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— OF —

Australian Insects

MABEL N. BREWSTER

Member of Field Naturalist Society of N.S.W.

— AND —

AGNES A. BREWSTER

Science Mistress and Deputy Head Mistress of Girls' High School,

Sydney; Vice President of the Naturalist Society of

N.S.W. ; Late Lecturer in Nature Study at

THE Teachers' College.

NAOMI CROUCH

Associate of Technical College ; Lecturer in Nature Study and

Biology at thk Teachers' College; Late Science Mistress at

the Maitland Girls' High School.

— introduction by —

Mr. W. B. GURNEY, f.e.s.
Assistant Government Entomologist. Department of Agriculture

— illustrations by —

A. A. & M. N. BREWSTER

SYDNEY:

DYMOCK'S BOOK ARCADE
1920

Introduction.

Of the natural history books available to us,
most of them dealing with insect life refer mainly
to European or American species. It is therefore
a pleasure to handle an Australian publication such
as this, describing and figuring Australian types,
and, furthermore, written by Australians.

Since Froggatt's ''Australian Insects," now
out of print, there has been need for a small hand-
book on Australian insects and their habits, and
the following book presents an embracive, and yet
not too technical, treatment of this subject which
will be invaluable to school teachers and students
interested in Entomology.

The three authors, some years ago, were
students in my course in Entomology at the Sydney
Technical College, and have since continued the
study of insect life with unswerving interest. Miss
Mabel Brewster has published several papers in the
''Australian Naturalist" on the Hymenoptera. Miss
Crouch is lecturer in Nature Study at the Teachers'
Training College, and Miss A. Brewster, well known
as joint author with Miss Leplastrier of an Austra-
lian Botany, has been Science Teacher at the Girls'
High School, Sydney, for many years.

Numerous illustrations, many of which are
original, have been provided. The external and in-
ternal structure of various insect types are dealt

vi. INTRODUCTION -

with, which, besides its interest, is essential to the
proper understanding of the relationship among the
vast hordes of insect species extant, and to their
systematic grouping into orders, sub-orders, and
families, which are defined by the authors through-
out the book. Then the life histories of many
species have beer^; described and figured, which
revealing the development, metamorphoses, and the
behaviour of insects, proves of perennial interest to
students.

Finally, in recalling the bionomics of leaf and
fruit-eating species, sap-sucking and wood-boring in-
sects, and the blood-sucking forms which affect
stock or man, the economic significance of insect
life becomes apparent. Apart from their interest,
the lives of both useful and injurious species Avill
take on a new importance in the minds of readers.
The adequate study of insects which occasion such
losses in our crops, orchards and gardens, which
affect stock, destroy stored products, or are con-
cerned in carrying disease, presents a huge and
varied field for research. This is the province of
Economic Entomology, and it is augmented by the
research and experiments necessary to arrive at
effective and yet economical methods of control,
whether by spraying, fumigation, modifying farm
practice, by the artificial encouragement of natural
parasitism, or whatever means may suggest itself
and prove effectual in preventing or controlling a
pest. Communities are now growing to realise the
increased production and immediate monetary sav-
ing which may result from such investigations by

INTRODUCTION. vii

entomologists, and that its health may depend on
adequate control of flies and other insects respon-
sible for the transmission of malaria, yellow fever,
typhoid, filariasis, trench fever, and other diseases.
Some understanding of insects, and their role in
our lives, therefore concerns both those on the land
and city people, and the subject could with advan-
tage be more seriously studied in our schools.

W. B. GURNEY.

Preface.

We have written this book because of the lack
of an elementary text-book with sufficient detailed
work and classifications of insects to enable students
of Entomology to prepare for the study of higher
text-books and reference books.

This book should fill in a gap between Gillies'
''Insect Studies," Gladys Froggatt's ''World of
Little Lives," and the more advanced text-books.

We have given some of the results of years of
observation, the working out of life histories, all
of which included field or laboratory work
or both. The field of Entomology is so vast that
such observations are necessarily limited, but we
have quoted, where possible, the results of other
workers. Our great hope is that this little book may
encourage new workers in the fields not yet explored.

We wish to thank Mr. W. B. Gurney, F.E.S.,
Assistant Government Entomologist, for helpful
suggestions when reading through the manuscript;
also Mr. G. A. Waterhouse, B.Sc, B.E., F.E.S., for
reading through the Order Lepidoptera, especially
of Rhopalocera, and for the general reading through
of the manuscript. We are indebted to Dr. R. J.
Tillyard for helpful criticism and advice as regards
tlie Order Neuroptera and allied "Lace- wing" Or-
ders; also for the table of classification of such, as

PREFACE. 1-

seen in the text; to Mr. W. Froggatt, F.E.S., Gov-
ernment Entomologist, for literature on various sec-
tions of Entomological Research.

Students will find that the following works will
be invaluable for reference: Froggatt 's ''Austra-
lian Insects," and various entomological papers
published periodically in the Agricultural Gazette
of New South Wales. ''The Biology of Dragon
Flies," by Dr. R. J. Tillyard. Various papers pub-
lished in the "Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales," "Butterflies of Australia,"
by Waterhouse and Lyell.

The drawing are made from originals, except
where acknowledgment is made.

M.V.B.
M.N.B.

N.C.

List of Illustrations.

Plat
1.

e.

Insects

Page

xii.

2.

Insects

5

3.

Silverfish and Parts of Grasshoppers

14

4.

Cockroaches and Grasshoppers

. . 23

5.

Mantids

30

6.

Phasmids .. .. .. ..

34

7.

Grasshoppers and Earwigs . .

40

8.

White Ants

46

9.

Mole Crickets

60

10.

Dragon Fly and Nymph

66

11.

Dragon Flies and May Flies

69

12.

Lace Wings

80

13.

Ant Lions and Caddis Flies . .

88

14.

Hymenoptera

. . 102

15.

Chalcids

. 113

16.

Parasitic Wasps

. . 120

17.

Life History of Ichneumon Wasp . .

. . 123

18.

Ants

. 132

19.

Nest of Ants .. '

. 140

20.

Ants

. 142

21.

Wasps

. . 174

22.

Wasps

. 182

23.

Wasps

. . 188

24.

Life History of Paper Wasp

. . 196

25.

Bee

. . 214

26.

Parts of Bee

. . 221

27.

Native Honey Bee . .

. 223

28.

Life History of Beetle

. . 229

29.

Beetles

. . 234

30.

Beetles

. . 243

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi.

I'iate Page

31. Beetles .. .. .. .. ..248

32. Langicorn and Chrysomelid Beetles . . . . 256

33. Water Beetles .. .. .. ..263

34. Ladybird Beetles and Weevils . . . . 256

35. Butterflies . . . . . . . . . . 277

36. Moths .. .. .. .. ..298

37. Case Moths .. .. .. ..302

38. Emperor Gum Moth and Proboscis of Moth 309

39. Moths . . . . . . . . . . 322

40. Flies . . . . . . . . . . 328

41 Mosquitoes . . . . . . . . . . 335

42. Flies . . . . . . . . . . 342

43. Flies .. .. .. .. ..349

44 Blow Fly .. . .. . . ..354

45. Bot Fly .. .. .. .. .. 367

46. Fruit Fly . . .. .. .. ..371

47. The Flea .. .. .. .. ..374

48. Cicada, Membracid and Froghopper . . . . 378

49. Aphides and Lerps . . . . . . . . 387

50 Scale Insects and Mealy Bugs .. .. 391

51 Galls and Fulgorids .. .. .. .. 397

52. Plant Bugs .. .. .. .. 399

52. Water Bugs . . . . . . . . 404

PLATE 1.

Fiai Arv li\?ed - d Head . b TKora/
c . Abdomffr\ d Anfenna

...b

Fiq2 Bihnq MouHi of Hou9G Cockroach

a nandiblG b FirrI- Maxilla
c Labium

Fiq3 H(?a<i of Cicada
a Ocelli b Eye

Ficj4 Compound Eye

Rq5 Facelv o+
Compound Eve

AN INSECT.

Definition. — The term "insect" is popularly and
wrongly given to almost any small animal such
as spiders, scorpions, centipedes, etc. Briefly, an
insect is an animal whose body is divided into 3
parts (i) head, (2) thorax, (3) abdomen, and which
has 3 pairs of legs attached to the thorax. (Plate
I, Fig. i).

Classification. — The Animal Kingdom is divided
irto several great divisions called Sub-Kingdoms or
phyla. The Sub-Kingdom or phylum to which in-
sects belong is the Arthropoda or animals with
jointed appendages. This includes forms with a
body having ring-like parts. They differ from
the Phylum Annulata (worms) in having distinct
limb segments.

The Phylum Arthropoda is divided into 5 classes :

I. Crustacea: Crabs, lobsters, shrimps.

II. Arachnida: Spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites.

III. Insecta: Insects such as flies, bees, crickets,
beetles, etc.

IV. Myriapoda: Centipedes and millipedes.

V. Onychophora: Peripatus.

We may now state (with more detail) that an
insect is a small animal, having a body made up of
a number of ringed parts, slightly horny, being
grouped in three distinct regions, known as (a) the

2 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

head, (b) the thorax, (c) the abdomen. To the
thorax are attached the three pairs of legs and the
two pairs of wings, (Plate i. Fig. i.) (Note that
some insects have but one pair of wings and others
are wingless.) The abdomen may carry the sting,
and in the case of females an ovipositor (egg pla-
cer), or a saw (example, sawflies).

External Structure. — The outer skin of an insect
is somewhat hardened by the deposition in its cells
of a horny substance called chitin. This hardness
of the integument affords the insect a protection
as there is no internal skeletal structure.

The Head. — This is usually more or less rounded
and made of a number of segments welded together.
To the head are attached the following: (i) The
Antennae or feelers (Plate i. Fig. i. d). These are
jointed structures situated on the front of
the head and usually between the eyes. In some
insects they are very short, ex. : cicada. Their
length varies, however ; some tree grasshoppers
have antennae from 4 to 6 inches long. The antennas
may be organs of feeling, smelling, or even hearing.
(2) Eyes: Most insects have one pair of compound
eyes (Plate i. Fig 4) which are immovable and
each eye is made up of a number of small structures
or eyes called facets (Plate i. Fig. 5). Each of
these facets is a centre of vision. The number of
facets varies from a few in some insects, to several
thousands in others. In addition to the com-
pound eyes are simple eyes, or Ocelli (Plate
I, Fig. 3a), varying in number from i to 5,
though 3 is the usual number; these are

AN INSECT. 3

placed in most cases between the large eyes.
The function of these rudimentary eyes is thought
to be limited to distinction of light from darkness.
They are well seen on the head of the cicada as
3 tiny sparkling "gems" between the compound
eyes. (Plate i. Fig. 3a.) (3) Mouth Parts: The
mouths of insects vary according to their methods
of obtainino- food and their habits. The more
normal mouth of insects is the biting mouth (Plate
I, Fig. 2). It consists of an upper lip: the labrum;
a pair of stout jaws, called mandibles, stand promi-
nently below the labrum or upper lip : these are
seizing, tearing and biting jaws. There is a pair
of outer flexible chewing jaws called first or outer
maxillae; there are usually 2 teeth present on each
maxilla, and a long five-jointed palpus (often called
palp). There is an inner pair of maxill?e with three-
jointed palpi ; these jaws are usually fused to form
a solid central and posterior basal lip called gener-
ally the labium. The palpi or palps are used as
fingers to direct the food towards the mouth and to
aid in holding food.

In the case of insects with purely sucking habits,
the mouth is modified to form a sucking
tube which consists of 2 long half tubes which,
V hen placed together, form a sucking apparatus.
(Plate 38. Figs. 5, 6, 7.) In other insects the
piercing and sucking mouth is represented by a
certain number of setae or bristles (formed by a
modification of the mouth parts) which are placed
close together to form a canal (Plate 41, Fig. i).
The tips of the setge pierce a leaf, or body of an
insect, etc., and the moisture is drawn through the

4 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

tube formed by the closely adpressed setae or sty-
lets. There is a sheath present to enclose the
stylets.

II. The Thorax is the 2nd division of the body:
and is made up of three more or less distinct seg-
ments known respectively as (a) prothorax, (b)
mesothorax, (c) metathorax. In some insects these
are fused so that one can not distinguish the seg-
ments.

The prothorax carries the ist pair of legs; the
mesothorax the ist pair of wings and the 2nd pair
of legs; the metathorax, the 3rd pair of legs and
the 2nd pair of wings.

The leg of an insect can be divided into 5 dis-
tinct parts (Plate 2, Fig. i): (i) The coxa or hip;
(2) the trochanter (usually very small); (3) the
femur, or thigh (4) tibia, or shank; (5) tarsus, or
foot, which has usually 5 joints, the last joint carry-
ing claws and sometimes a pad also, called the pul-
villus. (Plate 2. Fig 2 a, b.)

Wings. — Wings differ according to the different
orders, but broadly speaking they are more or less
triangular in shape and usually membranous, sup-
ported by thickened lines called veins. The arrange-
ment of the veins varies also. Dipterous insects
(flies, mosquitoes, etc.) and a few others have but
2 wings, the hind pair of wings being absent; in
their place is a pair of knobbed processes called
halteres or balancers. (Plate 42, Figs. 2, 8.) Some
insects have no wings, as fleas and silverfish.

III. Abdomen. — This is the third and terminal
division of the body, and is made up of ringed
segments, sometimes 9 or 10 in number, but the

PLATE 3.

FiQ I LGqofaalds-ed/'Cicada)

f a Coxa

I b Trochaal-er

i c Femur

ci T.b.a

I e TarrusorFoor

Fic] 2. LowG^JoIn^of FooP
fa Claw
h Pad

b.

Fiq 3 Imperf'cch MGtainorpho9i?( Fro(|hopperj
'a. Larva

[) Nymph

.c. Aduih.

Rn4 Perfed Metamoi'pfio9is(Ant:)
fa Larva

b. Pupa^
Ic AdblF.

INSECTS (all enlarged),

6 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

number varies in different insects. Usually the last
two segments are hidden from view by the over-
lapping of the previous segment. The horny rings
are joined by thinner membranes, and the body is
flexible. The females have an ovipositor or egg-
placer (Plate 3, Fig 8, a), made up of a varying
number of plates or parts. More usually the ovi-
positor is concealed within the abdomen, but In
many wasps is quite long and prominent. (Plate 14,
Fig. 3). The ovipositor can be modified to form
a sting or saw. (Plate 14, Figs. 4, 6, 7.)

Internal Structure of Insects.

Breathing. — An insect has no lungs, but the air
is taken into the body through a number of minute
pores called stigmata or spiracles. (Plate 36, Fig.
I, a) situated along each side of the abdomen and
thorax. These are the external openings to the
tracheae or air tubes, of which there are two main
branches running down each side of the body, and
large cross tracheae also in the abdomen and thorax,
and from these, innumerable branches are given off
so that air can be carried to every part of the body.
The tubes are thickened by a spiral close-wound
thread-like band, giving them a striated appear-
ance.

Blood Vessels. — The blood system is very simple.
There is a very elementary heart, which is divided
usually into 8 chambers by a number of valves.
This is prolonged into a main tube or vessel which
carries the blood into a number of spaces in the

AN INSECT. 1

body cavity so that the blood is free and "bathes"
the organs of the body.

Digestion. — The digestive system includes mouth
cavity, salivary glands, and a crop for storage of
food. (This in insects with a sucking- mouth is term-
ed a sucking stomach, and is modified to store li-
quids.) Then there is a digestive stomach with or-
gans secreting digestive fluids, and also a large and
small intestine. Between the crop and the stom-
ach is sometimes a gizzard or small chamber armed
with chitinous teeth which break up the food.

The Senses of Insects.

Feeling. — Insects have a nervous system and a
rudimentary brain, hence can feel, but not to the
same degree as higher animals. Hearing. — Al-
though a knowledge of the sense is very limited, still
it is known that certain insects have a definite
hearing organ. The short horned grasshoppers
have an auditory organ on the ist segment of the
abdomen. (Plate 3, Fig. 7a.): long-horned grass-
hoppers have one on the tibia of each front leg.
(Plate 3, Fig. 6a.). Some writers think that
sound can be detected through the medium of the
antennae. Some hairs on the antennae of the mos-
quito have responded to vibrations of a tuning fork ;
the hum of the female is pitched so as to set these
hairs in motion. Ants and bees are said to have
small depressions on the antennae which seem sen-
sitive to sounds. Insects which have the power
of making the most noise have the best developed
organs of hearing; for example, grasshoppers,

8 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

crickets. As it is the male in most cases which
makes the strongest sounds, it is supposed to be
a call-note chiefly for the female. Taste. — The
sense of taste is located in thetroof of the mouth,
but when the mouth is such as not to permit of this,
the organs immediately around the mouth serve
the purpose by means of minute depressions. Ex-
periments prove that the sense of taste is more
keenly developed in some insects than in others.
SmelL — The antennas are thought to act as organs
of smell.

Development of an Insect. — Every insect is de-
veloped from an tgg, which as a rule is deposited,
but in a few cases is hatched within the body; in
this case a living larva is the result; ex.: some
species of flies.

The eggs vary in shape and size, and when ex-
amined with a lens some show beautiful carvings,
knobs, etc. The color of eggs varies from cream,
white, grey, green, brown, even to bright orange.

Eggs are found according to the feeding habits
of the larvae — on leaves, on bark, on or in soil, on
rock, in cracks, etc. Sometimes they are enclosed
in a capsule ; ex. : the cockroach ; in the case
of the Praying Mantis they are enveloped in
a tough, spongy case (Plate 7, Fig. 3). They are
usually sticky when first laid, and so stick fast to
the leaf, etc., on which they are placed. In many
phasmids the eggs are seed-like and are dropped to
the ground wlien the adults are on the plants.

The Metamorphosis of the insect means the
changes which the insect undergoes from its hatch-

AN INSECT. 9

I'ng till it reaches the adult stage. There are two
types of metamorphosis (i) Perfect or Complete;
(2) Imperfect or Incomplete, (i) Perfect Meta-
morphosis. There are three stages: (a) larva;
(b): pupa; (c) : adult. (Plate 2, Fig. 4). When
the larva hatches from the egg it is quite unlike its
parents, and may assume one of three forms (a) a
Caterpillar, (bj a Grub, (c) a Maggot.

Larvae shed their skins or moult a number of
times. The number of moults is five or six, but
the larva of the dragon fly moults from ten to
fifteen times. After each moult the larva has in-
creased in size.

Types of Larvae. — (a) A Caterpillar (Plate 35,
Fig. i) has a long cylindrical body made of a num-
ber of ringed segments. It has three pairs of horny
legs, one pair on each of the first three segments
of the body. Also there are usually four p?.hs of
fleshy legs or prolegs. These are found further
back and are necessary to support the long body
of the caterpillar. On the last segment is a pair
of anal claspers, and these are sometimes very
powerful organs for clinging to twigs, etc. ; ex. : the
caterpillars of the Emperor Gum Moth, or Privet
Hawk Moth. The larvae of moths and butter-
flies are caterpillars. The moth larvae, called
"loopers," have only two pairs of prolegs, and some
of the boring moth-larvse have only rudimentary
legs.

(b) A Grub (Plate 28, Fig. 3 a) is not unlike a
caterpillar, but as a rule, it has no prolegs, but three
pairs of horny legs in front. The grubs in some

10 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

species of saw-flies have many prolegs. Wood
boring grubs of beetles are practically legless.

(c) A Maggot (Plate 2, Fig. 4 a) is a legless
grub, and the most specialised maggot is that of
the flies, such as house flies and blow flies.

Pupa (Plate 2, Fig. 4 b). — After a series of
moults the larva pupates, i.e., it changes from a
larva to a pupa. The pupa never feeds and is
usually quiescent, though some pupae are vfery
active, for example, the mosquito. The larva on
pupating usually shrinks and is covered with a
general enveloping membrane or pupal skin. This
may be a covering like a sac or bag ; ex. : butterflies ;
or may follow the outline of the appendages, head,
etc., and both form what is termed a naked pupa :
for example, some species of ants (Plate 2, Fig. 4
b), and beetles (Plate 28, Fig. 3 b). In other cases
as before mentioned, there is a general enveloping
skin enclosing the pupa, example, pupae of butter-
flies and moths; in the moth, the pupa is further
protected with a silken bag called a cocoon (Plate
39, Fig. 4), while in some cases moth-larvae pupate
in the ground. In many flies, the last larval skin
is used as a kind of protecting skin, and is called a
puparium, example, the house and blow flies (Plate
44, Fig. 3 and Fig. 8): it is seed-like in these
species. The pupal case is usually split along
the back and the imago or perfect insect emerges.

The larvae which form cocoons, in most
cases cut their way through the silk from one
end; in the Cup Moth the pupating larva forms a
lid and this is pushed off on emerging. This is the
case also with some wasps (Plate 16, Fig. 4 a).

AN INSECT. 11

Thus there are three distinct stages in Complete
or Abrupt Metamorphosis: (a) larva, (b) pupa,
(c) Adult.

Incomplete Metamorphosis. (Plate 2, Fig. 3).
In this case the larva hatches from the egg with a
form very similar to the parents, only that all the
organs and some parts are not fully grown or de-
veloped ; also no wings are present. However, in
the later phases of development wing pads appear:
it is now called a Nymph, though some authors
use the term "Nymph" for the whole larvae stage:
finally the wings and all the organs are properly
developed and the insect is an adult; e,i\: grass-
hoppers, crickets, etc.

Classification of Insects.

The great class Insecta is divided usually into
9 large Orders, -but some writers subdivide some of
these, making more orders. The orders are divided
into Families, and in these families are included
Genera, a kind of "surname," while Genera are
again subdivided into species and the latter is a
kind of "christian" name.

For example : The Hawk Moth Protoparce
Coiivohiili can thus be classified: —

(i) Class. Insecta.
(2) Order: Lepidoptera.

(3) Family: Sphingidse.

(4) Genus Protoparce.

(5) Species: Convohuli.

Orders and families can be divided again into

12 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

sub-orders, sub-families, etc., so that detailed classi-
fication can be extended.

Classification into orders is based largely on ( i )
the nature of the wings; (2) the character of the
mouth parts; (3) mode of development.

13

ORDER— APTERA.

(Silver Fish and Spring-tails.)

"Aptera" means without wings, and this order
includes Silverfish and Spring-tails. (Plate 3, Figs.
I and 3.)

These are very primitive insects, and are quite
destitute of wings during the whole length of their
life. They have not even rudimentary wings.

They have three pairs of legs borne by the thor-
acic segments. The integument or outer covering
is very weak and soft, and the body is covered with
easily removed scales. They resemble the larvae
of some other insects, and adults can only be told
by their sizes, and the full development of their
parts, such as the number of joints of the antennae.
The ring-like segments of the body are very simi-
lar, the thoracic segments being broader and carry
the legs, but in some groups there is little differ-
ence between the segments of the* thorax and the
abdomen.

The respiratory or breathing system is very sim-
ple, and, in some types, is very immature. The
long tracheal trunk lines, which occur in most in-
sects along the sides of the body, and from the la-
teral branches of which the spiracles open out, are
absent in some of these insects.

The food of insects of the Order Aptera is de-

14

PLATE 3.

Fi(^ Z. Bo(^ 9:aleyof SiivyrfisK.
(hiahlyMac^Mfied)

a-...^:

Ficj. 1. SilverRyh (.Upi9ma.)
a. Cerci

Fja.5. SprifK^feil Lipura.

FiqG Front Leq of ion^fiorn
((jfdssfiopjjer)

Fi(]5 Pl7inqh/in^ofLocush

^ Fl^8. NympK of. Longhorn.
\ a. Ovipo?'i(br.

riq.7. ALdomen, of Loco?t

a. "Ear"

SILVER FTSH AND PARTS OF GRASSHOPPERS.

SUB-ORDER— THYSANURA. 15

composing vegetable and animal matter. The
metamorphosis is imperfect, and most of these
creatures cannot stand a dry atmosphere; they can
bear heat and cold, but not dryness.

There are two Sub-Orders: — (i) Thysanura or
Silver Fish group; (2) Collembola or Spring-tails.

(i) SUB-ORDERr-THYSANURA.

Family — Lepismidae.

These insects are about Jin. to under i inch in
length, and are covered with scales, giving the
body a dull silvery metallic appearance.

The thoracic segments differ from those of the
abdomen and also from one another; they are
rounded at the edges; there are 10 segments of
the abdomen ; the tracheal system is well
developed. The body tapers towards the end
and there are five appendages. There are
three long appendages easily distinguished with
the naked eye ; the middle one is twice as long as
the two lateral cerci, as they are called. Between
these there are two much shorter appendages (seen
with a lens). All these five caudal (belonging to
a tail) appendages are jointed with tufts of hair
at each segment. Some of the hairs (when exam-
ined with the low power of microscope) are seen to
stand out at an angle to the appendages, while the
majority of them lie close to the sides.

The antennae are long, and consist of a number
cf segments similar to the caudal appendages but
smaller. The hair tufts are seen here too. Hair
tufts occur at each segment of the body of the
silver fish. When the scales are examined with
the microscope, they are seen to be very beautiful,

16 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

resembling transparent rose petals, with a little
notch at the base. (Plate 3, Fig. 2.) Some are
linear, and some are rounded. The scales are
modified hairs flattened out to form a soft covering
over the surface.

Silver Fish have very free movement and can
slip into cracks and disappear with great speed.
The scales are smooth and give the surface a slip-
pery feel which enables the insects to slip away
when seized, especially as the scales can easily be
rubbed off.

The genus Lcpisma (Plate 3, Fig. i) is the com-
mon silver fish. We kept one in captivity, and
it moulted, for the skin was seen : on looking a little
later the skin had disappeared — eaten by the silver
fish.

Some species are said to eat paper of books, but
it is more than likely that they eat the paste which
fastens the leaves.

We kept a silver fish in a jar for 9 months, feed-
ing it on paste which was given in the form of
coatings of paste on small pieces of paper (we dipp-
ed the paper strips in paste). These pieces were
nibbled by the silver fish.

Another time we found a silver fish swimming
round in a jar of water. We rescued it, but
found that it went back to the water again almost
immediately. We left it there and on our return
some hours later it was gone. Whether it was
able to get out or was rescued by some one else
is still a mystery.

The second Sub-family is CoHembola, less known

SUB-ORDER—THYSANURA. 17

to the average person. This group includes "spring-
tails," which are minute creatures, white or cream in
colour, and seen hopping about after rain or in
damp weather. Those that leap do so by means
of two elongate processes at the under-side of the
anal end of the body. These are said to act like
a spring. They seem to leap at random. They
are elongate insects very like small grubs with
curved abdomen and large head. There are not
more than 6 abdominal segments. On the under
side of the body near the first segment is a "ventral
tube," the use of which is unknown, but which is
an important feature of the group.

Lipitra is the common Australian type. (Plate 3,
Fig- 3-)

18 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS

ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

This order includes Cockroaches, Grasshoppers,
Mantids, Phasmids, Crickets, and Earwigs. The
name, orthoptera is derived from the Greek word
Orthos, straight, and Pteron, a wing. This refers to
the manner in which the wings are folded and
placed straight along the body. Some of the larg-
est insects occur in this order.

They are sometimes placed in two groups : A.,
Cursoria or Running Orthoptera, example : Cock-
roaches, Earwigs, Mantids, Phasmids, with hind
legs little different from the others. B. Saltatoria,
or Leaping Orthoptera, with hind legs suitable for
leaping; cx.\ Short-horned Grasshoppers or Lo-
custs, Long-horned Grasshoppers or Phasgonurids,
Crickets .

Characteristics of Order Orthoptera : — '

Insects with four wings — wingless forms common.
The front pair is tough and horny, or parchment-
like, and is not used much in flight — these protect
the hind wings, and are termed tegmina (Plate 3,
Fig. 4). The hind wings are flimsy and trans-
parent, like an open fan when expanded, and folded
like a closed fan when not in use. (Plate 3, Fig. 5.)

In many insects of this order the flying wings
are beautifully coloured: this is seen in the phas-
mids ; one of the large green leaf-phasmids having
the daintiest pink wings, while in a long vStick-

ORDER ORTHOPTERA. 19

phasmid the large handsome flying wings are of
a mottled brown colour. Some of the short-horned
grasshoppers also have beautiful flying wings in
tones of yellow, orange, and brown.

Some of the phasmids have short tegmina, and
long flying wings: in this case there is a linear
band of the flying-wing which is hard and is ex-
posed : the softer part of the flying-wing folds under
this.

Note that most flying-wings in this Order have a
harder supporting band in the upper part of the
wings.

The Orthopterous insects on the whole have not
good flight, and in any case it is the male which
usually has the stronger flight. One exception to
this rule is the plague locust which flies across the
country and ruins crops. This insect is a'rmed
with special internal air sacs which enable it to
keep up sustained flight in its migrations. -Orthop-
terous insects rely on peaceful means of defence,
showing protective colouration ; such can be seen in
the short-horned grasshoppers. Those which fly ac-
ross the country are mottled in colour and can hard-
ly be distinguished from the colour of the ground:
or in other species they resemble blades of grass.
Phasmids have protective mimicry of sticks and
leaves (hence called leaf and stick insects). Phas-
gonurids which have long antennae, resemble
leaves. Cockroaches take another means of evading
an enemy — they decamp, and being narrow and
compressed vertically, they can slip into cracks.
Phasmids and mantids show great muscular con-

20 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

trol and this further increases their resemblance to
leaves or sticks, for they remain in the one posi-
tion for an hour or more.

The mouth parts are developed for biting and
chewing and the palpi are very prominent. (Plate
r, Fig. 2.)

The Metamorphosis is incomplete, the newly-
hatched larvae being similar to their parents, but
are wingless and are not fully developed. (Plate
7, Fig. I.)

The insects named all possess these general
characteristics but differ from one another in cer-
tain parts; hence it is necessary to put each into
a family of its own, which we shall study separ-
ately. The Orthoptera comprises insects which are
foes and not friends of man, the one exception being
the mantid family.

21

GROUP CURSORIA.

(Non-leapiiio- Orthoptera, including- Cockroaches,
Mantids, Phasmids, Earwigs.)

FAMILY BLATTID^.

(Cockroaches.)

(Plate 4, Figs, i, 2, 3.)

The distinguishing- features of the members of
this family are : — The oval body, flattened from
above as if compressed by a heavy w^eight; the
slender spined legs; and the long coxae: the head
is bent over on to the under or ventral surface.

The flattened body will probably lead us to con-
clude that the cockroach lives where space is
limited. This we find to be true,' for its haunts
are in crevices in buildings, under the bark of
trees, in decaying timber, under stones, etc. The
slender legs will further suggest that it is capable
of rapid movement, and from the uniformity of
these legs we infer that it is a runner and not a
leaper, hence it belongs to the Group Cursoria.

Cockroaches vary in colour from dark brown to
black. A great number are wingless, and by the
inexperienced these are mistaken for beetles or
wood bugs.

The life of a cockroach varies, some species ma-
turing in a few months, while others are said to

a2 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

take five years. Two or three types are familiar to
all; one, a large light brown insect — the domestic
cockroach (Periplaneta Americanus) comes to us
from America. Another household species is P.
Australasise.

For general description and life history we shall
take the domestic cockroach, Periplaneta Ameri-
canus as a type of the whole family. This is a
light brown winged form, measuring over an inch
in length. It is frequently seen at night, suddenly
flying into the roorn, or running across the floor.
It is often met with on our footpaths in cities and
towns.

The head is small and is bent under the first
division of the thorax, which seems to act as a
shield for it.

The antennae are long and thread-like, frequently
much longer than the body itself. (Plate 4, Fig. i.)

The mouth is the typical biting mouth of in-
sects. (Plate I, Fig. 2.)

The tiny appendages surrounding the mouth can
be well seen if the insect is put on its back, and the
mouth just touched with a straw, when instantly
the jaws, maxillae and palpi will be put into motion.

There is one pair of large compound eyes, oval
or slightly kidney shaped. (In some varieties two
ocelli or primitive eyes are present.)

The thorax: only the first segment of the thorax
\t visible. This is almost triangular in shape. The
second and third segments are hidden under the
wings.

The front pair of wings is opaque, the hind pair

PLATE 4.

23

Fiql . Winqed Bush Coachroach
[6. Cover Winq.

C. Thiciser baruJ

FiqS. -Logusf layinqEq^j?.
Surface ViewXAfftfr Rilpyj

Fi(j4. locust ii3/inq Eqt^rlaff-GTRilpyj
5. Eq^.

Fia 6. E<y (3^6 (After (Ijley)
S.tqc^s.
b.tqcj Cover.

COCKROACHES AND GRASSHOPPERS.

24 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

is flimsy and covered by the front pair, in repose.
There is a stronger band in the front area of the
hind wings. (Plate 4, Fig. i, c.) The lower part
of the flying-wing is fan-shaped.

The three pairs of legs are long, slender and
spined on the under edges. The coxa or first divi-
sion of the leg is much longer than in most insects.
It lies flat along the under surface of the body when
the insect is not in motion, and may be mistaken
for the femur or thigh region. The foot ends in
a pair of claws.

The abdomen is made up of a number of ringed
parts, 10 in all, but those towards the end of the
body overlap one another, so that to the casual
observer 8 only appear. On the under surface and
towards the sides may be seen 8 pairs of breathing
pores, one pair on each of 8 segments.

Near the end of the abdomen is a pair of small
spine-like structures called cerci. In the male

there is an additional pair called styles.

Life History of the Domestic Cockroach.

(Periplaneta Americauus.)

The female deposits an tgg case (Plate 4, Fig. 3)
about fin. in length, and enclosing sixteen eggs
fitted into eight separate cavities on the inside of
each half of the case. This case at first is white,
but rapidly changes to a light brown colour. In
general shape it bears a resemblance to a small
kidney bean. After a short period this Qgg case
bursts and the tiny cockroaches come forth. They

COCKROACHES. 25

are like the parent, but without wings, and are
white and limp. The outer skin hardens, and the
brown colour appears. In from nine to twelve
months the cockroach is grown up. During that
period it has moulted seven times, the increase in
size taking place at each moult. After the third
or fourth moult, the wings begin to show as tiny
pads, and at the seventh moult they are fully de-
veloped.

Sometimes a much longer period than twelve
months elapses before the perfect state is reached,
but this depends much on the weather, and on the
food supply. The food of the cockroaches consists
of decayed animal and vegetable matter, paper,
paste, etc. In fact, they will eat almost anything,
and may be looked upon as scavengers.

We sometimes become conscious that these crea-
tures have passed over food by the odour left be-
hind. This odour is due partly to a fluid coming
from the mouth, and partly from scent glands situ-
ated between the segments of the abdomen.

Nature frequently provides her own remedies for
insect pests, and in this family the wasps are the
most to be feared. One wasp (Evania) is found
laying its eggs in the egg case of the Cockroach.
Man, however, has to resort to methods where re-
sults are more quickly seen. Borax sprinkled freely
in infested parts proves most effective. An in-
stance came under our notice in which an old stone
building with a stone floor was over-run with our
own smaller cockroach. Several pounds of borax were
used, being sprinkled freely in the cracks of the floor,

26 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

and allowed to remain there for two or three days.
Then this was swept up, and a fresh supply put
down. In a month's time the building was quite
free from the pest, and there was never a recur-
rence.

Poisoned paste or food is often put down at night,
but this is specially dangerous where children are
concerned.

Belt says in "Naturalist in Nicaragua," ''The Cock-
roaches that infest the houses of the tropics are very
wary, as they have numerous enemies, birds, rats,
scorpions and spiders ; their long trembling antennae
are ever stretched out, vibrating as if feeling the very
texture of the air round them ; and their long legs
quickly take them out of danger. Sometimes I tried
to chase one of them up to a corner where on a wall
a large cockroach-eating spider stood motionless
looking out for its prey ; the cockroach would rush
away from me in the greatest fear, but as soon as it
came to within a foot of its mortal foe, nothing
would force it onwards, but back it would double,
facing all the danger from me rather than advance
nearer to its natural enemy."

Many other cockroaches are quite familiar. One,
a much smaller light brown insect about -|in. in
length is often known as the "Crotan" Bug. A
black wingless type {Pancsthia lacvicollis) measur-
ing about li inches long and with a small com-
pressed head, is met with in great numbers under
the bark of dead timber, and in rotten logs. An-
other large brown, wingless variety {Polyzosteria
limbata) (Plate 4, Fig. 2) has the edge of the body

PRAYING INSECTS (MANTIDxVE. 27

outlined with yellow. It is met with in the coastal
districts of New South Wales.

One of our largest wingless forms is Polyzosteria
pithcsccns. It closely resembles the one just de-
scribed, but is of a uniform brown colour, 2 inches
long and i^ inches wide.

The giant among the cockroaches is a large bright
reddish-brown wingless insect 2^ inches in length,
and i^ inches across the body.

Most of the Cockroaches are well known by popu-
lar names in the districts where they are numerous.

Sharp thus writes: "The Common Cockroach
(Blaffa) is a rather amusing pet, as the creatures
occasionally assume most comical attitudes, especi-
ally when cleaning their limbs; this they do some-
what after the manner of cats, extending the head
as far as they can in the desired direction, and then
passing a leg or antennae through the mouth; or
they comb other parts of the body with the spines
of the legs, sometimes twisting and distorting them-
selves considerably in order to reach some not very
accessible part of the body."

Family. — Praying Insects (Mantidae.)

(Plate 5.)

The term "praying" is applied on account of the
devout attitude assumed when the insects are about
to seize their prey. The front legs are drawn up,
and the fore leg is held at an acute angle to the
thigh in front of the head, giving altogether a
reverent appearance.

The Mantidas may be readily distinguished from

28 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Other families of the Orthoptera by the following
characteristics : —

The triangular head, viewed from the front,
movable on a neck region. Viewed from side or
back, the head is elongate. The long prothorax is
usually laterally longer than each of the other di-
visions, the strongly developed raptorial (fitted for
seizing) front legs, (Plate 5, Fig. 2 a), and the
jointed cerci on the end of the body are also dis-
tinguishing features.

We will take the common green Mantis (Ortho-
dera ministralis) as a type of the family.

The length from the head to the end of the body
is about 1 1 inches. The head is triangular, with
t;ny, bright bead-like eyes standing out at two
corners of the triangle. The antennae are short,
and the mouth parts are well developed. The
quickness with which the head can be turned is
most marked. Two pairs of wings are present.
The front pair is green and opaque ; the hind pair
larger and each folded in the characteristic fan-
like way beneath the front wing.

The legs are not uniform in size, the front pair
is much larger and stronger than either of the other
pairs. These front legs are spined on the under
surface, and a kidney-shaped bluish purple mark
is present on the tibia of each. The abdomen has a
somewhat flattened appearance from above.

Life History of Green Mantis.

iOrthodera ministralis-)
The eggs are deposited in a lozenge-shaped

GREEN MANTIS. 29

mass which is fixed to the side of a stem, but
sometimes they have been seen on fences, or even
on the surface of rocks. (Plate 5, Figs. 4 and 5).
On the upper surface are two longitudinal rows of
alternating "doorways" or openings, through which
the young mantids escape. Each doorway leads
into a narrow, laterally compressed tgg chamber
which in the broader part of the mass, holds four,
elongate, vertically placed eggs. We found eight
double rows of these, and at the narrower ends of
the mass, a few smaller egg chambers, holding
three, two, or one egg, according to their space.
The eggs do not fill the entire chamber but extend
only for two thirds of the distance upwards. In
the upper part is a plug of fine spongy material
through which the emerging mantid cuts its way,
when escaping. There is a strong outer wall en-
closing all these egg chambers. We cut cross
and longitudinal sections through several of these
nests, and examined them with the lens.

The young mantid (Plate 5, Fig. 6) frequently
casts its first skin as it emerges from the egg. It
is like the parent in general shape, but without
wings, black in color, and less than J inch in length.
It can move freely, and at once begins to look around
for food ; if this is scarce, it quite willingly devours
its fellows. It soon changes to a delicate green
color. After the third or fourth moult, the wings
begin to appear, and then gradually develop till the
perfect state is reached.

The life history of the green mantid can be
followed out quite readily. We have collected the

PLATE 5.

m^Mnm

MANTIDS.

GREEN MANTIDS. 31

egg masses and placed them in a closed vessel such
as a glass jar, the top of which we covered with a
piece of fine net. When the baby mantids appeared,
we placed small pieces of a rose bush, which were
covered with aphides, in the jar. Then commenced
a procedure worth watching. The mantids sim-
ply slaughtered and devoured the aphides in the
most ruthless manner. As a result of such feast-
ing, they grew rapidly, and cast off skins were
seen in numbers. Many perished when about }
inch long. Fearing we should lose them all, we
placed the remainder on a rose-bush growing so
close to the doorway, that we saw our mantid
friends daily, and had the pleasure of seeing sonue
of them reach maturity on the rose bush on which
they had been placed.

Besides the green mantid just described, there
are many others quite common. A large brown
species (Archimautis latistylus) measuring from 3
to 4 inches in length, is frequently met with on
the low shrubs of our coastal bush. It has beauti-
ful eyes, resembling opals — of a mottled, greenish-
blue color. The life history is practically the same
as that of the green mantis, except that the egg
mass is covered with a cream papery-looking ma-
terial, which, as a frothy mass, was secreted from
the insect's body, but became tough on exposure
to the air. The whole structure is about H- inch
long, and somewhat cylindrical in shape. (Plate
5, Fig. 3.) Many who come across it firmly fas-
tened on to the side of a twig, think a spider was
the originator.

33 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Sharp says : ''The female places the extremity of
the body against a twig- or stone, and emits some
foam-like matter in which the eggs are contained.
This substance dries. Whilst attaining a sufficient
consistence, it is maintained in its position by the
extremity of the body, and the tips of the elytra
(coverwings), and it is shaped and fashioned by
these parts. The eggs are not, as might be sup-
posed, distributed at random through the case, but
are lodged in symmetrically arranged chambers,
though how these chambers come into existence by
the aid of so simple a mode of construction does not
appear."

• A large green and brown mantid {Tenodera aiis
tralasiac) has the hind wings mottled with brown
and shaded pink toward the inner margins. A few
small types of mantids are wingless. These are
frequently seen on the ground which they closely
resemble in color.

The food of all mantids consists chiefly of in-
sects, such as flies, moths, aphides, scales, etc.,
spiders, and other small animals. It is interesting
to watch a large moth being captured. The mantid
watches much as a spider does when on the look-
out for a fly. When the unwary victim approaches,
the front legs which have been held in readiness,
shoot out and seize the insect, shake and crush it,
and then proceed in preparing it for a final dis-
section. The audacity of some mantids in at-
tacking large insects is simply amazing-. Size
never seems to deter them if appetite needs satis-
fying. We saw a mantis attack a large spider.

LEAF AND STICK INSECTS. 33

We seized the mantis and placed it on a twig
near by in order to observe it more closely. Durinor
this process the mantis stopped devouring the
spider, but held it in its right arm-like front leg,
just as one v^ould place a book under one's arm.
After a pause, it finished its meal and dropped
the shell of its victim.

The chief enemies of the Mantidse are birds, para-
sitic wasps and flies. The wasps and flies deposit
their eggs in the egg masses of the mantids, parti-
cularly in the larger rounded ones.

Mantids have protective coloration to a more
or less degree, for the green mantids are the color
of foliage leaves, and the brown ones are not unlike
twigs. This is not nearly so striking as one sees
\n the Phasmids, or Leaf and Stick Insects.

It has been recorded that one Indian mantid
imitates the form and color of the corolla of a
flower in order to entice insect visitors to the
"flower" which it promptly seizes.

The Mantidse are man's insect friends, and it is
probable that if numbers could be placed on aphis
and scale-infested plants, they would prove very
effective.

Family Phasmidae.

(Leaf and Stick Insects.)

(Plate 6.)

The name "Stick and Leaf" Insects has been
applied on account of the striking resemblance
which many of the members of this family bear to
either sticks or leaves. It is curious, too, that in

:V4

PLATE 6.

Leaf Phasmid

fiq5 Eq(j of P^^sytnid

SKck PKasmid

\ Short PuorKora)^
V Cerci ir\ or\e pieci

PHASMIDS.

LEAF AND STICK INSECTS. 35

many cases the limbs stand out at such an angle as
to make the resemblance still more striking, and
in some species of stick insects the creatures sway
at times, just as leaves and twigs would move in a

breeze

The resemblance to leaves and sticks is more re-
markable on the whole, in the females which are
usually much larger than the males. The males
are better fitted for flight. Many phasmids have
very beautiful flying wings, many with brilliant
coloring. In some cases the tegmina are short,
in others they are long and leaf-like or twig-like in
general color.

If numerous these insects can be very destructive.
The young student may at first confuse the phas-
mids with the mantids, but on studying the char-
acteristics and habits of each, the differences can
De seen.

Note the head is rounded and not movable on
a neck region. The first segment of the thorax is
short, and the second long. The front legs are not
more strongly developed than the second and third
pairs for these insects are vegetable feeders and
do not want raptorial legs. The cerci are not
jointed.

Some phasmids are said to eject an evil smelling,
pungent fluid from the thorax, when disturbed. The
eggs are not laid in egg masses such as we find in
the mantids. The mother phasmid just drops
them haphazard from the trees to the ground.
These eggs resemble seeds for they have a hard,
dfirk-colored coat with a little rounded knob at the

36 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

apex. (Plate 6, Fig. 3.) The eg^g is very tiny for
such a large baby insect to emerge, but this seems
so because the baby phasmid on emerging can ex-
pand the segments of the body.

E. Step thus describes the emergence of a phas-
mid: "Now the egg capsule measures 3 mm in
length, and the newly-emerged "Stick" is 10 mm in
length of its body, not taking the long antennae
and legs into account. Of course, the discrepancy
in. size between the capsules and the young is ex-
plained by the fact that considerable expansion has
taken place during actual emergence.

Before emergence, for example, the three legs are
fairly close together, but during the struggle to
free itself from its prison, the two hind joints of
the middle body (meso and metathorax), lengthen
and separate the legs considerably."

The wings of the winged forms consist of a pair
of more or less linear cover wings or tegmina,
which are hardened at the front edge. The hind
pair of flying wings is variously colored and
beautifully netted ; they are folded fanwise ex
Podacanthus- Wingless forms are seen in Bacil-
lus and E.vfatosoma. Perhaps the phasmid which
we most often see is a large green insect, popularly
known as "Laurie's Ringbarker" (Podacanthus
IVilkinsoni). This measures from 6 to 8 inches
from the head to the tip of the abdomen. The
body seems to broaden out in the thorax, and to
taper toward the end. The head is small and

rounded. The antennae are short. One pair of
eyes is present, also the characteristic biting mouth
parts,

GREEN PHASMIDS. 37

The front pair of wings is short, only partly
covering the hind pair ; the latter are rather horny
along the upper edge which acts as a protection
to the flimsy fan-like part when closed. The

inner portion of the hind wing is shaded from
green to a delicate pink.

When this insect is flying, it is almost bird-like
in wing expanse.

The legs are all the same size. The abdomen
is many jointed, and has a pair of cerci at the
end. (Plate 6, Fig. i. b.).

Life History of the Green Phasmid.

{Podacanthus Wilkinsoni-)

The eggs are deposited singly on the ground
among dried leaves about February or March. They
are brownish green in color, about 1/5 inch in
length, rounded at the base, and flattened at the
upper end, which is surmounted by a knob, which
looks much like the top of a tiny lid.

The eggs remain on the ground during the win-
ter, and the young phasmids come forth in early
spring. In some cases, the eggs lie dormant for
two seasons.

By January or February, the phasmids are full
grown, having passed through a series of moults
in reaching the adult stage.

A phasmid we had in captivity passed through its
final moult. The cast-off skin was perfect even
to the eye coverings and a^Jennse. The first rent
appeared over the back of the thorax and extended
forward. The head and front legs were pulled

38 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

forth first, then these latter were used to help set
the remainder of the body free from the old dress.
The insect looked damp and limp in the new skin,
but this soon became firm and hard.

Another phasmid we had under observation de-
posited 5 or 6 eggs. Great numbers of the green
phasmids described often attack areas of well-tim-
bered country, denuding it of leaves. They seem
to be partial to the Eucalyptus- The name ''Lau-
rie's Ringbarkers" arose from the fact that a few
hundred acres belonging to a squatter named
Laurie were rendered leafless, and even the bark
of the trees was not exempt from their ravages.

It is hard to devise any means of dealing with
a pest of this nature. No doubt they have a few
parasitic enemies and birds, and lizards probably
devour them.

A large greyish brown stick-like insect (Acro-
phylla titan) used to be very common around Sydney
before so much of our scrub country was cleared.
It was popularly known as the "Walking Stick"
Insect.

The female measures about 8 inches from head to
tip of abdomen.

The front wings are blue black. The hind wings
are brown, shaded to rose pink at the base.

The male is slighter in build than the female.

Another striking member of this family is the
"Green Leaf" Insect (E.vtatosoiua tiaratum), Plate
6, Fig. 2). with leaf-like expansions on the legs,
and with the end of the abdomen also flattened
out so as to look like a leaf. When at rest on the

EARWIGS. 39

foliage of a plant, it is indeed very difficult to pick
it out. We have noticed this phasmid still further
carry out the resemblance between it and its sur-
roundings by keeping up a slight swaying move-
ment much as leaves would if moved by a gentle
breeze

We had one of these "green leaf" insects sent
to us, which was found on a peach tree affected
by woolly aphides. The leaves of the tree were
mottled yellow and green, the same yellow and
green mottling was carried out in the phasmid.

These insects have wonderful muscular control,
which enables them to further imitate sticks and
leaves by remaining quite still for long periods of
time.

Family — Earwigs (Forficulidac:)

(Plate 7. Figs. 6. 7 and 8.)

The popular name of this family seems to have
arisen from a mistaken idea that these insects had
a habit of getting into the human ear during sleep.
Another theory concerning the name is that it may
have come from the ear-like structure of the hind
wings, (Plate 7, Fig 7), but exactly why the name
"earwig" came to be applied does not seem quite
clear.

The scientific name is derived from the Latin —
forficula — scissors, such term relating to the scissor-
like structures on the end of the body.

The earwigs may be distinguished by the rounded
head, short, front wings, (Plate 7, Fig. 6) which
scarcelv extend bevond the thorax, leaving- the ab-

40

PLATE 7.

hql Larva of Locujt-
a Lcapioijieai'.

Fic|2. Nymph of Locusf

Fi(^5 Larva of . Loa^horn

Fi(] 4 Female Lonqkorn
layi'nqBt^s"
a. Aatennae.

Fiq.5 Eucal/pbs (caf wiH\2Rows
of Eqijs of Loaqhopfi

Fiq 7 FlyincjWina

fi(^e. Wmqed Earwiq
8. Wi'aqcovers"
b Calliperr

Ficj 8 WinqlessEarwicj

GRASSHOPPERS AND EARWIGS.

EARWIGS. 41 .

tiomen quite uncovered ; the strano;ely folded hind
wings which are rarely seen, and the pincers or
callipers (Plate 7, F'l^. 6) at the end of the body.

A large reddish brown type (Labidura truncata) is
well known. It measures about i inch in length,
and like most earwigs, may be found in damp
places, such as under stones and logs.

Parts of Body. — The head is round, with one pair
of compound eyes, 2 long antennae, and one pair of
maxillae (mouth structures) extending- in front of
the head. The mouth is typical* of Orthopterous
insects.

Legs. — The three pairs of legs are uniform in size.
The front wings look like tiny oblong pads placed
over the back r)f the thorax (Plate 7, Fig. 6 a.), un-
der these pads a pair of flimsy complex hind wings
is folded, first fan-wise, and then doubled back.
No other insect has such complexly folded wings.
It is seldom that these wings are seen, as they seem
to be used but rarely for flight. It is even a

difficult matter to try to pull them out from their
resting place with a needle.

The abdomen is generally reddish brown in
color, but shaded to a yellow at the sides. The
terminal segments are barred with reddish black.
There are 10 segments in the male and 8 in the
female.

The pincers or callipers are teethed on the inner
edge, and meet at the end. These structures are
harmless, and are often carried turned back over
the body. They are not known to be used in at-
tacking enemies. They may be of use to the insect

42 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

in protecting itself, or in opening or in packing the
wings. These forceps or callipers vary much in
the male earAvigs.

Life History of Large Brown Earwig.

(Labidnra truncata-)

The eggs are deposited in the ground, and the
young come forth in early spring. The baby ear-
wigs resemble the parent in general shape, but
are without wings. (In the wingless forms the
larvae can only be distinguished by smaller size
and softer integument.)

At first the antennas consist only of a few joints,
but increase to 13 or 14 in the perfect insect. The
adult stage is reached by a series of moults. The
wings begin to appear after the fourth moult. We
have observed the great concern which the mother
earwig shows for her young, never leaving the tiny
burrow in which the eggs have been placed, until
the young are hatched. She then broods over
the little company much as a hen would over her
chickens, trying to get them under her own body
at the slighest approach of danger.

Few insects show such maternal care, for many
parents die before the young leave the tgg, and
then mother nature is the only nurse they know.

Their food consists of decaying vegetable or
insect matter, and even small living insects are at-
tacked. Many small types of earwigs exist. One
is distinguished by having the pincers of unequal
length. Some are wingless. An Australian
wingless type is Anisolabis (Plate 7, Fig. 8.)

EARWIGS. -43

We found an earwig's nest in January. There
were about a dozen nests just near a damp log
sheltered by grass. We lifted the grass up, and
saw the nests on the damp ground. In one nest
there was a father-earwig with curved pincers, and
mother-earwig with straight pincers, and small ear-
wigs in various stages of development. Some tiny
ones were quite white, others had the abdomen
brown, while head and thorax Avere white. Others
had head and thorax white, while tail-part only v/as
brown. Eggs were present in the nests, and when
we disturbed them, the mother and father seized
some of the eggs, and tried to get away with them.
They moved them to a new spot some 6 inches
away and in about 15 minutes had removed all the
eggs. We covered them over with grass and left
them in peace. There was a cluster of Nasturtiums
growing near the log and we found earwigs in nearly
every flower as many as three being in one flower.
They did not seem to be eating, but just resting.

Observations on Earwigs.

On disturbing some decaying boards which had
been lying on damp earth for some time several
nests of earwigs were observed in little hollows
made in the rotting timber. The nests were in
hollows of about an inch long and from I to i
inch in width. On lifting the upper board (there
were 3 superimposed boards), a nest was observed
with dozens of tiny white eggs about the size of
a small pin's head. The mother earwig at once
rushed above the eggs and showed great concern.

44 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSLCTS.

She could not cover them all with her body, but
she did her best by moving first to one side and
then to another. We placed the board gently

back, and left it for ten minutes ; on returning, all
but about a dozen eggs were removed, and no earwig
was in sight. We lifted the second board and found
the nest with th^e majority of the eggs safe in a new
hollow. There were cracks in the soft wood which
allowed the mother to quickly remove the eggs
farther from the scene of disturbance. This time
she began to gather up the eggs and yet seemed
loathe to leave the mass of them. She seized one
in her mandibles, then dropped it, then picked up
another, and in trying to pick up two more dropped
all, but she would not leave the bulk of the eggs
while we watched.

Family — White Ants (Tenuifidac').

The exact position of the White Ants among the
insects is very doubtful. Formerly they were put
in with the Neuroptera. More recent writers are
inclined to give them a place with the Orthoptera,
others again think that they do not sufficiently
agree wtih either, and place them in a separate
order — the Isoptera. We shall consider them among
the Orthoptera, though they differ from the order
in many respects, yet resemble it in having biting
mouths parts, and gradual development.

The White Ants are social insects, living in
communities composed of different castes — males
and females, workers, soldiers and queen. The
normal males (Plate 8, Fig 5) and females are

WHITE ANTS. 45

winged, and have eyes. They are brown in color,
and the wings are about twice as long as the body;
they only remain in the home a very short time
after the wings have developed. The workers
cut openings in the side of the nest, and towards
dusk on very hot summer evenings, one may see
countless numbers of the winged male and female
termites swarming forth. Later on they may be
seen flying around the lights inside the houses, and
dropping their brown wings, which break off very
readily along a distinct junction line. After they
have lost their means of flight, numbers pair off
in order to found a new colony, but the majority
perish. The female now becomes the queen of
the little company. Her body develops into a huge
egg sack, varying in different species from one to
five or six inches in length. She is waited on by
the workers and her royal mate ; the former carry
the eggs away to specially prepared cells.

The workers (Plate 8, Figs, i and 2) form the
most important part of the community, both in
point of numbers, and in the amount of work they
do. They are white, blind, wingless, provided
with a large, round head, a pair of antennee, and
huge biting jaws. They do the work of the home,
get the food, rear the young, and build the nest.

The soldiers closely resemble the workers, but
have a longer head, and more formidable looking
jaws. They, too, are blind and wingless. Their
duty seems to be in guarding the home. The
workers and soldiers are imperfect males and

46

PLATt s.

F\q 1 Soldier -worker

Fiq 5. Nympk

F)q4 Queeix

Fia 5 ifl/inc]e<J male

WHITE ANTS (Enlarged) AFTER FROGGATT.

WHITE ANTS. 47

females whose development apparently is arrested
and modified.

Now, shall we return to the queen in her royal
apartment, and endeavour to trace the life history
of the various castes we have mentioned. The tiny
white eggs which closely resemble grains of sugar
to the casual observer, are carried into special
cells. The small white forms which come from
the eggs, are fed and tended by the workers. These
in time develop into workers, soldiers and winged
males and females. The wings of the males and
females appear towards the final moult, the inter-
mediate stage being spoken of as the nymph.

White Ants vary in size according to the parti-
cular genus to which they happen to belong.
. They all feed upon timber.

The home of the White Ant is called the termi-
tarium. This may be a huge rounded mass pro-
jecting from the sides of trees, or built over stumps
or even rising from old logs in or out of the
ground. Along the Southern railway in New South
Wales, particularly between Bowral and Goulburn,
great numbers of these head like masses may be
seen in the open paddocks. In Northern Australia
they are often found 20 feet in height. The hard
brown papery mass of which the nest is composed
is formed by the insect chewing up wood, and then
mixing it with particles of earth. Numbers of
rooms or galleries make up the whole, each having
its particular use.

The cell of the queen mother (Plate 8, Figs. 4
and 6) is large with a small entrance. She cannot

48 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

leave this cell after she has developed and become
so large. The nursery is close by, and as the young
develop, they are transferred from one set of rooms
to another. Some termites do not build a neSt of
the type described, but found a home at first in the
ground, then hollow out galleries in some overlying
timber. Paling fences and wooden houses built on
the ground are often completely destroyed in this
way. The outside of the wood as a rule is left
intact, the whole of the inside being eaten away,
except for very flimsy partitions which separate the
galleries. If it becomes necessary for work to be
carried out on the outside of timber, it is done under
shelter of a tiny saw-dust cemented cover. These
insects truly love darkness rather than light.

Few timbers in Australia are exempt from their
attacks. Cedar, red and white mahogany seem
almost proof against them. Iron-bark does not al-
ways remain free from their ravages. On the
northern rivers of New South Wales, and in
Queensland, where so many houses are built of
wood, we find that the portion below the floor is
not enclosed, thus leaving the piles exposed to the
light and air, and to a great extent keeping out
the white ants. Piles too are often capped with
zinc or tin. Timber for building purposes is fre-
quently treated with wood preserving oil or paint
in which a percentage of arsenic to a gallon of oil
has proved a most effective mixture.

49

GROUP SALTATORIA.

(Grasshoppers, Crickets.)
Grasshoppers.

This family can hardly be described as a whole,
as certain members possess certain distinctive fea-
tures not seen in others, but the roof-like body,
biting mouth parts, and strongly developed hind
legs are common to all.

We shall therefore place the Grasshoppers in two
divisions or families, and the student can quite
easily note the points of resemblance on which the
classification is based.

I. — Short-Horned Grasshoppers.
Family Locustidae.

(Plates 4 and 7.)

(This family is referred to as Family Acridiidae
in most text books.)
Characteristics. —

(a) The antennae are short and composed of less
than 30 joints.

(b) The ovipositor consists of four short flat-
tened blades, and is quite inconspicuous.

(c) The tarsi are three jointed.

(d) The hearing apparatus is situated on the

50 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

first segment of the abdomen (Plate 3, Fig. 7, a.),
just behind the junction of the hind leg.

The short-horned grasshopper is really the true
locust, and when the term "locust" is met with in
scientific writings, this grasshopper is referred to
and not the cicada to which the name locust is so
generally applied in Australia.

If we carefully observe one of these grass-
hoppers, we shall see that the head is at right angles
to the body, and the mouth is towards the surface
on which the insect rests. The little jointed struc-
tures surrounding the mouth can be well seen if
the insect is turned upon its back, and if they are
touched with a straw^ their movement in eating may
be noted.

The first segment of the thorax looks like a pro-
tecting shield over the roof-like body, and partly
over the head.

The front wings are frequently called the teg-
mina. They are horny and opaque along the outer
edge. (Plate 3, Figs. 4 and 5.) The hind pair forms
a pretty fan when expanded, and lies like a closed
fan when at rest, being protected by the overlap-
ping front pair.

The first and second pairs of legs are equal in
size, but the thigh of the third pair is enormously
developed for hopping purposes (Plate 7, Fig. la).

The abdomen as a rule is covered by the wings,
but we meet a few types with short wings and
others again that are v/ingless. Short-horns are the
strongest in flight in the Orthoptera and possess

GRASSHOPPERS. 51

special structures known as air sacs connected with
the tracheae.

The four short pointed processes forming the
ovipositor of the female, though not conspicuous,
can be easily observed.

The noise made by the short-horned grasshop-
per is produced by scraping the rough surface of
the hind legs along the edge of the front wings.

As a rule, the colour of the grasshopper harmon-
ises so beautifully with its surroundings, that un-
less the insect is seen on the wing, it can hardly be
noted.

Life History of the Short-horned Grasshopper.

The eggs are deposited in the soil a half inch
or more below the surface. (Plate 4, Figs. 4 and 5.)
From twenty to thirty eggs may be deposited in
one batch by one female, and several batches may
be laid in one season. The eggs are surrounded in
the soil by an exudation forming a frothy case.
(Plate 4, Figs. 6 and 7.) In the case of one species
a little company of males may surround the female
during the egg-laying process. In summer, the eggsi
hatch in about a fortnight. The young (Plate 7,
Fig. I ) is like the parent but without wings, almost
black in colour, not more than one-sixth of an inch
in length, and capable of hopping an inch or two
Development takes place by a series of moults.
The wings begin to appear when the insect, called
now a nymph (Plate 7, Fig. 2), is half grown, and
then the permanent colour soon shows. The adult
stage is reached in six or seven weeks from th(;

62 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

time the insect leaves the Qgg, and its life as a fully
grown insect is rarely longer than six weeks.

From time to time certain types of grasshoppers
appear as plagues, destroying every vestige of vege-
tation that happens to lie in their track. They move
forward as a seething mass, rendering grass pad-
docks almost as bare as the roadway. Nature to a
limited degree has her own remedies. In a cold,
wet winter, great numbers of eggs are destroyed by
frost and rain. Birds, beetles, and wasps are also
enemies of the egg stage.

A parasitic fly {Sari-cophaga aurifrons) lays its
eggs on the adult grasshopper, and the larvae de-
vour the soft parts.

Birds, perhaps, are responsible for ridding us of
the greatest number. The quantity taken from the
crop of an Ibis or Brush Turkey is amazing.

Some species of plants, such as Delphinium, are
poisonous at times to the grasshoppers.

Locusts are very tenacious of life, and can be
submerged in water for some time and yet revive.

When the grasshopper becomes a plague in any
district, more speedy remedies, however, than those
already mentioned have to be resortd to. A heavy
roller passed over the ground in the hopping stage,
before the wings have developed, has proved a
useful check.

A good contact spray can be made from kerosene,
soap and water, in the proportion of i gallon of
kerosene, i or 2 lbs. of soap, and 7 gallons of water.
The soap is dissolved in 2 gallons of boiling water,

GRASSHOPPERS. 5:i

and while this is still hot, the kerosene and the re-
maining- water are added.

Poisonous arsenious sprays may also be used, but
where this is done, all stock must be kept out of
paddocks for a week or two.

For detailed account of various species of Grass-
hoppers, see Frog'gatt's "Insects of Australia."

2. — Long-horned Grasshoppers.
Family Phasgonuridae.

(Plate 7, Figs. 3, 4, and 5.)

(Usually referred to in text books as the
Locustidse. )

It would perhaps be more correct to call these
treehoppers, as they are found, not on the grass,
but on the foliage of trees. In American writings
they are known by the popular name of katydids,
because their chirping noise seems somewhat to
resemble this word.

They may be distinguished from the short-horned
grasshopper by the following distinctive features:

(a) Exceedingly long antennae, more than 30
joints, and often extending far beyond the
body. (Plate 7, Fig. 4, a.)

(b) The organ of hearing is not situated on the
abdomen, but on the tibia of the first pair

' of legs. (Plate 3, Fig. 6, a.)

(c) The ovipositor is prominent and spear-
shaped. (Plate 3, Fig. 8 a.)

(d) The tarsus is 4 jointed.

U LIFE STORl£S OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

In general structure, the treehopper closely re-
sembles the short-horned grasshopper. When
wings are present they are usually much longer than
the body, and have a decided leaf-like venation. So
closely at times do the wings resemble leaves, that
they may easily be mistaken for them.

Many varieties are wingless.

The hind legs, though slightly larger than the
other pairs, do not show the marked development
seen in the true hoppers.

The noise made by these insects is produced by
slightly raising the front wings and scraping a pro-
minent vein of one upon a resonant vein of the
ether. In some species the females are incapable
of making any sound.

Sharp thus describes the structure of the wings
for making sound : "One of the wings bears a file
on its inner surface, while the other, on the right
side of the body, is provided with a sharp edge
placed in a prominent part of its inner margin. By
slightly tilting the tegmina and by vibrating them
rapidly, the edge passes under the file and a musical
sound is produced."

Life History of the Green Tree Hopper.

{Elcphantodita pinguis.)

This hopper measures about 3 inches across the
outstretched wings. The body is short and the
wings extend beyond it. The eggs are about \ inch
in length, dark grey in colour, and a pointed ellipse
in shape. About 50 or 60 are deposited in a double

GREEN TREE HOPPER. 55

row around the edg^ of a leaf, or along a stem.
(Plate 7, Fig. 5. ) We have seen them in both posi-
tions. The regularity with which these eggs are
placed is most striking. We observed that the
}'Oung emerged from the upper end of the egg", and
shed its first skin as it did so. The baby hopper is
black, without wings, less than i inch in length,
and with a head out of all proportion to the rest
of its body. After moulting a few times, it becomes
green, and wing pads begin to appear. After the
final moult, the wings are full grown. It is most
interesting to watch the insect getting out of its
skin. At the last moult a split is seen down the
back of the thorax, and the old skin below this, by
means of sundry jerks and working of the body and
legs, is pushed of¥; then that part covering the
head, eyes and antennae is got rid of. The whole
process occupies about an hour. When completed
the front feet are used in cleaning the head and
antennas. The life from the egg to the adult stage
covers a period of seven or eight weeks ; then as
perfect insects they live a few more weeks.

The treehoppers are solitary insects. We have
frequently seen some species conceal themselves by
fastening the edges of leaves together, thus afford-
ing a roof-like shelter. On one occasion we came
across a large cocoon of an Emperor Gum Moth,
from which the rightful owner had long since flown.
The opening was covered by a flimsy web, and on
removing this we found a treehopper quite com-
fortable inside its appropriated home. The entrance
had been apparently concealed in order to keep ofif

56 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

enemies to which it would readily have fallen a
prey.

Treehoppers live by eating the foliage of trees,
being particularly partial to the Eucalyptus. The
Green Treehopper {Elephant odita pinguis) some-
times becomes a pest in orange orchards, where it
nibbles the green skin of the young fruit. The

scar so made heals, but appears as a brown patch
when the fruit is ripe, and this to a certain degree
takes from its commercial value.

An interesting treehopper called the Mountain
Grasshopper {Acrldopeza reticulata) is described
by Froggatt : "both sexes are of a uniform dull brown
colour, but very different in structure ; the male
measures 2 inches ; has long pointed elytra, and well
developed wings ; the head is small ; the antennae
slender and thread-like ; the eyes stand out on the
side of the head, and the thorax is saddle-shaped.
The female is furnished with a very short, rounded
body, richly mottled with blue, white, and red,
covered with a pair of rounded, short, shell-like
elytra, but the wings are wanting. When dis-
turbed, she stands on tip-toes, arches her bodv,
raises her elytra, exposing all the bright tints of
her body, which probably act as a warning to her
enemies."

Another Phasgonurid is the Wingless Anostos-
oiiia, which is very robust lookino-, with shining
reddish-brown body and leq-s and powerful head
and mouth parts. Paragryllacris has most beautiful
net-veined wings and very Inng antennae. It shows
fight when disturbed. We found one in a hole in
the trunk of a o-um tree.

57

FAMILY— CRICKETS.

(Gryllidac) (Plate 9.)

The Crickets are easily distinguished from other
families by the rounded head, brown to black colour,
and by the pair of spines on the end of the body.
In addition to these spines the female has a spear-
shaped ovipositor. The hind legs are also spined
and strongly developed for hopping. The antennae
are long and thread-like. There are usually only
3 tarsi, more rarely 2 or 4. The part of the tegima
used far producing sound is larger than that in the
Long-horns (Phasgonurids). The auditory organ
is on the front leg as in Phasgonurids.

Life History of a Common Black Field Cricket.

Grylliis commodiis.

The female places her ovipositor into the soil in
varied places, depositing numerous eggs. A day or
more may be devoted to this process. Each tgg is
elliptical, about one-tenth of an inch in length, with
a tiny lid or cap on one end. After about three
weeks, the young crickets appear, pushing the cap
from the tgg as they emerge. At first they are
white, about j inch long, and without wings. The
colour soon changes to brown and then to black.
The adult stage is reached after the insect has

58 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

moulted several times. When full grown it is
almost one inch in length.

The food of the cricket consists mainly of vege-
table matter in the soil, but when hard-pressed they
will attack refuse and even clothing.

The chirp of the cricket is well known. The
right Aving cover overlaps the left, and the song is
produced by the hard part of the former scraping
on that of the latter. Sharp says : "The wing covers
of the male differ from those of the Locustidge
(our Phasgonuridse), as the pairs are of similar
formation and each bearing a stridulating file on its
lower aspect." The privilege of chirping belongs
to the male only. The shrill notes are used in call-
ing his mate.

Crickets frequently appear in great numbers in
wet seasons. In flood time in coastal districts we
have seen thousands of crickets hanging on to
fences just out of the water, much as a sAvarm of
bees w^ould do.

They are kept in check by birds, lizards, and
ants devouring the young, and also the eggs before
they have time to hatch.

A smaller cricket less than ^ inch in length, and
exactly resembling the common black cricket, is
often found around the edge of lagoons when the
water begins to dry up in the early summer months.

The mole cricket (Curtilla coarctata) (Plate 9.
Figs. 3 and 5) bears a distinctive character in the
front legs, which are developed into a kind of
shovel (Plate 9. Fig. 4). by means of which the in-
sect burrows rapidly in the soil, soon excavating a

CRICKETS. 51)

liome for itself. The front wings of the adult are
short, whilst the hind pair is much longer, and
frequently ends in thread-like tails. The mole
cricket often spoils the even surface of a lawn by
forming tiny mounds.

We have seen the nest of a mole cricket made of
hardened earth worked up in the form of a tiny
cavern, and the eggs were deposited in several clus-
ters in this. (Plate 7, Figs, i and 2.) There were
tiny baby mole crickets also in the nest. This
was obtained about 2 inches below the surface of
garden soil.

Many wingless types of crickets are to be met
with.

Observations on the. Mole Cricket. (Plate 9.)

( Gryllotalpa coarctata- )

(Taken from the ''Australian Naturalist" by Mabel
N. Brewster.)

On a bright afternoon in November I heard
several crickets chirping, and going carefully to-
wards the sound till I located them, I pulled up a
number of plants of the Umbrella Sedge {Cy penis),
for crickets love roots of plants. I turned over
the soil and found a beautiful little "cricket home"
with two little doorways leading into a tiny under-
ground cavern about two inches in diameter. (Plate
9, Figs. T and 2.) Its- walls were quite firm an-l
strong and near this little home were a small and
a large cricket.

I then turned over an old stump and gently
scraped lumps of earth that were adhering to it, and

CO

PLATE 9.

Fiq 1 Eqq ^os\

Fiq2.. EcjCjS- wilKiix !\Qsl

Fig 6 Home of Mole Cnckck

MOLE CRICKETS,

CRICKETS. 61

to my surprise found that two of the lumps were
little *egg-room' caverns, each with about 200 eggs
in it. The eggs were brown and rounded. In
one nest were two tiny baby crickets. One was
just emerging from the egg and was quite white
Under the log were also crickets in all stages of
development, and there were two adults. I was
fortunate enough to see one of the crickets emerg-
ing. On bringing the eggs into the house, I saw
one of the eggs move and watched the process with
the aid of a broad lens. The egg skin was slit
along the back and the tiny creature moved its
head and thorax up and down, at each rising, getting
further out of the egg. The head and thorax came
first and later the abdomen, and the two tail pieces
or cerci came last, and in this last effort it rolled the
egg and itself right over.

But the legs and mouth parts seemed to be
connected with a fine piece of skin. For a time
the tiny creature moved about like a boy on a cross-
bar, bending its body right back, and then swinging
forward. It would roll itself and the egg shell

right over from side to side whilst making these
swinging movements. The eyes shone like two
pearls when seen in the light.

At last one leg was free, and I then aided it
by gently separating the other legs with a needle,
for probably the exit was made more difficult
because the earth pellet to which the egg was
attached had broken away from the wall of the egg-
chamber."

But the crickets after passing through the delicate

62 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

baby stage do not remain in the egg cavern, but
move on to the cricket home and ''playground"
which consists of a series of tunnels arranged so
as to cut out blocks of sand. (Plate 9, Fig. 6.)
We have watched the crickets scampering round
the passages after remaining quietly beside the nest
for a little time. We have found these nests under
pots resting on the ground, or under damp boards,
etc.

II

ta-a
51

c o

63

H
Q.
O
E
H
Oi
O

i2 «i

Q

o

c 5-c

IS

64

LACE WING GROUP.

Key given by Dr. R. J. Tillyard.

Key to distinguish the Five Orders

Odonata, Plectoptera, Neuroptera, Tri-

choptera and Lepidoptera.

Metamorphosis incomplete, wings with a
network of veins 2

Metamorphosis complete, no network of
veins on wings (except in some of the
Neuroptera) 3

' Wings equal in size or nearly so ; quite i
hairless . . Odonata or Dragonflies

Wings very unecjual, the hind ones much
reduced ; two winged stages, of which
the first or sub-imago has wings with
numerous minute hairs, the second or
imago, hairless wings . . . .

Plectoptera or Mayflies

Larva with mandibles and maxil
forming a pair of sucking tubes ; imago
with complete mandibulate mouth-
parts . . Neuroptera or Lace Wingj

Larva a caterpillar; mouth parts of image
not mandibulate ^

LACEWING GROUP. 65

Larva aquatic, without prolegs ; imago
with aborted mouth-parts, only the
palps remaining; usually very hairy
wings . . Trichoptera or Caddis-flies

Larva usually terrestrial with prolegs ;
imago with a suckingtube formed from
maxillae ; mandibles absent ; wings with

scales

Lepidoptera or Butterflies and Moths

66

PLATE 10.

67

ORDER ODONATA.

(Dragon-flies.)

This group of insects, which was formerly placed
in the Order Neuroptera on account of the beautiful
netted-veined wings, is now placed in a separate
Order — Odonata.

Dragon-flies are known by different names in
different countries. In England and Australia they
are called "horse stingers," unfortunately, though
they neither sting nor bite. People will tell one
in the country districts of the pain inflicted on
man and beast by these ''stingers."

Dragon-flies may be broadly divided into 2
groups : —

A. Anisoptera, the thicker-bodied dragon-fiies
with unequal wings.

B. Zygoptera, small slender dragon-flies called
demoiselles or damsel-flies, with equal wings. In
the former, the wings when in repose are held hori-
zontally, and the larvae are without external gill
plates, but have a rectal chamber at the end of
the abdomen, whose walls carry gills.

In the Zygoptera, the wings are held vertically
over the back and the larvae have three caudal (tail)
gill plates. (Plate 11, Fig. i, a.)

The metamorphosis is incomplete.

Dragon-flies are insect-feeders and destroy large

68 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

numbers of mosquitoes, flies, etc.. so that they can
be regarded as friends to man even though they
incidentally may destroy some useful types. Dr.
Tillyard in "Biology of Dragon-flies," makes the
following observations on a dragon fly which he
saw ''flying round and round a small bush about
7 p.m., when the mosquitoes were particularly trou-
blesome. After ten minutes it was captured. 1
found its mouth so full of mosquitoes that it was
unable to shut it. There must have been over
a hundred mosquitoes all tightly packed into a
black mass."

The head of the dragon-fly (Plate lo) is large
and very mobile ; the greater part is made up of
two large compound eyes, capable of a wide
vision. The eyes may meet on the top of
the head, especially in the males of certain species,
such as Aiia.v and other larger types. However,
there is an exception in the large mountain dragon-
fly, Petalura, where the eyes are not very large, and
are quite separated. The eyes of the Zygoptera
or damsel-flies are much smaller and more or less
stalked.

The mouth is a biting and chewing type, and the
jaws are very powerful, but the arrangement of the
mouth parts is such that a dragon-fly cannot bite
one's finger in handling it.

The wings are beautifully netted, the fore-wings
being slightly smaller than the hind pair. The
stronger dragon-flies are capable of very rapid flight
and the wing-structure is interesting, for there is
^n area of strength which bears the main pressi^re

PLATE 11.

Rq5 Gill plate of Damsel -fl/

f^icja Jaw cjf Draqon-flx

(Anax DapuPTvsit;
H'lnqe

f^icji nymph of Oamsel-fl^

(Austro\este<r leda)

a Gill plates-

F]q4 Larva of May -fly
(Ateiopfilebi^)

f.<j6G,Ilc^Urva&riympfi(.na<,n,M

F"} ' AcJulK May.f/

DRAGON-FLIES AND MAYFLIES (Enlar^edX

70 LIFE STORTES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

of the air, and this part carries strong veins. The
outer and lower part of the wing is softer and
easily moved, acting as a "rudder," and capable of
rapid vibrations. It is acknowledged that certain
types of aeroplanes were %uilt after the principle
of the working of a dragon-fly's wing.

The legs of a dragon-fly are weak structures in
comparison to the rest of the body, and from ob-
servation we know they are not used so much as a
means of locomotion but mainly for clasping when
at rest. The larger dragon-flies (Anisoptera) range
in size from 2 to 6 inches across the wings. The
colour of the body varies from a greyish-brown to
a brilliant red. The more sombre tints are fre-
quently relieved by markings of blue and green.

The abdomen is very elongate and narrow, and
i? made up of 10 segments. It terminates in a pair
of anal appendages.

The eggs are laid either in reeds, or in leaves or
stems of water plants — or else they are dropped
into the water.

Dr. Tillyard records that of Australian dragon-
flies the damsel-flies (Zygoptera) and some of the
larger dragon-flies (Anisoptera) place the eggs
within water weeds, while all the others just drop
them into the water as they skim over its surface,
and dip down every now and again, when the eggs
are washed oft* the tip of the abdomen.

Towards the end of summer we watched with
interest the egg-laying process in the species Ana.v-
papiiensis. The male supported the female by hold-
ing her around the neck by means of the anal

DRAGON FLIES. tl

claspers. Backwards and forwards they darted,
one instant so close to the water as to allow the tip
of the abdomen to touch it; up into the air for a
few feet, then back again, brushing the water once
more. This was kept up for over half an hour when
finally the pair flew oiT.

The larva, which lives in water, mud, etc., is a
queer looking little creature, possessing a robust
body and three pairs of legs. (Plate lo.) The
most striking feature about it is the lower
lip (Plate II, Fig. 2), which can be thrust out
almost half an inch beyond the front of the head.
This lip is concave and divided at the outer end
into two blades. In shape it varies with the species.
By means of it the unwary pond insects are grasped
and pulled into the mouth ; when not in use it can
be folded most innocently over the front of the
face, thus disguising its true use. It is thus termed
the "mask."

The food of the larva consists of anything in the
form of animal life which it can seize. Mosquito
Lnrvse are apparently much relished. When the
ordinary food supply fails, cannibalistic habits are
developed, and then the strongest or most cunning
alone survive.

We have watched dragon-fly nymphs in a fish
tank made from a lolly jar about 9 inches in dia-
meter, with water weeds growing to keep the water
fresh. The plants give oi¥ oxygen which is neces-
sary both for plant and animal life. Carbonic acid
gas (CO2) is given out by (a) breathing of plants,
(b) breathing of animals, (c) decay of plants. But

72 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

CO2 is necessary for plants, which absorb it from
the water to build up, with other elements, in the
water, food to enable the plant to perform its func-
tions and build up tissues. Hence a circulation of
these necessary gases is kept up and so the water
in the tank is kept pure.

We observed in one of these jars a dragon-fly
nymph which had just moulted, and had on its new
delicate-looking pale-green skin. As Ave watched,
another sturdy looking nymph began to stalk
its pale brother. It crept slowly up, having
little rests now and again, and finally seized its
victim by the middle of the back. These larvae
are very vr)racious, and will devour with relish' their
smaller brothers, the nymphs of the damsel-flies
and also mosquito larvcC. In collecting them
we once put a nymph of a large dragon-fly with
three may-fly larvae, and a couple of damsel-fly
nymphs in a test tube — a few hours later there was
only one living occupant of the tube — the large
dragon-fly nymph. In most cases, the nymphs of
dragon-flies usually show, to a certain degree, pro-
tective colouration, their colour blending with their
surroundings so that they can more easily seize
their prey ; for these creatures do not hunt and
chase their victims, but wait for them or slowly
stalk them.

The nymphs and larvae of the larger dragon-flies
have a rectal chamber at the end of the abdomen
(Plate II, Fig. 8), the walls of which carry gills
which contain numerous air tubes or tracheae. Water
is taken into this rectal chamber, the air is abstracted

DRAGON FLIES. 73

and then the water is shot out again. This move-
ment of the water aids in propelling- the insect
forward in the water. If a nymph be placed in a
dish with water to which a little fine sand has been
added, the movement of the water may be seen.

The larvae and nymphs of the damsel-flies have
the gills externally placed, in the form of three
plate-like appendages to the tip of the abdomen,
and these gills are supplied with air tubes.

By dragging a pond with a net. they can
easily be captured. These might be placed in a
glass jar, in which water plants are growing, and
then if supplied with mosquito wrigglers, their
development can be readily noted. A piece of
wood, or a rock risino- above the surface of the
water should also be placed in the jar, and finally
a piece of mosquito net tied over the top. We found
larvae in numbers on the roots of the water hya-
cinth. Taking just a single root of the plant, and
shaking it in a bowl of water, quite a number of
larvae were soon seen swimming around. They have
evidently found out that numerous small insects
live among these roots, hence the food supply is
plentiful.

The larva undergoes from 12 to 15 moults in
growing up. Just before the final moult it becomes
listless and seems somewhat tired of its aquatic
existence. It crawls up out of the water, grasping
the stem of a water plant or any firm object that
is near. We have known these larvae to crawl
some yards from the pond before finally attaching
themselves. A short rest is indulged in, then the

74 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

skin bursts down the back, and out from the open-
ing the head and front legs of the dragon-fly are
pushed. The legs are thrown back as if to allow
them to harden by exposure to the air. Then they
are bent forward, and the stick immediately above
the old skin is grasped, and by this means the re-
mainder of the body is pulled forth. The creature
in its new dress appears wet, limp and exhausted.
The wings are represented by tiny wing pads
scarcely more than ^ inch in length. In less than
one hour their wings reach their full extent, becom-
ing .firm and hard. The beautiful full-grown
dragon-fly then soars away in search of food. This
consists of other insects which are captured as it
files through the air.

It is well to keep the last nymph skin of the
dragon-fly, for if taken when still soft, and pinned
on to a piece of cork, the great mask or under lip
can be drawn out and observed well. The skin
then dries, and the specimen can be kept for future
use.

We found a couple of shells in a cave at Clarence
Siding, Blue Mountains. The nymph had crawled
out of a small pool in the floor of the cave.

As a rule, the large dragon-flies are solitary in-
sects, but an instance came under our notice where
they appeared in great numbers. At this particular
time mosquitoes were very numerous, but when
the dragon-flies came along, for a few days, there
was a noticeable decrease in their numbers.

On one occasion, when quite close to some
sw^^mpy country at Long Bay, we found ourselves

DRAGON FLIES. ^S

surrounded by flying ants. Before many minutes
had passed, scores of dragon-flies began their aerial
attack. They reminded us of a flight of airships
making war. The battle was short, for the fight
was unequal, and then little or nothing remained
to tell of the former existence of the ants.

The small, slender-bodied dragon-flies (Zygop-
tera) differ from the larger type in a few essentials.
The hind wings are not larger than the front pair,
the eyes are smaller, and stand out like beads from
tlie head, the eggs are deposited in the tissue of
water plants ; when at rest the wings as a rule are
held above the body of the insect and at right
angles to it. These are gregarious, being found in
great numbers on reeds, etc.. near ponds.

A pretty, delicate-looking damsel-fly (Austrolestes
leda) is one of the most common ; another is Aus-
trolestes analis. These measure about i} to 2 inches
across the wings. The general colour is brown
with blue or pink markings on the abodmen.

When egg-laying, the female of Austrolestes
makes slits, following a zigzag pattern in the stem
or leaf of a water plant. The abdomen is curved
round in inserting the eggs. The male may aid
the female in the process of laying the eggs by
holding her round the neck by means of tail pieces
or anal claspers.

It has been observed that sometimes the male
and female dragon-fly go down into the water for
a few inches when heavy rains have flooded ponds.

Whether it is usual, or whether it is in order
to be sure to have the eggs within normal water-

76 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSE(iTS.

height, is not certain. To obtain air in this jour-
ney they fold the wings back and air is enclosed;
for one can see the silvery gleam of the air as the in-
sects are in the water. The larva is longer than
that of the large dragon-fly. The abdomen termin-
ates in three external gills or breathing plates lined
with treachese or air tubes.

We watched the nymph of one of these dragon-
flies crawl out of the water and prepare to emerge.
It pressed its body up towards the head and formed
a kind of hump of its head and thorax — the nymph
skin split and the adult emerged. The growth of
the abdomen was most rapid. In 15 minutes it
grew half an inch, and in 35 minutes it was three-
quarters of an inch long.

The body of the adult or imago remained a pale
green for some hours, then this colour gradually
gave place to a dark brownish-green with trans-
verse markings of pale pink on the abdomen.

•yt

ORDER PLECTOPTERA.

(May-Flies.)

These are delicate little insects with beautiful
lace-wings. (Plate ii, Fig. 7.) The hind pair is
usually much smaller than the fore pair, and in
some species is absent. The mouth parts are rudi-
mentary. There are three long thread-like tails at
the end of the abdomen.

The life of the may-fly is very short. Reaumur
considers that in some species the adult emerges at
dusk and never sees the sun — living but for a
few hours. However some species are said to live
three or four days.

The larvae of these insects are aquatic and are
well known by those interested in water animals
and insects. The habits and life histories of Aus-
tralian may-flies are not well-known yet, and we
will give a brief outline of the life as recorded else-
where. The eggs are laid in water — usually just
dropped by the mother, and left to drift in the
stream. In another case the mother creeps down
into the water and lays her eggs under stones, etc.

The larva emerges and is fitted for a life in the
water, for plate-like gills are gradually developed.
These gills may be fringed or may be simply plate-
like. In most larvae there are long caudal setae or

78 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

tails which are fringed, and these are regarded as
special respiratory organs.

The life of the larva is thought to be very long,
extending over years in some species.

An interesting feature is a stage called the sub-
imago. When the last larval skin is shed thei'e
emerges a winged may-fly, but with dull, opaque
wings, with numerous minute hairs, and differing
from the true imago — hence it is called the sub-
imago. Later this enveloping coat is shed and
the imago emerges, which has beautiful transparent
wings. May-fly larvae can be found in pools and
running streams. On lifting stones in the bed of
shallow creeks the larvae can usually be found
in all stages of development up to the large nymphs
with prominent wing-pads. (Plate ii. Figs. 4 and

5-)

The lateral gills are very interesting as they move
with a motion suggestive of the movement of a
silken flag in a gentle breeze.

On examining the gill with the aid of the micro-
scope it can be seen with the main tracheae pro-
longed to form a distinct fringe at the apex and
outer side. (Plate 11, Fig. 6.)

A common species found in our creeks, is
Atalophlebia australasica.

79

ORDER NEUROPTERA.

In this Order were included a number of insects
such as Dragon-flies, May-flies, Caddis-flies, Lace
Wings, Stone-flies, Ant Lions, Water Bag
Moths. These have been separated into different
Orders (see Key at beginning of Order Odonata.)

Order Neuroptera.

(Lace Wings and Ant Lions.)

Families — (i) Chrysopidae (Green Lace Wings).
(2) Hemerobiidae (Brown Lace
Wings).
(3) Myrmeleontidae (Ant Lions).

The venations of the wings of the insects of these
three families are very widely different.

80

PLATE 12.

Fiq2,1iny larva on

Fi(]3 Larva -
a . Load of jKinr

ncjS. Pupal sKell

Fiq7 Adull-

LACE WINGS (all enlarged).

81

FAMILY— LACE WINGS.
(Family Chrysopidae.)

These pretty, delicate-looking little members of
the Neuroptera have just claim to their popular
name. The wings are transparent, and more closely
veined than the finest net. The lace wings are re-
cognised by a few outstanding features. The larva
is provided with a pair of sucking jaws, which pro-
ject beyond the head. The pupa is enclosed in a
cocoon. Metamorphosis is great and complete.
The larva and perfect insect may be found on plants
where aphides are abundant. The adult is fre-
quently found around the light at night time.

One of the best known is a pretty green creature,
familiarly known as "golden eye" (Chrysopa sig-
nata). This measures over an inch across the out-
stretched wings, and the head is adorned with a
pair of bright, jewel like eyes. The eggs are small,
oval, creamish-looking bodies, each of which is de-
posited at the end of a rather long thread-like stalk
(Plate 12, Fig. i), such stalk as a rule being attached
to or near the plant on which the food of the larvae
is found.

In captivity a green lace wing fastened about
twenty of these stalked eggs to the inside of a glass
jar.

The larva (Plate 12, Fig. 3). at first tiny, grows to

82 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

about Jin. long; the general colour is green mottled
with brown, and the body is covered sparsely with
short hairs. It possesses huge sucking jaws, and
moves rapidly by means of its three pairs of legs.

Recently we observed these larvae on the under
surface of radish leaves, which happened to be liter-
ally covered with aphides. Backwards and forwards
the tiny creatures sped, and just sucked the contents
of the aphides, leaving only the skins. These skins
in some cases were thrown back on the body in
order to disguise the larva. When aphides or scale
insects are scarce, small caterpillars or grubs become
good substitutes ; failing these, they become canni-
bals, and devour their brothers who do not happen
to be quick enough to evade their jaws. It
is full grown in about three weeks, but this time
\aries according to the food supply.

The larva spins a delicate spherical cocoon (Plate
12, "Fig. 4), which it attaches to a leaf or twig. This
cocoon looks like a tiny soft cotton ball. It is not
more than K inch long, and is small in comparison
to the size of the larva or of the adult. On top of
the cocoon is a tiny lid, which is lifted when the
adult "golden eye" pushes its head forth. About
14 days are passed in the pupal stage; thus the
period from egg to full grown insect varies from 4
to 5 weeks.

The green lace wing (Plate 12, Fig. 7) has a
very close relative in the "brown lace wing," which
closely resembles it, but is brown and somewhat
smaller.

The "painted lace wing" (PsycJwpsis) is met

LACE WINGS. 83

with in the Western districts of New South Wales,
and also around Sydney, and the young student, on
account of its broad, prettily marked wings is in-
clined to think it a moth. The lace wings may be
looked upon as among the best insect friends that
the orchardist and the man on the land possess.

Observations on a Lace Wing Larva.

We placed a larva of a lace wing in a box with
leaves and shoots on which were numerous aphides,
and had an interesting experience watching its
method of seizing its victims, demolishing them,
and hoisting many of the skins on its back.

Next day we placed the larva in a box with leaves
on which were aphides. After devouring them all,
it wandered round the box. On some of the leaves
were patches of white floccose material left by the
larvae of a little brown fulgorid insect (Order
Hemiptera). The larva of the lace wing was very
active, and probably hungry; it roamed round the
box and at last sighted the white patch of fulgorid-
threads. We were much amused at its antics. It
at once set to work on this cottony-looking material,
pulling it out with its long arm-like jaws, and then
curving its body round in a semi-circle, its rather
long legs — at least the two hind pairs — fully ex-
tended, as it stretched its head right upwards to
push in the white floccose material among the aphid
skins on its back. (Plate 12, Fig. 6.)

vSeen through the lens as it Avas thus working, it
looked at times like a performer at a circus, with
its high light load of aphid skins, its head stretched

84 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

back and its body curved up, and the back legs taut.
In most cases it pushed off the white threads as it
poked them upwards among the aphid skins, but on
other occasions it was not successful, and brought
back small patches of the material on its arm-like
jaws, but this did not seem to trouble it, for it re-
sumed its work of pulling out more stuff and hoist-
ing it. This continued for about three-quarters of
an hour — with little rests in between — when it went
for a stroll, and then came back to resume its load-
ing up.

It pupated, forming a little round cocoon about
the size of a very small pea — made of skins of
aphides — fulgorid-threads and silken threads with
which it wove the cocoon. The adult emerged three
weeks later, and outside the cocoon was the pupal
shell. (Plate 12, Fig. 5.)

Edward Step thus describes the egg laying of
the Lace Wing: ''When about to lay eggs, the tip
of her hind-body is brought into contact with a leaf
or shoot she has selected, and a minute globule of
gum is attached. Then elevating her body to the
full extent possible the gum is drawn out to a thread
of gossamer, which hardens on exposure to air and
becomes stiff* enough to support the Qgg, which she
attaches to its extremity. In so doing she is doubt-
less taking precautions against her eggs being
eaten by some other insect, or it may be against
the grubs of her own kind, for they are all of a
voracious character and are not free from the im-
putation of cannibalism.

It has been noticed that where the eggs are

LACE WINGS. 85

sufficiently close together the first-hatched grub
will cling to its egg shell and watch for the emer-
gence of its brothers and sisters, catching and eating
them as they appear. In the ordinary way the grub
crawls down the hair-like stalk of the egg and finds
itself quite close to a flock of the green fly or
aphis."

86

FAMILY MYRMELEONTID^.
(Ant Lions.)

In this family, it is the larva that has earned the
name of ant lion, from the fact that its food consists
chiefly of ants, though from observation we have
concluded that caterpillars and flies are also eaten.

To beginners the adult ant lion might be taken for
a kind of dragon-fly, but the abdomen is much
shorter and the body less strongly built than, at
least, the stronger dragon-flies. The flight, too, is
more awkward and sIoav — there is often a heavi-
ness about the flight of ant lions, such as Glenolcon
pulchelhis that is very characteristic.

The wings are gauzy and beautiful — they may be
clear and with a metallic sheen, as in Myrmcleon
tiniseriatus, or they may be blotched as in Glcii-
leon pulchellus (Plate 13. Fig. 2).

The antennae are fairly long, and often end in a
club or distinct rounded knob.

The larva (Plate 13. Fig. 3) is predaceous, lying
in wait for its prey in the sand. Some species make
pits in the sand, and lie in wait at the bottom (Plate
13, Figs. 5 and 6), while other species make no pits
but lie in wait in the sand. Dr. R. J. Tillyard re-
cords "that out of 600 reared, four species were pit
formers, the other eight species being- non-pit form-
ers or predaceous wanderers in sand debris, etc."

ANT LIONS. 87

The jaws of the larva are modified to form two
Slicking tubes in the form of two large jaws, each
consisting of a broad upper piece and of a lower
narrow blade which slides along the upper part,
and forms a tube.

The pupa is elongate and is folded round in a
beautiful little marble-shaped cocoon of sand grains
cemented together by a secretion from the larva.
(Plate 13, Fig. 4).

The pit formers recorded by Dr. R. J. Tillyard
are: Myrmelcon uniseriatits, M. pictifrons, CalUsto-
leon illiistris, C. crytliroccphalum.

Life Story of the Ant Lion.

{Myrmelcon uuiseriatus.)

The larva, which is predaceous, makes a pit in the
sand. We obtained many of these larvae along-
sandy paths or bush tracks, and in shallow, sandy
patches on rocky outcrops.

The larva is rather an unattractive creature, sand
coloured, with a pair of large protruding jaws. The
body is somewhat thick, tapering to the tail, and
clothed with hairs scattered over the body. Several
larvae were obtained in November. We put them
into a bowl containing sand. No. i made a circle
and went round and round, moving backwards and
forwards until it gradually came to the centre, and
then it disappeared in the sand. After waiting for a
few minutes we were rewarded by seeing particles
of sand being thrown up. This it did by sharp jerks
upwards and sideways with its spade-like head.
It worked just beneath the surface of the sand, its

88

PLATE 13.

Fi'cjl. Bo;<fDr rearma At\M|^a5
fa. Glary
I b. Su<jar

*- C Bo;< wilK sand.

Fu^j. P'lhs in sand.

Fi(j3 Larva

^^%V

?i'^i®ih.

.i?4i^---^

Fid 6 Sechon of pih

a . Laiva

b. Sand.

life Histor/ of AiAl^Lioa

Fi<^4: Cocoorx

FiaO SandKorn lube
Fi(] 10 End of Sand HjLg

Fkj 7 Caddifs inTute FicjSLarva PiqU. Shell k/be

a Base of Tube a SpliNe

Fig 12 Pupa

ANT LIONS AND CADDIS-FLIES (all enlarged).

ANT LIONS. 89

free progress being- aided by the shape of its body.
At last it had formed a funnel shaped hole 2| inches
wide, and i| inches deep.

No. 2 did not make a circle, but simply backed
underground and made a pit similar to that of No. i.

No. 3 at once went underground, but did not
make a pit that evening. By the morning the
funnel-shaped pit was there.

'Each little trapper was ready lying in wait at
the bottom of its pit with only its head and jaws
above the sand, or more usually with nothing show-
ing at all.

Its jaws are wonderfully made to suit its habits.
The typical biting and chewing jaws of the cater-
pillar are modified to form a pair of long curved
jaws, with mandibles and maxillae combining to
form a pair of sucking-tubes. These jaws seize the
prey, and suck up the juices from the body of the
victim.

For a few days we captured ants and fed them,
but later on placed the bowl outside near a vine
frequented by ants. A piece of glass was put on
the top of the bowl in such a way as to allow the
ants to enter, and yet to protect the larvae from
the rain. Moist sugar was placed on the top of the
glass to attract the ants. They came in hundreds,
often forming a black mass over the glass. Many
ran down over the sand. The ant lion larvae thus got
a good food supply. It was wonderfully interest-
ing to note how these larvae held their victims, and
thrashed and jerked them about until they were ex-
hausted, for efiforts of defence on the part of the

90 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

victims were made useless by their captors, who i
held the prey out of reach of any vital part. At
other times the ants were just pulled right under
the sand. Should an ant escape, and try to crawl
out of the pit, it was rather a comical sight to see
the cunning little larva throw showers of sand at
it till it tumbled back. Sometimes ants did escape,
and often these showed a strange fascination for the
pit. We noted one that had escaped, run excitedly
to the edge of the pit, run around it, then back-
wards and forwards, waving its antennae excitedly,
and at last it departed.

The length of the larval state depends on the
food supply. Plenty of food means a short larval
period. It can exist without food for very long
periods, probably because of the precarious method
of obtaining it.

At last one pupated and formed a beautiful
round cocoon, the size of a small marble, which
was made from a gummy liquid silk secreted in
the tip of the abdomen. This caused the grains of
sand to adhere, and thus the little ball was formed.
The pupal stage lasts from four to ten weeks.

On 2 1 St February we happened to look at the'
bowl which had been placed in a box, and saw the
sand moving. We watched for a little while, then
drew the sand aside, and exposed the top of the
pupal cocoon. Waiting for about 15 minutes, we
saw the little trap door or lid gradually open, and
slowly and carefully the adult ant lion arose en-
closed in what looked like a delicate membrane,
which gave it the appearance of a ghost as it

ANT LIONS. 91

mysteriously extended itself. It remained in this
position for a few minutes, then the pupal skin slit
from the head downwards. The insect gradually
freed itself, and proceeded to blow out its beauti-
ful iridescent wings.

The flight of the ant lion is not graceful and
quick like that of the dragon-fly, but slow and heavy
— hence it is easily captured. It often rests under
rocky ledges, its colouring affording it protection.

We observed on other occasions that on placing
very tiny red ants into the pit, the ant Hon larvae
simply tossed them out without deigning to hurt
them, whereas when a *'greenhead" was put in
immediately after, it was seized and devoured.
After a plentiful supply of ants (by means of the
plan described above), there were shrivelled skins of
the victims on the surface of the sand — they had
been thrown out of the pit by the larvae.

We experimented by placing a cherry stone in
three pits, and had great fun watching the efforts
of the larvse to dislodge them.

No. I, after heaving the stone up several tnues,
at last managed to throw it right out of the pit.

No. 2, after several tries, gave it up, and just
altered its home, making the best of unavoidable
circumstances. It made a new base to the pit, so
that the stone was to the side, and the bottom of
the pit was irregular, one half being beautifully
curved in the form of a semicircle, the other half,
distorted by the stone.

No. 3 could not manage to remove it, so just
disappeared. Next morning, however, the cherry

93 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

stone was out of the pit, so it had probably had
another try, when fresh after a night's repose.

The larvae can be watched by placing them in
a box in which sand is present. A piece of glass
can then be placed on the 1)Ox, covering the greater
part of it. Sugar is then put on the glass. (Plate
13, Fig. I.)

93

ORDER TRICHCOPTERA.

(Caddis-Flies.)

The adult caddis-fly resembles a small moth, but
it has wings with hairs instead of scales. The
wings meet at an angle over the back, resembling
a little roof.

The eggs are deposited usually in jelly-like masses
on the surface of ponds. Last summer we noticed
scores of globular masses of eggs floating about
on the surface of the w^ater for a few weeks. They
gradually disappeared in the water, or fell into the
hands of enemies.

The larva (Plate 13, Fig. 8) is somewhat like a
caterpillar. It builds a permanent home for itself
of sand grains, tiny pieces of stick, etc., cementing
the particles together with material from its own
body. In this tiny house, which as a rule, is not
more than an inch long, it lives and drags it along
with it as it moves about in the water. When mov-
ing in the water the head and 3 pairs of legs are
extruded, the rest of the body being in the case.

The Genus Hclicopsyche builds a little home in
the form of a tiny snail shell, and as it moves about
it carries it on the end of its body. The shell-like
portable house is made of tiny pieces of sand
cemented together. (Plate 13, Fig. 11.)

Another Genus Hydropsyche, whose larv?e are

k

94 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

thought to be carnivorous, and the larvae of some
species are proven to be so, live in shelters made
of groups of tiny stones, sand grains, etc. Sharp
says: "They live in fixed abodes; these are less
tubular than is the rule with the portable cases,
and are formed from pieces of sand and stones
spun together and fixed to larger stones under
water. Sometimes several larvae live together in
loosely compacted structures of this kind, and only
form true cases when about to undergo their meta-
morphoses. Muller describes a Brazilian species as
forming a case in which "the mouth-end has a
large, funnel-shaped verandah, covered by a beauti-
ful silken net. This larva lives in the rapids of
various rivulets, and the entrance to the verandah
is invariably directed towards the upper part of the
rivulet, so as to intercept any edible material brought
down by the water. Other members of the Hydro-
psychides form tubes or covered ways of silk, earth
and mud attached to stones, and in Avhich they can
move about freely. A species of the genus Hydro-
psyche has been found by Howard to help itself in
the task of procuring food by spreading a net in
the water in connection with the mouth of its case.
This net is woven in wide meshes with extremely
strong silk and supported at the sides and top by
bits of twigs and small portions of the stems of
water plants. .Small larvae brought down by the
current are arrested by this net for the advantage
of the larva which lurks in the tube."

Caddis worms are found in still water, running
streams, and in damp mossy situations, according

CADDIS-FLIES. 95

to the species. The Helicopsyche are found only
in running streams. The larvae of caddis-flies are
chiefly vegetable feeders or have a mixed diet, while
some are carnivorous. The larval stage is said
to cover several months, but this varies with climate
and species of larva. It is thought that in the
tube-caddis, there is circulation of water through
the tube even when the back of the tube is partly
blocked up. On pupation the larva spins a silken
I net at each end of its case, and provides for the
circulation of water.

The larva is said to attach itself to the tube by
j means of a pair of appendages at the end of the
! abdomen, and this is thought to be aided by a pair
I of projections from one of the body segments.

One of the common caddis worms (a Sericosto-
matid) builds a little cylindrical case which is
i broader at one end. (Plate 13, Fig. 9.) On ex-
amining with a lens, the sand grains which were
translucent, were seen to be beautifully cemented ;
the average grains were uniform in size, with
smaller ones fitting into smaller spaces between the
larger grains. On examining one of these cases
we found that the broader end seemed to be com-
pletely closed in by a *'door" made of three large
central grains with an outer circular row of smaller
ones. (Plate 13, Fig. 10.) The narrower end
was darker in colour and was partly closed with a
particle of plant tissue. Within this brittle

case was a perfect pupa, showing wing pads and
long antennae. (Plate 13, Fig. 12.) One of the
common genera found about Sydney in pools

96 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

is Notonatolica; another Helico psyche, which makes
a snail shell tube into which it retires on resting, and
this species is only found in running streams.
Another is Hy dropsy chc, which lives in a home made
of a few pieces of gravel, etc., grouped together on
rocks.

Observations on the Larvae of Caddis-flies.

{Notonatolica.')

We obtained some larvse of caddis flies from a
stream in a gully at Thornleigh, in May. We
brought them home and also some sand and water
weed (Callitriche) and placed them in a glass bowl,
and spent some very enjoyable hours watching
them. At night we put the bowl out in the garden
near some cannas, and each morning brought it
in and placed it in the sunshine. The larvae which
were resting when first brought in, soon became
lively as the warm sunshine played on the bowl,
and set to work in a very business-like way to get
breakfast.

The cases were about half an inch to one inch
in length (according to the age of the larva.) Each
case (Plate 13, Fig. 7) was narrower at one end,j
for as the larva develops it increases the size of th<
case. It was made of little scraps of stems, leavesj
etc., cemented with interwoven threads to form
complete bag-like canal, for, at the posterior enc
was a clear piece of woven material with a litth
circular hole in the centre ; there were only a fe^
"scraps" sewn in on the edge. (Plate 13, Fig. 7a.
This would allow of circulation of water throu^l

CAbDIS-FLIES. 97

the case and for the exit of excreta. One larva
had chosen a piece of a hollow rectangular stem
about f inch long, and had covered the ends with
a membrane-like material, with a few pieces of
stem and other material woven in, and at the pos-
terior end was the little circular hole before men-
tioned.

The larvae seemed to feed on microscopic growths
on the stems and leaves of the water plants, for they
continually passed along the water weeds not gnaw-
ing off pieces, but just bruising the delicate leaves
of the plant, for with the lens one could see little
bruised places on the leaves, while the stems were
unafiFected.

The legs and the way the larvae use them are
rather interesting. The three pairs are all of

different sizes. The hind pair is very long and
when floating on its back near the surface of the
Avater as the larvae frequently did, these legs were
gently moved like oars. Also in climbing upwards
along a stem, they were first placed forward to
get a reach, and then the smaller pairs were brought
into play, and the body pulled forward. The front
pair is the shortest, and as the creature moves
quickly forward one can see how the marked differ-
ence in length is rather a help than hindrance,
for the hind pair takes a good long reach, the next
pair a lesser reach, and the front pair just an ordin-
ary step. One could observe this well, for these
larvae had a habit of moving along on their backs,
both in swimmir.g and in walking along plants,
but they could quickly turn themselves round
again. They rested frequently from the labour

98 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

of feeding, and would then retire into the case ex-
tending a pair of legs to take hold of a stem ; the
position varied, at one time one would hold on to
a stem and the body and case would be vertical,"
giving it the appearance of standing on its head;
or it might hold the case at an angle. Sometimes
one would get under a leaf or stem and rest there
without even the exertion of holding on. The
head and legs are partly withdrawn, the ends of
the long hind legs curved round the head which
was seen under the flap of the case. The crea-
ture just looked like a person in a closed-in ham-
mock, lying back with arms at the back of the
head and viewing the world — too lazy to move
even a leg. (Plate 13. Fig. 7.)

When stretching to reach some object the larva
withdrew part of the protected body which is quite
white and with a number of long white hairs, which
curved round the body, giving it the appearance of
being wrapped in loose white fibres.

A curious habit they had of "grazing" over one
another's cases, and as one alighted on the case of
its mate, the latter would begin on his, and round
and over they would go, and so quickly that they
resembled a pair of playful puppies, especially asl
one would get tired and jerk its mate off. We
examined the case under the microscope and found
that numerous green water algae were growing on
it, and this is what the caddis grubs were seeking.

We examined a larva out of its case (Plate 13,
Fig. 8), and found that there were three projections
on the first segment of the abdomen. One at the

CADDIS-FLIES. 99

Dack which projected outwards like a spine, and
two lateral ones, much shorter. (Plate 13, Fig.
8a). There were a pair of suckers at the end of
the abdomen. These processes probably enable
the larva to maintain its position in the case and
by adpressing the projections, it could slip smooth-
ly within the case.

There is a group of Caddis flies belonging to the
Family Hydroptidac These are minute caddis flies,
and the larva which we observed was practically
microscopic. The case was transparent and

brownish fawn, and we watched the larva feeding
on water plants, such as delicate algse.

An interesting note on water insects was given
by Mr. F. W. Carpenter, M.A., in "The Austral-
ian Naturalist." It describes an excursion to
Ileathcote in July. ''Many larvae were obtained by
diligent dredging of the water weeds, and these
were carefully examined alive in a shallow white
dish full of water. The larvae of the dragon fly
Austrolestes cingiilatiis were found in various stages
of development, and in some the budding wings
were clearly visible. The fine caudal gills of this
genus were pointed out. The whirligig beetle
Macrogyra, and the back swimmer Notonecta (a
bug), were both found on the weeds.

"The abundant fauna was discovered on the
under surfaces of submerged flat rocks. The

small conical cases of the caddis larva Helicopsyche,
were seen to be built of fine sand grains, whilst
the green transparent pupa of Hydropsyche was
found hidden amongst a little mound of pebbles

100 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

firmly secured to the rock which serves as
shelter for the larva of this genus. The active^
larva of the mayfly Atalophlebia proved most in-
teresting- when examined w^ith a lens in a brighl
light, the rapid rhythmic motion of its gills being]
specially fascinating. Several interesting dragon
fly larvae were collected, including Austrocordulia
refracta, Acschna brevistyla, Hemigomphus hetero-
clitus; the latter were obtained by careful
searching of the clean sand of the creek bed, whilst
the Aeschna larvae were best obtained by dredging
the vegetable debris.

The larger dragon-fly larvae were put into a dish
with a little fine mud amongst the water. This
served to detect the current of water which is
ejected from the rectum with sufficient momentum
to cause the forward propulsion of the larvae. In
such cases the gills are internal, and line the walls,
of the rectum; they absorb the oxygen from thej
\Vater before it is ejected. The more rapid the
swimming movement the more abundant is the sup-
ply of oxygen for respiration. This method oi]
propulsion was actually tried on an experimental
scale for the propelling of boats, but proved inferior,
to the screw.

It is worth notice that in many cases the dragon-
fly larvae were in various stages of development.
Thus by patient search, it Avas possible to see a
considerable portion of the life-history without the
long waiting so often necessary in the case of cer-
tain other genera where the individuals are all at
the same age at a given time."

I

101

ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

(Sawflies, Ichneumons, Ants, Wasps, Bees.)

The word "hyiuenoptera' means ''membranous
wings." It is derived from two words, hymen, a
membrane and pteron, a wing. Insects of this order
have two pairs of membranous wings, which are
usually transparent, and at the base of the fore-
wings on the second segment of the thorax is a
cup-like scale which covers the base of each of the
fore wings. This scale is termed a tegula. (Plate
21, Figs. 9 and lo.) The veins of the wings are
chiefly lengthwise; and with comparatively few
cross-veins. These insects can thus be easily dis-
tinguished from a typical insect of the Order Neur-
optera (lace wings), which have numerous cross-
veins forming a distinct lace work. Flies (Order Dip-
tera) also have membranous wings and in general,
more nearly resemble hymenopterous insects, but
flies have but two wings. The hind wings of hymen-
opterous insects are smaller than the front pair,
and in repose often slip partly under the front
wings, so that one needs care in examining some
of these insects to separate the two pairs of wings.
In flight the hind wings hook on to the front pair
by means of a row of curved spines (Plate 14, Fig.
5) which are present on the front margin of the
hin4 wings. On the back margin of the front

102

PLATE 14.

Fiql Mandibles
of Ant-

Fic|2. Mar\<)ibles of Bee

Fiq4. Saw of Saw-fly
Fiq5 Hook? on Back wint] of DQC

FicjS Oviposit-or of

Ichneumon

Fiq6 StlI^q of Bee \. .3

FiqlO PiA-tail Larva

F\q II Larvd of Peraa. Lcwisi

HYMENOPTERA (all enlarged),

SAWFLIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. 103

\\ iilgs, is a groove into which the hooks tit. Tlie
effect of this combination is to present a larger
surface or ''sail" to enable the insect to fly with
greater power, for most hymenopterous insects have
good flight. The mouth is modified from the typical
biting-mouth of the cockroach, etc., in accordance
with the habit of these insects of feeding upon the
nectar of flowers. Yet it is not a purely sucking-
mouth as seen in butterflies and moths. There
are always mandibles present (see Plate 14, Figs.
I and 2); these are used for various purposes;
bees use them to cut and knead the wax for the
cells of the hive ; paper-nest wasps use them to tear
pieces of wood with which to make the "paper"
for their nests, and also to seize and tear their
prey; while mud-daubers use them to work
up the pellets of mud into "bricks'/ for their little
earth-cells or rooms, and also to cut and tear th'j
soil if they burrow in the earth. Some ants use the
mandibles very effectively as weapons of defence
and attack, they can piece their foe with the stout
prominent mandibles (see Plate 14, Fig. i,), and then
spray the wound with poison or formic acid.

We will take the bee's mouth as a type for the
Order Hymenoptera (see Plate 25, Fig. 4), though
the mouths of the other insects in this group ma}
vary more or less from this type.

If a bee is soaked in a weak solution of potash
for a couple of days, and the front part of the head
cut off, and examined first with a lens and then
with the microscope, the following parts can be
separated and noted. (See Plate 25, Fig. 4.) The

i04 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

mandibles are in the form of a pair of dark stout
chitinous plates or blades, just under the upper lip
or labruni. The outer chewing jaws or first maxil-
lae are very much modified from those of the biting
mouth. The maxillary palpi or palps which are
long- and fine jointed in the former, are here re-
duced to mere lobes at the base of the maxillae;
the latter, instead of being strong jaws, are elon-
gated to form a pair of long palp-like appendages
capable of free movement and clothed with hairs.
The labium and inner maxillae which in the biting-
mouth are fused to form a solid central and pos-
terior basal lip, called generally the labium, here are
still fused, but the labial palpi are elongated to form
much longer appendages, and the central part is
elongated to form the ligula or tongue. The ligula
(Plate 25, Figs. 4 and 6) is a central rod with three
grooves and a rounded button-like appendage, the
bouton, at the tip. There is a central elongate
groove along this rod, and two smaller lateral side-
grooves. Should only a small quantity of nectar be
taken up the central groove is used, if a larger quan-
tity the side grooves are also used. The ligula and
labial palpi are clothed with hairs. Should a still
larger bulk of nectar be absorbed the insect employs
a very wonderful means of obtaining it. It places the J
long palp-like outer maxillae side by side till the
hairs of each intertwine. Then underneath these it
brings the lower elongate labial palpi, in such a
position as to make them fit closely against the
upper maxillse, and the hairs of the four appendages

SAWFLIES. ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. 105

intertwine to form a pseudo-tube. (Plate 25, Fig.
5,) In the centre of this so-formed tube the elon-
gate ligula can be moved freely.

The metamorphosis of the Order Hymenoptera is
^ perfect or complete. The larva in the sawflies is
a grub with three or more pairs of legs and anal
claspers. (Plate 14, Figs. 10 and 11.) But the
typical larva is a legless grub or maggot. It dififers
in most cases from the dipterous or fly maggot,
in that the head and thorax are bent over on to the
abdomen thus being a "hooked maggot." (See
Plate 16, Fig. 2.) It is usually soft and delicate
because it is protected in sand homes, in mud cells.
in cells of wax or paper. The larva of the saw
fly, which feeds on leaves of Eucalyptus has a
tough integument, for it is exposed and moves about
freely to obtain food for itself. The pupa
(Plate 16, Fig. 11) is very often enclosed in a co-
coon, the appendages of the pupal ])ody are some-
what free and not so closely adpressed to the body
as is the case with the moth pupa. The cocoon
varies according to whether it is exposed or pro-
tected. In mud-daubers where the cocoon is pro-
tected in the mud-cell it is very brittle, while those
that are more exposed are woolly and strong.

External Features of the Adult. — The three parts
of the body, the head, thorax, and abdomen, are
easily distinguished. (Plate 15, Fig. 2.) The
head is usually well separated from the thorax by
a narrow neck. The thorax is stout and broad.
The first or part of the first abdominal segment
is added to and fused with the thorax. It is termed

106 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

the propodeum and is for convenience regarded as
part of the thorax. Also for clearness we will re-
gard the true second segment of the abdomen as the
first, for it is the first segment of the abdomen as
one sees it. The abdomen is usually stalked with
a stalk or petiole (Plate 22, Fig. 8.a.) more or less
long; this gives free movement to the abdomen
which is a great advantage to those insects which
sting.

At the end of the abdomen of the female is a
sting, an ovipositor, or a saw. (Plate 14, Figs.
3, 4, 6 and 7). Professor Spencer in "Across Aus-
tralia" thus sums up the foresight, of hymenopter-
ous insects: "The utilization of the nectar of flowers
or of the sweet material secreted by other insects
for the manufacture of honey, seems to be a faculty
possessed only by members of the Hymenoptera
among insects. Bees store it in combs, ants in
the bodies of certain members of the community;
and in regard to this particular point both of these
insects are more sagacious than the Australian
savage who literally takes 'no thought for the
morrow' and never thinks of laying in a store ofj
food to help him to tide over bad times."

Social Instincts. — Saw flies show a tendency toj
social habits in most species by the habit of th(
larvae being clustered together in confused inter-
coiled groups while in repose, after feeding on the^
leaves of Eucalyptus. (See Plate 14, Fig. 8.) They
also pupate in the ground close to each other,
sometimes forming a solid mass of cocoons.

The Mud-daubers (Wasps) or solitary wasps

SMVFLIES, AXTS, WASPS. BEES, ETC. 10?

make houses of several cells or ''rooms" and store
food of paralysed insects in readiness for the
baby-grub which will hatch out from the egg the
mother wasp lays on one of the stored victims in
each cell.

Mason bees also make mud homes of many cells
and store honey and pollen mixed into a paste
^(bee bread), and the mother mason bee lays an
egg in each cell and then closes it up.

Some of the Andrenids or short tongued bees make
little homes in the earth, and the mother bees
{Andrena, etc.) make their homes near to one
another to form a little village. This is also done
by some of the sand wasps of genus Bemhex. >

Another Andrenid bee {Halictus) makes a com-
pound home common to several mothers. There is
a tunnel made in the earth which is the "common
entrance," and running off from this are side pas-
sages, and one mother takes charge of each side pas-
sage. This is an advance in social instincts. Each
mother bee makes little cells, stores honey and
pollen and then closes up the cell.

Yet another advance is made by some true wasps
of the Genus Synagris- In some species of
Synagris the mother builds mud cells, but instead of
storing the paralysed caterpillars, laying an egg
on one and then closing the cell, the mother wasp
makes the cell, lays an egg, and then when she
thinks it is ready to hatch she hunts for caterpillars,
paralyses them, and puts them ready for the baby
wasp-grub. Day by day the mother feeds her
little baby with fresh caterpillars. Then when

los

Llt^E STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN iKSECTS.

almost ready to pupate she seals up the cell and
proceeds to make a new one. Another species of
Synagris advances still further. Instead of placing
the caterpillar beside the wasp-grub, she masti-
cates the caterpillar to form a little pellet of food-
paste, and places it just below the- mouth of
the wasp-grub (See Plate 23, Fig. 10), just as is
done by the paper nest wasp. When the larva
is nearly ready to pupate the cell is sealed up.

The Vespid Wasp (See Plate 24) advances
still further — the mother wasp lays the foun-
dation of the paper nest in spring. She makes
several cells and lays an egg in each, then has to
feed the "babies" which hatch out. These early
wasp-larvse pupate later and emerge as worker-
females, a special clste, which do not lay eggs, but
help their mother to feed the baby-wasps, to make
new cells, clean and enlarge old cells, etc., thus
making a true social community. In the autumn
males and females hatch out. The males soon
die and the fertilized females hide in crevices, under
stones, etc., till the spring comes, when each may
found a new nest and colony. Thus all the in-
habitants of the old nest die except the fertilised
females which were born in the late autumn, and
each wasp community only lasts for one year. The
deserted nests may survive long after communities
have died out.

The highest form of social development is seen
by many species of ants and hive bees. The nest
of a bee will last for years, while those of ants
often last during the life time of a man. Their social

SAWFLIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. 109

habits are very much advanced, the care of the
home and the general good of the community being
the main features.

Classification of the Order Hymenoptera.

This order is divided into two main groups. The
first embracing comparatively few species, the
second group including the vast bulk of the families
and species of Hymenoptera.
I . I. Group Sessiliventres.— This term means
"stalkless bodies," and includes sawflies which are
thick-set in appearance, for the thorax and abdomen
are similar in width. The abdomen has not nar-
rowed to form a stalk or petiole at its junction with
the thorax — it is sessile or stalkless, c.v. : sawflies.

II. Group Petiolata (ants, wasps, bees). — The
abdomen has a petiole or stalk at its junction with
the thorax. This is well seen in the mud-dauber
wasp (Pelopacus)-

This group can be again subdivided into

(i) Parasitic Wasps, including Chalcids, Bra-
conids, and Ichneumons.

(2) Fossores (Digging Wasps), including
Thynnids, Scoliids, Sphegids, Pompilids.

(3) Diplopterids or True Wasps (wings folded
fan-wise")-, including Eumenids (Masons),
Vespids (Paper-nest Wasps).

(4) Heterogyna (various females). — Ants

(5) Anthrophila (flower lovers). — Bees.

Group I. Sessiliventres.
Family Tenthredinidae (Sawflies). — These are

no LlI^E STORIES OP" AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

vegetable feeders. The larvae of this group are
better known than the adults (Plate 14, Fig. 8).
They may be seen in clusters on the leaves of
Eucalyptus, and when disturbed, they turn up their
tails and eject a greenish fluid, hence the children
call them "spitfires."

The adult is a thickset insect (Plate 14, Fig. 9).
Some of the more brightly coloured ones may be
mistaken for the more thickset species of wasps,
until the absence of the petiole is noted. The mother
sawfly has a "saw," an instrument for cutting slits
in leaves, situated on the underside at the end of the
abdomen. (Plate 14, Figs. 4 and 7.) It is a beautiful
little tool when seen with the lens, and can be placed
in a slit in the abdomen, or pushed out just at
will. (The saw can be seen well by gently drawing]
it out with a needle).

After cutting the slits in the leaves, the eggs are
laid and from them hatch out grubs which differ
from most hymenopterous larvae in that they are
quite capable of supporting themselves — for they can
move freely about on the leaves and eat; they
have strong biting jaws.

The mother sawfly of some species shows a ten
dency to social insects by hovering over the eggs
and young larvae, ex. : Perga lewisi. At such a time
she is easily caught.

The larva of the common large sawfly Perga dor-
salis is a grub with three pairs of strong horny legs,
and a pair of anal claspers. The grubs feed on Eu-
calyptus leaves, and go about like flocks of shee
feeding, and scattering somewhat when doing- so

I

I

SAWFLIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. Ill

They come together during the resting and non-
feeding period, when they crawl over one another
and form a solid phalanx, which, when disturbed,
sends up a number of tails and ejects jets of fluid,
thus showing a more formidable front to the enemy
(birds or parasitic w^asps) than a single grub would
do. The grub of Pcrga lewisi is very similar.
(Plate 14, Fig. 11.)

There is another common type of sawfly whose
larva has a body which is prolonged at the end to
form a rat-tail (Plate 14, Fig. 10). These grubs
have eight pairs of pro-legs (or pseudo-legs), and are
found on Leptospermum bushes in groups of six or
seven, but feeding separately and not in squirming
masses, at least in the day time when we have seen
them. This one is called the "pin-tailed sawfly"
(Ptcrygophorus). Froggatt records of this larva:
"When full grown it bores into dead wood pupating
in a rounded oval cocoon."

In most species, the larvae of sawflies pupate in
the soil, usually in close proximity, and specimens
have been found showing a solid mass of sawfly
cocoons which had been made in the ground.

So we see that there is a tendency to social
habits in the gathering together of the larvae and
pupae.

Experiment. — Sawflies can be reared by placing
the grubs in a box with several inches of soil, part
of which is damp but not too moist. The food
plant can be placed in the damp soil or in a shallow
bottle with water in'it, They ar? not easily reared

112 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

in captivity, but we have reared out Pcrga in such
a box described above.

It is interesting to see the marching of a body
of these larvse along the ground in order to pupate.
We watched a group of them on the Blue Moun-
tains at Clarence. They were the larvae of the
large sawfly Pcrga Cauicronii- They were passing
over ground covered with the greyish-fawn dead
leaves of gum trees. Numerous twigs were

scattered among the leaves. For two days we
watched them — a group of about twenty-five ; they
had assumed a greyish-fawn colour, and were
travelling along quite close to and partly embracing
each other, stopping every now and again to
''tap tap" with their heads. Usually a couple of
leaders w^ould tap ! tap !, then they would stop, and
at once all would tap ! tap ! with their heads. When
touched with a twig they hoisted up their tails.
They did not move continuously but would pro-
gress in a squirming mass for a few inches and
then stop. On the third day they had disap-
peared.

The 'Tear Slug" Sawfly, Sclandria is an intro-
duced pest from America. The larvae damage
the foliage of cherry, pear and other trees.

Group II. Petiolata. (Abdomen with petiole or
stalk.)

(i) Parasitic Wasps.

A Family Chalcidae.

Chalcid wasps are among the most numerous of
the families of the Hymenoptera, but most of them

PLATfi 15.

113

Fiq5 Elbowed Antenna
a. ^- Scape

Fiq b Fiq
a Onf.ce

Fiq 7 Wint] of Chalcio
a - Sinqle Vaia

CHALCIDS (greatly enlarged).

I

lU LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

are so tiny that they are not popularly known.
They are called the "micro-hymenoptera."

They can be distinguished from the other small
wasps by the following: (a) The wing has no cell
system, but a solitary vein or nervure which runs
longwise with a short backward turn (Plate 15,
Fig- 7) ; (b) the antennae are elbowed, that is, there
is a long basal joint, and a jointed upper part stands
at an angle to the long, single, basal joint. (Plate
15, Fig. 5). Note the antennae of Some of the
male chalcids are branched and look like tiny
feathers.

Life History. — The eggs of the chalcid are laid
by the mother inside the victim or host, such as a
grub, caterpillar, etc. A tiny legless grub hatches
out — it is white or cream, and delicate in texture,
for it is protected within the body of the host,
where it takes nourishment either by absorbing
the liquid food, or by sucking it through the mouth.
The host does not seem to be seriously inconven-
ienced by these self-invited guests, but just grad-
ually Aveakens and dies, leaving an empty shell of
the harder indigestible parts. If the chalcid is
small, many eggs may be laid in the one host. The
caterpillar, etc., may reach the pupal stage but does
not live to become a perfect insect.

Chalcids are useful when they parasitise the
larvae of some of our pests such as the codlin moth,
grape vine moth, lucerne moth, scale insects. Gall
insects are also attacked by them while certain
species of chalcids are said to make galls.

There is a very interesting- relation between some

SAWFLIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. 115

of the chalcids and the fruit of fig trees. In the
wild figs of Asia Minor there is a kind of
commensalism of the fig and fig wasp (Blastophaga
grossorum). The fig is a hollow enlarged receptacle
with a tiny opening at the apex, called the ostiole."
(Plate 15, Fig. 6 a.) Within the receptacle are
many tiny florets or fig flowers, male, female and
neuter. The neuter florets are altered female-

florets, in each of which a mother-wasp lays an
Ggg. A tiny wasp maggot hatches out and feeds
on the tissues of the neuter floret. It pupates m
it, having eaten all the substance of the floret ex-
cept the shell which makes a little pupal chamber
(Plate 15, Fig. 3) where it changes into the adult
chalcid.

The female wasps pass in and out of the figs,
laying eggs in them, and in this passing from fig to
fig, they carry the pollen of the male florets to the
female florets which are fertilized and thus im-
prove the quality of the figs. The common cul-
tivated fig called the "Ficiis type" has no male florets,
and many fruit growers of Italy, Greece, and Asia
Minor cut branches of the uncultivated fig,
the Caprificus type, which have male florets pre-
sent, and they hang them on the branches of the
cultivated tree (Ficus) believing that the wasps will
visit their figs and increase the growth (by carry-
ing pollen and causing fertilization). This is called
"Caprification of figs."

Certain species of edible preserving figs will only
ripen well with the aid of wasps, causing fertiliza-
tion, but the ordinary edible figs will ripen

IIG LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

without any such mtervention. We had a
very interesting time watching the chalcid wasps
on the figs of the Port Jackson and Moreton Bay
trees. For several years in the months of Februar}'
and March we saw numerous wasps of species
Plcisfodoutcs froggatti, and two other species in
fewer numbers, in these figs.

The males are usually yellow or orange in col-
our, wingless, and blind. (Plate 15, Figs, i and 4.)
If some of the smaller green figs be cut across and
then broken up and examined with the lens one
can see the curious female and male florets, and
others occupied by wasps — these Ave might call the
neuter florets. The female florets produce the tiny
fruits (seedlike). The wasps occupy their little
homes, and one can see the larva, pupa, and adult,
each in dififerent little compartments, for on breaking
the fig, the walls of some of the little neuter florets
are torn away. Many wasps were ready to emerge
and began moving the head and legs very slowly,
like a tired child being wakened from sleep. They
slowly pulled themselves out of the pupal chamber
with a few little "rests" in between. The females
seemed to be mature earlier than the males, for in
the young figs we opened there were more females
mature while only a few males came out ; in the
older figs the males were more numerous.

The females are black (Plate 15, Fig. 2), and so
easily seen. They are active, winged, and have a
long slender ovipositor. The males can be dis-
tinguished from them, for they are of a gen-
eral deep cream colour, the head and thorax

SAWI^LIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. iii

a reddish brown, and the body which tapers to a
fine point, is a creamy colour. Sometimes the

females left their vv^ings behind either in the shell
of the floret, inside the fig, or after they reached
the outer surface of the fig. They are quick-

walking insects and can get over the surface of
figs and leaves very smartly — they either walk or
fly to other figs. They carry pollen on their

bodies to another fig, where, in walking among the
florets they lay the eggs in some of them, and at the
same time dust pollen on to the female florets.
The wingless males never leave the figs. On one
occasion we cut open a fruit of a Moreton Bay fig
tree and disturbed dozens of little metallic green-
ish chalcid wasps with a ;'very long ovipositor.
(Idarnis australis)- These wasps scrambled out of
their pupal homes, and as quickly as possible and
one after another, they bent the ovipositor and took
a flying leap out of the fig without even waiting
for their wings to dry. Then they exercised their
wings in the open. They reminded us of a number
of children jumping off a spring-board in the baths.
Mr. Froggatt, in ''Friendly Insects," thus sums up
the micro-hymenoptera, to which the clialcids be-
long :—

"They comprise thousands of the most beautiful
and often most curiously formed little creatures in
the insect world ; while some are rich in bright,
metallic tints, others are dressed in black, with the
usual prim wasp-like form. They differ from the
i former groups in structure of the antennae, and in
having hardly any cross or parallel veins in tiie

118 Lli^E STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

delicate gauze-like wings, while most of them are
very small, and many microscopical, those of the
group with extended tails reaching i of an inch in
length being the giants. In summer the bush,
garden, orchard, and field swarms with countless
thousands of the smaller forms of these parasites;
nothing is too small for them to infest. One group
lays its eggs in the eggs of spiders. Others
insert their ovipositor through the protective cov-
ering of the mantis eggs, and discharge their eggs
therein. Another black ant-like wasp infests the
eggs of grasshoppers, and several curious species
can be obtained from the pupae of our large bull-
dog ants.

To the farmer, however, the most interesting
are those which destroy the small moth caterpillars
of which there are many. The best known are the
chalcid wasps, short, thick-set, hard, shining, black
and yellow wasps, which have the thighs of the
hind legs so thickened that, drawn down on either
side of the abdomen, they are often quite as large
as the short oval body. All the members of this
group are parasitic on the larvae of small moths.
One attacks the codlin moth, and is known as the
"jumping fly" because it has the power of springing
up by contracting the swollen thighs. If any one
wishes to observe these little friendly insects he
has only to collect a bunch of galls of a gum tree,
some insect eggs and cocoon, and place them in a
closed jar, where in a few weeks he will see these
little creatures crawling over the surface of the i
^lass trying to escape.

SAWFLIES, ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. 119

A very curious fact is the development of some
groups of these tiny parasites which has been dis-
covered within the last few years, namely, that the
ovum or egg deposited in the caterpillars swells
out and divides into a number of separate eggs, each
capable of producing a perfect wasp, so that each
egg deposited by the parasite multiplies into many
This discovery explains the rapidity of the increase
of many of these minute creatures."

120

PLATE 16.

F\aZ. Fi<)3. Cocoorv Ficj 4: Open (Cocoon
Larva of of Braconid a Up

Flal. G)coor>s of Braconid Wasp Braconsd

on Caterpillar

Fio.5. Winaof Bnacoaid ."cella' undiviclfd

i(j ^P*°£^^,^^^Pj,, M^jjcellof host

Pia8 IcKaeutnoa ('£'/)/(Arwj
a. Ovipositor

-. Fiq 10 Rutw-wa5p. One winq removed

^ ^ ^a- 'Spine ^

PARASITIC WASPS (enlarged).

1^1

GROUP 11. PETIOLATA.
Parasitic Wasps.

B. Family Ichneumonidae (Ichneumons). — These
wasps can usually be distinguished from chalcids
by the following characteristics: (a) larger size;
(b) more numerous veins on wings; (c) the an-
tennae are not elbowed and have many joints
Ichneumons can be distinguished from bracoi
(the next group of parasitic wasps we will discuss),
by the structure of the wing. Note that the

second space marked *'cell a" of the posterior or out-
er end of the wing (counting from the lower part of
the wing), is divided into two smaller cells by a
transverse veinlet. (See Plate i6, Fig. 6.) In the
wing of braconids this second space or "cell a" is
large having no transverse veinlet. (See Plate i6,
Fig. 5.) The abdomen and appendages of ichneu-
mons are usually more mobile than those of bra-
conids. These ichneumons are very useful in-
sects, parasitising some insect pests, for example,
the acacia moth (Tcia), cut worms such as the
larvae of bugong moth, vine moth caterpillars
(Phalacnoides) ; they also attack the caterpillar
of the emperor gum moth (Antheraea).

A common ichneumon is the genus Ophiot.
(Plate 16, Fig, 8.) It is reddish brown with a
rather long petiole to the abdomen. The body is
rather thickened and truncate or cut oft abruptly at

123 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALL\N INSECTS.

the tip. The female has a long ovipositor. This
suggests that it parasitises caterpillars clothed with
long hair or bristles, or larvae hidden in the wood or
bark of trees, such as wood-boring grubs, etc. Note
that parasitic wasps with long ovipositors usually
parasitise internally, that is, they pierce the skin of
the victim and lay an egg inside its body.

The genus Phnpla or as it is more recently called
Echthroiuorplia is a very common ichneumon; it
is black with red legs and antennae, and on the
thorax and abdomen are whitish yellow spots.

Rhyssa semipunctata is a reddish wasp with the
base of the abdomen black with a row oi
white dots on each side of the body. The seg-
ments near the tip of the abdomen are red and
without white dots. The ovipositor of the female
is long and consists of stout bristles. This wasp
is parasitic on many caterpillar pests.

One genus, Bassiis, parasitises the larvae of the
syrphid flies, and is not therefore a friend, for the
larvae of some syrphid flies destroy aphides. The
adults of these wasps feed on the nectar of flowers
Life History of an Ichneumon.
We noticed on the leaves of a wistaria plant some
small white seedlike cocoons with dark patches.
They were about a quarter of an inch long, and
about an eighth of an inch wide.

There were also cut-worm larvae of the moth
Plnsia feeding on the leaves of the same vine.

One morning, about 8 a.m., we noticed a small nar-
row cut-worm caterpillar, about an inch long, with
a clear white patch at one end. On examining with

PLATE 17

123

Fiql Wasp Maqqot Gmerc^iaqTroin sKin of Caferpillai
3 Hojl" h Wasp-macjqot"

hc^l flaqqot qettma ready to pupate
a Faybnir^c] thread-?

b-

Fi(j,2. Same Enlarqed
a SKiiA of Hoft
b Wasp-rnaqqot:

Ficj 6 IckaGuir\on wa^p aJulf"

Fh^'j r.ompleted Cc

IJFE HISTORY OF AN ICHNEUMON WASP,
(Much enlarged.)

]34 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

a lens we saw that there was a tiny green maggot
making its way out of the caterpillar, and the white
patch Avas the shell of the head end of the latter,
and the maggot was making its way out by the
anal end of the caterpillar. (Plate 17, Fig. 2.) By
turning and twisting its body in a half circle the
wasp maggot extricated itself from the remains of
its host. At 8.25 p.m., the maggot was quite free
and crawled about a quarter of an inch away. It
was now shorter and thicker. It then fastened
itself at each end by a series of rope-like threads
(Plate 17, Fig. 3), and gradually it began to spin
itself within a cocoon of stout threads. We watched
it working steadily, turning this way and that, till
at 9 a.m. it could just be seen with head curved
under the body and still moving it backwards and
forwards. At 11 a.m. it could not be seen. There
were thin patches on the cocoon where the threads
were not so densely woven, and as the body of the
pupa darkened the darker surface showed through
the thin spots of the Avhite cocoon, giving it its
mottled appearance.

The adult ichneumon escaped by cutting a hole
at the end of the cocoon. It hatched out in a
fortnight ; it was like a tiny Ophion ichneumon.

We noted that it was only the very young cater-
pillars that were parasitised. If they escaped dur-
ing that stage they were not subsequently attacked ;
for on capturing a dozen larger larvae and keeping
them in a box, all pupated in due course, and the
adults emerged,

PARASITIC WASPS. 125

The wasp cocoons were seen from March to
May, but were most plentiful in April.

(Taken from a Paper in ^'Australian Naturalist" bv
M. N. Brewster.)

126

PARASITIC WASPS

C. — Family Braconidae.

(Braconids.)

Characteristics (i). — The abdomen is not so mo-
bile as in ichneumons; (2) the antennae are not
elbowed, and have more than 15 joints; (3) the wing
differs from the ichneumons, in having the second
space of the posterior or outer end of the wing,
counting from the lower part of the wing, not
divided into two cells by a transverse veinlet. (Plate
16, Fig. 5.)

These wasps can be seen by keeping "woolly
bear" caterpillars in a box and the parasites may be
reared out in many cases. The common type is
Microgaster, a tiny dark wasp, the female with a
long ovipositor, to enable it to reach down through
the hairs to the body of the caterpillar. The
larvae (very tiny legless grubs) hatch out, and
when full grown are only about one-third of an
inch in length. As many as 50 to 80 eggs are laid
in one caterpillar, according to the size. The

grubs hatch out and feed on the juices of the vic-
tim either by sucking or by absorbing through
the whole body. They do not injure any vital part
while this is going on, and when at last the brood
of parasites is reared at the expense of the victirn.

PARISTIC WASPS. m

the caterpillar has no strength or life left, for there
remains a mere shell.

Most of the caterpillars we had under observa-
tion never reached the pupal stage, just living long
enough to give food to the swarming parasites. We
observed the tiny wasp maggots making their way
out of the living, but exhausted caterpillar. They
cut their way out, between the segments of the
body, and began to spin little white cocoons on
the hairs of the victim. (Plate i6. Fig. i.) One
could see their heads moving backwards and for-
wards as they spun themselves within their snug
little resting places — their cocoons. This proces-
sion of emerging wasp maggots took place, and
their cocoons were spun, until the poor caterpillar
was covered with a layer of these little egglike
structures. The adult emerges by pushing oft

the end of the egg as a cap (Plate i6, Fig. 4 a).

These braconid parasites are often themselves
parasitised by chalcid wasps, and this double pro-
cess is termed hyper parasitism, the second parasite,
that is, the chalcid, being referred to as a hyper-
parasite. The braconid Opius attacks the Queens-
land fruit fly, and another, ApanteleSy attacks the
sugar cane moth.

Mr. Froggatt, in "Friendly Insects," says of the
cocoons of braconids : "These cocoons often form
a regular mass containing many hundreds envel-
oped in a mass of curious cotton wool like sub-
stance ; however, the latter is often wanting. These
clusters of little cocoons can be noticed on the grass-
like stalks in fields where the cut worms have been

128 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALL^N INSECTS.

swarming ; they are often thought by farmers to
be "caterpillar eggs" and are destroyed by them
in consequence. These cocoons should never be
damaged, but preserved, for later on they will bring-
forth a crop of active little wasps, ready to kill
many injurious grubs.

"There is another group of braconid wasps that
are almost confined to plant aphides. They punc-
ture the aphides and deposit the egg beneath the
skin. The little maggot feeding inside the aphis
soon empties out all the juice and then pupates. It
one examines the insects upon an aphis-infested
cabbage leaf, he will notice many aphides dry, dis-
coloured, and apparently lifeless, of dififerent colour
to the living ones, and swollen and shapeless. These
remain firmly attached to the surface of the leaf
by their claws, and later on, the imprisoned wasp
gnaws its way out through a hole in the side of thq
aphis skin, and comes forth a shining black wasp,
ready to start fresh parasites among the remaining
aphides. Nearly every species of plant aphis has |
some small Apanteles wasp parasite, that (late in
the season in particular) will kill a very large per-
centage of aphides. . Note that this large group
of parasitic wasps do not sting. They can pierce
the skin with their ovipositor in some cases, but
there is no poison ejected."

129

FAMILY CHRYSIDIDAE.

Ruby Wasps. (Plate i6, Fig. lo.)

They are beautiful greenish metallic wasps whose
integument is so hard as to be called the "armour-
plate" of the insect world.

Eggs are laid in the nests of bees and other
wasps and should this enemy be attacked by them,
she curls her body round presenting the armour-
plate of her back and sides to the pursuer. Ruby
wasps have a sucking mouth. (Plate i6, Fig. 9.)
In America these ruby wasps are called ''cuckoo
flies," and J. H. and A. B. Comstock, in the work,
"A Manual of the Study of Insects," write in de-
scribing these insects : "The abdomen is convex
above and flat below so that it can be readily turned
under the thorax and closely applied to it. In this
way the "cuckoo-fly" rolls itself into a ball when
attacked, leaving only its wings exposed.

Although these insects are handsome they have
very ugly morals, resembling those of the bird
whose name has been applied to them. A cuckoo-
fly seeks until it finds one of the digger wasps or
a solitary true wasp, or a solitary bee, building a
nest, and when the owner of the nest is off collect-
ing provisions, steals in and lays its egg, which
the unconscious builder walls in with her own egg.
Sometimes the cuckoo-larva eats the rightful occu-

130 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

pant of the nest, and sometimes it starves it by
eating up the food provided for it. The bees and
wasps know this foe very well, and tender it so
warm a reception, that the brilliant-coated little
rascal has reason enough to double itself up so
that the righteous sting of its assailant can find
no hole in its armour. There is one instance on j
record when an outraged wasp, unable to sting one '
of the cuckoo-fiies to death, gnawed off her wings,
and pitched her out on the ground. But the un-
daunted invader waited till the wasp departed, and
laid her tgg in the nest before she died. vSonie of
the cuckoo-flies are true parasites; one of them in-
fests the currant worm in Europe."

Mr. W. W. Froggatt, in "Australian Insects,"
says : 'Some of the earlier observers called them
"cuckoo-wasps" under the impression that their
larvae when hatched out in the nests of hunting
wasps or bees that filled the cells with insects, or
bee bread, fed upon the stored food supplies. But
later researches show that, though the eggs of
both the lawful occupant and the intruder may be
deposited in the cell, the latter does not hatch out
vmtil the former has devoured all the food placed
there by his mother, and is ready to pupate ; then
the ruby wasp baby comes out, attaches itself to
the full fed larva beside it and sucks him dry
pupating in his skin." He also records that ruby-
wasps bred out by him were parasitic on smaller
mason wasps, example Odyncrus and Alastor,
though in Europe many species live in the nests of
bees.

RUBY WASPS. 131

We bred out the ruby-wasp (Plate i6, Fig. lo)
from the nest of a mason bee. From one cell the
adult ruby-wasp emerged, and in another cell there
were the two larvae present in the cell — the bee
larva and a smaller ruby-wasp larva. We exam-
ined the "bee bread" from the cell of a young grub
and found that the pollen grains (white) were those
of some Myrtaceous plant such as Leptospermum
(Tea Tree), Melaleuca (Tea Tree), or small flow-
ered Eucalyptus.

On examining the mouth of this ruby-wasp we
found that it had a fairly long, broad tongue
which was segmented and had two pairs of con-
spicuous palp-like structures. (Plate i6, Fig. 9.)
It is probable from this that these wasps suck up
honey or nectar of flowers. The larva pupates with-
in a silken cocoon shutting out the excretion. (Plate
16, Fig". II.) It is well worth while keeping nests
of mud-wasps or bees, and to note how many
parasites may be recorded. We keep them in boxes
sometimes for a year, and are usually rewarded
by the presence of some adults of the builders of
the' cells, and very often a fly or wasp parasite, or
both.

132

PLATE 18.

of Larva

Fiql Larve

Fiq3 Pupafaakcd) Fk]4 Popa m Cocoon

oae hall removed

Fi^ 5 HgjJ of An|-
a Marvdiblcs-
b Ba?ol Joinl-

a SpirK?

b Modp

2 Fii^7 /Ibdomenof Bulmoq AnT

a Cons-lricrion

Fiq8 Adult-
a Hode

ANTS (enlarged).

133

GROUP HETEROGYNA.

Family Formicidae.

(Ants.)

Ants are supposed to have had as ancestors cer-
tain of the solitary wasps, and in some of the more
primitive types of ants, such as the Family Poner-
ides (to which bulldog- ants belong), and Family
Dorylides (driver and legionary ants), a few of the
habits of the wasps are retained. For instance,
these primitive ants are usually carnivorous, and
feed their larvae on the flesh of insects, etc. ; they
hunt for their prey, singly, in many cases ; their
nests are usually small with few in a colony (ex-
ception to the latter is the- bulldog ant and some
of the Dorylides). Many of these primitive

ants retain the old wasp-habit of spinning cocoons
(by the larvae), which custom has been rejected by
the more specialised ants.

Ants can be distinguished from wasps by the pre-
sence of a node (Plate i8, Fig. 8, a.) or knob on the
petiole of the abdomen. The antennae are elbowed,
with the first joint (in the females) greatly elong-ated
(Plate i8, Fig. 5.b.) With the exception of a very
few parasitic forms, ants are always social in habits.
They live in colonies and have the social instincts
very highly developed. There are three castes,
males, females and workers. In some cases the

134 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

workers are further specialised to form (a) soldiers,
(b) nest workers. The latter are sometimes
smaller in size than the soldiers, example the sugar
ant (Camponotus nigriceps). In other species there
is practically very little difference in size between
the workers and soldier-workers — example :
greenheads (Ectatomma metallic um). The

workers are wingless, and either have a sting or an
ejaculatory organ from which formic acid can be
ejected. Upon them devolves the whole care of the
nest. Workers are aborted females. It is because
of this variety of type in the female ants that the
name heterogyna is given to the group, for there are
queens and workers, and the latter are often spec-
ialised into soldier workers and nest workers.

Formation of a Colony.

When the time has come for the founding of
new colonies, males and females are hatched in the
old nest, and on some very warm evening the males
and females prepare to set out on the "marriage-
flight." There is great excitement in the nest, and;
the workers rush about and accompany the depart-
ing males and females to the door of the old home
to see them start off. After this nuptial flight
the fertilized females drop to the ground, cut
off their wings, and each seeks a place to
start her new home. But a large number of these
queens are seized by waiting insect enemies, and the
males also fall victims to insects and birds, or drop
into water.

We will follow the recorded life history of a queen

Ants ihs

ant which has just fallen. She digs (often with diffi-
culty) through the soil in some sheltered spot,
making a little tunnel which she closes from the
outside, thus shutting herself in. She proceeds to
enlarge the end of the little passage at the far end
and makes a little chamber where she rests till the
eggs in her body mature. This waiting may last
for months. Then she lays some eggs in the

chamber and the larvae hatch ; they are small under-
sized ant babies (legless grubs), and they often
take a very long time to mature, sometimes nine
months. They pupate and then emerge as under-
sized worker ants. Now where did the queen-
mother ant get the food to feed her babies? She
had concentrated food supplies stored in her body,
so you see that female ants must be well fed and
cared for before they leave the old home, because
they have to live for nearly a year without any food
except what is stored in the body. During all the
long period of waiting, of hard work in rearing her
brood, she took no food from outside, for she was
locked up in her little underground home. This
scheme in founding an ant colony protects the
queen and young babies from enemies, for it is
difificult to locate such a home.

But now the workers are hatched and they soon
get to work to help their overworked mother. They
cut a way out from their temporary prison by
making an entrance to the nest from the outside,
they build new passages and enlarge the nest and
now forage for food, they also feed the ant-
babies, look after their mother and take the whole

136 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECT^

management of the home on their shoulders. The
queen or mother never leaves the nest and grows
timid and avoids the light. She just lays the
eggs and the workers remove them to the *'egg
chamber."

Sometimes a ''mother" is found by some of the
workers of the old nest, and they then stay with her
and help her found a new colony. The mother's
life is not then so strenuous. In some cases two
or three ant-mothers from the "summer flight," get
together under a stone, etc., and they together found
the new home which starts wnth three queens instead
of one, for ant queens always live amicably together,
differing from bees which have only one queen in
each hive. Not every mother-ant who starts a
nest is able to finish it, for some are not v\^ell nour-
ished and have not the strength or food-supply
in the body to enable them to keep the nest going:
and so during the long waiting period while the
eggs mature and the babies are being fed, the food
supply gives out. and the babies and mother die.
So that out of the numerous female ants v^hich fly
from the old nest, only comparatively few succeed
in founding a new ant colony. Ants have the ad-
vantage over most other hymenopterous insects in
the convenient positions of their nests, and of
materials from which their nests are made. Bees
and wasps have to hunt for materials and work
these up gradually in order to build their cells. But
most ants use the soil as it stands, as material, or
l)uild in the sand under stones, logs, etc., and are
protected by tlTese.

ANTS 137

The food of ants is more varied also than that of
bees and wasps. It is known that ants were origin-
ally carnivorous in their habits, and a few more
primitive species of ants still retain their old habits,
(^.r., bulldog- ants, driver ants). Most ants
however, have a very varied diet, and can feed on
insects, spiders, etc., but they also enjoy nectar of
flowers, juices of fruits (when bruised). Some ants
seem particularly fond of flower nectar, or honey
dew. We have seen ants, such as Iridiomynnex
detectus (gravel or mound ant) on a tall mulberry
tree, sipping at the juices of bruised mulberries.
Some ants are very fond of the sugary secretions
of insects, such as the ''sugar-lerp," a psyllid which
secretes a little white brittle scale on leaves of
Eucalyptus. Of these we have noted large numbers
of the gravel ant Uridiomyrmex detecHis) .and,
a dark looking sugar ant (Camponotus aeneopilo-
sus; also fewer individuals of the golden-bodied ant
(Polyrhachis amnion)- Ants also visit the honey-
dew froghoppers of genus Eiirynicla which are often
quite hidden by the ants which surround them. Of
such we noted the gravel ants, which formed regular
processions from their very large nests (which
were in several clusters extending over about eight
yards) to the group of small Eucalyptus trees which
were about fifteen to thirty yards away. The sugar
ant {Camponotus nigriceps) was also present, and
also Polyrhachis ammon (golden-bodied ant), but
fewer of these species. An amusing incident oc-
curred as we were watching these ants. We saw
a solitary black bulldog ant {Myrmecia tarsata) walk-

138 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS

ing round a leaf. It stepped across to the next
leaf on which was a single gravel ant (Iridiomyr-
mex). The gravel ant rushed at the bulldog ant,
and the latter hastily retired to the nearest leaf. A
friend who was also watching remarked : "Well, I
have never seen a bully so easily worsted." We
saw also a tall Eucalyptus tree badly infested with
the loose cottony scale which was on branches and
leaves, and the gravel ants (which we traced to a
nest near) were literally swarming over the tree.

Another curious example of special food is seen
in tropical America. A group of ants called the
Attii cut off pieces of leaves of plants, cut and knead
them and place them in their nests. Fungi grow
on these and the ants feed on this growth, and
feed the ant babies with semi-masticated fungal
material. In Mexico these ants cause considerable
damage in defoliating certain trees.

The varied diet of ants enables them to live with-
out making large stores. There are examples of
ants which store food, however, the "Harvesting
Ants" which feed on the seeds of grass and cereals,
have special chambers set apart as "granaries."
The larvae and the adults are fed from the stores, and
as the diet is restricted it is necessary to store the
seeds while they are in season.

A wonderful example of a living store house is
seen in a species of Camponotus. (See Plate 20,
Figs 3 and 4.) It is figured and described by
Lubbock in his "Bees, Ants and Wasps." Froggatt
thus describes our Australian example: "The ordin-
ary members of the "honey pot" ant are of the usual

ANtS 130

normal form, but certain individuals of each nest
of the species are crammed with a honey secretion,
(probably obtained by the workers from aphids and
psyllids), until the abdomen swells out of all pro-
portion to the rest of the ant ; the "honey pot" ants
remain hanging about the bottom of the nests like a
number of bottles of honey, incapable of leaving the
nests; the supply is probably used as food for the
larvae. Baldwin Spencer says that the blacks dig
up these nests and look upon the "honey pots" as
great luxuries. The honey is sweet with an acrid
fluid, which tastes like the honey of our native bees.
They are apparently common in central Australia.

Food of the Larvae or Ant Grubs. — The food of
the larvae of many ants is also varied. As before
mentioned the more primitive ants feed the ant-
babies on flesh, just as they eat it themselves (bull-
dogs and driver ants). Most ants feed their
larvae on regurgitated food. Certain species, such
as Camponotids {Polyrhachis and Caniponotus).
Dolichoderids {Iridiomyrmex and Dolichoderus), feed
their larvce only by regurgitating liquid food from
their mouths. We have observed these ants on
honey dew on leaves, seeking the nectar of flowers
such as the pigeon berry (Monofoca), grass tree
(Xanthorrhoea), Leptospcrmum,

Other ants feed their young on both regurgitated
liquid and on solids so that iu' times of dearth of cer-
tain foods, they can adapt themselves to other kinds.

The Nests of Ants (Plate tq).— The nests of
ants are usually in the ground, and the arrangement
and size of the nest depends on the species of

i40

PLATE i9.

Hymenoprefd - Nost o( Ant- (^Afier tVa Andre)
3 Eao Chamber, i) Larva) CkarRber, C Pupal Ctiamber

knt. There are usually several chambers from
which are connecting passages. The eggs, very
young larvae, older larvae, pupse. may be placed in
separate chambers, or if in one large irregular cham-
ber, then they are put into separate groups. As
one would expect, the more primitive ants have
simpler nests. The ants are continually moving the
brood, bringing certain groups either higher up or
taking them lower dow^n, according to the weather
conditions.

We have found nests in rather curious places.
One nest was formed under a small pot with a fern
growing in it. Part of the nest was in the ground
under the pot and part of it was in the soil of the
pot. We took the earth from the pot (it came out
clean), and on gently breaking it across saw the
passages with groups of larvae, pupae, and very tiny
eggs, w^hich the ants w^ere quickly removing into
the recesses of the mass of soil and roots.

One ant colony was happy in a half hollowed
out potato where the irregular inner surface served
as "rooms" for pupae and larvae. The ants lived
here for months, for the potato was sheltered by
the dense mass of dead leaves of a yucca ]:)lant.

Another curious nest was found in a large woody
gall that was hollowed out at the apex. It was
a very small colony of tiny black ants, and they
lived here for nearly i8 months with very little
food supply. Then the gall was knocked over and
the family scattered.

On the Blue Mountains we found many nests
of ants at the base of tiny shrubs which were in-

\\2

PLATE 20.

Rc]!. Arhficial Arxt Nesh
a. Glas-s- b Box
c. Supporr. d. Difh Ai(h waler

ric] Z. Blade of Porcupine c^rass .vvilK AnPcase (A-fter

a.A(\t Case t Blade of qrass.

Sj)i?rvcer>j

^1^5. ien of Am-

ha3 Hone/ Aat -feedmq workers CAfief M'CooK) Ca^oor^oros

a - comb

"71

Fiq4. Hoaey Ar\t-fMelopKorys inflalOi") AiterSpenter.

Rq 6 . Comb Enlaroed
a. Comb on Tibia '
1> • Comb on Tarsus.

ANTS (enlarged),

ANTS 143

fested with a loose cottony scale, and the ants built
up a covering of sand around a branch, and so pro-
tected the scales and enabled the ants to pass freely
under the covering. We transported one of these
nests and kept it under observation for some months.
Professor Spencer, in "Across Australia," describes
the nests of certain ants which had special store
ants or "honey pots." "One of these nests has the
form of a mound upwards of 2ft. in diameter and
about six inches high, with a large crater-like de-
pression at the top. The ants arrange a thick
deposit of the long dry phyllodes (so called leaves)
of the mulga tree, so as to cover the dome. They
are all placed in a perfectly radial manner, and
give the nest a most characteristic appearance.

"Another nest had a mound of the same size, but
instead of a crater opening, it had a slit five or six
inches long and half an inch wide. The mound
was covered with an enormous number of grass
seeds, every one of which must have been brought
in separately by the insects, which is one of the
many species of the genus Camponotus (Camponotus
denticulatus). We spent some time investigat-
ing the nest, but the ground w^as as hard as stone,
and the insects, which were one-half or threequarters
of an inch in length, disliked being disturbed. There
did not appear to be anything like a fungoid growth
among the leaves or seeds, or anything that we
could see which would be of service to the ants,
though such might, of course, be present under
different conditions in regard to moisture. Often
these two kinds of nests would be close together,

144 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

but tlie one always had nothing but mulga leaves,
and the other nothing but grass seeds."

Professor Spencer gives an interesting account
of the nest and habits of the porcupine-grass ant
(Hypoclinea flavipcs) found in the desert area of
Central Australia.

''Various explorers have already noted the pres-
ence of curious little galleries which run along the
surface of the ground, often for long distances, from
one tussock of porcupine grass to another. In some
parts, and especially on hard, sandy soil where the
tussocks of grass are not too close together, these
galleries, as they are called, though tunnels would
be a better name, form a regular network. Each
is from one quarter to half an inch in width, and,
in section, is roughly semicircular in shape. They
are made of grains of sand fastened together with
the resinous material obtained by the ants from the
gelatinous leaf sheaths of the Triodia (porcupine
grass), and they form runs which lead from one
tussock to another, along which the ants can travel
sheltered from the light, and more especially, per-
haps, from the heat of the sun. In many cases
they lead for long distances up the trunks of gum
trees.

In addition to the galleries running along the
ground some of the tussocks of porcupine grass
have their long spiny leaves more or less wholly
enclosed in little cylinders of sand, formed in the
same way, to such an extent that the whole tussock
looks like a network of sand tubes. In other cases
there w^ere only small cylindrical cases of sand here

ANTS 145

and there on the spiny leaves. (Plate 20, Fig. 2.)
Each of these was i)erhaps half an inch or an inch
long and a quarter of an inch in diameter, and so
built that the grass blade formed one part of the wall,
a space being left enclosed between it and the sand.
The cylinder was always closed at the top and had a
small opening at the bottom so that if rain came it
would not get into the chambers.

Watching the ants which are very* small and
black-bodied with yellowish feet, I saw them run-
ning in and out of these chambers, and on opening
the latter, found that they were always built over
two or more Coccidse (Order Hemiptera), attached
to the leaf of the grass. Here, as in the case of
the ants described by Belt in Nicaragua, the Coccidse
abstract nutriment from the leaf, and the ants take
advantage of the exudation from the body of the
Coccus. This arrangement is with(^ut d(^ubt of
advantage to both parties concerned. The Cocci-
dse gain protection from enemies to whom they are
made invisible, and also from the great heat of the
sun. and at the same time the ants get without much
trouble to themselves a supply of food."

Life History of Ant.

The eggs are laid by the mother and are moist^
ened by salivary fluid which enables the eggs to
cling together, and it has been suggested that the
fluid is probably antiseptic, preventing the growth
of fungi, etc. Thus the eggs are more easily car-
ried when being removed, for they are very tiny,
most people mistaking the pupae for eggs. The

146 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

eggs are usually placed in the warmest part of
the nest, in the upper chamber, in the day-time at
least. The larvae hatch out and are tended and
removed by the workers, who clean and feed them
and lick them all over with the salivary fluid. These
"nurse" workers attend the larvae all through the
day, remove them from chamber to chamber accord-
ing to the need.

The larva (Plate i8. Fig. i) is a creamy-white
legless grub, or hymenopterous maggot. It differs
from the typical maggot of the Order Diptera
(flies), in having the head and thorax bent over
on its body. It has no eyes, for it is in a helpless
condition, entirely dependent on the workers for
food and care. It has well formed mouth parts,
and spiracles or breathing pores. Like most insects
it has hairs disposed over its body, and in some
cases there are elongate curious "spring" hairs
which are curved and have a hook at the free end.
(Plate i8. Fig. 2). The hook fastens on to the
earth or medium on which they are lying and the
whole construction of these spring hairs pre-
vents the jarring or tearing of the delicate larvK,
when the workers rush to seize them and carry
them away if the nest is disturbed. When the larva
is full grown it pupates, either as a naked pupa
(Plate 18, Fig. 3), or with the pupa enclosed in a
cocoon. (Plate 18, Fig. 4). In those species whose
larvae spin cocoons, the workers place the full-grown
larva in loose sand, where it makes a hollow
by twisting and pressing, and in this hollow it begins
to form the cocoon by fastening threads to the sides

ANTS 14t

of the hollow. It gradually disappears within this
rather tough cocoon, and the busy workers remove
it to the "pupal chamber," where the cocoons or
pupae are kept by themselves. When the adult is
I nearly ready to emerge, the workers seem to be able
to find out, for they go round (in some species) and
tap the pupae with their antennae, and when the
time of emergence is come they cut open the co-
coon and aid the adult (cither male, female, or
worker) to emerge. This is described in detail
later on.

The Worker Ant. — The worker ants are just as
clean and careful over their own bodies as they are
of the larvae, queen, and newly emerged adults.
Nature has fitted them with wonderful appliances
to enable them to do this. There is a comb, or
strigil (See Plate 20, Figs. 5 and 6.) This is a
highly modified tibial spur (a spur on the tibia or
fore-leg) of the front legs. It is a semi-circular
comb with teeth present. On a very enlarged joint
of the foot is a corresponding semi-circular structure
and these two combs fit together to form one cir-
cular comb. The hind pair of legs and the antennae
are drawn through this to remove any adhering par-
{ tides of sand, etc. This is very necessary to ants
which live in sandy soil. The ant may also have
a tuft of hairs on the lower surface of the head,
and these hairs are *'comb-cleaners." Professor
Wheeler says that "the combs are passed along
these hairs just as we clean a comb by means of
threads." We noticed that on all the legs of Cam-
ponotus and Myrmccia (bulldog ant) there was a

14^ LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECT^.

tibial comb, but the one on each of the middle and
hind legs was much more elongate and with coarser
teeth. On each of the front legs of the worker of
Camponotus nigriceps is a very beautiful comb
(Plate 20, Figs. 5 and 6 a. and b.).

We see that the workers are the mainstay of the
nest. They nurse, clean, build, carry, forage and
fight. In some species of ants the workers are
known to carry up the broods to give them an airing
on very hot summer nights. In other species it
is recorded that some of the workers have a curious
habit of going out to meet the home-coming fora-
gers who are late and seem tired or stranded, and
they lift them bodily and carry them home, and
the comrade who is being carried seems quite con-
tent and does not struggle.

Ants do not often change their nests, for they
may occupy the same abode during the lifetime of
a man. The life of the individual ant, too, is longer
than that of an individual of bees and wasps. A
worker lives from four to eight years, and a queen
from thirteen to fourteen years.

When a change of nest is made, it is •
the workers who do the work. They remove eggs,
larvse, pupae, queens and males, bodily to the new'
abode, and it is said that should some of the workers
object to go to the new nest, or wander back to the
eld one, they are carried bodily to the new home.
To show 'the general intelligence of the ant, the
following is taken from *'The Study of Insects,"
by J. H. and A. B. Comstock : "They have a lang-
uage which seems to exist throuoh the sense of

Ants i4u

touch. The antennae are most sensitive organs, and
when ants meet they cross their antennae and pat
each other. If one finds some large article of food,
too heavy for it to carry, it goes forward, and the
first fellow it meets it pats with its antennae, and
the two start off together for the booty. If a nest
is attacked, the workers or soldiers rush around and
stroke each other with their antennae, and thus evi-
dently give warning or plan a battle for protection.
In case an ant finds a comrade in distress it shows
great solicitude and activity in giving relief. Yet
there are some species that, like the Spartans, kill
off the feeble and old, as useless to the colony. When
a portion of the colony is removed and kept im-
prisoned for a time and then returned, there is great
rejoicing on both sides. Gould says they have a
way of standing on their hind legs and prancing
round under such circumstances, as well as when
they enter the cell of their queen, that indicates
great joy. Sometimes they get to be very hilarious
and wrestle with each other, and carry each other
around, as if it were a part of a game they found
amusing — a kind of formic football."

Ants and their Protection from Enemies. — Ants
can defend themselves either by biting with their
mandibles, or by means of a powerful sting.
Wheeler thus records their habits in this respect:
"The mandibles are the principal weapons of de-
fence, and these in the larger species of Cainponotus
and Atta are somtimes employed with telling effect.
In the Myrmicinae (Monoinorium, the little red meat-
ant, belongs to this group), and the Ponerinae (bull-

150 L1F:e stories of AUSXkALIAN INSECTS.

dog ants), their action is often supplemented by
that of a well-developed sting. Many species of
Formica spray their enemies with formic acid, or
inject it into their victims by moving the gaster
(thicker part of the abdomen) forward and center-
ing its tip on the wound made by their mandibles.
In battles with other species or aliens of their own
species they pull their opponents' legs or antennae
with their mandibles and spray the tense membrane
between the joints. Enough of this acid is ab-
sorbed to cause temporary paralysis or death. The
Dolichoderinse (to which our gravel or mound ant
belongs), and some Myrmicinge smear their victims
with a maloderous secretion from the anal gland,
which seems to have an equally irritating and ob-
noxious effect. While in many species some or all
of these aggressive measures may be adopted by
the workers in general, other species have a speci-
ally protective caste in the soldiers (Camponotus
and Atta, etc.)"

Many of the weaker colonies of ants take refuge
in flight. In almost every species of ants some of the
workers rush away with the larvae, pupae and eggs as
soon as the nest is disturbed, even when the soldier
workers or ordinary workers show resistance. But
some species of ants are timid and rush at once
into the inner passages of the nest without offering
fight. Other species of ants feign death. Almost
every log and stone shelters ants' nests, and the
rushing away with pupae and and larvae can be seen
on lifting the stone.

ANTS 151

With the exception of their own kind, ants have
very few enemies.

The larv^e of ant lions either wait in the sand or
build little pits in the sand and seize any luckless
L ant, passing that way.

p The Echidna or Spiny Ant-eater also feeds on
r ants, and their eggs. It has a long slender tongue
which is covered with sticky saliva and this en-
ables it to capture numbers of ants.

The Marsupial Mole and the Banded Anteater
also feed on ants.

Mymecophiles or Ant Lovers. — These are a vari-
ety of little creatures which inhabit ant colonies
either in a state of commensalism (for mutual good),
as parasites, or as scavengers.

We have mentioned such insects as aphids and
scales which give off secretion pleasing to ants, and
in return are protected by the very presence of the
ants (for ants have few enemies). The aphids are
the most commonly known, and are often called
*'ants' cows," for some species of ants store the
eggs of aphids during the winter weather, and when
the spring comes and the aphids hatch out, they
carry them out to their food plant or "pastures,"
and then in return gather the honey dew given off
at the tip of the abdomen. Some ants specially
protect aphids which feed on the roots of plants,
and these species place the aphids in the ant nest
c't night and carry them on to the roots in the day-
time.

There are some species of beetles which live in
the ants' nests, some being harmless, and live on

152 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

the refuse of the ant, while others are parasites
and live on eggs and larvae of ants, and will even
attack adult ants if alone. Some of these show
mimicry of ants. The Rove beetles (Staphylini-
dae)," which are found in ants' nests are among
their worst enemies.

There is a species of silver fish which lives on
the regurgitated fluid which is given out by one
worker to feed another. This insect creeps up
between them and steals the drop of fluid. Its
smooth, slippery coat affords a means of escape
when fleeing from its enemies.

True parasites such as mites are seen on the
bodies of ants, on which they take up definite
positions. ,

Chalcid and braconid wasps are known to para4
sitise certain ants. Parasitic worms have also
been recorded.

Myrmecophiles of the nests of certain ants have
been recorded by Mr. E. H. Zeck in the ''Australian
Naturalist of New South Wales." These nests were
found under stones and bark. Mr. Zeck says: —
"Usually when first collecting, many species ot
beetles are passed over ; owing to their protective
colouration and their remaining quiet for several
minutes before moving, the members of the Genus
Chlamydopsis being perhaps the most difficult to
detect — in fact, they may even be turned over
among the debris without showing a sign of life.:
The legs, antennae and head are withdrawn into the
cavities of the body. After examining the nest the
stone should be replaced so as to permit of re-:

Ants 153

examination at some future time. The insects
when caught are best placed in small tubes of
methylated spirit, along with some of the ants in
whose nest they were found. A dry grass stem,
dipped in spirit, is excellent for picking them up.
Later they are gummed on small cards with the
legs and antennae carefully spread out, and one or
more of the ants should be placed on the same card,
through which a pin is run. A small label, with
locality and date, is placed below the card. The
gum must be used very sparingly."

Mr. Zeck has recorded individuals from nearly
every order in the nests of dififerent species of ants.

Classification of Ants.

Group Heterogyna (dififerent types of females).
Family Formicidae (insects which may secrete
formic acid.)

A. Sub-Family Ponerides. To this Sub-family
our "bulldog" ants belong.

Characteristics: The hind body is elongate and
often slightly constricted between the ist and 2nd
segments of the abdomen (Plate i8, Fig. 7, a.); a
sting is present (Plate i8, Fig. 7, b.) and usually
very powerful ; cocoons enclose the pupae. Types
Myrmecia ("bulldogs"); Ectatomma ("green-
1 heads").

I These Ponerid ants are a very primitive type.
i Froggatt thus describes our bulldog ants: "The
j Genus Myrmecia contains most of our largest typi-
cal species peculiar to Australia and popularly known
as "bulldog ants," "Inchmen," or "Jumpers." The

io4 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

'Jumper" (Myrmccia albo-cinta) forms its nest un-
der the shelter of a low bush : it is a low mound
with an opening on the summit and another on the
side, level with the ground. When disturbed these
ants come running out like a pack of dogs, with a
series of short jumps, and attack everything they
meet" . . . M. forficata (the red and black bull-
dogs) live in rather large colonies up to 200 in
number, digging deep circular shafts or irregular
channels under logs ; when away from the latter
they form regular domed mounds over the nests
which in summer contain the large elongate, oval
brownish sacs containing the pupae, and often a
number of winged males and females.

M. tarsata, or black bulldog ant, is found run-
ning up and down the larger tree trunks, and drops
to the ground at the slightest alarm ; when dis-
turbed in the nest, if the first two or three are
captured, the others retreat to their burrows and
do not show fight like others of the species."

M, gnlosa is the red bulldog ant..

The *'Greenhead," Ectatomma metalUcnm is
common in grassy lands and gardens : it stings
very severely.

B. SUB-FAMILY DORYLIDE3.
(Wandering, Driver or Visiting Ants.)

These ants are nomads, having no fixed place of
abode, never resting more than several days in one
place. There are two groups (a) the Dorylus
Group, found in Africa and some species in Asia
also; (b) the Eciton Group, which is found in
America only. The males, females and workers
differ remarkably. The female is usually very
large and is blind: the workers are blind, like the
female, or with rudimentary simple eyes. There
are sometimes two worker castes, the soldier type,
large and with strong, long mandibles; the smaller
worker, whose mandibles are suitable for industrial
purposes.

The Dorylus Group is represented by genera
Dorylus, /Uionuna. and Aoiictiis. Savage describes
in a very interesting manner the habits of Driver
Ants in Africa. They march in huge columns, and
v/ill pass through houses, ridding them of vermin,
meat, etc., for they are carnivorous types. Savage
says that if confined they will attack animals sucli
as large lizards, snakes, and even monkeys and pigs.

Belt thus describes the habits of one of the Eci-
tons (the American type): "One of the smaller
species (Eciton pracdator) used occasionally to visit
QX\v house, swarm over the floors and walls,

156 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

searchiiii;- every cranny and drivinj^- out the
cockroaches and spiders, many of which were
caught, pulled or fc^tten to pieces, and carried off."
The same writer observed their habits in the for-
ests : "On the flanks and in advance of the main
body, smaller columns would be pushed out. These
smaller columns would generally flush the cock-
roaches, grass-hoppers and spiders. The pursued
insects would rapidly make off, but many in their
confusion and terror would bound right into the
midst of the main body of ants." He then de-
scribes how the insects Avould climb the trees and
for a time escape their merciless enemies, until at
last the ants would climb the trees and chase
their victims to the tips of leaves, etc, till they
dropped into the jaws of the main body of ants be-
low. Spiders sometimes escaped by spinning a
thread and hanging in mid-air.

Driver Ants form living tunnels through which
the smaller workers pass, laden with food,
Savage thus describes them: "In cloudy days, when
on their predatory excursions, or migrating, an
arch for the protection of the workers, etc., is con-
structed by the bodies of their largest class (sol-
diers). Their widely-distended jaws, long slender
limbs, and projecting antennae intertwining, form a
sort of network that seems to answer well for
their object. Whenever an alarm is given, the
arch is instantly broken, and the ants, joining others
of the same class on the outside of the line, who
seem to be acting as commanders, guides, and scouts,
run about in a furious manner in pursuit of the

WANDERING, DRIVER OR VISITING ANTS. 157

enemy. If the alarm should prove to be without
foundation, the victory won, or the danger passed,
the arch is quickly renewed, and the main column
marches forward as before in all the order of an
intellectual military discipline."

This sub-family of ants is thought to be closely
connected with the Poneridse.

It is only represented In Australia by two species
of the Genus Aenictus which are found in Queens-

Iland.
C. Sub-Family Myrmicides. — Characteristics. —
, The females are large and winged ; the petiole is
t two jointed (has 2 nodes); the pupae are always
naked, with no cocoons. Small or medium
sized ants, example, Moftomorium, the little red meat
ant.

D. Sub-Family Dolichoderides. — Characteristics.
— Petiole with one node ; no sting, it is only rudi-
mentary, but instead there are anal glands which
secrete a characteristic odour ; pupae are naked, never
in cocoons ; examples are DoUchoderns (the
**honeydew ant") ; Iridiomyrmex detectiis ("mound
or gravel ant").

The Gravel Ant has an iridescent sheen (hence
its name), and it makes large mounds of gravel —
sometimes there are several nests adjacent and
extending over 25 feet. They are strong runners,
having regular tracks over grass lands so as to
make a narrow footway across a paddock. We
have watched them running in pathways from the
nests to eucalyptus trees near, wher*e dozens would
be clustered around groups of froghoppers and lerp

158 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

scales. Quite a large tree was practically
swarming with these ants which were feeding
on the honey-dew secreted by a soft white scale. We
have found them on the flowers of the ''pigeon berry"
shrub (Monotoca scoparium), and on the spike or
the Grass Tree (Xanfhorrhoea), in the latter case
several seemed helpless owing to the abundance of
the nectar they had imbibed. /. rufoniger is a pest
in the summer time, finding out honey, jam, etc.,
which may be left where these ants can reach.
We have found smearing kerosene around the pan-
try a sure remedy for these visitors.

There is one species of Dolichoderid which has
some of the workers modified to form "honey-pots,"
but it is not so distended as the CamponoHis inflatus
mentioned before. It is found only in Australia
and New^ Guinea ; its name is Leptomyrmex rufipes.

D. Sub-Family Camponotides. — Petiole with one
node ; no sting;, but a poison sac is present in the
worker and female. The poison gland forms a flat
oval cushion at the anal end. Formic acid is
secreted, and the pad is used as an ejaculatory
organ. Cocoons usually formed, but sometimes the
pupae are quite naked. The Sugar Ant, Caniponotits
nigriccps is our best known example. It is a yel-f
low and black ant.

In most of the Cami)onoti(ls there are two w'orker
castes, large soldier-workers, and smaller forage
and nest-workers. These ants are found binder
stones and logs, and are very good types to ob-
serve in the house, for they soon settle down to
their new conditions. We have found some of the

i

WANDERING, DRIVER OR VISITING ANTS. 15^

smaller sugar ants on the honey-dew insects, but
usually few in number. However the species Cam-
ponotns acncopilosus we have found in numbers
around frog hoppers. Some of these ants live
in a state of commensalism v^ith the cater-
pillars of the butterfly, Ogyris and of Jalmeniis.

The integument of most Camponotids is soft and
flexible, and some of the workers become living
''store-houses" for the reserve honey of which
they are so fond. These ants are found in the
hot interior of Australia, and they store these sweets
for the dry barren 'summer months, when the
country is baked and dry. The workers who forage
bring in the nectar, or the honeydew, and regurgi-
tate it to these "repletes," or store workers. The
bodies of the latter distend and form "honey jars."
They can only move very slowly, and generally
remain on the floor of the nest like tiny balloons
with a stalk attached. This honey is regurgitated
to the workers' by the repletes or store ants,
and so the colony is kept alive during the droughts.

One of the honey ants, a Camponotid (Mclo-
phortis bagoti), is found in the interior of Australia.
Some of the large workers are set aside to act as
honey-storers, but their bodies are not so inflated
as those of Camponotus inflatus, hence they move
more readily.

Professor Spencer, in ''Across Australia," thus
describes these honey ants : —

"We came across the burrows of a honey ant
(Melophorus inflatus), an insect which we were
most anxious to see in its native habitat. There

100 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

is nothing on the surface to indicate the existence '
of a burrow, except a little opening about an inch
in diameter. From this, the central burrow runs
down. The natives soon found one or two, am
immediately set to work to dig them out. It waj
astonishing to watch the speed with which the eldei
woman worked. First of all, the ground around
the opening was loosened with a digging stick held
in the right hand close to the lower end. The earth
was scooped out with the aid of a small wooden
bowl held in the left hand, and alternately loosen-
ing the soil with the stick and then throwing it
behind her, the lubra soon sank a hole just bi|
enough to hold her body. The main burrow weni
down between five or six feet with horizontal pas-
sages going off all around it. A few of the honey
ants were found in each of these, but the greatei
number were in a swollen chamber at the base.
In the nests which we dug up we only found tw(
kinds of ants, one of the ordinary worker." There is
an American species of honey ant, and the honey
is obtained by the workers. "The honey is a product
of a small gall found on the oak leaves, and is ob-
tained by the worker ants during nocturnal expedi-
tions from which they return much distended ; the^
feed such workers left at home as may be hungry
and then apparently communicate the remainder oi
the sweet stuff they have brought back to already
partly charged "honey bearers" left in the nest . . .
the creatures move but little and remain suspended
from the roof of a special chamber." (Sharp.)

A common camponotid is PolyrJiacJiis, or the

WANDERING, DRIVER OR VISITING ANTS. 161

"golden ant," The nests are often found under
stones and logs. The larvae and cocoons are easily
obtainable, and these ants are good types to set up
in simple artificial nests, as they settle down com-
fortably after the first rushing round. The genus
can be distinguished by the prominent spines on
the thorax and node (See Plate i8, Fig. 6 a), hence
the name "Polyrhachis." These ants are fond of
honey-dew ; we have observed them on the nectar
secreting froghoppers and lerp insects.

Formica is a species of camponotid found all over
the world, and some of these are slave hunters.

Oecophylla is an interesting camponotid which
"sews" the edges of leaves together to form a nest
and as the adults cannot produce silk to do this
they have an ingenious method of using their larvae
for that purpose. A set of workers hold the edges
of the leaves together, while other workers come
along holding a larva, and the latter spins the thread
to hold the edges of the leaves. Froggatt records,
"They live in large communities among the foliage
of the trees, in nests formed by webbing the leaves
together into an irregular mass, varying in size
from a cricket ball to a man's head. The worker
for its size is the most pugnacious creature in the
insect world ; if one damages a nest pushing through
the scrub, down tumble a swarm of Green Tree
Ants on one's head and neck, and wherever they
drop they stick their jaws in and hang on, and each
one has to be picked ofif in detail. In these forests
they destroy an immense number of insects, catch-
ing the little bees as they come out of their nests

162 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ill the tree trunks, and dragging the small beetles
off the twigs by main force." They are found on
the North Coast of Queensland and in New Guinea.
They are tropical ants and are also found in India
and Africa.

Slave Making Ants.

These are interesting ants and are often called
"Amazons." The true Amazons are almost incapa-
ble of living without slaves, while others can manage
for themselves should no slaves be available.
Wheeler thus sums up the work of Huber and Forel
on the Amazon Polyergiis rufesccns. *'Tlie mandi-
bles are not adapted for digging in the earth or for
handling the thin-skinned larvae or pupae and mov-
ing them about in the narrow chambers of the nest;:
but are admirably fitted for piercing the armour of,
adult ants. We find, therefore, that the Amazons,
never excavate nests nor care for their own young;
They are even incapable of obtaining their own food,
although they may lap up water or liquid food when
it happens to come in contact with their shorl
tongues. For the essentials of food, lodging and
education they are wholly dependent on the slaves
hatched from the worker cocoons that they have
pillaged from other colonies. Apart from these
slaves they are quite unable to live, and hence are"
always found in mixed colonies inhabiting nests
whose architecture throughout is that of the slave
species. Thus the Amazons display two contrasting
sets of instincts. While in the home nest they sit
about in stolid idleness, or pass the long hours

k

SLAVE MAKING ANTS. 163

begging the slaves for food, or cleaning themselves
and burnishing their ruddy armour, but when out-
side the nest on one of their predatory expeditions,
they display a dazzling courage and capacity for
concerted action compared with which the raids of
Sanguinea (a group of slave making ants which can
yet obtain their own food) resemble the clumsy
efforts of a lot of untrained militia."

The slavery of ants is thus described by Com-
stock : "There are several species of ants which are

I slave holders, and by a strange coincidence the
slaves are dark coloured, while the masters are light.
When a depredating army sets forth, it proceeds to
the black colony which defends itself fiercely ; if the
besieged blacks are overcome the conquerors carry
off all the larvae and pupae to their own nests and
bring them up with their own, and they in turn
work hard for their captors, and take a great interest
in their welfare and success. When a party of
marauders comes back without any booty their

! slaves give them a cold reception, but if they come
back laden with plenty of larvae and pupae, the
slaves rush out and meet them with apparent delight
and exultation.

Some species work side by side with their slaves
However in one species (Polyergus riifescens, of
Europe) the masters have depended on their slaves
so long that they cannot build their own nests, or
feed or care for their young, but have only retained
the poAver of fighting to get more slaves. Huber
tells of placing several of these slave holders by
themselves where nearly all helplessly starved, al-

164 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

though there was plenty of food all around them.
Then a slave was introduced, which at once set to
work and made a nest and fed those still alive, thus
saving from death its stupid masters."

Observations on Ants.

Observations on the habits of ants can be made
by setting up artificial nests or formicaria.

A simple ant home or formicarium can be made
by getting a flat tin box about one inch high and
placing it on a support. The latter can be made
of a piece of board with four vertical pieces for legs!
like a miniature table. A piece of glass large

enough to cover two-thirds of the tin box shouh
be placed on the box. This protects the nest, an(
at the same time enables one to see the working
of the ants. Earth, but only a very small amount
should be placed in the nest, for if too much is pui
in, the ants will cover over their nest and hide theii
workings. The food should be placed in the open
light part of the nest. The whole apparatus shouh
now be placed in a shallow meat dish filled with
water. Part of the nest should be darkened so ai
to get the conditions as nearly as possible to th(
natural homes of ants in the ground or undei
a stone or log. To do this, many thingi
could be done — a piece of wood could be j
placed over a corner of the glass, or a piece of
cardboard could be used, but the least cumbersome
is to paint one half, or a corner of the glass with
dark paint or bitumen, and then the glass can be
freely lifted when such is desired.

The next thing is to provide water, for this is very

OBSERVATIONS ON ANTS. 165

necessary. Water can be placed in a shallow tin lid,
or a piece of sponge kept moist, can be placed in the
open, light part of the nest. In some cases it is
advisable to have only the darkened part of the home
covered, and to allow the rest of the box to be quite
uncovered by glass.

The home is ready for the ants, and now an
account of some actual observations will be given.

Observation on ants by Miss M. N. Brewster
from "The Australian Naturalist."
Observation i. — Ants: Polyrhachis ammon, or Golden
Bodied Ant.

Brought from Heathcote in December.

The ants with larvae and pupae were placed in a
tin box fixed to a stand which was put in a shallow
enamelled dish full of water. The adults rushed
about madly at first, scrambling over each other,
many falling into the water, to be rescued and
placed back again. Gradually their actions became
milder as they explored every square centi-metre of
their home, and in twenty minutes had settled down
in their new surroundings. They then began to
make the larvae and pupae comfortable, for during
this period the latter had remained neglected.

They first seized the large pupae containing
queens or males and placed them in a corner, then
they took some of the smaller pupae (workers), and
placed them close to some of the larger pupae. They
then seized the larvae, and put them on some of the
pupae ; they took some of the pupae lying on the

166 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

outskirts of this living mass, and placed them close
in, and higher.

Some moist loaf sugar was put in the box, and
they began to get excited again as my hand went
near, but they calmed down again and rushed for
the sugar.

It was interesting to note that they left two of
the large pupae quite apart, and a few came to them
every now and again, and w^alked over them, and
sometimes stood on them, tapping gently with their
antennae. I presumed these pupge were nearing
the time of emergence into the imago or perfect
ant.

It was noted that w^hen one ant, which had got a
severe soaking in the water, died, a worker seized
the dead body, and took it to a far corner of the
box.

Observation 2. — Ant Campouotus nigriceps-

District from which taken — Mosman.

Date — ^January.

I will not describe here the initiation of the
ants into their new home, as this has been prev-
iously done. One can note, however, how various
kinds of ants act very differently under similar con-
ditions. Most of the ants I have tried, however,
are much agitated when first placed in the home
made for them.

Experiments with artificial feeding.

After having with success fed and reared wasps
on Benger's and Allenbur3^'s food, I tried to do
si^iilarl^ with the larvae of ar^ts,

OiBSERVATIONS ON ANTS. 167

I mixed a little Benger's food (half an egg cup
full), and at first fed each individual by means of a
finely cut straw, but when a number of hungry little
babies had to be fed, it was surprising how long it
took to satisfy their hunger. So I tried another
plan. I took a number of pieces of wool, about
I inch, a piece for each larva, and the ends of these
pieces were dipped in the food. A strand of the
wool was then placed near each larva in such a
position as it could easily be sucked by the larva,
should it want to do so. This acted very well,
and the larvae flourished on their artificial food, pu-
pated, and later emerged as perfect ants.

Observations, Case 3. — Ant Polyrhachis animon-
Locality Obtained — Paddington.

I collected ten winged ants (females), two work-
ers, and ten pupcC. I placed them with another
set of Polyrhachis amnion- During the first day of
this addition to the nest, the ants were quiet; on
the second day, I observed a bustling in the nest,
and the workers seemed to be clearing it up — they
were gathering up pupa^, and putting them into one
corner, changing the position of the actual nest.
They threw out a few little stones, sticks, and
crumbs, that were in the nest, tossing them into the
water below. Durino- this time, the winded ants
remained stationary, standing over some of the
pupee. and when the ]3up3e were moved they walked
over to them, and seemed to be intent on sheltering
them. If a winged ant wandered, it was promptly
brought back again, and placed well among the

168 Like stories of Australian insects.

others. It appeared as if the workers had certain
winged charges, for we observed for hours a num-
ber of the workers, and they always avoided certain
winged ants, but went to their own special ones
to feed them. But further observations need to
be made, because there may be other reasons why
certain individuals might be chosen.

A few days after this, a winged ant died, and a
day later two workers and one winged ant emerged.
I. observed a winged ant take hold of a pupa, and
tear one end open ; it held on to the case, though
I tried with a small stick to drive it away. It
was then joined by another winged ant, which
seemed to "talk" to it, and they both proceeded to rip
open the case. One of these then left, while the
remaining ant still held the case.

And now the ant in the case began to emerge. In
50 minutes from the first tearing open of the case,
the head of the emerging ant appeared. The atten-
dant ant appeared to be washing the face of the
emerging one. It then ripped open the case further,
after first having gone for another ant to aid it, by
holding the case firm. Then slowly, one by one,
the legs were drawn out, and the attendant
ant appeared to wash each part as it was ex-
posed. The emerging ant semed to give no
assistance in this washing, and very little in emerg-
ing. At last it was pulled or helped out, and its
wings looked like two lumps of jelly.

Now it began to work. It moved its jaws, and
worked its limbs up and down, and in and out. At
the same time one attendant ant worked at its wings.

OBSERVATIONS ON ANTS. 16*)

At this period only one attendant ant remained.
After twenty minutes' rest, the other ant returned,
and the two worked at the wings. One held the
newly-emerged ant, while the other pulled out the
wings clear of their sticky covering (a kind of
gummy mass).

Then came two more ants, and helped in the
launching of the newly-emerged winged ant into life,
and the whole emergence and cleaning took over
six hours. I watched this till 2 a.m.

In May of anijther year I placed a small nest of
PolyrJwchis amv.ion in an inverted deep saucepan
lid and placed the handle of the lid in a glass. Near
to it was a similar nest of Camponottts nigriceps —
the Sugar Ant, and there was interest in observing
the differences in habits.

I placed a piece of wet sponge in each nest.
The Polyrhacliis ants sucked the water quite na-
turally, but the Camponotus would have none of it.
They covered it over with sand, and made a nest of
it. The sponge was taken out and washed and
placed back again wet. The ants waited till it was
partly dried, and began to cover it with sand, and
as I left them in peace, they made a comfortable
little home with rooms ready — the spaces in the
sponge, and placed in them larv?e and pupae.

Once when I was attending to these adjacent
ant homes mentioned above, the lid in which the
Camponotid ants were living was tipped up close
to the Polyrhachis nest. In a few seconds the
Camponotids had crossed over to the other, and
there was a free fight between the two species.
After vainly trying to separate them I promptly

170 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

submerged the lot in a basin ot water. This served
the purpose of separating most of them, and they
were soon rescued and restored to their homes
Httle the worse for their lively experience. How-
ever there w,ere several victims.

Note that the ants have a habit of covering over
v/ifh sand anything objectionable in the nest which
they cannot remove, or which would be too trouble-
some to remove. If there is water spilt, and it
does not dry quickly enough, they cover it up. They
covered up various things such as chocolates and
biscuit, if too much was put in.

i7l

O. HYMENOPTERA.
Fossore Wasps.

(fossa a ditch).

The term ''fossore" is given because of the habit
that many of these wasps have of digging in sand,
They can be distinguished from the higher group
of true wasps by the following characteristics : —

(i) The pronotum (part of the first segment of
the thorax) is in the form of a collar-like ring at the
back of the neck. (Plate 21, Fig. 9. b). The
"pin waisted" mud dauber Avasp shows this well be-
cause the collar is yellow and stands out clearly
from the darker part of the thorax.

(2) The wings are not folded fanwise in repose,
as is the case with true wasps, but held more
or less horizontally over the body. (See Plate 22,
Fig. 8.)

Fossore wasps differ from ants in having no nodes
on the petiole or stalk of the abdomen. ,

These wasps differ from bees in having no
branched hairs such as bees have to gather the
pollen.

Fossore wasps are all solitary in habit.

Habits. — Fossores are predaceous, capturing in-
sects and spiders which they sting in such a man-
ner as to paralyse but not kill them, for these vic-
tims are the future food of their larvae. However,

172 Llti^E STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECT^.

the victim is frequently killed when small or not'
very robust, and sometimes even at the first sting-
ing, for wasps usually sting several times. They
store the victims in their nests made either in sand,
in stems of plants, in crevices, or in mud cells
which they may build. Each particular species
seems to have a preference for a certain food store ;
some capture spiders, others caterpillars, beetles,
flies, cicadas, locusts. After storing their victims
in the nest an egg is laid on one of them and the
nest or cell is then closed. The larva hatches
out, and is a tiny maggot which begins to feed on
the food-store. It develops after several moults;
it pupates and later on the adult emerges from

its prison.

The adults feed on the nectar of flowers, on honey

dew deposited by scales or lerps; but there is

no return given by these insects for the sweets.

Ants protect their sweet-yielding friends. The

wasps simply enjoy the good provided.

A great deal of observation work needs to be

done in getting accurate accounts of the life history

of our fossores.

I. Family Scoliidae.

The wasps of this family have a chink or notch
between the first and second segments of the abdo-
men, and this is seen on the ventral or under side.
(See Plate 21, Fig. i. a). There are many wingless
forms. The family can be divided into three sub-
families : —

A. Sub-family Scoliides. Characteristics:—
They are hairy wasps, the legs are stout; both sexes

f' WASPS. m

are winged ; the veins of the wings do not extend to
the outer (distal) margin. (Plate 21, Fig. 5. a).
They are parasitic on the larvae of beetles. The
eyes of Scoliids are usually notched.

B. Sub-family Thynnides (Plate 21, Figs. 7 and
8). Characteristics: — Males and females dififer, the
males are winged, the females wingless. Wings
with veins extending to the outer margin. Similar
in habits to the Scoliids. The abdomen is smooth
looking with well defined rings. The adults of
both these sub-families feed on the nectar of flow-
ers.

C. Sub-family Mutillides. Characteristics: —
These are ant-like forms, and often are associated
with ants. The females are wingless, with the parts
of the thorax closely soldered, forming one piece.
(Plate 21, Fig. 6). Males differ in having the

I thoracic segments visible and are usually winged.
They are parasitic in habit, parasitising other wasps
and bees. The species Mutilla rugicollis is a large

I black wasp with white markings. These wasps
are sometimes seen running on the ground or along
tree trunks.

Sub-family Scoliides.

These wasps parasitise the grubs of the lamelli-
! corn beetles (such beetle types being "king,"
"queen" or christmas beetle, and "washer-Avomen
beetles" of the children).

Of the common Scoliid wasps is the beautiful
blue-black metallic wasp, Discolia soror (Plate 22.
Figs. 10. II and 12), v/hich we have observed for
several years in late summer flying over the lawns

174

PLAT£ 21.

fjql Abdomen of Scolnd
6 Chir>k

Fi^3 L!rq ofthynnid
a 9inqle Spur

Rq2 Abdomen of Ponripilid
a 1^0 chink

Fi<^4U<^otMuhllid
a Double Spur

FiqS. Win(^ of Scoliid
a Mar<|in wilR no i/e\ns

Fiqb Mufillid Wa^p

Ficj7 Winqless Female Thynnid

Fiq9. Parr of PompilidWdSp
iPronoTum&Tsqulae in contacr.j
a head, b Pronofom .cTequla

fi«j8 Winged MaleTViynnid

Fiqlo Pari- of 5pKeqid Wasp

(PnotvoTofn ^.Teuulae nor niconCdci-j
a - Teqybe
b- ProootOm

WASPS. 175

ot the Botanic Gardens and at times alighting on the
grass and burrowing through.

The female scoliid of some species seeks out the
fat curled grubs of the lamellicorn beetles and lays
an Qgg on the outside of the victim. To enable these
wasps to hunt for the grubs in the ground, the body
is furnished with a pair of strong digging legs with
backward-directed bristles. The wasp-larva

hatches out and feeds on the juices of the body, and
increases in size until ready to pupate. It then spins
a stout golden cocoon beside its victim which is now
shrunken and lifeless. The adult emerges from its
cocoon in the earth, and digs its way out. and flies
off.

Another beautiful yellow and black scoliid is
Diclis 7- ciiicta, which is parasitic, among other grubs,
on the larva of the sugar cane lamellicorn beetle
{Lipid odcrma albo-Iiirtimi.) The grubs of this beetle
feed on the roots of the sugar cane so that the wasp
in destroying some of these grubs is a little friend
to the cane growers. \Ye have caught the wasp
on flowers of Leptospermiim (Tea-tree), at Maroubra
and Lindfield, and it is common along our coast and
in Queensland. We have watched the blue metallic
wasp, Discolia soror, feeding on the nectar of flowers
such as marigolds, pincushions, etc., in the Botanic
Gardens, and it was interesting to note that whereas
the bee with its longer tongue could easily reach
the nectar at the base of the flower tube, the Dis-
colia had to push its head into the cluster of flowers
in order to reach the feast. This wasp is also
^ound feeding on the nectar of many native flowers.

176 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Sub-family Thynnides (Plate 21, Figs. 7 and 8).
The wasps of this sub-family are similar in habit to
the scoliids. parasitising the larvae of lamellicorn
beetles; the adults feed on the nectar of flowers.
We have caught the males of Thynnus variabilis and
other thynnid wasps on the flowers of Leptospcr-
mitni. There is a curious thynnid wasp known
as the "blue ant" which is ant-like in appearance.
It has a very powerful sting and a stout integument.
Its name is Diamma bicolor, and it is the wingless
female.

II. Family Pompilidas.
Runners or Sand Wasps.

These wasps have strong running legs and can
also fly well. Their habits are parasitic, for they
hunt out victims, lay an egg on the outside of the
body, after paralysing them, and then close up
their sandy nest.

The wasp-baby feeds on the fluids of the body
of the victim, whose skin it pierces with its jaws
and sucks at the puncture.

The adult wasps are usually strong, free moving,
and of black and orange colours.

Pompilid wasps have no chink between the ist
and 2nd segments of the abdomen. (Plate 21. Fig.
2.) The tegulse and pronotum are in contact.
(Plate 21, Fig. 9, b and c.)

III. Family Sphegidae.
(Smaller Sand Wasps.)

This group of wasps is closely allied to the Pom-

WASPS. 177

pilids. The more advanced students can distinguish
them by the following characteristic. In Sphegids
the pronotum or collar is not in contact with the
tegula (a little cup-like scale over the base of the
fore wing). (See Plate 21, Fig. 10 a. b.). In
Pompilids the pronotum and tegulse are in contact,
for the pronotum is prolonged backwards at the
sides to meet the tegulse.

Mr. Froggatt, in "Friendly Insects," thus sums
tip the habits of sand wasps (Pompilidse and Sphe-
gidse). "In the sand wasps we have many large
black and yellow long-legged hunting wasps, that
flying over grass and herbage, capture small crickets,
locusts, grasshoppers, and even large cicadas, which
they drag or ride into the burrows they excavate in
the sandy soil. Where these wasps are plentiful.
they must keep down the number of small grass and
plant-eating Orthoptera (locusts, grasshoppers,
etc.)."

The Sphegids, which we will now consider, are
all solitary in habit.

Genus Ammophila. This wasp makes tunnels
in the ground. At the end of the tunnel is a little
room, and it is here that the food store is placed.
This species captures caterpillars ; one only is
needed if it is large, and several if small.

Mr. T. McCarthy has given the following account
of Ammophila suspiciosa in the "Australian Na-
turalist" : "During a recent visit to the Government
Experimental Station at Hay nothing proved so in-
teresting as the nest-making habits of the Thread
Waisted Sand Digger Ammophila suspiciosa- The

178 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

wasps were in large numbers and from sunrise to
sunset were continually on the move, scampering
over the ground with wonderful activity in their
endeavour to find a suitable locality to establish
their nest. A slight elevation in the ground is
the spot usually chosen by the wasps for their
digging operations, and thus each hillock becomes
a mass of independent nests, each carefully dis-
guised by the wasps. No visible signs of the
operation of the wasp therefore exist, save only a
half finished tunnel, which some wasp had begun,
and then, finding it unsuitable, had abandoned.
Before starting to burrow the wasp carefully sur-
veys the ground, and having chosen an apparently
suitable site, begins to dig. After digging abt)Ut
half an inch deep she may suddenly cease opera-
tions and go in search of another site. This pro-
cedure is often repeated three or four times before
the wasp finally decides the site for her nest. She
then rapidly proceeds with the digging operations,
using the strong mandibles for digging, and the
legs for throwing back the finer material often two
or three inches from the mouth of the burrow. When
completed, the burrow is a simi^le shaft, with one
enlarged cell at its termination, and in this cell is
stored the caterpillar on which she lays an ego-. As
soon as the tunnel was completed the wasp emerged
and after carefully circling round the tunnel en-
trance, set ofif at a run across the ground without
attempting to fly. After travelling about 15ft from
the tunnel she stopped at a green tuft of grass, and
from it seized a green caterpillar about one inch in

WASPS. 179

length, in her mandibles, and straddling it, com-
menced the return journey. The caterpillar was
quite limp, and had evidently been stung some time
previously, as no attempts were made by the wasp
to sting the caterpillar, which, beyond a slight
twitching, was apparently lifeless when taken off the
grass. The journey back to the burrow was ac-
complished without incident, and the caterpillar
dropped just at the edge of the entrance. The
wasp then descended the tunnel, probably to see
that nothing had interfered during her absence ; but
soon after reappeared with her head facing the
entrance, and seizing the caterpillar once more in
her mandibles, backs down the burrow, dragging
with her the lifeless body of the caterpillar. After
about ten seconds she reappeared and proceeded
at once to block up the tunnel entrance. At first
Avith the aid of the legs she throws down a quantity
of fine earth, ramming it down at intervals with the
head, by short, sharp rushes. She then collects
the large pellets of earth previously taken from the
tunnel, and with the aid of her mandibles, carefully
places them in position on the top of the finer earth
so as to make a close, well packed filling. Larger
pellets again are then used to fill up the burrow to
the original level, and the top is then covered by
a leaf, on top of which is placed a few scattered
pellets in order to make it as nearly indistinguish-
able as possible. So the nest is completed, and the
young wasp larva left to develop underground, the
parent wasp apparently taking no further interest
in the nest. Some three or four days later, I dug

180. LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

up several of the wasp burrows, and in every case
a single caterpillar only was found in the cell at
the extremity of each burrow. To each caterpillar
was attached a small wasp larva, the head only of
which was inserted through the epidermis of the
caterpillar, which was apparently dead, except for
a slight twitching movement of the posterior ex-
tremity of the body."

The genus Sphex stores crickets and grasshoppers,
etc. Bcmhex stores flies in a hole in the ground.
There is usually a tunnel leading obliquely into a
widened cavity at the inner end. The species Exei-
rus lateritius is very much like a pompilid wasp in
general appearance. It is a large yellow and black
wasp. It attacks cicadas, and after paralys-

ing one by stinging it, the wasp drags it
to its hole, usually straddling it. The hole is made
in the sand, ready to receive the victim. An e^gg
is laid on the ventral side of the cicada. The young
wasp larva hatches out and feeds on the juices of
its host by piercing a softer part of the integu-
ment.

We watched one of these wasps carrying a quite
paralysed cicada to its hole which was made on a
piece of fiat, sandy land at the base of a gully. It
was dragging the victim along on its back, strad-
dling it.

Near the hole was a fairly large stone. We re-
moved it to see if its removal would confuse the
wasp. It did so, for it seemed quite worried, and
fiew round and round in a much more excited way
than its ordinary method of approaching the hole.

\\ASPS. isi

Then we replaced this stone and on its return it
went straight to the hole after a few preliminary
circular flights. i

The species Pelopaeus lastus (Plate 22). This is
one of the commonest mud daubers, and is frequent-
ly called a *'hornet." It is also called the *'pin-waisted
mud dauber," and "spider wasp" because of its
habit of catching spiders. It makes nests of varying
size, usually of two rows of cells (Plate 22, Fig. i).
It works up the earth into little mud pellets and
probably with the further aid of salivary secretion
from the mouth. Each little wasp grub has a little
mud cell about an inch in length for its temporary
home. The mother wasp hunts for spiders ; she
seizes one, and after paralysing it, she straddles it
until she is near the nest, when she carries it up
to the cell. The number of spiders stored depends
on their size. Usually the spiders are smalt

to medium, and of the same species, a speckled
type . It lays an egg on one of the spiders and then
seals up the cell when sufficient food is stored. The
little Avasp grub hatches out in two or three
days. It feeds about 10 to 15 days, and after a
series of moults becomes a full-grown larva. (Plate
22, Fig. 2.) It then spins a brittle papery cocoon
(Plate 22, Figs. 3 and 4), cutting off the excretion,
and pupates within it, emerging as an adult about
two weeks later. The adult is a yellow and black
wasp with a conspicuous yellow ring-like collar or
pronotum, and a very long slender petiole. (Plate
22, Figs. 7 a. and 8.) The pronotum and the
tegulse are not in contact. (Plate 21, Fig. 10.)
It is interesting to note the variations in habit

PLATfe 22.

Tiq'^ Pupa ^uti.n Cocc_-

a Excrtfttbn r,q5 Cocoof^ w.t^m Mod cell h'\^. Remains of

a Mwdcel) spiders in Cell

b Cocoon

ic^ 7 Upper parl-
or Spheqid

Fiqe . Adul^
a Pefiola

h<]9. Cocoons of
Paras ttic 4/ -found
, in cell.

FiqiO L)

qio Ljiva

WASPS. 183

(if any) in the lives of our wasps with those of other
lands. Peckham noted that two-thirds of the spi-
ders are killed at capture, most died in a week, and
a few lived for nearly six weeks. He noted that
the Qgg was laid almost invariably on the last spider,
while Fabre records the egg being placed on the first
captured spider.

Sometimes one finds an empty cell, or a cell packed
with food store and no egg has been laid in it.

These wasps are often attacked by parasites.
From a very large nest we bred out parasitic Tach-
inid flies, and one of the parasitic wasps.

In building the mud nest the mother wasp has a
very bugy time. As many as 40 to 50 loads of mud
are carried in its mouth to form just one cell. The
following are notes made from observations of a
"pin waisted" wasp.

Notes on Pelopaeus laetus.

ii

J A ]:)retty yellow and black mud wasp {Pelo-
paeus laetus) flew^ into the room and apparently be-
gan looking for a spot to build its nest. iMually
the corner of the ceiling vs'as selected in
preference to many sites previously inspected. The
wasp crawded over the surface several times, and
appeared to be scratching it. This action may
possibly have been to roughen the surface so that
the mud would adhere more readily. The builder
now flew away, but shortly returned with a rounded
pellet of mud in its jaws. This was placed on the
selected spot, and the front feet appeared to flatten
it out to make it cover the greatest space. Many

18-i LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

pellets were treated in the same way till the foun-
dation was finished. Then she placed several
pellets and kneaded and worked at it till a hollow
appeared. Now a little cylindrical cell began to
take shape and form. The wall of this was com-
pleted, but the cavity was not closed in. The cell
was over an inch in length, and the time occupied
in building it was ij days.

The wasp was now absent for a longer period
than usual, but on returning we noticed that the little
mud ball was not the burden this time, but instead
quite a large spider was held securely in its jaws.
Four legs of the spider were arranged straight in
front of the body, and parallel to it, and four similarly
behind the body. The wasp came to the door of
the cell, promptly pushed the spider in, and then
crawled in herself to do the packing. The spider
was not dead, but merely paralysed by the sting of
its captor. Other spiders were brought and packed
into the cell in a similar manner.

Now the reader may wonder what the wasp is
going to do with these spiders. She does not eat
them herself, but nature has taught her how to pro-
vide for her young, who do not happen to be like
their mother in respect to diet.

When the first cell was fully provisioned, the wasp
placed a tiny egg in it, then sealed it by placing a
mud cap over the entrance.

The spiders were now in an almost airtight cavity,
and would probably keep quite fresh until they had
served their purpose.

Other cells were built and stored in tlie same wav;

I

WASPS. - 185

tinally ten were completed. Being cylindrical, the
cells only touched one another, leaving a little hol-
low between each. This hollow was filled up with
mud until the whole presented a fairly even surface.

The ten cells were built in a fortnight. During
the building a rather strange thing happened. We
watched the wasp fly up to the nest with its load,
and as it was starting out for another, we caught it
with a net. Within a couple of hours, another
wasp appeared and continued the work.

The story of the wasp is not finished, for later
on out from each tiny Qgg placed in each separate
cell came a legless grub, which immediately began
to suck the juices from the bodies of the spiders.
The food supply lasted till the grub was full grown,
a period of from lO to 15 days. Then inside the cell
it formed an oval cocoon. In this it changed to the
pupa, a white helpless looking object with three
pairs of legs folded on the under surface of the body.
The transformation continued, until one day the
mud cap was pushed off from one cell and then
another, and out from each struggled the fully de-
veloped slender bodied wasp.

In country districts in New South Wales every
child calls this particular mud dauber a ''hornet,"
and dreads it, fearing its sting, but it is not known
to be agressive, or to sting people.

186 LIFE STORIJES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECT^.

GROUP DIPLOPTERA.
(True Wasps.)

(Wings folded fanwise.)

These can be distinguished from the Fossores
by several well marked characteristics.

(i) The wings are folded lengthwise like a fan,
in repose. (Plate 23, Fig. 3.)

(2) The front part of the pro-thorax on the upper
side, called the pronotum, is prolonged towards the
back to form two angular side pieces. (Plate
23, Fig. 4, a.)

(3) The eyes are kidney shaped, not rounded.
There is a notch just behind the antennae. (Plate
23, Fig. 9.) This can be easily seen with a lens,
yowever, the Scoliid-fossores have the notched
eye.

(4) There is a marked absence of the numerous
spines and spurs such as one finds in the fossores
which burrow.

These true wasps can be divided into three groups
— A. Family Eumenida£, which has a single spur
on the end of the tibia or shank, just near the tarsus,
or foot. (Plate 23, Fig. 5.) The claws of the
foot are toothed. (Plate 23, Fig. 7.)

B. Family Vespidae. There are two tibial spurs
on the middle legs. (Plate 23, Fig. 6, a.) The
claws of the foot are simple. (Plate 23, Fig. 8, a.)

VVASrS. 187

C. Family Masaridae. A small family which have
clubbed antennae. These wasps have a narrow
petiole and build nests in the form of a tunnel in the
ground, or they make clay nests.

A. — Family Eumenidae.

These wasps are a very interesting- group, for
they can be watched building their small or large
nests of mud, and forming the little rooms in which
they store caterpillars, etc. Their nests are found
on the walls of buildings, under verandahs, on win-
dow ledges. Others are carpenters, cutting out
nests from woody stems, and making little cells in
them. They are all "solitary wasps," but social
tendencies are perhaps indicated in their grouping-
together of cells and providing- food, by hunting
for it, for the baby grubs when they hatch in the
closed cell.

One of the largest nests we have seen, about
8 inches across, was found under the roof of a ver-
andah at Port Hacking. It was smooth and rounded,
but of a general oblong shape, and there was an
"entrance" in the form of a little funnel. It con-
tained many strongly-made mud cells, separated
by partitions quarter of an inch in thickness. The
adults hatched out and were of the species Abispa
splendida. This species can be distinguished by
the following characteristics. It has a reddish
orange angular pronotum ; the wings are of the
same colour but duller and with black tips. The
first abdominal segment is black with a rim of
orange-red on the lower edge. (Plate 23, Fig. 4.)
The petiole is not so marked in this genus, though

188

PLATE 2[

Fiql Oiaqram of Mudcell of Lumemc^
a tcjQ t Cd^c^plllars

f 1 q -^ ttj me rv id (Abii-p^ ■ SpkndiSa)
a Anflolar Pror^oru'fn.

I Fiq5 Tibia of Middle

L?q of Ei^menid W&5D
a>inq|<»- Spur
b Tibia

hqto t-ooi ot Veypid
a Simple Claims.

fiq9. Cye ol
Tfoe Wasp.

Bqe. libia of iiiddlL^.
Leq of Vespid Wasp
a Double Spur5.
b T.bia

hq? Fool" of" Lomenid
d ToolKed Gaws.

hqio Laivadi tumeftid(i/nac'tf.'
(Mt&( Robbaod
a. food PAsfe.

~ ~ WASPS. 189

it can be seen when the wasp curls its body round.
Six adults emerged and four pupae were found in
four other cells, so that there were ten cells in
the nest. They were large and oval in shape. At
the narrower end there was a little circular cap
or lid. The excrement was shut off at the broader
end of the cell by the larva spinning a floor of a
silken membrane. This membrane was continued all
round the cell and adhered to the wall like wall-
paper, but one could tear it off like a strip of cloth.
Within the cell was the naked pupa, and the last
moult-skin of the larva. It is interesting to notice
the difference in this eumenid wasp to that of the
fossore mud-dauber Pelopaeus. In the . latter the
cocoon covering is not attached to the wall, but is a
brittle papery structure immediately round the pupa,
so that when the cell is broken the naked pupa is
hidden by the cocoon, whereas in Abispa, the
eumenid wasp, when the cell was broken across the
naked pupa was at once seen, and the cell had the
appearance of a bare little room. In a mass of
the excrement in one of the cells, seen when one
tore off the "floor-lining" at the larger end, there
was a cocoon of a fly which was shut out with the
,. excrement. The fly was dead within the cocoon.

I The cells of the nest were very strongly built
and of larger pellicles of earth than is seen in many
pests ; one would expect this from the large size
hi the wasp. Also on the outer side the cells were
Protected by three or four layers of mud (Plate 23,
pJ^ig. 2, a, b), so that this solid part of the nest had a

190 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALlAxV IxN'SECTS.

stratified appearance when it was broken across,
and was about half an inch thick. There was a
beautifully formed entrance in the shape of a
funnel.

The genus Eitmenes is another of the mason
wasps, and builds mud cells. Fabre records a curi-
ous habit of some species of these wasps, that of
suspending an ^gg from a slender thread which
is fastened to the roof of the cell (Plate 23, Fig. i, a.)
Thus it is thought by some that the ^gg is pro-
tected from any movement on the part of the cater-
pillars which are stored in the cell ; for many of
the eumenid wasps do not seem able to sting their
victims so effectually as do the fossores. The little
baby-wasp grub hatches out and stretches down
to the nearest caterpillar. It pupates within its
cocoon, and later on, the adult,' a gay black and
orange wasp, emerges to carry on the life history
of its kind, unless it becomes a victim of insect
enemies, human collectors, or other accidents.

Another Australian genus is Odynerus. Froggatt
says : "This genus contains a number of small thick-
set wasps, that make clay nests of various shapes ;
sometimes very delicate in structure, forming a
finger-shaped row of clay cells or rounded cup-
shaped chambers ; while some species make use of
a hole in the wood or wall and simply coat it over
v.'ith clay. Australia is rich in the species, some of
which have a very wide range."

These nests frequently contain parasites. In one
nest we found the cocoon of two different specie-?
of parasitic flies and of a parasitic wasp.

WASPS. 191

There is another mud-dauber or mason wasp
which has the very bad habit of filling every key-
hole of the outer doors of houses near the bush.
An experiment was tried by a resident of Epping,
of boring several holes in a slab of wood, and so
enabling the wasp to find a home, wdiich caused
every satisfaction to it, and w^as decidedly better
for the inmates of the house.

Some of the smaller eumenid red and black wasps
build smaller and less compact houses which ap-
pear to be, in some cases, just carelessly put to-
gether and easily broken.

There is another Eumenid wasp of the genus
Synagris of wdiose habits we w^ill cpiote in detail,
for they form a link with the more strictly social
wasps (Family Vespidse). We quote observations
made by E. Roubaud in 'The Natural History of
the Solitary Wasps of the Genus Synagris,'' pub-
lished in Smithsonian Report for 1910. The ob-
servations were made in the Congo Region, Africa.

"The wasp, Synagris sicheliana, lays an egg in its
cell of earth. Then without haste, after having
guarded it for some time, it commences to collect
a small provision of caterpillars for the moment of
hatching. When the larva has commenced to feed,
the Synagris continues the provisioning, but in a
slow and regular manner, taking care to furnish
its larva with a little more food than is necessary
for the day. It is a progressive provisioning from
day to day, wdiich gives the wasp the necessary
leisure to guard the larva and watch its growth."

"The caterpillar.s lie in the earthen cell. The

1\)2 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Qgg is deposited beside them and is not fixed to
the wall of the nest by a suspensory thread (made
use of by wasps of genera Odynerus and Etimenes),
although this thread still exists attached to one
end of the egg. The Qgg is not fixed to the prey
as in the case of the fossore wasps. It is de-
posited in the bottom of the cell and the female
watches for the hatching in order to begin the pro-
visioning. This is therefore a habit of social wasps.
The wasp does not wall up its cell after laying the
egg. It remains there itself and guards the egg —
its head directed downwards, thus preventing the
access of parasites. On the other hand it begins
provisioning at such a time as will enable the young-
larva, after hatching, to be certain to find its food.
The provisioning which then takes place regularly
and in proportion suitable to the size of the larva,
permits the Synagris to watch the growth of its
young."

Roubaud also describes another species of Syna-
gris which shows still further advance in social
habits, getting close to the Social wasps, insomuch
as the mother hunts for caterpillars, but instead
of giving them to the larva to feed on, she chews
them up into a paste and places it on the lower
surface of the thorax of the larva (Plate 23, Fig
10), in such a position as to enable it to bend its
head and take in the food, "a little mass of a
green colour, and of semi-fluid constituency, which
the larva ate greedily." The mother-wasp hunts
nearly all day at short intervals, for the baby grub
is very hungry. At night she stands at the door of

WASPS. 193

the cell and guards her offspring. When the larva
i? full grown she closes up the cell and begins an-
other one adjoining the latest formed.

B. — Family Vespidae.

(Plate 24.)

These wasps can be distinguished from the other
groups of true wasps by habit and by the presence
of two tibial claws on the middle legs, and by the
simple claws of the foot. (Plate 23, Figs. 6 and 8).
These wasps are usually of a duller colour than
most wasps. They are predaceous and feed their
young on masticated spiders, etc. The adults feed
on nectar of flowers, on juices of fruits when bruised
by birds. There is an angular pronotum (Plate
24, Fig. 6 a). The genus Vespa or "yellow jacket,"
or hornet is absent as far as is known in Aus-
tralia. These wasps build paper nests, but the cells
are usually enclosed in a papery envelope so that
the cells are hidden. We have in Australia, the
paper nest wasps of the genera Polistcs and
Icaria-

Polistcs makes a nest on the branches of trees,
on ledges of verandahs and window sills. Some
species make papery nests under logs and these are
usually not stalked.

The genus Icaria is another Australian Vespid
which differs from Polistcs in having: a lonsr narrow
linear nest, the base of it of several cells in depth,
and the outer end tapering to a one-celled row.
The wasp is smaller also than Polistcs, with a more
noticeable petiole.

194 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Life History of the Paper Nest Wasp. — Thest
wasps are social in habit, that is, they have a home
common to a community. There are three castes
(a) males, (b) females, (c) workers. The latter
are females which do not lay eggs but take charge
of the home. The nest and the community last
but for one year. In the autumn the males and
females emerge. The males have no sting with
which the queens and workers are armed. Also
the males have seven segments in the abdomen,
while the others have six. The colouring of the
three castes is similar, so that it is hard to dis-
tinguish a stingless male from the others, hence he
is protected. The females or queens are usually
larger than the workers. In the autumn the males
and workers die, and the fertilised queens winter
over, hiding in cracks in logs, trees, under stones.
When spring time comes the queen comes out
from her winter shelter and flies to a tree or post,
and begins to tear away pieces of the wood in
shreds and converts it into a kind of paste, prob-
ably with the aid of the salivary juices of the mouth.
Thus the wood is reduced to the "paper" of which
the nest is made. The mother, or queen of PoUstes
tasmaniensis, begins the nest by forming a patch of
sticky, dark material, and then a stout, black, very
slender stalk, which is smooth and often shining
as if covered with a kind of varnish. It is placed
so that the nest is held downwards, thus a roof is
formed by the bases of the cells. (See Plate 24, Fig.
7). This roof is sometimes covered with a smooth
encrusting secretion which seems to make it

WASPS. 195

water-tight, and as the "roof" slopes downwards
the water runs quickly off. The mother-wasps
make several cells of paper, the openings directed
downwards, and in each cell near to the middle of
it she fastens a little elliptic egg with a short stalk.
(Plate 24, Fig. 2, a.) One can see the tiny baby
grub gradually form in the Qgg, for it is trans-
lucent in most cases. When the little larvae are
hatched there is a very strenuous time for the
mother. Each larva has to be fed, and she
has to hunt for spiders and masticate them, and
feed her children. As she approaches the cell the
little grub raises its head] to receive the food,
and we observed some of the larger ones pushing
their heads right out of the cells just as little
hungry birds do. The larva (Plate 24, Fig. 3) has
a kind of pad at the end of the abdomen and it
seems to be able to fasten itself to the cell by means
of this, as it hangs head downwards. Tt
moults several times and the moult-skins are pushed
down to the bottom of the cell alone with *excre-

o

tion. When ready to pupate (Plate 24, Figs. 4
and 5), the larva builds a loose web at the mouth
of the cup. In the earlier life of the nest only
workers hatch out, and they now come to help the
mother-wasp. They take control of the home,
enlarging and cleaning cells, making new ones,
hunting for spiders, and feeding the babies.

We observed a nest of Polistes Tasmanicnsis on a
tree during a whole season. Near by was a hedge
of olive trees, and when the young befries were out
(about the size of small peas) we noticed that these

196

PLATE 24.

(,tiib r-/o developing]!

a. Sraik.

nq 1 Cell coh apen

Fiq5 Larva

Fi^4 Pupa

Fiq5 Pupal cell
closed

a An(jular Pronoluri-*

Fiq 7' Paper" nest"

Ficj 8. Two cells of leaf cuttmd bee
a cell

Fiq9. Rofe leaf- with pieces cut" out-
1)7 Leaf cuttincj bee

a. Side piece

b Top piece

for cell

WASPS. 197

wasps went to the trees and cut off berries and car-
ried them to the nest — one wasp carrying one berry.
As the wasp alighted on the nest with a berry
another home worker came forward and seized the
other end of the berry and the two stood and worked
at it till they had severed it with their jaws.
Then another wasp came forward to the wasps
which had half a berry and they further reduced it
till it finally disappeared. They did not go then
and feed the baby grubs, so that it is probable that
they were feeding- themselves and also sharing their
fruit with a wasp busy at home.

During several weeks' heavy rain the nest was
quite unharmed. It was protected partly by leaves,
but the rain was very heavy, yet it seemed to run
off quickly from the smooth sloping surface. We
observed during the season the feeding of
the wasp-grubs, the enlarging of cells, the
emergence of adults from the pupal chamber aided
by the workers, and the cleaning out of such cells.
When the adult emerges a couple of workers aid
it, and stroke it with their antennae. It is pale at
first but soon gets the normal brown colour of
the worker and takes its place among its sisters,
foraging, cleaning and building.

These wasps seem to have adapted themselves to
a mixed diet, for though normally they feed their
larvae on masticated spiders, the same larvae have
been reared in the later end of their life on vege-
tarian diet.

P Also the adults feed on nectar of flowers, on
f juices of fruits. Yet we have observed workers

198 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

seize the larvae in a nest, tear them and devour
them. We saw two workers drag a very large
larva out of its cell and cut it in two, each taking
a half, and only for the cruelty of their doings, it
was almost comical to see them stand with thorax
almost vertical, hold part of the victim with their
forelegs, and tear their food bit by bit and devour
it. They reminded one of little urchins picking
a bone.

These wasps do not sting unless molested, yet
when they build low down on a verandah or
bush they are likely to become a nuisance, as they
will attack anyone rashly approaching too closely
to their nest. When the nest is broken down they
are most persistent in coming back and building
in the same spot. They have a powerful sting.

Observations made on the Life History of the
Paper-Nest Wasp.

(Polistes tasmaniensis.)

A small nest of this wasp was found at Mosman
on 1 2th February, and the few workers resting on it
were captured by means of the net, at the expense
of a few stings, and the nest was removed.

There were 20 cells in it made of a papery grey-
ish white material. Four of the cells contained each
one tgg; in the others there were larvae in various
stages of development, one in each cell. The re-
maining cells contained each a pupa.

As the adult wasps found on the nest had been
placed in the killing bottle, an effort was rnade to

WASPS. 19V)

feed the larvie with Benger's food. A thread was
dipped into the liquid, and then held near the mouth
of the larva, and it took the food eagerly. After
that, each larva flourished on three meals a day of
Benger's food. They put their heads up eagerly
as soon as they felt the touch of the thread or of
a straw from a millet broom, which was used later.
When doing this, they looked like little hungry
birds stretching their necks right out of the cells.

We will give a detailed description of one of these
larvae, which was found in the nest. After taking
food for about a week, we noticed it was very rest-
less, stretching itself out of the cell, and when food
was applied to its mouth, it rejected it.

Once after a few convulsive movements, it turned
its head right under its body, and remained in that
position for two minutes. After this rest, it
stretched itself agan, and began to move its head all
around the edge of the cell with a tapping move-
ment. We then saw it was building up its pupal
chamber. Its head was moving from side to side,
and as it built up the sides of its cell, it turned
gradually and completely around it. When the
wall was finished, the length of the cell had been
increased to i of an inch.

It now turned its attention to the building of the
cap or roof of its pupal chamber, and it began to
work a little below the top edge of the cell, working-
upwards in a circle till the inner roof was com-
pleted. The operation of wall building had com-
menced at 9.30 p.m., and finished at 11 p.m., and
the roof was complete at 12.45 ^''^-

200 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

One interesting fact was, that one of the larvae
split its cell wall as it increased in size, and we pasted
a piece of paper at the side to repair it, and it was
quite content, increased the length of the wall, and
made the cap at top, and pupated. But another
larva was not so easily satisfied. The side of the
cell split, and we tried to patch it with gummed
paper. It started to pupate by increasing the
length of the cell, but when it had finished this, in-
stead of turning its attention to the cap or roof of
its pupal cell, it began to repair the side of its cell,
which had split. We left it at this work, and the
next morning expected to see it safely in its pupal
home, but it seemed to be vainly endeavouring to
make the cap, and could not, so we concluded that
it had not sufficient thread to do so, as it had used
it in the repairing of the side of the cell. So we
placed a small piece of cotton wool over the top of
the cell, but it would have none of it, and pushed
it off.

We then placed a narrow gelatine tube over the
top of the cell, but it did not alter its uncomfortable
position of hanging out of the cell. We then took
the larva out of its cell, and placed it in the tube
with a little cotton wool at the top to allow the
air through. The larva died.

We then took a large healthy larva not quite
ready for pupation, and placed it in a tube, feeding
it on the juice of crushed spiders — part of its natural
diet; but this larva also died, not seeming to flourish
except in its natural cell, or perhaps being injured
in the removal from its cell.

WASPS. 201

P But the most interesting part of this nest was,
that not only did the adult wasps hatch out from
the larvae fed partly by artificial means, but from
two of the eggs tiny wasp maggots hatched out,
and were fed on Benger's food, and flourished; they
increased in size, pupated and completed the whole
life history, taking in one case, 49 days, in the other
54 days, thus proving that wasps can be artificially
fed and reared from the egg.

Further observations were made of a much larger
nest, one measuring 8 inches across. We fixed this
nest up in a circular sweet-jar of clear glass, with
diameter of about 6 inches. The nest had to be cut
in halves: one half was placed on floor of the jar,
with mouth upwards, and the other we placed in its
natural down-turned position, suspended from the
top of the jar by means of picture wire which was
wound round the jar, and the nest was tied on to
it. We fed this large family for some days, and
the feeding took from i^ hours to 2 hours. At last
some adults emerged from the pupal chambers,
which were there when the nest was obtained. We
then placed mosquito net on the top of the jar to
keep the workers in. Slices of pear were placed
in the jar, and the adults eagerly partook of them,
and at once began to feed the larvae. Adults kept
hatching out daily till 20 workers were in the jar.
Now a curious thing happened. They began to

[ attack the larvae in the nest on the floor of the
jar, and kill them, dragging them out of the cells,
and in some cases devouring them, and probably
using them to feed the more fortunate larvae in

202 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

the upper normal half of the nest. Then they
used the paper of the lower nest to work up and
enlarge the cells of the growing larvae above. The
new clean rim could be seen on the renovated cells.
They lived for months in this nest, feeding the
larvae and working about the nest. At last some
died, and we set free the remainder of adults, put-
ting the larvae into spirits to preserve them. (Taken
from the "Australian Naturalist" Observations by
M. N. Brewster.)

20S

GROUP ANTHROPHILA. (Bees.)
Families: A. Andrenidae, Short-tongiied Bees.
B. Apidae, Long-tongued Bees.

Bees can be distinguished from other hymenop-
terous insects by (a) the presence of plumose hairs,
i.e., hairs that are branched (See Plate 26, Figs, i
and 4). These hairs enable the bee to carry the
pollen easily as it passes in and out of the flowers,
(b) The modification of the legs for special pur-
poses, particularly the hind pair where the tibia
and the first tarsal joint are broadened and modi-
fied for the collecting and the carrying of the
pollen. The tibia on the hind leg is the "pollen
basket." (Plate 26, Figs 4 and 6.)

The mouth of the bee is specially formed to
enable it to suck up honey or nectar from the
flowers. Mandibles are present and are used for
removing wax and kneading it. According to

the mouth structure bees are divided into two broad
Groups : A. Andrenidae, or short-tongued bees ; B.
Apidae, or long-tongued bees.

A. Family Andrenidae. The tongue of Andrenids
is short and broad. These bees are solitary in habit
and many make nests in the ground. In some
species the mother-bees make their nests close to
each other to form a little village or township. Each

204 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

little home has an entrance tunnel with several side
passages running from it. The mother bee makei)
a cell in each side passage, and the main entrance
of the tunnel is free.

The genus Halictus goes still further towards
social habits. Several mother-bees build a common
home. There is a main entrance or tunnel in the
sand which may be a foot long. Then each mother
builds her own side passage and constructs a series
of cells in each of which she packs pollen and
honey, and an tgg, and then seals them up. An-
drenids do not store honey in special cells, for their
homes last only one season. After laying the egg
and sealing up the cell the mother bothers no fur-
ther about her offspring. Some andrenids are very
lazy and do not make a nest and store food.
They lay eggs in the cells of some work-
ing andrenid and simply have a lazy time
among the flowers. The larva of the lazy-bee, or
inquiline, eats the food supply of the rightful owner
of the nest. Hence these inquilines are often called
''cuckoos," and they have not the legs developed
for the carrying of pollen.

Prosopis is a genus of Australian andrenid.
These bees are of a black or metallic blue colour
with yellow markings. Halictus- is also found in
Australia with several other genera. We found
that a species of Andrenid bee cross-pollinates the
flowers of the lance-leafed geebung (Pcrsooiiia).

Family Apidae.

These are the long-tongued bees whose mouth has
been described in the general characteristics of the

Order Hymenoptera (Plate 25, Fig. 4). This suck-
ing mouth is specially adapted for getting the nectar
from fairly long flowers such as salvia, sunflowers,
cosmos, and many of our native "pea flowers." Of
course bees can visit open shallow flowers such as
Leptospermum and some of the Eucalyptus. We
have seen bees on the shallow green flowers of ivy,
suckinor off the whitish secretion on the flower.
These bees play a very important part in the pol-
lination of flowers, for even solitary bees have to
gather a large quantity of pollen and honey to be
placed in each cell, and hive bees must gather an
enormous quantity of pollen and honey to provide
the food supplies of the hive. Hence these
bees are constant dependable visitors to certain
flowers — ex. : Pcrsoonia (geebung). Some
flowers are specially adapted for the visitation
of bees, having mechanical devices to keep
out small insects such as ants, and larger useless
insects such as butterflies. Such flowers are snap-
dragon and many of our bush ''pea-flowers." On
the other hand hive bees are in turn unwelcome
guests to many of our native flowers, such as the
red spider plant (Grcvillca pmiicea) and "bread
and meat" (Darzvinia), for they do not cross-pollin-
ate these flowers which depend on birds to do so.

There are two large groups of these long-tongued
bees: —

(i) Solitary Bees. (2) Social Bees.

(i) Solitary bees. These bees make various kinds
of nests, and may be popularly termed "carpenter
bees," "mason-bees," "leaf-cutting bees," accord-

^06 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ing to their habits. We observed the nest of a
mason bee which was made up of ten cells. Two
cells had nothing in them at all. The others had
larvae or pupae. The cells are made of little pellets
of mud which are beautifully welded together to
form a firm little home. The cells are not so strong
as those of many mud-dauber or mason wasps, but
they are firm. On examining the cells with young
larvae present, we found at one end of the cell a
supply of "bee-bread," honey and pollen mixed to
form a paste. With a lens we could see the masses
of white pollen on the yellowish honey. On ex-
amining the pollen microscopically we found it
to be that of some myrtaceous plant such as
Eucalyptus, or bottle-brush (Callistemon) or Lepto-
spermum. Larvae could be seen in all stages

of growth in the different cells. There v/ere three
pupae, and from one of these hatched a ruby-wasp
(a parasite). In one cell we found two larvae,
a large yellow one similar to the bee larvae of most
of the cells, and a smaller paler grub which was
that of a ruby-wasp which was feeding on the
larva of the mason-bee. In another cell v/e found
the pupa of a ruby-wasp in its cocoon, and at the
base of the pupal cell could be seen the waste
material shut out, consisting of a moult skin and ex-
cretion. (Plate i6, Fig. ii.) On several of the
larvae we found a mite, a tiny little creature, just
able to be seen with the naked eye — it was of simi-
lar colour to the larva and was parasitic on it.
There were other little cream insects, very active,
crawling all over the cell and they were probably

BEES. 207

scavengers ; they we^re about 2 m . m . long. We
bred out two ruby-wasps from this nest. (Plate
16, Fig. 10.)

The Carpenter Bees. — One of our Australian car-
penters is called Xylocopa : it is a large, sturdy-
looking bee, which is found chiefly in Northern New
South Wales and Queensland.

Another genus is Lestis, which may be found
boring in the stems of the grass tree {Xanthorr-
hoea), in which it makes a. number of little cells
where it stores a paste of honey and pollen.

Genus Podaliriiis, or ''blue-banded bees," which
are so often seen on the flowers of the bush and
in gardens. When flying from flower to flower to
get honey it has a quick jerky motion, but when
near the flower it hovers over it a little, moving
its wings in such a manner that they appear motion-
less. We watched hive bees {Apis melliftca). and
several bees of species Podalirius visiting the flowers
of the large golden **pea-flower" (Gonipho-
lobiiini), and it was very interesting to see how
much better the native blue-banded bee opened
the flower in its search after nectar than the hive-
bee. As it alighted on the flower, the flower

spread open wide, brushing the pollen on
to the bee. The hive bee opened it also
but much less effectively. It has been

recorded that this blue-banded bee visits the Bon-
vardia, but does not aid in the pollination, for it nips
the flower just where the pollen boxes of the flow-
ers are placed, about midway in the tube, and it

308 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

takes the pollen and spoils the flowers. Such
visitors are practically "thieves."

Leaf-Cutting Bees. — Genus Mcgachile : These are
an interesting group, and they often cut their mater-
ial from the rose plants in the garden. They make
a series of thimble-shaped cells, of larger pieces of
the leaf for the sides of the cells, and shorter,
rounded pieces of the leaf for the ends. They store
*'bee-brea'd," and lay an ^gg in each cell, which is
then sealed up. They make their nests in crevices
in the trunks of trees, in deserted nests of carpenter
bees, or in the old burrows of grubs of wood-boring
beetles. Fabre thus describes the work bf

making the nest= "She makes a strong barricade
composed of the only materials used in the "Leaf-
cutters' Guild." Fragrnents of leaves are piled up
in no particular order, but in sufficient quantities
as to make a serious obstacle to enemies from the
inner end of the nest. Immediately after the pro-
tective barrier comes a row of cells which vary
considerably in number. Strings of about a dozen
are rare, and the most frequent consist of five or
six. No less variation is shown in the number of
pieces formed to make a cell : pieces of two kinds,
some oval ones forming the "honey pot" : others
the round ones, forming the lid. Though all are
cut on the pattern of an ellipse, they are not equal
in dimensions and come under two categories. The
larger outside ones are each of them almost one-
third the circumference of the cell, and overlap one
another slightly. The lower end bends into a con-
cave curve to form the bottom of the bag. Those

BEES. 209

inside, which are considerably smaller, increase the
thickness of the sides and fill up the gaps left by
the first" .... For scissors she has her mandibles,
for compasses, producing now an oval, anon a circle,
she has her eye and the pivot of her body. The
pieces cut out are made into thimble-like wallets
destined to contain honey and the egg."

Observations on the Leaf-Cutting Bees.

We made some very interesting observations at
Clarence Siding, Blue Mountains, in January. At
the end of a long stone verandah were a number of
rose bushes and two clumps of honeysuckle ; near
by were apple, plum, hazel-nut, and quince trees.
There were numbers of the dark leaf-cutting bees
busily working all day among the leaves of all these
trees till 7 p.m. at night.

Some of the smaller branches of the rose bushes
had their leaves reduced to shreds by the too-fre-
quent visits of these workers. We watched them
approach the bushes and they were rather hard to
please in their choice of leaves, for they alighted
here and there before making the final selection.
Occasionally they would make a slit and then leave
the leaf. There were numerous leaves which showed
that the leaf-cutter had begun its operation and
for some reason or other had left its work.

Most of the bees worked from the edge of the
leaf and round to the right, but occasionally we
saw one cut from right to left.

The more common shape cut out of the leaf was
the elongate side-pieces for the cell of its nest.

310 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

(See Plate 24, Figs, 8 and 9.) The cutting was
beautifully neat, and the head of the insect moved
around rapidly and smoothly. In watching the bee
cut one of these larger pieces one would think it
was going to cut a smaller circle, but on reaching
the half circle, it works along, enlarging the piece,
when it curves around again, cutting the piece off.
The piece is then slightly bent from the outer
edges and carried away with ease under the body
and held by the legs. Some of the bees almost
stood on their heads in the cutting process, but the
majority were just slightly inclined. If one placed
one's head close to the bee while it was cutting, the
noise of the working mandibles could be heard quite
distinctly, like the "click, click" of a pair of scis-
sors.

An amusing- incident occurred. One of the bees
in severing a rather larger piece than the average,
cut into a leaf vein, for on setting out with its
booty it was jerked back by a thread of tissue from
the vein and had to pull several times before it
f nally broke the thread and flew off in triumph or
in anger.

Most of the leaves cut into showed that the bees
selected any leaf for either side pieces or
top pieces for the cells, but occasionally we saw
leaves with a series of small circular holes only.
Pieces of fading yellow leaves of roses were also
itsed. The rose leaves and leaves of hazel-nut plants
were evidently the favourites, though the leaves of
honeysuckle, plum, and apple were also used.

The hum of the&e bees is quite distinct from

SEES. Sll

that of the steady hum of the hive bee. It is more
jerky, and resembles the angry sound of the hive
bee when it has been disturbed. As the hive bees
were gathering nectar and pollen from the honey-
suckle flowers near by, we could distinctly recognise
the difference between the two. We found tough
leaves of the waratah cut by these bees. This leaf-
cutterr is a black and white banded bee, the white
bands being thick fringes of white hairs on the
dorsal side of the abdomen. Tufts of hairs are
present at the sides of the head and body; fringes
occur on the under side of the abdomen, and these
were laden with pollen in the specimen examined.

The mandibles are very strong; they are broader
than those of the hive-bee; they have four stout
teeth, and they interlock and slightly overlap. The
legs have dense fringes of white hairs, and on the
front leg is a comb for cleaning the antennae. The
back legs are fitted for gathering pollen, and in addi-
tion have two very stout tibial spurs which probably
aid in holding the piece of leaf when it is being
carried off. On visiting Clarence Siding the next
year it was found that the bees had been cutting
hard at the young leaves of wistaria and honey-
suckle, but especially at the leaves of the hazel nut,
so that it seems that no preference is given to any
one of the chosen plants, but it visits the leaves of
those with the greatest number of fresh young
leaves. (Observations on Leaf-cutting Bees by
M. N. Brewster — "Australian Naturalist.")

212 Llt?£ StORitS OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

THE HIVE BEE.

(Apis mellifica.)

This is an introduced insect from Europe.

Bees have reached a very high standard of de-
velopment, and they show wonderful social in-
stincts. The hive is worked on the principle of
the best for the community as a whole.

Like the vespid social wasps, there are 3 castes:
(a) males or ''drones," (b) females or queens, (c)
workers. The latter do not lay eggs though they
are females ; they take charge of the hive and direct
the affairs therein. Each worker bee has some par-
ticular task to perform. Some are nurse bees, and
their work is to feed and care for the young bee-
grubs or larvae. The nurses are the workers which
have just emerged from the pupal cells; they act
as nurses for about three weeks and have special
glands which enable them to specially feed the "baby
bees." Later they become foragers, going out
to seek for pollen or nectar. Most of the workers
seek flower honey or nectar, and in doing so they
get dusted with pollen, and so cause cross pollina-
tion. Such honey-flowers, which also yield
abundant pollen, are sunflower, cosmos, pumpkin-
flower, and most of our bush pea-flowers. For the
hive bee has extended its visitations to the flowers
of the bush ; in some cases it can cause cross-pollin-

B£ES. -m

ation by carrying the pollen from one flower to
another, such flowers being Hakea (needle
bush), many of the short-tubed Bpacrids, and
flowers of grass tree spike. But in other cases the
bees visit the flowers and steal the nectar without
rendering the service of cross-pollination in return
— in such cases the hive bees are ''thieves," or un-
Avelcome guests. Some of the flowers which the
bees do not benefit are the red spider plant (Grc-
villea punicca)y bread and meat (Danviiiia). Other
flowers are visited by the bees just for pollen alone,
example, many wattles (Acacia), some of the rib
grasses (Plan f ago).

The bee has a special stomach or *'crop" in which
it carries the flower-honey or nectar, and it can
regurgitate it at will, either to feed a comrade, or to
put it into the store cells of the hive.

For the gathering and carrying of pollen the bee
is wonderfully fitted with external organs by the
modification of the legs. We will speak of this
later on.

Other bees are water-carriers; they fly to any
moist place such as a shallow pool, or a dripping
tap ; or to the little hollows left in the ground,
where water from a tap accumulates. We have ob-
served dozens at a time around such places on a
very hot day. Also it is not uncommon to see bees
sucking up the water left on the blades of grass after
the lawn has been watered.

Other bees search out substances in flowers which
they use to make wax, by a curious process in the
body.

iPLATE 2S

Fiq^. Cross, sechon of
TonqL)e.(^i.i.jij!a;
a. Grooves'

Fiq 5 Goss section
of moutis

b. Maxillae

c. labiaJ Palps-
d ijofula

Fiq4. Proboscis of Bee
a ManJibW
MaxilUe.
c. labial palps
UcjdaorTon^jue

Fiq7. Abdonaer. of Bee
a. Wax plates'.

BEES. 315

Thus we see that the workers are always busy,
only stopping for a little refreshment, and then fly-
ing off again to continue their work.

The workers that stay at home, besides tending
the bee-babies, also keep the hive clean. They also
watch and tend the queen-mother, for she is never
left a moment, but is attended by a retinue of
workers, who feed her and stroke her and look after
her generally.

The hive is well-ventilated. A kind of "natural
electric fan" is made by certain bees being "told
off" to move their wings, which are kept in con-
stant motion for some time.

Now we will consider the "nurseries" or brood"
cells. These are situated in the warmest part of the
hive. The nurse-bees feed and look after the little
bee-grubs, going from cell to cell, feeding them
with "bee-bread'* (this is a mixture of pollen and
honey.) The little grubs have a certain number of
moults and gradually increase in size. As they
grow older, the food is varied. More honey and
less pollen is given till at last they are fed on honey
alone. The food given to the bee-laTvse has a
great deal of influence on the nature of the adult.
A queen can be produced from an ordinary worker-
larva by feeding it on richer food; in this case the
cell of the chosen worker-larva has also to be en-
larged because queen bees are larger than workers.

When the adults are hatched and leave the cells,
the latter are cleaned out to be ready for the queen
to deposit an egg in each.

216 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.
Life History of a Bee.

The cells of the comb are about one fifth of an
inch in diameter. When the egg hatches the larva
i<; a helpless grub or bee-maggot, for it is legless.
The food is placed in the cell with the larva, and
i'r partially floats in it. Nurse bees go from cell to
cell supplying the food, for they have thousands of
babies to feed. The brood cells or nurseries are in
the warmest corner of the hive. The larva moults
six times, and the moult skins are pushed down to,
the bottom of the cell. On pupating it reverses
its position in the cell, and turns out from its
stomach a certain amount of accumulated indigest-
ible food. Then with its last larval skin, it shuts off
the old larval skins and the food-waste, by mak-
ing a "floor-covering" of the skin.

It now turns back to its old position with its
head towards the opening of its cell. It spins
a porous covering across the top of the cell,
shuts itself in and eventually pupates. Meanwhile
a nurse-bee finishes the work by spinning an addi-
tional external cap to the cell. Air can penetrate
both caps and thus the pupa can breathe. When
the adult emerges, it is paler in colour than the
normal worker. It now becomes a nurse-bee, and
acts as such for about three weeks. It has special
glands present to enable it to work up the food
of the bee-babies so that they can digest it. At the
end of three weeks these nurse-bees become fora-
gers; and the glands lose their functions. They
now gather pollen and flower-honey, bring it home

IEES. 217

and put it in cells, some of which are set apart for
pollen, others for honey. Note that flower-honey
is not the same as honey in the comb., The former
is changed by some re-action within the bee's body
into the "golden honey" of commerce.

The Queen and the Drones. — The queen-bee has
a longer body than the \vorker ; she has a power-
ful sting. The queen and worker have six seg-
ments in the abdomen ; the male or drone has
seven. The male or drone has no sting, for he
does not forage for nectar dr pollen, neither does
he defend the hive. Drones merely hang about the
hive doing nothing but sip the honey and bask in
the sunshine. However, should food be scarce the
drones are turned out of the hive, and often killed
by the workers.

Drones have no specialised legs such as 'the
workers have.

After the marriage flight the queen returns to
preside over the old hive (note the old queen leads
the swarm of bees away to form a new hive). She
lays about 2,000 to 3,000 eggs a day, so that she
needs to be very well nourished. The eggs are
of 2 kinds (a) fertilised eggs (b) unfertilised eggs
which produce males. The fertilised eggs produce
workers, and these different eggs seem to be laid at
will.

When swarming takes place the old queen leads
the departing swarm, and sets up a new kingdom,
where the cells are quickly made by the workers
with wax which they have manufactured out of
materials obtained from plants.

218 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

We will now consider the worker — her body is
wonderfully formed, certain parts being modified
in such a way as to form organs to enable her to
perform her various duties. We have described
her mouth in the chapter on Hymenoptera. This
mouth (Plate 25 Fig. 4) enables her to carry any
reasonable bulk of honey or nectar. The mandibles
enable her to tear and knead the wax into what-
ever form is required, such as cells of the comb.
The body is covered with hairs which catch the
pollen easily. The legs (Plate 26) are specially
fitted for pollen-gathering. The usual parts of an
insect's leg are present — the coxa or hip ; trochanter ;
thigh or femur ; shank or tibia ; followed by a five-
jointed tarsus or foot, the first joint of which is
always very much larger than the other tarsal
joints. The last tarsal joint carries two larger
claws with smaller claws or bristles, and also
"touch" hairs which are sensitive to touch. The
foot is beautifully fitted for walking on either
smooth or rough surfaces. When the bees are
making wax they cling together forming festoons
of their bodies, and they do this by means of their
claws. The claws of the hind legs of each bee
are turned upwards to form a ''hanger," while
those of the front feet of the next bee hook on to
them. They hang together until at last the plates
of wax exude between the segments of the under
side of the abdomen (Plate 25, Fig. 7a.). Thi^
wax is gathered and worked up to form new wax
cells.

Should a bee be walking on a smooth surface the
claws are turned up out of the way, and a pad

BEES. 219

which lies between the claws is brought into ac-
tion. The bee can spread out or contract the pad at
will. On the lower surface of the pad are numbers
of tiny pores, through which a sticky secretion
oozes which just enables the foot to hold on lo a
smooth surface, without sticking to it.

The legs are most curiously fitted up. The first
pair (Plate 26, Figs, i and 2) are furnished with
a comb and brushes. These can be seen with a
lens, and can be beautifully seen with the low power
of the microscope. The comb (Plate 26, Figs.
I and 2) is situated on the first tarsal
joint of the foot. It is semi-circular and
has a number of closely-fitting teeth. Over
this comb fits a little "door," called the
velum (Plate 26, Fig. i, b, c, and Fig. 2), which is
fastened to the tibia or shank. This comb is used
to clean the antennae. The antenna is placed in
the comb, the velum fits over and the antenna is
then drawn through. On the edge of the enlarged
tarsal joint which carries the comb is a set of stout
spines, and these form a brush to remove pollen,
etc., from the eyes. (Plate 26, Fig. 2, d.) Smaller
tufts of hairs occur on the legs, which brush off
finer particles, or grains left by the larger brushes.
On all the legs are specially long and branched
hairs called "gathering hairs," (which catch the
pollen. These are well developed on the thigh,
(Plate 26, Figs, i and 4).

The middle legs carry a spur or spine on the tibia.
This is used to lever out the pollen when it is be-

320 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALL\N INSECTS.

ing removed from the pollen basket. (Plate 26,
Fig. 3-)

The hind legs carry the pollen basket (Plate 26,
Figs. 4, 5, 6.) The tibia forms this basket— it is a
flat surface with stout hairs on the edges which
stand well up to keep in the pollen. On the under
side of the pollen basket are a few stiff hairs, but
the upper surface which carries the pollen is smooth,

When one sees a bee in a pumpkin flower, or on
a sunflower or cosmos, one can understand how
necessary these cleaning instruments are, for the
bee is often covered all over with pollen. On
reaching home the middle legs lever out the pollen
masses in the baskets, and each mass is passed on
to the front legs and then placed in the cell. Note
how bees often rest on a plant and clean off the
pollen from its head and body and place it in its
pollen basket.

The sting of the worker is situated at the end
of the abdomen and consists of poison darts with
poison ducts connected with poison bags. There
is a wonderful mechanism for sending the poison
down the ducts to run into the wound made by
the points of the darts. Only queens and workers
have stings. The queen uses her sting to attack
other queens which may hatch out in the hive.
Should two queens hatch out, they usually fight
till one is demolished. When a new queen has
safely returned to the hive, she may go round and
destroy any queen pupae which may be in the hive,
and the workers in this case do not interfere.

PLATE 26.

221

FicjlFronl- Uq

a. GalKerinc] hairy >'^'\^. Comb enlarapj

^- <^'"'> 3. Rap, b. comh

c. Fl,

c Fine tfusli.
d. coarse trusK

^^.

Fifl4. Sack Led
a Pol/en basket (Tibia
,b b. Enlarc^ed joinZ-offooh

ni|5. Cross sechoaof baskef
a. Pollen.
I Hain?
c. Baykeh.

f\<]1. Head of. Female
l.(}3. Middle Ler^. « 0^<^"'

a Spme.

222 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

When the swarming is to take place, and should
the young queen emerge before the old queen
leaves, the workers have to protect the new queen
from the old one.

The workers, besides manufacturing wax and
honey from the nectar of flowers, and "bee bread"
from mixed pollen and honey, also prepare a resin-
ous material with which they line the nest, and fill
in cracks and smooth roughnesses in the hive.

The Native Honey Bee (Trigona) builds a nest
of wax cells, but it is not so finished nor so well
regulated as that of the hive bee.

The nest is made in a hollow tree, often with
only a small opening. The one we observed had an
opening whose diameter was about ij inches. This
tree was seen at Killara, and was struck by light-
ning; it was cut down and on being- sawn for
firewood the nest was discovered and observed at
leisure. The tree trunk was about a foot in diam-
eter: the roughness of the hollow in the tree was
smoothed by a deposition of wax which formed a
lining to the hole. The hollow extended on either
side of the opening, and the honey cells were at
either end — innermost. These cells were smooth,
irregularly rounded, and about the size of marbles.
Most of them were joined together to form a solid
mass, and some on the outer side of the mass were
joined to the walls by long slender stalks of wax (see
Plate 27, Fig. i), varying from ^4 to ijins. in length.
Some of the larger honey cells were a little isolated
and joined to the main mass by stalks of wax, but
probably they formed the foundation cells for others.

PLATE 27

234 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

to be built near them to make a more solid mass.
At one end of the nest there was a mass of deserted
honey cells of dark colour, and hardened consider-
ably. The fresh honey cells were of a reddish-
brown colour, not the light colour of the hive cells.
The honey-cells of the Trigona were much larger
than those of the hive bee, while the brood cells
were much smaller. The latter were in the central
part of the nest we examined, while at one inner
end was a patch of deserted honey cells, much har-
dened, and at the other end and extending from the
central brood cells were the fresh honey cells laden
with honey, which had a distinct flavour, but was
not unpleasant to taste. The brood-cells
(Plate 27, Fig", 2) were much more regu-
larly arranged than the honey-cells, and were
in distinct rows of 2 to 3 layers, and the
layers of cells could be pulled apart in
sheets. The majority of these cells contained
pupae, the cells being more or less polygonal with
the pressure of adjacent cells; but instead of having
a horizontal cap of wax, the "lids" of the cells were
curved upwards tapering broadly, thus resembling
rather the cocoons of ruby wasps, only that they
were made of wax instead of silky material.

We opened some of the pupal cells and the pupa
(Plate 27, Fig. 5) was quite cream with the ex-
ception of the large reddish compound eyes, and the
three pink ocelli or single eyes between them.

Numbers of tiny adults were swarming over the
brood-cells, and these were very inactive and slow
in movement. Not one flew ofif even when we put
a few out in the sunshine, but the weather was

BEES. 225

cold and bleak and had been such for some days.
The Adult (Plate 27, Fig. 6) when examined with
a lens showed the presence of thick brushes of hair
on the head, thorax, and legs, and there was a broad
patch of grey hairs on each side of the thorax.

The hind leg (Plate 27, Fig. 8) is most notice-
able owing to the enlargement of the tibia. It is
rather smooth and polished looking, with a shallow
depression on the outer side, and it is thickly fringed
with hairs — thicker on the outer edge. On examin-
ing with the microscope these hairs on the outer
margin were seen to be branched (plumose), but
the branches are simple and the hairs are, on the
whole, stiff and regular, not slender and thread-like
with compound branches as one sees in the '*gath-
ering hairs" of the hive bee. The plumed hairs of
Trigona are also irregular in having the branches
developed more on one side ; on the other they
are often just small projections. (See Plate 27, Fig.
9). The majority of the hairs on the inner side of the
pollen-basket were simple, unbranched and stiff.
The first tarsal joint is also much enlarged to form
an instrument to aid in gathering and carrying the
pollen. On the under side it is thickly clothed
with stiff hairs, and on the lower margin it has a dis-
tinct row of thick, straight spines like a straight
comb. A noticeable feature was the absence of
the gathering hairs on the femur or thigh, they were
confined to the tibia in the specimens we examined.

The second pair of legs was the smallest, and
here, too, the tibia was thickly clothed with gath-
ering hairs on the outer margin, and on the inner

S26 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN. INSECTS.

side were stiff hairs, a few being feebly branched at
the apex.

We could see no trace of the decided "spur" which
is used to lever out the pollen from the "basket" of
the hive bee, but one stiff hair seemed to stand out
more clearly in some cases.

The front legs are very similar to those of the hive
bee. On the first enlarged and elongated tarsal joint
is a beautiful ".comb," which is used to clean the
antennae. The comb is semi-circular, and a com-
plete encircled space is formed by means of a "door"
which is attached to the tibia. This door or velum
is in the form of a hard curved chitinous bar which
ends in two or three short spines at the free end,
and which spreads out on the inner side into a
broad, thin chitinous area, the whole being more or
less curved triangular in shape seen from the side.
(See Plate 27, Fig. 7, and a and b).

The mouth, too is very similar to that of the
hive bee — ^the mandibles are toothed but broad.
(Plate 2^, Fig. 3.)

If a few of these bees are soaked in a weak potash
solution for a couple of days, and then examined
with the microscope these structures can be plainly
seen.

Pollen from flowers was found in masses on the
gathering hairs, on the pollen basket, and on the
hairs of the enlarged tarsal joint of many of these
bees. We examined these grains and found some
to belong to the flowers of family My'rtacese
{Eucalyptus), bottle brushes {Callistemon), also
elliptical grains suggestive of the family Rutacese

BEES. 227

(Boronia, Eriostemon) . There were some rounded
grains which we could not identify.

It was interesting to note that these grains were,
on the whole, quite in separate masses. Occasion-
ally we got a few isolated triangular myrtaceous
grains mixed in with the elliptical grains.

The blacks call these bees sugar-bags. It is re-
corded in "Across Australia," by Baldwin Spencer
and F. J. Gillen, Vol. II., page 467: "The where-
abouts of the 'sugar-bags' is determined by placing
the ear against likely-looking trunks or boughs,
when the low hum of the bees at work inside can
be heard, or sometimes by actually watching a bee
entering a small hole in the bough. During the
rainy season and in very cold weather the natives
say that the bees close the entrance to the nest with
mud. If, as sometimes happens, the nest is attack-
ed by predatory ants, a number of bees block the
opening with their own bodies. When once the
'sugar-bag' has been located it is then chopped
out. The comb is quite irregular in shape, varying
in quantity, of course, in different hives. The cells
are like little rounded balls, the largest about a
quarter of an inch in diameter, some of them con"
taining honey and some pollen and sticky stuff not
yet made into honey. The third kind is much
smaller and contains eggs, larvae and pupae. The
whole mass, except the small cells (though of course
many of them are included accidentally) is scooped
into a piece of bark. Hundreds of bees get mixed
up with the honey and the pollen, but the natives
do not mind this and eat the whole of it with relish.
So far as the honey is concerned it is excellent,"

228 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ORDER COLEOPTERA.
(Beetles.)

These insects have the front pair of wings modi-
fied to form hard shields or cover wings without
veins (hence the name of the order: Coleos, a
sheath, and pteron, a wing).

Characteristics: (i) The hardness of the integu-
ment: hence beetles preserve well for collections,
and in some cases are set in gold and silver for
necklaces or brooches. The Buprestids are some-
times used in this way.

(2) Wings: The first pair of wings are shell-
like and are termed elytra or cover wings (Plate
28, Fig. lb). They do not cross one another but
fit together along the middle of the back, thus in
repose forming a veritable armour-plate for the
body. The second pair of "flying wings"
is folded and tucked away under the elytra
when the insect is not in flight. (Plate 28, Fig. i.)
In some cases the flying wings are absent and then
the elytra are frequently soldered to form one
sheath : this is seen in some ground beetles (Plate
30, Fig. 2) and in some weevils.

(3) The thorax. The prothorax (Plate 28, Fig.
4a) is usually large and very free: from the dorsal
side only the prothorax is seen, and it is often called
the thorax by beginners. On examining the under

BEETLES. 233

also attack the roots of strawberry plants.
The larvae of scarabs move over a wider range than
those of passalids and stags, hence the horny legs
are strong in the scarabs.

Most of the scarabs on pupating simply make a
hollowed-out cavern in the soil and pupate within
it: examples, Aiioploguathus SLud Scitala pruhwsa.
However we found definite mud cocoons of the
fiddler scarab (Eupoecila) and some of the pellets
of excretion were found adhering to the outer part
of the cocoons. (Plate 29, Fig. i, b.)

(2) Passalids (Plate 29, Figs. 5 and 6). — The
antennae have 4 or 5 plates which can only be co-
adapted when curled up. Usually the plates
are fairly far apart, and hence stand well
out. The tip of the abdomen is not exposed. Pass-
alids are oblong-looking beetles with strongly
marked ridges and grooves down the elytra. We
have captured as many as sixteen under a
large log which had been undisturbed for years.
There were larvae, too — the fat curled grubs — in all
stages of development. The larvae of passalids have
usually but four legs, the hind pair being but short
processes. The common genus is Aiilacocyclus.

(3) Lucanids or Sjtags (Plate 29, Figs. 7 and 8).
— These are longer than most scarabs and can read-
ily be distinguished by the very large mandibles held
straight in front of the head, also by having the
tip of the abdomen covered, and by having longer
antennae whose plates are not co-adapted to form
a club. The mandibles of the male are larger than
those of the female, and in some species are of ex-

2.^4

I^LATE 29.

Fiql Life kisfory of Fiddler Scarab
3-^a^^3 b Pupa.mCocoo. cAdolh,

Fiq2 D>^c,,f^(^ Scarab FiqS A^^e^na o(0iqq\n<^Siar6}i.^"\'^^''i'^'"iH

Fic] 5 Pas-sa ltd Beetle . Fi a b Antenna

7 S^aq bee He

Rq3.
Aatenna
of same.

Beetles. ^ 235

traordinary size. They are thought to be chiefly
ornamental in order to attract the female.

The larvae are found in rotten wood, under logs,
etc. The legs are shorter than those of the scarab
larvae. The genus Lamprima is the common metal-
lic green or greenish-blue stag beetle and is very
beautiful.

Types of Scarabs. — To this family belongs the
sacred beetle of the Egyptians, Atcuchus sacer; also
the cockchafers, some of which are such pests in
Europe. Our commonest cockchafer is the genus
AnoplognathiiSy which includes the "king beetle,"
the "queen beetle," and the "washerwoman"
of the children. These are all handsome
beetles. Anoplognathtis viridaeneiis, or king
beetle, is a large, beautiful metallic green
scarab. A. analis (Plate 28, Fig. 4) (named
analis from a tuft of hairs at the anal end of the
body), is the "queen" beetle, and this and A. por-
ostis (referring to the "pores" or punctures on the
elytra) are pests in some years on the leaves of
many eucalyptus. The "washerwoman" (A.
porosus) in spite of its name, has very beau-
tiful opalescent tints on its buff-coloured ely-
tra, and we have seen these on the grey leaves of a
eucalyptus and the colouring of the beetle blended
very well with the leaves. We have seen these
scarab beetles reduce the leaves of a young eucalyp-
tus sapling to mere threads where the main veins
were left bare. One tree overhangs the rock pools
on the edge of one of our harbour bays, and every
year dozens of queen beetles are drowned in the

336 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

salt water of the rock pools, as they fall ofi into
the water.

Rase Chafers. — These are mostly easily recog-
nised by the shortening of the sides of the wing
covers like a "cut-away coat." In some of these
scarabs the lamellae or plates of the antennae are
very flat and long. In living beetles the plates
can be seen clearly — they usually close together on
the death of the beetle. The plates are especially
large in some species of the humming rose chafer,
Diaphonia, the brownish-yellow beetle with black
marking which buzzes into the garden and bumps up
against one in the hot summer day. There is always
a certain amount of clumsy recklessness suggested
to us in the flight of this beetle.

Another common bush rose chafer is the genus
Cacochroa, which is very common in flowers ; it
varies from black to light brown in colour and
has very short wing-covers.

"The Fiddler Beetle" (Plate 29, Fig. i) (Etipoe-
cila australiasiae) belongs to this group, and is a
very gay individual with pale green markings
over its deep brown coat. In September we found
at Tuggerah Lakes a number of the cocoons of
these beetles in the base of a living but
hollowed gum tree. There were nearly twenty of
the mud cocoons. They looked very curious, some-
what like the mud cells of the mud-dauber wasp,
only they were not attached firmly to each other.
The larvae in forming the cocoon had worked
in numerous little excretion pellets on the outside
of the cocoon, making the cell look like a mud-
dauber's large cell. We gently opened the cocoons

BEETLES. 237

and all contained larvae except one, and it had a
dead fiddler scarab in it. We removed the cocoons
and put them in a box. On November 20 v^e ex-
amined the box and found that all had pupated ex-
cept two, and the beetles had even emerged from
all but one. We wanted to preserve the beetles,
so put several in methylated spirits (having no
killing bottle at hand); we also put the remain-
ing pupa in the spirits. For about an hour after
leaving them in the spirits they seemed dead ; we
placed two beetles in a box along with the pupa.
In a few days the two beetles were very
much alive, but all that remained of the. pupa
was a mere shell. (This note was recorded in the
Australian Naturalist, Sydney, April, 191 7, by M.
N. Brewster.)

The Digger Scarabs (Plate 29, Figs, 2, 3, and 4)
("dung beetles" or sexton beetles). The mother
digger makes a hole in dung and inserts an egg in
it; the larva feeds on the dung, getting sustenance
therefrom. Most of these beetles differ from the
other scarabs in having thick rounded bodies and
elytra. Some of them are almost as round as a ball
on the upper surface. The head is fitted for
digging and shovelling, for it is broad with a pro-
jecting rim at the outer edge which acts as a shovel;
the legs also are fitted for digging. The common
genus of this type is Onthophagns (Plate 29, Fig. 2)
i They are dark beetles, and in most species
; the male has additional spines or ornamental pro-
jections ; in one genus, Bolboceras, the head of the
male is prolonged into a long horizontal probos-
cis, whereas the female's head is a normal type. In

238 LIJFE STOklES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

this group are the "burying beetles." They bury the
carcases of birds and small animals. Froggatt re-
cords the process of burying of a wallaby by many
of the beetles of one species of Onthophagiis. They
remove the earth below the carcase and so lower it
in the earth. Many writers have given interesting
accounts of the work of these clever little diggers.
Fabre tells us of some of the European "dung
beetles," which roll the dung into little balls, and
insert an egg or two in the ball. They roll the ball
along and hide it away from the dung patch. Some-
times one or two beetles aid in the rolling of the
larger dung balls, and he records that some of the
lazy beetles will snatch away the dung ball made
by the owner and roll it off after laying its own
egg in it. It does this when the owner is digging
a hole to bury the dung-ball. The idea of rolling
the ball and hiding it is probably partly to secure
sufficient food for the baby grubs and at the same
time to hide it away from the large dung-mass
which is more conpicuous, and hence more liable
to attack from enemies. Fabre also records that
the clever little mother beetle does not make the
ball in haphazard fashion, but has the more deli-
cate part placed close to the egg so that the little
baby grub will have a digestible meal ready for it.
The coarser and more indigestible food is farther
away ready for it when it has grown bigger and
stronger.

Another group is the "honey scarabs," Avhich
love the flowers of the bush and are found-
in great numbers on flowers of Leptospermum

BEETLES. 239

(tea tree), some of the Kunzeas and others. It is
a light brown colour usually, while some individ-
uals are of darker colour. The best known of this
group is Genus Phyllotocus.

Another scarab is the sugar cane beetle of Queens-
land, a very serious pest, for the grubs feed on the
roots of sugar cane and destroy the plants. This
pest is called Lcpidodcrma albohirtum. The word
''Lepidoderma" means scaly skin, and the upper
portion is clothed with greyish scales; albohirtum
means "white hairs."

On the whole, the Lamellicorns are pests.

Observations on Lamellicorn Beetles.

We found an interesting life history in a garden
wlien the soil was being dug up with a spade.

Several lamellicorn larvae were seen and one pupa.
Then in a little mud-lined cave about two inches
across was all that remained of a scarab-grub —
only a shrivelled empty skin. Alongside this was
a reddish-brown silken cocoon, elliptical in shape,
tapering towards one end. Here was a tragedy !
This brown cocoon enclosed the pupa of a wasp — •
a fossore or digger wasp. The adult motherwasp
had laid an egg on the body of the lamellicorn grub
and out of this egg hatched a little baby wasp-
maggot, which, with its sharp jaws, pierced a tiny
hole in the skin of the big grub. Here the wasp-
maggot sucked the juices of the beetle grub, and
grew and flourished till at last, after several moults,
it was ready to pupate. It then had exhausted
all the food within the body of its victim, which

240 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

was now an empty shell. It detached itself and
began to spin its pretty silken pupal home and
gradually disappeared within it. The outer threads
of the cocoon were loose but the inner ones were
firmer and more closely woven. Here it rested in
the ground till the time came for the adult wasp
to appear. It then pushed of¥ a little lid at one
end of its silken home, and out of this brown
cocoon came a handsome blue-black metallic wasp.
By means of its front legs and mandibles it makes
its way out of the earth and flies about in the
sunshine, visiting flowers, and burying its head
among the nectar-yielding flowers of marigold, etc.,
of our gardens, or on Eucalyptus and Leptospermum
(tea tree) of our bush.

The wasp parasite is DiscoUa (Plate 22, Figs. 10,
II, 12.)

Observations on a Small Brown Scarab.

(Scltala pruinosa.)

Late in September, whilst digging in our garden
w^e came across scores of the larvae of this scarab.
They were, as a rule, from 6 to 9 inches below the
surface of the ground, most of them being snugly
coiled up in tiny cavities in the soil which they had
apparently made by a wriggling movement. These
grubs measured about if inches; they were of a
greyish white colour with head and jaws of brown-
ish red. Three pairs of long, horny legs on the
first three segments of the body; in fact, it was a
typical lamellicorn larva.

About six weeks after the first time we saw the

BEETLES. 241

larvae, we noted that the grubs were fewer, but,
instead, we found numerous pupae within these tiny
caverns.

Still continuing our gardening in November, about
the middle of the month we found the adults. We
noted the first beetle groping about in the earth
as if to find a way to daylight. It was about half
• an inch long, light brown in colour with darker head.
For the next week or two we noticed these beetles
continuously in the earth. By the side of the gar-
den plot was a young gum tree, and one evening,
just at dusk, we heard the sound as of a swarm of
bees, and on investigating, found that the gum tree
was surrounded by a miniature cloud of beetles,
which finally settled upon it. Night after night
these beetles came, about the same time, and they
stayed there nearly all night, taking their depar-
ture some time before 4.30 a.m. For exactly three
weeks this night visitation took place, and as a
result our tree was completely denuded of its pretty
young shoots. On the i8th December we noted
that they came in fewer numbers, and hovered
round the tree in an uncertain manner. Now
and again one would alight but fly up again. For
about 15 minutes this uncertainty prevailed; and
then they flew off in the opposite direction to that
in which they came. A few stray ones were found
on the tree the following evening, but after that not
one was ever seen.

343 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

CARABS AND TENEBRIONIDS.
Family Carabidae and Family Tenebrionidae.

We take these two types together, not because
they are closely related, but in many cases they
resemble each other in outward form and are often
confused by beginners.

We will give a summary of the chief differences
in the outward form of these two groups.

Carabs (Plate 30, Fig. i).

(i) Antennae usually filamentous, that is, thread-
like, and tapering to a more or less fine
point. (Plate 30, Fig. i, b.)

(2) There are five joints on all the feet (Plate
30, Fig. I, a.): The fifth joint carries the
claw. The joints are usually longer than
in tenebrionids.

(3) The legs are highly developed for running
— they are strong and long, for carabs are
predaceous, that is, they hunt other insects
and devour them.

Tenebrionids (Plate 30, Figs. 2 and 5).

(i) Antennae are thread-like in the lower part,
but instead of tapering at the tip, they
become thicker and form a rather narrow
club, in some cases. (Plate 30, Fig. 5a).

(2) There are 5 joints on the front pair of legs:

PLATE 30.

243

Fiq I Carab

Ja5Jolrrf3 0nToo^
li Anfcnna thread Iik*"

Fiq ^ . Pie<Jish Tenobno

Fiq3. La''v? d Carab

Rqb.Ienebno
FiqA Back-foofof lenebnc (Antennae dobbf'd;

fi(:]8 Soldier beelte

nqb. Wove beeHe riq7 Larva ot

'^ove beetle.

f^i"<]9*6low worm
•female beetle

244 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

but the back legs have only 4 joints. (Plate
30. Fig. 4). The joints are usually shorter
than those of carabs and so are more closely
packed.

(3) The legs are not particularly fitted for
running. These beetles are chiefly scaven-
gers feeding on decaying vegetable and
animal matter.

(4) The mouth parts are suitable for chewing;
the mandibles are not specially formed to
seize prey.

There is one tenebrionid pest ; it is the "flour
grub," The mother insect lays her eggs in flour,
etc., and the grub feeds on it and spins a loose
silken cocoon in the flour, bran, pollard, or chafif.
These beetles, Tenchrio molitor, are common in
stables, mills, and fowls' food. . The larvae may
pupate in corners of the boxes in which the foods
are kept.

Life History of Tenebrionids. — The eggs are laid
under logs, in cracks in the soil, in crevices in logs,
and in bark near the ground. The larva hatches out.
It is an elongate narrow grub with thick integu-
ment. The legs and jaws are not so strong as are
those of the carab larva. There is usually only one
process at the end of the body. This probably aids
in locomotion. It feeds on vegetable matter chiefly,
and is a scavenger.

It pupates under logs or similar places. The
adults are also scavengers, usually feeding at night.
A few are carnivorous.

We have noticed three groups of tenebrionids:

CARAJBS AND TENEBRIONIDS. 245

(a) Black or dark tenebrionids, which arc the
ones so easily confused with carabs until the antenUcT?
and back legs are examined. One of the common-
est of these is the Adclium, which is a bronzy-brown
colour, with punctures or pits in the elytra, and a
fine coating of soft hairs, giving the beetle a soft
bronze colour.

(b) Metallic tenebrionids. — These are often very
pretty, of a bright bronze lustre, or sometimes green
and blue *'shot" colours. Many of these give out
an obnoxious odour when touched, and little boys
call such "stink beetles." Chalcoptcrus is the com-
monest variety, the name chalco-pterus suggesting
that the wings are coloured like "peacock copper
ore."

The elytra are often very long in proportion to
the head and prothorax in some of these beetles.
These are often found in groups under loose bark
or in depressions in tree trunks.

(c) Piedish tenebrionids. — These are black
beetles and vary from the huge piedish beetle found
out West (Helacits sub-serratus), (Plate 30, Fig. 2)
to the small ones found commonly under logs and
stones and which have just a little rim round the
edges. The Helseus has a regularly broad rim round
head, thorax and elytra, and the whole is soldered
to form a solid mass. It is wingless. Pterohelaetis
is the common smaller type. They are sometimes
called tortoise beetles. Most tenebrionids are found
in the ground under logs, or in crevices, or under
bark.

246 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

The Life History of Carabs.
(Plate 30, Figs, i and 3.)

These are often called the ground predaceous
beetles. The eggs are laid under logs, stones, etc.
The larva hatches out: it is an elongate grub with
very tough integument, and three pairs of strong
legs, for like the adult, this grub is predaceous and
hunts for other larvae, worms, etc., and moves very
quickly. At the end of its body are two processes
which aid in locomotion. It pupates in soft soil
under logs, or in rotting wood of logs lying on the
ground.

Carabs being predaceous on other insects often
rid us of pests such as cutworms and weevil larvae.
A few species eat plant tissues such as seeds and
young corn. One of the commonest carabs found
under logs is the Notoiiomus, with a number of fine
lines running down its wing covers. It is a small
beetle about half-inch long. Clivina is another com-
mon rather slender carab found under logs in num-
bers in springtime. The handsome green metallic
carab, with long, very fine running legs, is called
Calosoma. We found the large handsome black
carab Hyperion under a log. It was nearly three
inches long — rather oblong in form with large
strong mandibles. The "Bombardier Carab" shows
a very curious method of protecting itself from
stronger enemies. When disturbed it emits a kind
of gas which is ejected from the end of its body
with a miniature "pistol shot" report, and the gas
becomes "smoky." This is done to startle its enemy
and to enable it to gain a little time to escape.

247

TIGER BEETLES.
Family Cicindellidae.

(Plate 31, Figs, i, 2 and 3.)

This is a small family of carnivorous beetles, and
worth noticing, if only for the curious formation
of the larvae.

The adult is easily distinguished from carab by
the very prominent eyes, and longer and narrower
prothorax. The legs are very strong, and speci-
ally fitted for running, for it chases its prey.
The mouth is very strong, and suitable for seizing
and holding. These beetles are found in sandy
districts^ — along the seashores, and beside pools.
They hunt chiefly at night.

The larva (Plate 31, Figs, i and 2) is a dirty
looking grub with a very large head, and thorax
bent at an angle, and on the fifth segment is a hump
with two hooks on it. (Plate 31, Fig. 2a.) The larva
bores a vertical tunnel sometimes a foot deep. It
plugs up the hole of the tunnel with its head, and
should some luckless victim walk over it, it is
seized in its powerful jaws, taken down, and eaten.
The hump and hook help to keep the grub in the
position at the mouth of the burrow. The female lays
eggs in the ground, and the larva pupates in the soil.

A common type is Cicindela ypsUoUy found on the
beaches of the coast.

248

PLATE 31,

Fiq4. E>upfesl-i3 Larva. Fic] 5. Kjpa . Fiq 6. Aateatva

Fiq7 BopreFh'd Beetle

Fici9. Underside of Click beetle
a . Spi'rte h. Caviry

Fi(| 10. Wire Worm (^ Larva of GicK beetle)

Fitjg. Cl.cK beelie

Ut)

ROVE BEETLES.

Family Staphylinidae.

(Plate 30, Figs. 6 and 7.)

These are easily distinguished by their short ely-
tra, which resembles the tegmina (cover wings) of
earwigs. In general appearance, too, the rove
beetles somewhat resemble the earwigs, having an
elongate body, and with the exception of the part
covered by the elytra, the whole abdomen is ex-
posed. (Plate 30, Fig. 6.) Hence the dorsal side
of the abdomen is much hardened, whereas in most
beetles the upper or dorsal side is softer than the
ventral, being protected by the elytra. Most rove
beetles have the habit of turning up their tails
when touched, so that enemies may think they sting,
and this is a probable means of protection from
predaceous insects.

Rove beetles move very freely and usually
fly very well, having the flying wings tucked under
the cover wings. They are often found under logs,
in stables and near decaying animal or vegetable
matter. Some species capture and devour small
living creatures. We have noticed repeatedly a
slender little Rove beetle on the Woollahra Point
Beach. When one is seated on the grass on the
upper part of the beach, it alights on one's book or
clothes and turns up its tail now and again and then

250 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

flies off. One of the largest rove beetles is the Aus-
tralian "devil's coach horse," a name borrowed from
the large common Staphylinid beetle in England. It
has a red head, hence its specific name (Creophilus
crythrocephahis). We have found it in dung.

Some staphylinid beetles are said to live in har-
mony with ants. Sharp thus describes one species :
"The beetles are never found out of ants' nests, or at
any rate, very far from them. The most friendly
relations exist between them and the ants ; they
have patches of yellow hairs, and these apparently
secrete some substances with a flavour agreeable to
the ants, which lick the beetle from time to time.
On the other hand the ants feed the beetles ; this
they do by regurgitating food, at the request of the
beetle, on to their lower lip, from which it is then
taken by the beetle. The beetles in many of their
movements exactly resemble the ants, and their
mode of requesting food, by stroking the ants in
certain ways, is quite ant-like."

Other staphylinids are present in ants' nests,
but not as friendly guests. They attack the larvae
and eggs of ants, and even an adult (if one should
be alone).

The larvae of rove beetles live on insects or re-
mains of animals — they are elongate and may have
two tail-pieces like the carabs, but have not such
stout legs. Mr. Zeck has recorded rove beetles
i-r. the nests of ants in New South Wales.

ROVE BEETLES. 251

Family Malacodermidae.
(Plate 30, Figs. 8 and 9.)

This family is regarded as the most primitive of
all beetles. The elytra are soft and are not co-
adapted to the sides of the body; the body seg-
ments are looser and are not so closely united as
is the case with most beetles. The commonest
type is the ''Soldier Beetle" (Telephorus pidchellus).

Larvae are found under logs. Froggatt says of
one of these beetles : "The larvae are curious smoky-
black creatures with blunted spines along the sides
of the body, and live under stones or logs."

Fire-flies or glow-worms (Plate 30, Fig. 9) belong
to this family. The female glow-worms are often
wingless and larva-like, and send out a strong in-
termittent phosphorescence. These are seen in
the gullies of the Blue Mountains in summer and
are nocturnal in habit, as the ''light" suggests.

Nearly all of the sub-family Lampyrides give off
phosphorescent light. Sharp says : "the lumines-
cence is most marked in the female imago, in which
it is concentrated near extremity of the abdomen."

Fire-flies are usually gregarious in habit: it is
said that only the males emit the light. We have
fire-flies in Australia, the commonest genus being
Luciola flavicollis. Froggatt says : "Our fire-flies
are small, light brown beetles, which during the
day cling to the foliage, flying about at night emit-
ting a bright flash of phosphorescent light from
the tip of the abdomen as they move their wings.
Several species are found on the Blue Mountains
and in the tropical scrubs of Nortli Queensland,"

253 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS,

CLICK BEETLES OR SKIP JACKS.

Family Elateridae.

(Plate 3i, Figs. (S, 9 and 10.)

The adult is very like a homely Buprestid beetle,
but is a little more linear in form. The antennae
are more decidedly serrate, and the prothorax is
not so broad, but is longer and there are two pro-
longations into spines, one on each side of the pro-
thorax at the posterior end. Ventrally, there is a
prothoracic spine in the middle, which fits into a 1
corresponding cavity of the mesothorax, and this
spine is capable of moving freely in and out of the
cavity, and aids in jerking the body from a few
inches to some feet away. It is owing to this habit
of jerking itself into the air that the popular name
"skip jack" beetle has arisen. The colour is usually
brown and the general outline is smooth.

The larva is the "wire worm" (Plate 31, Fig.
10). It is long, narrow, and cylindrical, with three
pairs of strong, horny legs, and capable of quick
movement in the soil. The integument is hard and
polished looking, yellow to brown in colour. It
is said to live up to two or three years. It feeds
on roots of plants and on decaying vegetation.
Some are said to be carnivorous, others to emit
phosphorescence.

CLICK BEETLES OR SKIP JACKS. 253

One night when sitting quiet we observed a click
beetle on the floor; we touched it and it at once
became quite still as if dead. In a few secoi.ds
it moved again : we touched it, with a similar re-
'suit, but it remained quiet for a longer period.
We continued to touch it at intervals, several times,
and each time the quiet period became much longer,
until finally it remained quiet for an hour, pre-
tending to be dead or at least to be taking the
best means of attracting as little attention as
possible.

Family Buprestidae.

Buprestids, Jewel or Flower Beetles.

(Plate 31, Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7.)

The adult beetles feed on the nectar and pollen
of flowers. Scores may be found on the flowers
of the Dwarf Apple (Angophora) in the hot sum-
mer months of December and January. The smaller
jewel beetles may be found on almost every nectar
bearing open kind of flower such as Leptospermum,
or Tea Tree, Eucalyptus, Kunzea, etc.

The adult is a smooth beetle often of most jay
colours, or with beautiful metallic tints; there are
also a few more homely coloured ones. The ap-
pendages of the body are tucked away out of sight
in repose, and this intensifies the smooth appear-
ance. The elytra are very strong. These beetles
are broad at the head and thorax and taper often
to a relatively fine point at the tail. The large
j-rothorax fits tightly against the mesothorax and

254 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

on the under side there is a spine on the prothorax
which fits into a groove of the mesothorax. As
this fits tightly into the groove there is no free
jerking movement such as characterises the click
beetles, the last family with which we dealt, but
still the prothorax can be freely moved in most
species .

The larva (Plate 31, Fig. 4) is a wood-borer, and
some of these are very large and long. One speci-
men we collected was three inches long. The head
is usually very small but with strong gnawing jaws
and the thoracic segments are very large, while t^e
segments of the abdomen taper towards the end ;
hence the larva is often "a hammer-headed" grub.
We have found the elongate naked pupa in the
burrows which the larvae made in wood. The bur-
rows are elliptical in section. These grubs, es-
pecially the genus Stigmodera, attack the Eucalyptus
trees. The clearly marked black and yellow Cyria
attacks the trunks of the christmas bush (Cerato-
petalum gummiferum), and the native honeysuckle
(Banksia). Another genus, Cisscis, attacks wattle
trees while yet another (£//?ow) forms galls.

255

LEAF-EATING BEETLES.

Family Chrysomelidae.

(Plate 32, II.)

Usually small elongate beetles with filiform
(thread-like) antennae and often with beautiful
metallic tints, or brown colour with black mark-
higs. .The foot (Plate 32, Fig. 11) of these beetles
is curious. The third joint is deeply lobed and
the tiny fourth joint is lodged between these lobes
I of the third joint, so that one might easily think
I that the feet had only four joints instead of five.
The larva is usually a leaf eater.

Type Paropsis. (Plate 32, Fig. 7.) This beetle
differs from most chrysomelids in being rounded
and vertically thick ; the head, prothorax, and abdo-
{ men fit together very closely. Except that it is
usually larger and is not so brilliantly marked, it
resembles in general shape the ladybird beetles.
There is a great variety in the markings and gen-
eral colour of Paropsis, and some of them are very
pretty, the general colour being buff to dark brown,
with or without markings. As the Paropsis walks
the deeply lobed third joint which rests on the
leaf reminds one of a pair of slippers on the feet
of the beetle, giving it rather a comical aspect. The
tarsi are' flat on the under side. The eggs are de-
posited in a very curious manner. They are ar-

256

PLATE

Fiqll

^1 Larva

Fiqa. Pupa.

Fiq4 Adult

Life Hi?bry of Lor\c]icorr\ Beefe.

FiqG.Larvd.o^Paropsis

Tiq5 Eq^clu?!"!^
of Paropb'is-.

Fic^T Parcps(5 Adult.

^

Fiq 9 ?ompkin Beetle Fi (| lo Metallic Clwyson^lid

FiqfiLeafwiIh Paropsis^
/ Larvae.

2-

5-- ;.i
4-'''
5-''

Fiqii Fooi-ofParopSis
5Joia-tff. "^

LEAF-EATING BEETLES. 257

ranged in clusters (Plate 32, Fig. 5) round a thin
stem of the young branches of gum trees. The
clusters are seen to be arranged in regular longi-
tudinal rows, and when examined with a lens are
beautiful. The shell is fawn coloured^ and the
egg is oblong with four horn-like protections at
the apex. Two horns are long, and two are short.
Running down longitudinally are four strips or
thicker bands of a reddish brown colour. The
eggs adhere to the twig, and to each other only at
the base; they are free in the upper part. How-
ever, they can be loosened from the twig in a mass
and drawn off, leaving a little hole running right
through the centre of the egg cluster or rosette, for
it just looks like a rosette viewed transversely.
There are 20 to 70 eggs in a cluster.

The larvae (Plate 32, Fig. 8) are hatched and are
found in clusters in the daytime, and can thus be
mistaken for the sawfly grubs. They pupate in
the soil.

Another well-known chrysomelid is the Pumpkin
beetle. (Aulacophora olivieri.) (Plate 32, Fig. 9.)
It is a small elongate beetle with orange coloured
elytra marked with four black patches. It is often
mistaken for a ladybird beetle on account of its
colour, and also because one of the ladybirds is
also a pest on the pumpkin. But the shape of the
pumpkin beetle is not round like the ladybird.
These beetles devour the fleshy part of the leaves
of tlie pumpkin, leaving only a skeleton formed by
tlie veins, and are very fond of collecting in the large
yellow pumpkin flowers.

The larvae are elongate white grubs which have

S58 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

been found tunnelling and feeding in the stems of
pumpkin vines, but the natural food of this indi-
genous beetle-pest has yet to be discovered. The
larvae pupate in the soil.

Mixed lime and tobacco dust shaken on to these
plants is said to be one of the best means of reduc-
ing this pest. There are numerous metallic or
prettily iriarked Chrysomelids (Plate 32, Fig. 10).

359

PLANT-EATING BEETLES.

Longicorns.

Family Cerambycidae,

(Plate 32, I.)

The adult (Plate 32, Fig. 3) is a decidedly elon-
gate oblong beetle, more or less flat, and usually
with very elongate trailing antennae often longer
than the body.

Some longicorns are rather thick-set, and these
may have shorter antennae which are held hoisted
over the back like true horns, and, although they are
shorter than those of some longicorns, they are
longer than the antennae of most beetles. The
antennae taper towards the tip and the joints are
usually long and well defined. The eyes are

notched and partly embrace the antennae (Plate 32,
Fig. 4). The foot is similar to that of the chryso-
melids.

The elytra are frequently covered with short
hairs and patterns are thus formed, producing in
many cases beautiful examples of protective coloura-
tion which blends with the bark, etc., on which the
insects are found. One of the best examples of
such protective colouration was shown by a longi-
eorn which we found on the Castiarina or she oak.
The body of the beetle was of a soft green colour
and was elongate, and was placed along a larger

260 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

stem. The antennae were a little over twice the
length of the body and were most wonderfully like
the young- branchlets. of the sheoak. We only
noticed that a beetle was present when it moved.

Longicorns are sometimes found under bark, and
these are usually very slender and rather flat
beetles. The Phoracantha or ''firewood beetle" can
be seen in billet wood, wattle and eucalyptus
chiefly. There is a very odd-looking longicorn
called Hesthesis, which has colouring similar to a
bright coloured wasp, for it is brown and bright
yellow. Its elytra are very short and its flying-
wings are thus exposed, making the likness to a
wasp still greater. This is supposed to be a case
of protective mimicry.

One of the largest longicorns and one which is
fairly broad is the Macrotoma, a large buff or brown
coloured beetle with rather soft elytra and with
long jointed antennae, the joints being quite large
and clear. This may be mistaken by beginners
for a cockroach until the wings and antennae are
examined.

The larva (Plate 32, Fig. i) of longicorns is a
wood borer and a pest. It has a small head with
stout gnawing jaws and enlarged thoracic segments,
but this hammer-like character is not so pronounced
as in the case of buprestid grubs. It pupates in
the wood, making a pupal chamber by plugging up
part of the burrow near the surface of the branch
with sawdust, which it has made in boring. The
pupa is elongate. (Plate 32, Fig. 2)

1

201

WATER BEETLES.

(Plate 33.)

We will consider three families —
I. Gyrinidae or ''whirligigs."
II. Dytiscidse or ''water tigers" or "diver
beetles."
III. Hydrophilidae or "lazy water beetles."

I. Family Gyrinidae. This beetle (Plate 33,
Figs. 2 and 3) can be distinguished by the following
characteristics : (a) The habit of whirling on the
surface of the water; (b) It has two pairs of eyes,
an upper pair to watch for enemies in the air, and
an under pair to watch for enemies in the water
below. Thus they are sometimes called "daddy
four-eyes"; (c) The front legs are longer than
middle and back pairs and look like a pair of oars ;
the two pairs of back legs are broad, short and
paddle-like, alternately expanding and then col-
lapsing (Plate 33, Fig. 4); (d) The tip of the
abdomen is exposed; (e) antennae very short.

Habits. Gyrinids or whirligigs can dive to get
I away from an enemy. They can also fly away to
other ponds. It is rather a surprise to find that
water beetles can fiy in the air, but the elytra
fit very tightly "round the body, and the spiracles
are under them. The wings are thus kept beau-
tifully dry. When they dive they have to tak^

262 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

down a supply of air, which can be seen at the
end of the body as a beautiful glistening silver
ball; they do not stay long under water. These
beetles are carnivorous, and feed on any water
creatures they can capture. They also seize any
flying insect which may fall into the water.

The larva (Plate 33, Fig. 2) lives in the water
and does not need to come to the surface to get an
air supply. It has plate-like projections or gills at
the sides of the body which help it to move about in
the water, and also aid in the breathing of the larva.
The metathorax carries the two main breathing
spiracles. The eggs are small and cylindrical, placed
in parallel rows on leaves of aquatic plants. The
larva pupates on water plants.

II. Family Dytiscidse or Diver Beetles (Plate
o3, Fig. 1, a, b, c, and d).

(a) The antennae are filiform or thread-like; (b)
There is only one pair of eyes; (c) The back legs
are long and like a pair of oars; they are widely
separated from the middle pair because of the large
coxse or thighs of the hind legs which cover the
greater part of the thorax. They are the main
organs of locomotion and are clothed with collapsi-
ble hairs on the lower part of the leg ; the hairs al-
ternately spread out and then collapse; (d) The tip
of the abdomen is not exposed. A common genus
is Cybister. (Plate 33, Fig. 1, d.)

Habits. These beetles are predaceous, and
very fierce ; they will attack other water creatures
The elytra are smooth and curved tightly round
the body, except at the tip of the abdomen. The
elytra thus cover well the flying wings and spiracles,

PLATE 33.

263

d Adult,

"-a. Larva.
Fiqi; life Hi^fory of DYtiscid Beete [Cfister] ^

fi(^3 WKiPliqiq Beetle

Fiq5.H^ropki(( J Beetle.

Fm^. Larva of Wkirli^Kj BeelJe "^^

WATER BEETLE3

264 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS

It is interesting to note that all water beetles have
a general smooth appearance, narrowing at the sides
to enable them to cut through the water. Some
have longitudinat grooves, but the general surface
of such beetles is smooth.

These beetles have to take down a supply of air.
To do this a beetle rises to the surface of the water
and protrudes the tip of the abdomen. It raises the
elytra and draws in a supply of air into a cavity
between the elytra and the back of the beetle.

These beetles can fly long distances from pool
to pool. The eggs are laid on water plants.
The female cuts a slit and inserts an egg in
each slit. The larva (Plate 33, Fig. 1) hatches
out and feeds on small insects and young
tadpoles. It is very voracious, and is called a
'* water- tiger." It has large mandibles, which are
hollow, and are capable of seizing and piercing the
victim and then sucking the juices of the body. The
mouth proper is small. At the end of its body are
fringes of hair (Plate 33, Fig. 1, a), and these aid
it in its movements in the water and also help it to-
float to the surface when it needs an air supply. The
air is taken in by the two enlarged terminal spiracles
only.

The dytiscid larva has curious eye-plates on which
we found six single eyes arranged in three pairs
(Plate 33, Fig. 1, b).

Family Hydrophilidae (Plate 33, Figs. 5 and 6)
lazy water beetles. These are so called because they
are neither so active nor so fierce as the dytiscids
or gyrinids. They are mostly vegetable feeders,
are really water scavengers feeding on decaying

I

WATER BEETLES. 265

vegetation as well as on living plants; a few art
carnivorous, and these are more active. Thej
breathe by taking an air supply down into the water,
this is spread out like a beautiful silver film over
the under surface of the body. It gets the supply
of air by raising the antennae out of the water and
then drawing them down, thus an air bubble is
captured and sent over the lower surface of the
body.

These beetles are somewhat similar to dytiscids,
but can be distinguished by the structure of the
antennae. They are short, but with the lens can be
seen to consist of three parts: (1) the base, of one
or more elongate joints; (2) the middle part, of a
number of small joints; (3) a terminal part, where
the joints are broader, forming a small club. The
legs are similar to those of the dytiscids or divers.
The back legs are longer and oar-like, the front pair
short and paddle-like.

Habits. The motlier insect of many species forms
egg cocoons containing many eggs, which may be
fastened to water plants, or carried for some time
by the mother. These beetles, like other types, have
flying wings and move from one pond to another.
They are often captured when flying around liglits
at night. The larvae are predaceous even when the
adult feeds on plants.

266

FAMILY CURCULIONIDiE.

(Weevils.)

(Plate 34, 11.)

I.

The head is prolonged into a rostrum or snout.
This varies in length and thickness, and so weevils
can be very generally divided into two groups: —

A. Long snouted weevils (Plate 34, Fig. 7).

B. Short snouted weevils (Plate 34, Fig. 8).

The apex of the beak is more or less expanded to
allow of the inclusion of a pair of strong jaws by
means of which the insect bores into wood, grain, etc.
The female is said to use the rostrum to bore a hole ;
it then places an egg in it and uses the rostrum
to push the egg further back into the hole. The
antennae (Plate 34, Fig. 9) are fixed on to the
rostrum, sometimes near the base, sometimes
nearly in the centre. An antenna consists of a large
base joint much elongated, called the scape, and an
upper many- jointed part which is placed at an angle
to the scape ; thus it is elbowed. The integument is
very hard, and the elytra curve over the sides and fit
on to the body like armour plate. Many of the weevils
have knobs and projections which make them look
like the rough bark on which these species are found :

WEEVILS. 267

this is a protection. Many weevils pretend to be
dead when touched.

The larvae are mostly borers; some of them bore
into wood, and others into grains, etc. The grub is
a maggot-like creature, but is fatter than a typical
maggot. It is devoid of legs. It pupates in the
medium in which it bores.

Wood-boring weevils are serious pests ; they often
bore round a branch in a circular track and * * girdle ' '
it till it snaps off with the wind. This is often seen
in Pittosporum trees. There is the apple root borer,
which is one of our more serious orchard pests.

The life history of a weevil can easily be studied
if one puts some exposed maize in a box or tin and
keeps it for some time. It is usually infested with
weevils (Plate 34, Fig. 12), and larvae and pupae
may be seen. These tiny black weevils are very
characteristic of this group.

The Botany Bay Diamond Weevil (Chrysolophus)
is a great favourite with children who collect, and
they are vastly amused at its pretence to be dead
when touched. It feeds on leaves of wattles and
other bush plants. Its larva is a wood borer.

PLATE 34

Lady Bird BpeHes' (Uccinellida^)

Fiqb ^oo^o^ Ladybird

p OroboJCiS

Fiq8 SUorf snovtedWeevi'

rrq9. Ar^^(>nna
a Scapf

Fi'qlc. W^cvilio
qia'ui of corf*

Tie lO Lea^-wpfvi

r.aii U(va of WppviI

0 Wpevils (CurcuUonidae)

269

LADYBIRD BEETLES.

Family Coccinellidse.

(Plate 34, I.)

TJiese beetles are very characteristic in form —
tliey are more or less rounded, the head, thoi-ax,
and abdomen fitting very closely; the head is con-
cealed by the thorax. The feet have only four
joints and appear to have but three : the third joint,
however, is so very small as to escape being readily
seen even with a lens. These beetles are very con-
spicuous, usually Avith bright colours; they are pro-
tected from enemies — such as birds — by having
a distasteful fluid in the body which thus saves
them from attack. They are great favourites with
children, who sing to them the well-known rhyme
** Ladybird, Ladybird, fly away home." Ladybirds
I are free from enemies to a remarkable extent; they
■j multiply very rapidly, and in most cases are friends
! to the agriculturist and gardener, for they are car-
nivorous, feeding on aphides, scales, etc. The eggs
are placed vertically in groups (Plate 34, Fig. 4).
The larvae (Plate 34, Fig. 1) are very active grubs
and seem to be always hungry; they seize aphides
and soon suck them dry, leaving only the skins. The
larva of the common garden ladybird (Leis con-
forniis) is dark-coloured (due to hairs or projec-
tions), with two orange-coloured transverse bars in
the upper part of the bQ(iy, Th.Q l?irva of the ladybird

270 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

I

pest Epilachna 28-punctatay or the 28-spotted lady

bird, is of a general creamy colour, with bristle-like
liairs tipped with black (Plate 34, Fig. 5). When very
still it looks like a ** plant burr." Both larva and
adult feed on plant tissues and attack plants of the
pumpkin family. It is a large ladybird, with 28
spots, and this genus Epilachna includes the only
^'bad" ladybirds we have with us. Another species
is E. guttata pustulata (potato ladybird).

.The pupa of ladybirds differs somewhat from the
typical beetle pupa, for the mature larva fastens itself
by means of a sticky secretion by the tail to a st«m or
to the fence. Then its last larval skin is shed and
pushed to the base, and the pupal shell is seen. It
resembles the pupa of a butterfly rather than that of
a beetle. (Plate 34, Fig. 2.)

We have made some very interesting observations
in rearing ladybirds from the egg, and will just
quote a few.

Observation I. — We noted some aphides on the
leaves of a garden shrub called Duranta, and at
once kept our eyes open for the appearance of
ladybirds. Later they appeared. The species
was Leis conformis. We got two of these beetles
and placed them in a box. Next morning there were
a number of eggs. We then put the beetles back on
the tree. The eggs were laid on the 5th of February
and hatched on the 6th. The small larvag were quite
dark. We placed each one in a separate box, and
the following is what we observed of No. 1 larva:
We placed some sprigs of Duranta with numerous ;
aphides present into a box with the larva. We put

LADYBIRD BEETLES. 271

an aphis on to a needle and placed it under the head
of the larva, but it turned aside and would have
none of it. It passed by the nearest aphides and
just chose its own particular victim. We saw it
catch the aphis with its front legs and then began
sucking it. This went on till several aphides of
varying sizes were devoured. Then it rested awhile.
On the 10th of February the ladybird larva was very
quiet and would not touch any aphides. Next morn-
ing it was in the same position, but had turned a
dull brown colour, and there was a distinct white
line in the centre of the back from the head to the
thorax. After watching it for half an hour it be-
gan to move its legs, one at a time. To look at it
one would think it was exercising its limbs; but
upon close observation through the lens we could
see that it was preparing to change its skin. In a
few minutes this white line before mentioned gradu-
ally opened, beginning at the head and continuing
down the thorax. Then the larva swayed from side
to side, gradually raising itself till it was free from
the old skin. It was at first greyish-looking, but in
a few hours became black, and on the 7th segment
had a yellow band. After a little time it was as
active as ever, looking round for something to de-
vour. In the meantime, so effectively was the work
of killing the aphides done by the ladybirds on the
plant that in a few days there were none left
to supply our captives. Previously we had experi-
mented with these larvae and reared them on the
juice of oranges, on which they flourished. We tried
the juices of peach and pear, which were then in
season, and this larva seemed in no way put out

272 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

but thrived on tliis new food. On the 14th of Febru-
ary it changed its second skin. We noticed that the
larva at this stage was not so dark, and that there
were yellow markings on the 4th and 7th segments,
and also along the sides of the body. After feeding for
two days it attached itself by the tail to the side of the
box, and pupated on the 16th of February. The
adult emerged on the 21st of February by breaking
open the pupal skin. It was quite yellow with no
black marks at first, but in a very short time the
black spots appeared, and in about half an hour
altogether it was a normal Lets conformis.

Observation II. — We placed another ladybird in a
box, a yellow ladybird, of the species Coccinella re-
pandaf with black markings but not regular spots.
The egj^s were laid on the 10th of February; the
tiny larviG hatched on the 12tli of February. They
were yellow at first, becoming quite black in a little
time. They changed the first skin on 17th and 18th
of February. There were more yellow patches on
these grubs than on those of Lcis conformis. There
was a broad yellow transverse band on the second
segment: on the third, two short transverse bars,
and running down from between these a longitu-
dinal yellow^ band : the anal segment was also yellow
as also the outer edge of the body. They changed
the second skin on the 23rd and 24th of February,
and pupated on the 27th, 28th and 29th of February
respectively. They emerged on the 5th and 6th of
March.

The larvae of ladybirds are very voracious, and
if left in a box with no food will just devour each
other, beginning with the little ones. We left some

LADYBIRD BEETLES. 273

ladybirds in a box for a day and night with numer-
ous aphides. There were seven of them, and on the
next morning at 11.15 there were no aphides and
only one larva left, and the latter was just finishing
his meal of one of his brothers. These were
larvffi of Leis conformis. It is Jiot to be wondered
at that the larvae of ladybirds take to fruit juices
as food, for the aphides are just full of the plant-
juice which they so rapidly abstract. Of course it
undergoes some change in the body of the aphis,
but at any rate they can change their diet of aphides
to fruit juices and back again to aphides, seemingly
without any concern.

In Novermber and December we observed larva?
of Lets conformis on a vine of Wistaria. There
were no apliides on the leaves, but we noticed
that most of the leaves were turning first a mottled
green, tlien yellow, and then tliey fell. We examined
some of them with a lens and saw that tlie
whole plant was badly infested witli a mite, and
that the ladybird larva? were devouring them. The
mites could be seen with the naked eye as tiny fawn
or dark-coloured dots and were very active, moving
quickly over the leaf.

We observed also that many of the ladybird larva?
were devouring their fellows as the latter were
changing their skins.

Probably the chance of a larger repast was tempt-
ing, for the mites were tiny, and kept the ladybird
larvse busy devouring them.

274

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.

(Butterflies and Moths.)

(Plates 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39.)

Characteristics. 1. Insects with two pairs of wings
covered with modified hairs in the form of flat
scales (Plate 36, Fig. 4). These are very beautiful
when seen under the microscope and resemble petals
of flowers.

2. Tlie mouth parts (Plate 38, Figs, 5, 6 and 7) are
modified to form a sucking tube more or less long.
This can be coiled up like a watch-spring and fitted
into a socket in front and on the under surface of the
liead. It is in the form of two half -tubes which fit
together. Each half-tube has a strong supporting
area; also a groove on the inner side (Plate 38, Fig.
7). The grooves fit to form a long tube.

3. The metamorphosis is complete or perfect.
Butterflies and moths differ in certain details and

can be classified on these differences into two
groups : —

1. Rhopalocera (Butterflies). 2. Heterocera
(Moths). These two groups are not distinct, there
being intermediate types which have some of the
characters of each group.

Butterflies have the antennas more or less thick-
ened at or before their terminations (Plate 35, Fig.
3). A more or less narrow waist or constriction
exists between the thorax and abdomen. Then,

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 275

butterflies usually fly in the day time, are brightly
coloured, but have a zigzag flight by means of which
they dodge their enemies. Some few species only
fly at dusk. The wings in repose are usually erect,
and the underside is very often marked in such a
way as to blend with the surroundings — this is a
protection. Some butterflies, when in repose, re-
semble leaves.

Moths. The antennae of motlis vary in form
(Plate 36, Figs. 5, a, b and c) ; they are not clubbed
except in a few instances. The constriction be-
tween the thorax and abdomen is less, or is hidden
by thick hairs or ' ' fur. ' '

Moths fly most frequently at night: such forms
as fly in the day are termed ' ' day-moths ; ' ' ex. grape
vine moths. The wings are held horizontally in re-
pose, and on the whole sombre colours prevail which
often blend with the surroundings. The mottling
and marking of many of the moths make the wings
of some of them most exquisite studies in soft
colours.

Taking a general view of the life history of the
Lepidoptera, we find that the eggs are deposited
on or near the food supply of the larva,' which is
mainly vegetable. From the egg comes the larva
(Plate 35, Fig. 1), which is a caterpillar, which may
be smooth, hairy, or* ornamented with spines (Plate
38, Fig. 2). The larva has usually three pairs of
horny legs, four pairs of fleshy legs, and two anal
claspers. It eats voraciously, and moults or sheds
its skin several times. Having reached the condi-
tion of the full-grown larva, it changes into the
pupa or resting stage, in which it eats no more and

276 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ceases to move about, for it is in this stage that the
final stages of development into the perfect insect
take place. This pupa (Plate 35, Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and
8) may be quite free from any surrounding covering,
or it may be enclosed in a cocoon or sheath of woven
silk (Plate 39, Fig. 4). The first type is general
among the butterflies, whilst the cocoon is almost
invariably found in the moths, for, where the larva
pupates in the earth the soil takes the place of the
cocoon when no distinct cocoon is made. In course
of time the perfect insect emerges from the pupal
shell. At first it is wet and limp, with crumpled
wings and lengthened abdomen, looking a very sorry
picture of what we perhaps expected.

Mother Nature soon completes her work; the ab-
domen contracts, the rather miserable-looking crea-
ture begins to exercise its legs, and gradually the air
is sent through the crinkled, def ormed-looking wings,
and they slowly expand ; then it exercises wings and
legs and tongue, and eventually, after little resting
spaces, it flies off a very beautiful object.

Both butterflies and moths are divided into
numerous families according as they possess certain
features in common. We shall consider some of
the more familiar families, and then study a few
types belonging to such families as are particularly
interesting, or are of economic importance.

PLATE 35.

877

Fiq 1 Larva o^ Wanderer Butterfly

FiqZ Larva prppannqTo
pupate.

F»q4.Popaof Danaida

Frq5. pier id pupa

fvi b Oespend I'opa _. „ . ,.
^ fiq/ faplliomdpupd

a qirdle

Fl<^8. Lycaenid pupa

BUTTEEFL^ES

278

FAMILY NYMPHALID^.

(Brush-footed Butterflies.)

This family is divided into three sub-families: —
(a) Danain^, (b) Nymphalinae, (c) Satyrinse.

Family Nymphalidae.
Characters — (1) Larva smooth, or at times hairy.

(2) Pupa usually suspended by the tail.

(3) Perfect insects, medium or large size; front
legs imperfectly developed, so that they are
of no use in walking.

Sub-family Danainae.
Characters — (1) Larva smooth, but with fleshy
threadlike appendages.
(2) Pupa suspended by the tail, metallic mark-
ings often present.
Waterhouse and Lyell, in ''Butterflies of Austra-
lia," thus record of Danainae : — ''The Food Plant
AsclepiaSj Aristolochia, and other allied plants that
exude a milk-like juice when broken. . . . The habit
of the l&vYSd of this sub-family of feeding upon
various species of Aristolochia ("dutchman's pipe")
and allies seems to have resulted in the transfer-
ence to the butterflies of some of the distasteful
properties of the food plant. Close observation and
experiment have shown the butterflies to be almost
immune from the attacks of birds, to whom they
are evidently most distasteful. Including even the

BUTTERFLIES. 279

migratory Danaida archippus, the butterflies are
without exception of slow and laboured flight: the
colours are distinct and striking, yet tlie insect upon
the wing seems quite unconscious of danger.. The
genus Danaida is of special interest on account of
the immunity from the attack of birds, and from the
close resemblance to it of butterflies of non-im-
mune families. ' '

Life history of Danaida archippus (Plate 35, Fig.
3), (Danaus menippe of other authors) : The ''Wan-
derer"— This butterfly can be seen in early spring,
and till late autumn. It is a fairly large butterfly,
with wings of bright orange-brown, the veins out-
lined in black. The male is distinguished by a small
thickened patch of black scales near the centre of
the hind wing.

The eggs are laid singly on or near the leaves of
the ''wild cotton" bush (Gomphocarpiis fruticosis),
which is the food plant of the larva. They hatcli in
a few days; the caterpillar (Plate 35, Fig. 1), is at
first black and thread-like, but when older is banded
in black and yellow. At each end of the body on
the upper surface is a pair of flexible black appen-
dages.

On pupating, the larva attaches itself by the end
of the body by means of a silky secretion, and
hangs head downwards (Plate 35, Fig. 2). It then
curves over and the body shortens, and by a series
of convulsive jerks the old skin is pushed upwards
in a very clever manner.

The pupa is suspended by the hooks at the end of
the body, which are caught in the silken pad spun
by the larva. At first the pupa is a pale

280 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

green colour, with ornamentations of gold; it
is very pretty. Later the colour darkens and
finally, when the adult is about to emerge, one can
see the markings of the insect, for the pupal shell
is transparent. In warm weather, from 9 to 15 days
are passed in the pupal stage. Pupas found on the
food plant are usually parasitised, hence are very
often found on bracken or other plants near. Danaida
is an introduced butterfly.

Danaida petilia is a much smaller ** wanderer. ' ^ If
the larvae of these butterflies are placed in a card-
board box with a glass lid, and the box then placed
on its side, one can watch the life history with ease.

We brought home some pods of the wild cotton
from Port Hacking to Sydney, and from the seeds a
couple of plants grew. For the first time Ave
noticed the visits of a beautiful Danaida, which
came several days in succession and laid eggs on
tlic plant.

Another interesting genus is Eiiploca, with wings
of velvety black with cream patches. The children
often admii-e and bring in their beautiful golden or
silvern pupae.

m

281

SUB-FAMILY NYMPH ALIN-ffi.

Characters: 1. Uusually mediimi-sized butterflies.

2. Larvae frequently clothed with spines or

tubercles; a few are smooth.

3. Pupae suspended by the tail, and with a few

exceptions are elongate and angular.

The butterflies are usually of strong swift flight
and delight in hot sunshine. Many of them have
peculiar tastes, being attracted by exuding sap, de-
composing fruit, carrion, etc.

Type: The Meadow Argus, Precis vUlida {Junonia
villida of some authors). It is a brown and
orange-coloured butterfly with eye-spots on each
wing, and with three characteristic transverse orange
markings on the front of the fore-wings. The under
surface of the wings is a mottled grey. It is very
quick and is often hard to catch.

The larva is dark brown, clothed with tiny branch-
ed spines.

Food plants: snapdragon, plantain, Australian
centaury.

Pupa is mottled brownish-yellow, suspended by
the tail near the food plant; it is not smooth.

The Australian admiral (Pyrameis itea) : This is
a brown butterfly, distinguished by the dark brown
to black at the apex and outer edges of the wings ;
the inner part of the wings is golden brown.

382 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

There are four small eye-spots on each of the hind
wings.

The food plant is the nettle. The larvae are gre-
garious, and have formed the curious habit of spin-
ning a silken thread, and drawing the nettle leaves
together between which they find shelter. They are
black to grey in colour.

Pupa is purplish-grey with angular projections.
Tliey are sometimes found quite golden, but in this
case are parasitised.

Another is the ** tailed emperor," Eulepis sempro-
niiis {Charaxes sempronius of some authors). The
general colour of the upper surface is bluish-cream,
with black towards the margins ; the hind wings are
''tailed." The under-surface is quite unlike the
upper, being banded with shades of brown, brick-
red, and creamy-white. The eggs are laid singly
on leaves of the food plant.

The larva is bluish-green, with a crescent-shaped
band on the seventh and ninth segment of orange
colour. The head is surmounted by a series of
horns (from 4 to 6).

Food plants: Acacia baileyana^ A. longifoUa and
two other species: Robinia pseudo acaciaef and the
camphor laurel.

Pupa: Delicate sea-green colour, and smooth; it
turns to bronze colour when the adult is about to
emerge.

Waterhouse and Lyell record: ''We have taken
this butterfly feeding on the juices exuded by
shrubs; the late Mr. G. Masters once found several
examples round the leaking bung-hole of a wine

BUTTERFLIES. 283

barrel. When in this semi-intoxicated condition it
is easily captured ; at other times it is of exception-
ally strong and rapid flight. " It also feeds on moist
decaying vegetable matter.

Hypolimnas bolina is perhaps one of our most
beautiful butterflies : it is confined to northern New
South Wales. The male and female differ widely in
colouring. The male is a rich purplish-black, with
a central patch of pale heliotrope in each wing:
there are markings of heliotrope and white. The
female has ground colour of rich brownish-black
Avith patches of orange-brown and white. But the
colouring of the female is very variable, especially
in the north. ^ '|1'^

The larva is dark, with clusters of branched
spines.

Food plant : Sida retusa (paddy's lucerne).

The pupa is suspended by the tail and ornamented
with short tubercles.

284

SUB-FAMILY SATYRIN-ffi.

Characters: 1. Small or medium-sized butterflies,
having the under-surface of the wings or-
namented with eye-spots. Similar spots
may occur on the upper surface.

2. The green-brown larva, smooth or sparsely
covered with hairs. It tapers towards head
and tail, and the latter is forked. Food
chiefly grasses: feeds at night.

3. Pupa short, not angular; suspended by the
tail, except in two or three species, which
pupate on the ground. Note that whereas,
in other species if the attachment is taken
away, so that the insect has nothing to pusli
against when emerging, the result is a
cripple; with such natural types though it
has nothing to press against, it does not
emerge as a cripple.

Waterhouse and Lyell record: ''The Satyrinae are
essentially shade-loving species, usually found in
wooded gullies and in the shadow of cliffs or trees.
They are often to be seen resting in company in
cavities of a cliff face, or beneath overhanging rocks.
At dusk they are sometimes so sluggish that they
may be lifted from their resting place with the fingers
or forceps. Their flight is weak, the one exception
being Mclanitis^ which has a swift, elusive flight
>vhen disturbed in the daytime. AH the species

BUTTERFLIES. 285

are local in their habits; they are very constant in
their times of emergence, and the greater number
of the males usually appear on the wing a week or
ten days in advance of the female. They are usually
some shade of brown with paler markings."

Type: The common brown {Heteronympha merope)
appears in the spring, and remains till the end of
autumn. The sexes differ in size, colour and markings.
The male is smaller: its wings are golden-brown,
mottled with black, and each wing has an eye-spot.
The wings of the female have similar eye-spots, but
the inner parts of the front wings are orange-brown,
and the outer parts black banded with lemon-yellow.

The eggs are deposited in stems of soft grasses
near the ground. The larva when full grown is
brown in colour; the body tapers towards each end
and the tail is forked. Occasionally the larvas are
green in colour.

The pupa does not suspend itself by its tail as is
usual in this family, but lies on the ground.

This butterfly is confined to Australia ; it is usually
numerous in the southern parts of New Soutli Wales,
particularly along the coast and highlands. It flies
low, and is thus easy to capture. It is dusky-brown
in colour, each wing has eye-spots, and the front
wings are crossed by a wide orange band.

The eggs are laid on the stiff blades of the sword
grass {Cladmm), and on this the larvae feed when
hatched. The larva is green, about 1^ inches in

286 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

length, and tapers towards the forked tail. The
pupa is also a pale green colour, with yellow edgings
to the wing case. It hangs suspended by its tail
from the food plant. Care needs to be taken in
hunting these caterpillars in the sword-grass, for
it will cut like a knife. ' ' Larvae of ' browns ' are very
easy to rear in captivity with a little experience,
and as their interesting transformations can thus bo
watched, the student is advised to proceed in the
following manner : — Any soft grass should be plant-
ed in a pot, and provided with two bent wires cross-
ing over the pot at right angles and tlie four ends
inserted in the earth of the pot ; this acts as a frame
for a mosquito net covering. The end of the mos-
quito net covering should be held tight to the pot
by string. Yoimg larvag, found by searching grasses
in the gullies or such places that these butterflies
frequent, can be then placed on the grass and kept
under observation, or captured females may be
brought home alive and placed in these cages so that
they may lay their eggs on the grass. During winter
time the ordinary winter grass is very suitable to
use, but any soft grass will answer the purpose, for
Satyrid larvae are not confined to any particu-
lar grass. ' ' — ( Waterhouse. )

J87

FAMILY LYCiENIDiE.
C* Blues" and "Coppers.")

This family includes some of our smallest butter-
flies, so often seen in grass lands. The prevailing-
colours are blue and copper.

Characters. — (1) Larvae short, thick, and slug-
like; caterpillars srtooth, or covered with short
hairs; usually feed at night, frequently gregarious.
Waterhouse and Lyell record: **The larva is almost
invariably flattened and slug-like, with the head
retractile and concealed while at rest. Posterior
segments usually with dorsal glands, which secrete
a liquid much prized by ants ; the ants consequently
attend the larvae, and in some cases shepherd them.
The larvae feed singly or gregariously and usually
by night, sheltering during the daylight in ants'
nests, under bark or stones, in curled leaves or
flower buds, or in crevices of the trunk of the food
plant."

Type: "The imperial blue" {Jalmeniis evagoras).
This is a small, dainty butterfly, 1^ inches across
the wings. The upper surface is dusky brown,
with a large central area of silver blue. On the
hind pair is a bright orange patch above the tails.
They are low but rapid fliers.

The larvae are almost black, or of a dull green,
marked with yellow, with a row of tubercles along
the upper surface. Ants are found running over and

288 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

apparently stroking and caressing the larvae in order
to obtain the sweet fluid which they secrete. The
caterpillars are gregarious. Food plant: black
wattle {Acacia decurrens).

Pupa is a shining dark brown or black structure
attached by tail and suspended by a girdle. They
are in clusters, and sometimes so close as to be
overlapping. Ants are in attendance, as in the case
of the larvae.

289

FAMILY PIERIDJE.

(Whites and Yellows.)

The popular names have been given to this family
on account of the predominance of white and yellow
colours. These butterflies have a wide range.
Waterhouse and Lyell j-ecords: ''It is within this
family that the migratory habit is most noticeable,
both in Australia and elsewhere. We have observed
several immense flights of Anaphacis Java teutonia
and Catopsila pythias in the neighbourhood of
Sydney, and their direction has invariably been
from north to south; on the other hand, flights of
teiitonia we have noted in Gisborne have all been
travelling almost due north. During these flights
all the butterflies seemed to be steadily pursuing
the one course, only occasionally visiting a flower
and rarely resting until evening, excepting possibly
for a time Avliile a heavy cloud obscured the sun.
In the evening and through the night these
migratory butterflies often rest in company: scores
of teutonia have many times been noticed settled
on one small l)ough. They always choose for a
resting place those plants or trees which blend
most closely with their own colours."

Types. — ** The caper white": Anaphaeis Java
teutonia (Belcnois Java of some authors) : One of
the commonest whites. It is not more than 2 inches
across the wings. The upper surface is white, wit'

390 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

black margins; the under surface of front pair is
similar to the upper surface, but on the under side
of hind wings yellow markings are found. The
larva, when full grown, is brown, with yellow
tubercles scattered over it; when half grown the
head seems abnormally large.

Food: Caper tree.

The pupa (Plate 35, Fig. 5) is more or less erect,
with a girdle supporting it. The upper part ter-
minates in a distinct point; a few angular projec-
tions are on the abdominal region. In the
Newcastle district we saw a migratory flight which
was not in a mass but one after another every few
seconds. Their flight was down a valley, and the
butterflies kept the same side of groups of trees
which were present, never flying more than a few
yards out of the course of their predecessors.

Another species is Delias nigrina. This is not
a migratory butterfly. The general colour of the
upper surface is a bluish- white ; the front pair of
wings has a dusky black patch with three white
blotches near the apex. The under surface is en-
tirely different from the upper: dusky black forms
the ground mass, with a bright yellow band across
the front wings and markings of bright red.

Larvae are dark green and are gregarious; they
feed on the mistletoe {Loranthus).

The pupae are erect, with a supporting girdle;
there is a pair of horns on the apex, and curved
spines are scattered over the surface.

The **wood white" {Delias aganippe) is slightly
larger than Delias nigrina^ and resembles it. Note:
the dusky black on the front wings has 8 patches

BUTTERFLIES. 891

of white; the second patch is long and narrow.
The under wing is ornamented with yellow and red.
It flies high.

The larva is dnll brown, and is covered with
cream tubercles surmounted by white hairs. The
caterpillars are found in great numbers on food
plants such as native cherry and mistletoe. The
latter plant is the chief food.

The pupa is erect and girdled.

One of the "yellows" is the "bordered sulphur"
{Terias smila.r), a small, delicate-looking insect,
If inches across the wings. The upper surface of
wings is bright sulphur yellow, bordered with
dusky brown ; under side is yellow. Larva is green.
Food plant: found feeding on Cassia fistula. Pupa
is keel shaped; erect and girdled.

Waterhouse and Lyell say: "This, the smallest
species of the genus, is the most widely distributed,
ranging from Victoria to Cape York and Darwin.
It has migratory habit, though in lesser degree
than in teutonia and pythias. We have records of
a flight in the Blue Mountains lasting from 21st
April to 4th May, 1906, and of a smaller flight at
Gisborne lasting five or six days in October, 1894.
The direction of the flight was north to south in
the Blue Mountains, but from east to west in
Gisborne."

292

FAMILY PAPILIONACEiE.

(Swallowtails.)

Tliese butterflies are noted for tlieir beauty and
size. In some species tlie hind wings are pro-
longed into lobes or tails — hence the term '' swallow-
tails."

Characters: (1) Larva usualhf has a forked, re-
tractile tentacle just behind the head. When ejected,
this may emit a rather disagreeable odour. (2) The
pupa (Plate 35, Fig. 7) is attached by the tail in an
upright position (Plate 35, Fig. 5) ; it is girdled.
(3) The hind wings have the inner margins concave,
and lobes or tails are often present.

Type: Orchard Swallowtail {PapUio aegeus).
This is found in the spring and to the end of
autumn. The sexes differ. The female has fore
wings of a general dusky grey, which darkens as
it approaches the body to a black colour. The hind
wings are dusky black near the body, then a white
area, and lastly a velvety black with patches of
orange and fewer blue areas: there are seven red
lunules around the margin. The male is of a
"velvety black colour, with a narrow cream patch
on fore wings and a large cream patch on each
hind wing : there is a red lunule just opposite the tip
of the abdomen.

The eggs are deposited singly on the sur-
face of the leaves of the citrus plants. The larva

BUTTERFLIES. 293

when full grown is over 2 inches long and olive green
in colour, with flecks of darker green and white and
a patch of white on the head. It has a retractile
magenta-coloured forked tentacle near the head and,
when extended, this emits a curious odour suggestive
of decayed citrus fruit. The larvge are often para-
sitised.

The pupa is erect and girdled; it is pale green,
fawn, or brown. If obtained up to late summer the
adult emerges, but if later than March it usually
remains as a pupa all winter and as late as Novem-
ber.

A smaller type and resembling the former is an-
other orchard swallowtail, Papilio anactus or *' dingy
swallowtail." The fore wings are of a smoky brown
colour, with patches of white : it has the same num-
ber of red lunules on the wings as those of
aegeus. The larva is a bronze green in colour,
flecked with pale blue and yellow. Food plant:
citrus trees, chiefly lemon. We obtained several
pupae. The pupation of these larvae, which in
summer takes about an hour, may take two or
three days in the winter. So slow was it that
we thought some of our larvae were dead. After
the end of the body was secured by the patch
of threads and the girdle formed, the caterpillar
hung in this way for two days, when the larval skin
burst and was pushed off. We made observations
on about a dozen in all; two made no girdles, but
just hung downwards, suspended by the tail.

^*The blue fanny'' {Papilio sarpedon) is a very
pretty black butterfly with the central portion of
wings a bright turquoise blue.

294 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

The larva is a bright green caterpillar spotted

with yellow, and on the thoracic segments are long,
fleshy tubercles; tail forked. It feeds on the cam-
phor laurel.

The pupa is elongate triangular; the tail forms
the apex of the triangle. It is pale green in colour
at first, but darkens later. It is girdled.

''The green fanny" {Papilio macleayanus) is
very similar to the former, but smaller and with
pale green markings.

Food plant of larva : camphor laurel, Prostanthera,
Sassafras.

The "bird- wing' Papilio (P. richmondius) is the
largest butterfly in New South Wales. It is found
on the Richmond River, and its range is north of
the Eiver Clarence. It is called the ''trogan" on
the Northern Rivers.

The sexes differ markedly. The male measures
5 inches across the wings. The fore pair are a rich
velvet black, with a band of brightest green near -
the margins; the hind wings are a rich emerald
green with black patches. The female is of a dusky
black adorned with patches of dull white on the
fore wings and a few yellow patches on the hind
pair

29^

FAMILY HESPERIDJE.
(Skippers.)

This group is so named because of the skipping
method of flight of the adults. These butterflies
are among the small and medium sized. Brilliant
colours are absent.

Characters. — The larva has a large head followed
by a narrow neck-region. The body increases in
size towards the centre and tapers towards the tail.
Usually smooth; in a few cases sparsely covered
with hairs.

Pupa (Plate 35, Fig. 6) is elongate, attached by
the tail to the surface of a leaf, and the leaf is
often curled, or several leaves are fastened together
by threads and the larva pupates in this shelter.
By some authors this group is regarded as a typo
between moths and butterflies, its general structure
and flight being of the butterfly habit, while the
sheltering habit and the thickness of the body
suggests the moth habit.

The bodies of the adults are thick and strong;
head is large, antenn<T3 wide apart and terminating
in elongate clubs with slightly curved hooks. The
flight is quick and strong.

Type: The banded skipper {Erynnis sperthias)
is one of the largest skippers, but as far as butter-
flies go, it is small. The male has wings of brown and
gold. The female is bright bfli-own, with dull yellow
blotches.

296 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

The eggs are deposited singly on under surface
of various species of palms. We have found the
larva concealed near the tip of the leaf, the edges
of which it had drawn together. It remains in this
shelter in the day, and comes out to feed at night.

The head is produced into a structure which
reminds one of the turban of a hindoo.

Pupa: It pupates between the edges of leaves.

297

MOTHS.
SUB-ORDER—HETEROCERA.

Characters.— (1) The antenna are varied in form,
Ijiit are not clubbed at the tip as are butterflies,
except in a few cases (Plate 36, Fig. 5.) (2) The
division between the tJiorax and abdomen is not
strongly marked. (3) The colours are more sombre
than tliose of butterflies, and moths fly more usually
at night. (4) A frenulum (Plate 39, Figs. 5 and 6)
or bunch of strong bristles (in female usually), or
a spine (in male) is borne at the base of the hind
wing on the front edge in most moths. It helps to
keep the wings on one side together, so as to act
as one large wing.

Motlis are more numerous than butterflies. Most
species liave the long sucking mouth (Plate 38, Figs.
5, 6, 7). Some of the worst pests to man arc in this
group. The silkworm is a source of wealtli for the
silk woven from the silken cocoons.

We shall notice some of the familiar motlis.

Family Sphingidas— Hawk Moths (Plate 36). The
scientific name was given owing to the habit of the
larva, when resting, of drawing up its head and
the fore part of its body in a peculiar manner,
giving it a sphinx-like appearance. The term
'*hawk" is used probably on account of its keen,
swift flight, its clear-cut wings and body, and its
habit of poising over the flower when extracting
nectar.

298

PLATE 36.

Fic) 5 Adult-
Life nishory of HawK Morn ( Proiof>jrco)

Flq^ Win<j scaler

hqS. Typei" o/ Ard"efvr\de(Enlarqe^;j
a Plume<J . b. aaKed c pecTmal,

MOTHS.

I

MOTHS. 299

Hawk moths vary in size from medium to large.
They fly at dusk and in the night. The general
colour is from grey to brown; the hind wings are
often of bright colour. The moth is adapted for
swift flight by its rather pointed head and body.
Its eyes are large and keen, and it has a long
proboscis: we measured the tongue of Protoparce
and found it was 4 inches. These moths visit and
cross-pollinate long- tubed flowers such as the Bou-
vardiay and the moon flower (Ipomoea bona wo;r), etc.

The larvse (Plate 36, Fig. 1), are smooth and are
often ornamented with transverse oblique bands of
yellow or white, and more rarely with eye-spots.
There is a prominent terminal spine usually present
on the upper part of the tail These larvae are
pale green in colour to blend with leaves, or they
may be brown. When about to pupate in the earth,
the pale green colour becomes blotched with fawn
or brown, and this protects the larvsB when crawling
on the ground. The pupa is curious in many species,
by having the mouth parts enclosed in a case which
is quite free from the body, except at the basal point
of attachment to the body (Plate 36, Fig. 2 a). This
mouth case is bent or coiled under the head. In
captivity, some larvae did not trouble to go under
the earth, but pupated on the surface, and one par-
tially enclosed itself in a silken cocoon; in this
case the lid was on the box and provided a measure
of darkness.

Types. — The privet hawk moth (Sphinx ligustri)
The convolvulus hawk moth (Protoparce convol-
vuli), whose colour is of a general mottled grey and

300 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

brown, with pink patches on the abdomen. The
larva feeds on convolvulus and sweet potato. The
silver striped hawk moth {Chaerocampa celerio),
whose fore-wings are greenish black, with silver
lines from the tip inwards. The hind wings are
marked in pink and black. Then there is the grass
hawk moth {Chaerocampa scrofa), whose dull
brown larva feeds on grass. The moth is brown, with
hind wings of brick red. The genus Caequosa con-
tains the giants of the hawk moths — one species
measures 7 inches across the outstretched wings.
The larvge are covered with rough tubercles: the
terminal spine is absent. At the anal end of the
body are two spots resembling eyes, and these are
more prominent than the eyes, and would lead one
to think the head was at this end.

The caterpillars, when reared in captivity, did not
pupate in the ground, but drew leaves of the food
plant together with silken threads and pupated in
these.

Food Plants: — Native honeysuckle (Banksia), gee-
bung {Persoonia), and some of the wattles {Acacia).

The caterpillars feeding on Banksia serrata are
most difficult to detect owing to the blending of
colour; for the leaves of the plant have a strongly
marked light-coloured midrib, and the larvae place
themselves in line and can hardly be seen. A few
of the hawk moths have clear scaleless wings. We
examined the wing of Protoparce with the lens and
sketched the frenulum on the hind wing (Plate 39,
Figs. 5 and 6.)

301

FAMILY PSYCHID^.
(Case Moths.) (Plate 37.)

These are moths whose larvae live within silken
cases, either with pieces of stick, leaves, etc., at-
tached or just a more or less smooth case. In walk-
ing, the caterpillar has only the head and 3 pairs of
liorny legs without the case, and this part of the
body is consequently hardened, and is much darker
in colour than the rest of the body which is pro-
tected by the case. It drags the case along as it
Avalks.

The method of constructing the case is worth ob-
serving. We reared some larvae of the large case
moth from the egg. At first they resembled tiny
black threads, but when they moved we saw that
each had a slender web attached to itself. The
spinning commenced at once, till a tiny bag was
made. This increased in size, but the larva worked
along the upper edge, much as one proceeds in
knitting a sock. The growth of the case keeps
pace vvdth the growth of the larva. The upper
edge is always loose, so that it can be attached to
any object. To strengthen the case, pieces of
sticks, leaves, pine needles, etc., may be woven in.
Everyone has noticed these case moths and the
wonderful arrangement of the ''sticks" or leaves.
The inside of the case is smooth and silky. If the
caterpillar be placed in a box with a glass lid, one

302

PLATE 37.

fiq2 Caterpillar free -from case.

Fiq3 ^aif ^'if fo show

a shrivelled larva

\> fl-y cocoorv J ( p a ra ri tej '

Fiq4 Faqcjot cayemolh Fiqb Ribbed casp moth

Fiq5 Leaicase molh
a pupa c^ rnale

CASE MOTHS.

MOTHS. 303

will soon see regular transverse lines of short silken
threads, not unlike railway sleepers, all over the
surface of the glass. These are the ''foot-holds"
of the caterpillar to enable it to move over the
smooth surface of the glass. It does it so quickly
that one can hardly see the placing of these threads.

The larvffi pupate within the case, and then a
beautiful, soft, white, silky ''blanket" is made to
protect tlie pupa. The female never leaves the
case — she is wingless and lays the eggs within it.
The male emerges from the end of the case, the
pupal shell being pushed right out, and hangs from
the tip of the tail of the case.

The male moth is winged and is not very con-
spicuous. The tiny larvae let themselves down from
the case by long silken threads.
, Metura elongata (Plate 37, Figs. 1, 2, and 3) is
the largest case moth, the larva which forms a
very large case, with pieces of stick sewn in, is
of orange brown and black colour. There is the
faggot case, leaf case, and the beautiful little ribbed
case. The "moths" are popularly named from the
type of case woven by the larvae. (Plate 37, Figs.
4, 5, and 6.)

Interesting experiments can be made to show the
weaving powers of the larvae. We cut the case of
Mettira from end to end. Almost instantly the
larva drew it together at the upper end; then it
wove the edges so neatly and so closely that it
was hard to detect where the incision had been
made. It is curious, too, to find that there arc
careless individuals who just cobble their cases
together; we came across this three or four times.

304 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Another time we made a case of flannel in the form
of the Metura case. AVe removed the larva from
its own case and left it overnight. In the morning
we found it was comfortably within the flannel
case. Then we placed its own case back again.
It vacated the flannel one and went back in its own
case. We split open the flannel case, and found it
was lined Avitli a layer of silky threads.

Parasites: These caterpillars are frequently para-
sitised by flies and wasps, in spite of the protection
of the case. The eggs are laid, and the larvae
(maggots) feed on the juices of the caterpillar, and
finally spin little brown cocoons, w^liich are fre-
quently found beside the remains of the victim
within the case. (Plate 37, Fig. 3.) We have
found in nearly every instance the parasite is
a tachinid fly. In one large Metura case we counted
130 pupal cases of such flics.

Tlie Metura elongata has a very long existence
as a caterpillar — a year, and they can live
v/ithout food supply for months. Thej^ are some-
times a serious pest in orange orchards, for they
oat quickly and largely. The food is varied, not
l)eing confined to one or fcAv plants.

305

FAMILY LIPARIDJE.
(Tussock Moths.)

The caterpillars are thickly clothed with tussocks
of hair, which give them a woolly appearance.
Children sometimes call them ''woolly bears."
Tlie usual colour of the larvae is brown, with mark-
ings of either yellow or red or blue. They feed on
a variety of plants. We have seen plants of
potatoes, etc., reduced to mere stems by numbers
of these larva. On one occasion we saw quite an
army of them cross the road from one devastated
potato patch to the adjoining field. However, most
of these caterpillars are solitary in habit. The pupa
is enclosed within a loose, bag-like cocoon, and
often the hairs from its own body are interwoven.
Yfe have seen tliese caterpillars turn and pull out
some hairs and work them into the threads of the
cocoon. Tlie motli is of medium size, and tlie
female is often wingless; she then just crawls out
of the cocoon and lays the eggs on the tli reads of it.
Types: Varala occllata is liglit yellowish brown
marked with black. The larva feeds on grass, and
makes a soft yellow cocoon similar to that of a silk-
worm but looser, and with hairs from its own body
standing out like bristles. The female is wingless.
Teara is a genus whose larva? travel about in
armies and are hence called ''procession moths."
They form "shelters" of leaves sewn together, and
tlie army of larva? take shelter within in the day;
these bags are often seen in a fork of a branch.
They feed at night,- and may proceed in single file
or in rows. "We have amused ourselves with turn-

306 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ing the leader off and watching the result of the
procession. They pupate in the ground, and spin -,
there the silken cocoons.

There is a giant tussock moth, Chelepteryx collesi.
The caterpillar of reddish brown is armed with
stiff bristles, which give it a formidable appear-
ance, and these bristle-like hairs are a weapon of
defence, for they have an irritating effect on the
skin. Mr. C. H. Wickham, in ''The Australian
Naturalist," records: "The caterpillar feeds on
eucalyptus leaves at night, resting by day on the
bark, where it is inconspicuous. They sometimes
grow to a length of six inches. The irritating
brown hairs are readily shed, and constitute an
effective defence against molestation. When pupat-
ing, the caterpillar presses its back against the
silkj^ cocoon, causing hairs to protrude right
through, in wliich position they remain when the
larva withdraws its back. The sides are then
treated in tlie same way. The cocoon is thus
tlioroughly protected. (Plate 39, Fig. 4 a.) The
larva? are found from November to January, and the
pupal state lasts for 150 to 160 days."

The tussock moth larvae, or ''woolly bears," are
frequently parasitised by braconid and ichneumon
wasps; such females usually have a long, slender
ovipositor, which reaches down among the hairs
and places the eggs in the body of the victim. The
wasp maggots, when ready to pupate, make their
w^ay out of the living but weakened caterpillar, and
spin little white cocoons on or near the victim,
which then dies. Sometimes a cocoon is found
full of these tiny white wasp-cocoons.

:io7

FAMILY BOMBYCIDJE.
(Silkworm Moths.)*

As the name suggests, the cocoons of these moths
are spun with abundance of silken thread.

Most children know our commonest type, the
emperor gum moth {Antheraea eucalypti). (Plate
38.) The colour ranges from a light fawn to
salmon pink and brownish fawn, and there is a
prominent eye-spot in each wing. The male is
smaller than the female, and can be easily dis-
tinguished by the beautiful feathered antennae. The
female has a thicker body, and the antenna) are
*' combed," but not plumed like the male.

The eggs are laid on or near the plant. Tlie tiny
larvae are dark in colour, but as they develop
change to a beautiful pale sea-green colour, almost
transparent along the back, where the blood may
be seen passing along the main blood-vessel, Eacii
segment bears a set of tubercles, from which gi-oups
of tiny spines project; the terminal segment bears
one larger tubercle than the rest. (Plate 38, Fig. 2.)

Food plant is the eucalyptus, and we have noted
in some cases that if the caterpillars have been
feeding on a particular species of gum-tree they
will starve rather than feed on a different kind
which we have supplied. They are frequently
found on * * pepper-trees. ' ' On one occasion v/e found
one of the larva on a privet bush, and we watched

308

PLATE 38.

MOTHS. 309

it strip leaf after leaf from the branch. These
caterpillars are very interesting types for children
to watch, and, when placed in a box, the pupation
of the caterpillar is most eagerly watched and
enjoyed by most children. Also we have seen chil-
dren greatly excited over the emergence of one of
the adults, for these moths give long warning of
their approaching exit by the ' ^ scrape ! scrape !
scrape!" as they cut their way through their
rounded, tough, smooth cocoons. (Plate 38, Figs.
3 and 4.) A moth takes some time to cut its way
out, and it scrapes for a time, and then rests, and
one could easily imagine one had a mouse in the
room until searching produced a box with a for-
gotten cocoon within.

Another type is the ''long-nosed wattle moth"
{Bombyx nasuta), so called on account of the
pointed projection on the front of the head. It
is a reddish-brown moth. These caterpillars shoAV
a fine example of protective colouration, for we
found one on the stem of Acacia bailey ana
(Cootamundra silver wattle) and hardly realised
that just below -were three others. The cocoon is
white and silken.

Pinara despecta is terra-cotta in colour, and larvse
feed on gum-leaves. The cocoons are pink and
silken.

The silkworm of commerce is Bombyx mori.

310

FAMILY LIMACODID^.
(Cup Moths.)

The name ''Cup Moth" is given owing to the
cup-shaped pupa. These moths are only medium-
sized, and are not familiar. We have found them
on low bushes.

The larvae are more like slugs than caterpillars;
the legs are but rudimentary, and seem to be use-
less, for the body is moved by a series of undula-
tions, like a snail. The centre of the back is
depressed. At each end are tubercles, which bear
letractile tentacles in circular rows or clusters
(these look like little sea anemones). The pain
from these spine-like tentacles is very severe, and
lasts for hours. We have noticed that the larva3
take up a position on the lower surface of the leaf
and work along the edge, bending a kind of lip
over the upper side, so that this is all that is really
visible from above. Most of our specimens were
taken from young gum-bushes in February and
March. One species, Apoda xylomeli, we took from
the waratah in early summer. The larva is of a
bright green colour, with a long, narrow yellow line
down the middle of the back. When resting it often
places itself in such a position that this yellow band
is in line with the midrib ; it is most difficult to de-
tect the caterpillar: this is a very fine example of
protective coloration.

311

Life History of the Mottled Cup Moth

{Doratifera vulnerans) .

Measures about one inch across the wings. The
colour is shades of marbled brown; the hind wings
are creamy brown.

The eggs are deposited on leaves of gum-trees,
and we have found them on those of apricot-treos.
The caterpillar is broad and about an inch long.
The liollow in the centre of the back is prettily
marked with orange and purple-grey. The raised
parts at each end are ornamented with red tubercles
bearing clusters of creamy spines. It is difficult
to distinguish the head from the tail.

Pupa: We observed the pupation of the larva.
It chose one of the gum-twigs in the box, and it
vigorously ate the bark away. After an hour at
lliis occupation, it rested an hour; it then stretched
itself along th^ twig. We vvatclied the following
process with a lens : — It bent its body back, first
on one side and then on the other, till it touched
the twig behind its back, and at every turn a
thread was fastened on to the twig. This was done
with great rapidity. Some were fastened to an-
other thread. This continued till a flimsy cover
was formed. Then the larva brought both ends
of its body together, the under surface being out-
wards. Now the doubled-up caterpillar moved
round as a whole, according to the position required
to build up its cocoon. Hour after hour we
watched, till the cocoon began to assume the oval
shape. When it was almost opaque we could
detect the head of the caterpillar working in a
circle at the upper end, which was slightly smaller
than the base. To us it seemed to be putting an

312 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

extra thickening layer round this part. It pressed
its head continuously against the inside, until the
little structure bulged slightly at the top ; and later
it was a darker colour than the rest of the cocoon,
and we realised we had seen the operation of the
making of the ''cap" of the cocoon, which the
emerging adult pushes off. We watched this per-
foi-manee for 13 hours, and yet not till two days
later did the cocoon assume its natural greyisli-
Ijrown colour. Could we have continued to view
the inside of the cocoon we should have found that
the caterpillar remained in its larval state for
weeks, or perhaps months, before it pupated.

Another larva under observation made its cocoon
just where the lid of the box in which it was
placed fitted over the box, so that when Ave opened
the box part of tlie cocoon was torn away with the
lid. Almost immediately the larva* set to work and
put a patch over the tear by spinning the threads
over and over till the rent was made wliole.

Another cup moth is Limacodes longcrans, ''the
painted cup moth." The larva feeds on the leaves,
of Eucalyptus. The cocoon is perfectly elliptical,-
and resembles a bird's egg, for the upper end is
not outlined with a cap. One o£ these caterpillars
we had in a box erected a scaffolding of threadij
across the corner, and then made its little cocoon"
resting on the bottom of the box but away from the
sides; it was supported laterally by these "scaffold-
ing" threads. Shortly after the cocoon was finished
the threads broke away, and the cocoon stood free.
We found that this pupa was parasitised by little,
black wasps. One wasp was out in the box, and
six others were ready to emerge.

313

FAMILY TORTRIOIDiE.

(Leaf Rollers or Bell Moths.)

The former name is popularly applied on account
of a leaf -rolling habit developed by some larvas,
whilst the latter arose from the bell-shaped outline
assumed by the perfect insect when at rest. Many
of the larvae display a decided liking for the seeds
of some fruits.

The codlin moth {Carpocapsa pomonclla) . — With
this moth perhaps few people are familiar, but in
the caterpillar stage it is known to all. It measures
scarcely more than three-quarters of an inch across
the wings. The front pair are greyish-brown and
the hind pair almost cream in colour. When at
rest the bell shape is very distinct.

It first appears during September or October,
and deposits its eggs singly on the leaves of the
apple-tree. Later some eggs are placed in the
blossoms in front of the calyx and behind the
petals, just when the latter are about to fall off.
The larv^ hatch out in any time under a fortnight ;
tliose on the leaves generally make their way
immediately to the calyx end of the forming fruit
The calyx soon closes up over the tiny grubs, which
then bore directly into the fruit, making for the
core and the pips, on which they feed.

When full grown the larva may be nearly an inch
long, with a tiny reddish head. But it is not going

314 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

to pass the remainder of its life in the fruit; so it
cats a tunnel to the outside of the apple, and then
finds its way down to the rough bark of the tree,
or perhaps to the ground. If to the latter, it soon
gets back to the tree, where it possibly rests in
a crack of the bark and covers itself with dense,
cobweb-like felt, under which cocoon it casts its
skin and changes to the pupa or resting condition,
remaining thus from one to three weeks, when the
pupal cover is cast off and the moth appears. The
second brood of moths lay their eggs on the leaves,
twigs, or even on the half-grown apples ; a favoured
spot seems to be" where a leaf or another apple is
touching. The larva at once eats into the fruit.
The pupae from this brood often hibernate, and thus
give rise to the moths of spring. Quinces and pears
may be attacked in a similar way to the apples.
A spray of arsenate of lead has proved an effective
remedy, 2 lbs. of lead being mixed with 50 gallons
of water. The lead will remain a considerable
time in suspension in the water, and does not easily
wash off. In New South Wales it is compulsory
to spray trees three times within nine weeks from
the fall of the petals. The spray is a very fine one.
and the fii'st spraying is directed particularly to
the flowers just after the petals fall and before the
calyx has closed over, so as to poison the tiny grub,
which so generally makes for the calyx end of
ihe fruit.

A fold of hessian or an old bag is often tied
around the tree in such a way that one part falls
over the other. The larvae which reach the earth,

MOTHS. 315

in crawling back to the tree, find a convenient
shelter under the hessian, and there pupate. This
bandage must be carefully watched, taken off at
regular intervals, and the grubs or pupae under it
crushed and the bandage re-tied. If this is not
done, it might form a breeding-ground for the pest
instead of acting as a preventive measure.

The cherry-tree borer {Cryptophaga unipunctata)
The larva of this moth bores holes and lives in the
stems of the pear or cherry tree. The tunnel acts
as a shelter by day, but at night the caterpillai'
comes out and feeds on the leaves. It pupates in
the tunnel. The moth is a soft, creamy- white insect
measuring about 14 inches across the outstretched
wings. The only ornamentation is a black spot in
the centre of the front pair.

316

FAMILY AGARISTIDiE.

(Day Moths.)

These moths fly freely in the daytime, and arc
often mistaken for bntterflies, for their colours are
usually bright and their flight quick and strong.

One of the commonest is the vine moth (Phalae-
noides glycine). It is a black moth with lemon-
coloured patches on the wings; the tip of the
abdomen has a cluster of orange-coloured hairs=
The eggs are tiny, pearly bodies, and may be
deposited in a cluster on the stems of the food plants
(grape vine and Virginia creeper). We have
noticed this moth laying eggs singly on the leaves
of the grape vine. The young larvae emerge in the
springtime, when the young leaves begin to come
out. The larva is a very strong caterpillar, and eats
rapidly; it is greenish-brown speckled with yellow
and having a red band near the tail end. It seems
to be partial to fuchsia.

Arsenate of lead is an effective spray to kill
these pests.

The larva pupates in the soil, where it makes a
shelter by cementing particles of soil or dead leaves
by means of a sticky secretion. A caterpillar
placed in a cardboard box just nibbled pieces of
paper off and formed a cocoon of these. Another
time a caterpillar was placed in a box with some
galls, one of which had a large opening at the end ;

MOTHS. 317

we found later that the caterpillar had retired
Avithin the gall and just sealed the end. Again, wo
have had larvge pupate in a box witliout trou1)ling
to make a shelter.

If the weather is warm, the adult may emerge
in 14 to 21 days. Sometimes these are hard to rear.
The larvas are very strong, and the lid of the box
needs to be very secure to keep tliem prisoners.

Another type is the " painted day moth "
(Agarista agricola), so gaily coloured that it is more
often taken for a butterfly than a moth. Tlie
general colour is black, with patches of orange, and
pale blue and red markings. Tlie larva is equally
gay in colour — black and white, with orange bands.

Food plant is the ^'wild grape vine." We placed
a larva in a box with grape vine leaves, and it ate
them with seeming relish. It pupates in the ground,
and when confined in a cardboard box or match-
]:)0x will tear off pieces of this and form a cocoon

318

FAMILY NOCTUID2E.
(** Cutworms.")

''Cutworm" is an appropriate name given to
this group, for the larv^ attack the stems of seed-
lings,, cutting them through. There are numerous
species, and all are serious pests to growers, for
tlicy destroy seedlings of garden plants, vegetables,
and young succulent field crops. The caterpillars
are smooth, varying from brown to green in colour :
some feed in the daytime, others at night. We
had some fine young seedling stocks, of which
nothing remained but a part of the root. On going
out at night with a lantern, the pests were discovered
and destroyed. The members of the family Cruci-
f^rae (stocks, cabbage, turnip) are favourite foods,
of these pests. Some pupate in the soil ; others form
loose silken cocoons.

The moths are of medium size, and at time?
appear in great numbers. They are usually dark hx
colour, with bright, shining eyes ; and from this
latter fact the name Noctuidae (from noctua, an
owl) has been given to the family.

The bugong moth {Agrotis infusa) measures
about IJ inches across the wings. The front pair
are almost oar-shaped, dark brown in colour, with
wavy parallel lines running across them, and fur-
ther ornamented on the central portion with black
and grey markings. The hind pair is light brown.

xMOTHS. 319

It received its name from the Bugong Mountains,
where it appeared at one time in countless thou-
sands. Such abnormal numbers were noticed about
Sydney in 1905, when the inside walls of many
public buildings were literally black with them;
particularly was this so in many of the churches
of the Illawarra suburbs. The same year, in the
Maitland district, these Bugong moths were met
with on the farming land in innumerable companies,
apparently having just emerged from the pupal
state. The quantity of eggs deposited by these
insects is enormous.

The bean moth (Pliisia verticellata) is perhaps
more familiar than the Bugong moth. It measure-i
1| inches across the wings. The front pair is of
a bronze tint, marbled with silver and purplish grey ;
the hind pair is brown edged with a slightly
lighter-coloured fringe. The moths may be found
during the daytime hiding among the leaves oi!
beans, peas, or potatoes. If these plants are
shaken, quite a number of the insects will fly up ;
; then if the under surfaces of the leaves are ex-
; amined, one is almost certain of finding the tiny
j eggs attached to them.

The pale green larva, which tapers toward the
head, assumes somewhat the form of a *'Looper. "
Three pairs of walking legs are present — two pairs
of prolegs and a pair of claspers. When it is
about to move forward it holds on to the plant
stem by the abdominal legs and claspers, then lifts
its head and fore part of the body, much as an
elephant does its trunk, and feels about in the air

320 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

as if to be sure of its next move. AVheii satisfied
that the way is clear, the object ahead is grasped
by the walking legs; then the remainder of the
body is pulled up in an arch or loop. It pupates
in a loose cobweb-like mass on the under surface
of the leaves of the food plant.

The bean moth has a very close relative in Plusia
argcntifcra, which has similar markings on the
Avings, which are generally of a lighter colour, the
hind pair being opalescent. The larva, too, strongly
resembles that of the bean moth, and we have
found it on the same food plants.

The army worm (Leucania iinipiincta). — Like an
army, countless numbers of the larvae attack various
types of vegetation, often leaving nothing but the
stems of the plants attacked, and sometimes not
even these. They are nearly IJ inches in length,
dull green in colour, Avith lighter stripes running
along the body. They pupate in the soil. The
motli is a light brown or buff in colour.

Poisoned bait has proved one of the most effec-
tive remedies for the cutworms. One oz. of paris
green, 1 lb. bran or pollard, mixed dry, then water
and a little salt added. Pellets of tliis scattered
among garden plants or growing crops form a
most attractive bait.

321

FAMILY GEOMETRID2E.
("Loopers.")

Tlie name is given because of the looping or
'' measuring" movements of the caterpillar. Tiie
adults are small to medium size, with colours
ranging from dark brown, grey, to pale green. The
Avings are often marbled, and this blends in most
markedly with the medium on which the flat wings
of these moths rest. It is hard to detect these
moths on posts or walls.

The larva advances by looping movements. The
head is thrust forward, and tlic I'cmainder of the
body is looped up, bringing the tail near to the
head; then the liead is puslied forward again.
This is necessary because there are only two pairs
of fleshy legs instead of four. Tliese larvaB also
exhibit great muscular control; tliey stretch them-
selves and remain rigid, i*esembling either brown
or green twigs. Tliey can be captured by shakinsj
a branch over an open umbrella.

322

'LATE 39.

Fi'q 1 Larva (wood boner) {ipui^cra )

Fiq5 h6^\\.{leKj^era)

riq4 Co^oor^ oT Bat"- moth CChelepteryxl

Fiqb.Fr<>nu(orr«
rifl3 riind winq of HawK-moFK sKowir>a Trpnolom fffnlarqccJ)

MOTHS.

823

FAMILY HEPIALID^.
(Wood Borers.)

These moths are noted for their size and beauty
The larva? are wood borers, and many of them are
3 inches or more in length and very thick. They
are cream-colour, due to their protected life in the
wood. (Plate 39, Fig. 1.) The eggs may be
deposited on the trunk, and the larvae feed at firsi
on the bark and then bore into the trunk. They
pupate in part of the passage formed from their
tunnelling. Often there is a web-like covering to
hide the entrance to the tunnel of the larva. These
grubs are said to be used by the blacks as bait
for fishing.

One of the common wood-boring moths is
Zeuzera eucalypti. (Plate 39, Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)
This is a large, thick grey moth, with wings
marbled with black and brown. The scales are
rather sparse and easily rubbed off. The wings
droop close down the side of the body in repose.
The pupa is interesting, having on the abdomen
rows of tiny spines on each segment edge, and
these aid the pupa to push along in the tunnel to
get to the opening for the moth to escape. (Plate
39, Fig. 2a.)

Another type is the Bent-wing Moth (Leto stay-
ceyi) — a handsome fawn, with brown and black
marbling; eye-spots are present on fore wings.

324

FAMILY TINEIDiE.
(Clothes Moths.)

Tliese are tlie small cream motlis so familiar in
tlie house. The moths lay their eggs in woollen
material which is stored in dark places, such as
drawers, cupboards, or if just left hanging for
some time in wardrobes. Carpets, furs, and blan-
Ivcts are favourite materials for eggs to be de-
posited in, and cotton wool left in boxes of specimens
has been attacked. The larvae may make little
tunnels of the material and live in these, and later
on pupate in them. Other species move more
freely and carry a tunnel along with them. Others,
again, spin no tunnel, but just make a web-shelter
in wliich to pupate.

''Moth balls" or naphthaline balls are effective
in keeping away moths. We have also found that
Avi'apping articles in newspaper or in unbleaclied
new calico is effective. A friend informed us that
for many years she has hung a small tin with a
perforated lid, after being filled with cotton wool
saturated with turpentine, in her wardrobe, and
it has been quite free from motlis.

335

FAMILY PLUTELLID^.

This family is mentioned becanse it contains one
of our most destructive vegetable pests — the cab-
bage moth {Plittella crucifcrarum), a small insect
measuring about 1^ inches across its narrow out-
stretched wings. It is light fawn in colour, with
darker triangular markings near the inner edge of
the front wings. AA^hen these are closed the moth
has a roof -like appearance, and the triangles of
each wing, meeting, form a rectangle; from this
fact it is frequently referred to as the ''diamond-
backed cabbage moth." We have noticed it wher-
ever plants of the Cruciferac family (cabbage,
cauliflower, turnip, stock) were grown. Upon
the leaves of these plants the tiny eggs are de-
posited. The slender, delicate-green caterpillar,
less than three-quarters of an inch in length, eats
h.oles in the leaves and then pupates under a loose
silken web which it attaches to their under surface.

Our experience in following the life history of
this moth proved that it occupied about 14 days
from the egg to the perfect insect.

In the vegetable garden where cabbages and
turnips grew side by side, the former always
seemed to have the preference as a food plant for
the larv«. Stocks growing but a few yards distant
were riddled to such an extent that there was not
a chance of their recovery. Two or three years
iu succession we have noticed what seemed to us
a decided preference for stocks over the vegetables
of the same family.

326 LIFL STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS

Experienced vegetable-growers recommend the
dipping of plants in tobacco water for a short time
before setting them out. This destroys eggs that
might be already on the leaves. Tobacco dust and
lime may also be sprinkled freely over young
plants. Paris green is frequently used as a spray.

337

ORDER DIPTERA.

(dis, two; and pterorif a wing)

This order includes many very serious pests,
though there are some useful types found in it.
The adults resemble somewhat the hymenopterous
insects, but can be distinguished from them by
having but two wings, while the hymenopterous
insects (bees, wasps, etc.) have four.

Mosquitoes, midges (mosquito-like insects), and
flies are included in this order, and some authori-
ties include fleas, while others place them in a
separate order called Siphonaptera.

Characteristics of Order Diptera.
The two wings are borne by the metathorax;
they are membranous and are usually much veined
and naked, though the midges have microscoi)ic
hairs and mosquitoes have modified hairs in the
form of tiny scales which are attached to the veins
of the wings. (Plate 41, Fig. 8.) These are very
tiny, and do not make the wings opaque, as in the
wings of moths and butterflies. In place of the
liind wings there is a pair of knobbed processci^
called halteres or balancers. (Plate 40, Fig. 9, Plate
41, Fig. 3 a) Their use is not fully understood, but
it has been suggested that they act as balancing
organs, or as ''rudders" to steer the insect in flight.
They are attached to the metathorax. At the base
of the wing is a lobe called an alula (Plate 40,

28 1

PLATE 40.

FiqlE

Fiq5 Aareana
a . Pluivied bri?n(

life History of HoU?e fly [Husa Oocnesta]

'• c. T ^/ir . f^'qS. Pupa. F'q^Half^re

a. Mi(J4f

c. March fl-/.

FLIES.

MOSQUITOES, MIDGES AND FLIES. 329

Fig. 6 b), and in a group of flies there is a little
winglet called a squama (Plate 40, Fig. 6a), which
is at the very l^ase of each wing, and which may
cover or partly cover the halteres. The house fly and
blow fly have well-developed squama.

Tlie thorax is very solid and all in one piece —
that is, one cannot easily distinguish the three
tlioi-acic segments.

Tlie head is usually well separated from the
thorax, and can be moved freely. The eyes are
very large, and in most male dipterous insects meet,
forming the greater part of the head. The eyes
are compound, being formed of numerous facets,
which may vary in size according to their position.
It is the efficiency of these eyes that makes it fairly
hard to catch most flies. Three small ocelli, or
single eyes, are also present.

The antennse are of three types — two widely
differing in form (1 and 3), and an intermediate
type (2) linking the two extremes. (Plate 40,
Figs, b and c.) TJie first type is the plumose, with
wliorls of longer or shorter hairs. These can be
seen in gall gnats, midges, and mosquitoes. (Plate
40, Fig. 7 a.) The third type is curious. There are
usually only four segments. The three basal ones
are more or less solid, the fourth and upper joint
(which is probably formed by the fusing of many
smaller joints) is produced in the form of a bristle
or arista. In many flies, such as the house fly,
stable fly, fruit fly, the third joint enlarges
and by unequal growth forms a thick, rounded-
oblong segment or lobe, and the bristle is reduced

330 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

to a position at its base instead of retaining its
terminal position. (Plate 40, Fig. 5.) The interme-
diate t3^pe (Plate 40, Fig. 7 b and c) varies; it may
have fewer joints than the plumose type, and usually
tapers to a point. Example, the robber fly
(Asilidac).

The mouth (Plate 41, Fig. 1) is very variable,
]3ut it is formed for suction and not for biting and
chewing. Most usually it consists of six elongate
bristles or stylets, and these can be placed in a
sheath, which is a pseudo tube — that is, it is open
and simply enfolds the stylets. The whole pro-
boscis can be retracted and placed in a cavity
under the head. By means of these stylets, which
are placed all together, the medium is pierced and
the liquid is drawn up. The house fly and blow
fly have a purely sucking mouth. There are no
stylets, and the tip of the proboscis is produced
into a broad lip. (Sec Plate 40, Fig. 4.)

Life History.
The larva (Plate 40, Fig. 2) is a legless grub —
the typical '^maggot." It differs from a caterpillar
in having no legs and no anal claspers. It is
smooth in most cases and a creamy colour. The
head of a maggot is very small, and can be with-
drawn and hidden. In some groups of flies, the
head of the maggot is not clearly defined. The
most conspicuous part of the head of the larva is
the pair of dark, strong jaws. Many maggots can
jump by curling up the body and then straighten-
ing it. They feed on vegetable or animal matter,
and are often parasitic on living animals, such as

MOSQUITOES, MIDGES AND FLIES. 331

sheep, horses, etc. Dipterous maggots breathe in
two ways. Some have the lateral spiracles — along
the sides of the body ; while others, such as maggots
of blow flies, fruit flies, have a pair of spiracles
at the head and a pair of plates at the tail end of
the body, with three spiracles on each plate. (Plate
44, Fig. 4 a.)

Many dipterous larvae live in mud or in shallow
water, and some of these have an elongation of the
posterior end of the body to form a tube (Plate 43,
Fig 4 a) which leads to the air, and which enables
such maggots to get a sufficient amount of air, for
in mud the supply is limited.

In warm weather maggots develop very quickly ;
indeed, the life history of the house fly from the
egg to the adult may be but a fortnight. Their
rapid development means an enormous increase,
and this makes some types very serious pests.

Though maggots are repulsive to us, associating
them as we readily do to the ''blowing" of meat
in hot weather, attacking sheep, etc., yet they arc
scavengers which rid us of much disease-carrying
matter.

The pupa (Plate 40,. Fig. 3) is interesting, for
in many cases the last larval skin is used as a kind of
cocoon, within which the larva pupates, so that in
these cases the adult emerges first from its own pupal
skin and then has to break through the ' ' puparium ' '
or last larval skin. The puparium is in two forms :
(a) When the appearance of larval form is retained
—example, soldier flies (Plate 40, Fig. 8) and in
the ''hairy maggot" of the sheep fly the larval

332 Life stories of Australian insects.

tubercles are retained (Plate 44, Fig. 8) ; (b) when
the puparium shrinks and forms a smooth, barrel-
shaped, seed-like appearance — example, fruit flies,
house flies, etc. (see Plate 40, Fig. 3). In many
cases the pupa is free, having no larval skin present
to form a puparium, examples: tipulids (''daddy-
long-legs") (Plate 42, Fig. 3), march flies, sand
flies, robber flies.

The Order Diptera includes both friends and
enemies to man. The tachinids, sarcophids,
syrphids parasitise other insect pests; but, on
the other hand, there are many disease-producing
dipterous insects. The mosquitoes infect man with
fever, such as malaria and yellow fever; and house
flies carry germs of typhoid, anthrax, etc.
The tsetse fly infects cattle with '' fly disease, "
and Glossina transmits to man the ''sleeping sick-
ness." "Blow flies" cause meat to be unfit for eat-
ing, and some species attack the soiled wool and
afterwards tlie flesh of the sheep, the maggots feed-
ing on them. The "hot flies" include serious pests
whicli attack liorses, cattle, and sheep. Then the
"fruit flies" destroy the orchard crops.

FAMILY CECIDOMYID.E.

(Gall Gnats.)

Tliese are very minute flies with wings witli few
veins. The antennae are long, with whorls of hairs.
Tlic larva? are plant-eaters, attacking roots, stems,
or leaves. Some make malformations on plants,
known as "galls." The "acacia gnat" (Cecidomyia
acaciae-longifoliae) lays numerous eggs in the

GALL GNATS. 33S

flowers of wattles, and galls are formed by the
distortion of the pods, making a mass of continuous
galls. The well-known '^hessian fly" {Cccidomyia
destructor) attacks the stems of wheat, which
weakens them and causes them to bend, and so the
''ear" does not mature.

To observe these tiny flies, get a glass preserving
jar and put in some damp sand, and in the latter
place some sprigs with galls present. Put a
piece of muslin over the top of the jar. By
cutting open some of the galls the larvae and pupa?,
may be seen. Froggatt thus describes some of the
Australian gall gnats: "Diplosis paralis forms curi-
ous little blisters upon the young foliage of Euca-
lyptus corymbosOf dotting the leaves all over with
I'eddish spots with a keyhole-like mark at the apex.
Z). eucalypti aborts the young twigs of eucalyptus
into gouty swellings, in which a number of larvai
feed and pupate. There are certain rounded, shot-
like galls of the Eucalyptus, generally several in
number and on the midrib of the leaf, which, on
account of the pupal skins always remaining in
the holes in the side of the galls through which the
flies have escaped, can be easily distinguished from
very similar ones that are the work of micro-
livmeiioptera. "

FAMILY CULICID^.

(Mosquitoes.) (Plate 41.)
Characteristics. — Mosquitoes are slender insects
with gauzy wings and long projecting proboscis
(consisting of six stylets ; these are held in a sheath.
Tlie stylets can be placed together, and a puncture
is then made with the tips, while the fluid is sucked
up — either plant-juices or blood. (Plate 41, Fig. 1.)
Thus the mouth of the mosquito is a piercing and
sucking apparatus. The wings are membranous,
and along the nervures or veins are delicate scales
which are really modified hairs; there is a fringe
of fine, soft hairs on the back margin of the wings.
These structures can be seen by placing a wing
under the microscope. (Plate 41, Fig. 8.) The
antennae are long, with whorls of hairs, which are
very long and plumose in the male but shorter in
the female. (Plate 41, Fig. 1 c.) Food: The female
mosquito which we know so well as a blood-suck-
ing insect, is said to be content with vegetable
juices should the blood of animals be unavailable.
The male mosquito does not attack animals; in
some species the male is said to be unable to feed,
Avhile in others it is said to live on plant-juices.
The palpi of mosquitoes are very long in most
species.

The eggs (Plate 41, Fig. 7) of the mosquito are
laid in little clusters on the surface of the water

PLATE 41,

3?,r>

Fiu I Piercinq mouti o^ Female

Fiq.2. Larva
a ftreathinqTube

Fiq4- BrefflKifKj Tube
of Pupa

Fiq5 Adulf- (female)
(a Halrerei

Fi(|5Enc) of 6rea1l\iii(]Tubeof
Larv^a

Fiq7 f.q(} Clu5^ef

h(\b Pupa

a &rea1hir\aXbp

Fiq8 ^ iViiif] w/l^ Scales

MOSQUITOES.

336 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

by the niotlicr-mosquito. Tliey are sticky at first,
and so cling together, but in regular order; and as
they dry they form a solid mass of eggs — a little
raft which is beautifully balanced and floats on
the surface of the water. The lower ends of the
eggs are wider and thicker, and so the ''raft" is
heavier at the base. When water falls on it it just
tosses and rights itself quickly. From the lower
end of each egg a tiny larva (Plate 41, Fig 2),
called a ''wriggler" by children, emerges and
wriggles away — it looks like a very small piece of
wriggling thread, for the larva is elongate, with a
distinct head and thorax. The thorax is much wider
than the abdomen. There are three tufts of long hairs
on each side of the thorax, and a tuft on each side of
each of the abdominal segments. Attliocnd of the
abdomen arc two organs ; one is tlie breathing tube
(Plate 41, Figs. 2 a and 5) — a long cylindrical tube
with four flaps at the free end. These flaps close over
when the "wriggler" goes below the water. The
larva swims about with its head down and the tip
of the abdomen up. Thus the breathing tube is
brought on a level with the water, receives the air,
and then the curious "wriggler" lowers itself again.
We see that the mosquito larvae have no gills like
fishes or dragon-fly nymphs, but have to rise to
the surface of the^ water to get their air-supply.
The other organ at the end of tlie abdomen is the
excretionary tube, rather funnel-shaped, with tufts
of hair.

The head of the larva is surrounded by tufts of
hairs and two appendages like arms, with hairs on

MOSQUITOES. 337

them. Tliese are in constant motion, and promote
a current of water, whicli is sent along to tlie mouth
of the mosquito *' wriggler," carrying tiny animals
and scraps of vegetable food. One can see them
moving along on their heads, feeding on the tiny
vegetable growths which flourish on the leaves of
the long, grass-like VaUisneria and other water
plants in the fish boAvls, or burrowing their heads
into the sediment at tlie bottom of the bowl. The
lieavier head and thorax form a good balance or
anchor, as tlie larva is feeding head downwards. It
moults six times, increasing in size after each moult.
It then pupates.

The pupa (Plate 41, Fig. 6) is a curious little
object like a little ''water gnome," with its great
'Miead" (whicli is really tlie head and tliorax) and
its lai'ge, ear-like breathing tubes slit' down part
of one side and resembling "donkey's ears." These
are situated on the head of the active little pupa
instead of tlie tail (as was the case in the larva).
(Plate 41, Fig. 6 a and Fig. 4). Unlike most pupa%
it is very active ; but it cannot eat, because the
mouth parts and all its bod.y is covered by the
pupal sliell. (Note tliat the pupa is naked or free,
and not enclosed in a puparium.) As before men-
tioned, it breathes by means of a pair of tubes on
its head, and it has to come to the surface of the
water to get an air-supply. It moves about with
its head upwards, and by curling its body round
it gives a series of jerks, sends itself through the
Avater, and is called a "tumbler." Tlie abdomen
of the pupa tapers to the end, and terminates in

338 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

two broad flaps or tails, with tufts of hairs present
also.

When the adult is about to emerge, the pupa
becomes inert, rises to the surface, and does not
rush away when touched, as the younger pupae do.
The body straightens somewhat, and at last there
is a splitting of the pupal shell along the back.
The head and thorax emerge, and then the insect
has a rest. In a little while it draws itself out of
the case, resting its legs on the surface of the
water. Its body is more or less vertical while this
is going on, and acts as a ''mast" to the little boat-
like pupal shell. It at last rests on the surface of
the water, ''as lightly as a fairy," and may wait
there till its wings dry, or it may walk with dainty
footsteps to the reeds, etc., where it rests in more
safety till its wings dry, which they do very rapidly.

The larvaB of mosqiutoea can adapt themselves to
many conditions of life. We have found them in
stagnant water, in damp mud at the bottom of a
porcelain bowl left in the open — they lived here
for months in a thin layer of damp mud. We also
got them in rock pools of the harbour, where the
water rose in high tide, ex. : Woollahra Point and at
Maroubra, and other places on the coast. We took
some of these larv^ and placed them in fresh water,
and they did not seem to be the least put out at
the change. The larv^ of these mosquitoes were
larger and stouter-looking than those of the
common mosquito, Culex alho - anmilatus. These
salt-water-loving mosquitoes were identified as
Culex vigilax.

MOSQUITOES. 339

We did some very interesting work in recording
the moults of the mosquitoes. We took six tiny
larvas just after tliey emerged from the egg, and
placed each one separately in a small bottle, there
being six bottles, and noted the casting of the skins
of each larva, making a record of tlie dates.

340

FAMILY CHIRONOMIDiE.

(Gnats and Midges.)

These insects are very >similai' to the Mosquito
family, but are smaller and in some cases are minute.
The wings have not scales present as those of
mosquitoes have, but they are often clothed with
scattered hairs, with a deep fringe of hairs on the
outer rim.

The larvae vary in habits, some being water lovers,
Avhile others are terrestrial. There is a curious
little larva of one of the midges {C/iirononiiis),
which is like a little brilliant red worm which is
elongated and narroAv in form. These worm-like
larva? burrow in the mud of ponds. We bred out
these midges where larv^ were in water in a vessel
left exposed to the rain, and with an accumulation
of decaying leaves. We put some of the mud and
water weeds into a glass jar, and the larva^ were
quite happy. The antenna? of the male have a rod-
like axis, tapering towards the apex and thickly
clotlied will) long liaii-s. forming fine plumes. The
antenna? of the female are made of several distinct
^■ioin^ts, witli only a few liairs present on eacli seg-
ment.

Another species of Chironomid is the sand fly
(Ccratopogon molestes), which is sucli. a pest on
beaches and at places such as National Park. We
know it well by the irritation caused by its bite,
l)ut it is small, and fcAv are very familiar with the
actual fly. The larva? live in damp places, or in
v/ater.

341

FAMILY TIPULIDJE.
(Daddy-long-legs, Crane Flies.)

(Plate 42.)
These are often mistaken for large, clumsy mosqui-
toes with very long slender legs. Their flight is slow,
and they bump into rocks, shrubs, etc., often losing
a leg by these encounters, but continuing their way
seemingly without concern. We knew children who
used to sing : —

^^ Silly Daddy-long-legs
Clumsy and slow,
Bump a rock and lose a leg,
But what is that to you ?'*

And someone has written: — \

*^My six long legs, all here and theve,
Oppress my bosom with despair.''

Characteristics: The proboscis is short and stout,
and there are usually but two slender stylets. The
antenna are very long and thread-like in the female,
but those of the male are much shorter and very
handsomely plumed. The halteres or balancers are
naked and with an elongate stalk (Plate 42, Fig. 2
a). There is a marked V-shaped suture on the bad-:
of the thorax. The female has horny-pointed valves
at the end of the abdomen with which she cuts
•through the soil to deposit eggs in the ground.
Many larvae live in the ground; they are elongate
and like short worms. In America and Europe

342

PLATE 42.

^^gy..) r^T'^^^ M.H*.«,„„ flj

i'UES.

DADDY-LONG-LEGS, CRANE FLIES. 343

they feed on the roots of cereals and young plants,
just below the surface of the ground, hence may
become pests. Others are found in the soft decaying
wood of tree stumps, or in damp soil.

The pupa (Plate 42, Fig. 3) is not enclosed in a
puparium, but is free. On the body of the pupa
there are rows of bristles which enable it to work its
way out of the soil, wlien about to change to
the adult winged form. It emerges by means of a
T slit. We have noticed the tipulids or ''daddy-
long-legs" flies resting in enormous numbers on the
shrubby she-oaks near the edge of the water at Tug-
gerah. Port Hacking, etc. We collected the ''giant"
tipulid in moist caves on the Blue Mountains. They
are very numerous in nearly all parts of the bush.

Reaumur thus describes their flight over grass
lands : "Although they sometimes Hy a considerable
distance when the sun is bright and hot, they gen-
erally do not go far; often, indeed, only along the
ground, or rather along the top of the grass. Some-
times they only use theii- wings to keep them above
the level of the herbage, and to take them along.
Their legs, particularly the hind ones, are dispropor-
tionately large. They are three times the length of
the body, and are to these insects what the stilts are
to the peasants of marshy and inundated countries,
enabling them to pass with ease over the higher
blades of grass."

. Comstock suggests that as the abdomen and the
ovipositor are both unusually long, the long legs en-
able the insect to use the ovipositor more firmly.
**When about to lay her eggs the female stands nearly

344 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

upright, and, bringing the abdomen at right angles
to the surface of the earth, thrusts the ovipositor
into the ground. After placing one or two eggs in
the hole thus made, she moves forward a few steps
and repeats the operation. ' '

FAMILY STRATIOMYIIDiE.

(Soldier Flies.)

Some of these are brightly marked, hence the
name of ''soldier fly." The body is broad and flat-
tened. The antennas vary ; some are elongate, others
are short and broad at the base, with a bristle at the
apex.

The larvae vary in habits, some living in water,
some in damp soil, and some in decaying wood.
Some are vegetable feeders, feeding on decaying
vegetable matter; others are carnivorous.

Tlie pupa is formed within tlie last larval skin
or puparium, but the latter does not form a seed-
like structure, but retains the ringed appearance of
the larva (Plate 40, Fig. 8)

345

FAMILY TABANIDiE.

(March Flies.)

Tliese flies have a fleshy proboscis and pointed
stylets. They are blood-sucking insects. The head
is Avell separated from the thorax and truncate (cut
oft* abruptly) at the back : this is characteristic. The
abdomen is usually broad and flat. The -antennai
vary, but do not have a terminal bristle.

Life history. The eggs are laid by tlie mother
tabanid in water or on reeds oi- stones near the
water. They are usually in clusters of hundreds,
and the young fall into the water and feed on small
water creatures. Others lay eggs on damp soil or in
marshy places, and these larvae may have spine-likij
processes on the under-side of the body, by means of
which they can push themselves through the mud,
etc.

The pupa is free, having no puparium or larval
skin enclosing it. The adult escapes by a T-shaped
slit.

These march or marsh-flies are very troublesome
in summer, particularly on the mountains and in
the country. They fly quietly and rather slowly
when approaching one, and tliey are most persistent
in their attempts to alight. We caught seventeen
in one hour by just sitting still undei* a tree in an
orchard on the mountains during mid-summer and
awaiting their attacks. Their bite is very irritating,

346 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

and said by some people to cause blood-poisoning.
They torment cattle by biting them about the eyes,
and it is thought that they spread anthrax among
them.

We noted for several years at Clarence Siding,
Blue Mountains, that in December and January there
was a large species which was a plague to us in our
walks in the bush. In April we found few of the
larger species, but there was an abundance of a
small type only half an inch in length. As we sat
reading, it was necessary to catch them Avith a net
or beat them with a short branch. Dozens were
caught in one hour, for, being very slow of fliglit
and most persistent in their attention to us, it was
easy to capture them.

347

FAMILY BOMBYLIDiE.

(Bee Flies.)

(Plate 42, Figs. 4, 6 and 7 )

These flies resemble bees, both in appearance and
liabits. They are usually very hairy, and their wings
are often mottled with smoky patches. They usually
have rather a long proboscis, which is used to send
down to the nectar of flow^ers on which the flies live.
They fly very quickly for long distances, and some
of them move their wings so rapidly that they seem
to be quite still over the flower; they dart away
with a quick, jerky movement. We have observed
these flies on flowers of Leptospcrmum^ Angophora^
and Eucalyptus, This was the large mottled wing
type.

Comstock says: ''The larvae are parasitic, infest-
ing lepidopterous larvag and pupae and the egg sacs
of Orthoptera. "

Froggatt records: ''The life history of our species
is little known, but I have bred several out of the
clay nests of wasps, and two out of lepidopterous

pupa? (Agrostis).

David Sharp describes how Fabre discovered the
habits of a bombylid fly (Argyromoeba) which laid
its eggs on the mud cells of a mason wasp. The
tiny maggot, after waiting some days, makes its
way into the cell by way of tiny cracks. Sharp thus

348 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

describes it: ''It entered this cell as a tiny slender
worm through a miniite orifice or crack, but it is
now much increased in size, and exit for a creature
of its organisation is not possible. For some montlis
it remains a quiescent larva in the cell of the bee,
but in spring of the succeeding year it undergoes
another metamorphosis and appears as a pupa pro-
vided with a formidable apparatus for breaking
down the masonry by whicli it is imprisoned. The
head is large, and is covered in front with six hard
spines, to be used in striking and piercing the
masonry." When the hole is made in the mud cell
the adult escapes from the puparium. Tlie larva or
maggot feeds on the larva of the mason bee by suck-
ing the juices of the bee-magot.

Certain bombylid flies parasitise the egg masses
of locusts

We bred out a small bombylid fly (Plate 42, Fig.
4) from the mud cells of an eumenid wasp. The
pupal shell was found outside the mud cell and
we give a sketch of same (Plate 42, Figs. 6 and 7),
for it has these six hard spines for escaping from the
mud cell. The adult fly was a beautiful little insect
with smoky wings.

PLATE 43.

349

Fiq 2 Cocooa

Fi<] 1 jurphiii Tl-i(oa»' vviria rtTiaovpd)

Fmi. Larva

Fiq 4 Ra.l-'l-^iled Latva of a Surphid fiy
a - Air tube

Life Kisbry of SurpKid or Hover fly

Fiq 5. Antenna
a Bnstfe

Fiq 6 T-y pes of Aalenaae of Gl-yptrate Fltp
a TacKiaid l).SarcopKid. C Huscid

FLIES.

350

FAMILY SYRPHID^.
(Hover Flies.)

Many of these flies are brightly coloured, some
seem to mimic wasp or bees. The syrphid flies poise
seemingly motionless over flowers, hence are termed
"hover flies. " This motionless appearance is due to
the rapidity of the vibrations of the wings. They
are seen hovering over flowers or leaves, either sip-
ping the nectar of flowers, or the mother-insect is
laying eggs on plants where aphides are present.

The larva (Plate 43, Fig. 3) is a long grub without
legs, but there are lateral projections of the body
wliich enable it to hold on or more forward, and
usually there is a strong anal segment by means
of which it clings to the leaf. The ** mouth*' is
in the form of a proboscis, very elongate, which can
be pushed out and then withdrawn. We watched
the syrphid larv^ feeding on aphides on the wild
cotton plant {Gomphocarpits). The larva or grub
looked like an elephant in the way it thrust out its
long trunk and ''spiked" an aphis.

The pupa (Plate 43, Fig. 2) is not free, but is en-
closed in a larval skin or puparium, which in most
cases is intermediate between the seed-like puparium
of the house fly and that of the soldier fly, whose
puparium retains its larval form. The syrphid
puparium is broad at the apex and tapers toward
the point of attachment. With a lens one can see
the spine-like tubercles which had been present in
the larva, and though the pupa is somewhat seed-
like in appearance it is not smooth and rounded like
that of the muscid flies (house flies, blow flies).

k

HOVER FLIES. :{51

The pupa drops to the ground after remaining for
some time on the plant. This is the life history of
the common hover flies such as Syrphiis viridiceps
and Syrphus pucillus, whose larvae are found on gar-
den plants, wheat, etc.

But some species of syrphid flies have larva) with
elongate tubular processes at the end of the body,
which can be extended to two or three inches, and
contracted again. By this means they get a supply
of air, which enables them to live in muddy water
and in fluids caused by decomposition of animal or
vegetable matter. There is a curious introduced
syrphid fly called the *' drone fly" or "bee fly."
It is more like a bee in general appearance, and its
larva has the ''rat-tailed" body described above
(Plate 43, Fig. 4 a). Its name is Eristalis tcna.v.

352

FAMILY ASILID^.

(Robber Flies.) (Plate 42, Fig. 5.)
These are very common in Australia, and range
from small insects, about three-quarters of an inch,
to the large-bodied robber fly {Craspedia coriaria),
which is one and a half inches long. The legs are
strong and covered with stiff hairs. These are
insects with swift, strong tlight. The head
is clearly cut off from the body and is ver}^ mobile
There are no squama? present. They have excellent
vision, to enable them to sight a probable victim.
The antenna consists of four joints; the fourth joint
is bristle-like but fairly thick and terminal, thus
differing from some of the other groups. (Plate 40,
Fig. 7 b.) The proboscis is fairly long and stout,
for these flies are predaceous. Sliarp thus describes
them: '* These flies are most voracious, their prey
being insects, which they seize alive and impale
Avith the rostrum (proboscis). They are amongst
the most formidable of foes, and fear nothing,
w^asps or other stinging insects being attacked and
mastered by the stronger species witiiout difficulty.
They have been observed to capture c\'cn dragon
flies and tiger beetles. As is the case with so many
other insects that pi'cy on living insects, the!
appetite in tlie Asilidic seems to be insatiable;
a single individual has been observed to kill eight
motlis in 20 minutes."

In many Asilids the abdomen tapers to a point.
Little is known of the life history of the larvae.
Some species are said to be predaceous on other in-
sects and live in the ground.

353

GROUP CALYPTRATE MUSCIDJE.

The insects in this group are distinguished from
another group, the Acalyptrate muscidae (fruit
flies), by the presence of well-developed squamaB
(see Note 3 b, below) and by the venation of the
wings.

In the calyptrate muscidae are several families.
The general characteristics are as follows: — (1) The
larvae are without a differentiated head; the jaws
are the most prominent feature of the anterior end.

(2) The pupae are always enclosed in a hardened,
seed-like puparium — that is, the last larval skin,
which acts as a ''cocoon." (Plate 44, Fig. 3.)

(3) The adult (a) emerges from the puparium by
pushing off a circular lid; (b) there is a small
wing-like structure at the base of the wings called
a squama — these squamae cover, or partially cover,
the halteres or balancers; (c) the males have eyes
which meet across the head and form the greater
part of it.

A. Family Tachinidae. The bristles of the an-
tenna are quite bare. (Plate 43, Fig. 6 a.) ex.\
Tachina, which is parasitic on caterpillars.

B. Family Sarcophagidae, or ''flesh flies." The
bristle of the antenna is feathered, but only at
the base: (Plate 43, Fig. 6 b.) ex.: Sarcophagay
parasitic on locusts (short-horned grasshoppers).

C. Family Dexiidae ("metallic green flies"). The

354

PLATE 44.

.?\^t AJuTh

Fi<j5. ]fi\:\a^ of Acaly'ptrahe flies 'cell a." open. Fi<]4. Po^enbr End of Ma^<J0t

a. Spirade5.

Fic^G Wingof Gal/pt:ra(e fires "cella" closed.

Fib.T brva of Hairy-ma^oot llowflv ^ ^ • r

' ^ ' Fiq8. Pupariofnotsa

pafiofnoTsam.e

BLOW FLY.

FLIES. 355

bristle of the antenna is feathered to the tip (Plate

43, Fig. 6 c) ; the abdomen has bristles strongly
developed on the dorsal side.

D. Family Muscidse. The bristle of the antenna
is feathered to the tip; the abdomen is without
bristles except at the tip. Ex. : house flies, blow
flies, etc.

E. Family Anthomyidse differs from the other
calyptrate families in that the cell of the wing
marked ''a" is open (Plate 44, Fig. 5 a), whereas in
the other calyptrate mnscids it is closed (see Plate

44, Fig. 6 a). Ex.: the common beach fly.

356

FAMILY TACHINIDJE.

These flies parasitise caterpillars, the larvae of
saw flies, and young grasshoppers. They are sim-
ilar to, but can be distinguished from house flies by
the bare bristle of the antennas, for it is feathered in
the house fly.

We kept a very large caterpillar of the case moth
{Mctitra elongata) in a cardboard box with a glass
front, putting in a dish with moist sand and a
sprig of the cypress-tree on which it was feeding;
the latter was placed in the moist sand. For two
months the caterpillar lived on, walking round the
box, and seemingly quite content. One morning
we observed dozens of queer-looking creatures
scattered over the glass - front of the box.
They were tachinid flies which had just emerged,
and their wings were not yet expanded and dried;
hence their curious appearance. At last their wings
were spread and nearly dry, when we placed them
in a net and then into the killing bottle to count
them. A few escaped, but we counted 127 flies, all
of which were bred out of the one unfortunate
caterpillar. The mother tachinid lay her eggs on
the caterpillar; they are very tiny, and they are
made secure by a sticky fluid which then dries and
Axes the eggs firmly on to the host. The maggots
then make their way into the caterpillar and feed
on its tissues. The full-grown maggots then emerge

FLIES. 357

from between the segments of the caterpillar and
pupate in the case beside the remains of their
victim. We opened the case of our caterpillar, and
counted 143 cocoons left by the flies. They were
a reddish brown, consisting of the seed-like pu-
parium or last larval skin.

These flies have large squamge which completely
cover the halteres, and the cell of tlie wing, marked
"Cell a," is either completely closed or almost
closed (Plate 44, Fig. 6.) Sharp records
that a certain species of tachinid fly para-
sitises the silkworms, the egg being laid on
the mulberry leaves, and is then taken into
the body of the silkworm with its food. Others
are said to lay eggs on the food supply of Bembex:
Avasps. i

358

FAMILY SARCOPHAGIDJE.

(Flesh Flies.)

The habits of these flies are thus described by
Froggatt: ''They lay their eggs on living larva;,
upon meat or other exposed food, and are knov^n
as 'scavenger flies' because they frequent evil-
smelling places like pig-sties and slaughter-yards.
Some species are known to deposit their larvae in
the nostrils of sheep, and there are several records
of death of human beings from infestation by these
maggots." It is recorded, however, that they
parasitise the young of the plague locust (a short-
horned grasshopper), and this is of economic
importance.

Note that the antenna of the sarcophagids has
the bristle plumed only at the base. (Plate 43, Fig,
6 b.)

The common Sarcophaga is a little larger than
a house fly, and has a marked grey and black
appearance, with black bars on the thorax and
with a pattern more or less regular on the abdomen.

359

FAMILY DEXIIDiE.

(Metallic Green Flies, Nimble Flies.)

The bristle of the antenna of these flies is plumed
right to the tip, and this is the main distinction
from some of the other families of this group.
Bristles are present on the dorsal side of the body,
and this and their larger size serve to distinguish
them from house flies (in the next family). Some
of these flies are very - handsome. The legs are
strong and the eyes large. They parasitise the
larvse of lamellicorn beetles. The larvae pupate in
the seed-like puparium or cocoon. Rntilia is one
of the commonest of these flies. We have captured
Rutilia on some of the honey-beai-ing bush flowers,
such as tea tree.

360

FAMILY MUSCID^.

(House Flies, Blow Flies.)

We will give an outline of the life history of the
house fly, which will serve as a type for the group
(Plate 40, Figs. 1, 6).

The common house fly, Mitsca domcstica, lays her
eggs in decaying vegetable matter, and in manure,
more especially horse-manure. It is this fact whicli
renders them so numerous along country roads and
in paddocks. Making proper manure heaps and
covering it with soil or sprinkling with lime is often
resorted to in order to prevent the breeding
of flies in garden manure heaps. Eacli female
lays about 100 eggs, and they hatch out in six or
seven hours. The maggots feed on the decaying
vegetable matter, and are ready to pupate in five
or six days. They are adult in five days after
pupating. The total length of time from the ^^^
to the emergence of the adult is about two weeks.
In summer there are about one dozen generations
in the one season.

The maggot or larva is soft and of a creamy
colour; it is narrow at the head and thick and
blunt at the end. (Plate 40, Fig. 2.) The head is
small, characterised by a pair of dark jaws. Near
the mouth are a series of minute pores; these are
openings of the tracheal tubes. At the posterior
or thick end of the maggot there is a plate, on

FLIES. 361

which the two spiracles open. When these
anterior and posterior spiracles are present
there are no spiracles along the sides of the
body, as we saw in the caterpillar and grub. The
larva, after a series of moults, is ready to pupate;
it retires within its last larval skin, which shrinks
and hardens and becomes a seed-like puparium with-
in which the pupa is formed. (Plate 40, Fig. 3.)
When the adult emerges it pushes off the end of the
puparium, which is a little lid or cap, and makes
its way out of its prison. Adults may winter over
to be ready to lay eggs in the next spring.

The Proboscis. — The house fly can neither bite
nor sting, for it does not possess the stylets, as the
majority of dipterous insects do. The mouth is
modified to form a fleshy proboscis, with muscular
expansions at the free end to form a kind of broad
sucking lip. (Plate 40, Fig. 4.) On the surface
of this lip are a series of parallel grooves, along
which the liquid food is drawn. But the house fly
is not only able to devour liquid food. We have
seen one standing on a sugar lump, and it seemed
to be playing with some of the grains with its
proboscis and front legs ; it was really preparing it.
The mouth of the fly is surrounded by 50 or 60
rods, or teeth, which are used for grinding hard
surfaces to reduce them to pow^der and so allow the
saliva from the fly's mouth to reduce them to
a sweet, sugary fluid which can be absorbed by
the fly. It is omnivorous, however, eating almost
anything which can be reduced to a liquid — sweet
or evil smelling and tasting.

362 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

House flies are pests, for they alight on decaying
animal and vegetable matter, on filth laden
with germs. These germs are transferred to the
hairs on the feet and body of the fly and then
transmitted to the exposed food in houses. Thus
disease may be spread. Hence the importance of
burning or covering up all waste organic matter.

If one catches a fly and places a leg under the
microscope, one can see why the fly is so capable
of carrying disease germs. The legs are clothed
with numerous hairs; its feet also are rich in
hairs, and have two curved claws on the last tarsal
joint of each foot. Beneath the claws is a pad,
which is a hollow sac secreting a sticky fluid. On
the lower surface of the pad there are a number
of hollow hairs, through which the sticky solution
secreted by the pad issues in sufficient quantities
to allow the fly's feet to adhere to a smooth
surface without actually sticking. This is why
flies can walk on the ceiling and up smooth panes
of glass. The claws are used when a fly is walking
over a rough surface.

We might remind our junior readers that a fly
is a '^ grown-up" insect no matter how tiny it
may be. The fly-babies are the maggots. Should
there be tiny flies it means that it is a different
species; or in some cases it may be a poorly-fed
specimen — the maggot or larval stage being with-
out the proper food-supply.

: 363

Life History of the Blow Fly.
(Plate 44.)

The eggs are laid on animal or vegetable matter.
Blow flies are pests in the house, laying eggs on food.
We know how we have to guard meat in
the summer-time, especially on the Mountains
or in the country; indeed, in the city, too, it is
often difficult to keep meat from the ravages of
these flies. The eggs are laid on meat, etc. ;
or, in very hot weather, tiny maggots may be de-
posited. We have observed a blow fly deposit young
maggots, about an eighth of an inch in length, on
meat.

The maggot or larva (Plate 44, Fig. 1) is smooth
and of a creamy colour. It can ''hop" by
curving the body and then straightening it
quickly. Maggots move about freely in semi-fluid
decaying matter. The head is very small, and
cannot be clearly defined from the thorax, the most
noticeable feature being a strong, dark pair of
chitinous jaws. The head can be withdrawn and
hidden by the thoracic segments.

The maggots moult and at last pupate in the
ground, or they may pupate in the medium (if solid)
in which they are feeding, the last larval skin being
changed into the seed-like puparium. When the adult
fly escapes one can see the little round lid it pushed
off from the end of the puparium.

The mouth, like that of the house fly, is fltted for
sucking only. The end of the proboscis is pro-
duced into a broad, lip-like organ with a series of
grooves, through which the moisture runs when

364 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

being sucked up. (Plate 40, Fig. 4.) There aro
a series of teeth-like spines present in the mouth
cavity, by means of which the food can be scraped
and torn and reduced to pulp, aided by the saliva
of the moutli.

There are two common blow flies — the brown one
(Calliphora villosa) and the blue blow fly
(CallipJiora oceaniae). Mr. Froggatt records that
these ilies attack the soiled wool of sheep, laying
eggs in it, and afterwards the maggots attack the
flesli of the sheep. He also records Calliphora riifi-
facies, or tlie ^' sheep maggot fly," or ''hairy mag-
got," or ''metallic blue blow fly," which is becoming
the worst pest to sheep out West.

The maggot of this species is not smooth, and the
pupa retains tlie tubercles or fleshy spines in the
puparium. (Plate 44, Figs. 7 and 8.)

Luc ilia, or the "green bottle fly," is the sheep
maggot fly of Great Britain, and it is recorded as
attacking sheep in Australia. Lucilia visits many
flowers, such as parsley and fennel, of the family
UmhclUferae. It feeds on a secretion on the top of
the ovary, and in so doing it may cross-pollinate the
flowers.

Another genus is Stomoxys calcitrans, which is
not unlike the house fly, but it has a piercing and
sucking mouth instead of tlie purely sucking mouth
of the house fly. It lays its eggs in stable manure,
etc. It is a blood-sucking fly, and may spread dis-
ease, such as typhoid, by alighting on food.

The tsetse fly of South Africa {Glossinia mor-
sitans) is a very serious pest. It attacks cattle

i

FLIES. 365

causing disease; it also bites man, but does not
transfer this cattle disease to man.

Glossinia palpalis causes the ^'sleeping sickness"
in Africa. The larvae of Glossinia are developed
in the body of the female, and are laid when nearly
full grown; hence, when hatched, they pupate al-
most at once.

Family Anthomyidse: these are very similar
to house flies. We often capture this fly on tlie
beaches. It is an intermediate group between the
calyptrate muscids (squama covers the haltere)
and the acalyptrate muscids (a squama does not
cover or only partly covers the haltere). It is near
to the latter group because it has the "cell a"
(Plate 44, Fig. 5) usually open, while it is classified
with the calyptrate muscids because it has squama?
covering the halteres.

The antennae have the typical "bristle," whicli
may be bare or clothed wdth plumes to the top.

These flies are fond of visiting flowers, such as
those of the family Umbellifer^ (parsley, fennel)
and Compositge (cosmos) ; we have captured them
on fennel whose flowers were swarming with these
flies ; they were feeding on the nectar.

The larvae vary in habit; some feed on decaying
vegetable matter, some are parasitic on other
insects, and some are pests on living plants. The
larva of one species attacks the roots of cabbage
and cauliflowers (family Cruciferae), and another
species attacks the bulbs of onions. These flies
are recorded as pests in America.

366 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Family (Estridae: In this family we have ''hot
flies," ''sheep bots or sheep nostril flies" and
''warble flies." Of warble flies Froggatt records:
"The members of the genus Hypoderma are a very
serious pest in Europe or other countries where they
infest cattle, and are known as 'warble' or 'bot
flies.' The fly lays her eggs upon the back of the
beast ; the tiny larva makes its way through the hide,
beneath which it lives and feeds upon the putrid
matter caused by the irritation of its presence: it
finally produces an inflamed blister-like swelling or
'warble,' eventually working its way out through
the hide and falling to the ground where it buries
itself in the ground. " It is not found in Australia.

In tliis family are som§ very serious pests. The
bot fly {Gastrophihis) (Plate 45) attacks horses.
The mother fly lays her eggs on the head, shoul-
ders, and front legs of the horse. They adhere firmly
to the hairs, for they are fastened by a sticky
secretion. They are licked off by the horse, and
the saliva loosens the eggs from the hairs. The
maggots hatch out in the horse's mouth, and are
carried down to the stomach. The maggot is not
smooth like most maggots, but has a serrated "frill"
on the edge of each exposed segment. (Plate 45,
Fig. 1.) It also has a strong pair of jaws, by means of
which it clings to the tissue of the horse's stomach,
where it absorbs its liquid food and develops. (Plate
45, Fig. 3.) These maggots are called bots. At last
the bot is "grown up," and loosens its hold and is
carried out of the horse's body in the excrement. It
pupates in the soil.

PLATE

45.

f^iqi. Bol- or Larva.

f^'^^. Group of Bofrrr^

36?

M JawsofBot

^^ Adolh Female

BOT FLY.

i:!£^!2;i^7onK3,roUoJ

368 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

The large dragon fly or *' horse-stinger " is some-
times seen chasing bot and other flies, and this
harmless insect has been accused of attacking
horses. The mistake probably came about in
this way: The horses seem to dislike the very
lium of the bot fly, and dart away when they hear
it. Now, the bot flies are chased by dragon flies,
but, as the latter are so much larger, those near the
horses saw only the larger insect — saw also the
horse rearing or turning away, and imagined it
was the dragon fly which was attacking, instead
of which it was the hum of the bot fly which dis-
turbed the horse.

Another species is Oestrus ovis. This fly deposits
maggots in the nostril of the sheep, and they make
their way up in the space behind the nose, and here
they feed till they mature, when they are expelled
by the sneezing of the animal. They pupate in the
earth. We have seen sheep bots taken from the
bram of a sheep wliich liad been killed by these bots
which had found their way from the nostril to the
brain of the sheep.

ACALYPTRATE MUSOID^.

This group includes a number of flies which are
closely allied to the calyptrate muscidae. The
acalyptrates differ in the venation of the wing.
Tlie cell marked ''a" is open. (See Plate 44, Fig.
5.) The squamae are either absent or rudimentary.

JL:

569

FAMILY TRYPETIDJE.

(True Fruit Flies.) (Plate 46.)

To this family belong some very serious pests.

Life History of the Common or Mediterranean
Fruit Fly.

( Ceratitis capitata. )

This is a mottled fly which is a little smaller than
the house fly. The mother fruit fly lays her eggs in
such fruits as peaches, apricots, pears, apples,
oranges, etc., and the fruits become pulpy and soft
and are ruined. The little fly-maggots feed on the
fruit juices, and, when mature, make their way
out of the fruit to the ground, where they pupate
Mr. W. B. Gurney, in his work on ''Fruit Flies,"
gives this account of the larva of this fly: — ''Tlic
maggot has the pointed head and l)lunt posterior end
so characteristic of many fly grubs. (Plate 46, Fig. 2.)
The narrow end bears a' pair of black, curved jaws
capable of being drawn into and protruded from the
head, and which are used for tearing the fruit tissue.
They frequently skip or jump, in the manner so
often noticed, when taken from the fruit. The
maggot doubles the body, hooks the jaws to certain
small lobes about the anus, sets up a strong mus-
cular strain, and suddenly releases the jaws from
their hold, the effect of which is to jerk the body
some six or eight inches away. These movements

370 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

are repeated until apparently the maggot finds
itself in a more congenial position as to food or
moisture, or out of the light, or where it can burrow
into the soil to pupate. On each side of the head
is a cluster of minute spiracles or breathing pores
arranged in a row. (Plate 46, Fig. 4.) A pair of
tubes of tracheae running through the body connect
these anterior spiracles with two sets of spiracles
at the posterior end, which are arranged in two
sets of three openings. (Plate 46, Figs. 2 and 3.)
Each of tliese posterior openings is guarded by
a row of fine, closely-arranged hairs, which are
probably used as screens against the entrance of
juice and dirt into the tracheae or breathing tubes."

The pupa is within the seed-like ''puparium. "
(Plate 46, Fig. 7.) Mr. Gurney records that the
maggots whieli are found in quinces and apples
often pupate in the fruit: ''These fruits, being less
juicy than citrus fruit, are therefore not likely to
drown or cause the pup^e to decay, as would the
citrus fruit. ' '

Another fruit fly is a native of Australia, and is
called the Queensland fruit fly (Dactis tryoni).
Mr. W. B. Gurney makes this record: — ''The New
South Wales variety of the above species attacks
Orchard fruits — oranges, mandarins, comquats.
peaches, and nectarines, and occasionally plums,
apples, pears, lemons, and loquats. Wild fruits —
white ash berries {Schkomeria ovota), cheesewood
berries (Acronychia lacvis), black apple or native
plum {Sideroxylon australe), wild black fig (Ficus
stephanocarpa), and rarely lillipilly {Eugenia

PLATE 46

nri

a Air lube

F,V,5. Posterior Sp.raclesof Maq<jot ^^^^ ^^^^^_^^ ^^^,^

of Maq<)ot:.

Fiq.6. SpaHvulare
process of Male.

Fiq5. Fruil- Fl/

Fi'qT. Pupariom

F(q8 AdulK
Emerqiaq .

FRUIT FLY.

372 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS. i

Smithii). The eggs hatch in a few days. The
maggot stage appears to occupy tAvo ox. three weeks.
The pupal stage m summer occupies 14 to 20 days.
The adult may live several weeks. Thus from the
laying of the egg to the adult stage occupies about
five or six weeks in summer, and, the flies living
a week or two as adults, the total life may be two
months or more. There may therefore be several
generations in the summer. Cold, as was found in
the case of the Mediterranean fly, retards de-
velopment."

There is yet another fruit fly to consider — ^the
Island fruit fly (Try p eta musae). The life history
is similar to that of the types described before,
but the development is slower. Mr. Gurney says,
as regards damage caused by maggots: *' Although
occasionally marketable fruits are affected, they
chiefly infest already damaged or unmarketable
fruit: and it is to be noted this fly is not to be
dreaded like the Mediterranean and Queensland flies,
which habitually puncture and deposit their eggs
in sound fruit."

373

ORDER DIPTERA.

Sub-order: Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera.
(Fleas.) (Plate 47.)

Fleas are regarded by some authors as degenerated
dipterous insects, and are usually placed in a
special sub-order.

Characteristics. — They are wingless insects which
have two pairs of tiny flaps — one pair on the meso-
thorax, and another pair on the metathorax, just in
the position where the wings are usually placed in
insects. These flaps are probably rudimentary
wings.

Fleas are compressed vertically, and not laterally
(as is more usual with insects — for example, bug.^
and cockroaches). This compression enables them
to get into crevices and cracks and hide in blankets,
and also to move easily in the fur of cats and hair
of dogs. The integument is segmented and
tough; it is of a bright, reddish brown colour and
is polished-looking. It is the breaking of this tough
skin which makes the ''crack!" in killing a flea.

The head and thorax are not clearly marked off
from the body. The head is small. The eyes are
simple, not having the numerous facets of com-
pound eyes. Some fleas are said to be blind.

The mouth (Plate 47, Fig. 1) is curious; it is
wonderfully fitted for its blood-sucking habits.
The mandibles or biting jaws are here, in the form

374 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

of long, linear stylets with minute serrations; there
is a single piercing stylet present also. These three
narrow linear processes (Plate 47, Fig. 1 a) are

PLATE 47.

FiqZ Acbll- Female

Fiql Probo9ci9of Flea

\} SkealK
c Ma-<illa

Fic)3 Eq<|

Fiq4 larva

FiqS Popa

THE FLEA,
enclosed by a pair* of long, jointed labial palps,
which form a sheath protecting them. (Fig. lb.)
The maxilla3 or outer jaws are present, with palps.
(Fig. 1 c.)

FLEAS. 375

The flea has six legs. The first pair appears to be
joined to the head, but is fastened to the pro-
thorax. The hind legs are very large and strong,
and enable the flea to hop so well. All the legs are
furnished with hairs.

The eggs (Plate 47, Fig. 3) are laid in dirt
in houses, buildings, and also in the fur of
animals such as cats, rabbits and dogs. They are
laid loosely in the fur, and may drop to the ground
as tlie animal walks. Of course, tliey are very tiny.

The larva (Plate 47, Fig. 4) is worm-like. Sharp
describes the larva, when just hatched, as having
on its head a cuiious structure for breaking open
the egg shell. It has a biting mouth and 10 pairs
of spiracles, for breathing, along tlie side of the
body. It lives in refuse and dirt. Tlie pupa (Plate
47, Fig. 5) is enclosed within a tiny cocoon.

TFe adult emerges within a fortnight.

The house flea is Pitle.v irritans; the bird flea is
Piilex avium : Piilcx scrraticeps of dogs and cats —
but fleas seem to pass freely from one animal to
another.

The fleas on rats may carry germs of disease.
In Sydney it was proved that rats carried the
germs of plague, and, with the temporary extermina-
tion of rats, the plague subsided.

The Chigger or sand flea of tropical America is
a pest which buries its body in the flesh of man,
causing irritation and disease.

376

ORDER HEMIPTERA.

(Cicadas, Froghoppers, Bugs, Scale Insects,
Aphides, etc.)

The name ' * hemiptera " is given from the fact
that some families have the fore wings divided into
two zones — (a) an upper horny, opaque part, (b) a
lower membranous and semi-transparent portion.
(Plate 52, Fig. 10.) The sub-order Heteroptera
(varied wings) includes insects with such wings.

A more distinct and common feature lies in the
mouth parts (Plate 48, Figs. 6 and 7), which are in
the form of a jointed sheath enclosing four stylets
or hair-like bristles. It is a piercing and sucking
mouth. The sheath is in the form of an elongate
gutter with much-incurved edges, and the bristles
lie along the groove. When about to obtain food,
the bristles are pushed beyond the tip of the sheath
into the plant tissues, and, being placed closely
together, act as a tube to draw up the plant-juices
on which most of the insects feed. It is doubtful
whether the sheath does any piercing work. It is
this type of mouth which makes the pests in this
order so hard to combat, as it is useless to
apply poison sprays to the plants — one must directly
destroy the insect itself. By running a pin along the
groove in the sheath one can lift out the bristles.
In the cicada and many bugs, only three bristles
can be seen ; this may be due to the fusion of two

CICADAS, SCALES, APHIDES, ETC. 377

of the bristles — or, at least, they may be closely
adpressed.

There are two sub-orders — (1) Homoptera, (2)
Heteroptera.

SUB-ORDER HOMOPTERA.

(Cicadas, Scales, Aphides, Froghoppers, etc.)

Characters: (a) The wings, when at rest, are held
in a roof -like manner over the body, (b) The whole
front wing is of the same texture, (c) In the scale
insects the front wings only are present in the
male; the females are wingless.

378

PLATE 48.

Fi::^! flympk of Cicada

ric|2 Dicjair\(^Lea of Lar;/a

^K]i Parb of twiij wilK pieces
of barK cot" by female

FiQ4r. Adult-

a Flap of drum.

Fic|5. Head
a. Probosciy

mm.

Fic]8 Section of Probosaff

a Staler?
b 5ke6rtv.

Fiq9. Head of Gcada
a Eye. t. Ocelli

fiqe- Sheaffvof Fiq7 Sfyleh^of
Protosci? Proboscis

The Cicada

Fiq 10. Mei-nVacitl

Fiqii Froqkopper.

CICADA, MEMBRACID, FROGHOPPER.

371)

FAMILY CICADIDiE.
(Cicadas.) (Plate 48, Fig. 4.)

These "squeakers" or "locusts" of children are
really cicadas. Historically the cicada is one of
the most ancient of insects mentioned. A cicada
on the string of a cythera was the symbol of music
for the Greeks. We read also of these insects
being put in cages and used as a source of enter-
tainment by the Greeks. This seems rather amusing
to us, and a cage full of "double-drummers" would
be more likely to drive guests home than serve to
entertain them. Only the male insects are capable
of producing the "song."

Cicadas are found from October to February.
They vary in size from one to several inches across
the wings. The head is somewhat triangular iv.
shape; the compound eyes are large and prominent;
between these eyes are tln^ee ocelli, or single eyes,
which look like jewels. (Plate 48, Fig. 9 b.) The
antennge are very short and inconspicuous. The
front part of the head is prolonged into a sheath,
which encloses the bristle-like mouth parts. (Plate
48, Fig. 5 a and Figs. 6 and 7.) This sheath is
jointed, and is in the form of a much-curved trough
or groove, opening in front. The bristles lie in the
groove. The wings are membranous, and are sup-
ported by a few strong veins; tlie hind pair >s
smaller than the fore wings.

380 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Inside the body, just at the junction of thorax
and abdomen, towards the upper surface, the sound-
producing apparatus is situated. But the so-called
"drums," or flaps or dampers (Plate 48, Fig. 4 a),
are on the under side, and tliey protect the sound-
chambers below, which are circular. Across each
chamber is stretched a beautiful opalescent mem-
brane; this seems to correspond with tlie drum
parchment of an ordinary drum. But this mem-
brane does not produce the sound — it seems rather
to be a kind of sounding-board. Also when the
membrane is pierced by a pin the sound of the
cicada is not silenced. Powerful muscles work
certain internal plates, causing them to vibrate,
and by means of these the sound is produced.

The eggs are laid in little slits made by the sharp
ovipositor of the mother-cicada, and so numerous
are these cuts that the twig is often rough with the
little "tags" of bark left by the slit. (Plate 48,
Fig. 3.) The eggs hatch in from six to eight weeks.
The larva is a queer-looking object with large
head and strong front legs. On leaving the
egg it drops or crawls down to the ground, into
which it cuts its way to a depth of one or two feet,
and there it lives, feeding on the roots of plants.
A distinct tunnel is made in the soil.

The period passed in the larval stage varies with
the genus, but it may be from three to 17 years.
— the latter period was recorded in America. We
have noticed, on the coastal districts of New
South Wales, tlie appearance of cicadas in great
number at three or four year periods; hence it has

I

CICADAS. 381

been suggested that the species thus noted occupies
about that time in the larval stage.

The larva is suited for this underground life by
the smooth, rounded form, and by the presence of
a front pair of cutting and digging legs — strong
and broad, with pincer-like claws. (Plate 48, Figs.
1 and 2.) One can distinguish the older larva or
^* nymph" by the presence of wing-pads. (Plate 48,
Fig. la.) An underground home of a cicada was
brought to us intact by a friend, who dug it out of
her garden. It consisted of a branched tunnel about
1^ ins. in diameter ; the walls were firm and hard, so
that there did not appear to be any danger of their
collapsing. Sometimes the nymph constructs a
chimney three or four inches above the ground
surface when about to emerge. As a rule, it
emerges at night or just about dusk, and crawls on
a fence or tree. Here it waits for some time,
till the emergence takes place. Children some-
times bring the nympli into the house at evening
and watch the adult come from the shell. We
observed the emergence of a large ''double-
drummer" one afternoon, and the sunlight reflected
by the soft wings made a most exquisite sight — a
play of opalescent colours.

Not much damage is done by cicadas in the
process of sucking the juices of plants; but the
egg-laying process by the females is sometimes
a nuisance in orchards, where the young stems have
the bark punctured in hundreds of places. (Plate
48, Fig. 3.) Also these slits make a refuge for
other insect pests.

382 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

Many popular names are given to the cicadas —
'* green monday," ''yellow monday," ''double
drummers," "millers," etc.

Some of the commoner species are of genus
Cyclochila; C. australiasiae is the "green monday."

The "double-drummer" is Thapha saccata, with
bag-like drums at the side of the body.

The "floury baker" or "miller" is smaller, and
is a great prize to children, being more uncommon
than the "yellow and green mondays. "

Small cicadas are very numerous in the western
districts of New South Wales.

During the summer of 1919, the number of cicadas
was abnormal in their abundance; many residents
of Killara and other suburbs had their nights' rest
disturbed by the song of these insects, which was
continued all through the bright moonlight nights.

1

383

FAMILY CERCOPID-ffi.

(Froghoppers.) (Plate 48, Fig". 11)

These are small insects with roof-like bodies and
rounded heads. The popular name of ''frog-
hoppers" has been given because of their leaping
habits. They have the hemipterous piercing and
sucking mouth.

The metamorphosis is incomplete. The eggs are
laid on' the bark of young gum-trees, and when
the young come forth they may be seen clustering
together. They secrete a sweet fluid called honey-
dew, and so certain species of ants are on very
friendly terms with them, running over them and
standing beside them partaking of the sweets, while
they thus protect them from other enemies.

The larvag are usually cream, with brown, black,
or red markings, and they hop when touched. The
larger larvae, or nymphs, show wing-pads. Ants
are found on both larvae and adults. The species
we have observed attending these are the
gravel ant {Iridiomyrmex rufoniger), the golden-
bodied ant (Polyrhachis awmon), and several species
of Camponotus (sugar ant).

One of the commonest species of froghoppers on
gums (Eucalyptus) is the genus Eurymela. (Plate
48, Fig. 11.) Certain species secrete such quantities
of juice that it forms a frothy mass or spittle, in
which several froghoppers live; they are called
*' spittle insects."

384

FAMILY APHIDES.

These delicate little insects are found on tips of
rose bushes, peach and apple trees, and on the young
leaves of many of our garden plants. They have
a piercing and sucking mouth, and the body is
pear-shaped, with a rounded head with a pair of
long, jointed antennaB. The legs are very long —
like ' 'stilts." Some forms are winged, but the
majority are wingless. Their life history varies
Avith different species. On the fifth segment of the
abdomen is a pair of tiny tubes called siphons,
Avhich stand nearly erect from the body. (Plate 49,
Fig. 1 a.) The siphons are said to exude a waxy
secretion which it smears on the heads of the
enemies who come near enough. From the tip of
the abdomen a globule of honey dew can often be
seen (Plate 49, Fig. 3 a) ; this is secreted by the
insect and is so abundant that a trail of the sweet,
sticky substance is sometimes to be seen showing
its track. This honey dew at one time was thought
to be secreted and sent out from the siphons.
Because of the honey dew, these insects are often
attended by ants; and bees and wasps occasionally
partake of these sweets. But it is the ants which
are the especial friends of aphides and may be
seen stroking them and surrounding them as they
partake of the honey dew, hence they are often
called "ants' cows." This serves as a pro-
tection to the aphides. One writer tells of a par-
ticular species of aphis which, during the wingless

APHIDES 385

stage, is wholly dependent on the ants. It lives
in the ground, and is carried from the ants' nest
to the roots of the plants on which it feeds, and is
carried back again to the safety of the nest when
feeding-time is over.

The life history of these interesting insects is
most remarkable, and in some species at least is
not properly understood.

Life History of the Common Aphis.

Commencing from the eggs, which are laid in
the autumn, numerous wingless virgin females arc
produced. These in turn produce (within a few
days), not eggs, but wingless young. This pro-
ducing of young without direct fertilisation is
termed ^^ parthenogenesis.^^ These daughter aphides
again in a few days produce young, and so on; so
that one can see why tliese insects are such plagues,
for they are so numerous.

Usually later, true males and females are hatch-
ed. These are often winged, but may be wingless.
We have noted winged forms on tips of rose shoots
in July and August and during very cold weather on
the coast. The true females deposit eggs, which re-
main in crevices over the winter. From these
eggs the virgin females hatch. Some species of
aphides hibernate during the winter, hiding in crev-
ices in stems and on roots. Orchardists have found
that treating the soil around the tree with kerosene
emulsion or with tobacco solution gives good result.
Spraying leaves and branches with these solutions
is also good.

The woolly aphis excretes a white, woolly sub-
stance, with which it conceals its body. The

386 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

name ''American blight" or simply "blight" is often
applied to this form. This insect attacks the roots
and stems of apple-trees, causing irregular, gnarled
growths, which are often much larger than the
stems themselves.

Vegetables such as cauliflower, turnip, radish,
and cabbage are frequently attacked by aphides.
The genus Phylloxera, which is such a serious pest
on grape vines, is an aphis with a complicated
life history.

Enemies of Aphides.

The lady-bird beetles {Coccinellidae) are one ot:
of the best enemies of this pest. Both larvae and
adults attack them, and are so voracious that, if
numerous, will rid the trees of them.

The larvae of the lace-wing insect are a very
effective means of getting rid of aphides. The
long, trunk-like mouth can impale an aphis with
great ease, and the amusing habit of throwing the
skins on their backs is well worth watching.

The larvae of certain species of hover fly are also
devourers of these destructive pests.

The young (particularly) of the praying mantis
also feed on them.

Small chalcid wasps parasitise aphides.

We bred out a small black wasp from the dried
skin of an aphis which had been used by the wasp
as a cocoon, when the wasp maggot pupated. We
had noted a curious-looking swollen apliis of a fawn
colour, and placed several in a small box and awaited
results. Tiny black parasitic wasps emerged
(chalcids).

PLATE 49.

387

Fic|L Winqles? ApKiS

Fic)2 Winqed Aphis

Fiq 3 A(\t Care?sia<] ApKis
a Drop of Hone^-deu

.a-sKe!l

F'c]4 Lerp. Scale

Fiq5 E^c^f&E^^sKeDs'

ficf6.larva Iv^r fJympK

had. Adult

APHIDES AND LERPS.

388

LERP INSECTS.
.FAMILY PSYLLIDiE.

Lerp insects are sometimes called ''jumping
plant-lice.*' The term ''psyllidae" comes from
psylla, a flea, from the jumping habits of these
insects. The adults strongly resemble miniature
cicadas, and vary in size from a sixth to a quarter
of an inch in length. (Plate 49, Fig. 8.) They can
be seen better with a lens. These are well worth
looking at, for they are dainty little creatures like
''fairy cicadas.'' They live by sucking the juices of
plants, and, if present in great numbers, may become
a pest.

The eggs are deposited on leaves, and stand erect
or slightly inclined (Plate 49, Fig. 5), for they are
fixed firmly on to the leaf. The larv« (Plate 49,
Fig. 6) appear and are similar in form to the adults,
but are smaller and have no wing-pads. Later, as
development goes on, wing-pads appear. (Plate 49,
Fig. 7.) The adult is winged. (Plate 49, Fig. 8.)

In some species the larvae cover themselves with
a white, sugary scale, which is formed from a
fluid secreted by the insect. This fluid hardens to
form a brittle scale (Plate 49, Fig. 4) : seen with a
lens this scale is very beautiful. Some are said to
secrete a fleecy exudation under which they live;
while others make galls — some of a clear red colour
^-and when these galls open at the top and are

LERP INSECTS. 389

seen with the lens, with a few of the dainty, pale
g-reen adults, it is a very beautiful sight.

The life history of the sugar-scale lerp can be
nicely seen by collecting lerp scale insects of all
sizes, from the tiny baby scales to the larger ones
Avith wing-pads. By keeping some of the larger
scales in a box, one may see the adult lerps a little
later. The eggs are in clusters or in rows, often
along the midrib of gum-leaves ; they are of a
brown colour, and it is hard to distinguish tliem.
(Plate 49, Fig. 5.) The lerp scale, when viewed with
a lens, is very beautiful, like bands of ribbon with
an irregular edge or fringe. (Plate 49, Fig. 4.)

TREEHOPPERS.

FAMILY MEMBRACIDiE.

These are small insects which Comstock calls
*' Nature's jokes." The first segment of the thorax
is bent over the body and produced to form pro-
jections or spines, so as to give the insects most
strange and weird forms from the face view.
(Plate 48, Fig. 10.) They are similar in habit of
feeding to the other insects of this group. They
are never sufficiently numerous to be pests.

390

LANTERN FLIES.
FAMILY FULGORIDJE.

(Plate 51, Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12.)

The name ''lantern fxy" was given to this group
owing to the fact that some of the larger insects
were formerly thought to be luminous. Recent
writers think this is not so. In New South Wales
our species are mostly small insects, with roof-like
wings frequently mottled and marked with neutral
tints, which make them resemble moths.

One of the commonest species is the pale green
moth-like fulgorid, which hops away with a great
leap as soon as one touches it. The larva is pale
green; it feeds on the delicate parts of plants. Its
name is Siphanta acuta.

Another species, whose larvae may be a pest on the
wistaria vine, is a mottled brown colour. The larva
is pale green, and secretes cottony threads and
has a fan-like tail of white threads from the tip
of the abdomen. The species is Scolypopa australis.
(Plate 51, Fig. 12.)

At Bowral we noted thousands of these hoppers
on a grape vine. The eggs are iaid on plants.

The beautiful red lantern fly or fulgorid called
Achilus flammeus is often seen around Sydney. We
bred out a long-nosed fulgorid (Plate 51, Figs. 9, 10
and 11) from a mass of ** spittle*' or froth which is
secreted by the larvae, and several live in this white,
frothy mass. We got three stages of the insects.
The older nymph and adult are figured. (Plate 51,
Fig. 11.)

J

PLATE 50

391

Fiq5 Scale vyiKa hcja^
Rqe. Female ^'^^

fiq4 Scale m position
^^<\y^r^^ F.q5. Underside of 9a«ic

iKe Lecaaium 5cale on6rassTree

Fiq7 Female Ocsncje Scale

Fic|6 MaleOrancje scale (flflpr(!omstock)

fic|8. Mealy Bo^ fiq9. Mussel scale

Fiq II. CofronyiicaJe
a larva.

SCALE INSECTS AND MEALY BUGS.

392

SCALE INSECTS.

FAMILY COCCIDiE.

(Scale Insects, Mealy Bugs, Gall Insects, etc.)

These insects are small and often microscopic.
Great variety in mode of life is displayed; some
form waxy or resinous scales, under which they
live.

Scale Insects (Plate 50) may be easily trans-
ported from one country to another by introduced
plants, which may have eggs or minute creatures
present. In this group are some of our most
serious pests.

The Red Orange Scale {Aspidiotus auranti)
(Plate 50, Figs. 6 and 7). When a boy is draining
the juice from a freckled orange he little thinks
that he may be getting a plentiful supply of tiny
scale insects from the skin. This scale is circular
in form, of a reddish-brown colour, dark in the
centre and lighter at the edges. The central part
of the **roof" is formed of the cast-off skins of
the insects, and is called the pellicle. (Plate 50,
Fig. 5.) The larva emerges from under the parent
scale. The young female is wingless, and is oval-
shaped, with six legs and two antennas. Almost
immediately, she chooses a spot and inserts her
sucking mouth into the plant tissues and begins
to feed; and shortly the scale is formed from
secretions from the body, and in a day or two the

SCALE INSECTS. 393

insect is entirely concealed. She never leaves the
spot. As she develops, she loses legs and antenna?
as the skins are shed, and a very long sucking tube
develops : the anal end of the body is usually lobed.
(Plate 50, Fig. 7.) The eggs are numerous, within the
body, and from 100 to 200 living young are deposited.
The male insect commences life as a six-legged
larva similar to the female; it forms a scale and is
said to pupate under it. The adult male is winged,
but with fore wings only; there is a pair of hooks,
which occur behind the fore wings. (Plate 50,
Fig. 6.)

Types of Scales.

The Palm Scale, of genus Lecanmm, is a rounded,
bluish-brown scale found on palms, in orchards, and
on garden plants. One species is called the ''olive
scale," and it has fluted margins. We found a
species of Lecanmm on the leaves of the grass tree
( X author rlioe a). (Plate 50, Figs. 4 and 5.) On
examining various scales, we found eggs under
many of the larger scales. (Plate 50, Fig. 3.)
The larvee were in all stages of development.
Under another scale we found a female (Plate 50,
Fig. 2), while from beneath yet another one we
found the pupa and larva of what appeared to be
a parasitic wasp. A young larva is shown on
Plate 50, Fig. 1.

Another type of scale pests is Mytilaspis, the
mussel scale. (Plate 50, Fig. 9.) In the bush there
is a soft, creamy scale, the individuals of which
cluster so closely that they completely surround
twigs of gum-trees. It has an opening at the apex,
and its name is Erioc cccus.

394 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

The species Aspidiotus perniciosus is closely allied
to the red orange scale; it is a serious pest in
orchards, appearing as tiny grey specks on the
hark, and at times on the fruit of peach, apricot,
nectarine, plum, pear, apple, and quince.

The Indian wax scale {Ceroplastes ceriferiis) is
another pest, which has special favourites among
plants such as Pittosporum, Duranta, Bursaria, etc.

A mealy bug resembling a scale insect is "the
cottony cushion scale" {Icerya purchasi). This is
a large scale, with white cottony secretion, with
radiating ribs. (Plate 50, Fig. 11.) It is a pesr.
on citrus trees, though it Avas originally found on
wattle trees. The young larva has long white
threads from the end of tlie body. Icerya is really
a mealy bug scale.

395

FAMILY COCCID^.

(The Mealy Bugs.)

This is a group of insects similar to scale insects
which, instead of forming a true scale, produce
a mealy secretion which covers their body. One
species secretes threads, and these are sometimes
worked up to form a scale-like covering, ex. :
''Fluted cottony scale" (Icerya purchasi). (Plate
50, Fig. 11.)

The larvae of the females of many mealy bugs
are usually rather ugly ' ' grubs, ' ' with the segments
of the bodj^ very similar and with very short legs;
some species look like wood lice. However, the
]>ody is of a red or cream colour, sometimes flecked
with black on the edges. One species has a thick,
swollen form like a little pig. Monophlebus is the
common type of mealy bug. (Plate 50, Fig. 8.)
The males are winged, and the male of one species
{Callipappus) is a most exquisite little creature.
The two wings are like dainty pink shells, and the
tip of the abdomen ends in twisted, stiff silken
bristles.

a96

GALL-MAKING COGCIDS.

These include some of our ''curiosities" in insect
life, for we have some of the largest galls in the
world. The gall is thought to be formed by the
stimulation to growth given by the feeding of the
gall insects on the tissues of the plant. At any
rate, the plant-tissues grow abnormally in this spot
and envelop the little coccid. Later, the soft plant
tissues may become Avoody and very thick, with
just a relatively small chamber for the insect in
the centre. (Plate 51, Fig. 4.) The female passes
practically the whole of her existence within the
gall; the latter is more or less rounded. There is
always an opening of small size at the apex,
through which impregnation of female takes place.

The male passes the first part of his existence
in a usually much smaller gall (Plate 51, Fig. 2), and
it is, in most cases, very different in shape from
that of the female. It may be situated close to
or at a distance from the female gall.

The genus Apiomorpha includes some of our
largest galls. Some are top-shaped, others
pear-shaped; while the large rectangular gall (Plate
51, Fig. 1), with curious flat tails, may be three
inches long. It is called Apiomorpha duplex.

We cut open a green specimen (one of the pear-
shaped galls), and saw within the creamy, pear-
shaped wingless gall, with head down and body
prolonged to a point, (Plate 51, Figs. 4 and 5.)
We examined with a lens; the legs and sucking-
mouth parts could be seen. It secretes a powdery
material, which forms a soft lining to its home.

PLATE 51

397

Fi(]3.6all jlihopcn
Galls cfT Apiomorplia dunl«

a. Lirva
ex

Fi<j6 Female Gall of an

ApiomorpKa. I^i<5 7. Gall slih open Fic^S. Larva of

a Larva Female Gall.

Gail lf\9eclT

Fiq 10. Spittle fulcjond

F«19. HomecTfSpi
. rulaor'ici.

Fiqlinymp.haf sar

FiqlZ flympkof
Brown Fulqorid .

GALLS AND FULGORIDS.

598

ORDER HEMIPTERA.
SUB-ORDER HETEROPTERA.

(Bugs.)

The metamorphosis is incomplete, and the younger
larvffi usually differ markedly from the adults ' tints ;
in one species where the adult is green the larva?,
resemble autumn leaves of beautiful orange red.

These insects vary in habits and in size. They
liave the piercing and sucking mouth (Plate 52.,
Fig. 8), and live, in most cases, on plant juices,
tliough some are carnivorous; some are aquatic
iJi habit. The metamorphosis is incomplete.

The wing formation is important, and serves to
distinguish this group from the other sub-order
(Homoptera). The inner half of the fore wing is
opaque and horny, while the outer portion is
membranous and semi-transparent. (Plate 52,
Figs. 7 and 10.) The hind Avings are membranous.
I Plate 52, Fig. 7 b.)

The antennae are usually prominent, but may be
wholly concealed beneath the head.

Bugs are found more frequently on the foliage
of plants, but also on bark of trees, under stones
and logs; hence most bugs are pests, though
some of the carnivorous types feed on leaf-eating
caterpillars.

A noticeable feature of many of tliese insects
is the enlargement of the part of the third seg-

I

PLATE 53

PLANT BUGS.

400 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

ment of the thorax called the scutellum, and in
some cases this so enlarges as to completely cover
the wings (Plate 52, Fig. 7.) Such types are called
popularly ''shield bugs," and belong to the
Pentatomid^e ; some pentatomids have a scutellum
which is simply enlarged and not covering the
Avings.

FAMILY PENTATOMIDiE.

Many are noted for the beautiful metallic colours
of the scutellum. The colours are frequently very
gay; ex,', bright red, green and blue, with
black patches, etc. They are plant-eaters, and may
be pests. The common ''green bug" (Cuspicona)
(Plate 52, Fig. 9) of the vegetable and flower
garden is a pest. It has a large scutellum, but it
does not cover the wings; it is about half-way
down the abdomen. The sucking mouth of stylets
and sheath described before is present. The stylets
are very slender and grooved. (Plate 52, Fig. 8.)

The eggs are laid in clusters on leaves of vege-
tables. We found a group of these pearly eggs
(Plate 52, Fig. 1) on the under side of a bean leaf,
and, on observing them with a lens, saw they were
slightly depressed at the top. The eggs are opened
by the baby bugs by means of a little triangular
framework. (Plate 52, Figs. 3 and 4.) This can
be seen in the egg shell by means of a lens. AVhen
the baby bug first emerges it is very like a tiny
black spider. (Plate 52, Fig. 6.) Fresh leaves
v^ere put in each day, and the life history was

BUGS. 401

followed. Later on the black baby-bug had
patches of red and white spots, in two rows.
After each moult slight changes occurred in
colour. The black gave place to green, and the
spots were less marked and bright. At last wing-
pads appeared (Plate 52, Fig. 5), the head became
more pointed, and the spots disappeared. When
the adult stage was reached it was entirely green,
and it is hard for young students to believe that
the well-marked larv^ could develop into greeri
bugs. (Plate 52, Fig. 9.)

Shield bugs are numerous in our scrub country
of the Northern Rivers of New South Wales. On
the beach, at high-water mark, at Bellinger Heads,
we saAV thousands of them. They had evidently
been driven seawards by the high winds and fierce
licat from the bush fires whicli were raging on the
coast. These bugs have two tiny glands on tlie
under surface of tlie body, from which the well-
known obnoxious-smelling fluid is excreted. One
of the shield bugs has proved useful in preying oi5
the larvag of the grape-vine moth (Phalaenoides).

402

BED BUGS.
FAMILY CIMICID^.

These insects are found in human habitations.
They have a flat, circular body, and are without
wings. They can live without food for months;
they love the dark, hiding in crevices^

The eggs are tiny oval bodies with a rim at the
upper end. They are in clusters of from six to fifty ;
they hatch in seven or eight days. At first the
\ oung bug is transparent, with a very narrow body.
It later becomes darker, and develops after a
series of moults to the adult wingless form. The
time taken in development varies with the weather.
Warm weather and abundance of food results in
rapid development. Under ordinary conditions
about seven weeks elapse before the adult stage is
reached. Tliey are very tenacious of life. Cock-
roaches, ants, and even some species of bugs prey
on them.

ASSASSIN BUGS.

FAMILY REDUVIID.^.

These are carnivorous, and hunt their prey, and
a marked difference is noted. They are much more
active, with strong running legs, and with a stout,
shorter, slightly curved beak, suitable for piercing
tlie body of a victim. The tip of the beak rests in
a groove between the fore legs. Some of the com-
monest are of red or orange colour, with black mark-
ings. Their bodies are long and narrow. They are
captured on foliage of trees, on bark, etc.

403

CHINCH BUGS.
FAMILY LYGiEID^.

Ill this family is the famous ''Kut her glen bug,''
one of the most destructive pests in Australia. It
is about a sixth of an inch long, and has grey Avings
spotted with black, and may be mistaken for a
small fly. It atta<?ks all kinds of cereals and many
fruits. It is thought that these bugs liibernate
during winter in grasses and weeds. Tlie eggs arc
laid on grass, and after two or tliree weeks the
young come forth. At first they are pale green and
wingless. After the first moult it becomes bright
red; later it clianges to a dull red. When full-
groAvn it is grey or brown in colour. Development
takes several weeks.

This bug does serious damage to wheat crops at
times. On fruit — particularly peaches — it causes
black, pit-like spots, from which a globule of gum-
like substance exudes.

Dilute kerosene oil and soap contact sprays are
of some use, except on hot days, when the insect.5
fly off readily. Care must be taken that the sprays
are not strong enougli to spot or taint ripening
fruit. Shaking the branches over a shallow dish
of kerosene and water, in the early morning, when
these bugs seem inactive, has proved one of the
most effective measures in coping with them. Grass
or weeds in orchards should be turned in before
spring to destroy eggs Avhich may be thereon.

404

PLATE 53.

T\(\4 Water 6odtmaa
( Cor \ >()<])

FiqS. Back swimmer.
( notoaecTidl

WATER BUGS.

405

WATER BUGS.

I. WATER-STRIDERS OR WATER-SKATERS.

FAMILY HYDROMETRIDJE.

(Plate 53, Fig. 3.)

It is very interesting to watch these water-
skaters skimming over the surface of the water.
They have usually exceedingly long, slender legs
and a rather lens-sliaped body. They are difficuli
to catch, for they have keen sight and are so active
that they are almost at the other side of a pool
before one can get near them. We saw dozens of
these merry skaters at the bottom of a gully at
Heathcote, after heavy rains. The stream was
rushing along, but in little sheltered turns in the
bank many of these water-skaters had collected.
They feed on small insects, etc. The eggs are laid
in jelly-like globules attached to water-plants
In colder climates they winter in the water and oh
banks, and do not come to the surfiice till spring.

Hydrometra and Gerris are the common species.

II. BACK-SWIMMERS.
FAMILY NOTONECTIDiE.

. (Plate 53, Fig. 5.)

These are interesting little water bugs which
remind one of rowing-boats, for they swim on their
backs or they may float with the hind legs ex-
tended and now and then moving tliem gently like
a pair of oars; these legs are much longer than the
other pairs. (Plate 53, Fig. 5.) The back of the

406 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

body is shaped somewhat like the keel of a boat,
and this enables it to cut through the water. These
insects have to carry a supply of air down with
tliem, and they do so under their wing-covers; they
are lighter than the water, and have to hold on to
objects or swim in order to remain under the water.
They are very active insects, for they are pre-
daceous and are armed with the stout, short pierc-
ing beak, which can hurt one's finger in handling
them. They may fly from pond to pond; but they
can be kept in glass jars, with plenty of water
weeds, for months, Avithout needing any special
food, though they enjoy mosquito larvae. The
prothorax slightly overlaps the head, the hind
legs are the longest, and the back is keeled — these
points serve to distinguish them from the next
group, water boatmen. The common genus is
Enithares,

WATER BOATMEN. FAMILY CORIXIDiE.
(Plate 53, Fig. 4.)

The dorsal surface of these bugs is flat, and they
swim on the ventral side; this serves to distinguish
them from the back-swimmers. The front legs are
longest, and are clothed with fringes of hairs
(Plate 53, Fig. 4.) The water boatmen can obtain
their air by renewal with the air in the water, and
tlie whole body is covered with a fllm of air. One
can see these boatmen, kept for a time in jars of
water with water weeds, holding on to the plants
and gently moving the hind legs to promote circu-

407

lation in order to renew the air. The film of ale
romid the bug makes it glisten like silver-plate.

The eggs are laid on water-plants, and in
America, in certain parts, these bugs are so
numerous as to be collected and sent to England
as bird food. The common genus is Cori.va.

WATER SCORPIONS. FAMILY NEPIDJE.
(Plate 53.)

One species, Nepa (Plate 53, Fig. 2), has a broad,
flattened head and body. At the end of the latter
are two long, slender bristles, grooved on the inner
side; or, putting the bristles together, a tube is
formed, and these insects can lie on the mud of
shallow pools and project the tube to obtain air in
order to breathe. The body of this insect some-
what resembles a scorpion.

Tlie front legs are fitted for seizing and liolding
prey, and the beak is fitted for piercing the body
of insects, for it is short and strong and curved
under the thorax. Nearly all the carnivorous types
have this relatively short strong proboscis.

In this group is a curious insect, Ranatra (Plate
53, Fig. 1), which resembles a mantis or a phasmid.
It has a long, stick-like body and long, slender legs.
The front pair of legs is shorter than the others,
and is fitted for seizing prey; they are very
strong. The colour of these insects blends with
tlieir surroundings, and they are thus more easily
able to get their prey, as they lie in the mud on the
bottom of shallow pools.

408

FISH-KILLERS.
FAMILY BELOSTOMIDiE.

Tliese are giant bugs, and are the largest hemip-
teroiis insects, measuring as mucli as four inches
in length. They have strong flight, and we have
captured specimens flying round lamp-posts
or electric light in Sydney. The tip of the abdomen
ends in a spine. The front seizing legs are very
strong, and the beak is the typical short and strong
type of predaceous bugs. They are found chiefly
in the Northern Rivers districts of New South
Wales.

LICE.
ORDER ANOPLURA.

(Sucking Lice.)

Tlie exact position of tliese creatures in relation
to the Hemiptera is doubtful. Some writers put
them in a separate order, Anoplura, whilst others
regard them as a degenerate type of bug. They
are small insects, with pear-shaped bodies. The head
bears a pair of eyes and a sucking apparatus; they
have six legs and are wingless. Most domestic
animals, as well as many birds, are infested with
a distinct species of this insect. Metamorphosis
if, incomplete.

These insects should not be confused with the
biting lice, Mallophaga, equally common on birds
and on mammals. These biting lice are degenerate
Neuropterid insects.

409

ORDER HEMIPTERA
I

Sub- orders Homoptera Heteroptera

Sub-order Homoptera includes : —
Families Cicadidae (Cicadas)

Cercopidae (Froghoppers)
Aphidse (Aphides)
Psyllidae (Lerp Insects)
Membracidse (Treehoppers)
Fulgoridse (Lantern Flies)
Coccidse (Scales, Mealy Bugs, and Gall
Insects)

Sub-order Heteroptera includes : —

Families Pentatomidae (Shield Bugs)
Lygaeidse (Chinch Bugs)
Cimicidae (Bed Bugs)
Reduviidae (Assassin Bugs)
Hydrometridae (AVater-striders)
Notonectidae (Back-swimmers)
Corixidae (Water Boatmen)
Nepidae (AVater Scorpions)
Belostomidae (Fish-killers)

410

ORDER THYSANOPLERA.

(Thrips.)

This order contains almost entirely minute forms
of fringed or tasselled-winged insects. The wings
are surrounded by minute cilia which form a fringe.
Many of the thrips are microscopic; others can be
seen as mere lines or flecks, and it is only by means of
a microscope or very powerful lens that we can make
out anything of their structure. The mouth parts
are peculiar, but a pair of sucking jaws can be dis-
tinguished. Thrips are found infesting the buds of
our roses and carnations in early spring; particu-
larly is this the case in very dry seasons. They also
attack the opening blossoms of the apple tree, result-
ing in some cases in the loss of almost the entire
season's crop. Flowers of weeds, grasses, and many
of our vegetables, as tomatoes and onions, are
not exempt from their attacks.

Tlie eggs may be deposited in the bud, leaf, stem
or even calyx. These hatch in a few days. The
larva is a minute form with six legs and a pair of
antennae. A brief nymph stage follows, in which
wing-pads are developed, and from this comes the
adult. The life history of the common thrips found
in our roses occupies about 21 days.

An emulsion of tobacco and soap, or lime and sul-
phur, has been found useful, but fumigation seems
to be the only real effective means of dealing with
these minute insects.

In addition to the forms already mentioned, we
liave in Australia a giant thrip which measures
almost half an inch in length. In this species the

THRIPS. .411

structure can be seen with the naked eye. We have
captured this insect in numbers among the dead
leaves of fallen gum trees. Branches were lifted and
shaken into an upturned umbrella, and as a result
numbers of the little forms were seen actively mov-
ing about.

412

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECT
LIFE.

In order to become acquainted more intimately
with the form and structure of insects one must be in
possession of specimens, in order to make accurate
observations, and to become possessed of sucli speci-
mens collecting is necessary. Certain material is
also necessary to do this work effectively.

We will mention first the butterfly net, which con-
sists of a ring of wire about 12 inches in diameter.
On to this ring a bag made of mosquito net is sewn ;
then the ring is bound with tape or calico. The
length of the bag should be at least one and a half
times the diameter of the ring — this is to allow the
bag to swing across the ring when the insect is
captured, and thus prevent its escape.

A neatly-designed folding ring can be purchased,
but is rather an expensive item, and is no more effec-
tive than a home-made one constructed of a piece of
stiff wire such as is seen in fences. The ends of the
wire should be twisted around one another for 5
or 6 inches. When the collector goes out he should
carry a strong piece of tape or, better still, attach
the tape to the ring; then by this means a strong
stick, cut in the bush, can be more easily attached
than with an ordinary piece of string as the tape
does not slip. The net bag is frequently dyed green
with ink, but this is not an important detail.

COLLECTING & PRESERVING INSECT LIFE. 413

A similar ring to tliat just described, but with a
shallow net, is used for capturing water forms.

A killing bottle consists of a jar or bottle with
a wide neck, and closed with a cork or glass stopper.
Into this bottle is put a mixture of potassium
cyanide set in plaster of paris. First a layer of the
latter, then cyanide, then another layer, and so on
until there are about 2 inches of the mixture in the
bottle. Moisture will frequently be found to issue
from the surface of this mixture. A small piece of
blotting paper placed on the surface will absorb
this. Insects placed in this type of bottle die almost
immediately.

A second type of killing bottle is one containing
a pad of cotton wool saturated with chloroform.
This is useful, but loses its strength readily through
contact with the air by the removal of the cork.

The cyanide bottle has proved the more useful,
and is the one generally used. Insects should be
removed from the bottle when dead, although they
may be allowed to remain for a few hours without
any apparent injury. If permitted to remain in the
bottle longer they will possibly become discoloured
and their beauty will be spoilt.

After removal the insects in most cases are
stretched. For this purpose a stretching board is
used. Such a board consists of a piece of soft wood,
about f in. in thickness and from 4 in. to 6 in. in
width. Down the centre a groove is made a little
over Jin. in width. On the surface of the board,
and also in the bottom of the groove, a layer of thin
cork or cork composition is glued, then over the

414 LIFE STORIES OF AUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

whole white paper is pasted. The above just describes
an ordinary board, but the collector will have
several, Avith grooves varying in width and depth
according to the types of insects to be stretched.

We will take a butterfly to illustrate the method
of stretching. A steel pin should be placed through
the thorax ; then the insect should be placed so that
the body fits into the groove. The wings should be
arranged so that the front ones are well forward in
oi'der to allow room for the hind pair to be displayed.
Getting the wings into position is not always easy.
Do not touch tliem with the fingers, as the scales so
readily rub off. A pair of small hat pins, in the
absence of proper needles, will be found most use-
ful. Place one of these along the firm outer edge
of the front wing, and gently bring the wing for-
ward into position. Strips of paper, about J in. wide
and with a rough surface, should be in readiness.
Secure the upper end of a strip with a pin to the
1)oard, then run tlie finger down on this paper, hold-
ing it firmly and fastening the lower end, of course
taking care that tlie hind wing is in position. In this
Avay both wings are held. Do the same with the
wings on the opposite side. Then, to aid further,
place two strips of paper across the insect. Leave
the insect in this position on the stretcliing board
until it is perfectly rigid. The pin is as a rule placed
through the centre of the thorax, except in the case
of beetles and small insects. In the former it will
s'oon be found out that the pressure required to put
the pin through the hard prothorax will probably
smash your insect. A vulnerable spot is found a

COLLECTING & PRESERVING INSECT LIFE. 415

little to the right of the centre of the wing covers.
In the case of small insects, such as some of the
flies, wasps and ants, a piece of thin white cardboard
is cut about 1 in. by i in. A pin is put through one
end, the other end is smeared with gum or thin
starch, and then the small insects are arranged by
means of forceps and adliere readily to the gummed
surface.

Entomological pins of various sizes can be bought,
but as these are rather expensive dressmakers' steel
pins answer the purpose for the ordinary collector
in the early stages of his work. After the insect is
removed from the stretching board it should be set
out. For this purpose a setting box is necessary;
this consists of a box opening in the centre, each half
being similar, one portion fitting closely on to the
other when closed. Such box should be made of
light wood and about three inches in depth. It
should be lined with cork or cork composition; fail-
ing to procure either of these substances, linoleum
might be used as a substitute. The lining material
is glued to the box, and then the whole of the inner
surface is covered Avith white paper. Frequently
Ihies are ruled on the paper to assist in the better
arrangement of the insects. Each insect should have
a label attaclied, either to the pin which holds tlie
insect or immediately below it pinned to tlie box. The
label sliould shew the order, family, genus and
species to which the insect belongs ; also the populai
name, if any, and date and place of collecting.

Instead of a setting box such as we have descri])ed,
and which will probably be far too expensive for the

416 LIFE STORIES OFAUSTRALIAN INSECTS.

young student, we have found that cigar boxes will
answer the purpose temporarily, and good work can
be done.

The larvas of insects are usually preserved in
spirits, or formalin in small tubes or even bottles.
Junket tubes can be used for this purpose, although
sets of varying sizes can be purchased.

In some instances the soft contents of the bodies
of caterpillars are removed so that only the skin
remains. This is inflated, then dried in an oven, and
finally set out in an ordinary setting box. The cigar
boxes already referred to might be utilised to good
purpose for setting out the whole life history of one
particular insect. Take for instance the vine moth,
or emperor gum moth; such life history box would
show the eggs, larva (in tubes), pupa and perfect
insects. A record of the various happenings might
be written on the inside of the lid. Children should
be encouraged to work out and set up as many of
these life histories as possible.

A few other items might be mentioned for a col-
lector's outfit; among these are a good lens and a
pair of forceps. To the naked eye only a part of
tlie Avonders of nature is revealed.

On an excursion a few small tins, boxes, bottles
and even envelopes might be carried. Last of all
Avc miglit mention that a bag made of canvas contain-
ing several pockets to hold the various articles will
be found most valuable. Such a bag should be car-
ried by means of a shoulder-strap, and thus the
collector is left with both hands free.

Index

Abdomen, 4.
Ahispa, 87.
Acacia gnat, 332.
Acalyptrate muscidae, 353,

368.
Achilus -fiammens, 390.
Acridiidae, 49.
Acridopeza, 56.
Acrophylla titan, 38.
Adelium, 345.
Aenictus, 155, 157.
Aesclina, 100.
Agarista agricola, 317.
Agaristidae, 316.
Agrotis infusa, 318.
Alastor, 130.
Alula, 327.
Ammophila, 177.
Anaphaeis java-teutoma, 289.
^narr, 68, 70
Andrena, 107.
Andrenidae, 203
Andrenids, 107.
Animal Kingdom, 1.
Anisolabis, 42.
Anisoptera, 67, 70,
Annulata, 1.
Annomma, 155.
Anoplognathus, 235.
Anoplura, 408.
Anostosoma, 56.
Antennae, 1.
Ant Eater, 151.
Antheraea eucalypti, 121, 307.
Anthomyidae, 355, 365.
Anthrophila, 109, 203.
Ant, 101, 149.
Ant lions, 79, 86.
Ants' eows, 151.
Aptaniptera, 373.

Aphidae, 409.
Apanteles, 127.
Aphides, 82, 376, 409.
Apidae, 203, 204.
Apiomorpha, 396.
Apis, 212.
Aptera, 13.
Apoda xylomeli, 310.
Arachnida, 1.
Archimantis, 31.
Argyromoeha, 347.
Arista, 329.
Army worm, 320.
Arthropoda, 1.
Artificial feeding, 166.
Atalophlehia, 78, 100.
Atta, 149.
AsiHdae, 330.
Aspidiotus auranti, 392.
Aspidiotus pemidosus, 394.
Assassin bugs, 402.
Aulacophora olivieri, 257.
Austrocordulia, 100.
Austrolestes, 75, 99.

Bacillus, 36.

Back swimmers, 405.

Bassus, 122.

Bean moth, 319.

Bee bread, 215.

Bee fly, 351.

Bees, 101.

Beetles, 228.

Belenois Java, 289.

Belostomidae, -±08, 409.

Bemhex, 107, 180.

Bent wing moth, 323.

Blastophaga, 115.

Blattidae, 21.

Blood vessels, 6.

418

INDEX.

Blow flies, 361, 363.
Bolhoceras, 237.
Bombardier Carab, 246.
Bombycidae, 307.
Bombylidae, 347.
Bomhyx mori, 309.
Bomhyx nasuta, 309.
Bot flies, 366.
Bouton, 104.
Braconidae, 126.
Braconids, 109.
Breathing, 6.
Brood cells, 215.
Bugong moth, 319.
Bugs, 376,. 402.
Bull dog ants, 153.
Buprestidae, 253.
Butterflies, 274.

Cacocliroa, 236.

Caddis flies, 65, 79, 93, 96.

Caddis worms, 94, 95.

Caequosa, 300.

CalUphora oceaniae, 364.

Callipliora I'ufifacies, 364.

Callipliora villosa, 364.

Callipappus, 395.

Callipers, 41.

Callitriche, 96.

Calyptrate muscidae, 353.

Calosoma, 346.

Camponotus, 134, 137, 139, 158,

383.
Camponotides, 158.
Caprifieation, 115.
Carabidae, 242.
Carabs, 242, 246.
Carpenter bees, 205, 207.
Carpocapsa pomonella, 313.
Case moths, 301.
Castes, 133.
Caterpillar, 9.
Catopsila pytliias, 289.
Caudal, 67.
Cecidomyia acaciae-longifoliae,

332.
Cecidomyia destructa, 333.
Cerambycidae, 259.
Ceratitis capitata, 369.
Ceratopogon molestes, 340.

Cerci, 15, 24.
Cercopidae, 383, 409.
Ceroplastes ceriferus, 394.
Chaerocampa celerio, 300.
CJmerocampa scrofa, 300.
Chalcidae, 112.
Chalcids, 109.
Chalcopterus, 245.
Cliaraa-es sempronius, 282.
Chelepteryx collesi, 306.
Cherry tree borer, 315.
Chinch bugs, 403.
Chironomidae, 340.
Chironomus, 340.
Chitin, 2.
CMamydopsis, 152,
Chrysopidae, 79, 81.
Chrysopa ramhuri, 81.
Chrysididae, 129.
Chrysomelidae, 255.
Chrysomelids, 258.
Chrysoloplms, 267.
Cicada, 50, 180, 307, 379.
Cicadidae, 379, 409.
Cicindela ypsilon, 247.
Cicindellidae, 247.
Cimicidae, 402.
Cisseis, 354 .
Claspers, 9.
Click beetles, 251.
Clivina, 246.
Clothes moths, 320.
Coccidae, 392, 395, 409.
Coccinella, 269.
Coccinellidae, 269, 386.
Cockroaches, 18, 21.
Cocoon, 10, 276
Codlin moth, 118, 315.
Collecting insect life, 412.

CoUembola, 15, 16.
Coleoptera, 228.
Commensalism, 115, 159.
Communities, 161.
Corixidae, 406, 409.
Coxa, 4, 21.
Crane flies, 341.
Craspedia coHaria, 352.
Creophilus, 250.
Crop, 7.

INDEX.

419

Crotan, 26.

Crickets, 18, 49, 57.

Crustacea, 1.

Cryptopliaga unipunctata, 315.

Cuckoo flies, 129.

Culex alhoaimulatus, 338.

Culex vigilax, 338.

CuUcidae, 334.

Cup moths, 10, 310.

Curculionidae, 266.

Cursoria, 18;, 21.

CurtUla, 58.

Cuspicona, 400.

Cut worms, 318.

Cyanide bottle, 413,

Cydister, 262.

Cyria imperialis, 254,

Dacus tryoni, 370,
Damsel flies, 67, 68, 73.
Danaida archippus, 279.
Banaida petilia, 280.
Danainae, 278.
Danaus, 279.
Darala ocellata, 305.
Day moths, 316.
Delias aganippe, 290.
Bellas nigrina, 290.
Demoiselles, 67.
Development of insects, 8.
Dexiidae, 353, 359.
Diamma, 176,
Biaplionia, 236.
Digestion, 7.
Digger scarabs, 237.
Diploptera, 186.
Diplopterids, 186.
Diplosis eucalypti, 333.
Diplosis par alls, 333.
Diptera, 100, 327, 373.
Biscolia, 173, 175, 240.
Dolichoderides, 157.
Doliclioderus, 157.
Doratifera vulnerans, 317.
Double drummer, 3 SI.
Dorylides, 155.
Dorylus, 155.
Dragon fly, 9, 64, 67.
Driver ants, 155, 156.

Drones, 217.
Drone fly, 351.
Dytiscidae, 261, 262.

Earwigs, 18, 39, 43, 249.

Eciton, 155.

Echthromorpha, 122.

Ectatomma, 134, 153.

Eggs of insects, 8.

Elateridae, 252.

Elephantodita pinguis, 54, 56.

Elytra, 228.

Emperor gum moth, 9, 307.

Enithares, 406.

Epilachna, 270.

Eriococcus, 393.

Eristalis ten ax, 351.

Erynnis spertliias, 295.

EtJion, 254.

Eulepsis, 282.

Eiimenidae, 187.

Eumenes, 190.

Euploca, 280.

Eupoecila, 236.

Eurymela, 137, 383.

Evania, 25.

Exeirus, 180.

Extatosoma, 36, 38. ,

Eyes of insects, 2.

Families, 11.
Femur, 4.
Fiddler beetle, 236.
Fire flies, 251.
Firewood beetle, 260.
Fish killers, 408.
Flea, 374.
Flesh flies, 353.
Flower beetles, 253.
Flying wings, 228.
Forage workers, 158.
Formica, 160.
Pormicidae, 133, 153.
Forficulidae, 39.
Fossores, 171,
Frenulum, 297,
Froghoppers, 157, 376.
Fruit flies, 369,
Fulgoridae, 390.
Fulgorid, 83.

420

INDEX.

Gall gnats, 332.
Gall making coccids, 396.
Gaster, 150.
GastropMlus, 366.
Genera, 366.
Geometridae, 321.
Gerris, 405.
Gills, 72.
Glenoleon, 86.
Glow worms, 251.
Glossina morsitans, 364.
Glossina palpalis, 332, 365,
Gnats, 340.
Golden ant, 160.
Grasshoppers, 18, 49.
Gravel ant, 157.
Greenheads, 153.
GrylUdae, 57.
Gryllus, 57.
Grub, 9.
Gyrinidae, ^dl.

Ealictus, 107, 203.
Halteres, 327.
Hawk moth, 11, 297.
Head of insect, 2.
Hearing, 53.
Heart, 6.
Helaeus, 245.
Helicopsijclie, 93, 94, 99.
Hemeroljiidae, 79.
Hemiptera, 376, 398, 409.
Hepialidae, 323.
Hesperidae, 295.
Heterocera, 274, 297.
Heterogyna, 109. 133, 153.
Heteroptera, 376. 377, 398.
Hemigompliiis, 100.
Hesthesis, 260.
Hessian fly, 333.
Hive bees, 212.
Homoptera, 377.
Honey bearers, 160.
Honey dew, 151, 384.
Honey ,i^rs, 159.
Honey scarabs, 238.
Horse stingers, 67.
House flies, 360.
Hover flies, 350.

Hydrometra, 405.
Hydrometridae, 405, 409.
Hydrophilidae, 261, 264.
Hydropsiiche, 99.
Hydroptidae, 99.
Hymen, 101.
Hymenoptera, 101, 171.
Hyperion, 246,
Hyperparasitism, 127.
Hypoderma, 366.
Hypoclinea, 144.
Hypolimnas, 283.

lalmenus, 159, 287.

Icaria, 193.

Icerya purchasi, 394, 395.

Iclineumon, 101, 109, 122,

Ichneumonidae, 121.

I da mis, 117.

Inquiline, 204.

Insecta, 1.

Insect classification, 11.

Insect metamorphosis, 8.

Insect, parts of, 1.

Insect senses, 7.

Integument, 13, 228.

Iridiomyrmex, 137, 157, 383.

Isoptera, 44.

Jewel beetles, 253, 281.
Junonia villida, 281.

Katydids, 53.
Killing bottle, 413.

Lahidura, 41, 42.

Labium, 3.

Labrum, 3.

Lace wings, 79, 83, 84.

Lady bird beetles, 269.

Lamellae, 232.

Lamellicorns, 232, 239.

Lamprima, 235.

Lantern flies, 390.

Larva, 9, 11.

Leaf cutting bees, 205. 208, 209.

Leaf-eating beetles, 255.

Leaf rollers, 313,

Lecanium, 393.

Leg of insect, 4.

Leis conformis, 269.

INDEX.

421

Lepidoderma, 175, 239.

Lepidoptera, 65, 274.

Lepisma, 15, 16.

Lerp insects, 388.

Leto stayceyi, 323.

Lestis, 207.

Leucania unipunctata, 320.

Lice, 408.

Ligula, 104.

Limacodes longerans, 312.

Limacodidae, 310.

Liparidae, 305.

Lipura, 16.

Locust, 19, 50.

Locustidae, 49, 53, 58.

Longicoms, 259.

Loopers, 9, 319, 320.

Lucanidae, 232.

Lucilia, 364.

Luciola, 251.

Lycaenidae, 287.

Lygaeidae, 403.

Macrogyra, 99.
Macrotoma, 260.
Maggot, 9, 10.
Malacodemiidae, 251.
Mandibles, 3, 103, 230.
Mandibulate, 64.
Mantidae, 27.
Mantids, 18, 19, 20.
March flies, 345.
Mask, 71.
Masaridae, 187.
Mason bees, 107.
Mason wasps, 129.
May flies, 77, 79.
Maxillae, 3, 65, 104.
Mealy bugs, 395.
MegacMle, 207.
Melanitis, 284.
Meloplwrus, 159.
Membracidae, 389, 409.
Mermeleon, 87.
Memieliontidae, 79, 86.
Mesothorax, 230.
Metamorphosis, 8, 15, 231.
Metathorax, 4.
Metura elongata, 303.

Microgaster, 126.

Micro-hymenoptera, 114, 117.

Midges, 340.

Mimicry, 152.

Mole cricket, 9.

Monomorium, 148, 157.

Monophlehus, 395.

Mosquitoes, 334.

Moths, 9, 274, 297.

Moult, 9.

Mouth parts of insects, 3.

Mud daubers, 103, 105, 171.

Musca domestica, 360.

Muscidae, 353, 355.

Mutilla, 173.

Mutillides, 173.

Myriapoda, 1.

Myrmecia tarsata, 137, 147, 153,

154.
MyrmecopMles, 151, 152.
Myrmicidae, 157.
Mytilaspis, 393.

Native bee, 222.
Nepa, 407.
Nepidae, 407, 409.
Nest workers, 158.
Neuroptera, 64, 79.
Noctuidae, 318.
Node, 133.
Nomads, 155.
Notonatolica, 96.
Notonecta, 99.
Notonectidae, 405.
Notonomus, 246.
Nymph, 11, 51, 72, 381.
Njnnplialidae, 278.
Nymphalinae, 278 281.

Ocelli, 2, 224, 379.
Odonata, 64, 67.
Odyncrus, 130, 190.
Oecophylla, 161.
Oestridae, 366.
Ocstris ovis, 368.
Ogyris, 159.
Ontlwphagus, 237, 238.
Onychophora, 1.
Opliion, 121.

422

INDEX.

Opius, 127.
Orders, 11.
Orthodera, 27.
Orthoptera, 18, 63.
Ovipositor, 2.

Palm scale, 293.

Palpi, 104.

Pa7iesthia, 26.

Paper wasp, 194, 198.

Papilio anactus, 292.

Papilio aegeus, 293.

Papilio macleayanus, 294.

Papilio sarpedon, 293.

Papilio Eichmondii, 294.

Papilionidae, 292.

Paragryllacris, 56.

Parasitic wasps, 121, 126.

Paropsis, 204.

Parthenogenesis, 385.

PassaUdae, 232.

Pellicle, 189.

Pelopaeus, 109, 181, 183.

Pentatomidae, 400.

Perga, 110, 112.

Periplaneta, 22.

Petalura, 68.

Petiolata, 109, 112, 121.

Petiole, 110.

Phalaenoides, 121, 316, 401.

Phasgonuridae, 53.

Phasmidae, 33.

Phasmids, 8, 18, 19.

Phoraca7itha, 260.

Phosphorescent, 251.

Phyllotocus, 239.

Phylloxera, 386.

Pieridae, 289.

Pimpla, 122.

Pinara despecta, 309.

Pincers, 42.

Plant-eating beetles, 259.

Plectoptera, 64, 77.

Pleistodonies, 115.

Plumose, 329.

Plusia, 122.

Plusia argentifera, 320.

Plusia verticellata, 325.

Plutella criioifcrarum, 325.

PodaUnus, 207.
Podocanthiis, 36, 37.
Polistes, 193, 194.
Pollen basket, 220.
Polyergus, 162.
PolyracMs, 137, 160, 383.
Polysosieria, 26.
Ponerides, 153.
Pompilidae, 176.
Pompilids, 109.
Praying insects, 27.
Praying mantis, 8.
Precis villida, 281.
Privet hawk moth, 9.
Proboscis, 361-.
Prolegs, 9.
Pronotum, 171.
Propodium, 106.
Prosopis, 204.
Protective coloration, 259.
Prothorax, 4.
Protoparce, 299.
Proioparce convolvuli, 299.
Pseudo tube, 105.
Psychidae, 301.
Psycliopsis, 82.
Psyllidae, 388.
Pterolielaeus, 245.
Pidex avium, 375.
Pulex irritans, 375.
Pulex serraticeps, 385.
Pulvillus, 4.
Pumpkin beetle, 257.
Pupa, 9, 10, 11.
Pupal skin, 10.
Puparium, 10, 331, 353, 370
Pterogophorus, 111.
Pygidium, 232.
Pyrameis itea, 281.

Banatra, 407.
Eed orange scale, 392.
Reduviidae, 402, 409.
Eepletes, 159.
Rhopalocera, 274.
miijssa, 122.
Eobber flies, 352.
Eose chafers, 236.
Eostrum, 352.

INDEX.

423

Eove beetles, 152, 249.
Euby wasps, 129.
Rutherglen bug, 403.
Butilia, 359.
Saltatoria, 18, 49.
Sand wasps, 176.
Sanguinea, 163.
Sarcopliaga, 52, 353.
Sarcophagidae, 353, 358.
Satyrinae, 278, 284.
Saw, 2.

Saw flies, 10, 101.
Scale insects, 376, 392.
Scape, 266.
Scarabs, 232.
Scarabaeidae, 232.
ScitaJa, 240.
Scoliidae, 172.
Scoliides, 173.
Scoliid fossores, 186.
Scolypopa Australis, 390.
Scutelhim, 400.
Selandria, 112.
Sessile, 109.
Sessiliventres, 109.
Setting box, 415.
Shield bugs, 400.
Silk worm, 309.
Silver fish, 13, 15, 16.
Siphanta acuta, 390.
Siphonaptera, 373.
Siphons, 384.
Skip jacks, 252.
Slave-making ants, 162.
Social bees, 205.
Social wasps, 192.
Soldier flies, 344.
Soldier workers, 158.
Solitary bees, 205.
Solitary wasps, 187.
Species, 11.
Sphegidae, 176.
Spliex, 180.
Sphingidae, 297.
Sphinx ligustri, 299.
Spiracles, 4, 13.
Spittle insects, 383.
Sprays, 52, 53.
Spring tails, 13, 15.

Squama, 329.
Stag beetles, 232.
Staphylinidae, 152, 249.
Stigmata, 4.
Stigmodera, 254.
Stick insects, 33.
Stomyx, calcitrans, 364.
Stone flies, 79.
Stratiomsrldae, 344.
Stretching board, 413.
Stridulating, 58.
Sub-imago, 78.
Synagris, 107, 191.
Syrphidae, 350.
Syrphus pucillus, 351.
Syrphus viridiceps, 351.

Tabanidae, 345.
TacMna, 353.
TacMnidae, 353.
Tarsus, 4.
Team, 305.
Tegmina, 18, 35.
Tegula, 101, 177.
Tela, 121.
Telepliorus, 251.
Tenehrio, 24:4:.
Tenodera, 31.
Tenebrionidae, 242.
Tenthredinidae, 109.
Terias smilax, 291.
Termitarium, 47.
Termites, 48.
Termitidae, 44.
Thorax, 4.
Thrips, 18.
Thynnides, 173.
Thynnus, 176.
Thj^sanoptera, 410.
Thysanura, 15.
Tibia, 4.

Tiger beetles, 247.
Tineidae, 324.
Tipulidae, 341.
Tracheae, 6, 72.
Treehopper, 54, 389.
Triclwptera, 65, 93.
Trigona, 222, 225.
Trof'hariter, 4.

424

INDEX.

Trypeta musa, 372.
Trypetidae, 369.

Tsiplione aheone, 285.
Tussock moths, 305.

Veins of wings, 4.
Velum, 219, 226.
Venation, 54.
Vespa, 193.
Vespidae, 186, 193.

Wasps, 101.
Water beetles, 261.
Water boatmen, 3.
Water bugs, 405.
Water skaters, 405.

Water scorpions, 407.
Water striders, 405.
Wax, 213.
Weevils, 266.
White ants, 44.
Whirligig beetles, 261.
Wood borers, 323.
Woolly aphis, 385.
Wrigglers, 73, 336.

Xylocopa, 207.
Xanthorrhoea, 207.

Zeuzera eucalypti, 323.
Zygoptera, 67, 68.

Errata.

Page.
16. Read ''Sub-order Collembola" instead of

''Sub-family Collembola."
175. Read "Lepidoderma" instead of "Lipido-

derma. ' '
285. Read "Eggs of Tsiplione abeone are laid"

instead of "Eggs are laid."
347. Read "Agrotis" instead of "Agrostis."
23. Plate 4. Read "Cockroach" instead of

"Coach roach."

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