to July 19. Arctic Canada : Nine records,
June 14 to July 10. Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba: Seven
records, June 21 to July 6.

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 143

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeas)
SURF SCOTER

HABITS

This is probably the most abundant and certainly the most widely
distributed of the three American species of scoters. It is widely
and well known on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in some of
the more northern localities it is exceedingly abundant. The enor-
mous flights of scoters, or "coots," as they are called, which pour
along our coasts in the spring and fall are made up mainly of surf
scoters and white-winged scoters; every gunner knows them, and
most of the residents along the New England coasts have tasted the
delights of coot stew.

Spring. — The abundance of the surf scoter on the spring migra-
tion is well illustrated by the following quotation from IVIr. Dresser,
given by J. G. Millais (1913), based on observations made at
Lepreaux Lighthouse, in the Bay of Fundy :

On my arrival there on April 25 myriads of ducks were flying past, among
which snrf scoters were more numerous than any other species. They fol-
lowed the line of the coast at a short distance from the shore, and in passing
the point generally steered close in or flew over the end of the point itself. On
the 26th I spent the day among the rocks, and I never recollect seeing water-
fowl in such countless numbers as I did on that day, all wending their way
northward. Velvet, common, and especially surf scoters were the most numer-
ous ; but there were also many eiders, brent geese, long-tailed ducks, with a
few harlequins, great northern divers, and some others. The surf scoters flew
in large, compact flocks, from 8 to 10 deep. I estimated the length of the
flocks by watching them as they passed certain points, the distance between
which was known to me, and I found that one compact flock was at least half
a mile in length, a second reaching from one point to another, distant nearly
a mile and a quarter. I made several telling shots amongst them, knocking
over 8 at one discharge and 6 and 4 at a double shot, though I was only using
a light 1.5-bore gun. I found them, however, very hard to recover, for during
the time the dog was retrieving them one or two were sure to come to and
paddle off, and the sea was too rough to go out in a boat to pick up the crip-
ples. The males proved to be far more numerous than the females, of which
sex I only killed 3 during the whole day.

George H. Mackay (1891) writes:

In the spring mating begins before the northward migration commences,
as I have taken eggs from females, between the 15th and 25th of April,
which varied in size from a cherry stone to a robin's egg. During this period
the duck when flying is always closely followed by the drake, and wherever
she goes he follows ; if she is shot, he continues to return to the spot until
also killed. I have often on firing at a flock shot out a female; the moment
she commences to fall she is followed by her mate; he remains with her,
or flies off a short distance, only to return again and again until killed,
regardless of previous shots fired at him. I have never seen any such devo-
tion on the part of the female ; she always uses the utmost speed in flying
away from the spot, and never returns to it.

144 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Courtship. — W. Leon Dawson (1909) thus describes the courtship.

I have seen a surf scoter courtship in mid-April. Five males are devoting
themselves to one female. They chase each other about viciously, but no
harm seems to come of their threats; and they crovt^d around the female as
to force a decision. She in turn chases them off with lowered head and out-
stretched neck and great show of displeasure. Now and then one flees in
pretended fright and with great commotion, only to settle down at a dozen
yards and come sidling back. If she will deign a moment's attention, the
flattered gallant dips his head and scoots lightly under the surface of the
water, showering himself repeatedly with his fluttering wings. One suitor
swims about dizzily, half submerged, while another rises from the water re-
peatedly, apparently to show the fair one how little assistance he requires
from his feet in starting, a challenge some of his corpulent rivals dare not
accept, I ween. I have watched them thus for half an hour, off and on, and
the villains still pursue her.

Charles E. Alford (1920) describes another interesting perform-
ance, as follows:

I once watched 8 male surf scoters wooing one female, and a most absurd
spectacle it was. Immediately the female dived, down went all her admirers
in pursuit. Then after a lapse of about 40 seconds the males would reappear
one by one, the female, who was always the last to rise to the surface, being
invariably accompanied by one male ; but whether it was the same male on
each occasion I was unable to distinguish. For a few seconds pandemonium
would reign, the rejected suitors splashing through the water and pecking
at their rivals in the most vicious manner, whilst the object of their desire
floated serenely in their midst, apparently well pleased that she should be
the object of so much commotion. Then she would dive again, and so the
performance continued for over an hour, when they drifted out of sight.

He writes again (1921) : "When displaying, the male surf scoter
swims rapidly to and fro, keeping head and neck erect, and at inter-
vals dipping its beak into the water. Should several males be pres-
ent, the female swims from one to the other, bowing her head, or
darting occasionally at some undesirable suitor.'' Maj. Allan Brooks
(1920) says that he has "seen them vigorously courting in central
British Columbia, well along in June : three or four males whirl-
ing about a female on the water like whirling beetles, and uttering
a curious low, liquid note, like water dropping in a cavern." Mr.
Charles L. AVliittle writes to me that he has seen active courtship
in the fall, October 5, which he describes as follows :

The males would face the females and bow rapidly and repeatedly, even
to the extent of emersing their heads, thereby spraying themselves with water,
the females watching the operation with interest. Another pretty and
characteristic maneuver on the part of the males was to fly away suddenly about
75 feet, their wings being raised over their backs till the tips nearly touched
as they alighted on the water, and then to swim back to their mates with
great velocity, only to repeat their bowing. The males chased each other
away from their respective mates by lowering their heads and swimming

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 145

fiercely at their offending neighbor. That the females were also parties to
these courtsliip performances is shown by the fact that they also would simi-
larly attack the male, paired to the other female, if he approached too near.

Nesting. — In spite of the abundance of this species over a wide
breeding range very few naturalists have ever found its nest, and
remarkably little has ever been published regarding its breeding
habits. The reason for this is that the breeding grounds are usually
in such inaccessible places in the marshy interior that few explorers
have ever visited them; moreover, the nests are probably so widely
scattered and so well hidden that few have been found. The follow-
ing from Dr. E. W. Xelson (1887) shows how abundantly the surf
scoter must breed in northern Alaska and yet he never found a nest.
He says :

On August 23, 1S7S, I visited Stewart Island, about 10 miles to the seaward
of St. Michael. As I neared the island in my kyak I found the water literally
black with the males of this species, which were united in an enormous flock,
forming a continuous band around the outer end of the island for a distance
of about 10 miles in length and from one-half to three-fourths of a mile in
width. As the boat approached them those nearest began to rise heavily, by
aid of wings and feet, from the glassy surface of the gently undulating but
calm water. The first to rise communicated the alarm to those beyond, until
as far as could be seen the water was covered with flapping wings, and the air
filled with a roar like that of a cataract. The rapid vibrations produced in
the air by tens of thousands of wings could be plainly felt. In all my northern
experience among the waterfowl which fiock there in summer I never saw any
approach to the number of large birds gathered here in one flock, nor shall I
soon forget the grand effect produced by this enormous body of birds as they
took wing and swept out to sea in a great black cloud and settled again a mile
or so away.

MacFarlane (1891) found a number of nests of the surf scoter in
the Anderson River region which he said were much like those of the
white-winged scoter, " the only difference noted being that generally
less hay and feathers was observed in the composition of its nest,
while only one contained as many as 8 eggs, the usual number being
from 5 to 7." Of the white-winged scoter's nests he said :

These were always depressions in the ground, lined with down, feathers, and
dry grasses, and placed contiguous to ponds or sheets of fresh water, fre-
quently amid clumps of small spruce or dwarf willow, and fairly well concealed
from view.

In a letter to Professor Baird, dated July 16, 1864, he writes :

The surf duck is numerous, but as its nest is usually placed at a considerable
distance from open water, and always well concealed underneath the low-
spreading branches of a pine or spruce tree, we never get many of its eggs.
The female never gets off the nest until very closely approached, and then
invariably (so far as I had an opportunity of judging) makes off to the nearest
lake, where it will remain for hours, and thus exhaust the patience of the
finder, who is, when traveling, at least, obliged to secure the eggs without their
parent.

146 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Audubon (1840) gives an interesting account of the finding of
a surf scoter's nest in southern Labrador, which is about the only
detailed account we have of the nesting habits of this common
species. He writes :

For more than a week after we had anchored in the lovely harbor of
Little Macatina, I had been anxiously searching for the nest of this species,
but in vain ; the millions that sped along the shores had no regard to my
wishes. At length I found that a few pairs had remained in the neighborhood,
and one morning while in the company of Captain Emery, searching for the
nests of the red-breasted merganser, over a vast oozy and treacherous fresh-
water marsh, I suddenly started a female surf duck from her treasure. We
were then about 5 miles distant from our harbor, from which our party had
come in two boats, and fully 5% miles from the waters of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. The marsh was about 3 miles in length and so iinsafe that more
than once we both feared as we were crossing it that we might never reach its
margin. The nest was snugly placed amid the tall leaves of a bunch of grass
and raised fully 4 inches above its roots. It was entirely composed of withered
and rotten weeds, the former being circularly arranged over the latter, pro-
ducing a well-rounded cavity 6 inches in diameter by 2^/^ in depth. The
borders of this inner cup were lined with the down of the bird, in the same
manner as the eider duck's nest, and in it lay 5 eggs, the smallest number
I have ever found in any duck's nest. They were 2ts inches in length by If
in their greatest breadth ; more equally rounded at both ends than usual ; the
shell perfectly smooth and of a uniform pale yellowish or cream color.

We saw no signs of breeding surf scoters in southern Labrador
in 1909, and apparently the few which bred there in Audubon's
time have long since ceased to breed there regularly. On the north-
east coast of Labrador, however, or rather a few miles inland, they
probably still breed regularly and abundantly. We saw large num-
bers of males in the inner harbors and in the mouths of rivers at a
number of places all along the coast in July and August, which
suggested that probably the females were incubating sets of eggs
or tending broods of young on the inland ponds or marshes. We
hunted for nests in many suitable places, but never succeeded in find-
ing one. Samuel Anderson, an intelligent observer and collector
of birds at Hopedale, told me that surf scoters breed about the in-
land ponds and lakes, making their nests in the grass or under
bushes close to the edge of the water. There is a Labrador set of
7 eggs in the collection of Herbert Massey, of Didsbury, England,
for which he has kindly given me the data; it was taken by R. S.
Duncan on Akpatok Island on June 11, 1903, and the female was
shot for identification.

Eggs. — The surf scoter evidently lays from 5 to 9 eggs, usually
about 7. The eggs are, I think, usually recognizable by their shape,
size, and color. They vary in shape from ovate to elliptical oval and
are often quite pointed. The shell is smooth but not at all glossy.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WIU> FOWL 147

The color is a very pale " cartridge buff," or a pinkish or buffy
white. Mr. Millais (1913) describes the eggs in the Massey collec-
tion as "rather pointed in shape, creamy in color." The measure-
ments of 33 eggs, in various collections, average 61.6 by 43 milli-
meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 67.5 by 43,
59 by 45, 58 by 41, and 59 by 40.5 millimeters.

Plumages. — Strangely enough there does not seem to be a single
specimen of the downy young surf scoter in any American or Eu-
ropean collection, except two half-grown young in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, collected by
Francis Harper on Athabasca Lake, on July 28, 1920. Although as
large as teal, these birds are still wholly downy, with no trace of
appearing plumage. The smaller, a female, has the crown, down
to and including the eyes, a deep glossy " clove brown " in color ;
the color of the black varies from " olive brown " anteriorly to
" clove brown " on the rump ; the sides of the head and throat are
grayish white, mottled with " clove brown " ; the entire neck is pale
" clove brown " ; the colors of the upper parts shade off gradually
into paler sides and a whitish belly. In younger birds these colors
would probably be darker, brighter, and more contrasted, as they
are in other species.

In the Juvenal plumage the sexes are alike. The crown is very
dark, blackish brown, conspicuously darker that the rest of the
plumage ; the upper parts are dark brown and the lower parts lighter
brown and mottled; there is a whitish loral space and a smaller
whitish auricular space; the tail feathers are square tipped; and
there is no trace of the white nuchal patch. During the first win-
ter, beginning sometimes as early as October but often not until Feb-
ruary, the sexes differentiate by the growth of new black feathers in
the male and brown feathers in the female; this growth begins on
the head, scapulars, and flanks, whence it spreads, before spring,
until it includes all the fore part of the body and much of the back,
leaving only the ju venal wings, part of the back, and the central
under parts, which fade out almost to white ; the tail is molted dur-
ing the winter and the new feathers are pointed at the tip. The
white nuchal patch is acquired by the young male before spring, but
not the frontal patch ; the bill assumes its brilliant coloring and in-
creases in size, but it does not reach its full perfection for at least
another year.

A complete postnuptial molt takes place in August, September, or
even later in young birds, which produces a plumage which is prac-
tically adult. The male acquires the white frontal patch and the
female the white nuchal patch at this molt and the bills become more
mature, but full perfection is probably not attained for another year.

148 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Young birds probably breed the following spring and at the next
postnuptial molt become fully adult, when 27 or 28 months old.

Adults have a partial prenuptial molt, involving mainly the head
and flanks, in March and April, and a complete molt in August.
There is no true eclipse plumage and no marked seasonal change. I
have a highly plumaged adult male in my collection, collected Octo-
ber 4, in which the white nuchal patch is merely indicated by a nar-
row, broken outline and the frontal patch by a short row of small
white feathers.

Food. — The food and feeding habits of the surf scoter are prac-
tically the same as those of the other scoters and other diving sea
ducks. Their food consists almost entirely of various small mollusks,
such as mussels, sea clams, scallops, and small razor clams. The
large beds of the common black mussel which are so numerous and so
extensive in the tidal passages of our bays and harbors or on out-
lying shoals are their favorite feeding grounds. Large flocks, often
immense rafts, of scoters spend the winter within easy reach of such
beds, which they visit daily at certain stages of the tide; although
they can dive to considerable depths to obtain food if necessary, they
evidently jjrefer to feed at moderate or shallow depths and choose the
most favorable times to visit the beds which can be most easily
reached. Their crops are crammed full of the small shellfish, which
are gradually ground up with the help of small stones in their pow-
erful stomachs and the soft parts are digested. A small amount of
vegetable matter, such as eelgrass and algae, is often taken in with
the other food, perhaps only incidentally. Dr. F. Henry Yorke
(1899) saj^s that, on the lakes of the interior, "it feeds on shellfish,
especially mussels, crayfish, and fish spawn; besides a few bulbs of
aquatic plants.'"

BehamoT. — The flight of the surf scoter is not quite so heavy as
that of the white-winged scoter; it is a smaller, lighter, and livelier
bird on the wing, but it so closely resembles the American scoter in
flight that the two can not be distinguished at any great distance.
It rises heavily from the surface of the water and experiences con-
siderable difficulty in doing so unless there is some wind, which it
must face in order to rise. This necessity of rising against the wind
is well understood by gunners, who take advantage of it to approach
a flock of bedded birds from the windward, forcing the birds to rise
toward the boat and thus come a little nearer. When once under way
the flight is strong, swift, and well sustained. In calm weather or in
light winds migrating birds fly high, but in windy or stormy
weather they plod along close to the waves. They often fly in large
flocks or irregular bunches without any attempt at regular forma-

OFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 149

tion, following- the coast line, as a rule, but sometimes passing over
capes or points to make short cuts. Mr. Mackay (1891) writes:

I have uoticed during the spring migration northward in April that frequently
the larger flocks of the surf scoter are led by an old drake. That the selection
of such a leader is a wise precaution has frequently been brought to my notice,
for on first perceiving such a flock coming toward me in the distance they would
be flying close to the water ; as they neared the line of boats, although still a
considerable distance away, the old drake would become suspicious and com-
mence to rise higher and higher, the flock following him, until the line of boats
is passed, when the flock again descends to the water. When over the boats
shots are frequently fired up at them, but so well has the distance been cal-
culated that it is seldom a bird is shot from the flock.

As a diver the surf scoter is fully equal to the other sea ducks,
depending on its diving powers in its daily pursuit of food and to
escape from its enemies in emergencies. It dives Avith an awkward
splash, but very quickly and effectively, opening its wings as it goes
under, and using them in its subaqueous flight. It can remain
under for a long time and swim for a long distance without coming
up; it is useless to attempt to chase a slightly wounded bird. Mrs.
Florence Merriam Bailey (1916) has graphically described the
ability of this species to dive through the breaking surf, as follows :

It was a pretty sight when, under a gray sky, the beautiful long green rolls
of surf rose and combed over and the surf scoters came in from the green
swells behind to feed in front of the surf and do skillful diving stunts to
escape being pounded by the white waterfalls. As the green wall ridged up
over their heads they would sit unmoved, but just as the white line of foam
began to appear along the crest they would dive, staying under till the surf
had broken and the water was level again. When diving through the green
rollers near the shore the black bodies of the scoters, paddling feet and all,
showed as plainly as beetles in yellow amber.

I have never heard the surf scoter utter a sound ; and Mr. Mackay
(1891) says: "My experiences show that all the scoters are unusu-
ally silent and seem to depend entirely on their sight in discovering
their companions. I have rarely heard the surf scoter make an}'
sound, and then only a low, guttural croak, like the clucking of a
hen; they are said to utter a low whistle." Doctor Nelson (1887)
says : " In the mating season they have a low, clear whistle for a
call note, and may be readily decoyed within gunshot by imitating
it from a blind."

Fall. — Referring to the fall migration, Dr. Charles W. Townsend
(1905) writes:

Although scoters fly most in stormy weather and are often found quietly
feeding on calm days, still they sometimes go south in great numbers even in
pleasant weather. This flight is greatest in the early morning, but may be con-
tinued all day. At times flock succeeds flock as far as the eye can see off the
beach at Ipswich. Occasionally four or five exclusive ones go along together,

150 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

but usually the flocks are much larger, up to five or six hundred. These sweep
along at times in one long line close to the water. Anon they press together
in a compact and solid square. Again they spread out into a long line abreast
or form a V, and at all times they rush along with irresistible energy. On
reaching the angle at Annisquam where Cape Ann juts out boldly, the birds
are often at a loss what to do. Sometimes they fly first one way and then
another, rising higher and higher all the time, and then strike out toward the
end of the cape, over which they resume their southerly course at a con-
siderable height. Another flock will turn at the angle without pausing and
skirt the shore around the cape? Again, a flock will pause and fly high at the
angle, and then along the coast, soon to descend to the original height above
the water and round the end of the cape. All these are methods commonly
adopted. Occasionally a flock will get discouraged on reaching the solid
barrier of the cape, will turn back and drop into the water to talk it over.
All this shows the dislike of the scoter to fly over the land.

As a result of many years of observation, Mr. Mackay (1891)
says :

The old birds of the surf scoter appear about the middle of September, with
a very large movement about the 20th, according to the weather, the young
birds making their appearance the last of September or first of October.
I have known a considerable flight to occur on the last day of September,
the wind all day being very fresh from the southwest, which deflected them
toward the land ; such an early movement is, however, unusual. An easterly
storm about the middle of August is likely to bring them along, the wind
from this direction being particularly favorable for migration ; if, on the
other hand, the weather is mild and warm, it is not usual to see them so
early.

From this time on they continue to pass along the coast until near the end
of December, the main flight coming between the 8th and 20th of October,
depending upon the weather, when the migration appears to be at an end.
During such migration they are estimated to fly at a rate of about 100 miles
an hour, but this rate is also governed by the weather. The greater part of
these scoters pass around Cape Cod, as I have never heard of, nor seen, any
of the immense bodies of " bedded " fowl north or east of it as occur south and
west of the cape ; probably because they are unable to find either the security
or profusion of food north of it that they can obtain in the waters to the south.
They therefore congregate here in large numbers.

Winter. — In the waters lying south of Cape Cod, Massachusetts,
in the vicinity of Nantucket, Muskeget Island, and Marthas Vine-
yard, vast numbers of scoters spend the winter, Mr. Mackay (1891)
writes :

Most of these places being inaccessible to ordinary sportsmen, the birds
can live undisturbed during the late autumn, winter, and spring months, un-
doubtedly returning year after year to these same waters, which appear to
have become their winter home.

Where there are large ponds adjacent to the coast, separated from the ocean
by a strip of beach, all three of the scoters will at times frequent them to
feed, and will collect in considerable numbers if the supply of food is abund-
ant ; in which case they are very unwilling to leave such ponds, and, although
much harassed by being shot at and driven out, continue to return until many

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 151

are killed. An instance of this kind occurred the 1st of November, 1890, when
some 400 scoters collected in the Hummuck Pond on Nantucket Island ; they
were composed entirely of the young of the surf and white-winged scoters,
only one American (a female) being obtained out of about 50 birds shot in
one day (November 3) by a friend and myself. On March 18, 1875, I saw on u
return shooting trip from the island of Muskeget to Nantucket a body of
scoters, comprising the three varieties, wiiich my three companions and myself
estimated to contain 25,000 birds.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Northern North America, East to the Atlantic
coast of Labrador and probably Newfoundland. South nearly or
quite to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to James Bay (both sides), north-
ern Manitoba (Churchill), northern Saskatchewan and Alberta
(Athabasca Lake), perhaps northern British Columbia, and to
southern Alaska (Sitka). West to the Bering Sea coast of Alaska
(Yukon delta). North to northern Alaska (Kotzebue Sound), the
barren grounds of Canada and northern Labrador. Said to have
bred in northeastern Siberia ( Tschuktschen Peninsula) and in
Greenland (Disco Island).

Wintei' range. — Mainly on the sea coasts. On the Atlantic coast
from the Bay of Fundy southward to Florida (St. Lucie, Jupiter,
etc.), most abundantly from Massachusetts to New Jersey. On the
Pacific coast from the Aleutian Islands southward to Lower Cali-
fornia (San Qiiintin Bay). It winters commonly on the Great
Lakes and more sparingly westward to southern British Columbia
(Okanogan Lake) and southward rarely to Louisiana (New
Orleans) .

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival : New Brunswick, April
10; Central Alberta, McMurray, May 14; Alaska, Kowak River,
May 22. Late dates of departure: Louisiana, New Orleans, March
20; Georgia, Cumberland Island, May 6; North Carolina, Pea
Island, May 15; Rhode Island, May 21; Massachusetts, May 9.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival: Massachusetts, Septem-
ber 4 ; Rhode Island, September 1 ; South Carolina, Mount Pleasant,
October 24; Minnesota, Jackson County, October 1; Idaho, Fernan
Lake, October 9; Colorado, Barr Lake, October 22; Utah, Bear
River, October 24.

Casual records. — Three records for Bermuda (January 8, 1849,
October 7, 1854 and November 17, 1874). Said to have occurred in
Jamaica. There are numerous records for Great Britain and France,
three for Finland and several others for western Europe; these may
come from a Siberian breeding range.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada: Twelve records, June 19 to July 8;
six records, Jime 25 to July 1.
100449—25 1 1

152 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

ERISMATURA JAMAICENSIS (Gmelin)
RUDDY DUCK

HABITS

This curious little duck is in a class by itself, differing in several
peculiarities from any other North American duck. It is widely
scattered over the most extensive breeding range of any of our
ducks, from far north to far south and from our eastern to our
western coasts. Its molts and plumages are unique, involving a
complete seasonal change from the gaudy nuptial to the dull and
somber autumn dress ; even the seasonal changes in the oldsquaw are
less striking. But its eggs furnish the greatest surprise of all; for,
although this is one of our smallest ducks, it lays eggs which are
about as large as those of the great blue heron or the wild turkey.
In its appearance and behavior it is also imique and exceedingly
interesting. One must see it on its breeding grounds, in all its
glory, to appreciate what a striking picture is the male ruddy duck.
In the midst of a sea of tall, waving flags a quiet, sheltered pool
reflects on its glassy surface the dark green of its surroundings, an
appropriate setting for the little gem of bird life that floats gently
on its surface, his back glowing with the rich, red brown of his
nuptial attire, offset by the pure white of his cheeks, his black crown,
and above all his wonderful bill of the brightest, living, glowing
sky blue. He knows he is handsome as he glides smoothly along,
without a ripple, his saucy sprigtail held erect or even pointed for-
ward till it nearly meets his upturned head ; he seems to strut like a
miniature turkey gobbler.

Courtship. — His mate knows that he is handsome, too, as she
shyly watches him from her retreat among the flags, where perhaps
she is already building her basketlike nest. As she swims out to
meet him his courtship display becomes more ardent; he approaches
her with his head stretched up to the full extent of his short neck
and his eyes gleaming under two swollen protuberances above them
like the eyes of a frog ; with his chest puffed out like a pouter pigeon,
he bows and nods, slapping his broad, blue bill against his ruddy
breast ; its tip striking the water and making a soft, clucking sound.
Should a rival male appear upon the scene, he rushes toward him,
they clash in an angry struggle, and disappear beneath the surface
in desperate combat, until the vanquished one skulks awaj^ and leaves
the victor to strut and display his charms with more pride than ever.
Since the above was written, Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1920) has
published an accurate description of what is apparently the same
performance, but rather than repeat it here, I would refer the
reader to it.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 153

Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey (1919) describes it more briefly,

thus :

When I arrived only two pairs were in evidence, the puffy little drakes
looking very cocky and belligerent, suggesting pouter doves with their air of
importance and the curious muscular efforts by which they produced their
strange notes. When I first saw one perform, not knowing about his tracheal
air sac, I thought he might be picking at his breast or have something stuck
in his throat and be choking. With quick nods of the head that jerked the
chin in, he pumped up and down, till finally a harsh guttural cluck was emitted
from his smooth, blue bill. Often in doing chin exercises the little drakes
pumped up a labored ip-ip-ip-ip-u-cluck, cluck, producing it with such effort
that the vertical tail pressed forward over the back, as if to help in the
expulsion, afterwards springing erect again.

Nesting. — In the deep-water sloughs of North Dakota we found the
ruddy' ducks nesting in abundance ; the ideal conditions found here
are to be found in many places throughout the west, where the nest-
ing habits of the species are probably similar. In these large sloughs
there are extensive tracts of tall reeds, bullrushes, or flags, often
higher than a man's head and growing so thickly that nothing can
be seen through them at a little distance. In these excellent hiding
places the ruddy duck conceals its nest, and so well is this done that
even after the nest has once been located it is extremely difficult to
find it again. The nests are basketlike structures, well made of the
reeds, bullrushes, or flags, closely interwoven; the material always
matches the surroundings of the nest, so sometimes the nest is made
of the dry stalks only and sometimes partially or wholly of the green
material, producing a very pretty effect. The nest is built up some
7 or 8 inches above the level of the water, which is often more than
knee deep, and attached firmly to the growing reeds; a sloping pile
of reeds is usually added as a stairway leading to the nest, down
which the duck can quickly slide into the water on the approach of
danger ; and the growing reeds above are often arched over the nest
in such a way as nearly to conceal it. There is no lining in the nest
except a few finer bits of reeds and flags ; and what little down is
found there may be more accidental than an intentional lining. From
such a well-concealed nest the departure of the duck could never be
seen; she simply slides into the VN^ater and slinks away like a grebe.
The female is particularly shy during the breeding season and
seldom shows herself near the nest.

The man who found the first ruddy duck's nest must have been
surprised and puzzled, for he would never suppose that such large
eggs could belong to such a small duck. W. H. Collins (1881)
mistook the fi-rst eggs of this species that he found at St. Clair
Flats for brant's eggs, because the ruddy ducks kept out of sight
and some brant happened to be flying about the marsh. But the

154 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

next season, when no brant were to be seen, he succeeded in identify-
ing the eggs by a careful study of the feathers in the nest, the
parents keeping out of sight, as usual. He did finally succeed in
seeing a female ruddy leave her nest and swim away under water to
the nearest clump of rushes. According to Rev. J. H. Langille
(1884), the nesting habits of this duck are somewhat different in this
vicinity from what they are in North Dakota. He says:

The nest, built some time in June, is placed in the sedges or marsh grass
over the water, and may contain as many as 10 eggs, remarliably large for the
size of the bird, oval or slightly ovate, the finely granulated shell being' almost
pure white, tinged with the slightest shade of grayish blue. The nest may be
quite well built of fine colored grasses, circularly laid, or simply a mere matting
together of the tops of the green marsh grass, with a slight addition of some
dry, flexible material. I found one nest on a hollow .side of a floating log. It
consisted of a few dried grasses and rushes laid in a loose circle. Indeed, the
bird inclines to build a very slight nest.

Robert B. Rockwell (1911) has found the ruddy duck nesting in
still more open situations in Colorado. On May 31, 1907, he found
a fine set of 10 eggs in an excavation in the side of a large muskrat
house, without any downy lining whatever, and only a few inches
above the water level. On June 8 this nest contained 11 eggs, 2 of
which were canvasback's or redhead's; there was also a new nest of
the canvasback, containing 8 fresh eggs, on the other side of the
same muskrat house and only 4 feet away; and, moreover, a new
ruddy duck's nest, containing 3 fresh eggs, was found on top of
the house and about midway between the two nests. '' This was a
mere unlined depression in the litter composing the house, entirely
without concealment of any kind, and the great snowy white egg^
could be seen from a distance of many yards." Three ducks' nests
on one muskrat house is certainly a remarkable record.

The ruddy duck has been known to use an abandoned nest of the
American coot, Avhich sometimes is not much unlike its own. Doctor
Wetmore tells me that in the Bear River marshes in Utah the old
nests of the redheads are commonly aj^propriated by the ruddy
ducks. It also laj^s its eggs in other duck's nests and even in grebe's
nests. At Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, I flushed a female ruddy duck
from a clump of bulrushes in the midst of a large colony of western
grebes; a careful search through the clump revealed only grebes'
nests, but one of the nests held 2 eggs of the western grebe and 1
egg of the ruddy duck. I have found ruddy ducks' eggs in the nests
of the redhead and the canvasback, and others have mentioned the
same thing; the other two species often lay in the ruddy ducks' nests
also, so that it is sometimes difficult to decide which was the original
owner of the nest.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 155

Eggs. — The ruddy duck is said to lay as many as 19 or 20 eggs,
but such large sets are not common; the numbers usually run from
6 to 9 or 10. The eggs are often deposited in two layers and with
the largest numbers in three layers; it is obviously impossible for
so small a duck to cover any large number of such large eggs. The
indications are that in the more southern portions of its range two
broods may be raised in a season, which seems to be very much
prolonged. William G. Smith says in his notes that he has taken
young birds in the down as late as October 16 in Colorado. The
eggs are distinctive and could hardly be mistaken for anything else.
They vary somewhat in shape from short ovate to elongate ovate,
or from oval to elliptical oval. The shell is thick and decidedly
rough and granular, much more so than any other duck's Qgg. When
first laid the eggs are pure, dull white or creamy white, but they
become more or less stained during incubation. The measurements
of 80 eggs, in the United States National Museum and the writer's
collections, average 62.3 by 45.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the
four extremes measure 67.6 by 44.5, 66.5 by 48, 59.4 by 45.4, and 61.3
by 42.6 millimeters.

Young. — The period of incubation seems to be unknown, but it is
probably not far from 30 days. It is apparently performed by the
female alone, although the male does not desert the female at this
season, and, contrary to the rule among ducks, he remains with the
young family and helps care for them until they are fully grown.
Dr. Alexander Wetmore writes to me as follows :

The male ruddy ducks in most instances remain with the females after the
young hatch, and it is a common sight to see a male, with tail erect and breast
and throat puffed out, swimming at the head of a 'brood of newly hatched
young in a compact flock, while the female follows behind. When such families
are approached the adults submerge quietly and disappear with no demonstra-
tion whatever, while the young, left to their own devices, make off as rapidly
as possible, still maintaining their close formation. Only when seriously
threatened do they dive and then scatter. As they grow older the young birds
become more independent, and usually when half grown are found separated
from their parents. Occasionally, however, well-grown young are found with
the female. Young as well as adults are more or less helpless on land, re-
sembling grebes in this respect. Young birds half grown were able to waddle
a few steps, but fell on the breast almost at once and then usually progressed
by shoving along in a prostrate position with both feet stroking together.
These half-grown birds were sullen and ferocious, and none that I had became
tame at all. They invariably snapped and bit at my fingers when handled,
and with open mouths resented every approach. When first hatched, the feet
of these birds are truly enormous in proportion to the size of the body and
form a certain index to the future activities of the ducklings.

According to Maj. Allan Brooks (1903), the "young when first
hatched are, as might be expected, very large, and dive for their

156 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

food, unlike all other young ducks, which take their food from the
surface for several weeks."

G. S. Miller, jr. (1891), published the following observations on
the behavior of young ruddy ducks on Cape Cod, Massachusetts :

On August 11 I found four young, accompanied by the female parent, on a
large shallow pond which lies between the towns of Truro and Provincetown.
At the approach of my boat the old bird left her yoiang and joined five other
adults which were resting upon the water half a mile away ; the young ones,
however, were too young to fly, and so attempted to escape by swimming and
diving to the shelter of a cat-tail island near which they happened to be when
surprised. Two of them reached this place of safety, but the others were
secured after a troublesome chase. They were very expert divers, remaining
beneath the surface for a considerable length of time, and on appearing again
exposing the upper part of the head only, and that for but a few seconds.
As the water just here happened to be filled with pond weed {Potaniogeton
pectinatiis and P. perfoliatus) , it was not difficult to trace the motions of the
l>irds when beneath the surface by the commotion which they made in passing
through the thick masses of vegetation. The flocli of old birds contained at
least two adult males, which were very conspicuous among their dull-colored
companions. They were all veiy shy, so that it was impossible to approach
to within less than 100 yards of them. The adults, as well as the two remain-
ing young, were seen afterwards on several visits to the pond.

Plumages. — The downy young, when first hatched is a large, fat,
awkward, and helpless looking creature, covered with long coarse
down, which on the uj)per parts is mixed with long hair-like fila-
ments, longest and coarsest on the rump and thighs. The upper
2")arts are " drab " or " hair brown," deepening to " Front's brown "
or " mummy brown " on the crown and rump, with two whitish rump
patches, one above each thigh; the brown of the head extends below
the eyes to the lores and auriculars, a broad band of grayish white
separating this from a poorly defined malar stripe of " drab " ; the
under parts are mostly grayish white, shading into the darker colors
on the sides and into an indistinct collar of " drab " on the lower neck.
The colors fade out paler with increasing age. The young bird is
almost fully grown before the juvenal plumage is complete; it comes
in first on the flanks, scapulars and head; the down is replaced last
on the center of the belly, back, and rump. In this plumage the
upper parts are dark brown, " clove brown " or " bone brown " on
the back and " blackish brown " on the crown ; the feathers of the
mantle are indistinctly barred, tipped, or sprinkled with fine dots
of pale buffy shades; and the crown feathers are tipped with
brownish buff. The flank feathers are more distinctly barred with
dusky and grayish buff; the breast feathers are dusky, broadly
tipped with buff and the rest of the plumage is more or less mottled
with dusky, grayish, and buffy tints. There is no clear white on
the side of the head which is mottled with dusky, the mottling form-
ing a more or less distinct malar strip. The sexes are alike in this

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 157

plumage, except that the female is decidedly smaller. This plumage
is worn without much change until the spring molt begins. This
molt is nearly complete, involving everything but the wings, and
produces the decided seasonal change peculiar to this species.

Mr. A. J. van Rossem has sent me some notes on the molts and
plumages of this imique duck, based on extensive studies, from which
I quote as follows :

The Juvenal plumage is retained until about January or February, wlien it
is replaced (including the tail) by a plumage closely resembling that of the
winter adults. The male, at least, about the middle or end of May then
assumes a red plumage in general resembling the midsummer adult, except that
the reds are darker and apt to be obscured by an admixture of darker (similar
to the winter) feathers. With the taking on of this first red plumage, the tail
is again molted. It is molted again in the fall, at the time of the transition
into winter plumage. Thus two years are required to attain the brilliant red
plumage of the fully adult male.

The ruddy duck is one of very few species which have a strictly
nuptial plumage and two extensive molts. The prenuptial molt in
April and May produces the well-known nuptial plumage of the
male, involving practically all of the contour plumage and the tail,
and characterized by the brownish black crown, the white cheeks,
the sky-blue bill, and the " chestnut " back. The nuptial plumage of
the female is not so striking; it is much like that of the first winter,
but the cheeks, chin, and throat become purer white.

There is no eclipse plumage. The summer molt, occurring from
August to October, is complete, producing an adult winter plumage
much like that of the first winter, except that the cheeks, chin, and
throat are pure white, including the lores and nearly up to the eyes ;
the sexes are much alike in this plumage, but the male is decidedly
larger, and many of the mottled feathers of the mantle and flanks
are more or less washed with chestnut. Adults can always be dis-
tinguished from young birds by the white cheeks and throats.

Food. — Being- decidedly a diving duck, the ruddy duck obtains
most of its food on the bottom and subsists very largely on a vege-
table diet, hence its flesh is usually well flavored. While living on
the inland ponds, marshes, and streams, it feeds on the seeds, roots,
and stems of grasses and the bulbs and leaves of aquatic plants, such
as flags, teal moss, wild rice, pond lilies, duckweed, and wild rye.
Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899) says it also eats small fishes, slugs, snails,
mussels, larvae, fish spawn, worms, and creeping insects. Prof.
W. B. Barrows (1912) "once took from the crop and stomach of a
single ruddy duck, at Middletown, Connecticut, 22,000 seeds of a
species of pondweed (iVa/«s), which at that time was growing in great
abundance in the city reservoir, where the bird was shot." Dr. J. C.
Phillips (1911) found in the stomachs of ruddy ducks, shot in Massa-

158 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

chusetts, " seeds of bur reed, pondweed, bulrush, and Naias, and buds,
etc., of wild celery," also " chironomid and hydrophilid larvae."

In the Currituck Sound region of North Carolina and Virginia I
have found them feeding almost exclusively on the seeds of the fox-
tail grass. Nuttall (1834) mentions " seeds and husks of the Ruppia
maritima,''^ which is apparently the same thing. Audubon (1840)
says : " Wlien on salt marshes they eat small univalve shells, fiddlers,
and young crabs, and on the seacoast they devour fry of various
sorts. Along with their food they swallow great quantities of sand
or gravel."

Behavior. — In its flight, swimming, and diving habits the ruddy
duck more closely resembles the grebes than does any other Ameri-
can duck. Its small, rounded wings are hardly sufficient to raise its
chunky little body off the water, except with the aid of its large,
powerful feet, pattering along the surface for several yards. But,
when well under way, it makes good progress in flight, though it flies
usually close to the water and seldom ri,ses to any great height in
the air, even when migrating. It has a peculiar, uneven, jerky gait
in flight by which it can be easily recognized at a long distance, and
it usually flies in good-sized or large flocks. Audubon (1840) says:

They alight on the water more heavily than most others that are not equally
flattened and short in tjie body, but they move on that element with ease and
grace, swimming deeply immersed, and procuring their food altogether by
diving, at which they are extremely expert. They are generally disposed to
keep under the lee of shores on all occasions. When swimming without
suspicion of danger they carry the tail elevated almost perpendicularly and
float lightly on the water ; but as soon as they are alarmed, they immediately
sink deeper, in the manner of the anhinga, grebes, and cormorants, sometimes
going out of sight without leaving a ripple on the water. On small ponds
they often dive and conceal themselves among the grass along the shore, rather
than attempt to escape by flying, to accomplish which with certainty they
would require a large open space. I saw this very often when on the planta-
tion of General Hernandez in east Florida. If wounded, they dived and hid in
the grass, but, as the ponds there were shallow, and had the bottom rather
ftrm, I often waded out and pursued them. Then it was that I saw the
curious manner in which they used their tail when swimming, employing it now
as a rudder, and again with a vertical motion ; the wings being also slightly
opened, and brought into action as well as the feet.

Walter H. Rich (1907) writes:

The wings are small in proportion to their chunky little bodies, and their
flight at the outset is heavy and labored, but once fairly going they fly fast,
their wings making considerable noise from their rapid motion. With all
these drawbacks the ruddy is wonderfully quick, either in the air or on the
water. He is quite capable of taking care of himself once he gets it into his
head that harm is intended. He can get under water with a celerity that
falls little short of the marvelous. One of his tricks has always been a mys-
tery to me: He will sink himself completely beneath the surface without div-
ing— simply settles down like a sinking craft and lieats a retreat under water.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 159

where he is as much at home as auy duck of them all. I have seen black
ducks, when they thought themselves undiscovered and their wit said it was
dangerous to fly, sink themselves so that only the head showed above water,
and have seen shell drakes settle down in the same style until only their
heads were visible and so go darting and zigzagging away when they had
flown in and settled among a bunch of decoys before discovering the cheat, but
I have never seen any of these go conjpletely below the surface without an
attempt at diving as does the ruddy.

Audubon (1840) says: "Their notes are uttered in a rather low
tone and very closely resemble those of the female mallard." Rev.
J. H. Langille (1884) observes: "The ruddy duck is nearly noiseless,
occasionally uttering a weak squeak." Doctor Wetmore tells me
that the female is entirely silent and that the only note heard fr'^m
the male is the courtship call, tick tick tickity quo-ack.

Fall. — On its migrations the ruddy duck follows the courses of the
streams and the lakes, flying low and in large flocks, often close to
water and below the level of the banks of the streams. The flights
are made mainly early in the morning or during the dusk of even-
ing, perhaps even during the night; they seem to appear suddenly
in the ponds and small lakes and disappear as mysteriously; thej'
are seldom seen coming or going. The flocks are made up largely
of the dull-colored young birds, and even the old males have acquired
their somber autumn dress. They are said to be unsuspicious and
easily approached by gunners, but my experience has shown that
they are Avell able to take care of themselves. When in a large
flock on an open lake they are particularly difficult to approach,
for they will fly long before the gunner can come within gunshot;
I have chased them for hours in this way and seen them go spat-
tering off close to the surface with a great whirring of little wings,
only to drop into the water again at no great distance, without
checking their speed, sliding along the surface and making the spray
fly ; only when cornered in some narrow bay and forced to fly past
the boat do they give the gunner a chance for a shot. Even when
suddenly surprised they can escape by diving in remarkably quick
time and, swimming under the water for a long distance, come up
at some unexpected place ; often they seem to have vanished entirely
until a careful search reveals one crawling out on a grassy bank to
hide or skulking somewhere in the reeds. To chase a wounded bird
is almost hopeless. When swimming under water the wings are
closed and both feet work simultaneously. William G. Smith states
in his notes that while hunting in a boat, where the water was clear,
he has " often observed " a wounded ruddy duck " dive down, grasp
a weed," and " remain in this position for 20 minutes " ; but he does
not say wdiether the duck was alive or not at the end of this re-
markable performance.

100449—25 12

160 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Game. — Ruddy ducks resort in large numbers, late in the fall, to
Back Bay, Virginia, where they are known as "boobies," and fur-
nish good sport for the numerous duck clubs located in that famous
lesort for sportsmen. Here they spend the winter in the broad
exj)anse of shallow fresh and brackish water bays and estuaries,
with the hosts of other wild fowl that frequent that favored region,
growing fat and tender on the abundance of foxtail grass, w41d
celery, and other duck foods. Their feeding grounds are mainly in
the shallower, more protected parts of the bays and near the shores,
where they are most intimately associated with the American coots
which gather there in immense rafts. Large flocks of these sprightly
little ducks are frequently seen flying back and forth and they are
popular with the sportsman, as they are lively on the wing, decoy
readily under proper conditions, and are excellent table birds when
fattened on clean vegetable food. They are usually shot from the
batteries, such as are used for canvasbacks, but, as they are a little
shy about coming to the large rafts of canvasback decoys that are
used for the larger duckSy better results are obtained by " tying
out " the battery with a smaller number of " booby " decoys. Under
favorable circumstances it does not take long for a gunner to secure
his legal limit of 35 ducks a day. Another method of shooting them,
which is often very succesful, is for a number of boats to surround
a flock of birds or drive them into some small bay, where they are
eventually forced to fly out past the boats, as they do not like to fly
over the land.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Mainly in the sloughs and marshes of central
and western North America. East to southern Manitoba (Shoal
Lake), west central Minnesota (Becker County), southeastern Wis-
consin (Lakes Koshkonong and Pewaukee), and southeastern Michi-
gan (St. Clair Flats). South to northern Illinois (Lake and Put-
nam Counties), northern Iowa (Hancock County), south central
Texas (Bexar County), northern New Mexico (Lake Burford),
central Arizona (Mogollon Mountains), and northern Lovv^er Cali-
fornia (latitude 31° N.). West to southern and central California
(San Diego, Los Angeles, Monterey, and Siskiyou Counties), central
Oregon (Klamath and Malheur Lakes), northwestern Washington
(Seattle and Tacoma), and central British Columbia (Cariboo Dis-
trict). North throughout much of Alberta (Buffalo Lake and Bel-
vedere), probably to Great Slave Lake (Fort Resolution) and to
northern Manitoba (York factory).

Outlying, and probably casual, breeding stations have been re-
corded as far east as Ungava (Richmond Gulf), southeastern Maine

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 161

(Washington County), eastern Massachusetts (Cape Cod), southern
Rhode Island (Seaconnet Point), and central New York (Seneca
River). Extreme southern breeding colonies have been found in
southern Lower California (Santiago), the Valley of Mexico, at the
Lake of Duenas, Guatemala, and in the West Indies (Cuba, Porto
Rico, the Grenadines, Carriacou, etc.), many of which are probably
permanent colonies.

Winter range. — The northern portions of the breeding range are
vacated in winter. It winters abundantly on the Atlantic coast as
far north as Chesapeake Bay and more rarely north to Long Island
and Massachusetts; south to Florida, the Bahamas, and the West
Indies (Cuba, Porto Rico, Jamaica, Martinique, Grenada, Barbados,
etc.). On the Pacific coast, from southern British Columbia (Bound-
ary Bay) southward to Lower California, Guatemala, and Costa
Rica (Irazu). In the interior north to central Arizona (Pecks
Lake), southern Illinois, and western Pennsylvania (Erie).

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival: Massachusetts, March
20; Utah, Bear River, March 30; Minnesota, Heron Lake, April 3;
Ohio, Oberlin, April 7; Manitoba, southern, April 26; Alberta,
Edmonton, May 1. Average dates of arrival: Pennsylvania, Erie,
April 16; Ohio, Oberlin, April 15; Nebraska, April 7; Minnesota,
Heron Lake, April 10 ; Wyoming, Cheyenne, April 21 ; Manitoba,
southern. May 5.

Late dates of departure: Kentucky, Bowling Green, April 18;
Lower California, Colnet, April 8.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival: Virginia, Potomac
River, August 20 (average September 30) ; Massachusetts, Pem-
broke, September 5 ; West Indies, Barbados, September 13.

Casual records. — Accidental in Bermuda (November 24, 1846) and
Alaska (Kupreanof Island, August 15, 1916). Rare straggler in
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

Egg dates. — California: Thirty records, April 26 to August 11;
fifteen records, May 22 to June 10. North Dakota : Twelve records,
June 8 to July 19 ; six records, June 13 to July 9. Colorado : Nine
records, May 31 to August 6. Porto Rico : December to March.

NOMONYX DOMINICUS (Linnaeus)
MASKED DUCK

HABITS

This curious little duck resembles the ruddy duck in many ways
and has been placed by some writers in the same genus with it. It
is a tropical species, with its center of abundance somewhere in
eastern South America, found frequently if not regularly in some

162 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

of the West Indies, and with at least five well-established records
in five widely scattered localities within the United States.

Nesting. — A. H. Holland (1892) found it breeding at Estancia
Espartella, in Argentine Republic, where he speaks of it as —

Rare, living singly or in pairs in the small lagoons, either open or contain-
ing rushes. It is next to impossible to flush this peculiar duck, as it takes
after the grebes and invnrinbly dives when disturbed, so that I have never
seen it on the wing. When swimming it holds its stiff tail spread out and
erected, inclined somewhat toward its head, and as it swims very low in the
water the duck is only visible by its head, tail, and the top of its back. It
builds amongst the rushes early in November, making a nest of green rushes
with scarcely any lining, being a very flat construction. The eggs are three
in number and white in color, very rough and very round.

jS'(7^.<?.— There is an ^^^ of this species in the E. M. Barnes col-
lection, in Lacon, Illinois, which I have examined. It was taken
from the oviduct of a bird in Yucatan on November 17, 1904. It
is ovate in shape and broadly rounded at both ends; the shell is
rough and granulated; and the color is a dirty white. It looks
very much like a ruddy duck's ^^^. It measures 63 by 45.8
millimeters.

Behavior. — According to Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884) :

Leotaud mentions this duck as being one of the birds of Trinidad, where it
is by no means rare. While to a certain extent it seems to be migratory
some are always present on that island. It is social in its habits and seems
more disposed than any other duck to keep to the water. Its flight is rapid,
but is not so well sustained as that of most of the other kinds. When it is
on the land it keeps in an upright position, its tail resting on the ground.
Its movements on dry land are embarrassed by its claws, which are placed so
far back as to disturb its equilibrium. Its flesh is excellent, and is held in
high esteem in that island.

In a paper on the birds of Jamaica, W. E. D. Scott (1891) sayb:

In the ponds about Priestmans River I met with this species on two occa-
sions, and from native hunters learned that it was not at all uncommon,
especially early in the fall. At Priestmans River, 9th February, 1891, I took
an adult male. No. 11000, of 'Nomonyx dominicus. The bird was in a small
and very shallow pond, and did not attempt to fly away upon being approaclied,
but tried to hide in some thin grass growing whei'e an old stump of a tree
projected from the water, and remained so motionless as almost to escape
notice, though not more than 20 feet away. It was killed with a light load of
dust shot.

These little ducks do not seem at all rare on the island, and have mucli the
habits of the grebes, frequenting small fresh-water ponds and depending rather
on hiding in the grass or diving than on flight to escape pursuit. They are
said by the native gunners to breed at various points on the island.

T. M. Savage English (1916) writes:

NomoHi/x dominicus seems to be more or less abundant throughout the year,
on the secluded ponds of salt water which are frequent among the tall black
mangrove (Avicouiia) woods in the north of Grand Cayman; it most probably

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WIKD FOWL 163

breeds somewhere near them — very possibly among the dense thickets of red
mangrove (Rhizophora) , by wliich they are mostly surrounded. Anyone who
has ever been among red mangroves will appreciate the difficulty of finding the
nest of a diving bird among them — except by a fortunate chance, which never
came to the writer.

Most of the resident birds of Grand Cayman are remarkably fearless of
man, very much, as robins are in Europe, but these ducks are more wary, and
when their pond is approached generally make their first appearance in tlie
middle of it, having dived at the sight or sound of the intruder and, if near
the shore, found tlieir way under water to what they think is a safer place.
When at rest they float very much as most waterfowl do, the water line being
in about its usual place, but when swimming they are almost always deeply
submerged, and if approaching or receding from the observer, seem to have
a relatively enormous "beam." Of course this effect may be only due to the
very low elevation of the bird's back above the water. Their method of diving
is interesting. It has the appearance of being done without the movement of
a muscle, just as if the bird were a leaking vessel which was going down on
an even keel. This downward progress is often interrupted, wlien just the
head, the neck, and the upper part of the upstanding tail are showing above
the surface, or a little later, when only the head and part of the neck, which
is habitually kept stiffly upright (as is the tail), are visible. In either of
these positions the bird seems able to rest as well as to swim at some speed.

Nomonyx (lominicus has at least two calls, one of them very like the clucking
of a hen to her chickens and the other more reminiscent of a short note from
a motor horn.

H. B. Conover writes to me, of the habits of this species in Venc
zuela, as follows:

V\'e first s;nv the masked duck in a small pond on the edge of the savannah
about 60 miles south of Maracaibo. Here one day I ran into a pair of males
in the hen plumage. They were sitting a short way offshore and allowed us
to walk up within 15 or 20 yards. The native with me shot at them, killing
one, and the other bird jumped. This pair were probably stragglers ; I was
around there for a week and uever saw any more. At Lagunillas in May these
birds were abundant in the same marsh as the tree ducks. They sat around
in open patches of water among the aquatic plants in small lots of about 5 to
15. They seemed to stay almost entirely in these open patches of water and
rarely, if ever, were seen to alight among the floating aquatic plants. They
would start to flush at about 75 yards and would rarely let one get within 50
yards of them in a boat. As a general rule, when the flock was approached,
they would go off one or two at a time, not rising in a body. They would
again alight within 200 or 300 yards. They rose fairly easily from the water,
which was a great surprise to me, as they got ofC the surface very quickly and
were not anywhere nearly as clumsy as the ruddy duck. A few birds were
seen at this time which show^ed the red plumage, but the greater majority were
in the brown stage. I tried my best to get an adult male, but the birds were
so wild I was unsuccessful.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — In the West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Porto
Rico, St. Croix, Barbados, and Trinidad). Mainly in eastern South
America, in Argentina, eastern and central Brazil, Guiana, Vene-
zuela, etc.

164 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Has been taken in Chile (Concepcion, June and September), Peru
(Eten, October 11, 1899), Bolivia (Tatarenda and Lake Titacaca),
Ecuador (Sarayacu and Peripa), Panama, Guatemala, Mexico (Ori-
zaba, Jalapa, Matamoras, and Esquinapa), and southern Texas
(Brownsville, July 22, 1891), and it may breed at some or all of these
places.

Winter range. — Includes the breeding range. The records for
western South America and Central America may represent winter
wanderings.

Casual records. — Has wandered widely in North America to Mary-
land (Elkton, September 8, 1905), Massachusetts (Maiden, August 27,
1889), Vermont (Albury Springs, September 26, 1857), and Wiscon-
sin (near Newville, November, 1870). Some of these may be escapes
from captivity.

CHEN HYPERBOREA HYPERBOREA (Pallas)
SNOW GOOSE

HABITS

As fully explained under the next subspecies, a careful study of
the available specimens of birds and eggs, from various portions of
the breeding range and the winter range of this species, has dem-
onstrated that, while the greater snow goose {nivalis) occupies a
limited breeding range in northern Greenland and adjacent lands
and a narrow winter range on the Atlantic coast, the lesser snow
goose {hyperhorea) is a much more abundant bird of much wider
distribution. It breeds along the entire Arctic coast of this conti-
nent and on the islands north of it, from Alaska to Baffin Land. Its
winter range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific, but it is very
rare east of the Mississippi Valley and much more abundant from
there westward. It is especially abundant in winter in California,
Texas, and Mexico.

Spring. — The breeding grounds of the snow goose are so far
north that we know very little about them in their summer home.
They are known to us mainly as winter residents or as migrants.
The lesser snow goose seems to have two main lines of flight in the
spring, one from the Gulf coast directly northward through the
Mississippi Valley and the Athabaska-Mackenzie region, or Hud-
son Bay route, to the Arctic coast, and the other from California
northward, by an overland route west of the mountains, to north-
ern Alaska and then eastward to the mouth of the Mackenzie River
or beyond it. The Alaska route is not well known, and it may
be that many, perhaps a majority, of the birds pass northeastward
across the mountains to the Mackenzie Valley long before they

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 165

read} northern Alaska. Illustrating these two lines of flight we
have the following statements by E. A. Preble and Dr. E. W. Nel-
son; Mr. Preble (1908) says:

The valleys of the Athabaska and the Mackenzie lie in the path of migration
of great numbers of snow geese of both the eastern and western forms. The
rivers themselves, however, are seldom followed by the birds, except for short
distances, since their general courses trend somewhat toward the west, while
the lines of flight of the geese are usually nearly due north and south.
Flocks of snow geese, leaving in spring the marshes at the delta of the Peace
and Athabaska, a favorite stopping place, strike nearly due northward over
the rocky hills, probably not again alighting until several hundred miles
nearer their breeding grounds. Thus they press onward, close on the heels of
retreating winter, feeding, when suitable open water is denied them, on the
various berries which have remained on the stems through the winter.

Pursuing the course of the river northward, the next favorite goose ground
is the delta of the Slave, where great numbers stop both spring and fall for
rest and food. The low country about the outlet of Great Slave Lake is also
a favorite resort. Leaving this point the geese in spring take a general
northerly course, which suggests that their breeding grounds are north of the
east end of Great Bear Lake.

Doctor Nelson's (1887) remarks would seem to indicate that only
a small portion of the birds come as far north as St. Michael and
Point Barrow before they turn eastward. He writes :

The handsome lesser snow goose is uncommon on the coast of Norton
Sound and about the Yukon mouth. It arrives in spring from the 5th to the
15th of May, according to the season, and after remaining a very short time
passes on to its more northern summer haunts. In the vicinity of Nulato,
on the Yukon, Dall found them arriving about May 9, on their way up the
Yukon ; " they only stop to feed and rest on the marshes during the dusky
twilight of the night, and are off with the early light of an Arctic spring."

According to Murdoch they are occasionally seen at Point Barrow in spring.
This is all seen of these geese in spring throughout Alaska, except perhaps on
the extreme northern border, for south of this none breed, and none are found
after about May 25. They are far less numerous in spring than in fall along the
coast of Bering Sea, and their spring migration is over so quickly that they are
rarely killed at that season. Doctor Adams, while at St. Michael in 1851,
noted the arrival of these birds from the south in spring and their departure
to the north in fall, agreeing with my own observations, as noted elsewhere.

Nesting. — Although there are quite a number of sets of eggs of the
snow goose in collections, the information we have regarding its
nesting habits is scanty enough. MacFarlane (1891) apparently
never found the nest of this bird himself, for he says :

The Esquimaux assured us that large numbers of " white waves " annually
breed on the shores and islands of Esquimaux Lake and Liverpool Bay, but
strange to say, we never observed any in the Barren Grounds proper or on the
shores of Franklin Bay. The Esquimaux brought in to Fort Anderson about
100 eggs, which they claimed to have discovered among the marshy flats and
sandy islets on the coast of the former, as well as from similar localities on
and in the vicinity of the lake of that (Esquimaux) name.

166 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

There is a set of 7 eggs in the collection of Herbert Massey, Esq.,
taken for Bishop J. O. Stringer, on an island in the center of the
mouth of the Mackenzie Kiver on June 20, 1896; the nest is de-
scribed as a depression in the ground, lined with a beautiful lot of
gray down; it was collected by an Eskimo, but the bird was shot
and the head, wings, and feet were sent with the eggs. I have a
set of 5 eggs in my collection from the same missionary, taken on
Garry Island in the mouth of the Mackenzie River on June 10, 1912.

Eggs. — The eggs of the snow goose vary in shape from ovate to
elliptical ovate. The shell is thick and smoothly granulated, with a
slight gloss on incubated specimens. The color is dull white or
creamy white. They are usually much nest stained. The measure-
ments of 103 eggs in various collections average 78.6 by 52.3 milli-
meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 88 by 55.5, 79,6
by 57.2, 63.2 by 42.4, and 67.8 by 41.8 millimeters.

Plumages. — In the small downy young snow goose, recently
hatched, the color of the head shades from "olive buff" above to
" pale olive buff " below, suffused Avith " colonial buff " or pale yellow
on the throat, forehead, and cheeks; the down on the back is quite
glossy and appears "hair brown," "light drab," or "light grayish
olive" in different lights; the under parts are "pale olive buff,"
suffused on the breast and sides with pale yellow shades.

I have seen no specimens showing the change into the juvenile
plumage. In this plumage in the fall the head and neck is mottled
with brownish gray or dusky, faintly below, more heavily and
thickly above; the mantle and wing coverts, and early in the season
the breast are washed or finely sprinkled with grayish; the scapu-
lars, tertials, and secondaries are heavil}^ sprinkled and clouded with
grayish ; the primaries are more grayish black and not so extensively
black tipped as in the adult.

During the first winter and spring much progress is made toward
maturity by wear and molt. The dusky markings gradually disap-
pear, much of the contour plumage is molted, as well as the wing
coverts and tail, until by summer there is little left of the immature
plumage, except a small amount of grayish mottling on the head
and the juvenal wings. At the complete molt that summer young
birds become practically indistinguishable from adults, when 14
or 15 months old.

Food. — The food of the snow goose is largely vegetable, in fact
almost wholly so, during the greater part of its sojourn in its winter
home. In the spring this consists largely of winter wheat and
other sprouting grains and grasses ; and in the fall the stubble fields
are favorite feeding grounds, where large flocks are known to con-
gregate regularlv. According to Swainson and Richardson (1831)

UFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 167

it " feeds on rushes, insects, and in autumn on berries, particularly
those of the empetrum nigrum.'''' Doctor Coues (1874) gives the
best account of its feeding habits, as follows :

Various kinds of ordinary grass form a large part of this bird's food, at
least during tlieir winter residence in the United States. They gather it
precisely as tame geese are wont to do. Flocks alight upon a meadow or
plain, and pass over the ground in broken array, cropping to either side as
they go, with the peculiar tweak of the bill and quick jerk of the neck
familiar to all who have watched the barnyard birds when similarly engaged.
The short, turfy grasses appear to be highly relished ; and this explains the
frequent presence of the birds in fields at a distance from water. They also
eat the bulbous roots and soft succulent culms of aquatic plants, and in
securing these the tooth-like processes of the bill are brought into special
service. Wilson again says that, when thus feeding upon reeds, "they tear
them up like hogs ; " a questionable comparison, however, for the birds pull
up the plants instead of pushing or " rooting " them up. The geese, I think,
also feed largely upon aquatic insects, small mollusks, and marine invertebrates
of various kinds ; for they are often observed on mud flats and rocky places
by the seaside, where there is no vegetation whatever ; and it is probable
that when they pass over meadows they do not spare the grasshoppers.
Audubon relates that in Louisiana he has often seen the geese feeding in
wheat fields, where they plucked up the young plants entire.

Behavior. — Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898) says that the snow geese fly —

very high in a long, extended curved line, not nearly so angular as the
V-shaped ranks of the Canada and other geese. With their snowy forms
moving steadily along in the calm air, the outstretched wings tipped with
black, glowing in the sun's rays with the faint blush of the rose, they present
a most beautiful sight. Usually they fly silently with hardly a perceptible
movement of the pinions, high above

" * * * the landscape lying so far below
With its towns and rivers and desert places.
And the splendor of light above, and the glow
Of the limitless blue ethereal spaces."

Occasionally, however, a solitary note like a softened ''Iwitk" is borne from
out the sky to the ear of the watcher beneath. Should they perceive a place
that attracts them, they begin to lower, at first gradually, sailing along on
motionless wings until near the desired spot, and then descend rapidly in
zigzag lines until the ground or water is almost reached, when with a few
quick flaps they gently alight.

Vernon Bailey (1902) writes:

They are oftenest seen on the wing high overhead in long diagonal lines
or V-shaped flocks, flying rapidly and uttering a chorus of shrill falsetto
cries.

Illustrating the sociability of the snow goose,, in its relation to
other species, W. Leon Dawson (1909) says:

Snow geese dispense shrill falsetto cries as they fly about in companies of
their own kind, or else mingle sociably with other species. Doctor Newberry
says he has often seen a triangle of geese flying steadily, high overhead.

168 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

"composed of individuals of three species (Chen hyperborea, Branta cana-
densis hutchinsii, and Anser albifrons gambelli), each plainly distinguishable
by its plumage, but each holding its place in the geometrical figure as though
it was composed of entirely homogeneous material, perhaps an equal number
of the darker speecies, with three, four or more snow-white geese fljing
together somewhere in the converging lines."

At Moses Lake and again on the Columbia River I have seen a single snow
goose attach itself to a company of resident Canadas — in each case through
several days' observation — appearing now alone and now in company with
the larger birds. A specimen taken May 9, 1907, at Wallula was with three
Canada geese (one pair and a presumed "auntie"), and these were very
reluctant to leave their fallen companion.

Fall. — On the fall migration, when the ^'ast hordes of snow geese
begin to wing their way southward from their Arctic summer homes,
we begin to realize the astounding abundance of the species. George
Barnston (1862), of the Hudson's Bay Co., writes:

The snow goose, although it plays a less conspicuous part in the interior of
the country, where it seldom alights, except along the margin of the larger
lakes and streams, becomes, from its consolidated numbers, the first and great-
est object of sport after the flocks alight in James Bay. The havoc spread
throughout their ranks increases as the season advances and their crowds
thicken, and even the Indian becomes fatigued with the trade of killing. In
the fall of the year, when the flocks of young " wewais," or " wavies," as they
are called, are numerous and on the wing between the low-tide mark and the
marshes or are following the line of coast southerly, it is no uncommon occur-
rence for a good shot, between sunrise and sunset, to send to his lodge about
100 head of game.

These " wavies," or white geese, form the staple article of food as rations to
the men in James Bay and are the latest in leaving the coast for southern
climes, an event which takes place toward the end of the month of September,
although some weak broods and wounded birds linger behind until the first or
second week in October. They are deliberate and judicious in their prepara-
tion for their great flight southward and make their arrangements in a very
businesslike manner. Leaving off feeding in the swamps for a day or more,
they keep out with the retreating ebb tide, retiring, unwillingly as it were, by
steps at its flow, continually occupied in adjusting their feathers, smoothing
and dressing them with their fatty oil, as athletes might for the ring or race.
After this necessary preparation the flocks are ready to take advantage of the
first north or northwest wind that blows, and when that sets in in less than
24 hours the coast that has l)een covered patchlike by their whitened squadrons
and widely resonant with their petulant and incessant calls is silent as the
grave — a deserted, barren, and frozen shore.

J. E. Forster (1772). the naturalist, who sailed with Captain
Cook in this region, says :

The Indians have a peculiar method of killing all these species of geese,
and likewise swans. As these birds fly regularly along the marshes, the In-
dians range themselves in a line across the marsh, from the wood to high-
water mark, about musket shot from each other, so as to be sure of intercept-
ing any geese which fly that way. Each person conceals himself, by putting

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 169

round him some brushwood; they likewise make artificial geese of sticks and
xnud, placing them at a short distance from themselves, in order to decoy
the real eeese within shot ; thus prepared they sit down, and keep a good
lookout ; and as soon as the dock appears they all lie down, imitating the
call or note of geese, which these bii'ds no sooner hear, and perceive the decoys,
than they go straight down toward them ; then the Indians rise on their
knees, and discharge one, two, or three guns each, killing two or even three
geese at each shot, for they are very expert. Mr. Graham says he has seen
a row of Indians, by calhng, round a flock of geese, keep them hovering among
them, till every one of the geese was killed. Every species of geese has its
peculiar note or call, which must gradually increase the difficulty of calling
tliem.

Dr. George Bird Grinnell (1901) draws a pretty picture of migrat-
ing snow geese, as follows :

The spectacle of a flock of these white geese flying is a very beautiful one.
Sometimes they perform remarkable evolutions on the wing, and if seen at a
distance look like so many snowflakes being whirled hither and thither by the
wind. Scarcely less beautiful is the sight which may often be seen in the
Kocky Mountain region during the migration. As one rides along under the
warm October sun he may have his attention attracted by sweet, faint, dis-
tant sounds, interrupted at first, and then gradually coming nearer and clearer,
yet still only a murmur ; the rider hears it from above, before, behind, and
all around, faintly sweet and musically discordant, always softened by dis-
tance, like the sound of far-off harps, of sweet bells jangled, of the distant
baying of mellow-voiced hounds. Looking up into the sky above him he sees
the serene blue far on high flecked with tiny white moving shapes, which
seem like snowflakes drifting lazily across the azure sky ; and down to earth,
falling, falling, falling, come the musical cries of the little wavies that are
journeying toward the southland.

Winter. — Doctor Coues (1874) refers to the abundance of snow
geese in the winter resorts in California, as follows :

On the Pacific coast itself, particularly that of California, the birds are prob-
ably more abundant in winter than anywhere else. Upon their arrival in Oc-
tober, they are generally lean and poorly flavored, doubtless with the fatigue
of a long journey ; but they find abundance of suitable food and soon recuperate.
At San Pedro, in southern California, in November, I saw them every day,
and in all sorts of situations — some on the grassy plain, others among the
reeds of a little stream or the marshy borders of the bay, others on the bare
mud flats or the beach itself. Being much harassed they had grown exceed-
ingly wary and were suspicious of an approach nearer than several hundred
yards. Yet with all their sagacity and watchfulness — traits for which their
tribe has been celebrated ever since the original and classic flock saved Rome,
as it is said — they are sometimes outwitted by very shallow stratagem — the
same that I mentioned in speaking of the speckle-bellies. It is strange, too,
that the noise and general appearance of a carriage should not be enough to
frighten them, but such is the case. I have driven in a buggy along the open
beach directly into a flock of snow geese that stood staring agape, " grinning "
the while, till they were almost under the horse's hoofs ; the laziest flock
of tame geese that were ever almost run over in a country by-road were in
no less hurry to get out of the way. Advantage is often taken of this ig-
norance to shoot them from a buggy ; and, though they have not yet learned

170 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

that anything is to be dreaded when the rattling affair approaches, yet no
doubt experience will prove a good teacher, and its acquirements be trans-
mitted until they become inherent. A wild goose of any species is a good
example of wariness in birds, as distinguished from timidity. A timid l>ird is
frightened at any unusual or unexpected appearance, particularly if it be ac-
companied by noise, while a wary one only tlies from what it has learned to
distrust or fear through its acquired perceptions or inherited instincts.
Doctor Heermann's notice of this species gives an idea of the immense num-
bers of the birds in some localities, besides relating a novel method of hunt-
ing them. He says they " often cover so densely with their masses the plains
in the vicinity of the marshes as to give the ground the appearance of being
clothed in snow. Easily approached on horseback, the natives sometimes near
them in this manner, then suddenly putting spurs to their animals, gallop
into the flock, striking to the right and left with short clubs, and trampling
them beneath their horses' feet. I have known a native to procure 17 birds
in a single charge of this kind through a flock covering several acres."

Walter E. Biyant (1890), in comparing their status then with past
conditions in California, writes:

There has not, so far as I am aware, been a very marked decrease in the
number of geese which annually visit California, but the area over which they
now feed is considerably less than in 1S50. In the fall of that year, my
father, while going from San Francisco to San Jose, met with acres of white
and gray geese near San Bruno. They were feeding near the roadside, in-
different to the presence of all persons, and in order to see how close he could
approach he walked directly toward them. When within 5 or 6 yards of the
nearest ones they stretched up their necks and walked away like domestic
gee.se ; by making demonstration with his arms they were frightened and
took wing, flying but a short distance. They seemed to have no idea that
they would be harmed, and feared man no more than they did the cattle in
the fields. The tameness of the wild geese was more remarkable than of
any other birds, but it must be understood that in those days they were but
little hunted and probably none had ever heard the report of a gun and few
had seen men. This seems the most plausible accounting for the stupid
tameness of the geese, 40 years ago. What the wild goose is to-day on the
open plains of the large interior valleys of California those who have hunted
them know. By 1853 the geese had become wilder and usually flew before
one could get within shotgun range, if on foot, but in an open buggy or upon
horseback there was no difliculty. There was a very marked contrast be-
tween the stupidly tame geese after their arrival in the fall and the same
more watchful and shy birds before the departure in spring of the years 1852
and 1858. This is an important fact, showing not only the change in the in-
stinct occurring within three years, but the more remarkable change, or it may
be called the revival of the instinct of fear, which was effected within a few
months ; to this point I will refer again.

The following quotations from Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer
(1918) will give a fair idea of present conditions in California:

There has been a more conspicuous decrease in the numbers of geese than
in any other game birds in the State. Many observers testify that there is
only 1 goose now for each 100 that vi.sited the State 20 years ago, and some
persons aver that in certain localities there is not more than 1 to every 1,000
which formerly occurred here. Not only have these birds been slaughtered for

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILJ> FOWL 171

the market, but gangs of men have been paid to destroy them where they were
feeding in grain fields. Until 1915 they were afforded no protection whatever,
and as a natural result their ranks have been so often decimated that, com-
paratively speaking, only a remnant now remains.

In former years, when passing through the Sacramento or San Joaquin Val-
leys by tx'ain, great flocks of white geese, in company with other, dark-colored
species, were often to be seen sitting on the grain fields or pasture lands almost
within gunshot of the cars. The days are past and gone when a man has to
drive geese from his grain field. In many places where formerly the ground
was so covered with white geese as to look snowclad, not a single goose
is now to be observed feeding and but few flying overhead, in spite of the
extreme shyness and watchfulness of these geese, the ingenuity of the hun-
ter and the increased efficiency of firearms has so far overbalanced the natural
protection thus afforded that the birds are now actually threatened with extinc-
tion. Unless the protection now furnished proves adequate in the very near
future, this State, which at one time appeared to have an inexhaustible supply
of geese, will have entirely lost this valuable game resource.

That snow geese are abundant in winter in certain parts of Texas
is well illustrated by the following note made by Herbert W. Brandt
in Kleberg County :

On March 23, 1919, we went up to the Laureless Ranch headquarters and got
Mr. Cody, the foreman, to go for a ride with us. He showed us a new road
and took us to La'guna Larga, a great mar.shy tract 6 miles long in the plains.
The water is not deep and grass grows up through it all over, and there are a
few small patches of tules or cat-tails, but it all dries up if the summer is
dry. As we approached it looked as if it was covered with snow, but it proved
to be thousands upon thousands of snow geese and other wild geese. Here is
their winter home, coming into the great pastures at night to feed on the
abundant grass. Last year for the first time known a couple of large flocks
remained the entire summer. It was the most wonderful sight in bird life
I ever saw, and it will never be forgotten, as cloud after cloud of white and
black birds took to wing and then settled down in a distant part of the marsh.

Mr. Kleberg told us that the geese we saw were just a few left from the
great winter flocks, most of them having now departed for the northland.
He has seen 500 acres of solid geese, he said, just one snow bank. He hunts
them by taking his big Packard car and runs toward them on the prairies at
60 miles an hour. The wind is always blowing here and the geese must rise
and fly against it ; as they are overtaken they work the pump shotguns on
them.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Arctic America, along the coast from northern
Alaska (Point Barrow) eastward to Hudson Bay (Southampton
Island) and Bafrin Land, and on Arctic lands and islands north of
North America. Has been seen in summer on the Arctic coast of
northeastern Siberia (Tchulrtchen Peninsula), where it probably
breeds. It may breed farther west in Siberia.

^y inter range. — Includes the whole of temperate North America
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, rare or straggling, mainly as a
migrant, on the Atlantic coast, uncommon east of the Mississippi

172 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Valley and most abundant in California, Mexico, Texas, and Louisi-
ana. East rarely to Rhode Island (Narragansett Bay, January 10^
1909), more frequently to the coasts of Virginia and North Carolina,
and probably only casually to the West Indies. South regularly to
the Gulf coasts of Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas, and to central
Mexico (Tamaulipas and Jalisco). West to the Pacific coast States.
North to southern British Columbia (Vancouver), Nevada, Utah^
southern Colorado (San Luis Valley), southern Illinois, and spar-
ingly to the coast of Virginia. South on the Asiatic coast to Japan.

Spring migration. — Mainly northward in the interior and north-
westward or northeastward from the coasts to inland valleys. Early
dates of arrival : Iowa, Sac County, March 28 ; Montana, Teton.
County, April 9 ; Manitoba, Aweme, April 5 ; Mackenzie, Fort Simp-
son, May 2, and Fort Anderson, May 20; Banks Land, Mercy Bay,
74° N., May 31 ; Alaska, St. Michael, May 5, Nulato, May 9, Kowak
River, May 23, and Cape Prince of Wales, May 31. Late dates of
departure: Southern Texas, Rio Grande River, March 29, and San
Angelo, April 16; California, Gridley, May 1; LTtah, Bear River,.
May 5; Montana, Teton County, April 23; Manitoba, Shoal Lake,
April 30; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 25.

Fall migration. — A reversal of spring routes, with more eastward
wanderings (practically all New England records are in fall).
Early dates of arrival: Maine, Cape Elizabeth, October 2; Massa-
chusetts, Essex Count}'^, October 7; Ncav York, Shinnecock Bay,
October 8; Mackenzie, Providence, August 30; Alberta, Buffalo
Lake, September 26; Manitoba, Aweme, September 24; Arkansas,
Helena, October 19; Louisiana, Cameron County, October 7; Texas,
San Angelo, October 1; Montana, Terry, September 12; Utah,
Bear River, September 3; California, Stockton, September 28;
Alaska, Wainwright, September 6, St. Michael, September 1, and
Taku River, September 17. Late dates of departure: Banks Land,
September 7; Alaska, St. Michael, October 10; Alberta, Buffalo
Lake, October 26; Manitoba, October 31; Montana, Teton County,
November 24 ; Massachusetts, Ipswich, December 7.

Qasual records. — Snow geese, probably of this form, have wan-
dered on migrations to Labrador (Independent Harbor, October 1,
1914), Florida (Wakulla County, October 30, 1916, and November
23, 1918, and Key West), Bermuda (October 19, 1848), South Car-
olina (Mount Pleasant, October 16, 1916), the Bahama Islands,
Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. Said to have occurred in the
Hawaiian Islands. It has been recorded in Iceland, Norway, Hol-
land, Great Britain, Germany, Hungary, etc. The numerous Euro-
pean records suggest the probability of a more extended breedin_^

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WIU> FOWL. 173

range in Palaearctic regions than is now known, with a westward
migration.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada: Nineteen records, June 9 to July 6;
ten records, June 15 to 23.

CHEN HYPERBOREA NIVALIS (J. R. Forster)
GREATER SNOW GOOSE

HABITS

When I first began to study the distribution of this large sub-
species I w^as skeptical as to its status, for it did not seem to have
any well-defined breeding range or winter range, and it looked very
much as if the large birds could be nothing more than extra large
individuals. My confusion w^as due to the fact that I did not know
where to draw the line between the greater and the lesser snow
geese. I found that my friend Frederic H. Kennard had been
studying the same problem for some time, and while he had col-
lected considerable data, which he placed at my disposal, he was
waiting for additional data before publishing it.

For the purposes of this life history it will suffice to give merely
the general conclusion I have arrived at and a brief statement of
the steps which led to them. A collection of the measurements of
over 250 birds from various parts of the country, when tabulated
according to size, shows very clearly that an extra large subspecies,
now called nivalis.^ occupies a very narrow winter range on the
Atlantic coast, which it reaches by a decidedly eastern migration
route from its breeding range in northern Greenland. All of the
largest birds come from extreme eastern localities; I have seen only
one bird from the interior that I should call nivalis; that is an im-
mature bird in the United States National Museum, labeled Hudson
Bay, which, if it came from there, is probably a straggler. All of
the birds from Atlantic coast States and Provinces are nivalis.,
except a few very small ones which are doubtless stragglers from
the westward and are referable to hyperborea. The average meas-
urements of all the birds from Atlantic coast points, including the
small birds referred to above, are decidedly larger than the average
measurements of birds from the interior or from the Pacific coast
States.

The average measurements of all the birds from the interior, from
Hudson Bay to Texas, agree very closely with the average measure-
ments of a series of birds fi'om California. This shows conclusively
that the birds of the interior are unquestionably referable to the
smaller form, hyperhorea.) and that the larger birds from that region,
which have been called nivalis^ are merely large specimens of hyper-

174 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STAl'ES NATIONAL MUSEUM

horea^ which can be nearly, if not quite, matched with birds from
California. The measurements of the greater snow goose do not
well illustrate its real superiority in size; it is a much heavier bird
than its western relative, with a much more stocky build, thicker
neck, and larger head. It is generally recognizable at a glance, in
the flesh.

The breeding range of the greater snow goose must be determined
largely by elimination, though it is clearly indicated b}^ two speci-
mens from northern Greenland ; these are the only Greenland speci-
mens of snow geese that we have; they are both typical nivalis;
and one was the parent of a downy young. The average measure-
ments of 26 birds from the Arctic coasts of Alaska. Canada, and
Baffin Land agree very closely with those from California and the
interior, and none of them are any larger than the largest birds from
these localities. A study of the average measurements of 20 sets
of eggs from Arctic America, collected at various points from Point
J^arrow to Baffin Land, shows no correlation of size with locality;
the largest 2 sets came from Cape Bathurst and Franklin Bay ; and
the smallest 2 came from Mackenzie Bay and Point Barrow. Judg-
ing from the evidence shown in the measurements of both birds and
eggs, it seems fair to assume that nimilis does not breed anywhere
on the Arctic coast from Alaska to Baffin Land and that all the
breeding birds of that region are referable to hyperhorea. This
leaves for nivaMs a known breeding range in northern Greenland,
which probably extends into Ellesmere Land, Grinnell Land, and
Grant Land.

Spring. — Although we have very little data on the subject, what
evidence we have seems to indicate that the greater snow geese, which
spend the winter on the Atlantic coast, migrate overland across Xew
England to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and then across the Labrador
Peninsula to their Arctic summer home. William Brewster (1909)
published a letter from M. Abbott Frazar giving an account of a
large flock of snow geese which he saw migrating at Townsend,
Massachusetts, on April 13, 1908, There were at least 75 birds in
the flock. Although the subspecies is in doubt, the chances are that
these were greater snow geese. The following note, published by
Harrison F. Lewis (1921), throws some light on the subject:

Most recent writers on the waterfowl of northeastern North America speak
of the fjreater .'jnow goose {Chen hyperhoreii-s nii^ali^ [Forst.]) as a rare bird
in that area and appear to pay little or no attention to the fact that Mr. C. B.
Dionne, on pages 10^110 of his book, " Les Oiseaux de la Province de Quebec "
(1906), states of this subspecies that it "'is very common and often occurs in
considerable flocks in spring and fall in certain places on our shores, notably
at St. .Toachim, where I have seen flocks of three or four thousand individuals,
on the Island of Orleans, and as far as the Sea-Wolves' Batture." The three

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 175

points mentioned by Mr. Dionne are within sight of one another. In tlieir
vicinity probably all the greater snow geese in existence in a wild state gatlier
each spring and autumn. From the independent statements of various careful
observers, I should conclude that their number is now about five or six
thousand. When I visited St. Joachim on March 31, 1921, I saw about 2,000
greater snow geese there and was told that the maximum number would be
present about 10 days later. They are well protected by a resident warden
maintained by the Cap Tourmente Fish and Game Club.

Kumlien (1879) "saw a few specimens in early spring and late
autumn '' at Cumberland Sound, where it was apparently " rare and
mifi^ratory."''

W. Elmer Ekblaw has sent me the followino; notes on the arrival
of these geese on their breeding grounds in northern Greenland :

June is almost gone when the first snow geese arrive in northwest Green-
land. The land is almost bare of snow, the inland lakelets are open, and
rushing streams are flush to the brim with clear, cold water. Spring is at
its height when the snow geese come. The first notice of their arrival is a
high-pitched honk-honk, almost resembling the call of the domestic guinea fowl,
that rings out clear and sharp from the swales and valleys of the inland slopes.
The birds fly low and swift, their gleaming white plumage dazzlingly con-
spicuous against the dark-brown hills. When they fly near, the black tips of
their wings are easily recognizable. They stalk regally about the lakelets
and along the streams like the snow king's soldiers, stately and dignified. They
are mated when they arrive in the North, and though they stay in flocks
most of the time, they pair as soon as they alight, either on land or in water.
Wherever they appear they grace the landscape.

On July, 2, 1914, I watched a flock of 10 at close range while they fed in
a small shallow pool in which Pleuropoyan and Hippurifi grew abundantly.
There were 5 pairs in the flock, and though they did not separate far, the
pairs kept somewhat to themselves as they floated idly about in the pool or
marched about the shore. Tliey apparently found food on the bottom of the
pool, because they dipped under much like canvasbacks feeding on wild celery.
I watched them for at least an hour, delighted with their grace and quiet
beauty. Their calm behavior contrasted strongly with the wild antics of the
oldsquaws in near-by pools.

Nesting. — A long time ago Dr. Witmer Stone (1895) published a
list of birds collected by the Peary expedition of 1891 and 1892 in
northern Greenland, in which were included an " adult female in
worn plumage and one young gosling entirely in down" of the
greater snow goose. These birds were collected by Langdon Gibson,
the ornithologist of the expedition, in the vicinity of McCormick
Bay, latitude 77° 40' north. The measurements of this bird clearly
indicate that it is a typical specimen of Chen hyperhorea rdvalis and
this constitutes the only definite breeding record we have for this
subspecies. Recently Mr. Gibson (1922) has published his notes
on this collection, from which I quote as follows :

It was my good fortune to record, for the first time, the breeding of this
species in north Greenland. A family was found in Five Glacier Valley on

176 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

July 11, 1892. The male disputed my advance with head lowered and much
hissing, quite after the fashion of the barnyard goose, and before I was aware
of the existence of goslings I shot the female. Then I took two of the goslings,
that were about 2 weeks old, leaving the gander to rear the remaining six.
The birds were on the nest at the time of capture. The nest itself was well
lined with grasses and placed near a pile of broken stone beside a marshy spot
some acres in extent and about 100 yards from a shallow pond.

On August 21, when again passing through the valley, I was happy to see
the male proudly marching at the head of his family of six at least 10 miles
from the nest. As he had a broken wing and his family then had every in-
dication of being able to shift for themselves, I reluctantly, and in the interest
of science, dispatched him.

A brief note in the report of the Greeley (1888) expedition to
Grinnell Land indicates that this ffoose probably breeds on this and
other lands west of northern Greenland, as a pair was seen June 12,
1882, near Fort Conger, latitude 82° north, and another June 13,
1882, on the shore of Sun Ba}^ The snow geese found breeding in
northern Greenland by tlie Crocker Land Expedition were undoubt-
edly greater snow geese, but unfortunately no specimens of birds or
eggs were preserved. Mr. EkblaAv's notes state:

The geese nested in the grassy swales and flats along the lake-dotted flood
plain of the streams which empty into North Star Bay. The nests are placed
in depressions among the tussocks so that the brooding birds are not readily
detected ; built up somewhat with mud and grass and dead vegetation and
lined with white feathers and down, they are much better constructed than
are the nests of the eider and the oldsquaw.

The first eggs are laid soon after July 1. A full clutch is 6 or 7 eggs. In
about four weeks they hatch. The mothers and the young frequent the
larger inland lakes until the young are able to walk and swim and dive fairly
well, and then they take to the open sea. In late August or early September
the fall molting season comes on. The geese then repair to the most remote
and isolated lakes to be safe and free from disturbance while their wing
feathers are renewed. At this time they are relatively helpless and the
Eskimo find them easy prej'. By mid-September the molting season is over
and the geese leave at once.

Eggs. — Apparently there are no eggs of the greater snow goose
in collections. All the eggs in collections came from regions where
this subspecies is not known to breed and are almost certainly re-
ferable to the smaller race.

Plumages. — The downy young, referred to above, is described
by Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898) as follows :

Lores, dusky. Two black stripes from bill, passing above and beneath the
eye. Top of head, dark olive brown. Sides of head, neck, and entire under
parts, light yellow. Upper parts, dark olive brown. Bill, black ; nail, yel-
lowish white.

The subsequent molts and plumages are apparently the same as
those of the lesser snow sroose.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOW]> 177

Food. — The food and the feeding habits of the greater snow goose
jire very much like those of its western relative. It has less oppor-
tunity, in the Eastern States, to feed in grain and stubble fields,
as such cultivated areas are scarcer and more restricted. Perhaps
for this reason these geese seem to be more often seen on the seacoast
marshes and beaches in the East than they are in the West. Mr.
Elisha J. Lewis (1885) the veteran sportsman, writes:

Snow geese are numerous on the coast of Jersey and in the Delaware Bay.
They frequent the marshes and reedy shores to feed upon the roots of various
marine plants — more particularly that called sea cabbage. Their bills being
very strong and well supplied with powerful teeth, they pull up with great
facility the roots of sedge and all other plants.

Harold H, Bailey tells me that on the coast of Virginia they come
into the hollows on the sandy beaches to pull up the beach grass and
other scanty sand-dune plants to feed on the roots; they do not
come into the fresh-water bays with the Canada geese to feed on the
fox-tail gi-ass.

Behavior. — Audubon (1840) writes:

The flight of this species is strong and steady, and its migrations over the
United States are performed at a considerable elevation, by regular flappings
of the wings, and a disposition into lines similar to that of other geese. It
walks well, and with rather elevated steps; but on land its appearance is not
so graceful as that of our common Canada goose. Whilst with us they are
much more silent than any other of our species, rarely emitting any cries
unless when pursued on being wounded. They swim buoyantly, and when
pressed, with speed. When attacked by the white-headed eagle, or any other
rapacious bird, they dive well for a short space. At the least appearance of
danger, when they are on land, they at once come close together, shake their
heads and necks, move off in a contrary direction, very soon take to wing, and
fly to a considerable distance, but often return after a time.

Winter. — Eegarding itg winter habits Doctor Elliot (1898) says:

On the northern portion of the Atlantic coast the snow goose can not be
said to be common, and in many parts is seldom seen. Small flocks are oc-
casionally met with on the waters of Long Island, but the species becomes
more abundant on the shores of New Jersey and the coasts of Virginia and
North Carolina, where, in the latter State in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras
and along the beaches and inlets of Albemarle Sound, it sometimes congre-
gates in great multitudes. Occasionally flocks of considerable size may be
seen on the inner beach of Currituck Sound where the water is brackish, but
the birds do not remain any length of time in such situations. They present
a beautiful sight as they stand in long lines upon the beach, their pure, im-
maculate plumage shining like snow in the sun, against the black mud of the
marshes or the dingy hues of the shore. It is very difficult to approach them
at such times, as they are exceedingly watchful and wary, but occasionally a
few may leave the main body and, if flying by, will draw perhaps sufliciently
near to geese decoys or live geese tied out in front of a blind to afford an
opportunity for a shot. The chances are better, however, for the sportsman

178 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

when these geese are moving in small flocks of six or seven, as they are then
more apt to come near the shore looliing for favorable feeding places or spot&
on the beach to sand themselves.

H. H. Bailey tells me that these geese are not now as common on the
Virginia coast as formerly, that they do not come until cold weather
in midwinter, and that they spend most of their time in Chesapeake
Ba}^ or on the ocean, resorting to the hollows among the sand dunes
of the outer beaches when these are partially covered with snow
and ice,

DISTKIBUTION

Breeding range. — Positively known to breed only in northern
Greenland (McCormick Bay, latitude 77° 40' north, and North Star
Bay). Probably breeds also in Ellesmere Land, Grinnell Land
(Fort Conger), and Grant Land.

Winter range. — Mainly, if not wholly, on the Atlantic coasts of
Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, from Chesapeake Bay to
Core Sound. Probably all the birds from farther south are refer-
able to hyferhorea.

Spring migration. — Directly north, overland across New England
and the Labrador Peninsula. Early dates of arrival: New York,
Shelter Island, April 3; Massachusetts, Townsend, April 13;
Maine, Scarborough, April 4; Quebec, St. Joachim, March 31, and
Hatley, April 6; Greenland, Etah, June 10. Late dates of de-
parture : North Carolina, Currituck Sound, March 6 ; Maine, George-
town, April 25, and Lubec, April 30.

Fall migration. — A reversal of spring route. Early dates of ar-
rival : Quebec, St. Lawrence River, October 12 ; Massachusetts, West-
field, November 24; Connecticut, Portland, November 20; North
Carolina, Currituck Sound, December 11.

Casual records. — An immature bird in the United States National
Museum is labeled Hudson Bay, with no further data. Probably
all records for Bermuda and the West Indies are referable to hyper-
horea., as that is the wider-ranging form, but some records may
refer to nivalis.

CHEN CAERULESCENS (Linnaeus)
BLUE GOOSE

HABITS

The blue goose is one of the few North American birds which we
know onlj'^ as a migrant and a winter resident, and within the nar-
rowest limits. It has generally been regarded as a rare species, but
it is really astonishingly abundant Avithin the narrow confines of its
winter home on the coast of Louisiana. Its apparent rarity is due

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 179

to the fact that on its migrations to and from this favorite resort
its seldom straggles far from its direct route to and from its im-
Imown breeding range. To find the breeding resorts of the blue
goose is one of the most alluring of the unsolved problems in Ameri-
can ornithology. It is really surprising that such a large and con-
spicuous species, which is numerically so abundant, can disappear
so completely during the breeding season.

Spring. — Numerous records from various observers indicate a
heavy spring migration northward through the Mississippi Valley
and over the Great Lakes to James Bay and Hudson Bay, but be-
yond there the species vanishes completely. No one knows where
the blue goose goes to spend the summer and none of the numerous
Arctic explorers have ever found its breeding grounds.

The blue goose migrates generally in flocks by itself and usually
the old white-headed birds are in separate flocks from the young
birds; but occasionally one or more dark-blue geese may be seen
leading a flock of pure white-snow geese, which makes a striking
picture. The main flight in the spring seems to pass up the east
side of James Bay.

Owen Griffith says, in a letter published by Mr. W. E. Saunders
(1917) :

About 3 miles north of Fort George Post there is a big bay (salt water)
with lots of mud and grass at low tide, and in the spring almost every flock
of wavies and other geese feed in this bay on their way north ; the Indians
never hunt them on their arrival in this bay, but gather on a long hill on
the other side and then shoot at the birds as they are going off; they
generally get up in small flocks, and as they have to rise considerably to clear
the hill they can be seen getting up some time before they get to the hill, and
then everyone runs along a path and tries to get right under where the flock
is going to pass ; of course, if three or four flocks get up at the same time,
there is shooting on different parts of the hill and the hunters are apt to
spoil one another. The Indians say that once these birds leave this bay that
they do not feed again till they get far north (Hudson Straits or Baffin Land)
in fact a wavey's nest is a great rarity. Strange to say they do not feed in
this bay in the fall.

Dr. Donald B. MacMillan, who spent the spring and part of the
summer of 1921 at Bowdoin Harbor in southern Baffin Land, says
that the blue geese and snow geese migrate from Cape Wolsten-
holme across to southern Baffin Land. He was told by the natives
of that country that both of these geese breed in immense numbers
in the marshy lands near some lakes in the interior, a region too
difficult to reach and too remote from where his ship was frozen in
until August.

Nesting. — There seems to be no authentic record of the finding of
a nest of the blue goose and, so far as I know, the nest and eggs in a
wild state are unknown to science. All that has been published on

180 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

the breeding liabits or the probable breeding range of the species
seems to be based on specidation or hearsay. George Barnston.
(1862), one of the best authorities on the geese of the Hudson Bay
region, saj^s that:

According to Indian report a great breeding ground for the blue wavy is
the country lying in the interior of the northeast point of Labrador, Cape
Dudley Digges. Extensive swamps and impassible bogs pi-evail there, and
the geese incubate on the more solid and the driest tufts dispersed over the
morass, safe from the approach of man. * * * in May it frequents only
James Bay and the Eastmain of Labrador, and it is probably the case that its
hatching ground is on the northwest extremity of that peninsula and the oppo-
site and scarcely known coast of Hudson Straits.

Eggs. — Hon. R. M. Barnes has kept blue geese on his estate at
Lacon, Illinois, for a number of years and has succeeded in raising
them to maturity in confinement. He says in a letter to Mr. Frederic
H. Kennard that the eggs of the blue goose are quite different from,
those of the snow goose. He describes the eggs of the snow goose as
" more elongated and of a slightly yellowish color," whereas the eggs
of the blue goose " are pyriform, of thicker diameter, shorter in.
proportion to their length, and have a ver}^ slight bluish cast," the
eggs of both appearing white at first glance; moreover, the eggs of
the blue goose have " more minute pit holes and apparently most of
these pit holes have a very small deep black center, which can only
be disclosed by a microscope." An egg in Mr. Kennard's collection
is pure white and very finely granulated. It measures 78 by 51
millimeters.

The measurements of four eggs, laid by one of Mr. I^arnes's
birds, are 81 by 54.2, 84.6 by 56, 81.2 by 55.8, and 81 by 60.2 milli-
meters. The nest was lined with " the purest of white down."

Plumages. — Mr. Barnes saj^s that the downy young of the blue
goose " is of a deep smoky or slaty bluish color." F. E. Blaauw,
who has also raised this species in captivity, describes it as "olive
green, darkest on the upper side and yellowish on the belly," with
'" a little white spot under the chin."

In the fresh juvenile plumage of the first fall, October, the chin
is white, the entire head and neck are uniform bluish gray, the back
very dark gray, with brownish edgings, and the under parts dull
gray, almost whitish on the belly; the wings sliow a dull reflection
of the adult color pattern, the lesser coverts are more or less edged
or tipped with brownish, the greater wing coverts are plain pale
gray, the primaries and secondaries are duller and browner black
than in adults, and the tertials and scapulars are either plain
dusky brown or are less conspicuously patterned than in adult birds.

During the first winter there is a nearly continuous molt, with a
gradual advance toward maturity. White feathers appear in the

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 181

head and neck early in the winter, and by spring these have become
nearly all white in some birds, but there is generally more or less
black on the crown and hind neck. The bluish-gray feathers of the
adult plumage invade the lower neck and breast, much new plumage
comes in on the back, and new scapulars are partially or wholly
acquired. The tail is molted in the spring, beginning sometimes
as early as the last of February, but not the wings.. Before the birds
go north in the spring many of the first-year birds are practically
indistinguishable from adult birds except for the immature wings.

What takes place during the following summer Ave can only guess
at, as summer specimens are lacking, but apparently a complete sum-
mer molt pi-oduces the second winter plumage, which is practically
adult. The head and neck become wholly white, or nearly so. The
wing is practically adult, with the pure gray lesser coverts and the pale
gray primary coverts ; the greater coverts have black centers, shading
off into silvery gray, and broad, white edges ; the scapulars and ter-
tials have the adult color pattern; and the primaries and seconda-
ries are deep black. The under parts are mainly bluish gray, and
the rump and upper tail cov^erts are clear pale gray.

Subsequent molts produce similar plumages, and probably third-
year and older birds show greater perfection of plumage and more
brilliant color patterns. Many adult birds show more or less white
on the under parts, in strong contrast with the bluish gray, varying
from a small spot to a large area covering nearly all of the bell}^ ;
this may be the result of crossing with the snow goose or it may be
a character which develops and increases with age. Some observers
believe that the blue goose is a dark-color phase of the snow goose.
Mr. Blaauw, who has bred both species for some 22 years, has come
to this conclusion. On the other hand, Mr. Barnes, who has also
bred both, has come to the opposite conclusion; in addition to the
difference in the eggs and young, he says that the " build of the two
birds is very different, and their physical appearance is very dis-
tinct. The call notes are not very similar." It seems to me that they
are too unlike in many ways to be color phases of one species, and I
can find no conclusive evidence to prove that they are. They are
very closely related; so that, like the mallard and black duck, they
can interbreed and raise fertile hybrids, which they probably fre-
quently do.

Food. — The feeding habits of the blue goose have been well de-
scribed by W. L. McAtee (1910), as follows:

In the Mississippi Delta the blue geese rest by day on mud flats bordering
the Gulf. At the time of my visit (January 29 to February 4, 1910) these
were entirely destitute of vegetation, a condition to which the geese had
reduced them by their voracious feeding. Every summer these flats are cov-*
ered by a dense growth of "cut grass" (the local name for Zizaniopsis niili-

182 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

acea), "goose grass" (Scirptis robustus), "oyster grass" {Spartina glabra),
"Johnson grass" {Panicum repens), and cat-tails or "flag grass" {Typha
augustifolia) , and every fall are denuded by the blue geese, or brant, as they
are called in the Delta. The birds feed principally upon the roots of these
plants, but the tops of all are eaten at times, if not regularly. Each goose
works out a rounded hole in the mud, devouring all of the roots discovered,
and these holes are enlarged until they almost touch before the birds move on.
They maintain themselves in irregular rows while feeding, much after the
manner of certain caterpillars on leaves, and make almost as clean a sweep
of the area passed over.

In the Belle Isle region the method of feeding is the same except that the
birds feed by day, but the places frequented are what are locally known as
" burns " ; that is, areas of marsh burned over so that new green food will
sooner be available for the cattle. These pastures, for the most part, are barely
above water level, so that the holes dug by the geese immediately fill with water.
Continued feeding in one area produces shallow, grass-tufted ponds, where
formerly there was unbroken pasture. Some of these ponds are resorted to
for roosting places, in which case the action of the birds' feet further deepens
them, and veritable lakes are produced, which the building-up influence of
vegetation can not obliterate for generations, and never, in fact, while the geese
continue to use them.

The numbers of the blue geese are so great that these effects are not local but
general. At Chenjere-au-Tigre, one proprietor formerly hired from two to four
men at a dollar a day, furnishing them board, horses, guns, and ammunition,
and keeping them on the move constantly in the daytime to drive the geese
away. The attempt was unsuccessful, however, and fully 2,000 acres of pasture
were abandoned. Other proprietors had similar experience, and suffered loss
of the use of hundreds of acres.

The stomachs and crops of the birds in my collection were sent to
the Biological Survey for examination by Mr. McAtee, who reported
that the contents consisted entirely of the stems of spikernsh {Eleo-
chaHs)^ of which those in the crops were whole and those in the giz-
zards finely ground.

Mr. Hersey was told, while collecting blue geese for me in Louisi-
ana, that they also feed on the duck potato, one of the principal duck
foods in that vicinity. In his notes on their feeding habits he states :

In reviewing my experience with the blue geese it seems that normally they
begin to feed about 2 p. m. and continue to do so until dark. They then fly to
their roosting ground, where they spend the night. Some time before daylight
the flocks again begin to feed, and do so until about 9 or 10 o'clock. They then
rest until the afternoon, usually without leaving the feeding ground.

While feeding,, small parties are continually flying into the air and moving
to a new spot on the outskirts of the flock. If they see anyone approaching
at such times, they at once warn their companions and the whole flock takes
wing with great clamor.

Behavior. — O. J. Murie has sent me some interesting notes on this
species in which he says :

The blue geese are apparently not as prone to fly in the V formation as the
Canada geese. The flocks are often broken in a mixture of V's, bars, curves,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 183

and irregular lines. Perhaps this is due to the immense numbers in the flocks
noted on James Bay. When a flock of " waveys " is passing, the Indian hun-
ter will imitate their call by a single, high-pitched " guop " — very different
from the double '' au-unk"' in the case of Canada geese. As the blue geese
approach with answering calls, an accompanying undertone is heard, a conver-
sational " ga-ga-ga-ga-ga-f/a," with an occasional clear " whistle." The whist-
ling note is the call of young birds. The Indian makes use of all these sounds,
employing the " cackling " notes and an occasional whistle when the birds
are near enough to hear it.

On one occasion, while lying in a blind, I heard a peculiar, startled
" squawk." Looking up I saw a single blue goose pursued by a duck hawk.
The goose ducked and swerved here and there in his flight, with the duck
hawk swooping after. The chase continued some distance down the marsh,
when finally the duck hawk turned aside and gave it up.

Fall.—Mv. Murie says of the fall flight :

The extensive salt-water marshes around the south and part of the west
shore of James Bay furnish an excellent feeding place for shore birds and
various ducks and geese, including thousands of blue geese. I was told that
blue geese are seen as early as August. By September at least they begin to
arrive in James Bay, and during this month and most of October they con-
gregate in immense flocks, principally in Hannah Bay, at the extreme south
end of James Bay. Here the Indians go for their annual goose hunting. A
blind of willows is placed at a favorite feeding spot, often beside a small
streamlet cutting its way by several channels over the mud flat. For decoys,
lumps of mud or sod are turned up with a wooden spade. In the top of each
lump is thrust a small stick or twig, at the end of which is fastened a piece
of folded paper, or, better yet, a small bundle of white quills from a snow goose
is stuck in to represent the white head. These crude decoys are very realistic
at a distance and prove effective.

The blue geese feed on the open tide flats, while the Canada geese are often
found in the swamps or open muskegs well within the margin of the forest.
The birds become extremely fat, sometimes bursting open in the fall to the
ground when shot. According to native information they do not feed at all
the last few days before they begin their flight farther south. In 1914 the
blue geese were seen leaving for the south, up the Moose River, on November 1.
The following autumn they went south October 21 and 22. In each case snow
was falling, with a north or northeast wind.

Winter. — Few people, who have not seen them, appreciate the
astonishing abundance of blue geese in the narrow confines of their
winter home on the coast of Louisiana.

Mr. Hersey states in his notes :

I am told that before going north most of the flocks congi-egate in the
vicinity of Great and Little Constance Lakes on the Gulf coast west of Ver-
milion Bay. These flocks are said to be enormous, but the estimates I heard
of their numbers were too vague to be of use. One game warden, a very
conservative man, told me, however, that he once saw a spot 5 miles long and
1 mile wide (approximately), covered with blue geese, all standing as close
together as they could get. Three men fired 5 shots into this flock and picked
up 84 dead birds.

100449—25 13

184 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Mr. McAtee (1910 and 1911) found these geese exceedingly abund-
ant in a very restricted area on the Louisiana coast. He writes :

The center of abundance of the species is a narrow strip extending along
the coast of Louisiana from the Delta of the Mississippi to a short distance
west of Vermilion Bay. To the eastward the bird is Ifnown only as a straggler,
and to the west it diminishes gradually in numbers, being scarce on the ex-
treme western coast of Louisiana and rare on the Texas coast. * * * Being
so localized in their winter range, it might seem that the blue geese are in
danger of extermination. But they are so wary and so few hunters molest
them that at present there is no appi'eciable reduction in their numbers by
man. The same is true, I feel sure, erf the winter colonies of snow geese and
swans on Currituck Sound, North Carolina. So long as conditions remain the
same, the birds being very wary, and having little market value, there is no
incentive to kill them, nothing occurring during their stay in the United
States will materially lessen their numbers, nor even interfere with the in-
crease of these fine birds. However, if they should become an object of pur-
suit, it is equally true that they would diminish very rapidly.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Recently reported as breeding in large numbers
in the interior of southern Baffin Land. Breeding range otherwise
unloiown.

Winter range. — Mainly in a very restricted area on the coast of
Louisiana; from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Vermilion
Bay, decreasing very rapidly in abundance eastward and more
gradually westward to the coast of Texas (Rockport, Corpus Christi,
and Brownsville). Has been recorded in winter as far north as
Nebraska, southern Illinois, and Ohio (New Bremen, January 17,
1916), but probably only casually.

Spring migration. — Northward through the Mississippi Valley
up the east coasts of James Bay and Hudson Bay. Early dates of
arrival : New York, Amagansett, March 21 ; Rhode Island, Westerly,
March 16; Illinois, Lacon, March 23; Iowa, March 28; Manitoba,
Aweme, April 9; Ontario, Kingsville, April 6. Late dates of de-
parture: New York, Miller Place, April 28; Manitoba, Shoal Lake,
May 29.

Fall migration. — Southward across the eastern United States;
more easterly than in the spring. Early dates of arrival: Ontario,
Ottawa, October 11; Maine, Umbagog Lake, October 2; Massa-
chusetts, Gloucester, October 20; Rhode Island, Charlestown Beach,
October 16 ; Manitoba, Shoal Lake, October 1 ; Illinois, Gary, Octo-
ber 21; Louisiana, November 1. Late dates of departure: James
Bay, Moose River, November 1; Ontario, Thames River, November
16 ; Maine, Little Spoon Island, November 13 ; Rhode Island, Dyers
Island, November 9 ; New York, Amity ville, November 22 ; Manitoba^
Aweme, October 24.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 185

Casual records. — Rare in Atlantic coast States, but records are too
numerous to be regarded as casuals. Has been recorded in North
and South Carolina, the Bahama Islands, and Cuba. There are
two good records for California (Stockton, February 1, 1892, and
Gridley, December 15, 1910).

EXANTHEMOPS ROSSII (Cassin)

ROSS GOOS^

HABITS

The smallest and the rarest of the geese which regularly visit
the United States is this pretty little white goose, hardly larger than
our largest ducks, a winter visitor from farthest north, which comes
to spend a few winter months in the genial climate of California.

Spring. — ^Whither it goes when it wings its long flight northeast-
ward across the Rocky Mountains in the early spring no one loiows,
I^robably to remote and unexplored lands in the Arctic regions. At
certain places it is abundant at times, as the following account by
Robert S. Williams (1886), of Great Falls, Montana, will illustrate;
he writes :

On the 17th of April, 1885, after several days of stormy weather, with wind
from the northwest, accompanied at times by heavy fog and rain, there ap-
peared on a bar in the Missouri River at this place a large flock of Ross's
snow geese. In the afternoon of the same day, procuring a boat, we rowed
toward the flock, which presented a rather remarkable sight, consisting as it
did of several thousand individuals squatting closely together along the edge
of the bar. Here and there birds were constantly standing up and flapping,
their wings, then settling down again, all the while a confused gabble, half
gooselike, half ducklike, arising from the whole flock. We approached to
within a hundred yards or so, when the geese lightly arose to a considerable
height and flew off over the prairie, where they soon alighted and began to
feed on the short, green grass. While flying, often two or three birds would
dart off from the main flock, and, one behind the other, swing around in
great curves, quite after the manner of the little chimney swift in the East.
Apparently these same birds remained about till the 2Gth of April, long after
the storm was over, but they became broken up into se\;eral smaller flocks
some time before leaving. Some five or six specimens were shot during their
stay.

Mr. Roderick MacFarlane (1891) never succeeded in finding its
breeding grounds or learning anything definite about where it goes
in summer ; he says :

A male bird of this species was shot at Fort Anderson on 25th May, 1865,
where it is by far the least abundant of the genus during the spring migration.
The Esquimaux assured us that it did not breed in Liverpool Bay, and it
may therefore do so, along with the great bulk of the two larger species, on
the extensive islands to the northwest of the American continent. At Fort
Chipewyan, Athabasca, however, it is the last of the geese to arrive in spring,
but among the first to return in the autumn.

186 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Nesting. — Absolutely nothing seems to be known about its breed-
ing habits in a wild state. Probably nothing will be known until
some of the vast unexplored areas in the Arctic regions are better
known. But these regions are so inaccessible that their exploration
would involve more time, greater expense, and more enthusiasm than
even the valuable results to be attained are likely to warrant. There-
fore this and several other similar problems are likely to remain
for a long time unsolved. •

For all that we know about the nesting habits of the Ross goose,
we are indebted to F. E. Blaauw (1903) who has succeeded in
breeding this species in captivity on his place at Gooilust in Holland.
He writes :

At a meeting of the British Ornithologists' Club ou March 20, 1901, I ex-
hibited an egg of the rare Ross's snow goose {Chen rossi) laid in captivity
by a solitary female kept by me at Gooilust. A year later, through the courtesy
of Doctor Heck, of Berlin, I received a second specimen of this species, which
fortunately proved, as I hoped it would, to be a male. The birds soon paired,
and in the beginning of May, 1902, the female made a nest under a bush in
her inclosure. The nest was, as is usual with geese, a small depression in the
soil, lined with dry grass and grass roots.

Toward the end of the month the female began to lay, and on the 30th, when
the full complement of 5 eggs had been deposited, she began to sit, having in
the meantime abundantly lined her nest with down from her own breast. The
two birds had always been of a very retiring disposition, but after the female
had laid her eggs the male, who nearly always kept watch close by the nest,
became quite aggressive. He would fearlessly attack anybody that approached.

Eggs. — There is an egg in the collection of Adolph Nehrkorn,
probably one of Mr. Blaauw's eggs, which is described as white and
which measures 74 by 47 millimeters.

Young. — Mr. Blaauw's bird had incubated for only 21 days when
he was surprised to find the eggs hatched. "All the 5 eggs had
hatched, and the little birds were still in the nest when I noticed
them, forming a most charming group, ever watched as they were by
their anxious parents." iVnother season, when 3 eggs were set under
a hen, the period of incubation proved to be 24 days.

Plumages. — Mr. Blaauw (1903) describes the downy young as
follows :

The chicks are of a yellowish gray, darker on the upper side and lighter
below, and have, what makes them most conspicuously beautiful, bright
canary-yellow heads, with the most delicate grayish sheen over them, caused
by the extremity of the longer down hairs being of that color. The bill is
black, with a flesh-colored tip. A little spot in front of each eye is also black-
ish. The legs are olive green. The down is wonderfully full and heavy, and
it seems almost incredible how such large birds can have come out of such
small eggs. Three of the chicks were as described above, but two of them had
the part white which in the others was yellow. All that I can add is that, as
usual with chicks, the intensity of the coloration gradually diminished as they

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL, 187

got older, and in particular the brightness of the yellow of the head and the
depth of the black in front of the eyes slowly diminished, so that even when
a week old the delicate glory of it had largely disappeared.

The young birds described above all died in the downy stage, but
another season he raised one young bird, in which he describes (1905)
the development of the plumage as follows:

I am now able to give a complete account of the development of Ross's
goose, Chen rossi. This season my female laid three eggs, and, as in previous
years, she had proved to be a bad mother, I took the eggs away and put
them under a common hen. The period of incubation was 24 days this time,
and the eggs were hatched on the 10th of July. All the three eggs were
hatched, but unfortunately the heu in some way or other killed two of the
chicks the same day that they were born. The third escaped this fate and
was tenderly cared for by its foster mother. I have described ia detail tlie
color of the down in a previous letter (Ibis, 1903, p. 245), so that it will suffice
to say that the chick was a fluffy object with gray down and a bright canary-
yellow head.

The little bird grew very rapidly, and when 2 weeks old was about the size
of a Japanese bantam hen. The bill was still black at this stage, with a pink
tip (the nail), and the legs were greenish. When 3 weeks old the feathers
began to appear on the shoulders, the flanks, the tail, and the wings. When
4 weeks old the bird was about the size of a small hen. The body was almost
entirely feathered, but the head and neck were still in down. The legs were
bluish and the bill was getting lighter in color. When 5 weeks old the whole
body was feathered, and when 6 weeks old even the flight feathers were of
their full length. The first plumage may be described as follows : General
color, white. A brownish-gray spot on the occiput, which runs down along the
back of the neck. The base of the neck and the mantle brownish gray, forming
a crescent of that color, of which the points are turned forward on each side
of the base of the neck. The smaller wing coverts are of the palest brownish
gray, with a dark spot at the tip of each feather. The flanks are gray, the
large flight feathers black. The first five secondaries have a dark spot in the
center ; those that follow are white, with only a very slight sprinkling of
brownish ; the three innermost have dark centers, and the white edges are finely
spotted with gray. The tail is white, with only a suspicion of a grayish tint
on the middle feathers. The legs are greenish gray with pink shining through.
The bill is pinkish, the lores are blackish gray, which color extends over and
behind the eyes. When 10 weeks old the bird began to faoU, and the gray
feathers of the juvenile dress were rapidly replaced by white ones. Also the
large tail feathers were molted, the central rectrices being dropped first. The
legs now began to turn pink in lamest, and the bill assumed its double colora-
tion of a greenish base and a pink tip.

From the above account one would infer that the Koss goose ac-
quires its fully adult plumage at its first prenuptial molt, when
about 10 months old. As this molt probably involves the tail, all the
contour plumage, and the wing coverts, it would leave only the sec-
ondaries and tertials to be replaced at a complete postnuptial molt
the following summer.

Winter. — The principal winter home of the Boss goose within our
limits seems to be in the central valleys of California, where it as-
sociates with the snow goose in the stubble fields and is often

188 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

quite common. It seems to be tamer than other species of geese
which visit that region; hence many are shot for the market and
quite a number have found their way into scientific collections.
Often the wing-tipped birds are kept in captivity and become easily
domesticated ; I have seen some interesting photographs illustrating
the tameness of such captured birds.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Entirely unknown, probably on some unex-
plored Arctic lands.

Winter range. — The main winter range is in California, in the
interior valleys (Sacramento and San Joaquin) and nearer the coast
farther south (Ventura and Orange Counties). A few may winter
occasionally in neighboring States or in Mexico, but probably only
casually.

Spring migration. — Northeastward to the Athabasca-Mackenzie
region and beyond into Arctic regions. Early dates of arrival:
Montana, Lewistown, March 14; Oregon, Camp Harney, April 12;
Alaska, Wrangell, April 15; Mackenzie, Fort Andei-son, May 25.
Average dates of arrival in Montana are April 7 and 8 and of the
departure April 24. Later dates of departure: California, Merced
County, April 2; Montana, Teton County, May 8; Alberta, Atha-
basca River, June 4; Arctic coast, Kent Peninsula, June 2.

Fall migration. — A reversal of the spring route. Early dates of
arrival: Great Slave Lake, September 1; Alberta, Buffalo Lake,
September 6; Montana, Columbia Falls, October 10; California,
Stockton, October 6; Utah, Bear River, October 22. Late dates of
departure: Alberta, Buffalo Lake, October 10 and Athabasca Lake,
October 18 ; Montana, Columbia Falls, October 28.

Casual records. — Outside of regular migration, it has occurred
in Manitoba (Winnipeg, September 20, 1902), Louisiana (Little
Vermilion Bay, February 23, 1910), Arizona (Fort Verde, October
24, 1887), Mexico (Bustillos Lake, Chihuahua) and British Co-
lumbia (Comox, January, 1894, and Lumby, May, 1920).

ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRt)NS (Scopoli)
WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE

HABITS

Two forms of the white-fronted goose have long stood on our
Check List unchallenged — a smaller European form (albifrons)
and a larger American form {gambelli). The status of the Euro-
pean form as an American bird was based on a somewhat doubtful
record for eastern Greenland, where it was supposed to occur only
as a straggler. It was supposed to be entirely replaced in North

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL. 189

America by the larger form, where all the American geese of this
species were called gambelli. This was not a very satisfactory ar-
rangement, for the two forms were so much alike that it was very
difficult to distinguish them, and some European writers refused to
recognize them. Recently Messrs. Swarth and Bryant (1917) have
demonstrated that there are probably two subspecies of white-
fronted geese which spend the winter in California between which
there is a striking difference in size, and there are some other dif-
ferences. They have also shown that Hartlaub's name, ganibelli^
belongs to the larger and the rarer of the two and that all of the
smaller white-fronted geese, which are far commoner, should be
called albifrons.

The white-fronted goose has a wide distribution; in the eastern
half of this continent it is everywhere rare, but on migrations and
in its western winter range it is locally abundant; in much of its
breeding range in the far northwest it is one of the commonest and
best loiown of the geese.

Spi'ing. — In writing of this species at Fort Klamath, Oregon,
Dr. J. C. Merrill (1888) says:

Very common in April, the main flight occurring between tlie 20th and 30th,
and many flocks stopping to feed in the grassy meadows bordering the marsh.
The upper part of the valley is inclosed on the west and north by the main
divide of the Cascade Mountains and on the east by a spur from the same
range, aU averaging a lieight of over 6,500 feet. On stormy days, if the wind
was not blowing from the south, geese flying low up the valley had great
difficulty in rising sufficiently to cross the abrupt divide, and most of them
would return to the marsh and its vicinity to wait for a more favorable
opportunity. At such times geese of this and the next species gathered by
thousands and afforded great sport. The immense numbers of these birds
that migrate through western Oregon can not be appreciated until one has
seen their spring flight, which, I am informed, extends in width from the coast
inland about 250 or 300 miles. About 50 of this species were seen at the
marsh on May 23 and 20, on May 27 and June 3, after which none were
observed; their remaining so late excited general remark among the settlers.

Nesting. — Of the arrival and nesting of this goose at St. Michael,
Alaska, Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) writes:

When the white-fronted goose first arrives in the north the lakes are but
Just beginning to open and the ground is still largely covered with snow.
The last year's heath berries afford them sustenance, in common with most
of the other wild fowl at this season. As the season advances they become
more numerous and noisy. Their loud call notes and the cries of the males
are heard everywhere.

The mating season is quickly ended, however, and on May 27, 1879, I found
their eggs at the Yukon mouth. From this date on until the middle of June
fresh eggs may be found, but very soon after this latter date the downy young
begin to appear. These geese choose for a nesting site the grassy border of
a small lakelet, a knoll grown over with moss and grass, or even a flat, spar-
ingly covered with grass. Along the Yukon, Dall found them breeding gre-

190 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

gariously, depositing their eggs in a hollow scooped out in the sand. At the
Yukon mouth and St. Michael they were found breeding in scattered pairs
over the flat country. Every one of the nests examined by me in these places
had a slight lining of grass or moss, gathered by the parent, and upon this
the first egg was laid ; as the complement of eggs is approached the female
always plucks down and feathers from her breast until the eggs rest in a soft
warm bed, when incubation commences.

John Murdoch (1885) says that at Point Barrow —

the eggs are always laid in the black, muddy tundra, often on top of a slight
knoll. The nest is lined with tundra moss and down. The number of eggs in
a brood appears subject to considerable variation, as we found sets of 4, 6, and
7, all well advanced in incubation. The last-laid egg is generally in the middle
of the nest and may be recognized by its white shell unless incubation is far
advanced, the other eggs being stained and soiled by the birds coming on and
ofiC the nest.

Roderick MacFarlane (1891) writes:

A considerable number of nests of this " gray wavy " was discovered in the
vicinity of fresh-water lakes in timber tracts, as well as along the Lower
Anderson River to the sea. Some were taken on the Arctic coast, and several
also on islands and islets in Franklin Bay. In all, about 100 nests were
secured. The nest, which was always a mere shallow cavity in the ground,
in every observed and reported instance had more or less of a lining of hay,
feathers, and down, while the maximum number of eggs in no case exceeded 7.
On the 5th of July, 1S64, on our return trip from Franklin Bay we observed
30 molting ganders of this species on a small lake in the Barrens. Our party
divided, and by loud shooting and throwing stones at them they were driven
to land, where 27 of them were run down and captured. Their flesh proved
excellent eating ; it is seldom, indeed, that I have come across a gray wavy
that was not in good condition in the far North.

A nest of the white-fronted goose in the writer's collection was
taken near Point Barrow, Alaska, on June 27, 1916. It consists of a
mass of pale gray and white down, thoroughly mixed with breast
feathers of the goose, bits of dry, coarse grasses, lichens, mosses, dead
leaves of the dwarf willow, and other rubbish found on the tundra ;
it is quite different in appearance from the nests of other geese. It
contained four eggs advanced in incubation.

Eggs. — The white-fronted goose lays from 4 to 7 eggs, usually
5 or 6. These vary in shape from elliptical oval or elliptical ovate
to elongate ovate. The color varies from " light buff " to creamy
white or pale pinkish white. I have never seen any tinge of green-
ish in the eggs of this goose. The eggs often become very much
stained with buffy or reddish brown stains, such as " cinnamon buff "
or " ochraceous buff," which rub off or scratch off in irregular
patches, exposing the original color; there are often several degrees
of color in the same set of eggs, the freshest egg being quite clean and
the oldest eggs decidedly dark colored. The measurements of 109
eggs, in various collections, average 79 by 52.5 millimeters; the eggs

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 191

showing the four extremes measure 89.6 by 48, 82 by 58, 70 by 52,
and 77.2 by 46.7 millimeters.

Yming. — The period of incubation does not seem to be positively
known, but probably it is about 28 days. The male does not desert
the female during the process, and both sexes help in caring for and
protecting the young. Mr. Hersey, while collecting for me on the
Yukon delta, encountered a family of these birds, about which he
wrote in his notes for June 21, 1914, as follows :

Ou the edge of a little pond on the tuudra about 5 miles back from the
mouth of the river I found a pair of these geese and a brood of five young. The
birds had been resting under a clump of dwarf willows, and on my approach
the old birds came out into the open and attempted to lead the young away
over the open tundra. The young, although not more than a day or two old,
could run as fast as a man could travel over the rough ground. I had to
remove my coat before I could overtake them. They did not scatter, but ran
straight ahead, keeping close together, one of the parents running by their
side and guiding them and the other flying along above them and not more than
3 feet above the ground. The young kept up a faint calling, and the old birds
occasionally gave a low note of encouragement.

Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

The young are pretty little objects and are guarded with the greatest care
by the parents, the male and female joining in conducting their young from
place to place and in defending them from dangei-. The last of June, in 1877,
1 made an excursion to Stewart Island, near St. Michael, and while crossing
a flat came across a pair of these geese lying prone upon the ground in a grassy
spot, with necks stretched out in front and their young crouching prettily all
about them. Very frequently during my visits to the haunts of these birds the
parents were seen leading their young away through the grass, all crouching
and trying to make themselves as inconspicuous as possible. At Kotzebue
Sound, during the CorwirCs visit in July, 1881, old and young were very common
on the creeks and flats at the head of Eschscholtz Bay.

John Koren collected for me in northeastern Siberia a strange
family party consisting of a female spectacled eider and two downy
young white-fronted geese.

Plumages. — The downy young white-fronted goose is a beautiful
creature, thickly covered with long, soft down and brightly colored.
It somewhat resembles the young Canada goose, but the upper parts
are a trifle duller in color, and the bill is brown with a light-colored
nail, instead of all black as in the Canada. The colors of the upper
parts, including the central crown, back, wings, rump, and flanks,
vary from " buffy olive " to " ecru olive," darkest on the crown and
rump and palest on the upper back, with a yellowish sheen; there
is a faint loral and postocular stripe of olive; on the remainder of
the head and neck the colors shade from " olive ocher " on the
forehead, cheeks, and neck to " colonial buff " on the throat ; the
colors on the under parts shade from " mustard yellow " on the

100440—25 14

192 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

breast to "citron yellow" on the belly. The colors become duller
and browner with increasing age; large downy young are "olive
brown " above and grayish or " deep olive buff " below.

I have seen no specimens showing the development of the juvenal
plumage. This is much like the adult plumage, except that the " white
front " is lacking and there are no black spots on the under parts,
which are mottled with whitish and gray; the upper parts are
duller colored with lighter edgings; the tail feathers are more
pointed and narrower and the wing coverts are narrower than in
adults. This plumage is worn without much change during the
first winter and spring ; but more or less white appears in the " white
front," and sometimes a few black spots appear in the breast. The
tail is molted in the spring, and during the next summer a complete
postnuptial molt produces a plumage which is practically adult.

Food.—LncA^n M. Turner (1886) says, of the food of this
species : " It inhabits the fresh-water lagoons, and is essentially a
vegetarian. The only animal food found in their crops was aquatic
larvae and insects. I am not aware that it eats shellfish at any
season of the year. The young grass shoots found in the margins
of the ponds form its principq,l food." Doctor Nelson (1887) says:
" During August and September the geese and many other wild
fowl in the north feed upon the abundant berries of that region
and become very fat and tender." In the interior valleys of Cali-
fornia, where it spends the winter, and on its migrations through
agricultural districts, it feeds in the grain fields on fallen grain in
the fall and on the tender shoots of growing grain in the spring.
In some places where these geese were formerly abundant they did
so much damage to the young crops that the farmers hired men
to drive them away.

Audubon (1840) says:

In feeding they immerse their necks, like other species ; but during con-
tinued rains tliey visit the cornfields and large savannahs. While in Ken-
tucky they feed on tlie beech nuts and acorns that drop along the margins
of tlieir favorite ponds. In the fields they pick up the grains of maize left
by the squirrels and racoons, and nibble the young blades of grass. In their
gizzards I have never found fishes nor water lizards, but often broken shells
of different kinds of snails.

Behavior. — The flight of the white-fronted goose is similar to
that of the Canada goose, for which it might easily be mistaken at
a distance. It flies in V-shaped flocks, led by an old gander, and
often very high in the air. Its flight has been well described by
Neltje Blanchan (1898) as follows:

A long clanging cackle, wah, loah, wah, wah, rapidly repeated, rings out of
the late autumn sky, and looking up, we see a long, orderly line of laughing
geese that have been feeding since daybreak in the stubble of harvested grain

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 193

fields, heading a direct course for the open water of some lake. With heads
thrust far forward, these flying projectiles go through space with enviable
ease of motion. Because they are large and fly high, they appear to move
slowly; whereas the truth is that all geese, when once fairly launched, fly
rapidly, which becomes evident enough when they whiz by us at close range.
It is only when rising against the wind and making a start that their flight
is actually slow and difficult. When migrating, they often trail across the
clouds like dots, so high do they go — sometimes a thousand feet or more, it is
said — as if they spurned the earth. But as a matter of fact they spend a
great part of their lives on land ; far more than any of the ducks.

On reaching a point above the water when returning from the feeding
grounds the long defile closes up into a mass. The geese now break ranks,
and each for itself goes wheeling about, cackling constantly, as they sail on
stiff, set wings; or, diving, tumbling, turning somersaults downard, and catch-
ing themselves before they strike the water, form an orderly array again,
and fly silently, close along the surface quite a distance before finally settling
down upon it softly to rest.

The peculiar laughing cry of this bird has given it the name of
" laughing goose." Its cries are said to be loud and harsh, sounding
like the syllable wah rapidly repeated; the Hote is easily imitated
by striking the mouth with the hand while rapidly uttering the
above sound.

The following, taken from Mr. Ma;cFarlane's unpublished notes,
illustrates the methods employed by the natives to capture these and
other geese during the flightless molting season :

On 12th July we observed about 30 geese {Anser gamyelti) on the edge of
a small lake (in the water) in the Barren Grounds; they were all ganders,
and molting. On our approach they went sailing (swimming) across the
lake, which was about 2 miles in extent. Our party then divided — half tak-
ing one side, and half the other side of the lake — and by the time we reached
the spot where the geese had quitted the water, they had all concealed them-
selves as well as the scant grass and low tangled willows in the vicinity would
admit. After we discovered their whereabouts there was some sport and a
lively chase after them, and we soon succeeded in securing 27 out of the 30 —
the remaining 3 having escaped beyond our reach, although followed for some
distance into the water. They were all in good condition, in fact, gray wavies
are always fat and excellent eating, while it is but seldom in spring and
never in summer that a really good Canada goose is met with. The Indians
inform me that when they observe a flock of swans or geese on a lake, dur-
ing the molting season, they at once make a fire on the shore, and they state
that this course on their part never fails to drive the geese, etc., on land,
where mo^t of them easily fall a prey to the hunter. If they were only
wise enough to remain in the water at a proper distance they would be safe
enough.

Fall. — The white-fronted goose does not start to migrate until
driven south by cold weather. Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

All through September, old and young, which have been on the wing since
August, gather in larger flocks, and as the sharp frosts toward the end of
September warn them of approaching winter, commence moving south.

194 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The marshes resound with their cries, and after some days of chattering,
flying back and forth, and a general bustle, they suddenly start off in consider-
able flocks, and a few laggards which remain get away by the 7th or 8th of
October.

There is a southward migration through the Mississippi Valley
to the Gulf coast of Louisiana and Texas, but the main flight trends
more to the southwestward to the principal winter home of the
species in California. Doctor Coues (1874) writes:

The " speckle-bellies," as they are called in California, associate freely at
all times with both tlie snow and Hutcliins geese, and appear to have the same
general habits, as well as to subsist upon the same kinds of food. Their
flesh is equally good for the table. As is the case with other species, they are
often hunted, in regions where they have become too wild to be otherwise suc-
cessfully approached, by means of bullocks trained for the purpose.
Though they may have learned to^ distrust the approach of a horse, and to
make off with commendable discretion from what they have found to be a
dangerous companion of that animal, they have not yet come to the same view
with respect to homed cattle, and great numbers are slaughtered annually
by taking advantage of their ignorance. The bullock is taught to feed
quietly along toward a flock, the gunner meanwhile keeping himself sci'eened
from the birds' view by the body of the animal until within range. Though

1 have not myself witnessed this method of hunting, I should judge the
gunners killed a great many geese, since they talk of its "raining geese"
after a double discharge of the tremendous guns they are in the habit of
using. Man's ingenuity overreaches any bird's sagacity, no doubt, yet the
very fact that the geese, which would fly from a horse, do not yet fear an
ox, argues for them powers of discrimination that command our admiration.

Winter. — Dr. L. C. Sanford (1903) has given us a good account
of hunting white-fronted and snow geese in their winter haunts, as
follows :

The large bodies of water that are found at rare intervals in northern
Mexico are the resort through the winter of countless numbers of geese ; not
the Canada goose of the East and Middle West, but the snow goose and the
white-fronted goose. In early October the hordes arrive, announcing their
coming with discordant clamor. They choose as a resting place the shallow
alkali waters, and as a feeding ground the neighboring corn stubble, if such
there be. A short distance from Minaca is one of these lakes, some 20 miles
in length. Ib the Mexican summer rains replenish the scanty water supply
left over from the spring, and October finds it a paradise for waterfowl. Shut
in by the rolling hills of the mesa, yellow with wavy grass, its blue surface
reflects a bluer sky. All around, as far as the eye can reach, are herds of
cattle, for some 6 miles away is a ranch ; and at this spot one fall recently
we stopped. Early in the morning a breakfast of tortillas and coffee was
served, and before it was finished a Mexican boy appeared with the horses.
Guns were slipped into the saddle cases. Our attendant found room for most
of our ammunition in his saddlebag, and we started for the lake. It was a
ride of about 6 miles over an open country, but the horses were fast, and in
less than half an hour we looked down from a knoll on the sheet of water some

2 miles away. Along the farther shore was a bank of white, shining in the
light of sunrise — a solid bank of snow geese. Scattered over its surface every-
where were flocks of ducks and gee.se, black masses of them. "VVe hurried on.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 195

passing through herd after herd of cattle, which increased in numbers as the
water was approached. A coyote stopped to take a fleeting glance from the top
of a hill opposite, then disappeared. A jack rabbit scurried from in front. A
familiar cry overhead caused us to look up. It came from a flock of sand-
hill cranes, far out of reach, which were sailing on toward their feeding ground
in the stubble. We reached the edge of the lake, and hundreds of ducks rose
as the horses neared them, mostly shovelers and teal, but mallard, widgeon,
and pintail were all there. The geese were across the lake, thousands in one
band. Every now and then a white line jointed the resting birds, and at the
approach of a flock their discordant cries could be heard a mile away. How
to get a shot seemed more or less of a problem, owing to lack of cover.
Finally we noticed a few bunches of rushes extending well out into the lake,
the only possible chance to hide. We waded out and took a position in the
farthest clump. The Mexican led off the horses and started on a tour to the
farther shore. It was a long way off, almost 4 miles, but there was plenty to
watch. Every few minutes flocks of ducks would pass over us in range, but
we let them go. Gulls circled around, crying at the unusual sight of two men
with guns. We looked over at the geese. At times cattle seemed almost among
them ; yet the white assembly did not move, and we only heard them when a
flock was about to alight to those on the ground. The horses were getting
closer, and finally a part of the body started, to settle down a little farther on.
But presently a tumultuous clamor, and the entire company was in motion.
Line after line separated and led out into the lake. Some followed the oppo-
site shore ; an immense flock led toward our clump, and we crouched in the
water. On they came, scarcely a hundred yards off. But geese are uncertain,
even in Mexico, and for some reason best known to themselves they turned
when just out of range and led toward the shore beyond us. In a few minutes
they were reassembled and the immediate prospect of a shot gone. The
Mexican, with his string of horses, continued down the opposite side, evidently
after birds we could not see. Ducks were around us all the time, and flocks
drifted by within easy range, unmolested. Before long we heard the familiar
cry and looked to see a mass of white heading for the flock on the shore ; our
blind was right in their line, and they came on, low down over the water,
nearer and nearer ; finally, 50 or more seemed directly over us, so close we could
see their red bills and legs. This was the chance ; back to back we raked them,
four barrels ; 3 birds fell on one side, 2 on the other. The reports started all
of the wild fowl in the country. In a few minutes part of the first flock came
over us from the opposite direction, and 2 dropped. A flock of geese swung
in range over the dead birds, and we killed 2 more. For an hour the shots
were freqitent, but the birds became wiser every mirwate and kept to the middle
of the lake or else came over the blind out of range. We picked up 18, a dozen
white, the rest white-fronted — all one Mexican could pack on a horse.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Nearly circumpolar. On the barren grounds
and Arctic coasts of North America, east at least as far as the
Anderson River and Beechey Lake, in the district of Mackenzie, and
west as far as the Yukon Valley (Fort Yukon, Lake Minchumina
and the Yukon delta). On the west coast of Greenland, mainly be-
tween 66° and 72° N. In Iceland, Lapland, Nova Zembla, Kola,
Kolguev, and along the Arctic coast of Siberia to Bering Straits.
The only gap in the circumpolar breeding range seems to be be-

196 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

tween the district of Mackenzie and Greenland; this may prove to
be the breedings range of the large tule goose, now called gamhelli.

Winter range. — In North America, mainly in western United
States and Mexico. East to the Mississippi Valley, rare east of that,
and hardly more than casual on the Atlantic coast. South to the
coast of Louisiana and Texas and to central western Mexico (Jalisco
and Cape San Lucas). West to the Pacific coasts of Mexico and
United States. North to southern British Columbia, southern Illi-
nois, and perhaps Ohio. In the Eastern Hemisphere, south to Japan,
China, India, the Caspian, Black, and Mediterranean Seas and
northern Africa.

Sjyring migration. — Early dates of arrival: Manitoba, Aweme,
April 5; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 11, Fort McMurray, May
15, and Fort Anderson, May 16; Coronation Gulf, May 31. Alaska
dates of arrival: Forrester Island, April 24, St. Michael, April 25,
Kuskolrwim River, April 29, Kowak River, May 10, Wainwright,
May 27, Point Barrow, May 16. Late dates of departure: Cali-
fornia, Stockton, May 2; Washington, Grays Harbor, May 5; Mani-
toba, Shoal Lake, May 26; Alaska, Kuiu Island, May 6; Oregon,
Fort Klamath, June 3.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival: Manitoba, Aweme, Sep-
tember 7 (average October 2) ; Alberta, Red Deer River, September
12; Alaska, Sitka, September 29; British Columbia, Porcher Island,
September 6; Washington, Tacoma, October 1; Colorado, Brighton,
October 1 ; Utah, Bear River, October 10 ; California, Stockton, Sep-
tember 7. Late dates of departure : Mackenzie, Great Bear Lake,
October 9; Alaska, St. Michael, October 8, and Craig, November 8;
Manitoba, Aweme, November 1.

Casual records. — Has w^andered east to Labrador (Hopedale, May,
1900), Massachusetts (Essex County, October 5, 1888, Plymouth,
November 26, 1897, and Ipswich, August, 1907), North Carolina
(Currituck Sound, January 1897), and Cuba. Said to have oc-
curred in the Hawaiian Islands.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Seventeen records, June 2 to July
10; nine records, June 24 to July 6. Alaska: Twelve records. May
23 to July 25 ; six records, June 5 to 24. Greenland : Five records
June 4 to July 26.

ANSER ALBIFRONS GAMBELLI Hartlaub

TULE GOOSE

HABITS

The above scientific name has been in use for many years to desig-
nate the North American race of the white-fronted goose, which was
understood to be slightly larger and to have a decidedly larger bill

LIFE HISTORIES OF NOETH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 197

than the European bird. But the characters were not sufficiently
well marked and not constant enough to fully satisfy all the Euro-
pean writers, many of whom questioned the validity of the race.
Recently, however, Messrs. Swarth and Bryant (1917) have estab-
lished the fact " that two well-defined subspecies of Anser albifrons
occur in California during the winter months, instead of the single
race heretofore recognized." Tule goose is the common name they
have proposed for the newly discovered larger race, and they seem to
have shown that Hartlaub's name, gambelli, refers to the larger
rather than to the smaller and commoner race. In addition to a
marked difference in size between the two races, comparable to that
existing between the Canada and the Elutchins geese, "the larger
birds are of a browner tint, and the smaller ones more gray. This is
especially noticeable in the heads and necks. In some individuals of
the larger race the head is extremely dark brown, almost black."
Also the larger bird is said to have the " naked skin at edge of eye-
lid, yellow or orange," whereas in the smaller bird it is "grayish
brown."

At present the tule goose is known only from its limited winter
range in California. Its center of abundance seems to be in Butte
and Sutter Basins in the Sacramento Valley, but there are persistent
rumors among hunters that it occurs also in the Los Baiios region in
the San Joaquin Valley and at Maine Prairie in Solano County. I
have examined and measured perhaps half a dozen large specimens
of white-fronted geese in eastern collections, taken at widely scat-
tered localities in the Mississippi Valley, Hudson Bay, and even on
the Atlantic coast, that measured well up within the range of meas-
urements of the tule goose, but they have not been compared with
typical large birds from California, nor have they been examined by
anyone who is familiar with the characteristics of the tule goose;
they may be stragglers of the larger race or they may be only extra
large individuals of the smaller race.

Nesting. — In my attempt to establish a breeding range for the
larger race I find nothing but negative evidence. There are very
few specimens of breeding birds in American collections, and all
of those that I have seen are referable to the smaller race. I have
collected the measurements of 109 eggs, taken in various localities
in northeastern Siberia, Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland,
and they show no correlation of size with locality; the largest two
sets came from Greenland and Siberia and tke smallest two from
Point Barrow and Greenland ; average measurements from one local-
ity are not materially different from those from another locality.
Moreover, the average measurements of the 109 eggs are very close
to the average measurements of 81 eggs of European birds; and the

198 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

extremes in our series are inclusive. From the above we can infer
only that the breeding range of the larger race has never been found
and that none of its eggs are in existence. The breeding range of
the species, Anser alMfrons, is circumpolar, except for a decided gap
between Greenland and the district of Mackenzie. Somewhere in
this gap, or in the Arctic regions north of it, may be the breeding
grounds of the big tule goose. An interesting parallel is seen in the
case of the Ross goose, which also is found in a restricted winter
range in California; the breeding grounds of both are entirely un-
known; perhaps some day both may be found breeding somewhere
in the vast unexplored regions of the Arctic Archipelago.

Behavior. — Messrs. Swarth and Bryant (1917) have referred to
certain characteristic habits of the tule goose, as follows:

It is said that the two kinds flock separately, for the most part ; and that
the larger race is never seen in such big flocks as is customary with the other,
but is most frequently noted singly or in pairs. Also that while the smaller
variety is a common frequenter of grain fields and uplands generally the
larger one is preeminently a denizen of open water or of ponds and sloughs
surrounded by tules and willows. The predilection of the latter species for
such localities has given rise to the local names by which it is known, " tule
goose," or " timber goose," as contrasted with the upland-frequenting " speckle-
belly."

The notes of the tule goose are said to be " coarser and harsher "
than those of the smaller bird.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Unknown. It may fill in the gap in the known
breeding range of albifrons, between the district of Mackenzie and
Greenland, where much far northern land is unexplored.

Winter range. — Mainl}?^ in California (Sacramento Valley). It
may also occur in other central valleys of California and perhaps
rarely elsewhere.

ANSER FABALIS (Latham)

BEAN GOOSE

HABITS

Because this common European species has been recorded as a
straggler in northern Greenland it has been included in our Ameri-
can list. It was named the bean goose because of its well-established
habit of arriving in England with great regularity during bean-
harvesting time in October; beans were very extensively cultivated
in certain districts, to which these geese resorted in large numbers
to feed on the remains of the harvest. John Cordeaux (1898) says
on this subject:

LIFE HISTORIES OP NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 199

"We learn from Arthur Young's Agricultural Survey (1798) that the small
country towns and villages in the middle-marsh and sea-marsh districts of
Lincolnshire were surrounded by vast open fields, arable lands, cow and horso
pastures, and furze ; on strong land the i.-otation was fallows, wheat, beans, and
again fallows. The area under beans in the low country was enormous, the
wheat stubbles being plowed once, and the beans sown broadcast in the spring
and never cleaned. These were harvested late in the autumn, usually got
with much loss from the jaws of winter. These were the days of the gray
goose, which our observant forefathers called the bean goose {Anser segetuni),
coming in great flocks in the later autumn to feast on the shelled beans in the
open fields ; and this continued till the change in cultivation and general in-
closure banished them from their ancient haunts.

Most of the old wild-fowl shooters, who have long since gone over to the
majority, used to assert that these autumn fiights fed regularly in the bean
fields as long as the old system of agriculture continued — a system in which
quite one-third of the cultivated land was under that crop.

Nesting. — Kev. F. C. R. Jourdain writes to me that in Nova
Zembla the nests of the bean goose are found on grassy tussocks on
low ground, and that in Lapland it breeds in the partly wooded
marshes where a few birch trees grow, nesting generally on the top
of a grassy hummock.

Witherby's Handbook (1920) says that its main breeding haunts
are in more wooded districts than those of most geese; that it nests
"on islets in rivers or swamps, sheltered by rank vegetation and
sometimes by willows or other bushes," and that the nest is "com-
posed of down mixed with grass, moss, etc."

Eggs. — Mr. Jourdain says of the eggs :

They are large as compared with other geese, bulky in appearance, creamy
white when first laid, but rapidly becoming nest stained with yellowish, which
becomes more pronounced as incubation advances.

The set usually consists of 4 or 5 eggs, occasionally 6. The
measurements of 51 eggs, as given in Witherby's Handbook (1920),
average 84.2 by 55.6 millimeters; the eggs showing the four ex-
tremes measure 91 by 57.2, 84 by 59, and 74.5 by 53.3 millimeters.

Food. — Mr. Cordeaux (1898) says:

The bean goose is very partial to all sorts of grain, and, in this respect,
differs from the gray lag, whose chief food is grass. A local name is " corn-
goose," in France " harvest-goose," and in Transylvania it is known as the
" growing-grain goose " ; it will, however, eat grass and clover as readily as its
congeners when the stubbles are exhausted.

Behavior. — Seebohm (1901) describes the flocking habits of old
and young birds in Siberia, as follows:

I then skirted the margin of a long, narrow inlet, exactly like the dried-up
bed of a river, running some miles into the tundra, bending round almost
behind the inland sea. I had not gone more than a mile when I heard the
cackle of geese; a bend of the river bed gave me an opportunity of stalking

200 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

them, and when I came within sight I beheld an extraordinary and interesting
scene. At least 100 old geese, and quite as many young ones, perhaps even
twice or thrice that number, were marching like a regiment of soldiers. The
vanguard, consisting of old birds, was halfway across the stream, the rear,
composed principally of goslings, was running down the steep bank toward the
water's edge as fast as their young legs could carry them. Both banks of
the river, where the geese had doubtless been feeding, were strewn with
feathers, and in five minutes I picked up a handful of quills. The flock was
evidently migrating to the interior of the tundra, molting as it went along.

Yarrell (1871) quotes Sir Ralph Payne-Gall wey as saying that in
Ireland —

It is by far the commonest species, and may be seen in enormous " gaggles "
for six months of every year. It is essentially an inland feeder on bogs and
meadows, but will fly to the mud banks and slob of the tide at dusk to pass
the night. These geese frequent every bog and marsh in Ireland which afford
food and security from molestation. They are always found inland in large
numbers save in frost, when they fly down to the meadows and soft green re-
claimed lands that lie near the tide. A small proportion will, in the wildest
weather, frequent the mud banks to feed and rest. They usually quit their
inland haunts at dusk, disliking to remain on land by night when dogs, men,
or cattle may disturb them, and accordingly fly to the estuaries to rest and
feed. At first dawn they again wing inland and pass the day in open, unap-
proachable ground.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Northern Palaearctic region. East in northern
Siberia to the Taimyr Peninsula. South to about 64° N. in Siberia,
Russia, Kola, Finland, and Scandinavia. Also on Kolguev and
Nova Zembla. Replaced in eastern Siberia by closely allied forms.

Winter range. — Europe and western Asia. South to northern
China, casually northern India, Persia, the Mediterranean Sea, and
rarely to northern Africa. West to Great Britain.

Casual record. — A specimen in the Zoological Museum of Copen-
hagen is said to have come from northern Greenland.

Egg dates. — Northern Europe: Eight records, April 29 to June
20. Novaya Zemlia: One record, July 9.

ANSER BRACHYRHYNCHUS Baillon
PINK-FOOTED GOOSE

HABITS

An accidental occurrence of this Old World species in eastern
Greenland had long been the slim excuse we had for including the
pink-footed goose in the list of American birds, until recently, Sep-
tember 25, 1924, one was taken in Essex County, Massachusetts.

This and the bean goose resemble each other so closely in general
appearance and habits that much confusion has arisen as to the

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 201

distribution and comparative abundance of the two species. It has
even been suggested that they may be only subspecies or varieties, as
the characters on which the description of the pink-footed goose was
based are not very constant. It seems to be now conceded, however,
that they are distinct species and that the latter is now the commonest
of the gray geese in Great Britain.

Nesting. — Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain has kindly sent me the following
notes on his experiences with the pink-footed goose in Spitsbergen :

Although It is probable that this species breeds in Iceland, there is as yet no
definite proof, and the only certainly known breeding place is Spitsbergen, so
that perhaps the following notes may have some interest.

The pink-footed goose is still a fairly common bird along the west coast of
Spitsbergen. Here it has only two enemies- — man and the Arctic fox. In
former years the Arctic fox was the more dangerous foe, and the habits of
the goose have been gradually evolved to contend with this wily little enemy,
while the only men to be feared were the few trappers and sealers who robbed
the nests occasionally in the spring and shot the molting birds in the summer.
Now the foxes have been greatly thinned down, but the little sealing sloops, no
longer dependent on their sails, but filled with noisy little oil engines, penetrate
everywhere, so that the birds are badly harried. Still the eggs of the geese
can not be as readily collected as those of the eider and in consequence have
less value, and to discover the isolated nests on the tundra and shingle banks
in marketable numbers would be a hopeless task. But during the season of
molt the goose has only, its speed of foot to trust to, and no doubt large
numbers are killed from time to time.

While the brent have found security from the foxes by breeding on the
islets round the coast and the barnacle has attained the same end by nesting
on steep cliff's, the pink foot, which is a much larger and stronger bird, has to
a certain extent managed to hold its own on the open tundra, though it is
much more usual to find the nest in somewhat similar sites to those used by
the barnacle. I think it is quite possible for a couple of pink-footed geese to
keep a prowling fox at bay, though a single bird might have a very unpleasant
time, and probably a fair proportion of nests come to grief in this way every
year. Like the other species which breed here, the male pink foot is an excel-
lent father and stands by his mate during the incubation period. The first
nest we met with was about 10 miles up a wide valley running into Ice Fjord.
Here on a slightly raised mossy ridge, which gave a wide view over the snow-
sodden flats, we put up a pair of pink-footed geese from the nest, which con-
tained 2 eggs, highly incubated on June 26. This was a curiously small
clutch, and yet there is no reason to suppose that the birds had been already
robbed. Subsequently we found another nest with 2 incubated eggs on a grassy
cliff, and this, too, was in a locality which had not been disturbed. Koenig,
who examined a very large number of nests of this species, only met with full
sets of 2 on two occasions and considers 4 as the normal number, while sets
of 3 and 5 occur commonly. He also met with an instance of 7 eggs in one
nest and believed them to be the product of one female, but in another case
where 9 eggs were found, the stages of incubation proved that two females had
laid together. Curiously enough we never met with more than 4 eggs or young,
but the number of eggs taken in 1921 was not large.

Like the brent and barnacle the pink-footed shows a decided tendency to
sociability in the breeding season, though many nests are also quite isolated.

202 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Along the west side of Prince Charles Foreland, where the mountains rise
steeply from the sea and are almost perpetually wrapped in drifting mists
and fogs, there are 'low grassy slopes and bluffs which lie at the foot, of the
main range. Here many pink-footed geese breed in hollows on the green
ledges, sometimes two or three pairs nesting not far from one another, and
nesting hollows which have been used in previous years are quite plentiful ;
sometimes four or five being visible close together. Most of these nests can
be reached by a scrambling climb from below, but there may be a sheer drop
of 15 or 20 feet below the nest. In one case we saw four newly hatched
goslings in a nest, and the most enterprising of them scrambled over the side
of the nest for about a foot. The others, however, did not follow, and it was
only by repeated efforts that the youngster was able, after several attempts,
to regain its place in the nest. By next day every one of the young birds had
disappeared completely. On a subsequent occasion we saw an old goose at
the foot of a cliff, attending closely to something on the ground below. Little
by little it descended the slope, guiding and helping with its bill something
which looked like a downy young bird. One of our party coming from another
direction shot the old goose, and going to the spot discovered the young which
was evidently being conducted to the shore. The empty nest was on the cliff
exactly above where we had first seen the bird, and I have no doubt that it
had fallen from the top without suffering any injury, for we took the bird
back with us to the ship and attempted to rear it. On another occasion we
put up two geese from a vast expanse of shingle at the mouth of one of
the valleys, and going to the spot found three addled eggs and a newly
hatched gosling. The little bird had already left the nest and made off for
us with wonderful speed over the shingle. It was not the least use replacing
it, for immediately it was released it set off again in pursuit of the nearest
of our party. On returning later with cameras, the young bird was not to be
found.

One nest was in a curious position, quite close to the sea, on some sloping
ground, sheltered by big bowlders which had fallen from the rocks above.

By July 7 many of these geese had already shed their primaries and were
unable to fly in North Spitsbergen. Great numbers of their feathers lay
strewn along the shore, while the birds made off at top speed directly they
sighted us.

^'^^^.—Witherby's Handbook (1920) describes the eggs of the
pink-footed goose as "dull whitish." The measurements of 292
eggs average 78.2 by 52.3 millimeters ; the eggs showing the four ex-
tremes measure 88 by 52.6, 82.6 by 56.7, 69 by 51, and 77 by 47.4
millimeters, according to the same authority.

T^^o^.— John Cordeaux (1898) says:

Geese, on reaching their feeding grounds, whirl in wide circles over the
selected spot and, when satisfied that all is safe, sweep suddenly downwards
with considerable velocity, and commence feeding at once on alighting.

When through the depth of snow on the high wolds, food is not to be got,
geese entirely change their habits, loafing about on the coast and sand banks
during the day, and in the evening flying and dropping anywhere in the low
country where they can get green food; the snow seldom lies long in coast
di'.tricts, and there are always places which the winds have left bare, and the
ground is more or less uncovered. I have often seen their paddlings and drop-
pings in pasture, corn, and turnip fields, near the coast. If the neighborhood

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 203

is quiet and retired, tliey come inland just as readily in the daytime as at
night

Geese feed very greedily anywhere at the break up of a snowstorm, and
they are then least difficult to approach, being too much engrossed in eating
to heed slight indications of disturbance or interruption. The pink-footed
geese, when associated with other species on a feeding ground, keep apart
and are not inclined to be sociable. In the day they are vi.sible on a hillside
at a very considerable distance and, if a yellow stubble, look like a blue cloud
on the land. They are also very conspicuous objects on the sands of the
coast, lining the tide edge in long extended line, like a regiment on parade.

In the dusk of evening or at night geese are not so wide-awake as in the
day, or they do not see so well, and I have sometimes walked into a flock to
our mutual astonishment.

Behavior. — The same writer says of the habits of this species :

The habits of the pink-footed goose so closely resemble those of the bean
goose that much which has been written of the one will hold good of the other.
They arrive in the Humber district the last week in September and early in
October ; the earliest dates in my notebook are September 26, October 3,
October 5 (twice), October 10. Mr. Haigh has known them appear as early
as August 26, in 1893, in excessively hot weather. During the day they
haunt the stubbles and clover fields on the wolds and open districts, rising
about the same hour in the evening and wend their way, in the long extended
order, to the islands and sand banks in the Humber, to return as punctually
to their feeding grounds at the break of day. They are the wildest and most
unapproachable of all the geese.

Within the recollection of certainly three generations and probably since
the inclosure of the wolds, if not before, flocks of wild geese, coming up from
the coast, have been in the habit of passing over the town of Louth in the early
morning on their way to their feeding grounds on the high wolds. The large
barley walks are the places which are most frequented, not so much, as I
have found by an examination of the stomach, for scattered grain as young
white clover and trefoil plants, of which they are immoderately fond. Con-
sidering the persistency with which geese day by day resort to the same
locality it is surprising so few are shot. The fields on the wolds are very
extensive, and geese keep near the center ; on coming in from the coast they
fly high, and it is only in stormy weather that their flight is low enough for
a shot from a heavy gun to do execution, fired from the vantage ground of
a solitary barn, shed, or stack on a hilltop, where at the same time the shooter
remains concealed till the skein of geese are well above him.

Mr. Howard Saunders says : " The voice of the pink-footed goose differs
from that of the bean goose in being sharper in tone, and the note is also re-
peated more rapidly." It is extremely difficult to express the note or the
difference between the calls of birds on paper. I can, however, testify from
experience that there is a very distinct difference between the call note of these
two species.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Breeds in Spitsbergen, probably in Franz-Josef
Land and possibly in Iceland.

^Y^nter range. — Northern Europe, Scandinavia, Holland, Bel-
gium, Great Britain, Iceland, France, Germany, and northern
JRussia.

204 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Casual recoT'ds. — Accidental in eastern Greenland and Massachu-
setts,

Egg dates. — Spitsbergen : Six records, June 16 to 27.

BRANTA CANADENSIS CANADENSIS (Linnaeus)

CANADA GOOSE

HABITS

The common wild goose is the most widely distributed and the
most generally well known of any of our wild fowl. From the
Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Gulf of Mexico nearly to the
Arctic coast it may be seen at some season of the year, and when
once seen its grandeur creates an impression on the mind which even
the casual observer never forgets. As the clarion notes float down-
ward on the still night air, who can resist the temptation to rush
out of doors and peer into the darkness for a possible glimpse at
the passing flock, as the shadowy forms glide over our roofs on their
long journey? Or, even in daylight, what man so busy that he will
not pause and look upward at the serried ranks of our grandest
wild fowl, as their well-known honking notes announce their coming
and their going, he knows not whence or whither? It is an im-
pressive sight well worthy of his gaze; perhaps he will even stop
to count the birds in the two long converging lines; he is sure to
tell his friends about it, and perhaps it will even be published in the
local paper, as a harbinger of spring or a foreboding of winter.
Certainly the Canada goose commands respect.

Spring. — The Canada goose is one of the earliest of the water
birds to migrate in the spring. Those which have wintered farthest
south are the first to feel the migratory impulse, and they start about
a month earlier than those which have wintered at or above the
frost line, moving slowly at first but with a gradually increasing
rate of speed. Prof. Wells W. Cooke (1906) has shown, from his
mass of accumulated records, that beginning with an average rate of
9 miles a day, between the lowest degrees of latitude, the speed is
gradually increased through successive stages to an average rate of
30 miles a day during the last part of the journey. Following, as
it does, close upon the heels of retreating ice and snow, the migration
of these geese may well be regarded as a harbinger of spring; for
the same reason it is quite variable from year to year and quite de-
pendent on weather conditions.

The first signs of approaching spring come early in the far south,
with the lengthening of the days and the increasing warmth of the
sun; the wild geese are the first to appreciate these signs and the
first to feel the restless impulse to be gone ; they congregate in flocks
and show their uneasiness by their constant gabbling and honking,
as if talking over plans for their journey, with much preening

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERKWN WILU FOWL 205

and oiling of feathers in the way of preparation; at length a flock
or two may be seen mounting into the air and starting off north-
ward, headed by the older and stronger birds, the veterans of many
a similar trip; flock after flock joins the procession, until the last
have gone, leaving their winter homes deserted and still. The old
ganders laiow the way and lead their trustful flocks by the straight-
est and safest route; high in the air, with the earth spread out
below them like a map, they follow no coast line, no mountain chain,
and no river valley; but directly onward over hill and valley, river
and lake, forest and plain, city, town, and country, their course
points straight to their summer homes. Flying by night or by day, as
circumstances require, they stop only when necessary to rest or feed,
and then only in such places as their experienced leaders know to be
safe. A thick fog may bewilder them and lead them to disaster or a
heavy snowstorm may make them turn back, but soon they are on
their way again, and ultimately they reach their breeding grounds
in safety.

Courtship. — The older geese are paired for life, and many of the
younger birds, which are mating for the first time, conduct their
courtship and perhaps select their mates before they start on their
spring migration. Audubon (1840) gives a graphic account of the
courtship of the Canada goose, as follows :

It is extremely amusing to witness the courtship of the Canada goose in
all its stages ; and let me assure you, reader, that although a gander does not
strut before his beloved with the pomposity of a turkey, or the grace of a
dove, his ways are quite as agreeable to the female of his choice. I can
imagine before me one who has just accomplished the defeat of another male
after a struggle of half an hour or more. He advances gallantly toward the
object of contention, his head scarcely raised an inch from the ground,
his bill open to its full stretch, his fleshy tongue elevated, his eyes darting
fiery glances, and as he moves he hisses loudly, while the emotion which he
experiences causes his quills to shake and his feathers to rustle. Now he is
close to her who in his eyes is all loveliness ; his neck bending gracefully in
all directions, passes all round her, and occasionally touches her body ; and
as she congratulates him on his victory, and acknowledges his affection, they
move their necks in a hundred curious ways. At this moment fierce jealousy
urges the defeated gander to renew his efforts to obtain his love ; he advances
apace, his eye glowing with the fire of rage ; he shakes his broad wings, ruffles
up his whole plumage, and as he rushes on the foe hisses with the intensity
of anger. The whole flock seems to stand amazed, and opening up a space,
the birds gather round to view the combat. The bold bird who has been
caressing his mate, scarcely deigns to take notice of his foe, but seems to send
a scornful glance toward him. He of the mortified feelings, however, raises
his body, half opens his sinewy wings, and with a powerful blow, sends forth
his defiance. The affront can not be borne in the presence of so large a com-
pany, nor indeed is there much disposition to bear it in any circumstances;
the blow is i-eturned with vigor, the aggressor reels for a moment, but he soon
recovers, and now the combat rages. Were the weapons more deadly, feats

206 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

of chivalry would now be performed ; as it is, thrust and blow succeed each
other lil^e the strokes of hammers driven by sturdy forgers. But now, the
mated gander has caught hold of his antagonist's head with his bill ; no bull-
dog can cling faster to his victim ; he squeezes him with all the energy of rage,
lashes him with his powerful wings, and at length drives him away, spreads
out his pinions, runs with joy to his mate, and fills the air with cries of
exultation.

Nesting. — Reaching their breeding grounds early in the season and
being in most cases ah-eady paired, these geese are naturally among
the earliest breeders; their eggs are usually hatched and the nests
deserted before many of the other wild fowl have even laid their
eggs, the dates varying of course with the latitude. When I visited
North Dakota in 1901 there were still quite a number of Canada
geese breeding there ; probably many of them have since been driven
farther west or north, as they love solitude and retirement during
the nesting season. We found them nesting on the islands in the
lakes and in the marshy portions of the sloughs, building quite
different nests in the two locations. On May 31 we found a nest
on an island in Stump Lake, which had evidently been deserted for
some time ; the island was also occupied by nesting colonies of double-
crested cormorants and ring-billed gulls and by a few breeding
ducks; the goose nest was merely a depression in the bare ground
among some scattered large stones lined with a few sticks and straws
and a quantity of down. In a large slough in Nelson County we
found, on June 2, a deserted nest containing 3 addled eggs, the
broken shells of those that had hatched being scattered about the
nest. It was in a shallow portion of the slough where the dead flags
had been beaten down flat for a space 50 feet square. The nest was
a bulky mass of dead flags, 3 feet in diameter and but slightly hol-
lowed in the center. Within a few yards of this, and of a similar
nest found on June 10, was an occupied redhead's nest ; the proximity
of these two ducks' nests to those of the geese may have been merely
accidental, but the possibility is suggested that they may have been
so placed to gain the protection of the larger birds. This suggestion
was strengthened when I saw a skunk foraging in the vicinity; un-
doubtedly these animals find an abundant food supply in the numer-
ous nests of ducks and coots in these sloughs.

KSomewhat similar nests were found by our party in Saskatchewan,
including two beautiful nests on an island in Crane Lake, found on
June 2, 1905. The largest of these was in an open grassy place on
the island, about 25 yards from the open shore ; it consisted of a great
mass of soft down, " drab gray " in color, measuring 16 inches in
outside diameter, 7 inches inside, and 4 inches in depth ; it was very
conspicuous and contained 6 eggs. As I approached it and when
about a hundred yards from it, the goose walked deliberately from

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL, 207

the nest to the shore and began honking; her mate, away off on the
lake answered her and she flew out to join him. Both of these
nests had been robbed earlier in the season and the birds had laid
second sets.

According to Milton S. Ray (1912) the Canada goose nests quite
commonly at Lake Tahoe in California ; he found a number of nests
there in 1910 and 1911. The nesting habits in this region are not
verj^ different from what we noted in northwest Canada. Referring
to the nests found in 1910, Mr. Ray writes :

Anxious to learn something of their nesting habits, and hopins: I might he
in time to find a nest or so, May 23 found me rowing up the fresh-water
sloughs of the marsh, unmindful of the numerous terns, blackbirds, and other
swamp denizens, in my quest for a prospective home of the goose. Nor was
I long without reward, for when about 100 feet from a little island that!
boasted of a few lodge-pole pine saplings and one willow, a goose rose from
her nest, took a short run, and rising with heavy flight and loud cries, flew
out to open water, where she was joined by her mate. The cries of the pair
echoed so loudly over the marsh that it seemed the whole region must be
awakened. Landing on the island I found on the ground, at the edge of the
willow, a large built-up nest with 7 almost fresh eggs. The nest was composed
wholly of dry marsh grasses and down, and measured 22 inches over all, while
the cavity was 11 inches across and 3 inches deep.

After a row of several miles I noticed a gander in the offing, whose swimming
in circles and loud honking gave assurance that the nesting precincts of another
pair had been invaded. A heavily timbered island, now close at hand, seemed
the most probably nesting place. This isle was so swampy that most of the
growth had been killed, and fallen trees, other impedimenta, and the icy
water, made progress difficult. I had advanced but a short distance, however,
when a goose flushed from her nest at the foot of a dead tree. This nest was
very similar to the first one found, and, like it, also held 7 eggs, but these
were considerably further along in incubation. On the homeward journey,
while returning through the marsh by a different channel, I beheld the snake-
like head of a goose above the tall grass (for the spring had been unusually
early) on a level tract some distance away. Approaching nearer, the bird took
flight, and on reaching the spot I found my third nest. As it contained 5 eggs
all on the point of hatching, I lost no time in allowing the parent to return.

i \Jl.X LJl^ |J\7AiJU \J-L JlClLVilllJ^, ±. l.\JiDl, lAXJ LIJ-LUT ill CL i.L\J \r 1.1.1 f^ LJ

Of his experiences the following year, he says :

I found the goose colony to consist of but a single nest, placed on the bare
rock at the foot of a giant Jeffrey pine near the water's edge. It was made
entirely of pine needles, with the usual down lining, and held an addled egg,
while numerous sliells lay strewn about. The parents wore noticed about half
a mile down the bay. Two days later at Rowlands Marsh I located another
goose nest with the small compliment of 2 eggs, 1 infertile and 1 from which the
chick was just emerging. The nest was placed against a fallen log, and
besides the lining of down was composed entirely of chips of pine bark, a
quantity of which lay near. From the variety of material used in the composi-
tion of the nests found, it seems evident that the birds have little or nq
preference for any particular substance, but use that most easily available.

A long day's work at the marsh on June 9 revealed three more nests. The
first of these, one with 6 eggs, well incubated, was the most perfectly built

208 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

nest of the goose that I have ever seen, being constructed with all the care
that most of the smaller birds exercise. It was made principally of dry
marsh grasses. The second nest held a set of 5 eggs, and was placed by a
small willow on a little mound of earth rising in a tule patch in a secluded
portion of the swamp. Dry tules entered largely into its composition. In
this instance the bird did not rise until we were within 25 feet, although
they usually flushed at a distance varying from 40 to 100 feet.

In the Rocky Mountain regions of Colorado and Montana the
Canada goose has been known to build its nest, sometimes for suc-
cessive seasons, on rocky ledges or cliffs at some distance from any
water or even at a considerable height. In the northwestern por-
tions of the country it frequently nests in trees, using the old nests
of ospreys, hawks, or other large birds; it apparently does not build
any such nest for itself, but sometimes repairs the nest by bringing
in twigs and lining it with down. John Fannin (1894) says that
in the Okanogan district of British Columbia, " Canada geese are
particularly noted for nesting in trees, and as these valleys are sub-
ject to sudden inundation during early spring, this fact may have
something to do with it." He also relates the following interesting
incident :

Mr. Charles deB. Green, who spends a good deal of his spare time in mak-
ing collections for the INIuseum, writes me from Kettle River, Okanogan dis-
trict, British Columbia, to the effect that while climbing to an osprey's nest he
was surprised to find his actions resented by not only the ospreys but also by
a pair of Canada geese (Branta canadensis), the latter birds making quite
a fuss all the time Mr. Green was in the tree. On reaching the nest he was
still furtlier surprised to find 2 osprey eggs and 3 of the Canada goose. He
took the 2 osprey's eggs and 2 of the geese eggs. This was on the 1st of
May. On the 12th of May he returned and found the osprey setting on the
goose egg; the gee.se were nowhere in sight. Mr. Green took the remaining
egg and sent the lot to the Museum.

A. D. Henderson has sent me the following notes on the nesting
habits of the Canada goose, in the Peace River region of northern
Alberta, as follows:

The geese breed on the small gravelly islands in the Battle River and its
two tributaries, known at that time as the Second and Third Battle Rivers.
Another favorite breeding place is in old beaver dams, where they nest on
the old sunken beaver houses, which in course of time have flattened down
into small grass-covered islets. Even inhabited beaver houses are used as
nesting sites, as my half-breed hunting partner, on one of our trips, took 5
eggs from a nest on a large beaver house in an old river bed of the Third
Battle, which we repeatedly saw entered and left by a family of beaver,
showing that the geese and beaver live together in unity.

On May 18 I found a nest containing 7 eggs on a low grassy islet, prob-
ably a very old beaver house, in the same flooded beaver meadow. The nest
was made of grass lined with finer grasses and feathers. The sitting bird
permitted a near approach, with her head and neck stretched out straight
In front of her and lying flat along the ground, watching my approach. This

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 209

appears to be the usual behavior when the nest is approached during incuba-
tion. We saw two other nests on this day, one on a small grassy islet in the
same beaver meadow, containing 3 eggs, and another on an island in the
Third Battle with 6 eggs.

Eggs. — The Canada goose lays from 4 to 10 eggs, usually 5 or 6.
They vary in shape from ovate to elliptical ovate, with a tendency
in some specimens toward fusiform. The shell is smooth or only
slightly rough, but with no gloss. The color is creamy white or
dull, dirty white at first, becoming much nest stained and sometimes
variegated or nearly covered with "cream buff." The measure-
ments of 84 -eggs, in various collections average 85.7 by 58.2 milli-
meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 99.5 by 56,
87.6 by 63.6, 79 by 56.5, and 86.5 by 53.5 millimeters.

Young. — ^The period of incubation varies from 28 to 30 days;
probably the former is the usual time under favorable circum-
stances. The gander never sits on the nest, but while the goose is
incubating he is constantly in attendance, except when obliged to
leave in search of food. He is a staunch defender of the home and
is no mean antagonist. Audubon (1840) relates the following:

It is during the breeding season that the gander displays his courage and
strength to the greatest advantage. I knew one that appeared larger than
usual, and of which all the lower parts were of a rich cream color. It returned
three years in succession to a large pond a few miles from the mouth of
Green River, in Kentucky, and whenever I visited the nest it seemed to look
upon me with utter contempt. It would stand in a stately attitude until I
reached within a few yards of the nest, when suddenly lowering its head and
shaking it as if it were dislocated from the neck, it would open its wings
and launch into the air, flying directly at me. So daring was this fine fellow
that in two instances he struck me a blow with one of his wings on the right
arm, which for an instant I thought was broken. I observed that immediately
after such an effort to defend his nest and mate he would run swiftly toward
them, pass his head and neck several times over and around the female, and
again assume his attitude of defiance.

The same gifted author writes regarding the care of the young
as follows :

The lisping sounds of their offspring are heard through the shell ; their
little bills have formed a breach in the inclosing walls ; full of life and be-
decked with beauty they come forth, with tottering steps and downy covering.
Toward the water they now follow their careful parent ; they reach the
border of the stream ; their mother already floats on the loved element ; one
after another launches forth and now the flock glides gently along. What a
beautiful sight. Close by the grassy margin the mother slowly leads her
innocent younglings ; to one she shows the seed of the floating grass, to an-
other points out the crawling slug. Her careful eye watches the cruel turtle,
the garfish, and the pike that are lurking for their prey, and, with head in-
clined, she glances upward to the eagle or the gull that are hovering over
the water in search of food. A ferocious bird dashes at her young ones ; she

210 BULX>f:TIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

instantly plunges beneath the surface, and in the twinkling of an eye her brood
disappear after her ; now they are among the thick rushes, with nothing above
water but their little bills. The mother is marcking toward the land, having
lisped to her brood in accents so gentle that none but they and her mate can
understand their import, and all are safely lodged under cover until the dis-
appointed eagle or gull bears away.

More than six weeks have now elapsed. The down of the goslings, which at
first was soft and tufty, has become coarse and hairlike. Their wings are
edged with quills and their bodies bristled with feathers. They have in-
creased in size and, living in the midst of abundance, they have become fat,
so that on shore they make their way with difficulty, and as they are yet
unable to fly, the greatest care is required to save them from their numerous
enemies. They grow apace, and now the burning days of August are over.
They are able to fly with ease from one shore to another, and as each succes-
sive night the hoarfrosts cover the country and the streams are closed over by
the ice, the family joins that in their neighborhood, which is also joined by
others. At length they spy the advance #f a snowstorm, when the ganders
with one accord sound the order for their departure.

Samuel N. Khoads (1895) published the following interesting
note, based on the observations of H. B. Young in Tennessee :

At Reelfoot Lake the goose nearly always builds in the top of a blasted
tree over the water, sometimes nesting as high as 50 feet or even higher.
When the young are hatched the gander soon gets notice of it and swims
around the foot of the tree uttering loud cries. On a signal from mother
goose he redoubles his outcries and, describing a large circle immediately
beneath the nest, beats the water with his wings, dives, paddles, and slashes
about with the greatest fury, making such a terrible noise and commotion
that he can be heard for several miles. This effectually drives away from
that spot every catfish, spoonbill, loggerhead, hellbender, moccasin, water
snake, eagle, mink, and otter that might take a fancy to young goslings, and
into the midst of the commotion mother goose, by a few deft thrusts of her
bill, spills the whole nestful. But a few seconds elapse ere the reunited family
are noiselessly paddling for the shores of some secluded cove with nothing to
mark the scene of their exploits but a few feathers and upturned water plants
and above them the huge white cypress with its deserted nest.

Wliile the family party is moving about on the water the gander
usually leads the procession, the goslings following, and the goose
acting as rear guard. The old birds sometimes lead their young
for long distances over large bodies of water. While cruising on
Lake Winnipegosis on June 18, 1913, we came upon a family party
fully 5 miles from shore and evidently swimming across the lake.
The two old birds when hard pressed finally took wing and flew
away, leaving the three half-grown young to their fate. The young
were still completely covered with down, and their wings were not
at all developed, although their bodies were as large as mallards.
They could swim quite fast on the surface, could dive well, and could
swim for a long distance under water. They were surprisingly
active in eluding capture, and when hard pressed they swam partly

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 211

submerged, with their necks below the surface and their heads
barely above it, in a sort of hiding pose.

P. A. Taverner (1922) describes an interesting pose assumed
by a family party on Cypress Lake, Saskatchewan. When pursued
by a motor boat —

they put on more speed and arranged themselves in a long single file, one
parent leading, the other bringing up the rear, swimming low, and both with
their long necl^s outstretched and laid down flat on the water, making them-
selves as inconspicuous as possible. The young, coaxed from ahead and urged
from behind, paddled along vigorously between, one close behind the otlier.
From our low and distant point of view the effect was interesting. Tliey looked
like a floating stick. Certainly they would not impress the casual eye as a
family of Canada geese, and if we had not first seen them in a more charac-
teristic pose they would undoubtedly have been passed without recognition.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore tells me that, in the Bear River marshes
in Utah where these geese breed, both old and young birds resort
during the summer to the seclusion of the lower marshes. Here he
found numerous places where the thick growth of bullrushes had been
beaten down to form roosting places for family parties, well littered
with cast-off feathers and other signs of regular occupancy. Here
they live in peace and safety while the young are attaining their
growth and their parents are molting. Before the shooting season
begins they gather into larger flocks, now strong of wing and ready
for their fall wanderings.

James P. Howley (1884) gives the following account of the
behavior of these geese in Newfoundland:

During the breeding season they molt the primary wing and tail feathers,
and are consequently unable to fly in the months of June, July, and the early
part of August. They keep very close during this molting season and are
rarely seen by day ; yet I have frequently come across them at such times in
the far interior and on many occasions have caught them alive. When sur-
prised on some lonely lake or river side they betake themselves at once to
the land and run very swiftly into the bush or tall grass to hide. But they
appear somewhat stupid, and if they can succeed in getting their heads out
of sight under a stone or stump imagine they are quite safe from observation.
When overtaken in the water and hard pressed they will dive readily, remain-
ing a considerable time beneath, swimming or running on the bottom very
last. About the 15th of August the old birds and most of the young ones are
capable of flight, and from thence to the 1st of September they rapidly gain
strength of wing. Soon after this they betake themselves to the seaside, con-
gregating in large flocks in the shallow estuaries or deep fiords, to feed during
the nighttime, but are off again to the barrens at earliest dawn, where they
are generally to be found in daytime. Here they feed on the wild berries, of
-which the common blueberry, partridge berry, marsh berry, and a small black-
l)erry {Empetrum nigrum) afford them an abundant supply. They are ex-
ceedingly wary at this season, and there is no approaching them at all on the
barrens.

212 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Mr. Henderson has given the following observation regarding the
young :

On June 4, while walking up the river bank looking for bear, we met a
pair of geese and four goslings on shore and got within 20 yards before
they moved. The old birds made a great fuss and flew down to the foot of a
rapid and waited on the still water about 60 yards below. The goslings took
to the water, which was tumbling and boiling over the stones ; swimming and
diving, they went down the rapid, under water most of the time, and joined
their fond parents below.

On the 28th, while walking up the gravel banks of the Third Battle, hunting
bear, I came on a pair of geese with six goslings, also three other geese about
100 yards upstream from them. The three geese flew on my approach, and
the female took her brood across the stream to about 30 yards distant. Her
mate went upstream, flopping along the water pretending to be crippled. He
would allow me to approach to about 40 yards and then flap along the water
again for a few yards and wait for me again. He repeated this performance
several times, until he thought he had enticed me far enough around the
next bend, when he had a marvelous recovery, flying away and giving me the
merry honk ! honk ! for being so easy. I am sure he enjoyed the ease with
which he fooled me, and I enjoyed watching him and letting him think so.

Plumages. — The downy young when recently hatched is brightly
colored and very pretty. The entire back, rump, wrings, and flanks
are "yellowish olive," with a bright, gi'eenish-yellow sheen; a large
central crown patch is lustrous " olive " ; the remainder of the head
and neck is bright yellowish, deepening to " olive ocher " on the
cheeks and sides of the neck and paling to " primrose yellow " on the
throat ; the under parts shade from " deep colonial buff " on the
breast to " primrose yellow " on the belly ; the bill is entirely black.
Older birds are paler and duller colored, " drab " above and grayish
white below.

When about 4 weeks old the plumage begins to appear, the body
plumage first and the wings last; they are fully grown when about
6 weeks old, and they closely resemble their parents in their first
plumage. There is, however, during the first summer and fall at
least a decided difference. The plumage of young birds looks softer
and the colors are duller and more blended. The head and neck
are duller, browner black ; the cheeks are more brownish white, and
the edges of the black areas arfe not so clearly cut ; the light edgings
above are not so distinct; and the sides of the chest and flanks are
indistinctly mottled, rather than clearly barred. During the fall
and winter these differences disappear by means of wear and molt,
so that by spring the young birds are practically indistinguishable
from adults.

Food. — Canada geese live on a variety of different foods in vari-
ous parts of their habitat and at different seasons, but they seem to
show a decided preference for vegetable foods where these can be
obtained. They usually feed in flocks in certain favored localitie?

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 213

where suitable food can be found in abundance, feeding during the
daytime if not too much disturbed, or at night, if necessar3^ in
localities where it would be unsafe to feed in daylight. The feeding
flocks are guarded by one or more sentinels, which are ever on the
alert until they are relieved by some of their companions and allowed
to take their turns at feeding. Their eyesight is very keen and
their sense of hearing very acute. They are very wary at such times
and among the most difficult of birds to approach; at a warning
note from the watchful sentry every head is raised and with eyes
fixed on the approaching enemy they await the proper time for tak-
ing their departure. Geese are very regular in their feeding habits,
resorting day after day to the same feeding grounds if they are not
too much disturbed; they prefer to feed for a few hours in the
early morning, flying in to their feeding grounds before sunrise and
again for an hour or two before sunset, spending the middle of the
day resting on some sandbar or on some large body of water.

While on their spring migration overland wild geese often do con-
siderable damage to sprouting grain, such as wheat, corn, barley,
and oats ; nipping off the tender shoots does no great harm, but they
are not always content with such careful pruning and frequently
pull up the kernel as well. They also nibble at the fresh shoots of
growing grasses and other tender herbage, nipping them off side-
ways, cleanly and quickly.

Aububon (1840) says that "after rainy weather, they are fre-
quently seen rapidly patting the earth with both feet, as if to force
the earthworms from their burrows." Farther north, where they
meet winter just retreating, they find the last year's crop of berries
uncovered by the melting snow in a fair state of preservation and
various buds are swelling fresh and green. Later on some animal
food becomes available, insects and their larvae, crustaceans, small
clams and snails, and probably some small fishes. In the marshes
they feed on wild rice, arrowhead, sedges, marsh grasses, and vari-
ous aquatic plants, eating the roots as well as the leaves and shoots.
On the fall migration they again frequent the grain fields to pick up
the fallen grain, pull up the stubble, and nibble at what green herb-
age they can find. They resort to the shallow ponds and borders
of lakes to feed after the manner of the surface-feeding ducks, reach-
ing down to the bottom with their long necks and even tipping up
with their feet in the air, in their attempts to reach the succulent
roots and the tender water plants. On the coast in winter they pre-
fer to feed in fresh or brackish water on the leaves, blades, and
fruits of marine plants, such as Zostera marina^ the sea lettuce
{Viva lactuca) and various Algae. Probably some small mollusks,
crustaceans, and other small marine animals are taken at the same
time.

214 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Behavior. — In flight, Canada geese impress one as heavy, yet
powerful birds, as indeed they are. In rising from the water or from
the hind they run along for a few steps before rising, but Audubon
(1840) says that "when suddenly surprised and in full plumage, a
single spring on their broad webbed feet is sufficient to enable them
to get on the wing." When flying about their feeding grounds or
elseAvhere on short flights, they fly in compact or irregular bunches.
Their flight then seems heavy and labored, but it is really much
stronger and swifter than it seems, and for such heavy birds they
are really quite agile. It is only when traveling long distances that
they fly high in the air in the well-known V-shaped flocks, which
experience has taught them is the easiest and most convenient for
rapid and protracted flight. In this formation the leader, cleaving
the air in advance, has the hardest work to perform ; the lead is taken
by the strongest adult birds, probably the ganders, which change
places occasionally for relief ; the others follow along in the diverg-
ing lines at regular intervals, so spaced that each has room enough to
work his wings freely, to see clearly ahead, and to save resistan.ce in
the wake of the bird ahead of him. As the wing beats are not always
in perfect unison, the line seems to have an undulatory motion,
especially noticeable when near at hand; but often the flock seems
to move along in perfect step. Flight is not always maintained in
the stereotyped wedge formation; sometimes a single, long, sloping
line is formed or more rarely they progress in Indian file. The
speed at which geese fly is faster than it seems, but it has often been
overestimated; the following statement by J. W. Preston (1892) is
of interest in this connection :

The Canada goose presses onward, borne up by strong and steady pinions.
For forceful, solid business he has few rivals. I remember once, while travel-
ing by rail at a rate of 30 miles an hour, our way lay for a time along the
i-'ourse of a swollen creek. A flock of geese, among them one little teal, came
alongside the train and kept almost within gunshot for fully 10 miles, seem-
ingly at an ordinary rate ; and the teal was at no loss to keep his place among
his lai'ger companions.

There are exceptions to the orderly method of procedure outlined
above. Audubon (1840) says that:

When they are slowly advancing from south to north at an early period of
the season, they fly much lower, alight more frequently, and are more likely
to be bewildered by suddenly formed banks of fog, or by passing over cities
or arms of the sea, where much shipping may be in sight. On such occasions
great consternation prevails among them, they crowd together in a confused
manner, wheel irregularly, and utter a constant cackling resembling the sounds
from a disconcerted mob. Sometimes the flock separates, some individuals
leave the rest, proceed in a direction contrary to that in which they came, and
after awhile, as if quite confused, sail toward the ground, once alighted on
which they appear to become almost stupefied, so as to suffer themselves
to be shot with ease, or even knocked down with sticks. Heavy snowstorms

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 215

also cause them great distress, and in the midst of them some liave been known
to fly against beacons and lighthouses, dashing their heads against the walls
in the middle of the day. In the night they are attracted by the lights of
these buildings, and now and then a whole flock is caught on such occasions.

WTien preparing to alight the whole flock set their wings and
drift gi'adually down a long incline until close to the surface,
then scaling or flying along they drop into the water with a splash.
They swim gracefully on the water after the manner of swans and
can make rapid progress if necessarj^ That they can dive and swim
under water, if need be, is well illustrated by the following incident,
related by Audubon (1840) :

I was much sxirprised one day, while on the coast of Labrador, to see how
cunningly one of these birds, which, in consequence of the molt, was quite
unable to fly, managed for awhile to elude our pursuit. It was first perceived
at some distance from the shore, when the boat was swiftly rowed toward it,
and it swam before us with great speed, making directly toward the land ; but
when we came within a few yards of it, it dived, and nothing could be seen
of it for a long time. Every one of the party stood on tiptoe to mark the spot
at which it should rise, but all in vain, when the man at the rudder accidentally
looked down over the stern and there saw the goose, its body immersed, the
point of its bill alone above water, and its feet busily engaged in propelling it
so as to keep pace with the movements of the boat. The sailor attempted to
catch it while within a foot or two of him, but with the swiftness of thought
it shifted from side to side, fore and aft, until delighted at having witnessed so
much sagacity in a goose, I begged the party to suffer the poor bird to escape.

Mr. Henderson describes in his notes an interesting habit of pose
assumed by this species, as follows :

I rode down the river a short distance to where I had noticed a pair of
geese alight and soon saw one standing on a gravelly island. Making a short
detour and ridiug closer, I saw both birds lying flat on the gravel, head and
neck ovitstretched along the ground, precisely as they do on the nest. They
were hiding right in the open without the slightest cover. Though I have
what is called the hunter's eye pretty well developed, it is doubtful if I would
have noticed them if I had not previously known they were there. They
remained perfectly motionless and resembled pieces of water-worn driftwood
so perfectly that I now understand how it was that in descending rivers in a
canoe I had so often failed to observe them until they took wing. It was the
most beautiful example of protective coloring I have ever seen. As I rode up
to the river bank in plain sight and making a good deal of noise, one bird
remained perfectly still and the other moved its head slightly to watch me.
I then rode out into the river to within 35 yards before they broke the pose
and took to flight.

M. P. Skinner has noticed similar habits in Yellowstone Park. He
says in his notes :

Geese have a curious habit of " playing possum." Instead of flying away,

they squat flat with head and neck stretched out straight before them in a

most ungooselike attitude. After one has passed by three or four hundred

yards they raise their heads slowly an inch or two at a time and flnally get

100449—25 15

216 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

to their feet again. They do this on the ice, on stony baulis of streams, on
bowlders, on sandbars, in the grass, and I liave even seen a sitting bird do it
on her nest. On the ice it makes tliem inconspicuous, on stony shores or
bowlders the deception is perfect, for the rounded gray back looks just like a
stone ; as sand beaches may have stones, the method is good hiding tliere ; but
on the grass " playing possum " fails because of the contrast. In the water's
edge the deception is good, as the inert, idly rocking body looks very little like
a live bird. And this method is carried even further, for I have seen geese
swim the Yellowstone River with heads and necks at the surface and have had
them sneak off through the grass in the same way. This subterfuge is used
more in spring than in summer, but is practiced sometimes in September and
October.

Geese are social and like to be together, althotigh the flocks are usually
small unless there is strong re.ason for their gathering temporarily. Pages
can be written of the sagacity and wisdom of these birds. Wary as they are,
they are one of the first to realize the protection given them and are quick to
lose their suspicions of man and his wa3's. But it is interesting to observe that
although they pay no attention to autos passing along a road near them, they
are at once on the alert and suspicious if a car stops near. Often we find the
geese tamer than the pintail and mallard they are associating with. And
their sagacity extends to wild animals as well ; they know just how near it
is safe to let a coyote approach, and one September day I watched a flock on
a meadow seemingly indifferent to a black bear near by, although they never
let him get within 20 feet, first walking away, then flying, if he came too near.

The well-knoAvn resonant honldn*^ notes of a fiock of geese flying
overhead on the migration are familiar sounds to every observant
person; they are characteristic and distinctive of such migrating
flocks and are sometimes almost constant. The Canada goose is also
a noisy bird at other times, indulging freely in softer, lovrer-toned,
conversational honking or gabbling notes while feeding or in other
activities. Ora W. Kjiight (1908) gives a very good description of
the notes of this species, as follows :

The cry uttered when on the wing is a clear trumpetlike " honk," seemingly
uttered by various individuals in the flock. When the weather is foggy their
" honk " seems uttered more frequently and in a querulous tone. When a
flock has alighted and is sporting in the water without apprehension of trouble
they swim gracefully about, plunging their heads and necks under the water
to feed. Now and then some lusty or exuberant individual (probably a
gander) will stretch itself up in the water, flap its wings over its back, and
utter a series of resonant honks, the first loudest, longest drawn out, and
highest pitched, and gradually lessening in loudness and length and decreasing

in pitch, about as follows : "h o n Jc, h o n k, h — o — n — fc,

Jt^o-n-k, honk, onk, uf," the last note being a mere expelling of the breath.
This proceeding I have only observed with one flock, never having been able to
observe others while they were unconscious of my whereabouts and feeding,
but judge that it is a characteristic habit.

The attitude of the Canada goose toward other species seems
to be one of haughty disdain; although it often frequents the same
breedins: erounds and the same feeding resorts with various other

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WIU) FOWL 217

species of geese, ducks, and other v>^aterfowl, it never seems to mingle
with them socially or to alloAv them to join its flocks. Toward man
and other animals it shows remarkable sagacity in discriminating be-
tween harmless friends and dangerous enemies, and the latter must
be very crafty to deceive it. On this point Audubon (1840) writes:

At the sight of cattle, horses, or animals of the deer kind, they are seldom
alarmed, but a bear or a cougar is instantly announced, and if on such oc-
casions the flock is on the ground near water, the birds immediately betake
themselves in silence to the latter, swim to the middle of the pond or
river, and there remain until danger is over. Should their enemies pursue them
in the water, the males utter loud cries, and the birds arrange themselves
in close ranks, rise simultaneously in a few seconds, and fly off in a compact
body, seldom at such times forming lines or angles, it being in fact only
when the distance they have to travel is great that they dispose themselves
in those forms. So acute is their sense of hearing that they are able to dis-
tinguish the different sounds or footsteps of their foes with astonishing ac-
curacy. Thus the breaking of a dry stick by a deer is at once distinguished
from the same accident occasioned by a man. If a dozen of large turtles drop
into the water, making a great noise in their fall, or if the same effect is
produced by an alligator, the wild goose pays no regard] to it; but however
faint and distant may be the sound of an Indian's paddle, that may by acci-
dent have struck the side of his canoe, it is at once marked, every individ-
ual raises its head and looks intently toward the place from which the noise
has proceeded, and in silence all watch the movements of their enemy.

These birds are extremely cunning also, and should they conceive themselves
unseen, they silently move into the tall grasses by the margin of the water,
lower their heads, and lie perfectly quiet until the boat has passed by. I have
seen them walk olf from a large frozen pond into the woods, to elude the sight
of the hunter, and return as soon as he had crossed the pond. But should there
be snow on the ice or in the woods, they prefer watching the intruder, and
take to wing long before he is within shooting distance, as if aware of the ease
with which they could be followed by their tracks over the treacherous sur-
face.

Fall. — The beginning of the fall migration in Ungava is described
by Lucien M. Turner, in his unpublished notes, as follows :

The birds first seen in the fall in the vicinity of Fort Chimo are those as-
serted to have been reared in the Georges River district and repair to this
locality in search of fresh feeding grounds. They appear about August 12 to
20, but are in very lean condition. By the first of September the earlier birds
hatched north of the strait begin to appear and become quite numerous by
the latter week of September. By this time they are in tolerable condition and
rapidly become fat by the first of October, feeding on vegetable matter growing
in the ponds, in the swamps and flats along the river banks. They remain until
the latter part (24th) of October and follow up the rivers which flow from the
south. In the year 1882 immense numbers of these geese flew southward on
the 19th of October. Hundreds of flocks of various sizes, from 15 to 80 birds,
passed over. A cold snap immediately succeeded, although a flock of 6 settled
in the river a few yards from the houses on October 24.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the fall movement from
the breeding grounds begins early in the season, the flocks gradually

218 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

gathering on the coasts or on the hirger bodies of water in large
numbers, moving about slowly and deliberately and reveling in the
milder temperatures and abundant food to be found in such places.
But the shortening days and the sharpening frosts of ^ autumn
accelerate their movements and they prepare for their long journey ;
at length the leaders summon their hosts to meet on high ; and form-
ing in two long converging lines, pointing toward the already
feeble rays of the noonday sun, they start. High in the air they
travel on, cheered by the clarion call of the leader, answered at fre-
quent intervals by his followers, far above all dangers and straight
along the well-known path. When bewildered by fogs or storms
or when overtaken by darkness the flight is lower and full of
dangers. But usually toward night a resting place is sought; per-
haps some well-known lake is sighted and the weary birds are glad
to answer the call of some fancied friend below them; so setting
their wings the flock glides down in a long incline, circling about
the lake for a place to alight, and greeting their friends with loud
calls of welcome. Too often their friends prove to be domesticated
traitors, trained to lure them to the gunner's blind, and it is a wary
goose indeed that can detect the sham. But, if all goes well, they
rest during the hours of darkness and are off again at daybreak,
for now they must push along fast until they reach their winter
haven. Dr. John C. Phillips (1910 and 1911a) has published two
very interesting papers on the migrations of Canada geese in Massa-
chusetts which are well worth reading; but as they are principally
of local interest and are too lengthy to quote in full, I would refer
the reader to them rather than attempt to quote from them.

Game. — Many and varied are the methods emploj-ed by gunners
to bring to bag the wily wild goose. On account of its large size
and generally good table qualities it has always been much in de-
mand as a game bird; it is so wary, so sagacious, and so difficult
to outwit that its pursuit has always fascinated the keen sportsman
and taxed his skill and his ingenuity more than any other game
bird. According to Henry Eeeks (1870) the settlers of New-
foundland were formerly adepts in tolling geese with the help of
a dog; he describes the method, as follows:

The sportsman secretes himself in the hushes or long grass by the sides
of any water on which geese are seen, and keeps thi'owing a glove or stick
in the direction of the geese, each time making his dog retrieve the object
thrown; this has to be repeated until the curiosity of the geese is aroused,
and they commence swimming toward the moving object. If the geese are
a considerable distance from the land, the dog is sent into the water, but
as the birds approach nearer and nearer the dog is allowed to show himself
less and less; in this manner they are easily tolled within gunshot. When
the sportsman has no dog with him he has to act the part of one by crawling

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAJST WILD FOWL 219

in and out of the long grass on his hands and knees, and sometimes this has
to be repeated continuously for nearly an hour, making it rather a laborious
undertaking, but I have frequently known this device to succeed when
others have failed. The stuffed skin of a yellow fox (Vulpes fulvus) is
sometimes used for tolling geese, and answers the purpose remarkably well,
especially when the geese are near the shore, by tying it to a long stick and
imitating the motions of a dog retrieving the glove or stick.

On the coast of New England in winter geese have been success-
fully pursued by sculling upon them among the drift ice in a duck
float. The float sits low in the water, with pieces of ice on her bow
and along her sides ; the gunner, clad in white clothing, crouches out
of sight, and if properly handled the whole outfit can scarcely be
distinguished from a floating ice cake. But a much more successful
and more destructive, though less sportsmanlike, method is used on
the inland lakes and larger ponds of eastern Massachusetts. This
is the duck-stand method, which I have so fully described under the
black duck that it is necessary only to refer to it here. Perhaps it
should have been described under this species, for, although more
ducks than geese are usually killed in such stands, the goose-shooting
part of it is the more highly developed. Large numbers of live decoy
geese are raised and trained for annual use in these stands and the
most efficient teamwork is employed. The old mated pairs and their
young are separated and made to call to each other in such a way
that the wild birds are attracted. An old gander may be tethered
out on the beach, while its young are kept in a " flying pen " back
of the stand; when wild geese appear the goslings are released by
pulling a cord ; they fly out to meet the incoming flock ; their parents
call to them and they return to the beach, bringing the wild birds
with them. When the geese are near enough and properly bunched
a raking volley from a battery of guns is poured into them and other
shots are fired as the survivors rise, with the result that very few
are left to fly away. Even some of these may return and be shot at
again if the leaders or the parents of the young birds have been
killed. Such slaughter can hardly be regarded as sport.

Farther south on the Atlantic coast, in Virginia and North Caro-
lina, geese are shot from open blinds in a much more sportsmanlike
manner. A bos, large enough for a man to lie down in or deep enough
for a man to sit in and barely look over the top, is sunken into the
ground on some sand spit or bar where the geese are wont to come
for gravel or to rest, or perhaps it is placed on some marshy point
on their feeding grounds where it can be concealed in the tall grass
or covered with grass to match its surroundings. The decoys, either
live birds or wooden imitations, are strung out in front of the blind,
and the hunter crouching in the box eagerly awaits the inspiring
siffht of a flock of oncoming birds. At last a lono- line of dark.

220 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

heavy birds in a wed<2:e-sliaped phalanx is seen approaching, with
apparently labored flight. The well-known challenge note of the
leader, repeated along the line of his followers, arouses the decoys
to answering notes of invitation to aligiit. The flock wheels and
swings in to the decoys, anxiously scanning the surroundings for any
suspicious object. Seeing nothing to alarm them, they all set their
wings and scale down to join their fellows. This is the sportman's
opportunity for a flight shot; the pothunter would prefer to wait
until they had all alighted and gathered in a dense bunch near the
decoys. But in either case the birds have a better chance than in
front of a concealed battery of heavy guns.

Goose shooting on the western grain fields is perhaps the most
sportsmanlike method, as it is practicallj' all wing shooting. The
birds frequent the grain fields in large numbers to feed on the tender
shoots of growing grain in the spring or on the stubble and fallen
grain in the autumn. They are very regular in their feeding habits,
flying in to the fields from their roosting grounds on the lakes and
sloughs about daylight and feeding for a few hours after sunrise;
they rest during the middle of the day and come in again to feed foi
a few hours before sunset. Gunners take advantage of these regular
habits to shoot them on their lines of flight. A hole is dug in the
groimd deep enough to conceal the gunner entirely, and the decoys,
usually wooden ones, are set out around it. Or a convenient and
eftective blind is made by hollowing out the center of a corn shock,
with which the geese are already familiar. Concealed in such a blind
before daylight, the hunter is well prepared for some excellent shoot-
ing when the flight begins, especially if he is an expert in calling
the birds by imitating their notes. It must be exciting sport to shoot
these large birds flying over and often within easy range.

I suppose that the Canada goose has been more persistently
hunted, over a wider range of country and for a longer period of
years, than any other American game bird, for in the earlier days,
when all game was so abundant, only the largest species were con-
sidered worth the trouble. In spite of this fact it has shown its
ability to hold its own and is even increasing in numbers in many
places to-day. Messrs. Kumlien and Hollister (1903) report it in
Wisconsin as —

abundant, increasing rather than diminishing in numbers during the fall,
winter, and spring. To such an extent has this species changed its liabits
that it is no longer looked upon as a sure harbinger of spring, as in most sec-
tions of southern and even south-central Wisconsin it remains all winter,
flj'ing back and forth from its favorite cornfields to some lake or large naarsh
lor the night. When snov/ is plenty it even remains in the fields for days at a
time. Twenty-five to fifty years ago the flocks which first made their appear-
ance were noted by everyone, and spring was not far distant. Now, the fiocks

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 221

which return from the north in October are continually added to until they are
often several hundred strong, and remain thus until the beginning of spring.

On a recent (1916) visit to the grent shooting resorts on the coasts
of Virginia and North Carolina, I was told by the members of some
of the gun clubs that geese were more abundant than ever before and
are increasing every year. I certainlj'- saw more geese in the north
end of Currituck Sound on one of the rest days than I had ever
seen in my life before; great rafts of them were gathering to feed
in the shallow water on the fox-tail grass and wild celery which
abounds in that region ; the water was black with them as far as I
could see; flock after flock was constantly coming in from the sea;
and sometimes it seemed as if they came in. flocks of flocks. They
winter here in large numbers; probably this vicinity is the greatest
winter resort on the Atlantic coast, for here they find abundant food
in the fresh-water bays and sounds and ample security from pursuit
on the broad waters of Chesapeake Bay or even on the open sea in
calm weather. They feed largely at night, as they are often driven
out of the bays during the days when shooting is allowed.

Winter. — Canada geese spend the winter quite far north in the
interior, where they can find suitable food and large bodies of open
water.

M. P. Skinner says in his notes :

In winter the reduced number remain at the outlet of Yellowstone Lake
and on numerous waters kept open by hot springs and geysers. A number of
our meadows are underlain by springs sufficiently warm to melt the snow and
even furnish a little green grass all winter. These are frequented by geese
as well as mallard and green-winged teal.

On the coast they winter abundantly as far north as Massachusetts ;
probably the greatest winter resort on the New England coast is on
Marthas Vineyard, where the large fresh-water ponds are not always
frozen and where there are open salt-water ponds which never or
very rarely freeze.

That the Canada goose winters abundantly in northern Florida
is well illustrated by the following notes sent to me by Charles J.
Pennock :

The numerous shallow bays, bayous, and broad river mouths of the counties
cf Wakulla, Jefferson, and Taylor, lying south and southeast from Tallahassee,
offer attractive feeding for winter visiting Branta canadensis canadensis,
while not infrequently a short distance inland, just back of the bordering salt
marshes, numerous sand flats and burnt-over semimarsh areas afford irresistible
attractions to a hungry goose. Fresh shoots of grass with plenty of gravel
and a clear, clean sand bed on which to take a siesta seems to be a combination
most alluring, and in February and early March, with weather conditions favor-
able, numerous bands of these sturdy birds may be found constantly on the
move, flying in as the tide rises and stops their feeding along shore or, if
undisturbed after a hearty feeding on the freshly grown grass, they betake

222 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

tliem to a long stretch of bare sand, where they evidently feel secure from
surprise by virtue of sentinels most alert with keenest senses of sight and
hearing, some hunters even claiming them to have a like keen sense of smell ;
at any rate they are most difhcult to approach at such times and usually beat
off up wind just before an approaching hunter gets within range.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding rajige. — Northern North America, south of the barren
grounds. East to Labrador (Okak, Nain, Hopedale, etc.), and New-
foundland (Grand Lake). South to the Gulf of St. Lawrence
(Anticosti Island), James Baj^, South Dakota, northern Colorado
(Boulder County), northern Utah (Bear River), northern Nevada
(Halleck), and California (Lake Tahoe). Formerly, and perhaps
occasionally now, as far south as western Tennessee (Reelfoot Lake)
and northeastern Arkansas (Walker Lake). West to northeastern
California (Eagle Lake and Lower Klamath Lake), central Oregon
(Lake County), central Washington (Douglas County), central
British Columbia (Cariboo District), probably to the coast in
southern Alaska, and to the upper Yukon (Fort Yukon). North to
the northern limit of trees in Mackenzie (Providence and Fort An-
derson) and northern Quebec (Whale River).

Winter range. — Nearly all of the United States. East to the At-
lantic coast. South to Florida (Wakulla and Marion Counties), the
Gulf coasts of Louisiana and Texas, Mexico (San Fernando, Mata-
moras, etc.), and southern California (San Diego). West nearly
or quite to the Pacific coast. North to southern British Columbia
(Chilliwack, Shuswap Lake, and the Okanogan Valley), northwest-
ern Wyoming (Yellowstone Park), South Dakota, southern Wis-
consin (Sauk County), southern Ohio, southern New England
(Long Island and Marthas Vineyard), and northeastward to Nova
Scotia (Barrington Bay, Port Joli, etc.).

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival: Rhode Island, Bloclc
Island, February 21; central Massachusetts, February 25; southern
New Hampshire, March 11; southern Maine, March 5; Quebec
City, March 1; Prince Edward Island, March 9; Labrador, Sand-
wich Bay, April 30; southern Iowa, February 4; Minnesota, Heron
Lake, February 23; North Dakota, Argusville, March 8; Manitoba,
Aweme, March 9 ; Saskatchewan, Reindeer Lake, April IT ; Mackenzie,
Fort Simpson, April 22, and Fort Anderson, May 15. Average dates
of arrival: Central Pennsylvania, March 17; central New York,
March 13 ; central Massachusetts, March 17 ; southern Maine, March
24 ; Quebec City, March 27 ; southern Iowa, March 1 ; southern Wis-
consin, March 13; southern Ontario, March 16; Manitoba, Aweme,
March 29; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, April 28. Late dates of de-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 223

parture : Florida, Marion County, May 22 ; Texas, Grapevine, April
15; southern Mississippi, April 20; Kentucl^, Bowling Green, May
7; central Maryland, April 22; central New Jersey, May 9; Massa-
chusetts, Cape Cod, May 26; California, Gridley, April 11.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Central Massachusetts,
September 4; Long Island, Montauk Point, September 30; Virginia,
Alexandria, October 5; South Carolina, Anderson, October 10;
Florida, Wakulla County, October 9 ; northern Nebraska, September
7 ; central Iowa, September 16 ; central Missouri, September 23 ; Ken-
tuckj^. Bowling Green, September 22 ; California, Gridley, November
5. Average dates of arrival : Central Massachusetts, October 11 ;
Long Island, Montauk Point, October 20 ; central New Jersey, Octo-
ber 18 ; Virginia, Alexandria, October 20 ; northern Nebraska, Octo-
ber 7; central Wisconsin, October 12; central Indiana, October 19;
southern Mississippi, November 12. Late dates of departure : Quebec,
Hatley, November 25; Prince Edward Island, December 22; south-
ern Ontario, November 10 ; southern Michigan, November 25 ; central
Minnesota, December 1; Manitoba, Aweme, December 2; Montana,
Columbia Falls, November 24.

Casual records. — Accidental in Bermuda (fall, 1874, and January
and February, 1875) and the West Indies (Jamaica).

Egg dates. — Northern Canada : Eighteen records. May 18 to July
14; nine records, Jime 19 to July 9. Litah and Nevada: Sixteen
records, March 29 to May 19; eight records, April 18 to 27. North
Dakota and Saskatchewan: Thirteen records, April 29 to July 19;
seven records, May 9 to June 3. Labrador and Newfoundland :
Eleven records. May 24 to July 7 ; six records, June 4 to 13.

BRANTA CANADENSIS HUTCHINSI (Richardson)

HUTCHINS GOOSE

HABITS

After writing such a full life history of the Canada goose, it seems
unnecessary to go over the same ground again in writing about this
small northern subspecies, which, though it differs somewhat in
habits from its larger relative, has many characteristics in common
with it. There seems to be little doubt that hutchinsi is a true sub-
species of the canadensis., for it seems to be exactly like it except in
size, and perhaps in the number of tail feathers, which is variable in
both forms. The other two, so called, subspecies can not be so
satisfactorily placed.

Spring. — The Hutchins goose is a later migrant than the Canada
goose, probably because it goes so much farther north to breed. It
is said to pass through the Hudson Bay region at about the same

100449—25 16

224 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

time that the snow geese are migrating ; probably both of these hardy
northerners Iniow enough not to migrate until their summer homes
become habitable. The migration is about due northward on both
sides of the Rocky Mountains, through the interior vallej^s to the
Arctic coast, and along the Pacific slope to northern Alaska.

Nesting. — MacFarlane (1891) found this goose breeding abun-
dantly on the Arctic coast, of which he says :

A large number (50) of nests of the smaller Canada goose was found on the
Lower Anderson, as well as on the shores and islands of the Arctic Sea. All
but one were placed on the earth, and, like that of the preceding species, it
was composed of hay, feathers, and down, while 6 was the usual number of
eggs. The exceptional case was a female parent shot while sitting on 4 eggs
in a deserted crow's or hawk's nest built on the fork of a pine tree at a height
of about 9 feet. At the time the ground in the vicinity thereof was covered
with snow and water, and this may have had something to do with her nesting
in so unusual a place.

In a letter to the Smithsonian Institution he writes :

I have no doubt about Ilutchins goose being a good species; its mode of
nesting alone would go far to prove it distinct from the Canada goose, which
it so greatly resembles. The former, so far as I have been able to ascertain,
invariably nests on the small islands which occur on the small lakes of the
islands situated on the shores of the Arctic Sea, while the latter generally
builds in the neighborhood of the lakes and rivers of the wooded country.
The former also scoops a hole in the sand or turf, lining its sides with down,
while the nest of the latter is composed of a large quantity of feathers and
down placed on or supported by some dry twigs or willow branches.

I have had several sets of eggs of the Hutchins goose sent to me
from Point Barrow, which were evidently taken from nests on the
tundra, for the nesting down, which came from them, was mixed
with tundra mosses, bits of grass, leaves, and other rubbish. Nests
of the Canada goose generally contain pure, clean down.

Eggs. — The Hutchins goose lays from 4 to 6 eggs, usually 5.
These are in no way distinguishable from the eggs of the Canada goose
except that they are smaller, as they should be. The measurements
of 83 eggs, in various collections, average 79. 2 by 53.1 millimeters;
the eggs showing the four extremes measure 85.4 by 57, 78.5 by 58,
72.1 by 53.1, and 76 by 50 millimeters.

Food. — The food and feeding habits of this goose are similar to
those of its well-known relative. Nuttall (1834), however, calls
attention to the fact that their habits " are dissimilar, the Canada
geese frequenting the fresh-water lakes and rivers of the interior,
and feeding chiefly on herbage ; while the present species are always
found on the seacoast, feeding on marine plants, and the mollusca
which adhere to them, whence their flesh acquires a strong fishy
taste." Dr. J. G. Cooper (1860) says: " The}^ feed principally on
the mud flats at low tide, eating vegetable and animal food which

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 225

they find there,'' during their annual visits to the coasts of Oregon
and Washington.

Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1909) -was informed by the natives of
Alaska " that some years these geese stop in large numbers for a
short time to feed upon the herring spawn which is to be seen all
along the beach at low tide, where it sticks to the rocks."

While sojourning in California these geese associate with the
white-fronted and snoAv geese and feed largely in the gTai-n fields
and grassy plains. In spring they do considerable damage by "pull-
ing up freshly sprouting grain; formerly, when they were much
more abundant, it was customary for farmers to hire men and fur-
nish them with guns and ammimition to keep the geese away from
the grain; but the geese have decreased in numbers so decidedly in
recent years that this is no longer necessary.

Game. — The importance of this bird as a game bird in California
is well illustrated by the following statement made by Grinnell,
Bryant, and Storer (1918) :

The Hutehins goose, althougli not quite so desirable a bird for the table
as are some other species, is the goose which has afforded the greatest
amount of sport for the hunter because of its abundance. It has usually been
a common goose on the market, where it is known as the " brant." In 1909-10
one transfer company in San Francisco sold the following numbers of brant :
October, 1,442 ; November, 2,19G ; December, 1,592 ; January, 1,479 ; February,
1,226 ; March, 251. Cackling as well as Hutehins geese are probably included
in these numbers. This makes a total of over 8,000 geese of only two varieties
sold by the one transfer company. That season the same company sold more
than 20,000 geese of all kinds. In 1906-7, it sold only 7,431. In 1895-96 there
were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles 48,400 geese, of
which 16,319 were brant. There is little wonder that geese have decreased
in numbers more than most other game birds. The markets of San Francisco
during 1910-11 paid from $2.50 to .$8 a dozen for geese other than the snow
geese. On the Los Angeles markets during 1912-13 the same geese sold at
from 65 cents to $1 a pair.

Wwier. — ^A very good account of the winter home and habits of
this goose is given by Coues (1874), as follows:

We must, however, visit the regions west of the Rocky Mountains to find
the Hutehins goose plentiful in its favorite winter residences, and observe it
under the most favorable circumstances. On river, lake, and marsh, and
particularly along the seacoast, it is found in vast numbers, being probably the
most abundant representative of its family. It enters the United States
early in October, or sometimes a little earlier, according to the weather, and
in the course of that month becomes dispersed over all its winter feeding
grounds. It is generally in poor condition on its arrival, after the severe
journey, perhaps extending from the uttermost Arctic land ; but it finds abun-
dance of food and is soon in high flesh again. During the rainy season in
California the plains and valleys, before brown and dry, become clothed in
rich verdure, and the nourishing grasses afford sustenance to incredible
numbers of these and other geese. Three kinds, the snow, the white-fronted,

226 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

and the present species, have almost precisely the same habits and the same
food during their stay with us, and associate so intimately together that
many, if not most, of the flocks contain representatives of all three. At
least, after considerable study of the geese in Arizona and southern California,
I have been unable to recognize any notable differences in choice of feeding
grounds.

The following extract on Hutchins goose, from Doctor Heermann's report,
will be found interesting : " While hunting during a space of two months in
the Suisun Valley I observed them, with other species of geese, at dawn,
high in the air, winging their way toward the prairies and hilly slopes, where
the tender young wild oats and grapes offer a tempting pasturage. Their
early flight lasted about two hours, and as far as the eye could reach the sky
was spotted with flock after flock, closely following in each other's wake,
till it seemed as though all the geese of California had given rendezvous at
this particular point. Between 10 and 11 o'clock they would leave the
prairies, first in small squads, then in large masses, settling in the marshes
and collecting around the ponds and sloughs, thickly edged with heavy reeds.
Here, swimming in the water, bathing and pluming themselves, they keep up
a continual but not unmusical clatter. This proves the most propitious time
of the day for the hunter, who, under cover of the tall reeds and guided by
their continual cackling, approaches closely enough to deal havoc among
thena. Discharging one load as they sit on the water and another as they
rise, I have seen 23 geese gathered from two shots, while many more, wounded
and maimed, fluttered away and were lost. About 1 o'clock they leave the
marshes and return to feed on the prairies, flying low, and affording the
sportsman again an opportunity to stop their career. In the afternoon, about
5 o'clock, they finally leave the prairies, and, rising high up in the air, wend
their way to the roosting places whence they came in the morning. These
were often at a great distance, as I have followed them in their evening
flight until they were lost to view. Many, however, roost in the marshes.
Our boat, sailing one night down the sloughs leading to Suisun Bay, having
come among them, the noise they made as they rose in advance of us, emit-
ting their cry of alarm (their disordered masses being so serried that we could
hear their pinions strike each other as they flew), impressed us with the idea
that we must have disturbed thousands. Such are the habits of the geese
during the winter. Toward spring they separate into small flocks and gradu-
ally disappear from the country, some few only remaining, probably crippled
and unable to follow the more vigorous in their northern migration."

f DISTRIBUTION

Breeding ranffe. — Barren grounds of North America. East to
southern Baffin Land. South to Southampton Island, west coast of
Hudson B&y (Cape Fullerton and Churchill), northern Mackenzie
(Fort Anderson and Fort Good Hope) and northern Alaska (north-
ern coast and south to Kowak River), Said to breed on the Bering
Sea coast of Alaska and on the Aleutian Islands, but such reports
need confirmation; it may, however, breed on the extreme vi^estern
Aleutians (Agattu Island) as it is reported as breeding on the Com-
mander and Kurile Islands. North to Victoria Land (Cambridge
Bay) and Boothia Peninsula (Felix Harbor). Intergrades with
minima in Alaska and with canadensis in northern Canada.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WIUD FOWL. 227

Winte?' range. — Mainly western United States. East regularl}'-
to the Mississippi Valley, rare in the Eastern States, and only casual
on the Atlantic coast. South regularly to the Gulf coasts of Louisi-
ana and Texas and probably Mexico and Lower California (San
Rafael Valley). West nearly or quite to the Pacific coast. North
to southern British Columbia (mouth of Eraser River), northern
Colorado (Barr Lake), Nebraska, southern Illinois, and rarely to
southern Wisconsin. On the Asiatic coast south to Japan.

Spring fnigration.—^SLrly dates of arrival: Manitoba, Aweme,
April 2 (average April 12) ; Saskatchewan, Indian Head, April
29; British Columbia, Sumas, April 10; Alaska, Admiralty Island,
April 18, Kuskokwim River, April 30, and Kowak River, May 14.
Late dates of departure: Texas, Houston, April 18; California,
Gridley, April 26 ; British Columbia, May 20.

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival : Manitoba, Aweme, Sep-
tember 13 ; Montana, Terry, September 22 ; British Columbia,
Sumas, October 4; Wisconsin, Delavan, October 12; Utah, Bear
River, October 9; California, Gridley, October 9. Late dates of de-
parture: Hudson Straits, Wales Sound, September C; Great Bear
Lake, September 25; Mackenzie, Fort Wrigley, October 12; Mani-
toba, Aweme, November 20; Alaska, Kowak River, September 14;
British Columbia, November 25.

Casual records. — Has wandered east to Greenland (Disco and
Godhaven), Maine (Cape Elizabeth, November 13, 1894), and Vir-
ginia (Cobb Island, winter of 1888-89), and south to Florida
(Wakulla County, March 12, 1918), and Mexico (Vera Cruz and
probably Lake Chapala, Jalisco).

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Eighteen records. May 17 to July 14 ;
nine records, June 14 to July 5. Alaska : Thirteen records. May 25
to June 28; seven records June 1 to 11.

BRANTA CANADENSIS OCCIDENTALIS (Baird)
WHITE-CHEEKED GOOSE

HABITS

This large, dark-breasted form of the Canada goose seems to be
a well-marked race of decidedly local distribution, occupying the
northwest coast region from Prince William Sound, Alaska, to Brit-
ish Columbia. It is practically nonmigratory and does not wander
far inland at any season. It is another one of the many saturated
forms confined to this humid coast strip. Its specific status has been
much discussed and is by no means definitely settled; this will be
referred to under the next subspecies. It was formerly recorded by
several observers as breeding in the lakes of the interior as far south

228 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

as northern California, but these records have been shown to refer
to the eastern Canada goose. The breeding range of the white-
cheeked goose is now laiown to he wholly north of the United States
boundary.

Nesting. — Although the white-cheeked goose is quite common
throughout its restricted range, and eA^en numerous in certain parts
of it, its nest has not often been found and very little has been pub-
lished about its habits. The published reports of the Alexander
expeditions to southern Alaska contain the most important contri-
butions to its life history, and even these are meager enough.

Joseph Dixon (1908), a member of this expedition, writes:

The country about Canoe Passage on Hawkins Island was low and rolling,
with large open parks bordered by wooded creeks. There were a number of
lagoons almost shut off from the bay by long grassy gravel bars. One moun-
tain in the interior of the island was 1,900 feet above the sea, according to the
aneroid. Hutchins geese were nesting about these lagoons, and about the
20th of June goslings were everywhere. It was strange how they all hatched
out so near the same time. I was wandering home one evening about 10
o'clock. It was just after sundown, but the deeper woods were beginning to
darken slowly. It was high tide, so that I had to make a cut clear around
the head of a slough. .Just as I came out of the thick huckleberry underbrush
in the strip of timber I stumbled over a log and almost fell on top of an old
goose that was sitting on a nestful of eggs. She made a terrible racket as she
went flopping and squawking off the nest, and I do not know which of us was
the worst scared for a minute. The nest was placed in the open close to the
trunk of a large tree just at the edge of the wood. It was lined with moss and
down and held 6 eggs, which I afterwards regretted were almost ready to
hatch.

Although he called them Hutchins geese at that time, the geese of
that region all proved to be of the present form.

Eggs. — ^A set of five eggs of this subspecies in the United States
National Museum was collected by Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood on Prince
of Wales Island, Alaska, on May 22, 1903. These eggs are practically
indistinguishable from average eggs of the eastern Canada goose.
They measure 86 by 59, 87.4 by 59.4, 86 by 55.8, 87.2 by 57.8, and 87
by 58.2 millimeters.

Young. — Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1910) refers to two broods of young
as follows :

On June 21, also on Hawkins Island, Miss Kellogg flushed an old goose from
a nest in the tall grass near the beach. There were five newly hatched young.
One of these, taken as a specimen (No. 1131), is identical in coloration with a
downy young one from the Sitkan district. On June 22, Dixon records as fol-
lows : " In crossing some marshy flats we came upon six geese, five of which
flew noisily away ; but the sixth came gabbling toward us. We soon saw that
her unusual tameness was due to her anxiety in regard to six or eight newly
hatched goslings that scrambled from under our feet and disappeared with a
splash into a near-by pond. I walked up to within 25 feet of the mother as she

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NOETH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 229

«ame with her head down in the usual manner of an irate goose. She followed
us for some distance when we left."

Plumages. — Doctor Grinnell has kindly loaned me two specimens
of the downy young of this subspecies. These and a specimen of
downy young cackling goose in the United States National Museum
resemble each other very closely, but are quite unlike the downy
young of the Canada goose. The young of the eastern birds when
first hatched are bright greenish olive above and bright yellow below,
with no dark markings on the sides of the head. On the other hand,
the young of the two western forms, at the same age, are much browner
above and much duller and more bully below, with more or less dis-
tinct head markings. The central crown patch and the upper parts of
the body are lustrous "brownish olive," darkest on the head and
rump; the lores are washed or striped with the same dark color,
which surrounds the eye and extends in a postocular stripe down the
neck; the under parts, including the forehead and the sides of the
head and the neck, are dull yellowish or "colonial buff,"washed on
the sides of the head and neck with " honey yellow " or " yellow
ocher," paling on the belly and flanks to " ivory yellow " and deepen-
ing on the breast to " deep colonial buff."

Judging from what little material there is available for study,
I should say that the molts and plumages are similar to those of the
Canada goose.

Behavior. — Very little has been published about the habits of
this goose and practically nothing about its food. Doctor Grinnell
(1909) gives the following general account of it, taken from Mr.
Little John's notes:

When Mole Harhor, Admiralty Island, was reached, on April 16, large
flocks were seen about the creek mouth at the head of the bay. On the ISth
many were found at Windfall Harbor, and by the 27th nearly all had paired
and could be seen passing back and forth to the inland waters every day,
remaining a good share of the time in the open water, where their loud
notes could be heard at all times, but when night came on I think most, if
not all, came to land to roost. They seemed to feed about the shores,
especially where small streams and springs were flowing across the gravel.
One large creek near our camp was a favorite place to assemble, and each
evening they could be seen coming in from all directions to pass the night.
At low tide they would remain on the gravel flats at the creek mouth, but
when the tide- came in they would retreat to the acres of ice inland, which
had been formed during the winter ; here they remained until morning if not
disturbed, and then would break up in pairs, as a rule, and go off again for the
day. Several pairs had chosen the lakes back of Mole Harbor for a nesting
ground and were seen together when we first went there; but a few days
later some old gander was apt to be seen in a secluded cove, or as happened
several times, flushed from the thick timber at some distance from the water.
At such times he would fly about, scolding away at a great rate, as if he

230 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

were alarmed at our presence so near his mate, who was undoubtedly near
by, but in the almost impenetrable forest and underbrush was not to be
found.

Harry S. Swarth (1922) found these geese abundant at the mouth
of the Stickine River in southeastern Alaska; he writes:

In our descent of the river, the first white-cheeked geese were seen at the
boundary, August 16. From there on down an occasional small flock was
noted, but not until the mouth of the river was reached were they seen in
any numbers. At Sergief Island they were abundant. Flocks of large size
frequented the marshes at that point, changing their feeding ground as the
tides advanced and receded. These local movements covered but a few miles
at most, and, of course, were gone through with daily as regularly as the
tides. Aside from this hourly shifting, which kept some flocks on the wing
practically throughout the day, there was no appearance of migration. Flocks
of white-cheeked geese were never seen to depart in a manner suggestive of
the beginning of along flight, nor were any seen arriving as though from a
distance.

During the last two weeks in August the geese were still molting extensively.
In some the breast and belly were almost entirely devoid of feathers, only
the down remaining, and nearly all were renewing the tail feathers. Flight
feathers were fully grown, or at any rate sufficiently so for flying. Presumably
the birds would not gather upon these open and exposed marshes until they
could fly ; nesting and the beginning of the molt, including loss of the remiges,
probably takes place in more sheltered localities.

Winte?\ — Of their winter habits he (1913) says:

Since so many of the water birds of the coast of southern Alaska and
British Columbia are resident the year through in that general region, it is
very probable that the white-cheeked goose belongs in the same category. In
a letter recently received from Mr. Allen E. Hasselborg, a resident of Juneau,
Alaska, and familiar with the native birds and mammals, he confirms this view,
saying that the geese are about as abundant in the Sitkan district in winter as
in summer. During the winter they frequent the more sheltered south and
west facing bays and inlets, avoiding localities exposed to the cold land winds,
while in summer they are of more general distribution. That this subspecies
does not perform as extensive migrations as other members of the group is
evident from its nonoccurrence in California. If it occurs in this State at
all it should be found along the extreme northern coast.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Pacific coast region of southeastern Alaska, from
the vicinity of Prince William Sound southward, to British Colum-
bia (Queen Charlotte Islands). Intergracles on the north with
minima and on the east and south with canadensis.

Winter range. — Apparently the same as the breeding range. This
seems to be a local form of very restricted habitat and non-migratory.

Egg dates. — Southern Alaska : Three records, May 22 to June 18.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 231

liRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Ridgway
CACKLING GOOSE

HABITS

The characters which warrant the separation of the Canada goose
group into four subspecies have been so generally misunderstood and
so poorly designated in most of the manuals, and the nomenclature
of the group has been so variable and puzzling, that much confusion
has existed as to the true relationships of the various forms and
their distribution. Various theories have been advanced, none of
which seem to fit the known facts exactly. Rather than attempt
to discuss this complicated systematic question, which would require
more space than is warranted in a work on life histories, I would
refer the reader to the interesting papers on the subject published
by Harry S. Swarth (1913) and J. D. Figgins (1920 and 1922). It
seems best, under the circumstances, to follow the classification and
nomenclature of the American Ornithologists' Union Check List
until some better arrangement is suggested and proven to be correct
by the collection of large enough series of breeding birds to demon-
strate the relationships and to outline the breeding ranges of the
four forms. It is, however, difficult to explain, under this generally
accepted theory, why the breeding ranges of Imtchinsi and minima
should overlap so extensively in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, as
they are said to do, which is contrary to the rule with subspecies. It
is also of interest to note that the downy young of occidentalis and
minima resemble each other very closely and are quite different from
the downy young of canadensis ; this suggests the possibility of a
distinct, dark-breasted, western species. But perhaps both of these
matters will be cleared up when more material is collected.

Spring. — Dr. E. W. Nelson (1887) gives the following interesting
account of the arrival of these geese at St. Michael, Alaska :

As May advances and one by one the ponds open, and the earth looks out
here and there from under its winter covering, the loud notes of the various
wild fowl are heard, becoming daily more numerous. Their harsh and varied
cries make sweet music to the ears of all who have just passed the winter's
silence and dull monotony, and in spite of the lowering skies and occasional
snow squalls everyone makes ready and is oft to the marshes.

The flocks come cleaving their way from afar, and as they draw near their
summer homes raise a chorus of loud notes in a high-pitched tone like the
syllable " luk," rapidly repeated, and a reply rises upon all sides, until the
whole marsh reechoes with the din, and the newcomers circle slowly up to the
edge of a pond amid a perfect chorus raised by the geese all about, as in con-
gratulation.

Even upon first arrival many of the birds appear to be mated, as I have
frequently shot one from a flock and seen a single bird leave its companions

232 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

at once and come circling about, uttering loud call notes. If the fallen bird
is only wounded, its mate will almost invariably join it, and frequently allow
itself to be approached and shot without attempting to escape. In some
instances I have known a bird thus bereaved of its partner to remain in the
vicinity for two to three days, calling and circling about. Although many are
mated, others are not, and the less fortunate males fight hard and long for
possession of females. I frequently amused myself while at the Yukon mouth
by watching flocks of geese on the muddy banks of the river, which was a
favorite resort. The females kept to one side and dozed or dabbed their bills
in the mud ; the males were scattered about and kept moving uneasily from
side to side, making a great outcry. This would last but a few minutes, when
two of the warriors would cross each other's path, and then began the battle.
They would seize one another by the bill, and then turn and twist each other
about, their wings hanging loosely by their sides meanwhile. Suddenly they
would close up and each would belabor his rival with the bend of the wing,
until the sound could be heard two or three hundred yards. The wing strokes
were always warded off by the other bird's wing, so but little damage was
done ; but it usually ended in the weaker bird breaking loose and running away.
Just before the males seize each other they usually utter a series of peculiar
low growling or grunting notes.

Nesting. — Of their breeding habits in that vicinity he writes :

The last week of May finds many of these birds already depositing tlieir
eggs. Upon the grassy borders of ponds, in the midst of a bunch of grass, or
on a small knoll these birds find a spot where they make a slight depression
and perhaps line it with a scanty layer of grasses, after which the eggs are
laid, numbering from 5 to 8. These eggs, like the birds, average smaller than
those of the other geese. As the eggs are deposited the female gradually lines
the nest with feathers plucked from her breast until they rest in a bed of
down. When first laid the eggs are white, but by the time incubation begins
all are soiled and dingy. The female usually crouches low on her nest until
an intruder comes within* a hundred yards or so, when she skulks off through
the grass or flies silently away, close to the ground, and only raises a note of
alarm when well away from the nest. When the eggs are about hatching, or
the young are out, both parents frequently become perfectly reckless in the
face of danger.

Both the cackling goose and the Hutchins goose are said to breed
on the Aleutian Islands, but it seems hardly likeh^ that these two
subspecies should occupy the same breeding range. It seems more
likely that some of the records are based on erroneous identifica-
tions or on misunderstandings as to the characters, both puzzling
and variable, which separate these two forms. Lucien M. Turner
(1886) reported both forms as breeding abundantly on the western
islands of this chain, mainly on Agattu and Semichi, but I can not
find any specimens of hutchinsi to substantiate his claim.

Mr. Austin H. Clark (1910) reported that the Hutchins goose —

is the most abundant bird on Agattu, where it breeds by thousands. When we
approached the shore we saw a number of geese flying about the cliffs and
bluffs and soaring in circles high in air. On landing I walked up the beach
to the left and soon came to a small stream which enters the sea through a gap

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 233

in the liigb bluffs, when I saw 50 or more of these birds along the bank preen-
ing their feathers. From this point I walked inland over the rough pasture-
like country toward a lake where this stream rises. Geese were seen on all
sides in great abundance, walking about the grassy hillsides in companies of
six or eight to a dozen, or flying about from one place to another. When on
the ground they were comparatively shy ; at about 100 yards distant they would
stop feeding and watch my movements ; at about 50 yards they generally took
wing, but instead of flying away they would circle about and fly toward me,
often not more than 10 feet over my head, as if to see what sort of a strange
beast it was which thus intruded on their domains.

He shot nine of the birds, but unfortunately was unable to pre-
serve anj'^ of them; he did, however, write down descriptions and
take the measurements of four of them. Although the measurements
are rather large for tninima^ the descriptions seem to fit this form
rather than hutchinsi, and perhaps if we had the specimens before
us we might decide to refer them to the former subspecies.

On our expedition to the xlleutian Islands in 1911 we saw^ geese of
this group on Kiska, Adak, Atka, and Attn Islands, but the only
specimen taken was a female minima shot by R. H. Beck as she flew
from her nest on Attu Island. The nest was located on the slope of
a grassy hillside; it consisted of a mass of down in a hollow in the
^ound and contained 4 eggs on June 23.

Mr. Turner (1886) says that "the clutch of eggs varies from 7 to
13 and are laid in a carelessly arranged nest composed of dead
grasses and few feathers."

Eggs. — There are 13 sets of eggs of the cackling goose in the
United States National Museum, in which the numbers vary from 4
to 7; there are also four nests collected by C. H. Townsencl on
Agattu Island on June 5, 1894. The nests are large masses of
" light drab " or " drab-gray " down, mixed with bits of white or
whitish down, numerous breast feathers a.nd bits of straw. The
eggs are similar to those of the Canada goose, but smaller. The
measurements of 110 eggs, in various collections, average 72.7 by
48 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 85 by 55,
78.5 by 55.5, and 60.3 by 37 millimeters.

Young. — Mr. Turner (1886) says:

The young remain with the parents imtil the latter molt, by the 20th of
August, by which time the young are able to fly. This date witnesses a few
of the older young and adult males coming from the breeding grounds on the
Semichi Islands to the island of Attu. The geese have exhausted, by that time,
the food supply of that place and repair to Attu to feast on the berries of the
Vaccineum that are rapidly ripening. Attu Island has a great many blue
foxes (F. lagoptis) on it, hence is resorted to only by adult birds. The birds
arrive poor and lean, but by the 10th of September they abound in thousands
and are very fat at this time. The birds usually alight on the hillsides, and
quickly strip the lower areas of the berries that have ripened earlier. Toward

234 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

the evening the geese resort to the shallow pools (destitute of vegetation, with
gravelly bottoms) on the sides of the mountains.

Plumages.— 1\\Q, downy young is exactly like that of occidentalis.
The molts and plumages are probably similar to those of the other
subspecies of this group. Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

The first plumage of this bird is a dull grayish umber-brown ; the head and
neck almost uniform with the rest of the body and without any trace of the
white cheek patches. As is common to the young of many waterfowl, the
feathers of head, neck, and much of the rest of body are bordered with a
lighter shade than the main part of the feathers. The old birds molt their
quill feathers from the 20th of July until late in August, and flocks begia
forming as soon as the birds are on the wing again. From that time until the
last of September and first of October, when they migrate, they are found
scattered over the country, feeding on various berries, which are ripe on the
hillsides.

Behavior. — Very little has been published about the habits of this
subspecies, but they are probably similar in the main to those of its
close relatives. Mr. Turner (1886) writes:

As an illustration of the parental solicitude exhibited by these birds, I will
relate that several years ago a heavy fall of snow occurred in the latter part
of June at the islands of Agattu and Semichi and covered the ground with
more than 3 feet of snow. At that date the geese were incubating. The
geese did not quit their nests and were suffocated. The natives found
scores of the birds sitting dead on their nests after the snow had melted.

During the summer the geese are not molested. The natives take many of
the young and domesticate them. I have seen as many as 50 young ones at a
time at Attn Island owned by the natives, to whom the goslings become much
attached, especially those who attend them. The goslings remain at large
during the winter, but have to be fed during severe spells of weather. The
housetops being covered with sod, the excessive heat within causes the grass
roots to continually send out new blades of grass. The geese are constantly
searching every housetop to find the tender blades. One man had a pair of
adult geese which he assured me had been reared from goslings, and that they
were then entering the sixth year of their captivity. These two geese did not
breed the second year of their life, but that every year thereafter they had
reared a brood of young and brought them home as soon as hatched. The
wings and half of the tail feathers had to be clipped every season to prevent
them migrating.

Messrs. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) say: "The high pitch
of its call note, which resembles the syllables luh-Iul\ is about the
best character to use in the field after recognizing the bird to be of
the Canada type." This note is " oft repeated " and has caused the
bird to be called the cackling goose. It is easily distinguished from
the notes of the Canada goose and the Hutchins goose.

The same writers say further :

In habits the cackling goose so nearly resembles the Hutchins goose that
no one has been able to point out differences. As with the latter species, the
cackling goose feeds largely on grass and grain during its stay in California.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 235

Along with other geese, this species used to do much damage to young wheat
in Colusa, Butte, Sutter, and Uba Counties. But the ranks of the birds are
so thinned at the present time that the injury they inflict now is negligible.

On the market this species is usually classified along with the Hutchins
goose as " brant." Very large numbers of cackling geese are to be found at
times in the markets of our larger cities. The cackling goose, once just as
numerous, if not more so, than the Hutchins goose, is, like the Hutchins,
rapidly decreasing in numbers from year to year. Old residents in some parts
of the Sacramento Valley say that now there is " not more than one of these
geese present where formerly there were hundreds." To the work of the
market hunter can be attributed much of this decrease, for this goose is one
which is easily procured and which finds a ready sale on the market. While
still rated as common in restricted portions of the State, this goose is in a fair
"way to disappear completely unless enough of the birds are left each winter to
guarantee the return of an adequate stock in the spring to the breeding grounds
in the north. ,

Gmne. — The primitive hunters of the Aleutian Islands formerly
killed large numbers of these geese by catching them in long nets set
on the edges of ponds where they fed. Some of the natives were
also quite expert at throwing at the passing flocks a bolas made of
three stones attached to leather thongs, which became entangled with
the necks and wings of the birds, bringing sometimes two and even
three birds down to the ground. The birds were salted away for
future use during the winter and must have served as an important
addition to the food supply of the natives.

Mr. Turner (1886) describes the more modern method of shooting
geese on Attn Island as follows :

The manner of shooting geese at Attn Island is different from tlmt pursued
in other localities. In the evening the geese repair to the shallow pools to
preen their feathers and be secure from the attacks of foxes. These resorts
leave unmistakable signs of the presence of geese of preceding nights. The
native wanders over the hills until he finds a lake where " signs " are abundant.
A hut is generally to be found near the favorite night haunts of the geese. To
this one journeys in a canoe, and on arriving the chynik (teakettle) is hung
on the soon-kindled fire to boil, as the chypect (tea drinking) is a certain con-
comitant of all Alaskan jaunts, either of pleasure or of profit. The chypeet
over, the approach of dusk is awaited. The hunters then seek the chosen
ponds and secrete themselves in a gully or on the hillside near the place to
watch the geese as they come in for the evening, for during the day the geese
have been feeding on the smooth, sloping hillsides.

The hunter is careful to approach these lakes lest he leave a footprint or
other sign of his presence, as the goose is ever on the alert for such traces and
forsakes any lake that is suspected. They will in such cases hover round and
round endeavoring to discover the danger, and when satisfied that the lake
has been visited by man or that he is i)resent their loud cries give warning to
all the geese within hearing as they quickly stream off and away to the head
of the ravine from which they came. After such an occurrence the hunter
would just as well go home or seek some other locality, for no more geese will
Tisit that lake until the next night.

236 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

A night on which the sky is partly clouded and a light wind is blowing is
the best. If the air is calm and the night bright, the still water reflects too
strongly the outlines of the surrounding hills, making the water inky black,,
and renders it impossible to distinguish a goose sitting on the water.

At the time the geese are expected each person has selected his place and
remains quiet. On the approach of the first flock for the night a low whistle
from the hunter to his companions gives signal. A low Jiunk hunk of the geese
and a swirl of wings announce their approach. A straight dash or a few
circles round the pond and they settle. Shoot just as they alight and again
as they rise. Sometimes they become so confused as to enable the holder of a
breechloader to get four shots at a single flock. The dead geese serve as
decoys and soon many are added to those already killed. The gentle wind
slowly blows them ashore while you are waiting for others. In a short time a
sufficient number is obtained. At an appointed time another native comes from
the hut to help bear home the geese.

Winter. — Cackling geese are abundant winter residents in the in-
terior valle^^s of California, where they frequent the grain fields in
company with Hutchins, snow, Ross, and white-fronted geese. As
their habits are evidently similar, it is nnnecessar}- to repeat what
has already been written about the others.

DISTKIBDTION

Breeding range. — The Bering Sea coast of Alaska and the Aleu-
tian Islands. South to the north side of the Alaskan Peninsula
(Bristol Bay and Nusliagak River). West to tiie western Aleutians
(Agattu and Attn Islands). North to Norton Sound (St. Michael)^
probably Kotzebue Sound (Kowak River) and possibly as far as
Wainwright, where it has been taken in July. Intergrades with
hutchinsi in northern and with occidentaXis in southern Alaska.

Winter range. — Western North America, west of the Rocky Moun-
tains from southern British Columbia to southern California (San
Diego County).

Spring migration. — Arrives at St. Michael, Alaska, April 25 ta
30. Latest date of departure from California, Stockton, April 25.
Taken on St. Paul Island, Alaska, May 14.

Fall migration. — Earliest date of arrival in California, Gridley,,
October 1. Late dates of departure in Alaska, Yukon Delta. October
1, Aleutian Islands, November 15; British Columbia, Okanogan,.
November 20.

Casual records. — Said to wander on migrations as far east as Wis-
consin and Colorado (Loveland, April 10, 1898), but identifications
are doubtful.

Egg dates. — Alaska : Eighteen records. May 20 to June 30 ; nine
records June 5 to 15.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 237

BRANTA BERNICLA BERNICLA (Linnaeus)

BRANT

HABITS

For the past 25 years the American brant has been called Branta
'bernicla glaiicogastra (Brehm), white-bellied brant, ever since Dr.
Elliott Cones (1897) called our attention to the supposed subspecific
distinction between the common European brant and the ISTorth
American bird of the Atlantic coast and proposed the adoption of
Brehm's name for our bird. The European bird was supposed to breed
in Spitsbergen, Franz-Josef Land, Nova Zembla, and the Taimyr
Peninsula, and the American bird, glaucogastra^ was supposed to
breed in western Greenland and westward as far as the Parn' Islands.
Kecent investigations and explorations have shown that this theory
is untenable, that the European and the American birds are not
separable, and that Branta bernicla glaucogastra (Brehm) is a noinen
fiudum. Even if there were such a subspecies as the white-bellied
brant, the name, glaucogastra^ could not be used for it, as it was
applied by Brehm to a dark-bellied bird shot on the coast of
Germany.

Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain, who has made two recent visits to Spits-
bergen, in 1921 and 1922, writes to me :

The pale-breasted form is the one which breeds in Spitsbergen. We got over
20 birds in 1921 and they were all pale, as also were all those examined in
1922. Chapman got 30 or more, and they were all pale too. Koenig speaks
of getting darli-breasted birds there, but he figures what he calls the dark-
breasted bird, and it does not in the least resemble the uniformly slaty-breasted
individuals which visit us in winter. There is some variation among the
light-breasted bii'ds, and it is quite evident that the " dark " birds which
Koenig refers to are merely specimens in which the brownish-gray markings
extend over the whole of the lower breast to the vent, instead of being confined
to the breast only. The only really dark-breasted breeding bird I have seen
came from Franz-Josef Land, but we get lots of them here (England) in
winter. I am inclined to think that the pale-breasted bird extends from
America to Spitsbergen in breeding time, and that perhaps farther east the
darker-breasted form predominates.

The two so-called species of brant, Branta hernicla and B. nigri-
cans, together have a complete circumpolar breeding range. The
western limit of nigricans on the Siberian coast is not definitely
known, and future investigation may show that it intergrades with
the so-called dark-bellied form of bernicla somewhere in the palae-
arctic region. This would explain the occurrence of both light and
dark birds in western Europe in winter, for it is well known that
certain birds, such as the yellow-billed loon and the Steller eider,
migrate from their breeding grounds in Arctic Siberia to the Scan-

238 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

dinavian coasts to spend the winter, and the brant might v.ell be
expected to do the same.

In hiter communications Mr. Jourdain refers to a third form,
darker than our so-called glaucogastra but lighter than nigricans,
breeding in western Siberia, Kolguev, and Nova Zembla. Such birds,
it seems to me, are intermediates, and show intergradation between
hernicla (glaucogastra) and nigricans.

There is considerable evidence whicli points to intergradation
between hernicla and nigricans in Arctic America. P. A. Taverner
writes to me that they have specimens of both forms from Melville
Island and that he obtained two specimens at Comox, British Co-
lumbia, which are halfway between the two forms and furnish
" almost positive proof of complete intergradation between them."
Dr. R. M. Anderson writes to me :

I have seen the natives shoot a good many brant (supposed to be black
brant) around the Mackenzie delta and in Arctic Alaska, and they were quite
variable as to paleness. The females and young are lighter in color than the
males as a rule, and, if my memory serves me right, some were as light as
so-called ylaucogastra which I have since seen.

Alfred M. Bailey writes to me regarding birds collected in north-
ern Alaska :

The majority of our specimens taken in the fall were dark bellied and
would be referable to the so-called nigricans, although we got many light-
colored birds. In the spring at Wales and Wainwright the birds collected
averaged considerably lighter than those taken in the fall, with the dark
breasts sharply defined in many cases. The white collar was practically
continuous in both the spring and fall birds.

I notice that European writers are now recognizing nigricans as a
subspecies of hernicla.. and I believe that they are correct in doing so.

Spring. — The brant which have spent the winter farthest south
begin to move northward in February, joining the birds which have
wintered on the Virginia coast late in February, and moving on to
Great South Bay, Long Island, in March. By the middle of April
they have moved farther east and are congregated in large numbers
off Monomoy, on the south side of Cape Cod. In the old days before
spring shooting was abolished this was a famous resort for brant
shooting in April. Monomoy Island, now joined to the mainland,
extends for 9 or 10 miles southward from the elbow of Cape Cod;
the eastern or outer side is a long, high, sandy beach washed by the
surf of the broad Atlantic; on the western or inner side, beyond the
sand dunes, are large grassy meadows or salt marshes, invaded by
shallow bays; at low tide broad mud flats, more or less covered with
eelgrass, extend for miles along the shore, furnishing ideal feeding
grounds for brant and other sea fowl. Between here and the flats

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 239

around Muskeget Island, a few miles south, immense numbers of
brant congregate in the spring; they have been moving gradually
northward from their winter resorts, gaining in numbers, by picking
up those that have wintered farther north, as they went along. The
spring flight is leisurely and largely dependent on the weather and
the direction of the wind; cold, northerly, or easterly winds hold
them back: but warm days and favorable southwest winds are sure
to start them moving. Dr. Leonard C. Sanford (1903) has well
described the departure of the brant from the INIonomoy flats, which
usually takes place in the latter part of April, as follows :

Some time in April comes a pleasant day, warm and sunny, with a southwest
wind. The several thousand brant in Chatham Bay feed greedily until the rising
tide removes their food from reach. Now they assemble in deep water in the
center of the bay, study the weather, and discuss the advisability of journey-
ing toward their summer home. Soon 15 or 20 birds take wing, fly back and
forth over the others, honking loudly, and circling ever higher until they have
reached a considerable altitude; then the long line swings straight, headed
northeast. Out over the beach, over the ocean it goes, and the birds in it
will not be seen again. Then another flock follows, taking exactly the same
course; flock after flock succeeds and the movement is kept up until dark.
You may sit in the blind next day or sail across the bay, you will see no brant
save a few stragglers ; branting is through for the year. ^

Up to this time the flight has been wholly coastwise, marshaling
the hosts for the main flight. But here there is apparently an oc-
casional, if not a regular, offshoot from the main flight, which
migrates overland from Long Island Sound to the St. Lawrence
River, for Dr. Louis B. Bishop (1921) writes:

Prof. A. E. Verrill informed me that on May 17, 1914, he saw, with Mr.
G. E. Verrill, many flocks of brant flying north up the Housatonic Valley near
the mouth of the Housatonic River ; that most- were high in the air, but some
almost within gunshot ; also that he saw others flying northwest while at
Outer Island, Stony Creek, about May 22.

But the main flight, when it leaves Cape Cod, flies northeastward
to the Bay of Fundy, across the neck of Nova Scotia to the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, in the vicinity of Prince Edward Island. Here,
according to E. H. Forbush (1912) —

about June 1 those in the district around Charlottetown (which probably com-
prise a great part of the Atlantic coast flight) begin to assemble in Hills-
borough Bay, outside of Charlottetown Harbor, on the south side of the island.
Here they gather, between St. Peters and Governors Island, in preparation
for their northern journey. From June 10 to 15 they leave in large flocks.
Sometimes four or five such flocks follow one another, about a mile apart.

Richard C. Harlow writes to me that —

during the last half of May the brant fairly swarm in the sheltered bays and
channels along the coast of Northumberland County, New Brunswick. Here
in certain favored places are channels from 1 to 5 miles wide, lying between

240 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

the maiiiland and the sandy coastal islands. Where the water is shallow an
abundant growth of eelgrass occurs, and here, protected from the open seas
beyond the islands, the brant find an ideal haven. There is a noticeable
increase of the birds since spring shooting was abolished, and during the last
10 days of May I have seen the water dotted with them in flocks ranging from
three or four to hundreds. During a 10-mile run in this region flocks were
rising every few minutes, and the din from their honking was terrific, espe-
cially in the early morning and evening. The main flocks leave in a body
about June 1, though stragglers linger up until June 10. As the time draws
near for their departure they gather into larger flocks and grow still more
noisy, but no premature mating tendencies are observed.

Harrison F. Lewis has sent me the following notes on the move-
ments of brant on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence :

Warden P. G. Rowe, of Prince Edward Island, was sent to the Bay of Seven
Islands last spring (1922) to protect the brant while they passed there, as
they do every spring. He arrived there on May 17 and found at that time
some hundreds of brant in the bay. He was unable to get near them. Natives
of Seven Islands told him that they had arrived there about the 1st of May ;
that they came into the bay from the southwest by a " pass " never used by
the great brant flight, as though they had descended the St. Lawrence ; and
that the same thing occurred each spring. These brant all left the bay some
days before the usual big flight of brant began to arrive.

'J'his may be the flight, referred to above, which migrates over-
land from Long Island Sound and which naturally would arrive
earlier. When Dr. Charles W. Townsend and I reached the Bay of
Seven Islands, May 23, 1909, no brant were there, nor did w^e see
any on our cruise farther eastward down the coast; but when we
returned to Seven Islands on June 22 we were told by several
observers that there had been a big flight there in the meantime and
all had gone but one. They came the last of May and were prac-
tically all gone, in the direction of Hudson Bay, before June 20.
Mr. Lewis's notes confirm these statements very well, as follows :

I may also say that the big flight of brant from Prince Edward Island passed
the Bay of Seven Islands in the early days of June (5-15) this year. They all
enter the bay by the two easternmost " passes," chiefly by the most eastern
" pass " of all. The number entering the bay was checked carefully by War-
den Rowe, who was able to count them very well, as they passed at a low
elevation, chiefly in flocks of two or three hundred or less. He sets the total
number at at least 60,000. I believe that this includes practically the entire
species.

Their route overland to Hudson Bay and from there to their
northern Arctic breeding places is not so easily traced. They have
not been noted in spring on the west coast of Hudson Bay, where they
are reported as common in the fall. They may migrate up the
east coast or they may fly straight north overland to Ungava Bay.
Mr. Lucien M. Turner's notes, which seem to point to the overland
route, say :

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMEEICAN WILD FOWL 241

At Fort Chimo they arrive from tlie 20th of May to the 20th of June. They
fly past the station of Fort Chimo over the water in the Koksoak. At times
they are as high as 100 yards, and ofteaer only a few feet above the water or
running ice. They come at a time wlien it is almost impossible to get at them
on account of ice, and if this is not present they fly too high. They follow the
sinuosities of the river and only cross such points that they can see over.
Thousands of them are seen every spring and never one of them in the fall.
They are reported by the Eskimo to fly southward over Hudson Bay. The
route taken in the spring is to the west of Anticosti Island, thence north to the
■" Height of land " where the Koksoak River descends, along which they fly
northward. They appear fatigued when they reach Hudson Strait, but with
rapid beat of wing they pursue their course to the unknown regions beyond.

From here they apparently pass to the westward of Baffin Land
and spread out over their breeding grounds from Melville Island to
northern Greenland. Dr. Donald B. MacMillan tells me that they
appear in large numbers in spring on the southwest coast of Baffin
Land and apparently cross the center of that land, over a chain of
lakes, to Baffin Bay and fly straight north to Ellesmere Land and
northern Greenland, arriving at Etah about June 1. These early
arrivals must be the vanguard of the earliest flight. He says that
Sverdrup has seen them in Eureka Sound and Peary has seen them
at the north end of Axel Heiberg Land, Cape Thomas Hubbard,
and on the north coast of Grant Land, the northernmost land known.

Nesting. — The best account I have of the nesting habits of this
species comes in some notes sent to me by the Rev. F. C. R. Jour-
dain ; he writes :

Although closely allied to the barnacle goose, the brant differs widely from
it in its breeding habits. While the barnacle goose has attained security from
marauders by placing its nest in inaccessible spots on mountain sides, the
brant prefers as a rule to breed on the little holms and outlying islets which
fringe the coast. Here for centuries they have bred undisturbed save for an
occasional visit from a sealing sloop, but of late years, since most of these
vessels have been fitted with auxiliary oil engines, the sloops have taken to
working systematically the eider holms for eggs and down, and the geese in
consequence have been driven from many of their old haunts by indiscriminate
shooting during the breeding season. No doubt a good many pairs still breed
on some of the less accessible islands, but apparently many birds now nest
also on the mainland, especially on the grassy islands formed by the many
channels into which the rivers tend to divide when the valleys open out. The
diminution in the number of Arctic foxes by trapping has probably rendered
this type of site less dangerous than formerly, but we had evidence of nests
of this kind being destroyed by foxes.

On Moffen Island, which is practically a huge shingle bed, we found several
pairs breeding among the shingle and in one case on the " slob-land " not far
off. As in the case of the other geese, incubation is performed by the goose
alone, but the gander mounts guard by her side and is generally to be found
on duty. The normal clutch is apparently 3 to 5, but Koenig records one in-
stance of 6 and Kolthoff 7. Several cases of 2 and even 1 incubated egg
occurred, but are probably due to the fact that a previous clutch had been

242 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

taken. The nests vary a good deal in appearance. On low islets they may
be found among the eider ducks' nests, and are substantially built of mosses,
lichens, and other regetable matter, with a plentiful lining of light grayish
down. AVhen flushed from incubated eggs, both birds show great anxiety,
flying round and round with anxious " gaggling." On shingle banks, where
little nesting material is available, the nest may be little more than a hollow
among the stones, lined with down and perhaps a few bits of seaweed or
lichen. Yv^hile hiding in order to watch the bird back to the nest, it was in-
teresting to notice the head and upper neck of the goose silently watching
us from behind a bank of shingle, and all the time keeping as much as possible
out of sight, so that the contest resolved itself into one of endurance.

The nests found bj- Doctor MacMillan's (1918) partj^ in northern
Greenland were apparently similar in location and construction. W.
Elmer Ekblaw writes to me :

The brant, whether it comes from Europe or from America, arrives in north-
west Greenland about mid-June. It appears in rather large flocks, from about
15 to 50 in number, generally sweeping along the coast in low, long files.
When they arrive the ice is well broken and open, so that they find no lack of
feeding grounds. Either they are mated when they arrive, or they mate soon
after, without any distinct mating season, because they proceed at once to the
business of nesting and incubation. They gather along the shores of the rocky
islets, and usually group their nests somewhat gregariously. Lyttleton Island,
McGarys Rock, and Sutherland Island are favorite nesting places. The nests,
like those of the eiders, are placed among the tussocks of grass or sedge grow-
ing on the low flat ledges of the islets where they nest. The nests are heavily
lined with dark down, and the full clutch of eggs seems to vary considerably.
Some nests held but 4 eggs, while a few had 11 or 12. The period of incubation
is between three and four weeks.

Col. John E. Thayer (1905) has a nest and four eggs taken by
J. S. Warmbath on Ellesmere Land, of which he says :

The nest was found June 17, 1900, on a ledge of rock, 20 feet from ttie
ground, among elder ducks' and glaucous gulls' nests. Both birds were shot.
The female was shot on a slight elevation above the nest and the male in the
water near it.

Eggs. — The brant ordinarily lays from 3 to 5 eggs, though as
many as 6 or 8 have been recorded. The 4 eggs in the Thayer (1905)
collection, referred to above, are described as " dull creamy white
and smaller than eggs of the black brant." Four eggs in the
author's collection, taken on Eider Duck Island, northern Green-
land, June 18, 1917, bj' W. Elmer Ekblaw, are creamy white in color,
clean and smooth, but not glossy, and elliptical ovate in shape. The
measurements of 54 eggs, in various collections, average 71.7 by 47.1
millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 81.1 by
49.4, 77 by 51.3, 60.4 by 38.8, and 61.8 by 36.5 millimeters.

Young. — The period of incubation is not definitel}^ known, but it
is probably about four weeks. The female alone incubates, but the
male stands guard near by and helps defend the nest. Mr. Jourdain
says, in his notes :

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 243

We first met with the pretty ashy gray goslings on July 14, but Koenlg
mentions having seen them on July 4 and 10, so that probably the normal time
for fresh eggs is during the first fortnight of June. The sailors on our boat
succeeded in rearing one gosling, providing freshly cut pieces of turf daily and
allowing the bird to feed itself.

On July 17 a flock of about 60 geese, which had shed their flight feathers
and were temporarily unable to fly, was met with on a lagoon up the Sanen
River. They kept close together in a compact body, the barnacles usually lead-
ing and the brent and pink-footed following. When the flock had been fired
at several times and about 18 specimens secured, the pink-footed geese sepa-
rated themselves from the rest of the party and led the way toward land,
running with considerable speed and soon putting themselves out of danger,
an example soon followed by the rest.

Mr. Ekblaw writes to me :

As soon as the young are hatched they hurry to sea. They dive and swim
agilely almost as soon as they reach the water. Several broods of young are
wont to congregate together, the mothers aiding one another in vigilant
guidance and guard over the flock. They are exceedingly shy, and it is well-
nigh impossible to approach them except by surprise. They grow and develop
fast, so that by mid-September they are ready for their departure. As soon as
the ice begins to form in the fjords the brant begin to leave. By October 1
the last long, low-flying files of migrating brant have passed the outer capes ;
almost nine months slip by before they appear again.

Plumages. — I have never seen the downy young of the brant, but
it is described in Witherby's Handbook (1921) as follows:

Down of crown, center of nape, upper parts and sides of body pale mouse
gray, some tipped grayish white ; patch on lores and lines above eye sepia ;
chin, throat, and rest of neck white ; remaining under parts ashy white, down
with dusky-brown bases.

The Juvenal plumage during the first fall is similar in a general
way to that of the adult, except that the black areas are duller and
more brownish, the white neck patches are lacking, the feathers of
the scapulars, and median wing coverts are broadly edged with
buffy white, and those of the back and other coverts are more
narrowly edged with the same; the secondaries are also narrowly
edged with white. Molting and wear of the contour feathers, es-
pecially about the head and neck, during the winter produce an
advance toward maturity; the white neck patches appear in Janu-
ary, but the wings retain the ju venal characters until the following
summer. A complete molt in summer produces a plumage indis-
tinguishable from that of the adult.

Food. — According to Witherby's Handbook (1921) the food of
the brant on its breeding grounds consists of "grass, algae, moss,
and stalks and leaves of arctic plants {Eriofhorum^ Ranunculus^
Cerastium, Oxyria, and Saxifraga).'" The "young feed on Grami-
neae and Oxyria.''''

While on our coasts their chief food is eelgrass {Zostera marina)^
which grows so extensively in our shallow bays and estuaries. At

244 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

certain stages of the tides, the last half of the ebb or the first half of
the flood, when the beds of eelgrass are uncovered or covered with
shallow water, the brant resort to them in large numbers to feed.
They prefer the roots and the whitish lower stems, but they eat th&
green fronds also. As soon as the water is shallow enough for
them to reach the grass by tipping up they begin to feed, and they
keep at it until the tide again covers the flats too deeply. While
most of the birds are feeding with heads and necks below tlie surface
there are always a few sentinels on watch to warn them of approach-
ing danger. They pull up much more eelgrass than they can eat
at once; this floats off with the tide and often forms small floating
islands, far off from shore, to which the brant resort at high tide
to feed again. John Cordeaux (1898) says that the longer pieces of
Zostera " are neatly rolled up, like ribbons, in their stomachs " ; they
also devour the fronds of some species of algae, crustaceans, mol-
lusca, worms, and marine insects. Giitke says that at Heligoland^
when the sea is calm, small companies will approach the cliffs and
pick off the small mollusca and crustaceans.

I have at times been greatly entertained in watching a flock of brant feed-
ing in shallow water, close inshore, the greater portion of the birds upside
down, their rumps and tails showing the white coverts, only visible as they
greedily tear at the blades and roots of the grass wrack, whilst others are
seizing the floating fragments of the plant, broken off and dislodged by
their mates; and on the outside there are always some with heads held high,
ever on the watch, and ready to give alarm. All the time they keep a continu-
ous, noisy gabbling and grunting, the rear birds constantly swimming forward
to get in advance of their fellows, a procedure whicli I have known, more
than once, bring them within range of an ordinary sporting gun.

Brant in captivity are especially fond of barley and will eat corn
and other grains. George H. Mackay (1893) says:

Two wing-tipped birds I have in confinement eat with avidity the alga
{Viva lactuca). They also eat Zostera marina, preferring the white portion
farthest from the extremity of the blade. They cut this up by chewing fir.st
on one side and then on the other of their mandibles, which cuts the grass
as clean as if scissors had been used. The motion reminds one strongly of
a dog eating, the bird turning its head mucla the same way. They are fond
of whole corn and common grass. These confined birds drink after almost
every mouthful, from a pan of fresh water. The wild birds living in this
neighborhood have no opportunity of obtaining fresh water.

Doctor MacMillan tells me that he has seen brant, when they first
arrive in Baffin Land in the spring, feeding on the black lichens
which grow on the rocks on the uplands.

Behavior. — Brant do not ordinarily fly in V-shaped flocks, like
Canada geese, but in long undulating lines, spread out laterally in
straight company-front formation, or in a curving line, or in an
irregular bimch, and without a definite leader. When migrating

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 245

overland they fly high, but when traveling along the coast they
usually fly within a few feet of the VN^ater. Their flight is apparently
slow and heavy, but it is really swifter than it seems. A flock of on-
coming brant is a thrilling sight to the expectant gunner; he can
recognize afar the long w^avy line of heavy black birds ; as they draw
near, the white hind parts show up in marked contrast to the black
heads and necks ; and soon he can hear their gabbling, grunting notes
of greeting to his well-placed decoys. They are naturally shy birds,
and we seldom got a shot at the passing flocks when anchored off the
shore in small boats. But on their feeding grounds they are more
fearless and will decoy well to live or even wooden decoys around a
well-concealed blind. Brant can swim well, but do not dive unless
hard-pressed. They prefer to skulk and hide by stretching the neck
out on the water or in the grass. They are very fond of sand and
like to rest on sandy points and sand bars.

Mr. Cordeaux (1898) describes the voice of the brant very well,
as follows:

The coinmou cry or call uote of the brant is a loud metallic chronic, eh rank.
The confused gabbling and mixed cries of a flock can be heard at an immense
distance at sea. They have another, and double, note, which has been likened
to the word torock, constantly repeated on the wing; and the alarm cry is a
single word, tvauk.

Dr. D. G. Elliott (1898) says:

It has a peculiar guttural note, which is frequently uttered, resembling
car-r-r-rup, or r-r-r-rouk, or r-r-rup, and with a rolling intonation, and, when
a large number of these birds are gathered together, the noise they make is
incessant and deafening. I have been in the vicinity of a bar on which were
congregated many thousands of brant, and their voices made such a din that
it was difficult to hear one's own in speaking, and when they rose at the
report of a gim the sound of their myriad wings was as the roar of rushing
waters.

Fall. — Winter comes early in the far North, and the brant are
forced to start on their fall migration early in September or even
late in August. The route differs only slightly from that taken
in the spring. They now migrate down the west coast of Hudson
Bay, cross eastern Canada to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which they
reach late in September, cross the neck of Nova Scotia to the Bay of
Funcl}^, and then head straight for Cape Cod, where they usually
begin to arrive about the middle of October. So far their flight
has been more rapid than in the spring, but from here on their
movements are more leisurely and they scatter along the coast,
lingering at favorable spots until well into the winter.

Game. — From the standpoint of the epicure the brant is one of our
finest game birds, in my opinion the finest, not even excepting the
far-famed canvasback. I can not think of any more delicious bird

246 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

than a fat, young brant, roasted just right and served hot, with a
bottle of good Burgund}'. Both the bird and the bottle are now
hard to get ; alas, the good old days have passed.

A few brant are shot, as they migrate along the coast, by gunners
anchored offshore for coot shooting; the long undulating line of
big black birds with white hind quarters is easily distinguished
from the irregular flocks of the scoters ; a thrill of anticipation runs
along the line as word is passed from boat to boat; the brant will
not decoy to the wooden blocks of coot shooters, but they may pass
over or near one of the boats or swing and fly along the line near
enough for a shot; but more often they give the boats a wide berth,
and the disappointed gunner fires in vain at the coveted birds, which
are probably farther away than they seem to be.

Real brant shooting may be had at only a few favored localities
where the birds are wont to congregate, and tlien only with an elabo-
rate equipment. It was a sorry day for the brant shooter when
spring shooting was abolished, for the brant is the one bird above
all others for Avhich spring seems to be the natural shooting sea-
son. Brant seem to be more plentiful in the spring than in the
fall and to linger longer on their favorite feeding grounds at that
season. April brant shooting at Monomoy has long been famous
in the annals of Massachusetts sportsmen, when formerly splendid
sport could be enjoyed. E. H. Forbush (1912) says:

Hapgood gives a record of 44 birds Ivilled from one of these boxes at one
shot, and states that 1,000 or 1,500 were killed in a season. This was many
years ago, before the formation of the brant clubs. No such number has been
killed in recent years. The average number killed by the members of the
Monomoy Branting Club for 34 years, during the Hapgood regime, is a trifle
over 266 birds per year.

Now that we can shoot only in the fall, no such sport is obtain-
able; there are still plenty of brant, as the spring flights are enor-
mous, but on the Monomoy Flats, where my limited experience has
been gained, the brant seem to be comparatively scarce in the fall,
and they are so constantly disturbed by the busy fleet of scallop
fishermen's pov^er boats that they do not remain to feed.

On Monomoy our brant shooting is done from boxes located on
favorable points or sand bars near the feeding grounds. The box is
well made and water-tight, 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet deep ;
big enough for three men ; it is sunken into the sand deep enough to
be covered at high tide ; numerous bags, sometimes 50 or 60, of sand
are piled around it to hold it in place; and if it is in a grassy place,
which helps to conceal it, the sloping sides of the pile may be thatched
with marsh grass woven into the meshes of poultry netting, held in
place by stakes and weighted with sand. Unless there is a natural
sand bar near the box, one must be made, on which the live decoys

LIFE HISTORIES OF XORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 247

are located and where the wild birds may alight. Live decoys are
preferable, but brant will come to good wooden decoys if properly
placed ; a supply of both is desirable. The brant feed at low tide
away off on the eelgrass beds ; but as the rising tide covers the gras,s
too deeply, they are driven to seek other feeding grounds or sanding
places, and in flying about will often come to the decoys. The best
shooting then is for a short time only at about half-flood tide and
again at about half ebb, while the birds are moving. The morning
tides are considered the best, so it is often quite dark when we tramp
down through the marsh to our box, heavily laden with decoys, guns,
and ammunition and encumbered with rubber boots and oilskins, for
it is cold and wet work. We set out the decoys, bale out the box, and
sit low on a wet seat, our eyes just above the rim of the box, and scan
the flats for distant flocks of brant. Occasional shots at passing
birds or small bunches on their way seem like fair sport. But when
a large flock swims up to the decoj^s on the rising tide or flies up and
settles on the bar among them, it is exciting enough, but it seems like
wanton slaughter to fire a battery of guns at a given signal into a
dense mass of birds. Perhaps a dozen or a score of birds are killed
or wounded and we jump out of the box and go splashing oft' through
the mud and water to retrieve the cripples. "When the rising tide
finally drives us out of our box, we may have a large bunch of birds
to lug back to the club house, but have we given them a fair show for
their lives?

Brant shooting in Great South Bay, Long Island, and in southern
waters is usually done from batteries, such as are used for canvas-
back-duck shooting. As this means wing shooting most of the time,
it seems more sportsmanlike. The battery may be anchored near their
feeding ground or near a floating mass of eelgrass, known as a " sea-
weed bank," to which the brant resort to feed.

Winter. — The winter home of the brant is along the Atlantic coast
from New Jersey southward. Probably most of the birds spend the
winter on the coast of Virginia and North Carolina. T. Gilbert
Pearson (1919) writes:

In Pamlico Sound the long extended lines of submerged sandbars and mud-
flats, with their abundant supplies of eelgrass, make an ideal winter resort for
the brant. They arrive from the north usually early in November, but the
exact date depends much upon weather conditions. In flight they usually go
in compact flocks without any apparent leader. They move slowly and often
appear loath to leave a favorite feeding ground, even returning to it many
times after being disturbed.

On clear winter days, as one sails along the reefs in the region about Ocra-

coke or Hatteras, flocks of brant, disturbed from their feeding areas, arise

in almost constant succession for miles, their numbers running far into the

tens of thousands. When heavy winds arise these large rafts are broken up.

100449—25 17

248 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

and later when the birds are flying singly or in small companies they readily
draw to decoys. It is then that the gunners get in their most telling work,
bags of 75 or 100 birds being sometimes taken in a day. Near Cape Hatteras
I once lay in a battery near a local gunner, who shot 50 brant between the
hours of 10 a. m. and 2 p. m., and the size of his kill in four hours occasioned
no particular comment in the neighborhood.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Arctic regions north of eastern North xVmerica,
Europe, and Western Asia. East to Spitsbergen, Franz Joseph
Land. Nova Zembla, Kolgiiev, and the Taimyr Peninsula. On
both coasts of Greenland, south to about 70° N., and north to at
least 81° or 82° N. South to about 74° on islands around the Gulf
of Boothia, Prince Regent Inlet, and "Wellington Channel. West
to about 100° or 110° W. Seen in summer and probably breeding
as far north as explorers have been, on the Parry Islands, Axel
Heiberg Land, Grant Land, and Greenland. Probably intergrades
with nigricans at both the eastern and the "western limits of its
range.

Winter range. — ^Atlantic coast of United States. Eegularly from
New Jersey to North Carolina; more rarely eastward to Long
Island and jNIassachusetts (Marthas Vineyard) ; and rarely south
to Florida. Coasts of northwestern Europe, from the Baltic and
North Seas, to the British Isles and France; occasionally to Mo-
rocco, the Mediterranean, and Egypt. Occurs more or less regu-
larly on the Pacific coasts of Canada and United States.

Spring migration. — Fully described above. Early dates of arri-
val: New York, Long Island, February 15; Rhode Island, Block
Island, March 8; Massachusetts, Vinej-ard Sound, March 10; Maine,
Englishman Ba3% April 22; Quebec, Bay of Seven Islands, May 1;
latitude 79° N., May 30; northern Greenland, Etah, June 1; Grin-
nell Land, latitude 82°, N., June 7; Boothia Peninsula. June 8;
Wellington Channel, June 2.

Late dates of departure: North Carolina, first week in April:
Rhode Island, April 28 ; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, May 17 ; Prince
Edward Island, June 12 ; Quebec, Bay of Seven Islands, June 15.

Fall Tiiigration. — Early dates of arrival : Massachusetts, Cape
Cod, September 11; Rhode Island, September 17; New York, Long
Island, September 8 ; New Jersey, Barnegat Bay, October 14. Main
flight reaches the Gulf of St. Lawrence late in September and New
England in October. Late dates of departure : Maine, December
8 ; Massachusetts, Cape Cod, December 14 ; New York, Long Island,
December 20.

Casual records. — Has wandered east on the fall migration to
Labrador (Nain, October, 1899) and Nova Scotia (Sable Island,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 249

November 7, 1908). Stragglers, probably from a Hudson Bay mi-
gration route, have been recorded from Ontario (Toronto, Decem-
ber 2, 1895, and November 12, 1899), Manitoba (Shoal Lake and
Lake Manitoba), Michigan (Monroe, November 8, 1888), Wisconsin
(Hoy's record), and Nebraska (Omaha, November 9, 1895). Oc-
curs often, perhaps regularly, on the Pacific coast: British Colum-
bia (Comox, December 13, 1903), and California (Humboldt County,
January 30, 1914). Brooks (1904) says that " about 8 per cent of
the brant in Comox Bay are the eastern species." Accidental in
the West Indies (Barbados, November 15, 1876), Louisiana, and
Texas.

Egg dates. — Greenland : Four records, June 14 to July 13. Elles-
mere Land : One record, June 17.

BRANTA BERNICLA NIGRICANS (Lawrence)

BLACK BRANT

HABITS

It seems strange that this bird (which is apparently only a sub-
species of the eastern brant), so abundant on the Pacific coast and
such a rare straggler on the Atlantic coast, should have been first
lecognized in New Jersey and described from a specimen taken at
Egg Harbor. George N. Lawrence (1846), who described it, says:

When on a shooting excursion some years since, at Egg Harbor, I noticed
a bird fljdng at some distance from us which our gunner said was a black
brant. This was the first intimation I had of such a bird. Upon further in-
quiry of him, he informed me lie had them occasionally, but they were not
common. I have learned from Mr. Philip Brasher, who has passed much time
at that place, that, speaking to the gunners about them, they said they were
well known there by the name of black brant, and one of them mentioned that
he once saw a flock of five or six together. Since then two others have been
obtained at the same place, one of which I have in my possession.

Spring. — Chase Littlejohn, in some notes sent to Major Bendire,
says of the migration of black brant across the Alaska Peninsula :

Thousands of these geese pass a mile or two offshore each spring on their
v>-ay north ; they follow the coast line from the eastward until they come to
Morzhovia Bay, where they sheer off for the Bering Sea. There bay and sea
almost meet, and as they have a great aversion to flying over the land they select
a narrow portage from the bay to a long lake, which is separated from the
Bering Sea by a very narrow sand bar, not over 100 yards wide, and instead
of crossing the bar they fly to the opposite end of the lake, fully 2 miles,
and follow the outlet of the lake into Bering Sea and back to where you would
suppose they would have crossed in the first place, and then contiunue on
their way north. In years gone by I think there was a passage through, but
by the action of the sea it has been closed. But the geese do not care to
forsake their old route and consequently break through their aversion of

250 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

flying over the land and cross the narrow portage. A few birds go farther
on and fly through False* Pass and probably passes farther on, but the great
majority take the Morzhovia Bay route.

The spring migration of the black brant in northern Alaska and
the circumstances surrounding it have been so attractively portrayed
by Dr. E. W. Nelson (1881) that I can not refrain from quoting
parts of what he says about it, as he observed it at St. Michael,
Alaska ; he writes :

The long reign of ice and snow begins to yield to the mild influence of the
rapidly lengthening days ; the middle of May is reached, and the midnight
sky over the northern horizon blushes with delicate rose tints, changing to
purple toward the zenith. Fleecy clouds passing slowly across the horizon
seem to quiver and glow with lovely hues, only to fade to dull leaden again
as they glide from the reach of fair Aurora. The land, so lately snow-
bound, becomes dotted with pools of water, and the constantly narrowing
borders of the snow soon make room for the waterfowl which, with eager
accord, begin to arrive in abundance, some upon lagging wings, as if from
far away, others making the air resound with joyous notes as they recognize
some familiar pond where, for successive seasons, they have reared their
young in safety, or, perhaps a favorite feeding ground. At this time the
white-fronted and Hutchins geese take precedence in numbers, though, to be
sure, they have been preceded for two weeks by the hardy pintail duck, the
common swan, and, lastly, that ornithological harlequin, the sandhill crane,
whose loud rolling note is heard here and there as it stalks gravely along,
dining upon the last year's berries of Empetrum nigrum, when, meeting a
rival, or perchance one of the fair sex, he proceeds to execute a burlesque
minuet.

A few days later, upon the mirror-like bosoms of myriads of tiny lakelets, the
graceful northern Phalaropes flit here and there or swim about in pretty com-
panies. At length, about the 20th of May, the first barn swallow arrives, and
then we begin to look for the black brant, the " nimkee," as it is called by the
Russians, the " luk-hig-ii-nvk " of the Norton Sound Eskimo. Ere long the
avant-courier is seen in the form of a small flock of 10 or 15 individuals
which skim along close to the ice, heading directly across Norton Sound to the
vicinity of Cape Nome, whence their route leads along the low coast to Port
Clarence where, I am told by the natives, some stop to breed ; but the ma-
jority press on and seek the ice-bordered northern shore of Alaska and even
beyond to unknown regions far to the north.

The 22d of May a native came in bringing a lot of geese and reporting plenty
of black brant up the " canal." For the benefit of the unfortunate few who
have not been at St. Michael I may explain that the " canal " is a narrow
and shallow tidal channel which separates St. Michael Island from the main
land and is bordered on either side by a stretch of low, flat land abundantly
dotted with brackish ponds and intersected by numerous small tide creeks.
As would be surmised', this forms a favorite haunt for various kinds of water-
fowl.

Preparing the tent and other paraphernalia, two of us, accompanied by a
couple of natives, started out the next morning with a sled and team of five large
dogs, driven tandem, just as the sun gilded the distant hilltops and gave a still
deeper tint to the purple haze enveloping their bases. The sharp, frosty air
and the pleasurable excitement of the prospective hunt, after months of in-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 251

activity, causes an unusual elation of spirits, and witti merry jests we speed
along until, in a short time, we approach a low, moundlike knoll rising in
the midst of innumerable lakelets. A strange humming, for which we were
at first unable to account, now becomes more distinct, and we perceive its
origin in the united notes of scores of flocks of brant which are dispersed
here and there over the half bare ground. Some sit along the edges of the
snow banks or upon the ground, still sleeping, while others walk carelessly
about or plume themselves iu preparation for the work before them. Their
low, harsh, gutteral gr-r-r-r, gr-r-r-r rises in a faint monotonous matinal whose
tone a week later may waken the weird silence in unknown lands about the
Pole.

Reaching the knoll before mentioned, we pitch our tent, and after tieing the
dogs to keep them within bounds we separate to take positions for the morning
flight. Bach of the party is soon occupying as little space as possible behind
some insignificant knoll or tuft of grass that now and then breaks the monot-
onous level. The sun rises slowly higher and higher until at length the long,
narrow bands of fog hovering over the bare ground are routed. Now we have
not long to wait, for, as usual at this season, the lakes, which are frozen over
nightly, open under the rays of the sun between 7 and 9 in the morning and
start the waterfowl upon their way. The notes, which until now have been
uttered in a low conversational tone, are raised and heard more distinctly and
have a harsher intonation. The chorus swells and dies away like the sound of
an aeolian harp of one or two heavy bass strings, and as we lie close to the
ground the wind whispers among the dead plants in a low undertone as an
accompaniment ; but while we lay dreaming the sun has done its work ; the
lakes have opened, and suddenly a harsh gr-r-r-r, gr-r-r-r, gr-r-r-r causes us to
spring up, but too late, for, gliding away to the northward, the fijet flock goes
unscathed. After a few energetic remarks upon geese in general and this flock
in particular, we resume our position, but keep on the alert to do honor to the
next party.

Soon, skimming along the horizon, flock after flock is seen as they rise
and hurry by on either side. Fortune now favors us, and a large flock makes
directly for the ambu.sh, their complicated and graceful evolutions leading us
to almost forget why we are lying here upon our face in the bog with our
teeth rattling a devil's tattoo in the raw wind. On they come, only a few feet
above the ground, until, when 20 or 30 yards away, we suddenly rise upon
one knee and strike terror into the hearts of the unsuspecting victims. In place
of the admirable order before obsei-ved, all is confusion and, seemingly in hope
of mutual protection, the frightened birds crowd into a mass over the center
of the flock, uttering, the while, their ordinary note raised in alarm to a higher
key. This is the sportsman's time, and a double discharge as they are nearly
overhead will often bring down from 4 to 10 birds. Scarcely have the reports
died away when they once more glide along close to the ground ; the alarm
is forgotten ; order is again restored, and the usual note is heard as they
swiftly disappear in the distance. Thus they continue flying' until 1 or 2
o'clock in the afternoon when, after a pause of three or four hours, they
begin again and continue until after sundown.

Nesting. — At Point Barrow, Alaska, according to John Murdoch

(1885)—

the black brant appear at the end of the main spring migrations of the water-
fowl, but in no very considerable numbers, following the same track as the
eiders. A few remain to breed and are to be seen flying about the tundra

252 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

during June. The nest is placed in rather marsliy ground and is a simple
depression lined with down, with which the eggs are completely covered when
the birds leave the nest. The birds sometimes begin to sit on 4 eggs and some-
times lay as many as 6.

MacFarlane (1891) sent to Washington 650 eggs of this brant
from Fort Anderson, obtained by the Eskimos on the Arctic coast of
Liverpool Bay, where it was exceedingly abundant, but he adds
little to our scanty knowledge of its breeding habits. He wrote
to Professor Baird, concerning a visit to an island in Liverpool Bay
on July 4, 1864, as follows :

Bernicla hrenta breeds on small islands on the small lakes occurring on
this island. It scoops a hole in the sand or turf composing the island and
lines it with down taken from the body of the female. They frequently nest
in small parties, but a pair will sometimes select an island for themselves.
Very few specimens were seen, though numerous nests containing broken
eggs were met with ; these had evidently been destroyed by white foxes, gulls,
owls, and crows. But for the depredations committed by them we should
have made a superb collection of eggs of Somateria, Bernicla hutchinsU, Anser
gamhclU, Columhus articus, gulls, and terns. A great many nests of each
and all of these species were found without eggs, their contents having been
destroyed. The entire damage inflicted on the poor birds in one season
must be enormous.

Rev. A. R. Hoare sent me a fine nest and 5 eggs of the black
brant, taken at Tigara, near Point Hope, Alaska, in June 1916; it
consisted of a great mass of down on a small low island in an exten-
sive marsh; judging from the two photographs, which came with
it, it must have been quite conspicuous. He found other nests
sunken in moss and grass near the lakes out on the tundra. There
is a nest and 5 eggs in the collection of Herbert Massey, Esq., taken
by W. E. Snyder, at Admiralty Bay, Alaska, on June 16, 1898 ; the
nest which consists of a large quantity of down, was in a depres-
sion in the dry tundra. I received 11 sets of black brant's eggs, all
consisting of 5 eggs, with the nests, from Point Barrow, Alaska, in
1916. The nests of this species are the most beautiful nests I have
ever seen of any of the ducks and geese; they are great, soft, thick
beds of pure, fluffy down, unmixed with the tundra rubbish so
common in nests of other species ; the down is a rich, handsome shade
of "benzo brown" or "deep brownish drab," flecked with whitish;
it must make a warm and luxurious blanket to cover the eggs.

Eggs. — The black brant lays from 4 to 8 eggs, but 5 seems to be by
far the commonest number. The prevailing shapes are elliptical ovate
or elliptical oval ; some are elongate ovate and a few are nearly ovate,
rounded at the small end. The colors are " cartridge buff," " ivorj^
yellow," " pale olive buff," or " cream color." The original color is
often much obscured by stains or mottlings of various buffy or

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 253

brownish shades, such as " cinnamon buff "' or " ochraceous buff " ;
some of the eggs seem to be wholly of these darker shades ; in others
the stains have apparently worn off or been scratched off, exposing
the original color. The shell is smooth and sometimes quite glossy.

The measurements of 107 eggs in the United States National Mu-
seum and the author's collections average 71.1 by 47.4 millimeters;
the eggs showing the four extremes measure 79 by 47.5, 68 by 51, 66
by 45 and 75,5 by 43.5 millimeters.

Plumuges. — The downy young black brant is thickly covered with
soft down in dark colors ; the upper half of the head, including the
lores, to a point a little below the eyes is " fuscous " or " benzo
brown " ; the chin is white ; the back varies from " benzo brown " to
" hair brown," darkest on the rump ; the flanks and chest shade from
" hair brown " to " light drab," fading off nearly to white on the
belly and throat.

I have seen no specimens showing the change from the downy to
the Juvenal plumage. But a bird in the juvenal plumage, taken
September 5, has the whole head, neck and breast plainly colored,
" fuscous " to " fuscous black," with onW faint traces of the white
markings on the neck ; the feathers of the back are edged with grayish
white or huffy white; the juvenal wing has broad, conspicuous, pure
white edgings on the lesser and the greater coverts, the secondaries,
and the tertials, broadest on the greater coverts ; the belly and flanks
are plain " fuscous," with no barring.

Molting begins first on the head and neck ; the white neck patches
are often, but not always, conspicuous in October; they are well
developed by spring. Aside from a partial molt of body and tail
feathers there is not much change during the winter and spring.
Young birds in May and Jime are still decidedly juvenal, much
worn and faded. At the following post-nuptial molt, when a little
over a year old, the young bird undergoes a complete molt and be-
comes practically adult in plumage, with white neck patches, barred
flanks, and plain dark wings without any light edgings.

Food. — The black brant, like its eastern relative, is a decidedly
maritime bird, living on salt water and feeding on the grassy mud
flats; it never comes in to the uplands to feed. It seems to feed
almost entirely on the leaves and roots of various marine grasses,
mainly Zostera. In connection with its vegetable food it picks up
various small mollusks, crustaceans, and other forms of marine
animals, Mr. W. Leon Dawson (1909) says that they "not only
dip but dive as well."

Behavior. — Doctor Nelson (1881) gives such a good account of
the flight of the black brant that I quote it in full, as follows ;

The flight of this species is peculiar among North American geese and bears
a close resemblance to that of the eider and otiier species of heavy-bodied short-

254 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

winged sea clucks. It has a parallel in the flight of the emperor goose except
that the latter is a far heavier bird and, in consequence, the wing strol^es are
less rapid. In B. nigricans the strokes are short, energetic, and repeated with
great rapidity, cai-rying the bird with a velocity far greater than that attained
by any other goose with which I am acquainted, though probably its eastern
prototype equals it in this respect.

But this is not the point upon which the mind rests when the birds are in
view, for then the eye is held in involuntary admiration of the varied and
graceful evolutions of the flocks, which have a protean ability to change their
form without ever breaking the array or causing confusion. They are very
gregarious, and two flocks almost invariably coalesce when they draw near
each other. This frequently occurs until, as I have seen, it results in a
single flock numbering between 400 and 500 birds. The usual size is consid-
erably less, generally comprising from 20 to 50 or more, and it is rare to
see less than 10 or 15 in a party. At times 4 or 5 individuals become de-
tached, and until they can unite with a stronger party they fly irregularly
about as though bewildered, continually uttering their harsh notes, and hurry
eagerly away to join the first flock that comes in view. The order of flight
is invariably a single rank, the birds moving side by side in a line at right
angles to their course so that the entire strength of a flock is to be seen at
a glance along its front, which at times covers several hundred yards. There
is barely room enough between the individuals to allow a free wing stroke.
Thus ranged, the flock seems governed by a single impulse, which sends it
gliding along parallel and close to the ground, then, apparently without reason,
careering 30 or 40 yards overhead, only to descend to its former level as
suddenly as it was left; now it sways to one side and then to the other,
while at short intervals swift undulations seem to run from one end of the
line to the other. These movements are repeatedly taking place ; they are
extremely interesting to observe but difficult, I fear, to convey an adequate
idea of in words.

The entire flock, consisting of perhaps over a hundred birds arranged in
single line, is hurrying on, straight as an arrow, toward its destination, when,
without warning, it suddenly makes a wide curving detour of several hundred
yards, then resumes its original course only to frequently repeat the maneuver,
but always with such unison that the closest scrutiny fails to reveal the least
break or irregularity in the line ; nor does the front of the flock swerve,
excepting an occasional slight obliquity which is corrected in a few seconds.

In addition to this horizontal movement is a still more interesting vertical
one which often occurs at the same time as the other but generally by itself.
A bird at either end of the flock rises or descends a few inches or several
feet, as the case may be, and the movement is instantly followed in succession
by every one of its companions till the extreme bird is reached and the entire
flock is on the new level ; or it may be that a bird near the middle of the line
changes its position, when the motion extends in two directions at once.
These latter changes are made so regularly and with such rapidity that the
distance between the birds does not appear altered in the least, while a
motion exactly like a graceful undulation runs the length of the flock, lifting
or depressing it to the level of the originator of the movement. These changes
present to one's eye as the flocks approach, keeping close to the ground, the
appearance of a series of regular and swift waving motions such as pass
along a pennant in a slight breeze.

The black brant never wings its way far up in the sky, as many other
geese have the habit of doing, but keeps, as a rule, between 10 and 30 yards
above the ground, with more flocks below these limits than above them.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 255

Another idiosyncrasy of this bird is its marlied distaste for passing over
low ranges of hills which may cross its path. A striking case of this is
shown here where a low spur runs out from the distant hills in the form
of a grass-covered ridge projecting several miles into the flat marshy land.
This ridge is from 50 to 200 feet above the surrounding country and bars the
course of the black brant. So slight an obstacle as this is enough to cause at
least 95 per cent of the flocks to turn abruptly from their path and pass along
its base to round the end several miles beyond, and then continue their pas-
sage. In consequence of this habit it has been a regular practice for years
for the hunters to occupy positions along the front of this ridge and deal
destruction to the brant, which still hold as pertinaciously as ever to their
right of way.

Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

While upon the ground or in flight they have a low guttural note something
like the syllables gr-r-r-r-r, When alarmed this note, repeated often and with
more emphasis, was the only cry heard.

W. Leon Dawson (1909) writes:

From the esthetic standpoint the most interesting phase of brant life is
the mellow cronk, cronk, cronk, which the birds frequently emit whether in
flight or at rest. From the back bay near Dungeness in April rises a babel
like the spring offering of a giant frog-pond, a chorus of thousands of croak-
ing voices, among which the thrilling basso of bullfrogs predominates.

Mr. Hoare writes me that, at Point Hope, the brant " suffer very
much from the depredations of the gulls and hawks." He " found
many eggs scattered and broken." He says:

This summer I witnessed a battle between a male brant and three gulls.
The female brant was on the nest and did not move. The gulls kept return-
ing to the attack and were very fierce. Usually they are cowardly. Eventu-
ally the brant drove them away, although badly mauled. I could not find it
in my heart to disturb the female on the nest.

Fall. — According to Mr. Murdoch (1885) the fall migration at
Point Barrow begins early; he writes:

After the middle of August they begin to fly across the isthmus at Pergniak,
coming west along the shore of Elson Bay, crossing to the ocean, and turning
southwest along the coast. Whenever during August the wind is favorable
for a flight of eiders at Pergniak the brant appear also. They, however, fre-
quently tui'u before reaching the beach at Pergniak, follow down the line of
lagoons and cross to the sea lower down the coast. The adults return flrst.
No young of the year were taken till the end of August. During the first
half of September, a good many flocks cross the land at the* inlets as well as at
Pergniak, and are to be seen resting and feeding along the lagoons and
pond holes. At this season they are very shy and hard to approach, and all
are gone by the end of September.

Doctor Nelson (1887) says:

Some old whaling captains assured me that they have frequently seen these
birds coming from over the ice to the north of Point Barrow in fall; and to
the hardy navigators of these seas this is strong evidence in support of the

100449—2.5 18

256 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

theory that bodies of land lie beyond the impenetrable icy barrier which
heads off their advance in that direction. Perhaps it was the droppings of this
bird which we found on the dreary shores of Wrangel Island, when our party
from the Corwin were the first human beings to break in upon its icy solitude.
Mr. Dall writes that on his return to the coast of California in the latter part
of October enormous flocks of these birds were seen about 100 miles offshore.
They were flying south and frequently settled in the water near the ship.

Along much of the route followed by the brant in the spring in
such enormous numbers, they are comparatively scarce in the fall,
indicating that a different route is followed. In the spring, when
open water shows first near the land, they would naturally follow
the coast line; but in the fall, when Bering Sea is all open, they
evidently prefer to migrate far from land, stopping to rest and per-
haps to feed on the open sea.

Game. — Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) say of the game quali-
ties of this bird :

The black brant evades the devices of the hunter better than any other
duck or goose. In very early days on San Diego Bay it was never seen to
alight on the shore or near it. By 1875 it was almost impossible to obtain
a shot at the bird from a boat, and even with a box sunk in the mud and
concealed by seaweed a good bag was secured with difficulty. In 1883 a float-
ing battery with plenty of decoys alone would enable a hunter to obtain
this much-prized bird. A few years later many of the birds failed to put in
an appearance at all off San Diego, probably going farther south, along the
Mexican coast. Because of its habit of occasionally cutting across low sand
spits to avoid a long detour in its flight, most of the hunting lias been done
from blinds situated beneath such a line of flight. On Tomales Bay hunters
have sailed down on flocks with " blind boats," when the birds were at rest
during a fog, their whereabouts being disclosed by their " gabbling " noises.

The black sea brant has not been sold on the markets to any extent for a good
many j^ears. About 20 years ago consignments were shipped to San Francisco
from Humboldt Bay, and the birds sold for as little as 25 cents each. Even
the high price that the bird would bring at the present time does not attract
it to the market because of the difliculty now attached to obtaining it.

^Winter. — The black brant winters abundantly on the Pacific coast
from the Puget Sound region southward, living entirely on salt
water, in the larger bays and channels. Mr. Dawson (1909) writes:

Black brants are the only geese one is quite sure of seeing from the deck
of a steamboat on an average winter day on Puget Sound. While they have
their favorite feeding grbunds upon the mud flats and in shallow bays, they
are widely distributed over the open water also, and their numbers during
the spring migrations are such that not all other wild geese put together are
to be mentioned in comparison. They sit the water in small companies ; and
although they are exceedingly M'ary in regard to rowboats, they often permit
an approach on the part of steamers which is very gratifying to the student.
An exaggerated use of their long wings as the birds get under way gives the
beholder the impression of great weight — an impression which is not sus-
tained in the hand, where the bird is seen to disappointingly light ; all feathers,
in fact, as compared with a chunky scoter, which does not equal it in extent
of wing by a foot or more.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NOETH AMERICAN WILD FOWL, 257

Mr. S. F. Rathbiin has sent me the following notes in regard to
the black brant, as seen on the coast of Washington :

Some time during November the arrival of the black brant may be expected
in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the lower Sound. During the winter months,
however, it will be found in all the waters of Puget Sound, but not so com-
monly as in the first mentioned localities, for it appears to prefer the open
waters, in such at times assembling in large flocks. And this statement may be
qualified to an extent, for there are certain spots to which the bird seems
partial.

In and near the eastern end of the strait lies Smiths Island, this being an
abrupt bit of land not many acres in extent. Running eastward fi'om the island
is a long ledge or spit almost a mile in length, an extension as it were, parts
of which are exposed only at the times of low tides, and to the north is a
wide expanse of water having numerous kelpbeds. This locality is a much
favored one by the black brant, and here almost any time during the winter
and early spring months it may be seen in large numbers. Another place
where it may invariably be found is in the general vicinity of Dungeness on
the strait, and here also kelpbeds exist, for this bird appears to favor the
spots where this marine growth is to be found. These localities are favorite
ones in which to hunt this bird, but even so this hunting involves at times
considerable work and exposure, to say nothing of the time required. One
never knows what character of weather will be experienced, for sometimes a
number of days will elapse before one arrives on which sport can be had.
As a rule the black brant is an easy bird to decoy, and when hunting it one
needs but little concealment. Often the blind used is simply some log or up-
rooted tree that has drifted ashore, over which will be draped in a careless
way seaweed or kelp, or both, the flotsam of the beach. On the windward
side the decoys are placed in the water, to be changed from time to time accord-
ing to the run of tide. If the brant are flying, ordinarily but little time will
elapse before some passing flock sights the decoys and almost invariably comes
to them. And frequently such birds that escape the fire will — as if governed
by mere fatuousness — return to be shot at again, sometimes the result being
that the entire flock is killed.

This species appears to be restricted to the salt water, and its food being in
the nature of marine vegetation and the smaller forms of marine life, gives
somewhat of a clue to the reason why it exhibits the partiality shown for the
vicinity of the beds of kelp.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Arctic coasts of western North America and
eastern Asia. East on Arctic islands to about 110° or 100° W.
(Melville Island, Banks Land, etc.) and on the mainland to Corona-
tion Gulf- Westward along the coasts of Canada, Alaska, and
Siberia to the Taimyr Peninsula and New Siberia Islands. North
to Banks Land (Cape Kellett, etc.) and Melville Island (Winter
Harbor) . Probably intergrades with hernicla at the eastern and the
western limits of its range.

Winter range. — Mainly on the Pacific coast of the United States.
North to British Columbia (Comox, Vancouver Island). South to

258 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Lower California (San Quintin Bay and Cerros Island). Inland in
Oregon (Malheur and Klamath Lakes) and in Nevada (Pyramid
and Washoe Lakes) . On the Asiatic coast south to northern China
(Tsingtau) and Japan.

Spring migi^ation. — Main flight is northward along the coast, but
some fly overland across Alaska to the Mackenzie Valley. Early
dates of arrival in Alaska : St. Michael, May 5 ; Point Hope, May
15; Wainwright, May 24; Demarcation Point, May 20; Point Bar-
row, June 5. Late dates of departure: Lower California, Cerros
Island, May 10 ; California, San Francisco, April 24 ; Alaska, Yukon
delta, May 22.

Fall Tnigration. — A reversal of the spring routes. Migrants pass
through Bering Sea during the last half of September and first half
of October and reach California in October and November. Latest
date for Point Barrow is September 21, and Kolyma River, Siberia,
October 5.

Casual records. — Has wandered east to New York (3 records),
Massachusetts (Chatham, spring of 1883 and April 15, 1902), and
New Jersey (Great Egg Harbor, January, 1846, and Long Beach,
April 5, 1877) ; and from the Pacific coast as far inland as Utah
(Bear River). Accidental on the Hawaiian Islands (Maui).

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada : Fifteen records, June 8 to July 7 ;
nine records, June 20 to July 6. Alaska : Eleven records, June 15 to
July 4; six records, June 22 to 26.

BRANTA LEUCOPSIS (Bechstein)
i BARNACLE GOOSE

HABITS

This Old World species, which probably resorts regularly to
Greenland for the purpose of breeding, has been taken a number of
times at various places in eastern North America and is therefore
well worthy of a place on our list, as a straggling migrant, mainly
in the fall.

Spring. — It is a very common bird on the west coast of Scotland,
whence it takes its departure about the end of April or beginning
of May. John Cordeaux (1898) quotes Robert Gray, concerning its
departure as follows :

Previous to leaving, tlie barnacle geese assemble in immense flocks on the
open sands, at low tide, in the sounds of Benbecula and South Uist ; and as
soon as one detachment is on the wing it is seen to be guided by a leader,
who points the way with a strong flight northwards, maintaining a noisy bear-
ing until he gets the flock into the right course. After an hour's interval, he
is seen returning, with noisy gabble, alone, southwards to the main body, and
taking off another detachment as before, until the whole are gone.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 259

Nesting. — The breeding grounds of the barnacle goose have only
recently been found; the following quotation from A. L. V. Man-
niche (1910) seems to indicate that the species breeds abundantly in
northeastern Greenland. He writes:

June 8 and 9, 1908, I got my first opportunity to study the barnacles in their
real nesting territory. Up to this time the geese had led a comfortable and by
me unsuspected existence in a lonely marsh and moor territory far up country —
10 to 15 kilometers from the nearest salt water — east of Saelsoen, imposing by
Its extent and grandness of scenery. This territory, the farthest extent of
which is in a northerly direction, comprises an area of some 20 square kilo-
meters ; on the north it is bordered by a mountain range, the lower slopes of
which are covered by a vegetation more luxuriant than I saw in any other
place in northeast Gi'eenland.

To the east and north the marshes lose themselves in barren stony plains
sprinkled with sandy spots and a few deep lying fresh-water basins bare of
all vegetation. To the south the steep and barren mountain of Trekroner
rises to a height of 360 meters in small terraced projections.

In the marsh and moor itself the vegetation was extremely luxuriant ; as
well the alpine willow as other plants reached here a relatively gigantic
size. All over the snow had melted, though it was early in the season, and
the place offered an increased allurement to the swimmers and waders by the
countless ponds of melting snow. The influence of the powerful sunlight on
the dark turfy soil surely accounts for the unusually early melting of the
snow in this place.

At my arrival the barnacles were standing in couples or in small flocks
in the ponds or they were grazing near these ; some were high up the mountain
slopes. Almost all the geese used to leave the marsh every day at certain
times and disappeared southwards toward the high middle part of Trekroner.
I set out in this direction, thinking that a larger lake was lying near tlie
mountain, and that the geese retired to this after their meal. I really found
a pair of larger fresh-water basins and saw in these a few geese, which being
frightened flew farther toward the mountains. Having come within a distance
of one kilometer from Trekroner I solved the riddle. The barnacles were
swarming to and fro along the gigantic mountain wall like bees at their hive,
and I heard a continuous humming, sounding like a distant talk. I took a
seat at the foot of the mountain and observed the behavior of the geese for
some hours. Using my field glass I could without difficulty notice even the
smallest details.

While some of the geese would constantly fly along the rocky wall and
sometimes mounted so high in the air that they disappeared on the other
side of the rocks, the majority of the birds were sitting in couples upon the
shelves of the rocky wall, some of which seemed too narrow to give room for
the two birds — much less for a nest. It was only on the steep and absolutely
naked middle part of the mountain wall that the geese, had their quarters
and in no place lower than some 200 meters from the base of the cliff. As the
wall was quite inaccessible, I had to content myself by firing some rifle balls
against it in order to frighten the birds and thus form an idea of the size
of the colony. The birds which were " at home " then numbered some 150
individuals. As far as I could judge, breeding had not yet commenced.

I feel sure that some of the geese resorted to the mountain without intend-
ing to breed. A pair of females, which I later on secured in the marsh, had

260 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

but undeveloped eggs in their ovaries. In the mountain the geese were not very
shy and paid no attention to my shots ; the great height at which the birds
always stayed made them confident. In the marsh, however, they were very
wary and almost always had sentinels posted while they were seeking food.

The Oxford expeditions to Spitsbergen in 1921 and 1922 succeeded
in locating a number of nests of this species and collecting a series
of eggs. The Rev. F. C. E.. Jourdain has kindly sent me the fol-
lowing interesting notes on the subject:

The barnacle goose in Spitsbergen seems to have its main breeding haunts
in the valleys opening into Ice Fjord. We saw nothing of it on the north
coast or at Liefde Bay, but met with it at Advent Bay, Sassen Bay, Klaas
Bitten Bay, and Dicksons Bay during the breeding season, and have good
reason to believe that it breeds in all three localities. Probably in order to
escape the attentions of the Arctic foxes this species has acquired the habit
of nesting on ledges and hollows in precipitous bluffs, and even on the tops
of isolated pinnacles of rock. In many of the valleys in Spitzbergen one finds
a continuous succession of steep outcrops of rock running along the side of
the valley, and in some cases more than one tier running parallel with one
another and separated by a steeply sloping range of hillside or talus. It is on
these projecting masses of rock that the barnacle nests, and as the goose sits
closely and is not readily disturbed from below, a nest halfway up the hill-
side on a projecting rock may escape notice altogether on the part of those
traversing the bottom of the valley. The gander stands close by his mate
on watch, and his white face may be detected with a good glass from a con-
siderable distance. Even when approached from above both male and femalie
are slow to leave the nest when the eggs are much incubated, and the gander
in some cases will look up inquiringly at the intruder from 20 or 30 yards
below before taking wing, while the goose will allow of even closer approach.
In one case where a goose was shot from the nest, the report failed to
flush another bird, which was also sitting on eggs, not more than 20 yards
farther on. Evidently the same breeding places are resorted to year after
year, as it is often possible to detect the sites of several old nests in the imme-
diate neighborhood of that in use. The sites varied to some extent, some nests
were on gently sloping declivities, sparsely covered with lichens and mosses,
at the foot of a low cliff or on ledges on its face, and with a drop of 10 to 20
or 30 feet below ; others were on projecting spurs of rocks reached by a narrow
" knife-edge " from the main face of the cliff ; one was in a small cave over-
hung from above and with a sheer drop below ; and a bird was observed sitting
on the flat top of a mushroom-shaped pinnacle of rock, at the very top of a
high cliff. In practically every case where the female was incubating eggs,
the male was standing close beside her, and the ground near the nest was
covered with the accumulation of droppings from the parent birds, which evi-
dently spend most of the incubation period here.

In 1922 we renewed our acquaintance with this species, but found to oui-
disappointment that none of the sites occupied in 1921 were tenanted. This
was probably due to shooting and egg collecting by the residents prior to
our arrival ; but anyhow the birds had disappeared and the high winds had
removed all traces of the nests. A range of hills some 1,500 to 1,700 feet
high, with bold cliffs and conspicuous stony ridges running down from the
top, seemed likely to produce the desired result, so we proceeded to make our
way up a steep gulley till at last we reached the top of the ridge. Working

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 261

our way along the top we could look down on the steep slopes below and
could see two or three pairs of barnacle geese, some 300 or 400 feet from
the top, the geese quietly incubating while the ganders stood close at hand.
The usual nesting place was a sort of saddle on a stony ridge where a space
of a few feet of mossy ground was comparatively flat. We had brought
with us ropes and with their help were enabled to reach a point about 150
feet above the sitting bird. By careful stalking, with camera and rope iu
hand, the leading climber descended the ridge till only 20 paces from the
sitting bird. The gander had already taken wing, but, as the goose still sat
steadily, he tried another stealthy approach and was within 15 paces before
the goose, which had previously shown signs of restlessness, rose from the
nest and joined her mate. Within the down-clad nest hollow was a clutch of
5 eggs, and below was a range of cliffs, steep screes and bluffs, reaching for
quite 1,200 feet by aneriod to the innumerable streams at the foot of the
valley. The other thi-ee nests we examined in 1922 were all in very similar
positions.

Eggs. — According to Mr. Jourclain (1922), who has published an
interesting paper on the nesting habits of this species and sent me
some extensive notes on the subject, the barnacle goose lays from
3 to 6 eggs, usually 4 or 5. He describes the eggs and the down as
follows :

When fresh laid they are pure white, and bear a great resemblance to eggs
of the pink-footed goose, but are somewhat smaller. They are, however,
larger than those of the brant on the average, besides being considerably
heavier. The amount of down in the various nests varied considerably ; prob-
ably in some cases a certain amount remained in the nest hollow from the
previous year. We found no black feathers in the nest ; all were either white
or had only a faint grayish tinge.

The measurements of 49 eggs, furnished by Mr. Jourdain, aver-
age 76.35 by 50.32 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes
measure 82.7 by 46.4, 78.4 by 53.6, 68.7 by 49.5, and 82.7 by 46.4
millimeters.

Young. — Referring in his notes to the young he says :

Piecing together the information we obtained, it is clear that the goslings
remain in the nest only long enough for their down to become thoroughly
dry. They must then scramble or fall down the cliffs, probably being to
some extent helped by the strong updraft of wind sweeping up the side of
the valley, and then make their way down the screes till they reach the flat
ground at the foot of the valley, when they take to the water and are car-
ried down to the marshes at the head of the bay. As there is no vegetation
except a few lichens and mosses near the nest, it is obvious that the young
can not feed till they reach the foot of the valley, and from what we saw
of the pink-footed goose in somewhat similar circumstances the goslings are
quite capable of surviving a perpendicular drop of considerable heght with-
out injury. There seems however, to be no evidence that the parents give
them any assistance, though it would seem improbable for a newly hatched
bird to descend a perpendicular cliff nearly 100 feet in height.

Food. — Mr. Cordeaux (1898) says:

The food of the barnacle goose is both vegetable and animal : it is remarkably
fond of the short sweet grasses which cover the holms and islets off the western

262 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

coasts of Scotland, at low water also resorting to saltings, fitties, mud flats,
and foreshores, left uncovered by the sea, and is as much a land feeder as its
congener, the brent, is a sea goose. Mr. C. M. Adamson, of North Jesmond, had
some tame barnacles which in the spring would eat worms, as exceptional diet.

The stomachs and crops of birds taken in Greenland by Mr. Man-
niche (1910) were "filled with twigs, leaves, and catkins of alpine
willow, with seeds of different plants and also grasses."

Behavior. — Mr. Cordeaux (1898) quotes Macpherson and Duck-
worth, as follows :

It is interesting to wait upon the point of Burgh marsh, before daybreak,
and listen to the cries of the barnacles, feeding upon the point of Rockcliffe
marsh, just opposite. About an hour after daybreak they rise en masse from
their feeding ground, and after wheeling up and down the Solway for a few
moments, displaying their pretty barred gray, black, and white plumage against
the mud flats, they fly seawards to the estuary of the Wampool, or, circling
round, pitch in a long line upon the exposed mud half a mile to windward.
Barnacle geese are constantly vociferous, especially when feeding, and Mr. A.
Smith compares the volume of sound produced by a flock of several hundred
feeding at night together, as heard at a distance, to a pack of harriers in
full cry.

Witherby's Handbook (1921) says:

Favorite feeding localities are wide stretches of " machar " land of firm
springy turf inside sandhills. A common trait in all geese, but more noticeably
so in this species, is a continual series of friendly quarrels amongst a feeding
flock. Less inclined to associate with other geese than any other species, and
never nearly so unapproachable, it is the " fool " amongst geese, and only one
which on occasion will fail to take alarm after having seen and distrusted a
moving object within 100 yards. Occasionally goes to sea to rest on very calm
days, but as a rule as much land loving as any " gray " goose. Note a series of
rapidly repeated short barks — some higher than others. Combined chorus pro-
duced by big flock of any geese has been likened to " music " of pack of hounds
running. Taking that comparison, barnacle's cry is represented by one end of
scale, gray lag's by other ; gray lag's is full-mouthed music of pack of fox-
hounds, barnacle's that of host of small terriers. Almost if not quite insensi-
tive to scent of man, and rarely if ever takes alarm from it.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Known to breed only in northeastern Greenland
(Scoresby Land, Trekones) and on Spitsbergen. Said to breed also
on Nova Zembla, the Lofoten Islands, and in northwestern Siberia.

Winter range. — Northwestern Europe. South regularly to the
Baltic and North Seas and the British Isles, occasionally inland to
Switzerland and Austria and exceptionally south to the Azores,
Spain, Morocco, and Italy. Occurs on migrations in western Green-
land and Iceland.

Casual records. — Tliere are about 9 North American records : La-
brador (Okak), James Bay (Rupert House), Massachusetts (Chat-

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 263

ham, November 1, 1895), Long Island (Jamaica Bay, October 20,
1876, Great-South Bay, October 16, 1919, and Farmingdale, Novem-
ber 28, 1922), North Carolina (Currituck Sound, October 31, 1870,
and November 22, 1892), and Vermont (Marshfield, 1878).
Egg dates. — Spitsbergen : Nine records, June 25 to 28.

PHILACTE CANAGICA (Sevastianoff)
EMPEROR GOOSE

HABITS

The handsomest and the least known of American geese is con-
fined to such narrow limits, both in its breeding range and on its
migrations, that it has been seen by fewer naturalists than any other
goose on our list. On the almost inaccessible, low, marshy shores of
Alaska, between the mouths of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Eivers,
it formerly bred abundantly; but recent explorations in that region
indicate that it has been materially reduced in numbers during the
past 30 years. My assistant, Mr. Hersey, who spent the season of
1914 at the Yukon delta, saw less than a dozen birds, where Doctor
Nelson found it so abundant in 1879. The decrease is partially, if
not wholly, due to the fact that large numbers are killed every
year and their eggs taken by the natives, even within the limits of
what is supposed to be a reservation.

Spring. — For what we know about the life history of the em-
peror goose we are almost wholly indebted to that pioneer naturalist.
Dr. Edward W. Nelson, who fortunately has given us a very good
account of the habits of this species. I shall quote freely from his
writings, mainly from his educational leaflet on this species, in which
he (1913) writes:

At the border of the Yukon delta, Esqtiimos familiar with the country were
emploj'ed to lead us to the desired nesting ground of the emperor goose.
Nearly half a day's journey among the maze of ice-covered channels of the
delta brought us to a low, flat island, where our guide assured me many na-
chau-ihUik would soon arrive to rear their young. It was a bare, desolate
spot, with only a few scattered alders on the upper side of the islands, and
an unbroken view out over the frozen sea to the west. A tent was put up on
a slight rise and, after a stock of driftwood had been gathered, the guides took
the sledge and left me with my Esquimo companion to await the arrival of
the birds. Later, when the ice went out, they returned for me with kyaks.

A few white-fronted and cackling geese gave noisy evidence of their presence,
but it was not until May 22 that the Esquimo brought in the first emperor
goose — a male in beautiful spring plumage. After this, small flocks came in
rapidly until they were plentiful all about us. They arrived quietly, skimming
along near the ground, quite unlike the other geese, which appeared high
overhead with wild outbursts of clanging cries, which were answered by those
already on the ground. The river channels and the sea were still covered with
ice, and the tundra half covered with snow, at the time of the first arrivals.

264 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Courtship. — Almost at once after their arrival on the islands, the emperor
geese appeared to be mated, the males walking around the females, swinging
their heads and uttering low love notes, and incoming flocks quickly disinte-
grated into pairs which moved about together, though often congregating
with many others on flats and sand bars. The male was extremely jealous
and pugnacious, however, and immediately resented the slightest approach of
another toward his choice ; and this spirit was shown equally when an indivi-
dual of another species chanced to come near. When a pair was feeding, the
male moved restlessly about, constantly on the alert, and at the first alarm the
pair drew near one another, and just before taking wing uttered a deep,
ringing u-lugJi, u-lugh; these, like the flight notes, liaving a peculiar deep tone
impossible to describe.

At low tide, as soon as the shore ice disappeared, the broad mud flats along
shore were thronged with them in pairs and groups numbering up to 30 or 40
individuals. They were industriously dabbling in the mud for food until satis-
fied, and then congregated on bars, where they sat dozing in the sun or lazily
arranging their feathers. By lying flat on the ground and creeping cautiously
forward, I repeatedly approached within 30 or 40 yards of parties near shore
without their showing any uneasiness.

Nesting. — The first of June they began depositing eggs in the flat marshy
islands bordering the sea all along the middle and southern part of the delta.
The nests were most numerous in the marshes, a short distance back from the
muddy feeding gi'ounds, but stray pairs were found nesting here and there far-
ther inland on the same tundra with the other species of geese and numerous
other waterfowl. Near the seashore, tBe eggs were frequently laid among the
bleached and wave-torn scraps of driftwood lying along the highest tide marks.
On June 5, a female was found on her eggs on a slight rise in the general level.
A small gray-bleached fragment of driftwood lay close by. The goose must
have lain with neck outstretched on the ground, as I afterward found was their
custom when approached, for the Esquimo and I passed within a few feet on
each side of her ; but, in scanning the ground for nesting birds, the general
similarity in tint of the bird and the obvious stick of driftwood had complete
misled our sweeping glances. We had gone some 20 steps beyond when the
sitting bird uttered a loud alarm note and flew swiftly away. The ground
was so absolutely bare of any cover that the 3 eggs on which she had been sit-
ting were plainly visible from where we stood. They were lying in a slight
depression without a trace of lining. The same ruse misled us a number of
times ; but on each occasion the parent betrayed her presence by a startled
outcry and hasty departure soon after we had passed her and our backs were
presented. They usually flew to a considerable distance, and showed little
anxiety over our visit to tlie nests. The nests I examined usually contained
from 3 to 5 eggs, but the full complement ranged up to 8. When first laid,
the eggs are pure white, but soon become soiled. They vary in shape from
elongated oval to slightly pyriform, and are indistinguishable in size and shape
from those of the white-fronted goose. As the complement approaches comple-
tion, the parent lines the depression in the ground with a soft, warm bed of
fine grass, leaves, and feathers from her own breast. The males were rarely
seen near the nest, but usually gathered about the feeding grounds with others
of their kind, where they were joined now and then by their mates.

Eggs. — The emperor goose lays from 3 to 8 eggs; probably 5 or
6 is the usual number. The eggs that I have seen are elliptical
ovate in shape, with variations toward ovate and toward elongate

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 265

ovate. The shell is smooth or very finely granulated and not at all
glossy. The color is creamy white or dull white at first, becoming
nest stained or variegated or finely speckled with buff. The measure-
ments of 96 eggs, in Various collections, average 78.6 by 52.1 milli-
meters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 86 by 49, 80.2
by 56.2, 70.3 by 50.3, and 75.8 by 48.3 millimeters.

Young. — The period of incubation is 24 days, according to F. E.
Blaauw (1916), who has succeeded in raising this species in cap-
tivity. Doctor Nelson (1913) says of the young:

The young are hatched the last of June or early July, and are led about
the tundras by both parents until, the last of July and the first of August,
the old birds molt their quill feathers and with the still unfledged young be-
come extremely helpless. At this time, myriads of other geese are in the
same condition, and the Esquimos made a practice of setting up long lines of
strong fishnets on the tundras to form pound traps, or inclosures with wide
wings leading to them, into which thousands were driven and killed for food.
The slaughter in this way was very great, for the young were killed at the
same time and thrown away in order to get them out of the way of the next
drive. The Esquimos of this region also gather large numbers of eggs of the
breeding waterfowl for food and, with the demand for them at the mining
camps of the north, a serious menace to the existence of these and other
waterfowl might ensue.

Plumages. — Mr. Blaauw (1916) says: "The chick in down is of
a beautiful pearl-gray, darkest on the head and upper side 'and
lighter below. The legs and bill are black." A larger downy young,
about the size of a teal, in the United States National Museum, has
probably faded some; the upper parts vary in color from "bister"
to " buffy brown " and the under parts from " smoke gray " to
" oKve buff."

Mr. Blaauw (1916) says:

The chicks grew very fast, and in a few weeks were completely feathered.
In the first feather dress the bird resembles the adults, but the gray is not
so bluish. The black markings on the feathers are only indicated, and the
coverts on the upper side are not so square, but more pointed. The black
throat is wanting, and so is the white head and neck, these parts being; gray*
like the rest of the body. The tail is white.

The bill is dusky bluish, flesh color at the base and black at the tip. The
legs are yellowish black. As soon as the birds are full grown they begin
to molt, shedding all the feathers except the large flight feathers. The tail
feathers are also molted.

At the end of October the young birds are quite grown, and similar to the
old birds. By this time the upper mandible has got the beautiful blue and
flesh colors of the old birds, whilst the lower mandible has become black;
The legs are now orange. When the bird is molting, the first white feathers
of the head to appear are near the base of the bill.

The above gray-headed plumage must be the juvenal plumage,
which I have never seen, and which is probably not worn for more

266 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

than a few weeks. Evidently the change into the first winter plumage
must be very rapid. All the young birds which I have seen, col-
lected between September 9 and November 17 of their first year, are
in the first winter plumage. In this the head and neck are largely
white above and black below, much as in the adult, but the black
area is browner and the white area is much obscured by dusky
mottling, especially on the forehead, lores, and neck; the juvenal
wing is similar in color pattern to the adult, but it has narrower,
buffy white edgings instead of broad white edgings and dull, brown-
ish-dusky, subterminal markings instead of pure clear black; the
feathers of the back are similarly marked with dull patterns and nar-
row buffy edgings, which soon wear away; the under parts are dull
and mottled; and the tail is largely white, as in the adult. This
plumage is worn for a very variable length of time by different
individuals. I have seen birds taken in November in which the
adult plumage was well advanced on the back and scapulars; and
I have seen others which were just begininng the molt in June.
Perhaps both of these were exceptional; and probabl}^ a more or
less continual molt of the bodj^ plumage takes place all through
the winter and spring. I have a fine young male in my collection,
taken June 30, which is just completing this molt and is practically
adult. The wings are molted during the coming summer, July and
August, after which young birds, during their second fall, become
indistinguishable from adults.

Food. — Lucien M. Turner (1886) says that "the emperor goose
visits the vicinity of Stewart and St. Michael Islands in great num-
bers to feed on the shellfish exposed by the Ioav water." Grinnell,
Bryant, and Storer (1918) say that "at times it resorts to heath
berries, which are available on the tundras closely adjacent to the
seashore." Other writers speak of it as feeding on mussels and
other shellfish and, as it is known to feed on the beaches and mud
flats, rather than on the grassy marshes or uplands, its food is prob-
ably mainly animal. Its flesh is said to be rank and strongly flavored,
which is generally not the case with vegetable feeders.

Behavior. — Doctor Nelson (1913) says, of the flight and notes of
this species :

When on the wing, they were easily distinguished from the other geese,
even at considerable distances, by their proportionately shorter necks and
heavier bodies, as well as by their short, rapid wing strokes, resembling those
of the black brant. Like the latter, they usually flew near the ground, rarely
more than 30 yards high, and commonly so close to the ground that their
wing tips almost touchetl the surface on the down stroke. While flying
from place to place, they give at short intervals a harsh, strident call of two
syllables, like kla-ha, kla-ha, kla-Jia, entirely different from the note of any
other goose I have ever heard. A group of them on a sand bar or mud flat
often utter lower, more cackling notes in a conversational tone, which may

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 267

be raised to welcome new arrivals. They are mueli less noisy than either
the white-fronted or cackling geese, which often make the tundra resound
with their excited cries. Occasionally I could cause a passing flock to leave
its course and swing in close to my place of concealment by imitating their
flight notes.

Again (1887) he writes:

While a pair is feeding, the male keeps moving restlessly about, with eyes
constantly on the alert, and at the first alarm they draw near together and just
before they take wing both utter a deep, ringing u-lugh, u-lugh. As in the case
of the call note, this has a peculiar, deep hoarseness, impossible to describe.

Game. — Mr, Turner (1886) says that these geese —

Form an important article of food in the Yukon district, alike to the white
and native population. They are mostly obtained by means of the gun. The
best localities near St. Michael are toward the western end of the canal,
along the edge of the low gi-ounds bordering the hills of the mainland, and
near the village of Stephansky (Athwik, native name), on the western side
of St. Michael Island. This area is low, intersected with innumerable swamps
and connecting streams, forming a fine feeding ground for all kinds of water-
fowl.

A regular camping outfit is taken by sledge and dogs to a chosen locality.
In the early morning a site is selected where the geese fly around some ending
of a hill range, for they fly low and prefer to sweep around the hills rather
than mount over them. They are frequently so low in their flight that the
hunter has to wait until the geese are well past before he can shoot them
to an advantage. A nearly constant stream of geese fly around a certain point,
just to the left of the Crooked Canal, on a slight eminence, formed from the
deposit of soil torn up by some immense ice cake, which the high tides of some
December in years long gone by had left as the water receded and the warm
weather of spring had melted ; now overgrown with patches of rank vegetation.

By 10 o'clock the geese were done flying for that morning. The low character
of the ground did not favor approach to the geese feeding at the ponds.
During the middle of the day a quiet sleep invigorated the hunter for the
late evening shooting, the latter generally affording a less number of geese
than the morning's shooting.

By the next morning a sufficient number of geese were obtained to heavily
load a sledge ; drawn by six lusty Eskimo dogs, assisted by two sturdy natives.
This sport generally lasts from the arrival of the geese until the first week of
June. At this time they repair to the breeding grounds. During the summer
the geese are not hunted. The eggs are eagerly sought by the natives and
whites and take the place of meat of the birds. In the latter part of August
or the early part of September the fall shooting begins, as the geese have
molted, the young are able to fly, and they are fattening on the ripening
berries. The geese are now obtained by watching the ponds, or as they fly
over in small flocks or singly. Should a flock not fly sufficiently near, a
favorite method to attract their attention is for the hunter to lie on his back,
swing his arms and hat, kick up his legs, and imitate the call of the geese.
It rarely fails to bring them within distance, and may, if several be just shot
from their ranks, be repeated, and even a third time. Later in the season, when
cool and frosty nights are regular, great numbers of the geese are killed and
disemboweled for freezing to keep throughout the winter. The feathers are
left on the birds, for the flesh is said to keep in better condition. The body is

268 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

washed out and the bird hung up by the neck in the icehouse to keep, even
until tlie geese have arrived tlie next spring. The flesli, when thawed out
slowly, has lost all the rank taste, and, in my opinion, is much improved by^
the freezing process.

I have eaten the flesh of all the various kinds of geese, frequenting those
northern regions, and place them in value of flesh as follows : white-fronted:
goose, A. albifrons gamhelU; white-cheeked goose, B. canadensis hutchinsii
and B.. canadenMs niituma; Canada goose, B. canadensis; black brant, B.
nigricans, is always tough and lean, fit food only for a Russian ; snow-
goose, Chen hyperhoreus, is scarcely fit for food, except in cases of neces-
sity. Its flesh is coarse, rank, and has a decidedly unpleasant odor; the
emperor goose, P. canagica, is scarcely to be thought of as food. There is a
disgusting odor about this bird that can only be removed in a degree, and
then only by taking off the skin and freezing the body for a time. Evea
this does not rid the flesh entirely of strong taste.

Winter. — According to Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) :

The principal winter home of the emperor goose is on the seacoast of south-
western Alaska, and only stragglers reach California. But it is probable
that if all the emperor geese ever observed in California had been recorded,,
it would be found that almost every year one or two of the birds had
made their way within our borders. At least 10 definite instances of the
occurrence of the emperor goose in this state are known. In spite of the
fact that this is a marine species, most of the records are from the interior
valleys. Mr. Vernon Shepherd, a taxidermist of San Francisco, informs us
that he has known of the capture of at least a dozen specimens of this goose
since 1906.

The emperor goose flies in pairs or in small flocks of 4 or 5. A juvenile killed
at Gridley, Butte County, was alone, being the second in a flock of white-
fronted geese. One taken near Modesto, Stanislaus County, came to the
blind alone. Another taken near Davis, Tolo County, had been noted alone
in the same pond for three weeks previous to capture. This species is said
to be shyer than any other goose except the black sea brant.

DISTRIBUTION

Bi^eeding range. — On the northwest coast of Alaska, from the
mouth of the Kuskokwim River northward to the north side of
the Seward Peninsula (Cape Prince of Wales, Cape Espenberg^
and Deering), On St. Lawrence Island and on the northeast coast
of Siberia, from East Cape westward at least as far west as Koliut-
schin Bay.

Winter range. — Mainly in the Aleutian Islands. East along the
Alaska Peninsula at least as far as Sanakh Island and Bristol Bay
and probably to Cook Inlet, straggling farther south and casually
to California. West to the Commander Islands and perhaps
Kamchatka.

Spring migration. — Early dates of arrival in Alaska: Pribilof
Islands, St. George, April 26; Nushagak Eiver, May 5; Yukon
Delta, May 22 ; Cape Prince of Wales, May 19.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 269

Fall migration. — Early dates of arrival: Pribilof Islands, St.
George Island, September 22; Aleutian Islands, August 31; Oregon,
Willamette Eiver, September 30 ; California, San Francisco market,
October 8. Latest date for St. Michael is November 15.

Casual records. — Bare south of Alaska, but frequently wanders
south to Washington (Snohomish County, January 1, 1922), Oregon
(Netarts Bay, December 31, 1920), and California (10 or more
records). One recordfor the Hawaiian Islands (Kalapan, December
12, 1902), and one doubtful record for the Great Slave Lake region.

Egg dates. — Alaska: Fifteen records, May 26 to July 4; eight
records, June 2 to 20.

DENDROCYGNA AUTUMNALIS (Linnaeus)
BLACK-BELLIED TREE DUCK

HABITS

As I have never seen either of the tree ducks in life, I sh'all have
to quote wholly from the writings of others ; and very little has been
published about this species, wliich is to be found in only a very lim-
ited area north of the Kio Grande. Writing of its habits near
Fort Brown, Texas, Dr. J. C. Merrill (1878) says:

This large and handsome bird arrives from the south in April, and is soon
found in abundance on the river banlvs and lagoons. Migrating at night, it
continually utters a very peculiar chattering whistle, which at once indicates
its presence. Called by the Mexicans patos maizal, or cornfield duck, from its
habit of frequenting those localities. It is by no means shy, and large num-
bers are offered for sale in the Brownsville market. Easily domesticated, it
becomes very tame, roosting at night in trees with chickens and turkeys. When
the females begin to lay, the males leave them, and gather in large flocks on
sandbars- in the river.

Nesting. — Mr. George B. Sennett (1879) writes:

First noticed early in May, in pairs, at Lomita, looking for nesting places.
Soon after it became quite common. During the mating season it is found
about in trees of open woodland, and very tame. It nests in hollow trees with-
out regard to nearness of water. I was shown the nest from which a set of
12 eggs was taken the season before. It was in an ebony tree in an open
grove, near the houses of the ranch, and much frequented; was about 9 feet
from the ground, in a hollow branch, with no lining but the chips from the
rotten wood.

Four sets of eggs in the United States National Museum, collected
near Brownsville, Texas, were taken from nests in holes in elms and
willows, 10 or 12 feet from the ground. Another set is said to have
been taken from a nest on the ground, among rushes, weeds, and
grass, on the edge of 'a lake. The tree nests were mostly in " big
woods," usually near a lake or creek, and no lining was found in the
nests except the rotten wood in the hollows. Doctor Merrill (1878)

270 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

says that " the eggs are deposited in hollow trees and branches, often
at a considerable distance from water (2 miles), and from 8 to 30 feet
or more from the ground."

Eggs. — Doctor Merrill (1878) says that " two broods 'are raised,"
but Mr. Sennett (1879) was "of the opinion that but one brood is
reared in a season." By reference to the ^g^ dates, given below, it
will be seen that the nesting season is very much prolonged, which
suggests the possibility that two broods might be raised.

The black-bellied tree duck does not lay such large sets of eggs
as its relative, the fulvous tree duck ; from 12 to 16 eggs usually con-
stitute a full set, the smaller number being more often found. The
eggs are ovate or short ovate in shape, the shell is sometimes smooth
and not at all glossy, but in other specimens it is highly glossy and
very finely j)itted ; the color is white or creamy white, with occasional
nest stains. The measurements of 99 eggs, in various collections,
average 52.3 by 38.3 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes
measure 58.5 by 39.5, 54.2 by 42.5, 41.5 by 28.7 and 43.7 by 28.6
millimeters.

Young. — According to Doctor Merrill (1878) "the parent carries
the young to water in her bill." And Mr. George N. L'awrence ( 1874)
quotes Col. A. J. Grayson as saying: " The young are lowered to the
ground one at a time in the mouth of the mother; after all are
safely landed she then cautiously leads her young brood to the nearest
water."

Plumages. — Baird, Brewer, and Kidgway (1884) describe the
downy young as follows:

Above, blackish brown, varied by large areas of sulphury buff, as follows:
A supraloral streak extending over the eye; a wide stripe from the bill
under the eye and extending across the occiput, the blackish below it extend-
ing forward only about as far as directly beneath the eye, and confluent
I)osteriorly with the nuchal longitudinal stripe of the same color; a pair of
sulphury buff patches on each side of the black, and another on each side of the
rump; posterior half of the wing whitish buff, the end of the wing blackish;
the black of the upper parts sends off two lateral projections on each side, the
first on each side of the crop, the second over the flanks to the tibiae ; the buff
of the abdomen extending upward in front of this last stripe as far as the
middle portion of the buff spot on the side of the back. Lower parts wholly
whitish buff, paler and less yellowish along the middle.

A bird in my collection, taken September 11, is apparently in
the Juvenal or first winter plumage. The bright rufus of the upper
parts is replaced by duller shades of pale browns; and the under
parts are uniform pale grayish buff, with no traces of the rufous
breast or black belly ; the bill is dusky. I have seen a bird in similar
plumage, collected February 7, in which the color pattern of the
under parts of the adult is faintly indicated. Apparently this

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 271

immature plumage is worn at least through the first fall and winter
and perhaps until the first postnuptial molt, the next summer.

Food. — Tliis species is locally known as the " cornfield duck,"
on account of its habits of frequenting the cornfields to feed on the
corn, where it is said to do considerable damage. Mr. Sennett (1878)
writes :

Late in August, the young not full grown are seen about the corncribs
picking up the refuse corn, at which time Mr. Bourbois says they afford most
excellent eating. This bird does not alight in the water as do other ducks
but on the land, and wades about in shallow water for food. When corn is
nearly ripe, it alights on the stalks, strips the ears of their husks, and pulls
the grain from the cob, making this its chief food during the season. I never
saw it skulk in the grass for cover, but always take wing and fly to the woods,
or to some removed open point by tlie water. It is a pretty sight to see this
bird on some dead stub, pluming itself, its color and shape being very handsome.

Behavior. — Colonel Grayson, in his notes, quoted by Mr. Lawrence

(1874), says:

This duck perches with facility on the branches of trees, and when in the
cornfields, upon the stalks, in order to reach the ears of corn. Large flocks
of them spend the day on the bank of some secluded lagoon, densely bordered
with woods or water flags, also sitting among the branches of trees, not often
feeding or stirring about during the day. When upon the wing they con-
stantly utter their peculiar whistle of pe-clie-clie-n^, from which they have re-
ceived their name from the natives. (The other species is called Durado.)
I have noticed that this species seldom lights in deep water, always prefering
the shallow water edges, or the ground ; the cause of this may be from
the fear of the numerous alligators that usually infest the lagoons.

When taken young, or the eggs hatched under the common barnyard hen,
they become very domestic witliout being confined ; they are very watchful
during the night, and, like the goose, give the alarm by their shrill whistle
when any strange animal or person comes about the house. A lady of my
acquaintance possessed a pair which she said were as good as the best
watchdog; I also had a pair which were equally as vigilant, and very docile.

Doctor Sanford (1903) writes:

In April, 1901, I found these birds abundant in the vicinity of Tampico,
Mexico. They were most often seen in small flocks of from 4 to 10 on the
banks at the edge of the lagoon. Their long legs gave them an odd look.
At our approach they would run together, raising their long necks much like
geese. The flight was peculiar and characteristic, low down and in a line,
their large wings with white bands presenting a striking aspect, and giving
the impression of a much larger bird. We saw them occasionally on the
smaller ponds, and shot several, all of them males. In one or two instances
the appearance of the breast indicated the bird had been sitting on eggs.
While the males of this species are supposed to attend to their own affairs
during the period of incubation, it would seem as if they occasionally as-
sisted in nesting duties. Once or twice I saw them near small ponds in woods,
apparently nesting, flying from tree to tree with perfect ease, exhibiting some
concern at our presence.

272 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Winter.— Frof. W. W. Cooke (1906) says:

It winters in Mexico at least as far north as central Vera Cruz (Vega del
Casadero) and Mazatlan. North of this district it is strictly migratory, and
throughout most, if not all, of its ranges in Central America there seems to be
a shifting of location between the winter and the summer homes, but no data
are available to determine the movements with accuracy.

Since writing the above life history I have visited the Browns-
ville region in the lower Rio Grande Valley and made a special
effort to learn something about the two tree ducks, which were for-
merly so abundant there. I did not see a specimen of either species.
Capt. E. D. Camp, who has spent some 13 years in studying and
collecting birds in that region, told me that the black-bellied tree
duck had entirely disappeared from the Brownsville region and
that the fulvous tree duck had become very scarce. He took me
to a resaca where he had seen a pair of the latter this spring, 1923,
but we saw no trace of the birds.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — East to the Gulf coasts of Texas and Mexico.
South to Panama (River Truando). West to the Pacific coast of
Mexico (Mazatlan). North to southern Texas (lower Rio Grande
Valley) and irregularly north to Corpus Christi and perhaps Kerr-
ville. Known to breed in Porto Rico and Trinidad and probably
breeds in some of the other West Indies.

Winter range. — Resident in most of its range. Winters at least
as far north as Vera Cruz and Mazatlan.

Migratio7\s. — ^Arrives in Texas in April and leaves in September,
October, and November.

Casual records. — Has wandered to Arizona (Tucson, May 5, 1899)
and southern California (Imperial Valley, fall, 1912).

Egg dates. — Texas: Sixteen records, May 3 to October 18; eight
records, June 20 to July 14.

DENDROCYGNA BICOLOR (Vieillot)
FULVOUS TREE-DUCK

HABITS

Messrs. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) introduce this species
in a few well-chosen words as follows :

The term tree duck, as applied to the fulvous tree duck, seems to be an al-
most complete misnomer for the bird. As regards structure this species
seems to be more closely related to the geese than to the ducks, and, at
least in California, it seldom nests in trees but chooses the extensive tule
marshes of our interior valleys. Birds apparently belonging to the same
species of tree duck that occurs in this State are found in South America, in

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 273

southern Uruguay and Argentina, and also in South Africa and in India —
a very striking case of what is known as interrupted or discontinuous dis-
tribution. In North America the chief breeding ground of the species is in
Mexico, but a considerable number of birds breed in the southwestern United
States. The latter contingent is migratory, moving south for the winter
season.

S'pring. — Col. A. J. Grayson, in his notes quoted by Mr. George
IS". Lawrence (1874), says:

Although its geographical range is confined within the limits of the Tropics,
yet this species has its seasons of periodical migrations from one part of the
<?ountry to the other ; during the month of April their well-known and peculiar
whistle may be heard nightly as they are passing over Mazatlan in apparently
large flocks, going northward. At first this phenomenon puzzled me not a
little, as I well knew that they are not often found far north of the Tropics,
■except an occasional straggler. But I was at length enlightened as to their
point of destination ; by frequent inquiries of the natives, I was satisfied that
they went no farther north than the Mayo and Yaqui Rivers, in Sonora, and
the adjacent lakes and lagoons, where they breed. Some, however, remain
and breed in the State of Sinaloa, and the adjoining localities.

Referring to the migration in South America, W. H. Hudson
(1920) writes:

Tliis duck, the well-known Pato silvon (whistling duck) of the eastern
Argentine country, is found abundantly along the Plata and the great streams
flowing into it, and northwards to Paraguay. Along this great waterway it
is to some extent a migratory species, appearing in spring in Buenos Aires
in very large numbers, to breed in the littoral marshes and also on the pampas.
They migrate principally by night, and do not fly in long trains and phalanxes
like other ducks, but in a cloud ; and when they migrate in spring and autumn
the shrill confused clangor of their many voices is heard from the darkness
overhead by dwellers in the Argentine capital ; for the ducks, following the
eastern shore of the sealike river, pass over that city on their journey.

Nesting. — One of the best accounts of the nesting habits of the
fulvous tree duck in California is given by A. M. Shields (1899),
as follows :

Starting early next morning to search a different locality, the place selected
was an extensive strip of high grass growing in the damp swampy ground and
sometimes in several inches of water. The grass was from 2 to 3 feet high,
of a variety commonly known as " sword " or " wire " grass, and covered an
area of perhaps 100 acres of low land between the deep water and the higher
ground a few hundred yards back. Just as we were alighting from the wagon
on the edge of the swampy area I saw a fulvous tree duck flying from the
swamp. After a few circles she dropped down among the dense grass not
300 yards distant, and I, not stopping to put -on my wading boots but keeping
my eye on the spot where she had settled, quickly approached and when with-
in a few yards I was delightfully shocked by a flutter of wings and the sight
of the old bird rising and winging a hasty retreat. I reached the nest and
what a thrill at the sight, there in the midst of a little vacant square of
4 or 5 feet was a beautifully built nest, composed entirely of grass, about 6
inches in height and containing 19 beautiful white eggs. I immediately saw by
comparison that my surmise as to the identity of the strange parasite eggs
found the day before was correct.

274 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The nest was situated in the centei- of a little open spot in the grass ; the
open area had evidently been created by the bird in her quest for building ma-
terial, for she had proceeded to pull up or break off the grass immediately
adjacent as her nest grew higher and larger, until the nest finally occupied a
position in broad daylight as it were, although it is not improbable that when
the spot was selected it was well hidden by overhanging and surrounding
grass. I was not long in securing this nest and eggs, after which we began a
systematic search through the high grass and in a short time I had found my
second nrst, constructed similarly to the first but a little better hidden, being
under an overhanging bunch of grass which furnished a slight covering. This
nest contained 30 eggs, deposited in a double layer ; and if the first set of 19
was a surprise, what shall I say of this?

Dr. Harold C. Bryant (1914) describes other nests, similarly lo-
cated, as follows :

One of our most interesting finds was a nest of the fulvous tree duck, dis-
covered on May 12, 1914. The nest was situated on a hummock in the middle
of a marsh between two ponds. The nest was a well-woven one of dry sedges
placed about 6 inches above the ground in a tall clump of sedge and weeds.
The cavity was about 5 inches deep and in it lay 12 ashy white eggs. A few
days later the nest was raided by some predacious animal and all the eggs
destroyed. On May 18 we discovered a second nest in the same swamp. This
one was built about 6 inches above the water in a small clump of sedge and
contained but 4 eggs. The sedges were arched over the cavity in such a way
as to conceal it effectively. Two days later when we visited this nest we
found it also raided. The only other nest of this species noted was a new one
found on June 23. No attempt had been made at special construction of a
nest, the two eggs simply lying in a crushed-down place among tall sedges.

The method of nesting described above seems to be the method
regularly followed in California. I have two sets of fulvous tree
duck's eggs in my collection from Merced County, California; one
nest is described as made of grass and small tules, lined with fine
grass and a little down, and placed on the ground among high grass
in a swamp; the other nest was made of grass and tules and was
placed in a clump of grass and tules in a ditch with 2i/2 feet of water
under it; there were 29 eggs in the latter nest, 10 of which were in
the upper layer.

That this duck probably does nest occasionally in trees in Cali-
fornia, as it certainly does elsewhere, is suggested by the following
observation by W. Otto Emerson, published by Mr. Shields (1899),
in his paper referred to above :

On May 23, 1SS2, while collecting with William C. Flint at Lillie's ranch
near Tulare Lake I noticed a fulvous tree duck sitting in the entrance hole of
a large white oak near one of the ditches, but it was out of the question to
reach it. Again on May 26 another was located sitting on the edges of a hole
high up in a white oak.

Mr. D. B. Burrows found this species nesting in hollow trees, at
heights varying from 4 to 30 feet, in the valley of the lower K.io
Grande, near Roma, Texas. He says in his notes :

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 275

The fulvous tree duck is a common species in some localities along the Rio
Grande River. In the breeding season the birds are frequently seen singly,
perched in large trees in the heavily timbered bottom lands.

I secured two sets of their eggs, one of which contained 14 and the other 11
eggs. Both of these nests were found by Mexicans, and one of them I visited
and examined. This nest was a natural cavity in the large trunk of a mes-
quite tree and about 4 feet from the ground ; the cavity was about 2 feet in
depth and the eggs, 11 in number, were placed on rotten chips at the bottom.

The eggs are deposited at a warm time of the year, and I am informed by
the Mexicans that the birds are in the habit of leaving the nests for the
greater part of the day, the heat of the sun continuing their incubation, but
they return and remain upon the nest during the night and the cool part of the
morning. How true this is I am not able to say, as I had no opportunity of
watching them, but it vseems quite reasonable. The nest was more than half
a mile from the Rio Grande River, in a broad mesquite bottom.

Eggs. — Either the fulvous tree duck lays an extraordinary num-
ber of eggs or several females lay in the same nest. Mr, Shields
(1899) says:

We subsequently found about a dozen nests, all similarly situated, and most
of them containing from 17 to 28, 30, 31, and 32 eggs. The smallest set found
was of 9 and another of 11 eggs, both evidently being incomplete, as the nests
were not finished and incubation had not commenced.

Authentic sets of as many as 36 eggs are in existence and probably
much larger numbers have been found according to F, S. Barnhart
(1901), who writes:

From time to time since 1895 pothunters have told wonderful stories of find-
ing large numbers of eggs piled up on bunches of dead grass and on small knolls
that rose above the water in the swamps. The number of eggs in these nests
ranged from 30 to 100 or more, according to report, and in not a few cases the
finder has brought the eggs with him in order to prove that what he said was
true.

Probably the large numbers referred to by Mr. Barnhart are
surplus eggs laid b}^ various individuals and never incubated; and
perhaps some of the large sets in collections are the product of more
than one female. Evidently' the fulvous tree duck is careless in its
laying habits, for Mr. Shields (1899) speaks of finding eggs of this
species in the nests of the redhead and the ruddy duck. All of the
slough-nesting ducks seem to be careless about laying in each other's
nests and to have the habit of using "dumping nests" in which
large numbers of eggs are laid and forgotten. »

In shape the eggs are bluntly ovate, short ovate, or oval. The
shell is usually smooth and without gloss, but in many specimens,
probably those that have been incubated, the shell is quite glossy
and minutely pitted. The color varies from white to buffy white,
but the eggs are often much stained with deep shades of buff. The
measurements of 212 eggs, in various collections, average 53.4 by 40.7
millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 59.9 by
40.4, 52.5 by 44.03, 49.1 by 39.7 and 51.7 by 37.6 millimeters.

276 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Plumages. — The downy yoimo; of the fulvous tree duck is de-
scribed by Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) as follows:

Top of head clove brown ; chin, throat, and ?.ides of head dull white, a streak
of the same color extending fwound back of head on each side and meeting its
fellow on hind head; a short, dull white streak on each side of head from
side of bill to above eye; bill (dried) dusky brown with prominent yellowish
nail; hind neck clove brown, a streak of same color invading side of
head below streak of white which encircles head; rest of upper surface of
body uniform bfster brown ; whole under surface of body dull white ; feet
(dried) grayish yellow.

A series of young birds in my collection, about two-thirds grown,,
are strikingly like adults, except that the colors are all duller, the
brown edgings on the back are narrower, there is less chestnut in the
wing coverts, and the upper tail coverts are tipped with brown.
I have no data as to subsequent molts and plumages, but suppose
that the adult plumage is assumed at the first postnuptial molt when
the young bird is a little over a year old.

Food. — Mr. Shields (1899) says that these ducks "are equally at
home in an alfalfa patch (about dusk) or in a lake of water, and
are entirely at home in an oak forest not far from the breeding
swamp, where they are said to assemble for the purpose of feeding
on acorns."

Referring to the food of this species, Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer
(1918) write:

The fulvous tree duck feeds largely on the seeds of grasses and weeds. In
Mexico and Texas it is said to visit the cornfields at night where it finds
palatable provender. When feeding in muddy or marshy situations the birds
thrust their hiUs deep in the soft mud on both sides and in front of them as
they walk along. The stomach of an individual obtained at Los Banos,
Merced County, in May, 1914, and examined by us, contained finely cut up
grass and other vegetable matter.

Behavior. — The same writers say on this subject :

The fulvous tree duck is more easily approached than many other water-
fowl, but nevertheless is often diflicult to find as it congregates among the
dense tules or far out on the marshy ponds. On occasion a flock has been
easily approached and a number killed at one shot. Sometimes, when tree
ducks are surprised on grassy ground, they simply stand rigidly with their
heads and long necks straight up in the air, and at a distance look more like
stakes than birds. When wounded they are said to escape not only by diving
but also by running at great speed and hiding in the grass, and thus often
baffle entirely the hunter's efforts to recover them.

Game. — Regarding its status as a game bird, they say:

The flesh of the fulvous tree duck is light colored and juicy, and also free from
the rank flavor possessed by sea-faring ducks and geese. On their arrival in Cali-
fornia the birds are fat and eminently fit for the table ; but since they are here
in greatest numbers during the close season, they largely escape the slaughter
levied on other wild fowl. The numbers of this species are, at best, small in

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 277

comparison with many otiier clucks and geese. They could ill afford a heavy
toll by the huBiter during the period of their stay he^. Any levy upon them
during the actual breeding season would be contsary to all recognized ] rin-
ciples of game conservation and humanity. As it is, but »• few tree ducks are
to be shot eSch j'ear at the opening of the season, October 15. Tho.se who are
{^nxious to hunt the fulvous tree duck in numbers must go to Mexico, where
the birds are to be found regularly in winter and where a certain toll may be
levied with safety.

Wmte7\ — On the winter habits of the fulvous tree duck in Mexico
Mr. Lawrence (1874) quotes Colonel Grayson as follows:

At the conclusion of the rainy season, or the month of October, they make
their appearance in the vicinity of Mazatlan, San Bias, and southward, in
large flocks ; inhabiting the fresh-water ponds and lakes in the coast region,
or tierra caliente, during the entire winter, or dry months, subsisting princi-
pally upon the seeds of grass and weeds, and often at night visiting the corn-
fields for grain. During these months I have found them in the shallow
grass-grown ponds in very large numbers, affording excellent sport to the
hunter, and a delicious game for the tal)le ; their flesh is white, juicy, and,
feeding upon grain and seed, is free from the strong or rank flavor of most
other ducks ; they are rather heavy or bulky and usually fat. They are more
easy to approach than our northern species ; I have shot as many as 15 with
the two discharges of my double-barrel. When only winged they are almost
sure to make their escape, which their long and stout legs enable them to do,
running and springing with extraordinary agility, and ultimately eluding pur-
suit by dodging into the grass or nearest thicket ; if the water is deep they
dive, and as they rise to breathe, having only the head above water, and that
concealed among the water plants, they are soon abandoned by the hunter.

Mr. H. B. Conover writes to me, of the haunts of this species in
Venezuela, as follows :

The only place we saw this duck was at Lagunillas. Here on a large savan-
nah or swamp we saw thousands of tree ducks, about 5 per cent of which were
fulvous and the rest gray breasted. The fulvous tree duck was very much
wilder than the other, and when polling through the marsh, would be the
first to leave, generally rising 100 to 150 yards away. On the water these
birds were very easy to distinguish from the gray breasted because of their
whitish rump, which showed up plainly. They flocked by themselves, as I
never noticed them mixed in with flocks of gray breasted or vice versa. This
marsh was a shallow place, I believe not over 3 feet deep in any spot, and con-
sisted of large pieces of open water with patches and islands of high grass
on the sides. The open water was covered for the most part with floating
aquatic plants somewhat similar to our lily. It was in these open places,
among the floating aquatic plants, that the tree ducks could be seen. This
bird was well known to the natives there and went by the name of Llaguasa
Colorado as against the plain Llaguasa for the gray-breasted tree duck.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Southv.estern Xorth America, parts of South
America, and southern Africa and India. In North America east to
Louisiana (Lake Catharine and the Rigolets). South to central
Mexico (Jalisco and Valley of Mexico). North to central California

278 BULLETIlSr 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

(Merced County), central Nevada (Washoe Lake), southern Arizona
(Fort AVhijDple), and eastern Texas (Nueces County). In South
America from central Argentina (near Buenos Aires and in Ajo
district), northwards to northern Argentina (Tucuman Fort, in
Donovan), central Paraguay (Asuncion), and southern Brazil. Oc-
curs in northern South America (Colombia, Venezuela, and British
Guiana) ; it probably breeds in these localities and casually on the
island of Trinidad.

Winter range. — Includes the breeding range and extends south-
wards in Mexico to Guerrero and Chiapas and northwards in Cali-
fornia to the Sacramento Valley (Marysville) and Marin County
(Inverness).

Migrations. — Migratory movements are not well marked, but
occur mainly in April and October.

Casual records. — Has wandered east to North Carolina (Currituck
Sound, July, 1886) and Missouri (New Albany, fall, 1890) and north
to British Columbia (Alberni, Vancouver Island, September 29,
1905.

Egg dates. — California : Twenty-three records, April 28 to July
13; twelve records, June 7 to 25. Texas: Nine records, May IG to
September 10 ; four records, June 16 to July 12.

CYGNUS CYGNUS (Linnaeus)

WHOOPING SWAN

HABITS

The status of this fine swan as an American bird has rested mainly
on its former occurrence as a breeding bird of southern Greenland,
of which Andreas T. Hagerup (1891) says: "Formerly nested in
South Greenland, but is now only a rare visitor." It is said to have
been exterminated in Greenland by the natives, who pursued and
killed the young birds and the adults, when molting and unable to
fly. Probably what few stragglers now occur there are wanderers
from Iceland, where it is known to breed regularly.

The whooping swan is a Palearctic bird of wide distribution
across the northern portions of Europe and Asia, breeding mainly
north of the Arctic Circle.

Nesting. — John Cordeaux (1898) writes:

" It is the earliest of the Arctic breeding birds to move toward its nesting
quarters, and its loud trumpet calls are the first notice to the dwellers in high
latitudes that the long dreary winter is nearing its end. Swans arrive at their
nesting quarters as early as the end of March. The nest is a round mass of
water plants and moss, fragments of turf and peat, of considerable elevation
and often visible at a long distance. It is placed in some vast wilderness of
bog or marsh, and sometimes on a small island in a lake. The eggs, from 3 to

LIFE HISTORIES OP XORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 279

5, and 7, are creamy white, and small for the great size of the parent. They
are buried in down from the bird's breast, with which the nest is also lined.

The following account of the breeding of this species in the West
Highlands of Scotland is published by Mrs. Audrey Gordon (1922),
as follows.:

On May 21, 1921, my husband and I went to a certain loch in the West
Highlands hoping to photograph a black-throated diver whose nest we had
located on May 16. However, to our great disappointment the diver's eggs
had been washed out of the nest during the flood in the night of May 19-20.
Near a neighboring island, where many herons nested on low birch trees,
we saw a pair of whooper swans {Cycjnus cygnus) i^wimmms. Suspecting a
nest, a search was made, and soon revealed the swan's nest with 4 eggs. It
was situated on a patch of green grass amid a mass of hummocks of blueberry
and heather and about 4 yards from the edge of the loch. The nest was com-
posed of dead grasses and weeds and was raised some 15 inches from the
ground level. A " hide " was constructed among the hummocks and from it a
watch was kept on the 22d and 2.3d.

The swan always landed at exactly the same place, on a tiny sandy beach,
and approached the nest slowly, drying her breast feathers by rubbing them
with her head. While sitting she spent a good deal of time building up the
nest by pulling the grasses up and around her from the base of the nest.
Several times she stood up and laboriously turned the great eggs completely
over. Once she left the nest to feed and before doing so carefully covered the
eggs with the nesting material. On returning, however, .she did not remove
the covering but wriggled it off the eggs with her body.. Often she went to
sleep on the uest, her long neck lying along her back in tortuous curves. The
photograph shows clearly the distinguishing features of the whooper swan —
the large size, long straight neck held erect and not curved as in the mute
species, and the absence of knob or berry on the bill. Further proof of the
identity of the species was given by the hearing of the repeated calling of both
birds, a musical call, rather resembling that of the wigeon.

Eggs. — This swan is said to lay from 3 to 7 eggs, but usually from
4 to 6. They are creamy or yellowish white at first but soon be-
come nest stained. The measurements of 75 eggs, as given in
Witherby's Handbook (1921) average 112.8 by 72.6 millimeters;
the eggs showing the four extremes measure 126.3 by 71.3, 114 by
77.4, 105.2 by 72, and 117 by 68.1 millimeters. The period of incuba-
tion is given as from 31 to 42 da^^s, or as about five weeks.

Food. — Mr. Cordeaux (1898) says on this subject:

Swans feed on vegetable substances, as grass, and shoots of shrubs and
trees, and the roots and leaves of water plants, which their long necks enable
them to tear up from the bottom of the rivers and shallows of the lakes they
frequent. They will also eat grain when it can be got.

Witherby's Handbook (1921) adds to the list of food taken in
summer, " fresh-water mollusca, worms, and acquatic insects."

Behavior. — Eev. F. O. Morris (1903) writes:

They fly in a long line, at times divaricated in the form of a wedge, and go
in flocks or teams of from 4 or 5 to 30, which unite together to the number of
100449—25 19

280 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

several hundreds, at the times of migration. Their flight is easy and well sus-
tained and usually conducted at a great height. It is exercised without much
noise, except on first rising or alighting, when the sound may be heard to a
considerable distance. It is said that they can fly at the rate of above 100
miles an hour. They walk well and can also run ^-ith considerable rapidity.
In swimming about, except when feeding, the neck is carried in an upright
posture and seldom in the arched manner characteristic of the other species.
In walking the neck is bent backward over the body and the head lowered as
if to preserve a proper balance.

The note resembles the word " hoop," repeated ten or a dozen times ; hence
the name of the bird. It is both loud, clear, and sonorous, and sounds aloft
like the clang of a trumpet. Other inflections of their voice are expressed by
Meyer, by the syllables " hang, hang," " grou, gi~ou," and " killelee." Montagu
writes that having killed one of these species out of a flock of 10 or 12 its
companions flew around several times making a most melancholy cry before
they flew off.

Mr. Cordeaux (1898) refers to the notes of this swan as follows:

There is no sound in nature more likely to attract attention than the aerial
music of a herd of migrating swans passing high overhead ; some speak of it
as exhilarating to the highest degree, but to me there is always a touch of
sadness in the sound — the sadness of Highland music in those long drawn,
melancholy, and plaintive notes, which seem suggestive of the illimitable wilds
of the great lone lands where the birds have passed the long day of the short
Arctic summer.

He further says :

Mr. St. John has seen them arrive on Loch Spynie as early as September 30.
He says : " While they remain with us, they frequent and feed in shallow pieces
of water, of so small a depth that in many places they can reach the bottom
with their long necks and pluck off the water grasses on which they feed.
While employed in tearing up these plants, the swans are generally sur-
rounded by a number of smaller water fowl, such as wigeon and teal, who
snatch at and carry off the pieces detached by their more powerful companions.
The rapidity of the flight of a swan is wonderful ; one moment they are far
from you, the next they have passed you like an arrow. This speed, however,
is only attained when at a considerable height above the ground." Swans are
most powerful swimmers and will swim out from the seashore in the teeth of
a considerable gale with the greatest ease.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Palearctic region. East to northeastern Siberia
(Anadyr and Kamchatka) and the Commander Islands. West to
Great Britain. South to about 65° N. in northern Siberia and about
62° N. in northern Europe. North of the Arctic Circle in Finland
and Scandinavia. West to Iceland, and formerly to Greenland.

Winter range. — South to southern Europe (rarely to northern
Africa), central Asia, Persia, China, and Japan.

Casual records. — Now only casual in Greenland (Atangmik,
Godthaab, Ingtuk, and Arsuk).

Egg dates. — Iceland: Ten records. May 1 to June 18. Great
Britain : Five records, April 20 to June 21.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 281

CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord)
WHISTLING SWAN
HABITS

I had lived to be nearly 50 years old before I saw my first wild
swan, but it was a sight worth waiting for, to see a flock of these
magnificent, great, snow-white birds, glistening in the sunlight
against the clear blue sky, their long necks pointing northward to-
ward their polar home, their big black feet trailing behind, and their
broad translucent wings slowly beating the thin upper air, as they
sped onward in their long spring flight. If the insatiable desire to
kill, and especially to kill something big and something beautiful, had
not so possessed past and present generations of sportsmen, I might
have seen one earlier in my life and perhaps many another orni-
thologist, who has never seen a swan, might have enjoyed the thrill
of such an inspiring sight. No opj^ortunity has been neglected to
kill these magnificent birds, by fair means or foul, since time imme-
morial; until the vast hordes which formerly migrated across our
continent have been sadly reduced in numbers and are now confined
to certain favored localities. Fortunatel}^ the breeding grounds of
this species are so remote that they are not likely to be invaded by
the demands of agriculture; and fortunately the birds are so wary
that they are not likely to be exterminated on migrations or in their
winter resorts.

Spring. — Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898) says of the start on the spring
migration :

At the advent of spring the swan begin to show signs of uneasiness, and
to make preparations for their long journey to the northward. They gather
in large flocks and pass much of their time preening their feathers, keeping
up a constant flow of loud notes, as though discussing the period of their
departure and the method and direction of their course. At length all
being in readiness, with loud screams and many who-who's, they mount
Into the air, and in long lines wing their way toward their breeding
places amid the frozen north. It has been estimated that swan travel
at the rate of 100 miles an hour with a moderate vsind in their favor to
help them along. The American swan is monogamous, and once mated the
pair are presumed to be faithful for life. The young keep with their parents
for the first year, and these little families are only parted during that period
by the death of its members.

Being earlj migrants, swans are often overtaken by severe storms
with disastrous results, as the following incident, related by George
B. Sennett (1880), will illustrate:

An unusual flight of swans occurred in northwestern Pennsylvania on the 22d
of last March (1879). On the day mentioned, as well as the previous day and
night, a severe storm prevailed, the rain and snow freezing as they fell. The
swans, on their migration north, were caught in the storm and, becoming over-
weighted with ice, soon grew so exhausted that they settled into the nearest

282 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

ponds and streams, almost helpless. Generally a single one was seen in some
mill pond or creek, and the fowling piece, loaded with large shot, and not
infrequently the rifle, was used to bring to bag the noble game, though, con-
sidering the plight they were in, in all probability anyone might have paddled
up to the birds and taken them alive. In fact, in a number of instances they
were reported as thus taken alive. Large flocks were seen in some districts in
the same pitiable condition. A flock of from 33 to 35 American or whistling
swans surprised the inhabitants of Plumer on Saturday forenoon by alighting
in the waters of Cherry Run. One of the swans was almost immediately shot
at and killed, and, to the surprise of the now large crowd of men and boys, the
remainder of the flock, on account of the ice accumulating on their wings, vv'as
unable to fly, and a general rush was then made for the poor birds, and 25 were
captured alive by the eager fellows.

The late E. S. Cameron has sent me some very full notes on the
whistling swan, which seems to be a regular spring and fall migrant
through central Montana. He mentions a flock of 344 birds seen by
W. R. Felton on Mallard Lake on April 4, 1912, and a still larger
flock of about a thousand birds seen by J. H. Holtman on INIarshy
Lake on April 10, 1911. He says :

The swans come in small flocks, at short intervals, until they sometimes
aggregate several hundred individuals. "While the swans are usually the
earliest birds to arrive, geese may be still earlier, and this year a small flock of
six Canada geese {Branta canadensis canadensis) preceded the swans. In 1913
the first swans were observed on April 4 by Bob Morrow (one of Mr. Williams's
men), who counted 2G. On April 6 W. P. Sullivan, of the Square Butte Ranch,
enumerated 25 in one flock and saw another smaller bunch of about half that
number, which were too far away to count without glasses. At the present time
(April 8), when we reached the lake side there were 125 swans, as we ascer-
tained after frequent counts. These were grouped upon the southwest shore of
the lake immediately below the ranch where the fine mountain stream called
Alder Creek flows in. Some were standing upon one leg in 2 or 3 inches of
water, others floated asleep behind these, with their heads under their wings,
and farther away watchful birds, constituting a rear guard, were sailing about.
With very few exceptions the swans held one leg along the side either when
swimming or resting upon the water. They allowed us to examine them
through binoculars for a few minutes and then all began swimming slowly for
the center of the lake. Mr. Williams informed us that no matter how much the
swans might be disturbed they would always return to this place, on account of
the fresh water running in from the mountains. He also said that unless shot
at (when they would probably leave altogether) the swans might possiblv
remain until May 1.

Doctor Nelson (1887) writes:

This fine bird arrives on the shore of Bering Sea in the vicinity of St. Michael
early in May, and in some seasons by the 27th of April, as in 187S, when sev-
eral were seen on that date about a spring hole in the ice. At this time the
ground was clothed with over a foot of snow, and the sea covered, as far as
could be seen, with unbroken ice. During the next few days a terrible storm
of wind and snow swept over the country, but did these birds no harm, as
was seen directly after the storm ceased by their presence at the water hole
as usual. Mr. Dall records their arrival on the Yukon about May 1, and notes

LIFE HISTORIES OF XOETH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 283

the fact of their descending that stream in place of going up the Yukon, as
most of the geese do at this season.

Courtship. — Alfred M. Bailej^ has sent me the following account
of this ceremony which he witnessed in Alaska :

At Wales I saw swans rarely, the first noted being on June 5, when I wit-
nessed as pleasing a performance as it has been my privilege to see. The
tundra was still clothed in its winter's coat of white, although pools of bril-
liant colors had formed here and there by tlie melting snow. It was in the
height of the spring migration, with hundreds of snow geese, little brown
cranes, and shore birds in sight continually. Then, far out on the tundra I
heard a different call, a cla'Uioring, quavering call, first full and loud and
gradually dying down. With the aid of the glasses I made out three swans,
possibly two males performing for the benefit of the female. They walked
about with arched necks proudly lifted, taking high steps, with wings out-
stretched, two birds occasionally bowing to each other, and as they performed,
they continually kept calling. After a few minutes in a given place, they took
to wing and drifted across the tundra a hundred yards, where the ceremony
v/as then repeated.

Nesting. — Doctor Nelson (1887) describes the nest,' as follows:

The birds arrive singly or in small parties on the coast, and directly after
scatter to their summer haunts. The nest is usually upon a small island in
some secluded lakelet, or on a rounded bank close to the border of a pond.
The eggs are deposited in a depression made in a heap of rubbish gatliered
by the birds from the immediate vicinity of the nest, and is composed of
grass, moss, and dead leaves, forming a bulky affair in many cases. On June
14, 1880, a swan was seen flying from the side of a small pond on the marsh
near St. Michael, and a close search finally revealed the nest. The eggs were
completely hidden in loose moss, which covered the ground about the spot,
and in which the bird had made a depression by plucking up the moss and
arranging it for the purpose. The site was so artfully chosen and prepared
that I passed the spot in my search, and one of my nativer hunters, coming
close behind, called me back, and thrusting his stick into the moss exposed
the eggs. I may note here that whenever the Eskimo of Norton Sound go
egging on the marshes they invariably carry a stick 3 or 4 feet long, which
they thrust into every suspicious tussock, bunch of grass, or spot in the moss,
and if a nest is there it is certain to be revealed by the stick striking the|
eggs. They are very expert in detecting places likely to be chosen by the
ducks and geese. I have seen my hunters examine the borders of a lake,
after I had given it what I considered a thorough search, and unearth in one
instance three geese nests and one duck's. This was after I had acquired
considerable skill in finding eggs, so it may readily be seen that the birds
are very cunning in placing their nests.

Swainson and Richardson (1831) say of this species:

This swan breeds on the seacoast within the Arctic Circle, and is seen in
the interior of the fur countries on its passage only. It makes its appearance
amongst the latest of the migratory birds in the spring, while the trumpeter
swans are, with the exception of the eagles, the earliest. Captain Lyon de-
scribes its nest as built of moss peat, nearly 6 feet long and 4% wide, and 2
feet high exteriorly ; the cavity a foot and a half in diameter. The eggs were
brownish-white, slightly clouded with a darker tint.

284 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

According to Rev, C. W. G. Eifrig (1905) the Canadian Neptune
Expedition to Hudson Bay found this swan common on Southampton
Island ;

also in the flat land north of Repulse Bay. They breed in lowlands with lakes,
where their nests, constructed of seaweed, grass, and moss, are very conspicu-
ous. They are very bulky affairs, about 3 feet in diameter at the base, taper-
ing to 18 inches at the top, and 18 inches high. A set of 2 eggs was taken on
Southampton, July 4, 1904.

Mr, Bailey has contributed the following notes on a nest he found
in Alaska :

While collecting near Mint River, which empties into Lopp Lagoon about
20 miles north of Cape Prince of Wales, I found a nest of this species with
three downy young. It was early in the morning that we discovered it, on
July 12. Both adults were seen sitting close to the edge of a pond, and, as
we approached, they flew majestically away, only to circle and sail back
directly over our heads. The female was more stained than the male. There,
near the water's edge, from where the parent birds had taken flight, were
three beautiful little downy young, which had just left the nest, some 25 feet
away, and were doubtless ready to undertake their first swim. They were
as fluffy as balls of yarn, with dark brown eyes, and bills and feet of pink
flesh-color. They showed no fear, and cuddled contentedly when we held them
in our hands.

The nest was a conspicuous, built-up mound of moss on a ridge overlooking
the little lagoon, and was unlined with down. From the size of the young,
it was evident that the swans made their nest on the first bit of bare tundi:a.
The swans are probably among the first birds to nest in the vicinity of Wales ;
the geese eggs were but half incubated at this time, while the loons' eggs were
fresh.

The swans owe their present-day numbers to the fact that they nest over a
wide stretch of barren country, uninhabited even by natives. They are con-
tinually persecuted on their breeding grounds, and were it not for their habit
of nesting early, when the snow is deep and too soft for traveling, they would
have been exterminated long ago. ,

Eggs. — The foregoing brief accounts are about all we have re-
garding the nesting habits of this well-known species, MacFarlane
collected about 20 sets of eggs, but said very little about the nests.
The usual number of eggs seems to be 4 or 5, though as few as 2
and as many as 7 have been reported. The eggs resemble goose eggs
except that they are much larger. In shape they are elliptical ovate
or elliptical oval, with a tendency toward fusiform in some speci-
mens. The shell is fairly smooth or finely granulated and not
glossy. The color is creamy white or dull white at first, becoming
much nest stained. The measurements of 94 eggs, in various collec-
tions, average 10G.9 by 68.2 millimeters; the eggs sliowing the four
extremes measure 115.7 by 68,5, 115 by 73, and 90 by 58.7 millimeters.

Young.- — The period of incubation is said to be from 35 to 40 days.
Doctor Nelson (1887) says of the young:

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN" WILD FOWL 285

The last of June or first of July the young are hatched, and soon after the
parents lead them to the vicinity of some large lake or stream, and there the
old birds molt their quill feathers and are unable to fly. They are pursued
by the natives at this season, and many are speared from canoes and kyaks.
Although unable to fly, it is no easy task single handed to capture them alive.
The young men among the Eskimo consider it a remarkable exhibition of
fleetness and endurance for one of their number to capture a bird by running
it down.

Plumages. — The downy young is described by Dr. D. G. Elliot
(1898) as "pure white, bill, legs, and feet yellow"; but the young
of European swans are all either pale grayish-white or grayish-
brown.

Doctor Nelson (1887) describes a young bird taken in September,
apparently in juvenile plumage, as follows :

The young birds of the year frequently retain the immature plwmage until
the last of September. A specimen in this plumage, taken on September 19,
had its bill purplish flesh color, the nail and a border along the gape black;
the iris hazel, and the feet and tarsi livid flesh color. The plumage of this
bird, vehich is now before me, is sooty brownish with a plumbeous shade about
the top and sides of the head ; neck and throat all around dull plumbeous ashy
of a light shade; back, tertials, and wing coverts dull plumbeous ashy with a
silvery gray luster, especially upon the wings. Rump white, lightly washed
with ashy, which increases to dull plumbeous ashy on the tail coverts and rec-
trices. Quills white, heavily mottled with ashy gray on their terminal third,
but almost immaculate toward bases. Under surface white, washed with
dingy gray.

Doctor Sharpless, quoted by Audubon (1840), says:

The swan requires five or six years to reach its perfect maturity of size and
plumage, the yearling cygnet being about one-third the magnitude of the adult,
and having feathers of a deep leaden color. The smallest swan I have ever
examined, and it was killed in my presence, weighed but 8 pounds. Its plum-
age was very deeply tinted, and it had a bill of a very beautiful flesh color,
and very soft. This cygnet, I presume, was a yearling, for I killed one myself
the same day, whose feathers were less dark, but whose bill was of a dirty
white; and the bird weighed 12 pounds.

Doctor Elliot (1898) also writes:

The young of this species is gray, sometimes lead color during its first year,
and the bill is soft and reddish in hue. In the second year the plumage is
lighter, and the bill white, becoming black in the third year, when the plumage,
though white, is mottled with gray ; the head and neck especially showing but
little white. It is probable that it takes fully five years before the pure white
dress is assumed and the bird becomes such an ornamental object.

Although Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (1884) make a similar
statement, I can not believe that it takes a swan any such length of
time to acquire its full plumage. Witherby's Handbook (1921)
seems to imply that the pure white plumages of the whooping
swan and the Bewick swan are acquired before the second winter.

286 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Hon. E. M. Barnes tells me that young swans, reared by him in con-
finement, acquired their full plumage during the second summer or
fall, when 14 or 15 months old. I believe that this is usually the case
with wild birds, though some traces of immaturity may not dis-
appear until some time during the following winter or even spring.

Food. — The food of the whistling swan is largely vegetable, which
it obtains by reaching down with its long neck in shallow water, oc-
casionally tipping up with its tail in the air when making an extra
long reach. While a flock of swans is feeding in this manner, one or
more birds are always on guard watching for approaching dangers,
as the feeding birds often keep their heads and necks submerged for
long periods. It apparently never dives for its food except in cases
of great extremity. In Back Bay, Virginia, and in Currituck Sound,
North Carolina, the swans feast on the roots of the wild celery and
fox-tail grass; they are now (1916) so numerous that they do con-
siderable damage b)^ treading great holes in the mud and by rooting
and pulling up the celery and grass ; they thus waste large quantities
of these valuable duck foods, much more than they consume, and con-
sequently spoil some of the best feeding grounds for ducks, much to
the disgust of the sportsmen in the various clubs, who are not allowed
to shoot the swans and have to submit to this interference with their
duck shooting. The swans are really such a nuisance in this par-
ticular locality that a reasonable amount of shooting might well be
allowed; these birds are so wary that there is little danger of an}'
great number being killed.

Major Bendire (1875) found in the stomach of a whistling swan,
shot in Oregon, '' about 20 small shells, perhaps half an inch in
length, quite a quantity of gravel, and a few small seeds." Mr.
Cameron in his Montana notes, says :

The swans were engaged in feeding upon the soft-sheUed fresh-water
snails which abound in this lake and explain its great attraction for them.
During the several days that I watched the swans I never saw them eat
anything else, but doubtless they pick up vegetation as well, being accus-
tomed to walk about in the grass at the mouth of Alder Creek. Marshy
Lake is so shallow (only 2 feet deep over most of it, and 4 feet in the deep-
est part) that the long-necked birds can generally reach the mollusca with-
out much tilting of their bodies in characteristic swan fashion.

Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1891) says: "They feed upon corn, and
upon tender roots of wheat, rye, and grass, and upon bulbous
roots, pushing about for them in the mud at the bottom of lakes
and rivers. They also catch and eat tadpoles, frogs, and CA^en
fish." Other writers have mentioned, among the food of this
species, the roots of the Equisetacae^ Sagittaria., various grasses,
and other succulent water plants, also worms, insects, and shell-
fish.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTEL AMERICAN WILD FOWL 287

Behavior. — Considering its size and weight, a swan rises from
the water with remarkable ease and celerity; it rims along the
surface for 15 or 20 feet, flapping its wings and beating the water
with its feet alternately, until it has gained sufficient headway to
launch into the air; like all heavy-bodied birds it must face the
wind in rising. When well awing it flies with considerable speed
and power, with the long nec]>i stretched out in front and the great
black feet extending beyond the tail; the wing beats are slow, but
powerful and efl'ective. It has been said to fly at a speed of 100
miles an hour; probably no such speed is attained, however, except
when flying before a heavy wind; it undoubtedly flies faster than
it appears to on account of its great size, and it certainly flies
faster than any of the ducks and geese. Y\nien traveling long dis-
tances swans fly in V-shaped wedges, in the same manner as geese
and for the same reason; the resistance of the air is less, as each
bird flies in the widening wake of its predecessor; the leader, of
course, has the hardest work to do, as he "breaks the trail," but
he is relieved at intervals and drops back into the flock to rest.
On shorter flights they fly in long curving lines or in irregular
flocks. They usually fly rather high, and when traveling are often
way up above the clouds. Audubon (1840) quotes Doctor Sharp-
less, as follows :

In flying, these birds make a strange appearance ; tlieir long necks pro-
trude and present, at a distance, mere lines witli black points, and occupy
more than one-half their whole length, their heavy bodies and triangular
wings seeming but mere appendages to the prolonged pohit in front.

When tlius in motion, their v/ings pass through so few degrees of the circle
that, unless seen horizontally, they appear almost quiescent, being widely dif-
ferent from the heavy semicircular sweep of the goose. The swan, when migrat-
ing, with a moderate wind in his favor, and mounted high in the air, certainly
travels at the rate of 100 miles or more an hour. I have often timed the flight
of the goose, and found one mile a minute a common rapidity, and when the
two birds, in a change of feeding ground, have been flying near each other,
which I have often seen, the swan invariably passed with nearly double the
velocity.

Mr. Cameron, in his notes, refers to the powers of flight of swans,
as follows:

Small parties of the swans on the water spread their long wings at regular
intervals and took lengthy flights, presumably to keep themselves in practice
for their forthcoming journey. The control which suck large birds (weighing
from 17 to 20 pounds) possess over their flight on a perfectly calm day is to
me quite marvelous, and must be seen to be appreciated. A compact flock of
from 4 to 6 swift-flying swans will circle the whole basin of the lake several
times, and then, as if tied together, alight in the closest proximity to each
other, yet never collide. They will pitch upon the water in the most graceful
manner imaginable, without bringing their long legs forward, or making any
splash. At exceptional times, however, the swans do make a loud splash when
they alight.

100449—25 20

288 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The ease and grace with which a swan swims on the surface of the
water is too well known and too far famed to need any further com-
ment ; there is no prettier picture, no grander picture, than a party
of these beautiful birds floating undisturbed on the mirror surface
of some northern mountain lake against the rugged background of
one of nature's wildest spots. But few people realize the speed and
power of the swan as a swimmer until they have tried to chase one in
a boat and seen how easily he escapes, even against wind and waves,
without recourse to flight.

The notes of the whistling swan are varied, loud and striking at
times and again soft and musical trumpetings. To me they are sug-
gestive of the Canada goose's call in form, but are more like soft
musical laughter, suggested by the syllables " loow-how-ou^'' heavily
accented on the second note. Mr. Cameron says, in liis notes:

Mr. Skelton describes the sounds uttered by his tame swan as " long whoops,
or clucking croaks, according to its mood." The wild swans upon taking wing,
or when arriving on migration, produce sounds like a slow shake of two notes
upon a clarinet. If the flock is large, as in the present instance, so many throats
yield a great volume of musical sound. When the quiescent swans become sud-
denly alarmed, and contemplate flight, a subdued chorus runs through the flock
like different modulations from an orchestra of reed instruments. Under no
circumstances could the swan voices be compared to brass instruments (such as
a trumpet or hunting horn) in my opinion, and herein concur Mr. Felton, Mr.
Williams, and Mr. Skelton, who have had frequent opportunities for listening
to them. We could distinctly hear the swan cries at the i-auch a mile from
the lake, and they might have been heard at a much greater distance.

The old saying that " a swan sings before it dies " has generally
been regarded as a myth, but the following incident, related by so
reliable an observer as Dr. D. G. Elliot (1898), is certainly worthy
of credence :

I had killed many swan and never heard aught from them at any time, save
the familiar notes that reach the ears of everyone in their vicinity. But once,
when shooting in Currituck Sound over water belonging to a club of which I am
a member, in company with a friend, Mr. F. W. Leggett, of New Yoi'k, a num-
ber of swan passed over us at a considerable height. We fired at them, and one
splendid bird was mortally hurt. On receiving his wound the wings became
fixed and he commenced at once his song, which was continued until the water
was reached, nearly half a mile away. I am perfectly familiar with every note
a swan is accustomed to utter, but never before nor since have I heard any like
those sung by this stricken bird. Most plaintive in character and musical in
tone, it sounded at times like the soft running of the notes in an octave, and
as the sound was borne to us, mellowed by the distance, we stood astonished.
and could only exclaim, " We have heard the song of the dying swan."

Fall. — Referring to the beginning of the fall migration, Mr.
Lucien M. Turner (1886) says:

The young are able to leave the nest by the first week in July, and fly
by the middle of September. They migrate about the middle of October, and
at this time the migration is invariably to the northward from St. Michael,

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 289

and directed toward the head of Norton Sound. As many as 500 may form
a single line, flying silently just over the shore line at a height of less than
600 feet. I always suspected that these birds flew to the northward as far as
the Ulukuk Portage, in about 65° 30' north latitude, so as to get to the Yukon
River at Nulato, about 120 miles in the interior of the Territory, and con-
tinue their flight up the Yukon River, which would in its course let these
birds more easily cross the Rocky Mountain ridge with least effort. This is sup-
posed by the fact that I never saw swans, at any season of the year, migrating
to the southward.

From this statement and similar observations by Dall and Nelson,
one would infer that the swans which breed in northern Alaska cross
the Kocky Mountains to join the main migration route of the species,
which is southward through the interior of Canada; perhaps the
birds which breed in southern Alaska and in Canada west of the
Rockies migrate down the coast to their winter homes on the Pacific
coast. Swans are very abundant in the interior of Canada and the
northern States in the fall migration. Large numbers vvere formerly
killed by the fur traders for their skins which were dealt in as regular
articles of commerce. The Hudson's Bay Co. sold 17,671 swan skins
between the years 1853 to 1877 ; the number steadily decreased, how-
ever, from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877, and during the next two
or three years the traffic practically ceased.

From the vicinity of the Great Lakes the heaviest flight seems to
take a southeastward direction to the Atlantic coast, but there is
also a southward flight to the Gulf of Mexico and probably a limited
southwestward flight to the Pacific coast.

A striking example of the disasters which may befall even one
of our largest and strongest species of wild fowl is shown in the
destruction of swans in the Niagara swan trap. In one instance
over 100 of these great birds met their death; being caught in the
rapids they were swept over the falls; many were killed by the fall,
others were killed or maimed hj the rough treatment they received
in the whirlpools and rapids, where they were hurled against the
rocks or crushed in the ice; a few probably escaped by flying back
over the falls, but most of them were unable to fly at all on account
of their injuries or were too exhausted to rise high enough to clear
the falls. But eventually many of them would have escaped if they
had not been attacked by a crowd of men and boys, who shot, beat,
and clubbed the poor struggling birds until not a living bird re-
mained. For full accounts of two such catastrophes I Avould refer
the reader to Mr. J. H. Fleming's (1908 and 1912) interesting papers
on the subject.

Game. — As game birds, swans have never held a promiaent place.
They are not abundant anywhere except in a few favored spots,
as migrants or winter sojourners. They have always been so wary
and shy that attempts to shoot them in any considerable number.^

290 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

generally resulted in making them wilder than ever or in driving
them away altogether. The flesh of the younger birds is compara-
tively tender and palatable, but the older birds are very tough.
Swans always have been attractive marks for sportsmen on account
of their large size and spectacular appearance, but comparatively fev/
have ever enjoyed the privilege of shooting at them. Swans are now
protected in their winter resorts on the Atlantic coast, but formerly
they' were shot in considerable numbers in the vicinity of Chesapeake
Bay and Currituck Sound. They were shot mainl}^ from the marshy
points where blinds were built for duck shooting; the swans were
wont to feed along the shores of the marshy coves and bays; and
in passing from one cove to another they frequently flew close
around or over these points, offering tempting shots. It was an
exciting moment for the sportsman when he saw a flock of these
great white birds approaching and few could resist the temptation
to shoot at them. On windy, stormy days it Avas often possible to
creep up to them through the marsh near enough to get a shot at
them when they rose. Approaching swans on the open water of the
bay was a different proposition, especially if thej were surrounded,
as they often were, by the watchful geese. But even this was suc-
cessfully accomplished by sailing down the wind upon them, which
made it necessary for them to rise toward the boat. In winter, boats
covered with blocks of ice and manned by gunners dressed in white
could sometimes be paddled or allowed to drift within gunshot of a
feeding flock.

Winter. — Doctor Sharpless, in his interesting account of this
species published by Audubon (1840), thus describes the arrival of
the swans in their princijial winter home on the coasts of Virginia
and North Carolina :

The swaus, in traveling from the nortlieru parts of America to tlieir winter
residence, generally keep far inland, mounted above the highest peaks of the
Allegheny, and rarely follow the watercourses like the geese, which usually
stop on the route, particularly if they have taken the seaboard. The swans
rarely pause on their migrating flight, unless overtaken by a storm, above
the reach of which occurrence they generally soar. They have been seen
following the coast in but very few instances. They arrive at their winter
homes in October and November, and immediately take possession of their
regular feeding grounds. They generally reach these places in the night,
and the first signal of their arrival at their winter abode is a general burst
of melody, making the shores ring for several hours with the vociferating
congratulations whilst making amends for a long fast, and pluming their
deranged feathers. From these localities they rarely depart unless driven
farther south by intensely cold weather, until their vernal excursion.

The Cliesapeake Bay is a great resort for swans during the winter, and
whilst there they form collections of from 100 to 500 on the flats, near the
we.stern shores, and extend from the outlet of the Susquehanna River almost
to the Rip Raps. The connecting streams also present fine feeding grounds.

LIFE HISTORIES OP NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 291

They always select places where they can reach their food by the lengths of
their necks, as they have never, so far as I can learn, been seen in this part
of the world to dive under the water, either for food or safety.

Whistling swans are still abundant in winter on Bay Back, Vir-
ginia, and Currituck Sound, North Carolina, where, according to
recent accounts, they are holding their own or even increasing in
numbers. I have seen from 1,000 to 1,500 birds there in a day, as
recently as 1916, standing in long white lines along the grassy shore
of some marshy island, or feeding in large flocks, sometimes of two
or three hundred birds, in the shallow waters of the bay, always con-
spicuous as striking features of these great wild-fowl resorts. Their
chief companions here are the Canada geese, with whom they are
intimately associated on their feeding grounds and on whom they
depend largely, as sentinels to warn them of approaching danger,
for the geese are even more watchful than the swans. But here, as
well as on the lakes visited on their migration, they are also asso-
ciated with the various ducks which resort to similar feeding
grounds. They usually flock by themselves, however, when on the
wing and do not mingle in the flocks of geese and ducks. They
move about largely in family parties of 6 or 7 birds, but often gather
together in large flocks to feed or to rest ; large flocks are also often
seen moving about, sometimes high in the air, calling to their fel-
lows with loud mellow trumpetings in their search for quiet and
safe feeding or resting places.

Nathan L. Davis (1895), writing of their winter habits on the
coast of Texas, says :

I first saw them on Galveston Bay on January 1, and observed them every
day until March 20, when there seemed to be but a very few left; all remam-
ing on that date I think were crippled birds, being unable to stand the fatigue
in their long journey to the north. It is a great sight to watch a flock of
these birds assembled on the water, curling their long necks around each
other, all making a strange honking noise, peculiar to themselves. This
they continue for some time, then all turn with military precision and fonn
in line; when they swim up and down the coast, proudly swaying thedr
heads from side to side. In this manner they spend most of the bright days.
They can be easily seen far out on the bay, their large white bodies glistening
in the sun, as the restless waves toss their corklike forms above the level of the
water. At first sight I could not distinguish whether the silvery spots rising
on the waves were swans or the water breaking over some treacherous sand-
bar, which are common both in Galveston and San Jacinto Bays. Each day
as the sun begins to go down they turn and slowly approach the shore, each
keeping a sharp lookout ahead. If frightened any way they will either turn
and swim quietly away or all take wing and survey the country for miles
around before they will again settle on the water. Often small flocks may
be seen in company with ducks, geese, pelicans, and gulls, but usually they
will be found alone at some distance from all other birds, as well as hum*«a
habitation. They are very hard to approach on a bright day, and hunting for
them in clear weather is like fishing for trout in a thunderstorm. The dense

292 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

fogs which prevail along the coast are no doubt the worst enemies these
birds have, for then if the hunter is careful he can approach within easy-
range before they attempt to escape.

In stormy weather they are very restless and are continually flying from
place to place as if hunting for a quiet spot, v,'here they may rest in peace
till the storm passes. In this continuous change of positions they often come
too near the shore, and many are killed by the hunters who lay hidden,
awaiting their approach. I once saw five of these large birds killed at a
single discharge of a heavy double gun.

The tragic end of a belated cripple on a Montana lake is thus
described in Mr. Cameron's notes :

In the fall of 1908, a member of a large flock of whistling swans, which
settled upon Marshy Lake, was slightly wounded in the wing by a bullet
(or, as is more probable, had a flight feather cut away by it) and could not
leave with its frightened companions. Mr. Sullivan observed the swan about
a dozen times when driving cattle to another Milner ranch near Shonkin, and
when returning by the same route. He informed me that after the lake
became frozen over, the swan, which was an adult in pure white plumage,
by constantly swimming in a circle, kept open a small pond, about 25 feet
wide. Until December 1 he regularly saw the swan upon this pond, which
it was able to maintain open even when the ice was 3 inches thick upon the
rest of the lake. The swan frequently dived, but was, of course, always
obliged to come up in the same place on account of the ice; and Mr. Sullivan
supposed that the poor bird eked out a scanty subsistence by means of the
weeds or other food which it found at the bottom of the lake. The fate of
this swan, though not absolutely known, can easily be surmised. Numerous
coyotes, which crossed upon the ice, persistently menaced, and would have
devoured the unfortunate bird but for its self-made asylum ; hence, with the
advent of colder weather, and consequent freezing up of the water, it would
have undoubtedly become their prey. The above suggests a wintry scene which
would be a fitting subject for an artists's brush ; the famished prisoner swim-
ming around the dark refuge pool, the scarcely less hungry jailers patrolling
the ice edge and licking their expectant lips, the white world, and the onward
creeping ice, grim with inexorable fate.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Nearctic region, mainly north of the Arctic
Circle. East to Baffin Land. South to Nottingham and Southamp-
ton Islands, the barren grounds of northern Canada, the Alaska
Peninsula (Becharof Lake, Chulitna River and Morzhovia Bay),
and St. Lawrence Island in Bering Sea. Northward in Alaska to
the Arctic coast (Cape Prince of Wales and probably Point Barrow),
^orth on the Arctic islands to about 74°, the North Georgia Islands,
and Victoria Land (Cambridge Bay).

Winter range. — Mainly on the seacoasts of United States. On the
Atlantic coast most abundantly from Maryland (Chesapeake Bay)
to North Carolina (Currituck Sound) ; less commonly north to New
Jersey; rarely north to Long Island (Shinnecock) and Massachu-
setts (Nantucket). Rarely south to Florida and the Gulf coasts of

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 293

Louisiana and Texas, On the Pacific coast from southern Alaska
(Dall, Long, and Prince of Wales Islands) southward to southern
California (San Diego), A few may winter irregularly in the
interior as far north as large bodies of open water may be found.

S-pHng migration. — Toward the interior and generally northward.
Early dates of arrival : Pennsylvania, Erie, March 11, and Williams-
port, March 20 ; New York, Lockport, March 20 ; Ontario, Toronto,
April 8; Michigan, Detroit, March 14; Wisconsin, Delavan, April
1 ; Minnesota, Heron Lake, March 31 and Elk River, April 8 ; Mani-
toba, Shoal Lake, April 30; northern Alberta, Athabasca Lake, May
IT; Mackenzie, Fort Simpson, May 5, and Fort Anderson, May 18;
Melville Island, May 31. Dates of arrival in Alaska: St. Michael,
April 27 ; Kowak Eiver, May 11 ; Point Hope, May 21, Late dates of
departure: Maryland, Baltimore, May 4; Pennsylvania, Williams-
port, May 30.

Fall migratio'n. — Reversal of spring routes. Early dates of ar-
rival: Mackenzie, Great Bear Lake, September 15, and Mackenzie
River, October 6 ; Quebec, Cape St. Ignace, October 11 ; Maine, Craw-
ford Lake, September 10; New Hampshire, Seabrook, October 18;
Massachusetts, Nantucket, October 16; Rhode Island, Quonocontaug
Pond, November 9; Maryland, Baltimore, September 26; Virginia,
Alexandria, October 15 ; South Carolina, Cooper River, November 21 ;
Alaska, Sitka, September 28; Washington, Thurston County, Octo-
ber 25; Montana, Teton County, October 31. Late dates of depar-
ture: Alaska, St. Michael, October 8, and St. George Island, Octo-
ber 17.

Casual records. — Accidental in Bermuda (1835 or 1836) and
Commander Islands (Bering Island, November 3, 1882). Casual
in Mexico (near Colonia Diaz, Chihuahua, January 18, 1904, and at
Silao, Guanajuato).

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada: Thirteen records. May 29 to July 5;
seven records, June 15 to July 1. Alaska : Ten records. May 17 to
July 4; five records, June 4 to 12.

TRUMPETER SWAN

CYGNUS BUCCINATOR Richardson

HABITS

This magnificent bird, the largest of all the North American wild
fowl, belongs to a vanishing race; though once common throughout
all of the central and northern portions of the continent, it has been
gradually receding before the advance of civilization and agricul-
ture; when the great Central West was wild and uncultivated it
was laiown to breed in the uninhabited parts of many of our Cen-

294 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

tral States, even as far south as northern Missouri; but now it
probably does not breed anywhere within the limits of the United
States, except possibly in some of the wilder portions of Montana
or Wyoming; civilization has pushed it farther and farther north
imtil now it is making its last stand in the iminhabited wilds of
northern Canada. E. H. Forbush (1912) has summed up the his-
tory of its disappearance very well, as follows :

The trumpeter has siicciimbed to incessant persecution in all parts of its
range, and its total extinction is now only a matter of years. Persecution
drove it from the northern parts of its winter range to the shores of the Gulf
of Mexico ; from all the southern portion of its breeding range toward the
shores of the Arctic Ocean ; and from the Atlantic and Pacific slopes toward
the interior. Now it almost has disappeared from the Gulf States. A swan
seen at any time of the year in most parts of the United States is the signal
for every man with a gun to pursue it. The breeding swans of the United
States have been extirpated, and the bird is pursued, even in its farthest
northern haunts, by the natives, who capture it in summer, when it has molted
its primaries and is unable to fly. The swan lives to a great age. The older
birds are about as tough and unfit for food as an old horse. Only the younger
are savory, and the gunners might well have spared the adult birds, but it
was " sport " to kill them and fashion called for swan's-down. The large
size of this bird and its conspicuousness have served, as in the case of the
whooping crane, to make it a shining mark, and the trumpetings that were
once heard over the breadth of a great continent, as the long converging lines
drove on from zone to zone, will soon be heard no more. In the ages to
come, like the call of the wliooping crane, they will be locked in the silence
of the past.

The late E. S. Cameron prepared for me, in 1913 and 1914, some
verj' elaborate notes on the history of this species in Montana, which
Mrs. Cameron very kindly sent to me after her husband's death.
They are interesting and valuable enough to print in full, but my
space will permit only a few quotations and references. Regarding
recent records he says:

The trumpeter swan, which 20 years ago was quite common in Montana,
has now become exceedingly scarce, and is probably on the verge of extinction
everywhere. My investigations during 1912-13 and 1914, show that trumpeters
are almost unrepresented among the large numbers of migrant swans which
biannually pass over Montana. It seems to be the melancholy fact that thou-
sands of whistling swans are seen to one trumpeter, and at the time of writ-
ing I have only two authenticated records of trumpeter swans for the three
years above mentioned, the specimens from St. Marys Lake and Cut bank.
Mr. J. H. Price informed me that an adult male trumpeter was shot by a
boy on the Yellowstone, near Miles City, Custer County, on October 27, 1905,.
and I have since seen the mounted bird in a saloon keeper's window. At
the time of writing the finest specimen of a trumpeter swan, within my
knowledge, is the one killed by Mr. Robert Sloane, of Kalispell, when duck
shooting on the shore of Flathead Lake. We left Kalispell before daylight
on the morning of November 15, 1910. on our way to where the Flathead
River debouches from the flat alluvial floor of the valley through a fair-sized

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 295

delta into Flathead Lake. The rHorning was chilly, with occasional suow
flurries, and we knew that the ducks would be on the move. Leaving the
spring wagon behind the strip of brush which fringes the lake shore at this
point, we built blinds, set our decoys, and were soon in the midst of a good
flight of canvasbacks, redheads, and mallards. The sport was the best in
my experience, as the birds, in passing from the lake to the sloughs or
bayous inshore, offered fine shots. At this place there is a sandy beach a
hundred yards in width, while here, and for some miles on either side, it is
possible to wade into the lake for another 200 yards without becoming wet
above the knees. About 3 o'clock in the afternoon a violent snow squall
arose, and in the thick of it my attention was drawn to some white objects
which were rising and falling on the waves about a mile offishore. At times
thesL! appeared like small sailing boats, but when they drew nearer I dis-
tinguished a flock of eight swans led by a splendid snow-white bird whose
every movement was followed by the others. Two more of the swans were
white and the remaining five dark colored. I left my blind and, running along
a cattle trail through the brush to the wagon, took my 30-30 Winchester
and returned to the edge of the beach. I then fired at the big leading swan,
and struck it fairly in the neck at the first shot, although the bird was some
200 yards distant. Upon the death of their leader the rest of the flock
momentarily bunched up in bewilderment, but, recovering their wits, made a
great commotion in their efforts to rise from the water. Having once cleared
the lake with their wings, however, they departed at great speed, while I
waded through the shallows to retrieve my coveted trophy. The swan was
found to weigh a full 31 pounds.

He describes at considerable length the capture of a trumpeter
swan by a shepherd employed by G. B. Christian, of Augusta,
Montana, in November, 1907. The man fired a rifle at a passing
flock and brought down a bird, which he captured unhurt except
for one broken pinion. The bird was kept for a jeav alive and
then presented to the Great Falls Park ; but, as it was not pinioned,
it escaped after the next molt and was shot by a boy and all trace
of it was lost. It was a pure white adult of very large size and was
supposed to have weighed about 35 pounds.

In 1913 an Indian offered for sale at Kalispell an immense trump-
eter swan from St. Marys Lake, Glacier National Park. It was
poorly skinned, not properly poisoned, became infested with beetles,
and was burned. Dr. Jonathan Dwight has the head and legs of
this swan.

A female trumpeter swan, now in the collection of Dr. Jonathan
Dwight, was shot by a saloon keeper, Ben Schannberg, at Cutbank,
Teton County, Montana, in the first week of November, 1913. This
was also an immature bird, supposed to have been about 18 months
old, and was in a much emaciated condition, but it weighed 20
pounds.

Henry K. Coale (1915) has published an excellent paper on the
present status of this swan, in which he mentions three of the above

296 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

records, but he does not include them in the list of specimens to
which he refers, as follows :

Of the great multitudes of trumpeter swans which traversed the central
and western portion of north America 60 years ago, there are 16 specimens
preserved in museums which have authentic data. These were collected be-
tween the years 1856 and 1909. There are besides the type, five other Canadian
records, Toronto 1863, Fort Resolution 1860, Lake St. Clair 1878, St. Clair Flats
1884, and Manitoba 1887; and one from Wyoming 1856, Idaho 1873, Michigan
1875, Wisconsin 1880, Ohio 1880, Oregon 1881, North Dakota 1891, Minnesota
1893, Montana 1902, and Mexico 1909.

Nesting.— Fvoi. Wells W. Cooke (1906) says:

In early times it probably bred south to Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska,
Montana, and Idaho ; it nested in Iowa as late as 1871, in Idaho in 1877, in
Minnesota in 1886, and in North Dakota probably for a few years later. It is
not probable that at the present time the trumpeter nests anywhere in the
United States, and even in Alberta no nests seem to have been found later than
1891. The vast wilderness of but a generation ago is now crossed by
railroads and thickly dotted with farms. The species is supposed still to breed
in the interior of British Columbia at about latitude 53°.

Dr. R. M. Anderson (1907) writes:

The only definite record of the nesting of the trumpeter swan in Iowa which
I have been able to trace was received from the veteran collector, J. W.
Preston, in a letter dated March 22, 1904 : "A pair of ' trumpeters ' reared a
brood of young in a slough near Little Twin Lakes, Hancock County, in the
season of 1883, not many miles from where some good finds in the way of sets
of whooping cranes were made. This was positively Olor buccinator. The
nest was placed on a large tussock in a marshy slough or creek, and had been
used for years by the swans, as I was credibly informed ; but the nest men-
tioned above, so far as I am aware, was the last in that locality."

Eoderick MacFarlane (1891) reported:

Several nests of this species were met with in the Barren Grounds, on islands
in Franklin Bay, and one containing 6 eggs was situated near the beach on
a sloping knoll. It was composed of a quantity of hay, down, and feathers
intermixed, and this was the general mode of structure of the nests of both
swans. It usually lays from 4 to 6 eggs, judging from the noted contents
of a received total of 24 nests.

Mr. Cameron says that trumpeter swans formerly bred in western
Montana, but his diligent investigations have failed to discover
any recent nesting sites. " Some birds made great nests of tules,
but many more built them on muskrat houses which they flattened
out for the purpose." He describes a nest, found in 1871 on the
Thompson River, on " a large deserted beaver lodge. On this
mound, which measured at least 5 feet across, was a great pile of
grass and feathers." The two eggs, which it contained, were
concealed under a bunch of down. Of the latest two obtainable
records he says:

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 297

A Kootenai Indian woman, while hunting with her husband and father-in-
law, in the year 18S9, saw a pair of swans with two cygnets on a small lake
toward the headwaters of the South Fork of the Flathead River. Shortly-
after this she took two eggs from a swan's nest by the same lake, but can
not give the exact year, although it was probably 1890.

The latest information I have comes in a letter from M. P. Skin-
ner, of Yellowstone Park, and is very encouraging; he writes:

Early in the summer of 1919, I noted a swan in the vicinity of Heart Lake.
A little later the nest was found on a low island in a lagoon northeast of
Lewis Lake, containing five whitish eggs, the nest being made of leaves and
grass. On August 14 I returned and then found the tail and flight feathers
molted by the adults, but the birds were too far away and too wary to
determine the species. On September 6, I again visited this section and
found five trumpeter swan (the two parents and three young so nearly grown
as to be able to fly well). While I did not feel justified in sacrificing one of
these rare birds, there can be no mistake as to identification. I have been
familiar since November of 1912 with both of our swans, the whistling swan
occuring in comparatively large numbers from October 31 (earliest date ever
noted by me) to May 3, the latest date. I saw' the trumpeter swans several
times, and once within an estimated distance of 50 yards under a pair of
12 X binoculars. Bill and lores of all the birds lacked the yellow spot; they
were markedly superior in size to the whistling swans ; and their cries were
unmistakable. The breeding range of the smaller swan is given as " far
northward and probably in British Columbia," whereas the trumpeter has been
known to breed as far south as Iowa.

Mr. H. M. Smith, United States Fish Commissioner, reports that on July
16, 1919, he visited a small, unnamed lake lying south of Delusion Lake and
found there a pair of swans with six cygnets about the size of teal swim-
ming actively about. Mr. Smith could not identify these as buccinator, but
in view of my own discovery I believe they were of this variety.

t^ggs. — The trumpeter swan has been said to lay from 2 to 10
eggs in a set; the latter number must be very unusual and was
probably the product of two birds; probablj^ the usual set con-
sists of from 4 to 6 eggs. Mr. Cameron says that the number of
eggs varies from 2 to 8 according to the age of the birds and other
circumstances, the smaller sets being laid by the younger birds; at
least this is the general opinion among the Indians. The eggs are
like those of the whistling swan, but larger. In shape they vary
from elliptical ovate or elliptical oval to nearly elliptical. The
shell is rough or granulated and more or less pitted. The color is
creamy white or dull white, becoming much nest stained. The meas-
urements of 25 eggs, in various collections, average 110 by 71.1
millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 119.5 by
76, 115 by 76.5, and 101 by 62.8 millimeters.

Young. — P. M. Silloway (1903) records the following incident
which a friend of his witnessed in Montana :

A friend told me of seeing an old swan and a young one upon the
" Highland " lakes. The two were in flight between the lakes, and the cygnet

298 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

flew only a few feet directly above the elder, so that it could drop on the
parent's back at frequent Intervals. The younger swan would fly 50 or 60
yards alone, then drop lightly upon the parent's back to rest, being carried
for 50 to 60 yards in this manner ; then it would rise upon its own pinions and
flap along above the elder bird until it again became weary of its own exer-
tions.

Mr. Cameron sent me the following statement from Ed. Forbes
a rancher of Kali spell :

I punched cows in the Ceuteanial Valley in Beaverhead County from ISSS
to 1888. During that time I saw quantities of swans, and killed many young
birds which we thought good to eat. We used to paddle after them among
the tules (bullrushes) and rope them, as they never seemed to learn to fly
until ice formed around the shores, and were fearless, big, and awkward.
Even then it took them a long, flapping flight to clear the water. The young
birds would dive, and come up at a distance of 600 feet when chased with
a boat.

Plumages. — I have never seen a dovv-ny young trumpeter swan and
can find no description of it in print. We know very little of its
molts and plumages. Audubon (1840) describes the first winter
plumage as follows :

In winter the young has the bill black, with the middle portion of the ridge,
to the length of an inch and a half, light flesh-color, and a large elongated
patch of light dull purple on each side ; the edge of the lower mandible and
the tongue dull yellowish flesh-color. The eye is dark brown. The feet dull
yellowish brown, tinged with olive ; the claws brownish black ; the webs
blackish brown. The upper part of the head and the cheeks are light reddish
brown, each feather having toward its extremity a small oblong whitish spot,
narrowly margined with dusky ; the throat nearly white, as well as the edge
of the lower eyelid. The general color of the other parts is grayish white,
slightly tinged with yellow ; the upper part of the neck marked with spots
similar to those on the head.

How long it takes for the young bird to reach maturity we do not
know, but he speaks of two young birds, seen in captivity, that were
about 2 years old and were pure white.

Food. — Audubon (1840) says of the feeding habits of the trumpe-
ter swan :

This swan feeds principally by partially immersing the body and extending
the neck under water, in the manner of fresh-water ducks and some species
of geese, when the feet often seen working in the air, as if to aid in pre-
serving the balance. Often, however, it resorts to the laud, and then picks
at the herbage, not sidewise, as geese do, but more in the manner of ducks
and poultry. Its food consists of roots of different vegetables, leaves, seeds,
various aquatic insects, land snails, small reptiles, and quadrupeds. The
flesh of a cygnet is pretty good eating, but that of an old bird is dry and
tough.

Beliavior. — Referring to the behavior of this species, with which
he seems to have been quite familiar, he writes :

The flight of the trumpeter swan is fli*m, at times greatly elevated and sus-
tained. It passes through the air by regular beats, in the same manner as

LIFE HISTOEIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 299

geese, the neck stretched to its full length, as are the feet, which project
beyond the tail. When passing low, I have frequently thought that I heard
a rustling sound from the motion of the feathers of their wings. If bound to
a distant place, they form themselves in angular lines, and probably the
leader of the flock is one of the oldest of the males ; but of this I am not at
all sure, as I have seen at the head of a line a gray bird, which must have been
a young one of that year.

To form a perfect conception of the beauty and elegance of these swans,
you must observe them when they are not aware of yoiir proximity, and as they
glide over the waters of some secluded inland pond. On such occasions, the
neck, which at other times is held stiffly upright, moves in graceful curves,
now bent forward, now inclined backward over the body. Now with an
extended scooping movement the head becomes immersed for a moment, and
with a sudden effort a flood of water is thrown over the back and wings,
when it is seen rolling off in sparkling globules, like so many large pearls.
The bird then shakes its wings, beats the water, and as if giddy with delight
shoots away, gliding over and beneath the surface of the liquid element with
surprising agility and grace. Imagine, reader, that a flock of 50 swans are
thus sporting before you, as they have more than once been in my sight, and
you will feel, as I have felt, more happy and void of care than I can describe.

When swimming unmolested the swan shows the body buoyed up; but when
apprehensive of danger, it sinks considerably lower. If resting and basking
in the sunshine, it draws one foot expanded curiously toward the back, and in
that posture remains often for half an hour at a time. When making off
swiftly, the tar.sal joint, or knee as it is called, is seen about an inch above the
water, which now in wavelets passes over the lower part of the neck and along
the sides of the body, as it undulates on the planks of a vessel gliding with a
gentle breeze. Unless during the courting season, or while passing by its mate,
I never saw a swan with the wings raised and expanded, as it is alleged
they do, to profit by the breeze that may blow to assist their progress; and
yet I have pursued some in canoes to a considerable distance, and that without
overtaking them, or even obliging them to take to wing. You, reader, as well
as all the vv'orld, have seen swans laboring away on foot, and therefore I will
not trouble you with a description of their mode of walking, especially as it is
not much to be admired.

The notes of the trumpeter swan are described as loud, resonant
trumpetings, differing in tone and volume from those of the whist-
ling sw'an; the windpipe of the larger species has one more con-
volution, which enables it to produce a louder and more far-reaching
note on a lower key, with the musical resonance of a French horn.

Winter. — For an account of its winter habits, we must again quote
Audubon (1840) as follows:

The trumpeter swans make their appearance on the lower portions of the
waters of the Ohio about the end of October. They throw themselves at once
into the larger ponds or lakes at no great distance froni the river, giving a
marked preference to those which are closely surrounded by dense and tall
canebrakes, and there remain until the water is closed by ice, when they are
forced to proceed southward. During mild winters I have seen swans of this
species in the ponds about Henderson until the beginning of March, but only
a few individuals, which may have stayed there to recover from their wounds.
When the cold became intense, most of those which visited the Ohio would
remove to the Mississippi, and proceed down that stream as the severity of the

300 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

weather increased, or return if it diminished ; for it lias appeared to me, tliat
neither very intense cold nor great heat suit them so well as a medium tem-
perature. I have traced the winter migrations of this species as far southward
as Texas, where it is abundant at times.

Whilst encamped in the Tawapatee Bottom, when on a fur-trading voyage,
our keel boat was hauled close under the eastern shore of the Mississippi, and
our valuables, for I then had a partner in trade, were all disembarked. The
great stream was itself so firmly frozen that we were daily in the habit of
crossing it from shore to shore. No sooner did the gloom of night become
discernible through the gray twilight than the loud-sounding notes of hundreds
of trumpeters would burst on the ear ; and as I gazed over the ice-bound river,
flocks after flocks would be seen coming from afar and in various directions,
and alighting about the middle of the stream opposite to our encampment. After
pluming themselves awhile they would quietly drop their bodies on the ice,
and through tlie dim light I yet could observe the graceful curve of their
necks, as they gently turned them backward, to allow their heads to repose
upon the softest and warmest of pillows. Just a dot of black as it were could
be observed on the snowy mass, and that dot was about half an inch of the
base of the upper mandible, thus exposed, as I think, to enable the bird to
breathe with ease. Not a single individual could I ever observe among them
to act as a sentinel, and I have since doubted whether their acute sense of
hearing was not sufficient to enable them to detect the approach of their enemies.
The day quite closed by darkness, no more could be seen until the next dawn ;
but as often as the bowlings of the numerous wolves that prowled through
the surrounding woods were heard, the clanging cries of the swans would
fill the air. If the morning proved fair, the flocks would rise on their feet,
trim their plumage, and as they started with wings extended, as if racing in
rivalry, the pattering of their feet would come on the ear like the noise of
great muffled drums, accompanied by the loud and clear sounds of their voice.
On running 50 yards or so to windward, they would all be on wing. If the
weather was thick, drizzly, and cold, or if there were indications of a fall of
snow, they would remain on the ice, walking, standing, or lying down, until
symptoms of better weather became apparent, when they would all start ofC.

Mr. Hoyes Lloyd has recently written to me about a flock of wild
trumpeter swans that have for several years been spending the winter
in a lake in southern British Columbia under the protection of the
Canadian National Parks Branch. So there is hope that the species
may survive.

DISTRIBUTION

Breeding range. — Probably still breeds sparingly in the wilder
portions of Wyoming (Yellowstone Park), western Montana,
Alberta, British Columbia (Skeena River), and northwestern Can-
ada. Has bred in the past east to James Bay (Norway House),.
Manitoba (Shoal Lake, 1893 and 1894), Minnesota (Heron Lake^
1883), and Indiana. South to Iowa (Hancock County, 1883), Ne-
braska, and Missouri west to British Columbia (Chilcoten) and
Alaska (Fort Yukon).

Winter range. — Western United States. South to the Gulf of
Mexico and southern California. North to west-central British

LIFE HISTORIES OF XORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 301

Columbia (Skeena River) and the central Mississippi Valley. Now
too rare everywhere to outline its range more definitely.

Spring migration. — Average dates of arrival: Nebraska, March
16; South Dakota, April 2; Minnesota, Heron Lake, April 4; Sas-
katchewan, April 16 ; British Columbia, April 20, Late date of de-
parture: Arkansas, Helena, April 29, 1891; British Columbia,
Osoyoos, April 25.

Fall migration. — Fall dates: Minnesota, Spicer, October 8, 1913;
Michigan, St. Clair Flats, November 20, 1875 ; Washington, Douglas
County, November 9, 1912; Colorado, Fort Collins; November 18,
1897, and November 25, 1915.

Egg dates. — Arctic Canada: Five records, June 17 to July 9.
Alaska: One record, June 28. Alberta: One record, April 7. Da-
kota : One record, June 4.

REFERENCES TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

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306 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

EiFEiG, Charles William Gustave.

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1888 — Report on the Proceedings of the United States Expedition to
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LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 307

Gbinnell, Joseph; Bryant, Harold Child; and Storer, Tracy Irwix.

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1897— Labrador Duck. Tlie Auk, vol. 14, p. 87.
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1891— The Birds of Greenland.
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1867- The Open Polar Sea.
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1866 — The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada.
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1908— The Birds of Maine.
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1879 — Contributions to the Natural History of Arctic America. Bulletin
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1846 — Description of a New Species of Anser. Annals of the Lyceum

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1885— The American Sportsman.
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1921 — The Greater Snow Goose. The Canadian Naturalist, vol. 25, p. 35.
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308 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

INlACARTNKY, WILLIAM NAPIEK.

1918 — Golden-eye Duck carrying Young. Bird-Lore, vol. 20, pp. 418-419.
MacFarlanr, Kodrkick Ross.

1891 — Notes on and List of Birds and Eggs Collected in Arctic America,
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1S90 — Somateria dresseri, The American Eider. The Auk, vol. 7, pp.

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1891— The Scoters in New England. The Auk, vol. 8, pp. 279-290.
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1918— Four Years in the White North.
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1909 — Catalogue of Canadian Birds. Second Edition.
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1910 — The Terrestrial Mammals and Birds of North-East Greenland.
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1910 — Notes on Chen coerulescens, Chen rossi, and other Waterfowl in

Louisiana. The Auk, vol. 27, pp. 337-339.
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1883 — Breeding of the Harlequin Duck. Bulletin of the Nuttall Orni-
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1878 — Notes on the Ornithology of southern Texas, being a List of Birds
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1888 — Notes on the Birds of Fort Klamath, Oregon. The Auk, vol. 5,
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1922 — An Adventure with a Pair of Harlequin Ducks in the Yosemite Val-
ley. The Auk, vol. 39, pp. 14-23.
MiLLAis, John Guille.

1913— British Diving Ducks.
Miller, Gerrit Smith, Jr.

1891— Further Cape Cod Notes. The Auk, vol. 8, pp. 117-120.
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1903— A History of British Birds. Fifth Edition.
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1637 — New English Canaan.
MuNRO, James Alexander.

1918 — The Barrow Golden-eye in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia.
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MtnBDOCH, John.

1885 — Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaska. Part 4, Natural History.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 309

Nelson, Edward William.

ISSl— Habits of the Black Brant in the Vicinity of St. Michaels, Alaska.

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1883 — The Birds of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Cruise of the
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1887 — Report upon Natural History Collections made in Alaska.
1913 — The Emperor Goose. Educational Leaflet, No. 64. Bird-Lore, vol.
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Newton, Alfred.

1896— A Dictionary of Birds.
Norton, Arthur Herbert.

1897 — A Noteworthy Plumage observed in the American Eider Drake. The

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438-440.
Nuttall, Thomas.

1834 — A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada,
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Palmer, William.

1899 — The Avifauna of the Pribilof Islands. The Fur-Seals and Fur-Seal
Islands of the North Pacific Ocean, Part 3, p. 355.
Pearson, Thomas Gilbert ; Brimley, Clement Samuel ; and Brimley, Her-
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1919 — Birds of North Carolina. North Carolina Geological and Economic
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Phillips, John Charles.

1910 — Notes on the Autumn Migration of the Canada Goose in Eastern

Massachusetts. The Auk, vol. 27, pp. 263-271.
1911 — Ten years of Observation on the Migration of Anatidae at Wenham

Lake, Massachusetts. The Auk, vol. 28, pp. 188-200.
1911a — Two Unusual Flights of Canada Geese Noted in Massachusetts
during the Fall of 1910. The Auk, vol. 28, pp. 319-323.
Preble, Edward Alexander.

1908 — A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region.
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Preston, Junius Wallace.

1892 — Notes on Bird Flight. Ornithologist and Oologist, vol. 17, pp. 41^2.
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1912 — Nesting of the Canada Goose at Lake Tahoe. The Condor, vol. 14,
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Reeks, Henry.

1870 — Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. The Canadian Naturalist,
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1895 — Contributions to the Zoology of Tennessee, No. 2, Birds. Proceed-
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1907 — Feathered Game of the Northeast.
Rockwell, Robert Blanchard.

1911 — Nesting Notes on the Ducks of the Barr Lake Region, Colorado. The
Condor, vol. 13, pp. 121-128 and 186-195.

310 BULLETIN 130, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Sanfokd, Leonard Cutler : Bishop, Louis Bennett ; and Van Dyke, Theo-
dore Strong.

1903— The Waterfowl Family.
Saunders, William Erwin.

1917— Wild Geese at Moose Factory. The Auk, vol. 34, pp. 331^335.
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1891 — Observations on the Birds of Jamaica, West Indies. The Auk, vol.
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Seebohm, Henry.

1901— The Birds of Siberia.
Sennett, George Burritt,

1878 — Notes on the Ornithology of the Lower Rio Grande of Texas.

Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical
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1879 — Further Notes on the Ornithology of the Lower Rio Grande of
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1880 — An unusual Flight of Whistling Swans in Northwestern Penn-
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pp. 125-126.
Shields, Alexander McMillan.

1899 — Nesting of the Fulvous Tree Duck. Bulletin of the Cooper
Ornithological Club, vol. 1, pp. 9-11.

SiLLOWAY, PeRLEY MiLTON.

1903 — Birds of Fergus County, Montana. Bulletin No. 1, Fergus County
Free High School.
Stansell, Sidney Smith Stout.

1909— Birds of Central Alberta. The Auk, vol. 26, pp. 390-400.
Stearns, Winfred Alden.

1883 — Notes on the Natural History of Labrador. Proceedings of the
United States National Museum, vol. 6, pp. 111-137.
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1895 — List of Birds Collected in North Greenland by the Peary Expedi-
tion of 1891-2 and the Relief Expedition of 1892. Proceedings
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pp. 502-505.
SwAiNsoN, William ; and Richardson, John.

1831 — Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. 2, Birds.
Swarth, Harry Schelwaldt.

1913 — A Study of a Collection of Geese of the Branta canadensis Group
from the San Joaquin Valley, California. University of California
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1922 — Birds and Mammals of the Stikine River Region of Northern
British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska. University of Cali-
fornia Publications in Zoology, vol. 24, pp. 125-314.
Swarth, Harry Schexwaxdt ; and Bryant, Harold Child.

1917— A Study of the Races of the White-fronted Goose (Anser
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Tavekner, Percy Algernon.

1922 — Adventures with the Canada Goose. The Canadian Field Naturalist,
vol. 36, pp. 81-83.

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN WILD FOWL 311

Thayee, John Eliot.

1905— Brant's Nest. The Auk, vol. 22, p. 408.
Thayer, John Eliot and Bangs, Outeam.

1914 — Notes on the Birds and Mammals of the Arctic Coast of East
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Club, vol. 5, pp. 1-66.
TowNSEND, Charles Wendell.

1905 — The Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts. Memoirs of the

Nuttall Ornithological Club. No. 3.
1910 — The Courtship of the Golden-eye and Eider Duck.s. The Auk.

vol. 27, pp. 177-181.
1913 — Some More Labrador Notes. The Auk, vol. 30, pp. 1-10.
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31, pp. 14-21.
1916— The Courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Baldpate,

Wood Duck, and Bufflehead. The Auk, vol. 33, pp. 9-17.
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1892— Our Scoters. The Auk, vol. 9, pp. 153-160.
1893— Our Scoters. The Auk, vol. 10, pp. 165-176.
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1886 — Contributions to the Natural History of Alaska.
Wetmoee, Alexander.

1920. Observations on the Habits of Birds at Lake Burford, New Mexico.
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Whitfield, Robert Parr.

1894— The Food of Wild Ducks. The Auk, vol. 11, p. 323.
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1886 — A Flock of Chen rossii East of the Rocky Mountains. The Auk,
vol. 3, p. 274.
Witheeby, Harey Forbes.

1913 — Barrow's Goldeneye and the Common Goldeneye. British Birds,
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1920-22.— A Practical Handbook of British Birds.
Yarrei.l, William.

1871,— History of British Birds, Fourth Edition, 1871-85. Revised and
enlarged by Alfred Newton and Howard Saunders.
YoEKE, F. Henry.

1891 — Shooting Canada Geese and Swans. Days with the Waterfowl of
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1899— Our Ducks.
100449—25 21

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Plate 1

Mixed flock of snow, blue, and Canada geese on a Louisiana Wild Life Refuge,
presented by Mr. Stanley Clisby Arthur. ( Frontispiece. )
312

100449—25-

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 2

American Goldeneye

For description see page facing

Plate 2

Upper: Nesting site of American goldeneye, Devils Lake, North Dakota,
June 22, 1898, presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

Lower: Nesting tree of American goldeneye, Nelson County, North Da-
kota, June ], 1901, a photograph by the author, referred to on page 3.

313

Plate 3

Upper: Nesting tree of American goldeneye, near Eskimo Point, Quebec,
June 10, 1909, referred to on page 2, presented by Dr. Cbarles W. Townsend.

Lower : A pair of adult American goldeneyes feeding, a photograph pur-
chased from Mr. Bonnycastle Dale.
314

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 3

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 4

American Goldeneye

For description see page facing

Plate 4

Upper : Nesting tree of Americau yoldeueye, Lake Winiiipegosis, Manitoba,
June 9, 1913, referred to on page 4.

Lower : Another nest tree, in the same locality, showing a mass of down
clinging to the bark near the opening. Both photographs by the author.

315

Plate 5

Upper: Female American goldeneye leaning far out of the nesting hole,
25 feet up in a white poplar, near Fort Chipewj^an, Alberta. A photograph
taken by Mr. Francis Harper, presented by the Biological Survey and Dr.
John C. Phillips.

Lower: Downy young American goldeneyes. Lake Winnipegosis, Mani-
toba, June 1913, presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.
316

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 5

American Goldeneye

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 6

Barrow Goldeneye

FOR DESCRIPTION SEE PAGE FACING

Plate 0

Nesting stub of Barrow golcleueye, Okanogan. British Columbia, presented
by Mr. James A. Munro.

317

Plate 7

Winter resort of Barrow goldeneyes, Yellowstone National Park, Wyo-
ming, presented by Mr. M. P. Skinner.
318

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 7

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 3

UJ •«

It p

CD g

Plate 8.

Left: Nesting tree of bufflehead, Buffalo Lake, Alberta, June S. 1920. The
lower hole contained 12 fresh eggs.

Right. Another nesting tree in the same locality, June 2, 1920. "The
photograph shows how far the eggs w-ere below the entrance hole." Both
photographs presented by Mr. G. H. Lings.

319

Pj-ate 9

Nesting" stub of bufflehead, Alberta, June 11, 1906, presented by Mr.
Walter Raine. The stub also contained the nest and eggs of desert spar-
row hawk.
320

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 9

BUFFLEHEAD

For description see page facing

100449—25 23

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 10

Oldsquaw

For description see page facing

Plate 10

Upper : Nest and eggs of oklsquaw, broken up by gulls, near St. Michael,
Alaska, July 5, 1915, from a negative taken by Mr. F. Seymour Hersey
for the author, referred to on page 3S.

Lower : Nest and eggs of oldsquaw, Lopp Lagoon, near Cape Prince of
Wales, Alaska, July 5, 1922. presented by Mr. Alfred :\I. Bailey, by courtesy
of the Colorado Museum of Natural History.

321

Plate 11

Upper : Xe.st and eggs of oldsqiiaw. Iceland. June. 1911. presented by Mr.
C. H. Wells.

Lower: Pair of adult oldsquaws. a photograph purchased from Mr. Bonny-
castle Dale.
322

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. II

iMKMfcalMii

Oldsquaw

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 12

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41

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Oldsquaw

For descf?iption see page facing

Plate 3 2

Upper : Nest of oldsquaw, with eggs covered with down, Cape Prince of
Wales, Alaska, July 5, 1922.

Lower : Same nest, witli eggs uncovered. Both photographs presented by
Mr. Alfred M. Bailey, by courtesy of the Colorado Museum of Natural His-
tory.

323

Plate 13

Upper : Male Pacific liarlequin duck, Yosemite Valley, California.
Lower : A pair of the same. Both photographs presented by Mr. Charles
W. Michael and referred to on page 59.
324

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 13

PACIFIC Harlequin Duck

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 14

it»tl>M»>W^-<^.-

%^f-::f'f- i^,

Spectacled Eidep

For description see page facing

Plate 14

Upper : Nesting site of spectacled eider, Point Hope, Alaska, June 15, 1917,
from a negative taken by Rev. A. R. Hoare for the author and referred to
on page 75.

Lower : Nest and eggs of spectacled eider. Point Barrow, Alaska, June 26,
1917, from a negative taken by Mr. T. L. Richardson for the author and
referred to on page 75.

325

Plate 15

Upper : Two nests of northern eider, near Hopedale, Labrador, July 22, 1912.
Lower: Another nest, same locality and date. Both photographs by the
author, referred to on page 81.
326

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 15

:

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Northern Eider

For DESCRIPTfON SEE PAGE FACINQ

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 16

Northern Eider

For description see page facing

Plate 16

Upper : Nest and eggs of northern eider, Sutherland Island, Greenland.

Lower : Another nest of same, near Etah, Greenland. Both photographs
taken by Dr. Donald B. MacMillan and presented by the American Museum of
Natural History.

327

Plate 17

Upper : Nest, eggs and young of eider.

Lower : Female eider on her nest. Both photographs taken in Iceland and
presented by Mr. C. H. Wells.
328

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 17

Eider

For description see page facing

100449— 2o 24

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL.

American Eider

For description see page facino

Plate IS

Upper : Nesting: site of American cider, on an island off the north shore
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. May 2G, 1009, referred to on page 97.

Lower : Closer view of the nest in the same spot. Both photographs by the
author.

329

Plate 19

Upper : Xest and 7 eggs of Aiuericaii eider on an island off the north shore
of the Gulf of St. I>awrence, May 29, 1909, a photograph I:y the author, referred
to on page 98.

Lower : Young male American eider in first winter plumage beginning to ac-
quire the first white plumage, a photograph purchased from Mr. Bonnycastle
Dale.

330

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

5ULLETIN 130 PL. 19

American Eider

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 20

Pacific Eider

For description see page facing

Plate 20

Upper: Nesting site of Pacific eider, Kiska Island. Alaslia, June 19, 1911,
referred to on page 103.

Lower : Closer view of the nest in the same spot. Both photographs by the
author.

331

Plate 21

Xest aud eggs of Pacific eider, Cape Priuce of Wales. Alaska. July 1 1022,
presented by Mr. Alfred M. Bailey, courtesy of tlie Colorado Museum of Nat-
ural Histoi'y.
382

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 21

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 22

King Eider

For description see page facing

Plate 22

Upper : Nest and eggs of king eider, Spitsbergen, Julj', 1921.

Lower : Nesting site of Iving eider, Spitsbergen, July, 1921. Both photo-
graphs talven l)y Mr. J. S. Hnxley. purchased from the Oxford University
Expedition to Spitsbergen and referred to on page 110.

333

Plate 23

Upper : Xest and eggs of white-wiuged scoter, Stump Lake Reservation,
North Dakota, June 27, 1898.

Lower : Another nest, same locality and date. Both photographs presented
by Mr. Herbert K. Job and referred to on page 132.
334

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 23

White-winged Scoter

For description see pace facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 24

White-winged Scoter

For description see page facing

Plate 24

Upper : Nest and eggs of wliite-wiiigecl scoter, Lake Manitoba, Manitoba,
July 4, 1912.

Lower : Downy young white-winged scoters, St. MarlvS, Manitoba, July,
1912. Both photographs presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

335

Plate 25

A flock of migrating wliite-winged scoters, off Maiiomet Point, Plymouth,
Massacliusetts, October 25, 1904, presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.
336

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 25

100449 — 25 25

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 26

Ruddy Duck

For description see page facing

Plate 26

Upper : Pair of adult ruddy ducks. Lake Manitoba. Manitolia. July. l'.)12.
Lower : Nest and eggs of ruddy duck, same locality, July S. 1912. Both
photographs presented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

337

Plate 27

Uppei": Nest and eggs of ruddy duck, Steele County, North Dakota. June 13.
1901.

Lower: Another nest, same k)cality, June li). 1001. Both photographs liy the
author, referred to on page 103.
338

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 27

Ruddy Duck

Foa DESCRIPTION SEE PAGE FACING

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 28

Ruddy Duck

For description see page facing

Plate 2S

Upper : Downy youiij;- riuldy duck, St. Marks, Manitoba, July, 1912, pre-
sented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

Lower: Young ruddy ducks, a pbotograph of dried skins, preseiited by Mr.
Joseph Mailliard.

339

Plate 29

Upper : Adult snow goose, Louisiana.

Lower: Anotlier view of same. Both photograplis presented by Mr. Stanley
Cli.sby Arthur.
340

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 29

Snow Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 30

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Blue Goose

For description see page facing

Plate 30

Upper : Flock of blue and snow geese, Vermilion Bay. Louisiana, Januai-y 3,
lOlG.

Lower : Another flock, same locality and date. Both photographs presented
by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

341

I'LATE 31

Adult and young blue geese, same locality and date as preceding plate, pre-
sented by Mr. Herbert K. Jol).
342

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 31

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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 32

Plate 32

Flock of blue aud snow geese, .same locality and date as preceding plate, pre-
sented by Mr. Herbert K. Job.

343

Plate 33

Upper : Nesting site of white-fronted goose. Kolyma Delta, Siberia. July 1,
1917.

Lower : Closer view of nest in same spot. Both from negatives taken by
Mr. Jolian Koren for the author.
344

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 33

White-fronted Goose

100449— 23 26

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

3ULLETIN 130 PL. 34

Plate 34

Left : Nest aud eggs of pink-footed goose. Spitsbergen, July, 1922, talven
by Mr. W. M. Congreve.

Right : Another nest of same, Prince Charles Foreland, 1921, taken by Mr.
T. G. Longstaff. Both photographs purchased from the Oxford University
Expedition to Spitsbergen and referred to on page 201.

345

Plate 35

Nest and eggs of pink-footed goose, Bruce City. Spitsbergen. July. 1921, a
pliotograph talieu by Mr. J. D. Brown and purchased from the Oxford Uni-
versity Expedition to Spitsbergen.
346

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 35

Pink-footed Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 36

Canada Goose

For description see page facing

Plate 36

Upper-: Pair of Canada geese nesting under semi-wild conditions, Taunton,
Massachusetts. April 27, 191S.

Lower : Deserted nest of Canada goose in a slough, Steele County, North
Dakota. June 10, 1901, referred to on page 206. Both photographs by the author.

347

Plate 37

Upper : Nest and eggs of Canada goose, on an island in Crane Lake, Sas-
katchewan, June 2, 1905.

Lower : Another nest on the same island. Both photographs by the author,
referred to on page 206.
348

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 37

Canada Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 3£

-r\j^\%

Of^Hk'ctk Goose

For description see page facing

Plate 38

Upper : Immature Canada geeso.

Lower: Downy young Canada goose. Both photographs taken on Klamath
River. Oregon, and presented by Messrs. H. T. Bohlman and William L.
Finley.

349

Plate 39

Nest of Canada goose in an old red-tailed hawk's nest, Alberta, April 25,
1896, presented by Mr. Walter Raine.
350

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 39

Canada Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 40

HuTCHiNS Goose

For description see page facing

Plate 40

Upper: Nest and eggs of Hutcbiiis goose, Point Barrow, Alaska, June 20,
1917, from a negative taken by Mr. T. L. Richardson for tlie author.

Lower : Adult Hut chins goose, Louisiana, presented by Mr. Stanley Clisby
Arthur.

351

Platk 41

Upper : Nest and eggs of brant, Eider Duck Island, Greenland.

Lo\Yer : Another nest, same locality. Both photographs taken by Dr.
Donald B. MacMillan, presented by the American Museum of Natural History
and referred to on page 242.
352

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 4!

Brant

For description see page facing

100449—25 27

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 42

^ if'' -V

Brant

For description see page facing

Plate 42

Upper : Nest and eggs of brant. Moffen Island, Spitsbergen, July 8, 1921,
a photograph taken by Mr. J. D. Brown.

Lower : Another nest, same locality and date, a photograph taken by Mr.
Seton P. Gordon. Both photographs purchased from the Oxford University
Expedition to Spitsbergen and referred to on page 241. •

353

Plate 43

Nesting site of brant, Moffen Island, 80° N., Spitsbergen, July 8, 1921, a
photograph taken by Mr. J, D. Brown and purchased from the Oxford Univer-
sity Expedition to Spitsbergen.
354

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 43

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 44

Black Brant

For description see page facing

Plate 44

Upper : Nesting site of black brant, Point Hope, Alaska, June 15, 1917.
Lower : Closer view of the nest in the same spot. Both photographs from
negatives taken by Rev. A. E. H<>are for the author and referred to on page 252.

355

Plate 45

Upper : Barnacle goose on its nest, 1,200 feet above the bed of the valley,
Spitsbergen, June, 1922.

Lower : Same nest as above. Both photographs taken by Mr. W. M. Con-
greve, purchased from the Oxford University Expedition to Spitsbergen and
referred to on page 260.
356

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 45

Barnacle Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 46

Barnacle Goose

For description see page facing

Plate 46

Nest and eggs of barnacle goose, Advent Bay. Spitsbergen, June 28, 1921,
a photograph purchased from the Oxford University Expedition to Spitsbergen
and referred to on page 260.

357

Plate 47

Upper : Nest of emperor goose, with eggs concealed, Cape Prince of Wales,
Alaska, July 5, 1922.

Lower : Another nest of same. Mint River, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska,
July 12, 1922. Both photographs presented by Mr. Alfred M. Bailey, by
courtesy of the Colorado Museum of Natural History.
358

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 47

Emperor Goose

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 48

Plate 48

Nesting site of emperor goose, nest on small islet to right of stump, Lopp
Lagoon, near Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, July 5. 1922, prese'.itevl by Mr.
Alfred M. Bailey, by courtesy of the Colorado Museum of Natural History.

.359

Plate 49

Nest of fulvous tree-duck, concealed in thick tules, Los Banos, California,
June 4, 1914, presented by Mr. W. Leon Dawson, by courtesy of the South
Moulton Company.
360

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 49

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100449—25 28

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 50

sis 4 -- ' A

Plate 50

Closei" view of same nest shown on previous plate, presented by Mr. W. Leon
Dawson, by courtesy of the South Moulton Company.

361

Plate 51

Fnlvous tree-diicks flying, near Santa Barbara, California, May 2, 1912, pre-
sented by Mr. W. Leon Dawson, by courtesy of tlie South Moulton Company.
302

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 51

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 52

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Plate 52

Nesting site of fulvous tree-duck, Kern County, California, presented by
Mr. Donald R. Dickey.

363

Plate 53

Nest and eggs of fulvous tree-duck, Keru Couuty, California, presented by
Mr. Donald R. Dickey.
3G4

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 53

Fulvous Tree-duck

For description see page facing

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 54

Fulvous Tree-duck

For description see page facing

Plate 54

Another nest and eggs of fulvous tree-duck. Kern County, California, pre-
sented by Mr. Donald R. Dickey.

365

Plate 55

Ri.ifht: Nest, e.a',ns. and young of whooping swan, Iceland, June. 1011, pre-
sented by Ml-. C. H. Wells.

Left : Adult whooping swan standing over its nest. West Highlands, Scot-
land, presented by Mrs. Audrey Gordon, and referred to on page 279.
366

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 55

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 56

< a

I s

Plate 56

Nesting site of wbistlin.c swan. Mint River. Cape Prince of Wales, Alaslca,
.Tnly 1.3. 1922. presented b.v Mr. Alfred M. Bailey, by courtesy of the Colorado
Museum of Natural History.

367

Plate 57

Nest and downy young of whistling swan. Mint River. Cape Prince of Wales.
Alaska. July 13, 1922, presented by Mr. Alfred M. Bailey, by courtesy of the
Colorado Museum of Natural History.
3GS

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 57

10044<J— 25 20

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 58

Plate 58

Pair of whistlins; swans. Fergus County, Montana, presented by Mr. E. S.
Cameron.

369

Plate 59

Flock of wild whistling swans, Toint Pelee. Ontario, April 13, 1924, pre-
sented by Mr. Walter E. Hastings.
370

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 59

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

BULLETIN 130 PL. 60

*

Trumpeter Swan

For description see page facing

Plate 60

Adult trumpeter swan. Louisiana State Wild Life Reserve, February, 1915,
presented by Mr. Stanley Clisby Artliur.

371

INDEX

Page

Adams, Edward, on American scoter 120

albeola, Charitonetta 24

albifrons, Anser albifrons 188

albifrons, Anser gambelli 196

Alford, Charles E.—

on American goldeneye 2

on surf scoter 144

American eider 94

American goldeneye 1

American scoter 119

americana, Glaucionetta clangula 1

americana, Oidemia 119

Anderson, R. M.—

on brant 238

on trumpeter swan 296

Annandale, Nelson, on American eider 95

Anser albifrons albifrons 188

Anser albifrons gambelli 19G

Anser brachyrhy nchus 200

Anser fabalis 193

Arctonetta fischeri... 74

Atlantic harlequin duck 50

Audubon, J. J. —

on American scoter 120, 122

on Atlantic harlequin duck.. 51, 52

on bufflehead 28

on Canada goose 205,209,214,215,217

on greater snow goose 177

on Labrador duck 63,64,65

on oldSQuaw 36

on ruddy duck 158, 159

on surf scoter 146

on trumpeter swan 298,299

on white-fronted goose. 192

autumnalis, Dendrocygna 269

Bailey, Alfred M.—

on brant.. 238

on Stellereider 68

on whistling swan 283, 284

Bailey, Florence Men-iam —

on ruddy duck__ 153

on surf scoter 149

Bailey, Vernon, on snow goose 167

Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway —

on black-bellied tree duck 270

on masked duck 162

barnacle goose - 25?

Barnes, R. M., on blue goose 180

Barnhart, F. S., on fulvous tree duck 275

Barnston, George —

on blue goose 180

on snow goose 163

Barrow goldeneye 14

Barrows, W. B,, on oldsquaw 44

bean goose 198

bemicla, Branta bernicla 237

bernicla, Branta nigricans... 249

bicolor, Dendrocygna 272

Bingaman, W. H., on bufflehead 26

Bishop, Louis B., on brant 239

100449—25 30

Page
Blaauw, Frans Ernst^

on emperor goose 265

on Ross goose 186, 187

black-bellied tree duck 269

black brant 249

Blanchan, Neltje—

on bufflehead 28

on white-fronted goose... 192

blue goose 178

borealis, Somateria mollissima 79

brachyrhy nchus, Anser 200

Brandt, Herbert W., on snow goose 171

brant _.. 237

brant, black 249

Branta bernicla bernicla 237

Branta bernicla nigricans 249

Branta canadensis canadensis 204

Branta canadensis hutchinsi... 223

Branta canadensis minima 231

B ranta canadensis occidentalis 227

Branta leucopsis 258

Bretherton, B. J., on Pacific harlequin duck. 58, 61

Brewer, T. M., on Ba;rrow goldeneye 15

Brewster, William, on American goldeneye.. 2
Brooks, Allan—

on American scoter 125

on Barrow goldeneye 16

on bufflehead 26

on ruddy duck 155

Brooks, W. Sprague, on king eider 109

Brown, D. E., on Pacific harlequin duck 60

Bryant, Edwin S., on white-winged scoter... 136

Bryant, Harold C, on fulvous tree duck 274

Bryant, Walter E., on snow goose 170

buccinator, Cygnus 293

bufflehead 24

Burrows, D. B., on fulvous tree duck 275

cackling goose 231

caerulescens, Chen 178

Cameron, E. S. —

on trumpeter swan 294, 298

on whistling swan 282, 286, 287, 288, 292

Camptorhynchus labradorius 62

Canada goose... 204

canadensis, Branta canadensis.. 204

canadensis, Branta hutchinsi 223

canadensis, Branta minima 231

canadensis, Branta occidentalis 227

Cartwright, George, on American eider 100, 101

Charitonetta albeola 24

Chen caerulescens _ 178

Chen hyperborea hyperborea 164

Chen hyperborea nivalis 173

clangula, Glaucionetta americana 1

Clangula hyemalis __ 32

Clark, Austin H., on cackling goose 232

Coale, Henry K., on trumpeter swan 295

columbianus, Cygnus 281

Conover, H. B. —

on fulvous tree duck 277

on masked duck 163

373

374

INDEX

Page
Cooke, W. W —

on black-bellied tree duck 272

on trumpeter swan 296

Cooper, J. G., on bufHehead 29

Cordeaux, John —

on barnacle goose 258, 261

on bean goose 199

on brant.. 245

on pink-footed goose 202,203

on whooping swan 278,279,280

Coues, Elliott—

on Barrow goldeneye 14

on Hutchins goose 225

on Labrador duck 63

on snow goose.. K7, 169

on white-fronted goose 194

Currier, E. S., on American goldeneye 11

Cygnus buccinator 293

Cygnus columbianus. 281

Cygnus cygnus 278

cygnus, Cygnus 278

Davis, Nathan L., on whistling swan 291

Dawson, W. Leon —

on American goldeneye 8

on black brant 255,256

on bufflehead 30

on snow goose... 167

on surf scoter 144

deglandi, Melanitta 131

DeKay, James E., on Labrador duck 65

Dendrocygna autumnalis 269

Dendrocygna bicolor 272

Dice, L. R., on bufflehead 30

Dixon, Joseph, on white-cheeked goose 228

dominicus, Nomonyx 161

drasseri, Somateria mollissima 94

duck, Atlantic harlequin 50

black-bellied tree .- 269

fulvous tree 272

Labrador 62

masked 161

Pacific harlequin.. 58

ruddy 152

Dutcher, William, on Labrador duck.. 63, 64

Dwight, Jonathan, on American scoter 123

Eaton, E. H., on oldsquaw.. ^ 44

Edson, J. M., on white-winged scoter 137

eider, American 94

king 107

Northern. 79

Paciflc— 102

spectacled 74

Steller... 67

Eifrig, C. W. G., on whistling swan... 284

Ekblaw, W. Elmer—

on brant.... 242, 243

on greater snow goose 175, 176

on king eider 108, 110

on northern aider .- 79,82,84,93

on oldsquaw 34, 36, 33, 40, 46

^Elliot, D. G.—

on Barrow goldeneye 20

on brant 245

-on bufflehead 30

on greater snow goose.. 176, 177

on Pacific harlequin duck 59

Pago
Elliot, D. G.— Continued.

on snow goose 167

on whistling swan 281,285,288

emperor goose... 263

English, T. M. Savage, on masked duck 162

Erismatura jamaicensis 152

European goldeneye 12

Exanthemops rossii _ 185

fabalis, Anser 198

Fannin, John, on Canada goose 208

Figgins, J. D., on northern eider 82, 91

fischeri, Arctonetta 74

Forbush, E. H —

on American scoter. 124

on brant 239,246

on trumpeter swan 294

Forster, J. R., on snow goose 168

fulvous tree duck 272

fusca, Melanitta 128

gambelli, Anser albifrons. 196

Gatke, Heinrich —

on brant... 244

on velvetscoter 130

Gibson, Langdon, on greater snow goose 175

GObert, R. A., on American goldeneye. i

Qlaucionetta clangula americana 1

Glaucionetta islandica 14

goldeneye, American 1

Barrow 14

European 12

goose, barnacle 258

bean 198

blue... 178

cackling : 231

Canada 204

emperor 263

greater snow 173

Hutchins ...'. 223

pink-footed 200

Ross 185

snow 164

tule 196

white-cheeked 227

white-fronted 188

Gordon, Mrs. Audrey, on whooping swan... 279

Gordon, Seton, on oldsquaw 45

Gray, Robert, on barnacle goose.. 2.58

Grayson, A. J.—

on black-bellied tree duck 270, 271

on fulvous tree duck 273,277

greater snow goose 173

Griffith, Owen, on blue goose 179

Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer —

on black brant 256

on cackling goose .234

on emperor goose 266,268

on fulvous tree duck 272, 276

on Hutchins goose 225

on snow goose 170

Grinnell, George Bird, on snow goose 169

Grinnell, Joseph—

on white-cheeked goose 228, 229

on white-winged scoter 141

Hagerup, Andreas T. —

on northern eider. 93

on whooping swan 278

INDEX

375

Page

Halkett, Andrew, on northern eider 89

Hanna, G. Dallas, on European goldeneye.. 12

harlequin duck, Atlantic. 50

harlequin duck, Pacific 58

Harlow, Richard C, on brant 239

Hayes, I. I., on northern eider 90

Haynes, William B., on oldsquaw 43

Henderson, A. D. —

on Canada goose 208,212

on white- winged scoter 136

Hersey, F. S.—

on blue goose 182, 183

on king eider 114, 116

on oldsquaw 35,39

on Pacific eider 104, 105, 106

on Steller eider 68

on white-fronted goose 191

Histrionicus histrionicus histrionicus 50

histrionicus, Histrionicus histrionicus 50

Histrionicus histrionicus paciflcus 58

histrionicus, Histrionicus paciflcus 58

Hoare, A. R., on black brant 255

Holland, A. H., on masked duck 162

Howley, James P., on Canada goose 211

Hoxie, Walter J., on Labrador duck 65

Hubbard, SamuelJr., on bufflehead 29

Hudson, W. H., on fulvous tree duck 273

Hull, Edwin D., on oldsquaw 43

Hutchins goose 223

hutchinsi, B ranta canadensis 223

hyemalis, Clangula 32

hyperborea, Chen hyperborea 164

hyperborea, Chen nivalis 173

islandica, Glaucionetta 14

jamaicensis, Erismatura.. 152

Jourdain, F. C. R. —

on barnacle goose. 260,261,262

on bean goose... 199

on brant 237,241,243

on king eider 110

on pink-footed goose 201

king eider 107

King, W. Ross, on Labrador duck 64

Knight, Ora W.—

on bufflehead 28

on Canadagoose 216

Kumlien and Hollister, on Canada goose 220

Kumlien, Ludwig, on northern eider 79, 84, 88

Labrador duck 62

labradorius, Camptorhynchus 62

Langille, J. H. —

on oldsquaw 45

on ruddy duck 154, 159

Lawrence, George N. —

on black brant 249

on Labrador duck 65

leucopsis, Branta 258

Lewis, ElishaJ., on greater snow goose 177

Lewis, Harrison F. —

on American eider 98

on brant 240

on greater snow goose 174

Littlejohn, Chase-
on black brant ^ 249

on Steller eider 72

Macartney, W. N., on American goldeneye.. 6

Page
MacFarlane, R.—

on black brant 252

on Hutchins goose 224

on Pacific eider 105

on Ross goose 185

on snow goose. 165

on surf scoter 145

on trumpeter swan 296

on white-fronted goose... 190, 193

on white-winged scoter 145

Mackay, George H.—

on American scoter.. 123, 124

on brant 244

on oldsquaw 43,44,48

on surf scoter 143,149,150

on white-winged scoter 131

MacMillan, Donald B., on northern eider... 91
Macoun, John —

on American goldeneye 4

on white-winged scoter 133

Manniche, A. L. V. —

on barnacle goose... 259

on king eider 110,111,112,114

masked duck 16I

McAtee, W. L., on blue goose 181,184

Melanitta deglandi 131

Melanitta fusca 128

Melanitta perspicillata 143

Merriam, C. Hart, on Atlantic harlequin

duck 51

Merrill, J. C—

on black-bellied tree duck 269, 270

on white-fronted goose 189

Michael, Charles W-, on Pacific harlequin

duck.. .' 59,60

Millais, John G.—

on American goldeneye... 6,9

on Atlantic harlequin duck 51, 53, 54, 55, 56

on Barrow goldeneye 17, 18, 19,21

on northern eider. 79, 86, 88, 89, 90

on oldsquaw 35,39,41,42,46

on Steller eider 69, 71

on surf scoter 143

on velvet scoter 128,129

Miller, G. S., jr., on ruddy duck 156

minima, Branta canadensis 231

moDissima, Somateria borealis 79

mollissima, Somateria dresseri 94

Morris, F. O., on whooping swan 279

Munro, J. A.—

on Barrow goldeneye 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23

on bufHehead 27

Murdoch, John—

on black brant 251, 255

on king eider 107, 115

on oldsquaw 46

on Steller eider 68,71,72

on white-fronted goose 190

Murie, O. J.—

on Atlantic harlequin duck.. 53

on blue goose 182, 183

Nelson, E. W.—

on .'Vmerican scoter 120, 121

on black brant 250,253,255

on cackling goose 231,232,234

on emperor goose 263, 265, 266, 267

376

INDEX

Page
Nelson, E. W.— Continued.

on oldsquaw 34,46

on Pacific eider - -- 104, 105

on Pacific harlequin duck 59

on snow goose 165

on spectacled eider 74, 75, 76, 78

on Steller eider - 67,71,72

on surf scoter 145,149

on whistling swan _ .- 282,283,285

on white-fronted goose... 189, 191, 192, 193

Newton, Alfred, on Labrador duck 63

nigricans, Branta bernicla... .-. 249

nivalis, Chen hyperborea 173

Nomonyx dominicus 161

northern eider 79

occidentalis, Branta canadensis... 227

Oidemia americana 119

oldsquaw 32

Pacific eider.. 102

Pacific harlequin duck 58

pacificus, Histrionicus histrionicus 58

Palmer, William, on oldsquaw 37

Payne-Qallwey, Ralph, on bean goose 200

Pearson, T. Gilbert, on brant 247

Pennock, Charles J., on Canada goose 221

perspicillata, Melanitta 143

Philacte canagica 263

pink-footed goose 200

Polysticta stelleri 67

Preble, E. A —

on oldsquaw 33

on snow goose 165

Preston, J. W., on Canada goose 214

Rathbun, S. P., on black bran^ 257

Ray, Milton S., on Canada goose 207

Reeks, Henry, on Canada goose 218

Rhoads, Samuel N., on Canada goose.- 210

Rich, Walter H.—

on American scoter 126

on Atlantic harlequin duck 56

on oldsquaw 47

on ruddy duck 158

Richardson, E. P., on white-winged scoter.. 138

Ross goose - -- 185

rossii, Exanthemops.. 185

ruddy duck 152

Sanford, Leonard C—

on black-bellied tree duck 271

on brant 239

on bufllehead 31

on white-fronted goose 194

Saunders, Aretas A. —

on Atlantic harlequin duck 57

on Pacific harlequin duck 60

scoter, American 119

surf... 143

velvet 128

white-winged 131

Scott, J. Q., on king eider 118

Scott, W. E. D., on masked duck.. 162

Seebohm, Henry, on bean goose 199

Sennett, George B. —

on black-bellied tree duck 269, 270, 271

on whistling swan 281

Sharpless, Dr., on whistling swan 285, 287, 290

Shepard, C. W., on northern eider 92

Page
Shields, A. M., on fulvous tree duck... 273, 274, 275

Silloway, P. M., on trumpeter swan 297

Skinner, M. P.—

on American goldeneye... 12

on Barrow goldeneye 15, 22, 23

on bufllehead 30

on Canada goose 215,221

on trumpeter swan 297

snow goose 164

snow goose, greater.. 173

Somateria mollissima borealis 79

Somateria mollissima dresseri 94

Somateria spectabilis 107

Somateria V. nigra 10?

spectabUis, Somateria.. 107

spectacled eider 74

Steller eider 67

stelleri, Polysticta 67

surf scoter 143

Swainson and Richardson, on whistling swan. 283

swan, trumpeter 293

whistling 281

whooping 278

Swarth and Bryant, on tule goose 197, 198

Swarth, Harry S., on white-cheeked goose... 230

Taverner, P. A., on Canada goose 211

Thayer and Bangs, on king ader 109

Thayer, John E., on brant 242

Townsend, Charles W.—

on American eider 94,95,97

on American goldeneye 1,6

on buffiehead 25

on surf scoter 149

tree duck, black-bellied 269

fulvous 272

trumpeter swan. 293

tule goose .- 196

Turner, Lucien M. —

on Atlantic harlequin duck 50

on Barrow goldeneye 21

on brant 241

on cackling goose 233,234,235

on Canada goose 217

on emperor goose 266,267

on northern eider 80, 83, 84, 90

on oldsquaw 33,37,38,45

on Pacific eider 104, 106

on Pacific harlequin duck 59

on whistling swan 288

on white-fronted goose 192

van Rossem, A. J., on ruddy duck 157

velvet scoter 128

V. nigra, Somateria 102

Wetmore, Alexander, on ruddy duck 155

whistling swan 281

white-cheeked goose 227

white-fronted goose.. 188

white-winged scoter 131

Whitfield, R. P., on Atlantic harlequin duck. 55

Whittle, Charles L., on surf scoter 144

whooping swan 278

Williams, Robert S., on Ross goose 185

Witherby's Handbook—

on barnacle goose 262

on bean goose 199

Yorke, F. Henry, on bufflehead 25

on whistling swan 286

o

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Bulletin 130

LIFE HISTORIES OF NORTH AMERICAN

WILD FOWL

ORDER ANSERES (Part)

By ARTHUR CLEVELAND BENT
Of Taunton, Massachusetts

WASHINGTON

OOTX&NMENT PRINTINO OmCE

1931