th i tesened? ; Me / ‘ | { ad i} iil i] | WT 1} } | i | | thy i | i } | hae ie c aa a ie Mi ft | niece eit AA ave ee ih ak hat it i} Wi ° | 5 | ; q a Bil: i Me a) Sit ar ui THE LIFE OF THE SALMON Frontispiece Young salmon artificially reared at the Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s ponds near the mouth of the Spey. From above downwards the fish are one year, two years, and three years old. The fourth and largest fish is also three years old, but has spent its third year in a sea-water pond. —_—— ‘aie THE “ LIFE OF THE SALMON WITH REFERENCE MORE ESPECIALLY TO THE FISH IN SCOTLAND BY W. L. CALDERWOOD, F-R.S.E. INSPECTOR OF SALMON FISHERIES FOR SCOTLAND JUL 26 1984 LiBRARIES ~~ LONDON EDWARD ARNOLD 1907 [All rights reserved] Z0024kb LO THE DISTRICT FISHERY BOARDS OF SCOTLAND I RESPECTFULLY DEDICATE THIS BOOK CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY . : é : : : : . Page xiii CHAPTER I Smolts Early ideas concerning smolts—Rearing of smolts in captivity — Marine versus fresh water origin of the salmon — Hatching fry from smolt eggs—British smolts descend when two years old—Marking of smolts—Habits in migrat- ing to the sea— Autumn migrations — Development of smolts in sea—Herr Dahl’s capture of smolts in the sea off Norway. : : , : : : . Pp. 1-29 CHAPTER II Grilse Return of marked smolts as grilse the following season— Habits of grilse in the sea—Ascent of grilse from the sea—Habit of many to remain in sea beyond grilse stage—Small spring fish—The spawning of grilse—Ascent of grilse when in poor condition—Argument in support of the marine origin of the salmon—Entrance of salmon to fresh water not entirely explained by condition of satiety— Reproduction in fresh water—Possible transference of small fish from one river to another—Movements of marked grilse along coast of Scotland . ‘ : ; : : : Pp. 30-55 Vili CONTENTS CHAPTER III Results of Salmon Marking Karly marking operations— Modern method of marking — (e") Ag Divided migration—Scottish and Irish records showing short and long periods in the sea—Increase of weight in kelts recaptured as clean fish—Significance of divided migration in regulating fisheries—Salmon returning to their own river—Recaptures in other rivers—Recaptures on the coast—Direction of movements on coast—Kelts recaptured as kelts—Spring fish marked and recaptured Pp. 56-92 CHAPTER IV The Seales of Salmon as Records of the Salmon’s Life of salmon to be told from their scales—Progressive growth of the scales—Lines of growth on scales—The spawning mark—Records of marked smolts as shown on scales— Records of small spring fish marked as smolts—Infrequency of the spawning mark—Scales of kelt recaptured as clean fish—The average number of lines added—Scales of large salmon—Salmon disease—The bacillus of origin—Fungus spreads quickly on dead fish . : : . Pp. 93-109 CHAPTER V The Feeding of Salmon and Growth of the Genitalia Absence of food in salmon taken in fresh water—Feeding habits of fry—Food of salmon in the sea—Nutriment in tissues of estuary as against upper water fish— Transference of nutriment from muscles to reproductive organs Pp. 110-124 CONTENTS x CHAPTER VI The Salmon and Water Temperature Early and late rivers—Rivers made late by man—Temperature of the sea round Scotland—Temperatures of early and late Scottish rivers—Temperature no indication of seasonal character—Effects of temperature on fish ascending rivers— Early runs of fish in upper waters, Garry and Orchy— Effects of cold water upon ascending fish—The entrance of tributaries from main river—Rapid ascent of summer fish— Sea lice may remain attached for four or five days Pp. 125-145 APPENDIX A record of salmon marking in Scotland previous to the opera- tions of the Fishery Board in 1896 : . Pp, 147-157 EN DEX) | : : : : : : : . 159-160 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Young salmon artificially reared at the Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s ponds near the mouth of the Spey . . Frontispiece Puate I. Dorsal fin of grilse, ‘caught in "1906, with silver mark inserted when the fish was a smolt in 1905. ; ; . To face page 30 Puate II, Measuring length of ethers on marking board and piercing dorsal fin for insertion of mark . at Ma 58 Puate IIT, Weighing fish suspended by a, orate tail band after insertion of mark . : etl ine 58 PuatE ITV. A male salmon in full spawning livery, fresh from the sea in November. The fish has just been marked on the dorsal fin 5 BA 92 Puate V, Scales of erie aa sina spring salmon recaptured in 1906 and 1907 respectively, each fish having been marked asasmoltin 1905 . , aah oe 100 Puate VI. Two scales from a alien at different stages of growth, when the fish was marked as a kelt and Seen as a clean fish ; : ee pan 102 Puate VII. A salmon- ceri crew on the Helmsdale, Sutherland . : ; svi Sieg 122 PREFATORY NOTE I am indebted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh for per- mission to reproduce the Frontispiece and Plate I., which have already appeared in the Proceedings of the Society as Illustrations to papers of my own. I desire, also, to thank Sir Herbert Maxwell for valued criticism with regard to certain views I have ventured to express in this little book, and Mr. H. W. Johnston for many kindnesses in facilitating the experimental work in which we have been much associated. WL: C CARR BRIDGE, August 15, 1907. INTRODUCTORY To all who endeavour to understand the life of the salmon, two disadvantages are naturally present. The fish cannot at all stages of its life be brought under observation ; it goes from us into the ewigkert of the ocean, where on the whole it spends more time than in our rivers, and where its doings excite men’s imaginations and their faculty for romance. Secondly, the fish belongs to a genus so susceptible to the influences of environment that it has to be studied in different localities and under varied con- ditions, if we would escape a too narrow vision of its habits and characteristics. Even then we have to bear in mind that what we actually see may not always be believed, that exceptionah appearances have to be suspected and strange occurrences investigated ; while the whole history of salmon literature reminds us that to write on this subject is to open up argument and to court dispute. I have heard of a Cabinet Minister who, when asked to advance salmon fishery legislation, promptly declined, saying he wished to die in his bed. The heat and intolerance which have been exhibited, in Scotland at least, over disputes about the life of the salmon almost rival the spirit shown in recent X1V INTRODUCTORY times over Church distinctions. Precisely similar lines of investigation have led contending observers to completely opposite deductions, the reason being that the observers were in reality striving for supremacy rather than for truth. No wonder, then, that critics find safety in saying we know very little about the salmon. They are, even at the present day, perhaps not far wrong. But writers seem to have acquired the habit of safe- guarding themselves by emphasising the “‘ mystery ” or “dire perplexity” in which the whole subject is shrouded. One of the most recent tells us that the result of the whole body of literature on the salmon is to give the Philistine ‘‘ numerous erroneous ideas on the subject, along with a few ‘proved facts.’ ” It is clear that he does not think much of the “proved facts ”—regards them apparently as on the same level with the judge’s famous characterisation of the evidence of the skilled witness. With humility, however, we must plod on search- ing for our facts if we hope to gain that true con- ception of our subject which can alone give us a scientific basis from which to extend a sound regu- lative treatment of our salmon fisheries. Alexander Russel has truly said, concerning the importance of this matter, that “without some knowledge of how, when, and where the fish breeds, dwells, and feeds, it is useless to speak and unsafe to act.” The general principle lying at the root of all salmon fishery legislation has been to counteract the natural tendency of man to over-fish, to capture fish at a harmful time or in a harmful way, or to INTRODUCTORY XV erect engines which obstructed the ascent of salmon and facilitated their capture in undue numbers. The Scottish statutes of four hundred years ago commonly put down practices which “destroy the breed of fish, and hurt the commoun profite of the realme.” From earliest times it has been considered necessary to protect spawning fish by close seasons, and to do this satisfactorily observation as to the breeding season has been inevitable. Like the crime of sheep-stealing, the crime of poaching salmon in close time was punishable by death. In an Act of the first Parliament of James I. (1424) we find “Quha sa ever be convict of slauchter of Salmonde in time forbidden be the law, he sall pay fourtie shillings for the unlaw, and at the third time, gif he be convict of sik trespasse, he sall tyne his life, or then bye it.” The transference from forty shillings (Scots) to the death penalty seems rapid, nor is any indication given as to what may be regarded as the ultimate price of a poacher’s life. One thing seems clear, however : those early Scottish legislators were determined to preserve the breed of salmon. God bless their memory! In more recent times we have had not a few examples of how easy it is to destroy the salmon of a district, and how difficult it is to restore the breed. At once the most primitive and most deadly method of catching fish which inhabit rivers is by the erection of built barriers and enclosures. The Australian blacks make dams and pools of branches and stones, and drive the fish into them before floods subside. The North American Indian has for long xvi INTRODUCTORY years erected his barriers of logs to stop the ascend- ing salmon, so that he may scoop out his little supply, regardless of the consequences to the river stock. The officials who supervise the salmon fisheries of the American continent are still opening up those Indian dams. The fishing weirs of England and the cruive dykes of Scotland are the British pro totype of the aboriginal structures; indeed, the Gaelic word cruive seems to indicate that branches were originally used. They are now stone weirs with fishing boxes in the gaps—usually the only gaps—left for the descent of the water and ascent - of the fish. The salmon yairs of the Solway Dee are analogous structures in which the leaders or walls are still made of wattle. Cruive dykes were erected in most Scottish rivers in early days, but where owners of such structures held also interest in upper waters the dykes were for the most part voluntarily abolished on account of their extremely injurious influence on the breed- ing stock. In 1424 they were abolished by statute when set in fresh water “quhair the sea filles and ebbis,” and now only some six remain in Scottish rivers, only three of which are fished. In spite, however, of those ancient statutes pro- viding for the preservation of breeding fish, and of the more modern regulations as to meshes of nets and annual and weekly close times, as well as recom- mendations for the reduction of legitimate netting, there are those who regard such restrictions, such interferences with the liberty of the subject, as superfluous and undesirable. In evidence before INTRODUCTORY XVI Lord Elgin’s Commission in 1901 I heard the asser- tion made that salmon spawn in the sea as well as in fresh waters, and I have met more than one tacksman of salmon fishings who insisted that a grilse was a different species of fish from a salmon. These views die hard, especially when there seems to be some commercial advantage in holding them. Since the great development of rapid transit by which fish can be sent to market, the use of ice, and especially since the sharpening of competition amongst salmon fishers and the consequent great improvement in methods of fishing, a more exact knowledge of the life of the salmon has become more and more necessary. We not only require to know when the fish breeds, and that it can only reproduce its species in our rivers, but we want to know how often the fish breeds in its lifetime—or, perhaps one should say, how seldom it breeds ; at what age it begins to breed and at what age it ceases to breed. We also want to know its habits of migration to and from fresh water, and how much time it spends in the sea; whether fish migrate from one river to another, and where salmon go in the sea, what the salmon’s food is and when it is in best condition. More than this, for the better regulation of the fisheries we want to know the conditions which govern fish in ascending rivers and tributaries—a subject of value to netsmen and anglers alike. These are definite points of practical importance nowadays, for on a thorough knowledge of the life history of the fish itself can sound regulative treat- ment alone rest. b xviii INTRODUCTORY In former days the legislator said in effect, “‘ The salmon breeds in our rivers, and after breeding is not fit for human food: we must protect the fish while it breeds, and protect the lieges against un- wholesome feeding.” The system of having District Fishery Boards and the supervision of a central authority has now sprung up, however, and our legislation must necessarily take account of this and of the duties which naturally fall to be dealt with by one body or the other. In Scotland, our District Boards are composed entirely of the proprietors who own the rights of fishings. The Crown may be, and frequently is, a local proprietor of such rights, but none but proprietors have apparently any say in the matter of local management. With the natural trend of modern development it is perhaps fair to assume that in the future District Boards will have assigned to them wider discretionary powers: they will be expected to know what is for the best interest of the districts under their charge; while the central authority will be expected to concern itself in the general interests of the salmon fisheries as a whole and in the particular questions which, arising locally and of local importance, require settlement at the hands of a neutral authority. Already in many districts private associations are springing up in order to deal more effectively with such points, for instance, as the amount of netting which safely may be allowed in particular districts, a point which, if they had power, District Fishery Boards might very well be expected to con- trol. Each district has to be dealt with on its own INTRODUCTORY xx merits in a case of this kind. These associations are usually, it is true, concerned very largely in the pre- servation of good salmon angling. But it is to be borne in mind that this very preservation of good angling plays a most important part in maintaining an adequate breeding stock of fish. The number of fish captured by rod, although in some districts it is very considerable, does not seriously reduce a river’s stock as indiscriminate netting does. The most exhaustive inquiry into the welfare of our salmon fisheries conducted by the Elgin Commission and reported upon in 1902 resulted in, enter alia, a most important recommendation in favour of reducing netting in narrow waters where fish congregate after leaving the sea. It was decided that there exists in every river a point above which it is advisable that no netting of any kind be carried on, and that the effort should be to allow a proportion of every run of fish entering a river to ascend to the unnetted waters. The increased value of salmon angling makes it possible, moreover, to compensate most fully those who may be required to cease netting, and without any hesitation it may be said that the result of action of this kind has already proved most satisfactory to all concerned. ‘The Aberdeenshire Dee is a con- spicuous example. The annual value of the salmon fishing of the district has risen from £7000 to £19,000, and the Aberdeen Harbour Commissioners, a body possessed of valuable salmon fisheries on the coast and in the mouth of the river, and who fish for commercial purposes alone, voluntarily subscribe x INTRODUCTORY to the funds of the Angling Improvement Associa- tion, because of the benefit which they find has resulted to their own fishings. To the angler also who is sportsman in the best sense of the word belongs much of the credit of having noted the special features of the salmon’s life in fresh water. By his experience he accumulates knowledge of particular runs of fish as the netsman at the mouth no doubt may also do, but he, as he quietly casts his fly or spins his bait, hour after hour and month after month, has the opportunity of coming into closer touch with the many interesting habits of ascent and distribution: he has his line in the water before the netsman has a chance, and he sees the season out after the nets are off; he isable to note the peculiarities of habit in spring, summer, and autumn. It is sometimes said that the charm of angling is its uncertainty, but this takes account only of the fish-killing results. The true disciple of Izaak is a contemplative man who has his mind occupied by many piscatorial reflections as he plies his art: he is quick to observe, yet many perplexities make him slow to draw his deductions. It is very often true of him that the more he has seen the more he realises how little he knows. Conversely, those who have not seen very much are usually able to talk a great deal about what they do not understand. Hence the not altogether unfounded belief that fishermen are cranks. No doubt the primary object of the angler is to catch fish. He goes forth equipped for that purpose, eager for its fulfilment. But if there were no other INTRODUCTORY 5.4 attractions than the hooking, playing, and landing of the salmon, some of us who do not catch many fish because we always fish on a bad day, when the river is too low or too high, or rising or falling, or, to put it shortly and with much more truth, those of us who are bad fishermen would find small pleasure in angling. ‘‘ Wha’s catchin’ fush?” the small boy retorted when rebuked for catching fish on Sunday. He was fishing, and perhaps enjoying himself in spite of a guilty conscience, but he was not catching fish. In salmon angling there is the exercise and the pleasure which belongs to the skill required in the proper performance of the exercise, two elements which form perhaps the chief joy of athletics and outdoor games. But in addition there is the en- grossing study which belongs to all forms of hunting, the study of the habits of the creature hunted, so that skill already acquired may be turned to greater advantage. From this the step is a short one to a more intel- ligent knowledge of the life history of the creature apart from its mere sporting value. It is very natural, therefore, that sportsmen should be natur- alists, and should render in the case of the salmon valuable help to the elucidation of the fish’s life. Then the freshness and the leisure of life by the river-side gives the characteristic setting to the whole. How varied are the phases: the precious grey day with the favourable breeze, the bluster and battle of the day of squalls, when the whole con- centration of the fisher and his every hope of success is in self-control and quiet determined effort ; or the Xx INTRODUCTORY peculiar joy of standing waist deep in a clear High- land river, the water lapping one’s bare elbows as one casts, the nearness of the glitter on the surface, the sense of being part of this moving, life-giving force! These are joys, apart altogether from the success of the sport, which more than compensate for the strokes of ill fortune, the dire disasters when sun, moon, and stars seem to fall from their places, as well as for the petty exasperations which on certain days seem constantly to dog one’s steps. But the angler carries away with him when he leaves the river the results of his observations, and when he smokes his evening pipe those salmon problems rise again in his mind, and he goes to the river on the morrow with fresh suggestions and explanations, fresh points to follow out by renewed observation. Sir Joshua said that to get his fine results he mixed his paints with brains. So in sport, as in other things where perfected appliances mean a good deal, it is after all “‘the man behind the machine that counts.” Yet what along time it has taken us to gain anything lke a satisfactory know- ledge of the salmon. It is only seventy years since Shaw,* at Drum- lanrig, proved that the parr is the young of the salmon and not a small adult member of the salmon family. All the early writers, up to Parnell (1838), describe the parr under the name of salmo salmulus, and the author named states at considerable length * Shaw, ‘“‘An Account of Experimental Observations on the Development and Growth of Salmon Fry.” Trans. Roy. Soc., Edin., vol. xiv. p. 547, 1840. INTRODUCTORY XXill the differences between the parr and the young salmon. Those of us who have grown up since Shaw’s time can scarcely understand how the parr could have been regarded as a distinct species, far less the extraordinary controversy which the dis- covery was the means of starting. Yet those early disputes gave the stimulus needed for investigation over a wider area. Since the earliest attempts at salmon marking, at artificial culture, and the rearing and crossing of different salmonids, as well as by the study of the different runs of fish in our rivers, and by the results of netting salmon on our coasts, a body of information has slowly been accumulating. Disjointed and very imperfect as this information has undoubtedly been, it has nevertheless served to indicate the lines along which more systematic infor- mation should be sought. A signal endeavour to crystallise our views in this particular was the publication of Mr. Willis Bund’s “Salmon Problems,” a book which has un- doubtedly done a great deal to advance the genuine search after radical facts in the life of the salmon. Since this book was penned the doings of the salmon have been followed with greater precision, and the fish has, as it were, been made to tell his own tale to a greater extent. The reliable identification of fish caught, set at liberty, and recaptured has been the means, through the instrumentality of the Fishery Board for Scotland and the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in Ireland, of providing us with an amount of information as to migrations and increase of weight hitherto unapproached. Investigations as XXIV INTRODUCTORY to the feeding habits and nourishment of the salmon, as to the records of growth, migrations, and spawn- ing to be read from the study of the scales, as well as inquiries into allied and auxiliary subjects, have greatly added to the data now ready to hand. My endeavour in the present volume is to draw together results which we have received during those recent investigations, but which have been set forth in isolation, not set forth at all, or, what is perhaps much the same in result, printed between the blue covers which so successfully conceal a Government's information. CHAPTER I SMOLTS Early ideas concerning smolts—Rearing of smolts in captivity—Marine versus fresh water origin of the salmon —Hatching fry from smolt eggs—British smolts descend when two years old—Marking of smolts—Habits in migrating to sea—Autumn migrations—Development of smolts in sea —Herr Dahl’s capture of smolts in the sea off Norway THE Stormontfield experiments on the Tay, although they at first gave new vigour to those who dis- believed Shaw, ultimately, after the long dispute described by Russel in his book on the salmon, be- came a vindication of the Drumlanrig results and a source of much additional information on the growth and migrations of parr and smolts. Many anglers of renown in the present day are puzzled to tell a parr from a young trout. Yet, curiously enough, the dispute never dragged the trout into its vortex. The parr was either a young salmon or a distinct species. Professor Grassi of Rome slew the leptocephalus* idea without question. People did * Leptocephalus was long known as an interesting semi-transparent little fish not uncommon in the Mediterranean. The investigations of Professor Grassi into the deep-water fauna of the Straits of Messina led to the discovery that this little fish was simply the larval or post-larval stage of the common eel. A 2 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON not seem to mind so much when only an eel’s reputation was at stake; to tamper with the salmon’s genealogy was by comparison like dis- puting a title to the peerage. However, the results of the Stormontfield investigations were finally given to the world in two small books, one by William Brown in 1862, the other, since republished, by Robert Buist in 1866. Buist superintended the operations carried on by Peter Marshall, and both were familiar writers to the angling papers of the time, the latter under the title of ‘‘ Peter of the Pools.” With regard to the descent of the parr and smolts from the ponds, the results were regarded as show- ing that 60 per cent. descended when two years old, 32 per cent. when three years old, and 8 per cent. when only one year old. This was indeed regarded as the proportions in which the young salmon migrated to the sea, but the ponds are several miles above Perth and many miles from the sea, and it is safer to say simply that in this proportion they descended from the ponds. I have even heard some curious hints as to the way certain fish were made to descend, and we know that the argument was as keenly contested as any land reform bill, but such hints probably do not matter much. An attempt was also made to rear smolts in salt water, and a pond on the coast was secured for this purpose. Unfortunately some local poacher put an effectual closure on the experiment by stealing the fish when, as was reported, they had attained the size of herrings. The poacher not only committed SMOLTS 3 an offence as serious as the time-honoured crime of sheep-stealing, but robbed the observers of informa- tion which might have saved them from much subsequent error. Various batches of smolts before descending from Stormontfield were marked by removing or mutilat- ing in some particular way the adipose fin. A limited number were also marked by the attachment of small rings. About the same time (1864) the Tweed Commissioners were conducting some valuable experiments of a similar kind. None of the Tay smolts marked by the attachment of the rings were recovered, but three at least of the Tweed smolts which had been marked by the attachment of wire were recovered as grilse in the Tweed after a year’s absence, one in 1855 and two in 1856, the first weighing 34 lb., the second and third weighing each 65 1b. In spite of these, how- ever, it was contended, with the publication of many particulars, that the Tay smolts marked by fin-cutting were freely recaptured as grilse of three pounds and upwards, after intervals varying from one and a half to three months, and as a result it became very generally believed, in Scotland at least, that the grilse of our rivers caught in May, June, and July, or later in the season, had only descended as smolts in the spring of the same year, and were therefore only 24 years old. Other and similar fin-cutting experiments were made elsewhere in Scotland, with apparently the same results ; and illustrations accom- panied certain of the reports to show there could be no mistake about the conclusion. Curiously enough, in the last few years a similar series of observations t THE LIFE OF THE SALMON has been made in England, and the results deduced from them have been to show that the grilse had been a whole year away from fresh water. I refer to the experiments conducted in the Tavy in Devonshire by the direction of the Duke of Bedford. Here the method of marking was the same, but the deduction different. I am not aware what the appearance of the mutilated fin was in_ those Devonshire grilse, but in Ireland, where some adult fish marked with a label on the dorsal fin were also marked “by a wide notch cut far into the adipose or dead fin,’* it was ascertained that when one of those fish was recaptured “ the fin had recovered its usual form, the outline of the notch being just visible as a faint scar.” With smolts kept in con- finement, after mutilating the fins it has also been found that the mark healed up, so that there was considerable ground for the belief held by not a few that this method of marking without the attachment of some foreign substance was not reliable. A good deal of additional information as to the growth and migration of smolts has been obtained by the numerous hatching and rearing operations which have been carried on all over the country. It is undoubtedly the case that the artificial conditions materially affect the issue, and that in many respects artificially reared smolts behave differently from those in the wild state. The steady and abundant food supply increases the rate of growth, and apparently exaggerates the variation which may exist. For “ Holt, “Report of Sea and Inland Fisheries of Ireland for 1901,” part ii, p. 181 SMOLTS 5 instance, I have two smolts which were reared at the Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s ponds near Fochabers at the mouth of the Spey, which are of precisely the same age, viz., twenty-one months. One is fully eight inches in length, while the other is only four inches. Under natural conditions experience shows that it is well-nigh impossible to find a salmon smolt of eight inches even at twenty-six months. The smolt of the sea trout may occasionally be found of this size, but not that of the salmon. The reason for the greater size of the sea trout is simply that this fish has a much more estuarial habit, and after descent of the fresh water continues to feed and live and apparently to move up and down in the tidal waters of estuaries. Many common brown trout are to be found under precisely similar conditions and feeding on a purely marine diet; in the estuary of the Tay near the Tay Bridge I have found large silvery common brown trout with freshly swallowed herring as well as much digested herring in their stomachs and intestines. Yet we must not too hastily believe that we see in such instances as these the cause of the seaward migration of the salmon. In spite of the fact that the eggs of the salmon can only live and develop in fresh water, there are many who consider that the salmon and indeed all salmonids are originally of marine origin. Mr. Boulenger, whose word on such matters is im- portant, points out, in his chapter on the salmon family in the Fishing volume of the Country Life Library, that “the overwhelming majority of the members of the sub-order of which the salmonids 6 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON form part inhabit permanently the sea, the clupeids, or herring tribe, which are their nearest allies, being certainly of marine origin, as proved by their abun- dance in cretaceous seas, yet a few, like the shads, ascending rivers to spawn without this ever having been adduced as evidence in favour of a fresh water origin of the family to which they belong.” The more we learn about the salmon, the more we have to realise the very considerable amount of time which it apparently spends in the sea. Sea trout are chiefly estuarial in habit. Loch Leven trout may very possibly be sea trout, or at any rate migratory trout-——which amounts to much the same thing—shut off from the sea. It is easy by a little judicious feeding to make them practically indis- tinguishable from ordinary sea trout. Brown trout taken from Dorsetshire to New Zealand quickly acquired a migratory habit and became large silvery fish, inhabiting the sea for the most part, and ascend- ing rivers to spawn. The brown trout which I have referred to at the mouth of the Tay were clearly doing the same, while in localities such as Orkney and Shetland and the Outer Hebrides we have the established tidal variety which has been called S. orcadensis; and in the West of Ireland we have S. estuarzus, the so-called slob trout. I do not agree that there is any specific distinction, any more than I agree that a ferox is not a brown trout. In all these examples we may say that to feed is in one sense the impulse which causes the change of habit and consequent modification ; and in the same way, taking salmonids as we now find them, it is evident SMOLTS 7 that artificial feeding can still further induce very marked differences. In all rearing ponds in Scotland, however, the smolt assumes the migratory dress at two years of age, although it commonly attains to the size of the natural or wild smolt before that period. This is strong presumptive evidence that the smolt naturally lives and feeds in our rivers for two years after hatching, and that it then is ready to go to the sea. Several attempts have been made to pre- vent the descent of smolts, so as to produce land- locked salmon. In most cases the attempts have failed, owing chiefly to the disappearance or death of the fish, as in the experiments of Messrs. Morgan and Pell in South Wales and of Dr. Murie in the ponds of the Zoological Gardens. At Howietoun greater success ultimately attended experiments made in this direction, for although many smolts jumped from the ponds and perished, so that the ponds had to be netted over to preserve the remainder, a fish was ultimately reared which was fertile and which spawned, and from which fry were reared.* The resulting specimen, however—the one fish which spawned—which was described as a grilse, was a very poor apology for a grilse as we properly under- stand this sprightly young salmon. The largest fish which is figured is ill-shaped, spotted, and with the parr marks still evident, and weighed only 1; lb. It may resemble in some measure the land-locked salmon of the American lakes or of Sweden, but it is a poor thing to call a grilse, and forms in my opinion * Day, Trans. Linn. Soc., 2nd ser. “ Zoology,’ vol. ii. part 15, 8 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON a strong argument in favour of allowing all smolts to get to the sea. It is much easier to accustom a young parr or a Loch Leven trout to salt water than to accustom a smolt to fresh water. It has to be noted, however, that the eggs of the fertile females of the Howietoun experiments were not fertilised by milt from male salmon reared under the same conditions, but by milt from Loch Leven trout. This materially detracts from the value of the result. Within recent years a limited number of the smolts reared in the Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s ponds at the mouth of the Spey were found to contain well-developed ova, and an experiment was made as to the possibility of rearing brood from smolt eggs. It has long been known that male parr or smolts are occasionally sexually mature. So far as I am aware, the occurrence of ripe female smolts amongst artificially reared and hand-fed salmon had not previously been noted. Aripe male smolt not being procurable when the ripe females were first found, fertilisation was satisfactorily accomplished by using milt from an adult salmon. The fry hatched out and grew quite normally, and, as I was able to note from specimens kindly sent me by Mr. Rae, the superin- tendent of the Duke’s salmon fisheries, were at the age of one year quite indistinguishable from the salmon fry produced from the eggs of adult females. The following year, however, when ripe female smolts were again discovered, care was taken to obtain ripe male smolts for purposes of fertilisation. On this occasion, although at first impregnation SMOLTS 9 seemed to have been successfully obtained, all the eggs died before hatching. In the experiments above related the abundance of food was carefully seen to, and up to the smolt stage, as has been said, such artificial feeding will induce excessive growth. Yet in attempts to pro- duce grilse in fresh water the best result is a stunted, flabby-looking fish. But a few attempts have also been made to produce grilse in confinement in salt water ponds. We have already seen what became of the Stormontfield fish. A fish from the Usk, kept in the salt water tanks of the Brighton Aquarium, is reported to have lived for five years, and to have then attained to a weight of 8 lb. Some similar experiments have, I understand, been made at Ply- mouth in the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association. Other experiments have been made at the mouth of the river Spey, in a pond specially excavated for the purpose by direction of the Duke of Richmond and Gordon. Those last-mentioned experiments I have in a measure been able to follow: The pond was constructed of cement work sunk in the gravel of the sea beach, and was connected to the sea by means of a syphon. In the second week of September 1901 some twenty-five smolts nearly two and a half years old were first introduced. In the adjoining fresh water ponds they had been raised, and having been retained beyond their natural time of migration, had already assumed and then lost the silvery dress. They were put straight into pure sea water, where they ceased feeding at once, and where in a few days four died. Ona certain admix- 10 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON ture of fresh water being allowed to enter the sea pond the fish recommenced feeding, and by regulat- ing the density of the water so as to obtain a more gradual transference from fresh to salt, the fish became thoroughly acclimatised. Owing, however, to an unfortunate accumulation of disintegrated and decaying seaweed drawn in from the outer beach through the syphon, and which was suddenly stirred up so that a large quantity of gas was liberated, many of the fish suddenly died, and the remainder had to be transferred to the fresh water ponds. After a second attempt had been made under healthier conditions, Mr. Muirhead, his Grace’s com- missioner, kindly sent me a specimen 13 inches long (33 cm.). It was a beautiful silvery little fish, and had been reared for two years in fresh water and one year in the sea pond. It was figured along with a specimen of a young fish from Galway river in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (xxv. p. 395). I understand, however, that for some reason or other the pond has again become unsatisfactory ; but it would appear that, given healthy conditions of sea life and suitable food, the artificial rearing of grilse is quite a possibility. These experiments under artificially induced con- ditions do not, however, teach us a great deal about the real life history of the salmon. The descent of the smolt to the sea is prompted by a most powerful instinct. Give fish in confinement as much and as carefully selected food as they can eat, and the silvery smolts are in no way induced to forego their seaward migration. For the healthy growth and SMOLTS 11 development of the species salmon as we now know it the bracing qualities of the sea, with its rich feeding, are absolutely necessary. I am aware that some are inclined to insist on the importance of the amount of feeding in our streams, and to go the length of suggesting that the stock of a salmon river should not be allowed to increase beyond the point where the smolt food fails to go round. To this I would reply that I would not limit the supply of adult fish on the chance of the parr starving, first because parr are evidently able to do a good deal of starving, and secondly because no man can well estimate the amount of parr food in a river. I should start to kill off the trout first. Also it seems to me that the amount of variation in the times and seasons when parr can go into sea water is probably an excellent provision against any danger of over- crowding. Herr Dahl, in Norway, considers that the parr there leave the rivers when one year old. I confess I am not satisfied that he is correct, and an examination of the scales.of Norwegian parr which I have had an opportunity of seeing—thanks to Mr. H. W. John- ston—supports this view; yet we know that the severe winter conditions of Norway modify very materially the habits of the adult fish. The fry of other salmonids seem to have different habits from those observed in Britain. Mr. Rutter has investi- gated the matter in the Sacramento river of the Pacific coast of America, and finds that there the fry begin to descend whenever they can swim, and commonly reach brackish water in about three 12 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON months’ time. The adult fish are no doubt in great numbers in those west coast American and British Columbian rivers, yet the rivers themselves are of vast size, and the amount of food for fry must be practically unlimited. In any case we have no evi- dence that smolts would starve in any of our rivers if they did not descend when they do. No doubt they get a greatly increased and varied amount of food when they do go into the sea, but the time when the migration takes place is the time when the best feeding season is commencing, and it seems to me necessary to take the natural instinct for a temporary marine sojourn into account as well as the need for increase of food. The time at which spawning takes place naturally influences the condition of the fry, and possibly, within limits, the time at which the smolt enters the sea. We have in Scotland at the present time, when account is taken of the Border rivers, considerable variation in the limits of the spawning season. So far as reports show respecting the times at which fish are noticed spawning in the various Scottish districts—which reports are published annually in Part II. of the Fishery Board’s Reports—there is a difference between the earliest and the latest mean periods of fully two months and a half. If, however, the Border rivers Tweed, Annan, and Nith are ex- cluded—and they have been subject to special and peculiar conditions—the difference in mean time between Scottish districts is reduced to one month. In other words, the height of the spawning season in the earliest river, viz., November 7, is one month SMOLTS 13 earlier than the height of the spawning season in the latest river, viz., December 8. Of course, in all districts one may find the spawning season extend- ing over a long period if the very latest pair of spawners are taken into account, and exceptionally early or exceptionally late fish spawners—caused, it may be, in great measure by the presence or absence of frost—may account for a great deal of the diversity seen in the sizes of parr at any one season, but the chief periods of spawning have to be reckoned with in estimating the period of the smolt’s average stay in fresh water. The temperature of the water materially controls the length of time between impregnation and hatch- ing, and various experiments have been tried to ascertain on the one hand how soon hatching may be brought about—and too early hatching is natur- ally accompanied by a constitutional weakness of the alevins—and on the other hand how long hatching may be retarded, so that eggs may be safely sent to the Antipodes. Such points are of practical import- ance to the fish culturist, but under natural condi- tions in this country hatching may be expected to take place in from ninety to 100 days, in tempera- tures varying from 40° to 45° F. If the water temperature is constantly kept on the verge of freezing point (32° F.) hatching is retarded for about 148 days. If the eggs are frozen, or encased in ice in a closed vessel, they die: oxygen must be taken in and carbonic acid given off; the young salmon even inside the egg must have the power to respire. In like manner, if the eggs become coated with any 14 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON deposit, be it natural sediment or polluting matter of a more toxic sort, this transmission of gases through the egg envelope is hindered or prevented, with more or less serious results. The salmon’s redd or spawning bed is therefore selected in clean and not too fine gravel, where a current of water brings a constant supply of the necessary oxygen and prevents deposit. By succes- sive quick movements of the salmon’s tail the gravel of the selected spot is displaced—and with the aid of the current it is surprising how large the stones overturned in this way frequently are. A shallow trough is thus formed, and in this the eggs are de- posited. In nature all the eggs are not extruded at once, because all the eggs in the ovaries do not become ripe simultaneously. The eggs at the posterior extremity of the ovary become ripe first, and becoming free for extrusion are first deposited. On extrusion they are at once fertilised by the attendant male fish, and are then covered by gravel moved as before. The female then leaves the redd. As the remaining eggs ripen she returns and repeats the process, till after the expiry of several days all the eggs are shed. It has repeatedly been noticed that the advent of frosty weather induces the females to frequent the spawning fords, and conversely a spell of mild weather seems to prolong the period during which spawning is carried on. Weather conditions there- fore materially affect the length of time taken, but I am inclined to estimate that on an average the female salmon completes her reproductive functions SMOLTS 15 in a week or ten days. In small streams the time may be shorter. When a salmon is stripped for hatchery purposes as many eggs as possible are pressed from the abdomen, and the fish is left in a collapsed and wrinkled state quite foreign to the naturally spawned-out kelt. At the hatcheries of the Pacific coast rivers in America each female is first killed and then slit open. oS Exterior |S 80 ridges FES2 fal 12 9/21/13] 9] 2? | 52] 29] 23] very Sa38 Aas broad. | 2s saa Boos Mar.15 . . | 103} 20/10] 10] 2? | 59 | 30 | 29 aeGR “An apparent break in the lines of the second summer is nearly always visible on the scales, and looks like a voluntary or compulsory diminution of feeding for some time. Another point seems evident from the marking, and that is that these small springers are returning for the first time, and have consequently never spawned. This corresponds with “ULYS OY} FO dvs ay WO spoload yor uo!4od 919 st ayvos ove yo woraod pourpun ony “OUTMOYOIYY TOJUIM OU} VBopo a4 07 aso[o ‘pur ‘pooyou *8(VOS OS|LLG OY) TO UMOLUS BOIB 9I[} 09 UOlIpp® UL “Ysy Surads [[vUs 049 JO apvos ary uy . *PIT[EL St UV IOJUM Salty s.1ajua “‘Spoodons woyy SULpooy TOVUTA V.S.[8 Suo0UNp pueq Ysryiep yw *snonoidsuoo st LE “9[WOs OS[LLS oy JO oaquad oy} UL paugop Apavapo «100A ST 9[VoOs Jjoms omy, “GO6T ULJ[OUS BSB [ puUev 906T UL potngduooa wouyEs Suds |peus PUB ISTLLS JO sarwog “Uond.uosag@—" A ILVIg eq OF SI BOS OY} Ul SuIpaay stouUIMS puodos & USH 9} JOULUIMS PAOIOS BI] JO qUatModMAWIMHOD O41 IV pus VOS OY) UL SUL pooy LOWS SUOUAap var OPIM AY) .loyyvatoy DIYAVUL Wd SUIAVY YSU ord DATIOIASOI 16 : [oul [OAT ty \ THE SCALES OF SALMON 101 what the scales show, but it must be remembered that salmon similar in size and appearance that have spawned during the previous winter as small grilse are also caught at this season, and it is only by the spawning mark on the scales and sometimes maggots in the gills that the difference can be detected, though it sometimes becomes apparent when the fish comes to table. ‘These small unspawned fish constitute the bulk of the spring run in the northern rivers, and are comparatively more important to them than to the Tay, where larger fish a year or more older come in during the winter and the spring.” Illustrations of those wired grilse and spring fish scales are given in Plate V. In each case the smolt scale will be noticed in the centre, and as the eye passes from the centre of growth along the long axis of the scale to the anterior border, will be seen the large area of growth resulting from the first summer of feeding in the sea; then subsequently the contracted-looking band of small growth, mark- ing the first winter in the sea. In the grilse scale a short period of spring feeding in 1906 is repre- sented by only six lines, after which the fish entered the river Tay and was killed. In the small spring fish scale, on the other hand, the second summer in the sea is seen to have been completed and followed by a second winter, making an addition of 27 lines, after which the record of this fish ends like a tale that is told. The grilse which enter our rivers spawn in the autumn. ‘Those fish which do not enter our rivers 102 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON as grilse but remain in the sea till the grilse stage is past are of course still maiden fish, and after entering such a river as the Tay as small spring salmon will spawn a year later than their fellows. They merge into the run of 10-16 lb. summer fish of the Tay which have completed their two annual rings. The summer class of fish are, however, apt to be mixed in a large river like the Tay, as we have now reached a stage in the salmon’s develop- ment when fish which have previously been in the river as grilse and which have spawned and de- scended for the short period of marine sojourn may be once more in the river. The proportion of such fish is, however, comparatively small, at least in the large rivers of Scotland. The study of the scales has prominently called attention to the infrequency of spawning amongst heavy fish. It comes as a surprise, for instance, to learn that very many of the large spring fish of the Tay—fish almost invariably about 20 lb. in weight —have never spawned. The scale shows the third annual ring in course of formation subsequent to the two-year-old smolt stage ; 2.e., they are approxi- mately five years, yet their scales bear no spawning mark. They are entering fresh water for the first time, although many fish of smaller size have already propagated their species. Such information makes us realise with additional force the value of protecting fish when they do breed. Now let us deal with the records of adult salmon marked in fresh water as kelts and subsequently recaptured as clean fish. And first I will take the “YSY ULI] VSB polnjdvood PUL JOY VSB POYAVUL SLAL YS] oY} WOYAL “YZAOLS JO $a.0q8 JUdLOYIP YB UOW]LS V ULOIJ salvos OMTL—"TA GLY TG NVUTO LTH * i THE SCALES OF SALMON 103 case of a Helmsdale fish which was marked on December 12, 1904, when a kelt of 5 lb. weight. The number of the mark was 11808, and other particulars respecting it are given in the chapter on marking (p. 65). The fish was recaptured, clean and 14 lb. in weight, on April 30, 1906. I have included two photographs with which Mr. Johnston has kindly supplied me, showing first the scale at time of marking, and second the scale at time of recapture. Horizontal lines have been drawn to show the progressive development, and each stage or interval has been lettered con- secutively. In the photograph of the scale from the kelt the history of the fish is at once seen. A. Parr and Smolt Stage, 1900-02. River. B. 1st Summer ‘ 1902 C. 1st Winter . 1902 L D. 2ndSummer . 1903 oe. E. 2nd Winter : 1903 F. 3rd Summer (till May or June) 1904 River. The fish then spawned in the winter of 1904, and was marked in December as stated. In the photograph of the scale from the same fish on its recapture as a clean salmon we have, in addition to the appearance already seen in the smaller photograph, first the spawning mark on recovery from the condition succeeding that shown in F., and then two additional areas :— G. 5th Summer ; 4 1905 Sea. H. 5th Winter rs ! 1905-6 Sea. The fish returned to the Helmsdale river in the 104 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON spring of 1906, and was caught on the date already given. This Helmsdale fish is typical, and the photo- graphs show more plainly than any description can do the characteristic appearance of the kelt and adult clean fish scales. The magnification is in each case 12 diameters. The additions G. and H. on the later scale may appear slight in compari- son with those seen in the kelt scale, but it is to be recollected that as the age of a salmon increases the rate of growth decreases. The first two summers in the sea invariably show the greatest growth in the fish. Evidence from scales of fish which have been marked and recaptured is evidence of the most reliable kind, and several instances might be cited similar to the Helmsdale fish marked 1180. On account of the nature of the evidence also, I consider that there need be no hesitation in deducing evidence from scales of fish for which no marking record is available, provided always that the observer has a competent knowledge of the subject and the scale be taken from a suitable part of the fish, e.g., the ‘¢ shoulder.” With regard to the number of lines which will be found on the scales of fish of different ages, it may be said that from marked kelts recaptured as clean fish, a scale having been obtained only at time of recapture, Mr. Johnston has found that after the smolt stage is passed a grilse may add 25 to 28 lines the first year; if then it enters the river to spawn as a grilse the lines will vary according as it enters in THE SCALES OF SALMON 105 early or in late summer or autumn, the variation being from 7 to 24 lines. If in this second year the fish remains feeding in the sea—the long migration habit —the addition, in the case of Tay fish, may be from 20 to 31 lines. If thereafter the fish enters the river as a summer fish, very few additional lines may be added at the commencement of the third year, though a later fish may show 12 or 15 lines. If in this third summer the fish still does not enter the river, but delays till the following winter or spring, 17 to 28 lines may be added in the sea. From the evidence at command it appears to be somewhat unusual for a fish to remain till its fourth sea year without spawning, but a few instances are on record. Fish which on recapture are from 30 to 35 lb. show either five or six years’ growth on the scales after the smolt condition, and have spawned either once or twice. A record of a 42 lb. fish shows six years’ sea life, or in other words is eight years old and has spawned twice. The fact that the recapture was made in fresh water points to the conclusion that spawning, or rather reproduction of the species (for the majority of those large fish are males), would be engaged in for a third and probably last time. The few records of marked fish which have been recaptured when 40 lb. or more than this weight have, from the information gained from marking alone, been set down as of eight years old, and in this connection it is interesting to recollect that trout kept in rearing ponds for hatchery purposes are found to become poor as regards fertility after their eighth year. 106 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON If salmon live much longer than eight years they apparently need not be looked for in the fresh water spawning places of their species, and the fact that the majority of the very large salmon captured are males would seem to indicate that in all probability the male, as in other animals, remains fertile longer than the female. So far as I know, the record weight for a Scottish salmon is 84 |b., but the fish was taken in the estuary of the Tay, though both in the Dee and in the Tay fish of over 70 lb. have been taken in fresh water. From the study of the scales alone do we gain this information as to the infrequency of spawning, and the consequent benefit to our stock of salmon in preserving most religiously the breeding fish which enter our rivers. From the study of the scales also it is possible to note early running fish. Mr. Johnston has, for instance, found the kelts of spring fish only a short distance above the tide, as early in the spawning season as November. Mr. Berrington, formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trade, has specially noted in his official reports that when a river is becoming over-fished the first runs of fish to disappear are the spring runs. Now the spring fish are not only of great value in any river, because they are fish in beautiful condition, which afford the best sport to the rod, and are the best river-caught fish for the table, but also because they are the fish which ascend to the highest tributaries of our large rivers, and by so doing deposit their eggs in the purest waters at the commencement of the spawning season before frosts and spring floods can impair the THE SCALES OF SALMON 107 redds or destroy the eggs in the early and delicate stages. If these high tributaries, where in many cases the finest spawning grounds are to be found, are not occupied by the spring fish, it some- times also happens they are not occupied by the quick running summer fish which follow, and at the same time it is well known that the available lower spawning grounds are not infrequently occupied by successive runs of late fish, so that to some extent one set of spawners undo the work of fish which have preceded them by turning up gravel already protecting eggs. The kelts of the spring fish by getting away down stream at an early date have also a better chance of reaching the sea before the time at which salmon disease makes its worst appearance. Such kelts should be respected and carefully handled by any into whose hands they may fall. Like the bread cast upon the waters, they will return after many days. The observations of Mr. Hume Patterson * on the subject of salmon disease show that it is possible for an apparently healthy fish to be infected by the real cause of salmon disease—the bacillus salmonis westis—since, if the fish has been previously diseased in fresh water, a sojourn in the sea, although it kills saprolegnia ferax, does not kill the bacillus. His observations also show, however, that the entrance of the bacillus to the tissues of the salmon is most readily gained when fish are injured and sickly. The organism itself has been found in river water, * “The Cause of Salmon Disease,” Fishery Board for Scotland, 1903. 108 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON and more plentifully in certain places and under certain conditions than others. It is natural, there- fore, to suppose that the kelts which remain longest in a river after spawning are, in their sickly and often wounded state, more likely to become infected than those fish which quickly leave fresh water for the sea. The fungus spreads quickly when fish begin to die, since saprolegnia flourishes much better on dead than on living tissue. It is noticeable that diseased fish are very commonly of large size, and that salmon disease is most conspicuous in large rivers. It is in large rivers that large kelts remain longest after spawning, and there is considerable evidence to show that these late kelts are fish which ascended fresh water in summer and autumn. Hence I would offer the observation that loss of fish from salmon disease is less likely to injure the stock of a river when the river maintains a good run of spring fish. In the immense rivers of British Columbia, Alaska, and California the kelts of salmon which have ascended many hundreds of miles are reported to die without exception; only those fish which do not ascend to the upper waters seem to be able to return to the sea. The great runs of fish in those Pacific coast rivers do not occur till late summer, but the expenditure of energy necessary for so great an ascent must produce a much greater drain upon the systems of the fish than is found in any upper water fish in our country, and in all probability exceeds the lost of nutriment sustained by our spring fish which remain long in fresh water. But for the excessive fishing of salmon traps in the Pacific coast THE SCALES OF SALMON 109 rivers, it would appear, however, that the extraordi- nary loss of kelts can be disregarded in the upkeep of stock. With us, it seems to me, the value of a kelt is not sufficiently recognised. Because a kelt is an unclean fish and very often a nuisance to the angler, the disposition frequently seems to be to treat the fish with contempt, to drag the hooks out of his mouth and to throw “the dirty brute” back any- how. I have seen a ghillie lift a kelt as a sea fisher- man commonly lifts a dead cod-fish, by sticking the thumb and middle finger into the two eye sockets. What chance of survival, one may ask, has a sickly kelt with bleeding gills, or one subjected to treat- ment as described? Bacillus salmonis pestis is waiting for him, and saprolegnia has every chance to flourish. The fish has been reproducing his species in the river, and is willing to do so again if he is only allowed to go to the sea and become once more a silvery clean salmon. If he is carefully handled, and not only treated with respect but decorated with a silver medal bearing a distinguishing number which corresponds with his weight and length at time of marking, he is, in my opinion, of much more value than a clean-run fish which is knocked on the head and put in the boiling pot. CHAPTER V THE FEEDING OF THE SALMON AND GROWTH OF THE GENITALIA Absence of food in salmon taken in fresh water—Feeding habits of fry—Food of salmon in the sea—Nutriment in tissues of estuary as against upper water fish—Transference of nutriment from muscles to reproductive organs THE scales and the signs of growth and of spawning, as well as other points in the life of the salmon, are intimately connected with the feeding and non-feed- ing periods of the fish. It is recognised on all hands that the stomach of the salmon when taken in fresh water is invariably, or all but invariably, empty. A further examination also shows that the intestine is empty, and shows no indication of nourishment having been taken for some time previously ; and that the gall bladder is collapsed. Hoek* in the lower Rhine examined 2000 salmon, and found food remains in only seven, which were taken in the months of March and April. Meischer Ruesch f at Basle, 500 miles up the river, examined 2162 salmon in four years in connection * Rapport over Statistische en biologische onderzockingen ingesteld met behulp van in Nederland gevangen Zalmen. } Statistische und biologische Beitrige. Zur Kenntniss von Leben des Rheinlachsesin Susswasser. (Metzger und Wittig, Leipzig, 1880.) THE FEEDING OF SALMON | 11} with his important physiological investigations, and found food in only two male kelts. The food was believed to be, in the one case, the remains of a roach, and in the other the scales of a cyprinoid fish. In our country and also on the Atlantic coast of America, hundreds of salmon have been from time to time examined, and always with the same result. It is needless to dwell on this or to give references in detail, for several writers have already done so in recent publications. For details of the examination of the intestinal tract of such salmon, reference may be made to the report by Dr. Noél Paton and others, published by the Fishery Board for Scotland,* and to the writings of Dr. Kingston Barton. In the investigation of the stomach and intestine of salmon from fresh water, made by one of Dr. Noél Paton’s collaborators, a mistake was no doubt made owing to post-mortem changes having affected the tissues examined. From the patho- logical condition, thus unhappily accepted as normal, the inference was drawn that salmon were unable, when in fresh water, to absorb nourishment if any food were taken. Mr. W. Earl Hodgson in his book on “Salmon Fishing” says that the F ishery Board are committed to this desquamative catarrh theory. This is a little hard on the Fishery Board, and, moreover, is not quite accurate, since, after the error had been pointed out by Dr. Kingston Barton, sutlicient acknowledgment was surely made in ask- ing the critic to continue the investigation and to * Report of Investigations on the Life History of the Salmon. 1898. 112 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON contribute a paper to the Fishery Board’s Reports, which paper was published in 1902. The main point is, however, that food is not taken in any regular manner in fresh water, and that the fish is in no sense nourished. In support of this it may be added that the marking and recapture of clean run fish during their stay in fresh water has invariably shown a loss of weight. I think, more- over, that it is right here to add that those who in our country corroborated the results of Hoek and Meischer in this matter expressly stated, when they demonstrated the non-feeding of fish in fresh water, that much depended on what is meant by the word “feeding.” The “taking” of fly, minnow, or worm was freely admitted, and it was also admitted that worms and other objects were occasionally swal- lowed.* The interpretation of “feeding” (Report, p. 170) was the ‘ digestion, absorption, and utilisa- tion of material by the body.” Some reference to this seems necessary, for so many appear, by their criticisms, to have supposed that, by declaring salmon did not feed in fresh water, Hoek, Meischer, Noél Paton, Kingston Barton, and others meant that the taking of the angler’s lure had no connection with feeding. The Jock Scott or Silver Doctor may certainly be like nothing in the heavens above or the earth beneath, but the minnow or gudgeon is after all a fish, even though it smacks of formalin. Such lures are found by experience to attract the salmon, * In 1885 a small trout was taken from the stomach of a grilse caught in the river Thurso, and sent by Mr. Robertson to the F%eld office. THE FEEDING OF SALMON 113 and the impulse to take them is in all likelihood the same impulse which enables the salmon to nourish himself at other times. In this sense the fish may be said to feed, while at the same time there is nothing unnatural in allowing that the wobbling of an apparently half-dead dace or sprat over a salmon’s head may incite the poor fish’s rage, or that the ex- quisite colouring of what is called a fly may produce a flash of keen emotion, as has been said by some. When the digestive tract of the salmon taken at the mouth of the river is examined, it is natural to suppose, since the fish is more recently from the sea than is the upper water fish, that more trace of feeding will be found. Grey and Tosh, in 1894 and 1895, examined 1694 salmon in the Tweed, 1442 of the fish being taken at the mouth of the river in the nets of the Berwick Salmon Fisheries Company.* Of those Berwick fish 128, or 9 per cent., contained food. The following table shows in a condensed form the times at which the fish with food were taken :— Month. Number Number Per Cent. examined. with Food. with Food. | February . . - i 1 14:3 March . , 5 : 46 20 43°4 April . 3 ‘ 133 53 36°9 Mayans ‘ a 3 215 36 IKI) June . 4 . ‘ 236 31 13:1 July . : : 5 283 5 loy/ August F 4 A 210 8 3°8 September . : : 106 2 2°0 It is noticeable at once that the greatest number * Fourteenth Annual Report, Fishery Board" for Scotland | Part II. Note 2. H 114 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON with food is found in the fish taken during the months of April, May, and June. A careful ex- amination was made as to the nature of the food, and a detailed table is given on pages 77 to 80 of the report referred to. Herring remains figure most largely, while other fish reported are sand-eels, whiting, and haddock. In a considerable number were found crustacean remains, in a few fish marine worms, while amongst curious oddments—and these are interesting when we recollect the nature of the salmon fly—we have a caterpillar, four feathers, a leaf of a beech tree, moss, blades of grass, and spikelets of sedge. The staple food, however, seems to be the herring, which, amongst all fish in our seas, has been shown to be at once the most nourish- ing and the most easily digested. Concerning the small crustacea (mostly amphipods), we may probably be not far wrong in assuming that they were ingested; in other words, that the herring swallowed the am- phipods, and the salmon swallowed the herring. It is interesting to notice that from the commence- ment of the salmon’s life the feeding habit waxes and wanes with the seasons. Every angler knows how persistently parr will keep rising to the fly, how greedy and troublesome they are in the spring and early summer. When fry are reared in ponds and hand fed they show the same peculiarities which seem to mark the “taking” proclivities of the adults. Some time since interesting notes, taken by the keeper of the rearing ponds at the mouth of the Spey, to which I have already referred, were supplied tome. During the first year in the life of the fry THE FEEDING OF SALMON 115 food is taken freely through the summer, but when the first frosts of autumn set in feeding becomes intermittent. In December many days will pass without any food being taken, and in January and February the amount of food consumed is very slight. If open weather comes with spring the small parr will recommence feeding, but frosts or unsteady con- ditions will still check them. By the month of April the little fish are feeding steadily and vigorously, and simultaneously their growth becomes more rapid. All through summer this steady feeding goes on, and it is a beautiful sight to see the shoals of active little fish flashing to the surface as the food is thrown in. Their appetites are those of lusty youngsters, and food never seems amiss at any time. In July, if the temperature of the water rises to about 70° F., they become less keen, and if a spell of hot weather continues feeding will cease. In thundery weather they will not rise from the bottom of the pond. With the advent of winter a distinct lessening of the desire for food again manifests itself, although during this second winter entire cessation of feeding for several days does not seem to occur so fre- quently as amongst the fry. By the month of March the fish are two years old, and feeding is again freely maintained. As the silvery dress is assumed the smolts become very keen and active, and feed at any time. Under natural conditions they should now descend towards the sea. Even when a plentiful supply of food is obtainable, 116 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON therefore, the young salmon in fresh water does not incline to feed freely in winter; and when the smolt stage is passed and the fish has reached the great feeding place—the sea—this peculiarity, which is shared with other fishes, is still obvious. In the formation and growth of the fish’s scales these periods of feeding and non-feeding are recorded, as we have seen ; while, with regard to the length of time during each summer in which the salmon continues to feed, it is found, both by observations as to food remains and by observations on the state of nutriment in the tissues of estuary fish, that feeding continues without cessation till September. An interesting letter bearing upon the subject of the food of the salmon was read by Dr. Dunlop, in his evidence before Lord Elgin’s Salmon Fisheries Commission. It was written by Mr. Rae, one time superintendent of the Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s fisheries, and is as follows: ‘‘ When salmon were boiled and kitted I had great facility for ob- serving the contents of their stomachs, and I have invariably found that in all places the character of their food, as a whole, has been the same. At Lochinver in 1847; Carloway, ;in Lewes, in 1848, 1849, 1850, and 1851; at Loch Ewe and Loch Broom)! in i852) 1853) 1854))1855, 1856, Wighad occasion to open many thousands, and found that the principal contents were herrings. As many as half a dozen in one fish, more or less decomposed, in many cases reduced to pulp; in others as many as six or eight herring bones decomposing. I also found sand-eels in many cases. . . .” Day mentions seeing THE FEEDING OF SALMON 117 sand-eels and herrings in the stomachs, and reports that Jardine states that salmon are often taken on the coast of Sutherland, on haddock lines baited with sand-eels. Other observers have made similar reports. Even in fish shops where sea-caught salmon are sold, after being cut across, one may sometimes notice that herring had been the food last taken. There is, then, a great contrast between the con- dition of the stomach and intestines of fish caught in the sea and the condition observed in fish caught in rivers. In the former case the stomach is com- monly found full of herring or sand-eel food, the intestines being correspondingly filled with fzecal matter, while in the latter both stomach and intestines are empty. We have, therefore, well- defined periods in the life of the fish, and long intervals during which no food is taken. One of the main objects of the investigations undertaken by Dr. Noél Paton and his colleagues was to determine whether salmon in fresh water require food, and in the event of corroboration of the results obtained by the Continental physiologists, to study the changes which must necessarily take place owing to the growth of the genitalia during a period of starvation. In the female salmon the growth of the reproductive organs is very great. It has been ascertained that in April and May the ovaries constitute about 1°2 per cent. of the weight of the fish, while at the spawning season they repre- sent as much as 23°3 per cent. In the male fish, the actual increase is not in so great a proportion > 118 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON the contrast between spring fish and autumn fish is also well marked. | In dealing with fish from different rivers, it was necessary to calculate a standard fish length with which to make comparisons. This having been arrived at, not only weights of fish but weights of muscle and genitalia could be dealt with on one basis. In estimating the nutrition of fish in estu- aries as compared with those from upper waters, Drs. Noél Paton and Dunlop received material from the Spey, the Helmsdale, and the Dee. The weight of the muscle was worked out in every case, and the following table showing the average weight of muscle for fish of standard length gives the ultimate results :— Estuary. | Upper Water | Difference. grms grms. grms. May and June, : 6326 5839 487 July and August . : 6901 5887 1014 Oct. and Nov. . ; 6055 4116 1939 In the upper water fish a loss in weight of muscle works out to nearly 28 per cent. In contrast to this, the increase in weight of the ovaries of female fish is most marked. In the Tweed, Grey and Tosh, treating this subject in percentages to the weight of the fish, had already shown a change from 0°75 per cent. in March to 17 per cent. in November. Zhe average weight of ovaries per fish of standard length is given by Noél Paton and Dunlop in this form :— THE FEEDING OF SALMON 118 Limits of Upper Limits of Estuary. Variation. Water. Variation. May andJune . : 121 58-175 263 104-415 July and August . ‘ 284 109-479 510 353-691 Oct. and Nov. . 1439 1310-1930 | 2230 1851-2888 “This gives an increase from May to November of from 1 to 11°9 in the sea, or 1318 grms. per fish of standard length, and from 1 to 8°5 in the river, or 1967 grms. per fish of standard length. It will thus be seen that although in the upper waters a greater amount of material per fish of standard length is laid on by the ovaries, their rate of growth, considering the weight with which they start in May, is quite as great in the sea as in the river.” For the growth and development of those ovaries a very large amount of fat is necessary, since the constitution of the ovaries is very largely of fat. Now the average amount of fats per fish of stan- dard length is given for both muscle and ovaries as follows (Report, p. 97) :— Ovaries. Muscle. Estuary.| Upper Water. | Estuary | Upper Water. May and June 5 . 12 29 768 448 July and August . : 18 46 770 476 Oct. and Nov. s : 145 204 426 159 Here we see very plainly how with the decrease of muscle fat the ovary fat increases. Taking the 120 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON whole season into account, the fat per fish of standard length in the ovaries of upper water fish is about double that in estuary fish. In the early months, May to August, the increase is comparatively small, but in October and November the increase is four and a half times. From the results obtained the deduction is “ that the fat which the salmon has stored in its muscle when it leaves the sea is not only amply sufficient to yield all the fat required for the fats of the growing ovary, but also abundantly sufficient to yield energy for an enormous amount of muscular work.” In point of fact, the amount used apparently in energy is very great. In dealing with male -fish, it was found that the storage of muscle fat is as great in those entering our estuaries as in the case of females, and that this fat is used up to as great an extent, although less goes to the male organs than to the ovaries. The presumption is that the amount required for energy is greater. Without entering upon further details which would weary the reader, it may be said that the fat in pro- cess of being utilised by the ovaries is to some extent changed in character, being largely combined with phosphorus, and that the other essential element in development of the genitalia, the proteids (which include the familiar ‘‘ curd” of the fresh run fish), are found to be stored in large quantities in the estuary fish, and to be reduced in the muscle and transferred to the ovaries in upper water fish. Such then, in brief, is the chemistry of this matter. THE FEEDING OF SALMON 121 But in order to increase the scientific value of the demonstration a thorough microscopic investigation into the physiological conditions of the muscles and their contained fats was undertaken by Mr. Mahalanobis. In the highly charged condition of the estuary fish the fat cells were found not only between the muscle fibres, but within the fibres themselves. In the upper water fish the gradual disappearance of the fat was most clearly established, thus supporting in every way the deductions drawn from the wider chemical study. From these investigations it appears, therefore, that the feeding which the salmon does in the sea is much more than enough to enable the fish to grow and develop in the manner usual with animals of a steady feeding habit. The feeding is so excessive that the health and energy of the fish is more than supplied, and as a result the excess of nutriment is stored in the tissues. Reference here has alone been made to the muscular system, but it has to be under- stood that the abdominal organs and their connecting membranes are likewise loaded with fat under ordi- nary conditions. After the cessation of feeding and the entrance of fresh water this source of nourish- ment 1s drawn upon for the supply of the reproductive organs and for the supply of energy necessary to the fish in ascending rivers and performing the reproductive functions. That this supply for energy is ample will be readily understood by the fisherman who has had the keen joy of testing from the end of his rod the sort of fight which a well-nourished salmon can put up. 122 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON That salmon do not invariably enter fresh water in an excessively over-nourished state I have already noted. A season occurs now and again during which fish in comparatively poor condition leave the sea for our rivers. This in all probability means that the nature of the food taken in the sea has been poor in quality, or, less probably, scarce. Further, the common occurrence of so-called bull-trout enter- ing our rivers from the sea, pale in flesh, often of great size, and having both the gill maggots common to the kelt and the sea lice of the fresh run fish upon them, suggests the belief that amongst fish which adopt the short migration there are those which do not adopt the generous feeding habits of the silvery well-conditioned migrant. Such considerations as these seem to me to prompt a certain reserve in accepting the conclusions of Dr. Noél Paton that it is the state of nutrition alone which is the factor determining migration towards the river. We have dwelt at considerable length, in the chapter on the results of salmon marking, on the habit of long and of short periods of sojourn in the sea. Since a salmon in any year can clearly become fully nourished during the time of a short sojourn in the sea, why should it stay an extra year in salt water? The state of its nutrition does not supply a sufficient reason. The corollary to the view advanced by Dr. Noél Paton is expressed by him thus: ‘“ When the salmon has accumulated the. necessary supply of material it tends to return to its original habitat.” That the salmon is a native of fresh water, in the sense of being born there, I of ‘OOF JO ALOT) Ysul LATE oy ‘purpzaoygng ‘Q[UPSMJOF 9A uO ALo.o SULYALU-TOUTES V—IIA @ayi1g THE FEEDING OF SALMON 123 course freely admit ; but, as suggested in the chapter on grilse, it is possible to regard the first seaward migration as a movement to the salmon’s original habitat, 2.e., the habitat from which our salmon as we now know it, along with its near allies, took its origin in remote times. The shad isa sea fish which visits our rivers to spawn. The sparling or smelt must be similarly regarded, and is more nearly related to the salmon than the shad. Attempts at producing fertile salmon without allowing them to visit the sea easily fail, and when successful, result in degenerate creatures which do not support the idea that they represent the prototypes of fish from which the evolution of our salmon has sprung. The vigorous growth and development in the sea, on the other hand, and the fact that the salmon spends most of its time in this element, along with the arguments already cited in the chapter on grilse, from the systematic study of the salmon family, in- cline me to the view that the sea was the original habitat of Salmo salar, as it undoubtedly was of most of the salmon family. If this is so, there is nothing forced in the belief that the long migration fish, continuing in the sea as it must do long after its tissues have become fully nourished, and as the study of the scales certainly indicates, is simply living in its natural habitat. At the same time, I do not consider that the msus generativus prompts the spring fish to enter fresh water. The late running fish which has already developed its genitalia in the sea may be said to visit the river for the purpose of spawning, but the 124 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON species Salmo salar I regard in general terms as a sea fish which freely enters fresh water after it has received the nourishment and stimulus the sea alone affords, which frequently, owing to the highly charged state of its nutrition, spends many months in fresh water, and which spawns before again re- turning to the sea. CHAPTER VI THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE Early and late rivers—Rivers made late by man—Tempera- ture of the sea round Scotland—Temperatures of early and late Scottish rivers—Temperature of water no indication of seasonal character—Hffects of temperature on fish ascending rivers—Harly runs of fish in upper waters, Garry and Orchy —Effects of cold water upon ascending fish—The entrance of tributaries from main river—Rapid ascent of summer fish —Sea lice may remain attached for four or five days Tue theories which have been advanced to explain the diverse seasonal runs of salmon into fresh water —why in some rivers there should each year be early runs of fish, and in others only late runs— have, with I think one exception, been based upon considerations of water temperature. The exception is the ingenious but unsupported theory of the late Frank Buckland, that the seasonal character of a salmon river depends on the length of the river in proportion to the square mileage of its drainage area. At the outset, in the consideration of this question, I would point out that we are at the present day by no means certain that the real seasonal character of some rivers can be properly interpreted by the exist- ing conditions. Certain rivers are described as late rivers, and have no doubt been found to be late 126 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON rivers for avery long period ; but it is quite possible, and I would venture to say in many cases very probable, that the cause of the late character has nothing whatever to do with the physical conditions of the rivers, but is purely the result of the influence of man in his treatment of the fisheries, and that as the treatment has continued on the same lines within the memory of man, so no one has ever known or heard of early runs of fish in those rivers. One might instance the case of the river Leven, which flows out of Loch Lomond into the Clyde at Dumbarton. This river has for a very long time been considered a late river, and there are old records of Dumbarton fisheries which point to this conclusion. A thriving dyeing and bleaching industry has long been estab- lished, gross pollution has resulted, and net fishing at the mouth of the river has been steadily carried on. But of late years an active and I may add a philanthropic angling association, which allows all anglers to participate in the sport which the loch affords, has done something to improve the general conditions and the stock of fish, with the result that early fish are appearing. In other cases where serious over-fishing has been allowed to continue rivers have naturally acquired a late character. With over-fishing, or other causes of reduction of breeding stock, the first class of fish to disappear is the spring run. We are therefore not safe in presuming that in all cases when we do not find a spring run the river isa late one. We must satisfy ourselves first that the river has every chance of bearing a full stock of fish. In Scotland—and concerning questions of tem- THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 127 perature in relation to salmon fisheries I write exclusively of Scotland—we may say broadly we do not find a regular run of spring fish in small rivers, even although these rivers are well stocked, and pure, and in no way over-fished. In rivers of moderate size we, for the most part, find only occasional runs of rather late spring fish. But in the larger and more important rivers, Tay, Dee, Ness, Beauly, Brora, Helmsdale, Thurso, Naver, we have regular and steady runs of spring fish. In these rivers also we have, besides considerable volume of water, comparative purity—in the Highland rivers named we may say complete purity—and an apparent absence of over-fishing. In a river like the Tweed there is too much netting to allow of the entrance of many springers, or of their passage upwards to the safer head waters. Other rivers might be mentioned which lke the Tweed should, in my opinion, have many more spring fish; but tomention individual cases would be to depart from the question of temperature. The fact that the first-class rivers above named flow either to the east or north has suggested the theory that the cause of the early entrance of salmon lies in the fact that the sea on this side of the country—the North Sea—is a colder sea than the Atlantic Ocean on the west coast, and that the rivers, flowing, as many of them do, through long stretches of not very high land, are comparatively warm, being free from the great admixture of snow water which in spring passes off from the high West Highland hills, and that the salmon therefore prefer to leave this cold North Sea at an earlier time than 128 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON do the salmon in the warmer Atlantic. The theory sounds plausible, but in accepting it one has to pre- sume that the salmon prefers warm water to cold. The more crude idea that early rivers are those which flow out of large lochs is an offshoot of the same theory, and may be dismissed at once by merely noticing how many early rivers do not come out of large lochs, and that practically all the late rivers of the West Highlands do. A third idea which has been developed at considerable length, more especi- ally in magazine articles, is that the ascent from sea to river takes place when the temperatures of the salt and fresh water approximate. We have there- fore the physiologist stating that the condition of nutrition determines the “return” from the sea, and the physicist stating that the influence of temperature alone determines the same movement. I have already referred to the question of nutrition, and have shown that in my view it is not a complete explanation of the habit of ascent from sea water. In examining the theories as to temperature it is re- markable how much of theory and how little of fact is to be found. Only in arguments as to the ap- proximation of sea and river temperatures do we find a genuine attempt to deduce from thermometric readings. When such readings are taken in sufficient numbers to show the real conditions which usually obtain, it becomes at once evident that the idea that salmon are drawn, as it were, from a cold sea by and to a warm river must be given up. The facts show that at the time when early fish are running all our rivers are much colder than the sea on either coast. THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 129 A most exhaustive series of sea temperature records are available, and, as shown at some length in the nineteenth Annual Report on the Salmon Fisheries of Scotland, the monthly means for January, Feb- ruary, March, and April range on the east coast from 39° to 44° F., the lowest monthly mean of the whole year being in March, while on the west coast it is evi- dent, on the high authority of the late Dr. Buchan, that ‘‘from October to March the west is at least 2° above the east, and in January it amounts to 3°9". It is an event happening only once in a number of years for the temperature of the sea in the west to fall below 40°, but in the east this happens every year.”* Inthe west the three coldest months of the year are inorder February, March, and January. The statement that the North Sea is, as compared to the ocean water on the west coast, a cold sea in the early months of the year, when spring fish run, is therefore supported by facts. It is when we ex- amine river temperatures during those early months —which the theorisers referred to omitted to do— that we find an entire absence of any warm water to draw fish as supposed. A series of maximum and minimum morning and evening readings taken from instruments kept con- stantly immersed for four years—1880-1884 in- clusive—in the Helmsdale and Brora, early rivers of east Sutherland, were kindly placed at my dis- posal by the Scottish Meteorological Society. From these we find} that the Helmsdale and Brora waters * Jour. Scot. Meteor. Soc., vol. i., N.S., 1863-66, p. 263. + Nineteenth Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, II. p. 70. I 130 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON are in January and February from 5° to 10° colder than the sea. In March and April the conditions become more unsettled, and sudden and rather violent fluctuations are common (melting snow, frost, rain floods). A variation of 8° in the twenty-four hours is not uncommon. On an average, however, the river water is 4° colder than the sea. The Thurso is another well-known early river. Tempera- tures for the complete year 1886 were taken at three points, at the mouth, half-way up, and at the head, together with sea temperatures for the same period.* In January and February the river mean is 6° to 9° colder than the sea, and not till April do the river and sea temperatures equalise. Readings from the Dee show the same result, as also do readings from the Tay and Shin, although from these rivers the series of temperatures is not so long as from the Helmsdale and Brora. A series of valuable readings for ten years taken in the Ugie bear out, however, a precisely similar result.¢ Lest, however, it should be imagined that, with the greater fluctuation in river than in sea, periods occur, even in the early months of January and February, when river temperature equalises with sea temperature, it may be said that, the daily readings show that the river water is constantly colder than the sea. In those east coast rivers, therefore, the early running fish leave a cold sea for a considerably colder river in their migration to fresh water. * Jour. Scot. Meteor. Soc., Lil. No. iv., 1886. + Nineteenth Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, II. p. 72. THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 131 With regard to the west coast rivers, which were supposed to be colder in the early months of the year, I may cite first the Laxford in west Sutherland. I have complete readings from this river, taken in 1880, and am therefore able to compare it with the Helmsdale, Brora, and Shin in east Sutherland in 1880. The Laxford flows out of Loch More, is con- sidered the finest salmon river of the North-West Highlands, but is late. A comparison of the daily means of those rivers shows that the Laxford is sub- ject to rapid fluctuations, as the Helmsdale is, and in this respect differs somewhat from the Brora and Shin. The latter, it must be recollected, has a very large reservoir at its head in the shape of Loch Shin, while the actual readings for the former were taken at a constriction of Loch Brora. When, however, curves are plotted representing the daily means of each river,” it is noticeable that they do not separate from one another in any marked way, and that the inclination of the Laxford curve, the western late river curve, is very similar to that of the Brora curve. In other words, the temperature conditions ascertained to exist in the Laxford are very similar indeed to the temperature conditions of the three early east coast rivers with which it is compared. The great advantage of being able to compare late and early rivers on opposite coasts of the same country in the same year is further enhanced by the fact that the Helmsdale, Brora, and Laxford are first-class natural rivers, each bearing a full stock of * Twentieth Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, II. p, 12, 132 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON fish, each unspoilt by man. In a search for a really warmer river, I have been fortunate in obtaining a valuable series of temperature readings from the Nith, which flows into the Solway. These were taken for me by Rev. Mr. Andson, of Dumfries, in 1902, and I am able to compare them with Tay readings for the same year. In the early months of the year the Nith is distinctly warmer than the Tay, and the Nith is a late river, but unhappily it cannot be said to be a river in which the natural supply of salmon is unimpaired. The salmon fisheries of the Nith district have suffered much at the hands of man. In this same year, however, 1902, tempera- tures were taken in the river Ness, which is a well- stocked early river, supplied from one of the largest and deepest lochs in Scotland, and the Ness tempera- ture shows a marked difference from that of the Tay. Curves have been plotted for each river,* from which it is at once noticeable that while the Ness shows a comparatively flat curve never falling below 42°, the Tay curve at Perth shows acute inclination with a minimum at freezing point (32°). We see therefore, from a comparison of the ascer- tained thermal conditions of those rivers, that east coast early rivers do not show any marked difference from late west coast rivers when the selection is made in Sutherland alone; and second, that east coast early rivers in different parts of the country, subject to different physical conditions, show widely different temperatures with minimias much as 10° apart. It * Twenty-first Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, II. pp. 76 and 82. THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 133 has therefore seemed to me that the natural deduc- tion may be said broadly to be that temperature has nothing to do with the seasonable character of a river in Scotland, in so far as the actual entrance of salmon from the sea is concerned. The primary causal factor in the existence or absence of an early run of fish is not the prevailing condition of tempera- ture. Once a fish has entered the mouth of a river fluctuations of temperature exercise a distinct in- fluence, as we shall presently see, but in the making of an early or of alate river temperature does not appear to play a part. Large and deep lochs naturally exercise their influence on the temperatures of rivers which flow out of them—such lochs have relatively high mean temperatures ; but apart from such conditions, the temperature of a river follows close, so to speak, upon the heels of the air tempera- ture of the surrounding district; and if a warm river were the chief cause of early runs of fish the small streams of the western isles should of all others be early streams, and the rivers in the south-west of Scotland should also be all early rivers. As observed at the commencement of this chapter, however, small streams are never early streams. A certain volume of water and a good stock of fish are essentials for the early run. Given these two condi- tions, the time at which early fish will enter fresh water may still be subject to some variation in different districts. On the east coast and in the Pentland Firth salmon may draw to the shore rather earlier than they do on the west coast, the habit in the sea where circumstances determining the growth 134 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON and movements of marine creatures, including salmon, and the forms upon which they feed, may be in some shght degree different, but given these two con- ditions an early run will be present. The main circumstances of life in a small country like Scotland are, however, practically the same. We may now regard the influence of temperature upon the salmon when the mouth of the river has been entered. In this connection there are two aspects of the question which may be considered, first the ascent of the main river, and second the entrance of tributaries. Apart from the test of temperature, it will be recollected that at the close of the last chapter the results of marking clean run fish were dealt with, and evidence produced to show that such fish may remain two or three months in the rapid lower waters of a river such as the Spey with- out making material ascent. From the Tay similar evidence was gathered, but the pause in the ascent appeared to be less prolonged. In now extending the range of observation, and considering the application of the temperature test to this question, we are able to see that there are other rivers in which this pausing habit does not apparently obtain. The habit of the early fish seems to vary considerably in different districts. We have already noted that Tay fish ascend to Loch Tay and remain there till May, when they continue their ascent by entering the Dochart. As a contrast to this we have early Ness fish passing quickly through the short river Ness into the loch of the same name (which is the deepest but one in Scotland), but, unlike the Tay fish, passing on out of Loch Ness THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 135 into the river Oich, out of the Oich into Loch Oich, and out of Loch Oich into the famous river Garry, which forms the head waters of the Ness system. The Garry is the spring fishing river of this district. On the west coast we have an analogous condition appearing in the Awe district. Early fish pass through the river Awe into Loch Awe, and are checked in this ascent only after they have entered the river Orchy above the loch. The Garry and the Orchy are rivers of considerable size, although each is some distance from the sea. In each there is a fall, beyond which: fish do not commonly pass till about May. Now, why do Tay fish remain in the lower river and loch during the spring months, and Ness and Awe fish ascend to the upper feeders of their districts ? In order to ascertain the thermal conditions of the river systems referred to, I arranged for the taking of morning and evening maximum and minimum readings from thermometers kept constantly im- mersed in the Ness and the Garry and in the Awe and the Orchy. At the same time temperatures were taken in the Tay and in one or two smaller river systems. The Garry rod-fishing opens early in February, and at that time each year the river is well stocked, although in exceptionally cold springs there may be more fish in Loch Oich than in the Garry. In the Awe, fish do not usually ascend till March, and are not expected in any numbers in the Orchy till April. It is highly probable that with a fuller stock of fish in the district more earlier fish would appear. ‘The readings procured from these districts 136 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON are of great interest as showing that in each case the lower river which flows from the large loch into the sea has a markedly higher temperature than the river above the loch. It is noticeable also, when the charts which were prepared * are studied, that the curves representing the mean weekly temperature of the Ness and Awe (the lower rivers) are more uniform in line or less quickly fluctuating than are the curves for the upper waters. The Ness curve during January, February, and March shows a wonderfully flat inclination. The temperatures were taken November 1901 till end of May 1902. I will refer first to the Garry and Ness readings. From the middle of December to the end of March the weekly mean of the Garry never exceeds 40° F., and in the middle of February, when the river was very low after four weeks of continuous frost, the reading reaches 35°. In April and May there is a steady rise of temperature. The curve for the Ness runs, however, at a distinctly higher level. In December, January, February, and March there is constantly from 2° to 8° difference in the readings. By the middle of April the temperatures of the two rivers have approximated by the rise in temperature found in the Garry, the upper and early river. On referring now to the curves representing the Orchy and Awe temperatures, we notice first amuch greater fluctua- tion in both curves, but the same general result. The Orchy is colder by 2° to 9° than the Awe, and by the middle of April the curves appréximate by * Twenty-first Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, IT. p. 76. ee a THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 137 the rise in temperature of the lower line, which represents the Orchy or upper water. Now, from a constant record of temperatures taken in the Tay at Grandtully by Mr. Johnston between 1895 and 1903, coupled with statements as to the results of spring angling, it has been possible to pro- duce a table showing the maximum and minimum readings for each of the early months of the years referred to, and to compare the seasons in respect of the ascent of spring fish.* The year 1896 was a good spring fishing year, when “fish were early and ran quickly.” Only once, in January, did the temperature reach as low as 36°, the lowest readings in February, March, and April being respectively 39°, 40°,and 43°. The highest readings for the four months were respectively 41°, 44°, 43°, and 51°. The average of the maximum readings is 44:7", and of the minimum readings 39°5°. Poor fishing years when compared to this show at least 3° lower tem- perature in both maximum and minimum averages. In other words, with the river temperature com- monly above 40° in the first four months of the year salmon are running up freely and quickly, and the stock of spring fish is largely dependent upon favour- able conditions for ascent in January before the opening of the netting season. This is exactly the condition we find in the Ness and Awe, and we are not surprised to find that the early fish of those rivers run quickly through the few miles of water (each river is only about six miles long) into the large lochs, where the temperature of the water is * Loe. cit., p. 78. 138 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON not greatly different, except possibly at the extreme upper ends. When, however, the fish essay to ascend farther, they are met by distinctly colder water, and their progress is at once checked, till, the particular time when the winter conditions of those upper rivers having passed, they find themselves once more willing to travel and overcome obstacles in their course. The rivers Garry and Orchy are the early rivers of their districts, therefore, because all the lower waters are of such a relatively high temperature as induces rapid ascent, while the Garry and Orchy are of a temperature which in Scotland produces a check upon early ascent. Added to this we must not forget that small falls exist in each case. Spring fish are no jumpers till summer con- ditions have come about. Apply this interpretation to the Tay and its upper water, the Dochart, and we see that while the main river, with its course of some 50 miles, receives various large tributaries, and has a general tempera- ture in the first four months of the year which at times induces fish to run and at times checks their running, thus naturally securing to this fine river a distribution of spring fish, the Dochart—which has a fall upon it a short distance above Loch Tay—is exactly analogous to the waters of the Garry or Orchy above their respective falls. Fish therefore, if we argue by analogy, should, as in the Garry and Orchy, ascend the Dochart fall when the wintry conditions have passed. This is, as a matter of fact, exactly what happens, for the Loch Tay fish begin to go up the Dochart in May. — ee Eee ee, eee THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 139 Reference in this connection may be made to one other river, the Helmsdale, which, since it differs in physical features from the rivers already referred to, may stand as a further example of how this concep- tion of salmon ascent as affected by temperature works out in Scotland. Here there is no large loch in the course of the main ascent. Two streams come from two lochs at practically the extreme head waters, and unite to form the main river, which has then a course of about 20 miles to the sea. About half-way down this main river, however, there is a fall. What we find here is that the early fish enter freely from the sea and slowly make their way upwards, but do not ascend the fall. All the spring fishing is between the fall and the sea. When, however, the wintry con- ditions of water have passed, the ascent of the fall is freely made, as in the upper waters previously referred to, so that summer angling is carried on in the entire length of the river. Falls such as we have been referring to are therefore not serious obstruc- tions to fish when the water is comparatively warm, but are total obstructions when the water is cold. Such a statement, I must again remind the reader, applies to Scotland ; it would, I believe, be entirely erroneous in a country like Norway, where all sal- mon, although late, ascend obstacles in the cold water which comes from melted snow. Salmon passes on such Scottish falls, to be of any use, must be of extremely easy gradient, so that fish may readily swim them, and at the same time they should con- tain a large body of water. We have now to consider the part water tempera- 140 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON ture seems to play in the entrance of tributaries by salmon which have ascended a main river. ‘This subject has been chiefly studied in the Tay, and no river in Scotland seems to offer better facilities, since the tributaries of the Tay are numerous, and are in several instances rivers of considerable size, which present varying physical conditions. Read- ings were taken in the main river at Perth—which is at the mouth, but at the top of tide reach—and at Grandtully about forty miles up stream. Above Grandtully the river Lyon enters, and in this readings were taken. Below Grandtully the river Tummel enters, carrying with it the water of the Perthshire Garry, and in both of these were readings also taken. Curves were plotted for each series of readings. Of the two from the main river it is noticeable that the curve from the mouth of the river is lower than that for the upper river. This is no doubt caused by the entrance of the large tributaries below Grandtully, the Tummel and Garry, and the Isla, but especially perhaps the Almond, the waters of which are found to be colder than the waters of the other Tay tributaries. The Lyon alone shows a curve of temperatures very similar to the Tay. All other tributaries for which readings are available are found to be colder. Loch Tay, from which the main river springs, is 143 miles long, and has a mean depth of 199 ft. and a maximum depth of 508 ft. The water which flows from this large loch is naturally much more uniform in tem- perature than is the water of rivers draining high surrounding land. A chart of curves showing ain THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 141 weekly means for the Tay at Perth and at Grand- tully, and for the Lyon and Garry, is given in Part II. of the Twenty-first Fishery Board Report, and it seems unnecessary to enter here upon a detailed account of the readings from each locality. In general terms the results show, as compared to the main river, the Grandtully curve of which is comparatively high, that in descending order of temperature we have first the Lyon, then the Tummel, and last the Garry. Itis therefore of some interest to realise that early fish in ascending the Tay are found on the opening of the angling season, January 15, not only in the loch, but in the river Lyon, which, as we have seen, has a temperature closely approximated to that of the upper Tay and loch. Next, a limited number of fish are found to be already entering the mouth of the Tummel and pausing in the deep pools of Easthaugh Water there, but that as the temperature of the colder Garry rises so as to approximate to that of the Tummel, fish more freely ascend the Tummel and then enter the Garry. This last emigration does not usually take place till April, although a few fish may be found in the deep pools of the Pass of Killiecrankie in March. Moreover, in unusually warm springs, when all the tributaries are, as it were, advanced in temperature, the times at which fish ascend are, while unaltered in order of river, earlier in point of season ; and conversely in cold seasons the stock of early fish is delayed in their ascent of the tributaries. If therefore in early winter much snow lies on the hills drained, say, by the Lyon, so that that river 142 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON has a temperature a few degrees lower than the Tay water, a good stock of spring fish may not be ex- ‘pected in Glen Lyon at the opening of the season ; but, other things being equal, it is found by actual thermometric readings that the order in which fish enter the Tay tributaries, in cases where free access is at all times possible, is precisely the order of descending temperature. ‘To state the case in more general terms, it may be said that the tributaries referred to are not entered by early fish till their temperatures have become approximated to the temperature of the main river near the influx of the tributaries. It might further be noticed that the tendency of the early salmon in making his steady ascent of such a river as the Tay seems to be to pass by tributaries which enter the lower reaches, and especially to pass by tributaries of small size. I know of no instance in Scotland of early fish entering tributaries near to the mouth of the main river, as autumn fish un- doubtedly do. In the Spey, tor instance, the tribu- taries of Fiddoch and Avon are frequently crowded with late running spawners, but they never contain spring fish. Inthe Tay the tributaries Almond and Isla, both large enough to hold spring fish, are passed by, but there may be other reasons, since the former, as we have seen, is a cold river, and moreover is too much obstructed to make the ascent of spring fish possible, while the latter, for which I have no tem- perature records, is provided with a poor mouth. In other cases which might be cited there is some uncertainty in determining whether a river THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 143 should be considered a tributary or a separate river entering a common estuary. This is the case with the Earn, which enters the tidal waters of the Tay, and but for obstructions in the Earn I believe that spring fish would ascend more freely -than they do. In the case, however, of the Lochy on the west coast we have another instance worth referring to. The river Lochy formerly flowed naturally from Loch Lochy into the sea near Banavie; when, however, the Caledonian Canal was constructed the course of the Lochy was to some extent utilised, and the river was given a new and artificially cut channel from the loch into the Spean at Muccomer. The Spean, coming as it does from the very high land to the north and east of Ben Nevis, is a cold river, while the Lochy water, like the Ness at the northern end of the great chain of lakes which form the Caledonian Canal, is warm. Early fish ascend the Lochy to Muccomer, and there pause. They are, unfortunately, obstructed by a fall with a very inadequate fish pass from farther ascending the Lochy, so they remain in the large Muccomer pool till the Spean water has lost its forbidding tempera- ture, when they ascend that river. Such fish as do manage to ascend the Lochy do not do so before the ascent of the Spean is well begun. The reason for this has already been explained. We see, there- fore, that while early as compared with late rivers appear to present no definite distinction of tempera- ture, the habits of ascent in all rivers are very considerably influenced by thermal conditions. All our Scottish rivers are colder than the surrounding 144 THE LIFE OF THE SALMON seas in the winter months, but by the month of April have risen in temperature so that the readings in fresh water and the sea become equalised. Sub- sequently, through summer, our rivers attain a temperature considerably above that of the sea, but by the month of September their temperature has again fallen so that the conditions of sea and river again equalise—although now at a higher tempera- ture than in April. From September onwards the winter conditions again become slowly established. During the warm conditions of summer, fish ascending from the sea run up much more rapidly than when the river temperature is low. Even in May, fish are not infrequently taken well up our rivers, 7.¢., thirty to even forty miles up, and still bearing sea lice upon them, and with other unmis- takable signs of having only very recently left the sea. By this time the spring fish are making their way to the head waters, where, as the season ad- vances and their reproductive organs develop, they become distributed in the manner so valuable for the river’s future stock. The summer fish having rapidly moved up from the lower waters, the late running fish, which enter from the sea with their genitalia already well advanced—the male fish being at the end of the season not infrequently highly coloured, as they come from the sea—have, as it were, those lower reaches left to them. In this way, therefore, the waters of a well-stocked pure river are fully taken advantage of for spawning, and are able to return their best percentage of fry from all classes of fish. THE SALMON AND WATER TEMPERATURE 145 In the summer of 1906 an experiment was made at my request in the laboratory of the Fishery Board at Bay of Nigg, near Aberdeen, to test the length of time sea lice will remain attached to those summer fish which so rapidly ascend in the compara- tively warm conditions referred to. Two grilse were obtained from a bag-net in the Bay of Nigg, and placed in sea water in a tank of the hatchery. The temperature of the water was 52°9° (11°6° C.). Each fish had attached to it a number of sea lice. The density of the water was then reduced by allowing fresh water to enter. This operation was regulated so as to represent approximately in time the period of a single flood tide. The fish showed considerable distress at first, from which it is natural to suppose that the transference to brackish water was too rapid, and that in all probability an interval of some twenty-four hours or so—as had originally been intended—would have been more natural. The sea lice may also have been adversely affected by the rapid transference in eight hours to pure fresh water, but in spite of this some of the sea lice remained attached for six days. Dating from the time when the water was quite fresh, the sea lice remained on one fish for four days and on the other for five days. The fresh water temperature was 55° F. The constant action of the current of a river under natural conditions of a fish’s ascent may cause the parasites to drop off somewhat sooner, but the ex- periment shows that a fish taken in upper waters with one or two sea lice attached may have occupied at least three or four days in its passage from the tide. K APPENDIX A RECORD OF SALMON-MARKING OBSERVATIONS IN SCOTLAND PREVIOUS TO THE OPERATIONS OF THE FISHERY BOARD IN 1896. Marxine salmon for the purpose of gaining information as to their migratory movements and their increase in weight has been practised for a considerable time. Izaak Walton in his “ Compleat Angler” (1653) alludes to experiments of this kind in which ribbons were tied to the tails of young salmon, and by which it was ascertained that salmon return to the same locality after visiting the sea. Writers of a later date do not always specify the method of marking, although they state results which would be of great interest were the proofs of their infallibility absolute. A considerable amount of reliable information has, however, been obtained from time to time in Scotland—exclusively, I think, on migration and increase of weight—and I have attempted to collate this information in the form of a list with tables. I omit from the list references to smolt marking, as well as any records which are without such particulars as alone can render them of value. Previous Scorrish SALMON MarRKING. 1823. In March, Mackenzie of Ardross marked a grilse kelt of 34 1b. The mark was of brass wire. In twelve months the fish was recaptured as a salmon of 7 lb., showing an addition of 33 lb. in weight. 1824. Mackenzie of Ardross marked a salmon kelt. The mark was wire round the tail. In 1825 he reports it as having been recaptured * double the size.” 148 APPENDIX 1829. In February, Fraser (‘‘ On the Salmon”) reports marking a number of grilse kelts, estimated as of 5 to 6 lb. Marking was done by cutting off the adipose fin. In nine months he reports the capture of one as a salmon of 13 lb., showing an addition of 8 lb. in weight. This return must be received with caution. 1830. In February, Mr. Fraser (ibid.) reports the marking of grilse by fastening wire round the tail. Grilse pre- sumably 5 to 6 lb. In six months one was recaptured as a salmon of 14 lb., two witnesses being cited who saw the fish and wire. 1834. Shaw at Drumlanrig marked 524 sea trout in the herling stage. Marking was done by fin cutting. One fish is reported to have been recaptured in the three successive years in a cruive in the Nith. The markings were :— 1834, adipose fin removed. 1835, third of dorsal fin removed. 1836, half of anal fin removed. 1837, fish was killed, being afterwards exhibited at the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, vide Trans. R.S.E., vol. xv. part iii. p. 369; weight 6 lb. Of the 524 marked in 1834, 68 were reported recap- tured in 1835, averaging 21 lb. in weight. 1835. The 68 recaptured sea trout above referred to were re- marked by fin cutting. One in 20 are reported as recaptured in 1836, averaging 4 |b. in weight. Also 120 sea trout were marked by Shaw in this year, 60 being marked with copper wire on the dorsal fin, and 60 with copper wire round the right maxillary bone. Of the latter group five recaptures were made in the summer of 1836, the average increase of weight being stated as 14 lb. 1841. Young of Invershin marked grilse and recaptured salmon and as under (Trans. Royal Society, Edinburgh, read 1842, January 9, 1843). The manner of marking is un- fortunately not specified. ; ; ' APPENDIX 149 List or GritsEs MARKED IN THE RIVER SHIN, AND RECAPTURED AS SALMON ON THEIR SECOND ASCENT FROM THE SEA IN THAT RIVER. MARKED. RECAPTURED WEIGHTS WHEN Marked. | Recaptured. February 18, 1841 June 23, 1841 . 4 lb.* i) alley: February 18, 1841 June 25, 1841 AN gee Ps | February 18, 1841 June 25,1841 . 4 5, Dies February 18, 1841 June 25,1841 . Ay i, 10) Te | February 18, 1841 July 27, 1841 Bus, apes | February 18, 1841 July 28, 1841 aun ie 100 | March 4, 1841 . July 1, 1841 ANNE Lomi | March 4, 1841 . July 1, 1841 ANNs aes | March 4, 1841 . July 27, 1841 Bh 36 a PA Niapre | January 29, 1842 July 4, 1842 4 45 Sys | January 29, 1842 July 14, 1842 Aves Oa rat | January 29, 1842 July 14, 1842 Awa Bi 55 | March 8, 1842 . July 23,1842 . avons iis) | January 29, 1842 July 29, 1842 . urs The March 8, 1842 . August 4, 1842 anys IO) gp January 29, 1842 August 11, 1842 4), 1 iy 1845, Lord Glenlyon, afterwards Duke of Atholl, marked on March 31 a kipper fish of 10 lb. It was marked with a zine label, and is reported by Ramsbottom to have been recaptured in less than six weeks weighing 21} lb. (EW Bin es) 1847. March 27, the Duke of Atholl marked a 15 lb. kelt in the Tay. It was recaptured on February 20, 1848, as a clean fish of 20 lb. March 28, marked a kelt of 11 1b. It was recaptured on July 24, presumably the same year, as a clean fish of 18 lb. March 3, marked a kelt of 14 lb. It was recaptured on September 7, presumably the same year, as a clean fish of 21 lb. 1851. The Duke of Atholl marked, on February 26, a kelt of 10 lb. It was recaptured, a clean fish of 12 lb., on February 17, 1852. * Grilse of weights other than 4 lb, were rejected. 150 1854. 1851 to 1872. 1857. 1858. 1859. MARKED. DATE. WEIGHT. LENGTH. No. 1860. APPENDIX The Duke of Atholl marked an 11 lb, kelt on March 21. It was recaptured as a clean fish of 17 lb. near Montrose on August 24, 1854. During those years a large number of fish were marked by the Experimental Committee of the Tweed Commis- sioners. The table which follows (pp. 152 to 156) is taken from the Tweed Salmon Reports, 1866. It is given in full, although it contains reference to a few marked smolts. JI have added a column as to the nature of the mark used, so far as this can be determined from the Report. On November 12, Mr. Buist, Stormontfield, river Tay, while netting for ova, marked 89 salmon and 78 grilse with copper wire (where on the fish is not stated). On September 6, 1858, one was caught in Largo Bay, 134 lb. in weight. No particulars of each fish seem to have been taken. March 31, Young of Invershin reports that a grilse marked on that date was recaptured as a salmon of 8 lb. on August 2 in the same year. The Duke of Atholl marked fish on the river Tay. A numbered copper disc, an inch in diameter, or! gutta- percha ticket fastened by copper wire round the tail was used. The following fish were marked as kelts and re- captured as clean fish the same year :-— DATE OF RECAPTURE. WEIGHT. 17 Ib. 17 lb. 21 Feb. 14 10 Ib. 36 in. 76 Mar. 2 114 lb. 354 in. 95 Mar. 29 124 lb. 37 in. 19 Ib. Through the kindness of the present Duke of Atholl I am able to add particulars of another fish, the mark taken from which I have seen. I add also the lengths of the three fish above referred to. APPENDIX 151 No. 133, marked on February 12, 1860, a kelt, 8 lb., caught at The Rock, Dunkeld, 34 inches long by 12 inches girth. This fish was taken again in the river Tay, but the mark and the particulars at time of recap- ture were not sent to Blair Castle. 1861. Also, on February 25,a kelt of 13 lb, was marked. It was recaptured as a clean fish of 26 lb. on August 11, 1862. 1863. On March 30, at Dunkeld, one of the Duke of Atholl’s marks was attached to a kelt 54 lb. in weight and 28 inches long. It was recaptured at Rossie, in Montrose Basin, on July 17 of same year—a lanky male “ bull trout” of 7 lb. 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That is to say, so far as the table shows, a whitling does not become a bull-trout, even, as in the case of the first fish men- tioned on the list, after an interval of about a year and ten months. The fish referred to seems, on recapture, to have weighed 24 Ib., and may therefore be more correctly described as a sea trout. We may perhaps fairly infer from this result of marking ‘‘blacktails ” that the young stages of the bull-trout and of the whitling were indistinguishable to the observer who conducted the marking, or are practically indis- tinguishable. Another fish worthy of special remark is the last on the list, a grilse which on being captured after an interval of six months is still described as a grilse, and has gained 44 lb. in weight. From the date of mark- ing we may infer that the fish was a kelt, and that we are dealing with a minimum fresh water weight as contrasted with a weight after feeding. 1873. The Tweed Committee conducted further marking observa- tions. The results, published as a special report in 1875, deal almost exclusively with ‘‘blacktails” re- captured as blacktails and whitling. The only excep- tions are two grilse recaptured as grilse kelts before leaving the river. INDEX ABERDEEN fishery, grilse and salmon takes, 34, 38 Archer, W. E., emigration of small salmon 49 salmon marking in Norway, 57 Awe and Orchy temperatures, 135 BERRINGTON, A. D., over-netting re- sults, 106 Bornholm, line fishing for salmon, 35 Boulenger, marine origin of salmon, 5 British Columbia, death of kelts, 108 Brora, marked fish recaptures, 71 grilse migrations, 55 Buchan, Dr., temperatures of Scottish seas, 129 Bull trout of Tay and other rivers, 87 CAITHNESS, takes of salmon and grilse, 38 Curd in salmon, 120 DAHL, K., capture of smolts and grilse off Norway, 24, 26 age of Norwegian smolts, 11 Deveron grilse, migrations of, 54 Dickson, J., divided migrations of salmon, 59 Divided migrations of salmon, 59 Dunlop and Noél Paton, nutrition of salmon, 118 EARLY and late rivers, 125 Early rivers not necessarily of high temperature, 130 FEEDING, absence of in fresh water, 43, 112 in sea, 43 Fishing Board for Scotland, salmon marking experiments of, 57 GENITALIA, growth of, 117 Gilling, 41 Grey and Tosh, feeding of salmon in Tweed, 113 Grilse, marked smolts recaptured as, 30 not entering rivers, 37 early, 34 on coast, 34 and small spring fish, 39 in sea-water ponds, 9 in poor condition in rivers, 42 scales of, 40 recaptured as salmon, 70 genitalia of, 53 HATCHING, influence of temperature, 13 Helmsdale, migrations from, 55 Herring, chief food of salmon, 114 Hodgson, W. Earl, non-feeding in fresh water, 111 Hoek, grilse and salmon in Rhine, 51 absence of food in Rhine fish, 42 Holt, spring fish in Ireland, 90 Hume Patterson, on salmon disease, 107 IRISH salmon marging, 63 JOHNSTON, H. W., scales of grilse, 40 scales of Tay salmon, 96 KELTS, abuse of, 109 of spring fish, 106 weight in Scotland and Ireland,68 descent of, 85 Kingston Barton, digestive tract of salmon, 111 MALE fish, their wanderings, 79 Marking of smolts, 3, 29 of salmon results, 56 160 INDEX Meischer Ruesch, absence of food in | Rhine fish, 110 Migrations, peculiar, 79 Migratory movements on coast, 50, 82 Ngss and Garry temperatures, 135 Netting, importance of moderation in rivers, 76 of salmon in sea, 77 and reduction of stock, 17 Noél Paton, fresh water origin of salmon, 44 satiety of fish, 42 and Dunlop, nutrition, 118 Nutrition of salmon leaving sea, 43 “‘PETER of the pools,” 2 Parr, descent of on Pacific coast, 11 descent of at Stormontfield, 2 scales of Norwegian, 11 of upper tidal water, varied size, 21 and smolts, feeding habits, 114 Patterson, J. Hume, salmon disease, 107 REARING of smolts, 4 Rutter, on parr of Pacific coast, 11 SALMON, small spring, 39 probable marine origin, 44 entering other rivers, 78 return to their own rivers, 78 marks now in use, 58 marking, 56 small spring, scales of, 40 disease, 107 record weight of Scottish, 106 fishing by set lines in Baltic, 35 Salmonidez, majority marine, 44 Saprolegnia ferax, 107 Scales, development of in fry, 95 of salmon as records of life, 93 of marked smolts and spring fish, 100 of marked smolts and grilse, 99 lines of growth, 104 Sea lice, life of in fish in rivers, 145 trout smolts, 5 Smolts, uniformity in nature, 18 prevented from migrating, 7 destruction of at river mouth, 21 congregate in upper tidal waters, 19 ri two years in fresh water, 7, 17 eggs from ripe females, 8 or young grilse in sea, 25 autumn migrations of, 22 confined in sea ponds, 9 food of in sea, 24 habits in sea, 27 marking in Tay, 29 scales, lines of growth, 98 Spawning seasons of salmon, 12 habits of salmon, 14 annual and biennial, 60 mark on scales, 97 infrequency of, 102, 105 Spring fish, ascending habits of, 89 spawning habits, 106 Stormontfield experiments, 2 Sutherlandshire rivers, temperature of, 129 TABLES of salmon marking results, 63 Tay, records of marked salmon, 70 Temperature of rivers, 123 Thurso, temperatures in spring, 130 Tosh and Grey, Tweed grilse, 42 feeding of Tweed salmon, 113 Tributaries, entrance of by salmon, 139 Trout, feeding in estuaries, 5 in New Zealand, 6 estuarial varieties, 6 Tweed Commissioners, marking ex- periments, 57 WATER temperatures, 125 Weight, increase between spawning periods, 84 Willis Bund, proportion of grilse in Tweed, 51 Printed by BALLANTYNE & Co. LIMITED Tavistock Street, London 41 and 43 Maddox Street, Bond Street, London, W., October, 1907. Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books. Telegrams : ‘Scholarly, London,’ FROM THE NIGER TO THE NILE. By BOYD ALEXANDER, LIEUTENANT, RIFLE BRIGADE. Two volumes. Large Medium 8v0. With Illustvations and Maps. 36s. net. It may be doubted whether any exploring expedition of modern times compares for interest and romance with that led by Lieut. Boyd Alexander from the Niger to the Nile in 1904-1907. The distance accomplished was about 5,000 miles, and among the many remarkable results of the expedition was the demonstration that it was possible to go almost the whole way by water; in fact, the steel boats which conveyed the stores were only carried for fourteen days out of the three years occupied by the journey. The book is packed with adventure, much of it of a kind unusual even for Central African explorers. In one famine-stricken village young girls are offered to the party for food ; elsewhere the people, fleeing before them, throw down babies in the hope of staying their hunger, and so stopping their advance. In contrast with these cannibals, we find other populations engaged in the arts and in- dustries of a comparatively high state of civilization. Two of the party—Lieut. Alexander’s brother and Captain G. B. Gosling— died of fever at different stages of the journey. The survivors had countless escapes from death by disease, poisoned arrows, hunger, lightning, and drowning. The numerous exciting hunting-stories include the capture of an okapi after a weary search. There wasa good deal of fighting with natives in the earlier stages of the journey, but on the whole the people, when not shy, seem to have been well LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, W, 2 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books disposed. Lieut. Alexander’s observations on the manners and customs of the natives are extremely curious and interesting. The story is fully illustrated by nearly 200 striking photographs, and there are several maps. MEMOIRS OF MISTRAL. Rendered into English by CONSTANCE ELISABETH MAUD, AuTuHorR oF ‘WaGNEr’s HEROES,’ ‘AN ENGLISH GIRL IN Paris,’ Etc. Lyrics from the Provengal by ALMA STRETTELL (Mrs. LAWRENCE HARRISON). Demy 8v0. Wuth Illustrations. 12s. 6d. net. The charm of this autobiography of the celebrated Provengal poet may be judged from the enthusiastic reception accorded by critics to the work on its original appearance. Thus, the Revue des Deux Mondes speaks of ‘ these pages all vibrant with the sunshine of the Midi,’ of ‘the graphic language, full of energy, freedom, and rich- ness of expression,’ in which the author of ‘ Mireille’ records the impressions of his early years, while the Semaine littévaive de Geneve says: ‘This is an exquisite, healthy, joyous, cheering book. This delightful picture of the Midi, with its honest country life, its ancient manners, preserved by a passionate attachment to the ancestral soil and example, calls forth laughter, smiles, and tears. It is, perhaps, the most purely joyous, moving, and charming work that France has given us for a long time.’ And it adds: ‘ A ceux qui cherchent en vain, dans la littérature triste ou compliquée de notre temps, la joie et la santé de l’esprit, nous pouvons dire en toute confiance: Lisez les souvenirs de Mistral !’ TURKEY IN EUROPE. By) SLR (CHARLES VELIOT) (Kk. CMG, (‘OpyssEus’). A New Edition, with an Additional Chapter on Events from 1869 to the Present Day. Large Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. Although the identity of ‘ Odysseus’ has for some time been an open secret, it is satisfactory to be able at length to reveal definitely the authorship of this important work. The additional chapter contains a valuable review of the present position of the Turkish question, and brings up to date a book that is already regarded as a standard authority on its subject. Mr. Edward Arnold's List of New Books 3 MEXICO OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. By PERCY fF. MARGIN, FAX.G.S., AuTHOR oF ‘THROUGH FivE ReEpuBLics OF SOUTH AMERICA.’ Two volumes. Demy 8v0. With Illustvations and Map. 30s. net. In view of the immense amount of interest which is being taken in Mexico by investors both great and small throughout the world, there is clearly a place for an authentic and trustworthy book by a competent observer, which shall give an accurate picture of the country and its industrial condition at the present time. Mr. Martin ‘ has devoted fifteen months to examining the country and its resources from end to end, and the result is not only an extremely readable account of the Republic, but a mass of information relating to every aspect of its business existence which should form a standard work of reference on the subject. To show the thoroughness of Mr. Mar- tin’s method, it may be mentioned that he includes a particular description and history of every mining district, including many of the separate mines and the actual amount of work done and being done ; a complete history of banking, with full information about the native and foreign banks; insurance matters; the commercial code ; mining laws; railway laws, etc. There is a detailed description of every railway in Mexico, with minute particulars as to management, finance, etc. All other matters of interest are dealt with in due proportion, and the whole work is abundantly illustrated. ACROSS PERSIA. By E. CRAWSHAY WILLIAMS, Demy 8v0. With Illustrations and Maps, 12s. 6d. net. Mr. Crawshay Williams is an enterprising traveller and a very keen observer. His book contains the most recent account of a region which is vitally important as the meeting-place of Russian and British interests in Asia. It is written in a lively and entertaining fashion, with a shrewd eye to the political situation, and is well illustrated. 4 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books THE GROWTH OF MODERN NATIONS. A history of the Particularist Form of Society. Translated from the French of HENRI p—E TOURVILLE by) M);GLOCH, Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. The articles which are here presented in the form of a volume were contributed by the author to the French periodical La Science Sociale over a period of six years ending in February, 1903. His death occurred within a few days of his completing the work. M. de Tourville, after showing that the transformation of the communal into the particularist family took place in Scandinavia, and was largely due to the peculiar geographical character of the Western slope, traces the development of modern Europe from the action of the particularist type of society upon the fabric of Roman civilization. OUT OF CHAOS. A Personal Story of the Revolution in Russia. By £2 RINCE MICHAEL. TRUBE DZ Wor Crown 8vo. 6s. Succeeding at the age of twenty-three to considerable position and wealth, Prince Trubetzkoi was early impressed by the desperate condition of the Russian lower classes, and began to interest himself in schemes of reform. He quickly discovered that open methods had no chance of success, and it was not long before an experience of prison and exile led him to abandon his social career and fling himself with all his heart into the arms of the revolutionary party. Throughout his unceasing struggles on behalf of liberty Prince Trubetzkoi has ever heid up the ideal of Peaceful Regeneration as the result of education and self-sacrifice, and has opposed the anar- chical violence which can only impede the cause of reform. His book, which is a nightmare of spies and passports, of underground printing presses and smuggled literature, of hideous anxieties and hairbreadth escapes, gives a lurid picture of modern Russia from the reformer’s point of view. Mr. Edward Arnold's List of New Books 5 RAILWAY ENTERPRISE IN CHINA. Hn Ziccount of its Origin and Development. By PERCY HORACE KENT. Demy 8vo. With Maps. 12s. 6d. net. The history of railway enterprise in China covers a period of rather more than forty years. It reflects at once the main character- istics of the Chinese official classes and the tendency of the Far Eastern policy of foreign Powers. This book, in recording the origin and growth of Chinese railways, and describing the present situation and its development, aims at providing a succinct and unbiassed account of an enormously important aspect of what is known as the Far Eastern question. Each railway is dealt with in detail with the latest information obtainable, and as the appendices contain copies of the more important railway contracts, the book should prove a valuable work of reference. PICTORIAL ART IN THE FAR EAST. By LAURENCE BINYON. 8vo. With Illustrations. This important work, which is only rendered possible by the immense additions to our knowedge of Far Eastern art during the last decade, brings out and establishes the high interest of Chinese painting, hitherto practically unknown in Europe, and of the older schools of Japan, the subsidiary schools of India, Persia and Tibet being also glanced at. The author's aim has been to treat his subject not merely from the technical historical side, but as a theme of living and universal interest, with its background of Oriental thought and civilization. IN OUR TONGUES. Some tbints to Readers of the English Bible. By ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, CANON oF ELy, AND Recius ProFEssOR OF HEBREW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. 6 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books THE LIFE OF THE SALMON. With Reference more especially to the Fish in Scotland, By W. L. CALDERWOOD) ER S.E., INSPECTOR OF SALMON FISHERIES FOR SCOTLAND, Demy 8v0. Wath Illustrations. 7s. 6d. net. The Salmon’s life presents so many remarkable problems—some of them, owing to the difficulties attending scientific observation, almost insoluble—that a considerable literature already exists on the subject. It is only in the last few years, however, that anything like a systematic investigation has been carried on in Scotland, and, from his acquaintance with the operations of the Fishery Board, Mr. Calderwood is able to speak with special authority. He traces the history of the fish from its youth up, and has most interesting chapters on the results of marking, on scales as records of a fish’s journeyings, and on the effects of changes of water-temperature upon the growing fish. MY ROCK-GARDEN. By REGINALD FARRER, AuTuor oF ‘THE GarDEN or Asia,’ ‘THE House oF SHapows,’ ‘ THE SUNDERED STREAMS,’ ETC. Large Crown 8vo. With Illustrations. 7s. 6d. net. Rock-gardening appears to have a peculiar fascination for its devotees, and certainly in this book the attractions of the art find a very able exponent. Mr. Farrer is a recognized authority. His rock-garden at Ingleborough is well known among those who share his love of the subject, and he has been a remarkably successful exhibitor at the London shows. His pages, though conceived for the most part in a light-hearted vein, contain an abundance of practical information on sites and soils, and his amusing glimpses of the joys of the successful collector in Switzerland and Japan will make a responsive echo in the breasts of similar enthusiasts. The book, which describes the making of the garden as well as the innumerable things which, with luck, it is possible to grow in it, is illustrated by a number of excellent photographs. Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books 7 A GALLERY OF PORTRAITS. Reproduced from Original Ltchings. By HELLEU. With an Introduction by FREDERICK WEDMORE. Crown Folio. 25s. net. M. Helleu’s exquisite portraits may be regarded as the French counterpart of the art of Gibson in America. Readers of The Illustvated London News will remember the delicacy and charm of the portraits which appeared in that periodical. This set of reproductions, to which Mr. Frederick Wedmore has written an introduction, forms a singularly attractive ‘ gallery of beauty.’ In the case of a con- siderable proportion, a dash of colour heightens the effectiveness of the portrait. MODERN STUDIES. By OLIVER ELTON, M.A.., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. Large Crown 8vo. 7s, 6d. net. Among the contents of this volume of literary essays are: ‘Giordano Bruno in England,” ‘‘ Literary Fame: A Renaissance Study,’ “A Word on Mysticism,’’ and Essays on Shakespeare, Tennyson, Swinburne, Henry James, George Meredith, and living Irish literature. THE GOLDEN PORCH. A Book of Greck Fairy Tales, By W., Mob: AUTLCHINSON. Crown 8v0. Wauth LIllustvations. 5s. This is a book for young people on the lines of Kingsley’s ‘Heroes’ and Hawthorne’s ‘ Wonder Book.’ Among the contents are ‘The Favourite of the Gods,’ ‘The Prince who was a Seer,’ ‘Peleus and the Sea-King’s Daughter,’ ‘The Heavenly Twins,’ ‘The Pansy Baby,’ ‘The Lad with One Sandal,’ etc. Miss Hutchinson is a former Fellow of Newnham College, and combines a wide knowledge of the Classics with a lucid and attractive English style. 8 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books AN INTRODUCTION TO CHILD- STUDY. By W. B, DRUMMOND, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.P.E., AUTHOR oF ‘THE CuHiItp: His NATURE AND NuRTURE.’ Crown 8vo. 6s. net. Recognition of the value of the science of child-study is extending rapidly among those who have to do with the training of children. It is not always realized, however, that, in order to be fully profitable, and for the avoidance of pitfalls, the subject must be approached with caution and with a certain amount of self-preparation on the part of the investigator. Upon the importance of this caution and self-preparation Dr. Drummond lays considerable stress; then, after describing methods of study, he passes on to treat in detail of the facts of growth, the senses and the nervous system, health, fatigue and over-pressure, instincts and habits, forms of expression in speech and drawing, and moral characteristics. He has an interesting chapter on the question of religion as a suitable subject for the child’s mind, and concludes with a reference to peculiar and exceptional children. The book will be found invaluable by the parent or teacher who wishes to get the best possible results from this impor- tant study. THE CHILD’S MIND: ITS GROWTH AND TRAINING. By) Wa SUR WUC Kc MeAC Crown 8vo. 48. 6d. net. The author believes that the theory of education, which has been in the main dependent upon the philosophical system of Herbart and Froebel, stands in need of revision in the light of the scientific developments which have taken place since the days of those eminent writers. The genetic method, which deals with the process of growth, is the one most successfully followed in the sciences— biology, physiology, and psychology—which have most to do with modern ideas on education. Hence this book aims at setting forth some results already obtained from a study of mind-growth as an organic process, and establishing a clear and definite connexion between the natural processes of learning and the methods by which the mind should be taught and trained. i Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books 9 THE MYSTERY OF MARIA STELLA, LADY NEWBOROUGH. By SIR RALPH PAYNE-GALLWEY, Bart. Demy 8v0. With over 20 Illustrations and a Photogravure F vontispiece. 7s. Od. net. The strange story of Maria Stella is one of the most interesting of unsolved mysteries. Whether she was Princess or peasant, a Bourbon of France or a humble Chiappini of Tuscany, is a problem still unsettled, and upon its issue depends the real identity of the child ‘ who afterwards became Louis Philippe, King of France. The whole of the evidence is carefully worked out by the Author, and his view is clearly that Maria Stella was a daughter of Philippe Egalite. NEW FICTION. Crown 8vo. 6s. each. HIS FIRST LEAVE. By L. ALLEN HARKER, AuTHOR oF ‘THE INTERVENTION OF THE DukE,’ ‘WEE FoLk, Goop FOLk,’ *“CoNCERNING PauUL AND FIAMMETTA,’ ETC. It is often made a subject of reproach to our novelists that they rarely introduce children into their stories, probably because of the difficulty of drawing them ‘to the life.’ Mrs. Harker’s skill in this direction has already been shown in the portraits of Paul and Fiam- metta, and although ‘ His First Leave’ is a much more ‘ grown-up ’ book, the pathetic figure of little Roger, the child whose sweet nature triumphed over the ill-effects of a mother’s neglect, is indis- pensable among the dramatis persone. The principal part, however, is played by Herrick Wycherly, and this charming character of a girl, slightly unconventional but always delightful, proves that the author can portray a grown-up maiden no less successfully than a child. The love-story of Herrick and Montagu provides the main current of the book, complicated by the baleful intervention of Mrs. Reeve; but the windings of the current and its final issue must be traced by the reader in the pages of this entertaining novel. fe) Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books Crown 8vo. 6s. each. THE DESERT VENTURE. By FRANK SAVILE. This is a good stirring story, reminding one of the late H. Seton Merriman in its power of introducing a series of exciting adventures which, but for the author’s skill, might seem almost too extraordinary for the twentieth century. As we read these pages, however, we feel that there is no reason whatever why an enterprising European should not even to-day attempt to carve out for himself a new little empire in the heart of Africa, why he should not have to confront all sorts of intrigues culminating in most sanguinary fighting both with natives and European rivals; while the chain of circumstances which takes out Eva, the heroine, to follow the fortunes of ‘ Uncle Dick’ and her cousin Arthur in the hinterland of Morocco seems the inevitable result of an ingeniously-contrived situation. An in- teresting and exciting book, which arrests attention and retains it. THE ELECTION OF ISABEL. By RONALD MACDONALD, AvuTHOR oF ‘A Human Trinity,’ ‘THE SeEa-Matp,’ Etc. It was inevitable that the claims of the ‘ Suffragettes’ should afford material for a novel, but few authors could have attacked the subject in a lighter or happier vein than Mr. Macdonald. Lady Isabel Fen- church, the daughter of the Duke of Hounsditch, is depicted as a perfectly charming woman with an infatuation for the ‘ Feminist Movement.’ She marries Charles Lawless on the understanding that it is merely a matter of convenience, that he will supply her with funds for ‘the cause,’ and give her absolute freedom. He hopes in time to win her love, and accepts half a loaf as better than no bread. Then follows a host of difficulties arising from the situation, all treated most humorously, and culminating in an election, in which Lady Isabel and her husband are rival candidates. It would not be fair to reveal the finale ; the book should be read mainly for its amusing qualities, but here and there are glimpses of a more serious appreciation of this burning question. Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books II FAMILIAR FACES, By HARRY GRAHAM, AuTHor or ‘RuTHLESS RHymMES FOR Heartvess Homes,’ ‘BALLADS OF THE BOER Wak,’ ‘ MISREPRESENTATIVE MEN,’ ETC., ETC. Medium 8v0. With 16 Illustvations by GEoRGE Morrow. 3s. 6d. net. In this volume Capt. Graham treats of fifteen types of everyday people—the Actor Manager, the Gourmet, the Dentist, the Faddist, the Colonel, and so forth—in the singularly facile and ingenious verse for which he is well known. His poetry is often irresistibly comic, and its spirit has been well caught by the artist who has illustrated the book. NEW TECHNICAL WORKS. ELECTRICAL TRACTION. By ERNEST WILSON, Wait. Scu., M.I.E.E., PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN THE SIEMENS LABORATORY, K1NG’s COLLEGE, LONDON; AND ICA NGCIS EY DALI. BiAs. BSc, A. 0eE, New Epition. REWRITTEN AND GREATLY ENLARGED. Two Volumes, sold separately. Deny 8vo0. Vol. I., with about 270 Illustvations and Index. 15s. net. Vol. II., with about 170 Illustrations and Index. 15s. net. In dealing with this ever-increasingly important subject the authors have divided the work into the two branches which are, for chronological and other reasons, most convenient, namely, the utilization of direct and alternating currents respectively. Direct current traction taking the first place, the first volume is devoted to electric tramways and direct-current electric railways. In the second volume the application of three-phase alternating currents to electric railway problems is considered in detail, and finally the latest developments in single-phase alternating current traction are discussed at length, There is a separate Index to each volume, and in Volume I. an Appendix giving Board of Trade Regulations, Procedure, etc. In the case of both tramways and railways there are chapters on the financial aspects of these undertakings. A special feature of the book are the illustrations, which are ex- ceptionally numerous and absolutely up to date. 12 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books A TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. By Dr. ADOLF THOMALEN. Translated by GEORGE W. O. HOWE, M.Sc., Wuirt. Scu., A.M.LE.E., LECTURER IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE CENTRAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, SOUTH | KENSINGTON. Royal 8v0,. With 454 Illustvations, 15s. net. This translation of the ‘Kurze Lehrbuch der Electrotechnik’ is intended to fill the gap which appears to exist between the elementary text-books and the specialized works on various branches of electrical engineering. It includes additional matter which is to be introduced into the third German edition, now in preparation. The book is concerned almost exclusively with principles, and does not enter into details of the practical construction of apparatus and machines, aiming rather at laying a thorough foundation which shall make the study of works on the design of machinery more profitable. HYDRAULICS. By BiG LE A. B.Sc. A.M Ins CES SENIOR WHITWORTH SCHOLAR, A.R.C.S.; LeEcTURER IN APPLIED MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING Desicn, Ciry anp Gui_ps or LONDON CENTRAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, LONDON. Demy 8vo. 18s. net. This book is intended to supply the want felt by students and teachers alike for a text-book of Hydraulics to practically cover the syllabuses of London and other Universities, and of the Institution of Civil Engineers. With this end in view, and to make the work as self-contained as possible, the earlier chapters are devoted to the consideration of fluids at rest and the stability of floating bodies. For the chapters on the flow of water, in pipes and channels, and through orifices and over weirs, the latest experimental work has been carefully consulted, and it is believed the résumé given of that work will not only be of use to students and teachers, but also to practical engineers. The construction of modern hydraulic machines is shown by a number of examples. A chapter on the resistance of ships’ models is inserted, and the method of determining the still- water resistance of ships from that of the model is given. The work is completely illustrated, and the methods of using the formule given are shown by worked Arithmetical Examples. Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books 13 WOOD. A Manual of the Watural History and Fndustrial Applications of the Timbers of Commerce. By Gils vDOULG ER wh. ES... )b Geo.) Auoels, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND LECTURER ON FORESTRY IN THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE, AND FORMERLY IN THE RoyaL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged and profusely Illustrated. Demy 8v0. 12s, 6d. net. Of the many thousand different kinds of wood, the author deals with some 750 of those which are practically known in general commerce. ‘The book is divided into two sections. The first de- .scribes the structure and development of trees, followed by chapters on the recognition and classification of woods, selecting, seasoning, storing, defects, methods of testing, etc. The second section, com- prising more than half the book, gives condensed accounts, with physical constants, when these are known, of the different woods of commerce, and will prove most valuable for purposes of reference. In an appendix will be found nearly fifty full-page illustrations of magnified sections of all the principal woods of commerce. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS. By |ULIUS) B. ‘COBEN; Pu.D.,, B:Sc., PRoFESSOR OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS, AND ASSOCIATE OF OWENS OLLEGE, MANCHESTER. Demy 8vo. 21s. net. The book is written for students who have already completed an elementary course of Organic Chemistry, and is intended largely to take the place of the advanced text-book. For it has long been the opinion of the author that, when the principles of classification and synthesis and the properties of fundamental groups have been acquired, the object of the teacher should be, not to multiply facts of a similar kind, but rather to present to the student a broad and general outline of the more important branches of the subject. This method of treatment, whilst it avoids the dictionary arrangement which the text-book requires, leaves the writer the free disposal of his materials, so that he can bring together related substances, irrespective of their nature, and deal thoroughly with important theoretical questions which are often inadequately treated in the text-book. 14 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books A HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. By Dr. HUGO BAUER, RoyaL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, STUTTGART. Translated by R. V. STANFORD, B.Sc. Lonp., PRIESTLEY RESEARCH SCHOLAR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. In the course of the historical development of chemistry there have occurred definite periods completely dominated by some one leading idea, and, as will be seen from the contents, it is upon these periods that the arrangement of this book is based. CONTENTS.—Part I.—I. The Chemistry of the Ancients (to the fourth century, A.D.); II. The Period of Alchemy (from the fourth to the sixteenth centuries) ; III, The Period of Iatrochemistry (sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies); IV. The Period of Phlogistic Chemistry (1700 to 1774). Part II.—I. The Period of Lavoisier; II. The Period of the Development of Organic Chemistry ; III. The Chemistry of the Present Day. Index. BOOKS RECENTLY PUBLISHED. A STAFF OFFICER’S SCRAP-BOOK During the Russo-Japanese War. By Lieut.-GENERAL Sir IAN HAMILTON, K.C.B. Two Volumes, Demy 8v0. With Illustvations, Maps, and Plans. 18s. net each. PETTERS FROM THE FAR ExXGe By Sim CHARLES ELIOT, K.C.M.G., AUTHOR OF ‘TURKEY IN Europe,’ ‘THE East AFRICA PROTECTORATE,’ ETC. Demy 8vo. Wath Illustrations. 8s. 6d. net. SOME PROBLEMS OF EXISTENCE. By NORMAN PEARSON. Deny 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. Mr. Edward Arnolds List of New Books es MEMORIES. By Major-Gen. Sin OWEN TUDOR BURNE, G.C.LE., it Gra Demy 8vo. Wauth Illustrations. 15s. net. A PICNIC PARTY IN WILDEST AFRICA. Being a Sketch of a Winter’s Trip to some of the Unknown Waters of the Upper Wile. By C2 W; E.~BULPELT. Demy 8vo. With Illustrations and Map. 12s. 6d. net. TIPPOO TIB. The Story of His Career in Central Africa. Narrated from his own accounts by Dk. HEINRICH BRODE, and Translated by H. Havetock. Deny 8v0. Wauth Portrait and Map. tos. 6d. net. THE PRINCES OF ACHAIA AND THE CHRONICLES OF MOREA. A Study of Greece in the Miodle Ages. By Sr RENNELL RODD, G.C.V.O., K:C.M.G., C.B., AuTHOR oF ‘Customs AND LoRE oF Mopern GREECE,’ ‘FEepDA, AND OTHER Poems,’ ‘THE UnKNown Manponna,’ ‘BALLADS OF THE FLEET,’ ETC. 2 Volumes. Demy 8v0. Wauth Illustvations and Map. 25s. net. THUCYDIDES MYTHISTORICUS. By F. M. CORNFORD, FELLOW AND LECTURER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. 16 Mr. Edward Arnold’s List of New Books MEMORIES OF THE MONTHS. FOURTH SERIES. By the Right Hon. Sir HERBERT MAXWELL, Bart., F.R.S. Large Crown 8v0. With Photogvavure Illustrations. 7s. 6d. A HUNTING CATECHISM. By COLONEL R. F. MEYSEY-THOMPSON, J) AuTHoR OF ‘REMINISCENCES OF THE COURSE, THE CAMP, AND THE CHASE,’ ‘A FISHING CATECHISM, AND ‘A SHOOTING CATECHISM.’ Foolscap 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. SIX RADICAL THINKERS. By JOHN MacCUNN, LL.D., RN red OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE fines OF Tceeeaore Crown 8vo. 6s. net. CHURCH AND STATE IN FRANCE, 1300=1907. By ARTHUR GALTON, VICAR OF EDENHAM, AND CHAPLAIN TO THE Ear OF ANCASTER. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. THIRD IMPRESSION. THE NEXT) STREET BUT ONE: By M. LOANE, AUTHOR OF ‘ THE QUEEN’S Poor.’ Crown 8vo. 6s. THIRD IMPRESSION. AT THE WORKS. A Study of a Manufacturing Town. By LADY BELL, AuTHOR OF ‘THE DEAN OF ST. PaTRICK’s,’ THe ARBITER, ETC., ETC. Crown 8vo. 6S. Sail, i me 4 ‘i i se if j } Re: Sci ie 2. i