THE

CiteravD l^ecor5 an5 lonrnal

LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

CCNCUCTJED E7 A. COMMITTEE OF THE ASSOCIATION.

VOLUME L

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PRINTED BY H. C. NEINSTEDT.

1844-45.

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LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

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NOVEMBER, J 844.

CONDUCTED

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CONTENTS.

THE RECORl! .\XD JOURNAL, . - -

COLLECTIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN COLLEGES,
CBLVESE MAGVETIC CHARIOT,

SUGGESTION OF A DISTINCTIVE IWtilE FOR THE U.
CAPTURING, KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS,
FACf; IV HF.TEOROLOGY, . . ■ -

- WANDERINGS AND ADVENTURES,
A r.ElTRR TO THE K.DITORS, - _ - -

TO CORRESPONDENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS,

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3
O

8
9
11
13
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16

One sheet, periodical — I'ostage, 100 miles Ij cent, over 100 miles 2J cents.
NEtNSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

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THE LITERARY

©If #m® MtM 9®MWm^^M

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. NOVEMBER, 1844. No. 1.

THE RECORD AND JOURNAL.

The Linn.ea.v Association of Pennsylvania College having
determined to establisli a Journal with the title which heads this article,
and appointed us its editor, it becomes our duty to sketch its proposed
character, unfold its objects, and bespeak for it the favor and support of
the public whom it proposes to interest, benefit and instruct. This
Periodical has its origin in the wants and enterprise of the young men
united as active members of the Association under whose auspices it
appears. The Linnsean Association of Pennsylvania College was or-
ganized a few months since under a Constitution, one of the fundamental
articles of which is, in effect, that "t/s aim shall be to promote among its
viemhers a love of nature and an admiration for the works of God, hy
cultivating the study of the various branches of JYatural Science and an
acquaintance ivith animated nature^ and hy making collections of speci-
mens in these de])artments, as also in that of Antiquities, natural and
artificial curiosities, arid the like.'''* This, of course, involved the idea
.^ and necessity of a IMuseum, or Cabinets for the preservation and exhibi-
^ tion of the various objects which it was proposed to collect, and, as is
^ usual and natural among young men in Literary Institutions, their
•5^ monthly meetings were to be enlivened and made profitable by Reports,
"^ Discussions and Essays upon the rich and varied objects of their inquiry.
To aid and direct them in tlioir inquiries they naturally looked to
those who had more experience and had made greater progress in these
pursuits than themselves. They therefore solicited the countenance and
counsel of those who had distinguished themselves in tliese pursuits or
were known to be interested in them, and, I)y electing them as Hono-
rary Members invited their co-operation. The response which they
received from our scientific men in various parts of the country exceeded
their most sanguine expectations. The Professor of Natural History in
Pennsylvania College, Dr. .John Ci. MoRUis, of Baltimore, Md., gener-
1 1

<■ THE RECORD AND JOURNAL.

ously consented to act as their President and to do every thing that he
could to encourage and assist them. Having ah-eady laid the founda-
tions of a Cabinet of Natural History in Pennsylvania College, which
the Trustees of that Institution very properly designated by his name,
he continued his exertions in the same direction for the Linna;an Asso-
ciation, and by his characteristic energy and liberality, and his extensive
acquaintance among men of kindred pursuits, a splendid Museum seem-
ed springing up as if by magic and rapidly filling and ornamenting one
of the largest rooms in the College edifice. The active members of the
Association, of course, imitated this noble example according to the ex-
tent of their ability, and that zealous Missionary of the Lutheran Church
in hidia, the Rev. C. F. Heyer, having even before his departure from
this country suggested the idea, continues to send by every opportunity
the most interesting productions of that quarter of the globe.

At the very commencement of its operations a "Committee of Pub-
lication" had been appointed for the purpose of giving to the press
those communications addressed to the Association, which might seem
worthy of public notice. But, in addition to this, it soon became evident
to the zealous and studious members of the Association, that they were
greatly in want of fundamental and elementary instruction in the various
departments of Natural Science, to which they were devoted, and the
fact of their having so many men of high scientific and literary attain-
ments connected with them, suggested the idea that they might obtain
from them precisely what they needed. It was with this object that the
publication of our periodical was undertaken, and having ascertained
that the number of subscribers necessary to sustain it could be obtained,
they committed its management to the '■'■Publisldng Committee.,'''' consist-
ing of one of the Professors of Pennsylvania College, a Professor in the
Medical Department located in Philadelphia, the Principal of a Select
Mathematical and Classical School in Gettysburg, and two Graduates of
Penns3dvania College, who have distinguished themselves by their zeal
and energy in this matter. The Chairman of this committee having
already had some experience as an Editor, they requested him to act in
that capacity, leaving the arrangement of the materials to his discretion.

As the title of our Magazine implies, it is to be a liicrarif as well as
a scicniific and practicul Journal of JVaturctl Science. The reason for
this is obvious. General literature has an interest for all the persons
whom we expect to reach, but especially for students in our Colleges
and higher schools of education, who, we expect, will make up the
great body of our readers. It shall be our object to make this depart-
ment of as varied a character as our limits, abilities and means admit.

NATURAL HISTORY', 6

But its scientific character is that by which we desire our periodical
to be distinguished. We expect able correspondents to unfold the prin-
ciples and make contributions to the advancement of Natural Science in
all its various departments. We have already enli.sted in our interest
gentlemen perfectly familiar with Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy, Bota-
ny, Zoology, Ornithology, Entomology, and the various connected arts
and sciences, and we have a reasonable assurance that they will make
our paper the medium of their communication with those for whom they
write. And from the character of these gentlemen and their knowledge
of the design of our Magazine we expect them to give us not merely
the very best and latest views of the subjects which they present, but
likewise to do this in the clearest and most popular manner. Our pre-
sent limits do not admit of very long articles, and we are not, therefore,
afraid that our correspondents will become prolix whilst they avoid
being superficial. And if we fulfd the expectations which we hereby
excite, we hope that our Magazine will soon meet with such encourage-
ment as to justify the Association in considerably enlarging the amount
of matter contained in it.

Once more, we hope that what we have said of the literary and
scientific character which we propose giving our publication, will not
prevent intelligent readers, or those who desire to become intelligent,
but make no claims to literature or science, from taking and perusing our
periodical. As we have intimated above, we desire to give our Journal
a popular cast and equally intend it for the pleasure and profit of such
persons. We hope to point out the importance of Natural Science to
our farmers and mechanics, to interest and give new pleasures and pro-
fitable pursuits to the young in their hours of relaxation as well as
assistance in the prosecution of their studies and the performance of their
duties. We also expect to present useful suggestions as well to the
townsman who cultivates his eighth of an acre of garden as to the farmer
who drives his plow over a hundred.

With these hints as to the plan and prospects of our work we submit
it to the indulgence of a liberal and enlightened public, commending it
especially to the care of our literary and scientific friends, who, we hojje,
will co-operate with us in making it a usei'ul and respectable Journal of
the kind which it professes to be.

COLLECTIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN COLLEGES.
Most of the collegiate instilulions of our country which enjoy any
celebrity, are well furrishcd with jdulosophical ai)i)aratus and libraries,

4 NATURAL HISTORY.

but very few can as yet exhibit a well ordered or extensive cabinet of
general Natural History. Several have very large, magnilicent and val-
uable collections of minerals, but we do not know one which expends
money or feels deeply concerned in establishing zoological museums.
No wonder that natural history is not considered as a necessary or even
useful branch of education, and that in very few institutions provision
is made for full courses of lectures on the subject. This I regard as
a defect, and think it should be remedied as soon as possible. We
however, in this country should not complain, for even as late as 1841,
there was no professor of Zoology in the ancient and munificently
endowed University of Oxford. Botany and Geology have been long
taught in our colleges, and I see no reason why Zoology should be so
almost universally neglected. The public mind needs to be awakened
to the advantages and pleasures of the study of natural history in gene-
ral, but this cannot be done, until our youth are properly taught the
science in our schools and colleges. On the continent of Europe where
the science of education is better understood than in any other section
of the world, natural history is taught in most of the schools, and a
cabinet scientifically arranged is very properly regarded as an essential
part of the materiel of the institution. Dr. Bache who inspected 278
Schools in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Belgium, Holland, Swit-
zerland, and the principal Slates of Germany, says "that in the great
majority of the continental schools, Natural History forms a regular part
of the course of instruction and usually occupies from two to four hours
in the week." No wonder that youth trained in such schools acquire a
fondness for this most delightful pursuit, and become capable of writing
valuable works on the subject, and developing the mysteries of nature —
no wonder that such a people purchase books on natural history and
thus encourage the laborious student, and the fearless explorer of nature
in unpropilious climates.

I am well aware that most of our institutions are too poor to support
a Zoological professor or to spend money in the purchase of a collection.
But perhaps it would not be over-burdening one of the professors of
otlier branches to direct him to qualify himself for giving instruction in
this department at least twice a week, and as to the collection, has not
every institution friends enough who would clieerfully contribute various
objects so that at least, a nucleus of a cabinet might be formed.' Not a
few of the students and some of the professors or trustees have sea-
faring friends whose interest miglit be enlisted to bring home from foreign
countries many articles of value and beauty. I know one college which
has a very rcspcclablc cabinet which has been altogether contributed by

CHINESE MAGNETIC CHARIOT. O

commanclcrs and officers of ships sailing to foreign ports. But it is not
foreign products that are most desirable — our own natural histoiy espe-
cially should be cultivated by us — our own quadrupeds, birds, reptiles,
fishes, insects, shells, &.C., &c., should be collected with zeal and ma-
turely studied.

I hope that the interest awakened in this pursuit in Pennsylvania
College will not speedily languish. A respectable beginning in the for-
mation of a cabinet has been made and large and valuable additions may
shortly be expected. The establishment of the Li.vnjean Society au-
gurs well for the promotion of natural history in the College, It is the
first association of the kind ever established in any college in this coun-
try which undertook to publish a Journal of Natural History. It is a
most commendable enterprise and reflects unspeakable credit on the
young gentlemen themselves and the institution with which they are
connected.

It is hoped the members will continue to be industrious in the col-
lection of objects among tneir friends at home, and lay every person
under contribution who has any thing curious in nature or art.

It would be an interesting and useful pursuit for the membei-s to col-
lect all the objects of natural history afforded by Adams County, or as
naturalists call it, to collect a Fauna of that geographical section. This
could be done with a little perseverance and it would be a most healthy
employment. Some of the znembers are already not unskilled in taxi-
dermy, and others 1 happen to know, are dexterous in capturing zoolo-
gical prey. Let the shells and fishes of Marsh Creek and the mountain
streams be collected before winter — let the reptiles be taken before they
enter on their hybernating torpor — let the insects be captured before
they perish or seek their retreats from the cold — let the birds be shot
before they all migrate to more genial climes — let the quadrupeds be
caught at all seasons — and in a sliort time an interesting collection of
Che Natural History of Adams will have been secured. When it is once
known that such an enterprise is in progress, many objects will be sent
to the Association by gentlemen in the country, or by amateur .sportsmen,
who will take pleasure in contributing to the rabhiet. J. G. M.

CniNERR M.\r;XETIC CHARIOT.

BY I'ROF. E. FOr.KMAN, OF KALTIMORE.

The directive property of the magnet was first noticed in a mineral
substance called the va/ivc magnri or the loadslonc^ which is an ore of
iron consisting chielly of the two oxides of that mclul, together with a

6 CHINESE MAGNETIC CHARIOT.

small portion of Silex and Alumina. It is usually of a dark grey hue
and metallic lustre, and is found distributed generally over all the coun-
tries of the globe. Its name is said to be derived from that of a province,
where it was first noticed by the ancient Greeks, in Asia Minor, termed
Magnesia. To the honor of discovering the very useful and peculiar
property of this mineral, many nations have preferred claims, which were
all in their turn allowed to be superior, until some new fact in magnetic
history set up a new claimant. England, Italy, France, Norway, Arabia
and China have asserted their riglit at different periods of time, but set-
ting aside all others the honor was awarded, till within a few years, to
Italy, and most treatises on the subject were content with stating that the
first person to whom the magnet was known, and by whom it was used
to direct the course of a vessel, was Flavio Gioia of Amalfi, Naples, and
the date given for the discovery is 1302. More lately the Chinese and
Norwegians have set aside the claim of Gioia and offered evidence to
shew that the honor belongs to the children of their soil. As our limits
Avill not allow^ us to discuss the facts in this case, we will briefly state
that it is generally understood that these two nations are independent
discoverers of the same fact, though, the Norwegians are long posterior
to the Chinese in the recorded fact of the use of the Magnet. Among
the northern nations of Europe it is known as Leiterstein or leading
stone; with the Chinese the common name is Thsu-chy, the love stone.
The latter people have other names by which it is known which are in-
dicative of its properties, as Tchu-chy the directing stone, and Hy-thy-chy
the stone which snatches up Iron.

Since the Chinese are now usually considered the rightful discovereis
of the magnet it will not be amiss to state how their claims were first
made rightfully evident to Europeans. This has been accomplished by
M. Klaproth, a very eminent oriental scholar and chemist. Having fully
investigated the subject, being one of the few Europeans who could do
it, by means of liis extensive acquaintance with oriental languages, he
published the result of his researches in 1835 in an essay entitled '■'■LeI/re
a M. Lc Baron A. Humholdt, siir V invention dc la BoussoJc?'' (A letter
to Baron Humboldt concerning the invention of the compass.) Among
other works cited by M. Klaproth is a Chinese Natural History bearing
a date equivalent to 1117 of our era in whicli not only the polarity of
the needle is described, hut also ils declination. This latter property it
will be remembered, was re-discovered by Columbus in 1192. The
Chinese author states 'Hhat when a steel point is touched with a load-
stone it acquires the property of pointing to the south" (a point of the
compass wiiich is considered by the Chinese us tlicir Kiblck or sacred

CHINESE MAGNETIC CHARIOT.

aspect) "nevertheless it points a little towards the east and docs not point
due south, therefore mariners take a thread of raw cotton which they
attach to the needle by a bit of wax, of the size of a grain of mustard
seed, and suspend it in a place where there is no wind. Then the needle
points constantly to the south ; if the needle be placed in a slender reed
it still points southward with a declination towards the east." The
amount of declination did not exceed four degrees, which is too nice an
observation to be made with a newly discovered instrument, the inference
is accordingly, that they must have known and used it for a long time.

A still more remarkable proof
of the claims of the Chinese to
the honor of discovery is found
in the history of the magnetic
chariot, the accompanying fig-
ure of which is copied from the
33rd volume of the great Japa-
nese Encyclopedia. The figure
is made of a light material, fix-
ed on a pivot, and its finger in
which the magnet was inserted
invariably pointed South. It
was used to direct the march of
armies, the route of ambassa-
dors, religious processions, and
other ceremonies in which the
priests established the proper
point of the heavens where the
Kibleh was located. The fol-
lowing extract from the Chinese
work of Gaubil mentions one
of its supposed inventors.
"The celebrated Tcheon-Kong is considered as the inventor of the
Compass. It is said that the wisdom of his administration, under Tching-
Vang^ having become known to all nations, a king of a southern coun-
try sent ambassadors to Tching-Vang to make his submission and pay
his tribute. Tcheon-Kong had a car constructed, upon which was pla-
ced a human figure, the right hand of which always pointed to the
South. This car was destined to take the ambassadors back to their
country ; it was called TcM non Iche, that is to say, a car indicaiing
ihr Soulh ; and this is the name whicli the Chinese now give to the
compass.

8 DISTINCTIVE XAME FOR THE V. S.

BUGGESTION OF A DISTIIVCTIVE NAME FOR THE UNITED STATES.

BY PROF. S. S. HALDEMAN, MARIETTA, PA.

The fact that our country is without a distinctive appellation has
been discussed from time to time, though not with sufficient earnestness
to induce the '•'•American^'' Congress to act upon it. Yet ours is not the
only country without a name, the British Islands being in the same pre-
dicament; and if we cannot appropriate the name "American" to our-
selves alone, the native of the Island of Jersey is nothing more than a
Jerseyman, although a Scotsman may be a Briton. The impropriety of
giving us an exclusive riglit to the term "American" is so evident, that
that of "Anglo-American" is frequently substituted. This however is
even more erroneous, as it must include the Americans of French descent
in Louisiana and Canada, those of the Dutch in New York, and the
German population (amounting to about one-third of the whole) of
Pennsylvania and Ohio.

This country is sometimes called Colu^ibia, a name which has be-
come inapplicable since its adoption by one of the South American re-
publics. Frcelonia^ which is supposed to be derived from frecdmn, has
its advocates, but the choice of it would justly subject the country to
ridicule, as the word is a hybrid. Its true form, according to the sense-
is Liberia, but this is also inadmissible.

If a name could be selected which would have a definite meaning,
and could be readily adopted by foreign nations, it would answer better
than any local or Indian appellation, and such a one, connected with
classical associations, would be at once appreciatetl at home and abroad.

In a geogi-aphical point of view Asia is always considered as lying
towards the east, and America in the west ; and the ancients believed in
the existence of a country west of the Atlantic, this ocean being named
from Atlas the brother of Hesper or Hesperus, the father of the Hespe-
rides. The evening" star was called Hesperus as appearing in the west_
and the Atlantic was sometimes called the Hesperian sea. Hesperus had
a daughter named Hesperia, married to Atlas, and their daughters were
the Hesperides, whose country was in the extreme west towairds sun-
set, whence they were also called the daughters of Nox.

The Greeks sometimes called Italy Hesperia, and the Romans gave
the same name to Spain or Hispania, on account of the locstern position
of these countries respectively. Now the United States lie directly west
of the civilized nations of antiquity, and are consequently pre-eminently
entitled to the classic name Hesperia; a name not now in use for any
country, and if it ho thought to apply to the whole continent, it cannot
be inappropriate when restricted to the oldest and most influential of the

CAPTURIXG AXD PRESERVI^fG I.VSECTS. 9

American republics. Hesperus, the <Totl of the West, acts a part iu Bar-
low's poem the ColumltiaJ, and /tcspcrlan has a place in pjiglish dic-
tionaries with the definition — '■'■Situated at the tvest ; an inhahitant of a
icestern country.^''

CAPTURING, KILLING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.

Frequent inquiries have been made of me as to the best mode of
collecting, killing and preserving insects, and I have thought it well to
give a few directions on the subject in the Record and Journal.

Beetles, that is, hard shelled insects ( Coleoptera, in scientific lan-
guage) should be put in small bottles, various sizes of which, the col-
lector should have with him. The bottles should have a piece of wrap-
ped paper in them to which the insects may cling, and to prevent them
jostling too rudely against each other, and thus breaking off their legs
and antennae. In each vial there should be dropped a little ether, which
in a short time stupefies or kills the beetles. The vials should be tightly
corked, so as to prevent their liability of coming out in the pocket.
This will answer for the larger beetles, but for smaller species, the vial
should have a quill passing through the cork, and going a considerable
way below it, and through this quill the insects must be dropped. It,
of course, must be closed by a small stopper.

For capturing butterflies, different instruments must
be employed. First, the forceps with handles like
those of scissors, with holes for the linger and thumb
and two circular or octagonal frames of iron or strong
Avood, on which bobbinet is stretched and sewed to
the frame. This instrument is used also for taking
flies (Dlptcra) and wasps, bees, &c., ( Hi/menoptera.)
It may also be employed for catching dragon-flies
(JYcuroptcra.) As soon as insects of these orders are
taken by the forceps, a pin must be stuck through the
thorax before the forceps are opened. The insects are then taken out,
and pinned in the inside of your luit until you get home.

Another instrument for taking butterflies
is a net, made of gauze or bobbinet and allach-
ed to a stick four or five feet long. The net
itself should be 16 inches in diameter at tlie
top and about 24 long. This is preferred by
some and many species are so wild (hat they
cannot be got to close enough to be taken by

10 CAPTURING AND PRESEnVIXG IXSECTS.

the forceps. When tliey are taken in this net, it must be instantly grasp-
ed above the butterfly (whicli is usually at the bottom ) to prevent its
escape. The insect may be pressed between the thumb and finger under
the breast, before it is pinned.

Another instrument is the water net, made like the preceding, or in-
deed, the preceding may answer the same purpose, but it is best to have
two. With it, all water insects are captured ; the water strains oil'
through the net and the insects remain at the bottom.

A lighter net of similar form, made of linen is used for sweeping the
grass, on which immense numbers of minute insects are always to be
found ; the weeds on the banks of rivers are exceedingly productive of
insects, M'hich can be taken only in this manner. In walking through
meadows it will be found a good plan to hold this net in such a position
that it may continually strike the projecting blades of grass. The bag
should be examined every few rods by gently turning it inside out; have
your vial in one hand and scoop into it every insect you desire to keep.

Insects are also found on flowers, imder stones, bark, logs ; in the
carcases of dead animals, in living or putrefying Fungi ; in all kinds of
dung and rubbish ; in sand and gravel pits ; in moss ; in mud ; in ■water,
and frequently flying in the air.

Hoic to kill insects. — As soon as you got home, take out your vials
containing tlie beetles, and immerse vial and all (without removing the
insects) into hot water. They will be dead almost instantly. Then
empty them on a newspaper and if you have time or are not too tired,
stick your pins through the right wing cover (elytron) near the should-
er. Let those you intend for your collection, dry off well before you
put them in the drawers, but the duplicates may be put away in your
boxes at once.

Butterflies must be treated diflerently. I have found a solution of
oxalic acid the best and most expeditious means of killing them. Dis-
solve a little of the acid in water — cut a quill into the form of a tooth
pick — take hold of the butterfly so as to bring the wings together be-
tween the thumb and finger of your left hand — dip the pen into the acid
and insert it in the breast of the insect inclining it towards the head and
it will instantly die. Sometimes this must be repeated, but if dexterously
done, one insertion will sufllce. The insect must then be stretched on
a board with a groove in it wide and deep enough to receive the body
and the pin — the wings must be expanded — strips of paper pinned over
them to keep them thus expanded until they are dried, which will re-
quire a few days, and then they should be put in the cabinet. A better
in.sti-ument than the pen is a glass tube of extremely narrow diameter

FACTS I.V METEOROLOCa'. 11

with one end drawn to a very fine point. Plunge this into the .sohilion
— a portion of it will rise- into the tube by capillary attraction — then
insert it into the breast of the insert and blow into the other end, and
your butlerlly is dead. Otlier soft insects may be treated in the same
way.

How to preserve insects. — All collections are subject to llie depreda-
tions of other little insects (Dermestidac^ Jlnthrenidac., &jC.) Their
presence may be detected by a little pile of fine dust on the bottom of
the box just below the insect they have attacked. This insect must be
inmiediately taken out and immersed into hot w^ater or strong alcohol,
if a beetle, and the depradator will be destroyed. If a butterfly, alcohol
may be dropped into the hole which has been bored into its body, or
the villainous thief may be shaken out. Some recommend pieces of
camphor in the boxes and turpentine dropped on cotton, l)ut if you keep
your insects in closely fitting boxes and examine them once a week or
so, }-ou can keep your collection clean. Put no insects in your cabinet
received from correspondents, until you are sure that they are not infes-
ted with these little pests; or you may introduce a swarm of ravagcrs
which it will require months to get rid of.

I shall resume this subject in the next number. J. G. M.

FACTS IN METEOROLOGY.

BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

1. W hat is Meteorology ? It is that branch of JSatural Philoso-
phy, which takes notice of all the changes which occur in the atmos-
pliere. From an extensive collection of facts, it endeavors to derive the
laws which govern these changes.

2. .fire the atmospheric changes governed hy any fixed, laws? Just
as much so as any other material phenomena. The Earth has its laws
of rotation and annual revolution round the Sun, the Planets have theirs,
and the Moon, though apparently very irregular in its motions, has hers;
so also have storms, and clouds, and rains, and sun-shine theirs. The
phases of the Moon, and the prominent facts relative to her monthly
revolution round the Earth have long been known by tlie mass of man-
kind ; and the knowledge of these has always been turned to profitable
account. The most prominent facts also concerning the changes in the
atmosphere, such as the changes attendant upon Summer and Winter,
Spring and Autunm, have always been known, and men have sought to
acconunodalf; themselves to them. But the minor movements in (lie
lunar revolution.-:', which at first a]»pearcd irregular and lawless, have

\1S FACTS IN METEOROLOGY.

all by puliciit observation, been ascertained and reduced to their respec-
tive laws, and have proved of the highest advantage to mankind. The
same may be expected in reference to those atmospheric changes, which
have hitherto appeared, to many, so far beyond the reach of human in-
vestigation. We must first ascertain the facts, and then endeavor to de-
duce the laws. This is our present object.

3. But even if we can ascertain the latcs of the weather, wiU it he
of any advantage to us to knoio them? hi the first place, the possession
of such knowledge will be of as much importance to us, as that of any
other species, viz. its own intrinsic interest, hi the second place, it is
important, because it may be turned to the best practical account. It
concerns our comfort and the business of every day life. We esteem as
valuable a knowledge of every thing which concerns the nature of the
different kinds of soil, the best manner of cultivating and rendering it
productive, and the times of depositing in it the seed, because we derive
from it our bread, and most of the comforts of life. But in calling forth
this very productiveness of the soil, the atmosphere plays a most im-
portant part. Besides this, as it is the element in which we live, the
health and comfort of our bodies, and our business arrangements are
materially affected by the various conditions of the atmosphere. Surely
then a knowledge of its laws cannot be useless.

4. Would it then be considered as any thing remarkable, if, upon
close observation it shouhl appear, that, if on some particular day of the
week it should be cloudy and perhaps there should be rain or snow, the
same kind of weather should occur in the next week on the same day,
only a little later in the day, and so on in the next, from month to month ;
the day gradually changing to the next succeeding, and that to the next,
ik.c. ? In reply, it may be said that it is somewhat remarkable that the
existence of such a fact, thougli not entirely unknown, should have so
generally escaped attention. It jias often been remarked as something
singular, that three or four successive Sundays, or Wednesdays, or Fri-
days, for example, should be cloudy, or rahiy days; but it is equally
singular that the frequent occurrence of such facts did not suggest the
inquiry whether these might not be only particular cases belonging to
a great law of atmospheric change. To make this appear probable, let
lis take some examples. And here it is importani to remark that the
law, which if it exist at all, must be general, is subject to more apparent
exceptions during Sunmicr than Autumn, Winter or Spring. The ex-
amples, as beiug of a more decided character, will be selected from Au-
lunm, for surli will be more easily appreciated by those whose acquaint-
ance with Aleleorologv is but limited.

ADVENTUKES IN SOITHEKX AFKICA. 13

Oil Wediiesuay tlie 18th iilt., thcic was rain at Gettysburg, as also on
the next Wednesday the 25tli, when it continued lar into the night.
During the following week the rain occurred on Thursday late in the
day; during the next week on Friday early in the morning; and during
the week following that, on Thursday and Friday, but extending later
into Friday than in the week previous.

Again; on Saturday evening the 21st of September ultimo, it rained;
then again on Saturday and Sunday the 28th and 29th, the rain extend-
ing over Sunday until near night. During the next Saturday in the
evening, Sunday, and early on Monday, the 5th, 6th, and 7th inst., the
sky was more or less overcast with clouds without any rain; on Mon-
day the 14th inst., the rain began at 6| o'clock a. m.; and on Monday
the 21st at 7 p. m.

These examples have been given, not because they are at all peculiar
or the most remarkable that could have been given, for the same regu-
larity of succession can be perceived throughout the whole year, but
because they were recent and just at hand.

5. We are therefore, if these things be facts, justified in inferring, (1)
that changes of weather correspondirg to each other occur at intervals
of about seven days and a half; the day of change in each month being
about two days later in the week, than in the preceding month; (2) that
there are generally two such corresponding changes in each week. What
has been said in reference to cloud, rain or snow, is tiue also in reference
to fair weather. Knowing then the state of the weather, especially the
time of cliange in one week, we may form a tolerably correct conjecture
with regard to that of the next two succeeding weeks. Thus if it have
been rainy or clear on some particular day as Wednesday of one week,
there is a strong probability that it will be rainy or cJear^ as the case
may have been, the next Wednesday, allowance being always made for
its occurrence from nine to twelve hours later than in the preceding week.

An account of some other facts connected with this subject, and an
inquiry into the question how far the Moon may have an agency in pro-
ducing these alternations of weather must be deferred to another time,

Gettysburg, October 22nd, 1814.

STEKD.VIAN's WANDERIXGS and AnVENTUR]:S.

" lyandcriujis and Mvcnlura in the Interior of Southern ^fru:a. 15v A.ndukw Stkedman." 2 vols.
I.onil'iii.

'I'his work is the result of the travels of the author, during the years
J830 and 183], and abounds in interesting and instructive incitk'uts. It

14 ADVENTURES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.

can not be compared witli jMofliits work on the same subject, eillicr in
the extent, or miiuiteness ol' its detail. Neither does it enter so deeply
into the character and habits of the numeious tribes of Calirs and Hot-
tentots which wander over Sonth Africa. MolFat resided in the midst of
the people, as a Missionary, for twenty years, and therefore was qualified
in the highest degree, to exhibit every thing of interest relating to them.
Steedman, as the title of his work indicates, was a wanderer, a naturalist,
in pursuit of new specimens of the productions of Nature to add to the
collections already formed. Keeping in view the grand object of his
wanderings, and succeeding in an eminent degree in adding to our stock
of knowledge in natural history, he has in addition confirmed the state-
ments of other travellers, and added his testimony to the great value of
the missionary effort among the benighted and debased Cafirs. As a
specimen of his style, and at the same time to make known a new animal,
one of which Mr. Steedman succeeded in obtaining, we will transcribe
his notice of the '■'■Ci/nictis StccdmaniU'' "This singular little quadruped,
hitherto unknown to Zoologists, was recently described at the Zoologi-
cal Society, under the name of Cynlctis Stcccbnanii. It belongs to the
family of Vivcrra ; but in its zoological character differs so essentially
from all described species of that family, and presents charactei's so pecu-
liar and appropriate, as to form the type of a new and distinct genus, of
which at present it is the only known species. The teeth are similar to
those of civets, paradoxures and other viverra in general, but the feet
are completely digitigrade, the heel highly elevated, and the toes five on
tlie fore, and only four on the liind feet, characters in which it differs
essentially from all these animals and which approximates it more nearly
to the dogs and foxes. The generic name Cynictis, from two greek
words, Kvut^ a dog or fox, and ly.rn^ a weasel or ferret, is intended to
express this combination of characters, signifying an animal intermediate
between a dog or fox and a ferret. It is found in die eastern parts of the
colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and in Caf!raria ; burrows in the
earth, and lives upon small animals."

Mr. Steedman endeavours to maintain the position that the Gems-bok
(Jlnlcluj)e OryXi Pallas.) is the Unicorn of antirpiity. This position
seems to have been admitted by all the naturalists who have investigated
the origin of the fabulous Unicorn. The Oryx is somewhat larger than
an Ass, with cloven hoofs, very long straight horns, a short erect mane
of which the hair is reversed, a light sandy-brown color, often approach-
ing to pale-grey with shining black marks on the cheeks and face, and a
black switch fail. Now this union of the Horse and Goat pre.scnls to us
precisely tlu; charaticrislics ol' llu; Unicorn as given I)y both ancient and

A I.ETTEll TO THE EDITORS. 15

niotlorn writer.^ and paiiUciN, with tlio cxccplioii of the position of llic
liorn. Tiie change then, from tlie two to the one liorn, might easily bo
made, in representations of the animal. It is stated that the fust idea of
llie Unicorn arose from the representation of an Oryx, drawn in profde
on the monuments of ancient Persia and Egypt, and that the sculptors of
the figures, being ignorant of perspective, could represent only a single
horn in their profile. These figures, being afterwards described, gave
origin to the Unicorn. In addition to this, the Oryx is a most dangerous
animal to attack. He defends himself with great resolution, and with
such success, that the Lion dreads the encounter, and when irresistibly
compelled to the attack, his life often pays the forfeit, for not unfrequent-
ly both combatants have been found dead together from mutual wounds.

II. L. P>.

a letter to the editors.
Messrs. Editors,

I have been informed that the Students of Pennsylvania College have
lately turned out €71 masse and constructed a substantial road from the
college edifice to the village of Gettysburg, about one eighth of a mile
in length. 1 like to see young men "mend their ways," and this enter-
prise certainly shows that they are for reform, it is said that the road
to science is rugged, and I remember well when it was true in regard to
science taught in Pennsylvania College, especially to those prosecutors
of it who boarded in town, for a more stony, rough, shin-breaking path
could not well be conceived, particularly of a dark night. But now
from all accounts there is a royal road leading to Minerva's Temple, and
may it be daily trodden by hundreds of ambitious youth.

Every thing outside as well as inside of a college should be render-
ed attractive and inviting. The avenues leading to it should be unen-
cumbered and solid; the walks around it should be tasteful and elegant;
there should be bowers and groves; gardens and flowers; summer houses
and rustic seats; a rural aspect should be given to the whole campus and
surrounding grounds. To eflect something like this should be the next
clTort of tlie Students, who have ;drcady given such suhslantlal evidence
ol' their engineering skill. Let tlioui establish a tree planting association,
and they will confer a favor on posterity. J^on nobis solum, should be
their motto. It i.s said that he who makes a blade of grass grow where
none grew before is a benefactor of his race, and surely he who plants
a tree where none grew before, is entitled to the same distinction. I
know that eflbrts have been made to ruralise that cnmjms, but we sliould
not despair. Look at the dwelling house a little to the east of the Col-

16 A LETTER TO THE EDITORS, &C.

le^e and sec how luxuriantly tlio trees thrive there. Look at the Semi-
nary and see how emhowered it is in most refreshing foliage.

I love to see a college environed with shade trees — it is so academic.
A o-rove seems almost essential to a literary institution. It is classic and
should be cultivated with unceasing diligence. It is this that renders the
Romish Schools so atti active to pupils — there is so much sylvan ele-
gance about them — so many shady walks — so many inviting rural re-
treats in the hours of relaxation. All these appendages to an institution
vender a residence there charming — a strong attachment for the place is
excited — the taste is refined, and many temptations to grosser pursuits

arc prevented.

" The warbling woodland,

The pomp of groves and garniture of fields,"

always have a subduing tendency and their influences should be thrown
around every school of learning. I know that Pennsylvania College is
still in its infancy and it cannot be expected that much attention could
be paid to beautifying the grounds in the vicinity. 1 know it will require
years to accomplish it, l)ut let a beginning be made and the eflbrt perse-
vered in. 1 am of opinion that the Linnaean Society should take this
department under its special care. Linne was a distinguished botanist and
arboriculturist, and in honor of the illustrious name which the Society
has assumed, let its efforts be directed to this object. If the laudable ex-
ertions heretofore put forth have partly failed, it should not deter the So-
ciety from renewing them until they have that Campus in the front and
rear of the College well planted with healthy and flourishing shade trees.
The road which has been constructed by the Students should be ap-
propriately designated. There is at Rome a via Jlj^jna, in Switzerland a
via Mala^f in Jerusalem a via Dolorosa, and our road should henceforth
and forever be called the via Bciicdicla, in honor of Mr. Benedict, the
enero-etic young gentleman, who, I am told, was the principal projector,
superintendent and workman in its construction. It is an appropriate
name, for it is a Messed or happy road, and I am sure the benediction of
licaven will rest on the exertions of the Students who so nobly volun-
teered their personal aid in its construction. Yours respectfully,

RCSTICUS.

To CoRRESPOXDEXTS AXD CoxTRiBUTORS. Gentlemen favoring us
with Communications, will please forward them at the latest, by the
middle of the monili pi-eccding that in which they wish them to appear.
We feel greatly indi^bipcl to those wliosc kindness has enabled ns to make
this number, as wi^ liope the whole work will be, entirchj original.

|)enn05toama College, ©cttijsbutg, |)a.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS. \

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D. — Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, Sfc. ',

Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, ^c. <

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chemistry, SfC. <

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, ^c. ',

M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department. '

Rev. CJiAs. A. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology. ;

Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

Wiw. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.

Mr. H. R. Geiger.— IVac/ier of Writing. ' ;

Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur- •
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta- {
tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that !
of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in- I
struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course
is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.

The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
require. They attend at least two recitations a day. Church and Bible Class on the
Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of
any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
in the College Edifice, special cases excepted. ■

The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
session, $61 87| : for the summer session, .f 41 87i. Washing, $10 00 ; and Wood, :'
$3 00. Total expense, #116 75. " '

\ There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
April and September, and each of five weeks continuance. <

The winter session commenced on the 24th inst., with the accession of about :
twenty Students in the Freshman Class, admitted at the close of the summer ses- ,'
sion, and a respectable number of applicants for admission into the Preparatory
Department.

' ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ;

It is our intention to acknowledge upon our Journal, the various articles that
may from time to time be presented to the Linn^an Association. The Cura- ;
TORS not having been informed of our intention indue seasoh cannot furnish us !
with a list of what has heretofore been received, in time for this No., but we hope •
to have a pretty complete one for our next. We therefore give only those most i
recently received, hoping that the liberality of our friends will enable us to make a ;
large monthly report of this kind. ';

Received from Rev. C. F. Heyer, Lutheran Missionary at Guntoor in the Telugu
country, India, a box containing shells, a finely preserved specimen of the hoe-fish, '
a bronze idol of Swamee, specimens of writing upon palm-leaf, some memorials of,
Schwartz, the first Protestant Missionary to India, &,c. \

From Rev. W. A. Passavant, of Pittsburg, Pa., a box containing minerals, \
fossils, Indian curiosities, &c. i

Terms of the Record and Journal. 07ie Dollar per annum
in advance. Postmasters will frank and remit subscriptions.

Address — '■'■Editors of the Record and Journal., Gettysburg., Pa.^''

VOLUME I.]

[number 2.

LITERARy RECORD AND JOURNAL

©f tijf jCiniuuun ^aattciation uf Pcnnsi^lUrtiiia (Cinttrjjc.
DECEMBER, 1844.

COXPUCTED

nu a committee of tixt ^ssoc(atton-

CONTENTS.

PHOTOGRAPHY, ------

REARING OF INSECTS FOR CABINETS,
ENTOMOLOGY FOR FARMERS, _ - -

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS IN NATURAL HISTORY,
FACTS FOR MECHANICS, - - - -

ENGLISH PHONOGITAPHY, NO. I. - -

HOW IS .SALT PROCURED ? - - - -

FACTS IN METEOROLOGY, NO. II.
COMMENCEMENT OP PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE,
OU'R COTEMPORARIES, _ - - -

THE LINNJEAN JOURNAL, - - - -

17
19
21

23
24
2o
27
29
32
32
32

One sheet, periodical— Postage, 100 miles li cent, over 100 miles 2i cents.

NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. DECEMBER, 1844. No. 2.

ON THE APPLICATION OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASSA TO PHO-
TOGRAPHIC PURPOSES.

BT SPENCER F. BAIRD, OT CARLISLE, PA.

Among the Chemical agents used in the various branches of Photo-
graphy, the Bichromate of Potassa, recommends itself as being the sim-
plest of all, in its practical application to the purpose of copying such
objects as can be readily laid flat on paper, and covered with a glass
frame. This was first indicated by Mungo Ponton, in the Edinburgh
New Pliilosophical Journal, and was copied into Sillinian's .Journal,
vol. 37, page 361. The trouble of preparing the paper with this salt,
of making the impression, and of fixing it afterwards, is much less than
that of any other mode, and the great cheapness of the whole, is such
as to put it within the power of any one to experiment in this interest-
ing part of the field of Science. It is true that the delicate lines and
shades of the Camera image and of fine engravings cannot be distinctly
transferred and retained, but to the purpose of copying a coarse print,
a piece of music, an embroidering pattern, or a leaf, it is admirably ad-
apted, it is for this latter object, that the art has been mostly used by
the writer who, last summer copied leaves of nearly all the trees and
shrubs of Cumberland County, amounting to nearly two hundred spe-
cies. These photographs are as valuable for scientific purposes, as good
engravings of the same would be, perhaps more so, as not only is the
outline correctly given, but in most cases the fine and delicate nervation,
whose arrangement frequently forms a specific character, is distinctly
preserved. Thus in tlie course of a few minutes a facsimile of an ob-
ject is obtained, which would occupy a skillful artist many hours to
draw with even an approximate degree of accuracy.

The bi-chromate of potash is now readily procured in any of the
cities at a very cheap rate, but as under some circumstances it may be
more convenient to prepare it, we will give the method indicated in the
3 I

18 PHOTOGRAPHY.

American edition of Kane's Chemistry, page 450, which appears sim-
plest. It is as follows : mix two parts of chromate of iron ground to
a fine powder, with one part of saltpeter and expose it on the floor of a
reverberatory furnace to a violent heat. Lixiviate the calcined mass with
water and add a quantity of sulphuric acid which will convert the neu-
tral chromate of potassa previously formed, into the bi-chromate. This
salt is then obtained from the solution by allowing it to cool in a leaden
vessel. As thus obtained it is of a rich orange red and is soluble in ten
parts of cold water. When applied to paper it is of a deep yellow color,
much resembling gamboge.

The apparatus required is as follows: Get a board a little larger than
the size of the sheet on which you intend making your impressions ; fix
a slight cushion on this, and cover it with a piece of black silk. Make
a frame just the size of the board, in which insert a pane of glass. The
glass should be as nearly as possible flush with the lower side of the
frame, so as to come in immediate contact with the cushion.

To prepare the paper, which should be as firm as possible, — make a
hot saturated solution of the salt, and let it cool. Take the paper, and
if you are preparing several sheets at a time, lay them one on the other;
dip a sponge in the solution and go over the upper sheet, (on one side
only) in a series of parallel stripes, taking care to cover every part. Then
make another series perpendicular to the first; in this manner with a
little practice, you will succeed in covering the surface uniformly. Take
off this sheet and hang it across a string in a darkened room to dry, pro-
ceed in the same manner with the next, and so on till you finish the
whole. When dry, put them away in a dark place till wanted for use.

When you wish to make a copy of any object, a leaf for instance,
take a piece of the prepared paper of the required size, and lay it on the
cushion with the prepared side down, then place the leaf above the paper,
set the glass frame over the whole, and clamp it to the cushioned board
as tightlv as possible. The closer the contact of the paper- and object,
the more perfect will be the impression, and to this end the cushion will
be found to contribute materially. If the impression is to be taken from
a leaf freshly pulled, it will be found advantageous to press it between
paper for an hour before using, to absorb the superfluous moisture. Set
the apparatus thus adjusted, in the sun, and let it remain there from five
to twenty minutes, according to the opacity of the object. A little ex-
perience will soon indicate the precise length of time. Of course if the
sun be partially obscured during the process, the paper must be exposed
for a longer time. When finished, the photograph should be taken out
in a dark room and put away till ready to be washed. It will be remem-

REARING OF INSECTS FOR CABINETS. 19

berecl that the impression is taken on the side of the paper opposite to
that which was washed with the sohition. Enough of the bi-chromate
soaks through to answer every purpose, and the surface on that side is
not rubbed up by the contact of the sponge, which would make a mate-
rial difference in the beauty of tlie impression.

In order to fix the drawings, take a large flat vessel — a waiter answers
the purpose — and cover the bottom with them placed side by side. Pour
on water to the depth of half an inch and let it stand some minutes^
Then take each sheet separately, and after agitating it in the water a little
while, lay it on a thin board or the back of a small waiter, and inclining
it pour water on it from a pitcher, at a highth of about a foot, turn the
paper and repeat the process, till the water which conies off is perfectly
clear without any tinge of the salt. Lay each sheet as finished over a
string, and when perfectly dry, subject them to a moderate pressure in
order to smooth them, they may then be kept for any length of time,
care however being taken not to expose them unnecessarily to a bright
light.

The theory of the process is very simple. The bi-chromate when
first applied to the paper is of a yellow colour and very soluble, expo-
sure to the sun turns it brown and makes it insoluble. When therefore
the object is placed on the paper, the uncovered parts is darkened, while
that which is covered remains more or less yellow, according to the
opacity. The washing takes out the soluble yellow parts, leaving the
original white contrasting with the brown. The lights and shades are
of course reversed as in most of the processes.

The whole expense both of time and money is very small. Paper
can be bought for 12| cents the quire, quite good enough for the pur-
pose, and a quarter of a pound of the bi-chromate of potassa, at 12^ cents,
will prepare four quires of paper. I have made sixty photographs of
drawings, each consisting of half a sheet of foolscap, in a few hours, and
washed and finished them in less than that time. When there is a great
deal to do it is better to have two frames at work as then while one is in
the sun, the odier can be got ready.

ON THE REARING OF INSECTS FOR CABINETS,

The rearing of butterflies from the larva state is a very interesting
pursuit for the Entomologist. He then has the opportunity of observing
all the maneuvers of the.se wonderful little creatures in undergoing their
transformations, and in this way only can he procure the best specimens
for his cabinet. Butterflies captured in the field are apt to be somewhat

20 REARING OF INSECTS FOR CABINETS.

mutilated, or to have their beautiful and variegated colors somewhat
rubbed off.

It is a pleasing recreation to furnish for these creatures a cradle, a
habitation, food, a grave, and, subsequently a species of immortality; and
all this is done by rearing them from the caterpillar state. When nature
has laid aside her winter garments and she begins to adorn the trees with
foliage, then is the season for sallying forth in quest of the prey. The
pursuit may be continued during the whole summer with advantage, for
as long as there are green leaves and ripening fruits, the booty may be
gained.

Several paper or chip boxes of four or five inches in length, in order
to keep the various species, and the naked, and hairy and spiny ones
separate, with a layer of soft moss or leaves at the bottom, constitute
essential parts of the equipment. Some collectors use a small forceps
to take the caterpillars with, but I always employ those with which na-
ture has furnished me — my thumb and finger. Whenever you see the
edges of leaves eaten off, you may be sure there is or has been a cater-
pillar there. Sometimes you can ascertain their presence on a tree or
bush from the excrements lying on the ground immediately below. It
is also well to spread a white cloth of two or three yards dimension on
the ground or hold your expanded umbrella under a tree or bush and
then strike the branches with your cane. The caterpillars will fall down
uninjured and are then easily taken. If you can reach the leaf on which
they are feeding always pluck it off and put leaf and all into the box.
Be careful in every instance to note the species of leaf or plant on which
your prey is feeding, so that you may go afterwards and procure the
food appropriate to it, for most caterpillars rather perish than eat any
other vegetable substance. This is an essential point, and if not carefully
observed, you may not succeed in your operations. Always pluck off
some of the leaves, so that your captives may have provision enough for
a day or two, after which you must go out and procure fresh food, which
must however, never be given them if it is wet — rub it dry before you
feed them. There are a few species of hairy and spiny caterpillars which
must be gently handled, or their exceedingly fine and sharp spines pene-
trate the fingers and occasion a smarting pain, but this is easily removed,
by rubbing the part with a little oil. All other caterpillars are perfectly
harmless.

When you come home, you must take out your caterpillars and place
them in the nurseries. These are either boxes of a foot long and six
inches high, the tops of which are covered with gause or bobbinet — it
would be belter if the sides were composed of this material also, to allow

ENTOMOLOGY FOR FARMERS. 21

a free circulation of air. Some persons use glass jars, but I prefer the
boxes. Others have a whole series of little nurseries in a frame, which
has very much the appearance of what are called the pigeon holes in a
writing desk, with a door or two closing the whole together. Of course
the door frame must be covered with bobbinet, and the back of the frame
also. Into each pigeon hole or box, put all the caterpillars of the same
species, with the species of leaf or plant on which you captured them.
But how shall I keep the food fresh for even a day.' 1 will tell you.
You should have a short phial nearly full of water in the box, into which
you must insert the stems of the leaves, and they will keep fresh for a
day or until they are all consumed. Your caterpillars will immediately
begin to eat ravenously, and you must be careful to keep them well sup-
plied with provisions, or some species with stout mandibles will bite
holes into your bobbinet and escape. But do not some species of cater-
pillars undergo their transformation in the ground? Yes, and you must
meet the exigency of the case, by furnishing them with earth enough to
burv themselves in, and this is best done by covering the bottom of the
box or pigeon hole with a mixture of dry sand and earth to the depth of
two or three inches. A litde experience will soon enable you to distin-
guish between those which thus inhume themselves and those wliich
do not.

But as you will not have an opportunity of engaging in this interest-
ing pursuit until next summer at any rate, I will have the whole winter
to talk to you about it, and therefore, shall resume the subject in the next
number of the Journal. Entomophilos.

EMTOMOLOGY FOR FARMERS.

Farmers are generally plain people in their language as well as in
their manners. They have, therefore, an aversion to all strange and
high-sounding words, and but seldom take an interest in abstruse specu-
lations. Hence ''■sclcnlijic farm'mg'''' has become a by-word among them,
and the very idea is generally treated with contempt. We can, therefore,
scarcely hope for a patient hearing when we propose to their considera-
tion such a subject as entomology. And yet there are few things in which
tliey are more interested, or to wliich they might naturally be expected
to pay more attention.

Entomolngy describes the form and habits of insects, and naturally
leads us to a consideration of the benefits which we receive from them
and of the injuries which they inflict upon us. These last aie points
which every farmer discusses at his fireside in the evening and with his

22 ENTOMOLOGY FOR FARMERS.

neighbors, as he meets them from day to day. The ravages of the Hes-
sian-JIi/, of the Cut-inorm and of the Caterj)illar^ arrest the attention and
deeply affect the interests of all who are engaged in that most necessary
of all pursuits, the cultivation of the earth. And if entomology were
presented as a remedy or a preventive of some of these injuries, we might
expect that our thrifty farmers would not be slow to avail themselves of
the advantages which it offers. But this is only a small part of that
which it actually does.

"Some knowledge of the classification of insects and of the scientific
details of entomology," says Harris inhis '■^Insects of Massachusetts,'''' a
work which ought to be in the house of every farmer, "seems to be ne-
cessary to the farmer to enable him to distinguish his friends from his
enemies of the insect race. He ought to be acquainted with the trans-
formations and liabits of the latter, in all their states, so that he may
know how and when most successfully to employ the means for pre-
venting their ravages. This kind of knowledge will often guide him in
the selection of the proper remedies, and may prevent him from falling
into many mistakes." That this is not mere theory, but connected with
the most important practical results, Mr. Harris has shown in the useful
hints which are every where scattered through the work to which we
have just alluded, but we content ourselves for the present with addu-
cing a single instance which is found on page 327 :

"Among the various remedies that have been proposed for prevent-
ing the ravages of cut-icorms in wheat and corn-fields, may be mention-
ed the soaking of the grain, before planting, in copperas-water and other
solutions supposed to be disagreeable to the insects ; rolling the seed in
lime or ashes; and mixing salt with the manure. These may prevent
wire-worms (luU) and some insects from destroying the seed ; but cut-
worms prey only on the sprouts and young stalks, and do not eat the
seeds. Such stimulating applications may be of some benefit, by pro-
moting a more rapid and vigorous growth of the grain, by which means
the sprouts will the sooner become so strong and rank as to resist or
escape the attacks of the young cut-worms. Fall-ploughing of sward-
lands, which are intended to be sown with wheat or planted with corn
the year following, will turn up and expose the insects to the inclemency
of winter, whereby many of them will be killed, and will also bring
thorn within reach of insect-eating birds. But this seems to be a doubt-
ful remedy, against which many objections have been urged.* The only
effectual remedy at present known, has been humorously described by

* See Mi. Cohnan'o "Third lloporl of the Agriculture of Massaclmsetls," p. t»2.

FACTS I\ XATtjRAI. HISTORV. 23

Mr. Asahel Foote in the "Albany Cultivator," and reprinted in the seven-
teenth volume ot" the "New England Farmer." After liaving lost more
than a tenth part of the corn in his field, he "ordered his men to prepare
for war, to sharpen their finger ends, and set at once about exhuming the
marauders. For several days it seemed as if a whole procession came
to each one's funeral, but at length victory wreathed the brow of perse-
verance; and, the precaution having been taken to replace each foe dis-
lodged with a suitable quantity of good seed-corn, he soon had the plea-
sure to see his field restored, in a good measure, to its original order and
beauty, there being seldom a vacancy in a piece of four acres." Mr.
Footers statement, founded on an estimate of the time employed in dig-
ging up and killing the cut-worms, and the increased produce of the field,
is conclusive in favor of this mode of checking the ravages of these
insects." W. M. R.

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS IIST NATURAL HISTORY.

A Surprise. Some time ago I was on a collecting expedition in the
woods, and verj'" soon captured a small lizard ( Salamandra Glulinosa)
wiiich I put into a bottle used for such purposes. I had not proceeded
lar before I took a beautiful snake ( Coluber Punctatus) and deposited it
in the same bottle as a companion for the lizard, of course, both animals
were living, and I thought they might amuse themselves as they pleased,
until my return home, when ] would make a different disposition of them.
A few hours after, when I emptied my pockets, hat and boxes of the
various objects I had captured during the tour, I came to the bottle con-
taining my two reptilian friends whom I had introduced to each other.
The lizard was invisible! I knew he could not have escaped, for the
bottle was tightly corked, but still I felt in my pocket and looked again
and again, but he was gone. In examinirg the snake, I thought I observ-
ed a sensible expansion in his abdominal regions since his capture. I
was on the scent now; I took the serpentine gentleman out, who kindly
pemiitted me to handle him ; I gave him a gentle squeeze on the stomach
below the protuberance, I felt something move — 1 gradually worked llie
moving substance towards his mouth, and lo! the lizard came forth! I
did not intend on their first introduction to each other, that they should
become quite so intimate^ but I presume the snake said, "I'll take you
under my protection in adversity," and — swallowed him.

Rattle Snake and Rats. A gentleman of my acquaintance a few
weeks ago received a large living rattle snake (Coluber Durissus) from
Missouri. The animal was confined in a wire cage. It had not taken

24 FACTS FOR MECHANICS.

any food for several months and on its arrival here, several mice were
put into the cage. The new occupants betrayed no alarm at the presence
of their ugly companion, but danced about nimbly and raced over his
snakeship, who showed no inclination to molest his little murine asso-
ciates. The mice would even nibble at his scales, when the serpent
would shake them off by a slight contortion, as though he were not fond
of being tickled by a mouse. It was only some hours after, that he
bounced on one of his little tormentors, stung him with his fangs and
swallowed him whole. The other mice now continued to play about
and even nibble at his nose with impunity. A large rat was now put in
the cage, and he felt disposed to show fight — but the snake turned away.
We were waiting the issue a long time, and after the rat was in the cage
unharmed for five or six hours, we provoked the snake by moving the
cage, which caused the mice and rats to run over him more rapidly.
After a long trial to rouse his serpentine ire, he at length, stung the rat,
M'ho uttered a faint squeak and died in about eleven minutes. After he
Avas smitten, he played about as usual, but his efforts grew fainter until
he died. In about half an hour, the snake opened his enormous jaws
and made an effort to swallow him, but after repeated trials, he failed.
Another large rat was put in and now there was a regular battle. The
rat fought valiantly, biting the snake severely in the nose several times^
but at length, by a dexterous turn of the serpent, the poor rat received
the fatal wound and perished. J. G. M.

FACTS FOR MECHANICS.

To case-harden Iron. 1. It is well known to mechanics, that iron
is not capable of being hardened like steel.

2. It is often important to render the surface of a particular portion
of a piece of iron hard, whilst the rest remains soft iron. This is call-
ed case-hardening.

3. The old metliod of pioduring this eflect, which was both troub-
lesome and consumed much time, consisted in introducing the article
to be case-hardened, together with fragments of old leather, or hoofs,
skins, or horns, into a box of sheet-iron, and subjecting the whole to a
strong red-heat for an hour or two. During this time the exterior sur-
face of the iron absorbs and combines with a portion of the carbon of
the animal matter, and is converted into steel, as in the ordinary pro-
cess of forming steel. The article of iron thus treated is coated with a
case of steel wliicli may be tenipeied or hardened in tlie usual way, and
is therefore said to hv case-hardened.

PHONOGRAPHY. 25

4. The same result is obtained at a trifling expense, and almost without
any trouble, by heating the article to be case-hardened to a cherry-red,
applying to the part of the surface to be hardened the Prussiate of Potash
(Ferrocyanide of Potassium) in poicder, and after the lapse of a minute
or two, heating and tempering as for steel. The advantage of this pro-
cess, besides the saving of time and expense, is that the application can
be made to any part of the surface required, be it large or small, and the
case may be made of any desirable thickness, according to the quantity
of the Prussiate of Potash applied, thus securing a plate of steel with-
out the trouble of welding. This process may be very advantageously
applied in numerous instances.

ENGLISH PHONOGRAPHY, NO. I.

BY PROF. W. M. REYNOLBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Letters are not soundsj but they are signs of sounds. So far, there-
fore, as the sound is concerned one letter or sign will answer the pur-
pose just as well as another, although for convenience in writing or
printing them one may be greatly preferable to another. But that the
same letter should always, in the same connection, indicate the same
sound, we thinlc no one can doubt. It must not only render the acqui-
sition of a language more difficult to have but one letter to indicate sev-
eral sounds, but it must also promote its corruption, and prevent its im-
provement. That this is one great source of the unsettled state of pro-
nunciation in the English language, no one can doubt who has noticed
the mistakes of beginners and readers of almost every class. And that
uniformity of pronunciation would naturally, although slowl}-, follow a
proper system for the notation of sound seems almost self-evident.

The imperfections of English Orthography, or, as I prefer calling the
notation of spoken sounds and words by means of signs or letters, Pho-
nography;* are so numerous and so obvious as to be universally acknow-
ledged. So much is this the case that it seems almost a work of super-
erogation to specify them. Yet it may assist in bringing us to the point
we have in view, to give a general view of the state of the case.

According to the most careful analysis of our spoken language it con-
tains thirty-two'\ sounds or modifications of sound. To represent these
we have twenty-six letters. Of these A represents /owr sounds, E three^
8tc., whilst several letters are frequently employed to express at one time

• ^«v»j=voice, and y^ «^«=I write.

t See the excellent article of Prof. Day, of West. Reserve College, on ''Eng-
lish Phonology," published in the Biblical Repository for Octobei, 1843.
4

26 THO.VOGRAPHV,

a single sound, as ough in dough, at another entirely different sounds, as
ough in dough=do; rough=ruf; through— throo; plough— ploio^ &c. Then
again one letter represents several sounds at the same time, as X for ks
or gs^ or finally, it is not the representative of any sound at all, as in the
case of what is called the final E mute. How perplexing, discouraging,
and destructive to correct pronunciation this is, is shown not only in the
story of the poor Frenchman laboring at plough,, through, thorough, dough
and tough, but in the blunders by which those who ought to be able to
manage their mother-tongue, so often turn the sublime into the ridic-
ulous.

Is there no remedy for this evil, or are we not to regard it as an evil,
but as a beauty of our Phonography? Are we to rest satisfied with the
conclusion at which the late venerable and learned Peter S. Duponceau
arrives,* when he says : "I am not, therefore, one of those who wish to
see any innovation introduced into the alphabet or orthography of the
English language. No, let our written language still retain its venerable
garb, nos anciens habits de sauvages, as M. de Voltaire would call them,
but still more decent than the masquerade dresses under which men of
more fancy than reflection, would disguise the immortal thoughts of Mil-
Ion and of Shakespeare, so that the eye would no longer at once recog-
nise them, and the straight and well trodden path by which they now,
without difiiculty, reach the mind, would be made crooked, difficult of
access, and overspread with nettles and thorns."

With the most profound respect for such high authority, and deeply
sensible of the difiiculty of an enterprise the least part of which has
hitherto baffled the genius and resisted the energy of such men as Web-
ster and the lamented Grimke, and not absolutely indifferent to that
shower of ridicule with which the self-constituted conservators of Hhe
jmrity of the English language,'''' will at once visit this daring invasion
of their peculiar province, 1 must still dissent from this conclusion, and
beg leave to make some suggestions for the improvement of our English
Phonography. Jn this I am fortified, to say nothing of others, by Dupon-
ceau himself. "While I thus disclaim," says he, "every wish to innovate
upon our written language, I am not insensible of the importance of en-
deavoring to acquire as perfect and accurate a knowledge as possible, of
the elementary sounds of which our spoken language is composed. The
correct pronunciation of a language cannot be preserved, unless it is pre-
cisely Jixed and ascertained, and that cannot be done unless all its com-
ponent sounds are accurately known and clearly distinguished from each

* In his valuable "Essay on English P/tonologif published in the "Transac-
tions of the Am. Piiilosophical Society," vol. 1 New Series, pp. 236-7.

HOW IS SALT rROCURED? 27

other. Although I have not found it an easy task to complete this an-
alysis, a much greater difficulty still remained, which was to convey the
result to the mental ear through the organs of sight. I had no other in-
strument but the English aljihabct which is not only inadequate hut de-
ceptive.''''

This admits the evil of which we complain in its full force. An al-
phabet is to represent this analysis of a language, and if it does not do
so is worse than useless, or as the author whom we have just quoted
says, "is not only inadequate, but deceptive." This being the acknow-
ledged fact, we must find some substitute for the existing alphabet. This
has already from the necessity of the case been done, but, as we have
seen above, it has been done in a very unsatisfactory manner, by making
one sign the representative of several entirely different sounds, and ascer-
taining which of these it is by tradition, or by some other sign connected
with it. But this is not a natural or an easy method. To this Dupon-
CEAU himself directs us: "There was no possibility of getting over this
difficulty but by devising a new instrument in lieu of [the old] alphabetical
signs, but what instrument could I find»that was not at least composed
of those treacherous and insufficient elements .' If I succeed in my en-
deavor, which is to give a clear idea of all the sounds existing in the
English language, nothing will be so easy, as afterwards, to affix signs to
them, and an auxiliary table of characters, to be used only as an instru-
ment by which to compare, fix and ascertain the pronunciation of words,
and as a key to pronouncing dictionaries in lieu of the insufficient let-
ters and figures that have hitherto been used."

It is my object to make our existing English alphabet, and a few ad-
ditional and simple characters answei these purposes not only to the
learned, but also to the child, the unlettered man whose literature ex-
tends not beyond his county newspaper and his almanac, and also to
the foreigner of whatever nation. And in doing so, I am not afraid that
this will tend "to the destruction of our literature, and perhaps, ulti-
mately, to the entire corruption of our language," but believe that it will
be favorable to the preservation of the one and the purification of the
other.

HOW IS SALT PROCURED?

BY PROF. CHAS. A. HAV, OF GETTYSBURG.

There are various ways of obtaining salt. It can be dug out of the
earth in some places in a state fit for immediate use. It is thus obtain-
ed in several of the Polish mines.

28 HOW IS SALT PROCURED?

More frequently it is procured by the evaporation of sea-water. Great
quantities are thus made in England, Scotland and in our own country.

Subterranean saline springs furnish the principal supply for Germany.
In most of the larger states these are found and some of them have been
known and used for a thousand years. Near Gnadau not far from the
fortress of Magdeburg, in Prussia, there is such a salt spring of great
value. The water is raised to the surface of the ground by steam; but
as it does not contain more than ten or twelve per cent of salt, and holds
several other mineral substances in solution, it must undergo a filtration
before it is fit for evaporation. For this purpose faggots are piled up in
immense numbers, forming a rampart a mile and a half long, fifty feet
high, thirty feet wide below and twenty at the top. The salt-water, after
being collected in reservoirs above ground, is elev^ated by a windmill to
the summit of this long pile at its upper end. It is there discharged into
a trough four feet wide and deep that runs along the top. This is sup-
plied with stop-cocks along both sides, through which the water is let
out to trickle down through the faggot pile. As it drips from twig to
twig, and is thus completely exposed to the air, much of the water is
thus spontaneously evaporated and a thick coating of carbonate of lime
deposited upon the faggots. These soon become clogged with incrusta-
tions of lime and salt and are then removed and pounded up for manure,
their place being supplied wiih fresh ones.* When the water has trickled
down through the pile and been received there into the wide troughs that
accompany it during its whole length, it is found to be considerably in-
creased in saltness, but several more filtrations are still necessary to give
it the requisite proportion of salt, viz: twenty-six per cent. It is there-
fore raised again by another windmill (twelve of which stand along the
top of this singular pile, like sentinels upon a rampart) and made to un-
dergo a second, and third, and fourth, exposure to the air in its down-
ward progress through the faggots. Reaching at length the end of this
huge filtrating appai-atus, and having gained its required percentage of salt,
the brine is now received into iron pipes that convey it under gi-ound two
miles to the river Elbe, on the banks of which stand the extensive build-
ings that contain the cauldrons for evaporating it. The reasons for con-
veying it to the river no doubt are, the convenience of the fuel there and
the ease of transportation.

Similar springs, though far richer, have given name and wealth and
population to Ilalle, in Prussian Saxony — (Halle from uX<;=salf.) The
saline springs here were known to the Romans, and have seasoned the

* Specimens of this incrustation may be seen in the Cabinet of the Linnseau
Association of Pennsylvania College.

FACTS IX METEOROLOGY. 29

food of many a heathen festival. The true descendants of the ancient
Wends still carry on these salt works. They constitute a distinct class
of the population of Halle, preserving the features, many of the customs
and even the dress of their ancestors. They are called Halloren and
enjoy many privileges and immunities not granted to the other inhabi-
tants of Halle; such as fishing in the river Saale that flows by the town;
burying all the dead, for which they receive regular fees; freedom from
many taxes, 8tc. It was the Halloren that, as the rightful representatives
of the city, arrayed in their flowing black robes, small clothes and cha-
peaux d' honneur, first welcomed the King of Prussia on his visit to
Halle, in 1842. They have also the exclusive privilege of laboring iu
the salt works.

As at Gnadau, the water is here pumped up by steam. Twelve hours
the current flows into the reservoirs of the salt companies of Halle, and
the succeeding twelve hours into the reservoirs of the royal works on
an Island in the Saale. The evaporation of the Sole^ as it is called, is a
simple process. It is received into cauldrons twenty-five or thirty feet
square and three feet deep, supported by iron pillars. A fire of brown
coal (a sort of peat dug near Halle*) is constantly kept up beneath. The
salt crystallizes on the surface of the water and then is instantly broken
up by the ebullition and sinks to the bottom, where it is constantly stir-
red to prevent its consolidation. Raked to the sides of the cauldron, it
is then shovelled out by half naked Halloren, who move about with great
dignity amid the volumes of vapor that continually ascend, and is thrown
into troughs immediately above, where it is allowed to drain ofl'. It is
then conveyed to the lofts where it is thoroughly dried in an atmosphere
of from 120° to 130° Fahrenheit.

FACTS IN METEOROLOGY, NO. II.

BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEOE.

In the preceding number of this Journal an effort was made to de-
rive a general law of atmospheric change from a consideration of some
particular facts. That law was stated nearly as follows : '•'■During ev-
ery seven days and a half two changes^ upon an average^ in the condi-
tion of the atmosphere lake place.,'''' or during that period two seasons of

* This brown coal is almost the only kind of fuel used at Halle. It is dug in
deep pits and is a soft friable mass when first obtained, and must be made into a
paste with hot water and cast into moulds about the size of a brick before it can be
used. This operation is generally performed by females of the lowest class who
stamp it into a paste with their feet.

30 FACTS IN METEOROLOGY.

cloud and rain, and two of clear weather occur. Some additional facts
relative to the same subject will claim attention in the present number.

1. It might readily be expected that in a mass so changeable as the
atmosphere, these conditions should vary considerably at each recur-
rence. The circumstances of the cloud and rain, and of the clear weather
of one week do not exactly agree with those in the next. The degree
and duration of the cloudiness, and the quantity of the rain or snow of
Tuesday night of the present week will not agree exactly with those of
the past week ; there may be either less or more according to the quan-
tity of moisture in the air, the temperature of the day or two next pre-
ceding, and the currents at the same time. It may happen therefore that
any of these periods of rain may pass by with nothing more than a par-
tial obscuration of the sky, being followed at its next recurrence with
the usual accompaniment of rain. It sometimes happens too that the
cloud begins to cover the sky some hours or even a day before the regu-
lar time of its occurrence, but then it may be expected to continue just
about as much longer afterwards, shortening the time of clear weather,
and perhaps extending on to unite with the next period for cloud, so as
to obscure the sky for a whole week. Thus when the cloud and rain
of one period extend beyond 24 hours, they will most likely continue
as rain, drizzle or fog until the third day, and then break away, or unite
with that which is to follow. Hence we have damp and rainy weather,
sometimes for three days, sometimes for a whole week, and sometimes,
as in June, 1835, for a whole month, without affording a sight of sun,
moon, or stars. The reverse precisely sometimes takes place; the clear
weather extending over the whole week, and even longer. During the
occurrence of this state of things the winds are more gentle, and less
variable than ordinarily, and blow, during the clear weather, from some
part of the western half of the horizon.

2. Nor is this succession of two changes in about seven days and a
half, or of one each three days and three-quarters, confined only to what
are termed settled rains, that is, to those rains which are not mere show-
ers, but which extend over several successive hours in duration, and a
wide ten-itory in extent. It extends also to the thunder showers of sum-
mer. These too, instead of being occasional, and interlopers as it were,
according to the prevailing impression, belong to the regular system of
rains. The electric display accompanying them is merely an accidental
circumstance resulting from the active local condensation of vapor, and
not always absent from the settled rain at its commencement or end.
Not unfrcquently do we lind the extended rain ushered in by thunder
clouds. Side by side, like the front ranks of an army in battle array.

FACTS I.V METEOROI.OGT. 31

gathering with portentous blackness and armed with the fiery artillery of
heaven they come as the van guards of the approaching storm. Soon
these are succeeded by the great moving mass of cloud, of which they
were the precursors, which noiselessly and gently sheds down upon the
earth the choicest blessings of the skies. At other times after the rain
has, for some time, silently descended and refreshed the thirsty soil, as
if gathering up all their strength for one great effort, at once, amidst light-
nings, and thunders, and tempest, the clouds pour down upon the earth
their treasured waters, and then move off, leaving a clear and brilliant sky.
The thunder shower of summer belongs therefore to the regular system
of rains. If on the proper day the extended rain do not occur, there is
a strong probability that there will be thunder showers, which may be
regarded as the great rain in detached portions. But if that day pass
without either, then three or four days, or about seven days will pass
before the next showers may be expected to fall. These statements will
be confirmed by a reference to any correct register of the w^eather dur-
ing the summer.

The circumstance that the thunder-cloud is generally found to move
eastward from some point near the west, whilst in the extended rain that
portion of the cloud which is in view moves either from the north east,
or some point near to it, or in the reverse direction, presents no difficulty
in classifying both under the same general head. The thunder-cloud
moves in a more elevated stratum of air than the lower portions of the
regular storm-cloud ; and that stratum is always moving from some west-
erly point of the horizon. Hence the upper portions of the extended
cloud, which extend up into this stratum, are also found to be moving in
the same direction. Whilst therefore the great mass of cloud is swept
in a vast curve from the West Indies over us towards the north east, the
upper portions are continually blown off towards the east, thus extend-
ing the storm on its eastern border.

3. Another fact worthy of attention is, that in general, no particular
kind of weather, such as extreme heat or cold, storm or calm, can con-
tinue longer than ahout hco days. The change usually occurs on the third
day. Thus in winter when the weather is very stormy and cold, we may
look for a cessation of the storm, and a mitigation of the cold after the
lapse of forty-eight hours. Or in summer, when the heat is excessive,
the third day brings refreshing breezes, or cooling showers. In autumn,
or winter, or spring, a calm and cloudless daj- is usually followed in
twenty-four or thirty-six hours by rain or snow.

Thus, then, amidst the greatest apparent irregularity and lawlessness,
we find that there is a beautiful regularity of succession in the phenomena

32 COMMENCEMENT, &.C. &.C.

of atmospheric change. In proportion as facts arc studied and classified
do the laws of that change appear to stand forth the more clearly.
Pennsylvania College, JS'ov. 26fA, 1844.

♦tenth annual commencement of PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE,

Thursday, September 19th, 1844.

It was our intention to have noticed this interesting occasion at some
length in our first number, but want of room (one of the greatest diffi-
culties under which the Journal labors) prevented us. We can only say
now, that the exercises were of the most satisfactory character from be-
ginning to end. The address of Rev. T. F. Stockton, of Philadelphia,
was brilliant, that of Rev.THEOPHOLUs Storke, before the Alumni, most
effective, whilst the graduates showed that they had not sojourned so long
in the halls of their Alma Mater without becoming sons of whom she
has reason to be proud. The class consisted of the following members :
J. Baugher Bittinger, of Adams co., Pa.; Peter Anstcett, of Lycoming cc,
Fa.; Oscar F. Baugher, of Emmittsburg, Md.; Michael Diehl, of Green-
castle, Pa.; John M. MTarland, of Jeff, co., Va.; Beale M. Schmucker,
of Gettysburg, Pa.; John T. Morris, o{ Baltimore, Md.; Joseph P. Clark-
son, of Gettysburg, Pa.; G. A. JYixdorff, of Frederick, Md.; Henry J.
Fahnestock, of Gettysburg, Pa.; Thojnas W. Corbet, of Cambridge, Ohio;
Robert G. H. Clarkson, of Gettysburg, Pa.

The degree of A. M. was conferred in course upon the class of 1841,
and the honorary degree of A. M. upon Rev. D. Miller, of New Jersey,
Rev. John TJlrich, of Petersburg, Pa., and Prof. Haldeman, of Marietta.

The Rev. H. JY. Pohlman, of Albany, New York, received the de-
gree of D. D.

Our CoTEMPORARiEs — Newspapers, Literary and Scientific Maga-
zines and Journals, whom we cordially thank for their flattering notice,
will please exchange with us, whenever they can do so without '■'■charg-
ing us the difference.''^

The LiNNiEAN Journal. The flattering reception with which the
first number of this Magazine has met will assure the Society that it did
not mistake in reference to the feelings with which the literary and sci-
entific public would receive such a publication. All that is now want-
ing is, that the members of the Association and the friends of the enter-
prise-gv^ncrally should continue their exertions to increase the number
of subscribers to one thousaiid, when, besides yielding a handsome prof-
it, the Journal may be greatly enlarged and improved by engravings, &.c.
which are almost indispensable to such a publication as this.

^

Pmnstjtoama Olollegc, ©cttnsburg, J)a,

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

] Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. I>.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, SfC.
■', Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, ^c.
. Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chentistry, 4"C.

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, ^c.

M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof. ofHistonj and Principal of Preparatory Department.
, Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.

Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

W.\i. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.
: Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

■; Pe.vnsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur- ;
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta- >
tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that J
of any Institution in the Country. The P)-eparatory Department provides- for in- '
struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
to the elements of the Mathematics ai>d Classical Literature. The College Course
is arranged in the four classes usual ir, the Institutions of this country.

; The government of the students is as eiiergetic as their circumstances seem to

; require. They attend at least two recitations a day. Church and Bible Class on the ,
Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of;
any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has :
more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all req-uired to lodge ;
in the College Edifice, special cases excepted. I

The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter '

"session, $61 87| : for the summer session, .f41 87|. Washing, #10 00; and Wood, j

$S 00. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can t>e obtained in town at $1 25 per |

week. >

There are two vacations in the ye.ir, commencing on the third Thursdays of ■

, April and September, and each of five weeks continuance. ;

The winter session commenced on the 24th inst.^with the accession of about :

' twenty Students in the Freshman Class, admitted at the close of the summer ses- ;
sion, and a respectable number of applicants for admission into the Preparatory
Department. ' f

^cknoujlcbgcmcnts of Donnticms to t\)c Cabinet of tl)c Cinnocan
dissociation of pcnnsiilminia College.

Nov. 4. Indian (N.Am.) articles of manufacture, Texas coins, paintings,
minerals, shells, ice. from various active members of society.

Nov. 12. Various curiosities presented by Miss Newell, of Eglinton, N. J. \
per Mr. R. G. H. Clabkson-. \

Nov. 20. Three boxes of minerals and fbssib, through Dr. J. G. Morris, of'
Baltimore, Md.

Nov. 28. A box of minerals (about two hundred and fifty specimims,) from
^ ^ "'■ and Mr. Victor S. CoKR^.D, of Schuylkill Co, Pa.

Terms of the Record and Jourxal. One Dollar per annum
in advance. Postmasters will fiank and remit subscriptions.

Address — '''■Edilorx nf iJip. R-rnrd and Journal^ Gettysburg^ Pa.''''

yy'"'^

VOLUME I.}

[number 3.

THE

LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

Of t|;r jfmnatan Jl00O(iation af yennsQlpania €olUgr.
JANUARY, J84.5.

CONDUCTED

jSB a commfttee of the ^ssoctatfon.

CONTENTS.
SUBTERRANEAN SALT WORKS, - - - -

say's letter, to rev. MELSHEIMER, . - -

PREPARATION OF ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS,
FACTS FOR MECHANICS, . _ - - -

ANT-IANA, NO. I. .._---

A REJOINDER, WITH AN EPISODE, - - - -

ENGLISH PHONOGRAPHY, NO. JI. - _ -

METEOROLOGY, NO. HI. . , _ - .

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESSES, , - - -

ALUMNI ASSOCIATION OF PA. COLLEGE, ETC. - 54,

HONORARY DEGREES.— ENLAROEMENT.-CORRESPONDENTS,

33

37
38
41
42
43
45
48
52
55
56

One sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles li cent, over 100 miles 2\ cents.
NEJNSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

<^Nfli >-TrV- 'i'^^■ .:f% T?r* T*^ s'Al

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. JANUARY, 1845. No. 3.

SUBTERRANEAN SALT WORKS.

BY PROF. CHAS. A. HAY, OF GETTYSBCRG.

For an article of consumption, so necessary as salt, no government
will consent to be dependent upon another, whilst there is the least
prospect of obtaining it at home. But where the country lies at a dis-
tance from the sea, and possesses neither saline-springs nor mines of
native salt, where then must she look for a supply of this necessary
commodity } The mountainous regions of Austrian Tyrol furnish us
with an interesting answer to this query. The salt is there found satu-
rating the calcarious rock in the heart of the mountain ; and the mode
of obtaining it is by bringing fresh water into contact with lliis salty
rock until it acquires a sufficient saline percentage, when it is tapped off
and evaporated at the foot of the mountain.

On the evening of the 19th of September, 1842, the writer, in com-
pany with a young friend from Boston, paid a visit to the salt works of
Hallein^ in the district of Salzberg, in Austrian Tyiol. It was already
six in the evening when we reached Hallein, and, supposing that we
had come too late to gratify our curiosity by an inspection of the mines
that day, we were making arrangements to spend the evening different-
ly. But a guide soon made his appearance and offered his services to
conduct us at once to the spot, assuring us that day was always night
in the mines.

The town lies at the foot of a steep hill, the Durrenberg. This we
began to mount. Continuous flights of steps, with here and there a
gravelled walk, where the ascent was less precipitous, brought us, after
a fatiguing climb of three quarters of an hour, to the village nestling in
a depression of the hill-side and commanding a delightful prospect.
Hallein, with its crooked streets, smoked houses and volumes of steam
from the cauldrons of the salt-works, lay at our feet. The fertile val-
ley of the Salza stretched away to the north, populous and highly cul-

34

SALT WORKS.

tivated. — ''■Gentlemen, will you please to walk in and dress yourselves,"
said a rough looking miner, whose business we found was to see us
safely through the works. "Dress ourselves ! Why L. I think we are
dressed well enough to go into such company as we shall be apt to find
below ground." "Too well, is probably the meaning of it." And so
it was. It was a capacious linen dress that we were to put on over all,
with a stiff leather apron tied on behind to sit upon, a stout cap to pro-
tect the head from blows against the rocks and beams in the low galle-
ries, and a buckskin glove for the right hand. Thus equipped and fur-
nished with a light, we were prepared for a descent into the lower re-
gions. Before setting out I purchased select specimens of the various
forms under which the salt appears in this mine, crystalized in beauti-
ful transparent laminae, in granular masses of a bright pink color, com-
bined with a dark grey argillaceous rock and with the carbonate of lime,
&c.* And we supplied ourselves with sets of pictures, illustrating the
descent and the labyrinths of the mine itself. Through a handsome
portal, embedded in the mountain side, we entered a horizontal shaft a-
bout four feet wide and six high. This led us right towards the heart
of the mountain. Wooden pipes along both sides convey fresh water
into the mines. At first we found this tunnel lined with masonry, but
presently we were walking through the solid limestone rock, and then,
a few rods further on, we reached the salt. This first shaft carried us
in a straight line four hundred and ninety-three Salzberg fathoms into
the mountain. "Now, gentlemen," said the miner, who was conduct-
ing us, as we reached the end of this shaft, "I have the honor to inform
you that you are in Bavaria." We had in fact left the dominions of his
Imperial Majesty and passed from Austria into (under) Bavaria during
our progress through this tunnel. We found ourselves now at the
mouth of a pit, descending through the rock at an angle of 41^°, called
Freudenbergrolle. Our guide at once set about preparing for the de-
scent. Two stout poles, made very smooth and laid upon the rock a-
bout a foot apart, formed the inclined plane upon which we were to slide
doton. The guide adjusted his apron, threw one leg over each pole,
seized a rope that was stretched tightly alongside, and holding up the
light in his left hand, slid down a few yards to show us how the thing
worked. We were convulsed with laughter. I was half afraid to try
the experiment, for it seemed to me I would surely roll down heels over
head. "Never mind," said the guide, "only hold fast to the rope, and
if you roll, I am in your way and can hold you back." We took it

* These specimens are now in the possession of the Linnaean Society of Penn-
sylvania College.

SALT WORKS. 35

very deliberately at first, but as our courage rose our speed increased,
and it certainly was not two minutes before we were all safely landed
at the foot of the slide, three hundred and fifty feet from the launching
point. We now took to our feet again and passed along for some dis-
tance through a horizontal shaft, cut through a rock impregnated with
salt. The guide told us the rock grew. As we seemed disposed to ques-
tion the truth of his assertion he directed our attention to an old shaft,
that had once been as large as the one we were then passing through,
but not being used for many years its sides had gradually approached
each other until nothing but a narrow crevice remained. The galleries
through the salt rock are for this reason cased with beams of wood in
many places, notwithstanding which they are constantly diminishing in
height and width and must be trimmed out occasionally.

We stopped to observe a miner at work. He had just commenced a
new shaft, at right angles to the one we were traversing. It was scarce
two feet wide and but five high ; he had driven it perhaps eight feet.
There he stood, in that narrow cell, with his lamp beside him, picking
away the rock with a mattock ; — such an atmosphere ! The poor fel-
low had nothing on but a pair of pantaloons, and the perspiration was
streaming from him. Tioo hundred men are employed here in this way ;
they work six hours in the twenty-four, relieving each other in compa-
nies of fifty. Their wages are sixteen cents a day, (20 Kreuzers.)

Another inclined plane 390 feet long, at a somewhat steeper angle,
viz. 45|°, brought us to another horizontal gallery or shaft that soon
widened into the Chapel of the Virgin^ a room perhaps twelve feet
square, with an altar upon which lights are constantly kept burning.
A fountain of fresh water here slaked our thirst. The stiflTened cap
which the miner had induced me to put on was shortly afterwards of
essential service. Taller than the rest I was walking along briskly af-
ter them when my head came in contact with one of the beams that en-
cased the shaft; but for the cap I should have been completely stunned.

We next slid down the Kcenigsrolle, at an angle of 371°, and struck
off immediately into a shaft where our progress was presently interrupt-
ed by a flight of steps. Ascending these, a fairy scene bu-^st unexpect-
edly upon us .' We stood upon the shore of a subterranean lake bril-
liantly illuminated ! Imagine our surprise and delight ! We stood for
some moments entranced. A platform with several sofas upon it lay in-
vitingly before us upon the water. Scarcely had we taken our seats be-
fore the whole affair began to move ofi^ and we found ourselves leaving
the shore, by what agency we could not tell. Overhead, w ithin reach
when filanding upon this apparently automatic platforrn, was an unsup-

36 SALT WORKS.

ported roof of solid rock. It made one tremble to think of the moun-
tain mass above him, with nothing but the solidity of the rock in the
bosom of which he was moving, to prevent it from falling in and crush-
ing all beneath. The lights ranged round this sheet of water were all
seen again in its placid surface ; the pyramids inverted, his Imperial
Majesty, in a gay transparency, dancing upon his head among the rip-
ples caused by our floating platform. And now we neared the opposite
side. The stillness of the grave reigned in the heart of the mountain.
The spontaneous burst of surprise by which we had at first involunta-
rily disturbed it, had been succeeded by a silence that no one ventured
to break. But who could have refrained from a hearty laugh at the odd
appearance of our Charon, who, sheltered behind a pyramid of lights,
had all the while been industriously engaged at a windlass, silently
transferring us from one side to the other of this fairy sea ? We never
gave a Trinkgeld in a belter humor ; surely it had seldom been received
with a more comical grin. The dimensions of this lake are stated, in
the statistical account of the mine, which I purchased on the spot, to
be fifty-five fathoms and six feet long (Salzberg measure,) and twenty-
eight fathoms wide. Reckoning the fathom at fifty feet, would stretch
our subterranean sail to nearly a thousand. It did not seem half that
long to me, but I was entranced the while and took no note of time or
distance.

Leaving the lake we advanced some distance further in a horizontal
shaft, of the usual narrow dimensions. At the point of its intersection
with another, some fifteen or twenty feet square of the salt rock had
been cut away, and several monuments erected to the memory of some
of the archbishops of Salzberg, who once owned and blessed these
mines. We did not stop long to decipher all the good deeds recorded
of their episcopal highnesses, for we grew indignant at their very names,
calling up, as they could not fail to do, associations so painful to every
Protestant, not to say Lutheran.

We passed on to the chamber of curiosities. There are preserved
large and splendid specimens of the various minerals yielded by the
mountain. Especially interesting were some relics of the ancient Ro-
mans, who had already penetrated these recesses. Mining implements
have been found embedded in the rock^ and in one instance a piece of
raw hide, both ends of which are exposed whilst the middle is com-
pletely buried in the solid stone.

We were not sorry to find another inclined plane at the end of this
shaft; we had grown quite fond of this kind of locomotion. This de-
scent was at an angle of 42°. But our sailing and .sliding were now at an

SAV's LETTER. 37

end i we were to be forwarded from this point by railroad. What } — A
railroad too in the mountain ? Nothing more sure. There stood the
car before us, viz. a sort of long wooden horse that we had to mount,
one behind the other in true equestrian style, and there stood a couple
of sturdy fellows, one at the head and another at the tail, prepared for
locomotion. The wheels ran in grooved logs, and as there was a grad-
ual descent, we did not need much motive power. The men trotted
along briskly down the narrow, damp and dripping shaft, but it seemed
interminable. The lights had, all but one, been extinguished by the
watei that dropped from the ceiling of the shaft ; we were completely
chilled by sitting so still in that cold moist atmosphere, and the monot-
onous trip-trap of the porters was becoming intolerably irksome when,
all of a sudden, we found ourselves in the open air and the moon shi-
ning sweetly down upon us. We had been just two hours and a half
in the mountain.

A LETTER OF THE DISTINGUISHED NATURALIST, THOMAS SAY,
TO REV. J. F. MELSHEIMER.

Dear Sir — After a considerable interval occasioned by absence from
this country, I once more have the pleasure to address my friend, in
my last letter I informed you that I was about setting off upon a jour-
ney into Florida, in pursuit of objects of Natural History. This has
been accomplished. I accompanied the president of our Academy, Mr.
Wm. Maclure, (a gentleman well known in Europe and America for
science and beneficence,) in his carriage, by easy journies as far as
Charleston ; we there took the steamboat to Savannah, and sent on the
carriage by land. At Savannah we met our companions Messrs. Ord
and Peale, who had arrived a day or two before us from Philadelphia by
sea. Here the carriage and horses were sold, and we chartered a sloop
of about thirty tons burden, and after laying in our stores and necessa-
ries we commenced our voyage toward the promised land. We stopped
at each of the Sea Islands in order to examine their productions and the
sea coast for Crustacea, MoUusca, ijcc, took in another supply of provi-
sions, kc. at St. Mary's, and then continued our voyage to the St. Juan.
This noble river we ascended as far as Picolata, an old Spanish fortress
now in ruins, about 100 miles from its mouth, stopping occasionally at
such places as presented an inviting aspect, and making short excursions
into the country on each side of the river. From Picolata we crossed
the country on foot to St. Augustine in order to present our passports to
the Governor of the Province, and lo obtain from him such information

38 HLMS UFOiV THE FRLPARATIOX OF ZOOLOGICAL SFECllME-XS.

as might direct our further progress with the greatest probability of suc-
cess. From him we learned that on account of the hostility of the In-
dians, it would be the extreme of imprudence to ventuie any further up
the river, but that in the present slate of things we would be more safe
in exploring the more southern rivers and coast, such as Mosquitto riv-
er, &c. We, therefore, returned disappointed to our little vessel and re-
traced our voyage to the mouth of the river with the intention of going
lo Mosquitto river, and perhaps as far as to Cape Florida, but learning
that the Indians were troublesome in the south, so that we would be in
great jeopardy there, we determined once more to ascend the St. Juan
as high as we had been before, and again seek upon the adjacent coun-
try for all those subjects of Natural History of which the acquisition
was the sole object of our undertaking.

As we re-descended the river we heard of parties of Indians who had
been committing depredations, and one person informed us that a few
days previous, his plantation was totally destroyed by them, and his son
killed, he narrowly escaping with the remainder of his family, and with
the graze of a rifle ball on his forehead. The Indians then took the
road to Picolata ; so that we departed from that place in good time, as
it seems probable they went in quest of us.

After remaining a few days at the mouth of the river to make fur-
ther collections, we began our return voyage ; we examined more in
detail all the Georgia sea islands, visited Fernandina in Amelia Island,
St. Mary's, Savannah, Darien, &c. At Charleston we abandoned our
sloop and embarked on board of a packet ship for this city, to which
we have all returned in good health, and without any casualty. Thus,
in consequence of this most cruel and inhuman war that our Govern-
ment is unrighteously and unconstitutionally waging against these poor
wretches, whom we call savages, our voyage of discovery was rendered
abortive, as we were not in Florida at the season we Avished, the spring;
we therefore, obtained but very few insects, and these few of but little
consequence. My discoveries were principally in the Crustacea.

Fkiladcljjhia, June 10th, 1818.

HINTS UPON TlIK PREPAK ATFON OF ZOOLOGICAL .SPECUVIKNS.

BY II. HAUI'T, A. M. PRINCIPAL OF OAKRIDGE SE.M.

As the formation of a Museum, and the establishment of a general
Cabinet of Natural History is an important object of the Linnaean So-
ciety of Pennsylvania College, it is presumed that a .short article on the
preparation of specimens may not be altogether unacceptable.

HINTS rrox Tur, VRnrAKATiox or ;?ooi,oc;uai. spf.cimf.\s. 39

In presenting this essaj' to the readers of the Journal, the writer
wishes it to be distinctly understood that he does not lay claim to any
new discoveries oi profess to teach a better mode than is taught or used
by others; on the contrary, he is willing to confess that from his limited
acquaintance with naturalists he has been unable to obtain any informa-
tion on the subject : he, therefore, f^ives merely the result of his own
experience, and a description of that method which he has found by
trial to be most convenient, and will be much pleased if tlie defects of
liis system shall elicit a better essay from some one able to do the sub-
ject justice ; in the mean time he will indulge the hope, that the perusal
of this article will furnish the Students of Pennsylvania College with
the means of adding very consideralily to the collection of their Institu-
tion, and with a source of agreeable and profitable recreation to them-
selves.

The instruments and materials are few and simple. They consist of
a knife, a small quantity of wire, a phial containing a mixture of arsen-
ic and water, with a small brush for applying it conveniently to the skin,
some raw cotton or tow, a small file and a gimblet or a sprig-awl.

The mode of operating is as follows : Suppose the subject to be a
small animal, as a rat, or squirrel : make an opening at the lower end of
the abdomen, detach the skin carefully from the hip, keeping the open-
ing as small as possible, and when the finger can be passed entirely a-
round the leg, cut it oft" at that joint which connects it with the body,
draw it carefully out as far as the last joint to which the toes are at-
tached, and cut it off — do the same with the other leg : next remove the
muscles and vertebrae of the tail, which can generally be drawn out en-
tirely. The posterior part of the body is now completely detached ;
proceed to strip the skin over the body, which can be readily done with-
out increasing the size of the original opening, and detach it as far as
the extremity of the muzzle. The ears should be taken off close to the
skull, the eyes removed from the sockets. This done, cut off the head
by a section through the back part of the skull, and remove the brains,
tongue and muscles. Next apply the arsenic with a brush to the inside
of the skin, giving a double portion to those parts from which the flesh
may not have been entirely removed.

An artificial body must now be formed, and in this consists an im-
portant part of the process. The most convenient way of preparing it
appears to be asi follows :

1. Make a block of wood of such a size and shape as will com-
pletely fill the cavity of the skull, from which the brains have been re-
moved ; with a knife or chisel endeavor to give it such a shape that

40 HINTS UPON THE PREPARATION' OF ZOOI.OOJCAL SPECIMEJfS.

when placed in the skull the whole together may have the exact shape
and size of the head of the animal.

2. Measure exactly the length of the animal from the point of at-
tachment of the cervical vertebrae at the back of the head to the root of
the tail, and procure a wire of this length, make a hole in the block at
the back of the head as nearly as possible at the point of attachment of
the neck, and insert the end of the wire firmly.

3. Make two pieces of wood similar in size and shape to the shoul-
ders and hips of the animal ; bore holes through them sufficiently large
to admit the wire with some ditficulty, (if the holes are too large the
blocks will not keep their places.)

4. Wrap the wires with strips of rags, cotton, tow, or some such
material until the thickness becomes equal to that of the body of the
animal, which should be kept before the operator as a guide. When
this has been completed the skin may be carefully replaced, and the
openings sewed shut.

At this period of the operation the specimen will present very little
of its natural appearance, the body is misshapen, and the legs are not
yet filled. To complete the process, the most convenient way for a be-
ginner is to make small openings through the skin on the outside oppo-
site the points at which the wires are to be inserted into the blocks :
these openings can be afterwards closed without leaving a perceptible
mark. Pass a piece of wire entirely through the leg, allowing it to pro-
ject about an inch beyond the end of the claws : the upper end should
be bent at a right angle, and inserted in a hole made to receive it in the
block. To secure it firmly in its place a small staple made by bending
about an inch of wire in the form of the letter [J, can be driven into the
wood, so as to embrace the former wire at a point about | an inch be-
low its insertion. The legs can now be filled by pushing in small pieces
of cotton with a stiff' wire through the opening, and the tail can be ad-
justed in a similar way, by making an opening at the root on the upper
side, inserting a wire and fastening it to the block, in the manner direct-
ed for the legs.

Before closing these small openings the work should be carefully
examined, perhaps some parts may be found to require more filling.
This can be done by means of a wire, with which portions of cotton can
be pushed to the proper place, and if any part requires much addition,
and is so situated that the material cannot be otherwise conveniently in-
troduced, an opening may be made through the skin at that place.*

* Of course it will be proper to make as few openings through the skin as
possible ; but the reader will please remember, that these directions aie designed

FACTS FOR MECHANICS. 41

Another important part of the operation consists in shaping, and
here we would advise him, who has not much experience, to seek the as-
sistance of a picture of the animal which he is preparing, which he will
find of great use in enabling him to adjust properly the head, neck, legs,
tail, &c., which, if not properly performed, may place his specimen in a
very ridiculous and unnatural position. By means of the wires every part
may be bent to its proper shape. If glass eyes cannot be procured pieces
of painted wood may be used as a substitute, sometimes a dried bean or
pea painted at the end will be found most convenient, but when nothing
better is at hand, a piece of wood colored with common water colors,
and varnished with gum Arabic, will answer. Lastly, the wires which
pass through the feet, may be inserted into holes in a board, the hair
smoothed with a comb or brush, and the work is then ready for the shelf.

In conclusion, we will observe that no instructions are equal to prac-
tice. The few directions which have been given may serve as a guide,
but practice only can enable the young naturalist to prepare a specimen
which he will be able to view with satisfaction. Let every one, then,
who wishes to engage in this delightful art, and contribute to the repu-
tation and usefulness of his Alma Mater, by creating for her a museum
of Natural History which need be second to none in this country, pro-
cure the requisite materials and commence at once. Let him seize the
first subject that is so unfortunate as to cross his path, divest it forth-
with of its integuments, and after his recitations have been prepared (not
before) proceed to operate — if unsuccessful in the first attempt, if the
rat or squirrel happens to resemble on a small scale some of the fabled
monsters of antiquity, or if it proves to be altogether a nondescript, let
him not be discouraged, try again, "perseverance will insure success,"
and he will soon find himself in possession of the means not only of
spending an hour profitably, but also of contributing to the diftusion of
scientific knowledge among his companions, and of increasing their taste
for the study of the beautiful and interesting works of God.

FACTS FOR MECHAMCS.

Filing of Saios. It is perhaps less generally known than it ought
to be, that the same saw is not equally well adapted to cutting against
and across the grain of wood.

principally for those who have never perhaps attempted to prepare a specimen, and
we therefore, give the easiest, without presuming to assert that it is the neatest or
best way of accomplishing the object. A little experience will perhaps enable the
operator to attach the legs without making openings expressly for that purpose on
the outside.

6

42

ANT-IANA, .NO. I.

To cut against the grain or for slitting boards, the teeth should be
filed, holding the tile at right-angles to (or straight across) the blade. In
this manner the teeth will be formed like chisels, and be well suited to
cut off the fibres of the wood in the direction of their length. The
fronts of the teeth should also be made to be square with the blade.

To cut across the grain, as in cutting off a board and sawing fire-
wood, the teeth should be filed to sharp points by holding the file a little
aslant to the blade, changing the direction for every alternate tooth. In
this way when the saw is set, the points will be in two out-side rows,
and will cut off the fibres of the wood like knife edges, and permit them
to be easily rubbed out by the inner part of the teeth.

It is now plain that a crosscut saw will not answer for slitting, nor
a slitting saw for cutting across the grain. For speedy work every me-
chanic ought to have two saws, the one filed for crosscutting, and the
other for slitting. M. J.

ANT-IANA, NO. I.

The last will and testament of an English duchess was attempted to
be upset some years ago on the ground of her insanity, and, of course,
her incompetency to bequeath her property. And what proof of insan-
ity did her disappointed heirs produce ? Nothing more, than that dur-
ing her life time she was very fond of collecting and studying insects,
and they argued that none but an insane person would engage in such
pursuits ! ! This was many years ago, when people were not as wise
as they are now, but I have no doubt that there are some even at pres-
ent who would bring in a similar verdict.

I am insane enough to follow the inspired instructions of Solomon,
when he says, "Go to the ant ! consider her ways and be wise," and
I sometimes feel mischievous enough to think that they are the most in-
sane who wholly neglect this glorious book of nature, and thus slight
the express precepts of the Redeemer of men and the example of many
illustrious saints and sages of other times. I think I could be right elo-
quent on this subject, if you would allow me room, but "let

us go to the an^"

During the last summer, this numerous race of insects afforded me
much amusement. Soon after a heavy shower of rain about the begin-
ning of June, a large number of black ants, about one-third of an inch
in length, was observed in the act of colonizing themselves in a flower
bed, near the corner of the garden. It was a strange family, for they
had not been seen previous to the rain. Numbers of emigrants were

A REJOINDER TO MRS. BU-\.\. 4o

constantly pouring in ; some on foot, and some borne along by their
companions. Some of the observers could not account for this singu-
lar mode of proceeding. The individuals thus carried did not seem
weaker than their bearer, for when they were separated, they would both
scamper off hastily ; though sometimes one would again approach the
other and allow himself to be picked up and borne off as before. The
ants all came in a straight line, and were traced to a distance of twenty
yards. At the place of destination, a scene of active and enterprising
industry was going on. Some were excavating the earth, whilst others
were bringing together straw and sticks. One little fellow was particu-
larly noticed, tugging and twisting to drag along a stick eight or ten
times bigger than himself. Every thing seemed to promise success to
the enterprise, but on visiting the colony a few days afterwards, I ob-
served that a large black ant of a different species had seized one of the
settlers in a hostile manner and was bearing him off. After making his
way with some dfficulty through the grass that edged the bed, where his
progress was impeded by his victim who grasped at the objects around
him, he carried him into a hickory tree a few feet distant, which I found
to be inhabited by a tribe of this large species.

On examining the settlement more closely, many dead bodies of both
nations were discovered, giving evidence that a deadly struggle had been
going on between them. A number of combats still remained undeci-
ded. In one instance, three of the smaller ants had attacked one large
one, and from the exhausted appearance of all, I inferred that the con-
test had been arduous. In another, one of the giant invaders had seized
his smaller opponent just at the root of the feelers and was endeavoi-ing
in vain, by rubbing him against the objects around, to get his body with-
in reach of his jaws. His supple enemy evaded all his eilbrts. The
colony appeared to have been much weakened by the hostilities of their
powerful neighbors, for though they were still carrying on their opera-
tions, it was with much less energy than before, and since that time they
have entirely disappeared ; the remnant, I suppose, became disheartened
and removed in hopes of finding a more peaceable neighborhood.

I have many more curious maneuvers of these little animals to re-
late. RUSTICUS.

A REJOINDER TO MRS. BUNN, WITH AN EPISODE ON THE CELES-
TIAL KITCHEN.

If Mrs. Bunn says, that the times before us, and particularly Roman
limes, of which she has read in an odd volume of Rollin, which lies on
the third shelf of the small closet beside the fire-place in the back par-

44 A REJOLNDER TO MRS. BUNN.

lor, were superior to our own, I will admit it. But Mrs. Bunn, if she be
an honest woman, and such I believe her to be, (she loaned me five
dollars once and never asked it again,) must admit that, in point of eat-
ing, we are in advance of them.

The magnificent parade of nightingales' tongues was after, all, just
as stupid as the idea of the man in Lessing, who thought a young lady
would make a good wife, because she sung sweetly. The pearls dis-
solved in vinegar, the conger-eels fattened on the flesh of men, are as
much proof of the sickliness as of the variety of imagination in the old
gourmands. In the solid comfort of the matter we are far beyond them.
Forks, which they had not, are preferable to fingers. We feel a slight
shudder when Pliny speaks of sucking-puppies fricaseed, as a dish for
the gods. Wo to our dandies if this taste should ever be revived ! "Wa-
ter-rats" closes a list of delicacies. The stomach, after all, was not so
unfortunate a location of the soul.

The turkey was unknown. The enjoyment of roast goose must
have always been disturbed by the reflection that perhaps they were de-
vouring a descendant of the saviors of the city. O ! that like happy
effects attended the cackling of geese at the capitols of all republics.
There was such a want of cleanliness, that the most refined were in
danger of eating more than that portion of dirt, which the modern prov-
erb has fixed with much precision at "a peck before you die."

Ambrosia, the food of gods, we are told in the Odyssey, was brought
to Jupiter by pigeons. From this, the thought may be gathered that it
was not unlike what in modem time we call "pigeons' milk."

But if this conjecture should not meet the approval of the learned,
we will hazard another, for New England itself is hardly more the land
of guessers than classic antiquity. As Jupiter both eat ambrosia, and
applied it to his hair, for this we take to be an obvious explanation of
the phrase, "ambrosial curls," we presume that it was not unlike po-
matum, which, from its original place in mutton, when with mutton it
may be eaten, conies to be used as an unguent for the hair. This shows
the low state of domestic economy on Olympus. For from the hint
1 have thrown out, the intelligent reader may easily gather the extreme
probability that the celestials were obliged to extract materials for their
dinner and their toilet from the same pan. Hence, we submit with much
humility, they deified that instrument under its own appropriate name.
Pan, it is well known, was the god of shepherds, which you will ob-
serve, throws light on my suggestion in regard to the mutton. He was
also fond of the pastoral pipe, an obscure legend touching which seems
to be embodied in a well known line of a popular ballad,
"There's music in the hying Pan."

riio.NOGRArHY. 45

Perhaps some of the real causes of the quarrels of which the old
poets tell us so much, might, if accurately traced, be found in the kitch-
en. If, by what I cannot but consider happy hints calculated to throw
much light upon important and abstruse points, I have done nothing
to secure to myself an eminent place among the learned ; I have at least
the proud consciousness of feeling that 1 have given myself claims up-
on the gratitude of many of our female domestics, by showing that the
habit of dressing the hair over the lire where the dinner is cooking, has
so sublime an origin. H. O. R.

ENGLISH PHONOGRAPHY, NO. II.

BT PROF. W. M. REYNOLDS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Various attempts have been made to remedy the ii-regularities and
imperfections of English Phonography. The practical character of this
country especially manifested itself in this direction even cotemporane-
ously with our revolution. Dr. Franklin, interested in this subject
both as a printer and as a philosopher, proposed to reform our alphabet
by rejecting the six letters c, ^', q^ w, x and ?/, which he considered su-
perfluous, and introducing in their places six new characters to express
the sounds for which we have no peculiar signs. Though Franklin
was not a philologist, his knowledge even of French being very limited,
so great was his genius, and so strong his common sense, that he un-
doubtedly possessed high qualifications for this work ; but as it is one
which requires a large expenditure of both time and patience in order
to carry it through, and as so little had at that time been done in Eng-
lish Phonology (or the analysis of our spoken language) it is not strange
that, amid his numerous engagements in philosophy, politics and phil-
anthropy, that great man failed to do all that was necessary, and finally
abandoned the enterprise. Jt is not necessary to enter into an examina-
tion of the causes of this failure, nor shall we do this in reference to
any other plans that have been proposed, believing that the establish-
ment of a good system will be all that is required to show the insuffi-
ciency both of that which is now in use, and of others which have been
proposed as substitutes for it. Gratitude, however, does not allow us
to pass over the labors of Noah Webster in silence. His "Dictionary"
is an imperishable monument of his learning and a miracle of industry,
and the reforms which he has succeeded in introducing into our Phono-
graphy in spite of the incessant carping of pedants and other men of
contracted minds, are both important in themselves and prepare the way
for other."? mure thorough and extensive. It is true that Webster was

46 rHo.voGRAPHy.

not always consistent, or true to his own system in those illustrations
which he gave of it when he first proposed it, but this does not subvert
the principles which lie at the bottom of it.

Dr. Thornton^ whose "Cadmus" was published in 1793, Ewiiig,
whose "Columbian Alphabet" appeared in 1798, and more lately Knee-
land and Antrim^ whose works I have not seen, deserve to be mention-
ed for their zealous labors in this direction, though none of them seem
so likely to make an impression upon the public as the late Thomas S.
Grimke, whose adoption and use of Welster''s plans in their simplest
form would undoubtedly have commended them to the public, had he
not been so suddenly cut down in the midst of his usefulness.

Without saying any thing of various other systems of Phonography
of which I have heard, but which, except those of Wachter and Wil-
kins upon general Phonography, I have not seen,* I proceed to unfold
my own plan, believing that the long continued and now simultaneous
and independent movements in this direction show that, in this country
at least, a reformation of the English alphabet and spelhng must, ere
long, be effected.

The fundamental principles upon which I proceed are the follow-
ing:

I. No changes should be made but such as are absolutely necessa-
ry, reference being had, however, as well to the general usage of the
other languages with which the English is so intimately connected^ as
to convenience in the acquisition of our language by foreigners and of
their's by us.

JI. Each simple, elementary sound of our spoken language must be
indicated by an appropriate sign or letter.

III. Compound or modified sounds (diphthongs, &.c.) may be repre-
sented either by a combination of letters or by a single letter.

IV. Each letter or combination of letters must invariably represent
the same sound, and must always be vocal.

In accordance with these views we propose the following scheme of
an English Phonographic Alphabet :

* Whilst I am writing, Prof. Haldeman (having seen my first article upon
Phonography) has favored me with a sketch of his system of "General Phonogra-
phy," of many useful hints in which 1 gladly avail myself. — By last night's mail,
(Dec. 23,) 1 also received a Boston newspaper, in which I find the following no-
tice : "Phonography. -Classes in Phonography are now commencing for the win-
ter at the Phonographic Institution— Phonography is now thoroughly established
as a regular branch of education, especially in Engiaiul." This is the first intima-
tion which I havejseen of these (acts, and the coiricidence of the name at least,
with that of which I had supposed myself the inventor, is rather remarkable.

rHONOGRAPHY. 4?

PHONOGRAPHIC ALPHABET.

1. y\ = a, in art, far; aa, iu haa; ah., in ah!; au^ in aunt; ea, in heart \

0, in God. This is the German a, in Vater.

2. V=^? i" '^^^ Aare; ai, in fair; e, in where, there; ea., in _pcar,

icar; ci, in heir. Nearly the Ger. a, in Gatte.

3. A=^i i'" ^^^j ^^r '" author; au\ in auful; o, in or; m/g/j, in ought,

(it somewhat shorter in cough, trough.) This sound is a little
broader than the Ger. aa, in ^al, or a/t, in Wahl.

4. E=^5 i" ««/««? fame; ai, in ^aicZ; flo, in gaol; ay, in jscr?/; ea, in

great; ei, in vein; ey, in ^re?/. The Ger. e long, as in beben.

5. £=e, in enc?, bet, tell; a, in surface; ai, in again; ea, in /iead; e^,

in phlegm; ei, in heifer; erg, in foreign; eo, in leopard; ie,
in friend; u, in burial. The Ger. e, in Henne, fett.

6. | = i, in marine; e, in ei-iZ, scene; ae, in Caesar; ea, in sea; ee, in

see; e^, in impregn; ei, in seize; eo, in people; ey, in A'e?/; oe,
in oeconomy. The Ger. e long, in Elisa, or ie, in sieA, /tier.

7. 1 =;i, in pi?i, i^, ^i^, simiZe; ai, in villain; e, in catastrophe; ea, in

guinea; ee, in committee; ei, in surfeit; oy, in 5mo?/; ?/, in Jwsy,
business; ui, in build; y, in tcrj/, mystery. The Ger. /, in /cA,
Sinn, Mittel.

8. !=i7 in pine, mine; ie, in iie; igh, in A/^A; 2/5 in tyrant; ye, in dye.

Ger. ei, in mein.

9. 0 = ''' '" ^''j ^'^^ cold; eau, in Jeaw; ew, in sezc; eo, in yeoman; oa,

in groan; oe, in doe; o/i, in oA/; oU in r/oZA-; 00, in door; ot, in
depot; ou, in mould; ow, in ^o?o; oi/*e, in owe; oi/^A, in dough.
Ger. 0, in .Vo//«, Brad.

10. 0=0, in cZone, son, above; e, in Ztcrd; ea, in learn; i, in Jird, ^r;

00, in food; ou, in rough, covetous; ow, in narroto; u, in sm??,
dwZZ. Ger. o, in Go/<, Bottich.

11. U = 7<, in rw/e; 0, in move; oe, in sAoe; oo, injTooZ; ou, in /o?/r; ow^/t,

in through; ue, in sue, accrue; ui, in st/it Ger. u, in Muth.

12. A^"' '" hill, pull; 0, in tco/y"; 00, in /too/", cooA:. Not unlike the

Ger. u, in null , or 0, in Rock.
13.y\/=u',in we. 14. B = ^- 15. Q= c/t, in cZrarc//. 16. Q=zd.
17. F=/- 18. G=^iin^«^- 19- d=g^ in gf ?ra ; 7, in ja^.
20. H=''i i" '"'• ^1- J=2/» i" 2/*^' > ^? '"^ union. The Ger. J (cons.)

in Jude, Ja.
22. K=c, in cat; k, in Aiud; ch, in character. 23. |_ = Z. 24. M=7?i.
25. N="- 26. 3= "5 in /nger;n;g, in sin^. 27. R— /?. 28. |^=r.
29. S=s, in si//, /tiss; c, in cen/. 30. T='- 31. J_=:th, in thin.
32. V = ^- '^■^- Z — ^5 i" ^'^^^" '^J i" ^'^-

48 METEOROI.nr.Y,

j The letters C, Q, X and Y are rejected, the first throe as superfluous,

■^ and the Y on account of its unsettled power in English as well as in
other languages. Y and C are used in their inverted forms in which there
does not appear to be any danger of misunderstanding, on which ac-
count they and the others are rejected in their ordinary forms. The
sound of u in tuhe, tisage ; iew, in view, Sfc. is supplied by _;m.

The diphthongs oi and oy as in toil and cloy will, of course, be ex-
pressed by oi, and ou and ow as in foul and fowl by au, according to the
analogy of the German.

The combinations s/j, th, (as in tlie) wh and zh and their analogues
are retained or introduced, because their force is well ascertained and
easily understood, and it is not, in my opinion, desirable to burthen the
alphabet with any thing that can be spared. JS'g would have been
treated in the same way, had it not been for such combinations as j^7i^er,
which it might be inadvisable to write fingger, in consequence of the
danger of mistakes in the pronunciation.

The formation of new characters by inverting those in common use
(first suggested by Etcing, I believe,) seems to me equally convenient
for the learner and for the printer. At the suggestion of Prof. Halde-
man, I substitute 3 (the numeral) (inverted) for 3i and 1 for the short
sound of I. I have also used o and A in accordance with his system
of general Phonography, of which I propose in my next article to com-
municate the sketch with which the author has so kindly favored me,
as it so ably illustrates my own views upon this subject, in which I
have been confirmed by the authority of a scholar who shows himself
so perfectly familiar with the subject. I cannot here forbear the expres-
sion of the hope, that the Am. Philosophical Society, to w'hich Prof.
Haldeman has communicated his system at length, will speedily favor
us with its publication.

IMETEOROLOGY, NO. III.

BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA. COLLEGE.

What is the physical cause of these phenomena ?

Having stated some facts in IMeteorology, and traced what is presu-
med to be the law by which they are governed, it now remains to as-
sign, if possible, their physical cause.

1. The remarkable coincidence between the periods of the lunar
changes and those of the weather at once compels ns to inquire, what
agency the moon may have in the production of the latter changes.
The necessity becomes tlie more imperative, as no other class of physi-

METEOROLOGY. 49

cal phenomena is known whose period coincides in so remarkable a
manner with either of these, as they do with each other. This circum-
stance may be entirely accidental ; but it is not probable that "it is so ;
for in physics such coincidences, after due investigation, are always
found to result from a more or less intimate relationship, such as a com-
mon cause, or as one being the cause and the other the effect.

2. The opinion, that the moon in its diflerent positions in reference
to the earth and sun may be the cause of those modifications of the
condition of the atmosphere which give rise to cloud, rain, snow, and
fair weather, is not new. The idea is extensively prevalent in the
community that the changes of the weather are produced directly or in-
directly by the lunar influence. Hence such changes arc often confi-
dently looked for at the times of new and full moon, and at its first and
last quarters. And further, at the times of new and full moon, but par-
ticularly the latter, frosts and cold weather are almost uniformly expe-
rienced in our latitude, except perhaps during several of the summer
months. During the last summer the times of full moon were all cool
and bracing, and the nights clear and brilliant. Why Mis should be so,
may perhaps at some convenient time be considered.

3. But it has been objected by some that, as the weather rarely ever
changes at the precise time wlicn the moon is new or full, or at the
quadratures, or at the octants, but generally a day or a day and a half
earlier or later, the latter can have very little influence over the former.
Great stress has been laid upon this objection ; and it has been regarded
by those, who have entertained it, as at once deciding the question in
their favor. At this point we might aid them by stating a second objec-
tion, much more plausible, and therefore, more weighty than the one just
named. It is known, that the change from clear to cloud and vice versa,
happens at difl^erent times in diflerent places on the same meridian. The
careful study of meteorology, and the multiplication of observations have
moreover proved that it occurs in low always sooner than in high lati-
tudes, and that it is regularly progressive from the tropics towards the
north, and north of east in the northern, and towards the south and
south of east in the southern hemisphere. Its occurrence in the lower
latitudes is always several days earlier than in the higher. This, it
might be said, does not look much like an efiect of the lunar action,
which ought to be exerted nearly at the same time at all places upon
the same meridian, and always most powerfully in the latitude corre-
sponding to its declination.

These objections, and others of a similar character which might be
urged, though plausible, do not however, in our opinion, mililute agaia.st
7 - ' !

50 METEOROLOGY.

the opinion that the moon is the principal cause of the changes of the
weather under discussion, but go directly in favor of that opinion.

4. In order to estimate correctly the lunar influence, we must not
forget that our atmosphere is subject also to the action of the sun's at-
traction and the powerful influence of his rays.

Independently of the influence of both these bodies, the atmos-
phere would revolve uniformly with the earth, and be subject to no
change whatever. There would be a general stagnation — a continual
sameness — none of the vicissitudes which at present characterize the
weather.

Now suppose the solar influence alone to exist : what change would
this produce ? We should see the great system of atmospheric circula-
tion at present existing, at once springing into being. This may be con-
cisely explained as follows : The absorption of the sun's rays by the sur-
face of the earth, by which the air immediately resting upon it is heated
and rarefied, will produce diurnal changes of great extent. The unequal
absorption by different portions of that surface will produce local dis-
turbances in density and pressure resulting in local currents or winds.
And the greater ahsorplion within the tropics and low latitudes, will
cause a determination of the lower mass of the atmosphere in both
hemispheres towards the equator, and of the upper mass towards the
poles. The lower or polar current, which, by continually passing over
portions of the surface of the earth whose velocity of rotation is great-
er than its own, is constantly left behind them by the diflerence of their
several velocities, is gradually turned in a curve westward, and in the
latitude of about 30° becomes the north-eastern trade wind, on the
northern, and the south-eastern trade on the southern side of the equa-
tor. The upjier currents, having a greater velocity of rotation than
those portions of air through which they successively pass in their de-
parture from the region of the trades, are constantly tending more and
more eastward, until, in the latitude of about 50°, they become almost
east. These currents, leaving the torrid zone with a high temperature,
and consequently holding a lai-ge quantity of watery vapor in solution,
gradually lose their elevated temperature, and deposit their moisture in
their progress towards the poles. To these currents, then, we ought to
look as the great treasuries of cloud, rain and snow ; and their course
ought to be the great track of our extended storms.

But in naming cloud, rain and storm, we have insensibly passed be-
yond the immediate efiect of the solar influence. If the sun were the
sole disturber of the atmospheric equilibrium, it is but fair to assert, that
every day would be nearly alike in reference to cloud and rain ; for the

METEOROLOGY.. 51

effect of the sun''s heat would only he to produce daily fluctuations of
temperature, and the changes of the seasons.

5. Next let us suppose the moon also to act upon the atmosphere.
Its action cannot be one of calorific influence, by which a general lunar
circulating system is produced like that produced by the sun. It is
one purely of attraction. It can only exert a modilying influence up-
on the results of the solar action — its effects are only of a minor nature
superinduced upon those of the sun.

If the moon did not exert a strong attraction upon the atmosphere
and thereby disturb its condition, the laws of nature would be subject
to a strange irregularity. We would Witness the singular fact of a very
marked influence exerted upon the more distant, the heavier, and the
less movable waters of the ocean, producing tides of considerable mag-
nitude ; and at the same time no effect produced on the nearer, the light-
er, and the extremely movable mass of the atmosph-ere. Such a sup-
position is unphilosophical and absurd. There must, froin the necessity
of the case, be both solar and lunar tides in the atmosphere, of which
the latter must, however, be by far the greater. It is indeed true that
these tides are not easily recognized by any difference of pressure pro-
duced at the earth''s surface, as might at first view be expected. But then
it must be remembered that the solar heat exerts such an all-controlling
power in producing changes of pressure, currents and counter-currents,
as almost to conceal the lunar tides, if there be any. These, being mixed
up with the more powerful movements due to changes of temperature,
can do no more than modify or change in a subordinate degree the con-
dition of the atmosphere as influenced by the solar heat. It is these
modifications or superinduced clianges which give its existing character
to the weather.

That these changes should not occur at the precise time at which
the moon reaches any particular position is to be expected, since even
the tides of the ocean follow at some distance the moon in its diurnal
course j and that they should be influenced by local circumstances is
likewise to be expected, since the latter are also influenced and modified,
and sometimes even entirely destroyed by the situation and outline of
sea coast. This is a sufficient answer to the first objection above stated.
•The second objection is answered by a consideration of the fact, that,
as the lunar action is but a modifying influence, inducing upon the great
circulating system produced by the sun, certain minor changes, these
changes must be carried forward in that general circulation. If, there-
fore, a rliange is produced by the moon in the region of the trades, or of
its own declination, by which cloud and rain are produced, that change

52 INTRODUCTORY ADDRESSES.

will be swept along by the great tropical streams towards the poles, and
will visit the difterent latitudes successively as do the storms of rain, and
many other changes of the weather. Nor must we forget to take into
the account the strong local agency of islands, coasts, and soils upon
the air, by which also every atmospheric disturbance is greatly modified.

The conclusion seems, therefore, to be quite as probable as any other
that has yet been oflered, that those regular changes of the weather un-
der discussion are produced by the influence of the moon upon our at-
mosphere.

Gettysburg, Dec. 24:th, 1844.

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESSES,

Delivered at the Commencement of the Course of Instruction in the Medical Department of Penn-
sylvania College, Philadelphia, November, 1844.

The Medical Department of Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, is lo-
cated in the city of Philadelphia. It has recently been re-organized un-
der very flattering prospects. The faculty is now complete, and the va-
rious branches of medical science provided with instructors, known to
the profession and the public, and known as honorable and high mind-
ed men, qualified by their talents and education to instruct students of
medicine in the important science of curing disease. These addresses,
four in number, are creditable to their aiithors, as literary performances,
and each one discusses an important theme. It is small praise to say,
that every professor has accomplished his task with ample learning and
in an instructive and judicious manner. The lecture* of Dr. Darrach,
who occupies the chair of Theorv and Practice of Medicine, is a learn-
ed disquisition in the history of medical science, and the true basis of
medical philosophy. Maintaining that the science is founded in obser-
vation and induction, and not in ingenious speculation without sufficient
data, it shews that, from the time of Hippocrates, the lather of medicine,
ad nostra tempora, those who have trod in his footsteps, and worshipped
at the shrine of nature, have rendered by their discoveries the most es-
sential service to science, whilst the visionary and speculative, led on
by the celebrated Galen, have dazzled and been adored, but their reign
was not perpetuated. Truth would seem to be led captive — when
sought by the Baconian, or Hippocratic method — as well in medicine,
as in ph3'sics and metaphysics.

It is diflicult to repress an expression of regret, that a discourse so
elaborate and beautiful, should have suflered so seriously in the hands of

* Introductory to the course of Theory and Practice of Medicine.

INTBODICTOKV APDUF.SSES. 53

the prinler. lie has surely done tjrcat injustice to the oi-thogra{)hy of
the proper names which are found in the discourse.

The second address,* and we may not be very orthodox in the order
in which we introduce them, is by Dr. Washington L. Atlke, Profes-
-sor of Chemistry. The utility of this attractive and rapidly growing
science, is exhibited with a clearness and fullness, calculated to convince
the student that it cannot be dispensed with, and at the same lime to
shew, that the Dr.''s "•Stand-point"' is the right one, and that he cannot
fail, carrying out his own principles, to be an acceptable and profitable
teacher.

His views in regard to the propriety of directing the attention of
students more particularly to those branches of Chemistry which will
be of most importance professionally, whilst no part is neglected — com-
mend themselves by their trutli. If the introductory is to be regarded
as a sample of the Dr.'s style of lecturing, it may reasonably be inferred
that the muses will often lend their ornaments to relieve the dryness of
copious statements of facts.

Why should he not thus enliven his subject f He has a delightful
field over which to expatiate. Imagination may occasionally kindle and
pour forth her treasures to illustrate the "miracles of God." No ap-
prehension need be indulged that the chemistry of the medical depart-
ment of Pennsyhania College will be too poetical. It is easy to see,
that the intellectual in the Dr.\s mind is not overshadowed by the imag-
inative.

The third addresst is by Dr. D. Gilbert, Professor of Surgery.
The subject is well chosen. Jt is self-confidence, that most essential
requisite to him, who must encounter the most frightful forms of human
woe, perform the most vital operations often without the aid of his
sight, meet crises creating in every bosom irrepressible alarm, without
delay — snatch life as it were by a quick but intelligent grasp, or let it
flit away for ever. The subject is treated in a very judicious manner,
and is full of counsel, deeply to he pondered by all concerned, and in a
style which, and we consider it high praise, does not render it necessary
to extract, as it were by a forceps, and with violent pulls — the Dr\s mean-
ing. Tiie man who lectures in tliis way must be a profitable teacher.

The fourlli address;}; is by Dr. Patterson, to whom has been com-
mitted the management of the Materia Medendi, and we think that any
department committed to such hands would have been skillfully mun-

* Introductory to the course of Medical Chemistry.

t Introductory to the course of I'liiiciples and Piactice of Suigery.

X Introductoiy to the course o/ Materia Medica and Fliarmacy.

54 ALUMM ASSOCIATION.

aged. The whole tone of this pertV)rmance indicates a quick and com-
prehensive mind, and speaks that this is a man who will be felt in his
day. We take it for granted that he is right in all that he says — it is
obvious that he refers to great abuses of a valuable source of medical
knowledge — but however valuable clinics are, and valuable must be that
instruction which may be obtained at the bedside — let there be nothing
unfeeling or cruel, nothing indelicate or offensive, in our treatment of our
fellow men when they are the victims of disease.

It is a gratification to us to observe that Dr. Patterson is conversant
with the German language. He cannot fail to derive from it the highest
aid in his scientific studies, for who — in science of every description —
have surpassed the men of the "Fatherland ?"

May it not be hoped, that this rising institution will continue to pros-
per, that it will receive the patronage of the friends of Pennsylvania
College, and that it will contribute essentially to supply the United States
with able Medicince Docfores .' Without the gift of prophecy, we ven-
ture to predict, that it will go forward — that every year will add to the
number of its students, that it will make for itself a name, and that its
teachers will rank with the benefactors of our race.

ALUMNI ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

This Association holds its annual meeting on the evening preceding
the College Commencement. The last meeting was numerously attend-
ed, represontalives being present from nearly all the graduating classes.
Rev. Theophilus vStork, of Philadelphia, presided, and Prof. Stoever act-
ed as secretary. The Association being organized, the death of Rev.
W. A. Wadsworth, was announced by A.R.Stevenson, Esq., and the fol-
lowing resolutions unanimously adopted :

1. '"'•Resolved, That we sincerely lament the loss which the Associa-
tion has sustained in the death of brother VVadsworth, whose moral worth
and personal qualities will long be held in afi'ectionate remembrance."

2. '"'■ Resolved, That vve deeply sympathize with the relatives of the
deceased, in their bereavement, but unite with them in gratitude to our
Heavenly Parent, for sustaining him in the trying hour, by the all-pow-
erful consolations of an unshaken faith, and affording him a peaceful and
triumphant death." Rev, Jno. Heck, Prof. Ilay, and Rev. N. H. Cornell
were appointed a conmiittee to communicate tlie foregoing resolutions to
the family of our deceased friend.

Jn behalf of the committee appointed at a previous meeting, to pro-
pose a plan by which pecuniary aid might be atiordcd to our Alma Mater,

ALUMNI or PEW. COM.ECF., OO

Rev. Geo. Piehl, of Easton, Pa. read an interesting report, but its con-
sideration was postponed until next meeting, in consequence of exertions
now making by the students of the College, to erect a Hall for the Li7i-
ncsan Society, and a resolution was adopted cordially approving of the
enterprise contemplated, and a willingness expressed to co-operate with
them in the effort.

The officers elected for the ensuing year are, Rev. Jiw. Hecic, Presi-
dent ; Prof. M. L. Stoever, Secretary ; Mr. Wm. Ruthraiif, Treasurer.

The orator for the next Anniversary is Rev. C. P. Krauth, of Balti-
more, Principal \ Dr. C L. Baker, of Lancaster, Alternate.

TO THE ALUMXI OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

We desire to make the Journal the organ of communication between
the Alumni of Pennsylvania College and the literary and scientific world.
Not that we expect that they will make this the exclusive recipient of
their efforts in this direction, but that they will here, from time to time,
as it were, report progress — let their old friends know what they have
been doing and how they are getting along — what use they are making
of '■'■ omnia jura priv He glaque'''' of literary and scientific men, with which
their diplomas and subsequent college honors have invested them. If
we can succeed in this, we expect to render a service equally acceptable
to our readers and to the graduates themselves. To the former it will
secure a rich variety of original and instructive matter, which we are
satisfied that the membfeis of the various classes that have left Pennsyl-
vania College within these 15 years are as well able to furnish them as
any similar body of scholars in the country. To the Alumni themselves
it will be productive of results more pleasing, if not more profitable.
They will here re-unite once more, at least in spirit. They will recog-
nize the style and the sentiments, the manner and the matter of old
friends and class-mates vvith whom they once "took sweet counsel,"
when mind coming into collision with mind was like "iron sharpening
iron," which has now become fine and polished as a Damascus blade,
or, at least, as useful and effective as the axe of our western woodsmen.
It will thus be a bond of union, a place of re-union, and a ineans of ma-
king friendship and fellowship as lasting as life. We mean these remarks
to apply likewise to those who have received honorary degrees from
Pennsylvania College, who are at least her adopted chiklrcn.

We also extend this invitation to that numerous class of students
who were here matriculated and sojourned for a shorter time within the
enchanted circle of college-life, but were, by various cause.s, withdrawn

0(j DF.OREF.S. EXLAROF.MEXT. CORRESPO.\I)F,XTS.

from it before they could make its regular round. We know many of
them to be possessed of fine talents and active minds, and highly re-
spectable literary and scientific attainments. We know too, that hund-
reds of them are zealous in promoting the honor and interests of Penn-
sylvania College, and we are anxious to secure their co-operation both
in the general objects of the Linnsean Association, and in the literary
support of the Journal.

Honorary Degrees. In announcing the honorary degrees confer-
red at the late Conmiencement of Pennsylvania College, we had to trust
to our memory, which played us false so far as to permit us to omit the
name of Rev. S. W. Harkey, of Frederick, Md., upon whom the de-
gree of A. M. was conferred. It is superfluous to say that Mr. H. who
is the author of several excellent works, particularly ''The Church's
best state," is every way worthy of the honor.

ExLARGEMEXT. Our readcrs will perceive that the present number
of the Journal is enlarged so as to exceed its original size by one-third.
This is in consequence of the spirited proceedings of the Linnajan As-
sociation at its late meeting. Our subscribers and friends will under-
stand from this, that we are disposed to do even more than we have
promised, and we assure them, that it is our earnest wish and determin-
ation to give them the full value of their money, which, however, is a
very small matter. But if the Alumni of Pennsylvania College, now
near a hundred, and the matriculated students who have been connected
with the Institution for a longer or a shorter time, now but little under
one thouscmd, and the large body of friends who have for these fifteen
years so steadily sustained the interests of literature and science at this
place, will give us reasonable encoragement and assistance, we think
that we shall finally be enabled to make our Journal not only one of
the cheapest but also one of the most valuable publications in this land
of newspapers, magazines, and journals.

To CoRREspoxDEXTS. As we are just getting fairly under way, and
have to depend entirely upon their favors, (it being oin- determination to
keep the matter of the Journal entirely original,) we shall be placed un-
der increased obligations by our Correspondents if they will fonvard us
their articles somewhat more promptly, and earlier in the month. We
liave received sevcial communications which we were anxious to insert
in the present numbi-r — but iln>v came loo late.

IPennsgtoania College, ©etttjsburg, |3a.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, ^-c.

Rev. H. L. Baughe-.. A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, SfC.

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chemistry, 4rc.

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, ^c.

M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department.

Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.

Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

Wm. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.

Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

MEDICAL FACULTY AT PHILADELPHIA.

Wm. Darrach, M. D. — Prof, of Theory and Practice of Medicine.

John Wiltbank, M. D. — Prof, of Obstetrics and Diseases of woman and. children.

Wm. R. Grant, M. D. — Prof, of Anatomy and Physiology.

H. S. Patterson, M. D. — Prof of Materia Medica.

D. Gilbert, M. D. — Prof, of Principles and Practice of Surgery.

W. L. Atlee, M. D.—Prof. of Medical Chemistry. .

Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur-
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substa'ntial as that
of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course
is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.

The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
require. They attend at least two recitations a day, Church and Bible Class on the
Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of
any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
session, $61 87i : for the summer session, .f41 87i. Washing, .#10 00 ; and Wood,
.f3 GO. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 2.5 per
week.

There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
April and September, and each of five weeks continuance.

The winter session commenced on the 24th inst., with the accession of about
twenty Students in the Freshman Class, admitted at the close of the summer ses-
sion, and a respectable number of applicants for admission into the Preparatory
Department.

^cknotulcbgcments of UDonaticrns to tlje Cabinet of tl)c £inncean
Association of pennsyloaiiia College.

Jan. 1, 1845. Received from Prof. Haldeman, of Columbia, Pa., several num- ;
bers of his "Zoological contributions," comprising essays "on the impropriety of J
using vulgar names in zoology;" "on the arrangement of insect cabinets;" "on some ,"
American species of Hydrachnidae."

From Rev. Solomon Oswald, of York, Pa., a fine specimen of Haematite.

From Dr. Jacob Hay, of York, Pa., larvae of the Oestrus eqiti.

From Mr. Wm. Wagner, seal Engraver, York, Pa., sixty-nine plaster impres-
sions of seals. Through Prof. Charles A. Hay.

VOLUME I.]

[number 4.

LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

®f tijc iTtnitosan Jls00clatioii of PcnnsjjUirtntii (JTolUge.
FEBRUARY, 1845.

CONDUCTED

3J9 a itonxmltttt ot the ^SBOtiutlon.

CONTENTS.

TREES AND SHRUBS OF CUMBERLAND CO. PA. - 57

ANT-IAi\A, NO. n. - - - - - - - 63

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BIBLE, - - - 64

RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ASTRONOMY, - - - 65

THE JEWS AND THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES, - 66
A DULOGUE, "~- - - - - - -69

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, - 72

METEOROLOGY, NO. IVr _ _ _ - - 73

SUBTERRANEAN SALT WORKS, _ _ - - 77

DESTROYING DERMESTIDAE, ----- 78

REPORT OF THE CURATOR OF LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION, 79

11 sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles 2i cents, over 100 miles 3| cents.

NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. FEBRUARY, 1845. No. 4.

CONTRIBUTION'S TOWARDS A CATALOGUE OF THE TREES AND
SHRUBS OF CUMBERLAND COUNTY, PA.

BY SPENCER F. BA.IBD, OF CARLISLE, PA.

In no instance is the close connection between the various depart-
ments of nature more clearly shown, than in the relation which the ge-
ological structure and general features of any portion of land, bear to
its flora. If for any locality certain data are given, such as the latitude,
soil, and position relative to other objects, we can in almost every in-
stance determine beforehand, what species of the vegetable kingdom
will there be found. The various alternations of moisture and dryness,
sun and shade, mountain and valley, have each their peculiar attendants.

Briefly to characterize Cumberland County, it consists of a section
of the great Cumberland valley, 12 miles wide and about 40 long, bound-
ed on the north by the Kittatinny or North mountain, on the south by
the South mountain, and on the east by the Susquehanna river. The
South mountain is composed of the various primary rocks, gneiss, mica
slate, hornblende, chlorite, quartz and sandstone, the white fucoidal
sandstone of Prof. Rogers forming its northern ridges. Next come the
two great strata of limestone and slate, occupying nearly the whole
breadth of the valley. Tiie North mountain consists of red and white
sandstones, and shales. A narrow dyke of trap called stony ridge, cross-
es the valley, about five miles east of Carlisle. The Conedoguinet creek
forms the dividing line between the limestone and slate. Nearl)- paral-
lel to the Conedoguinet, and at a short distance from the South moun-
tain, runs the Yellow Breeches, The remaining streams which are of
insignificant size, are the Letart, and Big Spring.

The fertility of the soil varies much in different parts of the County.
In the South mountain there is not a great deal of arable land. The
limestone soil, however, is capable of a very high state of cultivation,
particularly near the water courses. In some of the bottoms along the

•58 CATALOGUE OF TREES AND SHRUBS

Conedoguinet creek, the timber grows to a very large size. It is not
uncommon to see Buttouwoods seven feet, Mossycup oaks five feet, and
Hackberries two feet in diameter, Grape vines, and the Viburnum pru-
nifoliuni, 6 to 8 inches. About 7 miles to the south-west of Carlisle,
there is a strip of woods called the Richlands, containing trees of an
astonishing diameter and height, so high indeed that it is considered an
almost impossible feat to kill a squirrel or wild pigeon on the top, with
shot. The slate land is very unproductive compared with the limestone,
though by good management it affords a tolerable yield. The North
mountain is very rocky along its sides, fertile, however, on parts of its
top.

The most peculiar part of the County consists of that portion of it
in the South mountain. This is not a single range like the North moun-
tain, but occupies an area of considerable breadth, made up of short
hills and ridges, separated by narrow vallies, and copiously supplied with
springs and swamps. In these latter, we find the Cranberry and fragrant
Magnolia growing in abundance, particularly in one called the Black
Swamp, near Pinegrove furnace.

By a comparison of this list with that contained in Darlington's
Flora Cestrica, it will be found that many of our species of oak, maple,
cherry, currant, hazel, &c, are wanting in Chester County. Others com-
mon here, are rare there. Again, there are a few found there in which
we are deficient. Of these latter the majority will most probably be
found hereafter, as the species named below are the collection of a single
season, and of a single individual. Several still remain undetermined,
for want of satisfactory specimens. It will be observed that the whole
genus Salix is omitted, the collection having been commenced too late
in the spring to get them in flower.

The nomenclature employed is principally that of Torrey and Gray,
in the North American Botany, Torrey in the Report on the plants of
New York, and in some instances Darlington in the Flora Cestrica.
We add the synonyms of this latter work, when they differ from the
name we have adopted.

Acer permsylvanicum, L. Striped maple. Rare in North and South mts.

" saccharinum, L. Sugar maple. Meeting house Springs.

" dasycarpum, Ehrh. A. eriocarpum, (Mx.) Darl. Silver maple. A-
bundant along creeks.

" ruhrum^ L. Red maple. Abundant in mountains and along creeks.
Alnus incana, Willd. Black alder. Rare. Pinegrove, South mount.

" serrulafa, Willd. Red alder. Abundant along shaded rivulets.

OF CUMBERLAM) CO. V.\. 59

Amelanchier canadensis, Torr. & Gray. Service berry.

var. \.hoiryapium,ToxY.h.Gr. ^.hoirya]num,'D&r\. Abund.
var. 2. rotundifolia, Torr. & Gr. Am. ovaJis, (Lind.) Darl.
Rare. Spring Forge.
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Mx. Jl. hederacea, (D. C.) Darl. American

ivy. Abundant. Fences and rocky places.
Andromeda panicidata, Mx. A. Ugustrina, (Muhl.) Darl. JVIoist thick-
ets of South mountain.
Betula lenta, L. Sweet birch. Abundant in the mts. Rare in the vail.
" nigra, L. Black birch. Abundant along Susquehanjia.
" excelsa, Ait. Yellow birch. One tree found in North mountain.
Carpinus americana, Mx. Iron wood. Along Yellow Breeches. Com.
Carya alba, Nutt. Shell bark. Abundant.
" tomcntosa, Nutt. *' Abundant.

" porcina, Nutt. Pig nut. Abundant.
'' amara, Nutt. Pig nut. Abundant.
Caslanea vesca, var. americana, Mx. Chestnut. Abundant in North
mountain, less so in South.
" pumila, Mx. Chincapin. Abundant in South mountain.
Ceanotfms americanus, L. Abundant in close woods.
Celaslrus scandens, L. Along fences. Common.

Celtis occidcnialis, L. of Michaux and Darlington, not of Torrey. Hack-
berry. Rocky banks near water. Rare.
" crassifoUa, Lam. of Mx. and Darl. not of Torrey. Hackberry.
Rich soil along Conedoguinet. Common.
Cephalanthus occidenfalis, L. Abundant in wet meadows.
Cerasus pennsylvanica, Lois. Top of North mountain at Wagoner's gap.
" virginiana, D. C. C. ohovata, Darl. Wild cherry. Abundant.
" serolina, D. C. Wild cherry. Abundant.
Ccrcis canadensis, L. Red bud. In rich soil along the creeks.
CompLonia asplenifolia. Ait. Sweet fern. Abundant on dry ridges of

North and South mountains.
Cornus sericea, L. Red rod. Abundant in moist thickets.
" allernifolia, L. Abundant near the creeks.

" Jlorida, L. Dog wood. Abundant in woods near creeks, and mts.
" paniculata, L. Herit. Bush dogwood. Abundant, near water.
" circinala, L. Herit. Rare. Top of North mountain.
Corylits rostrata. Ait. Beaked hazel. Rare in North mountain.

" americana, Wald. Common hazel. Damp, shaded spots. Com.
Crataegus parvifnlia, Ait. Rare in woods.
" Jlava, Ait. of Darl. not of Torr. &. Gr. Rare — along Y. Breecheg.

60 CATALOGUE OF TREES AND SHRUBS

Crataegus punctata^ Jacq. of Darl. Abundant along Conetloguinet.
" cms gain, L. Common thorn. Abundant along the streams.
•■' coccinea^ White thorn. Most abundant species, generally distribut.
DierviUa trifida, Moench. D. canadensis, (Willd.) Darl. Top of North

mountain, and along Conedoguinet.
Diospyros virglniana., L. Persimmon. Rare except along Susquehanna.
Epigaea repeiis, L. Trailing arbutus. In the mountains, and pine woods

of tire valley.
Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacq. Burning bush. Abundant along Conedog.
" americanus, L. Very rare. Mouth of Hunters run, South mount.
Fagus sylvatica, L. Beech. Common along Yellow Breeches, and at

the head of Letart Spring.
Frax'inus viridis, Mx. Sylva. Green ash. One tree found.

" sambucifoUa., Willd. Black ash. Not common. Near the water.
" acuminata, Lara. While ash. Abundant.
" pubescens, Walt. Red ash. Common.
Gleditschia triacanthos, L. Honey locust. Not common. Rich soil.

Near the water.
Hamamelis virginica, L. White hazel. Common in mts. and near wat.
Hydrangea arhorescens, L. Hydrangea vulgaris, Mx. Hydrangea. Rare.

Conedoguinet creek, on high banks.
Hypericum adpressum, Bart. Spring Forge.
Ilex opaca, L. Holly. Mount Holly, South mountain. Very rare.
Juglans nigra, L. Black walnut. Abundant in wet soil.

" cinerea, L. Butternut. Rare.
Junipcrus virginiana, L. Red cedar. Juniper. Rocky hills. Common.
Kalmia latifolia, L. Laurel. Very abundant in mountains, and slate

lands along creeks.
Laurus sassafras, L. Sassafras. Common.

" benzoin, L. Spice bush. Swamps. Common.
Liriodendron tulipifera, L. Poplar, or Tulip tree. Abundant in moun-
tains, and along Yellow Breeches.
Lonicera parvijlora, Lam. Honey suckle. Rare. Near water.
Magnolia glauca, L. Fragrant magnolia. Black Swamp, near Pinegrove
Furnace. Abundant.
" acuminata, L. Umbrella tree. One tree near road from Pinegrove
to Gettysburg.
Morus rubra, L. Red mulberry. Rare. Rich soils, and bottom lands.
JVetnopanthes canadensis, Raf. Mountain holly. Abundant in wet places

of South mountain.
^Yyssa multijlora, Willd. Black gum. Abundant.

OF CUJMBEUl.A.XD CO. PA. 61

Ostrija virginica., Willd. Woods on slate lands, near water. Common.
Oxycoccus macrocarpus^ Pursh. Cranberry. Abundant in Black

Swamp, South mountain.
Pinus canadensis, IMx. Hemlock. High slaty banks of creek.s, and hol-
lows of South mountain.
" strohus, L. White pine. Katlier rare except in mountains.
" innps, Ait. leather common. Slate Hills.
" rigida, Marsh.
Platanus occidentalism L. Button wood. Rich soil near water. Com.
Populus iremuloides^ Mx. Aspen. Abundant near Spring Forge. Rare
in the woods.
" tremula, L. P. grandidenta, l^Mx.) Darl. Rare.
Prinos verticiUatus, L. Swamps and damp thickets. Common.
Primus americana, Marsh. Wild plum. Wet meadows. Common,
Pyrus arbutifolia, L. South mountain, and along Yellow Breeches,
var. 1. mclanocarpa.
var. 2. erythrocarpa.
" coronaria, L. Crab apple. Abundant in South mountain, rare in
the valley.
Quercus paJuslris, Mx. Pin oak. Common in bottom land.
" coccinea, Wang. Scailet oak. Common.
" rubra., L. Red oak. Abundant along bank of creek,
" tinctoria, Bart. Black oak. Abundant in woods.
" stellata, Willd. Q. oblusiloha, (Mx.) Darl. Post oak. But four

specimens found.
" ilicifoUa, Willd. Q. banisteri, (Mx.) Darl. Bear oak. Sterile hills

of South mountain. Abundant.
" alha, L. While oak. Very abundant.

" macrocarpa, Mx. Mossycup oak. Common along Conedoguinet.
" olivae formis, Mx, .'' Overcup oak. A few trees along Conedog.
" montana, Willd. Chestnut oak. Abundant in mountains and on

stony ridges.
" bicolor, Willd. Not common. Wet bottom.
" prinus, L. Rare in bottom lands.

" castanea, Muhl. Yellow oak. Rare on high rocky banks alg. crk.
" prinoides, Willd. C. chincapin, (Mx.) Darl. Chincapin oak. Ster-
ile hills of South mountain. Abundant.
Rhododendron viscosum, Torr. White azalea. Spring Forge Sw^ps. Rare.
" nudifloru7)im Torr. Shaded banks of rivulets. Common.
'^ nilidum^ Torr. Abundant in wet grounds of South mountain. >
Rhus aromatica^ Ait. Common.

62 CATALOGUE OF TREES A.ND SHRUBS OF CUMBERLAND CO. PA.

Rhus toxicodendron, L. Abundant in mountains and among stony places,
var. radicans, Torr. Poison vine. On Fences and detached
trees. Abundant.

" copallina, L. Wing rib sumach. Abundant in South mountain and
along Yellow Breeches.

" typhhia, L. Rare.

" glabra, L. Common sumach. Abundant.

" venenata, D. C. Common in swamps along Yellow Breeches.
Ribes hirteUum, Mx. Wild gooseberry. Holly Gap, South mount. Rare.

'' floridum, L. Herit. Letart Spring.
Robinia pseud-acacia, L. Common locust. Common in iiclds. Spa-
ringly distributed through woods.
Rosa Carolina, L. Wild rose. Abundant.
Ruhus villosus, Ait. Common blackberry. Old fields,

" trivialis, Mx, Dewberry. Old slate fields. Common,

" hispidus, L. R. ohovatus, (Pers.) Darl. Damp woods along Y. Br.

" odoratus, L. Flowering raspberry. North mountain. Common.

" occidentalis, L. Raspberry. Common.
Sambucus pubcns, Mx. Along Susquehanna.

" canadensis, L. Common elder.
Smilax rotundifolia. Green briar. Along fences.

" panduraia, Ph. Holly Gap. Rare.

" cadiica, L. Thickets.

" sarsaparilla? Conedoguinet, opposite the Pike Pond.
Spiraea opulifolia, L. Abundant. Most so along Yellow Breeches.

" salicifolia^ h. Meadow sweet. Abundant in South mountain.

" lobala. Murr. Spring Forge. Rare.
Staphylea irifolia, L. Bladder nut. Margins of woods. Common.
Tilia americanxt, L. T. glabra, (Vent.) Darl. Linden. Woods along
Conedoguinet.

« alba, Mx. Rare.
Vlmus amcricana, L. White elm. Near water. Abundant,

" fulva, Mx. Red elm. "

Uvaria triloba, L. Jlsimina triloba, (Dunal.) Darl. Papaw. Rich soil

along creeks. Shaded spots.
Vaccinium corymbosum, L. Tree Huckleberry. Abundant in South mt,

••' pennsylvanlcum, L. Common in South mountain.

*' resinosum. Ait. Woods. Common.

" stamineum, L. Deerberry. Not common.
Viburnum prunifoliuin, L. Sheepberry. Very common.

'' lenlago, L. Rare. Mouth of Hunters run, South mounlam.

ANT-IAXA. 63

Viburnum deniatum. L. Arrow wood. Abundant along Yellow Breech.
'' puhescens^ Pursh.

••' nudum, L. Abundant in swamps on South mountain.
" acerifolium, L. Abundant in South mountain. Rare in the valley.
VUis Jabrusca, L. Fox grape. Common in South mountain.
" aestivalis, Mx.
" cordifolia, Mx.
" riparia, Mx.
Xanlhoxylum americanum, Mill. diet. Abundant along creek in shade.
Whole number of species, . - - _ _ \^Q
Of these, not found in Chester County, - - - 20

Species in Chester County not yet found in Cumberland, 11

ANT-IANA, NO. II.

One day, I observed an unusual number of large red ants lunning a-
bout the walks in the garden; and I was curious to know what this
new movement might mean. Presently J discovered two or three dif-
ferent groups, each collected around an unfortunate black ant, which
they were hauling along by the legs. Thinks I, what's all this } I'll
show fair play. But the captives showed no disposition to bite or in-
jure their assailants, but endeavored by struggling to escape. I resolv-
ed to await the issue. I presumed that there had been a battle between
this company and a colony of black ants that had several weeks before
established themselves among some strawberries, and that these were
prisoners of war, whom they were conveying home. I followed the di-
rection in which they were moving and in an adjoining field, 1 discov-
ered a nest. But instead of red ants only, I found in the nest a large
population of the identical species of black ants I had just seen them
dragging along. The black ones were very busily engaged in enlarg-
ing the entrances, carrying sticks and straws, and in performing the oth-
er customary labors of the ant hill, while the few red ones that were
seen straying among them, appeared to take no part whatever in these
domestic concerns. The ants from the garden continued to come strag-
gling in, and now and then one might be seen bringing in a captive with
him. Numbers of winged ants of the red species were crawling around
the nest and occasionally flying in the air ; sometimes the black ones
would lay hold of these and lead them into an adjoining hole, but gene-
rally they did not seem to molest them.

Since that time, I have frequently examined the nest, and have never
seen, except in one instance, the red ants rendering assi.stance in remo-

64 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BIBLE.

ving dirt or collecting food, but have several limes observed the others
carrying them from one part of the nest to another.

Some time after, the red ants attacked another settlement of the
blacks and carried off the jmpae^ or undisclosed young.

On a subsequent occasion, the following scenes were witnessed. A
long line of red ants was seen traveling in, straight course, but in both
directions. I went to the nest and found the colony in a very unsettled
condition and great excitement prevailed. There was a constant train
of them pouring in, laden either with pupae or young ants, or with full
grown ants of a different species, which were black. As soon as they had
arrived, they deposited their loads and immediately set off again in haste.

I followed the train from the nest, and at a considerable distance
through the garden in an orchard, found that they were attacking a col-
ony of black ants. There was a terrible fight. While some were en-
gaged in grappling with the rightful owners, others were pillaging the
settlement and carrying ofl" the defenceless young. This scene was
continued until night. About noon next day, the fight was resumed and
the darkness alone suspended it.

I counted the number that passed a certain point in a minute, inclu-
ding those going and returning, and on making an estimate, I found that
during the seven hours of the first day they had been thus occupied,
they must have made 21,000 passages between the two settlements, a-
mounting altogether to a distance of more than 477 miles.

RusTicus.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BIBLE.

Almost every part of animated nature, as it presents itself to the view,
without the aid of instruments, is referred to in the Scriptures, for vari-
ous purposes. The Bible, therefore, in the department of Natural His-
tory furnishes materials exceedingly rich and instructive, which have
attracted the attention of the philologist, the naturalist and the Commen-
tator. Bochart's work entitled ''■Hierozoicon ; sive de animalibus S.
Scripturae," is well known to the learned, and Dr. Harris' Natural His-
tory of the Bible is in many hands. This latter work, which is easily
accessible and which is the result of a considerable range of investiga-
tion, should be in the possession of every Student of the Bible, who
may not be able to procure other works. In it will be found evidence
that the Sacred writers — as was said of one of them — "Spake of trees,
from the Cedar tree that is in Lebanon, even unto the Hyssop that
springeth out of tlie wall ; he spake also of beasts and of fowl, and of
creeping things, and of fishes," K.

DISCOVERIES IN ASTRONOMY.

65

SPECULATIONS SUGGESTED BY RECENT DISCOVERIES IN ASTRONOMY.
(Exiraclcd from Uie. private correspondence of a friend.)

Have you seen the latest news from the sky ? Bessel, who, you
know, had the honor of first discovering the annual parallax of a fixed
star, has announced the discovery of orbitual motions in Procyon and
Sirius, or, to use his own words, "/Ae apparent motions of these two stars
are such as might he caused hy their revolutions ahout attractive but non-
luminous bodies not very remote from them respectively ^ In short, they
seem to form systems analogous to those of the binary stars, but w^ith
this peculiarity, that they have dark instead of bright partners, to which
they, of course, perform the friendly oflices of revolving suns !

Their orbits must, therefore, be highly inclined to the visual ray, else
in some parts of their courses they would inevitably be eclipsed by
their gigantic central earths, as appears to be the case with some other
stars such as Algol and omicron Ceti.

The discovery is wonderful, if true, but seems almost incredible !
The proper motions of these two stars have been known for ninety
years to be upwards of one second annually, and have all this time been
supposed to be rectilinear, or nearly so, and, therefore, moved in that
time between one and tvvo minute;. ; and if this time and distance be
necessary before the curvature could be detected, what must be the size
of the curve and the length of the period ? Several degrees, perhaps,
and thousands of years in one revolution. The binary stars offer noth-
ing so gigantic as this. The longest period yet discovered is that of
gamma Leonis, 1200 years. Gamma Virginis has a period of more than
600 years, and a major s. a. of ellipse of only 12", which, at the usual
distance assigned to the stars, would give an orbit double that of Uranus
— what then will be the size of an orbit in which ten times this distance
can be just distinguished from a straight line, and what must be the size
of a central body that can hold Sirius iu check at such a distance ^ How
eagerly may we look for further particulars.

There are some curious considerations connected with the distance
and proper motions of the fixed stars, which I do not think have been
noticed. It has generally been supposed that the stars are as far from
each other as from the solar system, but this cannot always be true, for
two stars equally distant from each other, and from the earth, must be
separated by an arc of 60°, yet many stars of the first magnitude are
much nearer than this ; Castor and Pollux are but 5° apart, Sirius and
Procyon less than 15°, and many stars of the second magnitude have
still smaller intervals ; they must, theiefore, be much nearer to eacli oth-
er than to the earth, and if so, why may we not look to sec them aflect-
9 ■ /'

66 THE JEWS AND THE

ed by their mutual attractions ? The subject is curious, but I have no
room to enlarge. Dick in his ''Siderial Heavens" speculates ingenious-
ly, but not very accurately, on the nature and variety of siderial sys-
tems. He was the first to conjecture that some of the smaller stars
might revolve about large, opaque, and therefore, invisible earths — a
conjecture curiou.sly confirmed by Bessel, with respect to the largest.

Some of Dick's hypotheses, however, will not suit the cases, espe-
cially the application of the above conjecture to a star in the northern
crown, for however large the central earth may be, the revolving sun
must necessarily have an orbit many times greater, and therefore, could
not be eclipsed for more than half its period. Equally unsatisfactory
is his theory of "Periodic Stars," which will account for their gradual
diminution, but not for their sudden appearance.

Wrightsville, Dec. lOth, 1844.

THE JEWS AND THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES.*

BY W. A. AI.BACH, A.. M. OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Amidst the progressive and powerful movements among the Ger-
mans of the Jewish faith, since the time of Mendelsohn, and in the midst
of the vigorous development of the Jews in life and science, in educa-
tion and morals, in ideas and in intellectual wants, there were besides,
and there yet are, several other points, to which their attention is direct-
ed. One of these is : the admission of Jews to professorships in the
universities, if they are equally as well qualified as Christian teachers.
An antipathy to the adherents of Judaism, more or less strong, was long
sufficient to exclude scientific Jews from the universities. Mendelsohn,
the philosopher, was, by tlie king of Prussia, struck from the list of can-
didates for membership in the Berlin academy, because of his faith. It
is true, in the ardor of the contest for freedom, the Jews obtained the
legal riglit to teach in the universities, all over Germany ; and Prussia
likewise granted this right in an edict of the 11th IMarch, 1812, but the
retrogressive steps, taken immediately after 18 1-*), made these laws of
no effect, and to this day the Jews look in vain for an abolition of this
latter limitation. If ever any period demanded a philosophical repre-
sentation of this subject, it is the present ; partly because, in many in-
stitutions, a beginning has been made to abolish the former exclusion of
the Jews, and partly, because the progress of the Jews in science is be-
coming so rapid, that a refusal to consider tliis question will soon be

* From the German of Dr. Julius Fi'irsf, as found in ^Vutlke's Jalirbuch der
deutschen Univeisit'aten, for 1S4;>-'1.

GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 67

scarcely possible. Berlin has now received the Jew Peter Kicss, as a
member of the Academy of Sciences, with which, as is well known, the
right of lecturing is connected. Bern, even several years ago, made the
Jewish physiologist, Valentin of Breslaw, Professor ordinarius ; in G6t-
tingen, we find laboring in the philosophical faculty, the Jews Dr. Theod.
Benfey, for indo-gernianic philology ; Dr. M. A. Stern, for the mathe-
matical sciences; and Dr. E. Bertheau, of Hamburg, for Jewish history
and antiquities ; in Heidelberg, Dr. H. Oppenheim, of Frankfort on the
Main, Avas received as a private teacher in the law faculty, and Dr. Gust.
Weil, as teacher of Arabic ; in Leipsic, Dr. J. Fiirst, was received into
the philosophical faculty four years ago ; Marburg, several years since,
appointed Dr. J. HofTa, teacher, and Dr. J. Rubino, professor in the de-
partment of philology, Stc. But all these departures from former usage
have been characterized by so much anxiety, and have at times been
connected with such limitations, that we easily perceive the want of
principle which exists. In one university there is a hesitancy to advance
a private Jewish teacher to a professorship ; in another, the Jewish teach-
ers have assigned them a separate place in the catalogue of lectures as
well as in rank, as for instance, Dr. J. Rubino in Marburg ; so that at
least a want of principle, if nothing more, is every where apparent.

Another object of desire with tlie Jews is : the emancipation of Jew-
ish literature in the universities, or the establishment of professorships
for Jewish science, to be filled by Christian or Jewish teachers. There
have been established professorships for the Indian, Persian, Arabic and
even for the Tartar language and literature ; and that justly, since any
separation according to nationality or country is unknown to science,
whose national element is profoundness, and whose native country is
truth ; for a general knowledge of Judaism, of Jewish antiquities, and of
Jewish history alone, has deep-rooted prejudice prevented the establish-
ment of professorships. This neglect of Jewish science naturally flovvs
from the depressed civil condition of Jews. But now, when science is
beginning to exert its influence upon social life and legislation, we
should no longer witness such an inditlerence to Jewish science, a know-
ledge of which is calculated to banish various mistakes in legislation,
and much injustice in social life. The partial attention bestowed upon
Jewish antiquities in the last century did much towards meliorating the
civil condition of this people, but for eighty years past, even this
faint light has been vanishing, and now the knowledge of Judaism, of
Jewish literature and science, is in so deplorable a condition in the uni-
versities, that soon even the partial knowledge derived from former
authors, must be entirely lost.

68 JEWISH THEOLOGICAL FACULTY.

The third point which engages the attention of the Jews is : the
establishment of a Jewish theological faculty. For ten years has this
subject been discussed among the Jews, since the later Jewish theolo-
gians so early as 1819 abandoned the study of Hebrew theology ac-
cording to the Rabbinical method of investigating the Talmud and the
Mosaic writings. And the desire lor scientific Jewish theology has now
become general. Zunz in his day desired such a faculty as a seminary
for Jewish theology; the same did many learned Jews after him, and
Geiger (in his Scientific Journal for Jewish theology,) expressed himself
in clear and forcible language ; but no one knew so well how to make
this idea popular and general as Dr. Philipson, the religious teacher of
the Jewish congregation in Marburg, although he was wholly indebted
to Geiger for the matter. On the 24th of Oct. 1S37, in No. 88 of his
"Universal Journal of Judaism," he published a call to raise by sub-
scription, the sum of 100,000 Thaler, in order to erect and support,
from the interest, a Jewish theological faculty, and a Jewish seminary.
All parties among the Jews acknowledged the importance of such a fac-
ulty, and even the most indifierent became interested in it. But now
appeared the disadvantage arising to the cause from the person of Dr.
Philipson, who, without even a moderate reputation for scientific attain-
ments, assumed the important part of leader in this enterprise. The
educated every where withdrew from the movement, to await the time
when the excitement occasioned by him should have subsided. In
1838, Dr. Geiger published a little work upon this subject, which, by its
sound views and scientific character, is operating much more powerfully
upon the better informed part of the Jews. The conviction now gene-
rally prevalent among the Jews, that Jewish theological science can
flourish only in the universities, is shared by the author, (Fiirst.) In
Austria such an asylum cannot be expected, since its universities have
laid aside the German character, and do not permit free investigation in
theology ; even many German universities will scarcely suit for this pur-
pose. Upon the wliole, the fittest place would probably be Leipsic,
where the government has not yet entirely obliterated the former spirit
of the universities, where the professors are free from all narrow-mind-
edness and illiberality, and where Christianity is not altogether intole-
rant. True, we have heard, that the king of Wiirtemberg has declared
himself not unwilling, even with a fund of only 20,000 Thaler, to es-
tablish such a faculty in Tubingen ; but Leipsic, as being in the central
part of Germany would still seem to be preferable. Tlie first thing now
is to add as much to the 13,000 Thaler already collected, as will sup-
port for the present, :-ay three Jewish proibbsors, which among a Jew-

DIALOGUE. 69

ish population of almost a million, scattered through the dillorent Ger-
man states and among their Slavonian neighbors, can no doubt be easily
etleeted.

A DIALOGUE BETWEEN A FARMER, AND A TRUSTEE OF PENN. COL.

Farmer. I see you have been improving the appearance of the Col-
lege edifice by a new coat of paint ; I hope you have made a greater
improvement in the increase of the number of Students, as I have a large
quantity of prime beef and pork for which 1 desire a good market.

Trustee. We have indeed opened for you, in this Institution, a fine
market for your produce, by which we throw into circulation annually
the sum of nearly ^20,000. But this is the least valuable benefit which
the College confers upon the community in which it is located, and I
am sorry that the farmers generally regard it as the most important j and,
whilst they have it in their power, at a trifling expense, to educate their
sons and prepare them to occupy the most important offices in the gift
of the people, and exert a commanding influence for good, they are sat-
isfied to have them plod onward, with only those advantages of educa-
tion which a common school aflbrds. Believe me, it is the interest of
the farmer to educate his sons thoroughly, though they return to the
farm and the furrow, which they had, for a time, forsaken.

Farmer. I know your views are held by many ; for my part, I think
that this business of education, and learning the branches, and geome-
try, and such things, only make men proud and lazy, the good old way
of writing and ciphering is enough for me and my boys. The main
tiling is to get along in the world, and lay up something for a wet day.
I have heard many things of colleges and college boys which I do not
think are right and proper.

T. Many stories, no doubt, are in circulation, which have no foun-
dation in truth, and therefore, should not be regarded. I would be pleas-
ed, however, to know more particularly, what it is to which you object.

jF. I have already said that learning makes men proud and lazy.

T. I have heard that objection made more than once, and have in-
variably discovered that it originated from suspicion and ignorance, and
had no fact or truth as its foundation. Ignorant upstarts you will find,
in all cases, to be proud, or rather, vain, which I imagine is the proper
term. They do not possess knowledge sufiicient to teach them their
ignorance. They have seen so little of the great field of knowledge,
which the great God has spread out before his intelligent creatures, that
they do not know themselves. They are very much like some farmers
of my acquaintance, who have never traveled beyond the precincts of

70 DIALOGUE.

their own township, and, ignorant of the improvements made in cultiva-
ting the soil and forming manures in other places, fancy that they raise
the best wheat and are the best farmers in the world. But, let these
sciolists become truly learned, let them dive down into the secrets of
God''s works beneath, and soar upwards to behold the glory and majesty
of his works on high, and look into the mysteries of their own nature,
and the character of God, and they will soon be deeply humbled ; and
they will be prepared, with the great Sir Isaac Newton, to exclaim, "that
they are l)ut children walking on the shore of the great ocean, here and
there picking up a pebble more beautiful than tlie rest." No, the true
scholar is humble and devout, the least extravagant in his notions, and
the most distrustful of his powers ; for the higher he soars in his in-
vestigations after truth, the wider and more extended are his prospects,
the more multiplied and glorious the objects ; and. consequently, the
more ignorant and insignificant must he himself appear. You mistake,
then, very much, if you suppose that learning makes men proud ; only
consider the character of your minister and that of others, whose learn-
ing has been of service to you, and tell me, whether they are proud.

Equally groundless is the charge of indolence. It is true, students
are not employed in manual labor as the farmer and mechanic, neither
indeed would it be possible, in all cases, or in most cases, to combine
labor and study. Isolated cases there have been, as that of old father
Carey, the first baptist missisonary to India, who, between the stitches
he made in the shoes he was mending, managed to pick up a knowledge
of the Latin and Greek grammars, and improved in theology so rapidly
that he was ordained to the work of the ministry, and finally obtained
the honorary degree of D. D.

If you have any doubts concerning the industry of the Students in
our College and Theological Seminary, they must vanish, at the sight
of the works which have been accomplished, within the last year. They
have made not less than a mile of the most substantial walk that can
be found any where. They generally saw their own wood, and the
vacations are mostly spent in the most active and industrious manner, so
that some of them, whose means are limited, make money enough to
sustain them during the following session. But, laying aside consider-
ations of this sort, the peculiar and appropriate labor of the Student is
not that of the body, but of the mind. Here, I think, the industry even
of the farmer is much inferior to that of the Student. Mental effort,
])liysicians tell us, is much more debilitating than bodily. The proof of
this is obvious in the pale and lean face of the Student, whilst his neigh-
bor, whose efibrts are only those of tlic body, is ruddy and vigorous.

niAi.oGuE. 71

It is not uiuisual for Stiuleiits to rise at four of the dock in tlio morn-
ing, anil not retire until ten or eleven, and tliat too during a whole ses-
sion together. Show me a farmer equally laborious, and I will admit
that knowledge makes men indolent.

F. I see, that 1 have been misinformed, and as you have been edu-
cated in a college yourself, and now are a trustee, you ought to know.
But I am tohl that students arc irreligious and ill-behaved, and I should
like to have my sons keep good company, and grow up in religion, as
well as learning.

T. I am very glad that you have mentioned this objection, for I
myself have heard, that evil-disposed persons and enemies of the College
(for you know there are such) have circulated falsehoods concerning u.s,
and have made this very statement, that boys are not as well attended to
and their morals as well protected in the preparatory department of col-
lege, as in schools where there are not so many. Bad boys, you very
well know, are to be found every where. For me, therefore, to say,
that all who are in our Institution, are what they ought to be, would be
palpably wrong. But this I will say, without the fear of contradiction,
that you will not t'lm] any where the same number of students more or-
derly and better behaved. I cannot well conceive what more attention
could be bestowed upon them than they receive. I question very much,
whetlier the children of the best regulated lamilies are better instructed
in the truths of the Gospel, and are more frequently pointed to the
Lamb of God that taketh away the sins of the world. You ought to
know, that a large majority of our Students, both in the College and
the preparatory department, are professors of religion. Last session,
there were two ministers of the Gospel, students in the preparatory de-
partment. A year ago, it was said, that all the Students, with a single
exception, were under the influence of divine truth. Now, could you
place your sons under a better inlluence, and in better company than
this .'' If you can, I know not where you will obtain it. There is wor-
ship statedly morning and evening, the bible is a book of regular and
systematic study, the Students arc regularly visited in their rooms, and,
when parents prefer it, can live with some one of the professors or
teachers. In short, if I have formed, as I think I have, a correct and
impartial estimate of the moral advantages to be enjoyed in hoth deparl-
77i('ntii of Pennsylvania College, they are not surpassed by any private
school or college with which I am acquainted in the U. States,

F. Well, this is what I like to hear. I find, it is always best to
iiear both sides. I did myself doul)t some things that I had heard, and
thought well of your Colloge ■ for my neighbor E , who h:^s a .son

72 ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

in the Institution, says, that he inquired in particular, how things were
manag-ed, and he went often himself, and ate at the table, and the victuals
pleased him very much, and a pious youii;; man, that he knew, told him
that he had not heard a bad word uttered, since he had been in the
building. I have a great notion to send my oldest son John, who seems
to take learning very well.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

About three years ago, five gentlemen devoted to the study of ento-
mology, established a Society under the above designation. The lirst
meeting was held in York, when the constitution was adopted and ar-
rangements made to prosecute their favorite pursuit with combined en-
ergy. Dr. F. E. Melsheimer, of Dover, York Co. M'hose venerated sire
was the father of entomology in this country, was very properly elect-
ed President. The Society has held several meetings every year since
its organization, and thougli the members are but few, yet they have
contributed considerably to the promotion of the science in our country.

The Society has described and published in the "Proceedings of the
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences," more than 500 new species
of Coleoptera (beetles,) and many more still remain to be described.
All these are, of course, new additions to the already numerous publish-
ed species of our country, and every year unknown species are discov-
ered.

One of the members has just finished a full monograph of our Amer-
ican Longicornes, (beetles with long antennae.) which will be published
in the next volume of the American Philosophical Society's Transac-
tions, and will be a most valuable addition to our entomological litera-
ture.

But the principal w-ork on which the Society has been engaged for
the last two years, is a Catalogue of the Coleoptera of the United States.
This has cost immense labor and nice discrimination, but it will be
as full as possible at the present time, and will contain references to the
works in which the species are described. The principal credit of this
work is due to the President, Dr. Melsheimer. Its appearance, though
nothing more than a bare catalogue, is looked for with much anxiety in
Europe, as we learn from several scientific Journals and private letters.

The Society is in correspondence with some of the most distinguish-
ed naturalists in Europe, such as Count Mannerheim, of Paissia, Dr.
Schoenherr, of Sweden, Mr. Doubleday, of London, Prof. Burineister, of
Halle, Prof. Guerin, of Paris, and others. These gentlemen express the

METEOROLOGY. 73

deepest interest in the Society and are impatiently waiting for its publi-
cation.

The members of the Society have been honored with the notice of
learned associations, both at home and abroad. Nearly all are corre-
sponding members of the highest scientific Society in our country, and
two of them have been honored with diplomas from Europe.

The libraries of several members are rich in Entomological works,
and valuable additions are annually made. These books are costly, but
they are always free to the use of the members, and are considered pret-
ty much as common property, so far as the unrestricted use of them is
concerned.

It will be the next business of the Society to study and describe our
numerous nocturnal lepidoptercij which have not yet been noticed by
previous authors. Here a wide field is open for cultivation, but, we have
no doubt, the work will be thoroughly done.

A monograph of the diurnal lepidoptera has been prepared by one
of the members, which was accepted by the National Institute at Wash-
ington, for publication in their Bulletin, but was subsequently withdrawn
by the author, for further investigation. It has also been requested for
publication, by the editor of a northern Scientific Journal of great cele-
brity, and may appear in the course of next summer.

Thus has this Society labored. Though very few in number, yet
their operations have been extended and, hitherto, successful. We hope
that they will soon find many colaborators in the delightful science of
Entomology. Entomophilus.

METEOROLOGY, NO. IV.

BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Of the existence of moisture in the atmosphere.

Previous to the discussion of some other points in meteorology,
which we intend taking up, it is deemed best to make the following pre-
liminary statements :

1. The extent of the atmosphere. It is found by observation, that the
density of the air diminishes by a regular law as we ascend from the
earth. Thus the barometer., which measures the pressure and conse-
quently the density of the air, gives notice of our elevation above the
sea-level, by the descent of the mercury in its tube. A depression of
one inch corresponds to an ascent of 922 feet when the air has a tem-
perature of 62^. At an elevation of about 2i miles, the barometric col-
umn will have sunk to one half of its original height ; consequently, near-
10

74

METEOROLOGY.

ly one half of the mass of the atmosphere lies within 2^ or 3 miles of
the earth's surface. But as the density from that point upwards is much
less than that below, and is continually decreasing, the remaining half of
the atmosphere must occupy vastly more space. By taking into consi-
deration the fact, that this decreasing density of the air at a considerable
elevation, in connection with the great increase of cold which there pre-
vails, must diminish its elasticity more rapidly than the force of the
earth's attraction decreases, we are brought to the conclusion that the at-
mosphere is confined to within about 40 miles of the surface of the
earth. The coercive force, or that which tends to bring it all down to
the suiface of the earth, is the earth's attraction — the expansive force, or
that which resists the action of gravity, is the elasticity of the air. At
a height of about 40 miles they are equal to each other. Gravity will
not permit an expansion, nor elasticity a contraction, unless within the
narrow limits within which each is altered by other forces. From cal-
culations, also, based upon the phenomena of refraction, the atmosphere
is inferred to extend no further than about 45 miles from the earth.

2. The conqwsitlon of the atmosphere . By careful analysis every
five cubic inches of pure and dry air are found to consist nearly of four
of nitrogen and one of oxygen gas. But the air is never perfectly j9«re.
It contains variable quantities of other gases, of which carbonic acid is
the most considerable, amounting sometimes to 62 parts in 100000 of
air, and never less than 37. But though this gas exists at all known
heights, its amount in proportion to the rest of the atmosphere is too
small to influence in a sensible manner the phenomena of meteorology.

Neither is the air ever perfectly dry. It always contains variable
quantities of moisture, which plays a most important part in all atmos-
pheric changes. Indeed the changes dependent directly or indirectly
upon the moisture existing in the atmosphere, constitute the subject
which we have in hand.

3. The forms under which moisture exists in the atmosphere. Mois-
ture exists in the atmosphere under three forms. Fii'st, it exists as in-
visible vapor. Any one can satisfy himself that this is the fact, by fill-
ing a tumbler or tin-cup with ice-cold water during summer, when he
will soon see its outer surface covered with large drops of water resem-
bling dew, or with a freezing mixture during winter, when he will soon
see the vessel covered with frost. Secondly., moisture exists as visible
vapor. The passage from the state of invisible to visible vapor is beau-
tifully seen by watching the steam of boiling water as it issues from the
spout of a tea-kettle. At the mouth of the spout and to the distance of
about an inch from it, nothing can be seen, because the vapor is there

METLOKOI.UGY. 75

yet invisible by reason of its liigh temperature ; but bcycnul about an
inch from the spout, the vapor is rendered visible by reason of its di-
minished temperature, and there it appears like a cloud. Visible vapor
exists in two states ; viz. that in which the particles are too small to be
separately seen, and that in which they are sufficiently large to be seen
either by the naked eye or by a magnifier. The forjner is dry, or does
not moisten objects with which it comes in contact, and, though its par-
ticles are not separately visible, when we look through its mass, it ob-
scures the air and has all the appearance of smoke. Indeed genuine
smoke does not perhaps owe its visibility much more to the volatilized
carbon than to the moisture it contains. The latter is generally wet,
and constitutes what is ordinarily called fog and cloud. Tldrdhj^ mois-
ture exists in a state of greater condensation as rain^ kail and snow, &c.

4. The quantity of invisible vapor in the air. The quantity of invis-
ible vapor capable of existing in any portion of the atmosphere, is de-
pendent upon its temperature. The idea entertained by most persons,
that it is the air which produces the evaporation, is not sustained by ex-
periment. At a given temperature the same quantity of moisture will
exist in a given space, wliether that space be a vacuum, or contain air.
The air actually forms a mechanical impediment to the formation of va-
por, so that the space will not be filled as soon if air be present as if it
be a vacuum. C\n-reiits do indeed promote evaporation, but it is by
continually sweeping away the vapor already formed, and thus giving
room for the formation of more.

The quantity of vapor in the same space at different temperatures,
does not bear a direct ratio to the temperature. Within the ordinary
range of the temperature of the atmosphere near the earth, the qtianlity
of vapor is nearly doubled for every additional increase of twenty de-
grees in temperature ; so that when the air becomes warmer, the quanti-
ty of vapor capable of existing increases, and when it becomes colder,
diminishes more rapidly than the temperature.

5. It is a consequence of this law, that if a space saturated at 80°,
that is, holding as much vapor in an invisible state as possible, were
cooled to 60°, it would lose by condensation one half of its moisture;
or 6| cubic yards of space would aflbrd one cubic inch of rain. Or,
since the atmosphere grows colder as we ascend, by 1° for every 352
feel, if 6| cubic yards of air saturated with moisture at 80°, were eleva-
ted to the height of 2300 yards, it would become cloud, and deposit
one inch of rain. On the conlrary, air saturated with moisture at 60°, if
heated to 80°, would tiien be only half saturated, or v>ould become com-
paratively dry.

76 • METEOROLOGY.

Now though the an- is very seldom saturated, even over large bodies
of water, it must be plain that slight changes in its temperature will
produce apparently great changes in its comparative dryness or moisture.
It is also in consequence of this law, that the invisible is so readily con-
densed into visible vapor or cloud, and thence precipitated in the form
of rain and snow, and that these again, on the contrary, are so readily
converted into vapor and elevated into the atmosphere, thus producing
that endless round of changes the investigation of whose laws consti-
tutes the science of Meteorology, and which not only afford a pleasing
and useful variety in the world without us, but are also absolutely ne-
cessary to enable the earth to sustain vegetable and animal life. It is
further a consequence o[ this law, that as the temperature is greatest
near the surface of the earth, and thence rapidly diminishes as we ascend,
the great mass of vapor must be confined within a moderate distance
of the earth. Cloud is seldom found beyond an elevation of 2| or 3
miles high. The region of the clouds is that elevation at which the im-
perfectly saturated air, when elevated from below, would become cold
enough to condense its invisible into visible vapor. This must vary
exceedingly at different times. When the air is near saturation the cloud
is low, and sometimes rests upon the earth as in mists and fogs ; when
the air is a little drier, the cloud is higher; when it is very dry, there is
either none at all, or it is to be seen at a great elevation like threads
stretched across the sky.

6. The space moreover in which the cloud exists, contains not any
more moisture than that immediately below it, but generally much less,
though the former be apparently filled, and the latter seem to contain
none. The higher temperature of the space below holds its moisture in
an invisible state, whicli that in which the cloud exists cannot do. The
steam of boiling water issuing from the spout of a tea-kettle may again
be adduced as illustrative of this point.

This lower space, in which ordinary cloud does not form, because it
is not saturated with moisture, is nevertheless almost constantly ob-
scured by vapor in an incipient state of condensation, ordinarily called
smoke. The difference between this and ordinary cloud is, that the latter
is formed by rapid condensation in a space nearly saturated, and there-
fore consists of larger particles, and the former by slow condensation
in a space in which the moisture is increasing, but yet below saturation.
Its particles are small and not sufficiently near each other to produce a
dense cloud.

These preliminary statements will greatly facilitate our discussion
of points presently to be taken up.

SALT WORKS. 77

SUBTERRANEAN SALT WORKS.

BY PROF. CHAS. A. HAY, OF GETTYSBURG.

That jaunt of three miles in the heart of the Durrenberg revealed
to us the manner in which the brine is procured from which the Austri-
ans manufacture their salt. Chambers are excavated in the salt rock, in-
to which pipes are introduced from above. Through these fresh water
is let into the chambers until they are filled to the ceiling. At once the
rock, which is composed of clay, or marl, or gypsum, intermingled with
and saturated by the salt, begins to crumble away from the sides and
roof, the salt being dissolved, and the earthy matter falling upon the floor
of the chamber. This process is allowed to continue until the water
has gained twenty-six per cent, of salt, when it is tapped ofi" by pipes
leading through ihe lower shafts of the mine outward to the side of the
mountain and down into the valley where it is evaporated. As soon as
these chambers have been emptied of their brine, the floor, now strewed
with what had fallen from the ceiling, is spread over with a layer of
pounded clay, and fresh water is again introduced from above. This
immediately attacks the surrounding rock, and removes again between
one and two feet from the sides and ceiling before it gains its required
percentage of salt. The time necessary for it to acquire this degree of
saltness varies in the difi'erent mines. Here, at Hallein, a few weeks suf-
fices, at some others months are required, and at Hall (Aust.) a whole year.

It will at once be seen that these dissolving chambers must be con-
stantly rising in the mountain and spreading out horizontally. And it
is a singular tact that the mass of rubbish that collects upon the floor,
and that subsequently forms the roof of other chambers that work their
way up from below, becomes saturated again with salt and capable of
furnishing a new supply.

Dreadful accidents sometimes occur in these mines. The water
from one chamber, eating its way through the rock, sometimes finds its
way into another in which the workmen are engaged, and great loss of
lii'e ensues. Sometimes the roof falls in and two chambers are thus
thrown into one. No one can wonder at this, for some of the chambers
are five and six hundred yards in ciixumference, with not a single sup-
port for the rocky ceiling. When they have spread to so large a size
they are generally deserted, or left, half full of water, to be visited by
the curious. The one we sailed through, and which had been so bril-
liantly illuminated for our gratification, was certainly larger still. The
statistical account of the mine gives the dimensions of this chamber as
fifty-five fathoms and six feet long, and twenty-eight fathoms and five
feet broad. 1 do not know the precise value of the Salzberg falhoin,

78 DESTROYIXG DERMKSTIDAE.

here used, but reckoning it at fifteen feet would give a thousand and
sixteen feet as the length, and four hundred and twenty-five as the
breadlli of this chamber. And nothing but the marly rock as its roof !

A singular apparatus is employed down at tlic foot of the mountain
for measuring the amount of brine tapped from these chambers. Two
large vessels, about the size of hogsheads, are attached to the ends of a
beam that swings upon a pivot. The water, led down the side of the
mountain in pipes and falling into one of these vessels, gradually bears
it downward until, just as it is completely filled, it strikes a projecting
rod that opens a valve in the bottom of the vessel, and it commences at
once to discharge its contents into a reservoir below. The same instant
the current of brine is turned into the other vessel, which is filled and
sinks as the first is emptied and rises. And thus the see-sawing process
incessantly goes on, the number of oscillations being marked, like the
turns of a reel, upon a dial-plate attached to the apparatus. Thus the
brine is made to measure itseli". The beams and wheels of this appara-
tus become encrusted with a deposition of crystals from the salt water
as it trickles over them. I broke off' some and observed that here it
always assumed the form of the cube, and was perfectly opaque and
white ; whereas the minute crystals I had procured up in the mountain
were hexagonal and variously truncated and perfectly transparent.

From the large reservoir the brine is let ofi' to the pans, or caldrons,
as fast as it is needed. These are not more than about a foot deep, but
at least fifty feet in circumference. A constant fire is kept up under these
for two weeks at a time. The salt crystallizes rapidly, and is scraped
to the sides of the pan and sliovelled out into baskets shaped like the
mould of a sugar loaf, and just large enough to hold one hundred pounds.
Night and day one set of hands succeeds another, and fresh brine is let
in as fast as the old disappears. Clouds of vapor incessantly pouring
forth from the blackened roofs shows what becomes of the mountain
water that had been let into the chambers above, fresh and pure ; tons
of table salt stowed away in the imperial storehouses, account for the
saline treasures of which the mountain has been robbed ; and upon the
iron plates of the caldrons are deposited the other mineral substances
that had been held in solution by the brine before its evaporation.

A NEW WAY OF DESTROYING THE DERMESTIDAE IN COLLECTIONS

OF INSECTS.

Naturalists in all ages have complained that their Collections were
constantly attacked by the larvae of small beetles, and sometimes of

REPORT OF THE CIRATOR OF LINN. ASSOCI. 79

moths, which commit dreadful ravages. Various methods of extermina-
ting these shameless marauders have been suggested and practised. Some
put lumps of camphor into their drawers of insects or bird skins — others
smear the sides with turpentine, or drop it on a piece of sponge or cot-
ton fastened to the bottom with a pin. Both of these modes may be
effectual to some extent, but baking drawers and all, if they are not too
large, is after all the most eflbctual. That eminent practical naturalist
Titian Peale, now of Washington, some years ago invented an oven for
this purpose, which suits the purpose admirably ; but I think I have
found out a more simple plan, which 1 have successfully practised,
which, besides, has the great advantage of costing nothing. I keep my
insects in boxes with a cover fitting lightly, and, notwithstanding, these
villainous larvae will get in. 1 take the cover off and stand the box,
with the open side downward, on the stove. If the stove is too hot, so
as to scorch the wood, I put four pieces of hard clay, or plaster of Paris,
or any incombustible substance, on the stove and stand the box on
them. As soon as the insects get a little warm, the ravenous depreda-
tor feasting in the abdomen of one, pokes out his nose to see what's
the matter. He feels that the place is getting uncomfortable, and tries to
escape. In that attempt he falls on the stove, where he meets with a
warmer reception than he desires. It is on the same principle that men
instantly leave a place that "is getting too hot" for them. Drawers of
insects may be treated in the same way, and I can assure all who choose
to try it, that it is perfectly efleclual. This mode will answer better for
beetles than butterilies, but if carefully done, the wings of the latter will
not be injured by the heat. M.

EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF THE CURATOR,

Read before the Liiina>an Association, Dec. 14, 1844.

Since the last report of the Curator, there has been a large accession
to the collection in our museum. Almost every department of it has
been more or less increased. Donations have been received of birds,
shells, crabs, lobsters, minerals, Indian curiosities, coins, continental
money, pictures, dried plants, human skulls, and some other parts of the
human body, anatomically prepared. Most of these things have been
presented to the Association by honorary members. Especially are the
thanks of this Association due to 3lr. Schlegel, of Winchester, Va. for
that choice selection of beautiful and well prepared birds, which he has
sent us, and to the Rev. Mr. Conrad, for that munificent donation of
minerals and Indian curiosities, which he has presented to the associa-

80

DEFERRED ARTICLES.

tion. Mr. Conrad, it seems, did not merely send us such specimens, as
he supposed would not add much to the beauty of his own cabinet, or
duplicates, but very generously gave us all he had. Other honorary
members, gentlemen from Washington, have also sent liberal donations
through the hands of our energetic and persevering President, Rev. Dr.
Morris, who manifests so deep an interest in the prosperity of our so-
ciety.

Certain it is, that if contributions continue to flow in as they have
for the last month or two, there will soon be no room to receive them.
We cannot, therefore, be too energetic in our efforts to procure a more
capacious and commodious place of deposit. We need a Linncean Hall
— we must have it.

But I must not neglect, at the same time, to notice the commendable
zeal of many of our active members during the last vacation. Whilst
they Avere enjoying the social pleasures of "Sweet home," they did not
forget the interests of the Society. They exerted themselves in pro-
curing subscribers for the Journal, and every one brought back some-
thing rare or curious to replenish our museum.

Since the commencement of this session, almost the entire aspect of
our museum has been changed, suitable blinds have been procured for
the windows, additional and beautiful cases have been made for the min-
erals, all the cases have been handsomely painted, the walls have been
decorated with the diplomas of the College and of the literary Societies,
and with other pictures and portraits of distinguished men; and a row
of cases, filled with stuffed birds and other natural curiosities, has been
ranged through the centre of the hall. It cannot fail to interest every
visitor, not entirely destitute of all taste for the beautiful, the curious or
the scientific. I would advise the members of this Association to re-
sort thither as often as possible, and linger amid those wonders of na-
ture and of art, and they will rarely fail to have their curiosity excited,
and their minds expanded.

Deferred Articles. Several articles, among them one upon the
"Linnean Hall," and "Illustrations of Phonography," have been crowd-
ed out by the unexpected length of one or two others. We have sev-
eral others on hand, which will appear so soon as we can find a corner
in which they will fit both as to quality and quantity. Anonymous
communications, containing statements of facts of which the Editors
have no knoM'Iedge, must, from the nature of the case, be declined.

JJcnnetjltiama College, ©etttjsburg, |)a.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS. . i

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D. — Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, SfC. \
Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof . of Greek Language, Rhetoric, S[C. \

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chemistry, SfC. )

Rev. W. M.. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, SfC. <

M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department. ',
Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature. \

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology. '

Wm. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department. "■,

Mr. H. R. Geiger.— TeacAer of Writing. \

- Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur- >
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta- \
tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that :
of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition \
> to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. . The College Course I
is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country. ^

The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to ',
require. They attend at least two recitations a day. Church and Bible Class on the ^
Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the dangep of ',
any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has ^
more exemplary young men in connexion vpith it. They are all required to lodge J
s in the College Edifice, special cases excepted. \

'i The annual expanses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the v?inter /
' session, $'61 87i : for the summer session,, .f 41 87i. Washing, ,§10 00; and Wood, \
{ $3 00. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per j
' week. '

; There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of!

■ April and September, and each of five weeks continuance. ' >
; The winter session commenced on the 24th inst., with the accession of about !
i twenty Students in the Freshman Class, admitted at the close of the summer ses-

■ sion, and a respectable number of applicants for admission into the Preparatory ;
, Department. \
\ \

\ Qlcknotolcbgcmcnts of monntions to tl)c Cabinet of tlje Cinnccan \
\ ^saocirttion of |3enns«lt)auia (College. |

] January, 1845. From Spencer F. Baird, Esq. of Carlisle, Pa. per Mr. J. W. \
/ Miller Skulls of various kinds of birds, nine sheets of photographic impressions of?
l the leaves of various kinds of plants, four specimens of the Testudo shells, a num- |
; ber of minerals, a specimen of cloth, from the South sea Islands. |

/ 2. A finely preserved specimen of the Groundmole, from Mr. S. Shroder, i
; of Fountaindale, Pa. S

I 3. A box of minerals, from Dr. JFa/mestocfc, of Pittsburg, Pa. per Prof. Jacobs. \
( 4. From Miss Trifle, one pair of Indian moccasons, per Mr. B. Benedict. I
{ 5. From Mr. H. C. Eckert, thirty specimens of coins, minerals and shells. \
\ 6. From ilfr. D. jEyZer, eighteen specimens of minerals. \

\ 1. From ilfr. i^omci/, of Gettysburg, coin, serpent in alcohol. \

\ 8. A box of shells &.c. from Mrs. CSaroline H. Van Patten, of Washington, ^
> D. C. per Mr. R. G. Clarkson. \

] 9. One box of Reptiles, from R. J. Brooks, Esq. Pensacola, Fl. ^

VOLUME I.]

[number 5.

THE

LITERARy RECORD AND JOURNAL

®f tt)t iTiiimuan ^aoociutioii of IJtnnapltania ttolUjc.
MARCH, J845

CONDUCTED

33B a (tommitut of the ^ssociatfon.

CONTENTS.
THE DANGER B3RD OF NEW ZEALAND,
METEOROLOGY, NO. V. - - -

ILLUSTRATIONS OF PHONOGRAPHY, -
ANT-IANA, NO. III. - - - -

EARLY LITERATURE OF THE GERMANS,
GRECIAN EDUCATION, _ . _

brooks' ROSs' latin GRAMMAR,
STEVENS' CENTRAL AMERICA,
CABINET OF THE LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION,
COLLEGE RECORD, _ _ _

TO CORRESPONDENTS, - - - -

80

84

88

90

93

95

98

101

102

104

ib

1| sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles 2i cents, over 100 miles .3i cents.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCfATION OF PRNNSYLVANfA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. MARCH, 1845. No. 5.

THE DANGER BIRD OF NEAV ZEALAND.

DINORNIS NOV.T. ZEALANDIiE. OWEN.

BY PROF. FOREMAN, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD.

During the mist and obscurity of former geological Epochs, vast
numbers of organic forms suffered a total extinction, and therefore can-
not now be found living in any country on the globe. Their remains
which consist chiefly of the bony skeletons of the vertebrate, or shells
and carapaces of the invertebrate classes,, open to the inquisitive natura-
list a great volume full of instruction and entertainment, stereotyped in
stone, and illustrated by figures which nature herself has drawn. Of
the vegetable tribes too, the leaves, stems, fruits and forms of inflores-
cence of plants of entire continents, are found laid carefully down be-
tween leaves of sandstone or slate, and pressed into shapes of unmatch-
ed elegance. But of the element of llwe concerned in the fulfillment of
these results no calculation can be made — nor can their chronology be
tabulated, for, compared with the duration of man's occupation of the
globe, these changes have occupied a term of ages which would seem
to count back through all eternity.

But we have abundant evidence to show that this process of extinc-
tion has not by any means ceased, for the fate of certain animals known
by tradition, or by the existence of their very recent remains in our
museums, to have lived during the historical period, fully assures us of
its progress at this present time.

The loss from among the living tribes of a remarkable species of
bird, the Dodo, (Didus Ineptus^ Linna}us) furnishes us with a most
striking example. It was certainly seen alive by the Dutch navigators,
upwards of two hundred years ago, on the Isle of France. Landing
there, soon after the passage to the East Indies by way of the Cape of
Good Hope had been discovered, and when the island was still unin-
habited, they saw and killed for food numbers of this bird, whose awk-
11

82

TIIK DAXr.ER BIIRD

ward sluggish movements rendered it an easy prey to man — an enemy
to which it had hitlierto heen a total stranger. StutTed skins and even
the living bird itself were brought as curiosities to Europe, and to remove
every possible doubt as to the former existence of the Dodo, there are
now in the English museums portions of three different individuals of
a large species of walking bird, to which all naturalists agree in assign-
ing but one name, that of the Dodo. These have been in the posses-
sion of well known persons, and their transference from one hand to
another can be traced, ever since 1594 when the Dutch were exploring
the countries around the Cape of Good Hope.

There is authentic evidence on record of an entire skin of this bird
having once belonged to the museum of Oxford, which, being adjudged
by the Board of Visitors to be in an unfit state for further keeping, they
ordered it to be destroyed in 1755. One of the feet and the head how-
ever were preserved, and still remain as evidence of the existence of
this singular species, and are valued as the rarest and most inestimable
treasures of Oxford. There is also in the British museum in London,
the leg of another individual, and a very obscure looking painting of
the entire bird as it appeared in its native country, both of which have
been seen by the writer of this notice. The painting is said to have
been executed in Holland, from a living specimen of the Dodo which
had been brought from St. Maurice's Island. The ownership of this
painting cannot be traced farther back than as the property of Sir Hans
Sloane when president of the Royal Society. All of the localities known
to have been frequented by the Dodo have in recent times been travers-
ed in every conceivable direction by explorers in Natural History, with-
out detecting any trace of it whatever in a living condition. In 1830
some fossil bones were disinterred from under a bed of lava in the Isle
of France and were sent to the Paris museum. Among many other
bones belonging to a large living species of land tortoise, were those of
the head, humerus and sternum of the Dodo. Upon inspecting these
remains Cuvier pronouced them to have belonged to a huge bird of the
gallinaceous order.

The most extraordinary vertebrate species, however, which is known
to have recently gone out of existence, is the Dinornis, or Danger bird
of New Zealand. The discovery of it dates from Nov. 1839, when Pro-
fessor Owen exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London,
a fragment of the shaft of a femur or thigh bone, six inches in length
and five inches and a half in its smallest circumference — both extremi-
ties being broken ofl". The cancelated structure so requisite and remark-
able in birds of llight, being absent in lliis bone, it was declared by Prof.

OF NEW ZEALAND. 83

Owen to belong to a I'orm allied to the Ostrich, or more closely to t\w.
Apteryx, or wingless bird of New Zealand, but of far more gigantic pro-
portions than either of them. The natives have a tradition that it be-
belonged to a kind of Eagle which they called "Movie," or sometimes
"Moa." Quantities of similar bones have since been found buried be-
neath the muddy banks of the rivers of New Zealand. The fragment
exhibited at this meeting contained so much of its original animal matter
as to prohibit the idea of classing it as a Fossil. But as there is no in-
stance known of such an enormous bird having been met alive, the dis-
covery of its remains became a matter of peculiar interest, on account
of its very recent extinction, and the fact of a similar fate having over-
taken the Dodo, which is a species closely allied to it in its anatomical
structure.

In 1842 Dr. Buckland received some additional information, from a
friend residing at Poverty Bay in Nevv Zealand, who sent with his com-
munication several cases of bones belonging to this bird. They were
collected from the mud of the banks and of the bed of the river at low
water, where they lay a few inches below the surface. From all the
collections made, there could be distinctly enumerated portions of thirty
ditlerent skeletons, from which it was inferred that they had formerly
been very numerous. The longest bone of any hitherto found, was a
tibia, (corresponding to the large bone of the fore leg of the human
skeleton,) being 2 feet and 10 inches. A femur proportionate to this
tibia should measure at least 17 inches. Allowing the whole skeleton
to have its various other parts constructed upon a similar scale, it has
been estimated that the animal it belonged to could not have been less
than 14 or 16 feet high. It is also supposed, from its skeleton, to have
possessed, for a bird, a very low grade of organization, especially in the
form and structure of its lungs, and to have approached in this respect more
nearly to the reptiles than any other of the great divisions among animals.

Every accessible fact in its history, as made out, proves the Dinornis
JVovcB Zealandia: to be the most gigantic of known birds, and probably
confined to that part of the world alone in which its remains are found.

The gentleman who forwarded these bones referred to above, to
London, remarked in his letter, that in a conversation which he had held
with an American gentleman concerning them, the latter declared the
bird to be still living near Cloudy Bay in Cook's Straits. lie proceed-
ed to state that the natives there had mentioned to an Englishman be-
longing to a whaling party, that there was a bird of enormous size to
be seen only at night on the side of a hill near that place, and being ac-
companied by a native guide and a -i^ccond Englii^hman ihe wiiulc party

84 METEOROLOGY.

proceeded to the spot. Here after waiting a short time they saw the
creature in question at a little distance. They describe it as being about
15 feet high. One of tlie men proposed to go nearer and shoot, but his
companion was so exceedingly terrified, that they were satisfied with
merely looking at it, when, soon after the bird monster took the alarm
and strode oti' up tlie hill side.

The acuteness of Professor Owen's reasoning upon the osteology
of this animal will be apparent to all, when they revert to his announce-
ment after inspecting the lirst fragment of bone which he obtained, only
(3 inches long, "that it belonged to a large struthious bird of a heavier
and more sluggish species than the Ostrich." It enabled him, scanty as
the sources of information were, to draw the outline of the whole skel-
eton, which was subsequently seen to be an exceedingly close approxi-
mation to the true form, as shewn by the bones themselves when after-
wards they had been collected and applied togetlier. To arrive at the
structure of an entire animal from a single bone or from the fragment of
one, requires the comparative anatomist to have vast experience, in all
the phases of organic forms, and a powerfully comprehensive mind. It
was the great intellect of Cuvier which invented this method, and very
few have succeeded him who have practised it so successfully as Owen.

The discovery of this strangely formed bird, throws a world of light
upon some obscure impressions or footmarks left in the red sandstone
of Connecticut, and upon which Professor Hitchcock hazarded an opin-
ion, when first discovered, that they were the tracks of a gigantic bird.
It was then objected, that the size of the footsteps, 15 inches, and the
stride, or space from one mark to the other, was so enormous that no
l)ird then known, either recent or fossil, could have produced them ; and
by many geologists they were referred to, as the traces left by some of
the great Saurians. Prol'essor Owen however admits that these foot-
marks were impressed by .>^ome gigantic bird, whose fossil skeleton will
some day be disinterred, and fh-st, probably in Connecticut •, and awards
merited honor to Dr. Hitchcock for possessing the moral courage to a-
vow and sustain an honest opinion before an incredulous scientific world.

MKTEOUOI.OGY, NO. V.

BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA rOI.I.KOE.
INDIAN SUMMER.

1. Dcfinitinn and grnrral character.

The season, to which, by common consent, the appellation of "In-
dian SumnK'r'' has been applied, is one of peculiar interest lo the peas-

Mr.TrouoLor.v. 8-5

ant as well as to the philosopher ; to the coininunity at large, as well as
to those, who are endeavoring to discover the laws by which the male-
rial world is governed.

To the former, it is invested with no ordinary interest, hecanse it is
one of those grand stages in the annual round of change of season,
which is connected with mucli physical, and, it may be added, much
mental enjoyment. At that period, the lirst winds, immediately succeed-
ing the autumnal Equinox, have swept by, and a season of comparative
quiet has succeeded. The frosts have put a check to vegetation, and
exposed to us '"the sear and yellow leaf" The external world has sunk
into temporary repose. The air is calm and balmy, and the sun shines
with a mild and subdued light. The huntsman goes forth rejoicing in
his sports, the laborer is cheerful amid his toils, and a thousand hearts
are the liomes of real pleasure.

To the latter, who, equally with others, enjoy the invigoration of
body, and exhilaration of spirits, which it is calculated to bring with it,
it is likewise invested with peculiar interest, because they look upon it
as a great fact in the world of nature, claiming their attention — as a
most striking phenomenon inviting their investigation, and demanding of
them the discovery of its physical cause. This cause it is designed, if
possible, to assign, after the facts respecting the phenomenon in ques-
tion shall have been more fully stated. The explanation which will bo
attempted, though it may not satisfy all, it is hoped will not be without
some appearance at least of plausibility. It is bused, as it will througli-
out appear, upon the common and well known facts of Meteorolog}^

2. Is this season peculiar., or is it the only one of the kind occurring
during the year ?

The prevailing opinion is, that the state of the weather and the ap-
pearance of the sky, which characterize the "Indian Summer," are pecu-
liar, and that their like is not to be found or even thought of at any oth-
er period. But even a cursory comparison of the various conditions of
the atmosphere will convince any person, that the ''Indian Summer" is
but one of a whole class of .simihir phenomena occurring at various
times during tlie year. It is in general more distinctly marked, by tiie
greater regularity of its occurrence, by the length of its duration.^ and
Ijy the degree of obscxu-ity produced in the sky by its accompanying
liaze or smoke, than others of a similar character. These are the cir-
i;umstances, which have forced it upon the attention of the community,
and have exalted it to such a pre-eminence, as to make it appear as tho'
it stood alone of its kind in the whole circle of the year. But there arc
"I hens, though not in general as well characterized as this, which bcloiior

bo METEOROLOGY-

to the same class of phenomena, and for which tlie same explanation
must be given. Seasons of comparative rest in the atmosphere are of
frequent occurrence, and the sky is scarcely ever free from matter, what-
ever that may be, which destroys its transparency. Instead, therefore,
of confining ourselves to the single phenomenon, whose name stands at
the head of this article, it is thought best to bring all the most import-
ant cases of a similar character together, and then inquire how far they
may all be referable to the same great atmospheric laws for their exist-
ence.

Passing by the numerous minor cases, happening generally at inter-
vals of about two weeks, and, because of their freciuency, striking no
one, except perhaps the meteorologist, as in any respect remarkable, we
may direct our attention to four periods during the year, at which, with
considerable regularity, are to be witnessed the great distinguishing char-
acteristics of the "Indian Summer."

The Jirst occurs, with but little variation as to time, at about the
close of October, or the beginning of November. It scarcely extends
as far as the 12th or 13th of the latter month. This is the season to
which the name of "Indian Summer" has been appropriated. In its
duration it is not perfectly uniform, sometimes continuing for two or
three weeks, and at others only as many days. During tlie Autumn of
1S43, it continued only for five days, viz. from the 2Sth of October to
the 2nd of November. Neither is it uniform in its intensity, it being,
during some years, scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the seasons.
Thus the case just cited was so faintly characterized, as to have led
many persons to suppose that during that year there was no Indian
Summer. And though it lasted about the usual length of time during
the Autumn of 1844, viz. from the 2nd to the 12th of November inclu-
sive, it was interrupted near its commencement by a storm continuing
three days and a half, and was so faintly marked, that for every thing,
except that it occurred at the proper time of the year, it scarcely deserv-
ed the name Indian Summer as much as a great part of the month of
September did. From this it would appear that the Indian Sunnner of
October and November is not so peculiar as is generally supposed.

A second period of similar atmosplieric condition, occurs at about the
middle or close of Aj)ril. This is, sometimes, extremely well marked ;
so much so as to arrest the attention of even tlic casual observer. A-
mong numerous cases which have occurred, that of 1833 may be cited
as very remarkable For about tliree weeks, commencing in April and
continuing until the 9lli of iMay, the atmosphere was darkened by what
had the ajipcurance uf smoke, which was al'terwards enforced by real

MRTEDROI.OGY. 87

smoke, arising from extensive lircs ilicu prevailing in our mountain for-
ests, on account of a considerable drought then existing. This state of
things was, at length, broken up by powerful and continued rains. From
tlie 2nd to the 16th of April, 1844, also a period of two weeks, a con-
dition of atmosphere existed, as remarkable in every respect, as the In-
dian Summer of November has ever been found to be. During every
year, however, perhaps without exception, this peculiar state of weather
may be noticed, more or less distinclly, at the time just named.

A third case of similar condition of atmosphere is to be observed
from about the middle of January to its close, its duration is from eight
days to tvvo weeks. During this season, it not unfrequently happens
thai the farmers, in Pennsylvania and Maryland, plough the grounds
designed for the reception of their spring crops. Among the more re-
markable exami)le3 of this kind, may be cited the winters of 1817 and
'18, and those of 1S42 and '43. The January just passed has been ex-
traordinary for its mildness ; but, though having the usual amount of
smol:e in its atmosphere, being a part of a winter unusual in its charac-
ter from its connnencement to the first of the last month (Feb.), it does
not stjind contrasted with the rest of the season as other Januaries fre-
quently do.

A fourtlh cnsc of that state of weather under consideration, occurs
during the month of August. The atmosphere has sunk into a state of
almost profound rest. The breezes, from the S. and S. W. which had,
almost daily, refreshed us during the months of June and July, and
wliich had thus rendered the heat less oppressive, have died away. The
almost stagnant and sultry air has its transparency destroyed by a thin
haze, through which distant objects appear as if tinged with the color
of smoke. Thunder clouds have diminished in frequency and in ex-
tent; and hence, except during extraordinary seasons, the month of Au-
gust is deficient in rain. The widely extended rain cloud does indeed
frequently cheer us with its refreshing showers, but these it distils rath-
er gently and quietly, and, after it has passed away, a dusky atmosphere
succeeds. This peculiarity of weather mostly occurs from the beginning
to the middle of the month.

There are, therefore, agreeably to these views, four grand periods, at
which a smoky or hazy atmosphere pre-eminently prevails; viz. two of
greater intensity, occurring about a month or six weeks after the vernal
and autumnal Equinoxes ; and two of less intensity, or of less distinct
features, occurring at about the same length of time after the summer
and winter solstices. The autumnal is generally of the greatest inten-
sity, particularly so, as the immensp volumes of actual smoke wiiich are

88 piioNfUiKArnv

tlirowti into the air iVoin ten thousand fires kindled by Indians and hunt-
ers among the western forests strewed with the recent fallen foliage, add
their sombre hue to the already existing vapor smoke. The "Indian
Summer" is, consequently, only one of these four periods, and subject
like the rest to vary very much in character and duration during differ-
ent years. It must be regarded as only one of the annual round of
fluctuations to which the gaseous robe of the earth is subject.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF PHONOGRAPHY.

BV PROF. W. M. REYNOLDS, OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

We now proceed to shovv how this system which we have proposed
for the notation of sound operates. And as one of the mo?:t formidable
objections to it Avill be that it "innrders the king's (.-' queen's) English,"
wc shall at once test this matter practically. By the "English language"
I understand not merely the language of books, but much more that
spoken language which we employ in the social intercourse and the bu-
siness transactions of every day, which gave its melody to the strains
of Chaucer and of Spenser, of Shakspeare and of Milton, as well as to
those of Burns and Byron, Campbell and Wordsworth, and in which Pitt
and Fox, Burke, Curran and Grattan, Otis, Adams, Henry and Webster,
and their compeers have thundered and lightened. This is not a dead lan-
guage ; it does not consist merely in the letters or written words in which
it is attempted to preserve it. Imperfect as its written form is, it is not a
mere picture language, conveying only ideas, and giving us no clue to
those sounds which have so often thrilled and breathed fresh life into our
hearts, and which is, even in its most trifling forms, endeared to ns by all
the holy associations that make music of onr "household words." The
theory of the English, like that of every alphabetic language, is, that
the combinations of its letters present representatives of all its spoken
forms. But that the fact does not correspond to this is admitted upon all
hands. Let us see, then, whether the notation of sounds which we have
proposed, will more successfully and sufficiently answer this purpose,
and whether it is of such a nature as to commend itself to general use.

As a test, let us see how some of our most venerable English litera-
ture would look in the garb which we propose to give it universally, and
let us ascertain what innovations are necessary, and then candidly weigh
the advantages to be derived from them. The second stanza of Spen-
ser's Fairie Queene will furnish us with an example. The original, if
printed in the beginning of the 16lh century would have been somewhat
in this style :

PIIOXor.RAPHY. 89

5ln& on 1)13 brfst a lUoaM: cxosec l)c lun-c,

€l)c Iifiuc rcnrcmbruncc pf \)xe Injing J!^pr^,

/or nil)03c suuctc cake tijat glovunts boliflc Ijc loorc,

5liili tica&, lie lining cxur, Ijim a'bor"b :

llpon \)\5 sljiclb tl)c like luaa also scor'&,

ifor fiot'crainc Ijojic, uil)ic|) in |)i0 Ijclpc l)c Ijaft.

Uiflljt faitljfuU, true Ijc icas in bccbc onlr wotti ;

But uf I)i0 cljccrc bill fccm: toe solcmnc fab;

^ct notl;infl t)ib f)C troitb, but ct'cr tms pbrat).*

Hazlitt in his "Select British poets" gives this in the following form :

And on his breast a bloody cross he bore,

The dear remembrance of his dying Lord,

For whose sweet sake that glorious badge he wore,

And dead (as living) ever him ador'd :

Upon his shield the like was also scor'd.

For sovereign hope, which in his help he had :

Right faithful true he was in deed and word ;

But of his cheer did seem too solemn sad :

Yet nothing did he dread ; but ever was ydrad.

We would give it thus :

Vnd An hiz brcst e blodi krAS hi bor
Thi dir rimembrvns av hiz du8 LArd,
FAr huz swit sek thvt glorjos bvdg hi wor,
Vnd dcd, vs hvi8 cvur, him vdord :
Opan hiz shild thi hk was aIso skord,
FAr sovrsn hop, whio in hiz help hi hvd ;
Rit, fexfAl, tru hi was in did vnd word ;
But av hiz oir did sim tu salsm svd ;
Jet noxiS did hi drcd, but cvor was idrvd.

Here we observe, in the first place, that the changes which we pro-
pose making in ihe forms of the letters are not as great as those which
have already been made in them. x'\nd surely our reasons are more co-
gent than those in ffivor of changing the Gothic into the Roman forms.
That was a mere matter of taste and convenience, this is one of neces-
sity. The former merely required new forms, the latter calls for new
facts, that is, for signs to designate sounds which have else no proper
representatives. We do not alter a letter if we can avoid it, and only
introduce a new one where it is indispensable if we would not have
such a written language as the llelirew is said to have been before its
vowel system of points was invented. The fact is, the pronunciation

*1 am not sure that I have seen the first edition of the Faerie Queene, which
was published in 1390. Books were then ])rintod in Roman letters, but the black
letter was in use in the beginning of the century.
12

90 ANT-IANA.

of the Englisli language is now very much a matter of tradition, and if
something is not done for the improvement of its written forms we shall
eventually have a confusion little short of what may be imagined to
have prevailed at Babel when its impious builders looked in blank
amazement at each other.

As to the changes in spelling we conceive that we are merely car-
rying out a reform commenced about the time of Spenser, but never
perfected, nor conducted upon rational principles. It is undoubtedly bet-
ter to change ie into y in bloodie and words of similar termination, and
also to drop the final e mute in crosse, deare, sioeete, Sfc. But ?* why is
not the same thing done in lore, remembrance, whose, sake, Sfc. ? Be-
cause the preceding vowel might be shortened in its pronunciation with-
out it. But that reason will not apply to such words as badge, true,
have, Sfc. and is at best but covering one fault (that of having several
sounds to the same letter) by another.

Observe, secondly, that our first reformers of the English language
made changes that were actually for the worse. ^ Why was brest
changed into breast, or ? sovcraine into sovereign, hert into heart, vele
into veil,feend into Jiend, and the like. Surely ? we may be allowed
to correct these aberrations and make the language more consistent with
itself.

Such a course has, to a limited extent, been pursued in defiance of
the high authority of Johnson and other admirers of the blemishes of
antiquity, in the rejection of k from rejMbUck, u from honour, and sim-
ilar self-evident anomalies. Yet this very movement has been made by
some a reason why we should stand still, and, doing nothing upon prin-
ciple, let the language take care of itself and work out its own purifica-
tion,

ANT-IANA, NO. III.

The extraordinary habits of the ant cannot fail to interest all who
have attentively observed them. The astonishing trait in the character
of some species to have ants of another kind to perform the labor of
mining, and rearing the young of those whose business seems to be
that of committing depredations on their neighbors, is one that would
almost stagger our belief, were it not confirmed by the observations of
naturalists.

* The position of the note of interrogation lias long appeared to me most unnat-
ural. It is to denote the asking of a question, and requires the reader to modulate
his voice accordingly, but placed at the end of a sentence, we must first read the
sentence before we can do so. The reason for placing it where we have it is obvious.

A.\T-IANA.

91

In tlie present number I shall mention some facts which will i'urther
illustrate the observations made in No. 2.

About 5 o''clock in the afternoon of the 23d of July, whilst walk-
ing out, my attention was suddenly arrested by a considerable number
of red ants, crossing the path before me. They moved rapidly in a com-
pact body about six inches in width and from 18 inches to two feet in
length.

After traveling in this manner a short distance in the path, they en-
tered some thick grass and immediately disappeared. Being anxious to
ascertain what had become of them, I pulled up some of the grass a-
bout the place, but was unable to find any traces of them, and thinking
they might have gone through a hedge thai was near, I passed round to
examine, but was still unsuccessful in meeting with them. When 1 re-
turned to the place where they had so mysteriously disappeared, I ob-
served a number of ants coming out of the grass and running with great
haste along the walk, each carrying a white p^qm (the undisclosed
young) in his jaws. Instead of the regular military manner in which
they entered the grass, they now resembled a retreating army after an
engagement, or a band of robbers hastening from a house they had
plundered. They passed along singly or in straggling parties of two or
three, keeping a direct line however, from which little or no deviation
was noticed.

In the grass near where I lost sight of them, I found a small hole,
out of which they were now issuing, laden witli their booty. Contin-
uing tlie line of their march diagonally across the walk, they entered
the grass in the opposite side, wliere some difficulty was found in tra-
cing them, but by removing the grass in advance, I was enabled to fol-
low them about forty yards, where they entered a small hole in the
ground, carrying their plunder in with them. When they had nearly
all arrived and deposited their spoils, they again issued in considerable
numbers from the nest, collected in a body, and commenced their march
in a straight line towards the nest they had just plundered. In a few
minutes they reached it, and, making the attack in a body, entered with-
out any resistance from the occupants. It was not long, however, be-
fore they re-appeared, but not laden with^wpae as before. Their retreat
tliis time was more orderly than before.

I was unable to ascertain the reason why they l(;ft the nest tliis time
without booty, unless they had totally stripped it on their first cxjiedi-
tion, or had inot with unexpected resistance within from the rightful
owners, and thought it mu^\ prudent to retreat. During their absence
the second time, I took occasiuu lu examine their sclllcnient, and found

92

ANT-IANA.

that the ants left behind were smaller than those in the army and were
of a darker color ; the wariors being of a yellowish red.

Since that time I have frequently visited both nests and found the
two species living harmoniously together, while the other is inhabited
entirely by the smaller kind. Tlie labor at that nest occupied by both
species appears to be performed exclusively by the smaller ants, while
the others render no assistance whatever in the domestic concerns, of the
colony.

On the 31st of July I met with an army of the same species descri-
bed above. They were marching in a direct course on a road or walk.
The train was 3 or 4 feet in length and from 4 to 7 inches in breadth,
forming a dense column gradually tapering towards the rear. There
being a few straggling individuals along the line of their march, I was
enabled to trace them back from whence they came, where I found a
large nest of them in the edge of some grass. They marched in a very
orderly and systematic manner, but before they arrived at the place of
their destination, I was obliged to leave them.

I returned to the place about two hours after, but was unable to dis-
cern the train or ascertain what had transpired during my absence. This
is the largest colony of this species I have discovered, and on examina-
tion, I find that it is inhabited by two kinds, one of yellowish red, and
the others, which are smaller, of a dark red or brown color.

I have been much interested in observing the movements of this col-
ony. When disturbed, they manifest a very pugnacious disposition, par-
ticularly the large species, wliich run about in a furious manner, biting
whatever happens to be within their reacli, and when they once seize
hold of an object, they will sufler themselves to be almost killed, rather
than relinquish their grasp.

There is one very singular fact connected with their movements when
excited, which is, that when two of them meet, they invariably strike
or cross their antennae, and when only one of them is excited before
meeting, this interview imparts to the other the same hasty and furious
movement; and this is communicated from one to the other, until the
excitement becomes general throughout the colony.

In order more fully to satisfy myself of this fact, I took away one
of the ants from a part of the settlement where I had disturbed them,
and put it among those in another part, where they were frequently en-
gaged in their labor. As soon as this ant came in contact with one of
those at work, it too became excited and ran about in a furious manner,
and in a short time this industrious scene was converted into one of
confusion and disorder. I have never seen the large yellow ants parti-

EARLY MTEUATURE 93

cipating in any way in the labor of the settlement, that being altogether
performed by the smaller, darker species.

RUSTICUS.

EARLY LITERATURE OF THE GERMANS.

BY PROF. HENRV I. SMITH, OF HARTVVICK, N. Y.

Every one, who is at all acquainted with the literature of our
Fatherland, must be aware with what spirit and success the magazines
of its earlier, and long forgotten productions, have been, of late years,
explored, and what numbers of venerable, and highly interesting monu-
ments, have been exhumed from the dust of centuries. Among the most
important enterprises, directed to the discovery and publication of such
ancient monuments of German literature, is the "■Zeitschrift fiir Deut-
sches Alterlhum," published since 1841, at Leipsic, and edited by Pro-
fessor Moritz Haupt. This valuable publication has already made known
a great number of interesting relics of the olden times of Germania.
Among them are poems, fragments of epic poems, allegories, mysteries,
tales, fables, and sermons. I doubt not that your readers would be much
gratified, if some of these could be transferred to the pages of your val-
uable monthly. Unfortunately many of them, both poems and sermons,
are written in Latin, so that their publication would ailbrd but little sat-
isfaction to the general reader ; many others again are in a Gotiiic, Old-
High-German, Frisian, or other antiquated dress ; and I am sorry to say
that, having no dictionary of these ancient dialects, I am unable to un-
derstand many of these perfectly, so as to enable me to give a complete
translation. Sometimes there is, in several lines, but one strange word,
which defies every eflbrt to divine its meaning, thus destroying the con-
nection, and obscuring the sense. It is impossible duly to appreciate
these old and singular monuments, without a lexicon of the different
dialects in which they are written. Were it not for these difliculties, 1
should be vastly tempted to bore you and your readers with translations
of a number of these remnants of ancient Teutonic lore. Perhaps a few
of the more tractable ones may not be unacceptable.

Your readers are perhaps, to some extent, familiar with the ancient
Scandinavian mythes respecting the origin of the world. The Scandi-
navians conceived the materials for the production of the world and the
earth to have been obtained from the body of an enonnou.s giant, as we
are informed by the Snorraedda and tlie Saemundcrcdda. Of lliis giant,
called Ymir, the flesli furnished the earth, the bones tlie mounlains, the
skull the sky ; from his blood was lurmcd the tica, from his hair the

94 OF THE GEUMA.XS.

trees, from his teeth the rocks, and from his brain the clouds. Now,
an old Frisian manuscript presents us with a cosmogony in which, with
some admixture from tlie account given in the IJible, this order in the
process of production is nearly inverted. The passage in this MS., of
which I speak, is as follows : "God scop thene eresta meneska, thet was
Adam, fon achta wendem ; thet beneta fon tha stene, thet flask fon there
erthe, thet blod fon tha wetere, tha herta fon tha winde, thene togta fon
tha wolken, thene suet fon tha dawe, tha lokkar fon tha gerse, tha agenc
fon there sunna, and tha blerem on thene helga 6m, and tha scope [i. e.
scop he, or scop hi] Eva fon sine ribbe, Adames liana." Of this singu-
lar account, the following is a literal translation : "God created the first
man, tliat was Adam, out of eight things ; the bones of the stones, the
flesh of the earth, the blood of the water, the heart of the wind, the
thought * of the clouds, the sweat of the dew, the hair of the grass, the
eyes of the sun; and then he blew into him the holy .spirit, || and then
he created Eve of his rib, Adam's companion."

Rather amusing is the manner in which the old Frisians here exhibit
their knowledge of the human heart, by describing it as formed of wind:
varium et mutabile semper. — Here then we have a strange blending of
Scripture with heathen cosmogony : many such cosmogonies probably
arose when the ancient inhabitants of northern Europe were first made
acquainted with Christianity. The correspondence between the extract
given above and the Scandinavian mythe, is, with all its divergence, yet
so obvious, that we find here, unquestionably, remains of an ancient
Frisian cosmogony, clumsily interwoven witli the Scriptural account of
man's creation.

I confess tliat the ancient mythology of the Scandinavians, and of
our Teutonic forefatliers, has long interested me rather more deeply than
that of the Greeks and Romans. It is not as poetical, as luxuriant, and
splendid, nor as effeminate and impure, as the latter; it is more abstract,
more stern and manly ; more vast, lofty, and (if I may use the word in
this connexion,) more colossal as a complete whole ; more strictly con-
nected, more consistent with itself; and yet abounding in endless, mys-
teriously interwoven, details, which, though they are so many branches,
directly connected with the huge stem, it is exceedingly difiicult to re-
tain in the memory : much more so than the details of the Grecian my-
thology, which consist of many distinct and disconnected faldes.

To any one desirous of taxing the powers of the memory to the ut-
most, J would recommend tlie aluily of the ScancHnavian Mythology.

*Brain : Tr. llLiviiie, bruutli : Tr.

GRECIAN EDUCATION, 95

GRECIAN EDUCATION.

The most instructive writers on the subject of education, amongst
the Greeks, are, unquestionably, Plato, Xenophon and Aristotle. In the
republic of Plato there are very full and interesting exhibitions of his
views. Xenophon in his Cyropaedia, or institutes of Cyrus, unfolds
many instructive facts on the same subject. The manner in which the
hero of his history, or romance, was trained, is given with considerable
amplitude. Aristotle, in his UoXirix.ci^ leaves but little to be desired in
regard to his own views, and the views of such a man cannot but be
considered as invaluable. In the 7ih and Slh books, the subject is dis-
cussed in detail. It may, however, be worth while to inquire whether
anterior to the age of these eminent men (he nations of Greece had in
any degree turned their attention to mental and physical culture. Re-
garding Homer as the oldest Greek writer known to us, we may turn to
his immortal productions to ascertain the sentiments prevalent in his
time. The Iliad and Odyssey, those wonderful creations of a sublime
genius, the admiration of past ages, the admiration of the present, and
destined to be the admiration of men till the end of time, contain many
incidental references to the process in vogue, in his own age and in
those which preceded. That distinguished German writer on Pedago-
gics, Schwartz, in his comprehensive and learned work on the History
of Education, cites numerous passages from the poems of Homer illus-
trative of the subject of education. Homer lived between 1000 and 900
years before the Christian era. He was educated by travel in foreign
countries. He had, probably, visited Egypt, celebrated for its learning
and science, at an early period. He was well acquainted with the peo-
ple and cities around the Mediterranean. He is to us a guiding star of
great value. How his own mind was disciplined in youth, to what sub-
jects, more particularly, he attended, what impulses drove him from
home, and what particular knowledge he sought, we have not even
scanty materials to enable us to determine — but his communings were
with animate and inanimate nature — particularly with men.

A correct opinion may be formed of his views, and of what he re-
garded as important, and of what prevailed in the times about which he
wrote, from his epics. His works certainly present us with a true pic-
ture of men and things as he knew them by observation, or had learned
them from history, or tradition.

The writer mentioned before has gleaned some intimations from the
llomerir poems wliich are deserving of attention.

The hero of the Iliad, if hero it has, Achilles, was in his infancy
entrusted to the care of Phoenix, who even in his old age was esteem-^

86 GIIECIAN EDUCATION'.

ed by him. A fine passage pertaining to him is thus given in the celebra-
ted translation of Pope, — celebrated for every thing but fidelity to the
oiiginal :

Then Phcenix rose,
Down his white beard a stream of sorrow flows.
And while the fate of suffering Greece he mourn'd,
With accent wealc these tender words returned :
Divine Achilles ! wilt thou then retire.
And leave our hosts in blood, our fleets on fire ?
If wrath so dreadful fill thy ruthless mind.
How shall thy friend, thy Phcenix, stay behind ?
The royal Peleus, when from Phthia's coast
He sent thee early to the Achaian host ;
Thy youth as then in sage debates unskill'd.
And new to perils of the direful field :
He bade me teach thee all the ways of war,
To shine in councils and in camps to dare.
Never, ah ! never, let me leave thy side !
No time shall part us, and no fate divide.
Not though the God, that breath'd my life, restore
The bloom I boasted and the port I bore
When Greece of old beheld my youthful flames,
(Delightful Greece the land of lovely dames,)
Your sire received me, as his son caress'd.
With gifts enrich'd, and with possessions bless'd.
The strong Dolopians thenceforth own'd my reign.
And all the coast that runs along the main.
By love to thee his bounties I repaid.
And early wisdom to thy soul convey'd.
Great as thou art, my lessons made thee brave,
A child I took thee, but a hero gave.
Thy infant breast a like afl'ection show'd ;
Still in my arms (an ever pleasing load,)
Or at my knee, by Phcenix would'st thou stand.
No food was grateful, but from Phcenix' hand :
I pass my watchings o'er thy helpless years.
The tender labors, tiie compliant cares.
The Gods (I thought) revers'd their hard decree
And Phoenix felt a father's joy in thee.
Th)' growing virtues justify'd my cares,
And promis'd comfort to my silver hairs.

Children \vere considered a blessing. Their endowments, derived
from the Gods, were not uniform. The theory of Hclvetius in regard
to the equality of luiman intellect, was not consentaneous with the
opinions of this acute observer of men and things. One is fitted for
action, another for counsel, one for the battle field, another for the

GRECIAN EDUCATION'. 97

fleliberative assembly. In the Odyssey this matter is represented as
follows : —

With partial hands the Gods their gifts dispense ;
Some greatly think, some sjjeak with manly sense ;
Here heaven an elegance of form denies,
But wisdom the defect of form supplies ;
This man with energy of thought controls.
And steals with mode, and violence our souls ;
He speaks reservedly, but speaks with force ;
Nor can one word be chang'd but for a worse ;
In public more than mortal he appears.
And, as he moves, the gazing ciowd reveres.
While others, beauteous as the ethereal kind.
The noble portion want, a knowing mind.

The liability of young men to go astray, is thus set forth :

The pendant chief with calm attention heard,
Then mildly thus : Excuse, if youth have err'd :
Superior as thou art, forgive th' offence.
Nor I thy equal, or in years, or sense.
Thou know'st the errors of unripen'd age.
Weak are its counsels, headlong is its rage.

That females were not uneducated may be inferred from the charac-
ters of Penelope, Arete and Nausika.

Supposing that the poet has transferred Grecian usage to foreign
countries, and believing that he has represented things substantially as
they were, notwithstanding the poetic drapery thrown around them, we
must be convinced that education was not neglected, that children were
trained with care, were caressed and fondled with tender affection, and
fitted for that mode of life, which their institutions and relations render-
ed necessary.

Schools for boys were established after the Trojan war. The change
in the manners of the people after the heroic age and the Argonautic ex-
pedition, leads to this view. Medical schools there were — one in the
island of Cos, the birth place of Hippocrates, tlie father of Medi-
cine, and one at Crotona in Italy — both of Egyptian origin. Knidus
and Rhodus were likewise .seats of such institutions, which were prob-
ably, in addition, designed for instruction in other branches of know-
ledge. Other references to education in the Homeric poems might be
made, but we abstain. Before leaving him, it may not, however, be out
of place to state that amongst the stories about Homer, many of which
are sufficiently apochryphal, is this — that he himself exercised the peda-
go!^'ical office at Smyrna (perhaps his birth place, though other cities
13

98 brooks' ROSS.

claim the honor,) till he was induced by Mentes, a foreign merchant, to
depart from his fatherland, and like his own Ulysses make it true of him-
self,

JJoXXu^ (5"' avB-^wx-atv iS'ii ccrreci^ kcci vooi c/vu. Odys. Lib. 1. 3.
Vieler Menschen Stlidte gesehn, und Sitte gelernt hat. Voss.

BROOK S ROSS' LATIN GRAMMAR.
,j9 Lahn Grammar — by James Ross, L. L. D., edited by N. C. Brooks, A. M.,
Professor in the Latin High School, Baltimore, Md. Philadelphia : Thomas,
Cowperthwait, &. Co.

James Ross was undoubtedly one of the most thorough classical
scholars, and one of the most successful teachers of his day, and the
service which he rendered to classical literature in this country, cannot
be too highly estimated. His Latin Grammar is a highly interesting
and valuable work, if we consider it only as the exponent of his system
of instruction. But besides this, it has high merit. It is short, clear,
practical, and, what all elementary works of this kind ought to be, a
book that can be committed to memory without exacting from the
scholar any greater effort than will be beneficial to him.

But that Ross' Grammar is not perfect, and that Latin philology has
made some progress since his day, (we are almost ashamed to acknow-
ledge how little,) we may take for granted. Ross' work is a purely
elementary one ; although it contains all the grand and prominent facts
of the language, it does not enter into the region of higher criticism, or
give its results, or unfold the philosophy of the language. In addition
to this, it is not sufficiendy systematic in its arrangement. Thus, the
rules for the declension of nouns, variation of verbs, &c. are divided
and thrown into very different parts of the book, and what is still more
objectionable, the definitions of various terms of frequent recurrence,
such as " simple, collective, verbal, jmrliiive,'''' &c. is put into an appen-
dix which comes long after the student has had frequent occasion to
use these terms.

These and similar imperfections Prof Brooks has very satisfactorily
remedied, and having remodeled the whole work, has succeeded in
bringing order out of confusion, and has thrown a great deal of light
upon the subject, and given material assistance to the young student in
wending his way through the mysteries of Latin Grammar. But he has
done more than merely re-arrange the materials of Ross, he has added
a great deal of valuable matter which the original work did not contain.
As instances of this we may mention his additional examples in the de-
clension of nouns, his chapter on Latin idioms, and the prosody.

LATIN PRONUiVClATION.

99

But as the subject of Lutiu Gramuiar is of great importance, it being
the key to llie ahnost exhaustless stores of the literature not only of the
ancient Romans, but also of all modern and christian nations for nearly
eighteen centuries past, and in particular intimately connected with our
own language, of which it forms so large a constituent part, we presume
that we shall meet with indulgence from the readers of the llccord gen-
erally, and especially from those engaged in the prosecution of classical
studies, in offering some remarks upon various topics here presented to
our consideration.

In the first place, we are compelled to differ somewhat from Prof.
Brooks in regard to the pronunciation of the Latin language. It is true,
that we cannot determine with precision the sounds indicated by several
letters, but of one thing we are certain, viz. that the English is the very
worst standard of pronunciation that could be taken. In fact the Eng-
lish language has no settled pronunciation of either vowels or diph-
thongs. This is shown clearly enough by the directions given by dif-
ferent English authors for the pronunciation of Latin. Thus Dr. Ross
says that a is to be pronounced short as in man, or long as in star.
Prof. Brooks says that it has the sound of ah, whether long or short,
whilst Andrews and Stoddard declare, that when a is accented, it is
sounded as in fatal, (they do not say which syllable, but we presume
they mean the first, as they call it the " long English sound,") but when
unaccented they wish it to be pronounced like a in father. We might
point out similar discrepancies in the rules laid down by these and other
writers for the pronunciation of nearly all the vowels. What then is
the teacher to do } Or is this a matter of no importance ? No one can
doubt that it is desirable for us to approach as nearly as possible to the
pronunciation of the Latins themselves at the time when the language
which we study was spoken in its greatest purity, and 1 would also sug-
gest that a correct pronunciation of the Latin may be made to facilitate
our acquisition of the modern languages of continental Europe, as well
as to assist in correcting the lamentable anomalies of our own written
system. Let us adopt the universally acknowledged sounds of the Ro-
man vowels, both in Greek ('where Dr. Anthon has already led the way
to their introduction, by adopting tlicm in his Greek grammar,) and in
Latin, and we shall not only have a key to all the leading languages of
continental Europe, (with the exception of the French, which stands
nearly as much in need of a reformation as the English,) but we shall
likewise prepare the way for the reception of these sounds as properly
indicated by their ancient signs, in our own language. Hurely there
Would be no dilHculty in intruduciuy into our schocjls au sini])lt a sys-

100 RULES IN VERSE.

tcm of pronunciation as this : A=a in father ; E=e in ere or j)rcy, or
a in na7ne ; I=i in marine ; 0=o in no ; \J=u in rule ; Y=y in hasty,
or in the French u, or German u. All vowels being considered as sAori
by nature, when they are long, the same sound is merely continued for
double the time required to pronounce them when short. As regards the
diphthongs let ai=ay in hai/, witli a slight elevation of the y; (E=oy in
hoii, but as short as possible; au=:0M in pound ; ei and eu=i in pine ;
and the other diphthongs as a combination of the short sounds of the two
vowels of which they are composed, rapidly uttered, except when they
end in i, and are followed by a vowel, when i=i in union. It would ex-
tend these remarks too far to give the grounds of these positions, but we
hope tiiat Prof. Brooks, in his next edition, will take these things into
consideration.

Another point to which we beg leave to direct the editor's attention,
is, the improvement of the versification of the English rules for gender,
declension, &c. We are decidedly favorable to this old-fashioned way
of learning rules — it is easy to acquire and easy to retain, and has also
the advantage of fixing the very words of the rule in the memory. We
are not in favor of committing every thing to memory, and carrying on
education altogether by its aid, but where it is employed (and we have
no hesitation in saying that it ought to be employed extensively,) it
should have every advantage, and be strengthened as much as possible.
On this account, also, we are favorable to the metrical rules and exam-
ples in Latin, believing that it will not only be easy to retain them when
they have once been committed, much easier at least than in an uncon-
nected order, but that it is highly desirable that the student should ac-
qiiire as large a fund of Latin words as possible. But we suggest to
Prof. Brooks, the remodeling of many of the English rules, being as-
sured that his poetical talents especially fit him for this work — though
it would require very little skill to improve such doggerel as the " first
general rule." Only correct the grammatical impropriety of " what
nouns denote,"" &.c., and we have a tolerable verse, histead of object-
ing to these rhyming rules, we could wish that there were more of
them, and that the rules of syntax, at least, were in this form, for then
we should not be afraid of hearing applicants for the degree of A. B., so
completely confound rules and exceptions, as they sometimes do. But
•we must defer the remainder of our remarks upon these toj)ics to an-
other otcauion.

(To b(j culiUuui;d.)

STEVEXs' TRAVELS. 101

STEVENS' TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. By John L. Ste-
vens. 2 vols. Harpers, 1S4L

This expedition of our countryman, was undertaken under the aus-
pices of the general government. To the importance which this cir-
cumstance gave the traveller, he was indebted for much of the success
which crowned his labors. Under all circumstances, one would sup-
pose that an official character, endorsed by his government as worthy
of confidence, would necessarily secure for himself, in a foreign coun-
try, the highest degree of consideration.

The style of this work, like that of his travels in the East, is sprighly
and unaffected •, sometimes, when under the influence of deep feeling,
awakened by the contemplation of the wondrous works of art, vt^hich
are concealed in the forests of Central America, his manner becomes
serious, and his style rises into the region of the sublime. Solemn, in-
deed, must have been his feelings when standing on the ruins of Copan,
with the monuments of a powerful and civilized people strewed around
for many miles and under his feet. He would naturally look with an
inquiring glance into the past, and ask, where are now the people pow-
erful and wise, who once occupied these palaces, and erected to their
gods these monuments of art which rival in magnitude and finish the
glory of Egypt .'' Who were they .-' Whence did they come, and whither
have they gone } Surely the fashion of this world passeth away and its
glory is but dust !

It is not our purpose to moralize for Sir. Stevens, nor to follow him
through his laborious travels. Suflice it to say, that whoever will un-
dertake the journey through two pretty thick royal-octavos will be am-
ply rewarded for his labors. I know not how it has happened that our
traveller met with so many trying and dangerous accidents by the way,
and contrived to extricate himself unhurt out of them all. He certainly
possesses diplomatic tact, and withal as deep a vein of good nature as
ordinarily belongs to bachelors.

The work is illustrated by numerous and well-executed engravings,
which give evidence of patient and minute investigation. These must
certainly be regarded as indispensably necessary to the elucidation of
tiie work. They constitute in fact the work, and the narrative is but
the history of the labor and pains employed to procure them, and some
little insiglit into their character derived from their relative location and
a few apposite conjectures. Here we have the written language of the
pei)|tle. But will) will interpret lor us ? Who will read lor us the dark
hieruglyphic^, the death's headt-, and strange fantastic figures, which

102 CABI.VET OF THE

cover their statues and walls ? May we not hope tliat some Chanipol-
liou will speedily arise and unfold the scroll which contains the history
of this mysterious people ?

The common opinion refers these remains of a great people, together
with kindred monuments found elsewhere, to a high antiquity, and to a
people deriving their knowledge and taste in the arts from the east.
From this view Mr. Stevens dissents, and furnishes reasons sufficiently
numerous and powerful to convince any prejudiced mind. No one,
after having road the history of the conquest of Mexico by Cortcz, and
the reference to splendid cities and monuments of art of every descrip-
tion, whicli the conquerors found in Mexico and Central America, will
fail to arrive at any other conclusion than this — that the nations then
occupying those countries, or their immediate predecessors, were the
artilicers of these curious and wonderful works. The conviction ap-
pears to be strong in the mind of Mr. Stevens, that the descendants of
those who erected the cities whose ruins he describes, are yet living :
some scattered through the original land of their ancestors, whilst oth-
ers, perhaps, retain their former independence and glory. He was in-
formed by a padre, in whose veracity he placed confidence, that there
exists a city and region of country, unconquered by the Spaniards, and
retaining all its primitive character and manners, unadulterated by ad-
mixture with foreigners. The padre had seen it, from the top of the
Cordilleras, with its turrets and spires glittering in the sun, but its
streets have never been trodden by the foot of the white man. Here,
then, may be found the key to unlock the hidden niysteiies that lie en-
tombed in Copan, Palenque, Quiraqua and Uxmal. May we not hope
that the government, as well as individual citizens, w-ill manifest a deep
interest in this subject; and that they will rescue from destruction what
the avarice and bigotry of the Spanish conquerors have spared ?

CABIXET OF THE LINX.EA.V ASSOCIATLON.

It is truly gratifying that the enterprise of collecting a cabinet for
Pennsylvania College, has thus far succeeded so well. There was a
small collection of minerals and a few articles of no particular interest
in the room of the library, for several years, but the real commencement
of the operations now so successfully carried on, is to be dated from
last July. T'lie Linna?an Association was established a short time pre-
vious, and then it was determined to proceed in the collection of a cab-
inet. The active members deserve much credit for their industry, and
we hope that they will not ceu:>e to labor until they have secured a very

LIN.V.EAN ASSOCIATION'. 103

lar^e and valuable collection. Tliey are indebted to several correspond-
ing members and other gentlemen for valuable donations, and they are
still receiving additions.

To give the readers of the Journal some idea of the collection, the
curator has obligingly furnished me with the following list. It will be
seen that it is yet comparatively small, but be it remembered that it was
begun last summer.

Birds, native and foreign 63 ; Reptiles in spirits and stuffed 92 ;
Fishes and Crustacea (crabs,) 97; Mammalia 10; Sliells 900; Insects
1100; dried plants 40; Minerals 2100; Fossils 60 ; Anatomical prepa-
rations 13 ; Paintings and Engravings 36 ; Plaster casts 70 ; besides a
large number of miscellaneous natural and artificial curiosities.

Tliis is doing well for six months, and I happen to know that before
long the cabinet will be considerably increased. Most of these objects
are scientifically arranged and properly labeled, so that they are not de-
signed for mere show, but for study and practical use. They are all
preserved in cases covered with glass and secured with locks, so that
the uninitiated may not handle them carelessly.

The cabinet is at present kept in the library department of the Col-
lege, l)ut if it increases at this rate, there will soon be felt the necessity
of more room. In view of this, the Society last summer adopted preli-
minary measures towards erecting a building to be specially appropri-
ated to this and kindred objects. One or two large departments would
be necessary for the cabinet, one as a sort of work-shop or preparation
room and for duplicate speciinens, and one as a library and reading
room. Use could easily be made of four or five departments. The
members very industriously set themselves to work to procure subscrip-
tions, in which they were successful among themselves, but it is very
evident that it is out of the power of the students, most of whom are in
very moderate circumstances, to erect the buildings. The college treas-
uiy has no funds to spare for the purpose, and the Linnseans have ap-
pealed to the friends of the College and of science for aid.

I do not know to what extent they have succeeded, but I hope they
will not abandon the enterprise. A few years of toil will eiiable them
to accomplish the ardently cherished project. When the friends of ed-
ucation once see that the Linna^ans are not to be daunted by seeming
difficulties, efficient help will be afforded. I would say then, go on and
never give up the enterprise — you will eventually succeed.

The money already subscribed, should be collected and husbanded
until enough has been secured to justify a commencement.

Those interested in the success of Pennsylvania College, must see

104 COLLEGE RECORD.

that the Professors and Students of that institution are resolved to do
what they can in maintaining an elevated stand in promoting the cause
of thorough education. The appearance of this Journal is a cheering
token for good ; the zeal of the Linna?ans in embellisiiing the adjacent
grounds, and rendering access to the College pleasant and easy ; their
laudable ambition to enlarge the cabinet, library, and the materiel of
their cherished school, all display a most commendable spirit, which I
believe will be warmly seconded by others. I entertain the hope of
seeing the corner stone of the Linnaean Hall laid next summer. I shall
be there to pay my contribution, and invoke God's blessing on the en-
terprise. POLITES.

College Record. — The fourteenth Anniversary of the Phrenakos-
mian Society, was celebrated in Christ's Church, Gettysburg, on the 21st
ult. The performers acquitted themselves in a manner highly credita-
ble to the Society, and to the Institution. The influence of these liter-
ary associations upon their members and upon the community, both in
College and beyond its walls, is evidently of the most salutary char-
acter. The large assembly convened upon this occasion, listened with
the most marked attention to each of the speakers, and we have no
doubt tliat they were alike interested and improved. We were pleased
to see an unusually large number of persons present from the surround-
ing country. The Society itself appears to be improving externally as
well as internally, if we may judge from the handsome manner in which
they have recently fitted up their hall, from which they marched in pro-
cession to the church. The vocal music given upon the occasion, by a
select clioir, added, in no small degree, to the pleasure of the evening.
The following was the order of the exercises :

Prayer by Prof. Jacobs. Oration — "The Universal Deluge" — by
J. P. Smeltzer, Frederick Co. Md. "The Christian Missionary" — by
G. J. Martz, Frederick Co. Md. "The Sublimities of South America"
—by R. A. Fink, Frederick, Md. "The lirst Martyr and the first Mur-
derer"— by C. A. Brougher, Tippah Co. Miss. Benedictiox — by
Rev. Dr. Krauth.

To CorrespoxVDents. "Philoruslicus" is informed that his commu-
nication with the reply of "Rusticus" will appear in our next number. —
Those who write for the Journal will please to bear in mind, that they
cannot write too legibly; all our matter being in manuscript it will light-
on the labor of both printer and editor to have each letter as plain as
possible.

IJtnnssl^txma (College, ©ettijsburg, |)a.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. B.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, ^c.

Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, Sfc.

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chemistry, ^c.

Rev. W. M. Revnolds, A. M.—Prof. of Latin, Mental Philosophy, 8fC.

M. L. Stoever, A. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department.

Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
' Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

: Wm. Albaugh, A. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.
• Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

i

I

>;

> Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur-
: ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
; tioiis of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
; of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
: struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
; to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course

• is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.

> The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
■ require. They attend at least two recitations a day. Church and Bible Class on the
; Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of
I any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
; more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
\ in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

I The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
session, 1^61 87| : for the summer session, .$41 87^. Washing, .f 10 00; and Wood,
( $3 00. Total expense, ^116 75. Boarding can be obtained'in town at $1 25 per
; week.

J There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
; April and September, and each of five weeks continuance.
' The winter session commenced on the 24th inst , with the accession of about

* twenty Students in the Freshman Class, admitted at the close of the summer ses-
; sion, and a respectable number of applicants for admission into the Preparatory
/ Department.

' QVcknorDlebgcmeitts of ?Donati0n0 to tlje (Eabinct of tl)c £inn(rau
'^Association of |)cnnsi}lt)ouia College.

^ February, 1845. From Wm. R. Grant, M. D. Prof, of Anatomy, Pennsylva-

nia College, Philadelphia, one large box containing birds, and a case of insecte.

2. From Miss M. Paxton, of Caledonia Furnace, specimens of iroh-ore, and
a lizard in spirits. ,^

3. From Mr. John M. Stevenson, Sen. one raie coin.
; 4. From Wm. J. Miller, one Turkish pipe.

- 5. From Mr. Greenawalt, Pinegrove, one Indian pipe.

a. From M. M. Yeakle, some rare specimens of silver and copper coins.

7. From /. A. Bradshaw, seventeen drawings.

8. From R. A. Fink, one reptile in spirits.

Terms of the Record and Journal. One Dollar per annum
'■ in advance. Postmasters will frank and remit subscriptions.

Address — '-'Editors of the Record and Journal, Gettysburg, Pa.^'' \

VOLUME I.]

[number 6.

THE

LITERARy RECORD AND JOURNAL

©f tl)c iTinnacttit ^«9octation of pennflpluania CoUfjc.
APRIL, J845.

CONDUCTED

131) n (KommCttee oC tht ^ssocfatCom

CONTENTS.
indian summer, ------

matrimony among the ancient germans,

letter from a young entomologist with a reply,

my first visit to the ocean, - - - -

dots in horses, ------

agrjlus ruficollis. the fixed stars, -

brooks' ross' latin grammar, _ - -

DR. miller's grammar, - - - . _

mnnaean operations, - - _ - _

SONG "hail! hail! TO THE COLLEGE,"

COLLEGE RECORD, ------

105

108
112
114
116
119
122
124
12o
127
128

1^, sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles 2i cents, over 100 miles .3i cents.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. APRIL, 1845. No. 6.

METEOROLOGY, NO. VI.

INDIAN SUMMER.
BY PROF. JACOBS, OF PENNSYLVANIA. COLLEGE.

3. Whence the haze or smoke., which so frequently destroys the per-
fect transparency of the atmosphere, and which is so characteristic of the
*■'■ Indian Summer P"*

In reply, it may perhaps be best to state, first, what it is believed to
be, and secondly, under what conditions of the atmosphere it is found
to exist.

That the cause of the obscuration of the atmosphere in the case in
question is due to moisture and not to actual smoke, will appear from the
consideration of a few facts. First, the morning fogs, especially those
of August, when not followed by immediate rain, instead of being dis-
solved in a pure clear sky, during the day, by the increasing solar heat,
aie mostly found to produce an obscurity like that of a dense smoke.
Secondly, both the cirrus and dense nimbus cloud, after having been
wafted overhead by upper currents, have frequently been found to be rap-
idly dissipated, rendering the sky obscured as by a dense smoke, instead
of leaving it nearly transparent as it was before. Thirdly, such states of
atmosphere are mostly broken up by copious rains, which are succeed-
ed by a clear sky. So constantly is this the result, during the summer
months, that a smoky sky is generally considered as a sure indication
of approaching rain. And fourthly, the quantity of moisture in the at-
mosphere, at such times, as indicated by the dew-point, is greater than
the average due to the prevailing temperature. These are some of the
facts which may be adduced to prove, that the obscurity of the sky, in
the cases cited, is due, not to real smoke, but to vapor; or in other
words, that it has no relation to the existence of extensive lires, as is
generally believed. The existence of extensive fires at such times is
purely accidental, being favored by the greater inflammability of combus-
14

106 METEOROLOGY.

tibles, ill consequence of a partial failure of rain, which then takes place.
The recently fallen foliage of Autumn, affords peculiar facilities for the
prevalence of extensive fires during the season of the " Indian Sum-
mer."

We must therefore regard, what is ordinarily called smoke and haze^
as very thin cloud. Sometimes this is seen at some elevation in the air,
in a great measure disrobing the sun, moon and stars of their splendor,
and producing that mild subdued light witnessed in an atmosphere de-
nominated hazy. At other times it prevails more abundantly near the
surface of the earth, producing that peculiar appearance of objects seen
through it denominated smoky. It is generally found to become denser
during the night, or early in the morning, in consequence of diminished
temperature ; and then, during the day, again to become more rare in
consequence of the increased temperature of the air.

The mechanical condition of the atmosphere accompanying that kind
of weather called smoky, is that of comparative rest. During the con-
tinuance of this kind of weather, the movements in the atmosphere are
feeble, as the most superficial observation will show. The winds, if
there be any, are always gentle, except sometimes for a few hours at
the commencement. The temperature, also, during the twenty-four
hours, is not subject to much variation. But when we leave superficial
observation, and have recourse to the indications of proper instruments,
we become better satisfied of the truth of the remark just made. The
barometer, for example, is slow in its movements, and does not rise
much above or fall much below its mean altitude. Any considerable
rise or fall is accompanied by a corresponding change in the transpa-
rency of the air. The criterion is, that, during the prevalence of any
smoky season, the pressure varies within comparatively narrow limits.

Now this approximate equilibrium in the atmosphere over any sec-
tion of country for several days continuously, is, no doubt, the cause
of the destruction of its transparency. For it is a matter of observa-
tion, and consequently one of the facts of the case, that the murkiness
of the atmosphere increases with the continuance of its comparative
quiescence, and the density of the former is proportionate to the near-
ness of the latter to a perfect equilibrium.

Agreeably to the principles laid down in No. IV, that form or kind
of cloud called smoke can be formed extensively in the atmosphere
only during a partial equilibrium of forces. When either the tempera-
ture or pressure varies rapidly, the resulting equally quick movements
favor the rapid condensation of invisible vapor into dense cloud and
rain, by which the moisture is withdrawn from the atmosphere, or bear

METEOROLOGY. 107

it off to some other district of country. But when these disturbing
causes are feeble, as when the air is nearly calm, and the daily change
of temperature is inconsiderable, the gradually increasing moisture, in-
stead of being suddenly condensed into ordinary cloud, begins to con-
dense in the form of exceedingly minute particles. These at first only
lightly destroy the transparency of the sky, but as they increase in
number and size, they render it more dusky until, at length, they very
much resemble an ordinary fog.

If we suppose the temperature and pressure to remain unchanged
for only a month or two, the effect would become most striking and ex-
traordinary. There would be no horizontal or vertical currents to form
ordinary cloud and rain, and thus to withdraw the moisture from the
air. The vapor, being constantly increased by evaporation from the
surface of the earth and ocean, would first form the thin cloud, scarcely
destroying the transparency of the air, then the dense smoke of Indian
Summer, and then, when the point of saturation would have been reach-
ed, an uninterrupted night of ordinary cloud. That the obscurity du-
ring the Indian Summer, or any of the other periods of similar weather,
is not greater than it is, especially when it continues for two weeks, is
owing to the fact that the equilibrium of forces is not perfect, but only
comparative, and that the atmospheric movements, though feeble, are
constantly interfering; and that there is much less obscurity at one
time than another, is owing to the greater activity of the disturbing
forces. The whole year is but a struggle between the efforts of the in-
visible vapors to aggregate themselves together in such a manner as to
hide the face of the heavens entirely and continuously, and of the at-
mospheric movements to disturb and break up such a state of things.

It is during such times, viz : when the air is slightly obscured by
this thin vail of vapor,that the phenomenon of the "diverging beams,"
or, as it is vulgarly called, " the sun drawing water," may be seen. —
When there are small masses of clovd floating above, through the in-
tervals of which the sun's rays may pass towards the earth, the parti-
cles of vapor intercepting and reflecting a portion of light, enable us to
see them in luminous lines, in the same manner that we see illuminated
lines of particles of dust floating in a room into which the light of the
sun has been admitted by a window. The " diverging beams," indicate
the existence of increasing moisture in the lower strata of the atmos-
phere, and are not without reason regarded as a sign of approaching
rain.

An interesting example illustrative of our subject occurred during
the month of March, 1844. For four days, beginning with the 25th,

108 SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY.

the barometer stood nearly at its mean ; its oscillations amounted to
no more than .05 of an inch, and the brisk winds, which arose in the
earlier parts of the 25lh and 26th, but which in each case died away in
the afternoon, and at night were attended by the formation of consider-
able masses of cumulus cloud. The formation of the cloud was due
to the yet comparative activity of atmospheric movements. But whilst
in these two days the smoke-cloud had already considerably darkened
the sky, on the 27th, which was calm, the smoke increased rapidly in
density ; so that with the decline of the temperature during the even-
ing and night, it had thickened into something like a fog, which at 9
o'clock, P. M. was so dense as to hide the moon and stars, and on the
following morning was found to be wet fog extending upwards to a
considerable distance from the earth. This, on the 2Sth, continued
during the day as fog, and on the 29th and 30th, came down upon the
earth in heavy rains.

This example has been selected, not because it is in any wise pecu-
liar, for similar cases occur frequently during the year ; but because
particular attention had just happened to be directed to it. Neither
have we confined our attention to the " Indian Summer," which has
given this article its caption, because in endeavoring to explain the phi-
losophy of smoky weather in general, we have been explaining each
particular phenomenon of the kind. In doing this, we think we have
proved that the smoke so called, is merely thin cloud, and that it owes
its existence to a comparative quiescence of the atmosphere at the time.
It remains yet to account for these seasons of quiescence.

THE SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY AMONG THE ANCIENT
GERMANS.

BY PROF. HENRY I. SMITH, OF HARTWICK, N. Y.

Among our Germanic forefathers it was long before the church ob-
tained the right of solemnizing and legalizing marriages — and longer
yet before she attained to the actual exercise of this right. Our readers
may know, that, in the eighth century, the secular powers (in Ger-
many) agreed with the church, thenceforward to make the legality of
marriages dependent on the evidence (Mitwissenschaft) and blessing of
the priest ; and yet it is equally well known that this arrangement was
entirely ignored throughout the whole period, which we call the "Mid-
dle Ages," until, at length, the church enforced its claims, founded, un-
questionably, in Christianity itself, and the people every where submit-
ted, and accustomed themselves, to exchange the common, purely civil,

AMONG THE ANCIENT GERMANS. 109

betrothal or espousal, for tlie sacred marriage-ritual of the church. Yet,
at first, the latter was only regarded as the full and final consummation
of the former.* The necessarily concomitant result of this long con-
flict between ancient right or usage, and new law, was the progressive
abridgment of those non-ecclesiastical formalities, by which, according
to old-German custom, the betrothal was confirmed : and the gradual
lapse of these ancient formalities, to the lower and lowest classes of the
people, was but the prelude to their entire disappearance. Favorable
circumstances have preserved a considerable number of records and lit-
erary monuments, which plainly exhibit this gradual process, at least
from the 12th to the 15th century.

To the 12th century belongs the formulary, first published by Mass-
mann, of the betrothment of free (distinguished from serfs) Suabians.
On this interesting document I shall here say no more, merely observ-
ing that it makes no mention of the consent and blessing of the church.

In the 13th century, the poets who flourished at courts, and in the
mansions of the nobles, whenever they give an account of a wedding,
never forget to record, at the same time, the solemnization of the mar-
riage through the priest, or, at least, the profession publicly made be-
fore the congregation : yet not as though this benedictio, and this pro-
fessio, had been indispensable conditions, but merely because they were
regarded as becoming and auspicious. The popular poets, on the other
hand, speak only of betrothals in the presence of lay-witnesses, and, in
this age also, of the consent of the hride^ who, in the preceding, appears
altogether passive. The custom, which then already prevailed, for the
parties, shortly after their nuptials, to attend church together, appears to
have had no reference to the church's blessing.| This distinction, then,
presents to us the non-ecclesiastical betrothal as an ancient usage, now
already becoming limited to the lower classes, and among them, even,
suffering abridgment through the concession implied in their post-nup-
tial visit to the church ; and the solemnization of matrimony by the
church, as a new, and strange requisition, to which the higher classes
of society begin to accommodate themselves. The marriage-ritual, in
use, at that period, among the lower classes, is most vividly exhib-

* It is well known that, even at tlie present day, it is the custom in Germany,
that, when two young persons have agreed together to become companions for life,
their betrothal, in the presence of tlieir two families, precedes their actual mar-
riage-union, sometimec a few days, often several weeks or months, and not unfre-
quently even several years.

t This custom is still strictly observed in many parts of this country, by de-
scendants of Germans.

no

SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY.

ited in a poem, entitled "Der Meier Helmbrecht." The poet describes
the marriage of a robber, Lammerschlind, and Gottliude, a farmer's
daughter, (1507. sqq.)

" uf stuont ein alter grise ;

der was der worte wise,

der kunde so getaniu dine.

er staltes beide in einen rinc,

er sprach ze Lemberslinde

'welt ir Gotelinde

elichen nemen ? so sprechet Ja.'

'gerne,' sprach der knabe sa.

er vragte in aber anderstunt,

' gerne,' sprach des knaben munt.

zem drittenmale er do sprach

' nemt ir si gerne ?' der knabe jach

' so mir sele unde lip,

ich nime gerne dize wip.'

do sprach er ze Gotelinde

' welt ir Lemberslinde

gerne nemen zeinem man ?'

' ja, herre, ob mir sin got gan.'

' nemt ir in gerne ?' sprach aber er.

'gerne, herre ! gebt rairn her !'

Zem dritten male 'welt irn ?'

'gerne, herre! nu gebet mini.'

do gap er Gotelinde

ze wibe Lemberslinde,

und gap Lemberslinde

ze manne Gotelinde.

si sungen alle an der stat,

uf den vuoz er ir trat.

Translation.
Up rose an aged man
Who had a ready tongue,
And thus he joined the twain.
Within a circle he both did place,
And then to Lemberslinde spake :
' Wilt thou Gotelinde take.
For thy wedded wife ? Then say me yea.'
'Most willingly,' the youth replied.
He asked again the second time :
' Most willingly,' rejoined the youth again.
The third time thus once more he spake :
' Dost take her willingly ?' ' ay,' responds
' Dear as my soul and body, [the youth,
Most gladly do 1 take this wife.'
And then he spake to Gotelinde :
' Wilt thou willingly take Lemberslinde
Thy wedded husband aye to be ?'
' Yea, sir, for better or for worse !'
'Dost take him willingly?' again he asks,
* Ay, sir, with good will ! give him now

to me.'
The third time doth he ask ; ' wilt have

him, say?'
' Ah, willingly, sir ! now do give him me.'
Then gave he Gotelinde
To be wife to Lemberslinde,
And gave Lemberslinde
To be husband to Gotelinde.
And now they all did join in song.
But he* did step upon her foot.f

Here, then, neither the parties interested, nor the poet, are at all
concerned at the absence of an ofKciating ecclesiastic : but here already,
the whole solemnity of the transaction depends on the thrice repeated
question, and on the bridegroom's stepping on the bride's foot, thereby
indicating the assumption of possession and authority, according to an
ancient custom and statute. (From an ancient collection of popular
poems we learn, that any one, stepping on a sorcerer's foot, thus pos-
sessed himself, and deprived him, of his power of vaticination.) Thus
much for the 13th century. The scene of the poem, from which the

* The bridegroom.

t It will be observed that I have taken liberties with two or three lines.

AMOXG THE ANCIENT GERMANS. Ill

above extract is given, is in Austria. Of the 14th century we have a
poem celebrating the marriage of Metzen and Betzen, who abode in
Suabia. Respecting this, I have only space to say that the poet repre-
sents the officiating person as winding up the ceremony with saying :

"Thus have ye been transferred into wedlock,
Without scholars, and without priests."

Every thing else is perfectly regular, and the whole affair is a highly
respectable one. But the point here most important to us is, that, on
the morning after the nuptials, the parties wend their way amidst a joy-
ous throng of guests, to the church, where, after the close of the public
worship, they are once more solemnly joined in wedlock by the priest.
Thus in the same country, in which, in the 12th century, the right and
custom of betrothal was still in full, unquestioned, force, in the four-
teenth century, the solemnization of matrimony by a clergyman, is,
even among the lower classes, regarded as legally better, nay apparently
considered necessary, in addition to the ordinary betrothal.

Similar accounts respecting other parts of Germany, I must omit for
want of space.

I reluctantly omit, also, for the same reason, a very interesting doc-
ument belonging to the same period, and extracted from the statutes of
the city of Cologne. This document presents, in very antiquated lan-
guage, a complete formulary for the solemnization of matrimony, con-
cerning which, I have only space to remark, that it does not at all spe-
cify to what class or profession the officiating person must belong; but
merely prescribes, that whosoever shall join together two persons in
wedlock, shall use the following formulary.

Thus, then, the 13th century is, in this respect, as in so many oth-
ers, the critical poiut of decision, the period of transition — from things
old to things new ; in the 15th, the victory of the church's right is
complete, and the solemnization of matrimony (now even viewed as a
sacrament,) entirely given up to the clergy. The manner in which the
ceremony was performed by the clergy, and the fact, that they occupied
merely canonical ground, we learn from a rule or direction Ad copulan-
dum, designed for priests, which has been preserved in a MS. at Bres-
lau. I prefer retaining the monk-latin of the rubric, merely translating
the questions, which are in old German, and would probably be unin-
telligible to most of your readers.

'^Postquam veneris ad locum copulandi, primo interroga nomina
eorum, die primo ad virum, ' Petir, hast thou come hitlier that thou wilt
take Catherine for thy wedded wife ?' post responsionem sui, scilicet
viri, Reverte te ad virgincm, et conclude eadem verba dicens, 'Cathe-

112 LETTER OF A YOUNG ENTOMOLOGIST.

vine, hast thou come hither, because thou wilt take Petir for thy wed-
ded hus'oand ?' Post responsionem interroga virum de periculis instan-
tibus, iitrum ipse habet uxorem, vel promiserit alteri, et de propinquitate
seu amicitia. Si non dabit responsionem quo ad periculum, tunc inter-
roga virginem eadem verba similiter quo ad virura fecisti ; et tunc pub-
lice interroga omnes circumstantes, si sciunt de periculo futuro ; quod
dicunt manifeste, et postea taceant, post hoc accipe manum dexteram
viri et dexteram virginis, et conjunge eas adinvicem, et die ad virum ilia
verba : — " Repeat after me, Petir. I, Petir, take thee Catherine for a wedded
wife, and promise thee that my faithfulness shall be toward thee and pro-
vide for thee,"et die ad virginem, "Repeatafter me, I Catherine take thee
Petir for a wedded husband, and promise thee that I will render thee my
faithfulness and obedience unto mine end." — Et audi quod verba supra
dicta non mutant, quo facto die secreto modo hsec verba, 'Quos deus
conjunx:it homo non separet,' et die 'Ego conjungo vos in nomine pa-
tris et filii et spiritus sancti.' Et sic percute eum supra scapulas etc,
recede."

Here there is retained, at least, a popular symbol, i. e. the blow on the
shoulder in order to aid the memory, for which purpose it was also cus-
tomary, even according to statute, to box the ears. It may also be ob-
served that the form here given is, substantially, the same which is still
in use among us.

A LETTER FROM A YOUNG ENTOMOLOGIST, WITH THE REPLY.

Dear Rusticus, — Happening once to be in a forest, and wandering,
I knew not whither, I came to a small tree, upon which seeing consider-
able motion, I approached nearer and perceived that it was occasioned
by two different kinds of little animals, the movements of one of which
•were defensive whilst those of the other were aggressive. The aggress-
ors were your little friends, the ants, and the aggrieved were a species
of small caterpillars, which yet, however, were seven or eight times larg-
er than their determined invaders. The onset must have been made some
time before we arrived, as the caterpillars had mostly forsaken their
lodging and were scampering off, as well as caterpillars can scamper in
all directions. They seemed to be aware that their caterpillar existence
depended upon their speed. Some had suspended themselves by threads
beneath the branches to get out of the way of theit adversaries. Many,
however, had been unfortunate enough to fall to the ground, or rather
fortunate enough, for ihey seemed to be less annoyed than their friends
upon the tree. Tiic ants advanced fearlessly to the attack, and when they

REPLY TO PHILORUSTICrS. 113

could, would lay hold on the caterpillars and march oft' with them
down the tree ; though their progress was frequently much impeded
by their struggling prey, who took every opportunity to hold them-
selves fast by the limbs ; but to no purpose : the ants would tug them
loose and then hold them in such a position as to prevent further annoy-
ance. Arrived at the bottom of the tree, our warriors or robbers took
the direct route to their encampment some nine or ten yards distant,
where, I suppose, they initiated their captives into their subterranean
mysteries. Now, Mr. Rusticus, I don't write this letter to give you any
new information, (for I suppose all such things are old news to you,)
but to request information of you. You will probably smile at my sim-
plicity or ignorance, but that shall not deter me from learning of you
whatever I can. One thing, that I should like to inquire of you, is :
whether ants and caterpillars have eyes, and, if they have, whether they
make .use of them ? For certainly from the observations that I made
on the above occasion, I should infer that they either had none at all or
else very bad ones, and didn't use them. As to the caterpillar, for in-
stance, if it thought itself safe, it would not move till it was in the jaws
of the ant, though it might have seen the little depredator approaching,
if it had chosen to look about. And as to the ant, it would repeatedly
pass its prey and not appear to know that it was so near, till at last it
stumbled upon it. Another thing is : do ants eat caterpillars ? or what
do they do with them ? There is no doubt, Mr. Rusticus, if you will
consent to explain these things you will aflbrd instruction to others be-
sides,

Your obedient servant,

Philorusticus.

REPLY TO THE ABOVE.

I am always happy to communicate all the information T possess on
any subject, and therefore, with pleasure, proceed to reply to my un-
known correspondent.. I have not " smiled at his simplicity and ignor^
ance," but admire his patience of observation, and vigor of description.
The ants were capturing the caterpillars and conveying them to the for-
micary, not for the purpose of " eating them" entire, but of sucking the
juices of their bodies. I presume that the aphides (Plant-lice) which
are the regular milch cows of these little creatures, were not abundant
in that vicinity, and they therefore took the best they could get. A ^g\v
facts will show their habits in this respect. Sometimes ants will haul a
dead cockroach, which is bigger than a hundred of them, to their nest.
A multitude will take hold of him and lift hun up — some go ahead to
15

114 MY FIRST VISIT

show them the way. If they perceive that the hody of the cockroach
lies across the hole and will not thus pass through, an order is given,
and the body is turned endwise, and thus it is dragged in and a dinner is
made of cockroach broth. Kirby says, "he saw two or three ants haul-
ing along a young snake not dead, which was as thick as a goosequill."
St. Pierre relates that he saw a number of ants carrying off a Patagonian
centipede. They had seized it by all its legs and bore it along as work-
men do a large piece of timber.

"Have ants and caterpillars eyes, and if they have, do they use them?"
I do not believe that caterpillars see. The experiments I have made con-
vince me of that fact, — but ants see very distinctly. They are perfect
insects ; caterpillars are not, but have to undergo their transformation,
before they are imagines^ or perfect insects. Sight is not necessary for
them, for the eggs from which they are hatched, are laid on the tree or
shrub, where they find their appropriate food as soon as they are ex-
cluded from the egg. Nature is very economical. Sight is not neces-
sary to the happiness of the animal, and therefore it is not bestowed on
them. The reason why the ants passed by some of these caterpillars,
until they "stumbled" upon another, was not that they did not see, but
they were looking out for ihe fattest subjects. They instinctively knew
which would afford the richest repast. The "lean kine" they rejected,
but pounced on the " fat and well favored." Even a child will select
the biggest and softest of a pile of apples. Are you satisfied ?

RUSTICUS.

MY FIRST VISIT TO THE OCEAN.

Events and scenes that, to the traveller and man of experience, may
be trifling and unimportant, often constitute an era in the life-time of
those who have before scarcely extended their journeyings beyond their
college walls. I say this, that 1 may anticipate the smile of those to
whom the scenes described below, are familiar.

I left college in the fall of 1S4-, with just such an idea, and about
the same views of the great world of nature as a Sunday-scholar has
of the world of heathenism — confused, indistinct, and purely imagin-
ary— and when I found, after rambling some weeks in the Middle States,
that I was but thirty miles from the sea-shore, no language can tell my
anxiety. It was a long day's ride through the interminable pines and
sands of Jersey — however, just after sun-set one beautiful evening —
tired, jaded, and exhausted in every way, except of thinking and talk-
ing about the ocean, we drove up to the door of a boarding house, at

TO THE OCEAX. 11-5

one of the bathing places upon the coast. As the house was some dis-
tance from the beach, and night had already set in, we were obliged to
defer our pleasure until the morning; though the deep-toned melody that
came roaring over the land, had increased our anxiety into an agony of
excitement.

In the morning we rose with the lark, and hurried, or rather danced
as rapidly as the dignity of a graduate would permit, down to the coast,
A high and barren hill of pure white sand, washed up by tlie everlast-
ing heavings of the sea, entirely intercepted our view, though we could
distinctly hear its roaring music not fifty yards before us. When we
reached the top of the bank, the whole scene burst upon our view at
once — Old Ocean himself, in all his briny mightiness — gilded into the
most gorgeous glory by the sun just rising; it was the greatest moment
of my life. The first idea that crossed my mind, was, that if there was
any reason in any idolatry, it was in that which paid its homage to a
being so great, so grand, so seemingly a type of the Eternal and Infinite.
To my right and left, a long white plain of sand, glistening like a sea
of diamonds, extended as far as the eye could reach, whilst before me
the great sea rolled — deep and blue — until it met the bowed horizon.

I spent the whole day upon the beach, and only they who have done
so, can know the thrilling interest and pleasure. It is a noble pas-
time to trace a name in deep characters, or stamp a plain foot-print in
the yielding sand, and w^atch the coming tide, first boldly rushing until
it breaks, then creeping quickly up the beach, sweeping the fine sand
before it, obliterating every trace of our labor, and smoothing every
thing again as perfectly as before. It types most beautifully the evanes-
cence of all man's works and glories, and the perishableness of all hu-
man things.

What glorious sport it is to wait the incoming wave, laden with
shells and sea-things^ beautilul and curious, as if to 'tempt and taunt,
and then chase them as the receding wave carries them back again to
the deep.

It is glorious and soul-thrilling to watch the far-out wave, as it
sports its white crest in the sunlight, and comes rolling and thundering
in its foaming magnificence, gathering strength and i*oar every second,
as if it would demolish altogether tlie sandy rampart before it ; but even
whilst you watch, it breaks with a sullen roar and sends swift its vvaters
to the beach, and (as a beautiful writer says,) " kisses it only with a
silent murmur."

It is curious to see the unceasing out-going and in-coming of the
waves — but still more to think about it. Day after day, year after year.

116 BOTS IN HORSES

century after century, and age after age ; every moment since " the spirit
of God moved upon the waters," that miglaty ocean has never ceased
its everlasting rollings to and fro — an awful fact. Let the vain sceptic
go to the beach, — let him shut his eyes to all the glory, and magnifi-
cence, and infinity before him ; let him even forget its faith and grati-
tude, as he sees its vapory incense ascending incessantly to the skies —
but let him, discarding every thing else that is grand and awful around
him, see and think only of the everlasting motion of the tides, in and
out, and then say — " There is no God." He must be a fool indeed !
College of St. James'', Md., March, 1845.

BOTS IN HORSES AND OTHER ANIMALS. NO. I.

GENUS OESTRUS. LIN.

Oxen, sheep and horses are subject to the annoyances of certain
parasitic insects, vulgarly called Bots, which I design briefly to con-
sider in these communications. The extraordinary means the perfect
insects pursue in depositing their eggs, the situations the larvae or grubs
inhabit, and the very high temperature to which they are exposed, rea-
der their history very interesting.

The hots of the ox (Oestrus hovis,) live under the skin of the an-
imal, being situated between it and the cellular membrane, in a sack or
abscess, which is rather larger than the insect, and by narrowing up-
wards opens externally to the air by a small aperture. This grub is
entirely difterent from that which inhabits the stomach of the horse,
and, of course, the fly produced by it is different. Even Linne thought
they were the same, but the illustrious Swede himself sometimes erred.

This larva having arrived at its full growth, efl^ects its escape from
the abscess, by pressing against the external opening, and falls from the
back of the ox to the ground, where, seeking a convenient retreat, it
becomes a chrysalis., and in a few weeks the perfect fly is disclosed.
Cattle are extremely terrified when attacked by this fly, and sometimes
the agitation is communicated to the whole herd. The classical reader
will find a lively description of such a scene in Virgil's Georg., lib. III.
ver. 146—151.'

The heifers, steers, and younger cattle, are most frequently at-
tacked by this fly, and have, in general, a greater number of bots than
others : the strongest and healthiest beasts seem constantly to be pre-
ferred by it, and this is a criterion of goodness in much esteem among
dealers in cattle.

The tanners also observe that their strongest and best hides have

AND OTHER ANIMALS. 117

the greatest number of bot-holes in them : for although the skin heals
up on the exit of the larva, it is not with the same matter as the ori-
ginal skin. In the leather, when dry, those holes which were made in
the skin the year preceding the death of the beast, cannot be distin-
guished from the others which were made at any former period, not
being in any perceptible degree less filled up. In the dried hide, it
does not appear a round hole as in the living skin, but only as a crack.
This arises from tlie spongy substance which had filled the aperture,
contracting in drying, and bursting, and also from the artificial mode of
hammering and preparing the hide.

The female fly is very quick in performing the operation of deposit-
ing her egg : she does not appear to remain on the back of the animal
more than a few seconds.

The grub is very conspicuous and may easily be detected in the
backs of the cattle, and destroyed. The injection of any corrosive
liquor into the sack would kill it : or by puncturing the larvae with a
hot needle introduced through the aperture of the skin, or even by
simple pressure they may be destroyed, afterwards extracting them or
leaving them to slough away. A man employed for this purpose,
might, in half a day, in this manner, desti'oy every bot in a large drove
of cattle.

Notwithstanding the apparently unnecessary existence and cruel ef-
fects of the Oesiri^ they are probably not altogether without some use.
I do not believe that any thing was made in vain. May not the remark
be ventured, that their effect in keeping up a considerable degree of irri-
tation in the membranes in which they are situated, acts like a perpetual
issue or blister ? There is abundant proof of the utility of local irrita-
tions in preventing the access, as well as in curing diseases. We often
see a formidable disease removed by blistering the skin, and may not
the bots perform this part in relation to animals ? But, however useful
a {ew of these natural slimuli may be, the increase of their numbers ,
producing bad consequences, should at all times be prevented.

The bots of sheep (O. ovis,) are not so large as those of oxen.
They are mostly found in the horns and frontal sinuses of sheep, but it
is probable that during the life of the sheep they inhabit the maxillary
sinus, and crawl into the other situations on its death.

When full grown they fall through the nostrils, and change to the
pupa state, lying in the earth, or adhering to a blade of grass.

The fly bursts the shell in about two months. The manner in
which this species deposits its egg, is not so easily observed, owing to
the obscure color and rapid motion of the fly and the extreme agitation

118 BOTS IN ANIMALS.

of the sheep; but the motions of the slieep afterwards, and the mode
of defence it employs to avoid it, can leave but little doubt that the egg
is deposited on the inner margin of the nostril.

The moment the fly touclies this part of the sheep, they shake their
heads, and strike the ground violently with the fore feet : at the same
time holding their noses to the earth, they run away, looking about
them, on every side, to see if the fly pursues ; they also smell the grass
as they go, lest one should be lying in wait for them. If they observe
one they gallop back, or take some other direction. As they cannot,
like oxen or horses, take refuge in the water, they have recourse to a
rut, or dry dusty road, or gravel pit, where they crowd together during
the day, with their noses held close to the ground, which renders it dif-
ficult for the fly conveniently to get at the nostril.

Sheep are particularly subject to disorders attended with vertigo,
probably arising from an affection of the brain, and it is a common no-
tion that this is occasioned by worms in the brain, when the real fact
is, that these worms, instead of occasioning this disease, tend to divert
its attacks, or, at least, to render them less fatal.

I shall defer some remarks on other species of Oestrus^ especially
that which inhabits the stomach of the horse, for your next No. of the
Journal, and shall conclude this paper with descriptions of the two in-
sects spoken of above :

Oestrus Bovis. — Wings fuscous, immaculate — abdomen with a black me-
dial band ; end of the abdomen covered with fulvous hairs.
Front white, tomentose. Thorax yellowish before — black in the
middle- — with four longitudinal naked lines — cinereous behind.
Feet black — tarsi pale.

Abdomen of the female with a black attenuated style — evolving
by compressing-

Larva subcutaneous, apodal, fuscous — with eleven segments —
lines transverse, scabrous, interrupted.
O. Ovis. — Wings pellucid — abdomen versi-colored with black and white.
A few scattering hairs on the. body — vertex of the head with ex-
cavated points. Thorax cinereous with black elevated points —
setigerous — 'with four black lines — ahdomen whitish-cinereous
spotted with black.

Larva white — ovate — hcfore, acuminate with two hooks — be-
hind, truncate with a prominent margin and two black respira-
tory scales. — Move, convex with black lines and points. Below,
plain, in the middle of the segments marked with minute rough
black lines. RusTicus.

AGRILUS RUFICOLLIS. — FIXED STARS. 119

NOTE ON AGRILUS RUFICOLLIS.

BY PROF. 3. S. HALDEMAN, OF COt.UMBIA, PA.

In its larva state this little insect lives at the expense of the cultiva-
ted Rubus (raspberry,) in the heart of which the pupa may be found in
the month of May, the perfect insect appearing in June. The larva
bores between the wood and bark, injuring the plant and causing a
wide unsightly excrescence. It next penetrates to the pith, which it tra-
verses for several feet, finally excavating a cavity in which it undergoes
its transformations.

It is probable that the larva feeds during summer and autumn, and
passes the winter in the pupa state. The diseased stems are readily re-
cognizable, and should be cut out and burnt in autumn or early in the
spring. The perfect insect is sometimes found upon Rubus vUlosuSf
which renders it probable that this is the natural food of the larva.

DISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OF THE FIXED STARS.

BY DANIEL KtRKWOOn, OF LANCASTER, PA.

The great problem of determining the distances of the fixed stars,
has engaged the attention of the most eminent astronomers for the last
two centuries. Supposing them to be suns equal in magnitude to our
own, some have endeavored to form an approximate estimate of their
distance by photometrical experiments. For this purpose the celebra-
ted Iluygens employed a small tube, in one end of which was inserted
a spherical lens, so minute that only the 27664lh part of the diameter
of the sun's disc could be seen through it. This afforded a light which
appeared about equal to that of Sirius ; whence he inferred that that
star is 27664 times more distant than the sun. But Dr. Wollaston, by
more accurate observations and experiments, found the light of the
same star to be to that of the sun in the ratio of 1 to 20,000,000,000.
Since, therefore, the light received from a luminous body is inversely as
the square of the distance, it follows that the sun would have to be re-
moved to 141421 times its actual distance, in order that its light should
be no greater than that of Sirius.

Astronomers, aware that the only true method of finding the dis-
tance of a star, is by finding its annual parallax, have devoted much
time and labor to this subject. Cassini affirmed that he observed in
Arcturus a parallax of seven seconds, and in Capella, one of eight. —
This would make the distance of the former 20250 times greater than
that of the sun, or 19,2.37,500,000,000 miles. From observations of
right ascension and declination, Piazzi made the parallax of Sirius four

120 DISTANCES AXD MAGNITUDES

seconds, and that of Procyon five and seven-tenths. In the same man-
ner Calandrelli deduced a parallax of four seconds for Vega ; but these
results have all been shown to be incorrect, and it was not till within
the last few years that the distance of any star was determined with
any degree of certainty.

Dr. Long appears to have been the first who suggested the method
of finding the parallax by micrometrical measurements of the angular
distance of two stars in close proximity to each other, or nearly in the
same line of vision ; for it is evident that if either star has any sensible
parallax whatever, their apparent distance from each other must vary
with the earth's motion in its orbit. This suggestion led Sir William
Herschel to commence his observations on double stars, in order, if
possible, to discover their parallax. He was soon diverted, however,
from his original object by the discovery of changes in their relative
positions which could not be referred to the orbital motion of the earth.
Hence he concluded that the apparent proximity of these stars was not
in consequence of their being accidentally situated nearly in the same
line of vision ; but that they were really so near as to be within the
sphere of each other's attraction, and that such a physical connection
existed between them, as caused them mutually to revolve around each
other, or rather, each around their common centre of gravity. His sub-
sequent observations, together with those of other astronomers, have
confirmed this hypothesis. This eminent astronomer continued his ob-
servations with characteristic perseverance, until by the aid of his pow-
erful telescope he had discovered 500 binary systems, a list and descrip-
tion of which he presented to the Royal Society. By the researches of
later observers, particularly those of Sir John Herschel, and Professor
Struve, this list has been extended to several thousand.

In November, 1835, Struve commenced his observations on Vega,
or Jllplia LyrcB. He selected this star because another smaller one is
situated at an angular distance of only forty-two seconds from it. —
These are found not to be connected by any common motion \ they
must, therefore, be at diflerent distances from the earth, and their angular
distance must vary with the earth's annual motion. Having continued
his observations for several years with the greatest accuracy and perse-
verance, he found the parallax of Mpha Lyrcc to be 0."2613. Hence
its distance must be 771400 times greater than that of the sun from the
earth, or, 73,383,000,000,000 miles; a distance so great that light,
which travels at the rate of 192,000 miles in a second, would not
reach us from that star in less than 12 years. So that, were Vega now
stricken out of existence, to us it would appear to occupy its place

OF THE FIXED STARS. 121

ill the hravrns, and shine with its present brilliancy for twelve years to
come.

While Struve was engaged with these observations on Vega, Profes-
sor Bessel, of Konigsberg, was observing 61 Cygni for the same pur-
pose. This is a star of the fifth magnitude, about seventy-eight de-
grees east from Vega. It was chosen, because, being a double star, it
could be observed with the greater accuracy ; and because of its grc^at
proper motion, which amounts to about live seconds a year. Its two
component stars, moreovei*, have the great angular distance of sixteen
seconds ; both which circumstances indicate its comparative nearness
to our system. The Professor continued his observations with un-
wearied industry from 1837 to 1840. Near 61 Cygni he selected two
small stars which do not partake of its proper motion, one situated in
the line of direction of its two component stars, the other perpendicu-
lar to this line. With his great Frauenhofer heliometer he measured
the varying distances of these stars from the point which bisects the
distance between the components of the double star. From a series of
the most accurate and laborious observations, this celebrated astronomer
determined the annual parallax of 61 Cygni, to be 0."348, or a little
more than one-third of a second. Consequently its distance is •5&2,000
times the earth's mean distance from the sun, or 56,240,000,000 miles;
a distance which would not be traveled by light in less than nine years
and four months.

Tiie distance of some of the fixed stars being now ascertained, we
may confidently anticipate the determination of the distances of others,
and perhaps eventually their magnitudes and densities. The only diffi-
culty which presents itself in estimating the diameter of a star, the dis-
tance of which is known, arises from the fact that, generally, their
discs, even when viewed by telescopes of the greatest magnifying pow-
er, do not subtend any appreciable angle, but appear merely as luminous
points. Sir William Herschel states, however, that he found tlie appa-
rent diameter of Vega to be 0."3'5-53 If this be correct, its real diame-
ter is about 136 times greater than that of the sun, and, consequently,
its magnitude more than 2,500,000 times greater.

The distance of any two stars from the earth being known, their
distance from each other may also be readily determined. The two
components of 61 Cygni, for example, having an angular distance of
sixteen seconds, their real distance from each other is found to be about
4,750,000,000 miles. If, therefore, their masses arc C(|ual, the circum-
ference of the orbit which each describes, is 14,922,600,000 miles.
Now the period of revolution of this star has been estimated by Her-
16

122 brooks' ROSS.

scliel at 452 years ; Bessel, however, from later, and perliaps more ac-
curate observations, concludes that it canftot be less than -540 years. —
Admitting the correctness of the latter estimate, the hourly motion of
the component stars is 31-54 miles; and since their distance from each
other is about fifty times that of the earth from the sun, if we suppose
the sum of their masses equal to the sun's mass, the lime of their rev-
olution, found by the third law of Kepler, would be about 353 years.
But since the mass is inversely as the square of the periodic time^ we
have (admitting their period of revolution to be 640 years,) (540)* :
(353)* : : 1 : Hj gff =^ the sum of their masses, that of the sua be-
i»g 1-

brooks' ROSs' latin grammar. (Concluded.)

J? Lalin Grammar — by James Ross, L. L. D., edited by N. C. Brooks, A. M.,

Professor in the Latin High School, Baltimore, Md. Philadelphia : Thomas,
Cowperthwait, &, Co.

We shall only add a iew remarks upon the subject of Prosody. To
this part of the original work of Ross we accord a high degree of merit,
with the capital fault, that it was entirely in Latin. Prof Brooks has
rectified this by giving an English version of the whole, nor do w^e at
all object to his having kept the general rules in Latin. By the time
the student begins the study of this part of the Grammar, he will have
quite knowledge enough of the language to understand them, and they
are capital versus memonales of which he cannot acquire too many.
We likewise admire Ross' plan of giving the examples and exceptions
in Latin verse; it has not only the advantage of facilitating the reten-
tion of the words, which we have already mentioned, but that of making
the student more familiar with the subject of quantity and versification.
He has thus impressed upon his mind, not onlj- the quantity of the par-
ticular letter or syllable under consideration, but likewise the quantity
of ihe whole word.

But in this part also we should desire to see some improvements
made. It is not as full in regard either to quantity or to metre as it
ought to be. Thus, under his Rule I. excep. 3, the fact that both Plau-
tus and Terence lengthen the i in. the first syllable oi fieri ^ is unnoticed.
And although it may be said that the peculiarities of authors are more
properly discussed in treatises particularly adapted to their works, we
think that the student, especially in this country where so few critical
editions of the classics are published, should have notice of the leading
facts of the case. A failure to attend to this, has made the whole sub-
ject of Lalin versification beyond the simplest hexameters and the Ho-

VERSIFICATION. 123

ratian metres, a perfect terra incognita to the great mass of our Ameri-
can students. In regard to words derived from the Greek, loo, parlicu-
larly proper names, it would save a world of trouble to refer the student
at once to the Greek, where the long or short vowel will in so many
cases tell him what is the true quantity of the syllable.

In the part upon Metres, Prof. Brooks appears to have added more
to the original of Ross than any where else, and I am inclined to re-
gard this as the most satisfactory part of the work. Here, however, we
have always thought there was one grand desideratum in our English
treatises upon versification — i/ic absence of the corresponding English
verse. I cannot but think that if the subject were properly illustrated,
versification would be about as simple and interesting as any otlier part
of Latin Grammar. That I may not appear singular in this opinion, I
will cite the authority of the illustrious Bextley, who in his Treatise
"-De Metris Terentianis^'''' pp. 12-13, Leipsic Ed. Ter., thus expresses
himself — " It is nothing more than just that we should give the same
license to the ancient Latins which we grant to the modern English
poets. Of these there is none whom Ave do not indulge in the occa-
sional use of long syllables in places where the verse requires short
ones. For as the Latins received all their forms of metre from the
Greeks, so have we received ours from the Latins. On which account
it is the more to be lamented, and is even deserving of our indignation,
that ever since the revival of letters ingenuous youth have been feruled
and flogged into the learning of Dactylic verse which is inconsistent
with the genius of their mother-tongue, but are, by the fault of their
teachers, kept entirely ignorant of the Terentian metres which they
themselves, though ignorant of the fact, are always singing at home
and iivthe streets. The Trochaic Tetrameter catalectic is just as com-
mon among us as it is to Terence :

Ego ille agrestis, | saevus, tristis, ] parcus, tniculen | tus, tenax.
Happy is the | country life, blest | with content, goorl | health and ease.

This Trochaic by the addition of one syllable will become a full Iambic :
Thrice happy is | the country life | blest with content | good health and ease."

But although we agree with Bentley in deploring the little attention
which is paid in our classical schools to Iambic and Trochaic verse,
whicli, as being less mechanical in its structure, we think ouglit to
liave the preference over Hexameters in elementary instruction, as more
attention would then be paid to principles, yet we cannot agree with
him that "Dactylic vei-se" (I suppose he means Hexameter) "is alto-
gether inconsistent with the genius of our language." We have seen

124 UR. MILLEU'S GKAMMAU.

souio vory smooth Ilexanieters in English. Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia
lius some that evx'ii Montgomery (see his Lectures on Eng. Lit. p. 91,)
acknowledges to be " not amiss ;" thus,

" Lady, reserved by the heavens, to do pastors' companie honour,
Joyning your svveete voice to the rurall Muse of a desart,
Here you fully do finde this strange operation of love,
How to the woods Love runnes, as well as rides to the palace ;
Neither he beares reverence to a prince, nor pity to a beggar.
But, like a point in the midst of a circle, is still of a nearnesse ;
All to a lesson he draws, neither hills nor caves can avoid him."

We have seen some, and we have no doubt that Prof. Brooks cquld
make others, much smoother than these. The experience of the'Ger-
mans, whose language is as different from the Latin as ours, ought to
satisfy us that we can successfully imitate all the classic metres. Klop-
stock's Messias is in Hexameters that are not a whit harsher than those
of Horace in his Satires, nor does my ear tell me that his

"Sing unsterbliche Muse, der siindlichen Menschen Erlosung" —
is any less musical than Virgil's

" Arma virumque cano Trojae qui primus ab oris" —

But not having the gift of " poesy divine," we refrain from pressing
this subject any further than simply to commend it to the favorable
consideration of Prof. Brooks. R.

MILLER S ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The Danvim.e Grammar; being an attempt to render tlie study of Grammar
more effectual, more easy, and more satisfactorj', than by the usual metiiod. —
By George B. Miller, D. D. pp. 70.

Every effort made to facilitate the prosecution of this important
branch of study, should be encoraged. If any system can be produ-
ced superior to those now in use, let a preference be given to it. The
want of success in teaching has arisen, not so much from the dryness
of the subject as from the abstractness or imperfection of text-books.
There are objections to every system now before the public. Various
improvements might be suggested to render the study less irksome and
more useful to pupils. The author of the volume, whose title-page has
been given, is an experienced and successful teacher, the last twenty
years of whose life have been devoted to the business: any thing coming
from the pen of such a one, is, therefore, certainly entitled to our con-
sideration, lie tells us in the introduction, that the book is, in a great
measure, the otlsprhig of necessity. Many years since, in endeavoring

LIX.VAEAN orEUATlONS. 12o

to instruct his classes by the aid of Murray's Grammar, he frequently
louiid it impossible to explain the text. On examining further huo the
matter, he concluded that the text in many instances was inexplicable.
This led him to attempt the substitution of something better. There
are some things in the book to which we object, e. g. We see no ne-
cessity for the introduction of a new class of nouns, viz : Monadic^ so
called ichen there is hut one of the kindj as earth., sun : or of a 7ieuler
active verb, which seems a contradiction. But our limits do not allow
us to give a minute examination of the book, or to enter at large into
the difference between this Grammar and others. We remark, however,
that we are much pleased with the perspicuity of its arrangement, and
the brevity and clearness of its delinitions.

Many of our popular Grammars lie open to the charge of inaccu-
racy in the definitions and indistinctness of the whole system. Conse-
quently, there is a corresponding inaccuracy and indistinctness produ-
ced in the minds of pupils, and a habit contracted of uttering words to
which no definite idea is attached.

The practical part, only, of the author's system is at present pub-
lished. The rationale of the plan will be presented to the public at
some future period. L.

A SCENE ON THE CAMPUS.

Li.VN^AN Operations. — Our correspondent " Rusticus," will, no
doubt, rejoice to hear tliat his suggestions contained in the first No. of
our Journal, are in a fair way of being realized to the very letter. Ta-
king his hint, the Linnaean Association, last fall, organized itself into an
ornamental gardening and arboricultural association, for the improve-
ment of the College campus, and appointed committees for the manage-
ment of the various divisions of the work. Thus one section was to
manage the walks, another to superintend the planting of the trees, a
third took charge of the shrubbery, a fourth of the flower-beds, ami so
on. The result has shown tliat tliis was not a mere whim of the mo-
ment. Measures were immediately taken to secure a large number of
trees for the ensuing spring, and flower-seeds and shrubbery were col-
lected from all parts of the country. The mild weather which we had
towards the close of February and beginning of March, was seized
upon as a favorable time for commencing operations in earnest. The
contractors in Waynesboro' and Carlisle were forthwith called upon to
fulfill their engagements, and promptly furnished between 150 and 200
thrifty young trees, chiefly the Aihuuhus, Linden, and Silver-maple. —
Whilst a suitable deleiratiou was escorting these trees to their new

L

126 LlNNiEAN OPERATIONS.

home, the other members of the Association were not idle. They turn-
ed out in full strength, and resolutely set about digging the holes in
which the new-comers were to be set. This was no child's play. As
so many former attempts to rear trees upon the campus had failed, it
was determined to make sure work of it this time. Accordingly the
holes were made about two feet and an half deep and of equ^l breadth.
They were then fdled up with virgin soil and rich mould, upon which
the young trees, properly prepared, were set, and covered to the depth
of about nine inches. The digging of each of these holes was no light
job, but required at least half an hour's steady labor from four or five
of the ardent laborers, who relieved each other so as to make the work
as light as possible, and ensure the greatest expedition.

Simultaneous with this, various other operations were going on in
the campus. A part of it which had been denuded of its soil at the
time of building the College, and which had ever since presented a faint
type of the "-Great Sahara," scarcely a blade of grass growing upon it,
was ploughed up and enriched, so as to give a fair promise of yielding
a rich sward of grass. Our Professor of Mathematics was called in to
act as a civil engineer, for the purpose of laying out all sorts of roads
and walks, circles and curves and ellipses cutting each other in every
direction, and making to the uninitiated a perfect labyrinth, of which,
when completed, we hope to present our readers with a faithful diagram.
At the same time, the chairman of the Floral committee, a practical
gardener from Germany, was busy in his department. Flower-beds
were thrown up along each side of the Via Benedicta, and in various
other appropriate positions, shrubbery was planted, and the ground pre-
pared for flowers. Thus, already, as if by magic, (industry and energy
are a most potent magic,) we have several fine avenues of promising
young trees, and the prospect of blooming flowers and abundant foliage,
whenever summer opens upon us. Arbors also are to stand embosomed
in vines and foliage.

In the midst of all these labors, it was discovered that the fencing
was not sufficiently ornamental for the lawn which it was to enclose.
It was, therefore, forthwith resolved to remove it, and substitute for it
such as corresponded to the new order of things. The same hands
which had so successfully wielded the mattock and the shovel, and held
the plough, now seized the saw and hammer, and gave ocular demon-
stration that they had not forgotten, or were very apt in acquiring the
art of the mechanic as well as that of the farmer. Several hundred feet
of elegant and substantial fence now stand as a monument of the stu-
dent's untiring energy.

A COLLEGE SOXG. 127

But what became of their studies during all this time ? Wliy four
or five months' close confinement called for some relaxation, and our
observation in this instance, satisfies us that the Linnaean Association is
the best auxiliary that the College can have in converting the lassitude
of its ''• long session" into cheerfulness and vigor. As we stood one
bright morning upon the College portico, listening to the clear notes of
tlie lark, and some early birds of spring, and saw some fifty oi' a hundred
students scattered over the campus in regular detachments, vieing with
each other in their etTorts, and pealing forth their merry shouts redolent
of youth and happiness, we were forcibly impressed with the idea that
this could not but have a fine moral effect upon these young men in
their studies and in their general deportment. That they studied twice
as much during the following weeks, when the change of weather put
a stop to their manual labors, we have no doubt that their Professors
will testify. But my reflections upon this subject are cut short by the
thought that I cannot expect to find room for much more than this in
the "■ Journal."

HAIL! HAIL! TO THE COLLEGE:
A Song written and dedicated to the Medical Department of Pennsylvania Col-
legje, By a Lady of Philadelphia. The music composed by R. Breiter.
Philadelphia, A. Fioi, 196 Chesnut St.

Such is the title of a new piece of music just brought out by Fiot
in the finest style of fashionable music. It is headed by a fine engra-
ving of the Pennsylvania (Medical) College ; a very handsome building
which stands in Filbert above 11th st. Philadelphia, and is admirably
fitted up with Lecture-rooms, Dissecting-rooms, a Reading-room, Mu-
seum, Sec; all the appliances of a first-rate Medical College. We give
below the words of the song and are sorry that we cannot give the air,
which we know will be highly popular, not only with our literary and
medical students, but likewise wills the ladies who have already com-
menced tuning their pianos to it. It was performed at the last com-
mencement in Philadelphia, and we have no doubt that it will be the
"song for the gathering of the clans," both there and in Gettysburg, for
many years to come. In regard to the words, all we havs to wish is,
that the fair writer would add a couple of additional stanzas adapted to
the other professions, (\a\v and theology,) and to our intelligent far-
mers whose sons we expect to avail themselves largely of the advan-
tages oflbred them in the literary department of this Institution, which
not only bears the name, but i.s so closely identified with the highest
interests of " the Keystone state." — But to the song :

12S COLLEGE RECORD.

Hail ! hail I to the college, whore learning's bright sway.
Lures the spirit immortal from low haiuits away ;
From wisdom's pure fount, springs with heavenvvarti fliglit.
Its guiding star Truth, and its Energy might.

Oh ! wonderful power that flows down from above.
To the band that goes forth on its errand of love.
Like the Saviour who came wounded spiiits to heal.
Sweetest fountains of hope be it yours to unseal.
T'sofl smile of the mother, will welcome your name.
For the pulse of her dear one beats calmly again,
And manly hearts cherish a gratitude warm,
For tlieir flowers, sweet flowers, upheld thro' the stonn.

Hail the Keystone State, and thy college for ever !
Hearts true to thy precepts when*close ties shall sever.
And may years fleeting on, wreathe a chaplet of fame.
With the glory that circles an unsallied name.

COLLEGE RECORD.

AxMVERSARY OF THE Phjlomatheax Society. — This Litpvar)^ As-
sociation celebrated its fourteenth anniversary on the 2Glh of February,
in Ciirist's Church. Every thing passed off in a most satisfactory man-
ner. A crowded house paid the most respectful attention to each speak-
er who appeared before them. And the speeches were undoubtedly de-
serving of this compliment, both on accoimt of their contents, and of
the manner in Avhich they were delivered. Pennsj'lvania College has
always been remarkable for its freedom from " mannerism" in the style
of speaking adopted by its students, and we do not know that we ever
saw this more strikingly displayed than in the simple and individual
character which marked each of the performances upon this occasion.
This is always, to our mind, prma facie evidence of the originality of
the productions, and of vigor of thought in writers. We hope the so-
ciety will ever be equally well represented, and she will have reason to
be proud of her representatives. The music (by the ^'•Handel and Haydn
Jlssociation^'') enlivening the occasion, was of that chaste and appropriate
character for which our Gettysburg bands are distinguished. The fol-
lowing was the order of exercises :

Prayer by Professor C. A. Hay. Oratio.vs — "Tlie Gypsies" — W.
M. Baum, Reading, Pa. '' Knowledge, a source of Happiness" — ^. Es-
s/fZ-, Franklin co., Pa. "Scotland" — H. R. Geiger-, IMillersburg, Ohio.
"The Triumpii of the Church"— J. fV, Miller, Cariisle, Pa. "The
Exhumation and Ko-interment of Napoleon" — w3. C. JVedckindy York,
Pa. Benediction— l>v Rev. Dr. Kraith.

Pmnsubauia (Hallege, ©ettijsburg, pa.

; FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Science, Sfc

Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof of Greek Language, Rhetoric, Sfc.

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Mathematics, Chemistry, ^c.

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Menial Philosophy, SfC.

M, L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department.

Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof.\of German Language and Literature.
. David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
■ Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

' W.\i. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.
' Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

\ PENNSYLVArfiA COLLEGE has HOW been chartered about fourteen years. Dur-
] ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
/ tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
'of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
:. struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
I to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Coursr
'-, is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.
J The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
\ require. They attend at least two recitations a day, Church and Bible Class on the
; Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequentl}' as to preclude the danger of

any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
; more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
; in the College Edifice, special cases) excepted.

\ The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
, session, $61 871 : for the summer session, .f 41 87i. Washing, .^10 00; and Wood,

$'i 00. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 2.5 per
; week.

i There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
<, April and September, and each of five weeks continuance.

i The winter session closes on the 17th inst., and after the Vacation of five weeks,
; the summer session commences on the 22d of May.

^^cknorolcbgements of ?3ri0nations to tl)c (Cabinet of tlje £innaan
^Association of pcnusnlmiaia College.

March, 184-5. One pair of Indian moccasons, from Miss E. Steenbergen.
2. One rare shell, from Miss M. Middlecoff.

.3. A number of specimens of stalactites, from the Mammoth cave of Ken-
tucky, by Mr. Ickes.

4. Some specimens of petrifactions, from Mrs. S. King.

5. Several specimens of Crustacea, from J. G. Morris, D. D.

6. Do. do. Crustacea, and a work on entomology, from J. J.
Bowers, Baltimore.

7. Two boxes of insects (Coleoptera and Lepidoptera,) from Mr. Kopp.

8. Indian antiquities, from S. S. Schmucker, D. D.

9. Specimen of writing by the Electro-magnetic Telegraph, from Rev. C. P
Krauth, Jr.

Terms of the Record and .Journal. One Dollar per annum
in advance. Postmasters will frank and remit subscriptions.

Address — '•^Editors of the Record and Journal, Gettysburg, Pa.''''

y y ^«

VOLUME I.]

[numbeu

THE

LITERARr RECORD AND JOURNAL

Of tl)e iTinnacan ^sfltrciattun of Pcnnoijltiamrt College.
MAY, 1845.

CONDUCTED

JJB a Committee oc the ^ssocfatfon.

CONTENTS.

BOTS IN HORSES, NO. II. ----- 129

THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, NO. I. - 132

» INDIAN SUMMER, ------ 135

ANT-IANA, NO. IV. - - - - - - 140

THE SILVER MINES OF ANDREASBERG, - - - 141

THE YOUNG NATURALIST, ----- 145

A TRADITION OF WYOMING, ----- 147

LITERARY CONTEST, ----- 149

NEW PROFESSORS. FAMILY EDUCATION, - - 150

PENNSYLVANIA MEDICAL COLLEGE, _ _ - 151

FAIR FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION, 152

1^ sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles 2i cents, over 100 miles Z\ cents,

NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINNiEAN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLT-EGE.

Vol. I.

MAY, 1845.

No. 7.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BOTS IN HORSES, NO. II.

OESTRUS EQUI..

In the last number of this Journal, I described two species of this
genus, which infest the ox and the sheep, and shall devote this paper to
that one which is jmr eminence designated as the hots^ and is peculiar
to the horse. It is very commonly found in the stomach of this ani-
mal— a remarkable location, indeed, for the habitation of an insect in its
larva or grub state. It is represented in fig. 1. These larvae attach

themselves to every part of the stomach, and are sometimes, though
less frequently, found in the intestines. Fine specimens attached to
sections of a horse's stomach, preserved in spirits, are exhibited in the
cabinet of the Linnaean Society of this Institution, presented by Dr.
Jacob Hay, of York.

Their numbers in the stomach arc very various, often not more than
half a dozen, at other times more than a hundred. They hang most
commonly in clusters, by means of two small hooks at the smaller end
of the animal, of which an enlarged representation is given in fig. 2.

When they are removed from the stomach alive, they will attach
themselves to any loose membrane, and even to the skin of the hand.

The body of the larva is composed of eleven segments, and it evi-
dently receives its food at the small end by a longitudinal aperture,
■which is situated between the two hooks. Its food is probably the
chyle, which being nearly pure aliment, may go wholly to the compo-
17

130 OBSERVATIONS ON THE

sition of its body without any excrementitious residue, though on dis-
section the intestine is found to contain a yellow or greenish matter,
which is derived from the color of the food, and shews that the chyle,
as the larva receives it, is not perfectly pure.

The slowness of their growth and the purity of their food must
occasion what tliey receive in a given time to be proportionable small :
from whence probably arises the extreme difficulty of destroying them
by any medicine or poison thrown into the stomach. After opium had
been administered to a horse laboring under a case of locked jaw for a
week, in doses of one ounce every day, on the death of the animal,
bots have been found in the stomach perfectly alive. Tobacco has been
employed in much larger quantities in the same complaint, and has been
also longer continued without destroying them. They are also but
rarely affected by the drastic purgatives which bring away in abundance
other animal parasites.

It is the opinion of experienced veterinary surgeons, that the bots
are not so injurious to horses as is generally conceived. When remov-
ed from the stomach, a deep impression remains where they adhered ;
but whether they ever irritate it so as to bring on a fatal spasm of the
stomach itself, or of the pylorus, or, by collecting round this passage,
prevent the food from entering the intestine, has never been investigated
with sufficient accuracy. The surprise of some farriers and farmers on
opening the stomach after death, and being presented with so singular
an appearance as the bots, has, without doubt, very often occasioned the
death to be attributed to these, though it is certain that but few horses
escape them. A few observations on the utility of such local irritations
were made in No. 1., and I will here add, that it is remarked by per-
sons of observation, that those horses which are not exposed to the
bots, are more frequently infected witli the glanders and other diseases,
than those which are exposed to the attacks of the bots.

These grubs attain their full growth about the latter part of May,
and come from the horse per anum, from this time until the close of
June, or sometimes later. On dropping to the ground, they find out
some convenient retreat, and change to tlie chrysalis : and in about six
or seven weeks the fly appears. Fig. 3, male ; fig. 4, female.

The mode pursued by the parent fly to obtain for its young a situa-
tion in the stomach of the horse, is truly singular, and is effected in the
following manner : — When the female has been impregnated, and the
eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks among the horses a subject for
her purpose, and approaching him on the wing, she holds her body
nearly upright in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the pur-

BOTS li\ HORSES. 131

pose, curved inwards and upwards : in this way she approaches Ihe part
wliere she designs to deposit the egg : and suspending herseil' tor a few
seconds before it, suddenly darts upon it and leaves the egg adhering to
the hair ; she hardly appears to settle, but merely touches the iiair with
the egg held out on the projected point of the abdomen. The egg is
made to adhere by means of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She
then leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares a second egg^ and
poising herself before the part, deposits it in the same way. The liquor
dries and the egg becomes firmly glued to the hair ; this is repeated by
various flies, till 4 or 500 eggs are sometimes placed on the horse.

The inside of the knee is the part on which these flies are most
fond of depositing their eggs, and next to this on the side and back part
of the shoulder. It is a fact worthy of attention, that the fly does not
place them promiscuously about the body, bnt constantly on those parts
most liable to be licked with the tongue, and the ova therefore are al-
ways scrupulously placed within its reach.

Some persons suppose that the eggs are loosened from the hairs by
the moisture of the horse's tongue, aided by its roughness, conveyed to
the stomach and there hatched. Many eggs may thus be conveyed, but
it is probable they pass on to the intestinal canal before they are hatch-
ed, and thus perish. The fact seems to be this — when they have re-
mained on the hairs four or five days, they become ripe, after which
time, the slightest application of warmth and moisture is sufficient to
bring forth in an instant the latent grub. At this time, if the tongue of
the horse touches the egg, its operculum is thrown open, and a small
active worm is produced, which readily adheres to the moist surface of
the tongue, and is thence conveyed with the food to the stomach.

It is fortunate for the animals infested with these insects, that their
numbers are limited by the hazards to which they are exposed. I
should presume that a hundred are lost for one that arrives at the per-
fect slate of the fly. The eggs, in the first place, when ripe, often hatch
of themselves, and the larva without a nidus, crawls about till it dies :
others are washed off" by the water, or are hatched by the sun and mois-
ture, thus applied together.

When in the mouth of the horse, they have the dreadful ordeal of
the teeth and mastication to pass through. On their arrival in the stom-
ach, they may pass, mixed with the mass of food, into the intestines;
and when full grown, on dropping to the ground in the natural way, a
dirty road, or water may receive them. If in the fields, they are in
danger of being crushed to deatli, or being picked up by birds. Sucfi

132 THE ORIGK\ AND

are the contingencies by whicli Providence has wisely prevented the too
great increase of their numbers.

The perfect fly but ill sustains the changes of the weather. It never
pursues the horse into the water. The chillness of that element can-
not be endured by them, and this is probably felt more exquisitely by
them, from the high temperature to which they had been exposed during
their larva state. The heat of the stomach of the horse is about 102
of Fahrenheit, and in their fly state they are only exposed to between
60 and SO.

For some of the above facts I am indebted to Mr. Clark's article in
vol. 3, of Linnaean Trans., London. Various other observations upon
this genus of flies may hereafter be communicated. — But I conclude this
article with a description of the perfect fly :

O. Equi. — Front white, tomentose, vertex fuscous ; eyes black. Tlio-
rax fuscous, more obscure in the middle. Abdomen yellowish
fuscous, with black spots and points in the incisures. Wings
with a black minute point toward the base, a black medial
band, and two black spots at the apex.
Female a litde darker — apex of the abdomen, elongate, incurved,
black, with a terminal bifid style.

RusTicus.

THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE. NO. I.

Although Dr. Blair is forced, with many others, (it may be reluc-
tantly,) to admit the divine origin of language ; yet, when he unfolds
his views concerning the extent of the original language and its enlarge-
ment, he leaves us to conclude that there was a time when men knew
no other part of speech than the interjection. His attempt to explain
the philosophy of the formation of language involves him in the diffi-
culty of virtually denying what he plainly asserts, viz : the divine ori-
ginal of language. For, that is no language which does not contain
within it the parts of speech essentially necessary to communicate our
ideas. Would vve call that a spoken language, which consists only of
strong inarticulate cries, accompanied by gestures of corresponding vio-
lence .'' If this had been the only language of our first parents in Para-
dise, we cannot suppose that, as rational creatures, they could have en-
joyed very elevated pleasures; and we must settle down in the convic-
tion that ignorance was bliss, and that sensuality constituted their hap-
piness. Without canvassing, in detail, the views presented by our au-
thor on this subject, it is suflicicnt to say, that, on this most diflicult

PROGRESS 01' LANGUAGE. 133

subject, much light has been thrown by the researches of the learned
since his day.

The view which he presents, was substantially that of many dis-
tinguished men, and may yet prevail to some extent. Yet no one who
examines attentively the lights upon this subject, which are now pre-
sented, can continue to entertain that view. This view is in substance
as follows, viz : Language, (if it deserves the name,) originally, was
extremely defective. Jn the progress of society men discovered its de-
fects, and made the improvements which the nature of the case required.
Thus, during the lapse of years, improvement was added to improve-
ment, until language became one of the most powerful and subtil agents
in the control of man ; capable of rousing and allaying the storm of
human passion, and of exhibiting thought the most abstract and refined.
And now it is an instrument not merely of communicating ideas neces-
sary for the ordinary intercourse of society, but of the highest refine-
ment and luxury; so that, next to spiritual joys, are those which spring
from language, the purest and most elevating.

I need not say that this view is erroneous, having no foundation in
the history of language^ in reason^ or in revelation.

My design is to show, that language was originally one and co7n-
plete., i. e. It had all the parts of speech, gender, number, and injlection;
and, although it passed through changes, those changes did not neces-
sarily benefit or improve it.

The study of comparative philology (by which is meant a com-
parison of the difiereut languages of ibe earth, for the purpose of tra-
cing their resemblances and noting their discrepancies,) is of recent
origin. Infidels employed against the Mosaic account of the creation
of a single pair as the progenitors of the human race, the argument de-
rived from the multiplicity and apparent dissimilarity in the languages
of the human race. This objection imparted a powerful impulse to in-
vestigation into the resemblances observable in language. The friends
and the enemies of revelation were alike active in this investigation, and
the result of it, like that of every other inquiry into the truth of reve-
lation, has given, if possible, additional strength to the word of God.
The eaily part of this investigation, 1)ecause it was only partial and lim-
ited, threw a gloom over the minds of the lovers of the bible, and, as is
loo often the case, they resorted to vague and sometimes silly theories
for the purpose of removing the obstacles which were in their way. If,
for example, they found a i'ew words alike in several languages, the in-
ference was made at once, that they were derived from the same origin.
Thus, Goropius Bccanus, as quoted by Wiseman, accounts for the word

134 PROGRESS Ol' LANG LACE.

sack being found in so many languages, upon the ingenious ground,
tliut no one at Babel would have forgotten his wallet, whatever else he
might leave behind.

The great object aimed at, by the friends of revelation, was to show,
that the various languages of the earth were similar in their essential
features, and that these resemblances lead necessarily to the conclusion,
that they have a common origin. The important question thus arises,
what evidence is there of a common origin ^ It will be impossible to
present all the evidence on this subject within the compass of one or
of several essavs. Neither indeed is it necessary. If I exhibit tlie mode
of procedure, and some of the results, it will be sufficient. The reader
will be able to examine authorities for himself, if he desires to pursue
the subject farther. The affinities, which formerly had been but vaguely
seen, between languages separated in their origin by history and geog-
raphy, now began to appear deliaite and certain, by comparing lan-
guages with each other. Languages were found to be connected to-
gether in large groups, by new and important relations. It was found
that the Teutonic dialects received important light from the language of
Persia ; that Latin, in many respects, resembled Russian, and that the
theory of the Greek verbs in ft.! could not well be understood without
recourse to their parallels in Sanskrit or Indian grammar. Thus it was
clearly shown, that one speech pervaded a considerable portion of Eu-
rope and Asia, and, stretching across from Ceylon to Iceland in one
broad sweep, united in a bond of union nations professing the most
irreconcileable religions, possessing the most dissimilar institutions, and
bearing but a slight resemblance to each other in physiognomy and
color. This is what is called a family of languages, or one language,
and has received the name Indo-Germanic or Indo-European. Tiie
principal members of this family are the Sanskrit, or sacred language of
India, the Persian, the Teutonic, with its various dialects, Sclavonian,
Greek, Latin, and Celtic. Now these languages are traceable to what
might be called the Japhetic stock, i. e. the descendants of Japheth after
their separation from the descendants of Shcm. They moved westward
in the course of their migrations, and occupied the countries in Asia
Minor and along the coasts of the Mediterranean sea, the whole of Eu-
rope, except the Biscayan and Finnish family. Many works have been
written, and tables of words have been formed, to show the similarity
between these languages : one exhibits 900 words coiumon to the Sans-
krit and other languages. Rev. .Jos. Wolf informed us that amongst the
Turkomans, by whom he had been made a prisoner, he discovered
many hundred words similar to the Gcrnian. The following words you

INDIAN SIMMER. 135

might readily suppose to belong to some European language, viz : Fa-
der, Mader, Sunn, Dokter, Brader, Mand, Vidhava; yet every one of
these is either Sanskrit or Persian. So the following words, Denta a
tooth, Brouua the eye-brow, Lih lip. Genu knee, Ped foot, JVasa nose,
Slara star, Gela cold, Dhara eartli, JS'uu ship, Ghau cow, Sarimm
serpent, h.c.

But these languages are allied not merely by verbal coincidences,
they exhibit a much more important conformity in their grammatical
structure. Bopp, a distinguished writer in 1816, ascertained by an
analysis of the Sanskrit verb compared with the conjugational system of
the other members of tliis family, that there existed an intimate primi-
tive affinity between them. The Greek verb, with its conjugations and
complicated machinery of active, passive, and middle voices, augments
and reduplications, is here found, and illustrated in a variety of ways.
Our own language here has light thrown upon some of its anomalies.
If we ask, where is the positive of the comparative letter? We surely
would not say, good, nor w'ould we look for it in the Teutonic dialects,
in which the same anomaly exists. But we find it in the Persian Beh,
comparative Behter. So also the contrasted adjective Bad, comparative
Bahdler, worse. Sec.

Thus we perceive the mode in which affinities are traced, between
the languages which have an Indo-European stock. Before investiga-
tion, they appear to be independent. As their distinctive features are
more and more studied, resemblances appear, until, at length, the con-
clusion is irresistible, that they are derived from one common origin.

The same process is pursued in relation to the Semitic stock of lan-
guages \ called Semitic, because the descendants of Sem or Shem use
them, viz. Chaldee or Aramean, Syriac, Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, Sa-
maritan and Coptic.

METEOROLOGY, NO. VII.

INDIAN SUMMER.
BY PROF. JACOBS, OF rBNNSYLVANlA COLLEGE.

4. In endeavoring to account for the "Indian Summer," and other
similar phenomena, it yet remains our duty to attempt to explain the
reason of the comparative quiescence of the atmosphere, which has
been stated to be an essential condition to the existence of a smoky sky.

Rest is the normal, and motion the disturbed state of the atmos-
phere. If it were entirely iree from the influence of all external dis-
turbing forces, it would revolve uniformly with the earth once in a side-

136 METEOROLGT.

rial day, forming, in consequence of the centrifugal force, the exterior
of a spheroid considerably pioluberant at the equator. Tliere would
be a dead calm ; for there would be no cause to excite currents or
"winds. To assert, (as some philosophers havedone,) that the rotation of
the earth on its axis alone would produce currents, is equivalent to as-
serting that motion could be produced without a cause. Were even the
velocity of the earth suddenly altered, the atmospliere would soon par-
take of that alteration, and a mean motion would arise, which would be
the same as if the impulse had been communicated to the whole mass.

But that rest of the atmosphere is constantly disturbed by the varia-
ble quantities of solar heat communicated, first to the surface of the
earth, and then to the air in contact. The alteration in the density of
the heated air, produces vertical currents, by which the mass becomes
heated upwards to a certain distance in each latitude and climate, and
horizontal cnrrents, by which, by a constant interchange, the extremes
of heat and cold are obviated.

There are changes of temperature, which, being local or confined to
comparatively small territory, give rise to local winds, and which are
violent in proportion to the rapidity of the alteration in temperature and
density of the air. Thus, the rapid heating by day and cooling by
night of the surfaces of islands, produce, in the former case, the sea-
breezes, and in the latter the land-breezes.

There are other changes of temperature, which, being general, or
extending over a large territory and more permanent than the former,
give rise to general currents of considerable duration, or cause a deter-
mination of a large mass of the atmosphere, for some time, to be in one
direction. Thus, the greater heat of the tropics causes the air of the
higher latitudes to press toward;? the Equator, and, aided by the earth's
rotation, to produce the trade-winds. Also, during our summer, there is
an fflux of air towards our continental land, from the two great eastern
and western oceans, and during winter an efflux from the land towards
the oceans. This is similar in kind to the sea and land-breezes in insu-
lar situations, only that t!ie changes are more gradual and the currents
more gentle, and that they are not daily, but annual.

Keeping these laws of disturbance in view, we may the more readily
determine when the air is in its normal condition of rest, or at least of
approximate rest.

Firsf, in insular situations, a calm or rest in the atmosphere precedes
the sea-breeze in the morning, and the land-breeze in the evening. In
like manner ought we expect it to be in tlie great annual continental land
and sea-breezes ; a calm or comparative rest ought to precede the win-

INDIAN SUMMER. 137

ter, or land-breeze, and also the summer, or sea-breeze. This point we
must state at somewhat greater length, in order to show its application
to the explanation of the partial repose prevailing during the Indian
Summer.

At about the autumnal equinox and a little afterwards, the retiring
sun rapidly loses his influence and his power to keep up the tempera-
ture, which his rays had previously produced in the higher northern
latitudes. That portion of the atmosphere belonging to those latitudes
must, by the process of cooling, contract in bulk and increase in density,
so that the whole mass will not now extend as high above the earth as
it did before. The first consequence will be, that, at some elevation,
the air will overflow from the tropics to fill up this depression in the
North ; and the second, that, by the increased pressure thus produced
in the latter regions, the lower portions of the air, near the surface of
the earth, will tend toward the place of the sun, forcing before them
that which before occupied our latitude, and supplying its place with
that which is colder. This is the cause of the cold and unpleasant
winds of October. They are the first tribute, from the North, to the
sun in his new southern home. After this first rush, by which much
of the heated air of the northern temperate zone has been transported
southward, an equilibrium gradually takes place. The surface of the
land being yet warmer than that of the adjacent ocean, keeps up the
temperature of the air over it at a point a little higher than that over the
ocean, so that there would yet remain a tendency of pressure towards
the continent, were it not counteracted by the constantly increasing
pressure from the rapidly cooling regions of the northern land, and the
modifying influence of the great circulating system, of which the trades^
and our south-westerly currents are the counter-parts. Since, however,
the surface of the land is now cooling more rapidly than that of the
adjacent Atlantic ocean, an equality of temperature is gradually estab-
lished, and the atmosphere consequently becomes nearly quiescent; for
the diurnal variations of temperature and local causes must produce
gentle currents, so that an absolute calm cannot exist. This state of
quiescence, during which the oscillations of the barometer are small and
slow, may continue two or three weeks, but sometimes it lasts only a
few days. It occurs not earlier than the middle of October, nor later
than the second week of November. It is the period of the Indian
Summer, and the cause of the smoky state of the atmosphere at that
time.

But in the space of from about ton to twenty days, the earth, which
is the better radiator, reduces the temperature of its surface and that of
18

138 METEOROLGY.

its superincumbent air, below that of the ocean, so that the pressure in
the temperate now conspires with that in the frigid zone to produce cur-
rents towards the ocean. These currents will be nearly at right angles
to our sea-coast, and hence our autumnal winds are mostly from the
north-west. When these winds begin to blow, the previous season of
repose is broken up, and the Indian Summer is over. It indicates the
advance of winter from the frozen regions of the north.

We must, however, not forget to ascribe a most prominent influence,
in the production of the Indian Summer, in the prevalence and direction
of winds, and in the whole meteorology of the Atlantic states, to the
Gulf Stream. This current, flowing from a comparatively warm cli-
mate, and bringing with it its warmed waters, is constantly giving out
heat and aftbrding vapor to the air immediately above it. The result
being a comparatively inferior density and pressure, winds must be di-
rected towards it from the land with greater or less regularity, until the
temperature of the air over both again becomes the same, that is, until
about the middle of April.

About this time, another season of comparative equilibrium between
ocean and land, and another " Indian Summer," in all but the name,
again occurs. The atmospheric changes necessary to produce this sea-
son of repose, are essentially the same as those just explained, only
that they occur in a reverse order. The increasing altitude of the sun
and length of day together produce a rapid increase in the temperature
of the surface of the earth in northern latitudes. The air, which is
thus warmed and dilated, is at first forced southward by the greater
pressure from the North, producing the INIarch winds. After these are
over, the temperature of the land rapidly approaches an equality with
that of the ocean, and an equilibrium takes place. This occurs from
one to six weeks after the equinox; frequently being apparently divided
into two stages-, the fii-st, during the last week in March, was the case
in the spring of the last and present year ; the second, about the middle
of April, or a little later. About that time we may with almost as much
regularity look for a season of fine, pleasant and smoky weather as
during October.

Secondly, The similar seasons, mentioned as existing about mid-
winter, and mid-summer, or a little later, are not to be regarded so much
as seasons of equilibrium of pressure between land and water, as be-
tween the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

During the rapid cooling of the Northern hemisphere, tiirough the
months of November, December and January, when the daily loss of
heat is greater than the gain, and the rapid heating of the opposite hem-

INDIAN SUMMER. 139

ispliere, in which the gain is greater than the loss, the consequent con-
traction in bulk and diminution in height of its portion of the atmos-
phere, must be followed by a determination of the upper air towards the
North, and of the lower towards the South, thus producing a slow cir-
culation between the two hemispheres. Hence the greater prevalence
of northerly winds during this than during any other portion of the
year in our latitude. During May, June, and July, the same causes, in
a reverse order, must produce a determination of the under portions of
the atmosphere towards the North ; and hence the greater prevalence
of southerly winds during these months, than during any other part of
the year.

Now, immediately after the minimum temperature has been attained
in the northern, and the maximum in the southern hemisphere, the
southward determination, or the great southern oscillation will be check-
ed, and soon begin to move in an opposite direction, by the reversal of
the thermal action ; there being now a slight gain of temperature in the
north and loss in the south. But, before this great oscillation can move
in a contrary direction, there must be a temporary equilibrium. Ac-
cordingly, near the close of January, a season of calm, mild and pleas-
ant weather, is almost invariably enjoyed; and the month of August is
remarkable for its quiet and sultry weather. That the smoke of Janu-
ary and August is less dense than that of April and October, is probably
due to the fact that the equilibrium of pressure between the two hemis-
pheres, is kept in a very unstable condition by the want of an equili-
brium at those times between land and ocean.

But the circulation preceding and succeeding these four seasons of
comparative equilibrium, is not regular and continuous. It is frequently
interrupted by periods of rest, producing the alternations of the weather
which are found to exist. Thus, for example, the remarkably fine
weather, almost invariably enjoyed about the 20th of February, may be
but an interrupted stage of the great annual wave which has then com-
menced to flow towards the north.

But we are reminded that it is time, without further enumerations, to
close our remarks upon the " Indian Summer," and other affiliated phe-
nomena; hoping that tlie explanation which we have offered, if it do
not commend itself to the approval of those who have given it their at-
tention, will at least excite them to the effort of discovering and offer-
ing one which may prove satisfactory.

140 ANT-IANA.

ANT-IANA, NO. IV.

"^3

111 the mornings, after a shower of rain, when I have visited the
colony of ants described in the last No. of the Record, I have several
times found them busily engaged in removing the earth from the open-
ings into the nesis, which presented every appearance of having been
closed during the night. The openings they had made through the
fresh earth, were only large enough for one or two to pass at a time,
but the evening previous, some of the holes w-ere an inch in diameter.
Whether the ants had stopped the holes to prevent the rain from enter-
ing, or whether the rain had stopped them up by washing earth over
them, I do not know; but the situation of the nest, on an elevated
bank, surrounded by thick grass, would favor the former supposition.

It is indeed interesting to view the operations carried on at an ant-
hill ; how industriously and perseveringly the inhabitants remove and
carry out the earth, and whatever obstacles they encounter in construct-
ing the numerous subterranean avenues, necessary for their accommo-
dation. Whilst some are engaged in mining, others are busy in collect-
ing a supply of food for the numerous family. We see one coming
home bearing a fly or a caterpillar; another more courageous will re-
turn laden with an unfortunate cricket or a spider, which are speedily
conveyed into the nest, and in some instances, before life is extinct. I
observed one dragging a large worm more than an inch in length, which
seemed quite as much as it could manage, but after using considerable
exertion, it succeeded in bringing it to one of the openings of the nest,
where it left it, and went into the nest, apparently to examine whether
all was ready within; but it soon returned and dragged the worm in.

I have sometimes amused myself by putting small sticks into their
nests, in order to witness their skill and dexterity in removing them,
and I was surprised to find that they possessed so much muscular
strength. They would seize them at one end, and if they were not
successful in moving them, they would go to the other, and change their
position until they felt them move, and if one was not able to do it, sev-
eral would combine their strength, and by their united efforts they would
remove objects of such dimensions as I should suppose entirely be-
yond their ability.

About the end of June, I noticed a number of large black ants busily
ascending and descending a while pine tree; on examining it, I discov-
ered that many of the branches were thickly covered with a species of
aphis or plant-louse, over which these ants were carefully travelling,
frequently sto])ping to notice them, and at the same time touching them

SILVER MINES OF ANDREASBERG. 141

lightly with their antennae. The fact is that the ants were milking their
cows. The aphides would eject a drop of limpid fluid from their tails,
which was greedily devoured by their visitois. The latter appeared to
know how to obtain a fresh suppl}-, for they would gently tickle the
sides of the aphides with their antennEe, and this would soon bring forth
a drop of the rauch-coveted fluid, which was eagerly conveyed to their
mouths, and then they moved quickly to another and treated it in the
same way with the same result. The number of ants thus employed
was so great, that the tree seemed to be alive with them and the aphides.
Two currents of ants were constantly moving, one up and the other
down the trunk of the tree, which are continued without any intermis-
sion during the night as well as the day. — This phenomenon may be
witnessed almost every day in any garden on plants Avhich harbor the
aphides, and last summer I surprized and delighted a lady by exhibiting
it to her in her own garden.

About the same time that I met with the ants on the pine tree, I ob-
served that the same species, but from diflerent colonies, were visiting
Iwo pear trees that grew near the pine. Presuming that their object
was to partake of the fruit that grew thereon, I paid but little attention
to them, but finding that they continued their visits after the fruit was
removed, I examined and found at the base of the petoile of the leaf, a
very small species of the aphides, on the exudation of which the ants
were feeding.

The ants are very careful of these little animals, and they are even
taken by the ants into their nests, and there fed and nurtured with the
same assiduity thai a dairy maid does her cows, and for the very same
reason.

These aphides, of vvhich there are numerous species, may be seen
on neaily all trees and large plants. Every rose bush is full of them.
Their history is most curious, which I shall send for the Journal, after
I have given one more No. of Ant-iana.

RusTicus.

THE SILVER MIXES OF ANDREASBERG, IN THE HARZ.

BY PROF. CHAS. A. HAY, OF OETTYSBHRG.

We had spent Walpurgis-nacht upon the Brocken. That was the
night preceding the first of May, the time when the whole tribe of
witches comes riding through the air from every direction, and assem-
bles upon the Brocken, the highest peak of the cluster of mountains in
north Germany, called the IIarz. On the evening before, the sun had
set in a bank of mist that obscured the landscape, and gave him a dis-

142 SILVER MINES OF ANDREASBERG,

mal hue, bloody as the veriest witch could desire, that came with the
careering throng to cleanse her gore-stained hands in the " Witches'
Wash-basin" upon the summit. The mountaineers will have it that that
same wash-basin, which is nothing else than a singular cavity in one of
the flat rocks upon the mountain top, is always full of water.

J'rom the ''Devil's Pulpit," we had a fine view of the rising sun
upon the morning of the first of May, 1S43. It was a cold morning ;
the banks of snow that still hung upon the sides of the mountain, chill-
ed the air, and there was no inducement to remain longer upon the sum-
mit, so we swung our knapsacks upon our backs, and commenced the
descent. We had approached the Brocken from the north, by the ro-
mantic valley of the lis, (Ilsenthal;) we descended towards the west,
over a waste wild heath. Our path led frequently through peat bogs,
in some places so soft that a single step to the side would have sunk
one from two to three feet into the reddish grassy mire. Where the
peat was more solid, its elasticity made it a pleasant substitute for the
rough causeway that was our guide down the side of the mountain.

Not to detain you any longer upon the Brocken — before noon we
reached the artificial lake of the Andreasberg mines. Steam would be
too expensive where fuel is so scarce, and, as much power is needed for
carrying on the works, they have been compelled to undertake an im-
mense task, viz: the formation of an artificial lake away up in the moun-
tain, where water enough can be collected during the winter and spring,
to supply the mines with the necessary motive power during the sum-
mer. An immense dyke has been thrown across a narrow valley dam-
ming up the innumerable mountain torrents fed by the snows and fre-
quent rains of this part of the Harz. The principal stream whose
course has thus been interrupted, is the Oder, which gives its name to
the basin thus formed, the Oderteich. The conduit, (called Rehberger
Graben,) by which the contents of this body of water, larger than some
Swiss lakes of note, are guided to the mines of Andreasberg, winds
along the right side of the Oderthal, with so great an inclination that
the stream rushes down with great rapidity. A carriage road lined up-
on the left with trees, accompanies it all the way, about six miles.

Andreasberg is half hid among the hills. A few fine houses, occu-
pied by the government ofilcers who superintend the works, form a
striking contrast to the humble cottages oi^ the miners. But there did
not seem to be much poverty here.

We deposited our knapsacks in the guest-room of the principal inn,
and despatched a servant for a "permit." This was easily obtained,
and we now made our appearance at the entrance of the mines. We

IN THE HARZ. 143

were ushered into a large hall, hung round with the queerest array of
clumsily constructed and mud-bespattered garments, that we had ever
laid eyes upon. Our sad misgivings were too soon realized. "Gentle-
men, the mines are wet, and you must sometimes crawl and creep. —
Here are plenty of dresses, you can suit yourselves." We were in for
it, and there was no use at being scared at a trifle. But what a figure
we did cut in our new erjvelopements !

We descended by means of ladders an almost vertical shaft. About
one hundred and fifty feet from the surface, if I remember rightly, we
reached the first horizontal opening. This was a shaft of the usual size,
about six feet high, by two and a half or three wide. We here stopped
to rest and have the mode of operation in this mine explained to us by
the guide. The veins of the precious metal strike through the succes-
sive strata nearly vertically. One can most easily form a correct con-
ception of their position and appearance, by supposing a mountain to
have been rent by deep narrow fissures, parallel with each other, and
nearly at right angles with its base. These, afterwards filled by a de-
posit of lime, as a gang for various ores, form the veins which it is
the miner's business to follow and rob of their mineral treasures. —
These crevices are seldom more than a few inches in width, but they
often extend more than a thousand feet downward and along the side
or into the heart of the mountain.

A shaft is first sunk vertically, along the course of one of those
veins. Upon reaching the end of it below, or such a depth as the miner
chooses at first to go, a horizontal shaft is opened also along the course
of the vein, thus removing it entirely, for the space of six feet, together
with a foot and a half of the surrounding rock, on both sides, to allow
the workman room. After this horizontal shaft has been carried for-
ward as far as profitable or convenient, another is opened immediately
above it^ removing six feet more of the vein. The refuse is now thrown
into the useless shaft below, whilst the metalliferous rock is carefully
raised to the surface. In this way, by beginning at a great depth and
working upward, the vein can be entirely exhausted, and yet no more
of the rock removed to the surface of the ground than that which con-
tains the ore.

Some of the .shafts were almost filled up with heaps of ore over
wliich we had to scramble, sometimes barely squeezing through be-
tween them and the roof of the shaft. Several of the lights were at
different times extinguished by the water dripping from the rocks over-
head. I was curious to know what became of all this water. Before
the guide answered any question, he raised my curiosity still higher by

144 SILVER MINES OF AXDREASBERG,

calling our attention to the apparatus for supplying the mines with fresh
air. Some three hundred and fifty feet below ground, he showed us a
large wooden box, into which a wooden tube, perhaps ten inches square,
coming down through a vertical shaft, was closely set. This box, he
told us, was half full of water, and the tube ran down into it, nearly to
the bottom of the box. A stream of water, falling from a height into
the funnel-shaped mouth of the tube above ground, carries down with
it a considerable quantity of air, which, forced by the constantly de-
scending column into the iron-bound box below, rapidly accumulates
there. By its elasticity, the water is driven off through an opening in
the side of the box, which is so high up, however, that the air is first
powerfully compressed, and the whole is so arranged, that, whilst the
air in the upper part prevents the water from rising above its place of
egress, the air itself is forced out with an impetus sufficient to carry it
to the most distant parts of the mine.

"Now, Mr. Guide, do tell us what becomes of all this water? It is
easy enough for water to get into such a place as this, but how do you
get it out again .'" " We make tunnels for it and then let it find its own
way out." Some of these tunnels are immense undertakings. It is
either at Andreasberg or at Clausthall that it was necessary to run a
shaft three miles before they found an exit. This is owing to the depth
of the mines, some of which extend three thousand feet and more, pei'-
pendicularly.

In our subterranean perigrinations we next stumbled upon the eleva-
ting apparatus. There are two separate works of this kind, one for the
ore, the other for the workmen. The elevator is a simple endless rope,
revolving upon wheels above ground, and at the foot of the large central
vertical shaft. But the other is a more complicated apparatus which I
fear I cannot satisfactorily describe. But still I will make the attempt.
Two cables of iron wire are suspended side by side, eighteen or twenty
inches from each other, in a shaft that inclines very little from the per-
pendicular. At intervals of twelve feet, small boards, from six to eight
inches square, are securely fastened to these cables, at right angles to
the line of their direction. Four feet above these, bars of wood about
a foot in length, are lashed across the cables. Now, when the apparatus
is at rest, these foot-boards and hand-holds are all precisely opposite to
each other. But when the huge water-wheel above makes one-fourth
of a revolution, the one cable is elevated and the other depressed twelve
feet; so that any two of the foot-boards that were a moment before
close together, are now twenty-four feet apart, the one has risen, the
other descended twelve feet. The one which ascended has come into

THE YOUNG NATURALIST. 145

close quarters with another, which, a moment before, was twenty-four
feet above it. Now you can easily see how a person, by quickly step-
ping from one foot-board to the other, during the momentary pause be-
tween the rising and sinking of the cables, and by tluis always finding
himself on the rising paddle^ must constantly ascend, and at the rate of
twelve feet for every move of the cables. After watching the operation
of the apparatus for some time, I handed my light to the guide and step-
ped upon one of the foot-boards. The one upon my right instantly
descended, and I rose to a level with the second on the other cable ;
quickly stepping over upon this one, I saw the one I had just left sink-
ing and I rose another twelve feet. As I mounted the third twelve, how-
ever, T came near being swept ofT the cable altogether. The shaft was
crossed by another one, and at the point of intersection a platform had
been thrown, through a trap-door in which the cables passed. The
guide had told me nothing of this ; I was standing out pretty far from
the cable instead of clinging closely to it, and an inch or two farther
would have brought my head in contact with the sleeper upon which
the platform rested. This so terrified me that I kept clinging to the
same hold, and of course descended at the next reversion of the mo-
tion. Taking the sinking side, in two more moves I found myself in
the midst of the company, and felt wonderfully relieved as I stepped off
and felt myself once more upon solid rock. And this was all done in
less than one-fourth the time it has taken to describe it. The celerity
of the motion is its great recommendation. It used to require two hours
steady climbing for the workmen to ascend from or descend to the low-
er parts of the mine ; now they can be elevated in half an hour, fifty or
sixty at a time. The cables reached, when we were there, two thousand
three hundred feet, and were to be extended still further down. I can-
not now distinctly recollect the depth of the deepest shaft, but it is some
hundreds more than this.

THE YOUNG NATURALIST.

The study of Natural History is exceedingly attractive, and com-
mends itself especially to the notice of the young. Tiiey re(juire some-
thing that will discipline not only the mind but the body also. It will
not do for them to be constantly shut up in the recitation or lecture-
room, or within the narrow limits of their study. They require some-
thing to give tone and vigor to tlieir limbs, and to lead them forth into
the wonders of the world of nature. They must breathe the pure air
of the country, climb its green hills, and measure its broad fields with a
19

146

THE YOUXG NATURALIST.

firm and active step, if they would enjoy the blessings of robust health,
sound sleep, and the full command of their waking energies. The
prosecution of the study of Natural History by our College students,
will almost inevitably secure these and various other important objects.
Let them form a taste for Botany, for Mineralogy, for Zoology, or En-
tomology, or almost any branch of Natural Science, and it will take
them forth into the open air — it will give them an object for taking ex-
ercise, and will react most favorably upon all their habits, both intellec-
tual and moral. Such exercise is greatly superior to that of the ball-
alley or gymnastics, (though we do not object to these if taken in mod-
eration, which, however, is not a characteristic of youth,) and most ef-
fectually weans from the haunts of idleness, from trifling company, and
from unprofitable pursuits.

Now, in the opening spring, is the time for our naturalists to prose-
cute their field labors with the greatest vigor. The birds are fast re-
turning from their sojourn in the sunny south ; the smaller quadrupeds
that had lain dormant, or shut themselves up in their nests and burrows,
now come forth ; the opening earth sends up its many-hued flowers to
the brighter light and the warmer suns of summer; and the myriad
swarms of the insect tribes now begin to pour forth and to take posses-
sion of the place assigned them in the economy of nature.

It is to these last, especially, that we wish to direct the attention of
our young friends. If in their excursions through the woods or fields
they chance to espy a chrysalis, or cocoon, let them notice the place
where it has been deposited, or the shrub or tree upon which it hangs,
and bear it off to their cabinet, and put it in a place favorable to its de-
velopement, for this is the way in which the finest specimens of insects
may be obtained. Let them also put their nets in order and capture
every butterfly, or other insect that they have not yet secured for their
cabinet. It will also be well for them to secure duplicates of fine spe-
cimens that they may be able to exchange with naturalists either of this
country or Europe. No time is now to be lost, and every fine day that
he has at his command, should be improved by the enterprising natu-
ralist. This season has opened remarkably early. During a ride which
I took over the South-mountain in the beginning of March, I observed
several species of butterflies already upon the wing; one of them was
the Vanessa ^nfiopa, to which Harris says that Wilson alludes in his
beautiful lines on the blue-bird :

" When first the lone butterfly flits on the wing;"

but it was not at this time '-lone," for I saw near the same place (on the
side of the mountain,) several other PajriUos of a species unknown to

A TRADITION OF WYOMING. 147

me, which, however I could not obtain, as ihey were very active, and I
had no apparatus for seizing them, along with me. I may also observe
here, that the Vanessa which 1 saw had not that "ragged and faded"
appearance, which Harris, in the passage above quoted attributes to it.

But now whilst I write (April 23d,j the lields are becoming alive
with these wonderful and beautiful creatures, and soon every flower,
and shrub, and tree, and almost every leaf and each blade of grass will
have its visitors and destroyers. The Clytus Pictus makes its appear-
ance here (in Gettysburg,) in the beginning of April. The splendid
Attacus Polyjihevius which has been sheltered in some warm place, will
burst from its large, silky cocoon even in February, if it has been kept
in the house, and now makes its appearance in the open air. On the
17th inst. I captured a most beautiful specimen of the queenly Attacus
Luna, and on the 22d saw the superb Papilio Ajax and various other
diurnal Lepidopters sporting in the warm sunshine of the South-moun-
tain, between Gettysburg and Hagerstown, Md. I mention these facts
merely to show our young friends that it is now high time to bestir
themselves if they intend to be very active in this department of Na-
tural History during the present season. R.

A TRADITION OF "WYOMING.

BY THE AUTHOR OF "FOOT-PRINTS, OR FUGITIVE POEMS.

When paler suns began to gleam

On every shortening day,
And cool winds stirred the yellow leaves

That in the forest lay,
Young Albert went, his parent's pride,

With faithful hound and gun.
Out in the green-wood wide, to hunt,

From morn till set of sun.

His rifle woke the echoing hills

For many a league around.
And Albert's aged parents smiled

Right joyful at the sound ;
For well they knew his practiced hand

And quick-discerning eye.
At each sure aim brought down a buck,

Or bird that soars on high.

The shots have ceased ; — the sun-set sky

In gorgeous hues is drest,
And soon the lingering steps of day

Have faded from the west.

k

148 A TRAUITION OF WYOMING.

But, where is he, the hunter boy.
Who sallied forth at morn ?

Alas ! he comes not back to cheer
Those parents now forlorn.

Sad tales of Indian massacre

Flit through their troubled dreams ;
Each moaning whisper of the wind

A ^igh of anguish seems.
The night-howl of the famished wolf,

Comes mournful on the ear,
And brings before their sleepless eyes

Ten thousand shapes of fear.

Now, frosty winter comes apace,

The summer birds are still,
And icy fetters wrap their links

About each wandering rill.
Again, the springing grass appears

Upon each sunny slope,
And flowers and blossoms wear again

The tender hues of hope.

But Albert's parents yet are sad,

Nor hope lor future joy ;
For Spring that brings the merry birds

Can not give back their boy.
And now it chanced some forest lads

Who loamed the country o'er,
Espied poor Albert's mangled corpse

Beside a brooklet's shore.

A frightful gash from Indian steel

Defaced his forehead fair.
And many a drop of gentle blood

Had stained his silken hair. —
Hard by his parents' humble cot

He fell by cruel blow.
And icy Winter wrapped him in

His winding-sheet of snow.

Then, sorrowing friends who dwelt around.

An oath of vengeance swore ;
But, toward that harrowing scene of blood.

No Indian ventured more.
The wigwam and the bark canoe

Were seen no more again.
And on the hillocks of their dead

Now bends the white man's grain.

UTERAUY CONTEST. 149

But yet tradition guards the spot

Where Albert's bones were laid : —
It is a lonely, quiet nook,

Of chequered sun and shade.
And thinking, in a plaintive mood.

Upon that learful time,
My truant Fancy weaves the tale

In rude and homely rhyme.

COLLEGE RECORD.

AxN'UAL Contest of the Literary Societies. — Among the many
appliances employed in Penn'a College to develope the minds of its stu-
dents in all directions, the annual contest of the literary societies occu-
pies an important place. So far as the writer has become acquainted
with the facts in the case, there exists an honorable rivalry between the
two societies, confined, however, to three particulars, viz : the desire to
excel in the production and delivery of essays, orations, and debates.
These are important, and are connected, more or less extensively, with
all the departments of industry in real life. We suppose that the points
of contest might be advantageously multiplied. Why not have contests
in scholarship? Which society can produce the best mathematician —
the most accurate linguist — the most profound natural philosopher?
This hint is thrown out for the benefit of those whom it may concern.
Personal rivalry is not pleasant, neither is it always safe. Too often, it
terminates in personal hostility, and produces unholy ambition. But
where the parties are unknown, until the contest actually occurs, and
excellence for the sake of the literar)^ association, or for knowledge
alone, is the stimulant, the highest advantages may be anticipated.

The contest, which we took up our pen to record, was highly cred-
itable to the societies. Tliere was a large and attentive audience who
manifested their interest in the exercises, by giving their fixed attention
during three hours. The music was charming. The union of vocal
with instrumental music is certainly the way to produce the highest en-
joyment in melody. Wo were glad to hear that a new association has
been formed, in the art of sweet sounds, which justifies the hope of
great things. The following were the exercises of the occasion :

Prayer — By Piev. John Ulrich.

Essays — " The Cnnquest of Christianity^'' M. Schaefff.r, Centre
CO. Pa. '■'■ Language of Passion,'''' J. M. Clement, Mocksville, N. C.

Orations — '•'•Field of Waterloo,^'' a Poem, S. Scheimer, Warren
CO. N.J. '•'•Babylon Destroyed,'''' J. A. HoucK,* Gettysburg, Pa.

* Absent on account of indisposition.

150 NEW PROFESSORS.

Debate — "Is it inexpedient and imconstilnlional for Congress to
legislate on any religious subject?'''' Affirmative, Wm. B. Hineakd,
Adams co. Pa. Negative, Mathias Miller, Winchester, Va.

Benedictjo.n — By Pres. C. P. Krauth, D. D.

Appointment of new Professors. — At the recent meeting of the
Trustees of Pennsylvania College, Mr. Herman Haupt, A. M., was ap-
pointed Professor of Mathematics, and Mr. W. H. Harrison, Assistant
Professor of Languages in said Institution. Prof. Haupt graduated some
years since with high honors at the U. S. Military Academy at West
Point, was engaged for some time as a Civil Engineer in the service of
the state of Pennsylvania, and has latterly conducted a select school for
boys at his beautiful residence, called Oakridge, Gettysburg. Prof. Har-
rison is a graduate of Penn'a College, and has also had considerable ex-
perience as a teacher.

By these additions, the Faculty of Penn''a College is made one of
the most numerous, and we hope it will prove itself one of the most
efficient in the United Slates. Several of the Professors giving assist-
ance in the Preparatory Department, that important part of the Institu-
tion is also placed in a most adv'antageous position, so that it holds out
every inducement to parents to commit their sons to its care. By refer-
ence to the advertisement on our cover, it will be seen that the cost of
education here is exceedingly moderate. The following is the list of
the Faculty and Instructors under the new arrangement :

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D. — Pres'i and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Philos'y,^-c.

Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, R/ietoric, ^c.

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of Natural Science.

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, <§-c.

M. L. Stoever, A. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatory Department.

Rev. Chas. A. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.

Herman Haupt, A. M. — Professor of Mathematics.

W. H. Harrlson. — .Assistant Prof, of Languages.

David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.

Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

Wm. Albaugh, A. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.

Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

Family Education. — The patrons of Prof, llaupt's Select School
at Oakridge, and other parents who desire it, can still have their sons
under his care, whilst they are attending any of the departments of Col-
lege, which is about half a mile distant from his house. He is prepared
to accommodate about a dozen pupils, and will give them the same at-
tention as formerly. We may also mention, in this connexion, that Prof.

PENX. MEDICAL COLLEGE.

151

Baugher, whose house is about a quarter of a mile distant from the
College edifice, still continues to take about an equal number of pupils
into his family. By this arrangement, all the benefits of a select school
and of attendance at College are most admirably combined at Pennsyl-
vania College, and we desire to direct the attention of parents and of
the public generally, to this peculiarity of the Institution.

PENNSYLVANIA MEDICAL COLLEGE.

At a public commencement of the Medical Department of Pennsyl-
vania College, held in the hall of the Chinese Museum, Philadelphia,
March 4lh, 1845, the Degree of Doctor of Medicine was conferred upon
the following gentlemen, pupils of the institution, they having deposited
Theses on the subjects set opposite to their respective names, and un-
dergone a satisfactory examination.

Benjamin F. Alter,
William T. Babb,
William A. Barry,
Daniel Beidler,
James Dowling,
Edward Gillespie,
John L. Heist,
John B. Kendall,
C. Henry Leistner,
C. Orrick Richards,
James Ruddick,
Edward F. Smithers,
Wm. S. Thompson,
Isaac W. Vanorsdel,

Indiana,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Georgia,

Tennessee,

Pennsylvania,

New Brunswick,

Delaware,

Pennsylvania,

Pennsylvania,

Evening Exacerb. Fever.

Utero-Gestation.

Syphilis.

Leucorrhcea.

Intermittent Fever.

Bromine.

Cynanche Trachealis.

Empiricism.

Retroversio Uieri.

Amenorrhoea.

Variola.

Gout.

Puerperal Peritonitis.

Epilepsy.

At the same time the Honorary degree of M. D. was conferred on
the following gentlemen : Achille Lalung de Ferol, St. Jago de Cuba.
William R. Stewart, Adams Co., Pennsylvania.

The following extracts from the " Report of the Medical Faculty of Pennsyl-
vania College," will show the steady progress and the flourishing condition of this
important Institution :

"The Faculty of the Medical department take pleasure in reporting
to the Trustees of the Institution, that the course of lectures of the past
session has been attended with a degree of success equal to their most
sanguine expectations. Drs. Gilbert and Atlee, who had accepted the

152 FAIR FOR THE I,L\XAEA\ ASSOCIATION.

chairs of Surgery and Chemistry, conditionally, have, after delivering
each a course of lectures on their respective branches, consented finally
to accept their appointments; so that the Medical Faculty is now full.
The number of matriculants was 60, considerably more than double
that of the previous session. Pupils were received ad eundcm from
the University of Pennsylvania, Jefferson Medical College, Ohio Med-
ical College at Cincinnati, and the University of Georgia. The resi-
dence of the pupils was as follows : Pennsylvania 44, N. York 2, N.
Jersey 2, Delaware 2, Maryland 1, N. Carolina 1, Georgia 1, Ohio 1,
Indiana 1, Illinois 1, Tennessee 1, Missouri 1, British Possessions 2.

This number might have been increased, had the Faculty thought
proper to loosen the restraints imposed by law, and throw open their
doors to all who might apply. This they did not feel at liberty to do.
The requisitions provided by the charter have been rigorously insisted
on, and matriculation was refused to several.

The number of applications, both direct and indirect, for the Hon-
orary degree, was considerable. The Faculty has, however, decidfed to
give this degree to no one but a man who has proved by years of suc-
cessful practice that he has qualifications equal to those we would na-
turally expect from an attendance upon the full courses, and who is
otlierwise of unexceptionable character. We fear danger to the profes-
sion from the too great cheapening of the Honorary degree, and have
therefore obliged several practitioners of some years' standing, to at-
tend a second course, write a thesis, undergo an examination, and com-
ply with all the other requisites for graduation."

FAIR FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION.

The ladies of Gettysburg have resolved to hold a Fair for the ben-
efit of the Linnaean Association. In this good work, they have the
promise of the zealous co-operation of numerous fair friends in York,
Baltimore, Philadelphia, llagerstown, Chambersburg, and various other
places between which and this place the communication is convenient.
The ladies of Reading, Pa., have been foremost in this good work, hav-
ing already forwarded a box containing a fine assortment of useful and
fancy articles. We hope that all who are interested in this matter, will
avail themselves of the opportunity afibrded by the return of students
to College, at the commencement of next session (May 22d,) to for-
ward whatever they have prepared. It is expected that the Fair will be
held sometime in June, of which due notice will be given. Meantime,
any articles that are likely to sell, will be received with gratitude.

iilPI?lii!!i

TO THE FRIENDS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,

IN BEHALF OF THE LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION.

The eslablishment of a Linnaean Association in Pennsylvania Col-
lege, was an event that will occupy a prominent place in the annals of
the Institution. It was a happy ciicinrstance that the spirit of enter-
prise, that had for some time been life among the members of the Col-
lege, embodied itself in a form so well adapted to direct tlieir energies
into the proper channels. The employment of the leisure time of the
student in the prosecution of some branch of Natural Science, as a re-
laxation from the severer labors of the course, is a desirable end that
can in no way be so eflectually reached as by a voluntary association of
this kind, and its beneficial influence upon us is already perceptible.

No sooner, however, had the association commenced its operations,
and investigations been entered into in the various departments of sci-
ence, than the want of an adequate Library and Museum was strongly
felt. "Measures were at once adopted for the acquisition of both, and
carried out with such energy and success, that the Cabinet is already
highly respectable. Numbers of distant friends of the College have
generously availed themselves of this opportunity to contribute towards
the prosperity of the Institution.

We therefore feel emboldened to urge this subject upon the attention
of those who have not yet done any thing for us. We desire, and are
determined to use every exertion to get together a cabinet, that will do
honor not only to Pennsylvania College, but to the scientific spirit of
the whole body of those interested in her prosperity. In this, not only
•'■r' scientific, but all persons of taste and intelligence, can aid us most

ctually. We desire to obtain specimens of the natural productions
and curiosities, the fossils and minerals, the plants and flowers, the birds
and shells, fishes and reptiles, the insects and the animals of this coun-
try, and ol" all parts of the world. We therefore appeal to our friends,
every where, to encorage us in this unde riaking, by sending us any of
these things which they think will be of interest in such a collection.
Donors may be assured that their contributions will be greatfully re-
reived, and that a record will be ke|)t of the names of those who aid us
ill this enterprise. We have determined to erect a Hall in which to ar-
range and display to advantage the articles which we already possess,
rjiid which we are assured that the liberality of our friends and the pub-

generally will hereafter furnish ; but we hope that, in the mean lime,

much will be done as to show that our labor and zeal for this work
ve not been superfluous.

Donations may be forwarded to the following gentlemen, who take
a lively interest in the enterprise :

Rev. Jno. G. MoRai«(, D. D., Ballimore, Md.
Rev. W. A. Passava.nt, Pillshurg, Pa.
Rev. Chas. Marti.v, JVcw York, 'JY. Y.
Rev. Theoph. Stokke, Philadelphia, Pa.

to the "Curators of the Linnaean Association, Gettysburg, Pa.''''

Pcnnsijlnama <lIollcgc, ©cttgsbitrg, pa.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.
Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. B.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Philos'y, ^c.
Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, S,'C.
Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M.—Prof. of' Natural Science.
Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A.. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, S^c.
M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof ofHislory and Principal of Preparatory Departmeni.
Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.
Herman Haupt, A. M. — Professor of Mathemalics.
W. H. Harrison. — Assistant Prof, of Languages.
David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

Wm. Albaxjgh, a. M..— Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.
Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur-
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
tiolis of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course
is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.

The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
require. They attend at least two recitations a day, Church and Bible Class on the
Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger ol
any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

The annual expenses are— for board, tuition and room-rent, during the vpinter
session, $61 87* : for the summer se-ssion, .'^41 87^. Washing, ."iJlO 00; and Wood.
$.3 00. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per
week.

There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
April and September, each of five weeks continuance.

The winter session closed on the 17th of April, and after the Vacation of five
weeks, the summer session commences on the 22d of May.

I Qlcknoojlebgcments of IDouations to tlic QTabinct of tljc Cinnoean
\ Association of pcnnsjilf «uia College.

\ April, 1845. From iV/r. S. .^s/^mead, Philadelphia, one box of minerals, ten ;
^ casts of ancient coins, Proceedings of Academy of Science, Philadelphia.

2. Dr. W. M. Kemp, Baltimore, a fine specimen of the Exocetus (flying-fish.)

3. Mr. F. Ealy, two sheets of vegetable impressions.

4. /. Weaver, Geological exploration of the State of Pennsylvania.

5. Prof. Jacobs, a number of shells.

6. D. G. Barnitz, Esq. York, a fine stuffed specimen of Falco leucocephalu?
(Bald-Eagle.)

7. j. G. Morris, D. D. specimen of Mugil (mullet.)

8. Dr. Van Patten, Washington, D. C. a splendid specimen of Tetrao umbel-
lus (pheasant.)

9. Dr. Hiester, Reading, Pa. Notes of Travel, by himself.

10. From Mr. Boghos Krikori, of Constantinople, Turkey, an Armenian news-
paper.

VOLUME I.]

[number 8.

LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

©f t|jc JTinnttfan Association of |>tnnai;loauia (CoUcjic.
JUNE, ]84o.

CONDUCTED

He n eommfttee oC the ^ssoctatfon.

CONTENTS.
E.N'TOZOICAL FUNGI, ------

THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, NO. II.
VIRGINIA, THE PROPER NAME FOR THE U. STATES,
ANT-IANA, NO. V. -

NEW MODES OF CAPTURING INSECTS, -
FRAGMENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL, - - -

GRe'cIAN EDUCATION, NO. II. - - - ■

CLASSICAL CRITICISM, - - - -

SAGACITY OF A HORSE, - - - - .

COMMON THINGS. VINEGAR, - - - -

HONORARY MEMBERS OF THE LINN. SOCIETY,

153
156
159
163
165
167
169

. 171
173
174

' 175

U sheet, periodical — Postage, 100 miles 2i cents, over 100 miles 3^ cents.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LFNN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. r. JUNE, 1845. No. 8.

ENTOZOICAL FUNGI IN INSECTS.

BY JOHN G. MORRIS, D. D. B/^I,TIMORE, MD.

It is well known to all observers of the natural history of insects,
that they are subject to the attacks of numerous animal parasites, wliich
destroy immense multitudes of them, and which, I believe, are designed
by a wise Providence to keep them from increasing to too dangerous an
extent, if it were not for these parasites and birds, 'which devour them
in countless numbers, w^e would ahnost every year be afflicted with an
insect-plague. These animal parasites are of various characters and hab-
its. Some of them live in the interior of larvae or caterpillars, and sub-
sist on their fat, where most of them undergo their transformation, but
at the cost of the larva's life. Some are found adhering to the external
body of the perfect insect, to which they occasion extreme annoyance,
and, to some of them, death. But vegetable parasites on insects are not
so familiar, and on this subject I desire to say a few words.

Some species of insects, both in the larva and imago, or perfect state,
are subject to a parasitic fungus which grows out of various parts of
their bodies. — Those who have been engaged in rearing silk-worms have
probably observed on some of the (hseased worms a moukl or mildew,
which, when examined through a microscope, is found to be a vegetable
growth of the cryptogamous class and fungous order of the Linnaean sys-
tem. It constitutes the disease called muscardine by the French. In the
warm climate of South America, a fungus of several inches in length
is found growing upon dead insects of the wasp and cricket families.
One of these, which occurs on the island of Guadeloupe, is called by the
inhabitants la gtiepe vegetal, or vegetable wasp. A Sphinx (a large cre-
puscular butterfly,) was once found by the celebrated botanist De
Srhwcinitz, of Bethlehem, Pa. with a fungus of the genus haria Pers.,
proceeding in all directions from the al)domen, nerves of the wings, Stc.
The Sphinx was dead when discovered, and it is not known whether
20

154 ENTOZOICAL FUNGI.

the fungus was evolved while it was yet living, or began to grow only
after its death. Perhaps not, but it is probable the plant began to grow
while the animal was in existence, but the vegetable life predominated
over the animal life and destroyed it.

Kirby, vol. iv, p. 208, mentions the pu-pa of a species of Tettigonia
(closely allied to the grasshopper^) in his cabinet, which has a fungus
"with a twisted thickish stipes and oblong head, springing up in the
space between the eyes." He observed something similar, but longer, in
the grub of some large beetle in a collection in Paris, and he noticed
something of tlie kind on the rostrum of a calandra., (Genus of beetles.)

In vol. 8 of Silliman's Journal, there is a communication on this sub-
ject with a well executed plate, representing a fungus growing out of
the head of the larva of mcl-oloniha^ (May-bug.) This grub is about one
inch and a half in length, and is common in meadows, and destroys the
grass, corn, and other fruits. It is often found under stones in moist
places. It is not unusual to find a number of them which have vege-
table "sprouts," sometimes three inches long, proceeding generally from
between the head and under part of the thorax, and in a few instances
from the mouth. Commonly there is one to each grub, though some-
times there are two. In every instance, the grub is not only dead, but
in a state of decay, and the "sprout" rising above the ground indicating
where they may be found.

A friend informs me, that he has seen a similar sprout growing out
of the body of our mole cricket, ( GriillotaJpa.)

The accompanying cut represents a larva of a Icjndopterous, (butter-
fly) insect,

which is now in my cabinet, having a fungus about six inches in length
growing out of its head. It is here represented in its natuaral size. It
comes from New Zealand, where it is not uncommon and feeds on the
sweet potatoe ( Convolvulus batatus.) The fungus is Sphacria Rohertsi,

E.NTOZOICAL FUiNGt. 155

thus called by Hooker, 1 believe, in honor of JMr. Roberts, who brought
it to England from that country. There are several other sj)ecinien.s in
the Collection of the National Institute at Washington, to which they
were presented by a gentleman who procured them in New Zealand.
There is a fine figure of it, and a description of the plant in vol. 2 of
Hooker's Icones Plantarum, which I will here introduce for the benefit
of the botanical reader.

'■'•Sphaeria Robertsl ; nigra, suberosa, stipete elongato, flexuoso, sim-
plice, (vel ramoso) capitulo elongato, acuminato, vermiculiformi. Ha-
bitat New Zealand."

It appears that there are two genera of fungi growing in this remark-
able situation, Isaria and Sphaeria. Several of their species are invaria-
bly found on dead insects in different stages of their existence, as larva.,
pupa and imago. Tliey are found no where else, and this single extra-
ordinary fact would furnish abundant material for a volume of specula-
tion on the original creation of plants and animals.

The phenomenon seems to be rather common, for it has been observ-
ed by many persons, and may be witnessed every spring in our meadows.

An interesting question is, do these animals live after the fungi have
grown out of their bodies, or does the vegetable life as soon as it is de-
veloped exhaust the animal life of tlie insect ? I think not. Dr. Madi-
ana, of Guadeloupe, says "he has noticed the gmpc vegetal living with
its incumbrance attached to it, though apparently in the last stage of its
existence and seeming about to perish from the influence of its destruc-
tive parasite." A German traveller in the West Indies, mentions, hav-
ing seen what was probably the same species living, but instead of de-
scribing the animal, he wrote some pretty verses about it His poetry
could have been better spared than a faithful description of the insect
bearing in its bodv a thriving plant. I should judge from analogy that
these animals can live with this vegetable excrescence protruding from
thein. We know that caterpillars live, flourish, and even assume the
chrysalis form, with mimerons larvae of ichneumons feeding on them in-
ternally, and surely their depradations must be more exhausting than a
mere vegetable growth. But I have no doubt that all the larvae thus en-
cumbered eventually die in consequence of it, and that the lives of per-
fect insects on which they are found, are shortened by it.

The great wonder of all is, how the seeds of these fungi arc depos-
ited always on these insects — how they take root, and why these spe-
cies are never found in any other situation ! But nature is full of inex-
plicable mysteries, and where we cannot ahva\.-< (;xi)hiin, it is good to
adore.

156 THE ORIGIN AIND

THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, NO. II.

After an examination of these two great families, ('the Indo-European
and the Semitic,) which may be said to include the languages of three
continents, there are discovered sufficient analogies to justify the con-
clusion, that they have a common origin. I will take the liberty here
of quoting, from Dr. Wiseman's lectures on the connexion between sci-
ence and religion, the conclusion to which we are justified in ariiving
from the information accessible on this subject. 1 give the conclusions,
referring the reader to the work itself for the details.

"And here let us look back for a moment at the connexion between
our study and the sacred records. From the simple historical outline,
which I have laid before you, it appears that its tiist rise seemed fitter to
inspire alarm, than confidence ; insomuch as it broke asunder the great
bond anciently supposed to hold them together; then, for a time, it went
on still further, severing and dismembering ; consequently, to all appear-
ance, even widening the breach between itself and sacred history. In
its further progress, it began to discover new affinities, where least ex-
pected, till by degrees, many languages began to be grouped and classi-
fied in large families acknowledged to have a common origin. Then,
new discoveries gradually diminished the number of dependent lang-
uages, and extended, in consequence, the dominion of the larger masses.
At length, when this field seemed almost exhausted, a new class of re-
searches has succeeded, so far as it has been tried, in proving the extra-
ordinary affinities between these families — affinities existing in the very
character and essence of each language, so that none of them could have
ever existed without those elements, wherein these resemblances consist.

Now, as this excludes all idea of one having borrowed them from
the other, as they could not have arisen in each by independent proces-
ses, and as the radical difference among the languages forbids their be-
ing considered dialects or oti-slioots from one another, we are driven to
the conclusion that, on the one hand, these languages must have been
originally united in one, whence they drew these common elements es-
sential to them all ; and, on the other hand, that the separation between
them, which destroyed other no less iniporlanl elements of resemblance,
could not have been caused by any gradual departure or individual de-
velopment— for these we have long since excluded — but by some vio-
lent, unusual and active force, sufficient alone to reconcile these conflict-
ing appearances, and to account, at once, for the resemblances and the
difiercncc.'^.''"' Tliis force must be the Scriptural account of tlic confu-
sion oi' the tongues at Babel. In like manner, the numerous lanijuages

PROGUESS OK LANGUAGE. 157

of the continent of America, as far as investigations have been made,
are found to behmg to one family. So also, in an equally satisiatory
manner, is explained the state of the languages of the Indian Archipelago.
Much, however, remains yet to be accomplished. The unity of the hu-
man race, and, by consequence, the unity of languages, is satisfactorily
shown from the investigations into the natural history of man, into
which we cannot now enter.

The opinion held by many distinguished writers, and among the
rest by Dr. Blair, that the primary yuite of language was extremely de-
fective, and that, in the progress of many thousand years, it attained per-
fection by gradual development, as 1 have already stated, is not based
upon the history or nature of language.

For, first, the experience of several thousand years does not afford a
single example of spontaneous development in any speech. Wherever
we meet language, we find it complete as to its essential and character-
istic qualities. If an alteration do take place, it is only by the springing
up of a new language, Phoenix-like, out of the ashes of another, as the
Jtalian out of the Latin, and the English out of the Anglo-Saxon. But
these languages are perfect and complete, and in nothing as to essentials
inferior to the most admired language ; and in some respects superior to
many others. So it is with the Hebrew. The essential structure oi' the
language is apparent in the earliest fragments, as well as the latest, and
is apparently incapable, though very imperfect, of any further improve-
ment. So it is with the Latin and Greek, as may be seen when you
compare the earliest with the latest productions in those languages. '■'•If
there be a gradual development in language, why, in the thousands of
years neighborhood with other languages, has not the Semitic family
formed for itself a present tense .' And why has not the Chinese lang-
uage, so devoid of grammatical structure that it seems the very copy of
the forms of thought expressed ui the signs of the deaf and dumb, con-
trived to frame, what we consider indispensible to the understanding of
speech." ''The ancient Egyptian, as wrillen in hieroglyphics upon the
oldest monuments and in the Coptic of the liturgy, after an interval of
liiree thousand years, you will see cttablislied by Lepsius to be identi-
cal."

Indeed so far is language from developing itself in the progress of
time, that it is ascertained that the earliest stages of a language are often
the most perfect. Languages, in the woids of Wiseman, grow not up
Irom a seed or sprout. "-They are, by some mysterious process of na-
ture, cast in a living mould whence they come out in all their fair pro-
portions ; and tliat mould is the mind of man, variously modilied by the

158 THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE.

circumstances of his outward relations." If any weight is to be attach-
ed to the opinions of the learned on this subject, we refer to the most
distinguished comparative philologists of this century, who agree in this
view of the subject : Frederick Schlegel, Klaproth, Baron W. von Hum-
boldt, Wiseman, Grimm, Bopp, and others.

Thus far then we have shown, that there are groups of languages
resembling each other so much, that they can with propriety be called
families, such as the Indo-European or Japhetic, the Semitic, and Amer-
ican. 2d, We have shown, that these families, so far as their connexion
with each other has been traced, indicate a common origin. 3d, The
deficiency in the proof, if it be inadequate from the want of suiiicient
investigation, is made up by the argument from the natural history of
man, which indicates one original pair and therefore one language.
4th, The separation was by a violent cause. 5th, Languages are not
gradually developed in the progress of time, but are often the most per-
fect in the earlier stages. 6th, To this may be added, the striking sim-
ilarity in the alphabets of languages, so far as they exist and have been
made known to us.

To these arguments derived from history, let us adduce the testimo-
ny of the inspired volume. We are informed that Adam was made per-
fect, a rational and intelligent creature. He must have been endowed
with the power of communicating his ideas, or his rationality would
have been of little value. We iind, in fact, that he was endowed not
only with the faculty of speech, but with speech itself, and that he was
speedily required to exercise it. God spake with him. He was requir-
ed to give names to the various animals that were brought to him. Lang-
uage then, and the faculty of speech, we may safely infer, were the im-
mediate gift of God, belonging essentially to the nature of man, as much
as any of the senses, or the reasoning faculty.

What this one language was, which was originally with Adam, and
was transmitted through Noah and his sons to the post-diluvians, we
have no means of determining. This much, however, appears certain,
that it was not the Hebrew. For the sacred writer informs us, that the
whole earth was of one language, and one speech. This language must
have been the most ancient. By reason of the impious attem])t of the
people to raise a tower as high as heaven, God confounded their lang-
uage, so that they could not understand each otlier. In consequence of
which, they were dispersed from thence over the face of the whole earth.
If the confusion of languages originated the difterences which appear in
them, then these several languages are all of equal antiquity. Of these
the Hebrew, as a distinct language, was not one, for the Hebrew nation

VIROIMA. THE PROPER NAME OF THE V. STATES. 159

was of posteri<ir origin. It is true, Heber dwelt in Mesopotamia, the an-
cient Sliinar, anil must have spoken one of the languages of the confu-
sion, subsequently modified by the peculiar circumstances in which the
Hebrews were placed.

In relation to the diversity of languages, upon the .supposition of an
original unity, the learned differ. Some assert contidently, that from the
examination of languages, the separation among mankind is shown to
have been violent. Not indeed that they voluntarily changed their lang-
uage, but that they were rudely and suddenly divided from one anoth-
er. (Herder.)

Others, and among them Noah Webster, regard such a supposition
unnecessary, believing that the differences originated in the natural course
of events. Both unquestionably are true. Concerning the dispersion,
there can be no doubt, because it is sustained by divine authority. Con-
cerning the progressive changes, history and experience furnish suffi-
cient evidence. A comparison of our own language, as it now exists,
and in the days of Chaucer, will be sufficient. Some words become
obsolete, new words are coined. New modes of pronunciation and of
spelling are introduced. Words lose their original and obtain a new
signification, whilst other words are variously compounded, and chang-
ed by prefixes and suffixes.

VIRGINIA, THE PROPER NATIONAL NAME FOR THE U. STATES OP
N. AMERICA.

In the first No. of the Linnaean .Journal, Prof. Haldeman, in a very
interesting paper, proposes Hesperia, as a distinctive name for the U.
States. With the reasons there assigned for the assumption of a dis-
tinctive name for this confederation we are perfectly satisfied. Certainly
it is high time that we, who have so long taken our stand among the
nations of the earth, should have a National name. "The United States,"
is not only an inconvenient phrase but it conveys no distinct idea. "Of
what country are you a citizen r" inquires a foreigner of one of our
travellers. Upon being told, of the United States, he asks again, "Of
what United States .^" and if he is told "of the United States of North
America," he may be asked if he resides in Mexico } But if we call
ourselves Americans, that term is o(|ually objectionable, as it is equally
descriptive of a dozen different nations.

But I am not satisfied with the name IIesperia, which Prof. Halde-
man proposes as our cognomen. My principal objections to this are
two : 1st, it has already been appropriated to other nations ; and 2d, it

160 VIROIVIA.

Jia?; nover been applied to ns. Eiilier of these would to m}' mind be a
sullioient bar to our assumption of the title, Ilesperians. We should not
dress ourselves in the cast off clothes of antiquity, nor would we know
ourselves nor be known by our neighbors in such a dress, which would
certainly set rather awkwardly upon us.

Washington Irving, a name dear to American literature, and of the
highest authority among us in matters of taste and literature, has pro-
posed Appalachia, as an appropriate appellation, and this idea has been
endorsed by the New York Historical Society. I have not seen the
reasons given in support of this name, but suppose that there is no oth-
er of any importance than the existence of the Alleghany mountains in
our territory, and constituting one of the most important features of our
physical geography. This would have been a very good reason, if the
original discoverers and colonists of this country had taken it into con-
sideration, but as they did not, and as we have now existed over two
hundred years as a people, without any intimation of an intention thus
to designate ourselves, it is rather late to take it now.

Various other names have been proposed, and much ridicule has been
cast upon the whole matter, j^et I shall venture, in the face of all this, to
give some reasons for our being called Virginians, which I am rather
surprised have never yet been urged upon the country, especially by the
patriotic citizens of Virginia, that "mother of noble sons."

First, this is the original and proper appellation of the greater portion
of the territory now embraced in the United States, and especially of
that part of our nation which achieved our independence and established
our constitution and government. This is evident from the following
passage from that valuabe and interesting, though quaint work, "•Purch-
As HIS Pilgrim," originally published in 1617, and written cotempora-
neously with the foundation of Jamestown.

His first chapter on America is headed, Virginia ; in the preface to
this, p. 938, he says : "After this followed the plantation by the pres-
ent Aduenturers, for the foundation of a »Vc?o Britan Common-wealth :
and the East and West parts of England ioyned in one purpose of a
two-fold plantation, in the North and South parts of Virginia. Of the
North parts our Metliod requires first mention. Mawooshen was nianv
yeeres together visited by our men, extending betweene deg. 43. and 45.
fortie leagues in bredth, and fiftie in length."

Again on p. 939, lie says : "But your eyes wearied with this North-
erne view, which in that winter communicated with vs in extremitie of
cold, looke now for greater hopes in the Southernc Plantation, as the
right arme of this Virginian body, with greater costs and numbers fur-

THE PROPER NAME FOR THE V. STATES. Jfil

nisheil from hence. But first let me tell you that by some lately these
Northerne Parts are stiled by the Name ot' New-Exgla.nd, as being
supposed in the same Latitude with Nona Albion on the Soulli Sea, dis-
couered by Sir Francis Drake^ hauing New France on the North, and
the Southerne Plantation of Virginia on the South ; New Spaine, New
Granada, New Andalusia, being in the same Continent. A Map and
late Discouerie hereof was set forth this last yeere by Captaine lohn
Smith, with new English names exchanged for the Saluage. It lieth be-
twixt 41. and 45. — This present yeere 1616. eight voluntarie ships went
thither to make further triall : and hereafter wee hope to haue English
Colonies renued, in this Northerly Plantation newly called New-Eng-
land." p. 940.

Secondly, Virginia was the germ out of which our nation and our
national institutions were developed. It was there our tirst colony was
planted. There our free form of representative government was first
established, when in 1610 Governor Yeardly convened the first General
Assembly, which was composed in part of the freely chosen represen-
tatives of eleven different boroughs. This was a year before the land-
ing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Virginia, too, first drew the sword
for the common defence of the Colonies, when Geo. Washington was
appointed Commander in Chief of the army of Congress. And it was
the hand of a Virginian that wrote, and his lips that first uttered the
''Declaration of Independence," the charter of American liberty.

Thirdly, during the whole of our national existence Virginia has
been the dominant State of the Union. During the Revolution she fur-
nished the man around whom alone all hearts and all energies could be
rallied as the leader of our armies. Since then, down to the present
day, she has continued to fill the Presidential chair with her sons for
more than one-half of the period of our independent national existence,
having given us four Presidents, and the late Vice-president, whose ad-
ministrations cover 36 out of the 69 years of independence. We might
show this ascendency of the ''Old Dominion" in various other ways,
but this will sufilce.

Fourthly, there is no other national name that has an equal claim to
our acceptance. ''Yankees" is a soubriquet which can never be eleva-
ted to the dignity of a national name, nor has it the corresponding word
which would designate our country. "New England" has never been
a])plied to more than a part of this country, and tlie combination of the
adjective with the substantive makes it objectionable. Besides, our pop-
ulation is from almost every nation under heaven, and a large body of
them feel no ambition to be called English, nor even Anglo-Americans.
21

162 VIRGINIA.

Finally, it is no objection to the reroplinn of the name Viririnia,
that it has already been appropriated to a state. The state of Virginia
and the United States of Virginia would be easily distinguishable, and
no inconvenience would result. "A Virginian" would be none the less
a Virginian because he was an inhabitant of tliat state. Nor should we
think that the inhabitants of the other states would feel insulted by re-
ceiving a general designation around which cluster the most glorious re-
collections of our republic. Further, we think that this name would be
a kind of talisman, a word of mighty power to exorcise the foul fiend
of disunion, and to bring together and keep tosfether those who, we
trust, will ever have "one country and one destiny," whether they live
upon the granite hills of the North, or the sunny plains of the South,
from Maine to Louisiana, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

We conclude with the following passage from old Purchas, which,
though rather long, we think worth copying both for its beauty and for
its bearing upon ourargument :

'-Leauing New-France, let vs draw neerer the Sunne to New-Britaine,
whose Virgin soile not yet polluted with Spaniards lust, by our late Vir-
gin-Mother, was iustly called Virginia. Whether shall I here begin
with Elogies or Elegies ? Whether shall I warble sweet Carols in praise
of thy lonely Face, thou fairest of Virgins, which from our other Bri-
taine World, hath wonne thee Wooers and Suters, not such as Leander,
whose loues the Poets haue blazed for swimming ouer the Straits be-
twixt Sestos and Abydus, to his louely Hero ; but, which for thy sake,
haue forsaken their Mother-Earth, encountred the most tempestuous
forces of the Ayre, and so often ploughed vp JYeptunes Plaines, furrow-
ing angrie Ocean, and that to make thee of a ruder Virgin, not a wanton
Minion, but an honest and Christian Wife ? Or shall I change ray ac-
cent, and plaine me (for I know not of whom, to whom, to complaine)
of those disaduentures, which these thy louely Louers haue sustained
in seeking thy loue ; What enuie, I know not, whether of Nature, will-
ing to reserue this Nymph for the treasurie of her owne loue, testified
by the many and continuall presents of a temperate Clymate, fruitful!
Soile, fresh and faire streames, sweet and wholesome Ayre, except neere
the shore (as if her iealous policie had prohibited forraine Suters :) or
of the Sauage Inhabitants, vnworthy to embrace with their rustike armes
so sweete a bosome, and to some conceiued indignitie, that some Pa-
rents should thither send their most vnruly Sonnes, and that our Bri-
tannia should make her Virginian lap to be the voider, for her lewder
and more disordered Inhabitants, whose ill parts haue made distasteful!
those kinder offices of other our Britainc Worthies, which else had

AiVr-IANA. 163

beeue long since willi gioatcst gladnesse, ami the rccompcncc of her .selie
entertained: Or whether it be Virginian niodestie, and alter the vsc of
Virgins, shee would say Nay at first, holding that lone surest in contin-
uance, which is hardest in obtaining : Whether any, or all of these, or
what else luilh hindred •, hindered we haue been, and haue not obtained
the full fruition of her Loue, and possession of her gaincfiil Dowrie,
which yet now (more than euer before) she seemeth lo promise, and
doubtlesse will quickly performe, if niggardise at home doe not hinder.
And should men be niggardly in this aduenture, where JVabal must
needs veriiie his name, where keeping loseth, aduenturing promiseth so
faire a purchase ? Miserie of our times ! that miserable men should
liere want what they already haue, and refuse to haue there, at no rate,
abundant supply to their too miserable feares of want. Lift vp your
epes, and see that brightness of Virginia's beauty ! which the Moun-
taines lift vp theinselues always with wilde smiles to behold, sending
downe siluer streames to salute her, which powre themselues greedily
into her lonely lap, and after many winding embracements, loth depart,
are at last swallowed of a more mightie corriuall, the Ocean : He also
sends Armies of Fishes to her Coasts, to winne her Loue, eucn of his
best store, and that in store and abundance : the Mountaines out-bid the
Ocean, in oilering the secret store-houses of undoubted Mines : he again
oflereth pearles : and thus while they seeke to out-face each other with
their purted and bigge swollen cheekes, who shall gei the Bride ; the
one laies hold on the Continent and detaines the same, maugre the
Oceans fury, and he againe hath gotten the Hands all along the Coast,
which he guardeth and keepeth with his watery Garrisons. Virginia,
betwixt those two sowre-faced Suters, is almost distracted, and easily
would giue entertainment to English loue, and accept a JYciv Britain
appellation, if her husband be but furnished out at first in sorts and
sutes, befitting her marriage solenuiitie : all which her rich dowrie
would maiiitainc for cuer alter with aduantage." Penn.

ANT-IANA, NO. V.

About the middle of July, I met with a colony of ants of a difiiu-
ent species from any yet described. They were of a red [)rown color,
and in some respects, their habits were difierent from any yet noticed.
They did not travel at random in search of food as some others do ; luit
they had constructed regular tunnels or walks, partly excavated, or aiched
over with small pieces of sticks, bark, or leaves, along which they were
passing in considerable iiimibeis. I found tlicre were lateral biaiiciie^

164 AM-IANA.

extending in different directions, leading to the trees or bushes to which
the ants resorted to obtain food from the ajjhides, of which they had no
less than five species feeding on diflerent sorts of trees.

1 was much interested in observing the care and concern the ants
manifested for these insects, and the expedients they employed to pre-
serve them from rival ants and their enemies. I noticed they were very
industriously engaged in collecting small pieces of sticks and leaves to-
gether, and placing them round the foot of the tree and bushes on which
the aphides were feeding, thus forming a kind of tube or enclosure sev-
eral inches in height; they had also constructed arches over the roots
of one of the trees, which were nearly on a level with the surface of
the ground. On examining these arches, I found they contained aphides
surrounded by ants.

One of the trees (a beech,) had a cavity on one side of the trunk,
extending about two feet from the ground, which the ants had arched
over in a very ingenious manner with small pieces of bark and leaves,
in which they had secured a portion of their stock of aphides. These
enclosures communicated with the excavated roads which led to the nest,
which was located in a partly decayed log.

The nest was constructed by removing portions of the decayed sub-
stance, and leaving that which was of a firmer texture, thus forming nu-
merous cells and cavities, in which they had a large quantity of larvae.

Tliis species of ants appears to be of a migratory character. Hav-
ing disturbed them to ascertain whether the colony was numerous, I
found them on the following day busily engaged in carrying away the
larvae. In following the train, I found they were migrating to a new
settlement about ten yards distant, among some large stones. They were
employed three or four days m removing to their new abode.

About the same time, 1 met with another colony of the same species
removing to a new nest, and on tracing them, I discovered the old nest
about 100 yards distant.

Being infornied that there were some ant hills a few miles from my
house, I went to see them. Tliey were situated on the top and south
side of an elevated piece of wood land. These ant hills were the larg-
est I had ever seen : some of them were two feet six inches in height,
and from ten to fifteen feet in circumference at the base. On opening
one of these hills, I found it contained a great number of galleries, or
avenues, along which ants were moving in great numbers. These mounds
seemed to have been formed by removing the earth from below, and pla-
cing it outside. There were about 40 of them on a space of ground,
not exceeduig two acres, and some of them were within a few yards of

NEW MODES OF CAriUKING INSECTS. 165

each other. The ants I saw, were very busy feeding from the aphides,
on the oaks in the vicinity. I never before witnessed such a colleclioii
of ants : the ground and trees were ahiiost alive with tliem. Taking
out my watch and counting the number that passed up a tree under
which I stood, in a minute, I found the number was 7-% making 4500 in
an hour. Rusxicus.

NEW MODES OF CAPTURING INSECTS.

In the ''Naturalist's Library" for Entomology, vol. iv, which treats
of British IMoths ( Crepuscular ia Lat.j pp. 102 — 107, we find the fol-
lowing simple modes of capturing these beautiful insects. The first is
given by Rev. C. S. Bird, of Berkshire, England, as follows :

"My success in obtaining lepidoptera, to which I am particularly at-
tached," says he, "1 owe to the use of a lamp to attract moths. Du-
ring the moonless nights of summer, I sit with lamps, placed on a table
close to the window. The moths speedily enter the room, if the weath-
er be warm. 1 have had a levee of more than a bundled between
the hours of ten and twelve. In the spring, too, and autumn, I have
frequently been fortunate, though generally having my patience suffi-
ciently tried. In March, for instance, I have taken many specimens of
Biston prodromarius in one evening ; GltBci ruhr'icosa and Lyfcea leuco-
graplia have accompanied them, in April and May, CuculVia jisslna
and Peridcca scrrata have visited me. When November has arrived, Pe-
tasia cassinea and Pdcilocampa popidi have crowded into my room.
Of course at such cool times of the year the window must ke kept .shut
till the moths knock for admittance. If at any time of the year a warm
mist pervade the air, there is almost a certainty of success. But should
any one be induced by this account to try the lamp, he must make up
his mind to experience more of unfavorable evenings than favorable.
There is, however, this advantage in my sedentary plan of mothing, that
it can be combined with reading or writing; and the intervals between
the arrivals need not be lost.

"Moths are extremely sensible of any keenness in the air; a north
or east wind is very likely to keep them from venturing abroad. Dif-
ferent species have diflerent hours of flight. Thus, on a mild and dark
November evening, Poicilocavipa pojmli will occupy from seven to ten
o'clock after which it will make way for Pefasia cassinea., which will
fly till one or two in the morning. I have, for experiment's sake, sat up
in the morning till three o'clock, vvhen the whole heaven was bright
with the rising sun, and moths of various kinds have never ceased arri-
ving in succession till that time. Some of them nui.u cume iVom a coii-

166 CAPTUKING INSECTS.

siderable distance. Scolnp/iilu porphyrca, being a heath niolli, must
come nearly a mile.

" It may likewise be worth while to say a word on my method ol'
securing my prey. Suppose that, either with or without a bag-ncl^ 1
I have imprisoned a moth under an inverted wine-glass, I then light a
small piece of German tinder, half the size of a sixpence, or less, and
introduce it under the edge, and by means of the smoke the insect is
stupified almost inunediately. It is then wholly in my power, though it
would quickly revive : — I pierce it; and, by means of a piu dipped in
oxalic acid, and thrust into the body beneath tlie thorax, I prevent its
revival, and hx it on the settling board. The German tinder does not
injure the color, as brimstone would, whilst it puts the moth so com-
pletely in my power for a few moments, that the specimens I thus lake
and kill are often as perfect and beautiful as if I had bred them. Of
course, I use it for insects taken in the day, or bred, as well as for those
captured by the lamp."

The other method is that of P. J. Selby, of Twizel, England, and has
been attended with the most complete success, as will be seen frcjm the
subjoined account, which we give in his own language :

''In the course of my entomological pursuits," says he, "my at-
tention was first directed to the mode 1 have since adopted for the cap-
lure of nocturnal lepidoptera, by the extraordinary success thai I under-
stood had attended the exposure of a sugar-cask, recently emptied, in a
favorable situation ; and by means of which attraction a great variety of
moths, some of them of very rare occurrence, had been secured. As
sugar casks are not easily procured in tliis country, I bethought myself
of some succedaneum, and it presently struck me that a beehive, or as
it is generally called here, a skc]), recently emptied of its honey, or well
anointed with the same, might answer the purpose, as it was evident the
insects were attracted by the saccharine matter and smell. I according-
ly had one prepared, and the very first evening was convinced that it
would prove a very efficient trap, as several moths of difierent species
were seen and taken upon it.

"The skep should be well anointed on the exterior with honey (the
refuse will answer perfectly well,) and should be supported on a forked
stake about four feet from the ground, or so lliat the insects can be easi-
ly got at and enclosed in the flappers as they alight and settle upon it.
In this way they may be taken in as fine and perfect condition as if they
had been bred Irom the larvae within doors. I generally select a shel-
tered situation and near to wood ; ol' late I have had il near a service
tree, whose berries, I had previuusly observed, attracted the moths."

167

FRAGMF.XT?! 0\ TflR BK AtlTIlTr,.

Of the etlorLs and power of thai wliicli men call (lie Boaiilifnl, I shall
say little. Bnt we shall have to do with eflects only as they throw light
upon causes. It has ever appeared to us that in the investigation of rea-
sons, in natnre, in art, and in morals, the chief ground of failure in at-
taining delinite and satisfactory results, has been, that men have looked
too much for the proximate and too little for the final cause. They have
referred facts confessedly of the same general class to different agencies,
forgetting that it is the community o|" tlieir origin, which has thus thrown
them together. Instead of investigating in the world of taste the great
principles of emotion, they have amused themselves with making cata-
logues of the secondary agents. Nor is the reason dithcult to attain ;
for far less of observation and acuteness is required to show that a con-
sciousness of the beautiful is excited by a rose, a landscape, or a charm-
ing face, than to tell, why and how they produce it, and in what sense
they are its cause.

On this subject the most important inquiry is that, which seeks the
one general principle to which all this class of emotions is to be refer-
red. The theory which we shall present on this vexed subject, is purely
the result of a personal examination of evidence and consciousness.
Otiiers may have come to the same conclusion with ourselves, indeed
with our full conviction of its simplicity and truth, we can scarce con-
ceive how it could be otherwise. But to them, should we be so happy
as to prove our point, we have no debt to acknowledge — neither shall
we shelter ourselves beneath their names if our view shall be censured
as untenable, nor charge on them the offence of our perversion.

The beautiful is not in the object contemplated, but in the soul that
contemplates it. The eye and the ear only guide the hand of the
spirit as it draws forth by the aid of nature seen, or the invisible
world of thought, the beautiful already existing within itself, and
which by their help may be best developed. The idea has been main-
tained, that there is an intuitive perception of what is beautiful, that the
soul has in itself a kind of model by comparing objects with which it
pronounces them beautiful or the contrary. For thus they reason : when
we see an object which we at once pronounce to be beautiful — we must
do so by comparing it with some standard already existing in the mind.
Now, this standard cannot be the recollection of any other beautiful ob-
ject previ(jusly seen, for to suppose so only shifts the didiculty. For
what made me tiiink that former oliject beautiful ? How came I for the
first time to regard an object as beautiful? P'roni lliis tiicy infer, thai there

168 FRAGMENTS ON THF, BEAUTIFUL.

is a primitive pattern or archetype of beauty originally existing in the
hinnan soul, "-by a reference to which all the principles of taste are de-
termined." This theory is beautii\il — and in the spirit of philosophy
strives to attain a unity of cause. Had it rejected the absurdity of in-
tuitive ideas, and assumed the soul itself in the exercise of its finer per-
ceptions, as the model, and shown it grasping all that was in commun-
ion with it in the outer world, and in the ideal world — then would it
have approached the truth.

The spirit of man witliin him is capable of richest music. As two
instruments in perfect unison will both vibrate, though but one be struck,
thus the soul of man thrills with the undulations of whatever it en-
counters in entire harmony with its own chords. Without it, and with-
in it, there must be that which tunes it, but this destroys not the integri-
ty of its own action. Like the iEolian harp, it may not sound without
the winds that sweep above it, yet its heavenly music springs from its
own wires. Though the hand that touches it be unseen, the notes are
too varied, too rich, and too frequent to betoken less than the power of
some high spirit. Many of its emotions may be traced to the great laws
of relation and association, but the most and the highest to a spirit of
intellectual beauty pervading the Universe which the eye sees not, and
the ear never hears. But its melody is caught by the soul within ; and
that other sense, whose organ is all of man's higher nature, brings it to
his perceptions To the poet more of it is given than to mere men. In
him, though the light of this outer world should be cut off, and men of
clay should call him blind, his soul glows with heavenly rays of poetry
and prophecy, and the urgings of the divinity within him give to the
world ''high thoughts, which voluntary move harmonious numbers."
With our whole soul we join the eloquent apostrophe of Akenside :

"Mind, mind alone, bear witness earth and heaven.
The living- fountains in itself contains,
Of beauteous and sublime."
*******

Tliat the picture of a beautiful object does not charm us as deeply and
as long as the reality, is a proof, that it is not the eye alone from whence
the conception of beauty arises.

How often are emotions of the beautiful excited, where, by the ad-
mission of all the vividness even of the mental image, it bears no ratio to
the excitement of I'celing. It is not true, that the mind always forms to
itself or pictures the object which excites the beautiful. The most
charming and delicate ccmceptions of the great poets are precisely such
as no painter can represent, and no imagination embody. We cannot

GRECIAN EDUCATION. 169

see their abortive efforts without being reminded of the kindred attempt
of Raphael in his picture of Pharaoh's Dreams ; and those who have
seen the engraving of it, will bear me out in saying that his Dreams
look for all the world like pancakes stamped with figures of lean kine —
withered ears ! Who ever saw or imagined a picture of Ariel, the sweet-
est of spirits ? Why the very thought that his form was gross enough
to detain color, or to be apprehended by the eye, mars half his won-
drous beauty. The chief charm of the Christobel, of Coleridge, is that
she leaves no distinct image. Brick and mortar critics have called it an
incomplete poem. Its beauty, like that of an ancient ruin, is, that it is
not entire. But some critics vvould think it an improvement to the Venus
of the Medicini if she were completed by a fashionable robe of Alpaca
lustre. By a neglect of this principle, Scott has fallen under censure
for the introduction of supernatural agency in his novel of the "Mon-
astery." The objection which has been made, is partly founded in
truth : but it does not lie against the White^Lady of Avenel, as a spirit-
ual being of a higher sphere — but arises from her offence against that
law which regulates the beautiful in the introduction of supernatural.
Her image is too distinct. We see her too closely. When the great
Magician has said to us,

" The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance

And say — what see'st yonder?"

When we behold the lady bending her lofty powers to win a poor tailor,
whose soul she intends to pierce with a " bare bodkin," we are ready
to cry out —

" She is no spirit;
She eats and sleeps, and hath such senses
As we have such." t

GRECIAN EDUCATION, NO. II.

The Grecian games exerted a powerful influence, not only on the
physical, but likewise on the intellectual training of the people. Liter-
ary exercises were a part of the contest. This topic will find a place
for more extensive examination hereafter. Although education was not
neglected by the different states, each one directing its attention to it, it
was far from being uniform. When the Athenians and Spartans are
compared, a very great difference is perceived. They were of the same
nation, but widely apart in their character. This will be easily expli-
cable, when it is seen how peculiar was the Lacedaemonian plan of ed-
ucation. In developing the subject of education, the attention will bn
22

170 GRECIAN EDUCATION.

directed ultimately to that of Athens, as it is presented in Attic wri-
ters— at present the system of the great Spartan legislator, Lycurgus,
will furnish us employment. The great power of education in forming
man and giving him a specific direction, may be seen strikingly dis-
played in the hardy and courageous Spartans. With the state of things
which gave rise to the labors of the renowned lawgiver of Sparta, it is-
not necessary to intermeddle. Its civil and political arrangements are
well known.

It is education as it existed amongst them, that claims investigation.
They vvere a peculiar people ; long did they retain their distinctive feat-
ures ; and it is, assuredly, instructive to examine, either in whole or in
part, its causes. Amongst the most powerful of these, as was to be ex-
pected, was the training of their children, which was so essential a part
of their system. The wisdom and patriotism of Lycurgus preclude the
idea that he would leave unerabraced, in the constitution which he pre-
pared for his country, the regulations which were necessary for the
rising generation. Well was it understood in that day, "just as the
twig is bent, the tree 's inclined." When Xenophon, as he relates in his
JloXtrttx £axeJ'a<j«.o»<6>v, reflected on the fact, that Sparta, a city with
a sparse population, had become the most populous and renowned in
Greece, it created much surprise, but when he looked at its arrange-
ments he no longer indulged in such emotions. In them he saw the
solution of the whole. The mystery was unravelled. Great was his
admiration of the genius of the man who invented and carried out this
plan. He ranked him amongst the greatest sages, »«< sia- rx itry^xrcc
juketXa a-epov ijyovf^xi. No blind copyist of others, he marked out a
course diametrically opposite, and nevertheless elevated his country to
the highest glory and happiness.

Examining more particularly the arrangements which prevailed, we
learn that the children belonged to the state, and were under parental
control only so far as did not interfere with its paramount authority.
The government made provision for their education, provided supervi-
sion, directed the Ephori to attend to them, and appointed others to dis-
charge special duties — variously designated as uf^Trxi^if, ^siS-ixiot^
and TTxt^ovof^oi.

Every citizen was, in addition, invested with paternal supervision,
and could reprove what was amiss whenever it might occur — either on
the street oi in the Gymnasium. TTxvreg otof^oioi ttuvtuv kxi w«t«-
gfs eivxi Kxi TTxi^ctyayoi xai a^%ovrei, says Schwartz, to whom we
are indebted for many of our facts. Sparta's desire and joy was a beauti-
ful and brave race, sound in body and mind ; blooming sons and daugh-

CLASSICAL CRITICISM. 171

ters. DiflTerent, we refer again to Xenophon, was the usage ol'olher Greeks
from that of the Spartans. "As soon as they are capable of understanding
any thing, the other Greeks who aim at a superior education, give their
children to slaves as pedagogues, and send thera to teachers to learn read-
ing, writing, music, and gymnastics. They furnish their boys with shoes
and garments in excess, and permit them to indulge their appetites with-
out restraint." Lycurgus employed no slave in this service, but gave them
to the care of the paidonomoi, who exercised control over the whole,
and could inflict punishment. In his absence one of the citizens took his
place, so that the boys might not be alone. The best men were selected
from the different divisions of the people, that there might always be a
suitable leader. For the infliction of punishment, some of the Ephebor
were employed who carried whips f^aFTtyet^o^ou This produced great
decorum of behavior and conformity to the law.

CLASSICAL CRITICISM.
The reading alunt for agunt in Cicero pro Archia Poeta, c. iv, § 16.

"Nam ceterae neque temporum sunt, neque setatum omnium, neque
locorum ; haec studia adolescentiam agunt, seneclutem oblectanl, secun-
das res ornant, adversis perfugium ac solatium praebent, delectant domi,
non impediunt foris pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur."

For other studies are riot suited to all circumstances, to every age,
or to every place ; these attract youth, amuse old age, are an ornament
in prosperity, a refuge and a consolation in adversity, are a source of
gratification at home, do not interfere with our movements abroad, are
with us during the watches of the night, accompany us in our travels,
and retire with us to the country.

This celebrated and beautiful passage contains two very interesting
various readings. The first of these, ccicrae for cetera, has not attracted
so much attention but has been generally adopted since the time of Er-
nesti. Although I have strong doubts of its correctness, I retain this
reading as a matter of convenience, because it does not alter the sense.
Whether ceterae be referred to ani niadversiones, inferred from the prece-
ding sentence, (as suggested by Mobius in his edition of Cicero i. p.
266, and adopted by Dr. Anthon in his Select Or. Cic. 1843,) or to Jit-
terae as others maintain, the translation which we give above will be
correct, though I cannot but regard both of these connections as far-
fetched. To use cetera either as an indefinite term or to refer it to stu-
dia in the following clause, appears to me much more simple, and I
should, on this account, prefer retaining the common reading.

172 CLASSICAL CRITICISM.

But that agrmt is the correct reading I have no doubt whatever. —
Dr. Anthon, who has alunt in his text, which is based upon Ernesti's,
but here departs from it, states the case tlius : " The MSS. all agree in
reading agunt for alunt, but we have given alunt with Lambinus, Manu-
tius, Orellius, and others, as more in accordance with the spirit of the
passage." This gives up the historical proof altogether, and rests the
defence of the proposed reading entirely upon the laws of taste. But it
is from the inconsistency of alwit with the context, and the greater ap-
propriateness of agu7if. to the sense of the passage that I would derive
additional arguments in its favor.

I can not see that alunt can be so rendered as to make good sense.
It is true Duncan, p. 292, translates the phrase, " But these give strength
in youth," and Dr. Anthon, p. 201, n. 2, says, "These studies, however,
foster our earlier years." The idea which these editors would convey
appears to be, that literary pursuits are the proper food of the young
mind which they strengthen and develop. But I know of no authority
for giving such a meaning to alere. If Cicero had wished to convey
this idea he would have said "-hasc studia ingenium adolescentium alunt,"
or the like. It is true, Ernesti also declares that alunt would give
the same meaning as agunt, but he points out no instance in which
alere can be thus rendered ; the only peculiarity which he notices in
Cicero's use of this word is in the phrase '•'■Pompejus aluerat Cczsarem^''
where he explains it, '■'■potcntem rc<irfere"= to render powerful; see Er-
nesti Clavis Ciceroniana, sub voce Alere. I understand Mobius to agree
with Matthia, whose works I have not seen, that alere cannot be used
in the sense of '■^ alere animos adolescentium?''

Nitzsch in his Index Scholarum, has defended the reading alunt, by
saying that '■'•alere properly signifies to supply with those things which
render us strong and active, nulrire to supply with food, which satisfies
the appetite and increases the body, being, as it were, the material of
the body," but Horace says of a river, "Quern super notas alucre ripas,"
and various other passages inconsistent with this restriction might be
cited. So far as I am aware, Alere means; 1) to feed, to supply with
food, as alere canes, all lacte, Cic. 2) To cause to grow, vvhich is a
consequence of the supply of food, as in Plin. folia, — capillum alunt,
and in Cicero, Honos alit artes. 3) To increase, in any way, as in the
passage cited above from Horace, and in Cicero's expression, '•'■Pompe-
jus aluerat Coisarem,'''' and so Justin has " alere incendiumP 4) To
d(fend, or treat with favor, as in Caes. '■'■civilas quam ipse semper aluis-
set?'' None of these meanings will suit our context, and we therefore
decide aj>ainst aluM.

SAGACITY OF A HORSE. 173

In favor of the reading agunU we urge, 1) That all the MSS. have
agunt. 2) That it is not probable that alunt would have been changed
by transcribers into agunt^ but rather the reverse, ihe latter being the
easier form. 3) The primitive idea of ago^ whether in Latin or Greek,
is motion^ without any reference to its direction. From the idea of bring-
ing to a place is very easily derived that of pleasure accompanying the
action, which I have ventured to express by the English word '■'■attract,''''
although I must admit that I have no other example of this at hand,
whilst I agree with Heindorffin regarding the passage, seu te discus agil,
in Horace Sat. ii, 2, 13, as throwing light upon it, though Mobius ex-
presses surprise at this in his Cic. 2G6, § 16. If, however, Dr. Anthon
is correct in his note on this passage, (Hor. 282, 13.) and agit is there
used "in the sense of delectat or allicit^'' our point is fully established.
At all events, 4) with this sense we can see a connection between "ac/o-
lesccntiam agunt, and senectutem ohleciant,^'' whilst in '■'•alunt'''' Stc. we
can see none.

Pennsylvania College^ June 1, 1845.

SAGACITY OF A HORSE.

Many interesting stories of the sagacity of that noble animal the
horse, arc related in books on natural history; but I have lately heard
an authentic one which has never yet been recorded. A friend of mine
possesses one of the most sensible horses I ever saw, and it may well
be supposed that he is a great favorite in the family. About the stable
in which he is kept, there are several large dogs, who are on good
terms with the horse, and when the latter is allowed to walk about the
stable yard, he and the dogs play together quite familiarly. One day,
the coachman filled a bucket of water for the horse and set it down to
him. The dogs were also very thirsty, and attempted to drink at the
same time their equine companion was slaking his thirst. This an-
noyed him — he tried to chase them away, but they would not stay
away, — he bit at them, but they returned to the bucket, — he tried vari-
ous means to monopolize the water, but the obstinate dogs would per-
sist in drinking. At length, weary of all liis previous efforts, and un-
willing to disable his canine friends, which he might have done by a
kick or real bite, he took the iron handle of the bucket in his teeth, car-
ried it into the stable, and lifted it into his trough, where he drank to
his/ii/Z satisfaction, without being annoyed by the dogs — as much as to
say "-after me is manners !" Rustic us.

174

COMMON THINGS. NO. I.

VINEGAR.

Vinegar exists ready formed in many plants, and is sometimes found
also in animal fluids. It is an abundant product of fermentation, and is
yielded in large quantities by all liquids that contain alcohol, as also by
some infusions in which this principle does not enter as an original con-
stituent.

Vinegar, for domestic purposes, is commonly prepared by exposing
beer, cider, or other spirituous liquors, mixed with some suitable fer-
ment, to the action of the atmosphere, at a temperature of about 70 °.
The best vinegar for table use is made of rich cider, by the ordinary
process of fermentation. Watered cider (technically so called,) makes
good vinegar, though we have been assured that one barrel of pure
cider will make 1| of prime vinegar. But if the vinegar is too strong
it is easy to dilute it, and we therefore prefer making our vinegar out of
the best cider we can obtain, without the addition of any water in the
first instance.

A friend well known for the successful application of his extensive
chemical knowledge to practical purposes, gives us the following as his
mode of making vinegar for domestic use : To ten gallons of pure
water, add one gallon of molasses and about half a gill of yeast, (a pint
to 30 gals.) or a proportionate quantity of any kind of leaven. Put
this in a vessel sufficiently large to allow the fermentation to go on
rapidly, and with a temperature of from 70° to 80° it will be lit for use
in from 6 to 8 weeks. At a lower temperature fermentation will, of
course, be slow. A handful of green cofi'ee thrown into the barrel with
these materials, is also said to give this vinegar the flavor of cider-vine-
gar, to which it is in all other respects equal.

In some places, particularly in the vine growing countries of Eu-
rope, extensive establishments, termed Vinaigreries, are fitted up for the
manufacture of vinegar. Diluted wines are here placed in tiers of ves-
sels, well supplied with atmospheric air, and kept at a uniform tempera-
ture by means of flues. A portion of the contents is drained from each
cask at regular periods, the residue being left as a ferment for the new
wine which is then added. The vessels are completely cleansed once
in ten years. The period required for fermentation is variable, and is
often affected by causes which cannot be exactly ascertained.

Vinegar may also be o))lained by the distillation of wood. The
wood is placed in large iron cylinders, and exposed for some hours to
a high heat, acetic acid is disengaged, accompanied hy water, empyreu-
matic oil, carbonic acid, carbonin oxide, and rarburetted hvdrogen. —

HON. MEMBERS OF THE LINN. SOCIETY. 175

The crude vinegar must be rectified by redistillation, and the impurities
separated by chemical means. This product was formerly regarded as
a peculiar principle, and known under the name of pyroligneous acid.
The woods most suited for this manufacture are the harder kinks, as
oak, ash, beech, birch, &c. ; pine will not answer.

Vinegar, or acetic acid, cannot exist but in combination with water.
For chemical purposes it may be procured of the requisite strength and
purity in several ways. Before the process for procuring pyroligneous
acid was known, chrystalized verdigris (binacetate of copper,) was dis-
tilled at a high heat, and the vapors condensed in a succession of cold
receivers. Jt may also be procured by decomposing acetate of potash
with sulphuric acid. The presence of other acids with which it is some-
times adulterated may be detected by the ordinary chemical tests.

A beautiful experiment illustrative of the conversion of alcohol into
acetic acid, may be made by placing a portion of black platina powder
over a saucer of vinous spirit and confining the whole in a glass re-
ceiver. The mutual action of the two substances will cause a consid-
erable increase of temperature, and in a few minutes acid vapors will be
seen to condense and trickle down the sides of the glass.

The impure vinegar from wood or pyroligneous acid is extensively
used in the preparation of the salts of Alumina, and iron used by calico
printers, and for various other useful purposes in the arts ; it also pos-
sesses anti-putrescent properties, and may be employed to prevent the
decomposition of animal tissues. H. H.

LIST OF OFFICERS AND HONORARY MEMBERS OF THE LINNAEAN
SOCIETY OP PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

J. G. Morris, D. D. Baltimore, Md.

P. A. Browne, LL. D. Philadelphia., Pa.

F. W. Melsheimer, M. D. Dover, York co. Pa.

C. P. Krauth, D. D. Gettysburg, Pa.

Prof. H. L. Baugher, " "

" W. M. Reynolds, " "

" M. L. Sloever, « "

" C. A. Hay, " "

>■' M. Jacobs,
" H. Haupt,

S. S. Schmucker, D. D.

H. S. Slagle, Esq.,

Samuel Forry, .11. D. (dec'd. )

John L. Stevens, Esq.

Bern. W. Budd, M. D.

a

a

u

li

u

u

Winchester

, Va.

JYew York

City.

176

HON. MEMBERS OF THE LINN. SOCIETY.

H. S. Patterson, M. D,
Wm. Darrach, M. D.

Philadelphia, Pa.

u u

Wm. R. Grant, M. D.

(( a

Washington L. Atlee, M. D.

U ((

John Wiltbank, M. D.

a u

T>. Gilbert, M. D.
H. McMurtrie, Esq.
Wm. McGuigan,

Gettysburg, Pa.
Philadelphia, Pa.

Geo. M. Carpenter,
Titian R. Peale, Esq.

Washington, D. C.

C. H. Van Patten, M. D.

u u

Francis Markoe, Jr., Esq.

u u

Charles De Selding, Esq.

u u

J. K. Tovvnsend, Esq.

u u

Rev. Wm. H. Smith,

Baltimore, Md.

Prof. S. S. Haldeman

Marietta, Pa.

Rev. S. Oswald,

York, Pa.

J. P. Hiester, M. D.

Reading, Berks co. Pa.

Prof. Walter R. Johnson,

Phildelphia, Pa.

Rev. H. I. Smith,

Hartwick,jy. Y.

Prof Foreman, M. D.

Baltimore, Md.

Rev. F. C. Heyer,

Guntoor, India.

Rev. Walter Gunn,

(.i u

W. Wagner,

York Pa.

Spencer F. Baird, Esq.

Carlisle, Pa.

Lieut. Jno. G. Reynolds, U. S. M.

Brooklyn, J^. Y.

PRESENT OFFICERS OP THE SOCIETY.

President, — John G. Morris, D. D.

\st V. PresH.—m.. Diehl.

2nd do. Wm. H. Harrison,

Recording Sec''y. — Charles A. Brougher.

Cor. Sec'y. — H. R. Geiger.

Treasurer, — John A. Houck.

Curators, — Messrs. Anstatt and Benedict.

A number of other gentlemen have been elected Honorary Members,
but not having notified the Society of their desire to be considered as
such, are omitted in this list. If any gentlemen find themselves thus
passed over through mistake, or in consequence of their failure to sig-
nify their acceptance of membership, they can notify the Corresponding
Secretary of the fact, and their names will appear in the Record and
Journal from time to time, as we design thus noticing all accessions to
the Society.

RECEIVED FOR THE LINNAEAN FAIR.

Two boxes of sundries, from the Ladies of Reading, Pa.
Two " " " York, Pa.

One box •' " ''■ Philadelphia.

TO THE FRIENDS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,
IN BEHALF OF THE LINNAEAN ASSOCIATION.

The establishment of a Linnaean Association in Pennsylvania Col-
lege, was an event that will occupy a prominent place in the annals of
the Institution. It was a happy ciicumstance that the spirit of enter-
prise, that had for some time been life among the members of the Col-
lege, embodied itself in a form so well adapted to direct their energies
into the proper channels. The employment of the leisure time of the
student in the prosecution of some branch of Natural Science, as a re-
laxation from the seveier labors of the course, is a desirable end that
can in no way be so elfectually reached as by a voluntary association of
this kind, and its beneficial influence upon us is already perceptible.

No sooner, however, had the a.'sociation commenced its operations,
and investigations been entered into in the various departments of sci-
ence, than the want of an adequate Lilrary and Museum was strongly
felt. Measures were at once adopted for the acquisition of both, and
carried out with such energy and success, that the Cabinet is already
liighly respectable. Numbers of distant friends of the College have
generously availed themselves of this opportunity to contribute towards
the prosperity of the Institution.

VVe therefore feel emboldened to urge this subject upon the attention
of those who have not yet done any thing for us. We desire, and are
determined to use every exertion to get together a cabinet, that will do
honor not only to Pennsylvania College, but to the scientific spirit of
the whole body of those interested in her prosperity. In this, not only
the scientific, but all persons of taste and intelligence, can aid us most
effectually. We desire to obtain specimens of the natural productions
and curiosities, the fossils and minerals, the plants and flowers, the birds
and shells, fishes and reptiles, the insects and the animals of this coun-
try, and of all parts of the world. We therefore appeal to our friends,
every where, to encorage us in this undertaking, by sending us any of
these things whicli they think will be of interest in such a collection.
Donors may be assured that their contributions will be grcalfully re-
reived, and that a record will be kept of the names of those who aid us
in this enterprise. We have determined to erect a Hall in which to ar-
range and display to advantage the articles which we already possess,
and which we are assured that the liberality of our friends and the pub-
lic generally will hereafter furnish ; but we hope that, in the mean time,
so much will be done as to show that bur labor and zeal for this work
have not been superfluous.

Donations may be forwarded to the following gentlemen, who lake
a lively interest in the enterprise :

Rev. Jno. G. Morris, D. D., BaUimore, Md.
Rev. W. A. Passavant, PiUshurg, Pa.
Rev. Chas. Martin. JV<:'t<j York, JY. Y.
Rev. Theofii. Stojjke, P/uladcJphia, Pa.
'V to the "Curators of the Linnaean Association, Gctlyshurg, PaP

|)enu5nli>ama ^College, ©cttnsbuvg, ^a.

1

;1

^ Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur- i
I ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta- \
't tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that \
] of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatori/ Department provides for in- }
( struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition I
i to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course I
< is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country. <

\ The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to ]
\. require. They attend at least two recititions a day, Church and Bible Class on the \

■ Sabbath, and are visited in their room.= so frequently as to preclude the danger of s
^ any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has ;
; more exemplary young men in connexi >n with it. They are all required to lodge ;
? in the College Edifice, special cases excepted. ;

The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter;
, session, $'fil 87i : for the summer session, %i\ 87i. Washing, -S'lO 00 ; and Wood,
$;.3 00. Total expense, $116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per
, week. '

; There are two vacations in the yecr, commencing on the third Thursdays of
; April and September, each of five weel.s continuance. \

; The summer session commenced on the 22d of May, with the accession of over ;
; forty new Students.

; ^cknorolc^gcmems of D.matioits to tl]c C^abinct of tlje Cinncenn
4 Qlssocintiou of |3.Minsnloania (College.

; May, 1845. From Mr. Yingling, one large shell, and mineral.

'> 2. Mr. J. A. Bradshaw, Morse's Telegraphic alphabet ; a stone broken from

■ Andre's dungeon. Fort Putnam, West Point.

.3. Miss Hunt, Boonsboro', specimen of printing done in the Penn. Institution
' for the blind.

'. 4. Rev. J. n. Lochinan. one pair of Indian raoccasons.

; ' 5. Mfss Foa-Zfso(itr, number of specimens of minerals and shells.
; 6. Mrs. S. Kraufh, Baltimore, shells, Stc.

7. Prof. M. L. Stoever, an engra* ing of the Declaration of Independence.
; 8. Mr. J. Brooks, per Prof. Bangher, eight specimens of the Horseshoe-fish,

, weapons of the Sword-fish, and a box of shells.

9. Messrs. Miller and Henshaw, a beautiful specimen of the Grey Squirrel.

10. Br. Dobler, Elizabethtown, Pa. minerals, and a copy of a very ancient
Atlas.

■ 11. Mrs. Ebert, one ancient Irish coin.

12. Prof. Hay, specimens of minerals from Niagara.
: 13. Mr. .d. H .'Inghe, petrified snike.

; 14. Mr. Wm. Gillespie, one box of articles from the burnt district of Pitts-
; burg.

) 15. Mr. H. Rathvon, of Lancaster, Pa. a silver medal of the Universitv ol
; Berne, worth about $tl 50.

/ 16. i?r. i?o6f. B. M' Cay, of Nortbr.mberland, Pa. two specimens FbZtito A/
; ca, from the West Indies.

;. 17. Dr. D. T. Trite, of Sunbury, Pa. and Messrs. Chasles Brunner, and IVm.

': J. Martin, of the same place, one box of minerals.

i 18. Mrs. Ml, one Sand-hill Craoe The above Nos. 16, 17, and IS, per Mr.
I Geo. W. Martin.

Vacation. — Our friends will excuse the late appearance cf the pi . -

ent No. of tlie Journal, in view of the fact, that the aciinsf editor thought

himself entitled to a vacation in common with the other members of

• Pa. College. At other times we shall endeavor to be as punctual as our

cotemporaries.

VOLLME 1.]

[number 9.

LITERARy RECORD AND JOURNAL

©f tijc i'iiinacrtu Jlssociation of PciuisDUmnta CclUge.
JULY, ]845.

CONDICTEP

^S a Otommittce of the ^ssociatfon.

CONTENTS.
NUGJE ETHNOLOGICAE, - - - . .

BIOGRAPHY OF Ll.X.VAEUS, - _ _ _

FRAGMENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL, _ - _

THE ORIGIN OF THE FINE ARTS, - - -

THE POWER OF FASCINATION ASCRIBED TO SNAKES,
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION, - . _ -

COMMON THINGS, II. '

WELLS,
(JEOMETRA DEFORIARIA, - - _ _

COLLEGE RECORD, ------

FAIR FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE LINNAEAN HALL,

177
181

183

185
188
191

195
197
199
200

11 sheet, periodical — Postage, 2^ cents, to any distance within the Union.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINN.EAN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. JULY, 1845. No. 9.

NUG.E ETHNOLOGICAE, NO. I.

BY PROF. H. S. PATTERSON, M. D. OF PHILADELPHIA, PA.

It is my desire to throw out a few occasional thoughts on the intense-
ly interesting subject of the Natural History of man, hoping that they
may prove acceptable to the readers of this Journal, and perhaps excite
some active mind to a fuller investigation of the topics referred to. Eth-
nography and the associated subjects of inquiry are among the broadest
and most attractive fields now open to the student. Before Bhimenbach
there was no -science of mankind, considered in its diversities of form,
feature, and color, and little has been done since his time, until of late,
vhen a host of able minds have devoted themselves to the subject with
an energy and zeal which promise speedy and ample results. Among
these, I would instance Morton and Prichard. Of our eminent fellow-
citizen, I need say little. He has built himself already a monument jser-
ennius cbtc^ and is pursuing his career with an industry and ability that
cannot fail of important consequences. Dr. Prichard, be his faults what
they may, has displayed an amount of erudition seldom equalled. If
.not always unprejudiced and clear in his views, he yet deserves all
praise for the labor he has bestowed in accumulating the materials from
which alone correct generalizations can be attained, as well as from the
hearty candor with which he abandons a hypothesis, however favorite,
when it is shown to be erroneous. The works of these writers, and
many others, have given to ethnological studies a prominence they nev-
er before enjoyed. Facilities for the study have also increased in pro-
portion to the accuracy of our knowledge concerning the inhabitants of
remote portions of the globe. The investigation of the monumental re-
mains of ancient peoples has thrown much light on the past history of
the race, and comparative philology has come in to complete the round
of studies which are requisite to a perfect Ethnology. There ran rare-
ly be found a mind competent to master so immense a sphere of inqui-
23

178

SV(i!E ETHNOLOGIC A E.

ry, yet the simultaneous effort of many minds is fast bringing us toward
an accurate science.

Yet there are obstacles in the way. Unfortunately, no subject in-
volves so many ulterior considerations of a momentous and exciting
character. It is difficult to approach it with a mind not pre-occupied by
fixed opinions and even stubborn prejudices. I have felt this myself,
and have seen it in others. Our supercilious contempt for those we
deem inferior to us, rouses us to resistance, when our absolute parity is
asserted. The inherent disposition to find a reason to gloss over with
a color of right the wrong we daily practice, may also influence us. On
the other hand, the denial of the unity of the great family of man strikes
a blow, at first sight so serious, at our cherished religious and social
principles, that we can scarcely come with calmness to its consideration.
It appears little less than profanation, that, when our hearts are opened
toward our great brotherhood, and Reason (Vernunft) combines with rev-
elation to proclaim the truth of the sentiment, the mere physical philos-
opher, based on his narrow islet of the Understanding (Verstand) should
hold out to us his dry bone or shred of rete mucosinn, and ask us, on
their authority, to negate the evidence we believe to be the highest. Yet
we should recollect, that, if his islet is narrow, it stands firm amidst an
ocean of illusion, with its foundation far down in the central depth.
Nature cannot lie. It is "the art of God," and a mode of operation of
the Spirit of Truth. Our proper inquiry is first, is the alleged fact real-
ly fact, and if so, are the deductions drawn from it, legitimate } In or-
der to the first inquiry, we must have free and unoccupied minds, and I
believe, that, if we bring them to this subject, we will find nothing in
the results of ethnological investigations to militate with the Christian
theory of the parity and fraternity of the whole race. I could not pre-
tend to discuss so ample a topic in a few disjointed notices, even had I
the ability to do it. My object is merely to throw out a few sugges-
tions from time to time, none of which will probably have the charm of
novelty, except to those whose reading on the subject has been limited.

One of the primary doctrines taught us is the origin of all men from
a single pair, whose seat was somewhere in Central or North-Western
Asia. The question arises, does the Bible teach beyond dispute, this
doctrine } There are those who doubt, and even those who deny it.
Among the former I may mention Mr. Lawrence, (JYat. Hist, of Man,)
and among the latter, Bory de St. Vincent, who denies that the Negros
and Australians are a part of the '■'■race JidamiqueP'' Voltaire and his
school, who also take the latter view, are not to be regarded as men of
science, and have therefore, no authority. Among the earliest specula-

-NUGiE ETHNOLOGICAK. 179

tors on this point, was Isaac Peyreve, librarian to the Prince of Conle,
who published, near the middle of tlie last century, a book which was
publicly burned by authority of the Sarbonne. He contended that there
are in Genesis two distinct creations of human beings described. The
first upon the sixth day (i, 27. 28.) and the second subsequently in Eden,
forgetting entirely, that in the passage immediately preceding the account
of the creation of Adam, the reason is given, "that there was not a man
to till the ground." In general the writers who take this view, assert
that thq word Adam is intended to be understood as a generic appella-
tion, and that the whole account is rather mythical than a literal history.
Every reader of Genesis must have noticed, that there runs through the
early part of it, in particular, a duplicate account of most transactions.
Whether the theory of its formation by the collocation of ancient frag-
mentary documents is true or not, this fact is apparent. The account in
that, which the critics denominate the Elohistic document, is found in
Gen. i, 27. 28, — that in the Jehovistic in ii, 7. 21. 22. Tiie word which
is given as a proper name (Adam) in our version of the latter, is trans-
lated 7nan in the former, and is proved to mean the whole human fami-
ly, or Mankind, by the succeeding declaration "male and female created
he them." Cahen, a learned Israelite, who has recently published a new
translation of the Bible in Paris, remarks on the former passage — "Adam,
r espece humaine, singulier collectif." In commenting on the 19th verse
of the 2d ch. where our version first uses the name Adam he charges
the Septuagint, whom we have followed, with changing a collective into
a proper name. Fabre- d' Olivet, in his great work, '■'•La Langue He-
braique Iteslituee^'' writes thus on the word Adam : "I pray those who
read me without partiality to remark, that Moses does not fall here into
the modern error which has made man a particular genus in the animal
kingdom ; but, after having finished all he wished to say on the element-
ary kingdom, the vegetable kingdom, and the animal kingdom, he passes
on to a distinct and more elevated kingdom wliich he names Adam. *
* * * This name does not signify simply "homo," a man : it char-
acterizes, as the Samaritan version properly has it rendered, the univer-
sal., what we understand by the human species^ and what we might bet-
ter express by the hominal kingdom ; that is, collective man, Man form-
ed abstractedly by the assemblage of all men. This is the proper sense
of the word Adam." He adopts this signification throughout, and re-
gards the entire Mosaic cosmogony as a splendid myth, sliadowiiig forth
spiritual truth under material forms. Of his pliilological erudition there
can be no doubt. Dr. Lamb, of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, who
has taken a somewhat similar view, and regards the early part of Genesis

180

NLG.i: ETII.XOLOGICAE.

as a transcript from the sculptured records of primeval hieroglyphical
monuments, does not agree with Fabre- d' Olivet, in considering Adam
generic, but limits the creation to a single pair. This, as is well knovvn,
is the opinion of theologians in general. More light is wanted on the
subject, and I can conceive of no more useful task of a profound linguist
than tlie investigation of this difficulty.

If the view here indicated be correct, we are to understand the Scrip-
tures as teaching nothing more than that mankind was formed from the
dust of the earth, by an effort of the Divine Will, at a particular point
in the creative series, and that point the last, and therefore, the highest,
because the series is evidently progressive in importance and excellence.
The subject is therefore, an open one to the naturalist, and remains to
be determined by proper physical and psychological researches. These
cannot, of course, prove the origin from a single pair; neither will his-
tory help us here. The remarks of Adelung, quoted by Mr. Lawrence,
sufficiently establish this point. The late discoveries in Egyptian arch-
aeology, only show us the existence of the present diversities at a date
prior to all profane history hitherto known. But ethnographical science
can establish, if I am not mistaken, a point of equal importance, because
involving the same inferences. Jt is the specific identity of all the fam-
ilies of men, and the separation of man from the rest of the animated
creation by a wide and impassable chasm. I have seen as yet, no evi-
dence of diversity which any unprejudiced naturalist would consider
sufficient to establish a difference of species among the inferior animals.
As to the cause of the diversities which do exist, I believe, that there
are abundant data to prove this position — thai the ordinary physical for-
ces daily produce differences of form and color in the animated creation
under our eyes, infinitely greater than any ichich are found among the
various irihes of men. Admit this, and I assert again, that we have no
right to alledge more or greater causes than suffice for the production of
a given effect, and that it is unphilosophical to presume an original dif-
ference or a miraculous transformation, when the ordinary forces of mat-
ter are amply sufficient to account for the phenomena in question. We
can, therefore, establish the unity of the species even if we give up the
Scriptural authority for it.

It will be seen that in the above remarks, I have not resorted to the
flood to disprove any conclusions that might be derived from a suppo-
sed original creation of the varieties. I have not done so, because it is
abundantly evident that the family of Noah includes only the three
great branches of the Caucasian variety, and that the Scripture account
IS conlined to them. The gradual narrowing down of the Bible narra-

LIN.NAKUS. 181

tion, first from the race in Adam to the Caucasian variety in Noah, then
the separation of Shem from Ham and Japhet, of Abraham from Lot, of
Isaac from Ishmael, and finally of Jacob from Esau, shows that all the
anterior account was intended by the writer of the Pentateuch as simply
introductory to tlie great object of the work, — tlie history of the chil-
dren of Israel. It is therefore, marked with a brevity and conciseness
which seem to Dr. Lamb, to prove its hieroglyphical origin. He sup-
poses that the writer of Genesis, would of course preserve as much as
possible of these records, whose antiquity gave them the highest author-
ity. Be this as it may, I think we must agree with Dr. Pye Smith, in
the observation, that "it never entered into the purpose of revelation to
teach men geographical facts, or any other kinds of physical know-
ledge." The writer gives merely a history of the dealings of God with
his chosen people, prefaced by a cosmogony and a genealogy of their
great progenitor. In these we have the revelation of religious truths of
primary importance. We have no right to look for more. Our duty is
to receive thankfully that which is vouchsafed us. It did not enter into
the scope of the work to teach ethnology any more than astronomy or
anatomy. It is a subject within the reach of the powers given us, and
we should exercise them upon it with honesty and humility, in the con-
fident assurance that no two truths ever were at variance with each oth-
er, but harmonize as emanations from the One Source.

BIOGRAPHY UF LINNAEUS.

A short sketch of the life of the distinguished naturalist, from whom
the Journal derives its name, will no doubt be received with favor by
its patrons. The truth is, very little is known of Linnaeus by the great
mass of readers. A fact concerning him is here and there brought to
light, but seldom does a full history of his life and character fall into the
hands of the general reader. This is to be regretted. We desire not
merely to hear of great men and become acquainted w-ith the important
discoveries which they have made ; we want to see them living and act-
ing before us, to hear them speak, and trace for ourselves the lineaments
of their characters as well as their faces.

Charles Linnaeus was born on tlie 3d of iVIay, 1707, in the little vil-
lage of Rashult, in Smaland, a province in that part of Sweden adjacent
to Deimiark. His father was descended from a race of peasants, some
of wliom had relinquished their occupations for literary pursuits, and
according to the Swedish custom, had changed his name for one suggest-
ed by some external circumstance. A flourishing linden or hme-trce on

182 LIN.NAEUS.

the farm on which he was born, gave origin to the name Lindelins or
Tiliander (lime-tree man,) which was afterwards ciianged to Linnaeus.
The mother of the naturalist, it is said, was a remarkably fine woman,
furnishing another fact to confirm the opinion, that the mothers of dis-
tmguished men are gifted women.

His father, who was a poor clergyman, was obliged to eke out a scan-
ty income, by cultivating a garden. This was the foundation of the son's
celebrity. Here lie acquired that love of flowers, and of nature in gen-
eral, which was followed by such important results. He was the con-
stant companion of his father whilst in the garden, and had set apart for
himself a little spot of ground in which he labored most industriously,
and soon became acquainted with all his father's plants, and those in-
digenous to the neighborhood, which he transplanted into his own terri-
tory. His labors were not confined to flowers, but extended to the pur-
suit of wasps and wild bees, which he captured and. attempted to colon-
ize at home, much to the annoyance of the domestic insects. His pa-
rents, anxious that he should enter the university, sent him, when ten
years old, to the gymnasium of Uexio, for the purpose of beginning his
studies systematically. Here his advantages for the study of his favor-
ite subjects were greatly increased. But, alas! for Greek and Latin, he
neglected them so much, that both students and professors pronounced
him an incorrigible dunce.

At seventeen Linnaeus was sent homo with most unfavorable testi-
monials. His parents believing, that his present pursuits would never
yield him a livelihood, determined to apprentice him to a cobbler. Dr.
Rothmann, of Uexio, attracted by his extensive knowledge of botany,
saved him from this sad alternative, and made such liberal oflfers for his
present support that his father pei'mitted him to study botany and phys-
ic. The first year of his academic career was spent at Lund, where he
was relieved from the pinching hand of poverty by the kindness of
Prof. Stobaeus. Whilst busily engaged in extending his botanical ex-
cursions, and increasing his herbal, he almost lost his life by the bite of
a venomous worm, to which he afterwards gave the name of Furia in-

fernalis.

He was induced to repair to Upsal, in the hope of enjoying the in-
structions of Dr. Olaus Celsius, first professor of divinity, and restorer
of natural history, in Sweden. Much to his disappointment the profes-
sor had gone to Stockholm, and he was once more thrown entirely on
his own resources. One year he spent in hard study in which all his
money was expended. There was no prospect of relief from home,
and his destitution increasing, he was glad to receive the cast-ofl" clothes

FRAGMENTS OV THE BE AlTIl'U J,. 183

of lii.^ fellow stiidenls. Hi's pxireinity may be inferred from tlie fact
tliat he palclied a pair of slioes given him by an acquaintance, with
pieces of card sliched together with fibres of bark. Oh ye lovers of
learning ! receive from the trials of Linnaeus a lesson of perseverance
which will teach you not to despond in the darkest hour of adversity.
The darkest hour is said to be before day. In the midst of these trials
Celsius returned, and pleased widi the young botanist's knowledge of
the plants in the university garden, admitted him to his house and table,
and gave him free access to his libiary. The rapid progress of our
young student in such favorable circumstances may be inferred from the
fact, that in two years he was thought qualified to deliver occasional
lectures from the botanic chair, in the place of Prof. Rudbeck.

The members of the Royal Academy of Science at Upsal, anxious
for the improvement of the natural history of Sweden, at the suggestion
of Celsius and Rudbeck, appointed Linnaeus to make the tour to Lap-
land. For this he was eminend}' qualified both by a vigorous constitu-
tion, and profound knowledge as a naturalist. Thirty-one dollars was
the sum furnished for his outfit, on which he traveled six months, and
in addition, economized sufficiently to purchase a fur dress out of it.
His equipments are given as follows : "A light coat of linsey-woolsey,
with a red shalloon lining, shag collar and cufTs ; leather breeches ; a
wig; a green leather cap, and half boots; a hanger at his side, a small
fowling-piece, and an octangular stick graduated for measuring; a leath-
er bag containing one shirt, two shirtees, two pairs false-sleeves, an ink-
stand, a pen case, a spy glass, a microscope, a gauze cap as a protection
from the gnats, a comb, paper stitched together to hold his plants, his
journal, and other manuscripts."'

Without attempting to follow our traveler through a region of coun-
try, in great part waste and desert, it may be sufficient to say, as illus-
trating the cheerfulness and patience of Linnaeus, that parts of his jour-
ney were performed on a meagre stumbling horse, with an unstufTed
saddle, and a bit of rope for a bridle. He exposed his life in visiting
the remarkable caves on Utskula. A stranger to the manners, and ig-
norant of the language of the people, he committed himself alone, to
their hospitality.

FRAGiVIENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL.

The beauty of graceful motion arises from the ease, and the absence
of restraint with which it is connected bv the mind. It charms us into

184 FRAGMENTS ON' THE BEAUTIFUL.

a faint drefim of freedom, there is a leaping joy in the bosom. We catch
the grace, the ease, the swiftness, and are for the lime companions of
the springing antelope, twirling her tiny limbs and careering over the
plain like a frisking vapor driven wild before the chasing wind.

There is a glory around the setting sun. The quivering lances of
red light are darted against the cloud-shielded breast of Heaven. — The
deep glow kindling the air-woven vapors, reflected from hill-side and
house-top, rock and tree, mirrored in every still pool, and flashing in
every dimpled stream — lights up all things with unconsuming fire, and
makes a universe of flame.

"The glorious sun

Stays in his course, and plays the Alchemist ;

Turning with splendor of his precious eye,

The meagre, cloddy earth to glittering gold." *

But it is the spirit in its high and calm musings, whilst the heart beats
tranquilly as in the bosom of the sinless child, it is the soul dwelling in
tender melancholy on thoughts of life's evening repose, the rest of
those who have passed earth's horizon, to shine in another firmament
where they shall set no more — it is the light of the setting sun playing
on a golden link of that chain which binds us as immortals to the bless-
ed God whose word sent him forth to run his race — it is this — it is
these that give it beauty.

This great principle which we call the law of Association, consti-
tutes the grand link, in the mind, of objects which have no absolute con-
nection. The mind having had cognizance of one object at the same
time and place with another, whenever it subsequently beholds but one of
them — is reminded of its fellow. From the difference of the circum-
stances under which the mental grouping is made arise those peculiari-
ties, and sometimes anomalies of feeling, for which without reflection
we might oftentimes be unable to account. You and I may be looking
at the same object — you may be moved deeply — I may view it with in-
difference, or smile at a sensitiveness which 1 do not comprehend. I
cannot feel with you, because with that object my mind has not the as-
sociation which gives to you its beauty or its power. The Switzer
may languish with death -like longings when he hears the Ranz des
Vaches, an air by no means remarkable for its pathos, because he has
heard it echoed from the hills on whose side his father's cot was built,
when the voice of a mother still calls him back to the home of his
childhood. Wherever this law of mental association acts, a sense of the
beautiful may be excited. Objects ordinarily absolutely disgusting, by

* King John, Act I, Sec. 1.

ORIGIN OF THE FINK AUTS. 185

it are rendered pleasing. — "In love," says Homer, "oftentimes ilie things
tliat are not beautiful, seem beautiful." "Ilovv beautiful on the moun-
tain tops," says the prophet, "are the feet of them that bring glad ti-
dings of good things." He speaks of the Herald who brings the glad
news of deliverance. The sandelled feet soiled with the dust of travel,
and repulsive, became beautiful when the mind of the prophet connect-
ed them with Him whose journey they sped, bringing rapture to the
wasted children of Israel.

The moment any object, whatever may have been its charms, has
an association of a repulsive character connected with it, it loses all its
beauty. If the lovely Paris sat upon the Judge's bench, the man whom
lie condemned to be hung, would think him a monster of ugliness. So
far will the mind carry its action under this law, that it will regard as
repulsive what has innocently or involuntarily become associated with
what we dislike. So the immortal poet, in the play of King John, when
the -Earl of Salisbury bids the lady Constance repair to the marriage of
the Dauphin Lewis to Blanch of Castile, a union which blasts all her
own prospects with those of her son, true to nature, makes her passion-
ately cry out to the involuntary messenger of evil :

"Fellow begone ! I cannot brook thy sight ;

This news hath made thee a most ugly man." * f

THE ORIGIN OF THE FINE ARTS.
From the German of Kugler's Ilandbuch der Kuiistgeschichte.

The origin of Art is to be sought in man's necessity of connecting
his thoughts with some lixed place, and giving this memorial place, this
monument, a form that shall be an expression of the thought. From
this commencement is developed, by a gradual process, the whole rich-
ness and the whole significancy of art, even up to its latest, most inde-
pendent and most sportive creations. For the idea of art necessarily
involves the presentation of the life of the spirit in a corporeal form ;
and it is everywhere its highest aim to present in the phenomena of the
material w'orld tlie spiritual import, in the transitory the permanent,
and in the temporal the eternal. It is, therefore, an error, when the or-
igin of art is deduced from the rude, sensual necessity which leads the
brute as well as the man to a formative effoit, or from the mere princi-
ple of invitation. However wonderful the works may be, which pro-
ceed from these two impulses, and especially from the first, they have
in themselves nothing in common with art, in the higher and proju^r

* King John.. Act .3, Sc. 1.

24 /

186 ORIGIN OF THE

meaning ol" this word ; and it is only when an already existing taste for
art unites itself with these, that their performances are able to attain tlie
form of art.

In the period of infancy generally man needs only a few simple signs
for the expression of his ideas, and for the most part, in the early stages of
human culture the monument is nothing more than the simple designation
of a particular and selected spot. Of such monuments of the simplest
form, the earliest narratives of Scripture inform us. In the place where
Jacob in his dream saw the ladder that reached to heaven, and received
Jehovah's blessing, he set up a stone and consecrated it to the memory
of the revelation which he had received ; so also, a meal, and a heap of
stones became the holy witness of the covenant which Jacob made with
Laban. A smooth stone forms, in those early periods, the altar to which
the Deity descends to receive the gifts and prayers of mortals •, a hillock
of earth rises above the bones of the sleeping hero, who has raised
himself up to the ranks of the immortals, and his exploits are celebrated
by sacrifices at the place of his earthly repose.

To be sure, the shapeless stone, the rude hillock, are still in them-
selves but arbitrary signs ; nothing yet appears to stand forth in them
by which they can really be made the bearers of the idea which is to
speak itself forth in them. But this is the proper nature of a work of
art, that it is not a mere unmeaning sign for the idea, but, much rather,
the body united with which and through which it first makes its appear-
ance. Equally does it lie in the nature of the case, that — as the human
race was further developed, and its ideas gradually gained a more fixed
form — so also, those rude monuments received a definite stamp which
necessarily became the actual and immediate expression, though, at first,
only of the' simplest thought. Moreover, even before this sign of thought
could be developed in a peculiar or definite manner by the active hand
of man, they were already adapted in certain aspects to serve as the em-
bodiment of the thought. By the selection of differently formed stones,
as they were supplied by nature, (either by a .loose mass, or from the
quarry,) by the peculiar mode of their erection, or of their arrangement,
the general impressions of elevation, of massiveness, or even of harmo-
ny could be excited.

Yet it is difficult to re-ascend to that early youth of human his-
tory. We do not know in what land we are to seek the first, simplest
monuments erected by mankind ; we can only too well surmise, tliat the
new generations that took the place of the old, did not always spare
and protect the works left behind them by their predecessors ; nor dare
we congratulate ourselves upon possessing" a complete knowledge of all

FINE ARTS. 187

that the surface of the earl}i still retauis. However, it is not our oI)ject
to connect a history of the human race with the monuments of art; it
is merely our design to write the history of art itself according to the
different grades of its peculiar development. But as we by no means
perceive in general history a progress of culture at all times alike, inas-
much as alongside of people that already stand upon a higher elevation,
we likewise see those who have not yet raised themselves from a lower,
yea, even from the lowest degree of culture, it will be indifferent to our
object to what period of history those monuments belong, in which we
perceive the first dawnings of art. Jt is enough for us, to seek out such
monuments, no matter where, and in them to examine what is the con-
dition of man's artistic activity in its first manifestations.

In Asia, which is usually designated as the cradle of the human race,
we are acquainted with but few monuments that carry us back to the
origin of the arts, and these remains are, moreover, dismembered, and
of no particular importance. On the contrary, we find a great number
of such works in northern Europe. They belong to the original inhab-
itants of these countries, the Celtic tribes in France, (especially in the
basin of the Loire, and in Bretague,) and in the British Isles, to the Ger-
manic tribes in Germany (especially northern Germany,) and in the
Scandinavian countries, and perhaps also to the Slavic races, in the north-
ern parts of modern Germany, where the Slavic and Germanic elements
came in contact. We have nothing whereby we can positively determine
the period when these monuments were erected ; in general we must
consider them as cotemporary with the youth of these people, that is, as
nearly corresponding with the earlier times of the Roman state with
whose history their's is in many ways interwoven; it is also possible,
that in some countries those monuments continued to be erected until
the middle ages, so late as which Christianity was but i)arlially intro-
ced. They do not, therefore, belong to the most remote periods of hu-
man history, but bear throughout the stamp of a simple and original
state of culture ; and even where the more refined civilization of the
Romans was mingled with it, — as was especially the case in Gaul, after
the subjugation of that country by the Romans, — there the elements of
the more highly refined people, show themselves so predominant in
the monuments produced by this commingling, especially in their artist-
ic form, that the originality of the works in question appears but the
more clearly from the contrast. In other respects, although the field
covered by these monuments is so extensive, no essential dilierence ap-
pears to prevail in the principles according to whicli they were erected;
at all events, the [tarliculur naUonal characteristic.-^ of thc.-c people be-

188 THE rOWER OF FASCINATION

long rilhcr to the field of antiquities than to that of art. It is, however,
to be observed, that the most magnificent development of this simplest
artistic energy is found among the Celtic nations. * * * *
From the nature of the case, in monuments like these which bear
such decided marks of the simplest state of culture, in which the most
general laws of artistic arrangement, but none of the methods of a high-
ly polished expression yet appear, in these the collective power of the
arts must be contained. We cannot yet properly speak of a separation
of the two grand divisions of art considered with a reference to space,
viz. architecture and sculpture. On the contrary, I believe that the
germ of both lies hidden in them, and I do not think the hypothesis too
bold, that we can recognize in them both a plastic and an architectural
tendency. When, for example, slender stones are erected as monu-
ments of distinguished persons, it does not seem inappropriate to the
simple ideas and lively imagination of the infancy of civilization, to
consider such stones as images of the persons commemorated. We
cannot, therefore, be surprised that we find in connection with these
works nothing of what we, call statuary or even of ornaments regulated
by the rules of art, and that the remains found in those collossal tombs,
such as urns and other utensils, likewise exhibit nothing more than the
greatest simplicity of form and workmanship.

THE POWER OF FASCINATION ASCRIBED TO SNAKES.

Cuvier in his ''Kcgne Animal," (vol. ii, pp. 66 — 67, of M'Murtrie's
Trans.) remarks, that '4t has long been supposed, tliat the Rattlesnake,
( Crolalus, Lin.) possesses the faculty of rendering its prey powerless
by its breath, or even of charming them, as it is called, by which they
are compelled to leap into its mouth \ this, however, is not so, the rep-
tile seizing its prey while under the agitation and terror, produced by
its appearance." His judgment appears to be founded upon Barton's
"Memoir upon the power of fascination," Pliil. 1796, which I have not
seen, but 1 have long been familiar with the following story, which the
newspaper, in which I find it last, gives as told by a Mr. Willard. Who
this gentleman was, or to what credit he is entitled, I cannot now say,
but the impression rests upon my mind, that I have seen him very re-
spectably endorsed.

"When I was a boy about thirteen years old," says he, "my father
sent me into the field to mow some briers. I had not been long employed
when I discovered a hirgc rattlesnake, and looked round for something
to kill liim ; but not readily discovering a weapon, my curiosity led me

ASCKIL'Kl) TO SNAKES. 189

to view him. He lay coiled up, with his tail erect, and making the usu-
al singing noise with his rattles; I had viewed him but a short time,
when the most vivid and lively colors imagination can paint, and far be-
yond the powers of the pencil to imitate, among which yellow was the
most predominant, and the whole drawn into a bewitching variety of
gay and pleasing forms, were presented to my eyes : at the same time
my ears were enchanted with the most rapturous strains of music, wild,
lively, complicated and harmonious, in the highest degree melodious,
captivating and enchanting, far beyond any thing I ever heard before or
since, and indeed far exceeding what my imagination in any other situ-
ation could have conceived. I felt myself irresistibly drawn toward
the hated reptile ; and as 1 had been often used to seeing and killing
rattlesnakes, and my senses were so absorbed by the gay vision and
rapturous music, I was not for some time apprehensive of much danger;
but suddenly recollecting what I had heard the Indians relate, (but what
I never before believed,) of the fascinating power of these serpents, I
turned with horror from the dangerous scene ; but I was unable to extri-
cate myself. All the exertions I could make with my whole strength
were hardly sufficient to carry me from the scene of horrid yet pleasing
enchantment; and while I forcibly dragged off my body, my head seemed
to be irresistibly drawn to the enchanter by an invisible power. And I
fully believe, that in a few moments longer it would have been wholly
out of my power to make an exertion sufficient to get away."

This story is not inconsistent with Cuvier's idea, that terror is the
cause of the animal's rushing into the jaws of the serpent, though it is
somewhat remarkable that a boy who had been in the habit of killing
tiiese reptiles, should be thus overpowered. But as he acknowledges
that he was familiar with the Indians' stories of the powers of the Ilat-
tlesnake, we can easily conceive that they may have produced such an
effect upon his imagination. I have known a youth of 16 or 17 years
of age to faint from reading the account of a disease of which he thought
he had the symptoms.

But a fact of this kind fell under my own observation. When I was a
boy of about fifteen, 1 went with several young companions to a wood a-
bout two miles distant from Hagorstown, Md. for the purpose of gather-
ing the wild haw, with which tjie limestone ridges in that region are
frequently overgrown. The berries likewise attracted great numbers
of birds, and the clefts among the rocks offered a safe retreat to rep-
tiles. Coming to an open space in the wood we were surprised to see a
quail or partridge, as it is tliere c^dled, moving about in a very singular
iiianncr. We at first thought that it was performing that womlcrl'ul

190 FASCINATION.

trick, by which, birds, pretending to be lame, seek to lure the intruder
from tlieir nest or from their young. But we were soon satisfied that
this was an entirely difi'erent case. The poor bird did not pretend to
be lame, but, on the contrary, was unusually active upon its legs. Its
movements, however, were very peculiar. It went in a zig-zag line first
to one side and then to the other, occasionally hopping forward, and al-
ways advancing. At the same time it continued to utter a chirp of great
distress. We soon perceived that its eyes were steadily fixed upon a
Copper-head snake 3 or 4 yards distant. The snake did not appear to
be disturbed by our intrusion, nor did it seem particularly intent upon its
prey, though its head was elevated from the ground about as much as
in its ordinary movements. I think there was also some motion of its
tail. One of our number went forward and captured the bird, which
was apparently rather relieved by getting into human hands, and soon
ceased to tremble, as it had evidently been doing when facing its savage
enemy. The snake was soon killed aa it neither made any resistance,
nor attempted to escape, though it appeared sufficiently vigorous, and
was about two feet long. Our sympathies were considerably excited in
favor of the bird, vvhich we took home with us, but it was finally sacri-
ficed to the health of an old gentleman who was just recovering from
an attack of sickness, and required some such delicate morsel to provoke
his appetite !

I cannot say that this bird was not under the influence of terror, but
it is remarkable that whilst in other cases, this as well as other animals,
flees from its enemies, it should here face its foe in so rash a manner.
Had not the bird appeared so manifestly alarmed, 1 should be disposed
to think that it was meditating a battle with its antagonist. We know
this class of birds to be possessed of no small degree of corage. Birds
are in the habit of devouring insects and worms, (from which a snake is
not so very different in appearance,) and we know that the common do-
mestic hen, will attack and kill a snake of very considerable size. I
merely throw out this suggestion for future inquirers, my own impres-
sion being, that at the time I saw it the bird was in great dread of its
adversary.

I therefore agree with the great naturalist, that neither the breath,
nor enchantments of the serpent overpower its prey, but that, either
coming upon it stealthily, or confusing it by its sudden and formidable
appearance, it succeeds by means similar to those employed by other
rapacious animals. W.IVI. K.

Pennsijlvania College. June 26. 184-5.

191

ARTrp^iriAL fYCUBATIOlV.

There is an old proverb tliat warns us, "not to count our chickens
before they are hatched," but modern science has gone very far towards
changing contingency to certainty. Perhaps we ought to leave away
that boastful word, '■modern^'' for we are told that the Egyptians have from
time immemorial, practiced and preserved the art of lialcliing cliickens
in brick ovens, which they term jnamals. But the Egyptian process is
a very imperfect one, and it is only recently that the application of cor-
rect principles of chemistry and physiology to the construction of suit-
able machinery, and to the proper development and care of birds, parti-
cularly domestic fowls, has enabled the skillful poulterer to increase his
production to almost any amount, or, at least, determine how many doz-
en of chickens he will bring forth from the Qgg.

It has long been known that about 104° of heat is the temperature
to which eggs are raised by the incubation of the common domestic
fowl. From this it was easy to infer, that all that was necessary to the
production of the chicken from the egg^ was the uninterrupted appli-
cation of about that amount of heat for the proper time. Reaumer en-
deavored to secure this b)^ the fermentation of manure in suitable casks
or ovens, but his success was by no means great. A much surer method
is that of applying warm water to the vessel in which the eggs that are
to be hatched are placed. This is done in the "Artificial Hen," and the
"Calefactor" of Lemaire, and some other contrivances which are described
in the '■^Maison Rust i que,'''' a French agricultural paper, an article in
which, upon this subject, is translated for the '•'•Boslon Chronicle,'''' from
which we gather the following facts :

The best apparatus for incubation upon a large scale is that of Sorel.
This is formed by a large, cylindrical, copper boiler, perforated through
the middle to give passage to the chimney, which rises above it, and by
which escape, not through the upper part which is closed, but througli
holes made in the circumference, the gaseous products of the combus-
tion of a lamp or small fire of charcoal placed on the hearth. The boil-
er is enlarged both at its upper and lower part, to form in both cases
hollow discs in which the hot water diffuses itself. These two discs
also communicate with each other by a certain number of columns, or
vertical tubes, placed at intervals around the apparatus. These columns
descend quite to the platform of the fireplace, which is itself a double
bottom, in which the water can diffuse itself. The upper surface of the
boiler is in the shape of a cover, which can be raised at pleasure, either
to fill it with water or to adjust the float. This float is a vessel invert-
ed, placed in the centre of the boiler, and surmounted with a cylinder

192 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION".

wliich enclofses the chimney, up and down which it can move freely ; it
rises thus very nearly to its extremity.

To preserve the moisture necessary for the health and development
of the chicks in the eggs, the boiler is surrounded by a double envelope
of copper, in the interval of which is poured a little water, Avhich by
its slow evaporation, gives the air the quantity of vapor necessary to its
temperature.

The upper surface of the boiler can equally receive eggs placed upon
cotton during the incubation ; but when the chickens are hatched, we
take off the wadding and cover it with an oil-cloth, or make a cage of
it, where for a day we keep the young animals before feeding them.

Under the platform of the fire is a coop, furnished with a sheep skin,
under which the chickens are warmly lodged till they can live in the
open air.

The whole apparatus, which is square, octagonal, or better round, is
enclosed in a wooden case, in which there are a certain number of doors
or slides, to place and turn the eggs, and take out the chickens and per-
form all necessary operations. A certain number of very small tubes, at dif-
ferent heights, serve to supply the air necessary for the combustion as well
as to ventilate the interior. — Finally, some rather large openings, with
glass puttied in, enable us to see what is going on in the interior of the
apparatus, without the necessity of opening the sliding doors each time.

Several other modes of hatching chickens have also been tried. Thus
advantage has been taken of the waste heat of the ovens of bakers and
pastry cooks, furnaces, steamboilers, and the like, where fire is constant-
ly employed, and which can be made to furnish a constant, uniform,
and very economical heat. This has also been done in simple cham-
bers, warmed with a portable furnace, and furnished with hooks, on
■which the baskets of eggs are suspended, nearer or further from the fire,
according to the temperature. These chambers, however, need constant
attention, to be suitably regulated.

Finally, M. D'Arcet, has propo sed to take advantage of the heat of
warm springs to hatch the eggs of hens and pigeons. This ingenious
idea has already been put in practice profitably at Vicky, in 1825, and
at Chaudes Aignes, in 1827.

The "Maison Rustique" gives the following rules in regard to incu-
bation, and the management of the chickens :

1. The apparatus designed for hatching should be in a still, retired
place, sheltered from the wind and from sudden changes of temperature,
and especially from noise and frequent jarrings, which are prejudicial to
the perfect development of the embryos.

ARTlFlC5At. IXCUBATIO.V. 193

When chickens are to be hatched to supply a regular consumption,
it will be best not to furnish the apparatus the first day wiih more than
the eggs necessary to yield a day's supply, and to add each day an e-
qual quantity during the first twenty days, and then to replace with eggs
the chickens hatched, in order to obtain the same number of chickens
daily, and to have the business regular through the year.

We choose the freshest eggs, and reject all those which are more
than fifteen or twenty days old. Eggs grow stale sooner in summer than
in winter. We prefer the largest, because they give the largest and most
vigorous chickens. Those vvhich have two yolks should be rejected,
as well as those which have none, or which present other similar pecu-
liarities. Every egg which, seen by holding it up to the light, has a
very large void space, which can be rendered apparent by shaking, is
already old, and is not proper for incubation. There is no appreciable
sign to show whether eggs have been fecundated or not; the heat of in-
cubation, which gives to the transparent and clear matters contained in
tlie fruitful eggs a turbid and opaque aspect, after a lillle time enables
us to discover them. An egg not fecundated remains transparent after
several days of incubation, and sometimes during the whole period,
without manifesting any appreciable symptoms of putrefaction.

2. Management of the incuhation. The eggs having been select-
ed, the day of the month is to be inscribed on the little end of each,
and they are to be arranged in the hatcher with the precautions already
mentioned. The eggs being placed, the vents and issues are to be closed
for a certain time to let the temperature remount, which the introduction
of the eggs and the opening of the apparatus have lowered, and after
this the thermometers are to be consulted to regulate it and maintain it
at the pi'oper pitch.

The eggs once introduced, there are four circumstances to which we
must have regard, in managing the incubation : — The temperature of the
apparatus, the evaporation of a portion of the liquid parts of the eg^.,
the respiration of the chickens, and their normal development.

As to temperature, incubation can take place and succeed from 86°
Fahrenheit to 113°; but the most suitable temperature, that which gives
the greatest number and the most healthy and well organized chickens,
is that of 102° or 104° during the whole period of incubation. Physi-
ologists have indeed remarked that a temperature which is not suitable,
or which presents frequent variations, must either develop too rapidly,
or arrest in its course the development of the sanguino-respiralory sys-
tem, and that the chicken dies of atrophy in the first case, or of asphyx-
ia in the second ; or if not, presents strange disproportions in tlie differ-
So

194

ARTIFICIAL l.VCUBATIOX.

eiit pai'ts of its body. Practice, in fine, will promptly teach the best
mode of operating.

It is necessary, as far as possible, to maintain in the apparatus an at-
mosphere impregnated with a medium quantity of vapor, and that which
is due to the temperature, by keeping vessels filled with water within
the hatchers, and especially the stoves.

According to the observations of several modern philosophers, at
the end of fifteen or twenty hours of incubation, and thenceforward to
the end of the operation, the chicken respires^ and from the 30th hour
it possesses the organs which it is to keep in its adult state. The res-
piration takes place by means of the air which is transmitted through
the shell, and comes in contact with the vascular membranes of the ani-
mal. By obstructing, suspending or vitiating this respiration, the growth
of the chicken is .checked, or the difTerent parts of its body are devel-
oped in an unequal manner. Hence it is evident that it is necessary to
surround the eggs with a pure atmosphere, which must be frequently re-
newed, if we would have healthy chickens, or would not see them per-
ish in the egg.

Oviparous animals during incubation, always turn their eggs regular-
ly, drawing those at the circumference towards the centre, and the re-
verse. This practice should be imitated, and each day the eggs should
be turned one-half or one quarter of a revolution, and their places
should be changed, that is to say, those which are in the cooler parts
should be put in the wanner parts of the instrument, and the reverse.
By this manceuvre the respiration of the chicken, which is accomplish-
ed at all parts of the shell, takes place in a more perfect manner, and
the nutrition being effected uniformly in all parts of the embryo, we have
more vigorous and better formed chickens.

Most of the instruments we have described having regulators of the
fire, one or more visits in the twenty-four hours are sufficient, especial-
ly in the first stages of incubation. But more attention is required when
there are sudden changes in the temperature of the atmosphere, or
where, from any cause, we have occasion to change or modify the ope-
ration of the heating apparatus, or finally, on the days which precede
the hatching, and when it takes place.

3. The Hatching. The medium period in which chickens hatch
is the twenty-hrst day of the incubation ; this term, however, according
to the observations of naturalists, may vary considerably, from causes
which are mostly unknown, as will be seen from the following table of
the extreme and mean terras of the incubation of domestic birds :

WELLS. IDO

Bomcslic birds. '^^'"•'"' ,^^«" -^""S^^*''

term. term. term.

Turkeys sit- C Hens 17 24 3«?

ting upon •? Ducks 24 27 30

the eg^gs'of (Turkeys 24 26 30

HensVitting up- C Ducks 26 30 34

on the eggs" of ( Hens 19 21 24

Ducks 28 30 32

Geese 27 30 33

Pigeons 16 18 20

The chickens commonly come forth by their own strength, but when
they remain in the shell twenty-four hours more after it begins to ap-
pear fractured, it is a sign that they need external aid to disengage them
from it. The chicken may be too weak to finish the work which re-
mains to be done, and a great service is rendered it by breaking the shell
around the whole circumference, from the place where the fracture has
commenced, by striking gently on it with some hard substance. After
this is done the eflbrts of the chickens suffice to separate the two parts
of the shell.

Sometimes the introduction of air into the shell has dried that por-
tion of the white of the egg which moistened the feathers in the contact
with the membrane, and the chicken finds itself glued to its place: to
relieve it from this predicament the shell may be broken in pieces : but
it would be better, to guard against its sufferings, by moistening with the
end of the finger, or a rag slightly wet, all the places where the down
is glued ; the chicken then disengages itself."

COMMON THINGS, NO. H.

WELLS.

The theory of springs appears to be well understood. The water
which falls upon certain elevated portions of the earth's surface, after
percolating through the pores or fissures of various geological forma-
tions, frequently arives at an impenetrable stratum where it is interrupted
in its course, and forms a subterranean reservoir, or its direction is
changed, and it continues to flow along the stratuiTf. When the inclina-
tion of the strata and the face of the country are such as will enable these
streams to find outlets and appear above the surface, springs are formed.

If this theory be correct, it is evident that springs must always be
supplied from higher levels, and that they would be sought for in vain
on elevated summit-s, or on extensive plains. A rolling country with
porous substrata presents the conditions most favorable for their forma-
tion. In situations where these natural supplies cannot be obtained arti-
ficial means must be resorted to. and we find that the practice of dig-
ging wells was connnon in the earliest ages. 1

196 WELLS.

From the A'aried character of the strata which compose the crust of
the globe it would follow, that subterranean streams must be formed un-
der a great variety of circumstances. The innumerable cracks and fis-
sures which some formations pi'esent, may give rise to a corresponding
number of streamlets communicating with each other in every direction,
or a bed of loose materials may receive the contributions of thousands
of such streams and form a reservoir of greater or less extent.

It may often happen that a subterranean film or reservoir of water
is connected with another portion at a higher level in which case a hy-
drostatic pressure upon the superincumbent strata will be produced, pro-
portioned to the height of the source. When a perforation is made
through such strata the phenomenon of artesian or overflowing wells is
exhibited.

Wells are constructed for the purpose of forming reservoirs of water
in situations where it would otherwise be diflicult or impossible to pro-
cure a supply. They are usually made of a cylindrical form from 6 to
7 feet in diameter and extended to such a depth as will insure the re-
quisite amount, which is determined by observing the quantity which
enters in a given time.

Artesian wells difier both in principle and action from those of the
common kind, they are not more than from 2 to 4 inches in diameter,
and are often carried to a depth of many hundred feet. When they
happen to penetrate a subterranean reservoir connected with a source
more elevated than the surface at which the perforation is made, the wa-
ter rushes up with violence, and forms a perpetual fountain.

The opeiation of boring, although more expeditious than the com-
mon mode of excavation, is attended with much labor and expense.

The tools required in the work are of various kinds. Some are de-
signed for piercing through clay or sand, others for penetrating rocks,
and others for removing water and rubbish. These tools are attached
to the ends of iron rods fixed in a suitable handle and worked by two
or more men. The labor is greatly diminished by connecting the rods
with a spring-pole placed horizontally over the well.

The principal inconvenience and expense arise from the necessity of
frequently raising and changing the rods, they are screwed together in
convenient lengths, and vv'hen several joints have been attached become
too heavy to be removed by hand. To facilitate the operation, a tripe-
dal standard is erected over the well and furnished with a pulley, as
each joint successively appears above the surface it is unscrewed ; the
rods are returned in the same manner, one joint being added at a time
until a sufficient length is obtained. As the operation must be repeated

GE031F.1RA DEKOJUAKIA. 177

at short intervals, it is evident thai the expense must increase in a great-
er ratio than the depth.

The most unpleasant circumstance attendant upon this business is
the occasional breaking of a rod, a portion of which remaining at the
bottom of the well, is an effectual barrier to all further progress until it
is removed. To accomplish this implements of various forms have been
designed, sometimes the workmen liave succeeded in cutting a screw
upon the end of the broken rod, and removing it by the attachment of
other joints, but from the small size of the excavation, and the great
deptla to which it is sometimes carried, it is evident that sucli an achieve-
ment must be regarded as a triumph of mechanical skill.

It frequently happens that streams or films of impure water are pass-
ed through before reaching a stratum of the desired quality ; to prevent
the mixture of those waters, and also to protect the well from rubbish,
the interior must be lined with a metallic tube.

The height to which the water will rise in these wells depends of
course, upon the level of the source from which it flows. Sometimes
the pressure is sufficient to throw a constant stream several feet into the
air. Sometimes too it does not rise to the surface, and a well of the or-
dinary kind must be dug to meet il, and a reservoir in which a sufficient
quantity can be retained for use. Common wells may be occasionally
improved by boring holes in the bottom on the artesian principle.

The temperature of the water of artesian wells is very uniform, and
is proportioned to the depth to whicli tliey penetrate. This fact is used
in support of the theory of central heat. H. H.

GEOMETRA DEFORIARIA.

At the meeting of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, on Saturday
the 21st of last month, the following communication was read by Mr.
Edward J. Hooper, one of the Editoi-s of the Western Farmer and Gar-
dener. We learn from the Cincinnati papers, that this insect has been
very destructive in that region, devastating the orchards far and wide.
On both sides of the Ohio, whole orchards have been stripped by it of
their leaves, and look as brown and naked now as they did in January.
lis ravages are not confined to apple trees, but it has also attacked cher-
rv and plum trees surrounding dwelling houses, and isolated elm, locust,
and other shade trees standing in open fields.

"This moth comes out of the earth, according to IVIolIar, an Austrian
writer on destructive insects, in the beginning of winter, and seeks out
a fruit tree, like the green winter moth, to lay her eggs on. Tiie male

J98 GLOMETRA DEJOIUAKIA.

is as large again as that of the winter moth. Its bioad I'ore-vvings are
of a reddish yellow, covered with many blackish dots. From the an-
terior border, not far from the tips of the wings, a dark wavy line stretch-
es across through these dots to the posterior border. Near to this line,
almost in the middle of the wings, is a black dot. The under wings
are a dirty white, doled with brown, and in the middle of the wings is
a black dot. The female has no wings, is much larger than that of the
winter moth, and has no rudiments of wings. The head and body are
M'hitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with
yellow and black.

This caterpillar is very destructive to the foliage of fruit trees in
certain years, often coming in succession, when it appears in great num-
ber.<!, as is sometimes the case. As a single female of this insect lays
about 200 eggs, the caterpillars of a few females are sufficient, if they
all live, to strip a fruit tree entirely of its leaves, particularly if it is a
young one. It is not easy to take these caterpillars, because they live
singly, and are scattered about on the fruit trees, and it is not till they
are nearly full-grown, and have partly stripped the tree, that they attract
the eye. But the female moths are easily kept from the trees, when
they are provided with a w^ooden boot, frame or box, daubed on the out-
side with tar or cart grease. This frame consists of four boards about
a foot high, and rather longer than the diameter of the tree they are to
surround. These four boards are to be nailed together in the form of
a square open box, but the fourth board is not to be fastened on till the
frame is placed round the tree, as the stem must be entirely enclosed by
the boards. To pievent the sun or rain from having any effect on the
tar or cart-grease, the top of the frame is to be surrounded with a mould-
ing; that is, a thin piece of wood three or four inches broad is to be
nailed on the top, so as to form a projection on the outside, and under
this an angle. This angle, formed on the outside only, is to be thickly
smeared with tar. This frame may thus be called a boot, as the stem
of the fruit tree stands as if in a boot. It must be set an inch deep in
the earth, which must be well trodden in round it, so that the moths
may not get under it and reach the tree. The boot ought not to be made
too large ; but should be so fixed as to allow of but little space between
it and the stem, that it may be more certain that no pupae or chrysalids of
the moth lie between the boot, and consequently very near the trunk.
This boot must be put in use about the end of October. At first it must
be smeared 2 or 3 times, to keep it from drying into the wood. In the
spring it must be daubed again — and again in April. The female moths
come out the latter part of autumn, and as lliey arc without wings, they

coT.i.Eoi: REConn. 199

creep up the tree to deposit their eggs. Tlioy cannot, therefore, pass
the boot smeared with tar, and remain sticking in it if they make the
attempt. Jf this boot cannot be used, go in pursuit of the female moth
every evening in October and November, or strike the branches of the
trees with a long pole enveloped in tow or linen, in May, to throw
down the caterpillar. Mow' the grass short under the trees, or spread a
sheet to catch them in. In bare ground they are easily seen.

We do not like to predict evil, but we are greatly afraid this meas-
uring worm is going to be the greatest fruit-tree pest of all our noxious
insects. We ought to be on the look-out for the female moths this
next fall or winter. This last spring dreadful have been its ravages
round our city on both sides of the Ohio. For two years large orchards
have been denuded of both leaves and fruit. The trees, however, have
all put out their foliage again, and therefore, it is a consolation they
are not killed. This is, no doubt, an insect imported from Europe, with-
in 4 or 5 years with trees and grafts, &c.

There are, undoubtedly, many varieties of the geometra, and the
millers or moths, as well as the caterpillars, are of somewhat different
forms and colors. The miller of one. kind is of a dull slate color and
rather small, of the shape and size of the bee moth, (tinea meUonella.)

High Hill farm, near JYeivport. E. J. H."

COLLEGE RECORD,

Jefferson College^ Canonshurg, Pa. The venerable President of
.Teflerson College, Matthew Brown, D. D. having resigned his station in
that histitution, the Rev. Robert Breckenridge, D. D. of Baltimore, Md.,
has been elected his successor. This arrangement is to take effect at
the commencement of the next winter session. President Brown carries
with him into his retirement the warm attachment of hundreds of )'oung
men who have been educated under his auspices, and who will unite
with us in the prayer that the remainder of his life may be as calm as
the past has been useful.

Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. President Durbin has resigned
his situation in this Institution, with the view of resuming the active du-
ties of the ministry.

University of Virginia, Charlottcville, Va. The disgraceful disturb-
ances in this Institution having been terminated by the intervention of
the civil and military powers, the Professors generally are said to have
resigned. We do not see, however, that any of them have withdrawn,
except Judge Tucker, for whose chair an incumbent is sought.

200 FAIR FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE LIXNAEA\ HAI.L.

JVassau Hall, Princeton^ K. J. Hon. Lucius Q. Elmer, of Bridge-
ton, N. J. is to deliver the Annual Address before the Literary Societies
at the Commencement, which, we believe, now occurs on the first of
July.

Pennsijlvania College, Gettysburg, Pa. An unusually large number
of students entered this Institution at the commencement of the Sum-
mer Term, both in the Preparatory Department and in the classes of the
College proper. We presume that the Annual Catalogue will show a
large inci'ease of students over the last year.

FAIR FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE LINNAEAN HALL.

According to announcement, the Ladies of Gettysburg, opened a
fair for the benefit of the Linnaean Society. It commenced on the ev-
ening of the 1st of July, and closes on the 4th. It was a most taste-
ful and even splendid affair. A great variety of useful and fancy articles
received universal admiration, and the refrehments of the richest cakes,
ice-creams, fruits, &c. were as elegant as they were abundant. We have
not space for a catalogue of the articles, but were particularly struck
with the fine display of worsted-work and embroidery, slippers, mats,
&c. ; purses and bags knit of fine silver and steel beads, the variety and
beauty of the designs and drawings upon perforated paper and cards
forming needle-books, book-marks, &c. Our utilitarian notions were
also abundantly satisfied by a large supply of substantial clothing for
infants and children.

It was a matter of surprise to all visitors, that so large an amount of
articles of this kind, could liaA'e been got together at so short a notice,
and furnishes strong evidence of the industry as well as of the varied
accomplishments of our fair friends in Gettysburg. The Ladies of Phil-
adelphia, Baltimore, Pleading, York, Hanover, Chambersburg, and Ha-
gerstown also contributed most liberally and tastefully.

Our young literati also signalized themselves by bringing out a pa-
per for the occasion, called the ''Village Belle," some hundred copies
of which met with a ready sale.

From present appearances (the fair not having closed when our pres-
ent No. goes to press,) we believe, that about six hundred dollars will
be realized from the proceeds, so that the Society will not only be placed
under the strongest obligations by this liberal donation from so unex-
pected a quarter, but will be highly encoraged to prosecute its underta-
king with vigor and promptness. We hope to see the Linnaean Hall
completed in the course of the ensuing year.

Filbert above Eleventh street, Philadelphia, Fa.

k

MEDICAL FACULTY AT PHILADELPHIA.

VVm. Darrach, M. D. — Prof, of Theory and Practice of Medicine.

John Wiltbank, M. D. — Prof, of Obstetrics and Diseases of woman and children

U'm. R. Grant, M. D. — Prof, of Jlnatomy and Physiology.

H S. Patterson, M. D. — Prof, of Materia Medica.

]). Gilbert, M. D. — Prof, of Principles and Practice of Surgei-y.

^V. L. 'Atlee, M. D. — Prof, of Medical Chemistry.

IJeunsgloama College, ©ettnsburg, ^a.

] FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

I Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. B.—Pres't and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Philos'y, ^-c.
: Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, ^c.
\ Rev. M. Jacobs, A. JVI.— Pro/, of Natural Science.
'; Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, Sfc.
• M. L. Stoever, A. M. — Prof, of History and Principal of Preparatortj Department.
'■ Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literatiire.

Herman Haupt, A. M. — Professor of Mathematics.
'[ W. H. Harrison. — Assistant Prof, of Languages.
•', D.wiD Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
' Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.
\ Wm. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.

Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

Pe>jnsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen yeais. Dur-
ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
': tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
) of any Institution in the Country. The Preparaton/ Department provides for in-
[ struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
• to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literat\ire. The College Course

is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.
< The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
'< require. They attend at least two recitations a day, Church and Bible Class on the
', Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of
■ any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
i more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
' in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

\ The annual expanses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
, session, !^'61 871 : for the summer session, .$'41 S7i. Washing, .§10 00 ; and Wood.
; $3 00. Total expense, $116 7-5. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per
, week.

'; There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
'/ April and September, each of five weeks continuance.

' The summer session commenced on the 22d of May, with the accession of over
i forty new Students.

; ^cknowlcb^cmciits of UDomuioits to t\)e (Cabinet of tl)c fiinnccan
I '^Qsodation of |I)eiinsiiloauia College.

? June, 1845. From H. S. Patterson, M. D. Prof, of Materia Medica, Penn-

l sylvania Med. Col. Philadelphia, one box of shells.

;■ 2. From Mr. R. G. Harper, letters written by Washington, cinders from the

' great fire at Hamburg, minerals, Ike.

'/ 3. From Messrs. Laughlin and Fry, one white muskrat.

^ 4. From Dr. Von dem Busch, of Bremen, Germany, .50 specimens of shells.

; 5. From Messrs. Fink and Grosclose. each, one reptile in spirits.

J 6. From Messrs. J. W. and J. K. Miller, coins.

\ 7. From Mr. Ruihrauff, curious razor strop from the Island of Cuba.

] 8. From Mr. John Weaver, Jr. some minerals.

I Terms of the Record and Journal. One Dollar per annum
J in advance.

\ Address — '-'•Editors of the Record and Journal^ Gettysburg, Pa."

yi\

S|

VOLUME I.

I NUMBER 10.

LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

«(?f tl)c iTimtacrtn ^soffciatiou uf |)enn0i)loatiia Collegf.
AUGUST, 1845.

CONDUCTED

J$S a eommttt^e of th^ ^ssocfattott.

CONTENTS.
AMERICAN ZOOLOGY, NO. I., - _ ,

MORAL ASPECT OF SLEEP, - _ . .

BIOGRAPHY OF LINNAEUS,

SCRIPTURE INSECTS, _ - - . .

DRUIDISM, .---__

COMMON THINGS, NO. III.,

PUTREFACTION PREVENTION, &C.

PROF. HALDEMAN's SYSTEM OF PHONOGRAPHY,
INSECTS OUR PIONEERS IN THE ARTS,
CABINET OF THE LINNAEAN SOCIETY, -
OBITUARY NOTICE, - - . . ,

201
203

217
211
212

216
218
222
223
224

1 1 sheet, periodical — Postage, 2i cents, to any distance within the Union.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

®^fe^ Mmm mm

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. AUGUST, 1845. No. 10.

AMERICAN ZOOLOGY, NO. I.

ENTOMOLOGY.
BY JOHN G. MOnRIS, I>. D. BALTIMORE, MD.

In a series of short essays I design to give a history of the past and
present state of Zoological Science in our country, and it will be grati-
fying to all readers to learn the rapid progress we have made in this
interesting department.

I begin with Entomology. The father of American Entomology
is the Rev. T. V. Melsheimer, a Lutheran clergyman who resided in
Hanover, Pa., where he commenced his entomological pursuits more
than fifty years ago. He soon after began a correspondence on this sub-
ject with his countryman, Prof. Knoch, of Brunswick, who is the au-
thor of several valuable works on the science. Mr. Melsheimer pub-
lished no entomological work himself, excepting his celebrated catalogue
of the Coleoptera of Pennsylvania, which is quoted as authority by
every writer on insects. His manuscripts are numerous, the principal of
which is a definition of the species enumerated in the catalogue and of
about 600 other species not noticed in it. At the death of the father,
the collection and manuscripts came into the possession of the son, the
Rev. John Melsheimer, who contributed considerably to the promotion
of the science by adding many new species to the collection and fur-
nishing Say with such as he wanted and his observations on them. At
his death in 1829, the original collection and papers became the pro-
perty of another son, Dr. F. E. Melsheimer, of Dover Townsliip, York
County, who still lives an industrious prosecutor of the science, and
one of the most distinguished entomologists of our country. During
the last year or two, he has published in the Proceedings of the Acad-
emy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, most admirable descriptions of
several hundred new species of Coleoptera, and I happen to know that
he is at work in determining and describing many more.
26

202 AMERICAN ZOOLOGY.

The late Prof. Peck, of Cambridge, Mass., was perhaps the next per-
son after the elder Melsheiraer, who paid any considerable attention to
the subject. His descriptions of various species especially injurious to
vegetation, were published in Agricultural Journals. He confines his
attention, for the most part, to the economical department of the science,
which is very important. I have the titles of all his papers with the
publications in which they appeared, but I have no room to transcribe
them.

The first illustrated work on American insects that ever appeared,
and which belongs to this period of our history, is The Natural His-
tory of the rarer Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia, collected from the
drawings and observations of Mr. John Abbot. This splendid work ap-
peared in London in 1797, in two large folios, and was edited by Sir
James Smith. There are but few copies of the work in this country,
one of which is in the Library of Congress. It contains figures and
short descriptions of 103 of our Lepidopterous insects. Swainson pro-
nounces it to be " one of the most beautiful and most valuable illustra-
ted publications that England or any other country can boast of."

Catesby's great work on The Natural History of Carolina, Florida,
and the Bahama Isles, (of which there is a copy in the Baltimore Li-
brary,) appeared some years before Abbot's, but it contains only 24 in-
sects figured and described in the two ponderous folios.

The next laborer in this inviting field is the celebrated Say. He has
acquired an undying fame by his indefatigable industry and enthusiastic
devotion to this pursuit — by his extensive travels in our country in its
prosecution — by his numerous writings on the subject, and his extensive
correspondence with foreign entomologists. He furnished fifty-four pa-
pers of various length for the journals, besides three volumes containing
beautiful figures of the species described. He describes 1150 coleoptera,
22-5 diptera, 100 hemiptera, and 100 species of other orders. Say is the
magnus Apollo of American Entomologists, and will ever be regarded
as one of the acutest naturalists this or any other country has produced
during this century. He died in the full vigor of manhood, (aet. 46.)
I have the titles of all his papers, and possess most of the papers them-
selves, which I regard as almost invaluable.

Major Leconte's labors in this field properly belong to this period.
This eminent naturalist (yet living) has never published much, but his
services have been invaluable. There are several of his contributions
in the scientific journals, but his chief work is the part he bore in pro-
ducing that magnificent foreign work, Boisduval and Leconte's Histoire
generale dcs LepidopLeres de V Amcrique scptenlrlonale. He furnished

MORAL ASPECT OF SLEET. 203

most or all of the specimens and drawings with observations on the lar-
vae and transformations.

The entomologist next claiming our attention, in the order of time,
is Dr. Thaddeus \V, Harris, of Harvard University. He has written
many valuable papers, which place him in the front rank of our natu-
ralists ; but his most important work is a Treatise on some of the in-
sects of New England which are injurious to vegetation. 8vo. pp. 459.
This work I would most cordially recommend to every beginner in en-
tomology.

Various other papers on our insects have appeared in Periodicals,
and Transactions of learned societies. Several by Prof. Hentz — by Dr.
Gould — by Prof. Halderaan, so favorably known by his splendid work
on the fresh water univalve molluscae of our country — by Dr. F. E.
Melsheimer, whom I regard as the best practical entomologist of the
country, and not far behind any of them in the scieniijic department —
by Rev. D. Ziegler, and Prof. Potter, of Baltimore, who published a
pamphlet on cicada scptemdecbn^ (seventeen year locust.)

An attempt was made some years ago by Titian R. Peale, of Phila-
delphia, to publish a work on our Lepidoptera, with plates, but after the
issue of several numbers the laudable enterprise failed for want of suffi-
cient patronage.

In Aug., 18 12, the Entomological Society of Pennsylvania, was form-
ed at York by a few energetic naturalists, who are prosecuting the sci-
ence with very commendable zeal. They have nearly completed a cat-
alogue of the Coleoptera of the United States, and have described and
published several hundred new species.

It is gratifying to learn that the new association of geologists and
naturalists, at their late meeting in Hew Haven, directed their attention
to this subject. A committee was appointed to prepare a IManual o(
North American Coleoptera. The committee are Dr. Melsheimer and
J. Lcconte, Jun., and we may before long look for something worthy of
their distinguished abilities.

This is, as far as could be ascertained, an imperfect sketch of the
history of Entomology in our country. The science is advancing, and
new laborers are entering the field every year it is hoped that the num-
ber may soon be very large.

MORAL ASPECT OV SLEEP.

The constitution of man is such that his capacity to receive sensa-
tioHb fium t-Lirrouudiiig objects, ajid to migrate from locality to locality

204 MORAL ASPECT OF SLEEP.

dimiiiislies, and in this state of iinpotency it becomes necessary that his
vigor should be repaired, or action must cease. Provision has been
made by the wise author of our mental and corporeal fabric to renew
our exhausted vigor, or to restore our collapsed energies. The senses
cease to perform their functions; the powers of locomotion are sus-
pended, and " tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep" takes posses-
sion of man. In proportion to the soundness of this state, the suspen-
sion of the animal functions referred to is complete. The action of the
mind, so far as consciousness is concerned, is arrested in proportion to
the perfection of this condition. The mode in which it acts in sleep is
that fantastic and incoherent association of ideas called dreaming, which
either does not take place, or is not remembered when our slumbers
are profound. There is an imperfect sleep in which there is some per-
ception of physical objects, and some physical acts. In one form of
sleep, viz. sleep-walking, various acts may be performed. In no condi-
tion of the body to which this term can properly be applied, do the vi-
tal functions cease. The circulation of the blood is uninterrupted — the
nervous energy necessary for vital operations is transmitted — the de-
carbonization of the blood takes place through the inspiration and ex-
piration of atmospheric air — the nutritive and assimilative functions are
all progressive, and removal of effete portions of the body and the re-
quisite restorations to supply their place, all occur. Many and wonder-
ful operations are in progress unsuspended ; some perhaps more vigor-
ously performed under the guidance of the vis conservatrix natures, as
the doctors say, or under the direction of the infinite wisdom of the
Author of the Universe, as religion would teach. It is not easy to fur-
nish the phUosophy of this condition. What are the precise changes,
and how they occur, we believe are mysteries which have tempted his
curiosity, but have never yet condescended to reveal themselves to man.
It is known what are the phenomena — what are the circumstances that
are favorable, and what are the uses ; but beyond this the researches of
the physiologist, although they have been faithful, have not been suc-
cessful. On this subject take a passage from Richerand : " It has been
attempted to show the proximate cause of sleep ; some have said that
it depends on the collapse of the laminae of the cerebellum, which, as
they conceive, are in a state of erection during waking ; and they argue
from the experiment in which by compressing the cerebellum of a liv-
ing animal, sleep is immediately brought on. This sleep, like that pro-
duced by compression of any other part of the cerebral mass, is really
a state of disease ; and no more natural than apoplexy. Others, con-
ceiving sleep, no doubt, analogous to this affection, ascribe it to the col-

MORAL ASPECT OF SLEEP. 205

lection of humors upon the brain, during waking. This organ, say they,
compressed by the blood whicli obstructs its vessels, falls into a slate of
real stupor. An opinion as unsupported as the other. As long as the
humors flow in abundance towards the brain, they keep up in it an ex-
citement which is altogether unfavorable to sleep. Do we not know,
that it is enough that the brain be strongly occupied by its thoughts or
vividly effected in any way, to repel sleep. Coffee, spirituous liquors in
small quantities, will produce sleeplessness, by exciting the force of cir-
culation, and determining towards the brain, a more considerable efilux
of blood. AH, on the other hand, that may divert this fluid towards an-
other organ, as copious bleeding, pediluvium, purges, digestion, severe
cold, or what ever diminishes the force vvitli which it is driven towards
it, as inebriation, general debility, tends powerfully to promote sleep.
In like manner, is it observed, that while it lasts, the cerebral mass col-
lapses ; a sign that the flow of blood is remarkably lessened."

If we look at sleep in itself without any reference to its necessity,
it may appear to be a very essential deprivation of our earthly existence,
llesembling death, or entire and continued inaction — so that it has been
frequently employed by diflerent nations as its symbol — it might appear
a foe to man. We certainly by it are prevented from tiiose movements,
cut oft' from those actions that constitute external life and impart the
highest value and dignity to our nature.

We should more easily take up the opinion tJiat vigilance is the nat-
ural state of man than the contrary. I have never read of more than
one man who adopted the theory that the natural state of man is sleep.
He was a Dutch physician, who, in endeavoring to reduce his views to
practice in his own case, destroyed his intellect and ended his days in a
mad-house. It is not improbable that his mental alienation had an ear-
lier origin than his singular efibrts to give himself entirely up to the do-
minion of Morpheus. It is not probable that any one of us will fall in-
to the opposite heresy of despising s'eep; the occasions are loo numer-
ous in which our feelings and actions exclaim, '-Blessed is the man tiiat
invented sleep !" but we may fall into erroneous opinions and practices
too, and therefore need to be reminilcd what are the extremes wliich we
should avoid in this matter, and where is the middle ground on which
we may composedly lie down, and wrapping ourselves up indulge in a
comfortable nap.

Amongst the extravagant notions that have been broached in this
world of vagaries, I have yet to learn that any one has maintained that
man ought not to sleep. One man, we have seen, adopted the contrary
view and proved the absurdity of his theory by its lamentable cflecls.

206 MORAL ASPECT OF SLEEP.

We suppose all men have yielded obedience to this law of their nature.
We presume it commenced with the first man — it spread its influence
over all the nations oi'the earth. We have heard of no nation that does
not sleep. Some may have had theories on the subject ; may have phil-
osophized, and they slept. Others may never have meditated on the
subject at all, and yet they render homage to the same law. In the only
case in which humanity was presented v/ith so many peculiarities, that
if any where there miglit be an exception, it is written of Him, '•'•Jesus
slept."

Some hints to students may here be in place. Arising early, let them,
before the day is far advanced, walk abroad and take exercise until they
feel moderately weary. Let them then return to their studies, and de-
vote faithfully all the prescribed hours to their appropriate duties. In
the remaining hours of recreation, take additional exercise, and devote
some of this time to general reading, if it be not necessary for your reg-
ular studies. Do not overload your stomachs with food, at any meal,
particularly at night. Take care that your chambers are not too warm
in winter, and let your fires go down before you retire to bed. If the
combustion of your lungs and your stoves is proceeding at the same
time, it will rob the air so rapidly of its vital part as to produce an un-
healthy atmosphere in a close room, and this will not only be unfavora-
ble to sleep but likewise to health. It will make you pallid and sickly,
enervate your strength, indispose you to action, and rob your minds of
their wonted energy.

"Sufhcient labor during the day," says that distinguished and christian
physician, Dr. Heinroth, of Leipzig, "proper exercise in the open air,
temperance, cheerfulness, contentment, and an unsullied conscience, con-
tribute alike to sound repose and pleasant dreams."

In regard to the quantity of sleep, it is undeniable that a certain
amount is necessary. As a general rule, I suppose men both eat and
sleep more than is really necessary. Intemperance in both conduces to
no good end, but is on many accounts objectionable. It is positively in-
jurious to mind and body. It is not an easy matter to determine the
number of hours which the necessities of our frames demand. The
best judges concede that it must vary according to circumstances. The
stamina of the human system varying in dillerent persons, the extent
of exhaustion and the amount of supply must be variously modified.
Children and young persons require more sleep than others, mature and
old age still less. To this latter fact the writer of Ecclesiastes refers in
the graphic representation which he gives of old age: "and he shall
rise up at the voice of the bird." Persons ot delicate constitutions re-

MOKAI. ASPF.C r OF SLEEP. 107

quire more sleep tlian thev whose constitutions are vigorous. Intense
physical exertion which must be followed by great exhaustion, requires
more sleep than where this chics not occur. From six to eight hours
may be regarded as the medium (Quantity. Not many can do with less
than the first named number, and not many in health require more than
the second.

Protracting sleep beyond the necessities of our bodies, is, in a moral
point of view, wrong. It obviously contravenes the purposes of our
Creator — it is a violation of the counsel given us in revelation to "Re-
deem the time" — It leaves out of view, the swiftness of our time, the
rapidity with which it flits away and the multiplicity and importance of
our engagements.

Hear on this subject the words of a very wise man : "Go to the ant,
thou sluggard; consider her ways and be wise. Which having no guide,
overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her
food in the harvest. How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard .'' when wilt
thou arise out of thy sleep } Yet a little sleep, a little folding of the
hands to sleep : So shall thy poverty come as one that travelleth, and
thy want as an armed man."

In the hours often wasted in sleep, much might be cccomplished for
our own good. and for the good of others. By reducing sleep to the quan-
tity absolutely necessary, some eminent men have gained time enough
to enable them to prepare works of lasting value to the world. Physi-
cians of the highest character declare that it is positively nijurious to
the health, and in addition stupifies the mind, readers it sluggish and
dull, and produces sleepy heads. Regarded as a sin against God, against
our own souls, against the welfare of our fellow men, and against our
own bodies, excessive sleep stands justly condemned, and our pur-
pose should be not to practice it.

On the other hand, if we attempt to deny ourselves the requisite
quantity, we shall sink under the experiment. Both body and mind will
be seriou.sly injured ; a long train of nervous disorders will ensue. Per-
manent ill health will be the consequence, and a miserable existence
will be dragged out, with a debilitated system; or, a premature death will
close the scene. Nothing is more preposterous than attempts in this
way to subvert the laws of nature, or the constitution of God. It is
morally wrong, and it defeats its own end. Instead of accomplishing
more, it accomplishes less. It is a form of self-murder — originating of-
ten in a most criminal ambition, and consummated with a most reckless
disregard of the authority of the moral Governor of the Universe.

208 MORAL ASPECT OF SLEEP,

The recumbent posture and the ni^lit season should be selected for
sleep. With the head somewhat elevated, the arms so located as not to
interfere with the functions of the body — not thrown over the head, nor
wound around the body. The side posture is better than the back. To
sleep sitting is regarded by physicians as injurious, because interfering
with the operations of the abdominal viscera. More than two in a small
room is objectionable, and it would be preferable if there were but one.
MacNish on the Philosophy of Sleep, gives some interesting facts upon
Ihe habits of distinguished men in respect to sleep. "Almost all men
who have distinguished themselves in science, literature and the arts,
have been early risers. The industrious, the active-minded, the enthu-
siast in the pursuit of knowledge or gain, are up betimes at their respec-
tive occupations ; while the sluggard wastes the most beautiful period of
life in pernicious slumber.

Homer, Virgil and Horace, are all represented as early risers ; the
same was the case with Paley, Franklin, Priestly, Parkhurst and BufTon,
the latter of whom ordered his valet de chambre to awaken him every
morning, and compel him to get up by force, if he evinced any reluc-
tance : for this service the valet was rewarded with a crown each day,
which recompense he forfeited if he did not oblige his master to get
out of bed before the clock struck six. Bishops Jewel and Burnet, rose
regularly every morning at four o'clock. Sir Thomas More did the
same thing ; and so convinced was he of the beneficial effects of getting
up betimes, that, in his Utopia he represented the inhabitants as attending
lectures before sunrise. Napoleon was an early riser; so was Frederick
the Great, and Charles XII; so is the Duke of Wellington; and so, in
truth, is almost every one distinguished for energy and indefatigability
of mind.

The same law which regulates our desire for food, also governs
sleep. As we indulge in sleep to moderation or excess, it becomes a
blessing or a curse — in the one case recruiting the energies of nature,
and diffusing vigor alike over the mind and frame : in the other, deba-
sing the character of man, stupifying his intellect, enfeebling his body,
and rendering him useless alike to others and himself Tlie glutton, the
drunkard, and the sloven, bear the strictest affinity to each other, both in
the violation of nature's laws and the consequences. What in modera-
tion is harmless and beneficial, in excess is a curse ; and sleep carried
to the latter extreme, may be pronounced an act of intemperance almost
as much as excess in eating and drinking."

209

BIOGRAPHY f)F LINNAKUS.

After having visited Mt. Skula, Linnaeus kept on in a westerly direc-
tion, until he reached the DolTraleld mountains, the boundary of Nor-
way. From this point he proceeded north until he reached Lula. What
is called the Lapland disert was next to be crossed. This is inhabited
by a few straggling people, settlers of remote ages, descendants of the
Finlanders, a people entirely distinct from the Laplanders, and of such
diminutive stature that they stand to milk the reindeer. The country is
entirely destitute of villages, or any cultivation. He ascended the moun-
tain Wallerari, where he found the Andromeda teiragona, at midnight,
which was then as bright as noon. After crossing the Lapland Alps in-
to Finmark, he passed along the shore of the North sea as far as Sal-
lero, occupying the remainder of the summer in examining this part of
the country. Ten years after, Linnaeus, in a public address, declared
that he suffered more fatigue and privation in his journey across the de-
sert than he did in all his journeys afterwards. In this tour he had per-
formed, and chiefly on foot, a journey of ten degrees of latitude exclu-
sive of all the necessary deviations.

Notwithstanding the honor which our naturalist received from his
successful northern travel, it contributed nothing to cheer his future
prospects. An old law of the University excluded any one, who had
not received a degree, from the honor of lecturing in public. Rosen, a
young student of Upsal, envious of the growing reputation of Linnaeus,
procured the passage of a decree preventing him from continuing the
course of lectures which he had already commenced. This was a
dreadful stroke, in fact depriving him of his only means of support, and
so completely did it paralize the principle of right, that he attacked Ro-
sen with his drawn sword and would probablv have run him through
the body, had he not been prevented by those around. Revengeful feel-
ings filled his breast, until, one nicht, suddenly awaking, he was horror-
struck at the sinful and rebellious state of his feelings. His penitence
was manifested by his efforts to bring back his heart to a right stale.
His worldly prospects were dark indeed, and might have crushed a man
of less nerve and buoyancy of spirits.

In this state of things, several of his former pupils, who were
strongly attached to him, determined to undertake a mineralogical tour
and invited him to become the head of the party. During this delight-
ful tour they visited Fahlun, the capital of Delccarlia, where he became
acquainted with Baron Ilenterholm, the Governor of the province. The
Baron, struck by the uncommon talents of Linnaeus, provided employ-
ment for him soon after his engagement wiiii his Upsal friends had ler-
•27

210 I.5NNAEUS.

minated. Wishing to send his sons upon a scientific excursion to ex-
plore the mines of Norwa}', he selected him as their travelling tutor.
After the completion of this tour, he fixed his residence for a season at
Fahlun, where he supported himself comfortably by practising medicine
and lecturing.

While his fame was daily increasing, the circle of his friends, won
by his irreproachable conduct and pleasing manners, was also extending
itself. Here he became acquainted with Dr. Moraeus, with the charms
of whose eldest daughter he was smitten, and whom he subsequently
married. Morasus thought as little of his mineralogy and botany in the
way of affording him a livelihood as his father had done, and advised
him by all means to bend his energies to the study of medicine, and ob-
tain a degree. This proved a powerful stimulus to Linnaeus, who re-
doubled his efforts both to economize his resources, and increase his
knowledge. Notwithstanding all his efforts, his labors would have been
in vain, but for the assistance of the lady of his affections, who gener-
ously gave him one hundred dollars which she had laid by from the al-
lowance made her by her father. It is stated by one of his biographers
that he was advised by one of his literary friends to marry an heiress,
as the surest means of delivering himself from his pecuniary difficulties,
he selected Miss Maraeus, whose father was the wealthiest man in the
place.

As Holland at this time had a high medical reputation, it was cus-
tomary for Swedes to take their degrees there. In 1735, at the age of
twenty-eight, Linnaeus left home to take his degree in Harderwych,
which University he selected as the cheapest and therefore best adapted
to his limited means.

After having received his degree, he went to Leyden where he pub-
lished a compendious sketch of his first work "Systema Naturae." The
great physician and botanist, Boerhaave, was delighted with the new and
striking views laid down in the Systema naturae, and invited the author
to visit him. Charmed with his talents and acquirements, Boerhaave
earnestly recommended his residence in Holland, where he would doubt-
less meet with the success which he so richly deserved. But he was
anxious to return to Sweden and his funds were low. Passing through
Amsterdam, he was cordially welcomed by Bursman, professor of Bo-
tany, to whom he had been introduced by Boerhaave. Bursman was
then preparing the Ceylon plants, and desired very much the aid of Lin-
naeus. "Will you aid me in my Ceylon collection } Will you, can you
stay .^" he eagerly inquired. The traveller frankly confessed that his
povertv made it important for him to return homo as fast as possible.

SCRIPTURE I.NsECTS. 211

His only difficulty Bursman obviated by receiving hiiu into iiis house
where he remained until spring.

After his engagement witli Bursman had terminated, he became phy-
sician to George Clitlbrt, Burgomaster of Amsterdam, and of a princely
fortune. ClifTort's connexion with the Dutch East India Company and
immense wealth enabled him to enrich his garden at Hartecamp with
natural curiosities from India. Whilst the prevailing taste of the age
and his own inclination made him one of the most munificent patrons of
horticulture. Here Linnaeus was in an earthly paradise ; surrounded by
curiosities from all parts of the world, enjoying access to a splendid li-
brary, with a munificent patron to procure all he wished, there was no-
thing more to be desired.

Here we will leave our naturalist, for the present, rejoicing that, after
so many labors and difficulties, he is at length reposing in the blessings
of a well-earned reputation, and the gratification of his fondest antici-
pations.

SCRIPTURE INSECTS.

Baltimore^ Juhj^ 1815.
Dear L. — In your last letter you ask my opinion in relation to the
animals mentioned in Lev. xi. 20 — 23. The English text is as follows :
''All fowls that creep, going on all four, shall be an abomination unto
you. Yet these ye may eat of, every flying creeping thing that goeth
upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the
earth; even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the
bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grass-
hopper after his kind. But all other flying creeping things, which have
four feet, shall be an abomination unto you." Now, what does Moses
mean by '•'•fowls that creep, going upon all four?" In looking at the
Hebrew text, I find that a more literal translation would be "every wing-
ed or (flying) creeping thing walking on four feet," so he evidently
means that insects in general shall not be eaten by the Jews, excepting
those subsequently specified. But you will at once start an objection
that all perfect insects have six feet, or as yo7i woidd sciennfically ex-
press it, they are hcxapodul animals. I reply that Moses evidently re-
garded the two anterior feet as arms or paws, and this opinion is con-
firmed by Bochart in his Hierozoicon. This, then, would exclude from
the Mosaic dialetics all insects excepting locusts, or more properly grass-
hoppers, for the word locust is improperly applied to the musical animal
which bears that name in this country. The scripture locust is the
grasshopper. Why do 1 conclude that locusts or grasshoppers were al-

212 [JKUIDISM.

lowed lo be eaten ? From the text, which says that those "which have
legs above their feet to leap withal," and from tl>e express mention of
the locust. All these insects which have what entomologists call crura
saltatoria, (leaping legs,) might be eaten, and those which have them not,
were forbidden. But you will reply, "that in the 22d verse, the beetle
is mentioned as allowed for food, and that has no leaping legs." I re-
ply that our translators use the same word incorrectly. The Hebrew
word is Charge], which Gesenius defines to be "eine Heiischreckenart
essbar und gefliigelt," and I see that Rosenmiiller in his notes to Boch-
art, considers it probable to be the Gnjilus Onos, or 2)a2ms of Linne,
and you know that the genus Gryllus does not belong to the order of
beetles or coleoptera.

The result of the wliole is that the Israelites were forbidden to eat
all insects, excepting of the locust, that is, tlie grasshopper family,
which we well know constituted a common article of food in the East.

In the 22d verse, Moses specifies the kinds of grasshoppers which
were allowed. The Eaglish translation conveys no very distinct mean-
ing, and Luther aware of the diiFicully of determining the species, has
retained the Hebrew words in his German version, thereby showing his
usual good sense. Various writers have tried their ingenuity and dis-
played their learning, in endeavoring to make out the specific kinds of
grasshoppers indicated by the Hebrew words of Moses, but their re-
searches are not satisfactory. One thing is certain, that insects, ex-
cepting those belonging to the grasshopper family, ( Orthoptcra) in its
various stages, were not allowed as food to the Israelitish nation.

It would be interesting to discuss the reasons of the distinction be-
tween food in the Mosaic system. Many curious facts are connected
with it, whilst it displays the most profound views of political economy
and religious propriety ; but I have neither room nor time for such dis-
cussion at present. Yours, &.c.

DRUIDISM.

When the first cliristian Missionaries landed u[)on the shores of Eng-
land, they met with a wonderful people, and a wonderful religion. The
condict commenced— the new against the old-the pure spirit against shad-
owy superstition — the simple word against corrupted tradition — light
against twilight — truth against fable. The one, clothed in the whole armor
of God, fought for his word and everlasting reward. The other, in the
might of bold confidence, and shielded by the awe and mystery that age
and fable had thrown around their religion, fouirht for the faith of their

DKUIDISM. 213

ancestors, for the titnc-liouored sane lilies of ihcir system, and for super-
stition. The conflict was not long; the banner of the cross soon waved
in victory, and Druidism fell, — since then, old Time, in his conquering
march, has been heaping obscurity and darkness and romance around
all that remained of it, until its truths and beauties beam forth but faintly
from the dim twilight of fable that surrounds it.

The Druids claim their descent from Japhet, througli his son Gomer,
who was the ancestor oC the Gauls, which is probable, as Japliet cer-
tainly settled in that part of the country; and the Edui, who were the
most ancient tribe of Britain, derive their name from Ades, which Jo-
sephus supposes to have been synonymous with Goraer. Certainly the
Cimmerians are thus descended, and their name is but a corruption of
Gomerian.

There were three orders, the Bards, the Ovates, and the Druids, dis-
tinguished by their different offices of singing, serving, and ministering.
They dressed diffsrenlly in blue, green, and white robes.

The system and whole ceremony of Druidism is an interesting and
curious mixture of sublimity and barbarism, perfectly joined and per-
fectly distinct. Truth is one and indivisible, and like mercury it assimi- '
lates itself to nothing, so that what was true in Druidism, though mixed
with error, was still separate and distinct. Like the fabled apples of Is-
takar, all sweetness upon one side, and all bitterness upon the other —
so Druidism in its one aspect presents truths and charities that a chris-
tian might embrace, and in its other, cruelties and horrors that would
blanch the cheek of Paganism. All the systems, and superstitions, and
fanciful speculations, and Protean theories that we can trace upon the
face of all history, whether curious, bold, puerile or sublime, seem to
have found an experiment, if not tlieir embodiment, in the theology of
the Druids. In their mysterious ''Logan Stone," we see the accommo-
dating iustice of the middle ages; in the wonder-workings of their sky-
tubes, we detect a resemblance to judicial astrology ; their symbolical
idolatry likened their theology to that of ancient Persia ; in their belief
jn the transmigration of souls, we see the religion of the Brahmins;
the wonders of their mystic crystal, remind us of Eastern magic, or
modern Gypsyism ; in their veneration for animals, we see the supersti-
tion of Efifypt; their tatooing reminds us of the manners of North Amer-
ican Indians ; in their human sacrifices we detect a similarity to the cruel
riles of Pagan India; in their mysterious "cauldron of the five plants"
we see even Shaksperian witchery; their holy and perpetual fires might
have been either a type or a copy of the vestal ilame of antiquity ; their
•'adder stone," ehu'lowcd forlh the ^;upr.'rsliuons of ra:ly Fijuic ; ihcir

214 DRUIDISM

stone circles are equivalent to the Gilgal of Joshua ; their belief in the
immortality of the soul is the highest proof of the sublimity of reason ;
their myiUical symbol of the winged serpent attests their knowledge of
the trinity of revelation; and their "One God" places them upon the
broad platform of Christianity.

There is even now such a charm as soothes the soul, whilst we con-
template their sacred esteem and pure reverence for the mistletoe and
holy grove, and prevents us from profanely censuring them for this al-
most christian idolizing. When the tierce legions of Rome overran this
sacred ground, trampling sacrilegiously upon their holy mysteries, and
making mock of their holy ceremonies, even they were awed into rever-
ence by the still sanctity of these groves of the Druids. Like the Ser-
apian temple of the ancients, these sacred oaks were preserved by the
mystery of fable from the ruthless hands of the conquerors. Every
thing else that rude soldiery could destroy and lay waste felt the deso-
lation of war : but

"With silent dread and reverence, they survej'ed
The gloom majestic of the sacred shade,
A^one dare with impious steel the bark to rend.
Lest on himself the destiu'd stroke descend."

In medical art, mechanical knowledge, and mysterious writing, the
Druids were similar, if not superior to the Egyptians •, their optical in-
struments are sufilcient evidence of their astronomical skill, and their
use of the hazel and oak and ash twigs as symbols in communicating
and concealing knowledge, make it plain that they possessed ^ the hie-
roglyphic art." Their skill in building and architecture is plainly evi-
denced by the

* * * " Mysterious rows
Of rude, enormous obelisks, that rise.
Orb within orb, stupendous mountains
Of artless architectuie, such as now
Oftiraes amaze the wandering traveller.
By the pale moon discerned on Saturn's plains."

There was a part of the theology of Druidism that, judged even by
the strict standard of revelation, merits our admiration, and, judged with
the allowance generally meted out to the religions of " olden time,"
strikes us with mysterious wonder, and defies all panegyric. The start-
ling marvel of man's immortality, and the great truths of God's unity
and trinity, were discovered and preserved amid all the corruptions of
superstitions and false reason. The answers to the interrogatories which
set forth the principles of Druidism, were always three-fold, supposed

to have been emblematic of the trinity, viz: What are the objects of
Druidism ? To make men brave in battle — to teach them that their
souls are immortal, and that another life awaits them beyond the grave.
What are the foundations of knowledge ? Bold design, frequent prac-
tice, frequent mistakes. What are the foundations of learning ? Seeing
much, suffering much, studying much. Their idea of the "three circles,"
of space, of courses, of happiness, under which the whole universe of
mind and matter, of action and passion, was comprised, is not unworthy
of the shrewdness of modern metaphysics. The regular gradation of
being and virtue from Jlmoom to the right hand of the Godhead, is a
beautiful and rational fiction, worthy of the brightest fancy and the deepest
reason.

Their worst feature, and that which robs the whole system of half
its charms, and half its beauty, was their prodigality of human life: their
exalted idea of God induced them to think that any oblation less than
man was an abomination. But human sacrifice was no necessary part
of their religion — sometimes it obtained, sometimes it did not; it was

* * "A baleful rite.
That, in the lapse of ages, h.ad crept o'er
Diluvian truths, and patriarchal lore."

With the Druids there was no idolaty — no downright, plain, culpa-
ble deification of created things; if there was any, it was, like the Per-
sians, purely symbolical. At first they worshipped God, in his star-lit
chambers, and roofless temple, and open firmament, in purity and in re-
ligion,; but the contemplation, much less the worship of God, incom-
prehensible, invisible, and uncreateti, is a task beyond the powers of man
without the Holy Spirit and the Gospel. It was too great a task even
for the Druids — then they worsliipped the sun and moon — however,
only as symbols of the unseen God.

Druidism was potent, not only in its reality, but in its mystery; and
there was mystery in it — mystery enough to chain the homage and faith
of a rude people for centuries — mystery enough to challege the venera-
tion of fierce enemies — mystery enough to perpetuate its influence gen-
eration after generation — mystery enough to baffle long the efforts of op-
position, of time, and of truth — mystery enough to repay ten-fold the
curious student — and there is mystery in it still. Yes, this dim spirit of
mystery which wings its way to us through "the voiceless twilight of
ages," still has a potent spell for the soul.

College of St. James, Md.

216

COMMON THINGS, NO. Ill,

PUTKEFACTION — PREVENTION, fec.

It was stated in our first article that when certain animal and vegeta-
ble substances are exposed to heat and moisture, fermentation takes
place, and acetic acid or vinegar is generated. In substances which con-
tain nitrogen or azote a different fermentation ensues, called putrefaction,
some remarks upon which, with the means for its prevention, will form
the subject of the present article.

The decomposition of azotised plants and of animal bodies, lakes
place spontaneously when exposed to heat, air, and moisture. During
this process the elementary substances which entered into the composition
of the bodies form various new and gaseous compounds. The oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur, tbrm by their com-
binations water, ammonia or hartshorn, carburetted, phosphuretted, and
sulphuretted hydrogen. Most of these gases, and especially the latter
possess an intolerable odor, the result of their combination every one
knows who has enjoyed a close proximity to a carrion. After the evo-
lution of the gases there remains an earthy residuum consisting of de-
cayed mould with charcoal.

As putrefaction cannot proceed except on certain conditions, by remo-
ving these, the progress of decay may be retarded, or wholly arrested.

The first mode of prevention is by the chemical changes of the azo-
tized substances, resulting in the formation of new and more permanent
compounds.

Albumen is that substance which both in animal and vegetable bodies
has the greatest tendency to putrefy, and upon it all the processes for
their prevention are designed to act. When albumen is dissolved in wa-
ter, a moderate heat is sufficient to render it putrid, but when coagulated
by heat, or otherwise, it becomes insoluble and much less liable to
change. In this state it may be dried, and thus rendered unsusceptible
of spontaneous decomposition.

Albumen may be coagulated by heat as is exemplified in the boiling
of eggs, the white of which consists principally of this substance. Af-
ter this operation they may be kept for a long time.

It may be coagulated by acids without being separated from its solu-
tions. Vinegar is commonly used in this way for the preservation of
meats and vegetables.

It may be coagulated by tannin, which also unites with the gelatin
of animal bodies and forms indestructible compounds. Upon this fact
the art of tanning is founded.

PREVENTION. 217

II may be coagulated and preserved from putrescence by alcoliol, oil
of turpentine, and some other volatile oils. Creosote possesses a most
decided power of coagulation ; a very minute portion in vinegar being
sufficient to preserve meat that has been soaked in it, to which it also
communicates a smoky flavor. The process of smoking meat owes its
efficacy in a great degree to the action of creosote, which always accom-
panies the smoke from wood. Water takes up but Ij per cent, of this
oil, but alcohol unites with it in every proportion.

The earthy and metallic salts possess the same property, and are
most of them powerful antiseptics. They act by separating albumen
from its watery solutions, and forming with it insoluble compounds.

The alkaline salts are not quite as efficacious. Common salt has
been used in every age and country for the preservation of meats. Alum
is the most energetic of the earthy salts, and is three times as powerful
as the muriate of soda.

The metallic salts are much more powerful than the earthy, and form
more intimate combinations. A solution containing^ the one-five-hun-
dredth part of nitrate of silver, is said to be capable of preserving ani-
mal matters from corruption. Corrosive sublimate has been extensively
used in the preparation of specimens for museums, and experience has
fully proved its entire adaptation to this purpose. Similar properties are
possessed by arsenic.

We have now explained only one of the general principles upon
which the decomposition of animal and vegetable substances may be
prevented, viz. by the chemical change of the azotised substances ; three
other modes yet remain to be described, but as we have almost attained
the limit of our article, their explanation must be postponed.

In reflecting upon the various substances which have been and may
be \ised to arrest the decomposition of animal and vegetable tissues, a
wide field of the most important investigation is opened to our view. —
How important to society, we might say to every individual in society,
is the question. What is the best mode of preserving animal and vegeta-
ble substances from decay ? In the art of tanning we see an illustration
of its importance. What could we do without leather ? Large quantities
of food which might have afibrdod wholesome nutriment to man and
other animals, become corrupt and poisonous — the timbers used in con-
struction, the posts of fences, our houses and ships, are all liable to ra-
pid decay, and produce an annual loss of millions. It is by no means
certain that a cheap and efficacious mode of remedying the evil cannot
be discovered. We know of some that have been fully tested, and have
been found to'answer. Corrosive sublimate in the proportion of 1 pound
28

218

PHONOGRAPHY.

to 5 gallons of water, will make a solution with which when timbers are
saturated, they may be exposed to the most active agents in the produc-
tion of decay without injury; but the cost is too great — coal, too, answers
a similar purpose, but it cannot always be procured or conveniently used.
Might not some of the cheap mineral acids be employed ? Might not
arsenic in some form be used in place of corrosive sublimate ? Might
not some of the cheap saline solutions be found efficacious ? Might not
something cheaper still be discovered } If a common post worth six
cents can, by the absorption of three or four cents worth of a solution
be made more durable than a locust tie for which on railroads it has
been customary to pay seventy-five cents, what an immense saving of
expense would be produced, and what a public benefit would be confer-
ed! A farmer could then build his fences with the expectation of seeing
them last a lifetime. A naval constructor would no longer search for
live oak, he would take the commonest timber of the forest and render
it more nearly imperishable than the best.

One more suggestion and we shall conclude. Might not small ani-
mals be preserved by injecting them with creosote and alcohol ? We
have heard that a process has been discovered by which such prepara-
tions can be made without the trouble of skinning and stuffing, but how,
we have not learned — perhaps by immersing a small animal in such a
solution, then taking it out, putting it while soft in a suitable position
and setting it away to dry, it might be eflectually preserved ; and ama-
teurs would then find no difficulty in getting their specimens in shape —
it would not suit, however, for large animals.*

The writer has made a portion offence in which solution of arsenic
was used to protect the posts ; if any gentleman who is curious to know
the result, will call about the year 1860, he may be able to ascertain the
success of the experiment. H. H.

PROF. IIALDEMAN S SYSTEM OF PHONOGRAPHY,

IN A LETTER TO PROF. REYNOLDS.

Dear Sir : — I have just opened No. 2 of that very promising little
periodical, the Record and Journal of Penn. College, and having read
your article, give you a slight sketch of an essay which I have sent to
the Am. Phil. Society, entitled "Observations on general Phonology and
Alphabetic notation, with an attempt to adapt the Roman Alphabet to
exotic Languages."

Bears for example.

PHONOGRAPH V. 219

I have examined a number of attempts to form a new English Al-
phabet, among others those of Ewing, Kneeland, and Antrim, the last
published in Philadelphia in 1843. I have been promised that of Grimke
whose I have not yet seen. The vital error of these authors is the
making of the Roman alphabet the basis of their systems icilh a total
subversion of the powers which belong to these characters by universal
(except English^ consent. Thus e = Italian, French and German i; i is
made to represent the diphthongal ai; a is made e in where instead of in
far, &c. We must have a general alphabet, or none, one that can be
adapted to all languages without variation ; no localisms, as z for ts in
German and dz in Italian, or J for dj = d -j-j Fr. The authors above re-
ferred to have also failed in their attempts to analyze the sounds of the
English language, and several of them have gone to much trouble and
expense in having queer-shaped types cut. I propose to use the Roman
alphabet with but little modification, except that which can be produced
by inverting letters, as Mr. Ewing has done, and I arrange them in natu-
ral order, according to their affinities, as follows :

PHOIVOGRAPHIC AliPHABET.

r 1 I Eng. i in marine, French He.

< 2 7 (or "1) Fr. Eng. Span, i in idiom. This is not a yhort quantity
( of the foregoing.

^ 3 E Eng. e in where. French e ; German Span. Ital.
^ 4 £ for 3 j Eng. e in 7ncnd, met. Fr. nette., Ital. Gerni.

5 A Ital. a in amo., Fr. ame, Eng. arm. This is also the genuine
German a of polite usage.

6 X Eng. a in man., mat. JYot the short sound of A, as frequently
"j asserted.

7 f\ Eng. a in fall. When short, Eng. and Fr. in ojy^ra, a in what,
[^ Irish a or a.

^ 8 O Eng u in mvrdcr. Fr. cw, German a; in LcBwe.

^ 9 O ^^^S- ^^^^- Germ. &c. o. French 3.

j' 10 U Eng. u in rwle, fuil. Fr. on, Ital. Span. Germ. u.

I 11 Y Danish y, French m, Germ, w, Latin ?/, which is a vowel; Greek

] f, which in modern Greek has degenerated into I, just as the

[ Ger. ichel becomes \bcl in vulgar discourse.

c cr

12 U (or V) Eng. ly in wine, Lat. winum ; \J wh in when. \J a

whistle — Indian languages.

13 1 ( or J) Eng. y, Ital. and Ger. J. 14 H Eng. Ger. h weak,

h strong, li guttural, h' aspirate, h inspiration, h nasal insp.

220 FHO.NOGRArHY.

c c c c

15 Fl r Ger. French, r French Ihial arbre.

16 L (oi- better, B ) 'L Welsh, and French final hi lahle (T A B L')

\ V7 \>J\ ma sneer, Gcnnan Ittn !

I 18 |\| - French final n or preceding vowel, as in mon (^ J\.)

I 19 N ^^^Sy '^ ^ groan. «"' a wheeze. ' a gasp, (generally on the

^ vowel Q.)

c\ c

20 "K ("^^ G) ^^^' 1? Runic. 21 K (or G) name of the Ger. letter
g, Spanish J, Russian F.

J ^ C.I-/ . c

22 K (or K) K Runic. 23 K or K Germ. ich. Irish c. Gr. ;*$. K

haish Arabic guttural.
24 X (.^^ D) in day. 25 X Eng. fZ/t in this. Modern Greek <^.

c\ c

(T=D)

/ c c/

20 T (*^^ T) 27 X ('or Tj Eng. tJi in thin. Rom. Russ. Coptic 6.

[ 2S p (or B) E"g- ^- 29 p for B) I^al. Fr. Eng. V, Fuis. B. Ger. w.
} Irish b'.

I

30 P (or P) Eng. P. 31 P for p) Eng. Fr. Sec./. Modern Greek C.
S 32 3 Eng. z, in his. 33 S Eng. s in treasure. French j.
f 34 3 Eng. z, in hiss. 35 3 Eng. in sure. Ger. sch. Eng. sh. Fr. ch.

The characters between parentheses are mere substitutes of which I
do not approve. The consonants of the first column are "Zene," and
most of them admit of aspiration fas I have elsewhere explained) ac-
cording to the second column. Moreover, s is an acute z, and z a grave
.V. V is an aspirate J, or grave-aspirate p. The English use of the sin-
gle character s shows how intimately the sounds of the acute, grave,
acute-asp. and grave-asp. are connected, and as cognate languages do not
change the radical letter of words common to two or more, my notation
appears to be the only one adapted to philological purposes, especially
the comparison of dialects and allied languages. The German uses
dinte and tiiite indifferently, that is t varies from acute ("T ) ^^ grave
("Y). The eye catches the similarity of the German silhcr and the
English silver, if b and v be represented by pointed characters, and so
on in an infinity of cases.

I represent long quantity by - medial by •• and short by • beneath
or above the vowels, and mark accented syllables by accentuals over the
vowel, and thrown towardb the co-accented syllables, as in baker, bashful.

rHo.\oi;nAi'UV. 221

Let C = K. Now it is of littln account wliethcr wc distinguish the
allied G by a thickened base, or a grave accent — so also with B, P,
where the distinction lies in an additional loop. My notation is not cal-
culated to make a favorable impression upon the uneducated, but I con-
sider it to be founded upon such uniform principles as to make it more
desirable to the philologist, than if separate characters were used for
every variety of inflexion. I must confess that hahit held me to the
very last, in considering that the graves and acutes should have distinct
characters, although I had rejected the aspirates v, f, &c. at an early pe-
riod of my researches. You perceive that we have hit upon the same
word, "phonography." I use the nearly similarly derived word phono-
gram for a letter or character representing an invariable sound.

I am unfavorably disposed towards double letters as x for ks and x
fur gz, ('as my accentuals would modify this character. j If they are
adopted, however, J should be retained for its Italian and German power,
when the French power might be represented by j and the Eng. j and g soft
by J (/inverted^ or better, by jj, representing a nnion of d and J Fr.
The dot of i and j should be rejected in print. If aspirate p must be
represented by F ('better ?) then English V must have the character L
and then we must have six additional characters for the aspirates of k,
q, d, t, s, z. Let there be uniformity throughout.

]\Iy principal reason for preferring k to c is that the rotundity of the
form of the latter is a poor representative of the harshest letter of the al-
phabet, besides its heterogeneous use in the various languages of Europe.

I am very glad that a new Alphabet has not been applied to the Eng-
lish language, because, judging from those which I have seen, the re-
sult would have been unsatisfactory. There should be a convention of
those favorable to the project, that every point might be discussed in or-
der. I think in such an event it would not require much time to de-
cide thatJi is better than o ('proposed by Kneeland and Antrini,j and the
English vowel standard the very worst that could be adopted, and
which would forever deter foreitrners from studying the language, in-
stead of drawing them to it.

A new alphabet would affect etymology but little, as we would gain
in pure English the little that we lost in words of Latin origin. Be-
sides, the Italians are more interested in the Latin than wc are, and they
unhesitatingly sacrifice ph for jT, as in Filadelfia. But the pretence
about etymology is pure hypocrisy, one of Webster's greatest f milts
in the eyes of his columniators, being the changes by which he wished
to make many words etymologically correct, as fcther^ tung., labor, &.c.

Yours, S. S. llALDliiMAK.

INSECTS OUR PIONEERS IN THE ARTS.

Shame upon the man who turns with contempt from any thing God
has seen fit to create and esteems worthy of his continual protection ?
The least of God's creatures displays the unapproachable excellencies
of his character, oftentimes more strikingly than the greatest. The at-
tentive observer finds himself richly repaid by stooping to examine the
smallest insect ; and the word of God even urges him to make their
habits a subject of study, Much may be learned from them. Not mere-
ly habits of industry, which we suppose was mainly intended by the sa-
cred penman when he wrote "Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her
ways and he wise ;" but also many things that could be profitably em-
ployed in the arts, and many contrivances to add to our comfort. One
thing is certain, viz. that these little creatures have anticipated us in many
of our most highly prized inventions. Ought they to be called inven-
tions? Are they not merely discoveries of what had long before been
known by our teachers in miniature ?

In the first volume of Kirby and Spence's Entomology, (a work
which every man should read before he ventures to express the merest
opinion on the subject of entomology,) some of the anticipated inven-
tions are summed up in the following language : (p. 14, v. I.)

"The lord of creation plumes himself upon his powers of invention,
and is proud to enumerate the many various useful arts and machines to
which they have given birth, not aware that "He who teachelh man
knowledge," has instructed these despised insects to anticipate him in
many of them. The builders of Babel doubtless thought their inven-
tion of turning earth into artificial stone, a very happy discovery; yet a
little bee had practised this art, using indeed a different process, on a
small scale, and the white ants on a large scale, ever since the world be-
gan. Man thinks that he stands unrivalled as an architect, and that his
buildings are without a parallel among the works of the inferior order
of animals. He would be of a different opinion did he attend to the
history of insects : he would find that many of them have been archi-
tects from time immemorial ; that they have had their houses divided in-
to various apartments, and containing staircases, gigantic arches, domes,
colonnades, and the like ; nay, that even tunnels are excavated by them
so immense, compared with their own size, as to be twelve times bigger
than that projected by Mr. Dodd to be carried under the Thames al
Gravesend.

The modern fine lady, who prides herself on the lustre and beauty
of the scarlet hangings which adorn the stately walls of her drawing-
room, or the carpets that cover its floor, fancying that nothing so rich

LI.WAEA.V CABINET. 233

and splendid was ever seen before, and pitying her vulgar ancestors,
who were doomed to unsightly whitewash and rushes, is ignorant all the
while, that before she or her ancestors were in existence, and even be-
fore the boasted Tyrian dye was discovered, a little insect had known
how to hang the walls of its cell with tapestry of a scarlet more bril-
liant than any her rooms can exhibit, and that others daily weave silken
carpets, both in tissue and texture infinitely superior to those she so
much admires. Other arts have been equally forestalled by these creatures.
What vast importance is attached to the invention of paper ! For near
six thousand years one of our commonest insects has known how to
make and apply it to its purposes ; and even pasteboard, superior in sub-
stance and polish to any we can produce, is manufactured by another.
We imagine that nothing short of intellect can fte equal to the construc-
tion of a diving-bell or air-pump — yet a spider is in the daily habit of
using the one, and, what is more, one exactly similar in principle to ours,
but more ingeniously contrived ; by means of which she resides unwet-
ted in the bosom of the water, and procures the necessaay supplies of
air by a much more simple process than our alternating buckets — and
the caterpillar of a little moth knows how to imitate the other, produ-
cing a vacuum, when necessary for its purposes, without any piston be-
sides its own body. If we think with wonder of the populous cities
which have employed the united labors of man for many ages to bring
them to their full extent, what shall we say to the white ants, which re-
quire only a few months to build a metropolis capable of containing an
infinitely greater number of inhabitants than even imperial Nineveh, Ba-
bylon, Rome, or Pekin, in all their glory!"

That insects should thus have forestalled us in our inventions, ought
to urge us to pay a closer attention to them and their ways than we
have hitherto done, since it is not improbable that the result would be
many useful hints for the improvement of our arts and manufactures,
and perhaps for some beneficial discoveries.

A Lover of Nature.

CABINET OF THE LINXAEAN SOCIETY.

Our readers have, no doubt, observed with satisfaction the steady increase of
the Linnaean Cabinet, donations to which are acknowledged monthly upon our
outside cover. These articles do not lie as useless and confused masses of lumber
in our hall, but are from time to time regularly and scientifically arranged. The
President of the society, Dr. Morris, a few weeks since, thus arranged and la-
belled the shells and Crustacea, according to the system of Lamarck, .so that stu-
dents in this department, here possess every advantage. The minerals and fossils,
of which the collection is very extensive, were, at the same time, placed in similar
order by Prof. Jacobs, who haa the care of this department of Natural Science in
Penn. College.

224

OBITUARY NOTICE OP CHRISTIAN UFI^,.

Mullis ilk bonis Jfebilis occidil
Nulli flebiiior quam mihi.

Died, on the 13th ult., Christian Uhl, a member of Pennsylvania
College, in the 25th year of his age. Mr. Uhl was from Millersburg,
Holmes county, Ohio, and entered the Institution a few years ago with
the design of qualifying himself for the christian ministry. He had
nearly completed Sophomore studies, and was looking forward wills
bright prospects to the future, when death suddenly mariied him as his
victim, and snatched him from our midst. Although every thing M'as
done for his recovery that either friendship or affection could prompt,
disease batHed all effort and seemed only to laugh at the medical skill
employed. The poignancy of death v/as, however, overcame by a
sweet reliance upon Him in whom he had trusted for salvation. He felt
liis confidence unshakeff in prospect of the eternal world, and peacefully
closed his eyes upon the earth with the sustaining hope of awaking pn
the morning of the resurrection to a glorious and blissful immortality.
Sensible of his approaching end, he was perfectly resigned to the Divine
will, and was permitted to bear the clearest and most decided testimony
to the preciousness of Christ and his Gospel.

On the succeeding day his mortal remains were borne to the grave,
accompanied by his classmates and fellow-students, his instructors, and
a large concourse of citizens, all anxious to show the last tribute of re-
spect to the memory of one who was highly esteemed in life. The ex-
ercises connected with the funeral, were exceedingly solemn and affect-
ing. An impressive and appropriate discourse was pronounced in the
College church by President Krauth, from the words, '•'■It /.,? tJic Lord;''''
in which the speaker, after referring to the many virtues of the deceased,
■urged his hearers to lay to heart the solemn lessons addressed to them
on the mournful occasion; to remember their own mortality, and pre-
pare to meet their God.

Mr. Uhl possessed, in an eminent degree, those excellencies which
generally secure esteem. His kindness of heart, his amiability, his frank-
ness and freedom from all guile commanded the respect and won the
affections of all who knew him. His piety seemed deeply seated in the
heart : it was uniform and not mere impulse ; a reality and not simply a
name. Without any display he strove to walk in the statutes and ordi-
nances of the Lord blameless. Fieligion appeared in him to predominate
as a controlling agency, and was not confined in its operations to favor-
able junctures or circumstances : its steady light shone forth at all sea-
sons and in all places. His moral worth, amiable qualities, his exem-
plary deportment and christian fidelity, the interest which he manifested
for the advancement of piety in the Institution, and the extension of
Christ's kingdom at large, will long be remembered with pleasure and
cherished in affectionate regard.

Whilst we condole with the distant parents and distressed relatives of our de-
ceased fiiend, we unite with them in rendering thanks to Almighty God, that he
was sustained in the trying hour by the all-powerful consolations of religion, and
met with a peaceful and triumphant end. May the lesson here taught us be blessed
to our spiritual improv ement — sanctified to our eternal good. May we realize that
we too are rapidly hastening to the tomb and that ere long we also must join the
congregation of the dead.

Filbert above Eleventh street, Philadelphia, Pa.

MEDICAL FACULTY AT PHILADELPHIA.

Wm. Darrach, M. D.—Prof. of Theory and Practice of Medicine.
John Wiltba.vk, M. J).— Prof, of Obstetrics and Diseases of woman and children
Wm. R. Grant, M. B.—Prof. of Anatomy and Physiology.
H. S. Patterson, M. D.—Prof. of Materia Medica.
t). Gilbert, M. D.—Prof of Principles and Practice of Surgery.
W. L. Atlee, M. D.—Prof. of Medical Chemistry.

PAYMENT FOR THE RECORD AND JOURNAL.
As the first volume of this Magazine v?ill be complete with two more
numbers, those mibscrihers who have not yet paid are earnestly requested
to do so. As postage is now so low, a letter and one dollar or five dollar?
will cost those who are in arrears but five or ton cents, and we therefore
hope that they will make their remittances without any expense to the
Journal, and without any further delay. A few (scarcely a dozen) com-
:>lete copies of the Journal may still be had by new sub.scribor?. AJ-
iress "Editors of the Record and Journal, Gettysburg, Pa."
Gettysburg, August, 1845.

IJennsnbama €ailcge, ©ettusburg, |3a.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.
Rev. C. P. Kratjth, D. D. — Preset and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Pkilos^y, ^-c.
Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, ^c.
Rev. RJ. Jacobs, A. M.—Prof. of'Matkematics, Sfc^
Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A. M. — Prof, of Latin, Mental Philosophy, ^c.
M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof. ofHistorij and Principal of Preparatory Department.
Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.
Herman Haupt, A. M. — Professor of Mathematics.
W. H. Harrison. — Assistant Prof of Languages.
David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy a;;J Physiology.
Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoology.

Wm. Albaugh, a. i\I. — Tutor and Teacher in Preparatory Department.
Mr. H. R. Geiger.— Teacher of Writing.

Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur- ;

ino' this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta- !

tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that >

of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in- '.

struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition \

to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course ;

is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country. ',

The government of the students is as energetic as their circumstances seem to ]

require. They attend at least two recitations a day, Church and Bible Class on the '.

Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of ^

any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has {

more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge ;

in the College Edifice, special cases excepted. ;

The annual expenses are — for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter \

: session, $61 87i: for the summer session, .^41 87^. Wishing, #10 00; and Wood, |

$.3 00. Total expense, ^116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 2.5 per j

weelc. (

There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of;

' April and September, each of five weeks continuance. j

The summer session commenced on the 22d of May, with the accession of over j

; forty new Students.

^ckn0CDlcli0cmcitt5 of IDonations to tlje Cabinet of tl)e Cinncean i
. Association of |)ennsgliiauia CColiegc. '

I July, 184-5. From Prof Hay, a sword which had been used by his gran ;-

\ father in the Revolutionary war.

i 2. From Rev. B. Arey, lour specimens of gold-ore from Cabarras co., N. (

> 3. From J. K. Pliit. fifteen coins and minerals.

< 4. From Rev. P. Williard, a box of minerals, & several fine Cubic crystals . ;

/ sulphurate of iron.

I 5. From Jos. A. Wolf, an enormous whale's tooth.

i 6. From £■ P. Hildebrand, East Berlin, Pa. an extraordinary rattle of '

i Crotalus.

i 7. From Miss McKeye, Hagerstown, Md., a number of minerals.

5 8. From J. Martin, a moss-basket.

\ 9. From Mrs. Provines, one rare coin, per Prof. Baugher.

I 10. From W. W. Paxton, the Lord's Prayer iu 25 languages. )

i

Terms of the Record and Journal. One Dollar per annum
in advance.

Address — '•'■Editors of the Record and Journal^ Gettysburg^ Pa.'''

^iA^

VOLUME l]

[number U.

TilK

LITERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

®f tijc jfinnacnn 5l890fiaticin of Peitn0i)ltianta ColltQc.
SEPTEMBER, J 845.

CONDUCTED

3Js a Commfttee ot xixz ^ssocfatfou.

CONTENTS.
NUG^ ETIINOLOGICAE, NO. II,
WRONG NAMES FOR RIGHT OBJECTS,
GRECIAN EDUCATION, NO. III.
COMMON THINGS, NO. IV.,
BIOGRAPHY OF LINNAEUS,
HOW SNAKES CAPTURE THEIR PREY,

POETRY. THE SPIRIT WINGS,

FRAGMENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL,
LE MAOUT's botany, - - -

COLLEGE RECORD, - - -

THE RECORD AND JOURNAL, -

225

232
234
237
239
241
242
243
245
248
ih

Ij sheet, periodical — Postage, 2^ cents, to any distance within the Union.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

m^iiiiM^ Mmm m€

S^Ev"!

OF THE LINN^AN ASSOCIATION OP PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. SEPTEMBER, 1845. No. 11.

NUG.E ETHNOLOGIC AE, NO. II.

BY PROF. H. S. PATTERSON, M. D. OF PHILADELPHIA, PA.

In alluding to the efforts made to find an account of tlie origin of
the existing varieties of the human species in Scripture, it may be super-
fluous to mention the hypothesis wliich woukl refer the production of
the African variety to the curse pronounced against Ham, or rather
against one of the offspring of that undutiful son : — ''Cursed be Canaan,
a servant of servants shall he be to his brethren." So preposterous an
assertion could not be made by any man pretending to science. I would
not mention it, but that it has been used popularly in lulling the con-
sciences of men to sleep in the commission of the most atrocious of
crimes. Cupidity has turned the leaves of holy writ with her blood-
stained hands in search of a warrant for her enormities, and thought
that here she found authority for her infamous traffic in the bodies of
men. The passage in question was read in the Convention to amend
the Constitution of Pennsylvania in advocacy of the clause denying the
rights of citizenship to all tinged with Ethiopian blood. Yet nothing
but a desperate text-hunting in support of established abuses, could have
distorted it to this use. If the cur.se affected all the descendants of Ham,
who will believe that the Ninevites and Egyptians, the originators of the
first great civilization of which the world has any record, were veritable
negroes .'' The curse, however, is said to apply only to the youngest of
the four sons of Ham, this name is mentioned three times in connexion
with it, while none of the others are once alluded to. The ciiildren of
Canaan were the tribes afterwards overcome and well nigh extermina-
ted by the Israelites, and it is probably to this event that the prophetic
malediction has reference. That they were Caucasian is indubitable. —
This subject may be referred to again.

In medio tulissimiis ibis ! was good advice given long ago, and if gen-
erally true, will bear me out in the position I now assume. Tiioso who
29 I

226 NUG.E ETH.VOLOr.ICAE.

deny the unity of the human species may be divided into two classes
holding opposite extremes of opinion. The one, struck with the multi-
tudinous evidences of the plastic power of nature, the potency of the
affinities of matter, and the surprising eflects of those imponderable es-
sences which defy our keenest scrutiny, making themselves known only
by their mighty energies, have concluded that the ordinary forces of the
material world are competent to the development of organized from un-
organized matter. This assumption once granted, it is easy to arrive at
the conclusion that the organization thus effected, may be perfected by
the same forces which originated it. The production of a man from
brute matter by the operation of ordinary laws then ceases to be unrea-
sonable, and may soon be asserted unequivocally. This school may be
denominated the natural Jdstorical. The first traces of its theory are
found in the Phenician and other ancient oriental cosmogonies, it is
taught by Virgil (Georg. lib. IV.) and Lucretius, (De Rer. Nat. v. 803,)
and has been maintained with more or less distinctness by all who con-
tended for what has been called equivocal or spontaneous generation.
The boldest of its modern defenders has been Lamarck, and it has re-
cently been set forth in a popular form by the author of the "Vestiges
of the Natural History of Creation." The other class, in endeavoring
to avoid Scylla have fallen upon Charybdis. They may be styled the
historical school. Their starting point is the permanency of the known
varieties under many diverse influences and for immense periods of time.
Tracing back the historical evidence of the existence of the varieties
now known, at a period which the ordinarily received chronology makes
the infancy of the race, they expect that the causes which could have
produced them in the previous era would necessarily have prevented
their permanency from that date to the present. The inference then is,
that they must have been either original or efl'ected by a miraculous
agency. This school limits the power of the ordinary forces of matter
as much as the other extends it. Now the truth appears to me to be
between these two extremes. We know that the forces mentioned do
produce very important changes in the structure, color, &c. of organized
beings — quite as great, as before remarked, as any existing between the
varieties of men. On the other hand, I think it can be shown that this
eflect never extends so far as the destruction of the original specific type.
The force exists, but within bounds. It may cause varieties but it can
never effect a mutation of the sj^ecies. Even were this granted, the case
would not be entirely clear, for we might rest on the assertion that it
cannot commute genera. The procreation, although it is of hybrids,
which takes place between individuals of dilferent species in the same

NUG.E ETHXOLOGICAi:. 227

genus, has been mucli insisted on bj- some. Yet, uhcn we come to the
contemplation of different genera even this slight support to their theory-
must fail.

In this view, the wide difference of structure and function wliich ex-
ists between man and all the rest of the animated creation, assumes an
immense importance, and it may be well for us to pause over them for a
moment. And first, it is worthy of remark, that by the general consent
of naturalists, man is placed in a separate order, in which he is the sole
species of the only genus. His characters are these: — stature erect;
two hands ; teeth approximated and of general length, the superior inci-
sors perpendicular ; chin prominent; rational; endowed with speech ;
unarmed.

Man is the only animal that has hut two hands ; and hence the order
in which he is placed is called Bimanus. All otlier animals that possess
limbs arc either quadruped or quadrumanous. Tlie first conformation is
familiar to all in the ordinary domestic animals, and in the latter class
Ave have the monkeys. Tlie peculiar feature of a hand is the thumb,
an organ similar to the other fingers in its structure, but so articulated
as to admit of freer motion and of being opposed to the palm. The
great toe, on the contrary, is joined firmly to the ankle, and has less mo-
tion than any other, being intended principally for the support of the
body. It is from the mode of articulation of the thumb that the hand
derives its power of grasping and pickijig up substances. When quad-
rupeds would hold an object, without the aid of the mouth, they must
use both fore-paws, as the squirrel, or press it between the food and the
ground, as the dog. The monkey, on the contrary, can perform all the
motions of the human hand with either of his four extremities. This
conformation is admirably suited to his mode of life, enabling him to
climb trees and spring from branch to branch with ease and safety. —
Monkeys live entirely in the woods, and cannot run with much speed
upon the ground en either two or four limbs. Man possesses two per-
fect hands and two perfect feet, neither of which can perform the func-
tions of the others. His feet differ from those of quadrupeds principally
in the size and strength of the heel, which supports the greater part of
the weight of the body, instead of its resting on the extremity of the
bone of the foot. By this means he is enabled to walk with as much
firmness and facility as the four-footed animals. A larger base is gained
for the body, and there are in the sole of each foot two distinct joints of
motion. The body at rest is supported on the heel. In walking, tlie
heel is raised by the muscles of the calf and the weight throvt'n forward
on the ball of the foot. The heel of the other foot then touches the

228 iVUG.E ErnXOLOGICAE,

ground, and the same series of motion is repealed at each step. He has
therefore as many points of support and motion in his two feet as quad-
rupeds have in their four. This arrangement proves that he never could
have used more than two feet, because they are amply competent to all
the locomotion the body requires. This brings us to another point, viz.
Man and man alone has an erect stature. His peculiar claim to this
posture has been denied by certain naturalists, some of whom assert that
he possesses it in common with the monkeys, and others that it is an
unnatural, or rathei; an acquired posture. Both these assertions are un-
founded. Man could never have gone on all-fours, because (in addition
to tlie reason already assigned.) of the great disparity in the length of
his limbs. The lower limbs are so much the longest that the head
would be thrown into a dependant position. Infants invariably crawl
upon iheir hands and knees. In monkeys the upper limbs are as long,
and in some species twice as long as the lower, so as to touch the
ground when the animal is made to stand upright. Even if the limbs
were of equal length, the face in this attitude would be directed towards
the ground. In man, the plane of the surface by which the head is ar-
ticulated to the spine is nearly parallel with the axis of the orbit of the
eye. In quadrupeds they approach nearly to a right angle. To look
forward, requires that the spine in man should be perpendicular, and in
quadrupeds, nearly horizontal. Place a man on all-fours with his head
in its natural easy position on the spine, and his eyes will look directly
at the earth. Place a quadruped upright, and its eyes will be turned as
directly up to the zenith. In the inferior animals the spinous processes
of the vertebrae of the neck are long, and are connected to the head by
a strong, dense ligament which will keep it from drooping when the
muscles are relaxed and at rest. In man this provision is wanting.
Monkeys, on the other hand, are equally incapable of going erect. They
are never found in this attitude in nature, and those which have been
kept in Museums, were never able to preserve it long. Instead of plant-
ing the sole (or palm) firmly on the ground, they double up the fingers
and walk upon the outside of the hand in an awkward, shuffling man-
ner. The part which answers to the heel, does not touch the ground,
so that they want the full use of tiie lever formed by the bony plane be-
tween the heel and toe which is the principal agent in man's walking.
In the ordinary plates theOrangand Chimpanzee are represented, when in
the erect posture, as supporting themselves by a stick upon which they
lean to steady their uncertain steps. Their hips are narrow, and the
thigh-bones slender and weak, and not furnished with the firm, capacious
joint which enables them to support the weight of the body in man.

NUG.E ETHXOLOGICAE. 229

The human spine increases in size at its lower part in proportion to the
weight it has to bear, the lowest vertebrae being very broad and strong j
whereas the monkey has them of nearly equal size throughout. These
facts prove the propriety of assuming the erect stature as a peculiar char-
acteristic of the human race. It has been so regarded in all ages. Many
supppse that it constitutes the image of God in which man was made-
It is spoken of in similar terms by the ancient mythological poets. Ev-
ery classical scholar will at once recall the '•'•Pronaque cum speclent an-
imalia cetera lerram,'"' &c. of Ovid. Whether he was created erect, as
the poet asserts, that he might behold the sky and raise his sublime
countenance to the stars, is more than we can tell. The doctrine of final
causes is a very difficult one, and requires to be handled with all deli-
cacy. The alleged cause in this case is certainly more probable than
that of the philosopher who sugceslcd that the Creator salted the Ocean
to keep it from spoiling. At all events, the fact is indisputable, and that
is enough for us.

T/te human teeth are peculiar by their approximation in a regular
roio of equal length. The perpendicular position of the lower incisors
causes the prominence of the lower jaw in the human countenance, and
gives it its distinguishing mark, the chin. It is to this feature mainly
that man owes it that he has a face and not a muzzle. In animals there
is also found a bone between the two upper jaw-bones, containing the
superior incisors. It was the fact tliat Galen described this os incisivum
as a part of the human frame, that first led to the suspicion, since con-
firmed, that he derived his knowledge of anatomy altogeiher from the
dissection of animals. In man it is wanting entirely. It has not yet been
ascertained whether it exists in all the monkeys, but it certainly does in
the orang-outang, the most anthropomosphous of them all, except the
chimpanzee.

Man is the only animal in which the lateral is greater than the an-
iero-posterior diameter of the chest. This conformation is admirably
adapted to the free use of the arms, but would be exceedingly inconve-
nient and unfavorable to strength in the prone position.

Man is alone in his protracted and helpless infancy. He requires a
much longer dependance upon the mother than the young of any other
animal. There is none which gets its teeth at so late a period, or is so
long in acquiring the power of locomotion. lie is compensated for this
by his greater longevity, no mammal of his size living nearly so long.

Man is unarmed. He has neither the sharp teeth and powerful jaws^
nor the strong tearing claws of the quadrupeds. He has neither the
horns of the ox, the coat of mail of the annadilla, nor the bristles of the

230 NUG.E ETHNOLOGIC AE.

hedge-hog. His body is uncovered by hair and exposed to the elements,
so as to require artificial protection. The tales told by romancing trav-
ellers concerning men clothed with hair, may rank with the equally au-
thentic histories of mermaids and sea-serpents.

Man possesses speech. That animals possess a means of communica-
tion by sounds is undeniable. A dog's bark, his howl, his M^hine, his
yelp of joy or of pain, are all perfectly intelligible to themselves and
even to us. But these are instinctive cries, the natural expression of
their appropriate aflections, and are the same in all dogs, being made ex-
actly in the same manner by one who never was in the company of an-
other individual of his species. Human language is a system of arbi-
trary sounds, received by common agreement as the representatives of
certain ideas, and varying endlessly. The knowledge of this language
can be derived only from a long pupilage, increasing the dependance of
the child upon its parents : that of animals is innate.

Man is found distributed over the ivhole globe, retaining in every
fart Ms distinctive character. This is the case with no wild animal, all
in their natural state being confined to a comparatively small space. The
zoology of the western hemisphere differs widely from that of the east-
ern,— that of Africa from that of Asia. Tlie Spaniards, on landing in
America, found not a single animal with which they were acquainted.
The same is true of marine animals. It is asserted by the highest au-
thority that there is no well-known animal of the northern hemisphere
that is not specifically distinct from every well-known animal of the
southern. Every zone has its peculiar inhabitants. The human family
is spread equally over and flourishes alike in all. Man can bear the ver-
tical sun of equatorial regions with the lion, and has wintered in Nova
Zembla, where even the polar bear departed in search of a more genial
clime. This is not the case with men in their original site only, nor are
the means of adaptation to circumstances furnished by reason alone suf-
ficient to account for it. Tropical animals frequently perish here during
our winter, notwithstanding every care. The anthropomorphous mon-
keys always sicken and soon die. The white bear with diiTiculty sup-
ports the heat of our summer : yet the British government have at this
moment native soldiers and colonists, scattered over the whole earth,
from Calcutta to Van Dieman's Land and from Sierra Leone to Hudson's
Bay. The human body will bear very various degrees of atmospheric
pressure. At the level of the sea, the average pressure upon an ordinary
sized body may be estimated at 32,000 pounds. Yet large districts of
South America are thickly inhabited, where the barometer stands habitu-
ally at 20|, and the pressure is consequently less than 22,000 pounds.

NUG.E ETHXOLOGICAE. 231

La Condamine lived three weeks at an elevation where the pressure was
17,000 lbs. It is true, that the domestic animals have been carried by-
man into a great diversity of abodes which they would never have sought
voluntarily; but in them the change has been followed by the most re-
markable vaiiations of form, size and color. This will be alluded to in
another connexion.

Man is projjerJy an omnivorous animal. He is not confined to one
character of food. Flesh, fish, herbs, roots, grain, fruits, and even rep-
tiles, insects and the bark of trees, form a portion of his aliment. There
is scarcely a living thing, not known to be venomous, which has not at
one time served as food for man. The locusts and wild-honey of the
Baptist are familiar to all. Travellers in Africa have seen the large ser-
pents of the constrictor kind dressed for the table, and have pronounced
them excellent food. Viper broth is recommended by the old medical
writers as supremely medicinal. The Helix pomatia, a species of snail,
is habitually eaten in Switzerland, and quantities of it are pickled for ex-
portation. The inhabitants of the arctic regions subsist almost entirely
upon the raw flesh and blubber of the whale and seal. Whole tribes of
men have confined themselves, from necessity or choice, to a single ar-
ticle of diet. The ancient writers give an account of certain African
people whom they style Ichthyophagi, Elephantophagi and Struthiophagi.
The late American Exploring Expedition gives us reason to believe that
tl^e Struthiophagi are not fabulous. Life appears to be equally well sus-
tained by vegetable as animal diet. The West India uegroes who live
almost exclusively on fruits and the juice of the sugar cane, are just as
vigorous as the meat-eating nations of northern Europe, and no more so.
Caravans in the desert of Zahara have lived for weeks on nothing but
gum arable, and persons lost in our forests have supported life by the
mucilaginous bark of the slippery elm, (Ulmus fulva.) Writers have
disputed much as to what is the naUiral food of man. As we know no-
thing in nature but what we learn from experience, it might, I think, be
answered with propriety, that his natural food is precisely that which he
eats. It will probably be found that the most appropriate diet for any
people is that with which they are placed most in relation, and which
their instincts demand. Under all circumstances man would appear to
enjoy the greatest health and vigor with a mixed diet of both animal and
vegetable substances. His digestive apparatus is adapted to such a diet.
His stomach is simple, as in the carnivora, but so constructed as to re-
tain the food for a greater length of time. In the carnivora, the teeth
rise into sharp points, and the canine teeth are long, sharp and strong, to
enable them to seize and tear their prey. The enamel is all on the out-

232 ■'.VRONG NAMES

side of tlie teeth, which are not opposite, but so set as to shut into otie
another like two saws when the jaws are closet!. In tlie herbivora
there are no canine teeth, and the molars are broad and ilat, and directly
opposed, or are to grind the food between them. The enamel is inter-
mixed with ihe osseous substance in vertical layers, constituting tlie
raised white lines seen on the grinding surfaces. The teeth of man re-
semble those of the carnivora in having the enamel all on the outside.
He has canine teeth, but they are shorter and less acute, and are soon
worn down to a level with the rest of the series. His molars resemble
those of the herbivora, but have rounded tubercles covered with enamel
on their surface. He is like them also in the freedom of motion of the
lower jaw, which approaches nearly to what we see in the ruminants.

But it is in the size and shape of the head, and the peculiarities of func-
tion dependant upon it that man differs most conspicuously from all other
animals. All the differences noticed are unimportant compared with this,
and I notice them only to accumulate tlie evidence which shows so wide
a diversity of structure, as to render a natural developemenl of man from
the inferior types, to say the least, highly improbable. But lest I grow
tedious and consume the space so kindly allowed me, to the exclusion
of more interesting matter, I must cease for the present.

WR0NC4 NAMES FOR RIGHT OBJECTS.

It is amusing to hear the names given by many people to objects of
natural history, and we cannot expect that they will ever be changed
imtil scientific knowledge is universally diffused. 1 for one do not ex-
pect to live to see that blessed period. The most unfounded mistakes
prevail even among people who are otherwise well educated, and per-
haps in no class of objects do these vulgar names obtain more generally
than in x>ctrifaclions. Even sensible persons will call these objects by
names which are not in the least degree descriptive of them and wliich
in no case belong to them. It is true, in a few instances they bear some
remote resemblance to the thing specified by the name, but it is impos-
sible they should be the thing itself. Let me give a few examples :

You often hear men say that they have found a petrified honcy-conib,
and some would denounce you as insane vvere you to deny it. The
thing has a distant likeness to a wasp's nest, but that object was elab-
orated, I suspect, long before there was any thing like a wasp or a bee
in existence. It is nothing more than a fossil species of corals which
scientific men call syringipora caespitosa. The fact of its being found
in abundance hundreds of miles from the sea, only proves that tliis con-

FOR RtOHT OBJECTS. 233

tinent, many ages ago, was covorod by an ocean in nhicli ilie coral in-
sect made

■ "the livinj: pile ascend

The Mausoleum of its architects,
Still dying upwards as their labors closed.
And * * ■« * carried on the process
Which out or water brought forth solid rock."

You frequently hear some people speak of a petrified snake. It is an
object that looks somewhat like a serpent co'iled up, but unfortunately you
can never see either head or tail, and then it must have been a very
small snake, for there is usually not more tlian one coil. What is it?
It is not a snake, but the fossilized remains of an extinct race of animals
that inhabited shells. When I say extinct^ I mean that they are not now
found in a living state. The whole family has perished, and we find
them only as fossils. They are called Ammonites, and derive this name
from the similarity which the larger species bear (for some are two feet
in diameter,) to the ram's horns which once adorned the head of Jupiter
Ammon, one of the chief gods of the ancient Egyptians.

In some sections of our country, the people will show you not a few
petrified frogs. Now look at the fossil and you will see that it consists
of three lobes — that is, the back seems to be divided into three longitu-
dinal sections with shallow furrows (I am writing for the plain reader,)
running across. This is not observed in frogs. "Well, if it is not a
frog, pray. Sir, what is it r" "Be patient, and I will tell vou. It is a
trilolife.''^ "I'm as wise as I was before — and what is a triloMteP'' "A
trilobite is an animal of the crustaceous or crab family. They vary ex-
ceedingly in form and size; some species not exceeding half an inch,
while others are a foot in length. They show no traces of legs, hence
it is inferred that they possessed soft, perishable paddles. The whole
family are extinct and have been through untold ages. They have not
existed since the deposition of the coal strata ; no traces of their remains
having been discovered in rocks of a more recent period. Nearly sixty
species are known."

Sometimes you will see sandstone hollowed out for a considerable
length, which looks very much as if an immense serpent had been sud-
denly squeezed into it when the stone was soft and left the impression
of its scales. This is thought by many people to have been really thus
occasioned. It is a great mistake. Instead of being an animal, it is of
vegetable origin. It is caused by the pressure on the soft sandstone, not
of a snake, but of the branch of a tree, the bark of which was covered
with scales very much like those of a serpent, and hence called Lrpido-
30

234 GRECIAN, EDUCATIOX.

dendron, or scale tree. This scaly appearance of tlie stems is produced
by the separation of the leaf stalks.

In some sections, people tell you they have found a petrified squir-
reVs head. Show it to a scientific man and he will tell you that it is a
fossil shell (cucullaea vulgaris) that looks somewhat like the head of
the animal mentioned.

Not long ago 1 was looking at a collection of "curiosities," and I
saw one object labelled '■'■petrified intestines of a squirrel.^'' Now, here
is a regular "curiosity," thought I — the entrails of a squirrel turned into
stone ! Let's see ! Nonsense ! — it's nothing more than the shell serpu-
la^ which is spirally twisted and irregularly attached together, that makes
it look like a bundle of petrified hollow worms.

A gentleman not long ago sent an object to a certain cabinet which
he had labelled "« petrified mulberry.'''^ It was a small piece of mamil-
lary iron !

Another sent a large stone with certain fossils on it, and he had
marked it "a petrified -nest of snakes.'''' He thought here was a whole
family of serpents all of a sudden turned to stone. It was a fossil sea-
weed, and is called in scientific language, Fucoides Alleganiensis, — a ve-
getable and not an animal.

'■'■Petrified hulVs horns'''' are often found, but instead of ever having
decked the head of that animal, they once formed the inside of a shell.
They look a little like the short horn of a cow, and are called Hippar-
ites cornu vaccinum.

These are a few of the errors prevalent on these subjects. They
have been handed down from the olden time; but the day has come
when they should be corrected and abandoned. J. G. M.

GRECIAN EDUCATION, NO. Ill,

Instead of rendering the boys effeminate, as was common in other
parts of Greece, by permitting them to wear shoes, Lycurgus indurated
them by making them go bare-foot. For mounting steep places, descend-
ing declivities, running, leaping, he thought exercise in this way a good
preparation. One garment a year was all that he allowed, that luxury in
clothing might not be encouraged. Thus, too, was the body habituated
to ihe endurance of heat or cold. In regard to food, he directed such a
use as might not result in repletion, or undue plethora, and at the same
time accustom to some self-denial. In this way was preparation secu-
red for abstiuence, for long continued use of the same food, or for the
use of any kind that might be accessible.

GRECIAN EUUCATIOX. 23-5

Physical education was very carefully altencled to. Great pains were
taken for the full developement of the animal system. The results of
this training have not yet lost their interest, but might be profitably stu-
died by the present age. A writer of our own country,* who has ex-
pressed himself very decidedly against the civil polity of the Lacedae-
monians, in reference to their physical training, makes the following re-
mark : "It is much to be desired that exercises like those established by
Lycurgus, running, wrestling, riding, swimming, skating, fencing, (dan-
cing ?) should be introduced into public and private education in Amer-
ica, which would fortify the body and invigorate the minds of youth;
instead of those sedentary amusements which debilitate, and are taking
entire possession of society all over the world." Education amongst
the Lacedaemonians was not confined to the body, although this consti-
tuted a considerable and important part of their training. The mind, the
noble part of man, was not neglected. Their great aim was to prepare
their pupils for government and submission. They were to understand
the government of others and of submission themselves.

After they had completed their seventh year, their education com-
menced. Previously to this, they remained at home. No one was ex-
empt except the heir apparent to the throne. Deprivation of civil rights
was the penalty inflicted upon the father who withheld his son.

The exemption of the heir apparent did not release him from obliga-
tion to attend to the prescribed gymnastic exercises. When the system
of public training commenced the boys were classified. Each class
[uyeXit) consisted of smaller divisions, (^ovxi and /A«<) and was su-
perintended by a young man twenty years of age, who was called
fiovxyoi. He had the most entire authority over the boys agreeably
to the wrong views of the Spartans, and the choice was made of a
young man (e/f^») on the ground of intelligence and firmness. The
Paidonomos was at the head of the whole, an officer elected for his in-
telligence and bravery.

In order to appreciate the course of education amongst this people,
says the celebrated Schwartz, we must look at the classification ol' the
boys according to their age. The boy remained, as before stated, in his
father's house till he had completed his seventh year, and consequently
belonged to no agela, on which sccount he was called in Crete, where
the same constitution existed, ccTrxyeXog, and likewise c-Konoi. After
this the public education (ayuyti) commenced, which the sons of na-
tive Spartans enjoyed, who were, on this account, called TroXirtKot

* John Adams' Defence, Sec

236 GRECIAN EDUCATION.

Dressed in under garments (;(j/Tfti») and provided with woolen
shirts without sleeves, he remained in this class five years, then he be-
gan a more self-denying life, obtained the cloak (^if^xTtcv, x^'^'^'^t) ^
square cloth, and was called the t<aa«5. From the fifteenth or six-
teenth year, he was called c-/ J'cewvjjs, after the eighteenth year f^eXXsi:
f )jv, as he approached the twentieth year he was called ir^oni^tiij and
after he had passed it s/fjjv. Hitherto amongst the t(p7i^ot^ he is
now ranked with the young men, called (npui^svi^ till he reached the
age of eighty years. From this period he is considered a man, and par-
ticipates in civil and military duty. His leisure is spent in the Lesche
and public places, in conversation and superintendence of the young —
for every citizen in Sparta is considered as a father of all. In this way
his influence is exerted, till having reached the age of sixty, he is eligi-
ble- to the Gerousia, and becomes the counsellor and director of the
public. To proceed more directly to their instruction, it is stated in the
most authentic accounts we have of them — that even from their boy-
hood, they were accustomed to accurate thought, correct decisions, to ve-
racity in speech, and to express themselves laconically and to the pur-
pose. During meals these things were not overlooked. To one was
assigned some question for solution, another was required to sing. If
the question was not immediately answered, or incorrectly, or imsatis-
factorily, reasons were assigned, corporeal chastisement followed (such
as biting the thumbs,) and that the officer might not be neglectful of his
duty, some of the citizens were from time to time present, who noticing
on his part delinquency in his duty, would subsequently submit him to
punishment. It may be asked, what did they study } It is not to be
supposed that intellectual training would take a very wide range amongst
this people. The elegancies of literature they could not regard as im-
portant. It was only what they needed in the limited sphere in which
they were to act, that they regarded as important. Gymnastics, music,
vocal and instrumental — lyre and flute, dancing. Reading and writing
were not prominent matters, they were pursued to a limited extent, but
as far as was thought necessary. Grammar does not figure amongst the
branches of their education. They did not consider Grammar as de-
serving of any special attention, and they condemned both Rhetoric and
Oratory, each as a ts^^ti uvev uXe^eiai. Arithmetic, so far as it is ne-
cessary in common life, was taught without any special system, or with-
out any formality, in ordinary intercourse intellectually, the same may
be said of Geometry. JMaihematics were not pursued as a specific study.
The only thing in which they were systematic was Gymnastics. There
are various other interesting facts recorded in reference to these matters,

COMMO.N IHIXGS. 237

but we pass them by. In making* an estimate of this course of educa-
tion amongst the Spaitans, it must be admitted that it accomplished the
purposes for which it was intended ; so far it may be regarded as deserv-
ing our commendation. As a means to a proposed end, we must admit
that it reflects great honor on its autlior. But the question that is most
important to determine is, did it accomplish what is most necessarv in
the education of man.'' Was it based on correct views of the human
constitution, the design of our Creator in placing us here, and the high-
est interests of man ^ When examined in this way, although we cannot
refuse to it some commendation, we must pronounce it vitally defective
considered as a \vhole. It made hardy, brave soldiers, patriots, and good
citizens, but it did not produce philosophers, and poets, and historians.
It did not, it is true, aim at these things, and therefore we should not
look for them, but was it not a great defect that it did not aim at what
contributes so much to exalt human nature, and to confer lasting benefits
upon the race of man .'' We admire their devotion to truth, their hatred
of falsehood. No virtue is more necessary to man than this. Without
it, the social edifice cannot stand ; without it, human happiness is at an
end.

COMMON THI-VGS, NO. IV.

The four modes by which the decomposition of organized matter
may be retarded or prevented, are the chemical changes of the azotised
substances, the abstraction of oxygen, reduction of temperature, and ab-
straction of water.

1. The chemical change of the nitrogenised substance may be ef-
fected by heat, acids, tannin, volatile oils, earthy and metallic salts, as
has been explained.

2. As putrefaction cannot proceed without the presence of oxygen,
any mode by which the absorption of this gas can be effected will fur-
nish the means of arresting or preventing decomposition. It is not suf-
ficient, however, to remove the oxygen from the air which surrounds
the body, that which is diffused through the body itself must be expell-
ed, as this is sufficient generally to excite fermentation.

The easiest way of effecting tliis expulsion is by a moderate heat
which removes a large part of the air and leaves the rest in a condition
less liable to change.

Oxygenation may also be prevented and de-oxygenation sometimes
effected by contact with substances having a strong affinity for this gas.
Chemistry furnishes us with the names of several : amongst them sul-
phurous acid is perhaps the most smiple and efficacious, and it can easily

238 COMMON THINGS.

be procured by the combustion of sulphur. Butchers' meat enclosed in
a vessel filled with this gas absorbs it and remains for a long time proof
against corruption. Oils, fats, syrups, &.c. and in general any thing that
will prevent contact with the air, may be used to prevent or retard the
putrefaction of boiled meats or fruits. Charcoal powder is also effica-
cious, as it excludes the air and condenses the oxygen.

3. Putrefaction cannot proceed without a certain degree of heat.
Frozen meat, it is well known, may be preserved an indefinite length of
time, and animals enclosed in ice will remain unchanged for ages. —
Hence the efficacy of ice houses, cool cellars, &.c. in warm or temperate
climates.

4. Moisture is the last essential to the putrefactive process, even
when the albumen of animal tissues is not coagulated if the moisture
is removed the tendency to decomposition is destroyed. Albumen dried
at a temperature of about 140° may be preserved for any length of time,
and may be redissolved with its valuable properties unchanged. The or-
dinary modes of preserving fruits, flesh, &c., depend for their efficacy
entirely upon the principal of removing the moisture. Meats, for ex-
ample, are brought in contact with salt which from its strong attraction
for water deprives them of their moisture or replaces it by a saline solu-
tion which is less liable to change. Sugar acts in a similar way in the
preservation of fruits, converting the water into an unchangeable syrup.
Dry charcoal powder newly calcined will also absorb moisture, and fur-
nish the means of preserving flesh for a long time. Alcohol preserves
animal substances by abstracting the water which is essential to putre-
faction.

Specimens for cabinets are frequently preserved in alcohol, and ex-
perience has proved that the mode is efficacious, expense may be dimin-
ished by the use of any common liquor as gin or whiskey, which, with
the addition of a little creosote, can be made to answer well.

It is said that water saturated with sulphurous acid will afford a
cheap, and with the addition of a little creosote, a very eflicacious sub-
stitute for alcohol.

The ancient Egyptians used wood vinegar, which contains creosote,
in the process of embalming.

We will conclude with a lew useful applications of the principles
that have been explained, for which we are indebted chiefly to Dr. Ure.

Flesh may be preserved — 1. By cutting in thin slices, immersing in
boiling water, and drying at a temperature of 122°.

2. By smoking. — The quality of the wood has an influence on the
smell and taste of the meat. Juniper and aromatic herbs impart their

I.IX.VAF.L'S. 239

own flavor to some extent. By covering with bran tlie soot will not
adhere.

3. By salting. — To the salt one-sixteenth of nitre and one-thirty-
second of sugar should be added. The meal should be subjected to
heavy pressure, and no water added, unless the brine obtained in the act
of pressing .should be insufticient to cover it. When a pickle is neces-
sary it may be composed of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. sugar, 2 oz. saltpetre, and
2 gals, water.

4. By pickling. — The vinegar acts by coagulating the albumen ; it
should be as strong as possible.

IMeat may be kept for months by covering with oil or fat of some
kind, or it may be immersed in water which has been deprived of its air
by boiling, and covered with oil to prevent contact with the atmosphere.

It is asserted that fish may be kept alive in a torpid state by pouring
a little brandy into them and packing them in straw.

Eggs maj^ be preserved by placing them for five minutes in water
heated to 140° to expel the air, and then coating them with oil or gum
arable. Milk of lime is also recommended. Eggs coated with gum ar-
able and packed in charcoal, will keep good for a year. For sea voyages
the albumen and yolk may be beaten together and dried with a moderate
heat ; when used a portion is dissolved in water.

Grain and flour may be preserved any length of time if kiln-dried,
and packed in tight vessels.

Fresh fruits should be carefully picked in dry weather and before
fully ripe, they should be exposed for eight or ten days to a dry air and
then packed, without touching, in dry straw or saw dust.

A very efficacious mode of preserving meats, fowls, &c. for exporta-
tion, consists in parboiling it in the smallest quantity of water, so as to
form a very rich soup. The whole is then placed in tin canisters with
spices, and the tops soldered on leaving only a very small opening in
each, the contents of the canisters are then boiled again, and while filled
with steam the openings closed with solder, all access of air is thus pre-
vented, and the contents of the canisters will keep fresh and good for
years. Turtle is exported in this way from the West Indies

Foul water may be purified by passing it through charcoal or by
adding a little alum, and sulphate of iron or chlorine.

BIOGRAPHY OF LINNAEUS,

Ci.iFFORT proposed to Linnaeus to make a visit to England for the
purpose of connecting him-self willi the naturalists of that country, and to

240 LINNAEUS.

procure the American plants they were endeavoring to cultivate in Lon-
don. Linnaeus was "delighted with the proposition, and left Amsterdam
with letters to many distinguished individuals. He was cordially wel-
comed, and received much attention especially from Drs. Dillenius and
Martyn. Boerhaave had introduced him to Sir Hans Sloane in the fol-
lowing complimentary epistle : '" The bearer of this letter is alone wor-
thy of seeing you — alone worthy of being seen by you. He who shall
see you both together, will see two men whose like will scarcely ever
be found in the world." Linnaeus returned to Hartecamp and remained
Avith Cliffort during a part of the next year. Here he sent to the press
six original works which had been prepared before, and thus spread his
botanical reform over Europe.

At the close of 1737, Linnaeus desired to return to his native coun-
try and his betrothed bride. He declined several liberal offers from the
Dutch, proposing situations both at home and abroad. After a severe
attack of fever, the result of his anxiety to return home and close appli-
cation, he went to Paris and visited the herbabia of Tournefort, Vaillant
and Surian. Thence to Rouen whence he set sail for his native land.
At Stockholm he commenced the practice of medicine, but with very in-
different success, until a prescription for a pulmonary affection which re-
sulted favorably brought him into notice. The Queen being afflicted
with a cough and having heard of the cure resulting from the prescrip-
tion of Linnaeus, sent for him and was speedily cured by him. His for-
tune was now made. The tide had at length turned in his favor. In
adverting to this period in a letter to Baron Haller he says — "No patient
could be cured without me; from four in the morning till late at night
T visited the sick, spent nights with them and earned money. Alas !
said I, iEsculapius affords all that is good, but Flora yields only Sieges-
becks."* On the establishment of the Roj-al Academy of Sciences, Lin-
naeus was appointed President. In 1741, he was appointed joint Pro-
fessor of Physic at Upsal, and physician to the king with Rosen, his old
enemy. Rare plants were sent to him from all parts of the world. Of
these he published a catalogue a few years after, from which it appeared
that he had introduced eleven hundred new species exclusive of his
Swedish plants and their varieties. The University as a school of physic
rapidly grew in credit, and numbers of German students resorted to it.
His honors increased annually and with them his emoluments. He was
invited to Madrid by the king of Spain upon a liberal pension and with
letters of nobility. The monarchs of France, Russia, Prussia, Den-
mark and Sardinia, sent him handsome presents, besides the highest
* Siegesbeck was a violent opposer of his new system.

HOW SNAKES CAPTUUK THEIR PREY. 241

compliments. After successive attacks of apoplexy his mind became
impaired and his body gradually sinking, he died on the 11th of Janu-
ary, 1778, greatly and universally lamented.

Besides other works Linnaeus published Flora Suecica, Fauna Sue-
cica, Materia Medica, Genera Morborum, Philosophica Botanica. In
1753, he published his Species Plantarum, every plant arranged on his
sexual system. This work Haller calls "maximum opus et sternum."
The impulse which was given to the study of botany, and it is mainly
referable to Linnaeus, may be inferred from the fact that whilst his own
herbal which he said contained only eight thousand plants was " vvithout
contradiction the greatest that ever was seen," we now have collections
containing from thirty to forty thousand species, and as many as eight
thousand were received in one year,

Linnaeus was of diminutive stature, his look keen and piercing but
his ear was unmusical. Nature had highly endowed his mind. His im-
agination was brilliant, his memory retentive, and his industry untiring.
He had a perfect command of the Latin language in which he wrote.
His style was concise though often illuminated by lively sallies of ima-
gination. In the midst of all his prosperity he never forgot his Maker,
and was ever ready to own the hand which had showered such bless-
ings upon him. In a memoir which he drew up, of the most remarka-
ble incidents of his life, he concludes with these words : "The Lord was
with thee wherever thou didst go."

HOW SNAKES CAPTURE THEIR PREY.

I was riding along the other day with my little son in a carriage,
when, just as we were descending a sharp hill, our attention was arrest-
ed by a considerable rustling in the dry brush, at one side of the road a
considerable distance below us. I at first thought that it was a squirrel
amusing himself in that way, but was soon surprised to see a large frog
coming up the hill with astofiishing speed and leaping through the air
to a great distance. This one was soon followed by another, and I be-
gan to wonder what could have induced them to leave the stream a
short distance below and make sucli an excursion into the upper regions.
But I was soon relieved upon this point, for the second frog was rapidly
followed by a large black-snake, some two or three feet long, his eyes
glistening and every muscle strained, evidently intent upon capturing the
poor animal before him. The interposition of my carriage, caused the
frog to turn across the hill, at right angles to his former course. But
the wary eye of the snake was upon him, and he too turned in the same
31

242 POETRY — THE SPIRIT WINGS.

direction, although my horse was by tliis time considerably nearer to
him than it had been to the frog. I pulled in my horse, somewhat un-
certain whether I ought to give the snake a fair chance for his dinner or
interpose for the preservation of the poor frog's life; but before I could
decide, my horse was between the snake and the frog. The former was
evidently excited, and seemed to have some notion of taking vengeance
upon the horse, whose horny hoofs opposed so formidable a barrier in
the way of his progress. He lay in the way with erect head and hiss-
ing tongue, and if I had not known that this species of snake (Coluber)
was never venomous, I should have been somewhat alarmed. But find-
ing the road impassible, his snakeship turned up the hill in another di-
rection, whilst the terrified frog descended to the creek below.

I infer from this, that snakes have no power of fascination over frogs,
but are compelled to capture ihem by surprise, or by a fair chase.

W. M. R.

THE SPIRIT AVINGS.

Watch thou yon bird, whose bending wings

Undrooping on their, upward way.
Move swiftly in their vibratings.
As wide the air-surge round she flings ;
Away, away, away, away.
Till the tingling sunlight
Flows into her eyes,
Where no cloud enfolds the bright
Bosom of the skies :
Still away, away, away.

See, see 1 swift through the gleaming sky,
Two guardian birds beside her fly :
Till, the chrystal zenith near,

From the aching sight she's riven,
Melts away into the sphere.
And is a part of Heaven I

Then who dare say, that, when the wings.
Damp-folded in the souVs first sphere.

Open in glory, as it springs

To godlike hopes and godlike things.
That then the face shall pale in fear?
That then the heart shall force the tear?

No life to watch, we cannot die ;

No gloom to dread, we cannot sigh ;

God's life, our life ; God's throne, our throne,
God's boundless heritage our own —

All these are tiiine — Eternity !

FRAGMENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 243

For, if my soul should close her eyes
To dream her dream of extacies.

In the spiritual land
Where the unfleshed sleepers go.
How dare ye to call this death !
'Tis but to exhale the breath,
•And, upon its wings, to fly

With the fire-helmed angel band
Up into infinity.
Wrapt into divinity !

A. R. A.

FRAGMENTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL.

That the emotion of the beautiful is eminently an intellectual one is
shown by the fact that the only senses at all connected with its impres-
sions are those confessedly pertaining to the higher faculties of the soul.
Hearing and seeing are pre-eminently the intellectual senses, and to their
ofBce by universal consent the application of the term beautiful is con-
fined. We speak of a beautiful sight, but not of a beautiful taste, of a
beautiful sound, but not of a beautiful feeling.

The inferior senses, which man has no power of using in a more
exalted manner than the brutes Avith whom he shares them — these are
incapable of becoming the medium of the beautiful. The two senses
which are the avenue to his rational, his disinterested nature, these en-
gross the entire use of the mind, by so universal a consent, as to enable
us to appeal to this fact as strong confirmation from the law of nature.
How much, too, of the beautiful, most vivid in its cnaracter, is purely
ideal. The superstitions, the legends, the tales of fairy-land, the song
of the bard, the dream of the romancer, these dwell in the mind's tem-
ple, invisible deities, but not the less powerful, because the hand is un-
seen that executes their will. And the same mind fluctuates in different
mcods in its conception of beauty. " What can be more beautiful than
a grape," says Cicero, in a burst of enthusiasm, and possibly when
somewhat stimulated by the juice of the fruit he praises. But in a hap-
pier and higher mood he exclaims — "•Who does not admire the splendor
and beauty of virtue ! Nothing is more lovely than virtue, nothing more
beautiful." Just as the natural tendencies of disposition float backward
and onward, do the emotions of the beautiful fluctuate. When it is in
our nature it will find its way through all that bears it down. Where it
it is not, enchanting sights, or charming sounds can never awake it. —
With it we may glow with a divine enthusiasm on earth, without it we
should be unmoved on the verge of heaven. Like the angel of Milton,

244 FKAGME.NTS ON THE BEAUTIFUL.

who in the very presence of Jehovah, was cursed with the lust of wealth,
we might more admire

"heaven's pavement, trodden gold,

Than aught divine or holy else enjoyed
In vision beatific" —

We may notice two sisters reared under the same external influences,
but how widely do they differ in their position in the world of taste !
The one will become decidedly domestic ; to her the roasting of a piece
of beef may be the grandest of achievements. Her philosophy will be
confined to that which we are told is necessary to the roasting of eggs.
The gridiron and the frying-pan make to her the richest music ; and her
name descends throughout the generations of the family as the greatest
of housewives. The taste of her tarts lingers in many a mouth, and
the very remcmlrance, of her mode of preparing onions brings tears to
sympathetic eyes long after she has passed away.

But in the other, by the impulsive influence of a mind of a different
cast, a character widely different is formed. The unseen she is most anx-
ious to look at. The charming page of the novelist, the rich legend of
the romancer, the glowing numbers of the poet, subdue her by their oc-
cult music. Her very curls are put up in select poetry from the newspa-
pers, the only Mse, we believe, which it has ever been made to subserve.
She looks with the eye of imagination at nimble fairies dancing barefoot
in the moonlight, until she ahiiost thinks herself a fairy with the attend-
ant moonlight and bare feet; at least this class of ladies has been
charged with forgetfulness of the fact, that in this perverse and unroman-
tic world, there are such things as stockings, or, at least, that yarn is
not eternal.

We behold in men differently constituted an illustration of the same
truth. The extreme on the one side terminates in the hopeless utilita-
rian, on whose very grave nothing but pumpkins will grow, and on the
other shows us the victim of ill regulated and fierce enthusiasm which
consumes the spirit in which it dwells.

And in the department of the affections our principle is upheld by
facts no less striking. Whatever acts on them, acts on our ideas of beau-
ty. So soon as our feelings lose their tone, they cease to charm, and
in extreme cases even become absolutely hateful. Thus Hamlet, speak-
ing of the effects of his profound distress : — "Indeed it goes so heavily
with my disposition, that this goodly frame the earth seems to me to be
a sterile promontory; this most excellent canopy the air, look you; this
brave overhanging firmament, this majestical roof fretted with golden fire.

LE MAOUX'S BOTA.W. 245

why it appears no other thing to uie than a foul and pestilent congrega-
tion of vapors V

On the other hand where the feelings have from any reason more
than their ordinary tone, objects afford delight which in another state
would convey no pleasure. In the exulting spring of spirits experienced
after leaving the room where we have been long confined by sickness,
the most trifling thing which ordinarily would not detain the eye for a
moment, now has elegance and grace.

*' The meanest floweret of the vale,

The simplest note that swells the gale,

The common sun, the air, the skies,

To him are opening Paradise." — Grey. f

LE MAOUT S BOTANY.
Leijons de Botanique par Dr. Le Maout. 2 vols. Paris.

I am sure I shall receive the thanks of those readers of the Record
and Journal who are about to devote themselves to the study of Botany,
and even of those who have already pursued it, (if the work has not
fallen under their notice) by calling their attention to the charming book
of Dr. Le Maout. It is an elementary work on Botany divested of all
that dryness and stiffness hitherto supposed to be inseparable from works
of this class. To read an elementary book on science and particularly
on Botany, not only without labor but with positive pleasure, sounds
like a paradox, and so I should ever have considered it had not the meri-
torious work under notice fallen into my hands. You might be induced
to suppose from these remarks that Dr. Le Maout had written one of
those superficial and fanciful books, one of those sickly and mawkish ro-
mances of science, unfortunately too common at the present day; but not
so — his work teaches the profouiidcst doctrines of this beautiful science
with all those recent and wonderful developments based upon the inge-
nious observations of the celebrated Goethe, which so justly place Bo-
tany in the rank of the exact sciences. All those most intricate and cu-
rious adaptations of Nature, the development of which casts such a
charm over modern Botany, are treated by the author with a simplicity,
perspicuity and elegance that cannot fail to fascinate his readers. As a
specimen of the pleasant manner in which the subject is treated, the fol-
lowing extract was ti-anslated by a lady who has shared my delight in
the book :

••' About the middle of the last century, Bernard Jussicu, Professor of
Botany, on examining the trees confided to his care in the Garden of

246 LE MAOVT^'S BOTANr.

Plants, observed that a Pistachio tree which till then, had blossomed
every year, but had never produced fruit, was now about to yield ; the
fruit being already formed. There was not in all the garden a Pistachio
tree bearing staminate flowers; the neighborhood was searched, none was
found, yet the blossoms of the tree about to bear fruit must have re-
ceived pollen, and whence could it have come ? Fruit formed by seeds
developed without the aid of pollen ! — this was indeed a rude check to
the theory of the fecundation of flowers, at that lime not so firmly es-
tablished as at present. The great botanist, much grieved at the fruit-
lessness of his search, perseveringly afiirraed that there existed some-
where in the vicinity a Pistachio-tree having staminate flowers, and that
it was this which had caused the tree in the Garden of Plants to bear
fruit ; still it was necessary to discover it. He then resolved to apply
for aid to the Police, whose agents were immediately dispatched with
an exact description of the concealed individual. These persons, cora-
mencino" at the garden, gradually enlarged the circle of their search, un-
till they at length discovered near the Luxembourg, in a corner of the
nursery grounds of the Chartieux, a little Pistachio tree with staminate
flowers, which had this year blossomed for the first time. The pollen
must therefore have passed through the air along the border of the fau-
bourg St. Germain, the faubourg St. Jacques, and the faubourg St. Mar-
ceau to search for the pistillate flowers on the Pistachio tree in the mid-
dle of the Garden of Plants. It is difficult to admit that the wind could
have transported so far a small quantity of pollen, without dispersing it
every where else rather than upon the narrow surface of the flower that
needed it. We must therefore seek another auxiliary to its fecundation.
You have no doubt often amused yourself with sucking the bottom
of the flowers of the honeysuckle, jessamine, lilac, or primrose, to ex-
tract the sweet juice which is there found in abundance. In thus in-
dulging yourself you have committed a robbery on insects that have no
other nourishment : these are butterflies, bees, and other often exceed-
ingly small insects, that you may see couched in the cup of the flower,
where they find at the same time, aliment and a home.

It is to this nectar that we owe the honey of the bee ; and it is dis-
tilled by organs which we shall soon study. It is contained in the Gil-
ly-flower, the Melon, and most other flowers, and this attracts the insect
suckers. Do you believe that the flower furnishes them gratis with food
and shelter > See the bee when it gathers its harvest — while it eagerly
pumps the nectar, its body, bristled with hairs, becomes charged with
the pollen amidst which it glides,, and when it takes flight it scatters a
part of the pollen on the flower, then goes to pillage other plants, and

LE maout's botany. 247

always in plunging into their flowers, rubs against the stigma or summit
of the seed-bearing organ. Observe now, it is at the time when the an-
thers shed their pollen, that the stigma bedews itself with a viscid mois-
ture, and it is also at this time that the nectar is distilled which invites
the insects to their repast. Is this coincidence of no importance ? Does
it not tempt you to believe that these insects, cotemporaries of the flow-
ers, are the grateful messengers, who, to repay the hospitality received,
distribute, in the hotel where they next arrive, the pollen collected in
that they have just left?

But what j)urpose is served by the fragrant and painted corolla of
the flower ? This expands when the anthers yield their pollen, when
the stigma becomes humid, when the nectar is distilled, and when there
are insects to drink it. It needs no great sagacity to conclude from this
union of circumstances, that the corolla, by its form, its shades, and its
odour, is designed to indicate to the insects the reservoir whence they
may draw the syrup they love : it is the label upon the vase containing
the precious nectar; the invariable uniform of all flowers of the same
species, and the insect voyagers readily recognize by its brilliant colors
the balmy caravansary where they delight to revel.

Insects, then, are valuable auxiliaries in the fecundation of flowers,
either by transporting the pollen from one plant to another, or by aid-
ing in its dispersion upon the stigmas of the same flower : and for this
reason it was necessary, in the experiment upon the melon of which we
have spoken, to cover the plant with a fine gauze to prevent the access
of insects. Without this precaution, pollen might have been carried to
a flower which the experimenter wished to be deprived of it, and thus
the experiment rendered doubtful.

We are indebted to Conrad Sprengle, a German, for a knowledge of
the part performed by the corolla and the nectar in the history of the
flower. This additional link in the great chain that unites the vegetable
and animal kingdoms, he discovered by long and close observation. —
With a patience truly German lie passed entire days in the fields, couch-
ed at the foot of a plant with his eye constantly fixed on the flower,
whose anthers were not yet opened-, at length, after a silent and motion-
less watch, often prolonged till evening, he saw the aerial messenger ar-
rive, whose manoeuvres he was so anxious to observe. The insect, after
some preliminary evolutions, plunged into the flower and made its re-
past. When it again issued forth, Sprengel saw the grains of pollen ad-
hering to the stign;a and returned home contented with his day's labor.

Since the appearance of the great Linnaens we more frequently meet
with these noble enthusiasts in the cause of science to whom sixteen

248 COLLEGE RECORD.

hours exposure to the sun seem but a minute when employed in observ-
ing the marvels of creation.

It would not be correct to say that the corolla of flowers is merely
designed to point out the plant to insects. Nature knows too well how
to connect economy of means with magnificence of results, to permit us
to suppose that the same organ may not serve several ends. It is evi-
dent, for example, that the corolla is like the calyx, designed to protect
the central parts of the flower.

We shall hereafter study its other functions, at present we have only
proved those that are most important and most worthy of your atten-
tion."

COLLEGE RECORD.

Statistics of Perm. College. — The Catalogue of this Institution for
the year 1845, (the thirteenth since its organization,) furnishes us with
the following results : — Graduates 88 ; Seniors 4 ; Juniors 19 ; Sopho-
mores 19; Freshmen 20; Partial Course 9 ; Preparatory Department
77 ; making the total of 148 in connection with the Institution during
the year.

College Commencement. — The Annual Commencement of Penn. Col-
lege takes place on Thursday the 18th of September. On the afternoon
of the day preceding, the address before the Literary Societies will be
delivered by Prof. Reynolds. The address before the Alumni will be
delivered on Wednesday evening, by Rev. Chas. P. Krauth, of Balti-
more, Md.

On Tuesday the 16th inst., several addresses will be delivered by the
students of the Theological Seminary, and a discourse before the Alum-
ni of the Seminary by the Rev. Chas. F. Schaeffer, of Harrisburg, Pa.

The Record and Journal. — Subscribers are informed that the first
and second numbers of the Journal are exhausted, so that they cannot
be supplied. Several who have forwarded the money for subscription
within the last month, will receive copies so soon as we obtain a ievf
numbers which Postmasters have informed us remain uncalled for in their
ofiices, though we are happy to say that not more than half a dozen
such cases have yet been reported to us. We mention this circumstance
in order to inform our friends who have favored us with their orders,
why they have not been filled more promptly.

Filbert above Eleventh street, Philadelphia, Pa.

MEDICAL FACULTY AT PHILADELPHIA.

Wm. Darrach, M. D. — Prof.' of Tlieoi-y andractice of Medicine.

John- Wiltbank, M. D. — Prof, of Obstetrics and Diseases of woman and children,

Wm. R. Grant, M. D. — Prof, of Jlnatomy and Physiology.

H. S. Patterson, M. D.—Prof of Materia Medica.

D. Gilbert, M. D. — Prof, of Principles and Practice of Surgery.

W. L. Atlee, M. D. — Prof, of Medical Chemistry.

GETTYSBURG FEMALE SEMINARY.

At this Institution is tanglit all that is considered essential to a fin-
ished education, including instrumental and Vocal Music, Drawing,
Fainting, Languages, Ornamentiil Needle Work, Sec.

The boarding department will at the next session be remo^'ed to the
pleasantly located residence of the Principal, known as Oakridge ; the
the pupils will then be members of his family.

Several gentlemen of distinguished literary and scientific attainments
will deliver frequent addresses tiiroughout the course, on subjects of in-
terest and importance.

The institution is well supplied with experienced and successful
teachers, and with a valuable and increasing collection of Philosophical
and Chemical apparatus, Minerals, Shells, Zoological specimens, &c.

H. HAUPT, Principal.

PAYMENT FOR THE RECORD AND JOURNAL.
As the first volume of this Ma.azine will be complete with one more
number, (hose subscribers who Ixiv not yet. -paid ore earnestly requested
to do so. As postage is now so l(.\v,a letter and one dollar or five dollars
will cost those who are in arrears l>iii five or ten cents, and we tiierefore
hope that they will make tlieir rfiniiiances wiihoul any expense to the
.Journal, and without any furiluM- delay. A few (scarcely a dozen) com-
plete copies of the Journal may still be bad by new subscribers. Ad-
dress "Editors of the Record and Jouri'hl, Gettysburg, Pa."
Gettysburg, August., 1845,

J|)cnn0i)toama ^allege, ©tttnabitrg, fpa.

FACULTY AND INSTRUCTORS.

Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. D.—Pres'l and Prof, of Ev. of ChrisL, Moral Philos'y, SfC.

Rev. H. L. Baugher, A. M. — Prof, of Greek Language, Rhetoric, <§rc.

Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M. — Prof, of ^rulfiemitlcs, Ckemis!.n/ and Mechanical Philos.

Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A.. JM. — Prof, of Latin, Mental hilosoplty, SfC.

M. L. Stoever, a. M. — Prof, of Hlstnry itnd Principal of Preparatory Department.

Rev. Chas. a. Hay, A. M.—Prof. of Germain Language and TJlcrature.

Herman Haupt, A. M. — Professor of Mathematics.
; W. H. Harrison. — Msistant Prof of Languages.
] David Gilbert, M. D. — Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.
: Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer on Zoolo^ri.

! \Vm. Albaugh, a. M. — Tutor an:! Teacher in Preparatory Department.
' Mr. H. R. Geiger. — Teacher of Writing.

': Pennsylvania College has now been chartered about fourteen years. Dur-
' in^ this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
\ tioiis of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
' of any Institution in the Country. Th3 Preparatory Department provides for in-
: struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
; to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course
\ is arranged in the four classes usual in the Institutions of this country.
\ The government of the student; is as energetic as their circumstances seem to
' require. They attend at least two recitations a day. Church and Bible Class on the
'' Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of

< any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States has
■; more exemplary young men in connexion with it. They are all required to lodge
; in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

< The annual expenses are— for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
'^session. SGI 87i: for the summer session, .f 41 S/i. Washing, S'lO 00; and Wood,

< $-.3 00. Total expense, §116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per
\ week.

'i There are two vacations in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of
'•. April and September, each of five weeks continuance. \

; The summer session commenced on the 22d of May, with the accession of over '
'. forty new Students.

J '^cknou3icii3cmcnts of tB0nn:tioit3 to tl)c Cabinet of tl]c Cinnccau
\ Association of pennsnlnania College.

•: August, 1845. From Dr. S. S. Schmuckcr, (Gryphea) found in a large depo-

; sit near the Bedford Springs; Indian bones found in the remains of an aboriginal

:' burial ground near Mt. Airy, Shenandoah co. Ya. ; Indian antiquity, (a remarkable

•; stone cut out in the shape of a wheel) ploughed up in the bottom lands on the banks

I of the Shenandoah, Va.

[ 2. From Mr. G. Nixdorf, one coin.

\ 3. From Mr. J. Kuhn, tortoise in spirits.

I 4. From Mr. W. Longhridge, a number of specimens of matble.

i 5. From Prof. M. L. Stoever, one rare silver coin.

] 6. From Mr. M. W. Swan, an English colonial fourpence.

y Terms OF THE R.ECORD AND Journal. One Dollar per annum \
i in advance. ^

I Address — '■^Editors of the Record and Journal.) Gettysburg, Pa.'''' j

VOLUME I.]

[number 12.

THE

LiTERARY RECORD AND JOURNAL

©f t\}« S'lnnatan Siseoaatxon of IJcnnspUmnia CoUcfle.
OCTOBER, ]845.

CONDUCTED

3Jl> a (Kommittee oC the

^ssocfatfotr.

CONTENTS.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN CUMBERLAND COUNTY, PA.

NUG^ ETHNOLOGICAE, NO. HI, - - - -

AMERICAN ZOOLOGY, NO. II, -

THE NATURALISTS OF THE MOON, - - -

SWALLOWS. — A FACT IN ORNITHOLOGY,

brooks' FIRST LESSONS IN LATIN, - - -

COMMENCEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE,

EXERCISES OF THE SEMINARY, ' - - -

MEETING OP COLLEGE ALUMM, - _ -

ANNUAL ADDRESSES, _ . . . -

GRADUATING CLASS, - - _ - -

249

257

264

267

269

270

271

ib

ib

272

ib

11 sheet, periodical — Postage, 2i cents, to any distance within the Union.
NEINSTEDT, PRINTER, GETTYSBURG.

THE LITERARY

OF THE LINNiEAN ASSOCIATION OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

Vol. I. OCTOBER, 1845. No. 12.

CATALOGUE OF BIRDS FOUND IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF CARLISLE,
CUMBERLAND COUNTY, PA.

BY S. F. BAIRD.

The following list embraces the species of birds which have been
collected during the last five years, and with very few exceptions in a
circle of but few miles radius. None are admitted without having been
actually killed and preserved ; in no case have any been inserted on the
authority of others. A residence nearer the Susquehanna would no
doubt have enabled us to increase the number considerably, as we have
heard of several not in this list which have been killed about Harrisburg.
Some of these will be found in a catalogue of additional species pro-
cured at Marietta, Pa., most, if not all of which, touch on our eastern
border.

The nomenclature employed is based on that of Prince Bonaparte,
in his lists of the birds of Europe and North America, 1838, 1842, with
the addition, however, of the authority for each species, and various al-
terations called for, by a strict regard to the law of priority. The name
immediately succeeding each species is that of its first describer, and if
in parentheses, under a diflerent genus. The second name is his who
first placed that particular specific appellation under its present genus,
A ( "f ) prefixed, shows that the bird breeds here.
jCathartes aura, (L.) 111. Turkey buzzard. Rather rare. Summer.
Haliaetos leucocephalus, (L.) Sav. Bald eagle. Rare. Resident.
Pandion carolinus, (Gm.) Ron. P. haliaetus, And. Fish hawk. Rare.

Resident.
Archihuteo sancti johannis, (Gm.) Gray. Buleo lagopits. And. Rougli

legged hawk. Very rare. Winter.
\Buteo horealis, (Gm.) Bon. Pved tailed hawk. Connnon. linsidcnt
•' linealus, ((im.) Bon. Red shouldered hawk. Common. Res,
"'• pennsylvanicu.% (VVils.) Bon. Broad winged liawk. Rare.
32

250 CATALOGUE OP BIRDS

Falco colwnbarius, L. Pigeon hawk. Rare. Autumn.

I^Cerchneis sparverius, (L.) Boie. Falco s. Aud. Sparrow hawk. Ve-
ry common. Resident.

'\Jlccipiter ficscus, (Gm.) Bon. ^stur /., Aud. Sharp-shinned hawk.
Abundant. Resident.

i^Astur cooperi, Bon. Cooper's hawk. Common. Resident.

Strigiceps uliginosus, (Wils.) Bon. Circus cyancusj Aud. Marsh hawk.
Rare. Spring, autumn.

JVyctea Candida, ( ) Bon. Surnia nyctea, Aud. Snow owl. Rare in
very cold winters.

"fScojJs asio, (L.) Bon. Buho a., Aud. Screech owl. Common. Res.

"fBuio virginianus, ('Gm.J Cuv. Great Horned owl. Common. Res.

"fOtus americanus, Bon. 0. vulgaris, Aud. Long eared owl. Rare.
Resident.
" hrachyotus, (h.) Short eared owl. Rather common. Winter.

Ulula nehulosa, (Forst.) Cuv. Syrnium nehdosum, Aud. Barred owl.
Common.

JYyctale acadica, (Gm.) Bon. Ulula a., Aud. Saw whet owl. Very rare.

'\Jlntrostoinus vociferus, (Wils.) Bon. Cajorimulgus v., Aud. Whippor-
will. Abundant in mountains. Summer.

'fChordeiles virginianus, (Briss.) Sw. Night hawk. Very com. Sum.

'\Acanthylis pclasgia, (L.) Boie. Chactura p., Aud. Chimney bird. Ve-
ry common. Summer.

fPrognc j)urpurea, (L.) Boi6. Hirundo p.^ Aud. Martin. Com. Sum.

'\Chclidon hicolor, (Vieill.) Bon. Hirundo b., Aud. White bellied swal-
low. Common. Spring and autumn.

Cotyle riparia, (L.) Boie. Hirundo r., Aud. Bank swallow. Abundant.
Spring and autumn.

I" fierripennis, (And.) Ba'ivd. Hiru7idos., Aud. Rough-winged swal-
low. Abundant. Summer.

'\Hirundo fulva, Vieill. ClifT swallow. Abundant. Summer.

f " rvfa, Gm. H. rusiica, Aud. Barn swallow. Very abund. Sum.

'fAmpelis carolinensis, (Briss.) Bomhycilla c, Aud. Cedar bird. Abun.
Some resident.

"f Ceryle alcyon, (L.) Boie. Jllcedo a., Aud. Kingfifsher. Com. Some res.

'fTrorhilus cohihris,L. Hummingbird. Abundant. Summer.

"fSitta caroUnensis, Briss. White bellied nuthatch. Abund. Resident.
" canadensis, L. Red bellied nuthatch. Rare. Winter.

'\Certhia americana, Bon. C. familiaris, Aud. Brown creeper. Com.

Winter. Some resident.
\Mniotilla varia, (L.) Vieill. Black and white creeper. Ab. Summer.

IN CUMBERLAND COUNTY. 251

t Thryothorus pahistris, ( VVils.) Bon. Troglodytes p., And. Mar.sh wren.

Rare. Summer.
I " bewicki, (Aud.) Bon. Troglodytes b.. And. Bewick's wren.

Rare. Summer,
t Troglodytes aedon^ Vieill. House wren. Abundant. Summer.

" hyemalis^ Vieill. Winter wren. Common. Winter.
'\ Si alia u'ilsonii, Sw. Blue bird. Abundant. Summer.
J Turdits jnigratorius, L. Robin. Very ab. Summer. Some resident.
I " musielinus, Gm. Wood thrush. Rather common. Summer.

" solitarius^ Wils. Hermit thrush. Rare. Spring, autumn.

" wilsonii, Bon. Wilson's thrush. Rather common. Spring, aut.

" olivaceus, Giraud. Olive-backed thrush. Abundant. Summer.
Mirims polyglot lus^ (L.) Boie. Orpheus p., Aud. Mockingbird. Very

rare. Summer.
I " rufiis, (L.) Bon. Orpheus r., Aud. Brown thrush. Ab. Sum.
I " felivox,, (Vieill.) Bon. Orpheus carolincnsis, Aud. Cat bird.

Abundant. Summer.
Jlnthus ludovicianusy Licht. Titlark. Common. Spring, autumn.
Regulus satrapa., Licht. Golden crowned wren. Ab. Aut. wint. spring.

" calendula^ (L.) Licht.- Ruby crowned wren. Ab. Aut. spring.
fParus atricapillus., L. Black cap titmouse. Abundant. Resident.
I " bicolor^ L. Tufted titmouse. Abundant. Resident.
'fSylvicola americana, (Gra.) Blue yellow back warbler. Rare. Spr. aut.

" coronata, (L.) Yellow rump warbler. Very common. Spring, aut.

" petechia, (L.) Yellow red poll warbler. Rare. Spring, aut.

" maculosa, (Gm.) Sw. Black and yellow warbler. Ab. Spr. aut.

" maritima, (Wils.) Cape Hay warbler. Rare. Spring, aut.

" virens, (Gm.) Black-throated green warbler. Ab. Spring, aut.

" blackburniae, (Gm.) Blackburnian warbler. Ab. Spring, aut.
I " iclerocephala, (L.) Chestnut-side warbler. Very abundant some
seasons, Summer.

" cnslanea, (Wils.) Bay breast warbler. Common. Spring, aut.

" striata, (Forst.) Sw. Black poll warbler. Very ab. Spring, aut.
I " pinus, (Wils.) Pine creeping warbler. Rare. Summer.
I " aesiiva, (Gm.) Yellow poll warbler. Abundant. Summer,
t '^ canadensis, (L.) Black-throated blue warbler. Rather common.
Summer.

'• ccrulea, (Wils.) Coerulean warbler. One specimen, spring 1843.

"• a^j7t.5, (Wils.) Connecticut Warbler. One male, in spring of 1S45.
jTrichas marilandica, (Wils.) Maryland yellow throat. Abundant m
mountains. Summer.

252 CATALOGUE OF BIRDS

Trichas Philadelphia, (Wils.) Mourning warbler. Rare. Spring, aut.
\Helinaia vermivora, (Gm.) And. Worm-eating warbler. Rare. Sum.
I " soUtaria, (Wils.) And. Blue wing yellow warbler. Rare. South

mountain. Summer,
■f" " chnjsoptera^ (L.) Aud. Golden wing warbler. Very rare. South

mountain. Summer.
" peregrina (Wils.) Aud. Tennessee warbler. Abundant in autumn

of 1843. Once in Spring.
I " ruhricapilla, (Wils.) Aud. Nashville warbler. Abundant in

mountains in summer.
"fSeiurus aurocapiUus, (L.) Sw. Golden crowned thrush. Ab. Sum.
f " noveboracensis, Bon. Water thrush. Abundant. Summer.
'\Myiodioctes mitraius, (Gm.) Aud. Hooded warbler. Ab. in S. mt. Sum.
" canadensis, (L.) Aud. Canada flycatcher. Abund. Spring, aut.
" pusillus, (Wils.) Baird. M. wilsonii, Aud. Green black-cap fly-
catcher. Abundant. Spring, autumn.
Setophaga ruticilla, (L.) Svv. Muscicapa r., Aud. Redstart. Ab. Spring,

autumn.
Tyrannula minhna, Baird. Muscicapa ?«., Aud. Abund. Spring, aut.
" Jlavivenfris, Baird. Muscicapa f., Aud. Abundant. Spring, aut.
" trailli, ('Aud.j Mus. i., Aud. Abundant. Spring.
I " virens, (L.) Mus. v., Aud. Wood Pewee. Abundant. Summer,
■f " fusca, fGm.J Mus.f. Aud. Pewee. Abundant. Summer.
I " crinita, (h.) Mus c, Aud. Great crested flycatcher. Ab. Sum.
Tyrannus borealis, Sw. Mus. Cooperi, Aud. Olive-side flycatcher. One

procured,
■j" " intrepidus, Vieill. Mus i., Aud. Ring bird. Abundant. Summer.
flcteria viridis, (Gm.) Bon. Chat. Common in South mountain, Sum.
"fVireo Jlavifrons, Vieill. Yellow-throated vireo. Rare. Summer.
■j" " sol itarius, (Wils.) YieiW. Solitary vireo. Abundant in spring, rare

in summer.
I " gilvus, (YieiW.) Bon. Warbling vireo. Abundant. Summer,
■f " olivaceus, (h.) Red-eyed vireo. Abundant. Summer.
Lanius borealis, Vieill. Butcher bird. Rare. Winter.
"fCyanocorax cristatus, (h.) Boie. Garrulus c, Aud. Ab. Resident.
'\Corvus americanus, Aud. Crow. Abundant. Resident.

" cacalotl, Wagler. C. cor ax, Aud. Very rare. Resident.
"fQuiscalus versicolor, Vieill. Crow blackbird. Abundant. Summer.
Scolecophagus ferrugineus, fGmJ Sw. Mus.f., Aud. Rusty blackbird.

Abundant. Spring, autumn.
'\Slur7ieUa ludoviciana, (L.) Bon. Lark. Abundant. Many resident.

iN cuMnF.nr.AXP county. 253

■ficterus hallimore, (L.) Golden robin. Abundant. Summer.

f " spurius, (L.) Orchard oriole. Common. Summer.

■f^gelahis phoeniceus, (L.) Yieill. Swamp blackbird. Abundant. Sum.

"fMolothrus j^ccoris, {Gm.) Svv. Cow bird. Abundant. Summer.

Dolichonyx oryzivorus, (L.) Sw. Reed bird. Abundant. Spring, autumn.

"fGuiraca coerulea, (L.) S\v. Coccohorus coeruleus, Aud. Blue grosbeak.
Rare. Summer.

I " ludovicia7ia, (L.) S\v. Coccolorus I., Aud. Rose-breasted grosbeak.
Rare. Summer.

JViphoCa hyemal'is, (L.) Aud. Snow bird. Abundant. Winter.

Passereiia iliaca-, (Merrem.) Sw. Fox-colored sparrow. Abundant. Spring,
autumn.

'\ Zonotricliia mclodia, (VVils.) Bon. Fringilla ?«., Aud. Song sparrow.
Abundant. Some resident.

I " grajninea, (Gm.) Svv. Emheriza g. Aud. Grass finch. Abundant.
Summer.
" pennsylvanica, (Briss.) Sw. Frmgilla p., Aud. White-throated spar-
row. Abundant. Spring, autumn.
" leucophrys, (Forst.) Sw. Fringilla 1., Aud. White crowned spar-
row. Common at intervals, spring, autumn.

'fEuspiza americana^ (Gm.) Bon. Emheriza «., Aud. Black throated
bunting. Common. Summer.

"f Coturniculus passerinus, (Wils.) Bon. Emheriza p., Aud. Yellow wing-
ed sparrow. Abundant. Summer-

Peucaea liticolnlii, Aud. Lincoln's finch. Common some seasons, spring,
autumn.

Passerculus savanna^ (Wils.) Bon. Emheriza .<?., Aud. Savannah fincli.
Rare. Spring, autumn.
" ^aZus/m, (Wils.) Bon. Jlmmodramus p., Aud. Swamp sparrow.
Abundant. Spring, autumn.
Spizella canadensis. (Briss.) Bon. Emheriza c, And- Tree sparrow.
Abundant. Winter.

I " socialis.) (Wils. Bon. Emheriza, s., Aud. Chipping sparrow. Abun.
Summer.

I" pusilla, (Wils.) Bon. Emheriza p., Aud. Field sparrow. Abund.
Summer.

j Chrysomitris tristis, (L.) Bon. Carduelis /., Aud. Abund., some resi-
dent in winter.
" pinus, (Wils.) Bon. Linaria, p., Aud. Pine fincli. Ab AVinter.
Linota Hnaria, ( ) Bon. Linaria minor, Aud. lied poll. Rare in very-
cold winters-
33

254 CATALOGUE OF BIRDS

Carpodagufs purpureus, ('Gm. j Baird. Enythrospiza purpurea, Aud.

Purple finch. Abundant. Spring, autumn.
Cardinalis virginianus, (Briss.) Bon. Pitylus cardinalis, Aud. Cardinal.

Very rare.
'\Pipilo erythrojAhahmis, (L.) Vieill. Ground robin. Abundant. Sum.
IrSpiza cyanea., (h.) Bon. Indigo bird. Abundant. Summer.
'\Pyranga ruhra, (L.j Vieill. Tanager. Common. Summer.
Otocoris cornutus^ (Wils.) Baird. Mauda alpestris, Aud. Sky lark.

Abundant. Winter.
'\Dryoto7nus pilcatus, (L.) S\v. Picus p., Aud. Black woodcock. Com-
mon. Resident.
"fPicus puhesce7is, L. Sapsucker. Abundant. Resident.
I " villosus, L. Abundant. Resident.

" auduhoni ? Trudeau. Two specimens procured.
Melanerpes varius, (L.) Plats, v., Aud. Yellow-belly woodpecker.

Abundant. Spring, autumn.
I " erythrocepMlus, (h.) Sw. Picus e., Aud. Red-head woodpecker.

Abundant. Some resident.
^Centurus carolinus, (L.) Sw. Picus c, Aud. Red-belly woodpecker.

Abundant, most so in winter.
"fColaptes auratus, (L.) Sw. Picus a., Aud. Flicker. Abundant. Resid.
'\Coccyzus crythropilmhmis, (Wils.) Bon. Cuckoo. Common. Sum.
f " americanus, (L.) Vieill. Rain crow. Abundant. Summer.
jEctojnstcs migratoria, (L.) Sw. Wild pigeon. Abundant. Resident.

Rare in summer.
I " carolinensls, (L.) Sw. Dove. Abundant. A few resident.
'\Meleagris gallopavo, L. Wild turkey. Rare. Resident.
']' Orlyx virginiana, (h.) Steph. Partridge. Abundant. Resident.
'\Bonasa umbcllus, (L.) Tetrao u., Aud. Pheasant. Abundant. Resid.
Charadrius semipalmnius, Bon. Ring plover. Two shot, August 1845.
■f " vociferus, L. Killdeer. Abundant. A few resident.
Pluvialis virginiacus, (Bork.) Charadrius marmoraius, Aud. Bull-head

plover. Abundant in autumn only.
S(jualarola helvetica, (h.) Cuv. Charadrius, /i.,'Aud. Black-belly

plover. Rare in autumn.
jArdea herodias, L. Blue heron, Crane. Rather common. Summer.
"fEgretta leuce, (111) Bon. Ardea egretia, Aud. White crane. Rare. Sum.
'[Herodias virescens, (L.) Bon. Jlrdea v., Aud. Fly-up-the-creek.

Abundant. Summer.
"I'Ardetta exilis, (Gm.) G. R. Gray. Jlrdea e., Aud. Least bittern.

Abundant in summer of 1844.

I\ CUMBERLAND COUMY. 255

Bolcmrus Icntighwsus, (Mont.) Nutt. Ardea Z., And. Bittern. Hare.

Spring, autumn.
JVycticorax discors, (Nutt.) Baird. Ardca nycticorax^ And. Night heron.

Young only seen in autumn.
Heleropoda semijmhnata, ('Wils.J Nutt. Tringa s., Aud. Rare. Aut,
Pelidna 2^ectoraIis,Sciy. Tringa j}-, Aud. Jack snipe. Abundant.

Spring, autumn.
" pusilla, (\\ lis.) Bon. Trijiga p., Am]. Little sandpiper. Rare.

Spring, autumn.
jAclitis 7ncLcularius, (L.) Bon- Totanus ?«., Aud. Spotted sandpiper.

Abundant. Summer.
'\AcUiurus bartrainius, (Wils.) Bon. Tringa J., Aud. Field plover.

Abundant. Summer.
Totanus JIavipes, (Gm.) Vieill. Yellowleg. Common. Spring, autumn.
I " chloropygius, Vieill. T. solitarius, Aud. Solitary sandpiper. Com-
mon. Summer.
" melanoleucus, (Gm.) Vieill. 7\ vociferus, Aud. Tell talc. Rare

Spring, autumn.
Mncrorhamplms griseus, ('Gm.j Leach. Scolopax novchoi-acensis, Aud.

Red breast snipe. Rare. Autumn.
GaUinago icilsonii, (Temm.) Bon. Scolopax ?f., Aud. Snipe. Abundant

spring, autumn, rare in winter.
jRiisticoJaminor., (Gm.) Vieill. Micropiera americana, Aud. Woodcock.

Abundant. A few resident.
'fRallus virginianus, L. Vir^nia rail. Common. Summer.
Porzana Carolina, (L.) Orlygometra c, Aud. Sora rail. Common.

Rare in summer.
" noveboracensis, (Gm.) Orlygometra n., Aud. Yellow-breasted rail.
'fGallinula galeata, Licht. G. chlo7-opus, Aud. Gallinule. Very rare.

Summer.
Fulica amcricnna.^ Gm. Coot. Rare. Spring, autumn.
Lobipes hypcrboreus, (L.) Cuv. Hyperborean phalaropc. Two procured

Sept. 184.3.
Cygnus americanus, Sharpless. Swan. Rare. Spring, autumn.
Anser canadensis., L. Wild goose. Abundant. Spring, autumn.
]Anas boschas, L. Mallard. Abund. Spring, autmnn, very rare in Sum.

" obscura, Gm. Black duck. Abundant. Spring, autumn.
Mareca americana, (Gm. Steph. Anas a., Aud. Baldpate. Common.

Spring, autumn.
Chaulelasmus streperusj (L.) Gray. Anas s., Aud. Gadwall. \'ery rave.

Autumn.

256 CATALOGUE OP BIRDS

Da/da acuta, (h.) Bon. Anas a., Aui. Sprigtail. Abnndant. Spring, aut.
Spatula clypeata, (L.) Boie. Anas c, And. Shoveller. Very rare. Spr.

autumn.
Pterocyanea discors (L.) Bon. Ajias d. Aud. Blue wing-teal. Rather

common in autumn, rare in spring.
Querqucdula caroJinensis, (Gm.) Bon. A7ias c, Aud. Green wing-teal.

Common. Spring, autumn.
"fAix sponsa, (L.) Boie. Anas s., Aud. Summer duck. Abundant. Spring,

autumn, rarer in summer.
Oidemia perspicillata, (L.) Flem. Fuligula p., Aud. Surf duck. Three

shot, Oct. 1S4-5.
" fusca, (L.) Flem. Fuligula f., Aud. Velvet duck. Rare on Sus-

quehannah in winter.
Aijlhya erythrocephala, Bon. Fuligula fcrina, Aud. Spring, aut. Rare.
" mariloides, (Vig.) Bon. Fuligula marila, Aud. Little blackhead.

Abundant. Spring, autumn.
Fuligula collaris, (Don.) Bon. jP. rujitorques, Aud. Ring-neck duck.

Rare. Spring, autumn.
Clangula amcricana, Bon. Fuligula clangula, Aud. Golden eye.

Abundant. Winter.
" albeola, (L.) Jen. Fuligula a., Aud. Butter ball. Abundant. Wint.
Harclda glacialis, (L.) Leach. Fuligula g., Aud. South southerly.

Very rare, spring.
Erismatura ruhida, (Wils.) Bon. Fuligula r., Aud. Ruddy duck. Rare.

Spring, autumn.
'fMerganser castor, (L.) Bon. Mcrgus merganser, Aud. Fish duck.

Abundant. Resident. Very rare in Summer.
" serrator, (L.) Leach. Mergus s., Aud. Red breasted merganser.

One specimen procured.
I " cucullatus, (L.) Bon. Mergus c, Aud. Hooded merganser.

Abundant. Resident. Much rarer in Summer.
Hydrochelidon fissipes, (L.) Bon. Sterna nigra, Aud. Black tern. One

procured in autumn.
Xema lonaparlii, (Rich.) Bon. Lams I., Aud. Bonaparte's gull. Rare

in autumn.
Lcslris j)omarinus, Temm. Pomarine jager. Adult procured on Susque-

hannah in Summer.
Podilymbus carolincnsis, (Lath.) Less. Podiceps c, Aud. Diver. Ab.

Spring, autumn.
Podiceps cornutus, (Gm.) Lath. Horned grebe. Very rare, spring, aut.
Cohjinbus glacialis, L. Loon. Rare.

M'G.Ti ETH.VOLOGICAE. 257

The following species of whose existence in our vicuiity, we have
had strong proof, are not included for want of specimens :
Jlquila chrysaetos^ L.
Folco peregrinus, L.
JVauclerus furcatuSf (L.) Vig.
Loxia.

Conurus caroUneiisis, (L.) Kuhl. See Barton's fragments Nat. Hist. Penn.
Porzana jamcdcensis^ (Briss.) Ortygometra j.^ Aud.

Additional species procured by Mr. J. Libhart, near Marietta, Pa.,
twenty-five miles south of Cumberland Co.
Strohilophaga enuclcaior, (L.) Vieill. Corythus c, Aud.
Sylvicola fonnosa, (Wils.)
Limosafedoa, (L.)

Calidris arenaria^ (L.) 111. Tringa a., Aud.
Chen hyperioreusj (Pall.) Boie. Anscr li.^ Aud.
Bernicla hrenta^ (Wils.) Steph. Aiiser bernicla, Aud.
Jlylkya vallisncria, (Wils.) Bon. Fuligida v.f Aud.
Larus zojiorhynchus, Rich.
" argentaius, Briinn.

Total of species in Cumberland Co. 202
of which ] Breeding, _ - . 104

Summer visitors, - - - 66
Resident, - - - . 38

Transitory in spring and autumn, 90
Seen in autumn only, - - 8
Addenda. Troglodytes hrevirostris, Nutt. Short-billed wren. One pro-
cured, Sept. 20th, 184-5.

NUG-/E ETHNOLOGICAE, NO. III.

BY PROF. H. S. PATTERSON, M. D. OF PHILADELPHIA, PA.

In enumeratnig the points of diiTerence which separate man so wide-
ly from the rest of animated nature, we next come to the shape, posi-
tion, and size of the head, and the peculiarities of function dependant
thereon. This has already been referred to in speaking ot the erect at-
titude, and the as incisivum or iatcrmaxillary bone. In addition, I re-
mark that 171 man the head rcsh directly upon the lop of the upright spine.
It is not exactly balanced upon it, as is sometimes represented, much the
larger part being in front, especially in those persons in whom the an-
terior lobes of the brain are most devolopcd. A well-shaped skull, pois-
ed upon its point, will incline lurwurds if unsupported, aud this prcpou-

258 XUG^ ETHNOLOCICAE.

derance will be much increased in the living body b_v the additional
weight of the lower jaw, tongue and other soft parts. It is retained in
its position by the great muscles of the back of the neck, which keep it
in equUibrio. In animals it is hung by its upper part to the end of the
spine, which in them is horizontal, or nearly so. Hence the necessity
for the dense and powerful Ugamenfmn niichae, already mentioned.

The head of man is also pre-eminent in the size of the brain and its
enclosing cranium. In him only is this delicate and important organ
found in the perfection of its developement. I think it may be said
without hesitation, that there is no part of the brain of any inferior ani-
mal which is not found more perfect in man, nor is there any which
may not be formed from that of man, by abstracting, diminishing, or
slightly modifying some of its parts. To him alone has the enjoyment
of this crown and master-piece of organization been granted, and to this,
again, we must ascribe this grand distinction — the 2^ossession of reason.
I know that this is what some have decried as materialism, and dismiss-
ed as though that epithet settled the matter. It would be better first to
enquire whether it is true. The unanimous voice of the investigators
of nature attests its correctness, and it is indeed so obvious that a child
may see it. It is no more certain, so far as our observation goes, that
we cannot see without an eye, than it is that we cannot think without a
brain. If the first of these two propositions does not startle us, why
should the second ? The assertion of the absolute necessity of vision,
in our present state, to the cognition of form, color and distance, in-
volves materialism just as much as the assertion of tlie necessity of vi-
tally active nervous matter to the same and similar acts of the mind. —
Those phenomena, indeed, which in the aggregate we call mind, such
as perception, comparison, memory and imagination, and which, we
behold to some extent in animals as well as man, we have never seen
except in connexion 'witli nervous matter, and (if we can have any know-
ledge of the relation of cause and effect,) as the effect of its vital action_
Physiologically speaking, then, it may be asserted that mind is a mani-
festation of a peculiar form of matter in its appropriate state of vital ac-
tivity. Every argument which proves that the liver secretes bile, (ex-
cept that we can see it spring therefrom.) proves that the brain thinks.
Its function is born and grows with the body, is afTected by its diseases,
is suspended by fainting, destroyed by wounds, weakened by age, and
lost bv death. There is no escaping this conclusion, and those who de-
clare it incompatible with their preconceived notions, condemn them and
not it. We must take the fact as it is, and if it does necessarily involve
materialism, then must materialism be true, or nature is one multilorm

XUCE ETH.XOLOGICAE. 259

lie. No man is entitled to the name of philosopher who tears to follow
the truth wherever it may lead him, even though, for the moment, his
path seems dark and dubious. Were this the place, it would give me
pleasure to enter into this subject and show, as I think it can readily be
shown, that the assertion made does by no means lead to materialism,
but leaves the question untouched, exactly where it was before. Woe
to the man that must look for his religion in the dissecting-room and the
laboratory for he is building on the sand. He will find much there to
interest him, much to instruct him, much to enlarge and elevate his
mind by the exhibitions of beauty and goodness ; but immortality and
infinity are not things to be kept under bell-glasses or set up in show-
cases of an anatomical museum. They are matters that the physiologist,
as such, does not presume to meddle with. He sees and knows that
which comes under his scalpel or his microscope, and nothing more.
They are the instruments of his knowledge of the sensible world, and
when he would learn aught of that which lies beyond sense, he shuts
his books and throws by his knife, if he is a wise man, and goes down
into the depth of his own soul to hold communion with that Inner Wit-
ness, which is "the light that enlighteneth every man that cometh into
the world." It is, therefore, without the remotest allusion to anv theo-
logical tenet, that I assert that the i)roper function of the brain is mind,
and that in proportion to the perfection of this organ, are the power and
extent of the function.

Now, man possesses it in a degree of completeness far beyond any
other creature. Considerable confusion has occurred in the statement
of this fact, from the difliculty of specifying with precision the points
wherein the difference consists. Thus, it was at one time asserted that
the intellect was in direct proportion to the size of the mass of the brain.
But that of the elephant is more than twice as large as that of man. It
has also been laid down as a law, that the larger the brain is in propor-
tion to the body, the greater will be the intellectual development. But
the size and weight of the brain are constant, while those of tlie body
continually vary according to the quantity of fat, &c. Nor will the rule
bold good, even with this exception. If true, it would give the mouse
ten times the mind of tlie elephant and the ass double that of the horse.
The brain of the humming bird, moreover, is 1-llth of its entire weight,
while that of man is but l-35th. Another mode of comparison is be-
tween the brain and the rest of the nervous system. This rule also is
liable to numerous exceptions, and is too di/licult of application to be
relied on. Perhaps the best mode is to compare the size of the cranium
proper, which is the receptacle of the brain, and corresponds with it iii

260 NUG^. ETHNOLOGICAE.

form and dimensions, with tliat of the bones of the face. As tlie for-
mer contains the organ of the intellect, and the latter those of the senses
and of mastication, it is presumed that the greater size of the former will
hidicate the preponderance of mind over sense, and that an excess of
the latter will place the animal lower in the scale. There are several
methods of estimating this proportion. That which is most generally
adopted, is effected by what is called the facial angle of Camper^ from the
physiologist with whom it originated. A line, known as the facial line,
is drawn from the most prominent point of the forehead to the socket
of the front teeth of the upper jaw, and another horizontally backwards
in the direction of the plane of the head in its natural erect position.
Sometimes the latter is made parallel with the floor of the nostrils,
which amounts to the same thing, and as in man it generally passes
over the external opening of the ear, the skulls of animals should be
placed in the same position, in order to obtain a just comparison. The
human face being small and placed directly under the cranium, the angle
formed by these two lines is very large, sometimes a right angle and in
rare instances even an obtuse one, while in animals it becomes more and
more acute as we descend in the scale. There are apparently excep-
tions to this rule, as in the elephant and owl, but the great prominence
of the forehead in these animals depends upon the unusual size of the
frontal sinus, a cavity between the two plates of the frontal bone, which
exists in man to a slight extent, but is very large in them. Another
method of arriving at the same result, is by comparing the area of the
cranium with that of the face in a vertical section of the skull, leaving
out the lower jaw. It will then be found that in man the craninm is
four times the size of the face, while in the cow the face is double and
in the horse quadruple the size of the cranium. Yet as these propor-
tions are not invariable in their correspondence with the amount of in-
tellectual manifestation, another mode of comparison has been devised,
which regards the size of the separate portions of the brain. Thus, it
is found that in man the upper and anterior portions ai'e much larger
than in the brains of animals, whose whole mass is equal in weight.
According to the recent researches of Bourgery, the cerebral hemis-
pheres, in man, include a nervous mass which is nine times that of the
cerebellum and twenty-four times that of the spinal cord. There is no
animal in whom this proportion is approached. The surface of the
brain, in man particularly, is marked by deep furrows or convolutions,
which increase the amount of its surface amazingly. These are said to
be deep in animals and even in individuals, in proportion to their intel-
lect. Both these latter modes of estimating the relative amount of the

NUCi: ETIIN'OLOGICAE. 261

various masses of nervous matter have an intimate connexion with the
science of Phrenology, wliosc advocates claim for man an immense pre-
ponderance of those parts of tlie brain which tlicy believe to be the spe-
cial organs of the reflective faculties. In consequence of this distinc-
tion, he is endowed with that wonderful power we call reason. Traces
of this are found in animals in the ratio of the completeness of their
great nervous centre, the brain. I\Iany of them possess the external
senses far more acute than our own. RIan is far inferior to the hawk
in vision, and to the hound in scent. In mental endowments he is as
far above them. That they have memory is indubitable, and that they
possess imagination is also evident. Dogs, as we all know, frequently
dream. That they can compare and choose is undeniable. The mule-
teer on tlie steep slopes of the Andes trusts more implicitly in the gui-
dance of his mule than in his own knowledge; and they prize their an-
imals according to their intelligence, saying habitually — "1 will not give
you the strongest mule, but the one that reasons best." But it is in
man alone that we find intellect w^orthy of the name. This it is that
gives him power over the material world, to compel it to what form may
suit his taste or pleasure, and that directs and dignifies his sentiments.
Without it, he would doubtless still have been a gregarious animal, seek-
ing the company of his kind ; but, with it, he becomes the centre of a
circle of beautiful aflections, and feels the warm ties of consanguinity,
of love, of friendship, and of country.

Connected with this power, and the possession of articulate language,
which in a great measure depends upon it, is another great fact in man's
history. He is i/ie only progressive species on ike earth. Whatever ex-
perience is gained by one of the inferior animals, dies with it. They
possess no means by which they can impart the lessons th.ey have learn-
ed to another. Hence they have been the same in all ages. The flocks
that browze on our hills have made no advance on those which led in
the primeval world upon the plain of Shinar. Yet what a wide diller-
ence in their masters! What a contrast between the awe-struck CJial-
dean shepherd, looking up to the shining hosts above him as the mys-
terious arbiters of his destiny, and the modern astronomer, who can
mark the path and predict the motions of the remotest orb ! Each new
generation of men starts where its predecessor stopped, and, dying,
leaves a richer legacy to its heirs. Hence the law of progress, at wliich
some would sneer, even in this age and country which are its noblest
evidence, has its foundations deep in man's nature. The capacity for
l)rogress, existing in both the iniHvidual and the race, is indicated by
those powers which mukc man a ttacliin«r and karning beinj/. It h]as
31 /

262 NUG^ ETHNOLOGICAL.

brought him thus far through many transitions and its course is not yet
ended. Whither it will hereafter carry him, human imagination cannot
reach. "It doth not yet appear what we shall be." This much we
know, however, — that the undying hope of the world is no delusion.
Ever brightly from the beginning has it beamed upon the altar of nian\s
soul, and though the mists of error have often obscured and the wild
tempest of unholy passions at times seemed to quench it, it has sprung
up again with renewed splendor to kindle and illume the ages. The
universal mind of man has seemed, at all times, to place its warmest af-
fections on the future. The faith in a deliverance to come has never
died, nor even failed on the earth. Centuries of sin and oceans of blood
have not sutficed to drown it. Every age has had its Simeons, bowed
down and in no-wise able to lift themselves up, but looking out patiently
for the expected salvation with the mists of decrepitude falling over
their feeble eyes. There was a voice in every breast that attested its
coming, and the world has still hoped and waited for it, not perceiving
that it then was, and ever is, coming and passing on with the silent
march of the undelaying years. And this faith shines on us, as brightly
as on the past. Men feel now as intimately as ever that this poor pre-
sent cannot last, but must give way to a better and nobler future. There
have been tribes of people who had no tradition of a golden age or
Eden, but none who had no prophecy of good things to come. The
same exalted aspiration which dictated the burning lines of Virgil's Pol-
lio and glowed in the rapt strains of Isaiah, quickened their souls and
now quickens ours. After all that has been done, we still yearn for a
better and happier to come. There lies the real Paradise, and casting
the past to the winds, we would press forward to the light of its per-
fect day.

Eden witli its angels bold,

Love and flowers and coolest sea.
Is not ancient story told.

But a glowing prophecy.

But deeper even than these great facts of intellect and consequent
progress, there lies another and most momentous distinction. As tar as
the former is concerned, it may be urged that at least its rudiments are
found in animals, and therefore we cannot positively deny the possi-
bility of its development in higher forms under given influences. But
when we come to the Pure Reason, all connexion is lost. We feel that
we arc entering upon a new sphere. The sentiments of the Good, the
Beautiful, and the True — these arc things in which no other being
(collhcd in garments of flesh at least,) has any part. Tiiey belong only

NUG.E ETIINOI.OCICAE. 263

to Him who is "the head and crown of things." The sacred sense of
Duty, the distinction of Right and Wrong, the consciousness of the In-
finite and Eternal — -all those wondrous intuitions which bind us to the
strange realities of the spiritual world, — where else do we find these ?
It is enough for me here merely to allude to these things. While man
can look out upon the material world, in common with the animals
through the windows of the senses, he can through another avenue,
open to him alone, behold the glories of the kingdom of heaven, into
which, whoso will, may enter and dwell there, and find freedom in obe-
dience, perfect possession in perfect renunciation, riches in poverty, anel
exaltation in humility. To him who can realize this aspect of his na-
ture, there is no extravagance in those lines of tlie old I'latonist, Henry
More, who "mystic" though he may be, deserves a more general repu-
tation than he enjoys :

When I myself from mine own self do quit.

And each thing else, then an all-spreden love

To the vast universe my soul doth fit

Makes me half equal to all-seeing Jove ;

My mightie wings, high-stretch'd then clapping liglif,
I brush the starres and make them shine more bright.

Then all the works of God with close embrace
I dearly hug in my enlarged arms,
All the hid paths of heavenly love I trace.
And boldly listen to his secret charms.

Then clearly view I where true light doth rise,

And where eternall Night low-pressed lies.

From this point of view of our subject, any attempt to prove the
origin of man from inferior races by the laws of progressive dcvelope-
ment appears utterly preposterous, so wide is the cliasm between him
and those most nearly allied to him. The stories of fairies and satyrs
and other semi-hunian hybrids, are of course now sent to the limbo of
things forgotten upon earth. The scarcely less absurd tales of wild
men in a hairy and quadrupedal "state of nature," which once found
their way into scientific books, are equally exploded. The recent ac-
count of a negro with a tail found running wild in the woods of Lou-
isiana, and which would have been seized on, fifty years ago, as the de-
scription of a veritable homo Jlfricanus caudatus, has been forgotten al-
most as soon as published. All these cases have undoubtedly been
abandoned as stray idiots, as were Teter and Caspar llauscr. As to tlic
chain of being wliicli commences at the lowest and most obscure iorm
of organization, and is continued u[) to man, the noliun is true enough

2«)4 A3IERICAX ZOOI.OGV.

for poetical purposes, but it is by no means scientifically accurate. If it
is worth any thing, it means that the formative organic impulse is single
and universal, producing dilFerent forms only by varied degrees of de-
velopment. But we have at the very outset of an enquiry upon this
point, the entire diversity of the animal and vegetable series. It would
also be easy to point to discrepancies of form and function among the
individuals of each series, so decided that we must at once conclude
that they are not possibly accidental, but must be radical and original.
The assertion that the human embryo, in its developement, passes
through all the inferior forms almost in the very order in which we sec
them stratified in the various geological formations, commencing with
the oldest, is also more fanciful than correct. The life of the foetus is
purely parasitic and cannot wath justice be compared with that of any
order of beings having an independent existence.

From these and similar considerations, I think we may safely infer
the entire independence of the human race as a separate species, called
into existence at its appointed time by a particular eflbrt of the divine
Creative Will. Such is the teaching of Scripture, and science proves to
us that the opinion is the mo.st rational and consistent with known facts.

Erratum. In the last No. of the Record, p. 231, line 19 from below, our
prhiter has unlbrtunately made Prof. Patterson, say Struthiophagi instead of jin-
ihroj:)0}ihugi ! The indulgent reader will please correct accordingly. Ed.

AMERICAN ZOOLOGY, NO. II.

MAMMALOGY.
DV JOHX O. MORRIS, D. D. BALTIMORE, JID.

Before I proceed to a more systematic history of Zoology in our
country, I must be allowed to communicate some general facts of tiic
earlier times, which are essential to the integrity of my plan.

Mark Catesby, an English gentleman, who resided for some time in
America, publislied early in the last century, "The History of Carolina,
Florida, and the Bahama Islands." 2 Vols. Folio. This splendid work
contains the figures of many fishes, reptiles, birds, quadrupeds, and in-
sects, besides plants.|

Next to him, Dr. Garden, of Great Britain, w^ho, as a respectable

* in the article on American Zoology in our last No. the name of Prof. Halde-
man, as one of the Committee appointed by the Association of Geologists snd Nat-
uralists to prepare a work on American Entomology, was inadvertently omitted.

t There is a fine copy of this magnificent work in the City library of Ualli-

AMnniCAN' ^ooi.oGV. 265

physician, spent a number of years in Charleston. S. C, coniniunicated
much new light with respect to the animals generally, and especially
the amjMbia of our country. He was for a long time a correspondent
of Linne, and was of immense service to the illustrious Swedish natu-
ralist in furnishing information respecting the animals of America. Few
names occur more frequently, or are mentioned with more honor in the
Systeina JYaturae than Dr. Garden's.

Mr. Glover, a planter of Virginia, communicated to the public many
valuable facts respecting American Zoology. Tlie principal i)art of his
papers on this subject appeared in the '■'•PhUosopkical Transactions'''
about the year 1740.

Mr. William Bartram of Pennsylvania, an indefatigable and well in-
formed student of nature, added considerably to the number of facts be-
fore known concerning the animals of the Southern and Western parts
of the United States and the adjacent territories. These may be found
in his Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and
West Florida, &c. from 1773 to 1778.

Afterwards Dr. Barton, Professor of Natural History in the Universi-
ty of Pennsylvania, made very respectable additions to the Zoological
science of our country. He wrote Fragments of the Natural llistoiy of
Pennsylvania, Essay on the fascinating power ascribed to snakes, &c.
and several memoirs on particular subjects in Zoology in the American
Philosophical Transactions.

The names of other American gentlemen of the last century might
be mentioned who have given descriptions of particular animals v/hich
came under their observation. In such a list Mr. Jefferson, Dr. Mitchell,
Kev. 31r. Heckewelder and others, would be entitled to distinction. To
these might be added the names of the Rev. Dr's Belknap and Williams,
vho in their respective Histories of New Hampshire and Vermont, after
the example of Mr. Jefferson, in his "Notes on Virginia," have given
Catalogues of the animals of those Slates.

Under the head of Mammalogy, (wliich includes all those animals
which nourish their young with milk,) all investigations connected with
the natural history of man would be referred. The history of the
American race has been the subject of much speculation, but no books of
American authorship, treat the subject more extensively and profoundly
than those of Dr. Macculloch of Baltimore, Kev. Mr. Heckewelder, Dr.
Godman, and tiie naturalist attached to the two expeditions to the Far
West under Major Long.

The first systematic work on our quadrujjeds is Dr. Harlan\s Ftnaia
Jlmerlcana^ or a descri[)tion of the lUammifcrous animal^ iuhabitiii"'

266 AMEUJCAN ZOOLOCV,

North America. Tliis work appeared in 1825, and it contains descrip-
tions of one hundred and forty-seven species. The author has exercised
inuch ingenuity and industry in gathering the scattered notices and de-
scriptions of his coteraporaries, arranging them in systematic order and
adding his own discoveries, which are numerous and valuable. Previ-
ous to the appearance of this volume, little attention had been paid by our
naturalists to the only and firm basis on which the genera of Mammalia
can be constructed. Various attempts had, indeed, been made, but hith-
erto without vigorously examining the dental formula.

The most valuable work that has as yet appeared, is Dr. Godman's
American Natural History, which was published in 1826. It consists
of three large 8vo volumes, and gives figures of all the animals described.
It is a monument of genius and industry. For eloquence of style, fidel-
ity of description, fullness of detail, and general interest, it is not ex-
ceeded by BufTon's writings. It professes to embrace all the mammal-
ians of our country, known at the time it was written, and it may \vell
be regarded as an ornament to our scientific literature. Dr. Godman
was a remarkable man ; though but a young man, he had distinguished
liimself in his profession as a writer and teacher, and his Natural Histo-
ry, and Rambles of a naturalist, as well as other writings on Fossil Ge-
ology, display a versatility of genius, which would have elevated him to
the very pinnacle of scientific fame, had his valuable life been spared.
He fell a victim to his incessant labors, and died as the good man dieth,
expressing the fullest confidence of Salvation through tlie merits of a
crucified Redeemer.

The great work on our mammalians is now in the course of publi-
cation. That will be the magnum ojnts ; truly, another proud monu-
ment of American genius, energy and labor. I allude to the magnificent
production of Audubon and Bachman, both known the world over as
most accomplished naturalists, and splendid writers. None of the letter
press of the work has yet appeared but more than 30 plates with colored
figures have greeted the eager eyes of the American public — and such
plates, and such figures ! Each plate is about 28 by 16 inches. The
(h-awingp, of course, are made by the inimitable pencil of Audubon,
and the engravings executed by the most skillful artists. The animals
liave every thing but life, and as nearly all those which have been as
yet published, are the size of life, you seem to be gazing on stutied spe-
cimens rather than on paper and paint. The letter press will appear af-
ter all the plates are published, and the cost of the whole work wdl be
$300. Our mammals will then be done in tliis most elegant produc-
tion, as the bird^ of our country liave already been in that most magui-

NATURALISTS 01' THE MOO.V. 267

ilcent, most extousive and most costly work of Andwboii, l)iit to wliuli
Bafliman also largely contributed of his rich stores of Ornithological
science.

TITR NATURALISTS OF TIIK MOON.
( A Fragment of learneil correspondence. )

My dear Drocer : — I am devoutly rejoiced, that 1 have so far re-
covered from my recent illness, as to be able to answer your many kind
inquiries relative to my late travels. I commenced my hazardous
journey to the great Light Earth, in the 9703Gih month. You have
heard, through my official report, the particulars of that excursion ; and,
it only remains for me to mention a few incidents, which, as they more
especially concerned myself, may find pardon for their mention in our
mutual friendship.

The first thing which struck me on arriving at Earth, was an animal,
which though smaller, bore a strong resemblance to our great Woe, and
actually gave forth a white fluid somewhat like the nutritions klim. —
The two-legged creatures, which I have termed Emhosin in my report,
were taking it through a process, which was much like our milking.
All anxiety, I seized a cake of the apparent cheese and ate it eagerly,
for I had then been fasting sometime ; but bitterly did I repent, for the
vile stulT emitted such an unpleasant effluvium, that I was thrown into
violent convulsions ; and, owing to some particles of this which yet re-
main in my system, it is that my health is now so bad. — But I have en-
tertained you long enough with myself, and I will no longer withliold
from your philosophic ear, such things as may prove more acceptable.

In nothing was I more interested, during my sojourn upon earth,
than in watching the movements of the two-legged animals, of which I
have spoken. They seem to have chief power on earth, and sometimes
would almost make one believe they were endowed with intellects
such as ours, though weaker in degree. Indeed, during my stay among
them, 1 observed signs and sounds by which, I have not the least doubt,
they communicate thought.

One of their classes, (genus Omho — Species Setneduts) is especially
interesting. 1 cannot pretend to enter into full detail of all my obser-
vations upon them, but shall merely confine myself to a few particulars,
promising, at some future period, to renew the subject.

They usually live together in colonies, though I have met with some
.ill alone-, but, wherever found, they bear certain almost invariable
marks. Thoy walk with elevated heads, and have an expression of the

268 NATURALISTS OF THE MOON.

eyes, which may be interpreted as "knowing a thing or two," as Elbbar
liath it, or something more doubtful in its character. I have known a
few rather singular exceptions to tliis rule. How instructive, how de-
lightful ! to contemplate the different grades of created existence. That
mysterious chain that binds fast all, from senseless rocks to these crea-
tures, from them to our noblest excellencies, to the great Evoba, is an
luiseen Force to most, to us a visible Union and Safety! Would you
believe it, my dear friend, these creatures actually appear to be promo-
ting knowledge in their own limited way, by such means as we are ac-
customed to use. I observed in one of the numerous cells into which
their whole habitation is divided, a number of inferior creatures in a
state of preservation ; and these they would occasionally examine, and
add to, with evident satisfaction. Growing out beneath the head, is a
pair of feelers, with which they touch and move objects, using them
also apparently, as a means of testifying recognition, for 1 observed that
when a stranger entered the cell, extending one, sometimes both of
his, he would slightly agitate the corresponding one of those he met.

At one time, all having collected into one large cell, a dignified, fat-
looking fellow strutted up to a little rostrum upon which he mounted.
He then began to utter those peculiar sounds, which 1 conclude to be
language to them, meanwhile moving his feelers about in every direc-
tion, and pointing to some of the specimens which lay before him. —
May we not suppose, that tliis was one that had acquired more know-
ledge than the rest, and was now imparting it to them ? He is quite an
interesting looking animal, and would make a line specimen for our
great Cabinet. One da}^ as I was contemplating the large Emoh in which
they live, my attention was attracted by hearing a singular noise inside.
Presently the whole colony issued forth in a long line, and thus pro-
ceeded until they came to another, containing but a few cells, one of
which was very large. Here a few which had led the procession, were
placed above the rest, on a platform, where in succession each stood up
and was made to undergo a curious process. Between each of these
novel scenes, a little company, at the other end of the cell, elevated
somewhat above the rest, appeared to take most active part in the exer-
cises. Some blew into little liollow sticks which they held across their
faces; others had little boxes with strings stretched along them, Iving
upon one feeler, M'hilst with the other they drew a slender stick across
the strings, with very eccentric movements, which their heads and other
limbs vainly attempted to follow. One very assiduous animal of an-
otlicr species, a number of which were present, was seated before a long
box, and did its part by incessantly tapping upon a row of white and

SWALLOWS,

269

black bones. As for tlie rest, lliey stood up and opened tlieir mouths
very wide, moving one of their feelers about in difterent directions very
energetically. What all this meant I can scarcely conjecture, unless the
individuals upon the platform had been guilty of some great crime and
were making a public atonement. This appears probable from the fact,
that they gave every token of violent trepidation. They grew pale,
trembled, and some threw themselves into most hideous contortions of
body. This no doubt arose from a burning agony within, for 1 observ-
ed that they, with trembling eagerness, swallowed large quantities of a
cooling liquid that stood by, which, instead of proving a permanent re-
lief, only maddened them the more, until the poor creatures ceased, ap-
parently from mere exhaustion. * * * *

Here the letter unfortunately ceased, either through the indifference
of the translator, or because he met with characters which he was un-
able to comprehend. In the Linnaean Cabinet, however, we have a pack-
age of Moonshee documents, and as one of our number is learning the
language we may soon expect to ascertain its contents. Awr.

SWALLOWS. — A FACT IN ORxVITHOLOGY.

The following fact., (which I have thought may be interesting to
the readers of the "Record,") I have frequently witnessed during the
past three seasons. It relates to the regular nightly visits of innumera-
ble multitudes of "jBarn Sioallows''' to a dense willow grove adjoining
the town of Martinsburg, Va. Immediately after sun-set, these bird.s
may be seen coming in dispersed companies from every quarter of the
heavens to join in one great congregation in the air above this grove.
In the course of about fifteen minutes after their first appearance, they
strikingly remind the beholder of myriads of swarming bees, or dimin-
utive mote.-' floating in countless profusion through the atmosphere, lit-
erally obscuring the declining light of day. After going through a num-
ber of playful and indescribable evolutions, they are observed to alight
rapidly upon the more slender branches of the willows, for some time
keeping up a chattering that falls upon the ear like the noise of a
dashing waterfall. So closely do they settle together, that a stone
thrown in among them has been known to kill as many as a dozen. —
With the earliest dawn of the morning lliey all suddenly depart for
tlieir distant homes, to return in the evening with exact punctuality to
their favorite roost.

These nightly visits commence about the middle of .Inly, and are
regularly kept up until the latter part of Aucfu.'^t of every year. Tiieir
3-5 ' ' ^

270 BBOOICs' FIRST LESSONS I.N" LATIN'.

interruption is occasioned by the departure of the birds to tropical cli-
mates, which is then so sudden and complete, that after a single night
not one is to be seen until the succeeding season. What is most sur-
prising is the number of these little visiters. Some speak of them as
many millions, some as far surpassing those immense flocks of pigeons
which weigh down whole acres of forest in the Mississippi valley, and
a friend remarked that he would not have before believed that the whole
world contained as many swallows as regularly congregate here.

Martinsburg is no doubt under great obligations to this interesting
army for the destruction of millions of noxious insects which might
otherwise be annoying to personal comfort, and greatly injurious to ag-
ricultural interests. Infinitely wise and good are the Divine arrange-
ments ! J. A. S.

brooks' first lessons in latin.
Prof. Brooks, of Baltimore, has lately brought out a little work un-
der the above title, which we most cordially commend to the notice of
all our classical teachers. It is, we think, just such a work as they have
long wanted. As its title imports, it is intended for those commen-
cing" the study of the Latin language, and is admirably adapted to facili-
tate and render agreeable the acquisition of its elementary grammatical
principles. The prominent advantages Avhich we believe this work to
possess are the following :

1. It contains all, and only those parts of the grammar Avhich the
student ought to commit thoroughly to memory in the first instance. —
Boys especially are apt to be discouraged when a volume as large as
either Ross' or Adams' is put into their hands, with the understanding
that they are to commit every syllable of its text to memory, and if
they are allowed to omit the large mass of notes and observations in the
first instance, they are likely to take up the idea that they need never
learn them very thoroughly.

2. It is a practical and not merely a theoretical grammar as most of
.such works now in use are. The learner at once applies what he has
learned, and thus impresses it more deeply upon his memory and be-
comes more interested in it. We anticipate much from this course, but
especially the prevention of sciolism.

3. It compresses a great deal of matter into a very small space. —
Some things might be added to it, but it contains no superfluities. It
does not appear to have been Prof. Brooks' design to "make a book,"
but to supply what his own experience as a teacher had taught him was
required by beginners.

4. It is a Christian and an American book. In the examples and
exercises a lai-ge amount of the matter is drawn from the Bible and
from American themes, and is deeply imbued with the spirit of our in-
stitutions and of Christianity. The advantages of this are too obvious
to require that we should insist upon them. A few sentences taken

COMMENCEME.NT OF PEN.V. COLLEGE, 271

from the book at random, will illustrate my meaning : "The word of
the Lord is pure." "-The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom." —
''Fides sine operibus est vana." "■Libertas est melior gemmis." "Wash-
ington was the bravest of generals." "In the year 1784 Washington
was President." (We may here remark, in passing, that we object to
the way in which the English letter W is latinized, namely,- bv the V.
We are decidedly of opinion that it ought to be either by a U or by
Ga; thus, Uashingtonius or Guashingtonius^ though we prefer the former.)
We might exert our critical skill in fault-finding, and suggest sundry
improvements that have occuried to us whilst running over this little
book, but, leaving all this for another occasion, we venture to predict
that this will become a standard work in our schools, and will exert a
most favorable influence upon the study of classical literature in this
country. R.

•

COMMENCEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE.

The Annual Commencement of Pennsylvania College took place on
Thursday the 18th of September, preceded, during the week, by the in-
teresting public exercises of the diiferent Societies connected with tiie
Literary and Theological [ustitntions of this place. As usual upon such
occasions, our village was enlivened by the presence of a number of
friends of literature from a distance, attracted hither in anticipation of
the rich intellectual feast which Commencement tocek never fails to pro-
vide. The attendance upon the diflerent exercises was throughout un-
usually large — furnishing, in itself, the best compliment to the merits of
the performances, and presenting to the officers and patrons of the In-
stitution gratifying evidence of their steadily advancing progress in pub-
lic favor. Willi a view of acquainting those readers of the 'Journal,' who
may not have had the pleasure of being present upon this interesting
occasion, with what transpired, I propose a succint sketch of the exer-
cises in the order in which they occurred.

Mumniof the Seminary. — On Tuesday evening, the 16th, interesting
addresses were delivered in Christ's church, before the Alumni of the
Theological Seminary, by M. S. Curtis, on the "Common Origin of the
Human Race," and by ]\lr. M. Allaman, on "Schelling's Philosopliy," —
yoimg gentlemen connected with the Institution during the previous
year; and also by the Rev. C. W. Schaefi-er, of Harrisburg, on the
"Christian Ministry." The production of the Rev. gentleman was char-
acterized by a chasteness and beauty of thought and style that served
to commend it to the high regard of his auditors.

College Mumni. — The Rev. C. P. Krauth, Jr., the individual se-
lected to deliver the annual address before the Alumni Association of
the College, being unavoidably absent, his place was supplied, in ac-
cordance with a previous arrangement, by the Rev. Mr. TiioR.v, of Car-
lisle, who addressed the Alumni on Wednesday afternoon. After which
the Association convened for the transaction of its usual busines.s — the
Rev. JoH.v Heck presiding-, and Prof. M. L. Stoever officiating as Se-
cretary. We understand that the attendance of members was very ei>-

2r2 C03IME.\CE3IE.\T.

couraging, and furnished an opportunity for a pleasing intercliange of
congratulations between a number of old class-mates and fellow-stu-
dents. John Naill, Esq., of Illinois, was selected to deliver the next
annual address — the Rev. J. L. Schock, of Reading, Pa., to be his al-
ternate.

Annual Address. — On the evening of the same day the Annual Ad-
dress before the College Literary Societies was delivered by Rev. W. M.
Reynolds, Professor of Latin and Intellectual Philosophy in the Insti-
tution, and President-elect of Wittenberg College, Springfield, Ohio. —
We need scarcely say that the eflbrt was every way worthy of Prof.
Reynolds' high reputation as a scholar and a writer. The theme was
"American Literature," which was discussed in a masterly and eloquent
style, for better than an hour in the presence of a crowded and interested
audience. Manly and independent, and withal thoroughly American in
his views the production was honorable alike to the h^d and heart of
the author, and administered a well-timed rebuke to the sickly, fashiona-
ble senlimentalism of the day, so prone to seek out the too often 'trashy'
literature of other lands to the exclusion of the numberless masterly
productions of our own countrymen, which every American youth should
be directed to and taught to regard with honest pride and exultation. We
are pleased to learn that the Address will be published by the Societies.

Commencement. — On Thursday morning the Annual Commencement
came ofl' — at which the Latin Salutatory was delivered by Jesse Stock-
ER, of N. Jersey; an Oration on "Common Sense," by John W. Mil-
ler, of Carlisle, Pa.; another on "The Love of the Marvellous," by
Sylvanus Sheimer, of N. Jersey; and the Valedictory by Mathias
Miller, of Virginia. The performances of all the young gentlemen
were very creditable, and, we believe, gave general satisfaction to the
large assembly that listened to them. The degree of A. B. was confer-
red upon the members of the graduating class; the degree of A. M. in
course, upon Rev. F. A. Barnitz, Rev. E. Breidenbaugh, Rev. J. Brown,
Rev. A. Height, Rev. A. J. Rarn, Rev. J. Kohler, Rev. W. M'iVIiUan, Rev.
G. Parson, Rev. P. Pfahler, Rev. J. P. B. Sadtler, P. G. Sauerwein, and
Rev. A. J. Weddle. The honorary degree of A. M. was conferred upon
John H. Brown, of Philadelphia, and Rev. Jonathan Oswald, of York ;
and that of D. D. upon Rev. Thomas H. Stockton, of Philadelphia. —
The exercises were concluded with an able and impressive bacchalau-
reate address to the graduating class from President Krauth.

The Music. — It would he injustice to the members of the "Handel
and Ila}'dn Association" of this place, were we to conclude this notice
without stating that very much of the interest thrown around the difler-
ent exercises of the week was imparted by the superior and enchanting
MUSIC furnished, at suitable intervals, by the ladies and gentlemen
composing that Association. The public have frequently hitherto been
indebted to the same source for rich entertainments, but we do not re-
member having heard upon any similar occasion a more uniformly fa-
vorable opinion as to the merit of the mu*ic and the skill of those who
furnished it. Civis.

Gettysburg, Sept. 1S45.

SNDEX TO VOLUxME I.

Addresses, Iiitrodiictorv, ----- 52

Alumni Association of Pcnn. College, - - - 54, 55

Anieriea, Stevens' Central ----- 101

Ant-iana, - - - - - 42, 63, 90, 140, 163

Astronomy, Recent discoveries in - - - - 65

Birds in the neighborhood of Carlisle, Cumb. co. Pa. - 249

Botany, Le Maout's ----- 245

Bols in Horses, ----- 116, 129

Cabinet of the Linnaean Association, - - 202, 223

Capturing, killing and preserving Insects, - - 9

Capturing Insects, 'New mode of - - - - 165

Collections of Natural History in Colleges, - - 3

Common things, - . . - 174,195,216,237

College, 3Iedic<aI 151

Commencement of Penn. College, - - - - 32, 271

Contest, Literary - - - - - 149

Correspondents and Contributors, To - - 15, 56, 104

Cotemporaries, Our ----- 32

Criticism, Classical -___-, 171

Beforiaria, Geometra, _ _ _ - - 197

Degree, Honorary, ----- 56

T)ermestidae, destroying ----- 78

.Dialogue, A - - - - - - ' 69

Dinornis, of New Zealand, ----- 80

Druidism, ------ 212

Education, Grecian ----- 95,169,234

" Family ----- 150

Enlargement, _. - - - - 56

Entomology for Farmers, - - _ - 21

Ethnologicae, Nug?e - - - - 177,225,257

Facts, Miscellaneous, in Nat. History, - - - 23

" for Mechanics, - "- - . - 24,41

Fair for the Lin. Association, _ - - - 152, 200

Fragments on the Beautiful, - . - 167,183,243

Fungi, Entozoical _ - _ _ - 153

Grammar, Brooks' Ross' Latin _ . _ - 98, 122

" Dr. Miller's ----- 124

Incubation, Artificial - - - - - 191

Insects, Scripture - - - - - 211

274

Insects our Pioneers in tiie Arts, - _ _ _ 222

Xews and German Universities, - - - - 66

Letter from a young Naturalist, with a reply, - - 112

Lessons in Latin, Brooks' First _ _ _ 270

Letter to the Editors, ----- 15

" Say's to Dr. Melsheimer, - - _ 37
Linnaeus, Biography of _ - - - 181,217,239

Literature, Early, of the Germans, _ _ . 93

Magnetic chariot, Chinese _ _ _ - 5

Matrimony among the Ancient Germans, - - 108

Members, honorary, of the Lin. Association, - - 165
Meteorology, Facts in - _ - 11,27,48,73,84

" Indian Summer, _ - _ 105, 135

Mines, silver, of the Andreasberg, - . - 141

Natural History of the Bible, - - - - 64

Naturalist, the young ----- 145

Naturalists of the moon, ----- 263

Notice, Obituary ----- 224

Operations, Linnean _ _ _ - - 125

Origin and progress of language, - _ _ 132, 156

"• of the Fine Arts, ----- 185

Phonography, English _ _ . _ 25, 45, 88

" Prof, llaldemaa's system of - - - 218

Pliotography, ._--.- 27

Preparations of zoological specimens, - - - 38

Poetry— The Spirit Wings - - - . 242

" Tradition of \Vyoming, - - - - 147

Professors, new . - _ _ _ 150

Piearing of insects for Cabinets, - - - - 19

Record and Journal, The - - - - 1,32,248

Pvecord, College - - - - 104, 128, 199, 24§

Rejoinder, with an Episode, A - - - - 43

Report of the Curator of Lin. Association, - - - 79

RuficoUis, Agrilus, - - - - - 119

Sagacity of a Horse, - - - - - 173

Salt, how procured, ----- 27

Sleep, moral aspect of - - - - - 203

Snakes, how, capture their prev, . - - 241

Song— ^'Hail, hail to the College,"'' _ - - - 127

Society, Entomological _ _ . . 72

Stars, Fixed ------ 219

Suggestion of a distinctive name for the U. States, - 8

Swallows. — A fact in ornithology, - - - - 127

Trees and shrubs of Cumberland co. Pa., - - 57

Visit, Bly first, to the ocean, _ - _ . ] 14

Virginia, the proper name for the \J. S. - - - 159

Wanderings and adventures, Steedman's - - - 13

Wrong names for light objects, - _ . 232

Zoology, American - - - - - 201

Filbert above Eleventh street, Philadelphia, Pa.

MEDICAL F.\CULTY .\T PHILADELPHIA.

Wm. D.4RRACH, M. D. — Prof, of Theory and raciice of Medicine.

John VVir.TBANK, M. D. — Prof, of Obstetrics and Diseases of woman and c/itldren

Wm. R. Grant, M. D.—Prof of Anntomy and Physiology.

H. S. Patterson-, M. D.— Pro/, of Materia Medico^

D. Gilbert, M. D.— Pro/, of Principles and Pracme of Surgery.

\\ . L. Atlee, M. D.— i'/o/. of Medical Chemistry.

GETTYSBURG FEMALE SEMINARY.

At this Institution is taught all that is considered essential to a fin-
L-shed education, including histruniental and Vocal Music, Drawing,
Painting, Languages, Ornamental Needle Work, Sec.

The boarding department will at the next session be removed to the
pleasantly located residence of the Principal, known as Oakridge ; the
the pupils will then be members of his family.

Several gentlemen of distinguished literary and scientific attainments
will deliver frequent addresses throughout the course, on subjects of in-
terest and importance.

The institution is well supplied with experienced and successful
teachers, and with a valuable and increasing collection of Philosophical
and Chemical apparatus, Minerals, Shells, Zoological specimens, &.c.

II. IIAUPT, Principal.

To CoRRESPoNDE.NTs. — Several articles which wc had marked for
insertion have been crowded out by the length of others which had
prior clamis upon us. J. R. K's on the ^'Infliience of lonesy Sfc. will be

mded over to our successors who will, no rloubt. give it an early in.

' riion in Vol. II.

Pcmt5ul\)ama <ilalicge, ©dtnsbuvg, Jp'a.

FACULTY AND IXSTRUCTORS.
J Rev. C. P. Krauth, D. B.—PresH and Prof, of Ev. of Christ., Moral Philos'y, §-c.
J Rev. H. L. Baxtgher, A. M. — Prof, o/" Greek Lans^u'age, Rhetoric, ^c.
\ Rev. M. Jacobs, A. M.^Pro/". of M-rf hematics. Chemistry and Meclianical Philox.
; Rev. W. M. Reynolds, A.. M.—Prof. of Latin, Mental hilosophy, S,-c.
; M. L. Stoever, A. M. — Prof, of His: ory and Principal of Preparatory Department.

> Rev. Chas. A. Hay, A. M. — Prof, of German Language and Literature.
\ Herman Haupt, A. M.— Professor of Mathematics.

( W. H. Harrison. — .Assistant Prof, of Languages.

I David Gilkert, M. D. — Lecturer on .Inatomy and Physiology.

\ Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. — Lecturer en Zoology.

j W.M. ALBAroii, A. M. — Tutor and Tracker iri' Preparatory Bcvartment.

< Mb. H. R. Okiger.— Trar/ir?- of Wr'ing.

.

; Pennsylv.vxia College has iiow been cliaitered about fourteen years. Dur-
^ ing this time its progress has been such as to gratify the most sanguine expecta-
* tions of its friends. The course of studies is as extensive and substantial as that
; of any Institution in the Country. The Preparatory Department provides for in-
;, struction in all the branches of a thorough English, business education, in addition
\ to the elements of the Mathematics and Classical Literature. The College Course
'/ is arranged in the four classes usual lu the Institutions of this country.

< The government of the .'students i.*^ as energetic as their circumstances seem to
I require. They attend at least two recitations a dajs Church and Bible Class on the
'' Sabbath, and are visited in their rooms so frequently as to preclude the danger of

> any great irregularities. It is believed no Institution in the United States ha3
/ more exemplary young men ilRonnevion with it. They are all required to lodge
; in the College Edifice, special cases excepted.

,; The annual expenses arc— for board, tuition and room-rent, during the winter
' session, .f fil 87i : for the summer session, ."^'-tl 87i. Washing, .'ti.'K) 00 ; and Wood, \
', $% 00. Total expense, .f 116 75. Boarding can be obtained in town at $1 25 per J
. week. " \

' There are two vacatiops in the year, commencing on the third Thursdays of;

> April and September, each of fi'.'e weeks continuaii''tv

\ QVcknoiwUbgemcnts of Doualions to ihc (JTabiuct of tijc Cinnccan
'Association of iJenns^Unaaia (iTollcgc.

; September, 1S45. From J^cgh T>angher, a live rattle snake.

2. From J. N. Stacker, two spccimensofcrvstaiized quartz, and one of jasper,
; from Mt. Ida. . '

> 3. From G. Marts, one reptile in spirits.

■ 4. From W. P. Belt, 31. D. one mink stufied.

j; 5. From Mrs. J9«>/sr'iC)', Fount.MP.lale, specimen of raw cotton.

] 6. From Rev. F. IF. Conrad, shell and minerals, from the bed of Jordan.

; Palestine.

7. From Mrs- R. Conrad, minerals.
I >>. From Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D. 21 specimens of European shells.

:, 9. From Mr. FaA':?«j, Washijiglc^n, 23 specimens of various woods, from

: Sandwich Islands and Oregon.

Terms of the RKcorxD and .Tour.xal. One Dollar per annum
'11 advance.

Address — '■'■Editors of the Record and Journal, Gettysburg. Pi"

New York Botanical Garden Librai

3 5185 00292 9972

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