FARMING FOR PROFIT LIVE STOCK AND DAIRY FARMING FRANK D.GARDNER TEAM OF This type of draft horse is noted for its great power, good action and intelligence. Its native country is France. i Courtesy of " The Field. Illustrated." N. Y. FARMING FOR PROFIT LIVE STOCK AND DAIRY FARMING A NON-TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THE SUCCESSFUL BREED- ING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS, THE DAIRY HERD, AND THE ESSENTIALS OF DAIRY PRODUCTION BY FRANK D. (GARDNER PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE ASSISTED BY W. H. TOMHAVE T. C. STONE Professor of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania Instructor in Animal Husbandry, Ohio State State College University DR. H. S. GRINDLEY Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois SLEETER BULL Associate Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois E. H. HUGHES Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University of Missouri W. A. COCHEL Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricul- tural College JOHN M. EVVARD Chief in Swine Production, Animal Husbandry Sec- tion, Iowa Experiment Station M. C. KILPATRICK Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. Ohio State University F. S. PUTNEY Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsyl- vania State College C. W. LARSON Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College GEORGE C. HUMPHREY Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of Wisconsin ERNEST L. ANTHONY Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsyl- vania State College ILLUSTRATED THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 'LTURE D Copyright, 19 18, by THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY Copyright, 1916, by L. T. MYERS PREFACE This book is written for amateur as well as professional livestock and dairy farmers. It makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in animal and dairy husbandry. Ages of farm experience have given us a vast store of practical knowl- edge on the raising of crops and animals. This knowledge is scattered through many volumes on different phases of the subject, in experiment station bulletins, agricultural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the most successful livestock and dairy farming is based are here brought together in orderly and readable form. Not only are directions given for the management and care of farm animals but the business end of the problem is fully discussed, showing why some achieve success and why others fail. The subject-matter is arranged in several parts of a number of chapters each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be quickly found. Each department has been prepared by a specialist in the subject presented. The name of the author appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those unacknowledged have been prepared by myself. The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit has been given these. Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and the other volumes in the series for its conception, and for many helpful suggestions in the presentation of the subject-matter. I wish also to especially acknowledge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of the manuscript. FRANK D. GARDNER 415292 (5) CONTENTS PART I. LIVESTOCK FARMING (ANIMAL HUSBANDRY) Chapter 1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE STOCK 15 Value and importance of livestock. Advantages of Livestock. Animals furnish food, labor and clothing — Animals make use of land otherwise unproductive — Animals utilize crops that would be wholly or partly wasted — Animals transform coarse, bulky products into concentrated form — Animals return fertility to the soil — Livestock facilitate good crop rotations — Capital more fully used — Livestock call for higher skill — More land may be farmed with the same labor. Disadvantages of Livestock. Animals require larger capital — Capital of perishable nature — Products cannot be indefinitely held — Crop failures may cause loss on livestock. Chapter 2. BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS. . 21 Breeding of Livestock. History of animal breeding — Lines of breeding — Selection of a breed — Pedigree — Gestation period. Care of Livestock. Preparation of feeds — Feeding cpndimental stock feeds — Care of the breeding herd — Care of work animals — Assist animals at time of giving birth to their young. Management of Livestock. Open sheds — Arrangement of labor — The kind of farm animals — Regularity in feeding and watering — Observing individuals — Keep up records — Preparation and shipping livestock. Chapter 3. FEEDS AND FEEDING 30 Introduction — Chemical composition of feeding-stuffs — Water — Mineral matter — Crude protein — Carbohydrates — The fats — Digestion of the nutrients — The nutritive ratio — The energy value of feeding-stuffs — Feeding-stuffs — Concen- trates— Roughages — The requirements of farm animals — The balanced ration — The Wolff-Lehmann standards — The Armsby standards — The Haecker standard for dairy cows. Chapter 4. HORSES AND MULES 41 Development of type — The light horse — Draft type — The mule — Market require- ments— The age of the horse — Horse feedings — Feeds for the horse — Grain — Roughages— Watering — The work horse — The foal — The orphan foal — The brood mare — The stallion. Standard Rations. Foals — Work horses — Brood mare — Grooming. Chapter 5. BEEF CATTLE 52 Sources of profit — Breeding pure-bred cattle — Producing stockers and feeders — Grazing cattle— Fattening cattle — Fitting show animals. (7) ; : CONTENTS The Selection of Cattle for the Feedlot. Methods of feeding — Characteristics of good feeders — Kind of feed related to class of cattle — Calves and yearlings — Time to market. The Deficiency in the Meat Supply. Tenant farming unfavorable to beef production — Breeding cattle require capital. Chapter 6. SWINE 61 Personal preference — Feeds available — Location and climate — Distribution — Markets — Breeds of swine — Grading up the herd — Age of breeding stock — Hous- ing— Feeds for swine — Preparation of feeds — Hand vs. self -feeding — Feed for the brood sows — Feeding the pigs — Suggested successful rations. Chapter 7. SHEEP AND GOATS 75 Early importance of sheep — The sheep of Spain — The sheep of England — Breeds of sheep. Long Wool Breeds. Leicester — Cotswold — Lincoln. Medium Wool Breeds. Southdown — Shropshire — Oxfords — Hampshires — Dorset horn — Cheviot . Fine wool or merino sheep — Establishing a flock — Essentials to success — The breeding season — Period of gestation — Care of ram during breeding season — Winter care of ewes — Care of young lambs — Marketing the lambs — Shearing the flock — Dipping the flock. Chapter 8. THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 86 Importance of the farm flock — The size of the farm flock — Sources of income — Advantages of pure-bred poultry — Grading up a farm flock — The choice of a variety — Selection of the breeding stock — Housing the breeding stock — Selection of eggs for hatching — Care of eggs for hatching — Natural or artificial incubation — Hatch- ing with hens — Hatching with incubators. Brooding. Importance of the brooder — Qualifications of a good brooder — Management of the brooder — Ration for chicks — The care of growing chicks — The care of the pullets — Feeding mature fowls — The care of market eggs. Chapter 9. BEES 99 Breeds of bees — Personnel and activity of colony — Size and location of apiary — Shade and ventilation — Stocking the apiary — Introducing a new queen — Uniting and transferring colonies — General methods of handling — Swarming — How to prevent swarming — Wintering of bees — Bee feeding — Hives — Foundation combs — Handling and marketing — Diseases of bees. PART H. DAIRY FARMING (DAIRY HUSBANDRY) Chapter 10. THE DAIRY HERD; ITS SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT .111 Scrubs, grades, crosses and pure-breds — Value of pedigrees — Breed differences — A standard of production necessary — Individual selection — Records — Cow-testing association records — Bull associations — Advanced registry records — The bull is half the herd — Buying cows or raising calves — Developing the young animal — Open stables for heifers. Chapter 11. DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 119 Age to breed — Gestation period — Regularity — Care of cow at calving time — Rest for dairy cows — Care of cows when dry — Exercise — Grooming — Milking — Difficult milking — Abuse — Water and salt — Stabling — Flies — Marking the cow — Dehorn- ing— Care of the bull. CONTENTS 9 Chapter 12. DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE 126 Dairy breeds essential — Dairy type common to all dairy breeds — Recognized dairy breeds of America. Ayrshire Cattle. Origin and development — Characteristics of Ayrshire cattle. Brown Swiss Cattle. Origin and development — Characteristics of Brown Swiss cattle. Guernsey Cattle. Origin and development — Characteristics of Guernsey cattle. Holstein-Friesian. Origin and development — Characteristics of Holstein-Friesian cattle. Jersey Cattle. Origin and development — Characteristics of Jersey cattle. Other Dairy Breeds. Dairy Breed Organization in America. Chapter 13. CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 140 Classes of Milk. Sanitary milk — Guaranteed milk — Standardized milk — Certified milk — Inspected milk — Pasteurized milk — Modified milk. Equipment and Methods. Clean, healthy cows — Stables — Milkers — Small top milk pails — Clean tinware — Strainers — Handling the milk — Coolers — Suggestions for improvement. Chapter 14. DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING 147 Adaptation — The need for dairy farming — The types of dairy farming — Market milk — Farm cheese making — Farm butter making — Control of products — Cleanli- ness necessary — Percentage of fat in cream — Thin cream undesirable — Methods of ripening cream — Amount of acid to develop, or degree of ripening — The use of starters — Natural starter — The amount of starter to use — Churning temperatures — Variations in churning temperature — Care of the churn — Length of time to churn — Washing butter — Temperature of wash water — Preparation of working board — Salting — Working of butter — Wrapping of butter — Value of standard product — Care of the farm churn — Dairy apparatus — Care of other dairy apparatus — Churns — Buckets and tinware — Wooden apparatus. PART III. ANIMAL DISEASES, CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS Chapter 15. DISEASES OF ANIMALS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 161 The essentials to health — Knowledge of disease should precede treatment — General rules for maintaining health — Comfort — Exercise — General Management — Nursing — Disease — Examination of sick animals — Rational measures for treatment. Chapter 16. CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 170 The farm scheme — Crops related to farm management — Animals related to farm management — Cropping and feeding systems are related — Adaptation of cropping and feeding systems — Cropping systems related to food — Crop rotations — Crops for cash or for feed— Crops related to feed requirements — Changing cropping system - Two rotations on the same farm — Combining fields — Fixed rotations with irregular areas — Feeding systems — Feeding system depends on type of farming — Feeding system related to cost of production — Feed units — Profits from cheap crop products — Livestock gains in relation to feed — Corn silage as base for ration — Balanced rations. 10 CONTENTS PART IV. TABLES OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS TABULAR STATEMENTS 183 TABLE I. Percentage of total dry matter and digestible nutrients in feeding-stuffs. TABLE II. Dry matter, digestible protein, and net energy per 100 pounds of feed. (Armsby.) TABLE III. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards. (Showing amounts of nutrients per day per 1000 pounds live weight.) TABLE IV. Armsby feeding standards. TABLE V. Haecker's standard for milk production. TABLE VI. Percentage composition of agricultural products. TABLE VII. Composition and amounts of manure produced by different kinds of farm animals. TABLE VIII. List of agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the United States. TABLE IX. How to estimate amount of grain in bins and hay in mow or stack. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TEAM OF PERCHERONS (Color Plate) Frontispiece PAGE UTILIZING WOODLAND FOR PASTURE 17 LIVESTOCK AND THE SILO INCREASE THE PROFITS ON HIGH-PRICED LAND 18 Two PURE-BRED BULLS. POLLED ANGUS ON THE LEFT, SHORTHORN ON THE RIGHT 22 PURE-BRED SHORTHORN BULL 23 OPEN SHEDS FOR STEER FEEDING 27 THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF A Cow 32 THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER IN USE FOR AN EXPERIMENT 34 MORGAN STALLION, "GENERAL GATES" 41 A HIGH-GRADE WORK HORSE OF FINE QUALITY AND GOOD CONFORMATION .... 42 PERCHERON STALLION 43 ENGLISH SHIRE STALLION 45 PHOTOGRAPHS SHOWING TEETH AT VARIOUS STAGES 47, 48 PURE-BRED HEREFORD BULL * 52 THE PRINCIPAL CUTS OF BEEF 56 CHESTER WHITE BOAR 61 POLAND-CHINA BOAR 62 POLAND-CHINA Sow 62 DUROC-JERSEY BOAR 62 DUROC- JERSEY Sow 62 CHESTER WHITE Sows 63 HAMPSHIRE BOAR 64 HAMPSHIRE Sow 64 YORKSHIRE BOAR 64 YORKSHIRE Sow 64 TAMWORTH BOAR 66 TAMWORTH Sow 66 BERKSHIRE BOAR 66 BERKSHIRE Sow 66 A TYPICAL COTSWOLD EWE 75 A TYPICAL LINCOLN EWE 76 A TYPICAL SHROPSHIRE 77 A TYPICAL CHEVIOT 78 A TYPICAL MERINO 79 A TYPICAL FLOCK OF SHEEP IN PASTURE 80 A GOOD FLOCK OF SHEEP 82 AN ANGORA BUCK 84 A TYPICAL FARM FLOCK 87 BUFF ORPINGTONS 88 (11) 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS 88 SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS 90 WHITE WYANDOTTES 90 A BROODER HEATED BY OIL LAMP 93 SHIPPING CASES FOR EGGS 97 THE HONEY BEE 100 GENERAL VIEW OF AN APIARY 101 A MODERN BEE HIVE 102 QUEEN CELLS 105 A TYPICAL Cow, MARKED TO SHOW POINTS IN JUDGING 113 A GOOD DAIRY HERD 115 AN OPEN STABLE FOR HEIFERS 116 A GOOD Cow STABLE 120 LEADING A BULL 124 A TYPICAL AYRSHIRE Cow 127 A BROWN Swiss Cow 129 A GUERNSEY BULL 130 A TYPICAL GUERNSEY Cow 130 A TYPICAL HOLSTEIN Cow 132 A HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL 132 HOLSTEIN-FREESIAN BULL AND Cows (Color Plate} 134 A JERSEY Cow 135 MILK PAILS OF BEST DESIGN 142 A CLEAN MILKER IN A CLEAN STABLE AT MILKING TIME 145 A GOOD TYPE OF DAIRY HOUSE 148 A GOOD TYPE OF CREAM SEPARATOR 149 FARM BUTTER-MAKING APPARATUS 153 BUTTER PRINTER 155 BUTTER READY FOR MARKET 156 WOODEN LADLE 157 HOGGING DOWN CORN 172 BUILDINGS ON A DAIRY FARM 174 A FEED LOT RACK FOR BOTH GRAIN AND ROUGHAGE 176 THE SCALE is A NECESSARY ADJUNCT TO PROFITABLE FEEDING 178 PART I LIVESTOCK FARMING (Animal Husbandry) 13 CHAPTER 1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVESTOCK Without the aid of domestic animals as beasts of burden, man would have a sorry existence. The horse, ass and camel have been of great service in past ages in aiding man to conquer new regions, and by their aid he has been enabled to very materially increase his productive power. Animals have also been a great aid to man as a source of food and clothing. Those countries that depend upon animals and animal products the most are, as a rule, the most productive and highly civilized. In North America animal products, such as meat, milk, butter, cheese, lard, eggs, etc., constitute fully one-half of the value of the products of human consumption. A large part of the vegetation on the earth is unsuited for human consumption. Of this, such by-products as straw and stover are converted into milk, butter, cheese, meat and animal fats. It is estimated that 80 per cent of the corn produced in the United States is consumed by livestock in the county where produced. This conversion of crude farm products adds greatly to the quality of man's diet. The essential characteristics of domesticated animals are: (1) their ability to convert food into energy and animal products for human use, (2) the readiness with which they become subject to the will of man, and (3) their prolificacy or ability to breed abundantly. Value and Importance of Livestock. — The United States and Canada with 28,000,000 horses, 63,000,000 cattle, 51,000,000 sheep and more than 62,000,000 swine, is pre-eminently a livestock country. South America leads in the production of sheep with 115,000,000 and ranks third in cattle with 48,000,000. It falls to India to lead in cattle production, which, including the water buffalo, numbers 125,000,000 head. The United States, however, far outranks all other countries in its numbers of horses, mules and swine. It is second in production of cattle and sheep. During the past half century, the livestock in the United States has increased about three times in numbers and about six times in value. While numbers have not quite kept pace with increase in population, the value per capita has steadily increased. This increase in value has been due chiefly to two factors: (1) the improvement in livestock, and (2) the increased value per unit of weight of animals and animal products. In 1850 the average fleece of a sheep weighed 2.4 pounds; in 1900 it had increased to 6.9 pounds. During the fifty years sheep nearly doubled in number, while the yield of wool increased five times. This increase was .due chiefly to breeding rather than feeding. If statistics were available, 15 16 §tfp£ESSFUL FARMING we woakl doubtless fin- l.'i'hat^he increase per cow in milk, and particularly in butter-fat, would not be less striking. Thirty-five years ago, the usual work-team in the corn belt consisted of two 1000-pound horses. Today, the prevailing team is three 1500-pound horses. This increase in the size of the team has been an important factor in increasing the man unit of production on the farm, and has undoubtedly been one of the factors instrumental in the increase in land values in that region. The following table gives the numbers, value per head and total value of the principal classes of livestock in the United States for 1880 and 1915, as reported by the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture: NUMBERS AND VALUE OF LIVESTOCK ON FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1915 AS COMPARED WITH 1880. Class of Animals, 1880. 1915. Number. Value per Head. Farm Value. Number. Value per Head. Farm Value. Horses 11,202,000 1,730,000 12,027,000 21,231,000 40,766,000 34,034,000 $54.75 61.26 23.37 16.10 2.21 4.28 $613,297,000 105,948,000 279,889,000 341,761,000 90,231,000 145,782,000 21,195,000 4,479,000 21,262,000 37,067,000 49,956,000 64,618,000 $103.33 112.36 55.33 33.38 4.50 9.87 $2,190,102,000 503,271,000 1,176,338,000 1,237,376,000 224,687,000 637,479,000 Mules Cows Other cattle. . . . Sheep Swine Total $1,576,908,000 $5,969,253,000 From the above table it will be noted that the total value of livestock in the United States increased from a little more than $1,500,000,000 in 1880 to nearly $6,000,000,000 in 1915. During that period, horses and mules doubled in number and quadrupled in value. The increase in num- bers of cows and other cattle did not quite double, while the value per head of the former considerably more than doubled and the latter slightly more than doubled. The increase in numbers of sheep and swine was slightly less marked, but in both of these classes the value per head slightly more than doubled. ADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK Animals Furnish Food, Labor and Clothing. — Even when not profit- able to rear anmals for market, the cost of living on farms may be greatly reduced by the judicious production of livestock and livestock products for the home food supply. The difference between the purchase price of animals and animal products and the price which the producer receives has materially increased during recent years. The value of these products to the farmer for his own consumption is equal, whether bought or produced on the farm. Furthermore, animals and animal products may be produced on a small scale on most farms on what otherwise would be wasted. KEEPING LIVESTOCK 17 The acres of land cultivated by each horse depends on the size of the horse, character of farming, the type of soil and the topography of the land. In England, two horses are generally required for 80 acres of light, sandy soil or 60 acres of heavy, clay soil. In the United States, there is about one horse or mule of working age to each 30 acres of improved land. For- merly, many oxen were kept for work, but these have been largely replaced by the horse and mule because of their more rapid movements and conse- quent greater efficiency. The draft of the ox is larger in proportion to his weight, but his slowness has caused his displacement with the increase in the value of human labor. With the introduction of cotton and silk, the value of animal products as sources of clothing decreased relatively. The value of leather, wool and UTILIZING WOODLAND FOR PASTURED hair is very large, however, and plays an important part in the clothing of the human race. Animals Make Use of Land Otherwise Unproductive. — According to the last census, only about one-half of the farm area in the United States was improved land, and only about two-thirds of the improved land was in farm crops, including meadows. The other one-third, together with considerable of the unimproved portion, is utilized as pasture for animals. On most farms there are areas more or less extensive which may be steep, stony, partly wooded, undrained or otherwise unprofitable for cultivated crops, that may be utilized for grazing purposes. Animals Utilize Crops that would be Wholly or Partly Wasted.— The straw of the cereals, the stover of corn, have little value on most farms except as roughage and bedding for livestock. Low grades of hay, damaged 1 Courtesy of E. K. Hibshmann, Pennsylvania State College. 18 SUCCESSFUL FARMING by rains or delay in harvesting, often are unsalable, but may be utilized for feed for stock. In the same way corn and small grains are sometimes damaged by exposure to the weather or early frosts, and may have con- siderable feeding value, but no value on the market. Animals Transform Coarse, Bulky Products into Concentrated Form. — Animals convert coarse, bulky, raw materials into a more concentrated and valuable finished product, and one that may be marketed with less cost and to much better advantage. It requires about 10 pounds of dry matter to produce 1 pound of beef or 30 pounds of dry matter to produce 1 pound of butter. The farmer in transforming such coarse products to a more refined one not only reaps the profit in the process of manufacture, but the pound of butter may be sent to a market a thousand miles away, when the material from which it was made could not be profitably sent to a market ten miles distant. One cent a pound for transporting butter LIVESTOCK AND THE SILO INCREASE THE PROFITS ON HIGH-PRICED LAND.1 would be but a small percentage of its value, but one cent a pound for transporting hay would be prohibitive. Animals Return Fertility to the Soil. — In the manufacture of these finer products on the farm, animals leave much of the fertilizing material to be returned to the soil. The manure of farm animals is unquestionably the most valuable bi-productof American farms. In considering livestock farming from this standpoint, it is only necessary to determine whether it has been successful in maintaining soil fertility. A study of the crop- producing capacity of the soil in different regions shows conclusively that crop yields are largest where large numbers of livestock are main- tained. Livestock Facilitate Good Crop Rotations. — A good crop rotation should include inter-tilled crops, small grains and grasses and clovers. 1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. Rotations, " by Parker. From "Field Management and Crop KEEPINGLIVESTOCK 19 Livestock make possible the production and profitable utilization of grasses and clovers. When these are fed to livestock and the manure is returned to the land, the fertility of the soil is increased. Goodsods, plenty of manure and animals to utilize by-products extend the range of crops that may be grown on the farm and thus provide for better crop rotations. Capital More Fully Used. — The wheat farmer in the Northwest is very busy from spring until fall, but is generally idle from September to March. When livestock is kept, labor of men and teams is more fully employed and equipment more fully utilized. Livestock Call for Higher Skill. — Animal husbandry, including keep- ing of dairy cattle, poultry, etc., maybe made to require higher skill than ordinary extensive production of crops. It calls for the same requirements so far as the care of the soil and the production of crops are concerned, and there is added to this the skill of the breeder and the feeder. The products of skilled workmen command a higher price than do those of the unskilled workmen. In this country those communities that have given most atten- tion to livestock are in general the most prosperous. There are, of course, some exceptions to this. More Land may be Farmed with the Same Labor. — This is true only in the extensive grazing of livestock, as exemplified in the ranches of the West, notably in the breeding and rearing of cattle and sheep. When these are brought to the farm of the feeder, they really reverse the process and call for increased labor and skill on the unit of area. DISADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK Animals Require Larger Capital — This is especially true when kept in connection with the production of hay and grain. On a 160-acre farm 40 head of cattle worth $1500, 40 sheep worth $300 and 20 hogs worth $300 may be kept, and the farm made to raise all the necessary food for them. This would increase the capital of the farm by $2100. It would also call for additional capital in buildings, and this would all be an increase over what would be required if the same land were used only for cash crops. On a farm that supplies all the feed for livestock, $10 per acre invested in livestock may be considered as moderate. If only the coarse feed is grown it may carry stock to the value of $25 to $30 per acre. This is exemplified in many dairy farms close to market, and sometimes on farms where stock are fattened for market. Capital of Perishable Nature. — Animal diseases, such as tuberculosis or foot and mouth disease in cattle, cholera in hogs, and internal parasites in sheep, may quickly wipe out the animals on any particular farm. This entails a loss not only of the product for a single year, but also of all the capital that may have been invested in feeds and labor to bring the stock to that stage of maturity at which it was destroyed by disease. Formerly, it was not uncommon in the corn belt to find farmers keep- ing 100 or more head of hogs in a single herd, but it is now deemed best to 20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING keep them in herds of small units, not more than 20 or 30, as protection against cholera. More recently, of course, methods of control have been developed, which, if properly administered, hold the disease in check. Products Cannot be Indefinitely Held. — The holding of livestock for a considerable time after reaching the proper stage of fattening for the market entails considerable loss. It may sometimes result in actual decrease in quality with little or no increase in weight, and a loss of both food and labor for maintenance. In this respect livestock for meat is sharply contrasted with wheat and some other cereals that may be held almost indefinitely with very little deterioration. It is true that the development of better markets, systems of cold storage and methods of preserving meat have lessened somewhat this .difficulty. Crop Failures may Cause Loss on Livestock. — A low production for the staple crops used largely for livestock food results in a marked advance in price. This frequently causes a loss to the farmer on his livestock. This is especially true in case of swine that depend so largely on concen- trates for their production. A decrease of one-quarter in the yield of a staple crop for the whole country often causes an increase in price so marked that if the whole crop were sold it would bring more than a normal crop or an extra large one. Since, however, so large a percentage of the crop is fed, this does not mean much to the farmer unless there is a correspond- ing increase in price of meat animals. A number of instances may be cited whan a marked advance in price of corn without a corresponding advance in hogs has induced farmers to sell their hogs before fully ready for market, thus causing the hog market to decline in the face of advancing prices on corn. This condition once under way will often con- tinue for a full year before normal prices again prevail. The advantages and disadvantages of keeping livestock have been presented without prejudice, and it must be apparent that the advantages seem to outweigh the disadvantages, especially from the standpoint of permanent systems of agriculture. It is, of course, recognized that with increasing population there should be a tendency for people to depend more and more upon the direct products of the soil in the form of cereals, vegetables and fruits rather than to depend so largely upon animal prod- ucts; and doubtless the increase in land values and high prices of animal products will gradually tend in this direction. CHAPTER 2 BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS BY W. H. TOMHAVE Professor of Animal Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College BREEDING OF LIVESTOCK History of Animal Breeding. — The first systematic work in animal breeding was done among the Arabians. This is indicated by the character of the Arabian horses that were developed during the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. Following the Arabians, the French did the next con- structive breeding of animals, which was at that time encouraged by the French Government in the developing of their breeds of horses. The most important animal breeding from the point of view of the American farmer of today was done by the people of the British Isles during the last half of the eighteenth century, and throughout the entire nineteenth century. Robert Bakewell is known as the foremost early breeder of livestock, having begun his work about 1764 and continued it until the time of his death. He was followed by noted men such as Collings Brothers, Booth and Bates, all of whom were early breeders of Shorthorn cattle. Amos Cruickshank was probably the most noted breeder of recent years, and was recognized as the peer among the Shorthorn breeders of Scotland during the nineteenth century. Great interest was then shown in developing the various classes of livestock and this has resulted in giving us our present breeds of pure-bred livestock. The foundation work in animal breeding in America was done largely during the last half of the nineteenth century. The foundation animals used by most of the noted breeders were imported into the United States and Canada from Europe. Large importations of well-bred animals were made into the United States from 1880 up to 1900. Since that time only limited importations have been made into this country, as most of the noted animals in America at the present time are the product of American breeders. While a great deal of work has been done in both Europe and America, less than two per cent of all the farm animals in the United States and Canada at the present time are of pure breeding. This seems to indi- cate that there is a fertile field for livestock breeding for the American farmer. Lines of Breeding. — There are three distinct lines of breeding that can be followed by the American farmer. These may be enumerated as follows : breeding of pure-breds, grading and cross-breeding. The breeding 21 22 SUCCESSFUL FARMING of pure-bred animals is by far the most important system of breeding, and the one that should be followed to a greater extent by farmers in the United States and Canada. The greatest improvement can be made in a herd of livestock by this system of breeding. The use of both pure-bred sire and dam enables the farmer to follow a more rigid system of selection and cull out undesirable individuals, which is not always possible in grading and cross-breeding. There is one weakness, however, that every breeder of pure-bred animals is apt to encounter, and that is a certain degree of hesitation about elim- inating an animal from his herd that may be pure-bred and yet not up to the standard which he has set for building up his herd. Grading is an- other means of mak- ing a marked improve- ment on the average farm herd. By grad- ing is meant the mat- ing of a common or relatively inferior animal with one that is more highly im- proved, usually a pure- bred. This pure-bred may be either the sire or dam, but it is usually the sire, as the sire can be used upon a number of females in the herd and thus exercise greater influence in making the improvement. If the pure-bred dam and a grade sire are used, very little improvement is made; besides, such improvement is restricted to one mating. If a pure-bred sire is used for five generations, it will mean that at the end of that time the herd is practically pure-bred, but can never be registered. Rigid selection and the use of a pure-bred sire should always be continued. By cross-breeding is meant the mating of two pure-bred animals of different breeds. Nothing is to be gained by such method of breeding, as it destroys the pure lines that may have been established and also has a tendency to cause a greater variation. Cross-breeding is sometimes profitably carried on in producing market animals, but it should never be carried beyond the first generation. Cross-bred animals should never be Two PURE-BRED BULLS. POLLED ANGUS ON THE LEFT, SHORTHORN ON THE RIGHT.* Sires of this character should head the herd of all well- regulated stock farms. Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College. BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 23 retained as breeders in the herd, as this has a tendency to cause sterility in the breeding animals, besides retarding progress in building up the herd. Selection of a Breed. — The selection of the breed of animals must be determined by the farmer or livestock grower, as there is no such thing as the "best breed." All breeds of livestock have been developed for a definite purpose and among all breeds are found desirable and undesirable individuals. In deciding upon a breed, the farmer should secure all data available about the breeds in which he is interested and adopt the one that PUKE-BRED SHORTHORN BULL.* will best suit his conditions. It is highly important that he select good individuals of the breed adopted and that he continue with that breed indefinitely. To change breeds at the end of one or two years is not con- ducive to improvement, and means a loss of time. It is important to select representative animals that possess pronounced characteristics of the breed, and if possible to secure animals with a known ancestry. In the selecting of a brood sow as an illustration, such sow should come from a prolific1 1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING strain. The same thing is true in the selection of a herd boar or any other animal that is to be used for breeding. It is a wise precaution to visit the herd from which the animals are to be selected, in order to study the prepo- tency of the sire that is at its head. It is also very important to avoid the introduction of barrenness or sterility in the herd. The sires selected should be strong, vigorous and in thrifty condition. Since the sire will be used on a number of animals, it is important that he be given the greatest considera- tion, both as to individuality and pedigree. Pedigree. — The mere fact that an animal is pure-bred and has a pedigree is not an indication of its being a desirable animal. The pedi- gree is not a guaranty of excellence in the animal. There are many poor pure-bred individuals as well as desirable individuals. A combination of good individuality, together with a pedigree tracing back to known ancestry, will usually result in the securing of desirable animals. Gestation Period. — The farmer or livestock breeder must keep a record of the breeding dates of his animals. This should be done so that he may know at what time they are to produce their young. The gesta- tion period varies with the various classes of animals. For cows, it is about 9 months, or approximately 280 days; for mares, 11 months, or approximately 340 days; for ewes, 5 months, or about 150 days; for sows, 4 months, or about 112 days. The gestation period for all animals as stated is only approximate, and has been known to vary a number of days from this period. It is well, however, to watch the animals closely at the end of the number of days given for each class of livestock. CARE OF LIVESTOCK The breeding, feeding and management of livestock must be combined for the greatest success. Each class of livestock must be given special care and attention, and a system worked out to meet the needs of the farm. The feeding of the young animals, for instance, should not begin at the time of birth, as is so often the case, but should be properly carried on during the gestation period. The young life begins at the time of breed- ing and for the greatest development must be properly nourished throughout the gestation period. A well-bred animal does not guarantee the pro- duction of a desirable individual unless the animal is properly fed, so that the growing fcetus may be properly nourished. Young growing animals must have an abundance of food that is rich in protein and mineral matter for the development of muscle and bone rather than fattening material. This, combined with proper exercise and plenty of fresh air and sunlight, will result in a properly developed individual. Preparation of Feeds — In feeding livestock, it is necessary to econo- mize on the use of grains; yet at the same time, it is not a wise plan to carry this economy to an extreme. The method of preparing the feed for stock will vary with the different classes of livestock and the different kinds of feeds used. Cooking feed for hogs was at one time considered a desirable BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 25 practice, but hog-feeding experiments conducted in Canada and the United States for the purpose of comparing the merits of cooked and uncooked grain all show an actual loss from cooking. There was a saving of labor and larger gains for uncooked feed. The grinding of grain for farm animals will depend upon the kind and price of grain and the animals to which it is to be fed. Small grains, such as wheat, barley and rye, should always be crushed or ground before they are fed. The kernels of these grains are hard and some of it, if fed whole, will pass through the system of an animal without being masticated or digested. There is a saving of about six per cent in feeding value of corn when fed ground or cracked instead of whole. Generally speaking, when corn is worth more than 75 cents per bushel, it will pay to grind it or have it cracked for all classes of farm animals, except when fed to cattle where hogs follow in the feed lot. Feeding Condimental Stock Feeds. — The feeding of proprietary stock foods or condition powders should be avoided. These preparations usually cost from ten to thirty cents per pound and contain nothing that cannot be secured by using standard feeds. They are usually made up of ground screenings, weed seeds, bark of trees, a little oil meal, and such materials as charcoal, copperas, epsom salts, etc. The feeding of such "foods" will do more harm than good. When animals are out of condition, the addition of a little oil meal to the regular feed will usually give fully as good results. Salt, usually found in these preparations, should always be supplied to farm animals in liberal amounts. Care of the Breeding Herd. — The breeding herd must be properly cared for if the best results are to be secured. It is not necessary to keep the animals fat, but they should be kept in a thrifty condition, so that they can supply the nutrients necessary to properly develop their young during the gestation period. Breeding animals should have exercise, plenty of nutritious feed and good water. They should be fed largely on farm- grown feeds where the right kind can be produced cheaply. Care of Work Animals. — The term work animals applies usually to horses and mules. These animals are the principal beasts of burden in the United States and Canada. The best results can be secured only through proper feeding and care. Work horses and mules should receive the largest portion of grain ration during the morning and noon meals, and be allowed the bulk of their roughage at the evening meal. The reason for this is that the horse and mule do not possess large stomachs, and thus cannot carry a large amount of bulky feed without seriously interfering with their ability to work. The amount of grain and roughage to supply depends upon the work that is being done. For a horse doing heavy work, about 1J4 to 1^/2 pounds of grain to 100 pounds liveweight daily should be allowed, and approximately the same amount of roughage. This amount should be reduced to about one-half the regular allowance when the horses stand idle over Sunday or any other day. Over 90 per cent of all cases of azoturia 26 SUCCESSFUL FARMING in horses taking place on Monday morning result directly from carelessness in over-feeding. Work horses should not be watered when overheated, but a horse accustomed to drinking water from which the chill has been removed will usually suffer no injury if allowed to rest a short time before watering. The usual and common practice is to allow the horse all the water he cares to drink before feeding in preference to heavy watering after feeding. Assist Animals at Time of Giving Birth to Their Young. — There is probably no time when breeding animals require assistance and watching as much as at the time of giving birth to their young. It is well to watch the animals at this time and provide them with comfortable quarters and the proper feed. It is a good practice to allow only a limited ration at this time. The system will be in a much better condition to give birth to the young than where full allowance of feed is supplied. If the animal has difficulty in giving birth to its young, assistance should be given, which in case of horses and cattle, can best be secured by calling in a competent veterinarian. MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK The management of livestock increases in importance with the rise in the value of livestock and the increase in the cost of feeds, labor and, building materials. The three most important factors to be kept in mind in the economical production of livestock is to keep down the cost of shelter, labor and feed. The buildings or housing facilities for all classes of farm animals should be adequate, yet not expensive. If they can be made con- venient and comfortable, that is all that is necessary. Too many farmers insist on making their buildings too warm. This is seen in many cases where large basement barns are built that become extremely hot during the winter. Such barns favor the development of livestock diseases, rather than keeping the animals in a healthy condition. Farm animals will thrive much better and be healthier if they are put in open sheds that offer protection from cold winds, rain and sleet. This is especially true in case of cattle and sheep. Hogs and horses can also be kept in open sheds the same as cattle and sheep if they are given plenty of bedding and are kept dry. The sleeping quarters for all farm animals should be kept well bedded. Open Sheds. — A number of experiments have been conducted to com- pare open sheds and warm barns for cattle and sheep. In nearly every case it has been found that beef cattle fed in open sheds made greater daily gains, consumed less feed per pound of gain, and were in healthier and thriftier condition than those kept in warm barns. The housing of cattle and sheep in open sheds is a saving to the farmer, as it does not require as much capital to construct a shed as it does to construct the usual expensive barn. It is^also a saving of labor, as the cattle are not tied like they are in the barn. Open sheds should be built to face the south so the interior will not be exposed to the severe north winds. They should be built high enough so that the manure can be taken out by driving into the shed with BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 27 the wagon or manure spreader. Feed carriers should also be provided in order to save carrying a large amount of feed. Arrangement of Labor. — The amount of labor necessary to care for the livestock should be reduced to a minimum. This can be done by arranging convenient quarters in which to feed the livestock. The farmer's and livestock producer's business should be so arranged that the bulk of the labor connected with the livestock comes during the winter. If this is done it means that the labor employed upon the farm can be distributed more equally throughout the entire year. It can be used to work the fields during the summer and care for the livestock during the winter. Very OPEN SHEDS FOR STEER FEEDING.1 Shelter of this character is less expensive than warm barns, and wherever the climate is not too severe steers make better gains for feed consumed than when sheltered in warm barns. little labor is required during the summer if plenty of pasture of the proper kind is provided. Such distribution of labor also makes it possible to secure more competent help than where it can be employed only during a portion of the year. The Kind of Farm Animals. — The class of farm animals to keep will depend entirely upon the location and equipment of the farm. On farms where a large amount of pasture and rough feed is produced, beef cattle and sheep are best adapted. This is also true of farms where there is no » Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College. 28 SUCCESSFUL FARMING adequate means of transportation. With good transportation facilities or near cities where there is a good demand for dairy products, dairying may be advisable. In many sections of the United States and Canada where cream only is sold from the dairy, hogs make an admirable addition to the dairy. Hogs, on the other hand, are well adapted to most all types of farming, and provide a source of quick returns from the feeds fed. The number of farm animals to keep upon a farm depends entirely upon the size of the farm and the feeds that can be grown. It is a good practice to produce as much as possible of the feeds necessary to maintain or fatten the livestock produced on the farm. This does not mean that feeds should noib be purchased. The purchase of nitrogenous supplements to feeds grown on the farm is not as universally practiced as it should be. Regularity in Feeding and Watering. — The best results from farm animals cannot be secured unless the feeding and watering is done with system and regularity. Plenty of clean water should always be supplied. The more water consumed by an animal, the more of the feeds supplied will it consume, thus producing heavier gains or larger amounts of milk. The cost of the feeds supplied is a factor of importance. The cost of the feed bill should be kept as low as possible. This can be done only by the use of farm-grown feeds. In many cases a large amount of roughage or grain is grown that does not have a ready sale, possibly on account of being slightly damaged by weathering or improper curing. Such feeds can best be used upon the farm. Not only does it provide a desirable place to dis- pose of them, but the fertility which would be lost if the feeds are sold from the farm is thus saved. Such practice makes the land more fertile and more productive than where such crops as hay, stover and corn are sold from the farm. Observing Individuals. — Every owner of livestock should study the individuals in the herd and see that they are in good condition of health. It frequently happens that animals are not doing well, and upon investi- gation it is found to be due to internal or external parasites. Usually an unthrifty animal is infested with internal parasites, which, if noticed in the early stages, can often be destroyed. External parasites, such as lice, are a source of annoyance and should be destroyed. In the case of sheep, it is an excellent practice to dip all of the flock in a coal-tar dip at least once a year. This is usually done following shearing in the spring. It is also well to provide new pasture for young lambs at weaning time, as at that time they are more subject to stomach worms than at any other time. This is due to the fact that they become more easily the prey of worms on account of the change from nursing the dam to depending entirely upon food supplied for their maintenance. Hogs should frequently be sprayed or dipped with a coal-tar dip so as to destroy lice that are often found on their bodies. Hogs are also often unthrifty as the result of stomach worms. Keep up Records. — It is highly desirable for a farmer or livestock breeder who is breeding pure-bred animals to keep his records up to date. BREEDING FARM ANIMALS 29 It frequently happens that desirable pure-bred animals are grown on the farm, but their registration is not completed. Such practice is well enough where only market animals are being produced. There may come a time, however, when the breeder will desire to sell animals as breeders. Buyers of pure-bred cattle require the registration to be complete in order that they may sell any offspring produced from such animals for breeding pur- poses. Registration involves only a small amount of time and expense, but is a practice that is well worth while. Preparation and Shipping of Livestock. — All livestock, whether breeding animals or market animals, should be in the very best of con- dition when shipped. If pure-bred stock is shipped by express, it should be properly crated. If shipped by freight, it should be properly tied and bedded. If the animals arrive in good condition, the purchaser will gain a good impression of them upon first inspection. If they arrive in poor condition due to careless preparation, the buyer as a rule will not be satisfied and probably will not make another purchase. In selling pure- bred livestock by mail, it is always a wise plan not to praise too highly the animals that are offered for sale. It is much better to have the pur- chaser find the animals that are shipped him better than he expected. Such practice usually makes more sales and is a good means of advertising. If a customer is not satisfied with the animals shipped, the breeder should always make it a point to satisfy his customer either by refunding the purchase price and the expense of shipping or by shipping another animal. Cattle, hogs or sheep when shipped to market should be started in as near normal condition as possible. Some farmers salt heavily before ship- ping in order to get the proper "fill" on the market. Cattle salted just before they are shipped will arrive on the market in poor condition. They will be feverish, will drink very little water, will not eat much hay and will also be apt to scour. Cattle in such a condition usually sell at a discount. The car in which the livestock is to be loaded should be well bedded and in the case of cattle, the racks should be filled with hay so they can eat while en route. Always ship the livestock so as to reach the market early in the week, as there is usually more active buying at that time than later in the week. REFERENCES "Manual of Farm Animals." Harper. "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Plumb. :< Beginnings in Animal Husbandry." Plumb. "Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll. "Animal Breeding." Shaw. "Feeding and Management of Farm Animals." Shaw. Farmers' Bulletin 350, U. S. Department of Agriculture. "Dehorning of Cattle." CHAPTER 3 FEEDS AND FEEDING BY DR. H. S. GRINDLEY AND SLEETER BULL Professor and Associate of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois Introduction. — A knowledge of the scientific principles of stock feeding is important to the stockman. This knowledge is not absolutely essential, as many have achieved success in feeding as a result of years of experience. However, "experience is a dear teacher" and if one combines a study of the scientific principles of feeding with the experience gained in the barn and feed lot, he will learn the art of successful feeding more quickly, more thoroughly and with less expense than if he depends upon experience as his only teacher. Chemical Composition of Feeding-stuffs. — All feeding-stuffs are composed of a great number of different compounds which are grouped into five classes, viz., water, mineral matter, crude protein, carbohydrates and fats. These classes of compounds are usually spoken of as "nutrients," because they are used for the nutrition of the animal. Water is found in large amounts in such feeds as green pasture, silage, beets and milk, while such feeds as hay, bran, corn, middlings, etc., contain from 10 to 20 per cent water. A knowledge of the water content of feeds is important for two reasons: (1) feeds high in water content are lower in feeding value, pound for pound, than feeds low in water; (2) feeds contain- ing more than 18 or 20 per cent water usually ferment and spoil when stored in bulk. Mineral Matter, or ash as it is sometimes called, is that part of the feed which remains as ash when the feed is burned. In the animal body, mineral matter is used principally for the repair and growth of bone. It is also used in the growth and repair of the muscles and vital organs. It is found in the blood and other body fluids. A certain amount of it is absolutely essential to proper growth and development, or even for life itself. Most of the roughages, especially the legumes, as clover, alfalfa and soy beans, are quite high in mineral matter. Also such feeds as tankage, middlings, cottonseed meal, linseed meal and bran are high in mineral matter. The cereal grains, especially corn, are low in mineral matter. Consequently, in feeding horses, cattle and sheep, little account need be taken of the mineral matter of the ration, except to provide salt, as these animals are nearly always given feeding-stuffs, some of which are high in mineral matter. However, in case of hogs, the ration may be deficient in 30 FEEDS AND FEEDING 31 mineral matter, especially if considerable corn is used in the ration. The hogs should have access to a mineral mixture consisting of charcoal, air- slaked lime, salt, wood-ashes and rock phosphate or " floats." Crude Protein includes all the compounds of the feed which contain the element nitrogen. Familiar forms of protein are egg albumen (the white of the egg) and casein (the curd of milk). Protein is found in all living matter and is absolutely essential to life. It is found in every plant cell, but in larger amounts in the seeds. It also occurs in every animal cell and makes up a large part of the solid matter of the blood, muscles and organs of the body. Thus the crude protein of the ration is absolutely essential to the animal for the repair and growth of the muscles, bones, organs, etc. It is also essential for a pregnant animal for the formation of the foetus and, later, for milk production. If there is any surplus of protein in the ration above the requirements of the animal for the purposes just mentioned, the surplus may be used to produce energy or to liberate heat. If there is still a surplus, it may be used for the production of body fat. However, protein is not an economical source of energy or body fat, as it usually is the most expensive nutrient and the one which it is most often necessary to buy. Hence, no more protein should be fed than needed by the animal for repair, growth and milk production. Tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, distillers' grains, brewers' grains, bran, middlings and soy beans are high in protein. The legume hays are also relatively high in protein. Corn, timothy hay, the straws, fodder, stover and silage are low in crude protein. Carbohydrates are the chief constituents of all plants. However, they are not found to any large extent in animals. Familiar forms of the carbohydrates are starch, sugar and vegetable fiber, such as hemp, paper and cotton. As the carbohydrates contain such a variety of compounds which differ considerably in nutritive value, they are often divided into two sub-classes: " nitrogen-free extract" and " crude fiber." Nitrogen-free extract includes those carbohydrates which are high in feeding value, as starch and sugar. In the animal body these substances are used as a source of energy to do work or for heat to keep the body warm. If there is any surplus, it may be used for the production of energy and the formation of body fat. As carbohydrates are considerably cheaper than protein, it is more economical to use them for these purposes than to use protein. Feeds high in nitrogen-free extract are corn, wheat, barley, rye, rice and oats. The flour by-products, the oil meals, the straws and hays contain medium amounts: while the pastures, silage and packing house by-products are low. Crude fiber includes the tough, woody, fibrous portion of the plant. Owing to the fact that it is not very digestible, the nutritive value of crude fiber is less than that of the other nutrients. In the animal the digested crude fiber is used as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. Feeds high in crude fiber are the hays, straws, fodders, stovers and roughages in 32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING general. The cereal grains, the oil meals and most mill feeds are low in crude fiber. The Fats, sometimes called "ether extract," include all the fats and oils found in the feed. Practically all plants contain some fats, although usually in only small amounts. In animals, fats occur much more abun- dantly, occurring in nearly every organ and tissue. Fat animals often contain 40 or 50 per cent of fat. The fat of the ration is used in the animal as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. It is about two and one- quarter times as valuable as protein and carbohydrates for these purposes. Tankage and the oil meals contain the largest amounts of fat of the ordinary feeding-stuffs. small intestines .roofofmoutfr I tongue •-pharynx ^^^^ salivary' esophagus ducts omasum, or manyplies' reticulum. or honeycomb abomasum, or rennet ( true stomach) anus •;• caecum. colon, or large/ "intestine* THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF A Cow.1 .Digestion of the Nutrients. — Before the nutrients can be of any use to the animal they must be digested and taken up by the blood. Digestion is the process of separating the useful constituents of the feed from those that are useless, and changing the useful constituents to such form that they may be taken up by the blood. These processes take place in the mouth, stomach and intestines. Inasmuch as only the digestible nutrients of a feed are of value to an animal, the amount of digestible components of the feed are of special interest to the stockman. Table I shows the per- centages of the digestible nutrients in the ordinary feeding-stuffs. (See Part IV.) The Nutritive Ratio. — Proteins are used primarily for growth and repair, while carbohydrates and fats are used for energy and fat production. The nutritive ratio expresses the value of a feed or ration as a flesh pro- i Courtesy of Iowa State College. FEEDS AND FEEDING 33 ducer or as an energy and fat producer, i. e.} it is the ratio of digestible crude protein to digestible carbohydrates and fat in the feed or ration. Inasmuch as fat is two and one-quarter times as valuable as carbohydrates, the amount of digestible fat is multiplied by two and one-quarter and added to the amount of digestible carbohydrates. The sum is then divided by the amount of digestible protein. The first term of the ratio is always "1," while the second term is obtained by the following formula: digestible carbohydrates + 2^ X digestible fat = gec(md tmn of ^ ^ digestible protein The nutritive ratio is written as "1 : 6" or "1 : 14," or whatever it may be. It is read as "one to six," or "one to fourteen," Thus one finds the nutritive ratio of corn as follows: from Table I it is found that 100 pounds of corn contain 7.8 pounds of digestible protein, 66.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 4.3 pounds of digestible fat. Then, substi- tuting in the above formula: 66.8 + 2^ X 4.3 = 9 g 7.o Therefore, the nutritive ratio of corn is 1 : 9.8. The nutritive ratio of a ration containing two or more feeds may be calculated in a similar manner. Ordinarily, a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 or less is called a narrow ratio; i. e., the feeding-stuff or ration contains a relatively large amount of pro- tein and a relatively small amount of carbohydrates and fat. A ratio of 1 : 7 to 1 : 9 is called a medium ratio; i. e., there is present a medium amount of protein and a medium amount of carbohydrates and fat. A ratio of 1 : 10 or greater is called a wide ratio; i. e., the proportion of pro- tein to carbohydrates and fats is relatively small. The Energy Values of Feeding-stuffs. — One of the functions of the ration of an animal is to act as a source of energy to do work or form heat. Also the formation of body fat may be looked upon as a storage of energy, because it may be used as a source of energy to do work or for heat at any time when the ration is insufficient for these purposes. Hence, in addition to a knowledge of the digestible nutrients in feeds, the scientific stock- feeder should have a knowledge of the energy values of feeds, i. e., the value of different feeding-stuffs for doing work, storage of fat, milk pro- duction, etc. Energy values of feeding-stuffs are expressed in "therms." A therm is the amount of energy in the form of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1000 pounds of water 4° F. The energy values of some of the common feeding-stuffs are given in Part IV, Table II. Feeding-stuffs. — In general, feeding-stuffs may be divided into two classes, concentrates and roughages, according to the amounts of digestible nutrients and their energy values. 34 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Concentrates are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively large amount of digestible nutrients and energy in a small bulk. They usually are highly nutritious in nature. Concentrates usually have an energy value of 60 or more therms per 100 pounds. Concentrates may be sub- divided into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous concentrates. A nitrogenous concentrate is one which is relatively rich in protein. It usually contains 11 per cent or more of digestible protein. Common examples are tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, dried distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, soy beans, bran, middlings and shorts. As a rule, but few nitrogenous concentrates are produced on the THE RESPIRATION CALORIMETER IN USE FOR AN EXPERIMENT.1 farm and therefore they must be purchased. Nitrogenous concentrates are almost essential in the rations of all growing animals in order to furnish protein and mineral matter so essential to the proper development of muscle and bone. Likewise the milk cow requires nitrogenous concentrates in order to provide the large amounts of protein and mineral matter which she excretes in her milk. Fattening animals and work horses often need small amounts of nitrogenous concentrates, especially if they are still growing. A non-nitrogenous concentrate is low or only medium in protein con- tent, but is usually rich in carbohydrates. It generally contains less than i Ycar-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910. F EEDSAND FEEDING 35 11 per cent of digestible protein. Examples are corn, barley, oats, wheat, rye, molasses and dried-beet pulp. Ordinarily the farmer raises all the non-nitrogenous concentrates necessary, and usually it will not pay him to buy such feeds on the market. All classes of fattening animals require large amounts of non-nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish the carbohydrates and fats which, as has already been stated, are the cheapest sources of body fat. Also work horses must have large amounts of non- nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish energy for doing their work. Milch cows need medium amounts, while they should be used more spar- ingly in the rations of growing and breeding animals. Roughages are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively small amount of digestible nutrients, or net energy in a large bulk. They usually contain less than 40 therms of energy per 100 pounds. Roughages contain a large amount of crude fiber which lowers their feeding value considerably. Roughages, like concentrates, may be sub-divided into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. Nitrogenous roughages usually contain 6 per cent or more of digestible protein. Examples are clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy-bean hay and alfalfa meal. In general, all the legume hays fall under this sub-class. Nitro- genous roughages should be grown on nearly every farm, not only for their feeding value but also for their fertilizing value in the crop rotations. It will rarely pay to buy nitrogenous roughages on the market, as they can be produced more cheaply at home. The nitrogenous roughages are valu- able in the rations of nearly all classes of animals except hogs, and even they make valuable use of some of them at times. Fattening animals, with the exception of hogs, should have nitrogenous roughage. Unless they do, it will be necessary to feed large amounts of nitrogenous concen- trates, and even then the results will be only fair, unless corn silage is used. Growing animals should have nitrogenous roughage, as it furnishes much of the protein and mineral matter so essential to their proper development. Even pigs may make use of some alfalfa or clover hay. It is almost impossible to produce milk economically unless nitrogenous roughages are used. Breeding cattle and sheep need little or no other feed than nitrogenous roughages in winter. Brood sows and boars will eat consider- able of the leaves. Horses may have nitrogenous roughages if they are clean, well cured and free from dust. Often, however, they are too dusty for horses. Non-nitrogenous roughages usually contain less then 6 per cent of digestible protein. Examples are timothy hay, corn silage, corn stover, oat straw, wheat straw, barley straw and rye straw. Silage is the best form in which to get all the feeding value of the corn crop. It may be used to advantage in the rations of practically all classes of animals except hogs, if it is properly supplemented with other feeds. The other non-nitroge- nous roughages have. little value except in the rations of mature breeding animals, stackers and work horses. 36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The Requirements of Farm Animals. — Knowing the digestible nutri- ents and the energy in the different feeding-stuffs and the amounts of nutrients and energy required by farm animals, one can formulate approximately a proper ration for different farm animals under different conditions. The Balanced Ration. — A balanced ration is a ration which contains all the nutrients in such proportions, forms and amounts as will nourish properly and without excess of any nutrient, a given animal for one day. Extended study of the amount of each nutrient required by the different farm animals for the various purposes for which they are kept has led to the formation of so-called "feeding standards." Theoretically, feeding standards may be looked upon as formulas which tell at a glance the amount of each nutrient necessary to produce a given result. In practice, however, feeding standards cannot be regarded as such, but only as a guide to be used in connection with one's practical knowledge of the amounts, propor- tions and combination of feeds which are used in stock feeding. Although there are a number of valuable feeding standards, the limits of this chapter will permit a discussion of only a few. The Wolff-Lehmann Standards show the requirements of farm animals under different conditions, expressed in pounds of total dry substance, digestible crude protein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat per 1000 pounds live weight. The nutritive ratio required by the animal also is given. The calculation of a ration according to any feeding standard consists essentially of three steps: (1) Having given the requirements for an animal of a given weight, usually 1000 pounds, the requirements of the animal under consideration are determined. (2) A " trial ration" is assumed, using the amounts and proportions of concentrates and rough- ages which, in the opinion of the feeder, are necessary. (3) The trial ration is modified by adding or deducting concentrates or roughages of such composition as to furnish approximately the required amounts of nutrients. Thus, for example, one calculates a ration according to the Wolff- Lehmann standard for a 1200-pound horse at light work as follows: According to the standard (see Part IV, Table III) the requirements of a 1000-pound horse at light work are as follows: dry substance, 20 pounds; digestible protein, 1.5 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; and digestible fat, 0.4 pounds. The first step is to calculate the requirements of a 1200-pound horse, which are found to be as follows: dry substance, 24 pounds; digestible protein, 1.8 pounds; digestible car- bohydrates, 11.4 pounds; and digestible fat, 0.5 pound. The second step is to assume a trial ration which will meet approximately the requirements as determined in the first step. From the amount of dry substance required and from practical experience, one judges that a ration consisting of 12 pounds of oats and 14 pounds of timothy hay will about answer the pur- FEEDS AND FEEDING 37 pose. Calculating the dry substance and digestible nutrients of this ration from Table I, the following results are obtained: Dry Substance, pounds. Digestible Protein, pounds. Digestible Carbohydrates, pounds. Digestible Fat, pounds. Oats, 12 pounds Hay, 14 pounds Total ration 10.8 12.2 23.0 1.1 0.4 1.5 5.9 5.9 0.5 0.2 11.8 0.7 Comparing the nutrients of the trial ration with the requirements of the standard, it is seen that the trial ration is a little below the standard in dry substance and protein, and a little above it in carbohydrates and fat. Thus the third step is to modify the trial ration so that its nutrients con- form to the standard. Consequently, a feed which is high in protein and low in carbohydrates should be substituted for part of the ation. Inas- much as it is not desirable to lessen the bulk of the ration as the dry substance is already a little low, one may substitute two pounds of linseed meal for two pounds of the oats of the ration. The ration then contains the following nutrients: Dry Substance, pounds. Digestible Protein, pounds. Digestible Carbohydrates, pounds. Digestible Fat, pounds. Oats, 10 pounds 9.0 0.9 4.9 0.4 Oil meal, 2 pounds 1.8 0.6 0.6 0.1 Timothy hay, 14 pounds. Total ration 12.2 23.0 0.4 1.9 5.9 11.4 0.2 0.7 The nutritive ratio is: 11.4 + 2.25 X 0.7 1.9 or 1:6.8 This ration, except that it is a trifle low in dry substance, comes very close to satisfying the standard. Of course, in many cases, especially until one has had considerable practice in the calculation of rations, the trial ration may have to be modified several times before the ration conforms with the standard. However, by applying his practical knowledge, the stock feeder should not have much difficulty in calculating balanced rations. In view of modern investigations, certain modifications must be made to the Wolff-Lehmann standards to adapt them to American conditions. In practically every instance the amount of dry substance prescribed is 10 to 20 per cent too high. The protein prescribed is from 10 to 40 per cent too high, the greatest difference being in the case of fattening and working animals, and, consequently, the nutritive ratio is too narrow. Very little attention should be given to the fat content of the ration, it being con- sidered satisfactory if the requirements for protein and carbohydrates are fulfilled. 38 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The Armsby Standards express the requirements of farm animals in pounds of digestible protein and in therms of energy. Instead of giving separate standards for all the different classes of farm animals, Armsby gives standards for maintenance and growth. Inasmuch as any excess of feed above maintenance may be used for fattening or milk production, he gives the amount of nutrients above the maintenance requirements necessary to produce a pound of gain or a pound of milk. Thus, the stand- ards for fattening and for milk production vary with the amount of gain or with the amount of milk produced. To determine the standard for a fattening animal, one adds 3.5 therms per each pound of daily gain to the energy requirement for maintenance, as all the energy above the mainte- nance requirement may be used for the production of flesh and fat. Armsby recommends that a 1000-pound ruminant should receive 20 to 30 pounds, or an average of 25 pounds of dry matter per day. A horse should have somewhat less. The amounts of digestible protein and of energy in the common feeding-stuffs as presented by Armsby are given in Table II. His feeding standards are given in Table IV. For example, if one desires to calculate a ration for a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day, the first step is to determine the requirements. From Table IV it is seen that the requirements of a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day are 1.8 pounds of digestible protein and 13.0 therms of energy. As the second step, we will assume a trial ration consisting of 10 pounds of corn and 8 pounds of clover hay. Referring to Table II, it is found that the digestible protein and energy in this ration are as follows: Dry Substance, pounds. Digestible Protein, pounds. Energy therms. Corn, 10 pounds 8.91 0.68 8 88 Clover hay, 8 pounds 6.78 0.43 2 78 Total ration 15 69 1 11 11 66 Comparing the trial ration with the standard, we find that it is low in both protein and energy. As the third step, we will add 2 pounds of cottonseed meal, as it is high in both protein and energy. The ration then contains the following nutrients: Dry Substance, pounds. Digestible Protein, pounds. Energy, therms. Corn, 10 pounds 8 91 0.68 8 88 Clover hay, 8 pounds Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds 6.78 1.84 0.43 0.70 2.78 1.68 Total ration 17 53 1 81 13 34 This ration, although a trifle low in dry substance, fulfils the requirements of the Armsby standard. FEEDS AND FEEDING 39 In calculating a ration for a dairy cow according to the Armsby stand- ard, one adds to the requirements for maintenance, 0.05 pounds of digest- ible protein and 0.3 therm of net energy for each pound of milk produced. For example, one wishes to calculate a ration for a 900-pound cow giving 22 pounds of milk. According to Table IV the requirements are as follows : Digestible Protein, pounds. Energy, therms. For maintenance of 900-pound cow 0 45 5 7 Additional for 22 pounds milk 1.10 6.6 Total requirement 1 55 12 3 The ration is then calculated in the manner previously described. The Haecker Standard for Dairy Cows holds that the requirements of the dairy cow vary not only according to her weight and the quantity of milk yield, but also according to the quality of the milk. According to Haecker, a 1000-pound cow requires for maintenance 0.7 pound of digestible crude protein, 7.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 pound of digestible fat. For each pound of 4 per cent milk the Haecker standard requires the addition of 0.054 pound of digestible crude protein, 0.24 pound of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.021 pound of digestible fat in addition to the maintenance requirement. If the milk contains less than 4 per cent of fat, smaller amounts of nutrients are prescribed. The amounts of digestible nutrients to produce one pound of milk containing various per- centages of butter fat are given in Table V. For example, to calculate a ration according to the Haecker standard for a 900-pound cow giving 20 pounds of milk daily containing 5 per cent of butter fat, the process is as follows: (1) determine the maintenance requirement for a 900-pound cow; (2) add to the maintenance require- ment the requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk; and (3) calculate a ration to conform with this standard. Thus a cow weighing 900 pounds requires 0.63 pound of digestible protein, 6.30 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 0.09 pound of digestible fat for maintenance. According to Haecker, to produce one pound of 5 per cent milk requires the consumption of 0.060 pound of digestible crude protein; 0.28 pound of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.024 pound of digestible fat, in addition to the maintenance requirements. Thus the total requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk is calculated as follows: Digestible Protein, pounds. Digestible Carbohydrates, pounds. Digest ible Fat, pounds. For maintenance 0 63 6.30 0.09 To produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk 1.22 5.60 0.50 Total 1 85 11 90 0.59 The ration is then calculated in the same manner as described under the discussion of the Wolff-Lehmann standards. 40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING REFERENCES "Principles of Stock Feeding." Smith. "Feeds and Feeding." Henry. "First Principles of Feeding Farm Animals." Burkett. "Principles of Animal Nutrition." Armsby. "Feeding of Animals." Jordan. "Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll. "Profitable Stock Feeding." Smith. California Expt. Station Bulletin 256. "Value of Barley for Cows Fed Alfalfa." Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Study of Digestion of Rations for Steers." Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 140. "Investigations in Milk Production." Missouri Research Bulletin 18. "Maintenance Requirements of Cattle." Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 151. "Corn Silage and Alfalfa for Beef Production." New Hampshire Expt. Station Bulletin 175. "Analysis of Feeding-stuffs." South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 160. "Silage and Grains for Steers." Texas Expt. Station Bulletin 170. "Texas Feeding- stuffs, Their Composition ana Utilization." Wisconsin Expt. Station Circular 37. "The Feeding Unit System for Determining the Economy of Production by Dairy Cows." Wisconsin Research Bulletin 26. "Studies in Dairy Production." Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 106. "Cottonseed Cake for Beef Cattle." Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 111. "Feeding." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 346. "Computation of Rations for Farm Animals." 655. "Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle." CHAPTER 4 HORSES AND MULES BY E. H. HUGHES Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University of Missouri The horse even today plays a very important part in moving mer- chandise and performing other labor. The work on our farms is largely accomplished by the horse, and in spite of the motor truck the horse is MORGAN STALLION, "GENERAL GATES."* considered indispensable in a large amount of business in the city. Modern methods of transportation move enormous quantities of freight, yet the demand for the work horse does not diminish. Development of Type. — The usefulness of a horse depends upon his power of locomotion and the characteristics which adapt him to the different 1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 41 SUCCESSFUL FARMING kinds of service determine his type. Whether he moves with power, speed, extreme action and style or to carry weight, will determine whether he is a draft, a race, a show or a saddle hoise. Our modern breeds of light horses have probably been developed with the Arabian horse as foundation stock. The Arabians developed a light horse with endurance and courage for desert travel, and intelligence and friendliness for companionship on the long journey. The low-lying, luxuriantly vegetated Flanders led to the development A HIGH-GRADE WORK HORSE OF FINE QUALITY AND GOOD CONFORMATION, ILLUSTRATING THE "POINTS" OF A DRAFT HORSE. x of the patient, sluggish Flemish horse with plenty of power to accomplish the heavy work required of him. The Flemish blood is the most important basis of the draft types. The Light Horse. — It is essential that the horse of this class show refinement in all his parts. His conformation, action, style, finish and endurance should be such that he can meet the requirements for a distinct purpose. Action is essential in this class. The coach horse should show high action; the roadster must be able to haul a light vehicle at a rapid trot; and the saddle horse is required to give the rider satisfaction. i Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Fanners' Bulletin 451. HORSES AND MULES 43 Weight is not so important. The carriage horse must necessarily be heavier than the roadster, because he is required to draw a heavier vehicle and the saddle horse must be able to perform the gaits of his class. Size will depend upon the use to which he is put. Draft Type. — Horses of this type are used in hauling heavy loads at a comparatively slow gait, and should possess strength and endurance. A PEECHERON STALLION. 1 draft horse should be massive, relatively close to the ground and weigh at least 1600 pounds. He should have a heavy body; a short, strong back; a strong constitution; a sloping shoulder and a long, level croup. He should also have plenty of bone of good quality and large, sound feet. His legs should set properly under him and his pasterns should be long and sloping. The important gait of the draft horse is the walk. The stride should be long and straight. A combination of weight, muscle and good feet and Courtesy of The Field, New York City. 44 SUCCESSFUL FARMING LIGHT HORSES. BREEDS. NATIVE COUNTRY. ORIGIN. HEIGHT, HANDS. WEIGHT, POUNDS. COLOR. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS, Arabian. Arabia Native horses. 14-15.2 850-1000 Bay, brown, chestnut, occasionally black or gray. Good action; intelligent. Thorough- bred. England. Arabian mixed by English peo- ple. 14.2-16.2 900-1100 Bay, brown, chestnut, black or gray. Running horse; great speed; intelligent, some- times difficult to manage. Standard bred horse. America. English horse. 14-16.2 900-1200 Bay, brown, chestnut or black; few grays and roans. Fastest of harness horses; remarkable endurance; in- telligent. Morgan (branch of stand- ard bred) America. Thoroughbred (Justin Morgan foundation horse). 14.3-16 950-1150 Bay, chestnut, brown or black. Not extreme action or speed; noted for endur- ance; intelligent. Saddle. .U. S.: Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri. Thoroughbred. 15-16 900-1200 Chestnut, black, bay, brown, gray and roan. Action, style, manners, five gaits, walk, trot, can- ter, rack, running-walk, foxtrot or slow pace. Hackney. England. Arabian; thor- aughbred native horse. 13.2-16 750^1200 Chestnut, bay, brown, black, and roan, white markings common. Extreme high action. German coach, French coach and Cleveland bay horses have not greatly influenced the horse business in this country. DRAFT HORSES. BREED. NATIVE COUNTRY. ORIGIN. HEIGHT, HANDS. WEIGHT, POUNDS. COLOR. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. Percheron. France. Native horses, Flemish, Arabian. 15.3-17 1600-2200 Gray, black, bay, brown, roan, chestnut. Good action; intelligent. Belgian. Belgium. Flemish. 15.3-17 1600-2400 Roan, chestnut brown, black, gray. Compact, deep and wide; heavily muscled. English Shire. England. Native horses, Flemish. 16-17.3 1700-2400 Bay, black, brown, gray, chestnut, roan, white on legs and face. Largest of draft breeds; heavy feather on legs. Clydesdale. Scotland. Native horses, Flemish. 16-17 1600-2100 Bay, black, brown, chestnut, roan, gray, white on face and legs. Very good action; in- telligent; feather on legs. Suffolk- punch. England. Native horses. 16-16.2 1600-2000 Chestnut. Smallest of the draft breeds. MULES. CLASS. HEIGHT, HANDS. WEIGHT, POUNDS. COLOR. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. Draft. 16-17.2 1200-1600 Bay, brown, gray or dun. Most desir- able color is black with a tan nose and flank. Large, heavy boned, heavy set mules. Sugar. 16-17 1150-1300 Tall, with considerable quality and finish. Cotton. 13.2-15.2 750-1100 Small and compact, with quality. Mining. 12-16 600-1350 "Pit" mules, small; "miners," large and rugged. Farm. 15.2-16 1000-1350 Plain and thin, with good constitutions. HORSES AND MULES 45 legs should be an indication of a horse's ability to haul a load at a fair rate of speed. The Mule is a hybrid, having for parents a mare and a jack. Because of this fact it shows many parental characteristics which are common to both ancestors. It has longer ears than the horse, a Roman nose, heavy lips, clean legs, small, narrow feet of good quality, and a scanty growth of ENGLISH SHIRE STALLION. l hair on the tail and a scanty mane. The sexual organs of both mare and horse mules are undeveloped, consequently they do not breed. The mule is generally smaller than the draft horse, being from 14 to 17 hands high, and weighing from 600 to 1600 pounds. Mares of good quality weighing about 1350 pounds when bred to a heavy-boned jack with long ears produce mules which have good size, quality and action. As a rule, mare mules bring better prices on the market than do horse mules. America has done more towards the economical development of the 1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City. 37 46 SUCCESSFUL FARMING mule than any other country, and more than one-half the mules in the world are in the United States. Due to his hardiness and his ability to take care of himself, the mule is adapted to most climates and to kinds of work for which it would not be practical to use a horse. In most contagious and infectious diseases, however, the mule has no more resistance than a horse. Market Requirements. — The market requires that a horse shall fill some definite purpose. There is a demand for good horses that fill a definite CLASSIFICATION OF MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES.* CLASS. SUB-CLASS. HEIGHT, HANDS. WEIGHT, POUNDS. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. Draft. Light draft. Heavy draft. Loggers. 15.3-16.2 16-17.2 16.1-17.2 1600-1750 1750-2200 Heavy, rugged, compactly built, denoting strength and endurance. Chunks. Eastern Ex- port. Farm. Southern. 15-16 15-15.3 15-15.3 1300-1550 1200-1400 800-1250 The same type as draft, except that he is more compact and lighter in weight. Low down, blocky horses not as heavy as the Eastern chunk. Possess quality finer and not so heavy as the other sub-classes. Wagon. Expressers. Delivery. Artillery. Fire horses. 15.3-16.2 15-16 15.1-16 15-17.2 1350-1500 1100-1400 1050-1200 1200-1700 Upstanding, deep-bodied, closely coupled, with good bone quality, energy and spirit. Conformation similar to express; not so large. Sound, well bred, with quality; prompt action in walk, trot or gallop. Free from vicious habits, without blemish, and broken to harness and saddle. More rangy in conformation than expressers; ability to take long runs. Carriage. Coach. Cobs. Park. Cab. 15.1-16.1 14.1-15.1 15-15.3 15.2-16.1 1100-1250 900-1150 1000-1150 1050-1200 Smoothly turned, full-made horses with high action com- bined with beauty of form. Small horses of stocky build with p.enty of quality. Excellent quality; high act:on. Similar to coach horses; calk in finish; good feet and legs and endurance. Road. Runabout. Roadster. 14.3-15.2 15-16 900-1050 900-1150 Not so stockily built as cob, having more speed. Conformation more angular than runabouts, denoting speed, stamina and endurance. Saddle horses. Five-gaited. Three-gaited. Hunters. Cavalry. Polo Ponies. 15-16 14.3-16 15.2-16.1 1.5-15.3 14-14.2 900-1200 900-1200 1100-1250 950-1100 850-1000 Conformation denoting style, action, with strong back; possesses five distinct gaits under the saddle. Size depending on weight to be carried with ability to walk, trot and canter. Large, strong; must be jumpers; stand long country rides. Soand.wellbred; have quality; broken to saddle; easy gaits. Smallest saddle class; used for playing polo. purpose, but misfits sell at a low figure. The horse should be sound, at least serviceably sound, with a conformation adapted to the work required of him. He should be in good condition in order to look well and be ready for hard work. Condition is also an indication of the health and feeding quality of the horse. The market requires that a horse be broken and of good disposition. Horses between five and eight years old sell the best. Solid colors are preferred because they can be matched more easily, and many firms use their teams of two, four or six horses and equipment as a part of their advertising. * Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin No. 122. HORSES AND MULES 47 FIG. 2. — At two years of age the jaw shows greater width than at one year of age, and the teeth are all in contact and show considerable wear. FIG. 1. — At^one year of age the jaw is narrow, the temporary teeth are small and the corner incisors are not yet in contact. FIG. 3. — At three years of age the permanent incisors above and 'below are in wear. Note the greater width and length in com- parison to the temporary teeth. FIG. 4. — At four years of age the permanent and in- termediate incisors on lower and upper jaws are in wear. The corner pair of temporary teeth have not been dis- placed; they appear very small in comparison with the permanent teeth. NOTE. — Photographs showing teeth at various ages, by courtesy of Prof. S. T. &fmpson, Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri Experiment Station. 48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING FIG. 9.— The cups in the central incisors above hava practically dis- appeared at nine years. FIG. 10. — The cups in the inter- mediate incisors above have dis- appeared at ten years. FIG. 11. — At eleven years the tables on the upper jaw are nearly smooth. FIG. 12. — Note the smooth tables and the length of the teeth showing considerable wear at fifteen years. FIG. 5. — Complete set of lower permanent incisors showing deep cups ao five years. FIG. 6. — The cups in the lower central incisors have nearly disappeared and the tables are smooth at six years. FIG. 7. — The cups in the lower in- termediate pair of incisors have dis- appeared at seven years. FIG. 8. — The cups in the lower corner pair of incisors have disappeared and the tables are all worn smooth at eight years. FIG. 13.— Showing a comparison of the angles of the jaw at five and twenty-one years. Note the acute angle of the teeth at twenty-one. FIG. 14. — Showing order of appearance of the permanent incisors. The central pair at 2£ to 3 years. The intermediate pair at 3£ to 4 years. The corner or outside pair at 4£ to 5 years. NOTE. — Photographs showing teeth at various ages, by courtesy of Prof. S. T. Simpson, Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri Experiment Station. HORSES AND MULES 49 The Age of the Horse. — The teeth form the most accurate basis for estimating the age of a horse. The first teeth which appear are called colt, milk or temporary teeth. As the horse grows older these are replaced by broader, thicker, darker-colored permanent teeth. The central incisors in the upper and lower jaws usually appear within two weeks after foaling. The intermediate incisors, one on each side of the central incisors, make their appearance between the second and fourth week, and the corner or outside incisors are in at six months of age (Fig. 1). The central pair of permanent incisors will displace the temporary incisors and be in use at three years of age. (Fig. 3). The permanent intermediate ones will be in use at four (Fig. 4) and the corner pair of permanent incisors will displace the temporary corner or outside incisors at five years of age. The five-year-old horse has a full mouth of permanent teeth (Fig. 5). These have large cups that wear smooth as the age of the horse advances. The cups or tables of the central incisors below have worn smooth at six years of age, the intermediate incisors below are smooth at seven and the corner pair at eight. (See Figs. 6, 7 and 8.) The cups of the central pair of incisors on the upper jaw have dis- appeared at nine, the intermediates above are smooth at ten and the cups in the corner incisors are worn smooth when the horse reaches his twelfth year. (See Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12.) There is no accurate method of estimating the age of a horse after he is twelve years old; however, the angle of the teeth becomes more acute as he becomes older (Fig. 13). HORSE FEEDINGS Proper management in feeding and caring for the horse is an essential for his best health and development. The digestive system of a horse is not large, therefore a comparatively small amount of roughage and a relatively larger amount of grain is required. Sudden changes in feed should be avoided, as the digestive system requires time to readjust itself to the new conditions. Grinding or soaking of feed is not economical except in the case of colts or horses doing exceptionally hard work; however, many horsemen favor rolling the oats they feed. Salt should be accessible at all times. Feeds for the Horse. — It is economical under most conditions to use the feeds at hand. The most common feeds for horses are oats with timo- thy hay, or a mixture of timothy and clover. In many sections corn is substituted for a part or all of the oats in the ration and prairie hay or alfalfa is substituted for the timothy. A combination of oats and timothy hay forms an excellent ration for work horses. The nutrients are in about the proper proportions and the 50 SUCCESSFUL FARMING bulk seems to fit the needs of the horse. Both are usually free from dust. For the light horse that is required to make long, hard drives no satisfactory substitute for oats and timothy hay has been found. Grain. — Corn and barley are used extensively in some sections for a part or all of the grain ration. Because of its hardness the barley should be ground or cracked. Bran and oil meal are often used to supplement corn or barley, and for growing animals or brood mares corn, oats and bran form an excellent ration. The bone and muscle-building elements in bran and its laxative effect are considered indispensable by many horsemen. Roughages. — A mixture of timothy and clover is considered an excel- lent roughage for horses. Either clover or alfalfa hay is good, except for horses doing heavy or rapid work. Oat hay, when cut a little green, forms an excellent roughage and sheaf oats are often fed with good results. Millet hay is considered unsafe to feed by most horsemen. Corn stover and oat straw are used with success when properly bal- anced with a grain ration. Good clean silage that is not too acid is an excellent feed for brood mares, idle horses and growing colts, though it should be fed in limited quantities and with some dry roughage. It has been fed with good results, but great care must be exercised in feeding. No mouldy or musty silage should be fed. Watering. — Horses, under natural conditions, drink frequently. The most common practice among horsemen is to water the horses before feeding, although many practice watering before and after feeding. Horses that are heated should be compelled to drink very slowly. The value of good running water in the horse pasture cannot be overestimated. The Work Horse. — A horse at work should receive ten to eighteen pounds of grain daily, depending upon the kind of work performed and the size of the horse. On days when idle the grain ration should be reduced and the roughage increased. The addition of a small amount of bran is recommended. The Foal. — The foal should be taught to eat grain and hay as early as possible. Oats and bran with some clover or alfalfa hay of good quality are the best feeds because they contain the muscle and bone-forming elements required for growth. While the mare and colt are in the pasture some grain can be fed very satisfactorily in a small creep. After weaning, at about five or six months of age, feed for growth rather than condition. The Orphan Foal. — Milk from a fresh cow, one whose milk is low in butter-fat, is well adapted to raising an orphan foal. To a dessert-spoonful of granulated sugar should be added enough warm water to dissolve it. To this three tablespoonsful of lime-water and enough fresh milk to make a pint should be added. A small amount, one-half pint, should be given each hour. In a short time the amount should be increased and feed should HORSES AND MULES 51 be given every two hours, more being given gradually and the time between feeding lengthened. The Brood Mare, used for breeding purposes only, does well without grain when on good pasture. In winter, if she is in foal, she should be given feeds high in protein and mineral matter for the best development of the foetus. She should receive plenty of exercise at all times. The Stallion. — Good whole oats and bran with plenty of clean timothy hay is a very good ration for the stallion. The addition of corn or barley to the ration lends variety and increases its palatability. Exercise is at all times absolutely essential for the best results with any stallion. When standing for service he should be required to walk six to ten miles per day. STANDARD RATIONS Foals: Parts. Parte. Parta. Ground oats 6 Oats 4 Oats 4 Ground corn 2 Corn 4 Bran 4 Bran 2 Bran 2 Cora 2 Whole oats } Shelled corn > equal parts. Bran With either of the above rations, feed clover, alfalfa, or timothy and clover mixed. Work Horses: Oats 5 Oats. Corn 9 Corn 5 Hay. Oatmeal 1 Hay. Hay. Timothy and clover mixed or just timothy is recommended as roughage. Brood Mare: Corn 4 Corn 7 Corn 8 Oats 4 Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1 Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1 Clover or alfalfa of good quality, or timothy and clover mixed are good l roughages to feed with the above grain rations. Grooming. — For the best health of the horse he should be groomed before he is harnessed and at night after the harness has been removed. A good currycomb, a stiff brush and a soft woolen cloth are the only uten- sils ordinarily needed. The currycomb is used to loosen the dirt and sweat in the hair and skin over the body and is followed by the brush. The woolen cloth is then nibbed very firmly over the entire body to take up the fine dust and to put the coat in good condition. REFERENCES 'Productive Horse Husbandry." Gay. 'The Horse Book." Johnston. 'The Horse." Roberts. 'Breaking and Training Horses." Harper. 'Management and Breeding of Horses." Harper. Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 451. "Draft Horses and Care of Horses." 667. "Breaking and Training Colts." CHAPTER 5 BEEF CATTLE BY W. A. COCHEL Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural College Beef production is associated with the best type of farming in every country. A careful survey of any community shows that the cattlemen are leaders in public matters, are financially responsible, farm the best land and are considered among the best citizens. Counties and communi- PUBE-BRED HEREFORD BuLL.1 A hardy, early maturing, beef breed of good quality. ties noted for their production of beef are also noted for their large yields of agricultural crops and their great productive wealth. There never has been a permanent and profitable system of farming established on an extensive scale in any country where beef cattle have been eliminated from 1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City. (52) BEEF CATTLE 53 the farms. Beef cattle make the greatest and most profitable use of rough- age and grass, are comparatively free from disease, require less shelter and attention than other farm animals, enable the farmer to distribute his work uniformly throughout the year and are easily marketed. Sources of Profit. — The cattleman has four sources of profit: (1) from growing crops; (2) from feeding crops; (3) from using by-products which otherwise have no market value, such as straw, stover, damaged hay and grain; and (4) from increasing soil fertility and the yield of crops. It frequently happens that the greatest profit comes from the use of farm by-products and the increase of soil fertility. The successful cattleman of the future must be as good a farmer as the man w,ho produces grain and hay for the market, and also have the ability and judgment to select and feed animals that can convert grain and hay into meat profitably. There are four distinct methods of handling beef cattle, dependent upon the amount of capital available and the kind of crops adapted to the farm, as follows: (1) breeding pure-bred cattle, (2) producing stockers and feeders, (3) grazing cattle, and (4) fattening cattle. Breeding Pure-Bred Cattle. — This is the highest type of beef produc- tion and requires the investment of a large amount of money for a series of years. The breeder must not only understand and practice the best methods of breeding, feeding and developing livestock, but must also follow the best methods of farming. He should keep the buildings and grounds neat and attractive to impress customers with the fact that breeding pure- bred livestock is profitable and attractive. Excellent pasture should be available for summer grazing and the best methods of feeding must be practiced during the winter to develop the inherited type and form to the maximum. More breeders fail because of poor feeding than of any other one factor. In addition to the ability to select the approved type of the breed and to feed successfully, the breeder of pure-bred cattle must be a business man and a salesman so that he can successfully dispose of what he produces. It is usually better for the beginner to start with grade or market cattle and, if he succeeds, to purchase a few pure-bred animals and go into the business gradually, than to invest all his capital in a specialty with which he is unacquainted. Producing Stockers and Feeders. — The production of stockers and feeders should be confined to those parts of the country where the larger part of the land cannot be plowed profitably, and grass is the principal crop. This class of cattle is kept on grass during the summer season and fed on roughage, with little or no grain, during the remainder of the year. Lying east of the Rocky Mountains is a large area which is peculiarly adapted to the production of grass and roughage, such as Kaffir and sor- ghums on the uplands, and alfalfa on the bottom land, and which logically should be the great stocker and feeder producing section of the United States. Where both legumes and silage crops are produced, little or no commercial feeds are required. If it is impossible to grow legumes, protein SUCCESSFUL FARMING should be supplied in the form of linseed meal, cottonseed cake or some other protein concentrate. It is essential that cattle of the best beef type be used in producing stockers or feeders, because the chief profit comes from producing animals of superior merit for which there is always a keen demand. It is very important that the herd of cattle used for this purpose be uniform in type, color, size, breeding and quality and that the animals have large feeding capacity, because buyers prefer to buy feeders or stockers as nearly alike as possible. Grazing Cattle. — The business of grazing cattle is generally followed in those sections where the area of land in cultivation is very small compared with that which must be left in grass. The cattle are seldom produced in the grazing sections, but are usually shipped in by the train-load about the first of May, and are pastured on grass until they are fat enough to be marketed as grass-fat cattle during the late summer and early fall. The cattle used to convert grass into fat are usually older, coarser and plainer than cattle selected to convert corn into the same product. Not so much attention is paid to quality and breeding as in pure-bred cattle, stockers or feeders, because the profit comes from the increase in value secured by fattening rather than in the final price per hundredweight. Very thin steers, three years old or older, make much larger gains than younger or fatter cattle. However, it frequently happens that when fleshier cattle are used, they may be shipped from grass earlier in the season, thus avoiding extreme heat, flies, water shortage or a heavy run of cattle on the market, which will more than overbalance the larger gains made by thinner cattle. Fattening Cattle. — This has proven profitable in sections where corn is the leading crop and the area devoted to permanent pasture is relatively small. The kind of cattle selected for the feed lot depends upon the season of the year, the feeds available, the probable demand for the cattle when fat and the experience of the feeder. Young cattle make cheaper gains than older cattle, but they require a longer feeding period to become fat, because they use a large part of their feed for growth. Calves that are to be fattened should show quality and breeding. They should have short legs and blocky, broad, deep bodies, otherwise they will grow rather than fatten. It will require from eight to nine months from the time calves are weaned to make them prime even when on full feed. An excellent ration is ten pounds of silage, five pounds of alfalfa hay, one pound of linseed meal or cottonseed cake per head daily, and all the corn they can eat. Older cattle consume more roughage in proportion to the grain and are fed where corn is relatively scarce. To fatten cattle successfully and to secure satisfactory gains, the ration should be improved as the animals become fat. The customary farm practice is to start the cattle on roughage, such as silage, hay and fodder, with about six pounds of corn per thousand pounds liveweight daily, and BEEF CATTLE to increase the amount of corn as they become fatter. This makes the period when they are really on full feed very short. Fitting Show Animals. — The production of show animals is in reality a form of advertisement, and is restricted largely to the breeders of pure- bred cattle. Every art known to the feeder is utilized to develop such animals. The ration is quite similar to that fed to fattening animals during the last part of the feeding period, and is improved by grinding the grain, cutting the hay and adding a greater variety of feeds. Some- times barley is boiled and fed at the rate of one gallon per day and sugar or molasses is mixed with the grain to increase the palatability. In fact, everything possible is done to keep up the animaPs appetite. THE SELECTION OF CATTLE FOR THE FEED LOT The selection of cattle for the feed lot is probably the most vital question before the cattle feeders today. Upon this one problem depends the ultimate financial success of those who make a business of converting grain and roughage into beef. There are three factors which should always be given consideration: (1) the purpose for which the cattle are to be used, (2) the ability of the individuals to consume feed over and above that required for maintenance, and (3) the probable demand for beef when the cattle are returned from the feed lots. Methods of Feeding. — Cattle feeders may be divided into different groups according to their methods of feeding: (1) those who produce market-topping animals, (2) those who handle shortfed cattle, and (3) those who produce the great bulk of beef which usually finds its way to market after a period of grazing or roughing followed by a finishing period of either short or long duration. Characteristics of Good Feeders. — It makes little difference which method is followed. The essential characteristics of a good feeding steer remain constant. He must have good constitution and capacity associated with as much quality and type as it is possible to secure. A wide, strong, short head; short, thick neck; and deep, wide chest indicate constitution, and a deep, roomy barrel indicates capacity. These characteristics may be found in steers of plain as well as of excellent breeding, which accounts for the fact that individual dairy and scrub steers frequently make as rapid gains in the feed lot as beef-bred steers. The type, quality, form and finish as indicated by the deep covering of muscle, even distribution of fat, high percentage of the higher priced cuts of meats, high dressing percentage, smoothness and symmetry of carcass, and quality and texture of meat, are always associated with beef blood. The success of a feeder buyer depends largely upon his ability to see in thin cattle the possibility of improvement which results from the deposit of fat. As a general rule, there is little change in the skeleton proper. A feeder with a low back will finish into a fat steer with a low back. A feeder with a high tail, head or prominent hook-bones will finish into a fat steer (56) BEEF CATTLE 57 with these same deficiencies. A feeder with a long, narrow head, long legs, or shallow body will not alter his type in the feed lot. The greatest improvement comes in those regions of the body where the natural covering of muscle is thickest, in the shoulder, crops, back, loin and round. The body will increase more in width than in length and will decrease in apparent paunchiness due to the greater proportional increase in the width of the upper half of the body than in the lower half. The quality of meat will be improved by the deposit of fat within the bundles of muscle fiber, and the tenderness of meat will be improved because of the distention of all cells with fat, and the proportion of edible to non-edible parts of the animal will increase during the fattening period. These are potent reasons for the immense industry represented by the cattle feeders. Kind of Feed Related to Class of Cattle. — In addition to these factors which are inherent in the steer, the successful feeder buyer must give attention to the kind of feeds at his disposal. If he intends to use a large amount of grass or roughage in proportion to grain, he should select thin steers carrying some age. Older and thinner cattle will make better use of roughage than those which are younger and fleshier. If the feeder has a large acreage of corn and comparatively little pasture and roughage, he should select either heavy, fleshy feeders which he can return to market within a comparatively short time, or fancy calves of the best possible type and breeding which will develop into prime yearlings. If heavy fleshy feeders are selected, their quality and type should determine their market value, as compared with that of the plainer sort. The probable demand for the various grades of beef at the close of the feeding period is also a deter- mining factor. The feeder should limit his selection to those cattle which will make the greatest improvement in value per hundred pounds while in the feed lot. Calves and Yearlings. — Quality and type are essential in the selection of calves for feeding purposes. They should be bred for early maturity, otherwise they will grow rather than fatten and the cost of production will exceed their market value. The majority of yearlings are marketed from sixty to ninety days before they are fat, which indicates that it is essential to secure calves of the type that will fatten. The feeder should realize that he is entering into a proposition that requires eight to twelve months to complete and that he must feed the best of feeds in a concen- trated form to secure satisfactory gains and finish. Time to Market. — The time to market fat cattle is when further gains will not result in an increase in the value per hundredweight. For this reason plain, rough steers which will not produce attractive carcasses should be sold before they are thoroughly fattened. When fancy cattle of quality and type are fed, it is a general rule that they are more profit- able the fatter they become, because there is usually a demand for fancy finished beef. The season of the year also controls to some extent the quality of 58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING cattle that should go into the feed lot. Where grain-fed steers are to be marketed from the middle of July to the first of December, a better grade of cattle and a higher finish are demanded than at any other season of the year. In the late summer and early fall the markets are usually well supplied with beef that has been produced cheaply on grass with which the half -fat grain-fed cattle cannot compete profitably. After the Christ- mas holidays all the cattle come from dry lots and have been fattened on expensive feedstuffs so that the plain, rough cattle can be marketed to better advantage than during the grazing season, because the com- petition of grass-fed cattle is eliminated. The reasons for feeding beef cattle are that they reduce farm crops into a more concentrated market product and they are a means of per- manently maintaining the soil fertility. All feeding operations should be conducted with these facts in mind. The selection of feeding cattle which will serve the purpose and at the same time Droduce an immediate profit is the mark of the successful cattle feeder. THE DEFICIENCY IN THE MEAT SUPPLY Statistics need not be presented to substantiate the assertion that there is a decided deficiency in the supply of meat. The shortage is the result of a long-continued series of years during which the final value of the finished animal was less than the market value of the crops necessary for its production. During the early development of the country there were a considerable number of meat animals bred and fed in the Atlantic states. When the territory west of the Alleghenies and east of the Mississippi River was settled., the breeding industry moved to this section because cattle were the only means of marketing the grass, grain and forage. When transportation facilities were provided for the shipment of grain and other farm products, the breeding industry moved on to Missouri, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, where more favorable conditions existed. Here it dominated the agricultural practice until the free range in the West was made available through the suppression of lawlessness. The trend of the cattle-breeding industry has been westward toward the less expensive grazing lands, until there is now no cheap land available. With the decline of breeding operations, finishing or fattening for market became a well-established practice in those sections where the breeding of livestock was unprofitable. The result of this condition is that the demand for animals suitable for the feed lot has finally become so great that the West is no longer able to furnish an adequate supply of feeders, with subsequent high prices. In recent years the papers and magazines have kept up an almost continual agitation against the high price of meat. The high price has been attributed to the avarice of the farmer, the packer, the stockyards or the retail dealer, rather than to the laws of supply and demand. It has discouraged many from entering into a legitimate business venture for BEEF CATTLE 59 fear that unfavorable public opinion might at any time crystallize into the form of laws of such restrictive nature as to obliterate profits. Reliable data in regard to methods of meat production are insufficient to enable us to recommend practices which can be substantiated by records of unquestioned reliability. There is, however, so great an abundance of information as to methods of fattening that it is possible for one familiar with the publications and the general farm practices to recommend rations which are certain to produce rapid and economical gains in the feed lot with acceptable dressing percentages. Tenant Farming Unfavorable to Beef Production. — The rapid growth of tenant farming has eliminated the production of meat from thousands of acres of land which should never have been plowed, and will probably continue to exert a depressing influence upon the business until the value of farm lands is based upon production rather than upon speculation. Under the present system of renting, it is almost impossible to handle beef cattle profitably on a tenant farm. The cattle business requires a number of years to develop and a system of farming that will produce the feeds necessary to maintain a herd of cattle during the winter. A further reason is that the chief profit in cattle farming is the increase in the fertility of the soil and the yield of crops which comes from using the manure on the land. Where land is rented annually there is no incentive to build it up and increase crop production when a different renter may farm it the next year. A system of longer leases must result which will give the tenant an incentive to increase rather than exhaust the fertility of the soil. Breeding Cattle Requires Capital. — If means of financing breeding operations were provided, the supply of breeding animals on both farms and ranges would be increased tremendously. It is possible for a farmer who has produced a crop of corn or has pasture, to go to almost any bank and secure funds with which to purchase steers to consume these products. Money is loaned for ninety to one hundred and eighty days with the privilege of renewal. It is impossible, however, for him to borrow the same money with breeding females as security, because three to five years must elapse before the increase will be marketable. This is probably the greatest problem to be solved if breeding operations are to be materially increased in the near future. Breeding herds should be established in the South, the East and in the cut-over districts near the Great Lakes on the land that is adapted to the production of pasture grasses. More attention should be given to pastures to increase their carrying capacity by fertilizing them with manure or fertilizers, by thickening the stand of grass by natural or artificial means and by using silage during unfavorable periods. While grass is the most important crop produced in the United States, more land being devoted to its production than to all others except trees, there is not an important investigational project on the subject reported which the meat 60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING producer can use in a practical manner. Throughout the great grazing areas of the country something of definite permanent value must be done to re-establish pastures or the supply of feeding stock will diminish rather than increase in the next few years. The tremendous waste of the farm by-products of the cereal crops, corn, oats and wheat, which takes place annually throughout the entire country is sufficient to maintain thousands of animals in good breeding condition. This material has not, as yet, been successfully used on a large scale, but recent investigational work indicates that the use of a succulent feed during the winter makes these dry, coarse feeds palatable to a large extent. Refinement in the methods of feeding will in the future enable us to utilize other waste products which are now considered almost worthless. In the sub-humid sections, the use of the silo to preserve drought- resisting crops, such as Kaffir, milo, feterita and sorghums, and the intro- duction of new crops, such as Sudan grass, will make it possible to more than double the livestock production of that area. In all parts of the United States at least 300 pounds increase in weight can be secured on the average two-year-old steer by furnishing him an abundance of grass in the summer and an abundance of roughage in the winter. A limited amount of high protein feed should be used to make up the deficiency cf the ordinary roughages usually produced where legumes cannot be success- fully grown. It is probable that the loss of livestock from infectious and contagious diseases will be greatly reduced by the practice of sanitary measures, that a more careful study of breeding will result in the production of animals of greater efficiency, that a better knowledge of feeding will result in decreasing the cost of production, but the most potent remedy for the present deficiency in the meat supply is now being administered in the form of market values which leave a reasonable profit to the man who has courage to invest his capital in breeding cattle and the feeds necessary to maintain them. The farmer, as a business man, increases his operations along those lines which promise to return the greatest profit. REFERENCES "Beef Production." Mumford. Indiana Expt. Station Circular 29. " Livestock Judging for Beginners." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 588. "Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt." 580. "Beef Production in the South." 612. "Breeds of Beef Cattle." Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 133. "Steer Feeding Experiments." CHAPTER 6 SWINE BY JOHN M. EWARD Chief in Swine Production, Animal Husbandry Section, Iowa Experiment Station The hog is one of the most valuable and profitable domestic animals the farm can produce. In the selection of the herd these factors need to be considered: 1. Personal Preference is a most important consideration. CHESTER WHITE BOAR.* 2. The Feeds Available. — In the corn belt lard type hogs are best because of their adaptation, whereas in Canada a bacon type will utilize the northern grown feeds to better commercial advantage. 3. Location and Climate. — The hog that is best for a certain county in Courtesy of The Field, New York City. (61) 62 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Courtesy of The Field, New York City. SWINE 63 Iowa may be ill-adapted to a county in Maine because various community conditions, such as customs, pasture range and cattle raising have their unmistakable effects. The climate in the South, because of the hot, long hours of piercing sunshine, puts the white hog at some disadvantage, whereas in the northern country he gets along exceptionally well. 4. Distribution. — A large number of swine of one type in a certain district usually indicates that they are well adapted. When in doubt, that breed which is well distributed in the community should be adopted. To raise Poland Chinas in a county where practically none but Tam- CHESTEB WBITB Sows.1 Lard Type Hogs. worths were raised, may result in disappointment, this being especially true if one depends upon local buyers for the sale of hogs. 5. Markets. — A nearby market which demands the bacon type, discriminating against the lard type, pound for pound, would have much influence in determining the kind of swine to raise in that particular section. Breeds of Swine. — The two principal types of hogs are the lard and the bacon. Lard hogs are noted for their great depth, breadth, general compactness, smoothness, short legs, large hams, heavy jowls, relatively heavy shoulders, mellow finish (due to heavy fat layers) and docile i Courtesy of The Field, New York City. 64 SUCCESSFUL FARMING i Courtesy of The Field, New York City. SWINE 65 temperament. Bacon hogs stand in marked contrast in that the typi- cal representatives have greater relative length, medium depth and breadth, similar smoothness but more trimness, long legs; small, trim, tapering hams; very neat, tidy jowls; very light and trim shoulders; exceptionally firm finish (with slight external fat layers) and active temperament. The general or dual purpose breeds are a combinaton of the bacon and lard types, emphasis being placed upon the development of suitable market hams, bacon, ribs and loin, as well as the tendency to produce marketable animals suitable for lard. The most typical lard type representatives are the Poland Chinas, black with white markings or spotted black, white and sandy; the Duroc Jerseys, entirely of a cherry red; and the Chester Whites, wholly white. These three breeds are especially popular in the corn belt, and deservedly so. Other lard type breeds are the Mulefoots, black, sometimes with white markings; the Victorias, white; the Cheshires, white; the Suffolks, white; the small Yorkshires, white; the Essex, black; and the Sapphires, blue (sometimes white markings). The typical bacon type representatives are the large Yorkshires, white; and the Tam worths, red; both being especially prominent in Can- ada and the northern United States. The dual purpose representatives are the Berkshires, black with white markings; the Hampshires, black with white belt; and the middle white or middle Yorkshires, white but little known in this country. Of ^he breeds mentioned, seven are white, six all black or black with either white or sandy markings, two red and one blue. The most widely distributed pigs in the Canadian country are white, whereas in the corn belt and southern districts they are either black or red. This probably represents climatic adaptation. Grading Up the Herd. — An ordinary farm herd composed of native individuals may be advantageously graded up by using successive pure- bred sires of the same breed. The first-cross animals are especially vigorous for market as well as for breeding purposes; they gain very rapidly and economically, and likewise make very good mothers. In a grading-up program, assuming that a Duroc Jersey is used for the first cross and the offspring of the first cross are again bred to Duroc Jersey sires, it is surprising how quickly the offspring approach the Duroc types. In a few years, providing gilts only are kept each year for breeding, a typical Duroc Jersey herd, resembling closely the typical pure breed, will be a reality. The same grading-up process may be followed with any pure breed. This is an excellent practice and one to be followed with profit in the production of a uniform, dependable market type. The crossing of breeds already crossed is to be discouraged, largely because of the heterogeneous individuals which result, these being of various types, sizes, colors and so on; this dissimilarity of offspring being 66 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City. SWINE 67 all the more marked if the original pure-breds used are very different and less true if they are very similar. Age of Breeding Stock. — Mature sows as compared to gilts enjoy some very marked and practical advantages, as follows: 1. A larger number of pigs at farrowing time. 2. Heavier, stronger, bigger-boned new-born pigs. 3. More pigs usually saved to each sow up to weaning time, hence more reach the market. 4. They are tried mothers, the undesirable brood sows being naturally eliminated. 5. Less high-priced protein feeds are needed to supplement the cheaper carbohydrates. 6. More rough feeds may be used, such as alfalfa hay and pasture. 7. Matured and tried-out sires can be used to advantage; this ofttimes not being feasible with young gilts unless a breeding crate is used. 8. Immunized, cholera-proof sows may be continuously kept, and the expense and bother of the annual immunization of young sows thus eliminated. 9. Two litters a year are raised with less difficulty. All young gilts cannot raise two litters successfully the first year. 10. Less loss in condition during the suckling period. 11. More dependable as breeders. The disadvantages of sows older than gilts are not to be overlooked, and are as follows: 1. Require more feed. 2. More house room necessary. 3. If the "one litter a year" practice is followed these sows must be carried through a six months' unproductive period, which is relatively expensive. 4. Greater capital investment imperative. 5. Greater risk involved because of the greater capital invested. 6. Swine money not turned so often because the sows are kept longer and not sold annually as are the gilts. 7. Docked more on marketing, ofttimes twenty-five cents per hun- dred, than "trim-bellied" gilts. 8. Gains while "fattening off for market" more expensive. 9. Usually need an older, mature boar, because the younger ones are not so handily used; hence, the breeding more difficultly managed. 10. Apt to become overfat, clumsy and awkward, and hence overlie the new-born pigs. This tendency to overfatness must be carefully guarded against. 11. More difficult, generally speaking, to manage. In profitable practice, a happy combination of both gilts and old sows may be kept to good advantage. The breeder of pure-bred swine 68 SUCCESSFUL FARMING f obviously may well keep more old sows proportionately than does the market man. In the selection of individual sows for the herd it is well that they show: 1. Trueness to the particular type and breed wished, having a desi- rable ancestry and being preferably from a prolific, tested family. 2. A well-formed udder with active teats and no blind ones. 3. Feminine characteristics of refinement. 4. Roominess and capacity. 5. A kindly disposition. 6. Good breeding record as manifested in their offspring. 7. Absence of overfatness and flabbiness. 8. A good, healthy constitution free from vermin and diseases. The boar should possess most of these general requirements, emphasis being placed upon his masculinity as indicated in the well-developed crest, shield, tusks and general ruggedness. A mature, tried boar is more acceptable than an immature, untried one. Housing. — In the housing of swine emphasis should be placed upon warmth, dryness, abundance of light and direct sunlight, shade, ventila- tion, sanitation, safety, comfort, convenience, size, durability, low first cost, minimum cost of maintenance and pleasing appearance of the struc- ture to be used. This applies to the large centralized community or the small movable individual type. The selection of a correct site for the location of the hog house is very important. Emphasis should be placed upon the economy of labor and time in management, drainage, exposure, slope, windbreaks, nearness to pasture and shade, elevation, prevention of odors reaching home dwelling and risk from disease infection. To place any hog house in an undesirable, ill-adapted place is to invite loss, dissatisfaction and possible failure. The large community house as compared with the small movable one has some advantages in that the time and labor required for some operations is less; durability is usually greater; lighting from direct and diffuse sunlight better arranged; ventilation made more simple and systematic; general equipment usually less and more compactly arranged; close attention to the herd easily and practically possible; herdsman experiences minimum of exposure; feed storage, water supply and general rooms may be conveniently arranged; sanitation in some respects may be more encouraged; vermin more largely eliminated; site selection is simplified because only one site is needed; the heating problem is compara- tively easy; common feeding floor and water wallow may be more handily arranged ; danger of loss less than with large number of houses in common yards; provides headquarters for the swine farm; fire and other risk may be minimized through masonry construction; a number of swine under one cover become better acquainted; makes possible adjustable pens; facilitates collection of liquid manure; and advertising value may be greater. SWINE 69 On the other hand, the community house is a disadvantage in that location is not easily changed; isolation is practically impossible; sanita- tion may be sometimes discouraged; construction is more complex; it is not so practical for beginners; the first cost is somewhat high; more fencing is required to provide similar range conditions; it is likely to be used solely for a farrowing house and thus decrease serviceability; and fire and other hazardous risks may be greater if it is built of wood and is in close proximity to other buildings. A combination of the two types of houses, i. e., the large centralized or community one supplemented with the small movable one, deserves favor in practice. Each type has its own peculiar advantages and dis- advantages, whereas the two together counterbalance each other so .as to make a very complete efficient practical combination system. Feeds for Swine. — Feeding swine has to do with the balancing of the grain ration to make it most efficient. The shortcomings of corn as feed for swine have their counterpart in other grains used less extensively in pork production, namely, barley, wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kaffir corn and milo maize. The predominating deficiencies of corn as a grain for growing swine are: 1. Low in Protein. — A young growing pig should have a pound of protein with every three to four pounds of carbohydrates. Corn has only one pound of protein to about eight and one-half pounds of carbohydrates. 2. The Quality of Protein is Only Fair. — Corn products alone, partly because of the protein content being of low quality, are inefficient in dry lot feeding, even though an abundance of protein be supplied as in the form of gluten meal. 3. Lacking in Mineral Elements. — Corn is particularly low in cal- cium, which comprises 40 per cent of the dry ash of bone. The young pregnant gilt would have to eat something like thirty pounds of corn a day in order to get enough calcium to supply the growing fcetus. Common salt and calcium and potassium phosphate have been found beneficial when added to a corn diet. The deficiency of minerals in corn has been largely responsible for the widespread general use of condimental material, such as wood-ashes, charcoal, bone phosphate, rock phosphate, cinders, slaked coal and others being used in practical hog feeding. 4. Presents an Acid Ash. — When corn is high in protein this acidity is especially marked. To make corn more productive this acidity should be counteracted. This is made possible by the judicious use of efficient and proper supplements. The most acceptable, practical supplements to corn and the otLer similar starchy grains may be briefly enumerated as follows: skimmed milk, buttermilk, tankage, blood meal, linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal, gluten meal, wheat middlings, Canada field peas, soy beans, alfalfa and clover hay. 70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The production of pastures is an economical proposition and is to be encouraged on every American as well as Canadian swine farm in order to obviate the necessity of purchasing high-priced protein concentrates. The most profitable supplemental pastures in the corn belt in the order of merit are: alfalfa, rape, red clover, blue grass and sweet clover of the first year's growth. In the South cowpeas, soy beans, Spanish peanuts and Lespedeza clover may be added, inasmuch as these plants give excellent success in warm climates and on soils that are sandy and relatively unpro- ductive as compared to the corn belt soils of Iowa and Illinois. Swine feeding and dairying, along with judicious use of green forages in a good corn, barley or other similar grain country, is a most excellent swine-farming proposition. If alfalfa can be raised, so much the better. Preparation of Feeds. — Hard, tough, fibrous-shelled seeds such as Kaffir corn, sorghum, milo maize and millet will be much more efficient if fed in the ground condition. If grinding is impossible, soaking is the next best possible procedure. Wheat, rye and barley likewise give better results when ground, and can also be soaked as an alternative. Some experiments show as much as 20 per cent increase in the efficiency of wheat through the grinding as compared to feeding the grain dry and whole. The general herd, young pigs and sows on a maintenance ration do better on ear corn than any other form. However, fattening sows and heavy fat hogs in the final stages of fattening make more economical gains on the soaked shelled grain. If any preparation should be used other than dry ear, it should be shelled soaked corn rather than the ground grain dry or soaked. Corn-and-cob meal has little to commend it to any class of swine except possibly the brood sows on maintenance, and even with these the ear corn is the most profitable. Hays, such as ground alfalfa, may be ground ofttimes in order to facilitate their mixture with the grain rations and to encourage their consumption. Wetting and cooking of feeds is not ordinarily profitable, although to produce rapid gains these procedures are sometimes permissible, this being especially true in the production and finishing of show stock. Hand vs. Self-Feeding. — Better results will be secured by the self- feed method than by hand-feeding twice daily. However, feeding three times a day is the most efficient, considering rapidity of gains and economy in feed required for 100 pounds of gain. Under our ordinary high-priced labor conditions, thrice a day is not enough better to excel self-feeding. The " Free-Choice" scheme of feeding consists of allowing acceptable feeds before swine in such a manner that they can balance their own rations. In 1914 a group of pigs fed at the Iowa station according to this scheme, receiving shelled corn, linseed oil meal, oats and meat meal (or tankage), limestone, charcoal and salt in separate feeds, weighed 316 SWINE 71 pounds when 8 months 7 days old. They did as well as if they had been fed according to accepted feeding standards. Tests now in progress (1915) at the Iowa station indicate that pigs can feed themselves better than a trained animal husbandman can feed them if he follows the customary feeding standards. When pigs are allowed starchy corn and high-protein meat meal (tankage) in separate feeders, this feed being kept before them from wean- ing time until they reach a weight of 300 pounds, they will eat of these two dry lot fed feeds approximately as follows: Approximate Age, days. Approximate Weight, pounds. Pounds 60 Per Cent Protein Meat Meal (Tankage) Eaten with Every 100 Pounds Corn. Pounds Protein Eaten with Every 100 Pounds Starches. \Veanling 60 35 20 3 38 Shote 120 100 15 3 84 Fattening hog 180 210 8 4 79 Fat marketable hog 240 300 1 6.50 The self-feeding method is excellent in dry lot feeding, on pastures and where skim milk or buttermilk is used. Feed for the Brood Sows. — The brood sow should have good feed in order to produce strong, healthy pigs. Skim milk, tankage, alfalfa pas- ture, etc., combined with corn or other grains, often increase the litters as much as one pig over corn alone. To demonstrate the advantage of supplementing the starchy grain feeds such as corn with the proper protein supplement, the resulting average weight and strength of the pigs secured is given for a few typical rations: Ration Fed.* Average Weight per Pig, pounds. Strong Pigs, per cent. Cost of New-born Pigs, cents. Corn only 1.74 68 41 Corn plus 4 per cent tankage 2.01 92 18 Corn plus 16 per cent tankage 2.23 93 22 Corn plus alfalfa in rack 2.12 98 31 These gilts were charged at the rate of 50 cents a bushel for shelled corn, $2.50 for meat meal and $15 a ton for the alfalfa hay; yet in spite of the comparative high cost of the supplements, the pigs produced were not only cheaper but much better pigs were secured, the animals being much larger and stronger than where corn only was fed. * Animal Husbandry Section — Iowa Experiment Station Results. 72 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The unborn pig must be well fed indirectly through its host the brood sow if a strong, vigorous, active pig carrying big bone and strong muscle at the time of farrow is desired. In general, it is well to emphasize in brood sow management : A. Acceptable balanced feeds in sufficient quantity. B. Maximum growth without excessive fattening. C. Abundant exercise, especially the latter two months of gestation. D. Riddance of lice and worms. E. Moderate laxativeness, because constipation is a menace. F. Gentleness in handling the herd. The suckling sow and litter should be fed better than any other class of swine. The demand for growing feeds by both the sow and pigs at this time is great. Such feeds as corn, barley, skim milk, buttermilk, tank- age, wheat middlings, alfalfa, rape, clover, blue grass and other pastures, and similar feeds equally as good are to be particularly commended. Feeding the Pigs. — From time of weaning to maturity pigs should have plenty of suitable forage. Nothing is better than pastures of clover, alfalfa, rape, etc. Here they may be given a full or limited ration, depend- ing on circumstances. If the usually better early fall markets are the goal, full-feeding will be in order; whereas if the later but somewhat lower markets are most acceptable, the grain ration can be limited. Ordinarily, it is not a paying proposition to feed less than three pounds of grain with every 100 pounds of pig daily. A lesser amount, especially if the pasture be poor, will cause the pigs to become stunted. The fall pigs which are raised in winter dry lot must be fed a relatively high-priced ration; in other words, one high in protein. The fall pigs need warm shelter, and it is best to feed them inside the shelter. They must be protected from the cold winds, snows, hails, and general wintry conditions, while the spring pig should be protected from the hot sun and the flies. The fall pig lives at a time when attacks from worms are at low ebb and are not readily passed from one host to another. The "hogging-down'' of corn deserves much emphasis. It is prac- ticed profitably in all of the corn belt states. It may be likened to dry lot feeding if the field is clean and free from weeds, and supplemental pro- tein feeds should be supplied accordingly. It is well to have an alfalfa, rape or similar pasture field adjoining in order to supply this protein at the lowest cost. Rape, winter rye or winter wheat in the northern corn belt may be sown in the corn at the last cultivation or shortly thereafter with excel- lent success; in the more southern districts cowpeas and soy beans may be included with profit. Successful swine rations for general American conditions, and suitable SWINE 73 for the various sizes, ages and classes of hogs are suggested in a ready reference table presented herewith: The Swine to be Fed. I. Growing and Fattening for Market. 1. Suckling pigs (a creep) 5-40 pounds. . 25 2. Weanling pigs, 30-100 pounds 25-18 3. Shoats, 100-175 pounds 18-10 4. Hogs, 175-250 pounds 10-4 5. Fat Hogs, 250-350 pounds 4-1 II. Fattening Sows for Market. 1. Yearlings (gilts) after weaning. A. In poor condition, run-down 11-8 B. In good condition, thrifty 9-5 2. Two years or older. A. In poor condition, run-down 6-4 B. In good condition, thrifty 2-0 III. Stags, Fattening. A. Young 9-4 B. Old 5-0 IV. Carrying Sows, Breeding. 1. Breeding swine, flushing. A. Gilts. 14 B. Yearlings and older 11 2. During pregnancy. A. Gilts 14-10 B. Yearlings and older 10-6 V. Suckling Sows. A. With large litters - 25-18 B. With small litters. . 20-8 Pounds of Tankage* (60 per cent Protein) to be Fed along with every 100 Pounds of Corn to Swine of Various Classes in Dry Lot. Low-Protein Pasture, f 25- 23-16 16-9 9-4 4-1 11-8 8-5 6-4 2-0 9-4 5-0 14 11 10-7 6-4 25-18 20-8 High-Protein Pasture. J 20-12 12-5 5-2 2-2 0 5-0 0 4-0 0 10 0-5 0-4 10 3-5 * If corn is not available, it may be substituted pound for pound in these proportions with barley, wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kaffir corn, milp maize, or feterita, or a combination of any of these. If 60 per cent protein tankage is not available, linseed oil meal or soy bean meal may be substituted, 2 to 2| times as much being used. For example, the suggested dry lot ration for growing and fattening shoats is "corn 100, tankage 18 to 10;" now substitute oil meal 2 times as much and we have corn 100, linseed oil meal 36 to 20. To substitute wheat middlings, allow 17 times as much, skim or buttermilk 20 times, and blood meal 60 per cent as much, or almost two-fifths less. Blood meal runs about 85 per cent protein and but little is required, but blood meal is not so good a supplement as tankage, everything considered. f Low-Protein Pastures. — Dry, hard, fibrous blue grass; sorghum; feterita; millet; Sudan grass; milo maize; timothy when over four inches high; rye or wheat over eight inches; or oats and barley over five inches, or beginning a couple of weeks before beginning to joint; and sweet clover of second year's growth after two feet high. t High-Protein Pastures. — Alfalfa; rape, Dwarf Essex; medium red, mammoth, alsike, and white and other clovers; young, tender, sweet clover, first year's growth; quite early, tender, new coming timothy, rye or wheat; short, "shooting," tender, green, succulent blue grass, cowpeas; and soy beans. 74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING REFERENCES "Productive Swine Husbandry." Day. "Swine in America." Coburn. "Swine." Dietrich. "Forty Years' Experience as a Practical Hog Man." Lovejoy. "The Hog Book." Dawson. Alabama Expt. Station Bulletin 185. "Dipping Vat for Hogs and Dips;" "Hog Worms, Lice and Mange;" "Hog Lot, Houses and Water Supply." Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 4. "Mai-Nutrition of Hogs." Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 147. "Pork Production." Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 268. "Fattening Swine with Substitutes for Corn." South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 157. "Rape Pasture for Pigs in Cornfield." Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 107. "Swine Feeding." Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 225. "Swine." Fanners' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 411. "Feeding Hogs in the South." 438. "Hog Houses." CHAPTER 7 SHEEP AND GOATS BY T. C. STONE Instructor in Animal Husbandry, Ohio State University Early Importance of Sheep. — There is evidence that sheep were under domestication in Europe in prehistoric times. The primitive man used the skin for clothing and the meat and milk for food. As man has advanced in civilization, sheep farming has become an important branch of agricul- A TYPICAL COTSWOLD EWE.' ture. Sheep and their wool were very early acknowledged to be the founda- tion of the national prosperity and the wealth of Great Britain and other European countries. The more recent introduction of silk manufactures and the establishment of the cotton trade have lessened the demand for woolen goods; still, the sheep and its fleece are of great importance. i Courtesy of The Field, New York City. 75 76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The Sheep of Spain. — The Spanish Merino, the only type of sheep in Spain, are noted for: (1) the production of a very fine wool, (2) hardiness and ability to travel, and (3) the disposition to stay close together when feeding, resting and traveling. These characteristics have had an impor- tant influence on their later history. The Sheep of England. — In England were developed several types of sheep, and each type or breed was adapted to a certain locality. These breeds were quite unlike in fleece. The wool found favor on the market because of its variety in length and quality, which made it adaptable to A TYPICAL LINCOLN EwE.1 different uses. The Royal Agricultural Society of England in its show catalogue recognizes twenty-five breeds. These were all developed on the British Isles. Some were developed in the lowlands, some in the hills and others in the midlands. They were developed principally for meat; fresh meat in England, with its great population, being of greater consequence than wool. The various breeds were divided into four classes, namely, the long- wool breeds, the middle-wool breeds, the highlanders or mountain breeds and the upland breeds. Breeds of Sheep. — Two distinct types of sheep have been produced, namely, the mutton and wool types. The former are valued chiefly on i Courtesy of The Field, New York City. SHEEP AND GOATS account of their ability to make mutton economically, although the wool- producing ability of the mutton sheep constitutes no small part of their value to the farmer. The wool type, however, is raised mainly for the wool it produces. In conformation, the mutton sheep are compact, with a short head and neck, a broad, level back, a full leg of mutton, a deep body and short legs. The wool ranges in length from 2J inches in the middle-wools to 10 inches in the long- wools. The fleece does not cover the body so compactly as does the fleece of the fine-wool sheep. The medium-wool breeds greatly A TYPICAL SHROPSHIRE.1 excel the long-wools in this respect. The fleece of the medium-wool breeds is much less fine in quality and has much less yolk or oil in it than does the fleece of the Merino sheep. LONG- WOOL BREEDS Leicester. — Very large sheep, wool 6 inches long at 12 months, being bright and lustrous; face and legs white; no wool on head. Weight of mature rams ranges from 225 to 250 pounds; ewes from 175 to 200 pounds. Cotswold. — Wool 8 inches long at 12 months; pronounced tuft of wool on forehead; face and legs white. Rams weigh from 250 to 275 pounds; ewes from 200 to 225 pounds. 1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City. 89 78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Lincoln. — No breed furnishes so long a fleece as the Lincoln. It ranges from 8 to 12 inches; tuft of wool on forehead. Rams weigh about 385 pounds; ewes about 275 pounds. MEDIUM-WOOL BREEDS Southdown. — They are smallest of the middle-wools, very low-set and compact, with steel-gray or mouse-brown markings on face and legs. Fleece is 2f inches long at 12 months. Rams weigh from 185 to 200 pounds ; A TYPICAL CHEVIOT.* ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. Criticised for lack of wool production and insufficient size. Much improvement has been due to this breed. Shropshire. — They are stylish sheep with pronounced extension of wool over face and legs; color marking is a deep, soft brown. Wool 3 inches long at 12 months. Rams weigh about 225 pounds; ewes from 140 to 160 pounds. Rank high as a dual purpose breed. Oxfords. — They resemble the Shropshire, but are larger and do not have as great wool extension over face and legs. Lighter brown is the color marking, and usually are more upstanding. Wool is 4 inches long at 12 1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SHEEP AND GOATS 79 months. Heavier than Southdowns and Shropshires, equal to Hampshires. Hams weigh from 275 to 300 pounds; ewes about 175 to 200 pounds. They give size and weight when crossed on short-wools and quality and better mutton when crossed on the long-wooled breeds. Hampshires. — They have darker color markings than the Oxfords, and a very pronounced Roman nose. Wool is 2J inches long at 12 months. Very early maturing sheep. Dorset Horn. — Have white color markings; very little wool on face , A TYPICAL MERINO. 1 and legs and it does not extend well over lower parts of the body. Both ewes and rams have horns. Wool at 12 months is 3 inches long. Weight of rams from 250 to 275 pounds; ewes 175 to 185 pounds. A mutton breed of merit; valued as early lamb raisers. Cheviot. — They are very alert, stylish sheep with white markings. Face and legs are free from wool. Wool is 4 inches long. Rams weigh from 200 to 225 pounds; ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. It is a very hardy breed and individuals graze independently of each other. Fine- Wool or Merino Sheep. — This type is the result of efforts to 1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 80 SUCCESSFUL FARMING produce a fleece of finest quality. In developing this type some breeders did not overlook the mutton qualities, while others did. The Spanish Merino was the foundation of the three classes of Merinos as they exist today. The three classes are A, B and C. This classification is based on differences in conformation, character of fleece, and number and disposition of wrinkles or folds on the sheep. The Merino blood must predominate on our western ranges because of the gregarious nature of this breed. They have great constitution and vigor and are much less susceptible to parasitic trouble than the breeds of the mutton type. They can be kept in smaller quarters and the ewes do not need as much care at lambing time as ewes of the mutton breeds. They are lacking greatly in mutton qualities, and there is a strong demand for A TYPICAL FLOCK OF SHEEP IN the dual purpose animal. The Merino will not be supplanted, but as the demand for mutton becomes stronger, they will no doubt be supplemented very largely by the mutton breeds. Establishing a Flock. — Sheep may be kept profitably on either high or low-priced land. On the high-priced lands of England sheep are found in great numbers and they would certainly not be kept if they were not profitable. Sheep do best on slightly rolling land where dry footing pre- vails. They get more sustenance and at the same time do the land more good than any other class of livestock. The manure from sheep contains more fertilizing value per ton than any other kind of farm manure with the exception of poultry. i Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. ment," by Agee. From "Crops and Methods for Soil Improve- rS KEEP AND GOATS 81 Very little capital is needed to start a flock of sheep. They need not be housed in expensive buildings. Nature has fitted them to endure cold weather. A small flock requires very little labor, especially during the busy summer. These advantages, along with the fact that sheep destroy weeds, thereby helping to beautify the farm, make the sheep a valuable asset to the American farmer. These advantages are not mentioned with the view of urging the farmer to give up other classes of farm animals, but to remind him of the advantage of supplementing his stock with a small flock of, say, forty ewes or even less. Essentials to Success. — One should choose the breed best adapted to local conditions, especially the climate and market. There is no best breed for all conditions. It is best that a man gain his experience with grade stuff. One may purchase either Merino or mutton breeds and then grade them up by using a pure-bred ram. The latter is of great importance. A ram having a good pedigree and good individuality should be selected. He should be purchased from a reliable breeder and the stockman should not hesitate to pay a good price for a desirable ram. The ram should possess good breed type and be masculine. An effeminate ram should have no place in a flock. Masculinity is indicated by a short, broad head, large, broad nostrils, ruggedness in appearance and a lack of too great refinement throughout. Rams should have a good conformation, and those which have been very highly fitted should be avoided, as they often prove non-breeders. There are only a few instances where it would be permissible to use a ram lamb to head the flock. This is done more often in the case of the Hampshire breed than others. Older rams usually make the best breeders. A ram of the middle-wool breeds is sufficiently devel- oped and fit for service at the age of 1J/2 years. Only ewes that are sound in their mouths and udders, and that possess feminine characteristics and good general conformation should be pur- chased. It must be remembered that the ewes are half the flock. One should not make the mistake, after establishing a flock, of allow- ing the sheep to care for themselves. Suitable but inexpensive shelter and plenty of forage should be provided and plenty of salt and water should be kept before them. It is necessary to be on the lookout for internal parasites, especially in lambs, during the summer months. The Breeding Season. — The breeding season of the year in this country commences in September or just as soon as the cool nights begin. The heat periods of the ewes last from one to two days and normally appear at intervals of 16 days. The Dorset Horn and Tunis will breed at any time. Period of Gestation. — The usual period is 146 days. Ewes, however, are very irregular about bringing forth their young. Shepherds in the old country figure on 140 days. The period of gestation is often longer for Rambouillets than for other breeds. Care of Ram During Breeding Season. — Not more than 40 ewes should i Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1 (82) SHEEP AND GOATS 83 be allowed to one ram. The last born lambs are often weaker than those born earlier in the season. This indicates that it is not advisable to breed the ram to too many ewes. In a large flock, the ram should be put with the ewes for an hour at the end of each day. In a small flock, he may be allowed to run with the ewes all the time. Where hand coupling is not practiced, one should paint the brisket between the ram's fore-leg with paint. Red lead and linseed oil make a desirable paint for this purpose. This mark wrill indicate that the ewes have been bred. After 16 days the ram may be painted another color. By this means the breeder may know whether the ewes are returning. The ram should be fed liberally during the breeding season, but not too well. A mixture of equal parts of oats, bran and oil-cake, say one pint, both mornings and evenings, will prove a good ration. Winter Care of Ewes. — A lamb gets its start on the right or wrong way before it is born. The pregnant ewes should be sufficiently fed, but not overfed during winter. They should be given plenty of exercise; the more they get, the healthier the lamb crop will be. The feeding of too much grain just previous to lambing time should be avoided. Bran, oats, oil meal and clover make an ideal ration for the breeding ewe. Silage and roots are good succulent feeds, but must be fed in small quantities and must be of good quality. Care of Young Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned when 3}^ to 4 months old, and put on fresh pasture. The secret of successful and profit- able lamb raising is to keep them growing and in good condition from birth to maturity. Lambs should be given grain as soon as they can thoroughly digest it. In order that they may eat at will, it is necessary to build creeps for them. The feeds given and the amount will depend largely on the purpose for which they are being prepared. These being fitted for the market should be fed liberally with grain until they are of market age. Their ration may consist almost wholly of corn. A good grain ration for lambs just beginning to eat is ground corn, one part; crushed oats, one part; linseed oil meal, one part; and wheat bran, two parts. All lambs should be docked and all males intended for the open market should be castrated. Lambs that are not castrated often sell for at least $1.50 per 100 pounds less than castrated lambs. This does not take into consideration the loss of flesh due to activity of ram lambs. The lamb that is not docked gets filthy around the dock and presents a poor appear- ance on the market. They may be docked and castrated when about two weeks old. It is much more convenient to do both at the same time, and no evil results will follow if the operations are performed in the right way. Marketing the Lambs. — It is usually best to market the lambs at weaning time. This will occur about July 1st. There is great demand for lambs weighing from 65 to 70 pounds. They furnish a superior prod- 84 SUCCESSFUL FARMING uct for the consumer and make very economical gains for the producer. There are other reasons for marketing lambs at this time. First, lambs gain very little during hot summer months; second, there is risk of losing them through the internal parasites; third, one avoids heaviest run of western lambs; and lastly, one gets the use of his money earlier. Shearing the Flock. — Time of shearing depends on the weather, the season and the locality and equipment. It is advisable to shear as soon as warm weather begins in the spring. Late shearing is unadvisable, as the sheep will lose in weight if compelled to carry heavy fleeces. They AN ANGORA BucK.1 are also liable to lose some of their wool during the later months. Well- fed ewes with comfortable sheds may be sheared fairly early. They will not suffer if the days should become a little cool. Wethers fed under the same conditions may often be sheared as early as March. They will gain faster when fleeces are removed. Care should be exercised to see that they do not overeat at this time. Both hand shearing and machine shearing are practiced. Dipping the Flock. — All sheep should be dipped for three reasons. First, to promote healthy condition of the skin; second, as a remedy for scabies in sheep; third, to kill the lice and ticks. * From Farmers' Bulletin 573, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SHEEP AND GOATS 85 The time for dipping depends upon the time of shearing. It is best to dip five or six days after shearing. The ticks and lice leave the shorn ewes and go to a more sheltered place on the bodies of the young lambs. If one delays dipping for any length of time after shearing, the lambs will suffer a great deal with these pests. A second dipping should take place during the fall. Any of the recommended coal tar dips may be used. In using these, one should see that they have the approval of the Department of Agri- culture and should follow the directions carefully. A flock thus handled will afford the owner much pleasure and profit for capital and labor invested. The earnings from sheep will compare very favorably with those of any of our domestic animals. GOATS Goats are very valuable as a renovator of brush lands. They are not naturally grazing animals, but rather browsers. In some states, the cost of clearing large tracts of land has been greatly reduced by pasturing with flocks of goats. Besides this, many goats, especially the representatives of the breeds of milch goats, are noted as milk producers. They have held a recognized place as such for a great many years among the poorer people of the world. In some countries varieties of goats are bred especially for their milk- producing qualities. In this country, the Angora goat and the common goats give milk, but milking families have not been produced. The Angora goat yields a fleece which is valued highly on the market. It is commercially known as mohair. It is coarser than fine wool, but longer and stronger. When sold on the market, goats bring a lower price than sheep. The mutton from goats is not considered nearly as good as mutton from sheep. Angora and common goats are found in almost every state in this country . They seem to do well under a wide range of climatic conditions. A dry climate, however, seems most favorable for them. REFERENCES "Sheep Farming." Craig and Marshall. "Sheep Farming in America." Wing. '' Productive Sheep Husbandry." Coffey. "Sheep Farming." Kleinheinz. "Sheep Feeding and Farm Management." Doane. " The Winter Lamb." Miller and Wing. "Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats." Thompson. Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 153. "Fattening Lambs." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 68. "Information Concerning the Milch Goat." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 573. "The Angora Goat." 576. "Breeds of Sheep for the Farm." 652. "The Sheep Killing Dog." CHAPTER 3 THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) BY M. C. KILPATRICK Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Ohio State University Improved methods of production and the establishment of large specialized poultry farms have greatly increased the supply of poultry and eggs during recent years. The demand for these products, however, has been increasing even more rapidly than the supply. This increasing demand is due both to the rapid increase of the consuming population and to a growing preference for these products as food. The increase in the demand for eggs is especially marked, due largely to the increased price of meats and the fact that modern transportation facilities, storage warehouses and improved methods of handling eggs have resulted in a better distribution of the supply throughout the year and a higher standard of quality upon the large city markets. Importance of the Farm Flock. — The farm flocks of the country furnish 90 and possibly 95 per cent of the total supply of poultry and eggs. It is natural that the general farms should be the principal source of supply, because poultry husbandry is essentially a livestock industry, and for this reason, best adapted to development under farm conditions. The farm provides those conditions which are essential to profitable poultry produc- tion, viz., ample range and pasture at low cost, cheaper feeds, the oppor- tunity to make use of waste materials and convert them into marketable products, low labor cost, and of greatest importance, natural conditions which tend to increase rather than to decrease the health and vigor of the flock. Unfortunately, the average farm flock falls far short of its productive possibilities. This is due largely to the fact that fowls are kept on the farm primarily for the purpose of supplying the home table with fresh meat and eggs and have not been regarded as an important source of income. This has resulted in flocks of small size and poor quality, inadequate equipment and a general indifference toward poultry on the farm. The increasing demand for poultry and eggs, and the general increase in the farm price of these products have resulted in making the farm flock of good size and quality, and properly equipped and handled, an important source of income. In addition it performs its primary function in supplying poultry and eggs for the home table. The Size of the Farm Flock. — The size of the farm flock is an important factor in determining whether poultry is to be a profitable farm enterprise (86) THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 8V or not. The optimum size of the flock for a particular farm depends upon a number of conditions. These conditions are so variable that it is impos- sible to set a definite standard which will be applicable to all farms. It is evident, however, that the flock should number at least 100 fowls, and, except under very favorable circumstances, should seldom exceed 500 fowls. As many fowls should be kept as possible without allowing the poultry work to come in direct competition with more important farm enter- prises. For the average farm, this will mean a flock of 300 to 500 fowls. Sources of Income. — The principal sources of income from the farm flock are poultry and eggs for market. The production of eggs for market is the more important because of the relatively greater demand for them and the greater convenience with which they may be produced and mar- A TYPICAL FARM FLOCK. keted. It is impossible to separate the two and, under some conditions, the production of market poultry may become the more important. Other possible sources of income are the sale of eggs for hatching, fowls for breeding purposes, day-old chicks, and the production and sale of pullets for egg production. The relative importance of each of these sources of income and the extent to which they may be combined will be determined by the personality of the poultryman and the organization of the farm business. Advantages of Pure-Bred Poultry. — A second factor of greater impor- tance in determining the value of the farm flock is the quality of the fowls. Pure-bred poultry is superior to mongrel, cross-bred or grade fowls because of greater reliability in breeding, more attractive appearance, ability to feed more efficiently, greater uniformity in the size, shape and color of the eggs, and greater uniformity in the appearance and condition of the dressed fowls. The first cost of pure-bred fowls is greater than of inferior stock, but no greater investment is needed, The best practice in starting :- WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS. l Winners of First and Second Prize Exhibition Pens, Madison Square Garden N Y December, 1911. BUFF OEPINGTONS.1 First Prize Exhibition Pen, Madison Square Garden, N. Y., December 31, 1915- January 5, 1916. 1 Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Mass., Maurice F. Delano, Proprietor. (88) THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 89 a flock of pure-bred fowls is to purchase a pen consisting of a male and four to ten females. These should be housed apart from the main flock and all of the good eggs laid during the breeding season should be incubated. Pure- bred fowls of good quality may be purchased in the late summer or early fall for $3 to $5 each for males and $2 to $4 each for females. Yearlings or two-year-old stock should be bought. After the pure-bred flock has been established, the many advantages of the pure-bred fowls are obtained without additional cost. Grading Up a Farm Flock. — While pure-bred poultry are always to be preferred, it is possible to improve the quality of the average farm flock by the use of a pure-bred male. If a pure-bred male of the desired variety is mated with ten or twelve of the best hens on the farm, the offspring will carry one-half the blood of their sire. If the male is a strong, prepotent individual, a large percentage of the offspring will resemble him in many of his characteristics. Ten or a dozen of the best pullets resulting from the original mating should be selected and mated to their sire for the second season. The offspring from this mating will carry 75 per cent of the blood of the pure-bred male. For the third season, ten or a dozen of the best of these pullets should be mated to another pure-bred male of the same variety and of similar breeding. It is advisable to obtain the second male from the same breeder as the first one. If the fowls used have been care- fully selected, the offspring from this third mating will be practically as uniform in size, shape and color as pure-bred fowls. The Choice of a Variety. — The choice of a variety for the farm depends upon the purpose for which poultry is kept and the type of product most in demand in the best available market. The efficiency of the various varieties depends more upon the breeding and handling of the fowls than upon breed or variety differences. The most popular fowl for the production of white eggs is the Single Comb White Leghorn. It is not a good market fowl, however, because of its small size, nervous temperament, and greater loss in dressing. The cockerels make good broilers at weights of lj^ to 1^ pounds, but do not make good roasters or capons. The Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Wyandottes are the most satisfactory breeds for the production of both eggs and meat. The solid-colored varieties of the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, particularly the white and buff, are preferable on account of the absence of dark- colored pin feathers. The Columbian varieties are rapidly increasing in popularity. The most popular farm fowl in the past has been the Barred Plymouth Rock. It is slowly being replaced by some of the newer vari- eties. The three breeds mentioned are good layers, hardy, easily handled; the chicks grow rapidly, making them well adapted to the production of broilers. They make superior roasters and capons. Where the market prefers brown eggs or will not pay a premium for white eggs, one of the many varieties of these three breeds should be chosen. WHITE First Prize Pen, Chicago Show, December, 1912. SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS.1 First Prize Young Pen at Boston Show, January, 1915. i Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Mass., Maurice F. Delano, Proprietor. yo ) THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 91 Selection of the Breeding Stock. — It is seldom necessary and never desirable to use all of the fowls on the farm for breeding. Special matings are necessary each season in order to make any definite improvement in the quality of the flock. It is seldom necessary to use more than 20 per cent of the entire flock for breeding. The fowls used for this purpose should be the choicest on the farm. They should be strong, healthy and vigorous, above the average in size for the variety, good layers and fully matured. Hens are always preferable to pullets, because the eggs from hens are larger, hatch better and produce larger and more vigorous chicks. Strong, vigorous, early-hatched cockerels may be used, but yearling or two-year-old cocks of proven breeding ability are to be preferred. Care should be taken to avoid using for breeding purposes any fowl which has had any sickness at any time, no matter how well it may appear to 'have recovered. Housing the Breeding Stock. — It is not necessary to house the breed- ing flock separately during the entire year. The fowls to be used for breeding should be separated from the main flock three or four weeks before it is necessary to save eggs for hatching. They should be housed in portable colony houses during the breeding season, and may be returned to the main flock as soon as the last eggs needed for hatching are gathered. The colony houses may then be used for the growing chicks or for some other purpose. INCUBATION Selection of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should weigh not less than two nor more than two and one-half ounces each. They should be of a medium type, neither very long and pointed nor very short and rounded. The shells should be clean, smooth and strong, free from ridges, cracks, transparent spots or lime deposits. The eggs selected should be as uniform in color as possible. Dead chalk-white or uniform brown eggs are to be preferred. Careful selection of the eggs to be incubated will aid greatly in improving the general quality of the eggs produced by the flock. Care of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should be gathered frequently, two or three times daily, and immediately removed to a clean, dry place where the temperature is less than 68° F. A temperature of 50° to 60° F. is best. Eggs for hatching should not be held longer than two weeks, as there is a rapid loss of vitality after that time. They should not be washed. Eggs hatch better if they are turned once daily from the time they are laid until set. Natural or Artificial Incubation. — Whether hens or incubators should be used depends upon local conditions. If chicks are wanted before April 1st, or if non-setting varieties are kept, or if more than 150 chicks are to be reared each season, incubators should be used. There is no apparent difference between the vigor and vitality of hen-hatched and incubator- hatched chicks. Hatching with Hens. — Hens of medium weight, from five to seven 92 SUCCESSFUL FARMING pounds, and of quiet disposition should be selected. They should be kept where they will be comfortable, easily controlled and free from annoyance by other fowls. A small brood coop is advisable for each hen during warm weather. These coops may be placed in a cool, shady location and the nest made upon the ground, a bottomless box about five inches high being used to confine the nesting material. During cool weather, a com- fortable room should be provided. The nests used should be approximately 14 inches square. They should be constructed so that each hen may be confined to her own nest. In this way a number of hens may be set in the same room, all being released for food and water at the same time. It is necessary to see that each hen returns to her nest as soon as through feeding. Several hens should be set at the same time. This will save labor and allow the chicks hatched by two or three hens to be given to one for brooding. Hens should be removed from their regular nests to the nests in which they are to be set after dark. If handled quietly and given a few decoy eggs they may usually be moved without difficulty. The hen should be allowed to become accustomed to her new surroundings before setting her. This usually requires two to three days. Setting hens must be kept free from lice and mites. The nest box and the walls of the coop or room should be painted or sprayed with a good lice killer a few days before the hens are set. The hen should be well dusted with a good insect powder two or three days before the eggs are placed under her and again two or three days before the chicks hatch. The feed for setting hens should consist of hard grains. No wet or dry mashes should be given. A constant supply of fresh water, grit and shell should be provided. One hen should not be given more than twelve eggs during cold weather or more than fifteen during warm weather. Should any eggs become broken in the nest, the nesting material should be renewed and all badly soiled eggs washed in water at a tem- perature of 90° F. Hatching with Incubators. — There should be no difficulty in hatching chicks with incubators if a good machine and good eggs are used. Different types of incubators require different care. Each manufacturer has com- piled a set of directions for the operation of his incubator under average conditions. These directions should be carefully followed and an exact record kept of the operation of the machine throughout the hatch. If results are not satisfactory, variations should be made in the operation of the incubator during the following hatch as the judgment of the operator indicates. Poor hatches are more often due to poor eggs than to any failure on the part of the incubator. BROODING Importance of the Brooder. — The greater part of the mortality among young chicks occurs during the first four to six weeks. The losses during THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 93 this period are very great, careful observers placing the total mortality as high as 40 to 50 per cent of all chicks hatched. The greater part of this loss is due directly or indirectly to poor brooding. In order to reduce the mortality among chicks to a minimum, good brooders must be used. Qualifications of a Good Brooder. — A good brooder for farm use should be capable of maintaining a temperature of 90° to 100° F. under the hover and a temperature of 70° to 85° F. outside of the hover. The chicks should be allowed to choose the temperature in which they are most comfortable, and should not be com- pelled to submit to any given temperature. The brooder must be well ventilated, pro- viding an abundant sup- ply of pure, fresh air without drafts striking the chicks. Fresh air is as essential for growing chicks as good food and water. A two-compart- ment brooder is advis- able, as it permits of feeding the young chicks in fairly cool, fresh air and they are not re- quired to pass directly from the warm hover into the outside atmos- phere. The brooder for farm use should be por- table. Chickens should A BROODER HEATED BY OIL LAMP.* not be reared on the same ground year after year. The most satisfactory results will be obtained by rearing them in the orchard, in the cornfield after the last cultivation, or on the hay and grain fields after the crops are harvested, moving the brooders from place to place frequently. If handled in this manner, the chicks will make use of a large amount of waste material and will be more healthy and vigorous and make more rapid growth than if confined to small yards. The brooder should be usable for some purpose during the entire year. Any brooder which can be used only for brooding chickens is unsatisfactory for farm use. It should be capable of housing the chicks 1 Courtesy of I*rairie State Incubator Company , Homer City, Pa. 40 94 SUCCESSFUL FARMING from the time they are hatched until fully matured, and should be readily convertible into a breeding house or fattening pen. The brooding device which best meets these requirements is a portable colony house 6 by 8 feet to 8 by 15 feet in size, equipped with portable hovers, gasoline brooder heater or a coal-burning brooder stove. Management of the Brooder. — During the first two weeks a tem- perature above 90° and below 100° F. should be maintained two inches above the floor in the warmest part of the brooder, that is, beneath the hover. After the second week the temperature should be gradually reduced, the exact temperature to be maintained being determined from the actions of the chicks. If the temperature is right, the chicks when at rest will be spread out around the outer edge of the hover. Any evidence of crowding is an indication of a lack of heat. If the temperature under the hover is kept a degree or two higher than the chicks actually need, there will be very little crowding. The brooder must be kept absolutely clean at all times. The floor should be covered to a depth of several inches with clean, dry litter, such as short-cut clover, alfalfa, straw or chaff. The litter should be removed whenever it becomes damp, dusty or soiled/ Ration for Chicks. — A good ration for chicks consists of a grain mix- ture of 30 pounds finely cracked corn, 20 pounds cracked wheat and 10 pounds pin-head or cracked hulled oats. With this should be fed a mash consisting of 30 pounds wheat bran, 30 pounds wheat middlings, 30 pounds corn meal, 20 pounds fine beef scrap or granulated milk and 10 pounds of bone meal. This ration should be supplemented by a liberal supply of succulent food such as alfalfa, clover, sprouted oats or beets. Fine grit, finely crushed oyster shell, charcoal and clean fresh water should be before the chicks at all times. If skim milk is available, the chicks should have all they wrill consume. The grain should be scattered in the litter on the floor of the brooder in order to induce the chicks to exercise. Grain should be fed early in in the morning, at noon and later in the afternoon. As much should be fed as the chicks will clean up from one feeding time to the next. If any considerable amount remains in the litter, a feed should be omitted and the amount reduced. No definite information can be given as to the exact amount to feed, as the needs of the chicks vary from day to day. The poultryman must study the appetite and actions of the flock in order to feed intelligently. The mash should be fed dry. Shallow pans may be used for feeding the mash while the chicks are small. Small feeding hoppers should be used as soon as the chicks are large enough to feed from them. Chicks should never be without the dry mash. This method of feeding should be continued until the chicks are large enough to do without artificial heating or are weaned from the hen, with the exception that the cracked wheat should be gradually replaced by THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 95 whole wheat, and the finely cracked corn by the coarse cracked corn, when the chicks are six to eight weeks old. After the chicks have free range, the grain mixture may be changed to equal parts of cracked corn and whole wheat. The same dry mash should be continued until the chicks are mature. The grain may also be fed in hoppers after this time. The Care of Growing Chicks. — The age at which chicks may be deprived of artificial heat will depend upon weather conditions and the co'ndition of the chicks. This should not be done until all danger of sudden changes in temperature is past and the chicks are well feathered out. During the brooding period the brooders may be kept close to the farm- stead and small, portable runs provided for the chicks. As the chicks increase in size, the brooder should be moved farther away and the size of the yards increased. As soon as the chicks no longer require artificial heat they should be given free range. They must have plenty of shade, abundant pasture, be kept free from lice and mites and protected from their natural enemies. The brooder should be proof against rats, weasels, etc., and should be closed every night. The chicks should be confined to the house in the morning until the grass is well dried off. This practice should be followed at least until they are half grown. The cockerels should be separated from the pullets as soon as the sex can be determined. It is advisable to caponize all males except a few of the most promising to be reserved for breeding purposes. The pullets will be hindered in their development if the cockerels are allowed to remain with them. The cockerels, if not caponized, should be put together in a separate field or on another part of the farm. The Care of the Pullets. — The pullets should be transferred from the colony house on the range to their permanent winter quarters as soon after.the first of September as possible. This will give them an opportunity to become accustomed to their new surroundings before cold weather sets in. Careful attention must be given the pullets at this time. There is usually a tendency for them to crowd on the roosts at night or to roost above the open doors and windows. This should be prevented, as it may result in colds which will hinder egg production. The bulk of the eggs received from October 1st to March 1st are produced by the pullets. Feeding Mature Fowls. — The principal object in feeding should be to use the poultry on the farm for the purpose of converting grains, mill by-products and waste materials not suitable for human consumption in their raw state into concentrated, easily handled, nutritious food products. For this reason the farmer should make use of grains grown on his own farm and of mill products which are easily obtained at com- paratively low prices, supplementing them with the necessary protein concentrates. Suitable rations may be made from a great many combinations of grains and mill feeds. There is no one combination which is superior to all others under all conditions. For this reason it is possible for the farmer 96 SUCCESSFUL FARMING to adjust any suggested ration to meet his own conditions without seriously impairing its efficiency. The ration should contain in proper proportions the various food elements required by the fowl. It should be easily digested and assimilated, palatable, economical, suitable for its intended purpose, easily obtained, easily handled and conveniently fed. It should be a two-part ration consisting of a grain mixture of scratch feed and a mash. It is not possible to obtain a maximum of production with either grain or mash alone. They should be fed in combination with grain constituting approximately two-thirds of the ration. The following ration and method of feeding is particularly adapted to farm conditions. The ration as given is based on feeds at normal prices and may be varied with a variation in the price of any feed. The grain mixture consists of 200 pounds corn, preferably cracked, 200 pounds wheat, and 100 pounds heavy oats. If buckwheat is available, 100 pounds may be added during cold weather. The mash consists of 200 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds wheat middlings and 100 pounds of beef scrap containing not less than 55 per cent protein. The grain should be fed by hand, being scattered in clean litter six to twelve inches deep. The grain should be fed at least twice daily, prefer- ably early in the morning and late in the afternoon. If it is necessary to keep the fowls confined to the house, it is advisable to give additional light feeds in the middle of the forenoon and in the middle of the afternoon in order to keep the fowls busy. The amount to be fed will vary with the variety, the weather condi- tions, the egg production and various other factors. It should be deter- mined by the actions and appetites of the fowls. They should be well fed. Endeavor should be made to regulate the feeding so that they will consume approximately twice as much grain as mash. Fowls of medium size when in full lay will consume from 2 to 2J^ ounces of grain daily. The mash should be fed dry. Self-feeding hoppers should be used. For Leghorns and similar varieties and for pullets of the dual purpose varieties, such as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc., the hopper should be open during the entire day. For yearlings and older hens of the dual purpose varieties, the hopper should be opened at noon and closed when the evening feed is given. This ration should be supplemented by a constant supply of clean, fresh water, grit and oyster shell. Sour skim milk should be fed as a drink if it is available, allowing the fowls to consume all they will. Succu- lent feed of some sort is necessary. During the late fall and winter, mangels, sprouted oats, unsalable cabbage, beets, apples, potatoes, steamed clover or alfalfa, or any other succulent food available may be used. The yards should furnish all the green feed required during the spring and summer. The Care of Market Eggs. — The quality of market eggs is determined THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 97 by their size, shape, appearance and freshness or interior quality. All of these factors may be controlled by the poultryman to a considerable degree through breeding and the care with which the eggs are handled. Improvement of the quality of the eggs produced is fully as important from a financial point of view as increased production. If the following suggestions are observed, there should be no difficulty in producing eggs of a quality that will meet the requirements of the best grades in any market. Breed only from hens which lay eggs of the desired size, shape and color. Provide for at least one clean, convenient, well-ventilated nest for every four or five hens in the flock. Renew the nesting material whenever it becomes damp, dusty or soiled. Planer shav- ings make excellent material for nests, but soft hay and clean straw may be used. Gather eggs at least twice daily and more often if conve- nient. This is par- ticularly important during cold weather to avoid freezing, and during warm weather to avoid the develop- ment of the embryo and to retard evap- oration. From the time eggs are gathered until marketed, keep them in a clean, cool, dry place. Fertile eggs will begin to develop at any temperature over 68° F. Do not put eggs into a box, basket, carton or case until all the animal heat has escaped. When gathered, place them on a wire tray similar to an incubator tray for ten to twelve hours and then grade and pack them in standard cartons or cases. Market eggs at least once weekly and more often if possible. Nothing is ever gained by holding eggs for a rise in price. The egg is a perishable food product and should be marketed as soon as possible in order to avoid deterioration and loss. Market eggs in standard egg packages. The standard thirty-dozen egg case is preferred. If production is not great enough to enable a case or two of graded eggs to be shipped weekly, use the smaller, returnable cases which may be secured from any dealer in poultry supplies. 1 Courtesy of Mbsouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Mt. Grove, Ma SHIPPING CASES FOB EGGS.* 98 SUCCESSFUL FARMING When eggs are being transported from the farm to the market or shipping point, they should be protected from the rays of the sun. Do not wash eggs. The washing of eggs greatly impairs their keeping qualities and spoils their appearance. Market eggs should never be allowed to become wet. Moisture dissolves the protective bloom or covering of the shell, opens the pores and allows bacteria and moulds to enter. Avoid the necessity for washing by providing sufficient nests and keeping the house and yards clean. Remove all males from the flock as soon as the hatching season is over and keep them away from the hens during the warm weather. The male has no influence on the number of eggs produced. His only function and use on the farm is to fertilize the eggs to be used for hatching. Fertile eggs spoil very quickly during warm weather. Approximately 18 per cent of all eggs produced upon farms become unfit for food before reaching the consumer. At least half of this loss could be avoided if only infertile eggs were produced. REFERENCES "Productive Poultry Husbandry." Lewis. " Turkeys." Reliable Poultry Journal Co. "Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture." Robinson. "How to Keep Hens for Profit." Valentine. "The Beginner in Poultry." Valentine. "Farm Poultry." Watson. "Races of Domestic Poultry." Brown. "Poultry Production." Lippincott. "Poultry Breeding." Purvis. "Our Domestic Birds." Robinson. North Carolina Expt. Station Bulletin 233. "Common Diseases of Poultry." Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 284. "Rations for Roosters and Capons." Purdue Expt. Station Bulletin 182. "Poultry Investigations." West Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 102. Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 189. "Farm Poultry." 193. "Tuberculosis in Fowls." 217. "Farm Poultry." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 309. "Incubation of Eggs;" "Causes of Young Chicks' Death:" "Snow for Chicks." 317. "Water Pans and Catching Hook for Poultry." 357. "Methods of Poultry Management at Maine Station." 452. "Capons and Caponizing." 528. "Hints to Poultry Raisers." 530. "Important Poultry Diseases." 585. "Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen's Eggs." 624. "Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chicks." 656. "The Community Egg Circle." 682. "A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry." CHAPTER 9 BEES Many farmers are unaware of the great service rendered them by the honey bee; especially in horticulture and vegetable raising is he a necessary asset. Estimates from reliable data show that bees in the United States produce $25,000,000 worth of honey and beeswax annually. Their value as agents in the pollinization of fruits and vegetables is many times their worth as producers. Many small fruits are entirely dependent upon insect visitors for fertilization. Cucumbers, squash, melons and tomatoes are also dependent upon the bees for the production of fruit. [_Pear trees especially need the bees for cross-pollinization. Aside from the service rendered as pollinators, bees, if properly handled, make a most profitable side line in the business of farming. While they need intelligent care, and care at the proper time, yet much of this can be given at odd hours and at times when the regular farm work is not pressing. Even the time of swarming can be anticipated and to some extent regulated. Bee keeping furnishes a most pleasant recreation and one that pays its own way as well as produces a profit. There is so much of marvel in the economy of the honey bee that the most casual observer becomes an enthusiast. One disadvantage may be mentioned, however. Many orchard and garden diseases are easily spread by means of spores carried by insects. The bee plays no small part in the distribution of plant contagion. Pear- tree blight, the brown rot of plums and the wilt of cucumbers and melons are diseases spread through the agency of bees and other insects. The danger of infection may be reduced to the minimum by exterminating all diseased plants and trees; thus giving the bees no opportunity to carry contagion. Breeds of Bees. — The German bee is the most common in the United States. Although not very attractive in color, being black, they winter well and make whiter honey combs than any other race. At times they are inclined to be cross and frequently use their stings. They are not easily handled by the novice. The Cyprian bees are handsome, being yellow in color, but have not come into wide popularity on account of their extreme sensitiveness. When once aroused, they will not even be subdued by smoke. The Carolina bee is one of the most gentle of all bees. It is gray in color and very prolific. The chief objection to this bee is its ever-ready tendency to swarm. 99 100 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The Caucasian bee has only recently been introduced into this country and has not yet established wide popularity. It is prolific and so gentle that some report it to be without sting. This, however, is not the case. The Italian bee is the most satisfactory and profitable. It is more gentle than either the German or Cyprian, and quite prolific. It is hand- some in color, having yellow bands, and is an energetic worker in gathering honey. It is also most active in defence of its home against marauders. In order to winter well, the Italian bee must be well protected. Personnel and Activity of Colony. — A bee colony consists ordinarily of one queen bee, who is the mother of the colony, and a multitude of females (sexually undeveloped), who carry on the work of the hive. The THE HONEY BEE.1 A — Worker. B — Queen. C — Drone. Twice natural size. queen bee lays all the eggs. The female workers lay no eggs at all. It is their duty to gather honey, feed the young, keep the hive clean; in fact, perform all the labors of the hive. _ During some parts of the year, hundreds of males, commonly called drones, live in the colony. These perform no labor. Their mission is to mate with the young queens. Their number should be restricted by the keeper. The bee hive permits of no idlers after the young queens are mated. The drones are then destroyed by the workers. Even the queen bee is killed or superseded by a younger queen as soon as she lays no more eggs. In fact, any individual in the colony who ceases to be useful is immediately put to death or thrown out to perish. The length of life of any bee depends much upon the time of year and amount of labor performed. In summer, which is the working season, a worker bee will live about 45 days. During the winter months, while i Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 447. BEES 101 dormant, time of life will extend from 6 to^Stm^ntho, ^Itjs,, therefore; necessary to maintain a strong, prolific queen *m order" +*& ?iepqpi4ate the colony. Size and Location of Apiary. — Authorities agree that for the most intensive bee culture, 100 colonies are all that can be managed with profit. The beginner will do well to start with a colony or two and gradually build up as he becomes more familiar with the work. A year or two will prove his success or failure. While the necessary initial capital is small, GENERAL VIEW OF AN API ART.1 still a plunge into the bee business without previous experience and a thorough knowledge of bee habits is very apt to end in disaster. The ideal location for an apiary is in an orchard or near fields where bloom is plenty; although colonies have been successfully maintained in city back yards and even on housetops. Although bees travel a distance of two miles in search of nectar, it is best to provide for it nearer home. The time wasted in transit is negative, as the bee flies very rapidly; but if far from home, sudden rain or wind storms bewilder the bees and cause loss of life. In rainy or cold weather, bees do not travel far from the hive. Should the nectar be far afield, con- tinued unfavorable weather necessarily decreases their activity. The hives should be placed a few feet apart so that in working with ^Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 447. 102 SUCCESSFUL FARMING one, the adjacent hive is not disturbed. They should be far enough away from roads: ^