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Samuel Walker & Co. Boston

CHESTNUI

Th) Ak

Samuel W

Talker & Co Boston

Vol.

2

iw.

THE

LIVING WORLD:

CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF

THE SEVERAL RACES OF MEN,

AND ALL SPECIES OF

‘ANIMALS, BIRDS, FISHES, INSECTS,

ETC., ETC,

AVith Mumevous Anecdotes,

ILLUSTRATIVE OF THEIR

Instincts, REAsoNING PowErs, AND Domestic Hairs.

BY

CL
AUGUSTUS C. L. ARNOLD, LL.D.,

AUTHOR OF “A PHILOSOPHICAL DICTIONARY,” ETC.
ASSISTED BY

EDWARD A. SAMUELS, Ese.,

AUTHOR OF “ ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW ENGLAND,” ETC.
Vou. II.

Nature is a book written on both sides, within and without, in which the finger of GoD
is plainly visible. — FRED. VON SCHLEGEL,

BOSTON:
SAMUEL WALKER & CO.
1868.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by

SAMUEL WALKER & CO.,

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY,

No, 19 Spring Lane.

AVES (BIRDS).

CONTINUED.

ORDER CLAMATORES. SCREAMERS.

Famity Bompyrcituip&. Wax-WIncs.

Tue Bombycillide, of which the Bohemian Chatterer or Wax-Wing (Am-
pelis garrulus) is the type, are placed in the above order, although they
are provided with the singing apparatus of the Oscznes.

The Bohemian Chatterer is widely distributed on both continents, and is
generally known. It breeds in the most northern sections, but in severe
winters moves southwards. It congregates in flocks in these migrations, and
is a social, unwary bird. Its food consists of berries of various sorts, in-
sects, seeds, &e. In confinement, it will not refuse anything edible, but
seems to prefer fruits. In plumage, it is one of the most beautiful of birds,
being a vinous-ash color above, and lighter beneath; the feathers of the
head are prolonged into a crest; the throat, the feathers around the nostrils,
and a stripe, which passes from the beak to the back of the neck, are black.
The secondaries of the wings are tipped with white, each having the shaft
prolonged, and furnished with a small, scarlet, horny appendage. The tail
is black, tipped with a yellow band.

Famity ALAupDIDe. THE Larks.

In this group are comprehended the true larks, of which the Skylark
(Alauda arvensis) is the tpye. Although provided with the singing ap-
paratus, these birds, for the reasons given in our remarks on the Chatterers,
are placed in the Clamatores. .

The Skylark is spread generally over Europe, several parts of Asia, and
of Africa. It is thus described : —

“ No bird sings with more method: there is an overture performed vivace
crescendo, while the singer ascends; when at the full height, the song be-
comes moderato, and distinctly divided into short passages, each repeated
three or four times over, like a funtasia, in the same key and time. If

—— —

4 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

there be any wind, he rises perpendicularly by bounds, and afterwards poises
himself with breast opposed to it. If calm, he ascends in spiral circles ; in
horizontal circles during the principal part of his song, and zigzagly down-
wards during the performance of. the finale. Sometimes, after descending
about half way, he ceases to sing, and drops with the velocity of an arrow
to the ground. Those acquainted with the song of the Skylark can tell,
without looking at them, whether the birds be ascending or stationary in the
air, or on their descent, so different is the style of the song in each case.
In the first, there is an expression of ardent impatience, in the second, an
andante, and in the last, a graduated sinking of the strains, often touching
the subdominant before the final close. The time and number of the notes
often correspond with the vibrations of the wings ; and, though they sometimes
sing while on the ground, as they seem to do in cages, their whole frame
seems to be agitated by their musical efforts.”

This is one of the earliest spring birds of song, and continues its warblings
for the whole summer months, but becomes quite mute in winter, and is
one of the few birds which chant on the wing. It sings with greatest en-
ergy in the morning, and has been the theme of poets in all ages, and
is, perhaps, more listened to during its aerial flights than almost any other
bird.

The Lark makes its nest on the ground, between two clods of earth, or
scrapes a hollow cayity in the soil, and there deposits four dirty-white eggs,
which are blotched and spotted with brown. It commences the business of
incubation early in May, and if its first nests are destroyed, will lay so late
as September. Mr. Jesse asserts that when the Lark is disturbed while in-
cubating, it will remove its eggs from its nest to a place of greater security ;
“and this transposition,” says he, “I have observed to be effected in a very
short space of time. When one of my mowers first told me that he had
observed the fact, 1 was somewhat disinclined to credit it; but I have since
ascertained it beyond a doubt, and now mention it as another strong proof
of that order in the economy of nature, by means of which this affectionate
bird is enabled to secure its forthcoming offspring. I call it affectionate,
because few birds show a stronger attachment to their young.” He adds,
“Since this was written, I have had a further opportunity of observing the
fact respecting the Larks removing their eggs; and a friend informed me
that when he was recently in Scotland, a shepherd mentioned having wit-
nessed the same circumstance.”

This bird sits only fifteen days, and usually produces two broods in a year.
As soon as the young have escaped from the shell, the attachment of the
parent bird seems to increase; she flutters over their heads, directs all their
motions, and is ever ready to screen them from danger. This instinctive

THE HOOPOES. 5)
warmth of attachment often discovers itself, even before she is capable of
becoming a mother, which might be supposed to precede, in the order of
nature, the maternal solicitude, as thus finely exemplified by Buffon :—

“A young hen bird,” says he, “was brought to me in the month of May,
which was not able to feed without assistance. I caused ber to be educated,
and she was hardly fledged, when I received from another place a nest of
three or four unfledged Skylarks. She took a strong liking to these new-
comers, which were scarcely younger than herself; she tended them night
and day, cherished them beneath her wings, and fed them with her bill.
Nothing could interrupt her tender offices. If the young ones were torn
from her, she flew to them as soon as she was liberated, and would not think
of effecting her own escape, which she might have done a hundred times.
Her affection grew upon her; she neglected food and drink; she now re-
quired the same support as her adopted offsprings, and expired at last, con-
sumed with maternal anxiety. None of the young ones survived her. They
died one after another, so essential were her cares, which were equally tender
and judicious.”

Famity Uruprip©. Tue Hoorogs.

Tn this family are two sub-families, thus distinguished : —

strongly incurved; head without crest. . . . IRRISORINUE.
almost straight; head with crest... .. .UPUPINA.

UPUPIDZ. Claw of hallux (hind toe). . }

Gray says of the genus Upupa, the typical genus of the Upupine, —

“The species that compose this genus are found in Europe, Asia, and
Africa. They are migratory, and prefer low and moist situations that
border woods and forests: it is in such places that they search for insects
and worms. They also seek for their food on the trunks of trees, and espe-
cially among the foliage for caterpillars ; and they may sometimes be observed
hanging from a branch while reaching one of them from a leaf. Even
manure is examined by these birds for the insects that it contains. The nest
is generally placed in holes of decayed trees, and occasionally in crevices of
walls and rocks. The material employed consists of dry grass, and the
nest is usually lined with feathers, or other soft articles, internally. The
female deposits four or five eggs.”

The same author says of Jrrisor, the type of the Lrrisorine, —

“The species of this genus are found throughout the entire continent of
Africa. They frequent the tall trees, creeping among the branches while in
search of their food, which consists almost entirely of insects and_ their
larve ; they also feed on the fruits of the fig trees when ripe; and should
they, while thus engaged, be disturbed, they commence uttering a loud,
chattering noise. It is further stated that they congregate in small flocks,
and roost in the holes of trees.”

NO. XI 54

6 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

We will here include a family not mentioned by Lilljeborg, viz., the
Menuridx.

Famity Menurtom. Tue Lyre Brrps.

We are indebted to the writings of Mr. Gould, the eminent British nat-
uralist, for the following very complete account of these birds : —

“In the structure of its feet, in its lengthened claws, and in its whole
contour, the Lyre Bird presents the greatest similarity to the Pteroptochos
megapodius of Wittlitz ; another singular circumstance, by which their alli-
ance is rendered still more evident, is the fact that Pleroptochos differs from
the other families of the Insessorial order in having fourteen feathers in. its
tail, and that Menure also differs in the same particular in possessing six-
teen. The immense feet and claws of these two birds admirably adapt them
for the peculiar localities they are destined to inhabit, and the same beau-
tiful modification of structure is observable in the other genera, equally
adapting them for the situations they are intended to fulfil. Thus the Me-
nura passes with ease over the loose stones and the sides of rocky gullies and
ravines, while the Ma/urt trip over the more open and even ground, and
the Dusyornt, with equal facility, thread the dense shrubs and reed-beds.

“The great stronghold of the Lyre Bird is the colony of New South
Wales, and from what I could learn, its range does not extend so far to the
eastward as Moreton Bay; neither have I been able to trace it to the west-
ward of Port Philip, on the southern coast 3 but further research can alone
determine these points. It inhabits equally the bushes on the east, and
those that clothe the sides of the mountains in the interior: on the coast it
is especially abundant at the Western Port and Illawarra; in the interior,
the cedar brushes of the Liverpool range, and according to Mr. G. Bennett,
the mountains of the Tumat country are among the places of which it is
a denizen.

“Of all the birds I have ever met with, the Menura is far the most shy
and difficult to procure. While among the mountains I have been sur-
rounded by these birds, pouring forth their loud and liquid calls for days
together, without being able to vet a sight of them; and it was only by the
most determined perseverance and extreme caution that I was enabled to
effect this desirable object, which was rendered more difficult by their
often frequenting the almost inaccessible and precipitous sides of gullies and
ravines, covered with tangled masses of creepers and umbrageous trees : the
cracking of a stick, the rolling down of a small stone, or any other noise,
however slight, is sufficient to alarm it; and none but those who have tray-
ersed these rugged, hot, and suffocating brushes, can fully understand the
excessive labor attendant on the pursuit of the Menura. Independently of
climbing over rocks and fallen trunks of trees, the sportsman has to creep

THE LYRE BIRD. ii

and crawl beneath and among the branches with the utmost caution, taking
care only to advance when the bird’s attention is occupied in singing, or in
scratching up the leaves in search of food. To watch its action, it is neces-
sary to remain perfectly motionless, not venturing to move even in the slight-
est degree, or it vanishes from sight as if by magic. Although I have said
so much on the cautiousness of the Menura, it is not always so alert; in
some of the more accessible brushes, through which roads have been cut, it
may frequently be seen, and on horseback, even closely approached, the
bird evincing less fear of those animals than of man.

“The Lyre Bird is of a wandering disposition, and although it probably
keeps to the same brush, it is constantly engaged in traversing it from one
end to the other, from the mountain base to the top of the gullies, whose
steep and rugged sides present no obstacle to its long legs and powerful, mus-
cular thighs: it is also capable of performing extraordinary leaps, and I
have heard it stated that it will spring ten feet perpendicularly from the
ground. Among its many curious habits, the only one at all approaching to
those of the Gallinacee is that of forming small, round hillocks, which are
constantly visited during the day, and upon which the male is continually
tramping, at the same time erecting and spreading out its tail in the most
graceful manner, and uttering its various cries, sometimes pouring forth its
natural notes, at others mocking those of other birds, and even the howling
of the native dog (Dingo). The early morning and the evening are the
periods when it is most animated and active.

“The food of the Menura appears to consist principally of insects, partic-
ularly centipedes and coleoptera ; I also found the remains of shelled snails
in the gizzard, which is very strong and muscular,

“JT regret that circumstances did not admit of my acquiring a_ perfect
knowledge of the nidification of this very singular bird. I never found the
nest but once, and this unfortunately was after the breeding season was over ;
but all those of whom I made inquiries respecting it, agreed in assuring me
that it is either placed on the ledge of a projecting rock, at the base of a
tree, or on the top of a stump, but always near the ground; and a cedar-
cutter, whom I met in the brushes, informed me that he had once found a
nest, which was built like that of a magpie, adding, that it contained but one
ege. The natives state that the eggs are two in number, of a light color,
freckled with spots of red. The nest seen by myself, and to which my at-
tention was drawn by my black companion Natty, was placed on the prom-
inent point of a rock, in a situation quite secluded from observation behind,
but affording the bird a commanding view and an easy retreat in front; it
was deep, and shaped like a basin, and had the appearance of having been

fe

8 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

roofed; was of a large size, formed outwardly of sticks, and lined with the

inner bark of trees and fibrous roots.”

Fasaty Ertoporipz. Bush Surmes anp Ant TrrreusHes.

In this group are included three sub-families, characterized as follows :—

ERIODORID_E. 5 covered with scutelle. Bill § highand stout, like that of Lanius. THAMNOPHILINUE.
Outer side of tarsus : weak, like that of Turdus. . 2. MYIOrH Rin as.
covered with an entire plate... ..... BP ne Pe Tarn Hy POoCNEMIDINA,

The Thamnophiline, or Bush Shrikes, are found on both continents.
Gray says of the typical genus Thamnophilus, —

“Most of these birds are inhabitants of the tropical parts of America.
They usually reside in the vast forests, seeking the foliage of the low bushes
and the trunks of trees for the insects on which they subsist. The nests
are usually placed in the thick bushes, at no great distance from the ground ;
the exterior is attached by strong filaments to the boughs, which form a fork
at the extremity of a slender branch; the interior is furnished with hairs
and delicate stems of plants. Some species compose it of a series of small,
spinous branches, slightly put together. The eggs are from two to five in
number.”

The Ant Thrushes (Mytother‘nw) are a singular group of birds. By
some authors, they are made a sub-family of the Porndécarine, while others
place them in the Turdide. The following account of these birds, and their
nearly-allied species, will give a good idea of their characteristics : —

“Under the name of My/otheree, Uliger and Cuvier have united several
genera, composing the Greves of Buffon, and the Ant Thrushes, properly so
called. The Breves are remarkable for the vivid and strongly-contrasted
hues of their plumage, for the length of the legs, and the shortness of the
semi-erect tail. They are only found in India and the adjacent islands, and
Australia, whilst the Ant Thrushes belong to the New World as well as the
Old. The Breves have the gradually-curved bill of the true thrushes, but
much stronger; the wings are short, and the powers of flight feeble. The
predominant color is metallic green, variegated with azure blue, scarlet, and
black ; and some species, with a hood of the latter tint, appear to be confined
to Australia and the neighboring islands of the Indian Seas. The Ant
Thrushes, principally confined to tropical America, represent the Breves in
that portion of the world, but differ from those splendid birds in having a
more abruptly-hooked bill and more soberly-colored plumage.”

The utility of the Ant Thrushes, in their native localities, is thus com-
mented upon by Mr. Swainson ; —

“Of all the-tribe of insects which swarm in the tropics, the ants are the
most numerous; they are the universal devastators, and in the dry and over-

TYRANT FLYCATCHERS. 9

grown forests of the interior the traveller can scarcely proceed five paces
without treading upon their nests. To keep these myriads within due limits,
a wise Providence has called into existence the Ant Thrushes, and has given
to them this particular food. Both are proportionate in their geographical
range, for beyond the tropical latitude the ants suddenly decrease, and their
enemies, the Ant Thrushes, totally disappear. As a general distinc-
tion by which this family may be known from the Bush Shrikes, we may
mention the difference in the feet, the structure of one being adapted for
walking, while that of the other is more suited for perching. The Ant
Thrushes are very locally distributed; for, although the group is tropical,
we frequently found that a particular species, very common in one forest,
was replaced in another by a second; while a third locality, in the same
district, would present us with still another kind, different from those we had
previously found. Cayenne and Surinam, in like manner, furnish us with

many species totally unknown in the forests of Brazil.”

Fammy Tyrannip®. Tyrant FLycarcHers.
This family is divided into two groups, which are distinguished as fol-
lows : —

large and thick; wider than high at base... 2... 2... +. TYRANNINE.

TYRANNID_E, Bill. « « moderate; not wider than high. .......6. 2 @ 6 2 « KLUVICOLINE,

The Fluvicoline, or Waterchats, as stated by Mr. Swainson, are, with
the exception of one genus, entirely restricted to the warm latitudes of South
America, where they seem to represent the Stonechats and the Wagtails of
the Old World. - “They are,” says this author, “strictly ambulating Fly-
catchers, and constitute the rasorial division of this family. The legs are
consequently very long, and formed especially for walking; the toes are
also long, quite divided to their base, and furnished with long, slightly-
curved claws. This structure enables these birds to run with great celerity ;
and they are generally seen on the sides of streams and rivers, feeding on
flying insects, which resort to such situations; for they never hunt among
trees, and rarely perch, —such, at least, are the manners of the typical
species.”

Mr. Swainson is of the opinion that these birds seem to connect the Ty-
rant Shrikes with the Flyeatchers, which last birds constitute a group hardly
less numerous than that of the Warblers, and composed, like them, almost
entirely of small birds.

Of the Tyrannine, or Tyrant Flyeatchers, there are many species con-
tained in some seven genera. They are restricted to the American continent,
and many of them are well known, — such as the King Bird, Fork-tailed
Flycatcher, &c.

10 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

Our limits will not permit an extended review of this group. “The Water-
chats” (FVuvicolinw), says Mr. Swainson, “which seem to connect the
Tyrant Shrikes to the fly-catching family, or the Musctcapide, like very
many other tribes, have their plumage black and white, variously blended,
but matbolit any mixture of green. The lesser Tyrants (Tyrannul@), on
the contrary, are all of an olive-colored plumage ; that color, in short,
which is most adapted for concealment among foliage, and therefore suited
to their mode of life. Between these, however, we find some curious birds,
which borrow the habits of both groups. The species, called by Latham
White-headed Tody, for instance, is black and white; its general resort is
on the sides of marshes, where it perches upon the reeds, and darts on pass-
ing insects in the same manner as a truc Tyrant Shrike. The lesser Tyrants
(Tyrannule) are spread over the whole of America, where they represent
the true Flycatcher (.Wuseteapa) of the Old World; both have nearly the
smne manners; and so closely do they resemble each other, that they can
only be distinguished by their feet, tail, and wings. From these we may
pass to the true or greater Tyrants by a little sub-generic group (Mleulus),
having very long forked tails. The habits of the typical Tyrants intimately
resemble those of the lesser, but they feed upon larger insects more suited
to their own size: some imitate the Kingfishers, by diving in the water ;
and they will even prey upon small reptiles. The species, which are numer-
ous, swarm in tropical America, where they are everywhere seen perched
upon naked branches, and uttering at short intervals a sharp and monotonous
ery. The Tyrants are bold and quarrelsome birds, particularly during the
season of incubation; the male will not then suffer any birds to come near
its nest, and becomes so infuriated against such unconscious intruders, that
it will attack both hawks and eagles, with a determination not to be resisted,
until they are fairly driven away.

Famity Piaryryncnuip®. Tue Broap BItts.

The birds composing this group have occupied uncertain and varied posi-
tions in the writings of various authors. Most ornithologists have placed
them in the Museicapide.

The following remarks explain somewhat the causes for their being placed
in this position : —

“Mr. Vigors, at the commencement of the section treating of the order
Dentirostres, observes that the depressed bill and insect-food of the Tur-
did@ introduce us at onee to the Muscicapide, with which they are imme-
diately connected by the genus Platyrynchus. The species that com-
pose the latter group (Platyrynchus) were separated from it only on account
of the comparative strength of their legs. The whole of the Muscicapide,

THE PLANT CUTTERS. igh

indeed,” continues Mr. Vigors, “with which family Platyrynchus is now
united, have a decided affinity to the last tribe, or the birds which feed
upon the wing, in their broad-based bills, the vibrisse that surround them,
and their similar habits of darting upon their prey while on the wing.”

Famiry Pieripe. THe MAnankins.

Mr. Swainson regards the Piprid, or, as he calls them, Péprinc, as a
sub-family of the Ampelidw, from which they differ in the slenderness of the
feet, shortness of the beak, and curvature of the upper mandible; most are
of small size, and clothed in plumage of the richest tints of crimson, or-
ange, yellow, blue, green, and black. The warmer regions of America are
their strongholds, but not their exclusive habitat. According to Mr. Swain-
son, the Manakins “chiefly occur in the deep virgin forests of the tropics,
but are much more social than the Cotingas. They live in little bands ; are
continually in motion, and feed almost entirely on the large, soft berries of
the different species of Melastoma,; the nest of one species, Pipra pareola,
is often built in the fork of a shrub, in such an exposed manner, that the
female can look all round, and watch the approach of danger. We found one
in such a situation in the forest of Pétanga, a single leaf of a large pepper
plant (Piper) forming a kind of umbrella shade over the female, which
was sitting, and did not rise from her nest as we passed onwards.”

Famity Puytroromip%. Tue Puant Curtrers.

Some ornithologists place the Plant Cutters, the Colies, the Touwracos, and
the Plantain-eaters under one family head, of which they constitute so many
distinct tribes. We are inclined, however, to regard them as the types of
distinct forms, that is, constituting so many family sections.”

Of these birds the Chilian Plant Cutter (Phytotoma rara) is one of the
best known.

To Molina we are principally indebted for our knowledge of the habits of
this bird, which, from the depredations it commits, is subject to incessant
persecution. It feeds on plants of the most tender nature, cutting them off
close to the roots; and not content with merely satisfying its appetite, it
has the most destructive habit of cropping close a quantity of them without
touching them further, thus injuring the fields of rising grain, while the
blade is peeping above the surface.

The Chilian Plant Cutter builds its nest on the most lofty trees, in obscure
and but little frequented spots, and, consequently, generally rears its young
brood in safety, notwithstanding the reward which Molina says is (or in his
time was) given to children and other persons who destroy the eggs.

Le? DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. — CLASS II. AVES

The same writer states that its numbers were, in his time, considerably
diminished, and adds, —

* I do not know whether this circumstance is because a price is set on its
head, or on account of its naturally small degree of fecundity.”

In size, this bird nearly equals a thrush; its bill is rather large, straight,
conical, and with the edges serrated ; the tail is moderate and rounded. The
color is dusky-gray upon the back, rather clearer on the under surface; the
points of the quills and the tail are black. Its voice is a hoarse, interrupted
note.

Famiry Ampetip&. Tre CHATTERERS.

The group is divided as follows : —

AMPELID-E. | thick and convex, not compressed ; second primary abbreviated in the males. PSARINE.
BT oes (a ane ( broad at base, compressed tow ards tip; second primary not abbreviated, . . AMPEKLINA,

The Ampeline of Lilljeborg corresponds apparently to the Cotingida,
or Chatterers, of other authors. Of the Cotingas, there are a great many
species : they are showy birds, residing in the tropical portions of America,
especially on the trees that grow by the sides of the rivers. They feed on
fruits and insects, and are thus compelled to migrate from place to place
in search of their food. The female deposits four eggs, and the nest is
found in the highest branches of trees.

Nearly allied to, if not included in this croup, are the species of Procnias
(Bell Birds). These birds reside in the tropical forests of America ; in hab-
its they resemble the Cot/ngw, and some species “ possess a very loud and
powerful voice, which may be heard a great distance, and is said to vary
according to the season. It is stated that the noise uttered by one of these
birds is like the tolling of a distant church bell, which is more distinctly
heard during the heat of the day, when every other bird has ceased to sing.
This bird utters a toll, and a minute pause ensues; then another toll, with a
repetition of the pause, and then again a toll, and so on: the note of an-
other species has been compared to the noise produced by striking a hammer
on an anvil.”

Of the Psarine, or Beeards, Gray gives the following account, when
treating of the genus 7vtyra: —

“The birds that compose this genus are found in the warmer parts of
South America and the islands of the West Indies. They migrate from
place to place, and are usually seen perched on the highest branches of the
lofty trees of the primeval forests. Insects form their chief subsistence 5
these they capture by short flights, and return again to the same perch to
watch for others passing within a certain ranee.

~

Yantalus Loeulator

i ae: nee
Trimga Pugnax
Rutt

amuel Wa

Charadrius Ibmantopus
Leng Lagted Plovr

ebulelle 109

ker & Co. Boston

Bostou

Phenieopterus ruber

hel Flanunge

Platalea /

Reoveate spo

PLATE XN:

a

TREE CREEPERS. 13

Famity ANABATIDA. TREE CREEPERS AND ANABATES.
This group is divided into two sub-families.

sof rset tata } pipe tees Pea ccianee geal: longer than in the preceding eae

Of the Anabatine, the habits of nabates, as given by Gray, will fur-
nish the example.

“Tt is in the warmer parts of South America that these birds reside in
bushy places on the sides of the rivers. They are sedentary, generally in
small flocks of ten or twelve, dispersed in the neighboring shrubs, on
which they are constantly on the move, sometimes leaping from branch to
branch, or hopping about on the ground round the stems of the thorny
shrubs, which they seem to prefer to other kinds: these they search for
minute insects and seeds. When perched, they erect their crests, and at
the same time utter loudly, without interruption, a varied note.”

Of the Dendrocolaptine, or Tree Creepers, the habits of the typical
genus Dendrocolaptes will illustrate the group. These birds inhabit the
vast forests of the warmer parts of South America. They are usually ob-
served clinging to the trunks and branches of trees by means of their
strong, curved claws and the rigid points of their tail feathers, examining
the cracks of the bark and among the foliage for the larve of insects, and
even those in a perfect state, on which they principally subsist. In fact, in
their habits and manners they closely assimilate to the Common Creeper.
The female deposits from three to four eggs in hollow trunks of trees.

Mr. Vigors says, “The whole of the birds, however, thus united by close
affinities, and as such generally brought together by systematic writers into
one conterminous series, are decidedly divisible into two distinct groups, nat-
urally arranging themselves under different subdivisions of the order. The
family of Certhiadee live upon animal food, while the remaining genera of
the Linnean Certhia subsist chiefly upon vegetable juices. The tongues
of each, though similar, in being more or less extensible, and in being the
medium through which they are supplied with food, are equally distinct as
the nature of the food itself. Those of the former are sharp, and of a
spear-like form, as if to transfix the insects which are their prey, while those
of the latter are divided into tubular filaments, which appear exclusively
adapted to the purposes of suction. In other particulars they exhibit an
equal difference. The Certhiade climb, and their feet are of a conformable
structure ; but the feet of suctorial birds are not only in general unsuited to
that purpose, but they become gradually weaker as they come nearer the
type of the tribe, where they are so short and slightly formed as to be ser-
viceable only in perching, when the bird is at rest.”

NO. XI. 5D

———

14 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER ZYGODACTYLI. CLIMBERS.

Tue Zygodactyli of Lilljeborg correspond very generally with the Or-
der Scansores of other authors.

This group is divided, by the present arrangement, into eight families and
nineteen sub-families, which are characterized as follows : —

4YGODACTY LI:

G VOrsitlGs. dccseccxecbeceessisetdancsdanaccaaxsanrsesraseeweas pbeaaaattesae S4. Coline, Bonap.
*? not versatile « &, Musophagine, Swains.
. Trogonins, Bonap.
Gallulinwe, Bonap.
» Bucconime, Bonap.
. Capitonone, Bonap.
. Kamphastine, Bonap.

MusoruAGip#&. Hallux.

TROGONIDA

GALBULINNE
Buccontpe.

RAMPUASTIDE

not in a nasal fossa or aperture, more or

manillaries. Bill large and stout

CUCULIDA. + in a nasal fossa or raat §

Tarsus

2as long as or longer than oute

. Phanicophwine, G.Gray.
long, straight, with n

long, cuneate, rounded. § arched only at tip...

Biaswasacesessava ces (short, with “upper man

curved almost from base

Bill short and stout...

seas | and more or Jess covered 92. Saurotherine, Bonap.

Cuculine, Bonap,
Indicatoriney, Swains.
Jungine, Bonap.
Picmnie, Swains,
Strigopine, Bonap,
Microglossine, Bonap.

moderated, emarginated,
—_ +) foothore § Soft. With the tip rounded...++
Prom£. Tail feathe 1} rigid, with the tip more or less acu

¢
| not longer than the inuer Sr by ani

anterior toe without its 4 not surrounded by s 4
nail, Byes.secsesseeee cial area, Tongue.. J ESS

short, rounded
OF CVEDe ee ee 9). Psittacdvue, Iliger.
or less

PSITTACID.E.

and fleshy.
Tarsus..... Tai

. Arains, G. Gray.
. Platycercine, Swains.

longer than the inner anterior toe withont § short and strongly ineurved..
Pezoportue, Bonap.

its nail, Claws..ccccssccccssccccccscces long and but little incurved....

Of course our limits will not permit a review of these sub-families in their
habits and peculiarities, and we can direct our attention only to the leading

groups.
Famity Psirractpz. Parrots, Macaws, ParrakEETs, Lortgs.

Mr. Vigors declares it as his opinion that the Pscttactde afford more
difficulties to the inquirer into affinities than any other group in the known
class ; he remarks that, in manners and general structure, as well as in the °
mode of using their feet and bill, the Parrots hold nearly an insulated situ-
ation among birds, and that they may, perhaps, be pronounced to be the

only group among them which is completely sed generis. Yet, because the

Parrots and the Woodpeckers are climbers, par excellence, — differing,
however, as he states, as to the mode in which they climb, — he associates
them together, and considers the Barbets (Pogonias) to be the link of
union between them.

Mr. Swainson is of opinion that the Parrots constitute the sub-typical
division of the Scansores, in which the powers of climbing are less devel-
oped. “If,” says that writer, * any group in nature be isolated, it is this.
Possessing in themselves the strongest characteristics, there is no bird yet
discovered which presents any point of connection to them; approximations
are certainly made by the Tooth-billed Barbets, but still there is a gap
which no genus discovered is calculated to fill up.” In the Parrot tribe the

THE PARROTS. 15

modification of the bill is very remarkable. In many birds the upper man-
dible is more or less movable at its junction with the forehead. In the
Parrots, this mobility is carried out to its fullest extent, a sort of hinge
uniting the upper mandible to the forehead, while the slender bones, con-
necting the upper mandible to the base of the skull, yield to every move-
ment.

Across the horny palate of the beak is a sort of notch, against which the
front margin of the lower beak works ; and this margin, chisel-like, is sharp
and thin, while the articulation of the lower mandible is as loose as possible.
Hence, aided by the thick, fleshy tongue, a Parrot, as we have often seen,
will, by means of its beak, clear the inside of a fresh pea from the outer
skin, rejecting the latter, and perform the whole process, not only with facil-
ity, but with the greatest delicacy of manipulation, if this term is allowable.
In all birds, as a rule, the margin of the orbit is incomplete. In the Par-
rot, the bony ring, varying in breadth, is complete, and below it runs the
slender bone connecting the upper mandible with the os guadratum. “The
lower mandible is light, thin, and deep. The tongue is thick, muscular, and
in constant requisition: it is covered with papillw, is moistened with saliva,
and possesses both taste and great mobility. In the Lorikets (Z'richo-
glossus), however, which feed on the nectar of the flowers of the H’wca-
lypti, in Australia, it is furnished with a brush of delicate, close-set fila-
ments.”

The Parrots are a noisy race, associating together in flocks, and feeding
upon fruits, buds, seeds, &c.: they sleep crowded together, and are fond
of pruning each other’s plumage: they are monogamous, the pairs forming
lasting associations, and they breed in the hollows of trees. With respect
to powers of flight, they vary considerable ; some fly slowly, but others wing
their way with the greatest rapidity, and for a long continuance. It is to
the warmer climates, more particularly, that these birds are confined ; and
they are abundant in the inter-tropics. In the southern hemisphere, how-
ever, they occur in temperate latitudes, while in the northern hemisphere,
they are rare beyond the Tropic of Cancer; the Carolina Parrot, in Amer-
ica, and some of the genus Palwornis, in India, however, are extra-tropical.
On the contrary, Parrots occur in the southern extremity of America,
throughout New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, New Zealand, and even in
Macquarie Island, in the fifty-second degree of south latitude.

Of all birds, Parrots are the most suceptible of being rendered tame and
familiar ; and towards their protectors they often manifest great attachment,
courting their notice and caresses. They are decidedly the most intelligent
of the feathered race, and are quick in learning to repeat words, sentences,
and tunes: they mimic the voices of other animals, — the barking of dogs,

pipes Sees

16 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

the mewing of cats, and the crowing of poultry, —and their memory is re-
tentive, and their ear is accurate. Individuals, however, differ in their qual-
ifications, and some species are superior to others in the facility with which
they learn their lessons, the Gray Parrot of Africa (Ps¢ttacus erythacus )
being preéminent.

In the classical writings of antiquity we have several references to these
birds, which appear to have been great favorites and in general request.
Aristotle well described their tongue as resembling that of man, whence, as
he conjectured, arose the facility with which they pronounce words or sen-
tences. The Greeks were the first of European nations who became ac-
quainted with birds of the Parrot tribe, viz., some of the species of the
Indian genus Pulwornis (Parrakeets) ; these, from all accounts, were
introduced into Europe from India at the time of the Macedonian con-
quest, and, having Deen once brought into Greece, the great demand for
them, and the high prices for which they sold, rendered the importation of
them a profitable speculation.

From Greece the Parrot soon found its way to Rome, and became extrav-
agantly admired. It was kept in cages of the most costly materials, nor
was any price, however inordinate, deemed beyond its value. Until the
time of Nero the Romans were not acquainted with the Parrots of Africa ;
but as that country became more known, these birds, with other natural
productions, were sent to Italy; and most probably it was from that quar-
ter that the numbers of the Parrot race were imported, which, at a subse-
quent period, supplied the luxury of Heliogabalus. Among other articles
in the bill of fare, detailed by lian as entering into the feasts of this em-
peror, are the combs of fowls, the tongues of peacocks and nightingales, the
brains of flamingoes and thrushes, the heads of parrots and pheasants, and
it is reported that with the bodies of the two latter he fed his beasts of
prey.

In captivity the Parrot lives long; instances are on record of individuals
attaining the age of eighty or one hundred years.

The Macaws occur in the warm regions of South America, and are among
the largest of the Parrot race. They are easily domesticated, and become
very gentle and familiar, but in their powers of imitation they fall far short
of the true Parrots and Parrakeets ; their natural cries are harsh, discordant,
and piercing, and are pronounced in a disagreeable tone. The beak is of
enormous size and streneth ; the cheeks are, toa creater or less extent, bare ;
the nostrils are concealed ; the under mandible is very deep. The plumage
is remarkable for gaudy coloring. The Blue and Yellow Macaw is a native
of Brazil, Guiana, and Surinam, tenanting the swampy forests along the
banks of rivers, and generally living in pairs, though sometimes they assem.

THE BLUE-MOUNTAIN LORIKEET. 17

ble in large flocks. The food of this species consists principally of a fruit
of a kind of palm abundant in humid or marshy places. On the wing, the
Blue and Yellow Macaw is rapid, displaying great address and ease in its
aerial movements, and is often seen skimming over the tops of the loftiest
trees, the highest branches of which it selects for its roosting-place.
Like the Parrots generally, this Macaw lays two white eggs in the
hollow of a decayed tree; both sexes attend to the duty of incubation, and
to the labor of rearing the young. Two broods are said to be produced
annually.

The Lorikeets (7Trichogloss’) are natives of Australia, and are charac-
terized by the tongue being furnished at its apex with a pencil or brush of
strong hairs, rendering it an efficient agent in procuring food. This consists
of the nectar of various species of H’ucalypt?, some of which are always in
flower, thus furnishing the flocks with an abundant supply. Were it not
for this succession of blooms the Lorikeets would be straitened for food.
Among the pendent blossoms of these trees may the Lorikeets be.observed
clinging in every attitude, and busily engaged in absorbing, with their pencil-
tufted tongues (and so licking up), the honey from the cups of the newly-
expanded blossoms, which they have compressed and nibbled with their
beaks. “To such an excess,” says Mr. Gould, “do these birds satiate them-
selves with their liquid food, that, on suspending a fresh-shot specimen by
the toes, a large tea-spoonful, at least, of honey will flow from the mouth ; ”
and he adds, “ when we know this to be the natural food of this group, how
can it be expected that the species can exist in captivity upon the hard seed
or farinaceous diet so generally given as a substitute?” And we agree with
him in thinking that if honey or liquid saccharine matter were afforded them,
they might be kept in cages and aviaries; and when it is considered that
they are among the most elegant and beautiful of their race, it is desirable
for those who have the opportunity of making a series of trials.

According to Mr. Calez, the Blue-Mountain Lorikeet, or Blue-Mountain
Parrot (Warrin of the natives), is remarkable for its docility and attachment
to some people, whilst it is a perfect scold to others, who may have teased
or offended it. “ Flocks of these birds,” says this accurate observer, “may
be seen in the Hucalypté trees when in flower, in different parts of the
country, but in the greatest number near their breeding-places. It does not
eat any kind of grain, even when in a domesticated state. It is much sub-
ject to fits, which generally prove fatal; and it is rare to find an individual
kept alive above a couple of years. One that I kept, on being shown a

t=]

figure of a colored plant, used to put its tongue to the flowers, as if with

the intent of sucking them; and I have seen it make the same attempt with
a piece of cotton furniture. The flesh of this bird is very good eating.”

18 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

Again, speaking of the Crimson-fronted Parakeet, Coolich of the natives
(Trichoglossus concinnus) Mr. Calez states that it may be observed in
large flocks sucking the Eucalypti flowers. He adds, that like the Blue-
Mountain Parrot, it is subject to fits, which generally prove fatal ; that it is
seldom kept alive, and that its breath, or some part above its head, emits a
very sweet odor. The natives told him that this species breeds in the hollow
boughs of trees, scraping out the decayed mould, and making its nest of it.
The eges, he informs us, are green, without spots, and the number of young °
two. Of the Small Parakeets (Jarryang of the natives) (Tiéehoglossus
pusillus), he observes that this, like the Coolich, is seen in very large
flocks in the Hucalyptt trees when in bloom. “The natives,” says he,
“now and then bring in the young ones, but they seldom live long. I had
three young ones for some time, which used to huddle together, and give out
avery pleasing note. They all died strongly convulsed, and nearly at the
same time the limbs were as stiff the moment life was extinct as if the
body had become cold. The natives tell me that it builds in the hollow
limbs of trees, making no other nest than of the decayed wood. The eggs
are white and without spot.”

In the Cockatoos the bill is strong, short, broad, with the upper mandible
much curved; the head is ornamented with a folding crest; base of the
under mandible frequently concealed by feathers. Wings long; tail even.
Locality, Australia and the Indian Islands. These birds inhabit the woods,
feeding on fruit, and breeding in hollow trees: their ery is harsh, loud,-and
disagreeable, but they are readily tamed, and though not celebrated for their

powers of imitation, are engaging from their gentleness and affectionate dis-
position. Their plumage is very powdery. They live long in captivity.
An authenticated instance is on record of a great Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
which attained the age of one hundred and twenty years. Mr. Gould, who,
in his “ Birds of Australia,” has given a magnificent figure of the Cacatua
galerita of Vieillot, observes, that if we regard the White Cockatoo of Van
Diemen’s Land and that of New Guinea as mere varieties of each other,
this species has a more extensive range than most other birds. It is an in-
habitant of all the Australian colonies, both on the southern and northern
coasts, but has not yet been seen on the western. “On a close examination
of the specimens from the three countries above mentioned, a decided differ-
ence is observable in the structure of the bill, or rather, perhaps, a modifica-
tion of the organ for the peculiar kind of food afforded by the respective
countries. The Van Diemen’s Land bird is the largest in every respect, and
has the bill, particularly the upper mandible, less abruptly curved ; the bill
of the New Guinea bird is much rounder, and is, in faet, fitted to perform a
totally different office from that of the White Cockatoo of Van Diemen’s

WOODPECKERS. 19

Land, which, as I have ascertained by dissection, feeds principally on the
small bulbs of the terrestrial Orchidacee, for procuring which its lengthened
upper mandible is admirably adapted, while it is more than probable that no
food of this kind is to be obtained by the New Guinea bird, the structure of
whose bill indicates that hard seeds and nuts constitute the principal part
of its diet. The crops and stomachs of those killed in Van Diemen’s Land
were very muscular, and contained seeds, grain, native bread (a species
of fungus), small tuberose, and bulbous roots, and, in most instances,
large stones.”

As may be readily imagined, this bird is not upon favorable terms with the
agriculturists, upon whose fields of newly-sown grain and ripening maize it
commits the greatest devastations : it is consequently hunted down wherever
it is found

a circumstance which tends much to lessen its numbers. It is
still, however, very abundant, moving about in flocks, varying from a hun-
dred to a thousand in number, and evinces a decided preference to the open
plains and cleared lands, rather than to the dense brushes near, the coast.
“Except when feeding or reposing on the trees after a repast, the presence
of a flock, if not seen, is certain to be indicated by their horrid, screaming
notes, the discordance of which may be slightly conceived by those who have
heard the peculiarly loud, piercing, grating scream of the bird in captivity,
always remembering the immense increase of the din occasioned by the large
number of the birds uttering their disagreeable notes at the same moment :
still I ever considered this annoyance amply compensated for by their
sprightly actions, and the life their snowy forms imparted to the dense and
never-varying green of the Australian forest

a feeling participated in by
Sir Thomas Mitchell, who says that amidst the umbrageous foliage, forming
dense masses of shade, the White Cockatoos sported like spirits of light.”

Fanity Pictom®. WooppreckeErs.

These birds are generally distributed in both hemispheres. Mr. Swainson
is of opinion that the structure of the Picide constitutes them the most. per-
fect of all the climbing birds, for nature has rendered their whole organi-
zation subservient to this particular power. “The feet,” he observes,
“although short, are unusually strong; the nails are broad and crooked,
and the toes placed in pairs, two forward and two backward. As an addi-
tional and powerful support, in their rapid and perpendicular ascent up the
trunks of trees, their tail feathers,” he remarks, “terminate in points, and
are uncommonly hard, so that, being pressed against the bark, they assist
the bird in its progress, or in keeping its position. The bill, destined for
the laborious operation of penetrating the wood, or stripping off the bark
of forest trees, is beautifully adapted for the purpose, being wedge-shaped,

20 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

furnished with regular-sided angles, and in one species (Picus principalis)
nearly of the color and consistency of ivory, whence it has been termed the
Tvory-billed Woodpecker.”

Mr. Yarrel, in describing the characteristics of the Woodpeckers, says, —

* Moderate powers of flight, sufficient to transport the bird from tree to
tree, are all that if seems to require: large pectoral muscles, with a deep
keel to the breastbone, would, to this bird, be an inconvenience. The
advantage of a narrow, shallow keel is immediately apparent, on looking at
a representation of the skeleton in a climbing position ; the low keel allow-
ing the bird to place its hody close to the tree, brings its centre of gravity
in a perpendicular line before the points of support, and thus materially
diminishes the labor of, and the strain upon, the muscles of the legs and
thighs.”

Of the Preinw, or true Woodpeckers, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is a
good type. This species is a native of North America, being found in the
swampy forests of the Southern and South-western States.

“ Descending the Ohio,” says Audubon, “ we meet with this splendid bird,
for the first time, near the confluence of that beautiful river and the Missis-
sippi; after which, following the windings of the latter, either downwards
towards the sea, or upwards in the direction of the Missouri, we frequently
observe it. On the Atlantic coast, North Carolina may be taken as the
limits of its distribution, although now and then an individual of the spe-
cies may be accidentally seen in Maryland. To the westward of the Mis-
sissippi, it is found in all the dense forests bordering the streams which
empty their waters into that majestic river, from the very declivities of the
Rocky Mountains. The lower parts of the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama,
Louisiana, and Mississippi, are, however, the most favorite resorts of this
bird; and in those States it constantly resides, breeds, and passes a life of
peaceful enjoyment, finding a profusion of food in all the deep, dark, and
gloomy swamps dispersed throughout them.”

Beetles, larve, and large grubs constitute the chief diet of this species ;
and for these it attacks the bark and wood of decayed trees, its strokes re-
sounding far through the gloomy wilds. “ Wherever he frequents,” says
Wilson, “he leaves numerous monuments of his industry behind him. We
there see enormous pine trees, with cart-loads of bark lying around their
roots, and chips of the trunk itself in such quantities as to suggest the idea
that half a dozen axe-men had been at work there for the whole morning.
The body of the tree is also disfigured with such numerous and so large
excavations that he can hardly conceive it possible for the whole to be the
work of a Woodpecker.”

Audubon says he has scen it detach pieces of bark seven or eight inches

POULTRY

PARTRIDGE ICH]

COLORED DORKIN(

GOLDEN SPANGLED POLISH

TURKEY, PEACOCK

Samuel Walker & Co.Boston

THE PILEATED WOODPECKER.

in length at a single blow, busy in quest of insects, all the while sounding
its loud notes, as if highly delighted. Sound and healthy trees, however,
are never thus attacked, excepting for the purpose of nidification. The tree
selected, for this purpose, is either an ash or a hagberry ; and at a great ele-
vation, the pair, relieving each other by turns, begin their operations. They
generally select a spot under the junction of a large branch, with the trunk
as a defence against rain. They first excavate horizontally for a few inches,
and then downwards, the extent of the cavity varying from a foot to three
feet downwards, into the core of the tree ; the diameter is about seven inches,
but the aperture will only just admit the bird. The eggs, generally six, are
Two broods are usually reared each summer. Besides insects, this

The flight

of this species is very graceful, though, as Audubon says, seldom prolonged

white.
Woodpecker devours wild grapes, persimmons, and haeberries.
I 5 4 fe)

to more than a few hundred yards at a time, unless when it has to cross a
large river, which it does in deep undulations, but the transit from tree to
tree is performed by a single sweep. It seldom utters any sound while on
the wing; but as soon as it alights, its voice is heard, the notes resounding
to a considerable distance, and may be represented by the monosyllable pact,
pait, pact, in tone like the false high note of a clarionet.

The head and bill of this species are held in great esteem, as a sort of
charm or amulet, by many of the tribes of America, who ornament. their
belts with them; and Europeans purchase them as beautiful curiosities.
When wounded, this bird generally ascends the nearest tree, in a spiral
direction, till it attains the top branches, where it hides; but if intercepted
and laid hold of, it defends itself both with its beak and claws, inflicting
severe lacerations.

The Pileated Woodpecker (J7yjlatomus pileatus) is also well known. It
is found only in American forests, and is recognized by a number of names,
—such as Log Cock, Black Wood-Cock, Great Woodpecker, &e. Its color
is black, with a streak of white across the head and on the sides of the
breast, and the crown is of a scarlet red.

The great size and strength of this bird enable it to pierce into and tear
apart the decaying trees in which its food is burrowing, with wonderful facil-
ity and ease. We have, at times, in passing through the forest, found huge
trees that had died and fallen to the ground, with their bark stripped off,
and large chips torn out, as if some animal had been at work on them; and
we always supposed that a bear had been amusing himself, as those animals
sometimes do, in this employment. One day we discovered the author of
the demolition, and it proved to be the Pileated Woodpecker. While seated
in the woods near the settlement known as Wilson’s Mills, in Maine, we
heard a large animal, as we supposed, rooting and tearing into a dead tree 2

NO. XII. 56

22 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES,

few rods off. We crept up near the sound, hoping to get a shot at a bear,
when we discovered this bird, which looked very much like a black hen,
busily at work. He was searching for the borers and large black ants that hide
beneath the bark; and so earnestly was he employed, that he permitted us
to approach very near him. He would force his powerful bill, by repeated
strokes, into the bark, in holes in a direct line with the grain, until he had
marked out a patch, perhaps six or eight inches square, and then, striking
into it diagonally, tear it off, thus exposing the living vermin beneath, which
he lost no time in securing. After clearing that spot, he moved to another,
and repeated the same operation, until, by a sudden movement, we startled
him, when he flew off, uttering a rattling cackle similar to that of a gar-
rulous hen. Tis flight was similar to that of the other Woodpeckers
described in another place in this volume. In addition to insects, this
Woodpecker eats acorns, beech-nuts, berries, and Indian corn, but is not
at all troublesome to farmers; and the little that it pilfers is much more
than repaid by the immense numbers of injurious larve that it destroys.

The Downy Woodpecker is also well known.

This little Woodpecker —the smallest we have —is abundantly distrib-
uted throughout the Eastern United States, and is a resident throughout the
year. The exceedingly interesting description of its habits, by Wilson, is
so full that we will give it entire. He says, —

“About the middle of May the male and female look out for a suitable
place for the reception of their eggs and young. An apple, pear, or cherry
tree — often in the near neighborhood of the farm-house — is generally fixed
upon for this purpose. The tree is minutely reconnoitred for several days
previous to the operation; and the work is first begun by the male, who
cuts out a hole in the solid wood as circular as if described with a pair of
compasses. He is occasionally relieved by the female, both parties working
with the most indefatigable diligence. The direction of the hole, if made
in the body of the tree, is generally downwards, by an angle of thirty or
forty degrees, for the distance of six or eight inches, then straight down for
ten or twelve more: within, roomy, capacious, and as smooth as if’ polished
by the cabinet-maker; but the entrance is judiciously left just so large as
to admit the bodies of the owners. During this labor, they regularly carry
out the chips, often strewing them at a distance, to prevent suspicion. This
operation sometimes oceupies the chief part of a week. Before she begins
to lay, the female often visits the place, passes out and in, examines every
part —both of the exterior and interior —with great attention (as every
prudent tenant of a new house ought to do), and at length takes complete
possession, The eges are generally six,— pure white, and laid on the
smooth bottom of the cavity. The male occasionally supplies the female

THE DOWNY WOODPECKER. 23

with food while she is sitting; and, about the last week in June, the young
are perceived making their way up the tree, climbing with considerable dex-
terity. All this goes on with great regularity where no interruption is met
with; but the House Wren, who also builds in the hollow of a tree, but
who is neither furnished with the necessary tools, nor strength for excavat-

-ing such an apartment for himself, allows the Woodpeckers to go on till he

thinks it will answer his purpose, then attacks them with violence, and gen-
erally succeeds in driving them off. I saw, some weeks ago, a striking
example of this, where the Woodpeckers we are now describing, after com-
mencing in a cherry tree, within a few yards of the house, and, having made
considerable progress, were turned out by the Wren. The former began
again on a pear tree in the garden, fifteen or twenty yards off, whence, after
digging out a most complete apartment, and one egg being laid, they were
once more assaulted by the same impertinent intruder, and finally forced to
abandon the place.

“The principal characteristics of this little bird are diligence, familiarity,
perseverance, and a strength and energy in the head and muscles of the
neck which are truly astonishing. Mounted on the infected branch of an
old apple tree, where insects have lodged their corroding and destructive brood,
in crevices between the bark and wood, he labors sometimes for half an hour
incessantly at the same spot, before he has succeeded in disloging and
destroying them. At these times, you may walk up pretty close to the
tree, and even stand immediately below it, within five or six feet of the bird,
without in the least embarrassing him. ‘The strokes of his bill are dis-
tinctly heard several hundred yards off; and I have known him to be at
work for two hours together on the same tree. Buffon calls this “incessant
and their life, ‘a dull

?

toil and slavery ;’ their attitude, ‘a painful posture ;
and insipid existence,’ — expressions improper because untrue, and absurd
because contradictory. The posture is that for which the whole organiza-
tion is particularly adapted; and though to a Wren or Humming Bird the
labor would be both toil and slavery, yet to him it is, Iam convinced, as
pleasant and as amusing as the sports of the chase to the hunter, or the
sucking of flowers to the Humming Bird. The eagerness with which he
traverses the upper and lower sides of the branches, the cheerfulness of his
motions while digging into the tree and dislodging the vermin, justify this
belief. He has a single note or chink, which, like the former species, he
frequently repeats ; and when he flies off, or alights on another tree, he utters
a rather shriller ery, composed of nearly the same kind of note, quickly
reiterated. In fall and winter he associates with the Titmouse, Creeper,
&e., both in their wood and orchard excursions, and usually leads the van.
Of all our Woodpeckers, none rid the apple trees of so many vermin as
this, digging off the moss which the negligence of the proprietor had suf-

24 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

“

fered to accumulate, and probing every crevice. In fact, the orchard is his
favorite resort in all seasons, and his industry is unequalled and almost
incessant, which is more than can be said of any other species we have. In
the fall, he is particularly fond of boring the apple trees for insects, digging
a circular hole through the bark, just sufficient to admit his bill; after that,
a second, third, &c., in pretty regular horizontal circles round the body of
the tree: these parallel circles of holes are often not more than an inch
or an inch and a half apart, and sometimes so close together that I have
covered eight or ten of them at once with a dollar. From nearly the surface
of the ground up to the first fork, and sometimes far beyond it, the whole
bark of many apple trees is perforated in this manner, so as to appear as if
made by successive discharges of buckshot; and our little Woodpecker —
the subject of the present account — is the principal perpetrator of this sup-
posed mischief: I say supposed, for, so far from these perforations of the
bark being ruinous, they are not only harmless, but, I have good reason to
believe, really beneficial to the health and fertility of the tree. I leave it to
the philosophical botanist to account for this; but the fact I am confident of.
In more than fifty orchards, which I have myself carefully examined, those
trees which were marked by the Woodpecker (for some trees they never
touch, perhaps because not penetrated by insects) were uniformly the most
thriving, and seemingly the most productive. Many of these were upwards
of sixty years old, their trunks completely covered with holes, while the
branches were broad, luxuriant, and loaded with fruit. Of decayed trees,
more than three fourths were untouched by the Woodpecker. Several in-
telligent farmers, with whom I have conversed, candidly acknowledge the
truth of these observations, and with justice look upon these birds as bene-
ficial ; but the most common opinion is, that they bore the tree to suck the
sap, and so destroy its vegetation : though pine and other resinous trees, on
the juices of which it is not pretended they feed, are often found equally
perforated. Were the sap of the tree their object, the saccharine juice of
the birch, the sugar-maple, and several others, would be much more inviting
(because more sweet and nourishing) than that of either the pear or apple
tree; but I have not observed one mark on the former for ten thousand that
may be seen on the latter. Besides, the early part of spring is the season
when the sap flows most abundantly ; whereas, it is only during the months
of September, October, and November that Woodpeckers are seen so inde-
fatigably engaged in orchards, probing every crack and crevice, boring
through the bark—and, what is worth remarking, chiefly on the south
and south-west sides of the tree—for the ege¢s and larvee deposited there
by the countless swarms of summer insects. These, if suffered to remain,
would prey upon the very vitals — if I may so express it — of the tree, and,

in the succeeding summer, give birth to myriads more of their race, equally
destructive.

THE CUCKOOS. 20

“Here, then, is a whole species, I may say genus, of birds, which Proy-
idence seems to have formed for the protection of our fruit and forest trees
from the ravages of vermin, which every day destroys millions of those nox-
ious insects that would otherwise blast the hopes of the husbandman; they
even promote the fertility of the tree, and, in return, are proscribed by those
who ought to have been their protectors, and incitements and rewards held
out for their destruction! Let us examine better into the operations of
nature, and many of our mistaken opinions and groundless prejudices will
be abandoned for more just, enlarged, and humane modes of thinking.”

Famiry Cucutipx®. Cuckoos.

My. Swainson remarks of the Cuculide, —

“So faintly is the scansorial structure indicated in these birds, that but
for their natural habits, joined to the position of their toes, we should not
suspect they were so intimately connected with the more typical groups of
the tribe, as they undoubtedly are. They neither use their bill for climbing,
like the Parrots, nor for making holes in trees, like the Woodpecker ; neither
can they mount the perpendicular stems, like the Certhiade, or Creepers ;
and yet they decidedly climb, although in a manner peculiar to themselves.
Their flight is so feeble, from the extreme shortness of their wings, that it is
evidently performed with difficulty, and it is never exercised but to convey
them from one tree to another, and these flights, in the thickly-wooded tracts
of tropical America, are, of course, very short: they alight upon the high-
est boughs, and immediately begin to explore the horizontal and slanting
ramifications with the greatest assiduity, threading the most tangled mazes,
and leaving none unexamined. All soft insects inhabiting such situations
lying in their route become their prey, and the quantities that are thus
destroyed must be very great. In passing from one bough to another, they
simply hop, without using their wings, and their motions are so quick, that
an unpractised observer, even if placed immediately beneath the tree, would
soon lose sight of the bird.

“Warm and temperate climates of both hemispheres are the chosen
haunts of the Cuckoos. The species peculiar to North America build their
nests, and rear their own young, while most of the others are parasitic.”

Of one species, the Black-billed Cuckoo (Coceygus erythrophthalmus)
is probably the best known. It is found in most portions of the Eastern
United States, and isin many localities common. In New England, it arrives
from the south about the first week in May, and, like the Yellow-billed
Cuckoo, the males precede the females. We have examined numbers of the
first birds that arrived in different seasons, and they were invariably males,
the females making their appearance about ten days or a fortnight later. The

26 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

habits of the two species are very similar, although the present bird prefers
the more cultivated and open districts, while the other seems to delight in
the more retired and wooded localities.

In flight, the Black-billed Cuckoo is more swift than the other; in breed-
ing habits, the same ; and its food is similar, consisting principally of insects
and their larve, small fruits, and the eggs and young of small birds. Like
* the other, the Black-billed Cuckoo is very cowardly, and is quickly driven
from the neighborhood of the nest of almost any of the other birds. If a
robin, or other bird of equal size, discover one of these, to him pirates, in
the vicinity of his nest, he immediately assaults the intruder, with loud out-
cries, pouncing upon him, and pecking with great ferocity. Others of his
neighbors, who are near, join in the attack : the Cuckoo, in retreating, dives
into the recesses of a stone wall, or the first secure retreat available, very
seldom taking to his wings, as another bird would do. We have known of
a Cuckoo being driven into a barn by a bluebird (iS. stalis), who sat perch-
ing on a fence outside for several minutes, keeping his enemy prisoner; and
the latter, when pursued and captured, preferred being our prisoner to facing
his enemy outside.

The nest of the Black-billed Cuckoo is usually placed in a low tree or
barberry-bush. It is constructed of twigs, roots, and sometimes a few
leaves and moss. We have examined a great number of these, from dif-
ferent sections, and have noticed that those from northern localities were
invariably lined with gray moss, called Spanish moss, and leaves, while
others, from more southern districts, were without such linings.

The eggs are usually four in number: they are of a darker greenish blue
than those of the other bird, and average a little smaller, their length vary-
ing from 1 to 1.12 inch, by from .84 to .92 inch in breadth.

Of the Cuculéne, or Cuckoos, the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)
of Europe is a good example.

The following account of this species is by Gilbert White : —

“Tn July I saw several Cuckoos skimming over a large pond, and found,
after some observation, that they were feeding on Libellulw, or dragon-
flies, some of which they caught as they settled on the weeds, and some as
they were on the wing. The favorite food of this bird, however, are the
hairy caterpillars, or some of the lepidopterous order ; these it kills by pass-
ing them through the sharp edges of its mandibles; it then nips off the
hinder end of the caterpillar, and, with a jerk or two, clears the body of the
alimentary canal, and immediately swallows it whole. With the hairs of
the caterpillar the stomach is often completely coated. In a communication
by Mr. Thompson to the Zodlogical Society in 1834, he states, that in three
Cuckoos, examined in 1833, the stomach, with the exception of some small,
sharp gravel, was entirely empty, and coated closely over with hair.

THE CUCKOOS. a7

* Attention was called to this, that the hair with which it is lined might be
observed. From its close adhesion to the inner surface of the stomach, and
from the regularity with which it is arranged, Mr. Thompson was at first
disposed to consider this hair as of spontaneous growth; but part of the
stomach being subjected to maceration in water, and afterwards viewed
through a microscope of high power, the hairs proved, to the entire satis-
faction of Mr. Owen and himself, to be altogether borrowed from the larve
of the tiger-moth (Arect’a caja), the only species found in the stomachs of
several Cuckoos, from different parts of the north of Ireland, which were
examined by Mr. Thompson, in the months of May and June, 1833, and
whose stomachs were similarly coated.” (Proceedings Zodl. Soc., 1839,
p- 29.)

The well-known notes of the Cuckoo are confined to the male, the female
making only a chattering noise.

The singular habit of the Cuckoo, in depositing its eggs in the nests of
other birds, is too well substantiated to admit of a doubt; the nests usually
chosen are those of the Hedge Sparrow, Titlark, White Throat, Wagtail, &e.
The egg is very small in comparison with the size of the Cuckoo, scarcely
exceeding that of a common Chaflinch. When the young Cuckoo is hatched,
and has acquired a little strength, guided by the instinct of self-preservation
it dislodges all its weaker companions by insinuating itself under them, and,
with a sort of jerk, forces them overboard. Thus it secures to itself the
exclusive attention of its dupes of foster-parents. Gilbert White mentions
a young Cuckoo found in the nest of a Titlark, which he describes as being
very fierce and pugnacious, pursuing his finger, as he teased it, for many
feet from the nest, and sparring and buffeting with its wings like a game-
cock ; and Selby alludes to the same bold and pugnacious disposition.

Many attempts have been made to keep the Cuckoo alive in captivity,
and several have lived, with care, to the middle of winter, when they have
died. Mr. Thompson, however, instances two exceptions; one of these
lived for more than a year at Cranmore, near Belfast, the residence of John
Templeton, Esq.: it was procured on the 26th of July, 1820, and died, in
consequence of an accident, January 10, 1822. It was originally taken
from a Titlark’s nest. “Its engaging manners,” says Mr. Templeton, “ were
the delight of the whole family and admiration of strangers. It was gen-
erally fed on hard-boiled eges, and occasionally on caterpillars: it would
sometimes eat forty or fifty at a time of the Papilio Brasside; it, how-
ever, showed a decided preference for rough ones, as those of the Papilio
Urtice. A seeming treat was a little mouse, about one quarter grown,
which it would hold in its bill and beat against the ground, or anything hard,
until the animal became soft, when it exhibited great powers of extending

28 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

its throat and swallowing. What, however, was most extraordinary, it was
never known to drink, though, when presented with a drop of water, at the
end of a finger or straw, it would sip it, and it seemed to delight, when
seated on its mistress’s or other person’s hand, to put its bill into their mouths
and sip saliva. It delighted very much in heat, and sitting in the sunshine ;
and its feathers were so much broken by striking them against the furniture,
that it could fly but very imperfectly, and apparently very thankful to any per-
son who would help it upon the first sash of the window. At other times
it sat upon the fender, turning itself in various directions, and spreading its
wings and feathers to receive the heat, of which it could bear a temperature
equal to one hundred degrees, for a considerable time, with seeming satis-
faction. During cold weather it slept at its mistress’s bedside, covered
with a piece of flannel, which was well warmed, previous to its going to
rest. With this attention, it generally remained quiescent till morning ;
but, on feeling cold, sometimes presumed so far as to creep under the bed-
clothes.

“Tt was only to those from whom it had received some hurt or persecution
that it expressed dislike or fear, which it did by raising its neck feathers and
putting itself in an attitude of defence. It never uttered the ery of the male,
—cuckoo,—but sometimes, when persons were in the room laughing, it would
apparently join, and emit a noise somewhat like the barking of a little dog.
At other times, the only sound it made was a kind of low-chattering expres-
sion of pleasure when it got into a warm place, or on seeing its mistress
after she had been absent some hours. It received the unlucky tramp, which
finally killed it, from haying lost_too much the apprehension of injury.”
(Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1842, p. 223.)

Famity RHAMPHASTIDA. TOUCANS.

The Lhamphastide are all natives of tropical America, where they live
retired in the deep forests, mostly in small companies. Their flight is straight
but laborious, and while on the wing the beak is raised and directed for-
wards, so as to offer as little resistance as possible to the air. Among the
branches of the trees their movements are easy and active; they appear to
glide from branch to branch, and in this manner ascend to the very sum-
mits. D’Azara states that the Toucans are, to a certain extent, omnivorous,
living a great part of the year on fruits, but during the breeding season at-
tacking the smaller birds in their nests, and devouring their eggs or their
young. Even the eggs and young of the Macaws, and other large birds,
often fall victims to their carnivorous propensities.

Mr. Swainson, who had seen the Toucans in their native forests, was led
to suspect the same fact, and informed Mr. Broderip that he had frequently

THE TOUCANS. 29

observed them perched on the tops of lofty trees, evidently watching the
departure of birds from their nests, besides which, the remains of food found
in the stomachs of such as were shot, proved that eges and young birds, as
well as fruit, constituted their dict. He neyer, however, observed them in
the act of destruction.

On the 23d of November, 1824, Mr. Vigors had spoken at the Zodlogical
Club of a living Toucan, which was then exhibited in St. Martin’s Lane.
Mr. Vigors stated that the bird had been fed on a vegetable diet, but that
the proprietor had told him, that on the occasion of a young Canary Bird
| having escaped and gone near to the Toucan, the latter appeared more than
usually excited; that thereupon the barrier between them was removed, and
that the Toucan instantly seized and devoured the Canary Bird. On the
next day Mr. Broderip went to the place where the Toucan was exhibited,
and thus describes what he saw : —

“After looking at the bird, which was the object of my visit, and which
was apparently in the highest state of health, I asked the proprietor to bring
up a little bird, that I might see how the Toucan would be affected by its
appearance. He soon returned, bringing with him a Goldfinch —a last
yeu’s bird. The instant he introduced his hand, with the Goldfinch, into
the cage of the Toucan, the latter, which was on a perch, snatched it with
his bill. The poor little bird had only time to utter a short, weak ery, for,
within a second, it was dead, killed by compression on the sternum and
abdomen, and that so powerful, that the bowels were protruded after a very
few squeezes of the Toucan’s bill. As soon as the Goldfinch was dead, the
Toucan hopped with it, still in his bill, to another perch, and, placing it
with his bill between his right foot and the perch, began to strip off the
feathers with his bill. When he had plucked away most of them, he broke
the bones of the wings and legs (still holding the little bird in the same
position) with his bill, taking the limbs therein, and giving, at the same
time, a strong, lateral wrench. He continued this work with great dexter-
ity, till he had almost reduced the bird to a shapeless mass; and ever and
anon he would take his prey from the perch in his bill, and hop from perch
to perch, making, at the same time, a peculiar, hollow, chattering noise ;
at which times I observed that his bill and wings were affected with a vibra-
tory or shivering motion, though the latter were not expanded. He would
then return the bird to the perch with his bill, and set his foot on it. He
first ate the viscera, and continued pulling off and swallowing piece after
piece, till the head, neck, and part of the back of the sternum, with their
soft parts, were alone left; these, after a little more wrenching, while they
were held on the perch and masticated, as it were, while they were held in
the bill, he at last swallowed, not even leaving the beak or legs of his prey.

NO. XII. el

30 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

The last part gave him the most trouble ; but it was clear that he felt great
enjoyment ; for whenever he raised his prey from the perch, he appeared to
exult, now masticating the morsel with his toothed bill, and applying his
tongue to it; now attempting to gorge it, and now making the peculiar,
chattering noise, accompanied by the shivering motion above mentioned.
The whole operation, from the time of seizing his prey to that of devouring the
last morsel, lasted about a quarter of an hour. He then cleansed his bill from
the feathers by rubbing it against the perches and bars of his cage. While on
this part of the subject, it may be as well to mention another fact, which
appears to me not unworthy of notice. Ihave more than once seen him
return his food after he had taken it to his crop, and, after miasticating the
morsel a while in his bill, again swallow it, the whole operation, particularly
the return of the food to the bill, bearing a strong resemblance to the anal-
ogous action in ruminating animals. The food, on which I saw him so
employed, was a piece of beef, which had evidently been macerated some
time in the crop. While masticating it, he made the same hollow, chatter-
ing noise as he made over the remains of the Goldfinch. Previous to this
operation, he had examined his feeding-trough, in which there was nothing
but bread, which I saw him take up and reject; and it appeared to me that
he was thus reduced from necessity to the above mode of solacing his palate
with animal food. THis food consists of bread, boiled vegetables, eggs, and
flesh, to which a little bird is now added about every second or third day.
He shows a decided preference for animal food, picking out all morsels of
that description, and not resorting to the vegetable diet till all the former is

exhausted.”
Famity Bucconipa. Barbers.

These birds are distinguished at once by their large, conical beak, which

appears swollen, as it were, or puffed out at the sides of its base, and is
bearded (whence its name) with fine tufts of stiff bristles directed forwards.
Their short wings and heavy proportions do not admit of swift flight; and
their prey consists of insects and young birds, which they surprise; they
also eat varieties of fruits. Their nests are generally built in the holes of
trees. The two sub-families, Buccon’nw and Capotonine, are founded on
the genera Bucco (Cuvier), and Capito (Vieillot). They are found in
both the Old and New Worlds.

Swainson says of the Barbets, —

“There is something very grotesque in the appearance of all the Puff
birds, and their habits, in a state of nature, are no less singular. They
frequent open cultivated spots near habitations, always perching on the
withered branches of a low tree, where they will sit nearly motionless for
hours, unless, indeed, they desery some luckless insect passing near them, at

jie

THE TROGONS. 31

which they immediately dart, returning again to the identical twig they had
just left, and which they will sometimes frequent for months. At such
times, the disproportionate size of the head is rendered more conspicuous by
the bird raising its feathers so as to appear not unlike a puff-ball ; hence the
general name they have received from the English residents in Brazil.
When frightened, this form is suddenly changed by the feathers lying quite
flat. They are very confiding, and will often take their station within a few
yards of the window.

Famity GALBULIDE. JACAMARS.

The characteristics of the genus Galbula (Mehr), as given by Gray,
will serve as a type of the family.

The species that compose this genus are peculiar to the tropical portions
of South America, and are also found in some of the West India Isles.
They inhabit the humid forests, where it is usual to observe them seated
singly on some low, naked branch, until the approach of an insect calls them
into action; after which they dart off rapidly, and, securing it with their
lengthened, acute bill, return to the same place again. The ground around
their chosen position is generally strewed with the wings of insects, as they
only feed on the bodies. Some species are stated to frequent the borders of
rivers and brooks, and to feed on fish and their fry. These birds form a
hole in trees, or in banks of rivers, like the Kingfishers, the entrance of
which is an inch and a half in diameter, and the eggs are placed about eight
inches from the outward surface. ‘They are usually three in number.

Famtty Trocontipm. Trocons.

7

Mr. Gould’s “ Monograph of the Trogonide” gives much valuable infor-
mation regarding these magnificent birds. “Greatly insectivorous,” says
Mr. Gould, “they seize the fluttering insect on the wing, which their wide
gape enables them to do with facility, while their feeble tarsi and feet are
such as to qualify them merely for resting on the branches, as a post of ob-
servation, whence to mark their prey as it passes, and to which, having given
chase, to return. If not strictly elegant in form, the Trogons, in the bril-
liancy of their plumage, are surpassed only by the Trochilide ; their splen-
dor amply compensates for every other defect. Denizens of the intertropical
regions of the Old and New World, they shroud their glories in the deep
and gloomy recesses of the forest, avoiding the light of day and the obser-
vation of man. Dazzled by the brightness of the meridional sun, morning
and evening twilight is the season of their activity.”

Another writer describes them as being solitary birds, extremely jealous

32 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

of their freedom, never frequenting inhabited or open tracts, and delighting
in the silence of deserts. The interior of the thickest forests is their chosen
abode for the entire year. They are sometimes seen on the summit of trees,
but, in general, they prefer the centre, where they remain a portion of the
day, without descending to the ground, or even to the lower branches. Here
they lie in ambush for the insects which pass within reach, and seize them
with address and dexterity. Though they thus conceal themselves in the
thick foliage, it is not through distrust ; for when they are in an open space,
they may be approached so nearly as to be struck with a stick. They are
rarely heard to utter any cries, except during the season of reproduction, and
then their voice is strong, sonorous, and melancholy. They have many
cries, from the sound of one of which their name is derived.

Famity Musopuacip®. PLANTAIN-EATERS AND COLIES.

“The species of Co/l/us are peculiar to the continent of Africa, where
they are usually observed in parties on the trees, among the branches of
which they are seen quickly hopping, from one to another, in search of the
fruits and freshly-formed buds, on which they subsist. Their flight consists
of little more than flitting from one tree to another, and they have a peculiar
habit of suspending themselves by one foot attached to the branch, with the
head hanging downwards. They are rarely observed on the ground, as the
formation of their foot does not admit of their walking with ease. They
form their nests in society, closely packed together on the same tree or bush,
and composed of flexible twigs lined with feathers, the female depositing from
four to six eggs.”

The Musophagine, or Plantain Eaters, are found in Africa. They are
comprehended in several genera. Among them are the Touracos, which
are very elegant birds. They feed upon soft fruits, principally the plan-
tains. Their flight is of limited strength.

The characteristics of the foregoing families in the Zygodactyli, as given
by Lilljeborg, are as follows : —

Versatile forwards ....ccsscecscccscccsscccssccsocscsctocesccsesccccsesccceccecsssececcssss seseeee 42. MUSOPTIAGID®, Sund.

2 .
x irected backwards ..ccccccccsucceccversecvcvessescrvereseesrrecacssescsaucsnccnsccers 43. TROGONIDA, Sund.
= | notver- not ¢ f united as far as the outer end of the nd phalanx. 44. GALBULIDA, Sund.
E | satile. without tensi- to the outer ( not twice as long as
= | Second cere. ble. not united to end of the head. Nostrils in

= OG saves Ante- + the outer first phal- their usual posi-

Ros directed rior end of the anx. tion. Bristles

3 for- toes... see. phal- generally present. 45. BuCCONIDA, Sund.

OE: wards, anx, but ' very large, general-

= Bill... ONLY eeeeee Bill ly twice, or more

Qk Tongue than twice as long

oF : as head. Nostrils

S in the dorsal sur-

fel face of bill, and

N not surrounded

by skin. Bristles
absent. ++ .. 46. RIAMPHASTIDA, Bona
near base. Bristles, none 47. CUCULIDA, Sund.
* _lumbriciform and extensible ...+++.+++ « 48. Prom, Bonap.
provided with a cere. The upper mandible hooked » 49. Psrvractbs, Bonap.

Plate A/V

PHASIANUS TOROUATUS LOPHOPHORUS IMPEYANUS
(The Ring Necked Pheasant ) i Impeyan Lophophorus )

BONASA UMBELLUS. TETRAO CANADENSIS.
(The Ruffed Grouse) (The Canadian Grouse }

PERDIX FRANCOLINUS ORTYX CALIFORNICA
(The Common Francolin.) (The Californian Ortiyx)

BOSTON, SAMUEL WALKER & CO

|

TUE HORNBILLS. By

ORDER STRISORES. WIDE-MOUTHED BIRDS.

By Lilljeborg’s arrangement this order comprehends seven interesting
families, which are characterized as follows : —

ae connected by a movable skin. Gape very large. Secondaries long, 35, CAPRIMULGID.©, Sun-
i not connected by / very short, not ex- ( short and broad at base.
s movable skin, tending to bas Hinder toe generally
oS | Ante-{ though some- of tail. Wi 4 versatile forwards. . . 36, CYPseLip.2, Sund.
‘My rior times more or long and arcuate. l lon ad slender. Hinder
a toes less united, Sie e Feute ere ba toe not versatile. . . . 37. TROCHILID-®, Sund,
i Secondaries ..} rather long, and f unconnected, Bristles rigi 38. CORACID.&, Sund,
n passing beyond small, with { arcuate
base of tail. / united. | tarsi short down- P
Anterior toes l pind Wards-+- 39. MEROPID#, Sund,
at base... . straight, or
Feet little re-
eurved.. 40, ALCEDINID.E, Gray,
large, with tarsi quite
lone, or moderate,
sometimes rather
GHOrue *saseenotsce 41, BUCEROTID&, Sund,
Pace 5
The subdivisions of these groups are thus characterized : —
CAPRIMULGID-E, { pectinated inside. Bill weak. .... . Caprimulginey, Bonap.
Nail of middle toe / not peetinated. Bill stout... .... Steatornithiney, G. Gray.
fora E : - hi Versatile: forwards. soe 50: 3) 2 Cypseline, Bonap.
CYPSELID-E. Hallux j not vy BF late areata Sutae et cal iectiesy 6 Collocalini
Ric ers - aoe “<n wen y Cisconnected .- 5. = Trochilinew, Bonap.
STRISORES. TROCHILID-E. Anterior toes at base jconnected .. 0. ee Phaéthornithinw, G. Gray.
) CORACIDA. 60 se ete ee aca eae er en et ee ee a Coracine, Bonap.
2 : 2 F “5 aroine p Serrated 2.2... Prioniting, Bonap.
Merorip.£. Bill with margins entire went 2b Le Meropins, Bonap.
ee rs : sea ( COMPIessed.. oss ee we, os ee 3) Ss Aleedinine, Bouup.
ALCEDINIDE. Bill at base (notcompressed ........ Halcyonine, G, Gray,
BUCEROTIDE «ec sce ee sees s ese nsec eses Bucerotine, Bonap.

Famity Bucerotip®. HorneI1s.

These strange-looking birds, characterized by the enormous development
of the beak, are natives of India and Africa. Not only is the beak of
immense magnitude, but the upper mandible is furnished with projecting
appendages, adding greatly to its entire dimensions, and in some species
encroaching over the top of the head. These appendages increase with age.
In young birds they are very small, and their figure is undefined, and it is
gradually that they acquire their enormous dimensions. The immense beak,
thus furnished, seems to be heavier than it is (and it is by no means light),
for the additional appendage is cellular internally ; the edges of both man-
dibles are roughly notched.

M. Lesson sums up the habits of the Hornbills thus : —

“Those of Africa live on carrion; those of the Kast Indies seek for fruits,
especially nutmegs, and their flesh thence acquires a delicious flavor. Their
flight is performed by repeated strokes of the wings, and the air which they
displace, joined to the clattering of their mandibles, occasions a great and
very disquieting noise in the forests when the cause is unknown. This
noise, capable of inspiring terror, does not ill resemble those flaws of rough

34 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

and sudden winds which arise so unexpectedly between the tropics, and blow
so violently. The Europeans established at the Moluccas think that the
furrows, which are seen on the bill of the Hornbills, are the result of age,
and that each furrow signifies a year, whence the name of Jerarvogel, which
they give to these birds.”

Mr. Swainson remarks that the Hornbills are gregarious, noisy birds, gen-
erally of a very large size, and are restricted to the Old World; that they
are omnivorous, feeding both on animals and vegetables; that some, how-
ever, seem only to partake of the latter food, while others, upon the author-
ity of Le Vaillant, feed upon carrion.

The Buceros cavatus, dissected by Mr. Owen, was observed to be more
attached to animal than to vegetable food, and would quit any other sub-
stance if a dead mouse was offered to it. This it would swallow entire, after
squeezing it twice or thrice with the bill, and no castings were noticed. Mr.
Owen, however, adds, that Petiver has borne testimony to its regurgitating
habits.

The progressive motion of these birds is by hopping or jumping along.
Major General Hardwicke expresses surprise at this, and at their perching
with such security, as their feet are formed for walking, and better suited to
an error which the consideration of the form,

the ground than the trees
and shortness of the tarsi, the structure of the toes, and the general contour
of the birds might, one would think, have prevented.

Active and alert, notwithstanding the magnitude of their beaks, these
birds lightly traverse the branches of the forest, and leap from one to an-
other, till the highest is attained; they then often stop and utter a loud,
roaring sound, which may be heard at a considerable distance, and is alarm-
ing to those who do not know whence it proceeds. The noise thus uttered,
and which is, most probably, their call-note, throws a light upon the design
of the hollow protuberance surmounting the bill: it acts as a sounding-
board, increasing the reverberation of the air. With regard to the huge
beak itself, many conjectures have been entertained as to its peculiar uses.
It has been suggested as a reason for its development, that it perhaps con-
stitutes a necessary weapon of defence against monkeys and other animals
which may seek to assail its nest, while some have supposed that it might be
employed in dragging snakes and lizards from their lurking-places, or young

alates =| fo)
birds and eggs from the recesses of the trunks of aged trees.

The Crowned Tock (Luceros coronatus) was found by Le Vaillant, asso-
ciating in flocks of over five hundred in number in Africa, feeding on the
remains of an elephant which had been slain by the hunters. They mani-
fested no alarm at the approach of observers, but continued their feast

without interruption.

THE BEE-EATERS. 35

Famity ALCEDINIDA. IJKINGFISHERS.

In this group occur the Halcyontnw, or Crab Hunters, of Gray, and the
Alcedinine, or true Kingfishers.

In the first-named division, the birds are confined to the Old World, the
species of Dace/o being found in Australia and New Guinea: those of
Tanysiptera occurring in New Guinea and the Philippine Islands; those
of Halcyon being found in Africa, India, Australia, and the islands of the
South Seas, and the species of Ceyw« in India and its archipelago.

This author, in describing the characteristics of the typical genus Z/aleyon,
says, —

“These birds generally-reside, singly or in pairs, in the moist, open for-
ests, or jungles on the sides of rivers and brooks, though some species are
rarely observed in the neighborhood of water, while others frequent culti-
vated places and plains. When flying, they usually utter a loud, rattling
scream. They often sit for a long time on a pole or the lower branch of a
tree, watching the space around them for the appearance of small reptiles,
fish-crabs, insects and their larvie, which constitute their chief subsistence.
Some species examine the flowers of the cocoa-nut trees for the insects that
are found within them. ‘The nest is formed in the hollow trunks of trees,
and the eggs are usually three or four in number.”

Of the sub-family Aleed/ninw, the common Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida)
of Europe, and the Belted Kinefisher of America, are types.

f=)

” says an English writer, “is common in most

“The European Kingfisher,
parts of Europe ; and there are few of our streams and rivers, flowing through
fertile meads, abounding with fish, over which this beautiful but voracious
bird may not be seen glancing backwards and forwards, its metallic hues elit-
tering in the sun. Occasionally it hovers at a moderate elevation over the
water, and then darts down, with astonishing velocity and suddenness, on
some unwary fish, which, heedless of its foe, ventures near the surface, and
which is seldom missed by the keen-eyed bird. The ordinary manner, how-
ever, in which the Kingfisher captures its finny prey, is by remaining quietly
perched on some stump or branch overhanging the water, and then intently
watching, with dogged perseverance, for the favorable moment in which to
make its plunge: it marks the shoals of minnows gliding past, the trout
lurking beneath the concealment of some stone, or in the shadow of the
bank, the roach and dace pursuing their course. At length, attracted by
a floating insect, one rises to take the prize; at that instant, like a shot,
down descends the glittering bird, the crystal water scarcely bubbling with
its plunge ; the next moment it reappears, bearing its victim in its beak,
with which it returns to its resting-place ; without loosing its hold, it passes

36 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

the fish between its mandibles, till it has fairly grasped it by the tail; then,
by striking smartly its head three or four times against the branch, ends its
struggles, reverses its position, and swallows it whole. Quiet, secluded
nooks, seldom disturbed by the intrusion of any save the ‘honest angler ;’
sheltered spots of the river, margined with alders and willows; mill-dams,
surrounded by tranquil, pastoral scenery, are the favorite haunts of this
bird. Its mate is its only companion, and both labor assiduously in the
support of their young. The place chosen for incubation is the bank of the
river, where it is steep or overhanging, and here it either constructs or ap-
propriates to itself a burrow, two or three feet in extent, bearing diagonally
upwards. It is said to select not unfrequently the old burrow of a water-
rat, but of this we are not convinced. At all events, we have seen the holes
of the Kinefisher half way down the steep and perfectly perpendicular face
of banks, which the water-rat could not have made, and which, we have no
doubt, were the work of the birds themselves. At the end of the gallery is
a little chamber, and here, without making any nest, the female lays her
egos, from five to seven in number, and of a clear, pinky white. While
engaged in the work of incubation, the female is supplied by her industrious
mate ; and as the fish-bones and scales are disgorged (for, like owls, the King-
fisher recasts the indigestible parts of its food), a circle of these rejectanea
surrounds the eggs, which, after the young are hatched, is greatly increased,
and hence has arisen the supposition —that of pellets of fish-bones is the nest
composed. The young are clamorous for food, uttering an incessant cry :
they soon acquire their brilliant plumage, and, when able to leave their
abode, follow their parents, and, resting on a branch in some lonely retreat,
tax the industry of their parents. They are, however, soon able to fish for
themselves.

“The Kingfisher performs a sort of limited migration. When winter sets
in, and drives the fish from the shallows to deep and sheltered bottoms, freezes
the mill-dams, or coats with ice the sluggish basin, worked out by the riv-
er’s current in rich alluvial soil, these birds wander from the interior to the
coast, and frequent the mouths of rivulets, entering large, navigable rivers,
dikes near the sea, and similar places, especially on the southern portion of
our island.”

Famtry Merorip®. Brer-EaATers.

Mr. Swainson is of opinion that the Meropide, or Bee-eaters, succeed the
swallows, and says of the Werops apiaster, that it annually visits Italy in
flocks of twenty or thirty, and may be seen skimming over the vineyards
and olive plantations with a flight much resembling the swallow, though
more direct and less rapid.

The common Bee-eater (Merops apiuster) is an example of the family.

THE HUMMING BIRDS. ot

This brilliant species, which occasionally wanders as far westward as the
3ritish Isles, is a summer visitant to the southern and eastern provinces
of Europe: it is common in Sicily, Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, &c.,
whence it retires into Africa on the approach of winter. in Spain, which
it enters by way of Gibraltar, it makes its appearance generally during
the first week in April, in flocks of forty or fifty, sometimes at a consid-
erable elevation, at other times skimming low, and uttering a shrill whis-
tle, heard at a considerable distance. They thus give chase to various
insects, —bees, wasps, beetles, grasshoppers, and butterflies, — catching
them on the wing with great address. Bee-eaters haunt rivers and streams,
and may be seen coursing up and down in pursuit of their prey, and glit-
tering in the sun with metallic brilliancy. In their habits these birds resem-
ble the kingfisher: they breed in holes, which they burrow in steep banks
overhanging the river, at the extremity of which, in a nest, according to
Selby, the eggs are laid. These are of a pure white, and from five to seven
in number. It is observed also, that, like the kingfisher, which recasts the
bones and scales of fishes, these birds disgorge the wing-cases, and other
indigestible parts of their insect food, rolled up in the form of small pellets.

Faminy Coractb2. Rowers.

The European Roller ( Coraetas garrula) is the type of this group.

This species is wild, shy, restless, and fierce, frequenting, by preference,
deep forests of oak and birch, where its harsh cry may be often heard. The
Roller has been observed falling through the air like a tumbler pigeon. Tem-
minck states that it makes its nests in the holes of trees, where it lays from
four to seven eggs of a lustrous white. Vieillot states that, in Malta, where
trees are scarce, the bird builds on the ground. In Barbary, it has been
observed to form its nest on the banks of the Sheliff, Booberak, and other
rivers ; and Pennant remarks that, where trees are wanting, it nests in clayey
banks. These last modes of nidification bring it very close to the bee-eaters
and kingfishers, whose eges quite resemble those of the Roller in color and
shape, varying only in size. The male assists in incubation. The food is
varied, according to Temminck, who enumerates moles, crickets, cockchaf-
ers, grasshoppers, millepeds, and other insects, slugs and worms.

Famiiy Trocumip®. Humaine Birps.

In this division are placed the two groups — Phaéthornithine of Gray,
and Trochiline, or Humming Birds proper.

The Humming Birds are among the smallest and most brilliant of the
feathered race. Winged gems, they glance, with dazzling effulgence, as
they dart along, or hover over the fragrant flowers. No birds excel them
NO. XII. 58

38 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS Il. AVES.

in powers of flight ; their long and narrow wings are admirably adapted for
aerial progression. The quill feathers are stiff, firm, and elastic, and fur-
nished with rigid shafts, in some instances singularly developed. The tail
is variable. The plumage is close and compact, and resembles an arrange-
ment of fishes’ scales, glittering, in the males, with metallic lustre. The
tarsi are very small and short; and the toes, three before and one behind,
are very delicate. The ground is never their resting-place: they perch on
slender twigs, but are mostly seen on the wing.

The beak is long and slender, but very variable in its form, being straight,
curved, and, in some species, even turned up. The tongue is long, bifid, or
split into two filaments, tubular, and capable of being darted out to a con-
siderable distance. As in the woodpeckers, it is the principal instrument
by means of which they obtain their food, viz., insects of various kinds, and
the nectar of flowers ; and it is protruded by the same arrangement of the
cartilaginous continuation of the os hyotdes winding round the skull to the
forehead. With respect to the tongue itself, Lesson describes it as com-
posed of two musculo-fibrous cylinders, soldered to each other so as to
resemble, in some degree, a double-barrelled gun; but these tubes towards
the tip become separated and enlarged, each presenting a little blade, which
is concave within, and conyex externally. In order that this tubular tongue
may be projected upon the aliments, which its terminations are appointed to
seize and retain, the os hyotdes, which supports it, is formed of two bony
plates or straps, which separate, pass below the cranium, reascend over the
bones of the occiput, and proceed to form a point of resistance or fulerum
by their reunion on the forehead. The result of this disposition, when
brought into play by the muscles of the tongue, is a great power over the.
muscular tubes which compose the organ of taste. The two small blades,
of elongated, spoon-like termination, seize the insects or lick up the honeyed
exudations, which are on the instant carried to the aperture of the cesoph-
agus by the elasticity and contractility of the two tubes, and forthwith swal-
lowed. The long and slender bill comes in admirably in aiding to insert the
tongue in the nectary of flowers.

These gorgeous birds are all natives of America, and that great archi-
pelago of islands between Florida and the mouth of the Orinoco, together
with the mainland of the Southern Continent until it passes the Tropic of
Capricorn, literally swarms with them. In the wild and uncultivated parts,
they inhabit those forests of magnificent timber, overhung with /éanas and
the superb tribe of Bignonacee, the huge trunks clothed with a rich drapery
of parasites, whose blossoms vie in tints, if not in brilliancy, with their
winged riflers. In the cultivated parts, they abound in the gardens, and
seem to delight in society, becoming very familiar ; feeling confidence in their

THE HUMMING BIRDS. 39

own powers, they will ever hover about one side of a shrub while flowers
or fruits are picked from the opposite. As we recede from the tropics on
either side the numbers decrease, though some species are found in Mexico,
and others in Peru, which do not appear to exist elsewhere. Thus Mr. Bul-
lock discovered several species at a high elevation, and consequently low
temperature, on the lofty table-lands of Mexico, and in the woods in the
vicinity of the snowy mountains of Orizaba; while Captain King, in his
survey of the southern coasts, met with numerous members of this dimin-
utive family flying about in a snow storm, near the Straits of Magel-
lan, and discovered two species in the remote island of Juan Fernandez.
“Two species only spread far into the Northern Continent of America; the
one, the Ruff-necked Humming Bird, which was discovered by Captain Cook
in Nootka Sound, and has been traced by Kotzebue to 61° along the western
shores; the other, the Northern or Ruby-throated Humming Bird, so beau-
tifully described by Wilson. ‘This species has been obtained from the plains
of the Saskatchewan, and was found breeding, by Mr. Drummond, near the
sources of the Elk River. It is known to reach as far north as the fifty-
seventh parallel.”

The velocity with which the Humming Birds glance through the air is
extraordinary, and so rapid is the vibration of their wings that the action
eludes the sight: when hovering before a flower, they seem suspended as if
by some magic power, rather than by the vigorous movement of their rigid

pinions, which, however, produce a constant murmur or buzzing sound,

é
s
whence the Enelish title by which we designate these birds, and the Creole
epithets in Cayenne and the Antilles, viz., Murmures, Bourdons, and Frou-
frous.

It has been frequently and justly observed that in their mode of flight
the Humming Birds closely resemble the sphinx-moths or the dragon-tlies.
Mr. Darwin, in his admirable “Journal,” states, that while at Bahia, he
started early one morning, and walked to the top of the Gavia or Topsail
Mountain. “The air was delightfully cool and fragrant, and the drops of
dew were still glittering on the leaves of the large liliaceous plants which
shaded the streamlets of clear water. Sitting down on a rock of granite,
it was delightful to watch the various insects and birds as they flew past.
The Humming Birds seemed particularly fond of such shady, retired spots :
whenever I saw these little creatures buzzing round a flower, with their
wings vibrating so rapidly as to be scarcely visible, I was reminded of the
sphinx-moths ; their movements and habits are, indeed, in many respects,
very similar.”

Bullock and Wilson both notice the surprising rapidity of the vibrations
of their wings. The former, speaking of specimens caged, says, that in a

40 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS II. AVES.

space barely sufficient for them to move their wings, they will keep their
bodies in the air, apparently motionless, for hours together. There are, how-
ever, exceptions to this rule. Mr. Darwin, describing the Trochilus gigas,
which, as he observed, had arrived in the neighborhood of Valparaiso in
numbers a little betore the vernal equinox, adds, —

“Tt comes from the parched deserts of the north, probably for the purpose
of breeding in Chili. When on the wing, the appearance of this bird is
singular. Like the others of the genus, it moves from place to place with a
rapidity, which may be compared to a syrphus amongst dipterous insects,
and a sphinx amongst the moths ; but whilst hovering over a flower, it flaps
its wines with a slow and very powerful movement, totally different from
that vibratory one, common to most of the species, which produces the hum-
ming noise. I never saw any other bird the force of whose wings appeared
so powerful in proportion to the weight of its body. When hovering by a
flower, its tail is constantly expanded and shut like a fan, the body being
kept in a nearly vertical position. This action appears to steady and sup-
port the bird between the slow movements of its wings. Although flying
from flower to flower in search of food, its stomach generally contained
abundant remains of insects, which, I suspect, are much more the object of
its search than honey is. The note of this species, like that of nearly the
whole family, is extremely shrill.”

These brilliant creatures are an intrepid, daring race, and extremely pug-
nacious, and cannot endure the approach of one even of their own species,
still less of any other bird, near their breeding-places. Of one minute but
beautiful species, the Mexican Star, Mr. Bullock says, —

“When attending their young, they attack any bird, indiscriminately, that

approaches the nest. Their motions, while under the influence of anger or”

fear, are very violent, and their flight rapid as an arrow. The eye cannot
follow them, but the shrill, piercing shriek which they utter on the wing,
may be heard when the bird is invisible. They attack the eyes of the
larger birds, and their sharp, needle-like bill is a truly formidable weapon in
this kind of warfare. Nothing can exceed their fierceness when one of their
own species invades their territory during the breeding-season: under the
influence of jealousy they become perfect furies, their throats swell, their
crests, tails, and wings expand, they fight in the air, uttering a shrill noise,
till one falls exhausted to the ground.”

It would appear, from Mr. Bullock’s statement, that Humming Birds often
avail themselves of the insects caught in spiders’ webs; not, however, with-
out the spiders endeavoring, not to devour, but to drive them away. “The
house,” he writes, “I resided in at Xalapa for several weeks on my return
to Vera Cruz, was only one story high, enclosing, like most of the Spanish

a

THE SWIFTS. 41

houses, a small garden in the centre, the roof projecting six or seven feet
from the walls, coveting a walk all round, and leaving a small space only
between the tiles and the trees which grew in the centre. From the edge
of these tiles to the branches of the trees in the garden the spiders had
spread their innumerable webs so closely and compactly that they resembled
anet. I have frequently watched, with much amusement, the cautious per-
egrinations of the Humming Bird, who, advancing beneath the web, entered
the various labyrinths and cells in search of entangled flies; but, as the
larger spiders did not tamely surrender their booty, the invader was often
compelled to retreat. Being within a few feet, I could observe all their
evolutions with great precision: the active little bird generally passed once
or twice round the court, as if to reconnoitre his ground, and commenced
his attack by going carefully under the nets of the wily insect, and seizing,
by surprise, the smallest entangled flies, or those that were most feeble. In
ascending the angular traps of the spider, great care and skill were required ;
sometimes he had scarcely room for his little wings to perform their office,
and the least deviation would have entangled him in the complex machinery
of the web, and involved him in ruin. It was only the works of the smaller
spiders that he durst attack, as the largest rose in defence of their citadels,
when the besieger would shoot off like a sunbeam, and could only be traced
by the luminous glow of his refulgent colors. The bird generally spent
about ten minutes in this predatory excursion, and then alighted on a branch
of an avocata to rest and refresh himself, placing his crimson, star-like
breast to the sun, which then presented all the glowing fire of the ruby, and
surpassed in lustre the diadem of monarchs.”

The nests of the Humming Birds are most beautiful, compact structures,
with exquisite finish and nicety of arrangement. Some are composed of
the finest silky down, or cotton of a delicate straw yellow, soft, light, and
compact, attached to the end of a twig, and concealed by leaves. In some
cases the outside is formed of fine moss, lichens, &c., investing a compact
bed of the down of plants, cotton, and even spiders’ webs.

Famity CyrseLip&®. Swirts.

The Chimney Swallow, or Swift (Chetura pelasgia) of America, and
the common Swift of Europe, furnish familiar types of the sub-family Cyp-
selinw, and the Esculent Swallow (Collocalia esculenta) of the Collo-
caline.

The Chimney Swallow is a well-known bird in the eastern United States.
It arrives in the latitude of New England, in great numbers, from the south,
from about the 1st to the 10th of May. Immediately on arriving the birds
pair, and commence building. The nest is usually constructed in an unused

42 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

flue of a chimney ; but, before the country was settled, they bred, and we have
no doubt that great numbers of them, in thinly-settled districts, still breed,
in hollow trees. The nest is composed of twigs, which are glued together,
and to the side of the chimney, with the saliva of the bird. It is lined with
a few feathers and straws. The strength of these structures is wonderful,
and they are so durable that we have known of instances of their remaining
in the chimney during three seasons. Usually the bird displays great
sagacity in the choice of a location for a nest, in securing protection from
storms and from the attacks of animals; but occasionally the nest is built in
a chimney, open at the top sufficiently wide to permit the rain to trickle
down the sides: the result is, that the moisture softens the glue by which
the nest is attached to the chimney, and it is, with its living contents, pre-
cipitated to the bottom. Again, if the nest is built too low in the chimney,
the young or eggs furnish agreeable food for rats, which, unfortunately, are
sometimes found in dwelling-houses in the country in uncomfortable num-
bers. The eggs are generally four or five in number, pure white in color,
rather long in shape.

From earliest dawn

until seven or eight in the morning, it is busy in the pursuit of insects: it

This species is somewhat nocturnal in its habits.

then retires to its roosting-places in the chimneys, and is seldom seen until
late in the afternoon. From early twilight until late in the night it is again
actively employed ; and, having heard its notes, as it sped through the air,
often as late as midnight, we have no doubt that, in pleasant weather, it is
busy through the whole night.

In descending the chimneys, where their young are, the birds fly rapidly
until they are immediately over them, when, partially closing their wings,
they drop suddenly, and with apparent ease, down the flue. In ascend-
ing, the noise of their wings in the chimney is like that of a distant
thunder. The flight of these birds is very rapid, surpassing, we think,
that of any other species: it is so peculiar, —the long wings vibrating in
short, quick, energetic strokes, —that it furnishes a ready means of dis-
tinguishing it from all other species at a great height.

About sunset the ereat multitudes of these birds are out, and the num-
bers of insects they destroy must be immense. Everywhere they may be
seen: away up in the blue sky, as far as the eye can reach, they are coursing
in wide-extended circles, chasing each other in sport, and even caressing and
feeding their mates while on the wing; a little lower, they are speeding
over the tops of trees, leaning the insects that have just left the foliage ;
over the surface of the lake or river they fly so low, in the pursuit of aquatic
insects, that their wings often touch the water: everywhere they are busy.

Truly, they are deserving of much better treatment than they too often re-

THE GOAT-SUCKERS. 43

ceive at the hands of the farmer, to whom they are his best friends; yet it
is a fact, that in a great many sections they are driven from the chimneys
of the farm-houses, and even destroyed, at every opportunity.

About the 10th of August the Chimney Swallow, in large, scattered
flocks, leaves for the south, and spends the winter in Honduras and the
West Indies. On returning, in the spring, the same pair occupy the
chimney used in the previous season, as has been proved by actual obser-
vation.

The nest of the Esculent Swallow is regarded as a great delicacy by the
Chinese. “These nests are composed of a mucilaginous substance, usually
more or less mixed with fragments of grass, hair, and similar materials :
they are attached to the surface of rocks in caverns, and the birds always
build in communities. It was formerly supposed that the mucilaginous mat~-
ter employed in the construction of the nests was obtained from sea-weeds
eaten by the birds; but it is now ascertained, beyond a doubt, that the
lands.

()
ot

substance in question is secreted by greatly-developed salivary
These birds are found in great abundance in all parts of the Eastern Archi-
pelago, and on the continent of India. The nests are collected in great
quantities, and constitute an important article of commerce with China.

Famity Carrimutcip®. Nicur Jars, Om Brrps, AnD GOAT-SUCKERS.

The Steatornithine, or Oil Birds, are among the most interesting of this
group.

The Guacharo (Steatorni’s Caripensis) is thus described : —

This extraordinary bird was discovered by Baron Humboldt in the cavern
of Caripe, called Cueva del Guacharo, in the province of Cumana, which it
haunts in thousands. These birds quit the cave only at nightfall, especially
when there is moonlight; and Humboldt remarks that it is almost the only
frugivorous night-bird yet known. It feeds on very hard fruits (an excep-
tion to the rule among the Caprimulgidw), and the Indians assured him
(though we place little dependence on their statement) that it does not pur-
sue either the hard-winged insects, or the moths that serve as the food of
this tribe of birds. It is, he states, difficult to form any idea of the horrible
noise made by thousands of the Guacharo birds in the dark recesses of the
cavern, whence their shrill and piercing eries strike upon the vaulted rock,
and are repeated by the echo in the depths of the grotto. By fixing torches
of copal to the end of a long pole, the Indians showed the nests of these
birds, fifty or sixty feet above the heads of the explorers, in funnel-shaped
holes, with which the cavern roof is pierced like a sieve.

Once a year, near midsummer, the Guacharo cavern is entered by the
Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the greater part of the nests,

s

44 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES,

while the old birds hover over the heads of the robbers, as if to defend their
brood, uttering horrible cries. The young, which fall down, are opened on
the spot. The peritoneum is found loaded with fat, and a layer of the same
substance on the abdomen forms a kind of cushion between the bird’s legs.
At the period above mentioned, which is generally known at Caripe by the
designation of the “oil harvest,” huts are built by the Indians with palm
leaves, near the entrance, and even in the very porch of the cavern. There
the fat of the young birds just killed is melted in clay pots over a bush-wood
fire ; and this fat is named butter or oil (aanteca or acette) of the Guacharo.
It is half liquid, transparent, inodorous, and so pure that it will keep above
a year without becoming rancid. In the kitchen of the monks of the con-
vent of Caripe no other oil is used, and Humboldt never found that it
imparted a disagreeable taste or smell to the aliments. The quantity of
very pure maiteca collected does not exceed one hundred and fifty, or one
hundred and sixty bottles, each being sixty cubic inches; the rest, which is
less transparent, is preserved in large earthen vessels: the whole hardly
seems to correspond with the immense annual carnage of birds. The use
of the Guacharo oil is very ancient, and the race of Guacharo birds would
have been extinct lone since if several circumstances had not contributed to
their preservation. The natives, withheld by superstitious fears, seldom dare
to proceed far into the recesses of the cavern. Humboldt had great difficulty
in persuading them to pass beyond the outer part of the cave, the only por-
tion of it which they visit annually to collect the oil; and the whole author-
ity of the padres was necessary to make them penetrate as far as the spot
where the floor rises abruptly at an inclination of sixty degrees, and where
a small, subterraneous cascade is formed by the torrent. In the minds of
the Indians this cave, inhabited by nocturnal birds, is associated with mystic
ideas, and they believe that in the deep recesses of the cavern the: souls of
their ancestors sojourn.

Of the Caprimulgine, our American Night Hawks, Whippoorwills, the
European Night Jar, are familiar examples.

The Night Hawk, or Bull Bat, is distributed generally over the North
American continent, and its habits are well known. It arrives in the lat-
itude of New England about the 10th of May. At this time great num-
bers may be observed, at early twilight, coursing through the air in different
directions, sometimes at a great height, sometimes just above the trees in
the country, or houses in the city; occasionally, very near the earth or
water, or, when near the sea-coast, but just above the marshes, where they
destroy great numbers of insects. Their flight is very rapid, their long
wines giving quick, powerful sweeps ; and, as they dart about in many eccen-
tric movements, busily gleaning their food, they utter, at oft-repeated inter-

a

THE NIGHT HAWK. 45

vals, their short note or squeak, which almost exactly resembles that of the
comimon snipe.

About the middle of May, or by the 20th of that month in Maine, the
male commences his attentions to the female. His movements at this time
are interesting, and, from their common occurrence, familiar to all who live
in the country. At early evening, and in cloudy weather throughout the
greater part of the day, he ascends into the air, and when he has attained

S

‘5 considerable height, partially closing his wings, he drops with great ve-
locity through the distance of seventy-five or one hundred feet, sometimes
nearly to the earth. The sound made by the air passing through the wing-
quills is so loud that we have often heard it at certainly the distance of half
amile: it resembles, as Nuttall truly says, the sound produced by blowing
into the bung-hole of an empty hogshead. This act is often repeated, the
bird darting about at the same time in every direction, and uttering his sharp
squeak. Wilson was of the opinion, that this habit of the Night Hawk was
confined to the period of incubation ; the male acting in this manner, as he
thought, to intimidate any person from approaching the nest. We have had
abundant opportunities for observing the bird in all times of the summer,
and during its stay with us; and we would unhesitatingly affirm, that, from
the time of early courtship, until the young are hatched, if not after, the
male acts in this manner.

This species constructs no nest, but lays its eges on the bare ground, in a
slight hollow seratched by the female, or often on a bare rock. We have
found numbers of these eggs, particularly in the northern parts of Maine,
where, in walking over a pasture or rocky field, we have flushed sometimes
a bird in every ten rods. We remember a ledge of rocks back of the set-
tlement known as Wilson’s Mills, which seemed a favorite breeding-place
for these birds; and, in the space of every four or five rods, a female was
sitting on her eggs. The eggs are two in number, elliptical in shape, of a
dirty-white color, which is covered with fine dottings of different shades of
brown, with obscure markings of slate color, and some spots of lavender.

The male assists the female in incubating, as we have witnessed many
times. When perched by her, on a tree or fence-rail, during the light of
midday, he always sits «ong the limb or rail, instead of across it, a pecu-
liarity which is also noticeable in the Whippoorwill. Some authors, in
speaking of this fact, explain it by noticing the comparatively small size of
the feet, and apparent weakness of the legs. We think this can hardly be
a sufficient cause; for both these birds, while on the ground, can run with
considerable speed, and, if captured, cannot only perch across the finger of
a hand, or the back of a chair, as we have often proved, but can rest on one
foot, drawing the other up into the feathers of the belly, like other birds,

WO. XIt. 59

46 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

About the 20th of August, after the young have become able to provide
for themselves, all the families in a neighborhood assemble in a large, scat-
tered flock; and, after having become completely recruited from the labors
of incubation, they all leave for the south.

The Whippoorwill is also well known to the inhabitants of the rural dis-
tricts in the United States, east of the great central plains. It arrives
from the south generally about the second week in May. Its habits are
not well known, as it is not a very common species, and it inhabits the most
secluded spots in the deep woods ; but its song is well known to all, as. are
its nocturnal wanderings in search for insect food. This bird, as also the
Night Hawk, is, to the farmer, one of the most valuable among the feath-
ered tribes: its food consists almost entirely of night-flying Lepidoptera,
and the number of these insects destroyed is immense.

The peculiar song of this bird is heard at early eve, and until late into
the night, during the mating and part of the breeding seasons. It is not
uttered in the depths of the wilderness alone ; but the bird, perching on the
well-sweep, on the eaves of a low shed, or even on the door-sill of the
farmer’s house, pours out its melancholy strain. The description, by Alex-
ander Wilson, of the habits of this bird, is so accurate and comprehensive,
that we will not presume to attempt another. He says, —

“The notes seem pretty plainly to articulate the words, which have been
generally applied to them, whip-poor-will, the first and last syllables being
uttered with great emphasis, and the whole in about a second to each repe-
tition; but, when two or more males meet, their whippoorwill altercations
become much more rapid and incessant, as if each were straining to over-
power or silence the other. When near, you often hear an introductory
cluck between the notes. At these times, as well as at almost all others,
they fly low, not more than a few feet from the surface, skimming about the
house and before the door, alighting on the wood-pile, or settling on the
roof. ‘Towards midnight they generally become silent, unless in clear
moonlight, when they are heard, with little intermission, till morning. If
there be a ereek near, with high, precipitous, bushy banks, they are sure to
be found in such situations. During the day they sit in the most retired,
solitary, and deep-shaded parts of the woods, gene rally on high ground,
where they repose in silence. When disturbed, they rise within a few feet,
sail low and slowly through the woods for thirty or forty yards, and gener-
ally settle on a low branch or on the ground. Their sight appears deficient
during the day, as, like owls, they seem then to want that vivacity for which
they are distinguished in the morning and evening twilight. They are rarely
shot at or molested; and, from being thus transiently seen in the obscurity
of dusk, or in the deep umbrage of the woods, no wonder their particular

ee ee

THE WHIPPOORWILL. 47

markings of plumage, should be so little known, or that they should be con-
founded with the Night Hawk, which, in general appearance, they so much
resemble. The female begins to lay about the second week in May, select-
ing, for this purpose, the most unfrequented part of the wood, often where
some brush, old logs, heaps of leaves, &c., had been laying, and always on
a dry situation.”

The Whippoorwill constructs no nest, but lays its eggs, which are two in
number, in a slight hollow which it scratches in the earth, usually near a rock
or fallen trunk of a tree. These eggs are of an elliptical form, being as large
at one end as at the other; their ground color is a delicate creamy white, with
blotches, lines, and spots of different shades of light brown and lavender :
taken altogether, it is one of the handsomest eggs found in New England.
The length of several specimens before me varies from 1.21 to 2.27 inches ;
breadth, from .75 to .79 inch. The bird commences laying about the last
week in May, and the period of incubation is fourteen days.

The young are soon able to walk, and in a few days can run with consid-
erable speed ; and they hide with such adroitness, that it is a work of no little
difficulty to capture them. The female, when her young are discovered,
immediately throws herself before the intruder, counterfeiting ]Jameness so
well, that, unless he is well acquainted with the habits of birds, he will
quickly be misled into following her. As soon as the young birds are able
to shift for themselves, they are turned adrift by their parents, and are seen
only singly, or at most in pairs, during the remainder of their stay. By
the latter part of August, or seldom later than the 10th of September, all
of them depart for the south, the old males remaining a few days later,
uttering, occasionally, their song, but always in the woods, or in localities
far removed from human habitation.

The European Night Jar is known by a variety of names, such as Jar-
Owl, Fern-Owl, Wheel-Bird, Milchsaiiger, Nachtschwalbe, &c. It feeds
on flies, moths, and beetles. “Its powers of flight are wonderful, exceeding
even those of the swallows; the jarring sound, which gives name to the
bird, is uttered sometimes while flying, but usually when it is at rest: it
seems to be produced in the same manner as the purring of a cat, and re-
sembles it, though louder. It appears that goat-sucking is not the only
crime laid to this bird, for White, of Selborne, informs us that ‘the country
people have a notion that the Fern-Owl, which they eall also Puchkeridge,
is very injurious to weanling calves, by inflicting, as it strikes them, the
fatal distemper known as puckeridge.’ Thus does this harmless, ill-fated
bird fall under a double imputation, which it by no means deserves, in Italy,
of sucking the teats of goats, whence it is called the Caprimulgus, and
with us of communicating a deadly disorder to the cattle.”

48 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER ACCIPITRES. BIRDS OF PREY.

Tus order, one of the largest and most interesting, contains a great vari-
ety of forms, which are scattered over all portions of the globe.

The birds of prey are divided into two sections, — the diurnal and noc-
turnal, — which are characterized as follows : —

Section DIURNI.

( not larger than claw of median anterior toe. Claws obtuse. Head
ACCIPITRES. | lateral. Claw of] | more or less WakCdsssssssssrcesesessecscesacsecsuccascseesscusaesees Venrenm.s, Sun.
Eyesessecseoee posterior toe.. ) larger than claw of median unterior toc. Claws acute. Head feath-
ered . sees O33. FALCONID.E, Sun.
Section Nocrvurnt.
directed forwards....ccccessssscvee ‘sale Salala'calwis's'ap sa eNsWatachaWuaNs Canines Wane caesvasauaends: od STRIGID.S, Sund.

These families are subdivided into several groups, each with well-marked
characters.

ACCIPITRES.
os Penere tai Sie - Ste mat less than anterior toes and inserted above the base. » Cathartine, De Latr.
VULTURIDS, Hallux and its nail reer as long ag iNNCE tOCs.ssseeeee eee * Vulturine, Ulig.

DOVWPAC e.sessccsvvcsscovscses » Gupactine, Bonap.
B no col- (not in i
= aur toothed. | — middle of tail rounded, reticulate. 4 . Polyborinw, Bonap.
oe Anterior Outer toe L ve - Pandionvae, Bonap.
not Lore covered Tail. } surface of
& | bearded | With ss sees ) tarsi...... | feathered, or more
= { Behind Wings ,
5 | ears....4 Bill 4 1 . Aquiline, Swains.
c forked or emarginated « + Milvine, Bonap.
pI AeNSe FeAtherss sees ccceeeeesceeeees seteeee » Perninw.
= not passing beyond middle of tail. ‘Pwo median § « Guypogeranine, Bonap,
& tail feathers....... alsturoue, G. Gray.

_ toothed behind tip of upper man

Falconer, Bonap.
a more or less distinet collar, formed of feath

» Cireine, Bonap.
Surninse, Bonap.

STRIGID.B. Aperture of carCabsent. Radiate facial urea incomplete
with cutaneous lobe Or presi Radiate fa- @ rounded ...+..++ sorguee, Bouap.
VALVE cocccssescccsccescscss cial area completes pointed below, subtrian vail of middle toe pee ;
mated On Inner SIUC. +e eee cere eee ee eres Pereerresiresireee Hybridine.

Famity Srricipnz. Tur Ow.s.

OF the /yhridine, the Barn Owl of Europe is a type.

This bird is spread throughout the temperate and warmer regions of Eu-
rope. It is common in England and Ireland but less so in Seotland: in the
northern latitudes of the continent it is not known. The Barn Owl con-
ceals itself during the day in deep recesses among ivy-clad ruins, in antique
church-towers, in the hollow of old trees, in barn-lofts, and similar places
of seclusion. At night, it sallies forth for prey, which consists of mice,
rats, moles, and shrews, but, we believe, never birds. Hence it is perse-
cuted by the farmer in vain, who suspects that it thins his dove-cot, and little
knows the extent of the services which the bird renders to him. “If,” says
Mr. Waterton, “ this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting for
it by night, mankind would have ocular demonstrations of its utility in thin-
ning the country of mice, and it would be protected and encouraged every-
where. When it has young, it will bring a mouse to the nest every
twelve or fifteen minutes” (that is, during the night) ; and he adds, “ For-
merly I could get very few young pigeons till the rats were excluded from the

THE GREAT HORNED OWL. 49

dove-cot ; since that took place, it has produced a great abundance every
year, though the Barn Owl frequents it, and is encouraged all round it; ”
and he affirms that the pigeons neither regard it “as a bad nor suspicious
character.”

Mr. Thompson (“Mag. Zodl. and Botan., Vol. IL, p. 178”) observes
that “the White (barn) Owl is a well-known visitor to the dove-cot ; and, in
such a place, or rather a loft appropriated to pigeons, in the town of Bel-
fast, I am informed, by an observant friend, that a pair once had their nest ;
this contained four young, which were brought up at the same time with
many pigeons. The nests containing the latter were on, every side, but the
owls never attempted to molest either the parents or their young. As may
be conjectured, the owl’s nest was frequently inspected during the progress
of the young birds. On the shelf beside them never less than six, and often
fifteen mice and young rats (no birds were ever seen) have been observed,
and this was the number they had left after the night’s repast. The parent
owls, when undisturbed, remained all day in the pigeon-loft.” In further
proof, it may be urged, that the remains of rats, mice, and occasionally
beetles, have been found, to the exclusion of feathers, in the stomachs of
most owls when examined. Such remains were found in the stomachs of
all those opened by Mr. Thompson, and of such are the pellets cast by the
owls invariably composed. *

The Barn Owl quarters the ground for food with great regularity, and
drops upon it with unerring aim. Selby says it occasionally utters loud
screams during its flight; and Mr. Yarrell says it screeches, but does not
generally hoot. But Sir William Jardine asserts, that he shot one in the
act of hooting, and that at night, when not alarmed, hooting is its general
cry. It snores and hisses, and, when annoyed, snaps its bill loudly.

The Barn Owl constructs a rude nest; the eges are three or four in num-
ber, and of a white color. The female often lays a second time before the
young are able to leave the nest; hence young owls have been found late in
the autumn, and even in December.

Of the Surnine, the genera Nyctea (of which the Snowy Owl (Nyctea
nivea) isan example), Scops (of which the Little Red or Mottled Owl is
well known), and 4ubo (in which oceurs the Great Horned Owl (Bubo Vir-
ginianus) of America), and Athene (the Burrowing Owl), all furnish
examples.

Wilson describes the habits of the Great Horned Owl (one of the most
interesting of this group) as follows : —

* The owl and all the hawk tribe cast up the indigestible parts of their prey, as bones,

feathers, hair, claws, &c., in the form of pellets; and in the long-tenanted haunt of an owl,
these are found greatly accumulated.

50 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

“His favorite residence is in the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered
with a growth of gigantic timber ; and here, as soon as the evening draws on,
and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such sounds as seem scarcely to belong ;
to this world. . © . Along the mountain shores of the Ohio, and amidst the
deep forests of Indiana, alone and reposing in the woods, this ghostly watch-
man has frequently warned me of the approach of morning, and amused me
with his singular exclamations. Sometimes, sweeping down and around my
fire, uttering a loud and sudden * Waugh Of Waugh O !’ sufficient to
have alarmed a whole garrison. He has other nocturnal solos, one of which
yery strikingly resembles the half-suppressed screams of a person suffocating
or throttled.”

The flight of this bird is elevated, rapid, and graceful. It sails with ap-
parent ease in large circles, and rises and descends without the least difh-
culty, by merely inclining its wings or its tail as it passes through the air.
Now and then it glides silently close over the earth, with incomparable
velocity, and drops, as if shot dead, on the prey beneath. At other times
it suddenly alights on the top of a fence, stake, or dead stump, and utters a
shriek so horrid, that the woods around echo to its dismal sound. During
the utterance of the deep, gurgling cries, so well described by Wilson, it
moves its body, and particularly its head, in various grotesque ways, and
at intervals violently snaps its bill. Its food consists of various gallinaceous
birds, half-grown turkeys, domestic poultry of all kinds, ducks, grouse,
hares, opossums, and squirrels; and whenever chance throws a dead fish
on the shore, this bird feeds on it with peculiar avidity. The Virginian
Horned Owl is very powerful, and equally spirited. Mallards, Guinea
fowl, and common fowls fall an easy prey, and are carried off in its talons
to the depth of the woods. “ When wounded,” says Audubon, “it exhibits
a revengeful tenacity of spirit, scarcely surpassed by the noblest of the
vagle tribe; disdaining to scramble away, it faces its enemy with undaunted
courage, protruding its powerful talons, and snapping its bill. Its large,
gogele eyes open and shut in quick succession, and the feathers of its body
are puffed up, and swell out its apparent bulk to nearly double the natural
size. In some districts it is a great nuisance to the settler, making sad
havoc among his stock of poultry. Among some of the Indian nations a
sort of reverential horror is entertained towards this bird, and the priests and
conjurers haye adopted it as the symbol of their office, carrying about with
them a stuffed specimen with glass eyes, which excites general awe. This
bird usually constructs a bulky nest in the forked branch of a tree, composed
externally of crooked sticks, and lined with coarse grass and feathers. The
eggs are three or four in number, and of a dull white.”

In size, this species is nearly as large as the European representative,

THE LITTLE RED OWL. 51

the Eagle Owl, and, in the general style of coloring, is similar, the upper
parts being waved and mottled with black and brownish red; a tinge of
gray, as the ground color, prevails on the lower part of the back; the throat
is pure white; the rest of the under surface is marked by innumerable nar-
row, transverse, dusky bars, on a reddish ground color, thinly interspersed
with white.

Our Little Red Owl (Scops Asio) of America, is also another interesting
species. Audubon says of it, —

“The flight of the Mottled Owl is smooth, rapid, protracted, and noise-
less. It rises at times above the top branches of the highest of our forest
trees whilst in pursuit of large beetles; and at other times sails low and
swiftly over the fields, or through the woods, in search of small birds, field-
mice, moles, or wood-rats, from which it chiefly derives its subsistence. On
alighting (which it does plumply), the Mottled Owl immediately bends its
body, turns its head to look behind it, performs a curious nod, utters its
notes, then shakes and plumes itself, and resumes its flight in search of
prey. It now and then, while on the wing, produces a clicking sound with
its mandibles, but more frequently when perched near its mate or youne.
This I have thought was done by the bird to manifest its courage, and let
the hearer know that it is not to be meddled with; although few birds of
prey are more gentle when seized, as it will suffer a person to touch its feath-
ers and caress it without attempting to bite or strike with its talons, unless
at rare intervals.

“The notes of this owl are uttered in a tremulous, doleful manner, and
somewhat resemble the chattering of the teeth of a person under the influ-
ence of extreme cold, although much louder. They are heard at a dis-
tance of several hundred yards, and by some people are thought to be of
ominous lmport.”

These notes almost exactly resemble the whimpering whine of a small
dog, for which we have mistaken them on different occasions.

“The little fellow is generally found about farm-houses, orchards, and
gardens. It alights on the roof, the fence, or the garden gate, and utters
its mournful ditty, at intervals, for hours at a time, as if it were in a state
of vreat suffering; although this is far from being the case, the song of
all birds being an indication of content and happiness. In a state of con-
finement it utters its notes with’as much satisfaction as if at liberty. They
are chiefly heard during the latter part of winter, that being the season
of love, when the male bird is particularly attentive to the fair one which
excites his tender emotions, and around which he flies and struts much in the
manner of the common pigeon, adding numerous nods and bows, the sight

of which is very amusing.”

DZ DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

As a pet, this bird is interesting and amusing. A friend of ours, who
had one for a long time in captivity, writes for us the following account of
its habits : —

"As I was walking through the streets of a village one day, I observed a
crowd of boys around a small owl. On approaching it, I found that the
bird was a young Mottled Owl. It was staring about in a dazed manner,
and seemed half stupefied. I easily persuaded the boys to part with it for
a trifle, and sent it home. At that time, June 15, 1867, it was, I should
judge, about two weeks old, and was covered with a grayish down. I put
it in a large cage, and gave it some meat, which it ate, but not readily, for
it seemed frightened at the sight of my hand, and, at its near approach,
would draw back, snapping its beak after the manner of all owls. It soon
grew tamer, however, and, as I sat at my bench, would regard me with a
wise stare, as if perfectly understanding what I was about. In a short time
it took food from me without fear. I never saw it drink, although water
was kept constantly by it. I fed it upon mice, birds, and butchers’ meat.
It was kept in its cage for about two weeks, during which time it became
quite tame, but would not tolerate handling, always threatening me with its
beak when my hand approached it. As the wires of its cage broke its feath-
ers by the bird’s moving about, and as it hardly seemed resigned to confine-
ment, I opened its cage, and gave, it the freedom of the room, leaving the
windows open night and day. About- this time I gave it the name of
Scops, to which, in a little while, it would answer, when called, with a low
rattle, which sounded like the distant note of the kingfisher.

“One morning Scops was missing; diligent search was made for him
(we now regarded the bird as a male), but no owl could be found. Once
or twice he was seen in the neighboring woods by different people, and once
on the roof of a barn, but he was wild, and refused to be caught. Ie
had been absent about a week, when, one morning, I was told my owl was
eut in the garden. I hastened out, and found a half-grown Newfoundland
dog playing with my pet. Scops was clinging to the dog’s shaggy fur with
his claws, snapping his beak, and biting fiercely. JI immediately rescued
lim, and carried him into the house: the rain was falling, and he was thor-
oughly wet. On arriving in his old quarters he seemed pleased, chuckling
to himself after his manner. He was almost starved, and ate two full-grown
bluebirds at the first meal. After this time,-although enjoying the utmost
freedom, he has never but once remained away more than two days at a time.

“When a bird is given him for food he takes it in his claws, invariably pulls
out the wing and tail feathers first; then eats the head; then puils out the
intestines, and devours them; and then, if not satisfied, eats the remainder
of the bird, feathers and all. While pulling the bird to pieces, he holds

BURROWING OWLS. Do

it in his claws, and tears it with his bill. That this owl sees tolerably well
in the daytime, I have proved to my satisfaction. I caught a mouse, and put
it alive into an open box about two feet square. This I placed upon a bench
near Scops, who was attentively watching my movements: the moment he
discovered the mouse, he opened his eyes wide, bent forward, moved his
head from side to side, as if to learn its exact position, and then came down
upon it with an unerring aim, burying his talons deep in the head and back
of the mouse; then flew with his struggling prey to his perch, where he
killed the mouse by biting it in the head and back. During the whole act
he displayed considerable energy and excitement.

“Acain, Ihave seen him pounce upon a dragon-fly, which lay disabled,
buzzing on the bench: the bird went through the same manauvres as before,
striking the insect with the greatest precision, and with both feet. I think
that these instances prove that the bird can see nearly as well in the day as
in the night. In both the above instances the sun was not shining on the
objects struck, but they were very near the window, and the light was con-
sequently strong.

“Tn sleeping. Scops usually stands upon one foot, both eyes shut ; but some-
times he stretches out at full length, resting on his breast. When sound
asleep, he awakens instantly, and, on his name being pronounced, answers
at once. I have heard him utter his peculiar, quavering note on one or two
occasions only. Scops is often out of the house all night, and even past the
strong light of sunrise. While flying, he moves through the air with a quick,
steady motion, alighting on any object without missing a foothold. Some-
times during the day he will take a sudden start, flitting about the room like
a spectre, alighting on different objects to peer about, which he does by mov-
ing sideways, turning the head in various directions, and going through many
curious movements; but he always returns to his perch, and settles down
quietly.”

Of the Burrowing Owls, there are two species, the A. ewnicularia and
the A. hypugea. These birds, from their habit of nesting in burrows in the
earth, which they have dug, or which were dug by other animals, are worthy
of more than a passing notice. From the “Thousand Miles’ Walk,” we
copy the following account of the Athene cunteularia: —

“T first met with this owl on the banks of the River San Juan, in the
Banda Oriental, one hundred and twenty miles west of Montevideo, where
a few pairs were observed devouring mice and insects during the daytime.
From the river, travelling westward thirty miles, I did not meet a single
individual, but after crossing the Las Vacas, and coming upon a sandy
waste, covered with scattered trees and low bushes, I again met with
several,

NO. XII. 60

54 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. AVES.

“Upon the pampas of the Argentine Republic they are found in great
numbers, from a few miles west of Rosario, on the Parana, latitude 32°
56’ south, to the vicinity of San Luis, where the pampas end, and a tra-
yesia or saline desert commences.

“On these immense plains of grass it lives in company with the bézeacha.
The habits of this bird are said to be the same as those of the species that
inhabits the holes of the marmots upon the prairies of western North Amer-
ica. But this is not strictly correct, for one writer says of the northern
species, ‘We have no evidence that the owl and marmot habitually re-
| sort to one burrow ;’ and Say remarks, ‘that they were either common,
though unfriendly, residents of the same habitation, or that our owl was
the sole occupant of a burrow acquired by the right of conquest.’ In this
respect they differ from their South American relatives, who live in perfect
harmony with the b/zcacha, and during the day, while the latter is sleeping,
_ a pair of these birds stand a few inches within the main entrance of the bur-
row, and at the first strange sound, be it near or distant, they leave their

station, and remain outside the hole, or upon the mound which forms the

roof of the domicile. When man approaches, both birds mount above him
in the air, and keep uttering their alarm note, with irides dilated, until he
| passes, when they quietly settle down in the grass, or return to their former
| place.

| “While on the pampas, I did not observe these birds taking prey during
| the daytime, but at sunset the bézeachas and owls leave their holes, and
| search for food, the younger of the former playing about the birds as they
| alighted near them. They do not associate in companies, there being but
one pair to each hole, and at night do not stray far from their homes.

“In describing the North American Burrowing Owl, a writer says that
the species ‘suddenly disappears in the early part of August,’ and that ‘the
species is strictly diurnal.’

“The Athene cunicularia has not these habits. It does not disappear
during any part of the year, and it is both nocturnal and diurnal, for, though
T did not observe it preying by day on the pampas, I noticed that it fed at
all hours of the day and night on the north shore of the Plata, in the Banda
Oriental.

“At longitude 66° west our caravan struck the great saline desert that
stretches to the Andes, and during fourteen days’ travel on foot I did not see
a dozen of these birds; but while residing outside the town of San Juan,
at the eastern base of the Andes, I had an opportunity to watch their habits
in a locality differing materially from the pampas.

“The months of September and October are the conjugal ones. During
the middle of the former month I obtained a male bird with a broken wing.

Plate X.

ACCIPITER FRINGILLARIUS

PERNIS APIVORUS
(The Furopean Spa rrow Hawk)

(The Honey Bu 27arda.)

—————s— le ee

NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS.

AOUILA CH RYSOPTERA.
(The Egyptian Neophron )

(The White-tailed Eagle.)

,
}
NAUCLERUS FURCATUS CIRCUS CINERACEUS
( The Swallow-tailed Nauclerus } (The Ash coloured Harrier) 7

BOSTON, SAMUEBL WALKER & CO. ; 7

THE HAWKS. vo

It lived in confinement two days, refusing to eat, and died from the effects
of the wound. <A few days later a boy brought me a female owl, with five
egos, that had been taken from her nest, five feet from the mouth of a bur-
row that wound among the roots of a tree.

“She was fierce in her cage, and fought with wings and beak, uttering all
the while a shrill, prolonged note, resembling the sound produced by draw-
ing a file across the teeth of a saw. I supplied her with eleven full-grown
mice, which were deyoured during the first thirty-six hours of confinement.

“T endeavored to ascertain if this species burrows its own habitation, but
my observations of eight months failed to impress me with the belief that it
does. I have conversed with intelligent persons who have been familiar
with their habits, and never did I meet one that believed this bird to be its
own laborer. It places a small nest of feathers at the end of some occu-
pied or deserted burrow, as necessity demands, in which are deposited from
two to five white eggs, which are nearly spherical in form, and are a little
larger than the eggs of the domestic pigeon,

“Tn the Banda Oriental, where the country is as fine, and the favorite food
of the owl more plentifully distributed than upon the pampas, this bird is
not common in comparison with the numbers found in the latter locality.
The reason is obvious. The b/zeacha does not exist in the Banda Oriental,
and consequently these birds have a poor chance for finding habitations.

“On the pampas, where thousands upon thousands of 6¢zcachas undermine
the soil, there, in their true locality, the traveller finds thousands of owls.
Again, along the bases of the Andes, where the b/zcacha is rarely met with,
we find only a few pairs. Does the hole, from which my bird was taken,
appear to be the work of a bird or quadruped? The several works that I
have been able to consult do not, in one instance, give personal observations
relative to the burrowing propensities of this owl; from which fact, it will
be inferred that it never has been caught in the act of burrowing.”

Famiry Faucontip®. Eacues, Hawks.

Of the OCtreznee, or Harrier Hawks, the Marsh Hawk of America and
the Moor Harrier of Europe are good examples. The Harriers are active
and constantly on the wing: they frequent healthy moors, foeey marshes,
and low, flat grounds, over which they are almost continually flying. In
hunting for their prey, they quarter the ground after the manner of the
spaniel dog, and when they seize the object of their search (a small quad-
ruped, bird, or reptile), they drop suddenly upon it, and clutch it in their
talons. They build on the ground among ferns and rushes.

The sub-family Falconine (Faleons and Hawks) is a large and interest-
ing group. Among all the raptorial birds, none are more bold and daring

— ~—

56 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

than these: they are formed for rapid flight, and pursue their prey with
extreme velocity, or, soaring above, descend upon it with a swoop, bearing
it to the ground. Some, as the kestrels, which feed principally on frogs and
mice, not excluding insects, sail in the air, performing easy circles, hover-
ing over one spot when discovering an object of prey, and; by a sudden and
rapid descent, pouncing upon it with unerring certainty.

Of the Falcons, the Peregrine Falcon (falco peregrinus) is a well-
known example.

This beautiful and once highly-valued bird is very widely spread, being
found in most of the bold and rocky districts of Europe and Asia: every-
where it seems to be a bird of passage, whence its specific name, peregrinus.
As regards the British Islands, it is common in Scotland and Wales, build-
ing on high, precipitous rocks bordering the sea-coast. It frequents similar
situations in Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is called the Cliff Hawk.
In many parts of Ireland it is abundant. “In the four maritime counties
of Ulster,” says Mr. Thompson, “it has many eyries; and in Antrim, whose
basaltic precipices are favorable for this purpose, seven, at least, might be
enumerated. Of these, one only is inland. At the Gobbins, regularly fre-
quented by a pair, there were two nests in one year within an extent of rock
considerably less than a mile.” Of the prowess and daring of this Falcon
many instances are on record. Mr. Thompson (Mag. Zool. and Botan.,
Vol. I1., p. 53) observes, that “ Mr. Sinclair, when on one occasion exer-
cising his dogs on the Belfast mountains, towards the end of July, prepara-
tory to grouse shooting, saw them point; and on coming up, he startled a
male Peregrine Falcon off a grouse (Zetrao scoticus), just killed by him ;
and very near the same place he came upon the female bird, also on a grouse.

Although my friend lifted both the dead birds, the hawks continued flying |

about, and on the remainder of the pack (of grouse), which lay near, being
sprung by the dogs, either three or four more grouse were struck down by
them, and thus two and a half or three brace were obtained by means of
these wild birds, being more than had ever been procured out of a pack of

grouse by his trained Falcons.”

The Peregrine Falcon attacks his prey
only while on the wing, seldom pursuing it into dense cover; and it has
been observed, that birds thus driven to shelter by the Peregrine Falcon are
so terrified, that, rather than venture again on the wing, they will allow them-
selves to be captured by the hand. Even the black cock has been known to
be thus taken. Mr. Thompson says the strike of this species is more fatal
than its clutch, and that when flown at rooks, it has been known to strike
down several birds in suecession before alighting to prey on one; and he
adds, “ An eye-witness to the fact assures ine that he once saw a falcon strike
down five partridges out of a covey, one after the other; but such circum-

THE PEREGRINE FALCON. 57

stances are rare. Mr, Selby, in his “ British Ornithology,” gives a similar
instance of daring to that related by Mr. Thompson, from the account of
Mr Sinclair. “In exercising my dogs upon the moors, previous to the com-
mencement of the shooting season, I observed a large bird of the hawk
genus hovering at a distance, which, upon approaching, I knew to be a Per-
egrine Falcon. Its attention was now drawn towards the dogs, and it
accompanied them while they beat the surrounding ground. Upon their
having found and sprung a brood of grouse, the Falcon immediately gave
chase, and struck a young bird before they had proceeded far upon the wing.
My shouts and rapid advance prevented it from securing its prey. The issue
of this attempt, however, did not deter the Falcon from watching our subse-
quent*movements; and another opportunity soon offering, it again gave
chase, and struck down two birds by two rapidly-repeated blows, one of
which it secured and bore off in triumph.” The flight of this faleon, when
pursuing its quarry, is astonishingly rapid. Montagu has reckoned it at the
rate of one hundred and fifty miles an hour; and Colonel Thornton, an
expert falconer, estimated the flight of one in pursuit of a snipe to have
been nine in eleven minutes, without including the frequent turnings.

The Peregrine Falcon was regarded yery highly in the practice of fal-
conry ; an art which, in former days, engaged the most earnest attention,
and is still a common amusement among the Turks in some parts of Asia
Minor, among the Persians, Circassians, and the wandering hordes of Tur-
comans and Tartars. “ Hawking appears to have been introduced into Eng-
land from the north of Europe during the fourth century. Our Saxon
ancestors became passionately fond of the sport, but do not appear to have
made great progress in the art of training their birds. In the eighth cen-
tury, one of the kings of that race caused a letter to be written to Winnitred,
Archbishop of Mons, begging the dignitary to send him some falcons that
had been well trained to kill cranes. The month of October was more par-
ticularly devoted to that sport by the Saxons. We are indebted to our fierce
invaders, the Danes, for many improvements in falconry. Denmark, and
still more Norway, were always celebrated for their breeds of hawks, and
the natives of these countries had attained an extraordinary degree of skill
in the art of training them. In the eleventh century, when Canute, King
of Denmark and Norway, ascended the English throne, the sport became
more prevalent. We are not aware of what restrictions were imposed under
the Saxon or Danish monarchs, but after the conquest by William of Nor-
mandy, none but persons of the highest rank were allowed to keep hawks.
Cruel laws, with respect to field sports, were framed, and rigorously executed
by the first princes of the Norman dynasty. According to the liberal views
of those times, the people were held utterly unworthy of partaking anything

58 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

except the air of heaven in common with their noble oppressors., The life
of a serf was of less value in the eyes of a Norman baron than that of a
buek, a hound, or a hawk; and in those days, the mass of what we now
eall the people were serfs and slaves. As to the keeping of falcons, the
ereat expense attending it put it entirely out of the power of the common-
alty, but the prohibitive Norman law was probably meant at first to extend
to such of the Saxon landholders as were rich and remained free, but had no
rank nor nobility according to the conqueror’s estimation. In the days of
John, however, every freeman was most liberally permitted to have eyries
of hawks, falcons, eagles, and herons in Aés own woods. In the year
1481 was printed the ‘Book of St. Albans,’ by Juliana Berners, sister of
Lord Berners, and prioress of the nunnery of Sopewell. It consisted f two
tracts, one on hawking, the other on heraldry. The noble dame obtained
from her grateful contemporaries the praise of being ‘a second Minerva in
her studies, and another Diana in her diversions.’ Her subject was well
chosen; hawking was then the standing pastime of the noble, and the lady
abbess treated it in the manner the most likely to please. The book became
to frlconers what Ifoyle’s has since become to whist-players ; but the dame
Juliana’s had, moreover, the merit of paying proper homage to the jealous
distinctions between man and man, as then established. According to the
‘Book of St. Albans,’ there was a nice adaptation of the different kinds of
falcons to different ranks. Thus, such species of hawks were for kings,
and could not be used by any person of inferior dignity, such for princes
of the blood, such others for the duke and great lord, and so on down to the
knave or seryant. In all there were fifteen @rades ; but whether this num-
ber was so small, owing to the species of birds, or because it included all
the fuctitious divisions of society then recognized, we cannot well determine.
We have too much respect for the patience of our readers to follow the dame
through all her directions, to which additions have been made in the fifteenth
and seventeenth centuries.
into the field.

“Strutt, in his industrious work on the ‘Sports and Pastimes of the Eng-

We would rather accompany the trained hawks

lish,’ gives one or two engravings, from very old pictures, representing ladies
followed by dogs,

and running on foot, with their hawks on their fists, to

cast them off at game. Indeed, John of Salisbury, who wrote in the thir-
teenth century, says that the women even excelled the men in the knowledge
and practice of faleonry, whence he ungallantly takes occasion to call the
sport itself frivolous and effeminate. Taken altogether, however, a hunting-
party of this kind, composed of knights and dames, mounted on their piaff=
ing manéve horses, and with their train of falconers, in appropriate costuine,

and their well-broken dogs, and the silver music of the bells, mingled with

FALCONRY. 59

a variety of other sounds, must have been a pleasant enough scene to behold,
or to form part of.”

For most species of game, it appears that spaniels, cockers, or other dogs
were required to rouse the birds to wing. When the game was at a proper
elevation, the hawk, being freed from his head-gear, was cast off from the
sportsman’s fist with a loud whoop, to encourage him. But here great science
was required; and it was frequently made a matter of anxious and breath-
less debate as to whether the fur jettee or the jettee servé should be adopted.
These terms, like many more employed in those days in hawking and hunt-
ing, were derived from the French. Jefer signifies to throw or cast off.

t=)

The far jettee meant to cast off the hawk at a distance from the quarry it
was to pursue; and the jeftee serré to fly it as near to the bird, or as soon
after the destined prey had taken wing, as possible. But many considera-
tions were involved in these decisions, — the species of the quarry, the pecu-
liar properties of the hawk on hand at the time, the nature of the country,
the force and direction of the wind, and numerous other circumstances had
to be duly pondered.

“When the hawk was cast off, it flew in the direction of the game, and
endeavored to surmount it, or get above it in its flight. To obtain this ad-
vantage, when herons and other birds strong on the wing were pursued, the
hawk was obliged to have recourse to sealing, or ascending the air by per-
forming a succession of small circles, each going higher and higher, like the
steps of a winding corkscrew staircase. In whatever way it was performed,
this was called ‘the mount.’ At times, both the pursuer and pursued would
fly so high as almost to be lost in the clouds. When the hawk reached a
proper elevation above the game, she shot down upon it with all her force
and velocity, and this descent was technically called ‘the stoop,’ or ‘the
swoop.’ John Shaw, Master of Arts, of Cambridge, who published a strange
book, called “Speculum Mundi’ (The World’s Looking-glass), in that learned
city, in 1635, informs us that the heron, or hernsaw, ‘is a large fowle that
liveth about waters, and that hath a marvellous hatred to the hawk, which
hatred is duly returned. When they fight above in the air, they labor both
especially for this one thing —that one may ascend and be above the other.
Now if the hawk getteth the upper place, he overthroweth and vanquisheth
the heron with a marvellous earnest flight.’ It should seem, however, that
this was not always the case, and that the heron sometimes received the
hawk on its long, sharp bill, and so transfixed and killed her. When the
hawk closed or grappled with her prey (which was called b¢nding, in fal-
conry), they generally tumbled down from the sky together, and the object
of the sportsman was, either by running on foot or galloping his horse, to
get to the spot as soon as they should touch the earth, in order to assist the

ae

60 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS II. AVES.

Hawk in her struggle with her prey. The falcons, it should be observed,
were taken into the field with hoods over their eyes, and with little bells on
their legs; and the sportsman earried a lure, to which the bird had been
taught to fly, by being fed regularly upon or near it with freshly-killed meat.
‘When the hawk,’ says Master Gervase, ‘is passingly reclaimed, you must
bring her to lure by easy degrees: first, by dainties, making her jump upon
your fist, then to fall upon the lure, when held out to it, and then to come
at the sound of your voice; and to delight her more with the lure, have it
ever garnished, on both sides, with warm and bloody meat.’ These lures

seem to have been of various sorts. In very old times a ‘

tabur-stycke,’
which was merely a piece of wood rounded and besmeared with blood, was
in use; but with the progress of civilization, a better lure, called a * hawker,’
was introduced. The hawker was a staff about twenty-two inches long,
cased at the upper part with iron, haying a bell, ‘rather of sullen tone than
musical,’ and the figure of a bird, with outstretched wings, carved at the
top. When this instrument was agitated, a reclaimed hawk would descend
to it from the clouds; but, we believe, for a bird of the highest training,
nothing more was required than to shake the tasselled hood in the hand of
the sportsman, and to use the voice.”

Of the alsturdnce, or Hawks proper, the Goshawks, so widely scattered,
are well-known types. In describing the habits of the American Goshawk
(Astur atricapillus), Audubon says, —

“The flight of the Goshawk is extremely rapid and protracted. Ile sweeps
alone the margins of the fields, through the woods, and by the edges of
ponds and rivers, with such speed as to enable him to seize his prey by
merely deviating a few yards from his course, assisting himself on such
occasions by his long tail, which, like a rudder, he throws to the right or
left, upwards or downwards, to check his progress, or enable him suddenly
to alter his course. At times he passes like a meteor through the under-
wood, where he secures squirrels and hares with ease. Should a flock of
wild pigeons pass him when on these predatory excursions, he immediately
gives chase, soon overtakes them, and, forcing his way into the very centre
of the flock, scatters them in confusion, when you may see him emerging
with a bird in his talons, and diving towards the depth of the forest to feed
upon his victim. When travelling, he flies high, with a constant beat of
the wings, seldom moving in large circles like other hawks; and, when he
does this, it is only ,a few times in a hurried manner, after which he contin-
ues his journey.

“Along the Atlantic coast. this species follows the numerous flocks of
ducks that are found there during the autumn and winter, and greatly aids
in the destruction of mallards, teals, black ducks, and other species, in

THE GOSHAWK. 61

company with the Peregrine Faleon (falco anatum). It is a restless bird,
apparently more vigilant and industrious than many other hawks, and it
seldom alights unless to devour its prey; nor can I recollect ever having
seen one alighted, for many minutes at a time, without having a bird in its
talons. When thus engaged with its prey, it stands nearly upright; and,
in general, when perched, it keeps itself more erect than most species of
hawks. It is extremely expert at catching snipes on the wing; and so well
do these birds know their insecurity, that on its approach they prefer squat-
ting to endeavoring to escape by flight.

“When the passenger pigeons are abundant in the western country, the
Goshawk follows their close masses, and subsists upon them. <A single
hawk suffices to spread the greatest terror among their ranks; and the mo-
ment he sweeps towards a flock, the whole immediately dive into the deepest
woods, where, notwithstanding their great speed, the marauder succeeds in
clutching the fattest. While travelling along the Ohio, I observed several
hawks of this species in the train of millions of these pigeons. Towards
the evening of the same day, I saw one abandoning its course to give chase
to a large flock of Crow Blackbirds ( Quiscalus versicolor), then crossing
the river. The hawk approached them with the swiftness of an arrow,
when the blackbirds rushed together so closely, that the flock looked like a
dusky ball passing through the air. On reaching the mass, he, with the
greatest ease, seized first one, and then another, and another, giving each a
squeeze with his talons, and suffering it to drop upon the water. In this
manner he had procured four or five before the poor birds reached the woods,
into which they immediately plunged, when he gave up the chase, swept
over the water in graceful curves, and picked up the fruits of his industry,
earrying each bird singly to the shore. Reader, is this instinct or reason ?

“The nest of the Goshawk is placed on the branches of a tree, near the
trunk or main stem. It is of great size, and resembles that of our crow,
or some species of owl, being constructed of withered twigs and coarse grass,
with a lining of fibrous strips of plants resembling hemp. It is, however,
much flatter than that of the crow. In one, I found, in the month of April,
three eggs, ready to be hatched: they were of a dull bluish-white, sparingly
spotted with light reddish-brown. In another, which I found placed on a
pine tree growing on the eastern rocky bank of the Niagara River, a few
miles below the ereat cataract, the lining was formed of withered herbaceous
plants, with a few feathers: the eggs were four in number, of a white color
tinged with greenish-blue, large, much rounded, and somewhat granulated.

“In another nest were four young birds, covered with buff-colored down,
their legs and feet of a pale yellowish flesh-color, the bill light blue, and the

eyes pale gray. They differed greatly in size, one being quite small com-
NO. XIII. OL

62 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

a

pared with the rest. Iam of opinion that few breed to the south of the
State of Maine.”

We once witnessed an attempt of this bird to capture a common gray squir-
rel, that was quite interesting to the beholder, but certainly not to the
animal. While on a collecting excursion, a few miles from Boston, as we
were seated beneath a huge oak, observing the movements of some small
birds, we heard the barking of a squirrel ; and, while looking for his where-
abouts, we suddenly heard a whistling sound as of a body falling through the
air, and, as quick as thought, a Goshawk struck on the limb, on the spot
where, a second before, the squirrel had been seated : luckily for the squirrel,
the hawk missed his aim, the animal giving a sudden dodge beneath the
limb the moment the hawk appeared. All who are acquainted with the
habits of this quadruped know that it is very successful in dodging behind
the limb of a tree, and hugging it closely. The hawk sat a few moments,

apparently surprised at his disappointment, when, suddenly launching into

the air, he espied it beneath the limb, hugging for dear life. As soon as he
had moved, the squirrel turned adroitly on the limb, still keeping it between
itself and its enemy. After several trials, the hawk, always alightine and
remaining perched on the limb a few seconds, succeeded, by a dexterous
feint, in securing his prey, when, on the instant, we fired, bringing the hawk
and his victim to the ground. The hawk dropped dead; but the squirrel,

after lying on the ground a moment, got up, and staggered off beneath a

pile of rocks, and we neither saw nor heard anything more of it.

Of the Gypogeranine, the Secretary Buzzard is the type. This singu-
lar bird is termed, in allusion to its habits, Slangen-vreeter, or Serpent-
vater, by the Dutch colonists of the Cape, and its Hottentot name has the
same meaning; snakes, in fact, constitute its principal food, and, in the
attack and defence, it displays the greatest coolness and address.

“The Slangen-vreeter,” says Sparrman, “has a peculiar method of seiz-
ing upon serpents. When it approaches them, it always takes care to hold
the point of one of its wings before it, in order to parry off their venomous
bites: sometimes it finds an opportunity of spurning and treading upon its
antagonist, or else, of taking it up on its pinions, and throwing it into the
air. When, by this method of proceeding, it has at length wearied out. its
adversary, and rendered it almost senseless, it then kills it, and swallows it
without danger. Though I have very frequently seen the Secretary Bird,
both in its wild and tame state, yet I have never had an opportunity of see-
ing this method it has of catching serpents; however, I can by no means
harbor any doubt concerning it, after having had it confirmed to me by so
many Hottentots as well as Christians, and since this bird has been observed
at the menagerie at the Hague to amuse and exercise itself in the same

®

THE SWALLOW-TAILED HAWK. 63

manner with a straw.” The Secretary was so called by the Dutch from the
plumes at the back of its head, which reminded them of the pen stuck be-
hind the ear, according to the custom of the gens de cabinet in Holland, and
the name has since been generally adopted. These birds, at least in South
Africa, are not gregarious, but live in pairs, and build on high trees, or in
dense thickets. Their gait is a singular stalk, reminding us of a person
moving along on elevated stilts ; but they run with great swiftness, and are
not to be approached, without great difficulty, by the sportsman. Attempts
have been made (how far successful we know not) to introduce this bird into
Martinique for the purpose of destroying the deadly lance-headed viper, or
yellow serpent, of the Antilles (Zrigonocephalus lanceolatus), which
abounds there, and is greatly dreaded.

The type of the sub-family Pernine, the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivo-
rus), is very rare in England, but more common in the warmer countries
of Europe, where it is migratory. It is found in Asia, and specimens have
been received from various parts of India. We believe one instance, only,
of its having been killed in Ireland, is on record, ‘The bird in question was
shot by R. G. Bornford, Esq., in his demesne of Annandale, near Belfast.
Mr. Thompson states that the bill and forehead were covered with cow-dung,
from the search the bird had evidently been making for insects. The stomach
contained some of the larve, and fragments of coleoptera, and various cat-
erpillars. It is, in fact, chiefly upon caterpillars and the larve of bees and
wasps that the Honey Buzzard feeds, together with other insects, not, how-
ever, to the exclusion of moles, mice, rats, small birds, reptiles, and slugs.

According to Vicillot, the Honey Buzzard flies low, but runs on the
ground with great celerity. It breeds in tall trees, making a nest of twigs,
with an inner layer of wool: the eggs are two or three in number, of an
ashy gray, dotted at each end with small, red spots, and surrounded, in the
middle, with a broad, blood-red zone, or mottled all over with two shades
of orange brown.

Of the MWiledne, the Swallow-tailed Hawk (Nauelerus furcatus) of
America, and the Kite (Milvus ictéiws) of Europe and Asia, are ex-
amples.

The Swallow-tailed Hawk, remarkable for its grace and ease on the wing,
is described by Audubon as follows : —

“Tn the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are abun-
dant, they arrive in large companies in the beginning of April, and are
heard uttering a sharp, plaintive note. At this period, I generally remarked
that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of a hun-
dred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly course.
At that season, and in the beginning of September, when they all retire

64 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

from the United States, they are easily approached when they have alight-
ed, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged in preparing them-
selyes for continuing their journey, by dressing and oiling their feathers.
At all other times, however, it is extremely difficult to get near them, as
they are generally on the wing through the day, and at night rest on the
higher pines and eypresses bordering the river bluffs, the lakes, or the
swamps of that district of country. They always feed on the wing. In
calm and warm weather they soar to an immense height, pursuing the large
insects called Mosquito Hawks, and performing the most singular eyolutions
that can be conceived, using their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to
themselves. Their principal food, however, is large grasshoppers, grass-
caterpillars, small snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the
fields, sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a snake, and,
holding it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air. When
searching for grasshoppers and caterpillars, it is not dificult to approach
under cover of a fence or tree. When one of them is killed and falls to
the ground, the whole flock come over the dead bird, as if intent upon car-
rying it off. An excellent opportunity is thus afforded of shooting as many
as may be wanted, and I have killed several of these hawks in this manner,
firing as fast as I could load my gun. The Swallow-tailed Hawk pairs im-
mediately after its arrival in the Southern States ; and as its courtships take
place on the wing, its motions are then more beautiful than ever. The nest
is usually placed on the top branches of the tallest oak or pine tree, situated
on the margin of a stream or pond. It resembles that of a carrion crow
externally, being formed of dry sticks, intermixed with Spanish moss, and
is lined with coarse grasses and a few feathers. The eges are from four to

six, of a ereenish-white color, with a few irregular blotches of dark brown ~

at the large end. The male and female sit alternately, the one feeding the
other. The young are at first covered with buff-colored down. Their nest
covering exhibits the pure white and black of the old birds, but without any
of the glossy-purplish tints of the latter. The tail, which at first is but
slightly forked, becomes more so in a few weeks, and at the approach of
autumn exhibits little difference from that of the adult birds. The plumage
is completed the first spring. Only one brood is raised in the season, The
species leaves the United States in the beginning of September, moving off
in flocks, which are formed immediately after the breeding season is over.”
The Kite is distributed over the ereatest part of Europe and Asia, and
the northern districts of Africa. In the British islands it appears to be less
common than formerly: in Ireland it is not known. Formerly it was very
abundant in the southern counties of England, and Clusius states, that
when he was in London an amazing number of Kites flocked there for the

TUE WHITE-HEADED EAGLE. 65

offal thrown into the streets: they were so tame that they took their prey in
the midst of crowds, and it was forbidden to kill them.

“The Kite,” says Mr. Selby, “is proverbial for the ease and eracefulness
of its flight, which consists of long, sweeping circles, performed with a mo-
tionless wing, or, at least, with a slight and almost imperceptible stroke of
its pinions, and at very distant intervals. In this manner, and directing its
course by the aid of the tail, which acts as a rudder, its slightest motion pro-
ducing an effect, it frequently soars to such a height as to become almost
invisible to the human eye.” Its appearance, as it wheels over the farm-
yard, with eyes intent upon the broods of chickens and ducklings, is by no
means hailed with pleasure, either by the feathered dependants of the farm,
or the good man who owns them. The poultry set up loud cries of execra-
tion; the hens call their broods beneath their wings, and chanticleer prepares
for battle; the dogs are roused, and the men run for their guns. Finding
preparations made to receive him, the marauder generally makes off; but
if he has swept away a chicken before the alarm is given, he is almost sure
of repeating his visit, and is oftentimes so successful as to destroy a whole
brood. Leverets, rabbits, young game, and small mammalia are also the

prey of this species: it has been known to skim off dead fish and other float-
ing animal substances from the surface of the water with the createst address.
The IXite builds its nest in the forked branch of some tall forest tree, and
constructs it of sticks and twigs, lining it with wool, hair, and other soft
materials. The eges are three in number, rather larger than those of a
hen: they are of a dirty white, with reddish-brown spots at the large end.
The female defends her nest vigorously.

Of the Aquiéline, the White-headed Eagle, or Bald Eagle, as it is im-
properly called, the Golden Eagle, and the Great Ilarpy Eagle furnish
prominent examples.

The White-headed Eagle is found in nearly all portions of temperate
North America, from whence it is a very rare wanderer in Europe. Wil-
son’s account of the bird and its habits is one of the most interesting pas-
sages in ornithological literature. 5

“The celebrated cataract of Niagara,” he says, “is a noted resort for the
Bald Eagle, as well on account of the fish procured there, as for the numer-
ous carcasses of squirrels, deer, bears, and other various animals, that, in
their attempts to cross the river above the falls, have been dragged into the
current, and precipitated down that tremendous culf, where, among the
rocks that bound the rapids below, they furnish a rich repast for the vulture,
the raven, and the subject of the present account.

“Formed by nature for bearing the severest cold, feeding equally on the
produce of the sea and of the land, possessing powers of flight capable of

66 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

outstripping even the tempests themselves, unawed by anything but man, and
from the ethereal heights to which he soars, looking abroad at one glance
over an immeasurable expanse of forests, fields, lakes, and ocean deep be-
low him, he appears indifferent to the change of seasons, as, in a few min-
utes, he can pass from summer to winter, from the lower to the higher
regions of the atmosphere (the abode of eternal cold), and thence descend
at will to the torrid or to the arctic regions of the earth. He is, therefore,
found at all seasons in the countries he inhabits, but prefers such places as
have been mentioned above, from the great partiality he has for fish.” “In
procuring these, he displays, in a very singular manner, the genius and
energy of his character, which is fierce, contemplative, daring, and tyran-
nical — attributes not exerted but on particular occasions, but, when put
forth, overpowering all opposition. Elevated on the high, dead limb of
some givantic tree, that commands a wide view of the neighboring shore
and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feath-
ered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below — the snow-white gulls
slowly winnowing the air, the busy érdéxge coursing along the sands, silent
and watchful cranes intent and wading, clamorous crows, and all the winged
multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast magazine of nature. High
over all these hovers one, whose action instantly arrests his whole attention.
By his wide curvature of wing, and sudden suspension in air, he knows him
to be the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye
kindles at the sight, and, balancing himself with half-opened wings on the
branch, he awaits the result. Down, rapid as an arrow, from heaven de-
scends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its wings reaching the
ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At this

moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardor; and, levelling his neck °

for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more emerge, struggling with his prey,
and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are the signal
for the eagle, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and soon
gains on the fish-hawk. Each exerts his utmost to mount above the other,
displaying ithese rencontres the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions.
The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of
reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair
and honest execration, the latter drops his fish: the Eagle, poising himself
for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind,
snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty
silently away to the woods.”

This is not the only mode in which the White-headed Eagle procures his
sustenance. Young lambs and pigs, ducks, geese, swans, and various sea-
fowl, are attacked and carricd ay ray. Mr. J. Gardiner stated to Wilson,

THE WHITE-HEADED EAGLE. 67

that he saw one flying with a lamb ten days old, but which, from the vio-
lence of its struggles, it was obliged to drop at the height of a few feet

fete}

from the, ground. He added that, by running up and hallooing, he pre-

g
vented it from again seizing the lamb, whose back it had broken, and to
whose misery he put an instant termination. The dam seemed astonished
to see its offspring suddenly snatched up and borne off by a bird. Sheep,
if old or sickly, are also subject to the attacks of these tyrants of the feath-
ered race; nor do they reject carrion, keeping the vultures (over which they
often exercise their despotism) at a respectful distance, waiting till they have
gorged their fill and departed. Now and then they procure fish for them-
selves in shallow places, wading in the water, and striking at them with
their beak. They

quoted Wilson’s animated description of the attack of the White-headed

have been known even to attack children. We have

Eagle upon the fish-hawk or osprey ; and we will now transcribe Audubon’s
equally graphie details of a different conflict : —

AZAR give you,” he writes, “some idea of the nature of this bird, permit
me to place you on the Mississippi, on which you may float gently along,
while approaching winter brings millions of water-fowls, on whistling wings,
from the countries of the north, to seek a milder climate in which to sojourn
for a season. The eagle is seen perched, in an erect attitude, on the sum-
mit of the tallest tree by the margin of the broad stream. His glistening
but stern eye looks over the vast expanse ; he listens attentively to every
sound that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing every now and then
on the earth beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn may pass un-
heard. Tis mate is perched on the opposite side, and, should all be tran-
quil and silent, warns him by a ery to continue patient. At this well-known
call, he partly opens his broad wings, inclines his body a little downwards,
and answers to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac. The
next moment he resumes his erect attitude, and again all around is silent.
Ducks of many species — the teal, the widgeon, the mallard, and others —
are seen passing with great rapidity, and following the course of the cur-
rent, but the eagle heeds them not; they are at that time beneath his
attention. The next moment, however, the wild, trumpet-like sound of a
yet distant but approaching swan is heard. A shriek from the female eagle
comes across the stream, for she is fully as alert as her mate. The latter
suddenly shakes the whole of his body, and, with a few touches of his bill,
aided by the action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumes in an
instant. The snow-white bird is now in sight; her long neck is stretched
forward; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy; her large
wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body, although they

flap incessantly ; so irksome do her exertions seem, that her very legs are

68 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

spread beneath her tail to aid her in her flight. She approaches, however.
The eagle has marked her for his prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded
pair, starts from his perch the male bird in preparation for the chase, with
an awful scream, that, to the swan’s ear, brings more terror than the
report of the large duck-gun. Now is the moment to witness the display
of the eagle’s powers. He glides through the air like a falling star, and,
like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in
agony and despair, secks by various mancuyres to elude the grasp of his
cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and willingly would plunge into the
stream were it not prevented by the eagle, which, possessed of the knowl-
edge that by such a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to
remain in the air by attempting to strike it with his talons from beneath.
The hope of escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become
much weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and swift-
ness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious
eagle strikes with its talons the under side of its wing, and, with unresisted
power, forces the bird to fall, in a slanting direction, upon the nearest shore.
It is then that you may see the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the
feathered race, whilst exulting over his prey he for the first time breathes
with ease. Ie presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws
deep into the heart of the dying bird; he shrieks with delight as he feels the
Jast conyulsions of his prey, which has now sunk under his efforts to render
death as painful as it possibly can be. The female has watched every move-
ment of her mate; and if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it
was not from want of will, but merely that she felt full assurance that the
power and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for the deed. She now
sails to the spot where he eagerly awaits her; and when she has arrived,
they together turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and gorge them-
selves with gore.”

The White-headed Eagle is seldom scen alone, but generally in company
with its mate; the union continues during life; they hunt for the support
of each other, and feed together. The nest is usually placed on some tall
tree, with a massive, towering stem, destitute of branches for a considerable
height. It is composed of sticks, clods, weeds, and moss, and measures five
or six feet in diameter; and, being annually augmented by fresh layers (for
it is used year after year), it is often as much in depth. The eggs are from
two to four in number, and of a dull white. The attachment of the parents to
their young is very ereat; and they provide abundantly for their support,
bringing home fish, squirrels, young lambs, opossums, raccoons, &e.

The Harpy Nagle (Harpyia destructor) is a native of Guiana, and
other parts of South America, where it frequents the deep recesses of the

THE HARPY EAGLE. 69

forests remote from the abodes of man. Of its habits, however, in a state
of nature, we have but little information. It is feared for its great strength
and fierceness, and is reported not to hesitate in attacking individuals of the
human race; nay, that instances have been known in which persons have
fallen a sacrifice, their skulls having been fractured by the blows of its beak
and talons. This may be an exaggeration, but certainly it would be a haz-
ardous experiment to venture unarmed near the nest of a pair of these for-
midable eagles. Hernandez states that this species not only ventures to
assault man, but even beasts of prey. According to Mendruyt, it makes
great destruction among the sloths, which tenant the branches of the forest,
and are ill fitted to resist so formidable an antagonist : it also destroys fawns,
cavies, opossums, and other quadrupeds, which it carries to its lonely retreat,
there, in solitude, to satiate its appetite. Monkeys are also to be numbered
among its victims; but the sloth is said to constitute its ordinary prey. Of
its nidification we know nothing; as the eagles, however, lay only from two
to three eggs, it is reasonable to suppose that the present species is not an
exception to the rule.

It has been correctly observed by Mr. Selby, that the members of the
Aquiline division of the raptorial order do not possess the same facility of
pursuing their prey upon the wing which we see in the falcons and hawks 3
for, though their flight is very powerful, they are not capable of the rapid
evolutions that attend the aerial attacks of the above-named groups, in con-
sequence of which their prey is mostly pounced upon on the ground. The
shortness of the wings of the Harpy Eagle, when compared with those of
the Golden Eagle of Europe, and their rounded form and breadth, though
well adapting them for a continued and steady flight, render them less eff-
cient as organs of rapid and sudden aerial evolutions than those of the latter ;
but, as it inhabits the woods, and does not prey upon birds but upon ani-
mals incapable of saving themselves by flight, its powers of wing (or
rather the modification of those powers) are in accordance with the circum-
stances as to food and locality under which it is placed. If the Harpy
Eagle soars not aloft, hovering over plains and mountains, it threads the
woods, it skims amidst the trees, and marks the sloth suspended on the
branch, or the monkey dozing in unsuspicious security; and, with unerring
aim, strikes its defenceless victims. My. Selby, commenting on the fierce-
ness of a pair of Golden Eagles in his possession, and their readiness to
attack every one indiscriminately, observes, that when living prey (as hares,
rabbits, or cats) are thrown to them, the animal is “instantly pounced on
by a stroke behind the head, and another about the region of the heart, the
bill appearing never to be used but for the purpose of tearing up the prey
when dead.” It is precisely in this manner that the Harpy Eagle deals with

NO. XIII. 62

70 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

its victims ; death seems the work of an instant; the strongest eat, powerless
in his grasp, is clutched, and expires. Nor will this surprise any one who
has contemplated the power seated in the talons of this bird: strong as are
the talons of the Golden Eagle, great as is the muscular development of its
limbs, and formidable as are its claws, they seem almost trifling compared
with those of the Harpy Eagle. “In the Museum of the Zodlogical Society
are the skeletons of both these birds, which it is interesting to compare to-
gether. The thickness of the bones of the limbs in the latter, and espe-
cially of the tarsus, which is more than double that of the Golden Eagle,
and the enormous size of the talons, are sufficient to convince the observer
of the ease with which, when living, the fierce bird would bury its sharp-
hooked claws in the vitals of its prey, and how vain resistance when the
fatal grasp was taken. In its native regions, the Harpy Eagle is said to be
by no means common: were it so, the destruction occasioned by its pres-
ence would, it might be naturally expected, preponderate over the renovation
of the species which constitute its habitual food, and the balance which
Nature has established between the destroyed and the destroying, the san-
guinary and their victims, be thus disarranged. No doubt that (as is the
case with all carnivorous animals) its numerical ratio, in a given space, is
proportionate to that of the animals on which it is destined habitually to
feed. Where the sloth is most abundant, there will most abound the Harpy
Eacle.

The Pandionine, or Ospreys, are well known. The American species
very closely resembles the European and Asiatic in characteristics of form
and habit.

Audubon, whose descriptions of the habits of American birds are always
most interesting, says of the Osprey as follows : ~—

“ As soon as the females make their appearance, which happens eight or
ten days atter the arrival of the males, the love season commences, and,
soon after, incubation takes place. The loves of these birds are conducted
in a different way from those of the other falcons. The males are seen
playing through the air amongst themselves, chasing each other in sport, or
sailing by the side of, or after, the female which they have selected, uttering
cries of joy and exultation, alighting on the branches of the tree on which their
last year’s nest is yet seen remaining, and, doubtless, congratulating each
other on finding their home again. Their caresses are mutual. They begin
to augment their habitation, or to repair the injuries which it may have sus-
tained during the winter, and are seen sailing together towards the shores,
to collect the drifted sea-weeds, with which they line the nest anew. They
alight on the beach, search for the dryest and largest weeds, collect a mass
of them, clinch them in their talons, and fly towards their nest, with the

TUE OSPREY. (ak

materials dangling beneath. They both alight and labor together. In a
fortnight the nest is complete, and the female deposits her eggs.”

The nest is generally placed in a large tree in the immediate vicinity of
the water, either along the sea-shore, on the margins of the inland lakes, or
by some large river. It is, however, sometimes to be seen in the interior
of a wood, a mile or more from the water. We have coneluded that, in
the latter case, it was on account of frequent disturbance, or attempts at
destruction, that the birds had removed from their usual haunts. ‘The nest
is very large, sometimes measuring fully four feet across, and is composed
of a quantity of materials sufficient to render its depth equal to its diameter.
Large sticks, mixed with sea-weeds, tufts of strong grass, and other mate-
rials, form its exterior, while the interior is composed of sea-weeds and finer
grasses. We have not observed that any particular species of tree is pre-
ferred by the Fish-Hawk. It places its nest in the fork of an oak or a pine
with equal pleasure. But we have observed that the tree chosen is usually
of considerable size, and not unfrequently a decayed one.

The Fish-Hawk is gregarious, and often breeds in colonies of three or
four nests in an area of a few acres. The males assist in incubation.

We have heard of instances of as many as a dozen nests being found in
the distance of half a mile on the coast of New Jersey.

In New Eneland the species is not so plentiful, tnd seldom more than
one nest can be found in one locality. The flight of the bird is strong, vig-
orous, and well sustained. As he flies over the ocean, at a height of perhaps
fifty feet, his long wings, as they beat the air in quick, sharp strokes, give
the bird the appearance of being much larger than he really is. When he
plunges into the water, he invariably seizes the fish (his prey) in his talons,
and is sometimes immersed to the depth of a foot or eighteen inches in his
efforts to capture it. He is of a peaceable disposition, and never molests
any of his feathered: neighbors. If the nest is plundered, the parent attacks
the intruder, and often inflicts ugly wounds in its defence.

The eges are usually laid before the 10th of May: they are generally
three in number. They vary considerably, both in shape, size, and mark-
ings. Ina majority of specimens the ground color is a rich reddish-cream,
and covered with numerous blotches of different shades of brown. In a
number of specimens these blotches are confluent, and the primary color is
nearly hidden. Their form yaries from nearly spherical to ovoidal, and the
dimensions from to 2.28 to 2.44 inches in length, and from 1.65 to 1.83 in
breadth,

The Polyborine, of which the Caracara Eagle (Polyborus tharus) is the
type, are “common throughout South America, being found from the shores
of the Gulf of Mexico as far as Cape Horn. Their flight is slow and

ie DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS Il. AVES.

heavy, and they seldom soar in the air. They run, however, rather quickly
slong the ground, waiting their share of the carcass, on which the turkey-
leseanis have commenced their feast. It is in the neighborhood of the
slaughtering-houses -on the River Plata that they are most common, where
they feed on the offal of the animals killed. Worms and insects also form
a portion of their food; and further, they are stated to attack young lambs
and birds in small parties.”

FamILty VULTURIDZ. VULTURES AND CONDORS.

The sub-families of this group, as characterized on a preceding page, are
distributed in both Worlds, and are well known. Our limits will permit a
consideration of but two of the most interesting species.

The Condor (Sarcoramphus gryphus) is one of the largest of the feath-
ered tribe. It is found among the Andes of South America, to which local-
ity it seems restricted.

The elevation chosen by the Condor as its breeding-place and habitual
residence, varies from ten thousand feet to fifteen thousand above the level
of the sea; and here, on some isolated pinnacle or jutting ledge, it rears its
brood, and looks down upon the plains below for food. It is generally seen
singly or in pairs, seldom in large companies; though, among the basaltic
cliffs of the St. Cruz, Mr. Darwin found a spot where scores usually haunt.
“On coming,” he says, “to the brow of the precipice, it was a fine sight to
see between twenty and thirty of these great birds start heavily from their

Ly

resting-places, and wheel away in majestic circles.” It appears that many

clusters of rocks, or high, precipitous crags, are named after these birds :

the appellations, in the language of the Incas, meaning the “ Condor’s look-.

out,” the “ Condor’s roost,” the “ Condor’s nest,” &e.

High over the loftiest pinnacles may the Condor often be seen soaring,
borne up on outspread wings, describing, in its flight, the most graceful spires
and circles. “ Except when rising from the ground,” says Mr. Darwin, “Ido
not recollect ever having seen one of these birds flap his wings. Near Lima,
I watched several for nearly half an hour, without once taking off my eyes.
They move in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending,
without once flapping. As they glided close over my head, I intently
watched, from an oblique position, the outlines of the separate and terminal
feathers of the wing: if there had been the least vibratory movement, these
would have blended together; but they were scen distinct against the
blue sky. The head and neck were moved frequently, and apparently with
force; and it appeared as if the extended wings formed the fulerum on
which the movements of the neck, body, and tail acted. If the bird wished
to descend, the wings were for a moment collapsed ; and then, when again

THE CONDOR. 73

expanded, with an altered inclination, the momentum gained by the rapid
descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with the even and steady movement
of a paper kite. In case of any bird soaring, its motion must be sufficiently
rapid, so that the action of the inclined surface of its body on the atmos-
phere may counterbalance its gravity. The force to keep up the momentum
of a body moving in a horizontal plane in that fluid (in which there is so
little friction) cannot be great, and this force is all that is wanted. The
movement of the neek and body of the Condor we must suppose sufficient
for this. Hlowever this may be, it is truly wonderful and beautiful to see
so great a bird, hour after hour, without any apparent exertion, wheeling
and gliding over mountain and river.”

The Condor feeds, like other vultures, on carrion, dead llamas, mules,
sheep, &c. When gorged with food, they sit sullen and drowsy on the
rocks, and, as Humboldt says, will suffer themselves to be driven before
the hunters, rather than take wing; but he adds, that he has seen them when
on the look-out for prey, especially on severe days, soaring at a prodigious
height, as if for the purpose of commanding the most extensive view. The
same writer states that he never heard of any well-authenticated instance
of these birds carrying away children (according to vague report) ; that he
often approached within a few feet of them, as they sat on the rocks, but
they never manifested any disposition to assault him; and the Indians at
Quito assure him that men have nothing to fear from them. This searcely
applies to other animals. “ Besides feeding on carrion,” says Mr. Darwin,
“the Condors will frequently attack young goats and lambs. Hence the
shepherd-dogs are trained, the moment the enemy passes over, to run out,
and, looking upwards, to bark violently.” Two of them will sometimes
attack the vicugna, the Tama, the heifer, and even the puma, persecuting
the quadruped till it falls beneath the wounds inflicted by the beaks of its
assailants. The Condor is, indeed, amazingly strong, and extremely tenacious
of life. Sir Francis Head relates the account of a struggle between one of
his Cornish miners and a Condor gorged with food, and, therefore, not in
the best state for the fray: the man began by grasping the bird round the
neck, which he tried to break; but the bird, roused by the unceremonious
attack, struggled so violently as to defeat the plan; nor, after an hour’s
struggling, though the miner brought away several of the wing feathers in
token of victory, does it appear that the bird was despatched.

According to Mr. Darwin (and Humboldt states the same), “the Condor
makes no sort of nest, but in the months of Noyember and December
lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock. On the Patagonian
coast, I could not see any sort of nest among the cliffs where the young were
standing. It is said that young Condors cannot fly for an entire year. At

74 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

Concepcion, on the 5th of March (corresponding to our September), I saw

-a youne bird, which, though in size little inferior to an old one, was com-

pletely covered with down, like that of a gosling, but of a blackish color.
After the period when the young Condors can fly, and apparently as well as
the old birds, they yet remain at night on the same ledge, hunting by day
with their parents. Before, however, the young bird has the ruff turned
white, it may be often seen hunting by itself.” Mr. Darwin considers it
probable that the Condor breeds only once in two years.

The King Vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) is a native of the intertropical
regions of America, and is seen occasionally in Florida — probably its most
northern limit. It is not, like the Condor, a mountain bird, but tenants the
low, humid forests bordering rivers and savannas, where animal life is
abundant, and where decomposition rapidly succeeds death. It is amidst
the most luxuriant scenery that this monarch of the vultures reigns, the
turkey-buzzard and gallinazo being in subjection under him. Waterton, in
his entertaining work, relates that, while sailing up Essequibo, he observed
a pair of King Vultures sitting on the naked branch of a tree, with about
adozen of the common species, waiting to begin the feast upon a goat killed
by a jaguar, but which he had been foreed to abandon. The pair seemed
rather to tolerate the presence of the rest, than to associate with them on the
terms of familiarity. The same traveller, having killed a large serpent,
caused it to be carried into the forest, as a lure for one of these vultures
which he wished to obtain. He watched the result. “The foliage,” he
says, where he laid the snake, “was impervious to the sun’s rays; and had
any vultures passed over that part of the forest, I think I may say, with
safety, that they would not have seen the body through the shade. Tor the
first two days not a yulture made its appearance at the spot, though I could
see a Vullur aura, gliding on apparently immovable pinions, at a moderate
height over the tops of the forest trees; but, during the afternoon of the
sane day, when the carcass of the serpent had got into a state of putrefac-
tion, more than twenty of the common vultures came and perched upon the
neighboring trees, and the next morning, a little before six o’clock, I saw a
magnificent King of the Vultures. There was a stupendous moro tree close

t=)

by, whose topmost branches had either been tried by time, or blasted by
the thunder-storm. Upon this branch I killed the King of the Vultures
before it had descended to partake of the savory food which had attracted
it to the place. Soon after this, another King of the Vultures came, and,
after he had stuffed himself almost to suffocation, the rest pounced down
upon the remains of the serpent, and staid there till they had devoured the
last morsel.”

mp = 4 . . . ry .
Though this species is mostly seen alone or in pairs, travellers state that,

THE LAMMERGEYER. 1D

in Mexico, it is sometimes observed in flocks. The general account, — that
the other vultures stand patiently by till their monarch has finished his
repast, —and which appears to be not without foundation, may be easily

accounted for by the superior strength and courage of this species.

The Gypaétine, or Bearded Vultures, are comprehended in a single spe-
cies, viz., the Gypaétus barbatus, often ealled the Laimmergeyer.

This bird is found throughout the whole of the great mountain chains of
the Old World. It occurs in the Pyrenees, and in the Alps of Germany
and Switzerland, where it is notorious for its destructiveness among the lambs
and kids which are fed on the green slopes of the lower ranges. The inter-
mediate situation assigned to the Liimmergeyer, and which is aptly expressed
in: the generic appellation Gypacétus, is clearly indicated in its form and
general habits. Of a powerful and robust make, it has neither the bill nor
the talons of the eagle, the former being elongated, and hooked only at the
tip, and the latter comparatively small; yet it prefers to prey on victims
which it has itself destroyed, or upon the flesh of animals recently slaugh-
tered, and, unless hard pressed by hunger, rejects putrid carrion, the favorite
repast of the vulture. The eagle bears off his prey ; the Liimmergeyer, unless
disturbed, or providing for its young, seldom attempts to remove it, but
devours it on the spot. Attracted by the carcass of some unfortunate ani-
mal, which has recently perished among the ravines of the mountains, a
number of these birds gradually congregate to share the booty, and gorge,
like the vulture, to repletion. The Liimmergeyer attacks hares, lambs,
kids, and the weak and sickly of the flocks, with great ferocity : the strone-
limbed chamois is not secure, nor, when rendered desperate by hunger, will
the ravenous bird forbear an attack on man. Children, indeed, are said to
have often fallen sacrifices to its rapacity. Young or small animals are
easily destroyed, for, though elongated, the beak is hard and strong, and
well adapted for lacerating the victim; but larger animals, instead of being
at once grappled with, are, as it is said, insidiously assaulted while upon
the edge of some precipice or steep declivity, the bird unexpectedly sweep-
ing upon them with fury, and hurrying them into the abyss, down which it
plunges to glut its appetite. As illustrative of the boldness of the Liim-
mergeyer, Bruce relates that, attracted by the preparations for dinner, which
his servants were making on the summit of a lofty mountain, a Bearded
Vulture “slowly made his advances to the party, and at length fairly seated
himself within the ring they had formed. The affrighted natives ran for
their lances and shields, and the bird, after an ineffectual attempt to abstract

a portion of their meat from the boiling water, seized a large piece in each

Ss

of his talons, from a platter that stood by, and carried them off slowly along
the ground as he came.” Returning for a second freight, he was shot.

AVES.

VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II.

DIVISION I.

76

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NO.

78 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER PULLASTRA.

Ty this order are included the Didunculide, or Dodos (birds now ex-
tinct); the Columbide, or Pigeons; the Penelopida, or Cracide, Curas-
sows, of Gray, and the Megapodide, the Megapodes, or Mound Birds.
Our present limits will permit but a brief view of these families, and the
others not yet treated of.

Famity Dipuncutipm. Tne Dopos.

Of the existence of the Dodo in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
there is abundant evidence. Its habitat was the Island of Mauritius: it is
described as being as large as our swans, with a large head, and a kind of
hood thereon; “no wings, but, in place of them, three or four black little
pens, and the tail consisting of four or five plumelets of a grayish color.”
In Willoughby’s translation of Clusius is the following : —

“This exotic bird, found by the Hollanders on the Mauritius Island, did
equal or exceed a swan in bigness, but was of a far different shape ; for its
head was ereat, covered, as it were, with a certain membrane resembling a
hood; besides, its bill was not flat and broad, but thick and Jong, of a yel-
lowish color next the head, the point being black. The upper chap was
hooked, in the nether was a bluish spot in the middle, between the yellow
and black part. Its legs were thick, rather than long, whose upper part, as
far as the knee, was covered with black feathers.”

Bontius, edited by Piso (1658), says, —

“Tt hath yellow legs, thick, but very short; four toes in each foot, solid,
long, as it were, scaly, armed with strong, black claws. It is a slow-paced
and stupid bird, and which easily becomes a prey to the fowlers. The flesh,
especially of the breast, is fat, esculent, and so copious, that three or four
Dodos will sometimes suffice to fill an hundred seamen’s bellies.”

Of the information concerning these birds accessible, the above seems the
most interesting. The species is now completely extirpated, and a skull and
foot, with a few old paintings in the British Museum, are all there is left to
show that it ever existed.

Fammy Cotumpipz. Picrons and Doves.

Vieillot conformed to the opinion of Linnzus in placing these birds among
the Passeres, because of their natural great analogy to that group, like
nearly the whole of which, the Pigeons pair in the season of love, the male
and female working jointly at the nest, taking their turns during incubation,

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THE PASSENGER PIGEON. 79

J

and participating in the care of the young, which, among the true Pigeons,
are hatched blind, fed in the nest, which they do not quit until they are coy-
ered with feathers, and are supported by their parents some time after their
departure from it, having no power to feed themselves. Such are the points
of resemblance. Their dissimilarity consists in their mode of drinking, and
feeding their young, in the nature of their plumage, and the singularity of
their courtship, and of their voice — points of difference which also separate
them from the true gallinaceous birds, “with which,” says M. Vieillot, “ they
have no analogy in their instincts, their habits, or their loves. Nearly all
the gallinaceous birds are polygamous, and lay a great number of eges each
time they incubate, which is rarely more than once a year in the temperate

es each time, incubate fre-

zones; while the true Pigeons lay only two eg¢
quently during the year, and are monogamous. Among the gallinaceous
birds, as a general rule, the male does not solace the female at the time of
building the nest and of incubation: the young run as soon almost as they
are out of the egg-shell, quitting their nest, and seeking their own food
immediately.”

The Pigeons occupy a peculiar position, and no birds are so nearly allied
that their points of separation are not plainly manifest.

One peculiarity of their internal organization is worthy a special notice.
The crop, in the state which is adapted for ordinary digestion, is thin and
membranous, and the internal surface is smooth ; but, by the time the young
are about to be hatched, the whole, except the part which lies on the trachea,
becomes thicker, and puts on a glandular appearance, having its internal
surface very irregular. It is in this organ that the food is elaborated by the
parents before it is conveyed to the young; fora milky fluid of a eravish
color is secreted and poured into the crop among the grain or seeds under-
going digestion, and a quality of food suited to the nestling is thus produced.
The fluid coagulates with acids, and forms curd, and the apparatus forms
among birds the nearest approach to the mamme of quadrupeds. The dis-
tribution of this family is very extensive, the form occurring almost every-
where, except within the frigid zones. Among their numbers are found
some of the most gorgeously-attired birds, and some have, such as the Tur-
tle Dove, the Carrier Dove, the Passenger Pigeon, a history as familiar as
that of the most common species. Of these birds, the Wild Pigeon, or
Passenger Pigeon of America, is one of the most interesting. This singular
bird inhabits a wide and extensive region of North America, though it does
not seem to be known westward of the Great Rocky Mountains, but spreads
all over Canada, and ranges as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. ’

The numbers of these birds which associate in their breeding-places almost
surpass belief: these breeding-places are always in the woods, and some-

80 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

times occupy a large extent of forest. “ When they have frequented,” says
Wilson, “one of these places for some time, the appearance it exhibits is sur-
prising. The ground is covered to the depth of several inches with their
dung; all the tender grass and underwood destroyed ; the surface strewed with
large limbs of trees, broken down by the weight of the birds clustering one
above another; and the trees themselves, for thousands of acres, killed as
completely as if girdled with an axe. The marks of this desolation remain
for many years on the spot; and numerous places could be pointed out
where, for several years after, scarce a single vegetable made its appear-
ance. By the Indians, a pigeon-roost, or breeding-place, is considered an
important source of national profit and dependence. The breeding-place
differs from the former in its greater extent. In the western countries above
mentioned, these are generally in beech woods, and often extend in nearly a
straight line across the country for a great way. Not far from Shelbyville,
in the State of Kentucky, about five years ago, there was one of these
breeding-places, which stretched through the woods nearly in a north and
south direction, was several miles in breadth, and was said to be upwards
of forty miles in extent! In this tract almost every tree was furnished with
nests wherever the branches could accommodate them. The pigeons made
their first appearance there about the 10th of April, and left it altogether,
with their young, before the 25th of May. As soon as the youne were
fully grown, and before they left their nests, numerous parties of the inhab-
itants, from all parts of the adjacent country, came with wagons, axes,
beds, cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater part of
their families, and encamped for several days at this immense nursery. Sev-
eral of them informed me, that the noise in the woods was so great as to ter-
rify their horses, and that it was difficult for one person to hear another speak
without batvling in his ear. The ground was strewed with broken limbs of
trees, eggs, and young pigeons, which had been precipitated from above,
and on which herds of hogs were fattening. Hawks, buzzards, and eagles
were sailing about in great numbers, and seizing the young from their nests
at pleasure, while, from twenty feet upwards to the top of the trees, the
view through the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and flut-
tering multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with
the frequent erash of falling timber; for now the axe-men were at work cut-
tine down those trees that seemed to be most crowded with nests, and con-
trived to fell them in such a manner, that in their descent they might bring
down several others ; by which means the falling of one large tree sometimes
produced two hundred young, little inferior in size to the old ones, and almost
one mass of fat. On some single tree, upwards of one hundred nests were

found, each containing a single young one only —a circumstance in the

THE PASSENGER PIGEON. 81

history of this bird not generally known to naturalists. It was dangerous
_ to walk under these flying and fluttering millions, from the frequent fall of
large branches, broken down by the weight of the multitudes above, and
which, in their descent, often destroyed numbers of the birds themselves ;
while the clothes of those engaged in traversing the woods were completely
covered with the excrements of the pigeons.

“These circumstances were related to me by many of the most respectable
part of the community in that quarter, and were confirmed in part by what
I myself witnessed. I passed for several miles through this same breeding-
| place, where every tree was spotted with nests, the remains of those above
described. In many instances I counted upwards of ninety nests on a single

tree; but the pigeons had abandoned this place for another, sixty or eighty
miles off, towards Green River, where they were said at that time to be
equally numerous. From the great numbers that were constantly passing |
overhead to or from that quarter, I had no doubt of the truth of this state-
ment. The beech mast had been chiefly consumed in Kentucky, and the
pigeons every morning, a little before sunrise, set out for the Indiana terri- bY
tory, the nearest part of which was about sixty miles distant. Many of |
these returned before ten o’clock, and the great body appeared generally on |
their return a little after noon. I had left the public road to visit the
| remains of the breeding-place near Shelbyville, and was traversing the
woods with my gun, on my way to Frankfort, when, about one o'clock, the
pigeons, which I had observed flying the greater part of the morning north- |
erly, began the return in such immense numbers as I never before had wit-
nessed. Coming to an opening, by the side of a creek called the Benson, |

where I had a more uninterrupted view, I was astonished at their appear-
ance. They were flying with great steadiness and rapidity, at a height
beyond gun-shot, in several strata deep, and so close together that, could
shot have reached them, one discharge could not have failed of bringing
_ down several individuals. From right to left, as far as the eye could reach,

the breadth of this vast procession extended, seeming everywhere equally
crowded. Curious to determine how long this appearance would continue,
T took out my watch to note the time, and sat down to be observe them. It
was then half past one. Isat for more than an hour, but, instead of a
diminution of this prodigious procession, it seemed rather to increase, both | |
in numbers and rapidity; and, anxious to reach Frankfort before night, I
rose and went on. About four o’clock in the afternoon I crossed the IKen-
tucky River, at the town of Frankfort, at which time the living torrent
above my head seemed as numerous and as extensive as ever. Long after this
T observed thein in large bodies, that continued to pass for six or eight min-
utes, and these again were followed by other detached bodies, all moving in |

82 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

‘

the same south-east direction till after six in the evening. The great breadth
of front which this mighty multitude preserved would seem to intimate a
corresponding breadth of their breeding-place, which, by several gentlemen
who had lately passed through part of it, was stated to me at several miles.
It was said to be in Green County, and that the young began to fly about
the middle of March.
ville, and not far from Green River, I crossed this same breeding-place,

On the 17th of April, forty-nine miles beyond Dan-

where the nests for more than three miles spotted every tree; the leaves not
being yet out, Thad a fair prospect of them, and was really astonished at
their numbers. A few bodies of pigeons lingered yet in different parts of
the woods, the roaring of whose wings was heard in various quarters argund
me. <All accounts agree in stating that each nest contains only a single
young one. ‘These are so extremely fat, that the Indians, and many of the
whites, are accustomed to melt down the fat for domestic purposes, as a sub-
stitute for butter and lard. At the time they leave the nest, they are nearly
as heavy as the old ones, but become much leaner after they are turned out

to shift for themselves.”

Famity PreneLorrip2. Guans AND Curassows.

Of the Guans, Gray writes as follows : —

“The birds of this division are only found in the warmer parts of South
America. They mostly reside upon the trees of the vast forests of the in-
terior, near the tops of which they perch during the heat of the day; in the
cool of the morning and evening, they are actively engaged in searching,
from tree to tree, or on the ground, for their food, which consists of fruits

and various insects. Their flight is heavy, and performed with difficulty.”

The same author says of the Curassows, —

“The species of this genus are found in the woods of tropical America.
They are generally observed together in numerous flocks, searching for
worms, insects, fruits, and seeds of plants, on which they subsist. The
nests are built on trees, and are formed externally of branches, interlaced
with the stalks of herbaceous plants, and lined with leaves.”

TFamiry Mecaropip.x. Tore Mounp Binrps.

The habits of the typical genus Wegapodius serves to illustrate this family.
“The species of this singular genus are found in all the islands of the
eastern archipelagos of Asia, and the north-western parts of Australia.
They are exclusively met with in pairs in the thick woods of the immediate
neizhborhood of the sea, and, if disturbed, very quickly hide among the
brushwood. They seek their food, which consists of fibrous roots, seeds,

berries, and insects, on the ground, Their flight is heavy, and when dis-

¢

THE MOUND BIRDS. 83

turbed, while feeding, they usually fly to a tree, and are said, on alighting,
to stretch out their head and neck in a straight line with the body, remain-
ing in this position as stationary and motionless as the branch upon which
they are perched. Some species deposit their eggs, to the number of a hun-

dred or more, in the night, in holes on the sea-shore, which they excavate to

the depth of three or four feet. Others deposit their eggs in immense con-

ical mounds, composed of sand and shells, with a large mixture of black
soil and vegetable matter, the base generally resting on the sandy beach,
within a few feet of high-water mark: some of these mounds measure from
twenty to sixty feet in circumference, and from five to fifteen in height.
After the female has deposited an ege, which is effected in the night, at in-
tervals of several days, and is placed perpendicularly in a hole, near the
middle of the mound, to the depth of several feet, she scatters a quantity
of sand in the hole until the cavity is filled up. The young are supposed

by some to effect their escape from the mound unaided; while, on the other

hand, it has been considered that the parent birds, knowing when the young

are ready to emerge from their confinement, scratch down, and release them.

Another writer says of these birds, —

“The Megapodide are a small family of birds found only in Australia
and the surrounding islands, but extending as far as the Philippines and
north-west Borneo. They are allied to the gallinaceous birds, but differ
from these and all others in never sitting upon their eggs, which they bury
in sand, earth, or rubbish, and leave to be hatched by the heat of the sun
or fermentation. They are all characterized by very large feet, and long,
curved claws, and most of the species of Megapedius rake and scratch
together all kinds of rubbish, dead leaves, sticks, stones, earth, rotten wood,
&e., till they form a large mound, often six feet hich and twelve feet across,
in the middle of which they bury their eggs. The natives can tell by the
condition of these mounds whether they contain eggs or not; and they rob
them, whenever they can, as the brick-red eggs (as large as those of a swan)
are considered a great delicacy. A number of birds are said to join in
making these mounds, and lay their eggs together, so that sometimes forty
or fifty may be found. The mounds are to be met with here and there in
dense thickets, and are great puzzles to strangers, who cannot understand
who can possibly have heaped together cart-loads of rubbish in such out-of-
the-way places ; and when they inquire of the natives, they are but little
wiser, for it almost always appears to them the wildest romance to be told
that it was done by birds. The species found in Bombock is about the
size of a small hen, and entirely of dark olive and brown tints. It is a
miscellaneous feeder, devouring fallen fruits, earth-worms, snails, and cen-
tipedes, but the flesh is white and well-flavored when properly cooked.”

ORDER GALLIN.E. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.’

Tuer four families — Pleroclide, the Sand Grouse; Phasianide, the
Pheasants, Turkeys, and Fowls; Yetraonide, the Grouse, and Crypturide,
the Tinamous —are all interesting. They comprehend a very great variety
of forms, and are scattered over both continents. Our limits will not per-
mit an extended notice of them, and we will confine ourselves to one of the
more interesting species.

Of the Vetraonide, the Pinnated Grouse, or Prairie Chicken, is one of
the most important and interesting. Wilson’s account of this bird is the
best that we have seen. Quoting a letter from a friend, he says, —

* Amours. —The season for pairing is in March, and the breeding-time
is continued through April and May. Then the male grouse distinguishes
himself by a peculiar sound. When he utters it, the parts about the throat
are sensibly inflated and swelled. It may be heard on a still morning for
three or four miles; some say they have perceived it as far as five or six.
This noise is a sort of ventriloquism. It does not strike the ear of a by-
stander with much foree, but impresses him with the idea, though produced
within a few rods of him, of a voice a mile or two distant. This note is highly
characteristic. Though very peculiar, it is termed tooling, from its resem-
blanee to the blowing of a conch or horn from a remote quarter. The
female makes her nest on the ground, in recesses very rarely discovered by
men. She usually lays from ten to twelve eggs, which are of a brownish
color, much resembling those of a Guinea hen. When hatched, the brood
is protected by her alone. Surrounded by her young, the mother-bird ex~-
ceedingly resembles a domestic hen and chickens. She frequently leads
them to feed in the roads crossing the woods, on the remains of maize and
oats contained in the dung dropped by the travelling horses. In that em-
ployment, they are often surprised by the passengers. On such occasions,
the dam utters a cry of alarm. The little ones immediately scamper to the
brush; and, while they are skulking into places of safety, their anxious
parent becuiles the spectator by drooping and fluttering her wings, limping
along the path, rolling over in the dirt, and other pretences of inability to
walk or fly.

“ Food. — A favorite article of their dict is the heath-hen plum, ov par-
tridge-berry. They are fond of huckleberries and cranberries. | Worms

and insects of several kinds are occasionally found in their crops. But in
the winter they subsist chiefly on acorns, and the buds of trees which have
shed their leaves. In their stomachs have been sometimes observed the

THE PINNATED GROUSE. 85

leaves of a plant supposed to be a wintergreen; and it is said, when they
are much pinched, they betake themselves to the buds of the pine. In con-
venient places, they have been known to enter cleared fields, and regale
themselves on the leaves of clover; and old gunners have reported that they
have been known to trespass upon patches of buckwheat, and pick up the
erains,

“ Migration. — They are stationary, and never known to quit their abode.
There are no facts showing in them any disposition to migration, On frosty
mornings, and during snows, they perch on the upper branches of pine trees.
They avoid wet and swampy places, and are remarkably attached to dry
ground. The low and open brush is preferred to high shrubbery and thick-
ets. Into these latter places they fly for refuge when closely pressed by the
hunters; and here, under a stiff and impenetrable cover, they escape the
pursuit of dogs and men. Water is so seldom met with on the true grouse
ground, that it is necessary to carry it along for the pointers to drink. The
flights of grouse are short, but sudden, rapid, and whirring. I have not
heard of any success in taming them. They seem to resist all attempts at
domestication. In this, as well as in many other respects, they resemble the
quail of New York, or the partridge of Pennsylvania.

® Manners. — During the period of mating, and while the females are occu-
pied in incubation, the males have a practice of assembling principally by
themselves. To some select and central spot, where there is very little un-
derwood, they repair from the adjoining district. From the exercise per-
formed there, this is called a seratching-place. The time of meeting is the
break of day. As soon as the light appears, the company assembles from
every side, sometimes to the number of forty or fifty. When the dawn is
past, the ceremony begins by a low tooting from one of the cocks. This is
answered by another. They then come forth, one by one, from the bushes,
and strut about with all the pride and ostentation they can display. Their
necks are incurvated; the feathers on them are erected into a sort of ruff;
the plumes of their tails are expanded like fans ; they strut about in a style
resembling, as nearly as small may be illustrated by great, the pomp of the
turkey-cock. They seem to vie with each other in stateliness ; and, as they
pass each other, frequently cast looks of insult, and utter notes of defiance.
These are the signals for battle. They engage with wonderful spirit and
fierceness. During these contests, they leap a foot or two from the ground,
and utter a cackling, screaming, and discordant ery.

“They have been found in these places of resort even earlier than the
appearance of light in the east. This fact has led to the belief that a part
of them assemble over night. The rest join them in the morning. This
leads to the further belief that they roost on the ground; and the opinion is

NO. XIII. 64 .

86 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

confirmed by the discovery of little rings of dung, apparently deposited by
a flock which had passed the night together. After the appearance of the
sun they disperse.

“These places of exhibition have often been discovered by the hunters
and a fatal discovery it has been for the poor grouse. Their destroyers con-

>

struct for themselves lurking-holes, made of pine branches, called bough
houses, within a few yards of the parade. Hither they repair with their
fowling-pieces, in the latter part of the night, and wait the appearance of
the birds. Watching the moment when two are proudly eyeing each other,
or engaged in battle, or when a greater number can be seen in a range, they
pour on them a destructive charge of shot. This annoyance has been given
in so many places, and to such extent, that the grouse, after having been
repeatedly disturbed, are afraid to assemble. On approaching the spot to
which their instinct prompts them, they perch on the neighboring trees, in-
stead of alighting at the scratching-place; and it remains to be observed
how far the restless and tormenting spirit of the marksmen may alter the
native habits of the grouse, and oblige them to betake themselves to new
ways of life.

“They commonly keep together in coveys, or packs, as the phrase is,
until the pairing season. <A full pack consists, of course, of ten or a dozen.
Two packs have been known to associate. I lately heard of one whose
number amounted to twenty-two. They are so unapt to be startled, that a
hunter, assisted by a dog, has been able to shoot a whole pack, without
making any of them take wing. In like manner, the men lying in conceal-
ment near the scratching-places have been known to discharge several guns
before either the report of the explosion, or the sight of their wounded and
dead fellows, would rouse them to flight. It has further been remarked,
that, when a company of sportsmen have surrounded a pack of grouse, the
birds seldom or never rise upon their pinions while they are encircled, but
each runs alone until it passes the person that is nearest, and then flutters
off with the utmost expedition.

“This bird, though an inhabitant of different and very distant districts of
North America, is extremely particular in selecting his place of residence,
pitching only upon those tracts whose features and productions correspond
with his modes of life, and avoiding immense intermediate regions that he
never visits. Open, dry plains, thinly interspersed with trees, or partially
overgrown with shrub oak, are his favorite haunts. Accordingly, we find
these birds on the grouse plains of New Jersey, in Burlington County,
as well as on the brushy plains of Long Island; among the pines
and shrub oaks of Pocano, in Northampton County, Pennsylvania; over the
whole extent of the Barrens of Kentucky; on the luxuriant plains and

THE PINNATED GROUSE.

(oe)

7

prairies of the Indiana Territory, and upper Louisiana; and, according to
the information of the late Governor Lewis, on the vast and remote plains
of the Columbia River; in all these places preserving the same singular
habits.

“Their predilection for such situations will be best accounted for by con-
sidering the following facts and circumstances: First, their mode of flight
is generally direct and laborious, and ill calculated for the labyrinth of a
high and thick forest, crowded and intersected with trunks and arms of trees,
that require continual angular evolution of wing, or sudden turnings, to
which they are by no means accustomed. I have always observed them to
avoid the high-timbered groves that occur here and there in the Barrens.
Connected with this fact is a circumstance related to me by a very respect-
able inhabitant of that country, viz., that, one forenoon, a cock grouse
struck the stone chimney of his house with such force as instantly to fall
dead to the ground.

“Secondly, their known dislike of ponds, marshes, or watery places, which
they avoid on all occasions ; drinking but seldom, and, it is believed, never
from such places. Even in confinement, this peculiarity has been taken
notice of. While I was in the State of Tennessee, a person living within a
few miles of Nashville had caught an old hen grouse in a trap; and, being
obliged to keep her in a large cage, as she struck and abused the rest of the
poultry, he remarked that she never drank, and that she even avoided that
quarter of the cage where the cup containing the water was placed. Hap-
pening, one day, to let some water fall on the cage, it trickled down in
drops along the bars, which the bird no sooner observed than she eagerly
picked them off, drop by drop, with’ a dexterity that showed she had been
habituated to this mode of quenching her thirst, and probably to this mode
only, in those dry and barren tracts, where, except the drops of dew and
drops of rain, water is very rarely to be met with. For the space of a week,
he watched her closely, to discover whether she still refused to drink; but,
though she was constantly fed on Indian corn, the cup and water still re-
mained untouched and untasted. Yet no sooner did he again sprinkle water
on the bars of the cage, than she eagerly and rapidly picked them off as
before.

“The last, and probably the strongest, inducement to their preferring
these plains, is the small acorn of the shrub oak, the strawberries, huckle-
berries, and partridge-berries, with which they abound, and which constitute
the principal part of the food of these birds. These brushy thickets also
afford them excellent shelter, being almost impenetrable to dogs or birds of
prey.

“In all these places where they inhabit, they are, in the strictest sense

88 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

of the word, resident, haying their particular haunts and places of rendez-
vous (as described in the preceding account), to which they are strongly
attached. Yet they have been known to abandon an entire tract of coun-
try, when, from whatever cause it might proceed, it became again covered
with forest. A few miles south of the town of York, in Pennsylvania,
commences an extent of country, formerly of the character described, now
chiefly covered with wood, but still retaining the name of Barrens. In the
recollection of an old man born in that part of the country, this tract
abounded with grouse. The timber growing up, in progress of years, these
birds totally disappeared ; and, for a long period of time, he had seen none
of them, until, migrating with his family to Kentucky, on entering the Bar-
rens, he, one morning, recognized the well-known music of his old acquaint-
ance, the grouse, which, he assures me, are the very same with those he
had known in Pennsylvania.

“But what appears to me the most remarkable circumstance relative to
this bird is, that not one of all those writers who have attempted its history
has taken the least notice of those two extraordinary bags of yellow skin
which mark the neck of the male, and which constitute so striking a pecu-
liarity. These seem to be formed by an expansion of the gullet, as well
as of the exterior skin of the neck, which, when the bird is at rest, hangs in
loose, pendulous, wrinkled folds along the side of the neck, the supplemental
wings, at the same time, as well as when the bird is flying, lying along
the neck. But when these bags are inflated with air, in breeding-time, they
are equal in size, and very much resemble in color a middle-sized, fully ripe
orange. By means of this curious apparatus, which is very observable sev-
eral hundred yards off, he is enabled’ to produce the extraordinary sound
mentioned above, which, though it may easily be imitated, is yet difficult to
describe by words. It consists of three notes of the same tone, resembling
those produced by the night hawks in their rapid descent, each strongly
accented, the last being twice as long as the others. When several are thus
engaged, the ear is unable to distinguish the regularity of these triple notes,
there being, at such times, one continued bumming, which is disagreeable
and perplexing, from the impossibility of ascertaining from what distance,
or even quarter, it proceeds. While uttering this, the bird exhibits all the
ostentatious gesticulations of a turkey-cock — erecting and fluttering his neck
and wings, wheeling and passing before the female, and close before his fel-
lows, as in defiance. Now and then are heard some rapid, cackling notes, not
unlike that of a person tickled to excessive laughter; and, in short, one can
scarcely listen to them without feeling disposed to laugh from sympathy.
These are uttered by the males while engaged in fight, on which occasion
they leap up against each other, exactly in the manner of turkeys, seemingly

THE GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. 89

with more malice than effect. This bumming continues from a little before
daybreak to eight or nine o'clock in the morning, when the parties separate
to seek for food.

“ Fresh-ploughed fields, in the vicinity of their resorts, are sure to be vis-
ited by these birds every morning, and frequently, also, in the evening. On
one of these I counted, at one time, seventeen males, making such a con-
tinued sound, as, Iam persuaded, might have been heard for more than a
mile off. The people of the Barrens informed me that, when the weather
becomes severe with snow, they approach the barn and farm-house, are
sometimes seen sitting on the fences in dozens, mix with the poultry, and
glean up the scattered grains of Indian corn, seeming almost half domesti-
cated. At such times great numbers are taken in traps. No pains, how-
ever, or regular plan, has ever been persisted in, as far as I was informed,
to domesticate these delicious birds. A Mr. Reed, who lives between the
Pilot Knobs and Bairdstown, told me that, a few years ago, one of his sons
found a grouse’s nest with fifteen eggs, which he brought home, and imme-
diately placed beneath a hen then sitting, taking away her own. The nest
of the grouse was on the ground, under a tussock of long erass, formed
with very little art, and few materials; the eges were brownish white, and
about the size of a pullet’s. In three or four days the whole were hatched.
Instead of following the hen, they compelled her to run after them, distract-
ing her with the extent and diversity of their wanderings ; and it was a day
or two before they seemed to understand her language, or consent to be
guided by her. They were let out to the fields, where they paid little regard
to their nurse; and, in a few days, only three of them remained. These
became extremely tame and familiar, were most expert tlycatchers ; but, soon
after, they also disappeared.”

The Gallinaceous birds are all granivorous, feeding upon the produce of
the various cerealia, grasses, &e., to which may be added roots, berries, and
also insects and their larve; the limbs are formed for terrestrial habits, and
the hind-toe, as a rule, is placed higher upon the tarsus than the plane of
the anterior toes. The wings are mostly rounded, concave, and unfit for
rapid or long-continued flight; though, to this rule, some few species afford
exceptions. Formed for the ground, these birds walk well, and run with
considerable rapidity ; the limbs are muscular; the body is stout and heavy ;
the beak strong and horny, and at its base there is a tough membrane, in
which the nostrils are situated. Most are polygamous, and the females lay
several egos. The young are hatched in a state of considerable forward-
ness, and follow the mother, who broods over them with her wings, and
leads them in search of food (seeds and insects), which they themselves
pick up. Many roost in trees, others on the ground exclusively.

90 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER BREVIPENNES. SHORT-WINGED BIRDS.

Tus order (the Cursores of authors) is composed of but two families —
Struthionide, the Ostriches, and Apterygide, the Kivis. In the first
family there are but five species, the most important of which are the Af-
rican Ostrich (Struthio camelus), the South American Ostrich (/thea
Americana), the Hmeu Dromaius, and the Cassowary (Casuarius emeu).

Of the first-named bird, Gray says, —

“This, the largest of all known birds, inhabits the open plains of Africa,
where it is sometimes observed in large flocks, especially if the herbage and
vegetation are abundant and fresh, as these form their chief food: the great
height of this bird enables it to perceive at a considerable distance over the
tall herbage all objects that may be approaching it. When alarmed, it usu-
ally escapes with a stately gait, and is soon out of sight, though its pace
appears to be but little more than that of walking; and when hard pressed,
it runs with great rapidity by the assistance of the wings. The nest is a
slight hollow scratched in the sand, six feet in diameter, bordered by a shal-
low ring. In this nest are laid, generally by two females, about twenty
eges, while in the outer trench are scattered several more. These are eon-
sidered by the Hottentots as intended for the first food of the young. The
male bird sits on the eggs, and attends to the feeding and care of the young,
till they are able to provide for themselves.” ;

The same author also says of the South American species, the 2. Amer-
teana and R. Darwinti, —

“These birds are found on the plains of South America. They are, says
Mr. Darwin, shy, wary, and solitary, and, although so fleet in their pace,
they fall a prey without much difficulty. They generally prefer running
against the wind, yet on the first start they expand their wings to assist them
in their progress. During the heat of the day they sometimes enter a bed
of tall rushes, where they squat concealed till quite closely approached.
These birds will cross rivers, or pass from island to island, by swimming,
which is performed rather slowly, very little of their bodies appearing above
the water, and their necks extending a little forwards. They feed on vege-
table matter, such as roots and grass; but Mr. Darwin has repeatedly seen
three or four come down at low water to the extensive mud banks, which are
then dry, for the sake of catching small fish. The nest is a shallow excavation,
wherein are placed as many as from twenty-two to seventy, or even eighty,
egos; these are deposited by several females; many eges are, however,
scattered singly over the plains, and thereby become useless. The male

————————

THE EMEU. 91

bird alone collects them, and hatches the eves, and, for some time after-
wards, accompanies the young; at which time, the males are occasionally
fierce, and even dangerous.”

The Cassowary is found in the vast forests of the Molucca Islands and
New Guinea. It lives in pairs, feeding on fruits, herbs, and, occasionally,
on small animals. It runs with rapidity, and defends itself from the attacks
of its enemies by means of its feet. The female deposits three eges on the
bare ground.

The Apterygide, of which there is but one species, the Apterye Aus-
tralis, are found scattered over various parts of New Zealand, especially
those covered with extensive and dense beds of ferns, which afford them a
place of concealment when alarmed. They run with swiftness, and some-
times hide in holes of rocks or hollow trees. Their food is supposed to
consist of snails, insects, and worms, which they are said to seek for during

>

the night; the worms are obtained by the bird beating the earth with its
foot, seizing them with its bill the instant they appear above the ground.
The nest is usually placed at the base of a hollow tree, or in deep holes
excavated in the ground.

The Emu, or Emeu, sometimes called Australian Cassowary, is another
well-known bird. Its food consists of vegetables and seeds, but chiefly of
fruits, roots, and herbage. In a state of nature it is very fleet, and affords
excellent sport in coursing with dogs, which are, however, rather shy of

their game, in consequence of the powerful kicks that the bird can inflict ;

so powerful, that the settlers say it can break the bone of a man’s leg by
striking out with its feet. Well-trained dogs, therefore, to avoid this inflic-
tion, run up abreast, and make a sudden spring at the neck of the bird.
Though the Emeu has bred so frequently in captivity, the mode of making
the nest in the wild state does not appear to be well known, though it is
generally supposed to be a mere hollow excavated in the earth. The dark-
green egos are six or seven in number. The birds appear to be tolerably
constant in pairing, and the male bird sits and hatches the young, while the
female watches and guards the nest. The Emeu can produce a hollow,
drumming note, well known to those who have attended to its habits in cap-
tivity. These birds will, like the Rheas, take to water. Captain Sturt,
when descending the Murrumbidgee, in Australia, saw two of them in the
act of swimming. They appear to be gregarious, and not very shy in some
localities, for Major Mitchell, in his excursions towards Port Philip, found
them very numerous on the open downs, and their curiosity brought them to
stare at the horses of the party, apparently unconscious of the presence of
the riders. In one flock he counted thirty-nine, and they came so near him,
that the traveller, having no rifle with him, fired on them with his pistol.

92 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER GRALLZE. WADING BIRDS.

Iy this order are comprehended, by the present system, the following
families : —

Otidide, the Bustards; Chartdriide, the Plovers; Scolopacide, the
Snipes; Totanide, the Longshanks; Grutde, the Cranes; Ciconidi, the
Storks ; Ardetde, the Herons; Psophidee, the Trumpeters ; Pulamedeide,
the Screamers ; /tadlide, the Rails, and Phanicopteride, the Flamingoes.

Famity Oripip2z. THe Busrarps.

The Bustards, though placed with the Cassowaries and other short-winged
birds by many authors, seem to more properly belong with the Giral/le.
They are found on the open districts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, prefer-
ring plains or wide-spreading, extensive downs, dotted with low bushes and
underwood — localities which give them an opportunity of deserying their
enemy from afar. They are said to fly but rarely, running from danger

p=]

with exceeding swiftness, and using their wings, like the ostriches, to accel-

erate their course. When they do take wing, their flight is low, and they
skim along the ground with a sufficiently rapid and sustained flight. Their
food consists of vegetables, insects, worms, grains, and seeds. They are
polygamous, one male living with many females, which, after fecundation,
live solitary. Temminck says that it would seem that they moult twice a
year, and that the males, in the greatest number of species, differ from the
females in having extraordinary ornaments, and in possessing a more varie-
gated plumage. He further observes that the young males wear the garb
of the female during the first and second years, and adds his suspicion that
the males in winter have the same plumage as the females. Cuvier notices
their massy port, and the slightly-arched and vaulted upper mandible of
their beak, which, with the little webs or palmations between the bases of
their toes, recall the form of the gallinaceous birds; but he adds that the
nudity of the lower part of their legs, all their anatomy, and even the flavor
of their flesh, place them among the Gra//e, and that, as they have no hind
toe, their smallest species approach nearly to the Plovers.

Fawity CHaraprinx. THe PLovers.

The habits of Charadrius, the true Ployers, as given by Gray, will serve
as a type of this group.

These birds are found in most parts of the world. They are usually
observed in small flocks in the neighborhood of the sea-coast, the bays,

THE KILDEER PLOVER. 93

ereeks, and mouths of riyers, especially those that are composed of gravel ;
but, sometimes during the summer months, when they separate in pairs,
they frequent the inland banks of rivers, lakes, and the elevated mountains
or open moors. Their food consists of small insects of various kinds, in
their different states ; also small molluscous animals. These they are actively
seeking for in the evening and the night, but during the day they generally
remain quiet, in a resting posture. Their flight is strong, and performed
with rapidity, but does not generally proceed far at a time, and they some-
times run with great swiftness. Their note is composed of a plaintive
whistle, often repeated. The nest is a slight hollow, lined with a few stems
of dry grass. The eggs are generally four in number, and when they are
hatched, the parents protect the young birds until they are able to fly. If
disturbed by an enemy, they generally run for some distance from the nest,
and then usually pretend that they are unable to fly, tumbling over on the
ground, and feigning lameness.

Of the Plovers, the Golden Plover is well known in both the New and
Old Worlds. The IXildeer Plover is probably as well known as any other
species on this continent.

This species is pretty generally distributed throughout New England as a
summer resident. It is not common in any localities, but seems to be found
in pairs all along our sea-coast ; and, although occasionally breeding in the
interior of these States, in the neighborhood of large tracts of water, it is
almost exclusively found, during the greater part of the year, in moist ficlds
and meadows, and sandy pastures, within a few miles of the sea, Wilson
describes its habits as follows : —

“This restless and noisy bird is known to almost every inhabitant of the
United States, being a common and pretty constant resident. During the
severity of the winter, when snow covers the ground, it retreats to the sea-
shore, where it is found at all seasons ; but no sooner have the rivers opened,
than its shrill note is again heard, either roaming about high in air, tracing
the shore of the river, or running amidst the watery flats and meadows. As
spring advances, it resorts to the newly-ploughed fields, or level plains bare
of grass, interspersed with shallow pools; or,. in the vicinity of the sea,
to dry, bare, sandy fields. In some such situation it generally chooses to
breed, about the beginning of May. The nest is usually slight, a mere hol-
low, with such materials drawn in around it as happen to be near, such as bits
of sticks, straw, pebbles, or earth. In one instance I found the nest of the
bird paved with fragments of clam and oyster shells, and very neatly sur-
rounded with a mound, or border, of the same, placed in a very close and
curious manner. In some cases there is no vestige whatever of a nest.
The eggs are usually four, of a bright rich cream or yellowish-clay color,

NO. XIII. 65

| ES es

94 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

thickly marked with blotches of black. They are large for the size of the
bird, measuring more than an inch and a half in length, anda full inch in
width, tapering to a narrow point at the great end.

“Nothing can exceed the alarm and anxiety of these birds during the
breeding season. Their cries of ki//-deer, kill-deer, as they winnow the
air overhead, dive and course around you, or run along the ground counter-
feiting lameness, are shrill and incessant. The moment they see a person
approach, they fly or run to attack him with their harassing clamor, contin-
uing it over so wide an extent of ground that they puzzle the pursuer as to
the particular spot where the nest or young are concealed, very much resem-
bling, in this respect, the lapwing of Europe. During the evening, and
long after dusk, particularly in moonlight, their cries are frequently heard
with equal violence, both in the spring and fall. From this circumstance,
and their flying about both after dusk and before dawn, it appears probable
that they see better at such times than most of their tribe. They are known
to feed much on worms, and many of these rise to the surface during the
night. The prowling of owls may also alarm their fears for their young at
those hours; but, whatever may be the cause, the facts are so.

“The Killdeer is more abundant in the Southern States in winter than in
summer. Among the rice-fields, and even around the planters’ yards, in
South Carolina, I observed them very numerous in the months of February
and March. There the negro boys frequently practise the barbarous mode
of catching them with a line, at the extremity of which is a crooked pin,
with a worm on it. Their flight is something like that of the tern, but more

vigorous; and they sometimes rise to a great height in the air. They are

fond of wading in pools of water, and frequently bathe themselves during
the summer. Theyusually stand erect on their legs, and run or walk with
the body in a stiff, horizontal position: they run with great swiftness, and
are also strong and vigorous in the wings. Their flesh is eaten by some,
but is not in general esteem; though others say that, in the fall, when they
become very fat, it is excellent.

“During the extreme droughts of summer these birds resort to the gray-
elly channel of brooks and shallow streams, where they can wade about in
search of aquatic insects: at the close of summer, they generally descend
to the sea-shore in small flocks, seldom more than ten or twelve being seen
together. They are then more serene and silent, as well as difficult to be
approached.”

Famity Scotopactp®. THE SNIPEs.

This large and interesting family is generally distributed over both conti-
nents; it contains some of the most valuable game birds, such as the Red-
breasted Snipe, the English or Wilson’s Snipe, the Woodcocks, the Curlews,

ee

WILSON’S SNIPE. 95

the Avosets, the Phalaropes, &e. Of these birds, Wilson’s Snipe, and the
American Woodcock, are most familiar to the people of this continent. The
habitat of the snipe embraces almost the entire continent of America,

The following deseription of the habits of this interesting bird is taken
from the “Ornithology of New England :” —

“This snipe is found in New England only as a spring and autumn vis-
itor, rarely breeding here, but passing the season of incubation in higher
latitudes. It frequents the fresh-water meadows, where it usually lies-con-
cealed during the day, only moving about in dark weather and in the night.

In the spring, while with us, it appears to be pairing; and, although asso-
ciating in small, detached flocks, they are most often found in pairs by them-
selves. It is during this season that the male performs his well-known
gyrations in the air: he ascends to a considerable height, early in the even-
ing, and, almost in the manner of the night-hawk, dives towards the earth,
uttering his bleating ery and peculiar, rumbling sound. This species breeds
sometimes in the northern portions of New England. It forms a loose nest
of grass and a few leaves on the ground, in a bog or wet, swampy thicket ;
and, about the first week in May, the female lays three or four eggs. These
are more pyriform in shape than those of the woodcock, and average about
1.45 by 1.15 inch in dimensions. Their color is an olivaceous drab, marked
with spots of brown, which are, at the greater end, confluent into blotches,
which almost entirely hide the ground color.

“The snipe has been known to breed in Massachusetts ; but the occurrence
is very rare, and can be regarded only as accidental. By the 25th of Au-
gust it returns to the meadows of New England, in small parties of three or
four; but it is not abundant much before the 10th or 15th of September,
and then is not found in great numbers, unless we have had two or three
sharp frosts. The time when sportsmen most expect to find them in num-
bers is after a north-easterly storm, when the wind veers around to the
south-westward. Then the meadows are hunted diligently, and generally
with success. We have bagged twenty-four birds in an afternoon’s shooting,
within ten miles of Boston, and have known that number to be exceeded in
favorable weather. The snipe lies close to the ground when approached ;
and, being a bird of strong scent, as the expression is, is winded to a con-
siderable distance by a good dog. It is easy to imagine the excitement the
sportsman experiences, when, with a good dog, he enters a large meadow, and
sees him suddenly come to a point; when, walking up to the snipe, and flush-
ing it, the report of his gun, as he shoots the bird, startles from their lurking-
places perhaps a dozen others, who fly but a short distance, uttering their
peculiar squeak or scaz¢p, and then alight in the grass, promising him an

abundance of shooting for the day.

96 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

“The snipe, when first flushed, rapidly doubles and twists in a quick, zig-
zag flight, which it continues for several rods, when it takes a more direct

course, almost always against the wind. The sportsman, knowing the habit

of the bird, reserves his fire until it has stopped twisting, when his aim is
generally successful. Sometimes two birds arise at the same time, when it
requires considerable coolness and experience to secure both. I once got
three double shots in succession, securing all six birds; but such an occur-
rence and good luck are rare; and we must be satisfied, in most shooting, to
get but single birds.

“The snipe, like the woodeock, probes in the soft earth for worms and
animalcule, which it feeds upon; it also eats the larvyie of water insects,
and leeches, and occasionally captures grasshoppers and other insects in the
wet grass in which it almost constantly resides. It is very difficult of ap-
proach in cloudy and windy weather; but in warm, bright days in the fall,
it is quiet, and lies until approached quite near. It remains with us until
the ground is frozen in the meadows, when it moves to the Southern States,
where it passes the winter.”

Famity Torantip®. Ture Lonasnangs.

The characteristics of the typical genus Totanus will serve for this family.
These migratory birds are seattered in both hemispheres, especially in the
temperate and northern portions. They are usually seen in pairs, or in
small flocks, on the banks of the lakes and rivers, and sometimes on the
shores of the ocean; but at certain seasons they resort to the moist woods
and marshes for the purpose of rearing their young. Their food is sought
for on the ground, or among the gravel and stones on these shores: it con-

sists of insects, worms, and small molluscous animals, and fish. The nest -

is usually formed ina tuft of grass, or in a slight depression in the earth,
which is lined with dry grass and other vegetable matter. The female usu-
ally deposits four eggs, and if disturbed while incubating, generally flies
around the intruder, uttering, at the same time, a series of shrill notes.

Famity Grouiwe. THe Cranes.

These large birds are usually found on extensive plains, open ground
under cultivation, marshes, or the muddy flats of the sea-shore. They reg-
ularly migrate to the warmer parts of the world during autumn and winter,
but in summer they retire to northern localities to breed. Their flights are
performed during the night in large flocks, generally headed by a leader, who
is followed by the remainder in two diverging lines, flying at a great eleva-
tion, and uttering, during stormy weather, loud cries, which may be dis-
tinctly heard, though the birds are invisible. They find difficulty in rising

Ee

/MPRICAN SEMIPALMATED PLOVI

(A.Semipalmatus )

, AMERICAN SNIPT

AMERICAN BITTERN
S.Wilsoni

(B.Antiéinosus

GREAT BLUE HERON VIRGINIA RAIL
(A Herodias ) (BVireimamus )

Samuel Walker & Co Boston

THE STORKS AND HERONS. 97

from the ground, first flying low and heavily, and after a time rising in the
air spirally to a great height, flying around in large circles, as if reconnoi-
tring the country to a vast extent for new quarters. When wounded, they
possess great courage in defending themselves from the attacks of man, and
ean inflict very severe wounds with their bills. They feed on grain, seeds,
worms, and insects, also small mammals, reptiles, and fish. he nest is
usually raised above the ground, sometimes to the height of the body when
standing, and is composed of grasses and reeds. The eges are generally

5 oD

two in number, and both sexes incubate.

Fairy Crconipz. THE STorkKs.

Mr. Temminck observes that the Storks, as a rule, live in marshes, and
feed principally on reptiles, frogs and their spawn, as well as fishes, small
mammals, and young birds. They are, in all the old countries, where they
oceur, a privileged race on account of their utility, and of the havoe they
make among the noxious animals. Their migration takes place in great
flocks: they are easily tamed. Of these birds, the Common or White Stork
of Europe. is probably the best known. This species is, from long habit,
very tame, approaching the dwellings of man without fear. “In Holland
and Germany, especially, the bird is treated as a welcome guest, and there,
as indeed elsewhere, it annually returns to the nest which has cradled many
generations, on the steeple, on the turret, on the false chimney that the Hol-
lander has erected for its site, im the box, or on the platform which the
German has placed for its use. The stump of a decayed tree is sometimes
chosen by the bird, and the nest is made of sticks and twigs, on which are
laid from three to five cream-colored eggs about the size of those of the
common goose. The incubation continues for about a month, when the
young are hatched; these are carefully attended by the parent birds until
they are fully feathered and able to obtain food for themselves. In the
continental towns domesticated Storks, which have been taken from the
nest when young, may be often seen about the markets, where they are
recognized as scavengers, cleaning the place of fish, entrails, and other
offal, to their own and the citizen’s satisfaction.

There are other species, among which are the Black Stork, the African
Gigantic Stork, or the Marabou.

Famimny Arpeipa. THe Herons.

This very extensive and generally-distributed group embraces the true
Herons, the Eerets, the Bitterns, the Cranes, &e.

These birds, as a rule, frequent the margins of rivers, lakes, or marshes,
feeding on fish, reptiles, and even small mammals. Essentially formed for

95 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS II. AVES.

wading, the legs are very long, and the neck and bill proportionate. In
most species the beak is very sharp pointed; the toes are generally elon-
gated ; the hind toe is fairly applied to the ground. Though in general they
build and breed in societies, they always wander alone ip search of food,
and, after the breeding season, live apart. Many are adorned with elegant
plumes and’ crests; their wings are ample; their flight buoyant.

The picture which Wilson has drawn of the breeding-places of some of the
American herons is worth quoting. The Great Heron, for example, builds «
spacious platform of sticks covered with small twigs, on the top of a tall cedar,
a community of ten or fifteen pairs usually building in company. “ Many of
their breeding-places,” says Wilson, “occur in both Carolinas, chiefly in the
vicinity of the sea. In the lower parts of New Jersey, they have also their
favorite places for building and rearing their young. These are generally in
the gloomy solitudes of the tallest cedar swamps, where, if unmolested, they
continue annually to breed for many years. These swamps are from half a
mile to a mile in breadth, and sometimes five or six in length, and appear as
if they occupied the former channel of some choked-up river, stream, lake,
or arm of the sea. The appearance they present to a stranger is singular:
a front of tall and perfeetly straight trunks, rising to the height of fifty or
sixty feet without a limb, and crowded in every direction, their tops so
closely woven together as to shut out the day, spreading the gloom of a
perpetual twilight below. On a nearer approach they are found to rise out
of the water, which, from the impregnation of the fallen leaves and roots
of the cedars, is of the color of brandy. Amid this bottom of congregated
springs, the ruins of the former forest lie piled in every state of confusion.
The roots, prostrate logs, and, in many places, the water, are covered with
green mantling moss, while an undergrowth of laurel, fifteen or twenty feet
high, intersects every opening so completely, as to render a passage through
laborious and harassing beyond description: at every step you either sink to
the knees, clamber over fallen timber, squeeze yourself through between the
stubborn laurels, or plunge to the middle in ponds made by the uprooting
of large trees, and which the moss concealed from observation. In calm
weather the silence of death reigns in these dreary regions; a few inter-
rupted rays of light shoot across the gloom; and, unless for the occasional
hollow screams of the herons, and the melancholy chirping of one or two
species of small birds, all is silence, solitude, and desolation. When a
breeze rises, at first it sighs mournfully through the tops; but, as the gale
increases, the tall, mast-like cedars wave like fishing-poles, and, rubbing
against each other, produce a variety of singular noises, that, with the help
of a little imagination, resemble shrieks, groans, or the

erowling of beasts
of prey.”

t=

THE NIGHT HERON. 99

Wilson gives a similarly interesting account of the breeding-places of
the Night Heron or Qua Bird, which has been occasionally seen in Europe
as a straggler. “The Night Heron,” he tells us, “arrives in Pennsylvania
vearly in April, and immediately takes possession of his former breeding-
place, which is usually the most solitary and deeply-shaded part of a cedar
swamp. Groves of swamp oak, in retired and inundated places, are also
sometimes chosen; and the males not unfrequently select tall woods on the
banks of a river to roost in during the day. These last regularly direct
their course, about the beginning of evening twilight, towards the marshes,

At this hour, also, all

the nurseries in the swamps are emptied of their inhabitants, who disperse

uttering, in a hoarse and hollow tone, the sound que.

about the marshes, and along the ditches and river shore, in quest of food.
Some of these breeding-places have been occupied, every spring and summer,
for time immemorial, by from eighty to one hundred pairs of Qua Birds. In
places where the cedars have been cut down for sale, the birds have merely
removed to another quarter of the swamp; but when personally attacked,
long teased and plundered, they have been known to remove from an ancient
breeding-place, in a body, no one knew where. Such was the case with one
on the Delaware, near Thompson’s Point, ten or twelve miles below Phila-
delphia, which, having been repeatedly attacked and plundered by a body of
crows, after many severe encounters, the herons finally abandoned the place.
the red cedars on the sea-beach
of Cape May, intermixed with those of the little White Heron, Green Bit-
The nests are built entirely of sticks, in considerable
The eves

(
wie)

Several of these breeding-places occur among

tern, and Blue Heron.
quantities, with frequently three or four nests on the same tree.
are generally four in number, measuring two inches and a quarter in length,
by one and three quarters in thickness, and of a very pale light-blue color.
The ground or marsh below is bespattered with their excrements, lying all
around like whitewash, with feathers, broken ege-shells, old nests, and fre-
quently small fish, which they have dropped by accident, and neglected to
pick up. On entering the swamp in the neighborhood of one of these breed-
ing-places, the noise of the old and the young would almost induce one to
suppose that two or three hundred Indians were choking or throttling each
other. The instant an intruder is discovered, the whole rise in the air in
silence, and remove to the tops of the trees in another part of the woods,
while parties of from eight to tea make occasional circuits over the spot, to
see what is going on. When the young are able, they climb to the highest
part of the ‘trees; but, knowing their inability, do not attempt to fly.
Though it is probable that these nocturnal birds do not see well during the
day, yet their faculty of hearing must be exquisite, as it is almost impossi-
ble, with all the precautions one can use, to penetrate near their residence

100 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

without being discovered. Several species of hawks hover around, making
an occasional swoop among the young; and the bald eagle himself has been
seen reconnvitring near the spot, probably with the same design.”

Famity Psopuipm. THe TruMPerers.

The species of this group are found in the tropical parts of South Amer-
ica, inhabiting the forests, where they search for grain and fruits. They are
usually discovered by their peculiar trumpet-like note, which has procured
for them their local name. “If disturbed, they seck safety by running,
which is performed quickly, and is much assisted by means of expanding
their wings. The nest is on the ground, near the base of a tree. The

>

female deposits two eges.’

Famwity PALAMEDEIDE. Ture SCREAMERS.

These singular birds are contined to Central and South America. The
Chaja (Chauna Chavaria), and the Horned Screamer are the best known.
Of the former bird, D’Azara gives many interesting particulars. Its sharp,
clarion-like cry is exerted not only during the day, but also in the night, if
it hears any noise. The note of the male is expressed by the word ehaja,
and that of the female, by the word chajal?. They are seen sometimes
singly, sometimes in pairs, and, at other times, in numerous flocks. They
ordinarily frequent marshes. They do not swim, but enter the water like
herons, but not, like them, in search of fish or frogs, but for the leaves and
seeds of aquatic plants, on which they subsist.

D’Azara saw them brought up among the domestic poultry at country
houses, and they were as tame as fowls. The Indians of Carthagena rear
them among their geese and other poultry, under the idea that they serve as -
guards, the Chaja being so courageous as to attack and drive away a vul-
ture. The nests are stated to be spacious, and formed of small branches, on
bushes surrounded with water. The eggs are two; the young follow their
parents, though clothed only with down.

Fammty Ratupzz. THe Rats.

In this group are comprehended the Rails proper, the Coots, the Galli-
nules, the Water-hens, Crakes, &c. They are distributed, generally, in both
hemispheres, and their species are numerous and varied. They conceal
themselves among the reeds and grasses in marshy places, and run with great
facility in such localities, preferring to escape in this manner from pursuit,
rather than to take wing. Their food consists of a variety of seeds, small
erustacea, insects, &e. They do not probe in the mud, but pick up their food
from the surface. Some species are very numerous, and when their homes

THE FLAMINGOES. 101

are submerged the birds are shot by gunners, to whom they furnish excellent
sport, and by epicures are esteemed as most delicious food. Of these birds,
the Sora Rail of America is a good example. Of the Coots, or Mud-hens,
the habits of the American Coot will serve as an example. Wilson describes
its general habits in the following language : —

“This species makes its appearance in Pennsylvania about the first of Oc-
tober. Among the muddy flats and islands of the River Delaware, which
are periodically overflowed, and which are overgrown with the reed, or wild
oats and rushes, the Coots are found. They are not numerous, and are sel-
dom seen, except their places of resort be covered with water; in that case,
they are generally found sitting on the fallen reeds, waiting for the ebb of the |
tide, which will enable them to feed. Their food consists of various aquatic
plants, seeds, insects, and, it is said, small fish. The Coot has an aversion
to take wing, and can seldom be sprung in its retreat at low water; for,
although it walks rather awkwardly, yet it contrives to skulk through the
grass and reeds with great speed, the compressed form of its body, like that
of the Rail genus, being well adapted to that purpose. It swims remarka- | |
bly well; and, when wounded, will dive like a duck. When closely pur-
sued in the water, it generally takes to the shore, rising, with apparent |
reluctance, like a wounded duck, and fluttering along the surface, with its
feet pattering on the water. It is known in Pennsylvania by the name of
the Mud-hen.”

Famitry Puanicorprertn®. THe FLAMINGOES.

The Phenicopteride include a single genus, Phenicopterus. The posi- |
tion of these birds, in the systems of ornithologists, has been a doubtful |
one, some placing them with the swimmers, others with different groups of
the Gralle : the present position seems the most natural one.

Temminck, in giving the habits of these birds, says that they live on the
sea-beach, or in marshes formed by salt lakes, where their food consists of
testaceous mollusks, marine insects, and the spawn of fish, which they col-
lect by plunging their long neck into the water, and turning the head upside
down, so as to employ with greater advantage the bend of their bil. They
join in large troops, and live in societies. Their nest is made in the marshes,
and consists of earth piled up; upon this nest the birds sit astride, because
their length of limb hinders them from incubating otherwise. Whether
they are reposing or fishing, sentinels are appointed, which keep a sort of
enard. If anything alarms the sentinel, he utters a trumpeting ery, and
all the birds of the flock follow him into the air. They rarely take their
repose in any other than open places ; and it is asserted that their sense of |
smelling is so acute, that they can scent from afar the hunter and fire-arms. |

NO. XIV. 66 |

i ee ee

102 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER LAMELLIROSTRES. GEESE, DUCKS, AND
MERGANSERS.

Tus very large, widely-distributed, and extremely-varied group, com-
prehends some of the most valuable birds which have been used for the
support of man.

In the family Anatid@ are comprehended all the Geese and Ducks of the
world, and in the Mergid » are placed the Sheldrakes and Mergansers.

Famiry ANATIDEA. GEESE anp Ducks.

Of the ducks, the Mallard and Eider Ducks are well known in both hem-
ispheres ; and the far-famed Canyas-back Duck is known to almost every
inhabitant of the United States.

Wilson’s account of the last-named species is one of the most interesting
that we have met with. He says, —

“The Canvas-back Duck arrives in the United States, from the north,
about the middle of October; a few descend to the Hudson and Delaware ;
but the great body of these birds resort to the numerous rivers belonging to,
and in the neighborhood of, the Chesapeake Bay, particularly the Susque-
hanna, the Patapseo, Potomac, and James Rivers, which appear to be their
general winter rendezvous. Beyond this, to the south, I can find no certain
accounts of them. At the Susquehanna, they are called Canvas-backs ; on
the Potomac, White-backs; and on James River, Sheldrakes. They are
seldom found at a great distance up any of these rivers, or even in the salt-
water bay, but in that particular part of tide-water where a certain grass-
like plant grows, on the roots of which they feed. This plant, which is
said to be a species of Vallésneria, grows on fresh-water shoals of from
seven to nine feet (but never where these are occasionally dry), in long,
narrow, grass-like blades, of four or five feet in length: the root is white,
and has some resemblance to small celery. This grass is in many places so
thick that a boat ean with difficulty be rowed through it, it so impedes the
oars. The shores are lined with large quantities of it, torn up by the ducks
and drifted up by the winds, lying, like hay, in windrows. Wherever this
plant grows in abundance, the Canvas-backs may be expected, either to pay
occasional visits, or to make it their regular residence during the winter.
It occurs in some parts of the Hudson; in the Delaware, near Gloucester,
a few miles below Philadelphia, and in most of the rivers that fall into the
Chesapeake, to each of which particular places these ducks resort ; while,
in waters unprovided with this nutritive plant, they are altogether unknown,

THE CANVAS-BACK DUCK. 103

“On the first arrival of these birds in the Susquehanna, near Havre de
Grace, they are generally lean; but such is the abundance of their favorite
food, that, towards the beginning of November, they are in pretty good

order. They are excellent divers, and swim with great speed and agility.

‘
They sometimes assemble in such multitudes as to cover several acres of the
river, and, when they rise suddenly, produce a noise resembling thunder.
They float about these shoals, diving and tearing up the grass by the roots,
which is the only part they eat. They are extremely shy, and can rarely be
approached, unless by stratagem. When wounded in the wing, they dive
to such prodigious distances, and with such rapidity, continuing it so perse-
ror, as almost always to render

oO
r=)

veringly, and with such cunning and active vi
the pursuit hopeless. From the great demand for these ducks, and the high
price they uniformly bring in market, various modes are practised to get
within gunshot of them. The most successful way is said to be by decoying
them to the shore by means of a dog, while the gunner lies closely concealed
in a proper situation. The dog, if properly trained, plays backwards and
forwards along the margin of the water; and the ducks, observing his
manceuvres, enticed perhaps by curiosity, gradually approach the shore, until
they are sometimes within twenty or thirty yards of the spot where the gun-
ner lies concealed, and from which he rakes them, first on the water, and
then as they rise. This method is called tolling them in. If the ducks
seem difficult to decoy, any glaring object, such as a red handkerchief, is
fixed round the dog’s middle or to his tail; and this rarely fails to attract
them. Sometimes, by moonlight, the sportsman directs his skiff towards
a flock, whose position he had’ previously ascertained, keeping within the
projecting shadow of some wood, bank, or headland, and paddles along so
silently and imperceptibly as often to approach within fifteen or twenty yards

generally makes great

of a flock of many thousands, among whom he g

slaughter.

“Many other stratagems are practised, and, indeed, every plan that the
ingenuity of the experienced sportsman can suggest, to approach within
gunshot of these birds; but, of all the modes pursued, none intimidate them
so much as shooting them by night; and they soon abandon the place where
they have been thus repeatedly shot at. During the day they are dispersed
about, but towards evening, collect in large flocks, and come into the mouths
of creeks, where they often ride, as at anchor, with their head under their
wing, asleep, there being always sentinels awake, ready to raise an alarm on
the least appearance of danger. Even when feeding and diving in small
parties, the whole never go down at one time, but some are still left above
on the lookout.

“When the winter sets in severely, and the river is frozen, the Canyas-

104 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS II. AVES.

backs retreat to its confluence with the bay; occasionally frequenting air-
holes in the ice, which are sometimes made for the purpose, immediately
above their favorite grass, to entice them within gunshot of the hut or bush,

gunner lies con-

which is usually fixed at a proper distance, and where the
cealed, ready to take advantage of their distress. A Mr. Hill, who lives
near James River, at a place called Herring Creck, informs me that, one
severe winter, he and another person broke a hole in the ice, about twenty
by forty feet, immediately over a shoal of grass, and took their stand on the
shore in a hut of brash, each having three guns well loaded with large shot.
The ducks, which were flying up and down the river, in great extremity,
soon crowded to this place, so that the whole open space was not only coy-
ered with them, but vast numbers stood on the ice around it. They had
three rounds, firing both at once, and picked up eighty-eight Canvas-backs,
and might have collected more, had they been able to get to the extremity
of the ice after the wounded ones. In the severe winter of 1779-80, the
grass, on the roots of which these birds feed, was almost wholly destroyed
in James River. In the month of January the wind continued to blow
fron W.N.W. for twenty-one days, which caused such low tides in the
river that the grass froze to the ice everywhere; and a thaw coming on
suddenly, the whole was raised by the roots, and carried off by the freshet.
The next winter a few cf these ducks were seen, but they soon went away
again, and for many years after they continued to be scarce; and, even
to the present day, in the opinion of my informant, have never been so
plenty as before.”

Of the Eider Duck and its habits, the following account will give a good
idea 7 —

“Its native country extends from about 45° north to the highest arctic
latitudes hitherto explored, both in Europe and America, —the Farn Isles,
off the coast of Northumberland, and the rocky islets beyond Portland, in
the district of Maine, being the southern boundary of their breeding-places ;
but they are only very plentiful in Behrine’s Straits, Labrador, Greenland,
Teeland, and other arctic regions. Selby, however, thinks that they might
be greatly increased in the Farn Islands by proper attention.

“According to M. T. Brunnich, who wrote an express treatise on the
natural history of the Eider Duck, their first object, after pairing, is to pro-
cure a suitable place for their nest, preferring the shelter of a juniper bush,
where it can be had, and where there is no juniper, contenting themselves
with tufts of sea-grass, bundles of sea-weed cast up by the tide, the crevices
of rocks, or any hollow place which they can find. Some of the Icelandic
proprietors of breeding-grounds, in order to accommodate them, cut out
holes in rows on the smooth, sloping banks, where they would not otherwise

THE EIDER DUCK. 105

build, but of which they gladly take possession when thus scooped out. It
is not a little remarkable that, like several other sea-birds, they almost always
select small islands, their nests being seldom, if ever, found on the shores
of the mainland, or even of a large island. The Icelanders are so weil
aware of this, that they have expended a great deal of labor in actually
forming islands, by separating from the main island certain promontories
joined to it by narrow isthmuses.

“Both the male and the female Eider Ducks work in concert in building
their nest, laying a rather coarse foundation of drift grass, dry tangle, and
sea-weed, which is collected in some quantity. Upon this rough mattress
the female Eider spreads a bed of the finest down, plucked from her own
breast, and by no means sparingly, but, as Brunnich informs us, heaping it
up, so as to form a thick, puffed roll quite round the nest. When she is
compelled to go in quest of food, after beginning to sit, she carefully turns
this marginal roll of down oyer the eggs to keep them warm till her return.
Martens says she mixes the down with moss, but, as this is not recorded by
any other observer, we think it is not a little doubtful, particularly as in the
places chosen for nestling she would find it no easy matter to procure moss.
It is worthy of remark that, though the Eider Duck lays only five or six
eggs, ‘it is not uncommon to find more than even ten and upwards in the
same nest occupied by two females which live together in concord.’

“The quantity of down in each nest is said, by Van Troil, to be about
half a pound, which, by cleaning, is reduced one half. By Pennant, who
examined the Kider’s nest in the Farn Islands, off Northumberland, it ts
only estimated, when cleaned, at three quarters of an ounce, and this was
so elastic as to fill the crown of the largest hat. The difference of quantity
in these two accounts, theoretically ascribed by the translators of Buffon to
difference of climate, may have arisen from the one being the first, and the
other the second or third nest of the mother duck; for if the first nest be
plundered of its down, though she immediately builds a second, she cannot
furnish it with the same quantity as before; and, if forced to build a third
time, having then stripped her breast of all she could spare, the male is said
to furnish what is wanting, which is recognized as being considerably whiter
than the female’s. When the nest is not robbed, it is said that he furnishes
none.

“The down taken from the nests becomes a valuable article of commerce,
being sold, when cleaned, for three rix-dollars (twelve shillings) a pound. In
1750, the Icelandic company sold down amounting in value to about 8507.,
besides what was sent directly to Gluckstadt. Little or none of it is used
in the country where it is found. In that rough climate, as Buffon remarks,
the hardy hunter, clothed in a bearskin cloak, enjoys in his solitary hut a

106 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

peaceful, perhaps a profound sleep, while, in polished nations, the man of
ambition, stretched upon a bed of Kider-down, and under a gilded roof,
seeks in vain to procure the sweets of repose.”

Of the geese, the Wild or Canada Goose of America is a good example.

This well-known bird passes through or over New England in the spring
and autumn migrations, appearing in the former about the first week in
April, and passing in flocks until the tenth of that month. In the autumn,
it returns as early as the last week in September; and from then until the
first of December, and even later, it passes in flocks in its southern migra-
tions. The Wild Goose, as the rule, breeds in the most northern portions
of the continent: it sometimes passes the season of incubation in the limits
of the United States; but the occurrences are very few of its having been
found to remain in New England. The nest is located in some retired place,
not far from the water, generally among the thickest grass, and not un-
frequently under a bush. It is carelessly formed of dry plants of various
kinds, and is of a large size, flat, and raised to the height of several inches.
The eggs are usually about six in number: they average three and a half

oo

inches by two and a half, are thick-shelled, rather smooth, and of a very
dull yellowish-green color. The pericd of incubation is twenty-eight days.
Wilson says of this bird, —

“Their first arrival on the coast of New Jersey is early in October; and
their first numerous appearance is the sure prognostic of severe weather.
Those which continue all winter frequent the shallow bays and marsh islands,
their principal food being the broad, tender, green leaves of a marine plant,
which grows on stones and shells, and is usually called sea-cabbage ; and

also the roots of the sedge, which they are frequently observed in the act -

of tearing up. Every few days they make an excursion to the inlets on the
beach for gravel. They cross, indiscriminately, over land and water, een-
erally taking the nearest course to their object, differing, in this respect,
from the brant, which will often go a great way round by water, rather than
cross oyer the land. They swim well; and, if wing-broken, dive, and go
a long way under water, causing the sportsman a great deal of fatigue be-
fore he can kill them. Except in very calm weather, they rarely sleep on
the water, but roost all night in the marshes. When the shallow bays are
frozen, they seek the mouths of inlets near the sea, occasionally visiting the
air-holes in the ice; but these bays are seldom so completely frozen as to
prevent them from feeding on the bars.

“The flight of the Wild Geese is heavy and laborious, generally in a
straight line, or in two lines, approximating to a point, thus, >; in both
vases, the van is led by an old gander, who, every now and then, pipes his
well-known honk, as if to ask how they come on; and the honk of ‘ All's

THE MERGANSERS. 107

well’ is generally returned by some of the party. Their course is in a
straight line, with the exception of the undulations of* their flight. When
bewildered in foggy weather, they appear sometimes to be in great distress,
flying about in an irregular manner, and for a considerable time over the
same quarter, making a great clamor. On these occasions, should they
approach the earth and alight (which they sometimes do, to rest and re-col-
lect themselves), the only hospitality they meet with is death and destruc-
tion from a whole neighborhood, already in arms for their ruin.”

Famity Mercipz. MERGANSERS.

The Hooded Merganser is one of the most interesting of these birds.
This beautiful bird, though found in the whole of our continent, is less com-
mon than either of the other mergansers on our coast, and in our bays and
inlets, in autumn, winter, and early spring. In the summer, it resides in
the interior, where it breeds by the lakes and other bodies of fresh water,
building its nest in holes in high, dead trees, or on the tops of stubs, thirty
or forty feet from the ground, exactly like the sheldrake. The eggs are
from nine, to twelve or fourteen in number, usually about ten. They are
of a clear-white color, although their surface is, in some specimens, stained
by the moisture from the feet cf the bird.

When the nest of this species is approached, the female remains quiet,
and flies off only when alarmed by blows on the trunk of the tree on which
her nest is built. She then flies silently, and alights in the lake, near which
the nest is usually built, and watches the intruder from a safe distance, with-
out making any outcries or disturbance. If the tree is surrounded by un-
dererowth so thick that she cannot see the intruder from the water, she flies
silently over and around him, always at a safe distance. The male never
shows himself on such occasions; and we think it likely that he separates
from his mate at the commencement of the period of incubation, and re-
mains by himself until the young are able to provide for themselves.

When living in the neighborhood of fresh water, this bird has many of
the habits of the other mergansers, and then feeds on aquatic insects and their
larve, and is an expert fisher and diver.

When the female is suddenly surprised, while with her young in a stream
or pond, she gives a guttural, chattering ery, when the whole brood dives,
and swims off under water to the shore, where they conceal themselves in
the aquatic herbage. This species, in passing with its young from one body
of water to another, often, while flying, carries them singly in its mouth ; and
we have been told that, even after it has been shot, and has fallen to the
ground, it not unfrequently holds the chick. The female of the summer
duck often encroaches on the nest of this Merganser.

108 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES,

ORDER STEGANOPODES. PELICANS, GANNETS, AND
BOOBIES.

Tis group is also varied, and widely distributed in both hemispheres.

Famity Pevicanrip®. Tur Penicans.

In this family are comprehended the Phaétonine, or Tropic Birds; the
Plotinw, or Darters; the Pelicans, Gannets, and Cormorants.

The true Pelicans are large and heavy birds, with a great extent of wing,
and are excellent swimmers. Their expansive pouch, whose elasticity is
well known to all who have witnessed the shapes into which it is stretched
and formed in museums, will hold a considerable number of fish, and thus
enables the bird to dispose of the superfluous quantity which may be taken
during fishing expeditions, either for its own consumption, or for the nourish-
ment of its young. In feeding the nestlings (and the male is said to supply
the wants of the female in the same manner), the under mandible is pressed
against the neck and breast to assist the bird in disgorging the contents of
the capacious pouch.

The neighborhood of rivers, lakes, and the sea-coasts are the haunts of
the Pelicans, and they are gregarious to a great extent. Their food con-
sists entirely of fishes, which they capture with great dexterity, generally in
shallow inlets. They do not dive, but they often dash, from a great height,
on the wing, upon a fish, with such velocity that they become submerged,
though their buoyancy brings them instantly to the surface again. Although
they perch on trees, they generally seem to prefer rocky shores. The nest,
commonly formed of coarse, reedy grass, with a lining of grass of a softer
quality, is large, and made upon the ground. The eggs, which are white,
are usually two in number. They are found abundantly in both hemi-
spheres.

The Cormorants exist abundantly in all parts of the globe. They are
mostly found on the sea-coast, breeding on rocky ledges, difficult of access,
and also on trees. They are exceedingly expert in catching fish, being very
active in the water, and capable of remaining under its surface for a great.
leneth of time.

The Gannets, whose habits resemble those of the pelicans, usually fre-
quent almost inaccessible rocky islands, where they congregate in great
numbers during the season of reproduction, at other times migrating along
the coast. Their flight is rapid, powerful, and long-continued.

The common Gannet is a well-known species in this country. This bird

GANNETS. 109

is quite common on our coast in the autumn and spring, and through the
greater part of the winter. Audubon, in describing its breeding habits,
says, —

“ The newly-finished nest of this bird is fully two feet high, and quite as
broad externally. It is composed of sea-weeds and maritime grasses, the

former being, at times, brought from considerable distances. Thus, the

e
2
Gannets breeding on the rocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence carry weeds
from the Magdalene Islands, which are about thirty miles distant. The
grasses are pulled or dug up from the surface of the breeding-place itself,
often in great clods, consisting of roots and earth, and leaving holes not
unlike the entrances to the burrows of the puffin. The nests, like those of
the cormorants, are enlarged or repaired annually. The single ego, of a
rather elongated oval form, averages 375 inches in leneth, by 2 inches in
its greatest breadth; and is covered with an irregular, roughish coating of
white caleareous matter, which, on being scraped off, leaves exposed the pale
ereenish-blue tint of the under surface.”

The Gannet breeds in almost incredible numbers on some of the rocky
islands near the coast of Labrador. When the breeding season is over, it
wanders as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. Its mode of flight is power-
ful, and, at times, graceful. Its food consists of fish, principally herrings ;
these are obtained by plunging from on high, often remaining under water
for a minute or more at a time.

The Darters, or Snake Birds, are among the most interesting of this

group. Buffon, in describing one of them, says,

“The Arhinza offers us a reptile grafted on the body of a bird.” Those
who have seen the long neck, and that only issuing from the water, twisting
about among the herbage, and among the foliage, say that the casual observer
might well take it for a snake. Vaillant states that the neck of the species
seen by. him in Africa was always in oscillation when the bird was perched ;
and that any one, who saw its tortuous movements among the foliage, the
body being concealed, would take it for one of the tree-serpents.

Le Vaillant describes them as diving for fish; when they caught a small
one, it was swallowed whole; when they captured a large one, it was car-
ried to a rock, or the trunk of a tree, and the bird, fixing it beneath its feet,
picked it to pieces with its bill. Though the water is their favorite clement,
it is upon rocks or trees that they establish their nests, and bring up their
young, taking care that they may be easily precipitated into the river as
soon as they are able to swim, or whenever the safety of the little family
requires it.

The habits of the species of America are similar to those of the Old
World birds.

NO. XIV. 67

110 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

ORDER LONGIPENNES. LONG-WINGED BIRDS.

Tus group, though not one of the largest, is, nevertheless, quite inter-
esting. It consists of the two families, Laride, the Gulls, and Procellari-
die, the Petrels.

Famity Procettarip&®. Tur ALBATROSSES AND PETRELS.

The common Albatross is the largest sea-bird known: it is often met
with in the southern seas. Its food, as with the others, consists of fish,
which it has been known to eat to the extent of five pounds at a meal.
“These birds do not confine themselves entirely to fish, but will prey on
other sea-animals. The Kamtschatkadales take them by fastening a cord to
a large hook, baited with a whole fish, which the birds greedily seize.”

Of the Petrels, the Stormy Petrel is the most interesting. The power
of wing of this bird is so great that it is enabled to sweep over the ocean, at
every distance from land, and even to weather the most tempestuous winds,
while, with its webbed feet and light form, it can actually walk upon the
billows with as much ease as a sparrow can hop alone a garden walk. “It
is, indeed, an interesting sight,” says Wilson, “to observe these little birds,
in a gale, coursing over the waves, down the declivities, and up the ascents
of the foaming surf that threatens to burst over their heads, sweeping along
the hollow troughs of the sea, as in a sheitered valley, and again mounting
with the rising billow, and just above its surface occasionally dropping their
feet, which, striking the water, throw them up again with additional force,
sometimes leaping, with both legs parallel, on the surface of the roughest
wayes for several yards at a time. Meanwhile they continue coursing from
side to side of the ship’s wake, making excursions far and wide to the right
and to the left, now a great way ahead, and now shooting astern for several
hundred yards, returning again to the ship as if she were all the while sta-
tionary, though perhaps running at the rate of ten knots an hour. But the
most singular peculiarity of this bird is its faculty of standing, and even
running, on the surface of the water, which it performs with apparent
facility. When any greasy matter is thrown overboard, these birds in-
stantly collect around it, facing to windward, with their long wings
expanded, and their webbed feet patting the water. The lightness of their
bodies, and the action of the wind on their wings, enable them with ease to
assume this position. In calm weather they perform the same manouvre
by keeping their wings just so much in action as to prevent their feet from
sinking below the surface.”

a

THE PETRELS. reg

“There are,” says the same writer in another place, “few persons who
have crossed the Atlantic that have not observed these solitary wanderers
of the deep, skimming along the surface of the wild and wasteful ocean ;

flitting past the vessel like swallows, or following in her wake, leaning their

6
scanty pittance of food from the rough and whirling surges. Habited in
mourning, and making their appearance generally in greater numbers pre-
vious to, or during, a storm, they have long been fearfully regarded by the
ignorant and superstitious not only as the foreboding messengers of tempests
and dangers to the hapless mariner, but as wicked agents, connected, some-
how or other, in creating them. ‘Nobody,’ say they, ‘can tell anything of
where they come from, or how they breed, though (as sailors sometimes
say) it is supposed that they hatch their eggs under their wings as they sit
on the water.’ This mysterious uncertainty of their origin, and the circum-
stances above recited, have doubtless given rise to the opinion, so prevalent
among this class of men, that they are in some way or other connected with
the prince of the power of the air. In every country where they are known,
their names have borne some affinity to this belief. They have been called
Witches, Stormy Petrels, the Devil’s Birds, and Mother Cary’s Chickens, *
probably from some celebrated ideal hag of that name; and their unex-
pected and numerous appearance has frequently thrown a momentary damp
over the minds of the hardiest seamen. It is the business of the naturalist,
and the glory of philosophy, to examine into the reality of these things, to
dissipate the clouds of error and superstition wherever they darken and be-
wilder the human understanding, and to illustrate nature with the radiance
of truth.”

When we inquire, accordingly, into the unvarnished history of this omi-
nous bird, we find that it is by no means peculiar in presaging storms, for
many others, of very different families, are evidently endowed with an
equally nice perception of a change in the atmosphere. Hence it is that,
before rain, swallows are seen more eagerly hawking for flies, and ducks
carefully trimming their feathers, and tossing up water over their backs to
try whether it will run off again without wetting them. But it would be as
absurd to accuse the swallows and ducks on that account of being the cause
of rain, as to impute a tempest to the spiteful malice of the poor Petrels.
Seamen ought rather to be thankful to them for the warning which their
delicate feelings of aerial change enable them to give of an approaching
hurricane.

“As well,” says Wilson, “might they curse the midnight lighthouse, that,
star-like, guides them on their watery way, or the buoy that warns them of

* This name seems to have been originally given them by Captain Carteret’s sailors, who
met with these birds on the coast of Chili.

112 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

the sunken rocks below, as this harmless wanderer, whose manner informs
them of the approach of the storm, and thereby enables them to prepare
for it.” The Petrels are nocturnal birds. When, therefore, they are seen
flying about and feeding by day, the fact appears to indicate that they have
been driven from their usual quarters by a storm; and hence, perhaps, arose
the association of the bird with the tempest. Though the Petrels venture
to wing their way over the wide ocean as fearlessly as our swallows do over
a mill-pond, they are not, therefore, the less sensible to danger; and, as if
feelingly aware of their own weakness, they make all haste to the nearest
shelter. When they cannot then find an island or rock to shield them from
the blast, they fly towards the first ship they can desery, crowd into her
wake, and even close under the stern, heedless of the rushing surge, so that
they can keep the vessel between them and the unbroken sweep of the wind.

Faumy Lartpz. Guys, Skuas, AND TERNS.

The Gulls proper frequent the shores of the ocean, but often wander to
great distances from land ; they are incapable of diving, but swim buoyantly.
Their food consists principally of fish and crustacea ; but some of the larger
species feed occasionally on the flesh of cetaccous animals, and devour the
young and eggs of some species of sea-birds. These birds vary much in
size, some being quite small, while others rank among the largest of marine
birds. They are not peculiar to any region, but are found abundantly over
the world. They congregate in great numbers on the sand-bars at the
entrance of inlets and large bays. In winter they migrate in search of
food, frequenting harbors, and ascending rivers.

Nearly resembling the Gulls proper are the Skua-gulls, or Jwgers.

These hardy birds inhabit the high latitudes of both hemispheres. There
are four arctic species, found both in Europe and North America. They are
piratical in their habits, appearing to derive their subsistence mainly from
the labors of others. They chase and harass various species of gulls, com-
pelling them to disgorge a portion of their food, which they dart after, and
seize before it reaches the water.

The Terns are mostly found on the sea-coast and neighboring bays, ocea-
sionally on rivers and lakes; they assemble in large numbers on the sand-
bars and points at the mouths of inlets, are much on the wing, and are
remarkable for their buoyant and easy flight. Their food consists of small
fishes and crustacea, which they obtain by hovering over and suddenly dart-
ing down upon. Although they thus seize their prey while in the water,
they only occasionally swim or rest upon its surface. These birds are so-
ciable in their habits, congregating in large communities in the breeding
season, and nesting near each other on the ground.

SHORT-WINGED BIRDS. 113

ORDER PYGOPODES. SHORT-WINGED BIRDS.

Tuer four families which are comprehended in this group are distributed
throughout all portions of the globe. Our limits will not permit us to
review them in detail, and we will glance at but few of the most interesting.

Fammty Popiciripze. THE Grebes.

These birds are found in salt as well as fresh-water rivers, are excellent
swimmers, and dive frequently. They feed on small fishes, frogs, crusta-
ceans, and insects, and their nests, formed of a large quantity of grass and
weeds, are generally placed among reeds and carices, and rise and fall with
the water. The plumage is very soft, and, on the under surface, silky :
they are remarkably active on the water, and when alarmed remain below
the surface, exposing only the bill.

The following account of the habits of the Red-billed Grebe (Podylim-
bus podiceps), is sent us by a friend in Wisconsin: “ This bird breeds abun-
dantly in Pewaukee Lake, and, I presume, throughout Wisconsin. It
nests about the middle of May, in rushes of the former year’s growth, and
in water from one to two fect deep. In such situations, the old rushes, that
have fallen down into the water, are pulled together, and continually piled
upon each other, until the fabric rises above the water; the nest is then
formed of moss and weeds gathered from the bottom. It is raised but
little, and is always wet, except when the water has fallen, and left the nest
higher than it was originally built. It appears like a circular mass of weeds
and moss floating on the water, or, when filled with eggs, carefully covered,
like a floating ball; but it does not really float, as the foundation rests more
or less upon the bottom. By pressing on the nest with the hand, it can
generally be easily sunk. The eggs (four or five in number) are white at
first, but soon get stained by contact with the wet nest. When left, they
are carefully covered by the bird. It is surprising how quick and effectu-
ally the eggs are covered if the nest is approached, the bird always getting
away without being seen. I have examined more than twenty nests this
summer, both with and without eggs; in some cases, on examining the
bottom, near the empty nests, I was able to find the eggs that had rolled
out and sunk. All of the nests were alike (always in one or two feet of
water), and constructed of rushes (the foundation), never of grass, weeds,
or flag, which were as plenty, and would seem equally as appropriate mate-
rials. The bird is very shy during the breeding season, keeping out of sight
among the weeds and rushes.”

114 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS II. AVES.

Famity Cotympip. Tue Loons anp Divers.

These birds excel all others in diving, and their powers of swimming, and
their endurance while submerged, are wonderful: their food consists of fish,
which they pursue and capture while beneath the water. They frequent the
fresh and salt water, and breed in the high latitudes. They nest on the
ground, usually on some small island, and lay two or three eggs, which are
not large for the size of the bird. Most species perform migrations, while
one or two remain in northern localities through the winter.

Famity Autcipm. Tne Aus, GuILLEemots, AND Purrrys.

These birds are strictly oceanic birds, scarcely ever leaving the water,
except for the purposes of incubation. They breed in communities in cav-
erns and on rocky cliffs, laying one, two, or three large egos. Some species
dig burrows for the purpose of nesting, and others are said to oceupy the
burrows of rabbits and ‘other small mammals. Their food, which they
obtain by diving (an operation in which they are materially assisted by their
wines, as well as by their feet), consists of small fishes, crustaceans, and
other marine animals. The young are said to be fed from the crops of their
parents, not only before they are able to leave the place of their birth, but
also for some time afterwards. The breeding-places of these birds are fre-
quently visited by eggers and fishermen, and the numbers of eggs, and the
umount of feathers which they obtain, is surprisingly large.

Faminry APTenopyTip.&. THe PEencurns.

In these birds the wing is almost wanting, being merely rudimentary :
they seem to replace, in the southern hemisphere, the auks, which occur in
the northern, They associate in immense numbers, and their breeding-
places cover acres in extent. Sir John Narborough says of the Patagonian
Penguins, that their erect attitude, and their bluish-black backs, contrasted
with their white bellies, might cause them to be taken at a distance for
young children with white bibs. The -towns of these birds at the Falkland
Islands have attracted particular attention. Sonie of these assemblies are
described as giving a dreary, not to say awful, impression of the desolation
of the place, and the utter absence of the human race. In some of the
towns it is stated there is a general stillness, and when intruders walk among
the feathered population, they are regarded with sidelong glances, but seem
to carry no terror with them. In many places the shores are covered with
them, and hundreds haye been taken in an hour. The females hatch the
eges by keeping them close between their thighs; and if approached during
incubation, are said to move away, carrying their eggs with them.

Plate XXVI.

i RUFF
WHITE STORK

THE COMMON COO'sS LOXMMON GALLINULE

BOSTON, SAMUEL WALKER & CO,

REPTILIA. 5

CLASS III. REPTILIA.

We have now arrived at a class of animals, in the production of which
nature has seemed to deviate from her usual plan of beauty and utility, as
all the orders, comprising the series, with the exception of the first, are
calculated to create in man feelings of the deepest disgust, aversion, and
often terror. The grotesque forms, in which ugliness and deformity mani-
fest themselves in multifarious variety, the utter uselessness of all, save the
exception just named, and the venomous and dangerous character of many,
have caused them in all ages to be regarded by man as symbols of moral
degradation and types of all evil. We instinctively shrink from contact
with them, and start with a shudder when one is suddenly and unexpectedly
revealed to our sight. It is difficult to define or describe that emotion of
dread which one experiences when the cold and slimy snake glides along at
his feet, with its forked tongue and menacing hiss. Even the touch of the
harmless toad will produce sensations of the most disagreeable character,

The animals of this class have the heart so constructed, that at its several
contractions it sends only a portion of the blood into the lungs, the re-
mainder returning into the general circulation without being subjected to
respiration. “As respiration imparts warmth to the blood, reptiles are con-
sequently cold-blooded, and their aggregate muscular energy is less than in
the mammalia, and much Jess than in birds. Wence their meyements ean
scarcely be performed otherwise than by crawling or swimming ; and though
several of them leap and run with celerity on certain occasions, their habits
are generally sluggish, their digestion excessively slow, their sensations ob-
tuse, and, in cold or temperate climates, they pass nearly the whole winter
in a state of lethargy. Their proportionally very diminutive brain is less
necessary than in the two preceding classes for the exercise of their animal
and vital functions ; their sensations seem to be less referable to a common
centre; they contrive to live and to execute voluntary movements for a con-
siderable time after having been deprived of the brain, and even when the
head is severed. Their heart pulsates for many hours after it has been
detached, and its loss does not deprive the body of mobility for a still longer
period. The smallness of the pulmonary vessels enables them to suspend
respiration without arresting the course of the blood, and thus to remain
submerged for a longer time than mammalia or birds.”

As the amount of respiration in this class is not fixed, as in the mammalia
and birds, but varies according to the relative proportion of the diameter of
the pulmonary artery, as compared with that of the aorta, some respire

116 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

much more than others. Thus, in the tortoises and lizards, respiration is
the most full and perfect. In the frogs it is much Jess. Following this
fact, and comparing the extent of respiration with their organs of move-
ment, M. Brougniart has divided them into four orders, as follows: The
Chelonians, or Turtles and Tortoises; the Saurtans, or Lizards; the
Ophidians, or Serpents; and the Latrachians, or Frogs.

ORDER I. CIHELONIA (The Turtles and Tortoises).

The Chelonians have a heart with two auricles, and a ventricle with two
unequal chambers, which communicate together. The blood from the body
enters the right auricle, and that from the lung the left, but the two streams
mingle more or less in passing through the ventricle. These reptiles are distin-
euished by having the body enclosed between two shields or shells, so that
the head, neck, legs, and tail only appear externally ; and these are capable
of being retracted in a greater or less degree. The upper shell is formed
hy the ribs, which are enlarged, flattened, and closely united by sutures ;
the under shell is the sternum or breast bone, and the vertebr of the neck
and tail only are movable. In consequence of this conformation, the mus-
cular system is inverted, in many respects, as with insects and crustacea ;
and to this circumstance these animals owe their great strength. Tortoises
rin of the mandibles is covered with horn, as in

have no teeth; and the mare
the beaks of birds. They are very tenacious of life, and will move weeks
after being deprived of the head; and this last will continue to bite long
after it is severed from the body. They ean remain months, and even years,
without food. The eggs have a hard shell, and are deposited in the sand.
The Land Tortoises are distinguished by the convexity of their upper shell,
and their short toes, enveloped in the common integument nearly to the
nails. They perish if thrown into the water.

Genus Trestupo.—The Land Tortoises. These animals are distin-
guished by a bulged carapace, which is supported by a solid, bony skeleton ;
their feet are truncated, with very short toes connected nearly to the nails,
and, together with the head, can be wholly withdrawn within the shell. The
fore feet have five nails, and the hinder four. They feed chiefly on vege-
table substances.

LT. Indica. —This species is distinguished by its large size, measuring
over three feet in length, and is of a brown color. The Indian species are
numerous, and most of them are remarkable for their great strength. Mr.
Bell describes one, which he names Pyxis arachnoddes, that can easily carry
two men on its back. The hind legs of this Tortoise bear an extraordinary

ORDER I. CHELONIA.— TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 117

resemblance to those of an elephant. The anterior part of the shell is mov-
able on a transverse hinge, and shuts up the head and fore limbs. Slow,
quiet, and inoffensive, this reptile seldom wanders far from its haunts, and
trusts only to its passive means of defence when molested.

T. Greca. — This animal is about a foot long

Bo?

and frequents the regions
round the Mediterranean ; it is also found in other parts of Europe. It lays
four or five eggs in spring, and burrows a hole, where it passes the winter.
Its food is fruit, leaves, insects, and worms. <A specimen resembling this,
but a little larger, I have scen in the State of Maine.

T. Ladiata. — This species is a native of New Holland. It is of a large
size, but otherwise resembles the one mentioned below.

T. Geometrica. —This is a small species, with a black shell, pleasingly
relieved with yellow lines radiating from a disk of the same color.

Fresu-water Torroises. — These do not differ from the above in gen-
eral characters, with the exception that their feet are more adapted to aquatic
habits, and the armor of the back is flatter than in the land tortoises.

T’. Picta. — This species is the most widely diffused, and is found on both
continents. It is of a brown color, and each scale is encircled with a yel-
low ribbon. It is common in all parts of North America, and is often seen
among reeds, upon rocks, or the trunks of trees, from which it falls into
the water when alarmed.

T. Europea inhabits all the south of Europe, and is about ten inches in
leneth. Its flesh is good, on which account it is captured and fattened
on bread and tender herbage. According to Morsigni, its egg requires a
year to hatch. There are many other species, among which are the well-
known Terrapin, or Box-tortoise, and 7. serpenténa, which approximates
some of the turtles. It is known by its extremely long tail. “It inhabits
the warm regions of North America, is very destructive to fish and water-
fowl, ascends far up the rivers, and sometimes attains a weight of twenty
pounds.”

Genus CHeLontA.— The Turtles. This family comprises a large num-
ber of species, most of them of large size, and many of them valuable for
their flesh, which is esteemed a great luxury, and their shells, which are
employed in the arts.

The turtles are distinguished from the land tortoises particularly by their
large and long fin-shaped feet, and also by a longer tail, which serves them
as arudder. They have no teeth, but the horny upper jaw closes over the
lower like the lid of a box, thus serving them as excellent shears, either for
crushing shells or dividing the tough fibres of the sea-grass.

They are at home in all the warmer seas, but sometimes they are carried

by oceanic streams far away from their accustomed haunts. Thus, in the
NO. XIV. OS

=

year 1752, a Green Turtle, six feet long, and weighing nine hundred

118 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS III. REPTILIA.

pounds, stranded near Dieppe; and in 1778, another, seven feet long, on
the coast of Languedoc. One taken on the coast of Cornwall, in July,
1755, measured, from the tip of the nose to the end of the shell, six feet
nine inches, and the weight was supposed to be nearly eight hundred pounds.
These few examples show us that the turtles rank among the larger inhabit-
ants of the ocean, although they are far from attaining the fabulous propor-

tions assigned to them by Pliny (who makes the Indians use their shells as
boats or roofs), or the enormous size of some colossal, extinet species, such
as the fossil tortoise from the Sirvala Hills, preserved in the East Indian
Museum, which measures twelve feet in length. They live almost con-
stantly at sea on shell-fish, like the fieree Loggerhead Turtle (C. caretia),
partly on sea-grass, like the Green Turtle (C. nédas), and only go on
shore during the warmest months of the year for the purpose of laying their

coos,
Chelonia Nidas. —The Edible, or Green Turtle. The shell of this spe~
cies is distinguished by its greenish scales, to the number of thirty, the
medial of which are disposed in almost regular hexagons. The Green
Turtle attains a length of six or seven feet, and a weight of seven or eight
hundred pounds. The flesh is much esteemed, Green Turtle soup being
regarded as a prime luxury by epicures; but the shell is not valuable. It
feeds in great troops upon the a/ge, in the depths of the ocean, and ap-

proaches the mouths of rivers to respire. It deposits its eggs in the sand,

where the sun may warm them. They are very numerous, and are consid-
ered very delicate as food.

C’. Maculosa, an allied species, has the middle plates twice as long as
wide, and of a fulvous color, marked with large black spots. Another
neighboring species, C. Lachrymata, has plates, as in the preceding one,
but raised into a base posteriorly, with black splashes upon the fulvous.
The scales of both of these are used in manufactures.

Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied, furnishes the following interesting de-
scription, in his instructive work, entitled Travels through the Brazils :—

“We followed the monotonous sea-coast (our two soldiers, a neero
and an Indian), frequently stopping to dig turtle eggs out of the sand,
which, boiled in sea water, used to form our evening repast. Once, while
they were busy gathering drift wood for cooking, we found, but a small dis-
tance from our fire, an enormous turtle, busy laying her eggs. We could not
possibly have met with anything more agreeable; the creature seemed to
have crawled there for the express purpose of providing for our supper.
Our presence did not discompose her in the least ; she allowed herself to be
touched, and even raised from the ground, for which purpose four men were

ORDER I. CHELONIA.— TORTOISES AND TURTLES. LL9

required. During our loud deliberations on her future fate she gave no
other signs of uneasiness than a blowing sound, and continued to work
slowly with her hind fins, throwing up the earth at regular intervals.

“One of the soldiers stretched himself out at full Jeneth on the ground,
near the purveyor of our kitchen, inserted his arm into the earth-hole, and
threw out the eggs as they were laid by the turtle. In this manner above
a hundred were collected in about ten minutes. A council was now held as
to the means of adding the beast to our collection, but, as it would have
required an additional mule for the transport, we gave it its life. These colos-
sal turtles — Midas, Coriacea, and Caretta — especially choose these desert
coasts for the laying of their eggs. They emerge from the sea in the dusk
of evening, and then crawl back again into the water, one or two hours
after the setting of the sun. Thus also the friendly turtle, which had so
abundantly provided for our wants, disappeared after a short time ; we found
the large hole filled up, and a broad trace in the sand showed that the ani-
mal had again retreated to its favorite element. The Midas is said to lay
from ten to twelve dozen, and the Coriacea from eighteen to twenty dozen
egos at once.”

C. Imbricata. — This turtle is not so large as the Green, but has a more
lengthened muzzle, and the scales, of which there are thirteen, yellowish
and brown, cover each other in the manner of tiles. The flesh is not edi-
ble, but the eggs are delicate, and the shell is the finest employed in manu-
factures. It inhabits the seas of all hot climates. The Imbricated Turtle is
hunted for its shell, and the Green for its flesh, on which account immense
numbers, of both species, are destroyed yearly in various quarters of the
globe. The South American shores, those of the West Indies, and of the
islands of the Indian seas are visited for this purpose. The gifted author of
“Paul and Virginia” draws the following graphic and interesting picture
of a turtle hunt on Ascension Island ; —

“ Fire-wood, kettle, and the neat boat sail were landed, and the sailors
lay down to sleep, as the turtles do not emerge from the sea before night-
fall. The moon rose above the horizon, and illumined the solitude, but her
light, which adds new charms to a friendly prospect, rendered this desolate
scene more dreary still. We were at the foot of a black hillock, on whose
summit mariners had planted a great cross. Before us lay the plain, cov-
ered with innumerable blocks of black lava, whose crests, whitened by the
drippings of the sea-birds, glistened in the moonbeam. These pallid heads
on dark bodies, some of which were upright, and others reclined, appeared
to us like phantoms hovering over tombs. The greatest stillness reigned
over this desolate earth, interrupted only from time to time by the breaking
of a wave, or the shriek of a sea-bird. We went to the great bay to await

120 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

=

the arrival of the turtles, and there we lay flat upon the sand, in the deepest
silence, as the least noise frightens the turtles, and causes them to withdraw,
and at last we saw three of them rising out of the water, and slowly creep-
ing on shore, like black masses. We rapidly ran up to the first, but
our impatience caused it to drop immediately again into the sea, where it
escaped our pursuit. The second, which had already advanced too far, was
unable to retreat: we turned it on its back. In this way we caught about
fifty turtles, some of which weighed five hundred pounds. Next morning,
at ten, the boat came to fetch the produce of our nocturnal sport. This work
occupied us the whole day, and in the evening the superfluous turtles were
restored to the sea. If suffered to remain a long time on their backs, their
eyes become blood-red, and start out of their sockets. We found several
a cruel neg-

on the strand, that had been allowed to perish in this position
ligence, of which sailors are but too often guilty.”

But other foes, besides man, make war upon the poor turtles, and perse-
cute them to death. Large numbers of these animals annually frequent the
wild sand-coast of Bantam (Java). They are often obliged to creep over
nearly a quarter of a mile of the beach before finding at the foot of the
sand-dunes dry and loose soil fit for their purpose; and on this journey,
which for them is a very long one, they have many dangers to encounter.
Hundreds of their skeletons lie scattered about the strand, many of them
five feet long, and three feet broad; some bleached and cleaned by time,
others still half filled with putrid intestines, and others, again, quite fresh
and bleeding. High in the air a number of birds of prey wheel about,
scared by the trayeller’s approach. Here is the place where the turtles are
attacked by the wild dogs. In packs of from twenty to fifty, the growling
rabble assails the poor sea-animal at every accessible point, gnaws and tugs
at the feet and at the head and succeeds, by united efforts, in turning the
huge creature upon its back. Then the abdominal scales are torn off, and
the ravenous dogs hold a bloody meal on the flesh, intestines, and eggs of
their defenceless prey. Sometimes, however, the turtle escapes their rage,
and, dragging its lacerating tormentors along with it, succeeds in regaining
the friendly sea. Nor do the dogs always enjoy an undisturbed repast. Of-
ten, during the night, the hungry tiger bursts out of the forest, pauses for a
moment, casts a glance over the strand, approaches slowly, and then, with
one bound, accompanied by a terrific roar, springs among the dogs, scatter-
ing the howling band like chaff before the wind. And now it is the tiger’s
turn to feast ; but even he, though rarely, is sometimes disturbed by man.
Thus, on this lonely, melancholy coast, wild dogs and tigers wage an unequal
war with the inhabitants of the ocean.

C. Caretta. —The Hawk-billed Turtle. A color more or less rufous or

ORDER I. CHELONIA.—- TORTOISES AND TURTLES. AAA

brown, and fifteen scales, the medial of which have raised crests, are the
principal characters of the species. It is an inhabitant of various seas, but
has little commercial value, as the flesh and shell are worthless. It fur-
nishes, however, a considerable quantity of oil, nearly equal in quaility to
that of the whale, and which may be applied to the same uses.

Genus Spuancis. — The Leather-backs. This series comprises those
species which have no scales, but have the carapace, or upper armor, clad
in a kind of leather. There are but two or three species mentioned.

Genus Curtys. — The Chelydes, as these turtles are called, have an en-
velope much too small to enclose all their limbs; their nose is prolonged
into a little trunk; but their most prominent character is a widely-clett
mouth, destitute of the horny beak which distinguishes other genera.

Genus Trionyx. —The Soft Tortoise. The Soft Tortoises have no
scales, but both the carapace and plastron are enveloped in a soft skin. The
horn of their beak is invested with fleshy lips outside, and their nose is pro-
longed, as in the Chelydes. They dwell in fresh water.

T. Triunguis. —This species inhabits the northern portions of Africa,
and is sometimes three feet long. It is of a green color, spotted with white.
It destroys large numbers of young crocodiles, and thus renders an impor-
tant service to the Egyptians.

7. Ferow.— The American Trionyx. The rivers of Carolina, Georgia,
Florida, and Guiana are the Aabitat of this animal. While it devours
young alligators, it often falls a prey to the older ones. It seizes on birds
and reptiles, for which it lies in ambuscade among the weeds. Its flesh is
palatable and wholesome.

The turtle, being cold-blooded, is obliged to confide the hatching of her
eges to the sun, which generally accomplishes the task in three weeks. On
creeping out of the eg, the young, even those of the largest species, are
not larger than half a crown, and of a white color. Unprotected by a
parent’s tenderness, the poor little creatures seem only to be born for imme-
diate death. Their first instinctive movements are towards the element for
which they are destined; slowly they drag themselves towards the water,
but the sea meets them with a rough embrace, and the unmercifnl waves
generally throw them back again upon the shore. Here they are attacked
by great sea-birds, storks, and herons, against which, in spite of their small-
ness, they make feeble efforts of defence or by still more powerful beasts
of prey; and thus the greater part of the unfortunate brood is destroyed at
its very first entrance into life, while those which reach the sea are gener-
ally devoured by sharks and other sharp-toothed fishes. It is, therefore, not
in vain that the turtle lays four or five hundred eggs in a single summer, for,
were she less fruitful, the race would long since have been extinguished.

122 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS HI. REPTILIA.

ORDER II. SAURIA (Crocodiles, Alligators, Lizards).

The animals included in this order are all of lizard shape, and vary in
size, from the gigantic Crocodile, which often attains the length of thirty
feet, to insignificant creatures of a few inches. They have a heart consti-
tuted like that of the Chelonians ; lungs, which extend towards the hinder
part of the body; mouths invariably armed with teeth; tails more or less
lenethened, and thick at the base, and skins covered with thick, hard, ser-
rated scales, or scaly granules. Most of the Saurians have four legs, but
some have only two. Their eggs are enclosed in a hard envelope, and the
forms of the young are perfectly developed before they issue therefrom.

In a former period of the earth the Saurians peopled the vast abysses of
the ocean, and individuals, like the Ichthyosaurus, huge and rapacious mon-
sters, ruled the seas, remorseless tyrants of all the other inhabitants of the
deep. But changes in the temperature of the elements have swept them
from the scene of existence, and it is from fossil remains only that we gather
the story of their life and mode of living. No members of this race now
frequent the sea, but the larger representatives of this once formidable
family now inhabit the lagoons, rivers, and swamps of tropical climates,
while the others are distributed over the whole surface of the globe, with the
exception of the frozen regions. The order is divided into six families, the
first of which comprises the Crocodiles and Alligators.

Genus Crocovitus. — Brongniart. The Crocodile is a gigantic beast,
of prodigious strength, found in the rivers of the warm regions of the East-
ern Continent, especially in the Nile and Niger. The back and tail are’
covered with great square scales, constituting an armor of extraordinary
strength, and the jaws are furnished with a row of pointed teeth. It often
reaches the enormous length of thirty feet, and will sometimes seize the
most powerful animals, such as the tiger, and draw them under the water.
Yet it is affirmed that this formidable monster may be tamed, and made to
serve its master with the obedience of the ox. In Siam, the Crocodile is
taken when young, subjected to discipline, and managed “ like a horse, the
rider directing it as he thinks proper.” This subjugation of the Crocodile
to human control is confirmed by travellers who have had opportunities of
observing the strange spectacle. The author of Dry Leaves from Young
Lyypt relates the following adventure : —

“One of my first exhibitions, after reaching Karachi, was a visit to the
Magar Talao, as it is called, or Lake of Crocodiles, This curious place is
about eight miles from Karachi, and is well worth inspecting to all who are

ORDER II. SAURIA.— ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES. 123

fond of the monstrous and grotesque. A moderate ride through a sandy and
sterile track, varied with a few patches of jungle, brings one to a grove of
tamarind trees, hid in the bosom of which lie the grisly brood of monsters.
Little would one, ignorant of the doca/e, suspect that, under that green
wood, in that tiny pool, which an active leaper could half spring across,
such hideous denizens are concealed. ‘Here is the pool,’ I said to my guide,
rather contemptuously, “but where are the crocodiles?’ At the same time
I was stalking on very boldly, with head erect, and rather inclined to flout
the whole affair, za@so adunco. A sudden hoarse roar or bark, however,
under my very feet, made me execute a pirouette in the air with extraordi-
nary adroitness, and, perhaps, with more animation than grace. I had
almost stepped on a young crocodilian imp, about three feet long, whose
bite, small as he was, would have been the reverse of pleasant. Presently
the genius of the place appeared in the shape of a wizard-looking old fakir,
who, on my presenting him with a couple of rupees, produced his wand (in
other words, a long pole), and then proceeded to call up his spirits. On
his shouting, ‘Ao! Ao!’ (Come! Come!), two or three times, the water
suddenly became alive with monsters. At least threescore huge crocodiles,
some of them fifteen feet in length, made their appearance, and came throng-
ing to the shore. The whole scene reminded me of fairy tales. The soli-
tary wood, the pool, with its strange inmates, the fukir’s lonely hut on the
hillside, the fakir himself, tall, swart, and gaunt, the rubber-looking Biluciiit
by my side, made up a fantastic picture. Strange, too, the control our
showman displayed over his ‘lions.’ On his motioning with the pole, they
stopped (indeed, they had already arrived at a disagreeable propinquity),
and on his calling out, ‘ Baitho’ (Sit down), they lay flat on their stomachs,
erinning horrible obedience with their open and expectant jaws. Some
large pieces of flesh were thrown to them, to get which they struggled,
writhed, and fought, and tore the flesh into shreds and gobbets. I was
amused with the respect the smaller ones showed to their overgrown seniors.
One fellow, about ten feet long, was walking up to the feeding-ground from
the water, when he caught a glimpse of one much larger just behind him. It
was odd to see the frightened look with which he sidled out of the way, evi-
dently expecting to lose half a yard of his tail before he could effect his
retreat. At a short distance (perhaps half a mile) from the first pool I
was shown another, in which the water was as warm as one could bear it
for complete immersion ; yet, even here, I saw some small alligators. The
fakirs told me these brutes were very numerous in the river, about fifteen or
twenty miles to the west. The monarch of the place, an enormous croco-
dile, to whom the fakir had given the name of ‘ Mor Sahib’ (My Lord Mor),
never obeyed the call to come out. As I walked round the pool, I was

124 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

shown where he lay, with his head above water, immovable as a log, and
for which I should have taken him but for his small, savage eyes, which
glittered so that they seemed to emit sparks. He was, the fakir said,
very fierce and dangerous, and at least twenty feet in length.”

There are several species of crocodiles peculiar to Africa and Asia, but
in characters and habits they do not materially differ from the Crocodile of
the Nile. That of the Ganges, however, “which attains a large size, is re-
markable not only for the length of its muzzle, but for a large cartilaginous
prominence surrounding the nostrils, which throws these backwards, and
led Elian to assert that the Gangetic Crocodile had a horn at the tip of its
snout.”

The crocodiles are carnivorous, but unable to swallow under water, and
their habit is to drown their prey, and conceal it in some hole beneath the
surface till it putrefies, when they devour it. The female is very prolific,
guards her eggs with care, and continues to protect her young until they can
support themsclyes. Yet, with all her vigilance, she cannot prevent the
greater portion of her eges from being devoured by the ichneumon, trionyx,
and vulture. Were it not for this provision of nature, these frightful ani-
mals would overrun the countries which they frequent, and render them
uninhabitable by human beings.

Genus ALLIGATOR. — Cuvier: The American Crocodile. —The Cay-
man. This animal is distinguished from its Oriental congener by a broader
and more obtuse muzzle, and feet undentelated, and only semi-palmated.
These powerful animals are found in great numbers in lagoons and rivers of
Georgia, Florida, and most of the warmer countries of the American Con-
tinent. Their body is as large as that of the horse, and in shape is not
unlike that of the lizard: their head is described as resembling a “large
clump of wood floating about upon the water.” They grow to the length
of fifteen or twenty feet, are covered by a dense harness of horny scales,
impenetrable to a musket ball, except about the head and shoulders, and
have a huge mouth, opening about three feet, armed with two rows of
strong, unequal, conical teeth, some of which shut into cavities of the upper
jaw-bone. They swim or dart along through the water with wonderful
ceelerity, impelled by their long, laterally-compressed, and powerful tails,
which serve as very efficient oars. On land, their motions are proportion-
ally slow and embarrassed, beeause of the length and unwieldiness of their
bodies, the shortness of their limbs, and the sort of small, false ribs which
reach from joint to joint of their necks, and render lateral motion very dif-
ficult. The Alligator is generally considered as disposed to retire from man,
but this is only to be understood of alligators frequenting rivers or waters
where they are often disturbed. In situations less visited by man, they are

tL

a

es

ORDER II. SAURIA.— CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS. 2

very ferocious. They have a loud and terrible roar, resembling distant
thunder ; and when hundreds of them are roaring together, it seems as if
the earth itself were agitated. They also make a remarkable noise by clap-
ping their jaws together, which may be heard at a great distance. These
animals may often be seen lying in great numbers upon the banks, where
they seize hogs and other beasts which go to the river to drink. Sometimes
they attack small boats, endangering the lives of those who are in them.

“The females make their nests in a curious manner upon the banks of
rivers or lagoons, generally in marshes, along which, at a short distance
from the water, the nests are arranged somewhat like an encampment.
They are obtuse cones, four feet high, and about four feet in diameter at
the base, built of mud and grass. From one hundred to two hundred eges
are found in each one. The females keep near the nests, and take the
young under their care as soon as they are hatched, defending them with
great perseverance and courage. The young are scen following the mother
through the water like a brood of chickens following a hen. When basking
in the sun on shore, the young are heard whining and yelping about the
mother, not unlike young puppies. When first hatched they are very feeble
and helpless, and large numbers of them are devoured by beasts of prey,
turtles, and the American trionyx, as well as by the male alligators, until
they grow old and strong enough to defend themselves. Many of the eggs,
also, are destroyed by vultures and other animals, so that the race would
become speedily extinct were it not for the great fecundity of the females.”

THE Second FaMILy OF THE SAuRIANS embraces the Lizards, divided
into two great genera, comprising numerous species. Besides the common
and well-known individuals of the Lizard group, there are the Monitors,
which are the largest of the whole tribe. They have teeth in both jaws,
and are adapted to aquatic habits. Frequenting the vicinity of the haunts
of crocodiles and alligators, it is said that they give warning, by a whistling
sound, of the approach of those dangerous reptiles, and hence probably their
names of Sawvegarde and Monitor. They constitute the genus Monitor,
one species of which, DZ. crocodilinus (the Great Dragonet of Guiana),
attains a length of six feet, and is eaten. Another, of equal size and
length, is found in Brazil. It runs swiftly on the ground, and takes to the
water when pursued, into which it plunges, but does not swim. Tt devours
all sorts of insects, small reptiles, and the eggs of poultry, and nestles in
holes which it burrows in the sand. Its flesh and eggs are eaten by the
natives, and considered wholesome and savory.

Tue Tuirp Fairy OF Savrians is composed of the Iguana group.
In this series is the Dragon, a small animal, furnished with a sort of mem-
brane or wing, which enables it to glide from bough to bough, and is the

NO. XIV. 69

126 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

original of the flying serpents of the ancient mythology. Here also is
found the Marblet, which, having a voluminous lung that fills nearly the
whole body, changes the hues of its skin, when excited, like the chameleon.

Tue Fourtu FaMity orf Saurtans is composed of the Geckotians,
small animals of nocturnal habits and disagreeable aspect, bearing a consid-
erable resemblance to toads and salamanders. Their feet are so constructed
that they adhere to surfaces, and enable the animal to walk on ceilings.
They belong to the Old World.

Tue Friern Famity consists of the Chameleons. These singular ani-
mals are about fifteen inches in length: they live on trees, subsisting on
insects, which they dexterously capture with their long, extensile tongue,
that moves with great celerity. The end of this organ is furnished with a
glutinous substance, which attracts numerous small insects, and holds them
fast. till they are conveyed to the mouth and swallowed, when the curiously-
armed tongue again darts forth for another batch of victims.

The lung of the Chameleon is so vast that, when inflated, the body ap-
pears transparent, which led the ancients to believe that these animals fed
on air. The singular power they possess of changing their color according
to their wants and passions, is also to be attributed to this magnitude of the
lung. Another remarkable peculiarity of this reptile is the want of sym-
pathy between the two sides of the whole body, each side having movements
and affections of its own, like a separate animal. Thus, while one side may
be asleep, the other may be awake ; one may be of one color, and the other
of another; the eyes, too, have separate movements, and the limbs will not
act in concert ; consequently the animal cannot swim.

Tur Sixtm Famriy comprises the Sczndoidiens, which are recognized
by the shortness of their feet, the non-extensibility of the tongue, and the
equality of the tile-like scales which cover the whole body and tail. In the
whole family there is a general approach to the serpent form. — It is divided
into five genera, viz., the Scinques, the Seps, the Dipodes, the Chal-
cides, and the Chirotes, all of which exhibit the same gradual descent to
the serpent character.

\

ORDER III. OPHIDIA (Serpents).

The first family of Serpents retains the skull, teeth, and tongue of one
of the preceding groups, — the Seps, — and might be designated as Sauri-
ans without feet. The Double Marcheurs (Ophidians that can progress
either head or tail foremost), the Amphisbenes, the Typhlops, the Moles,
which comprise the first part of the second fiuily of Serpents, also show

ORDER II. OPHIDIA. —SERPENTS. 127

some Saurian characters. They are, for the most part, very small animals,
and offer no peculiarities of sufficient interest to be recorded here.

Serrents Proper. “ What geology and anatomy have unfolded of the
nature of Serpents, in regard to their present condition,” says Professor
Owen, “amounts to this: that their parts are as exquisitely adjusted to the
form of the whole, and to their habits and sphere of life, as is the organi-
zation of any animal which we call superior to them. It is true the Serpent
has no limbs, yet it can outclimb the monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the
jerboa, and, suddenly loosing the coils of its crouching spiral, it can spring
into the air, and seize the bird upon the wing; thus all these creatures fall
its prey. The Serpent has neither hands nor talons, yet it can outwrestle
the athlete, and crush the tiger in its folds. T’ar from licking up its food as
it glides along, the Serpent lifts up its crushed prey, and presents it, grasped
in the death-coil as in the hand, to the gaping, slime-dropping mouth. It
is truly wonderful to see the work of hands, feet, fins, performed by a sim-
ple modification of the vertebral column in a multiplication of its joints,
with mobility of its ribs. As Serpents move chiefly on the surface of the
earth, their danger is greatest from pressure or blows from aboye; all the
joints are accordingly fashioned to resist yielding, and to sustain pressure in
a vertical direction; there is no natural undulation of the body upwards and
downwards — it is permitted only from side to side. So closely and com-
pactly do the ten pairs of the joints between each side of the two or three
hundred yertebrie fit together, that, even in a relaxed and dead state, the
body cannot be twisted, except in a series of side coils. Of this the reader
may assure himself by an experiment on a dead and supple snake. Let him
lay it straight along a level surface, seize the end of the tail, and, by a
movement of rotation between the thumb and finger, endeavor to screw the
snake into spiral coils ; before he can produce a single turn, the whole of the
long and slender body will roll over as rigidly as if it were a stick. When
we call to mind the anatomical structure of the skull, the singular density
and structure of the bones of the cranium strike us as a special provision
against fracture and injury to the head. And when we consider the remark-
able manner in which all the bones of the skull overlap one another, we
cannot but discern a special adaptation in the structure of Serpents to their
commonly prone position, and a provision for the dangers to which they
were subject from falling bodies, and the tread of heavy beasts.”

With respect to their conformation, all Serpents have a very wide mouth
in proportion to the size of the head; and, what is very extraordinary, they
can gape and swallow the head of another animal which is three times as
big as their own. To explain this, it must be observed, that the jaws of

128 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS III. REPTILIA.

this animal do not open as ours, in the manner of a pair of hinges, where
bones are applied to bones, and play upon one another; on the contrary,
the Serpents jaws are held together at the roots by a stretching, muscular
skin; by which means they open as widely as the animal chooses to stretch
them, and admit of a prey much thicker than the snake’s own body. The
throat, like stretching leather, dilates to admit the morsel; the stomach
receives it in part, and the rest remains in the gullet till putrefaction and
the juices of the Serpent’s body unite to dissolve it.

The tongue in all these animals is long and forky. It is composed of two
long, fleshy substances, which terminate in sharp points, and are very plia-
ble. Some of the viper kind have tongues a fifth part the length of their
bodies ; they are continually darting them out, but they are entirely harm-
less, and only terrify those who are ignorant of the real situation of their
poison.

The skin is composed of a number of scales, united to each other by a
transparent membrane, which grows harder as it grows older, until the ani-
mal changes it, which is generally done twice a year. This cover then
bursts near the head, and the Serpents creep from it, by an undulatory mo-
tion, in a new skin much more vivid than the former. As the edges of the
foremost scales lie over the ends of the following scales, so those edges,
when the scales are erected, which the animal has the power of doing in a
small deeree, catch in the ground, like the nails in the wheels of a chariot,
and so promote and facilitate the animal’s progressive motion. The erect-
ing these scales is by means of a multitude of distinct muscles, with which
sach is supplied, and one end of which is tacked to the foregoing.

This tribe of animals, like that of fishes, seems to have no bounds put to
its growth; their bones are in a great measure cartilaginous, and they are
consequently capable of great extension; the older, therefore, a Serpent
becomes, the larger it grows; and, as they seem to live to a great age, they
wrive at an enormous size.

Lequat assures us that he saw a Serpent in Java that was fifty feet long,
and Carli mentions their growing to above forty feet. Mr. Wentworth, who
had large concerns in South America, assures us that, in that country,
they grow to an enormous length. He one day sent out a soldier, with an
Indian, to kill a wild fowl for the table; and they accordingly went some
miles from the fort. In pursuing their game, the Indian, who generally
marched before, beginning to tire, went to rest himself upon the fallen trunk
of a tree, as he supposed it to be; but when he was just going to sit down,
the enormous monster began to move, and the poor savage, perceiving that
he had approached a liboya, the greatest of all the Serpent kind, dropped
down in an agony. The soldier, who perceived at some distance what had

ee ae

ORDER III. OPHIDIA. —SERPENTS. 129

happened, levelled at the Serpent’s head, and, by a lucky aim, shot it dead ;
however, he continued his fire until he was assured that the animal was
killed ; and then, going up to rescue his companion, who was fallen motion-
less by its side, he, to his astonishment, found him dead likewise, being
killed by the fright.

Upon his return to the fort, and telling what had happened, Mr. Went-
worth ordered the animal to be brought up, when it was measured, and
found to be thirty-six feet long.

In the East Indies they grow also to an enormous size, particularly in
the Island of Java, where we are assured that one of them will degtroy and
devour a buffalo. In a letter printed in the German Ephemerides, we have
an account of a combat between an enormous Serpent and a buffalo, by a
person who affirms that he was himself a spectator. The Serpent had,
for some time, been-waiting near the brink of a pool in expectation of its
prey, when a buffalo was the first that offered. Having darted upon the
affrighted animal, it instantly began to wrap it round with its voluminous
twistings ; and at every twist the bones of the buffalo were heard to crack
almost as loud as the report of a cannon. It was in vain that the poor ani-
mal struggled and bellowed; its enormous enemy entwined too closely to
get free; till at length, all its bones being mashed to picces, like those of a
malefactor on the wheel, and the whole body reduced to one uniform mass,
the Serpent untwined its folds to swallow its prey at leisure. To prepare
for this, and, in order to make the body slip down the throat more readily,
it was seen to lick the whole body over, and thus cover it with its mucus.
It then began to swallow it at that end that offered least resistance, while
its length of body was dilated to receive its prey, and thus took in at once
a morsel that was three times its own thickness. We are assured by tray-
ellers, that these animals are often found with the body of a stag in their
gullet, while the horns, which they are unable to swallow, keep sticking out
at their mouths.

But it is happy for mankind that the rapacity of these frightful creatures
is often their punishment ; for whenever any of the Serpent kind have gorged
themselves in this manner, and their body is seen particularly distended with
food, they become torpid, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.

Other creatures have a choice in their provision; but the Serpent indis-
criminately preys upon all—the buffalo, the tiger, and the gazelle. One
would think that the poreupine’s quills might be sufficient to protect it; but
whatever has life serves to appease the hunger of these devouring creatures.
Porcupines, with all their quills, have frequently been found in their stom-
achs when killed and opened; nay, they most frequently are seen to devour
each other.

130 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

But though these animals are, above all others, the most voracious, and,
though the morsel which they swallow, without chewing, is greater than
what any other creature, either by land or water, the whale itself not ex-
cepted, can devour, yet no animals upon earth bear abstinence so long as they.
A single meal, with many of the snake kind, seems to be the adventure of

a season; and is an occurrence for which they have been for weeks, nay, i
sometimes for months, in patient expectation. Their prey continues, for a
Jong time, partly in the stomach, partly in the gullet, and a part is often
seen hanging out of the mouth. In this manner it digests by degrees, and,
in propoytion as the part below is dissolved, the part above is taken in. It
is not, therefore, till this tedious operation is entirely performed, that the
Serpent renews its appetite and its activity. But, should any accident pre-

vent it from issuing once more from its cell, it still can continue to bear
famine for weeks, months, nay, for years, together. Vipers are often kept
in boxes for six or eight months without any food whatever; and there are
little Serpents sometimes sent to Europe from Grand Cairo that live for
several years in glasses, and never eat at all, nor even stain the glass with
their excrement. Thus the Serpent tribe unite in themselves two very op-
posite qualities — wonderful abstinence and yet incredible rapacity.

Though all Serpents are amphibious, some are much fonder of the water
than others ; and, though destitute of fins or gills, remain at the bottom, or
swim along the surface, with great ease. They can, however, endure to live
in fresh water only; for salt is an effectual bane to the whole tribe.

Some Serpents have a most horrible foetor attending them, which is alone
capable of intimidating the brave. This proceeds from two glands near the
vent, like those in the weasel or polecat; and, like those animals, in propor-
tion as they are excited by rage or by fear, the scent grows stronger. It.
would seem, however, that such Serpents as are most venomous are least
offensive in this particular, since the rattlesnake and the viper have no smell
whatever; nay, we are told that, at Calcutta and Crangamore, in the East
Indies, there are some very noxious Serpents, who are so far from being dis-
agreeable that their excrements are sought after, and kept as the most pleas-
ing perfume. The Esculapian Serpent is also of this number.

Some Serpents bring forth their young alive, as the viper. Some bring
forth eggs, which are hatched by the heat of their situation, as the common
black snake, and the majority of the Serpent tribe. When a reader, igno-
rant of anatomy, is told that some of these animals produce their young
alive, and that some produce eggs only, he is apt to suppose a very great
difference in their internal conformation, which makes such a variety in their
manner of bringing forth. But this is not the case; these animals are

internally alike in whatever manner they produce their young; and the

= .

ORDER II. OPHIDIA.— SERPENTS. 13

variety of their bringing forth is rather a slight than a real discrimination.
The only difference is, that the viper hatches her eggs, and brings them to
maturity within her body; the snake is more premature in her productions,
and sends her eggs into the light some time before the young ones are capa-
ble of leaving the shell. Thus, if either are opened, the eggs will be found
in the womb, covered with their membranous shell, and adhering to each
other like large beads on a string. In the egg of both, the young ones will
be found, though at different stages of maturity; those of the viper will
crawl and bite, the moment the shell that encloses them is broken open ;
those of the snake are not yet arrived at their perfect form.

Father Labat took a Serpent, of the viper kind, that was nine feet long,
and ordered it to be opened in his presence. He then saw the manner in
which the eggs of these animals lie in the womb. In this creature there
were six eggs, each of the size of a goose eve, but longer, more pointed,
and covered with a membranous skin, by which also they were united to
each other. Each of these eges contained from thirteen to fifteen young
ones, about six inches long, and as thick as a goose quill. These little,
mischievous animals were no sooner let loose from the shell, than they crept
about, and put themselves into a threatening posture, coiling themselves up,
and biting the stick with which he was destroying them. In this manner
he killed seventy-four young ones; those that were contained in one of the
eges escaped at the place, where the female was killed, by the bursting of
the egg, and their getting among the bushes.

The. last distinction that we shall mention, but the most material among
Serpents, is, that some are venomous, and some inoffensive ; but not above
a tenth of their number are actually venomous.

From the noxious qualities in the Serpent kind, it is no wonder that not
only man, but beasts and birds, carry on an unceasing war against them.
The ichneumon of the Indians, and the peccary of America, destroy them
in great numbers. These animals have the art of seizing them near the
head; and it is said that they can skin them with great dexterity. The
vulture and the eagle also prey upon them in great abundance ; and often,
sousing down from the clouds, drop upon a long Serpent, which they snatch,
struggling and writhing, in the air. Dogs, also, are bred up to oppose them.

Father Feuillée tells us that, being in the woods of Martinico, he was
attacked by a large Serpent, which he could not easily avoid, when his dog
immediately came to his relief, and seized the assailant with great courage.
The Serpent entwined him, and pressed him so violently, that the blood
came out of his mouth, and yet the dog never ceased till he had torn it in
pieces. The dog was not sensible of his wounds during the fight ; but, soon
after, his head swelled prodigiously, and he lay on the ground as dead. But

132 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

his master having found, hard by, a banana tree, he applied its juice, mixed
with treacle, to the wound, which recovered the dog, and quickly healed his
sores.

In India there is nothing so common as dancing Serpents, which are car-
ried about in a broad, flat vessel somewhat resembling a sieve. These erect
and put themselves in motion at the word cf command. When their keeper
sings a slow tune, they seem, by their heads, to keep time; when he sings
a quicker measure, they appear to move more brisk and lively. All animals
have a certain degree of docility ; and we find that Serpents themselves can
be brought to move and approach at the voice of their master. From this
trick, successfully practised before the ignorant, it is most probable has
arisen all the boasted pretensions which some have made to the charming of
Serpents — an art to which the native Americans pretend at this very day.

As a general thing, the non-venomous Serpents have the branches of the
upper jaw furnished throughout their length, like those of the lower jaw and
the palate, with fixed and solid teeth. There are three or four sub-equal
ranges of these teeth in the upper part of the mouth, and two in the lower.
On the contrary, the venomous Serpents are furnished with movable fangs.
Tt should be remembered, however, that some snakes with solid tecth are
exceedingly poisonous, especially those that have very large, black molars.

Genus Boa. — The Boas. These are the largest of all serpents, attain-
ing a leneth of from thirty to forty feet. They have a hook on each side
of the anus, a compressed body, large towards the middle, small scales on
the hinder part of the head, and a prehensile tail. They are capable of
swallowing very large animals, even cattle, after having crushed them within
their folds, and lubricated, with their saliva, as we have already described in
our general remarks upon serpents. To enable them to perform such an
extraordinary feet of deglutition, they have, at the extremity of the great
Jung, —one lung is but half the length of the other, —a large air-bag,
which contains the air requisite for respiration when the nostrils are closed
in the process of swallowing.

There are several species, which are distinguished by the difference in the
teguments of the head and jaws. The Anaconda of South America does
not differ materially from the Boa of Africa and India. They are all pow-
erful animals, and justly objects of terror to the inhabitants of those coun-
tries which are infested by them.

All along the swampy banks of the Rivers Niger and Oroonoko, where
the sun is hot, the forests thick, and the men but few, the serpents cling
among the branches of the trees in infinite numbers, and carry on an un-
ceasing war against all other animals in their vicinity. Travellers have
assured us that they have often seen large snakes twining around the trunk

ORDER III. OPHIDIA. —SERPENTS. 133

of a tall tree, encompassing it like a wreath, and thus rising and descending
at pleasure. In these countries, therefore, the serpent is too formidable to
become an object of curiosity, for it excites much more violent sensations.

We are not, therefore, to reject, as wholly fabulous, the accounts left us
by the ancients of the terrible devastations committed by a single serpent.
It is probable, in early times, when the arts were little known, and mankind
were but thinly scattered over the earth, that serpents, continuing undis-
turbed possessors of the forest, grew to an amazing magnitude; and every
other tribe of animals fell before them. We have many histories of an-
tiquity presenting us such a picture, and exhibiting a whole nation sinking
under the ravages of a single serpent. We are told that while Regulus led
his army along the banks of the River Bagrada, in Africa, an enormous
serpent disputed his passage over. We are assured by Pliny, who says that
he himself saw the skin, that it was a hundred and twenty feet long, and
that it had destroyed many of the army. At last, however, the battering
engines were brought out against it, and these assailing it from a distance,
it was soon destroyed.

Genus CoLtuBer. — The Snakes proper. In this division are the Py-
thons, which have hooks on each side of the anus, and narrow, ventral
plates, as in the Boas, from which they only differ by having the plates under-
neath the tail double. Some of the species equal the Boa in size. Nine or
ten different groups are mentioned by the authors, peculiar to the several
regions of the earth; but, as they offer no features of special interest, we
pass them by.

The common Snakes of the United States form quite a numerous family.
A small species, with a brown back and vermilion belly, is common through-
out New England, as is also another, a little larger, colored a beautiful
green. The Striped Snakes, some of which attain the length of a yard,
are too well known to need any description. They are all harmless. Of
the Llack Snakes, two species occur frequently in all parts of this country,
—the common lack, and the Collared Black, Snake, the last mentioned
being the most fierce and powerful. It sometimes, when disturbed, will
attack human beings, but is scarcely able to contend with a resolute man,
although instances have occurred of some severe contests. The Black
Snakes move with amazing celerity, the eye being scarcely able to follow
them. As they are not poisonous, they can be dangerous only to children,
whom sometimes they strangle, by coiling round the neck.

Tue Venomous Serpents. — All of the species bring forth their young
alive, whence the general name, viper —a contraction of viviparous. Their
maxillary bones are small, and very movable, having a pointed tooth attached
to them, through which extends a small canal, which conveys a poisoncus

NO. XIV. 79 -

134 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

liquid, secreted by a large gland beneath the eye. It is this liquid which is
instilled into the wound inflicted by the tooth, that produces the effects more
or less deadly, according to the species from which it proceeds,

“ Venomous serpents, with isolated fangs, present nearly the same external
characters; but the greater number have extremely dilatable jaws, and the
tongue very extensile. Their head, which is wide posteriorly, has, in gen-
eral, a savage aspect, which, to a certain extent, announces their ferocity.
They form two great genera, — the Rattlesnakes and the Vipers.”

Genus Croratus, Linn. — These snakes, so celebrated for the deadli-

ness of their venom, are exclusively American. They were formerly very
numerous in all the Eastern States, but are now nearly exterminated. This
reptile is one of the most dangerous of its family, its bite, properly inflicted,
being sure to cause the death of the largest animal. It is totally unknown

in the Old World, and is readily distinguished by its rattle — an instrument
situated at the tail extremity, and consisting of several horny, membranous
eells, which rattle upon each other when agitated by the animal. The Rat-
tlesnake is of a tawny and black color above, and ash color beneath; has a
short and rather round head; a large protecting scale over each eye, and
Jong, sharp-pointed fangs. It is slow in its motions, inactive in its habits,
and not readily disturbed — features which luckily tend to lessen the mis-
chief which otherwise it would be capable of inflicting. Its head is broad,
triangular, and generally flat in its entire extent. Its eyes are very bril-
liant, and provided with a nictitating membrane, the mouth very large, the
tongue forked at its extremity. Its body is robust, elongated, cylindrical,
covered above with carinated scales. Its tail is short, cylindrical, and some-
what thick. The number of the little bells, which terminate it, increases
with age, an additional one being formed at every casting of the skin. These
bells are truncated, quadrangular pyramids, received within each other in
such a manner that only a third part of each is visible, the tip of every bone
running within two of the bones below it. Thus they are united by a kind
of ball and socket joint, and move with a rattling sound whenever the ani-
mal agitates its tail. The noise resembles that made by rumpled parchment,
or two quills of a goose rubbed smartly against each other. The poison
fangs are trayersed by a canal for the emission of the poison. These fangs,
when not used, remain concealed in a fold of the gum; when the animal
bites, the fangs are raised. They are two in number, one at each end of
the upper jaw. The effects of the poison of course depend much upon the
season of the year, the age, and strength of the reptile, and the part struck ;
hence numerous cases are on record of individuals recovering in a few weeks
from the bite of a Rattlesnake. It is also found, by experiment, that the
effect of subsequent wounds is greatly diminished, either by the diminution

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ORDER UI. OPHIDIA.—SERPENTS. 135

of the quantity of venom, or by some deterioration of its strength; so that
if a venomous serpent be made repeatedly to inflict wounds, without allow-
ing sufficiently long intervals for it to recover its powers, each successive bite
becomes less and less dangerous. “A gentleman of my acquaintance,” says
the author of British Reptiles, “had, some years ago, received a living
Rattlesnake from America. Intending to try the effects of its bite upon
some rats, he introduced one of these animals into the cage with the serpent ;
it immediately struck the rat, which died in two minutes. Another rat was
then placed in the cage; it ran up to the part farthest from the serpent,
uttering cries of distress. The snake did not immediately attack it; but,
after half an hour, and on being irritated, it struck the rat, which did not
exhibit any symptoms of being poisoned for several minutes, and died twenty
minutes after the bite. A third and remarkably large rat was then intro-
duced. It exhibited no sign of terror at its dangerous companion, which,
on its part, appeared to take no notice of the rat. After watching for the
rest of the evening, my friend retired, leaving the serpent and the rat to-
gether. On rising early the next morning te ascertain the fate of his two
heterogeneous prisoners, he found the snake dead, and the muscular part of
its back eaten by the rat. Ido not remember at what time of the year this
circumstance took place, but I believe it was not during very hot weather.”

When the winter is rigorous, the Rattlesnakes pass some time in a lethargic
state, near the sources of rivers, in covert places, where the frost cannot
reach them. They bury themselves thus, before the autumnal equinox,
after they have changed their skin, and do not emerge until after the vernal
equinox. Many of them are often found together in the same hole. Till
the month of July their bite is comparatively harmless. At Cayenne, and
in the hot latitudes, they are in constant activity all the year. They are
viviparous, and can live a long time. Some have been mentioned as having
forty or fifty pieces in their rattles, and being from eight to ten fect in
leneth. They have great tenacity of life. They feed on birds, squirrels,
frogs, &e., and it was for a time believed that they had the power to charm
these animals, and thus draw them within their reach. Other serpents, also,
have been supposed to possess the same wonderful faculty, to which, it was
believed, even human beings sometimes succumbed. These small animals,
and even timid persons, may have been temporarily paralyzed by fear at the
sudden appearance of one of these frightful reptiles, but we are obliged to
believe all the cases of charméng, which are recorded, to be purely imagi-
native and apocryphal.

A species of horned Rattlesnake has been discovered in the Rocky Moun-
tains. A specimen is now (1869) in the possession of Mr. James Estes,
of Jonesboro’, Tennessee. It has twelve rattles, a large, flat, red head, and

136 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

is about three fect in length. There are two large horns situated on the top
of the head — three spikes to each horn.

Allied to the foregoing are the Trigonocephali, which are distinguished
by the absence of the rattle, but accord in other characteristics. The Copper-
head, or Moccasin Snake, belongs to the same family. It inhabits the vast
prairies of the West, and we have seen it in Connecticut, at the foot of a
mountain, in the town of Southington. Its venom is similar to that of the
Rattlesnake. Various remedies have been named as effectual for the bite
of these serpents, — such as whiskey taken to intoxication; applying to the
wound bruised plantain leaves, or a decoction of tobacco; washing it with
strong ley water; a treatment producing a heavy perspiration, as the steam-
bath; and, lastly, extracting the virus by suction.

Genus Vipera. — The Vipers. These reptiles are distinguished from
the Rattlesnakes by the absence of the rattle, and also of the cavities beneath
the nostrils, in which last particular they differ from the Trigonocephali.

The American Viper, or Adder, is distinguished by its thick body as
compared with its length, which is from one to two feet, although we have
seen specimens a yard long. Its color is generally brown, with yellow spots ;
we have met with Adders of a yellowish-white ground color, with black,
irregular patches. They are all poisonous, disgusting creatures, and fortu-
nately, in New Eneland at least, nearly exterminated. The celebrated and
well known (by the full and frequent descriptions of travellers) Cobra di
Capello, or dancing serpent of India, and the //7/?, or Asp of Egypt, be-,
long to this group. There are several others, all extremely venomous.
There are two other species peculiar to India —the Longars and the Lfy-
dras. The former attain a length of eight or ten feet, and are called Roch-
Snakes; the latter are aquatic animals, and infest the Indian seas. They:
are swift swimmers, feed on fishes, and are extremely poisonous.

The Order of Ophidians terminates with a curious genus of animals, the
anatomical and physiological structure of which approximates them to the
Batrachians. Their eyes are excessively small, nearly hidden by the skin,
and sometimes wholly absent, whence their generic name, Cacinta. They
inhabit the warm regions of both continents, and live, for the most part, be-
neath the surface, sometimes in marshy places several feet under ground.
One species, the C. dwmbricoides, is totally blind, two feet in length, of a
blackish color, and about the thickness of a goose quill. :

An inyestigation of the cerebral structure of the Ophidians shows that, in
point of mental power, they occupy nearly the lowest place in the scale of
being. Stupid and dull to the last degree, it is difficult to conceive how
such a brute could have been adopted by all the old mythologies as a symbol
of wisdom. The traditional serpent of the poets and mythologists is no-

ORDER IV. BATRACHIA.—FROGS AND TOADS. 157

where to be found among existing species, and, consequently, we may con-
clude never had a being except in fable. And yet this most stupid and dis-
gusting of all creatures was, in many ancient systems, as the Eeyptian and
Scandinavian, an emblem of the conservative power of Nature. A Chris-
tian sect was called by its name (the Ophidians), and employed serpents in
their religious ceremonies as a type of the Infinite Wisdom. Traces of
snake worship may also be found in the Old Testament. With our instine-
tive antipathy to the serpent, and the experience of that crawling horror
which its presence, and even the thought of it, inspires, we cannot conceive
how any human beings could ever have regarded it with other feelings, and
much less how they ever could have received it as a symbol of wisdom and
goodness. On the contrary, we feel that the terrible hideousness of the forms
of all, and the poisonous character of some, might well represent the Evil
Principle of the universe.

ORDER IV. BATRACHIA (Frogs and Toads).

The Batrachians, according to Cuvier, have but one auricle and one ven-
tricle to the heart, which, however, is disputed by Professor Owen. Their
two lungs are always equal (we here follow Baron Cuvier), and when young,
they conjoin to their gills, which give them a relationship with the class of
fishes. The creater number lose these gills upon attaining the perfect state,
the only exception being the Syrens, the Protei, and the Menobranchi,
which retain them at all ages. During the period of the retention of the
gills, the aorta, on proceeding from the heart, divides into a number of
branches upon each side, corresponding to that of the gills, the blood from
the gills returning through veins, which unite together towards the back into
a single arterial trunk, as in fishes. This trunk supplies the greater number
of the arteries which nourish the body, and even the vessels which conduct
the blood for respiration into the lungs. But in the species which shed their
gills, the vascular ramifications that communicate with them become obliter-
ated, excepting two, which unite together to form a dorsal artery, each
giving off a small branch to the lung of its particular side, so that the cir-
culation of a fish becomes thus converted into that of a reptile.

The Batrachians have no scales, but are clothed with a naked, smooth,
and moist skin, and, excepting one genus, have no nails to their toes. The
eggs are laid in the water, and the young bear little or no resemblance to
the form which they assume at maturity. Some of the species are vivip-
arous.

Genus Rana. —The Frogs. The Frogs are the most numerous, and

188 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS III. REPTILIA.

consequently the best known, group of the Batrachian family. They are
distributed through all regions, and, we believe, there is no land where their
singularly-varied voice is not heard, either as a harbinger of the opening
spring, or a sure prophecy of approaching rain. They have a somewhat
slender body, and four legs, the hinder ones very Jong, and the feet pal-
mated. “Their head is flat, the muzzle rounded, the mouth deeply cleft,
and the greater number have a soft tongue attached only to the lower part
of the gullet, but which extends forward to the jaw, and is doubled back
above. Their fore feet have only four toes, but the hinder sometimes show
the rudiment of a sixth. The males have, on each side, under the ear, a
delicate membrane, which is inflated with air when they croak.

“Their skeleton is entirely deprived of ribs. A cartilaginous plate, even
with the head, takes the place of tympanum, and renders the ear visible
externally. The eye has two fleshy lids, and a third, which is horizontal
and transparent, concealed by the lower one.

“The inspiration of air is produced simply by the movements of the mus-
cles of the throat, which, by dilating, draw in the air through the nostrils,
and, by contracting, whilst the orifices of the nostrils are closed by means
of the tongue, force the air into the lungs. Ixpiration, on the contrary, is
eflected by the contraction of the muscles of the lower belly.

“The eges are fecundated at the moment they are laid, and the young is
termed a Tudpole. It is at first provided with a long, fleshy tail, and a
small, horny beak, but with no other apparent members besides certain little
fringes at the sides of the neck. These disappear after some days, but
Swammerdam assures us that they still exist as gills underneath the skin.
The latter are minute crests, which are very numerous, attached to the four
cartilaginous arches, placed on each side of the neck, adhering to the hyoid
bone, and enveloped by a membranous tunic, which is covered by the gen-
eral skin. The water, entering by the mouth, to bathe the intervals of
these cartilaginous arches, passes out either by two orifices or by a single
one, according to the species, pierced through the external skin, either on
the middle or on the left side of the animal. The hind feet are gradually
developed to view, by little and little, while the anterior likewise appear
beneath the skin, but do not burst it for some time later. The tail is
absorbed by degrees. The beak falls, and occasions the genuine mandibles
to appear, which had previously been soft, and were concealed underneath
the skin. The gills shrink, and are obliterated, leaving the lungs to perform
their functions unassisted by them. The eye, which in the Tadpole was
only visible through a thinner space in the skin, becomes apparent with its
three lids. The intestines, previously very long, slender, and spirally contort-
ed, shorten, and acquire the enlargement of stomach and colon. The Tadpole

ORDER IV. BATRACHIA.—FROGS. AND TOADS. 139

lives solely upon aquatie vegetation, whilst the adult animal preys on insects
and other animal substances. Finally, the limbs of the Tadpole reproduce
the parts of them that had been mutilated, nearly as in the Newts.

“The particular epoch of these several changes varies according to the
species.

“In temperate and cold climates, the perfect animal buries itself, during
winter, under ground, or in the mud below the surface of water, where it
continues to live without food or respiration, beyond what of the latter is
effected by the surface of the skin.”

The active powers of this animal are astonishingly great, when compared
with its unwieldy shape; it is the best swimmer of all four-footed animals,
and Nature has finely adapted it for those ends, the arms being light and
pliant, the legs long, and endowed with great muscular strength.

The portion of brain which the Frog possesses is much less than might
be supposed from its make; the swallow is wide, and the stomach narrow,
though capable of being’ distended to an astonishing size; the heart, as in
all other animals that are truly amphibious, has but one ventricle, so that
the blood can circulate, whilst it is under water, without any assistance from
the lunes; these resemble a number of small bladders, joined together like
the cells of a honey-comb, and can be distended or exhausted at the crea-
ture’s will.

A single female produces from six to eleven hundred eggs at a time; but
this only happens once a year. The male is of a grayish brown color, but
the skin of the female is of a yellow hue; these colors grow deeper with
every change, which frequently happens every eighth day. The Frog gen-
erally lives out of the water; but, when the cold nights set in, it returns to
its native place, always making choice of those stagnant waters, at the bot-
tom of which it is most likely to remain concealed ; there it remains torpid
during the winter season; but it is roused into activity by the genial warmth
of spring. The croaking of these animals has long been considered as the
certain symptom of approaching rain; and no weather-glass can describe a
change of season with more accuracy than this vociferous tribe; and we
could hardly imagine that a creature of that size could send forth sounds
that would extend the distance of three miles. All very dry and hot seasons
are allowed to be injurious to the health of these animals; and, as they live
chiefly upon snails and worms, at those periods they find it difficult to pro-
cure a sufficiency of food. “The method they adopt to ensnare these unsus-
pecting creatures affords entertainment to the curious mind. When they
observe their destined prey approaching, for some moments they remain
immoyably fixed, and, when they are sufficiently near, spring suddenly
upon them, at the same time darting their long tongue from their mouth,

140 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS WT. REPTILIA.

which is covered with a glutinous substance, to which whatever it touches
adheres.”

The Frog is not only capable of existing with a small portion of nourish-
ment, but will live several hours after the head has been severed from the
frame; and schoolboys frequently, in the wantonness of cruelty, strip the
unfortunate creatures of their skin for the purpose of seeing how much vigor
they are possessed of, though suffering the most excruciating torture and
pain.

One species (Ceratophoros) has a very broad head, and a horn-like prom-
inence over each eye. The Dactylethra is a South African species, with
pointed toes. The Tree-frogs (//yla) have their toes formed into “a sort of
viscous palette,” by means of which they climb trees, where they dwell during
summer, feeding on insects. They seek the water, however, like the other
frogs, for the purpose of depositing their eggs, and spend the winter in a
state of torpor, buried in the mud.

Genus Buro.—The Toads. This group is composed of animals of a
most hideous and disgusting form. Their thick, squat bodies, covered with
tubercles, and a large swelling behind each eye, from the pores of which
exudes a fetid, milky secretion, renders them peculiarly disagreeable to, the
sight. A singular species, the Rana pipa, of Linneus, is peculiar to South
America. The body is horizontally flattened ; head large and triangular ;
tongue wholly wanting; tympanum concealed beneath the skin; small eyes
placed towards the margin of the upper jaw, and each of the front toes
split, at the tip, into four little points. It inhabits the obscure nooks of
houses in Cayenne and Surinam, and has a granulated back, with three lon-
gitudinal ranges of larger granules. The male places the eggs of the female
upon her back, where they are fecundated, upon which the female returns
to the water, the skin of her back swelling so as to form a number of cells,
which enclose each of the eggs, and wherein the young pass their tadpole
state until they have lost their tails, and developed their limbs, at which time
the mother returns to land.

Genus SaLnamManper. — The Salamanders. These animals were once
believed to have the power to resist excessive heat, and dwell comforta-
bly in the hottest fires. We need not say that no such creatures exist. The
opinion probably arose from the circumstance that the Salamander expresses
from the pores of its body a profuse liquid, which enables it, for a short
time, to withstand the action of fire.

They have an elongated body, four limbs, and a long, thick tail. The
head is flattened, and the jaws are armed with numerous small teeth. The
tadpoles breathe at first by gills, in the form of crests, three on each side
of the neck. The adults respire in the same manner as the frogs. The

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ORDER IV. BATRACHIA.—FROGS AND SALAMANDERS. 141

| terrestrial Salamanders only remain in the water during the tadpole state,
and when they return to that element to deposit their

| gos. The aquatic
| species (the Tritons) live almost entirely in the water.

One of the most remarkable characteristics of these animals is the power
which they possess of reproducing their limbs when they have been torn away.
| According to the experiments of Spollanzani, they renew, many times, succes-
sively, the same member after it has been severed ; and this with all its bones,
muscles, vessels, &e.

by Dufoy) in their recovering after having been long frozen up in ice.

Another faculty, not less singular, consists (as shown
The
egos are fecundated by fluid dispersed in the watery medium, which pene-
trates with the water into their oviducts. They lay long chaplets of eggs,
and the young appear fifteen days from the deposition of them, retaining

Modern

observers have distinguished several species, the males of which develop

their gills for a longer or shorter period, according to the species.

high, membranous, dorsal crests very early in the spring, which are absorbed,
and the remnants cast off, ere they leave the water, at the end of summer.
One, with a smooth, olive-colored skin like a frog, and handsomely spotted
with black, is common in stagnant waters; and two others, with a granu-
lated skin like a toad, and also spotted upon a much darker ground, and
punctuated with white, are (the first at least) equally so. All have the
under parts bright-orange color. Those with granulated skins resemble the
toads in the capability of remaining without food for a most extraordinary
period, in a state of imprisonment, having been found occasionally in closed
cavities, where they must have remained for many years.

Following the Salamanders, and somewhat allied to them, there are sev-
eral animals, some of which retain the gills permanently, while others do
not seem to possess them at all. The latter constitute the genus Menopoma.
These reptiles are peculiar to North America, and are called by the people
Fell-benders.

Among those which have the gills developed are the Menobranchi, the
Protei, and the Syrens.

They are about eighteen inches in length.

The Protez have three toes before, and but two

behind. The eyes are couched beneath the skin, thus adapting them to

their manner of living in subterranean waters.

The Syrens have a body

shaped much like that of the eel.
placed a little below the throat.

They have only two feet, which are

The head is flattened, and muzzle obtuse.

They have three branchial crests. They are small animals, although one
species, Syren lacertina, attains the length of three feet.

NO. XV. Gl

142 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

CLASS IV. PISCES. THE FISHES.

Wer now come to the consideration of the most numerous class of verte-
brate animals, which, in multitudinous variety, fills the ocean-world with
life, and the inland lakes and rivers with the perpetual spectacle of a joyous
existence. They inhabit all depths of the ocean (at least as far below the
surface as animal life is possible), the different genera occupying different
strata; and many of them are confined by geographical limits, although
some, and those generally the most useful to man, range through all oceans,
and appear to be at home in all seas. Many of them are interesting from
their extreme beauty and gorgeous colors, and others from their great utility
to mankind as articles of food. The most brilliant tribes inhabit the milder
regions of the globe, and flash their splendors among the coral-groves of the
tropical seas. All the colors of the rainbow are combined in the hues of
their scaly vesture; and as they dart from branch to branch among the
reefs of coral, through the clear and silvery water, each movement reveals
new combinations of tints which no art can ever equal.

There are over eight thousand species of fishes recorded by naturalists,
and probably there are thousands more in those distant seas which have
never yet been visited by civilized man. The fecundity of this class is
extraordinary. A single cod produces, each year, over nine millions of eggs,
and a sturgeon more than seven, while most of the other species are propor-
tionally prolific. And yet, preying upon each other as they do, and exposed

to numerous enemies besides, among whom is man, who destroys countless

millions annually, were it not for this remarkable increase, the sea would .

soon be without inhabitants.

The age of a fish may be ascertained by an examination of the scales,
which consist of concentric circles, the number of circles corresponding to
the number of years it has lived. Where seales are wanting, the age may
be determined by the number of rings on the articulating surfaces of the
back bone. The life of a fish is a constant struggle for existence, and the
ocean is the scene of perpetual warfare ; and, consequently, it is not proba-
ble that many live out the full term of existence. “But, if only few fishes

die a natural death, a life of liberty makes them some amends for their vio-

lent end. The tortured cart-horse and ox would, if they could reflect,
willingly exchange their hard lot and joyless existence for the free life of
the independent fish, which, from the greater simplicity of its structure, its
want of higher sensibilities, and the more equal temperature of the element
in which it lives, remains unmolested by many of the diseases to which the
warm-blooded, and particularly the domestic, animals are subject.”

me

FISHES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 143

Fishes are described by Cuvier as viviparous. vertebrata, with a double
circulation, and respiring through the medium of water. For this purpose
they have, on each side of the neck, branchiw, or gills, consisting of arches
of bones attached to the os hyotdes, or bone of the tongue; and to these
arches the filaments of the gills are attached, generally in a row upon each,
and having their surfaces covered by a tissue of innumerable blood-vessels.
‘The water taken in by the mouth passes through among the filaments of the
gills, and escapes by the gill-openings towards the rear. In its progress
through the filaments of the gills, the water imparts to these the oxygen of
the air which it contains, and receives carbon in return, the same as in the
lungs of an air-breathing animal. The gills of a fish do not decompose
water, so as to derive oxygen from it, but merely separate the oxygen from
the atmospheric air contained in the water; and hence, if water is deprived
of this air, or impregnated with deleterious gases, fishes cannot live in it.

As little can they bear the return of water entering at the gill-openings,
and escaping by the mouth; for, if a fish is held so that the water is made
to pass in this direction, it is as speedily drowned as if it were an air-breath-
ing animal. The blood is brought to the gills by the heart, which thus

answers to the right ventricle of warm-blooded animals; and from the gills

it is sent to an arterial trunk, lying immediately upon the under side of the’

back bone, which trunk is the left, or systematic, ventricle of the heart, and
sends the blood throughout the body of the fish,

Living habitually in water, which is of very nearly the same specific
eravity as their bodies, fishes have no weight to bear, but merely to propel
themselves through the water; and their form, and their organs of motion,
are all adapted to this one purpose, though varying in the species. In
many there is, under the spine, a membranous air-bladder, which the fish
can contract or expand, at pleasure ; and this is understood to alter its gray-
ity, and enable it to suspend itself at any depth in the water. Many fishes,
wanting this apparatus, have, however, nearly the same habits as others
which are possessed of it.

Progressive motion is effected by the tail striking alternately right and
left against the water, for which purpose the flexure of the spine is lateral,
whereas, in the other vertebrata, generally, the principal flexure is vertical ;
and perhaps the jet of water thrown backwards from the gill-openings may
assist. Thus a fish has but little use for extremities, and the parts analo-
gous to legs and arms are accordingly very short, terminating in a number
of rays analogous to fingers and toes; and these, covered by membranes,
form what are termed fins. The fins, answering to arms, are called pec-
torals, and those, answering to legs, ventrals ; and, besides these, there are
often fins on the back called dorsal, behind the yent called anal, and on the
extremity of the tail called caudal.

ees

144 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

The texture of the fins is important in classification. If the rays consist
of single bones, whether stiff or flexible, they are said to be spinous; and,
if they consist of a number of jointed pieces, divided at their extremities,
they are called soft or articulated.

The pectorals are attached to two bones immediately behind the gills, and
answering to the scapulars, which bones are sometimes imbedded in the
muscles, or attached to the spine, but generally to the bones of the head.
The pelvis rarely adheres to the spine; and it is often in advance of the
belly, and attached to the bones of the shoulders.

The vertebra have their proximate surfaces concave, and filled with car-
tilage, which forms the joints, and is gene rally continued by an aperture
through the centre of each vertebra. Spinous processes, upwards and
downwards, support the muscles, and maintain the vertical position of the
body ; but, as far as the cavity extends, the downward processes are want-
ing, and there are transverse processes, to which the ribs are sometimes
soldered by cartilages.

The head varies much in form, but, in general, consists of the same num-

ber of bones as in the other vetebrata —a frontal of six pieces, parictals of
three, occipitals of five, and five of sphenoid, and two of each temporal bone
included in the composition of the cranium.

Besides the brain, which is disposed as in reptiles, fishes have nodes, or
ganglions, at the base of their olfactory nerves. The nostrils are simple
cavities at the end of the muzzle, always pierced with two holes, and lined
by a regularly-plaited pituitary membrane. In their eyes, the cornea is
flat, and there is a little aqueous humor, but the crystalline lens is almost
spherical, and very hard. The body is usually clothed with a scaly cover-
ing, although there are several species which have no visible scales.

Wonderful as it may appear to see creatures existing in a medium so
dense that men, beasts, and birds must inevitably perish in it, yet experi-
ence proves that, besides those species, which we are in the daily habit of
seeing, the very depths of the immense ocean contain myriads of animated
beings, to whose very form we are almost strangers, and of whose disposi-
tions and manners we are still more ignorant. It is probable, indeed, that
the fathomless recesses of the deep contain many kinds of fish that are never
seen by man. In their construction, modes of life, and general desien, the
watery tribes are, perhaps, still more astonishing than the inhabitants of
either the land or the air. The structure of fish, and their adaptation to
the element in which they are to live, are eminent proofs of divine wisdom.
Most of them have the same external form (sharp at each end, and swelling
in the middle), by which configuration they are enabled to traverse their
native clement with greater case and swiftness. From their shape, men

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 145

originally took the idea of those vessels which are intended to sail with the
greatest speed; but the progress of the swiftest sailing ship, with the adyan-
tage of a favorable wind, is far inferior to that of fishes. Ten or twelve
miles an hour is no small degree of rapidity in the sailing of a ship; yet
any of the larger species of fishes would soon overtake her, play round her,
as if she did not move, and even advance considerably before her. The
senses of fishes are remarkably imperfect; and, indeed, that of sight is
almost the only one which, in general, they may be said to possess.

Since the time of Linnwus, several attempts have been made to classify
these numerous inhabitants of the watery element, and a number of systems
has appeared, which are more or less entitled to respect. That of Professor
Agassiz, founded on their scaly covering, is a very ingenious method, and
extremely useful in determining fossil species, but is not so applicable to
existing fishes as that of Baron Cuvier. We have chosen to follow the
latter, therefore, in this work. He first separates them into two grand
divisions, —the Bony Fisues and the Carritacinous Fisnes, — the for-
mer of which he arranges in six orders, and the latter in two.

BONY FISHES. ORDER I. ACANTHOPTERYGII (Spiny-fins).

The larger number of known fishes are comprised in this order. “ Their
characters are spinous rays in the first dorsal fin, if there are more than
one, and spinous rays in the first part, if there is one only; but sometimes,
instead of a first dorsal, they have free spines, without any connecting mem-
branes. The anal has also its first rays spinous; and there is, generally,
one such ray in each ventral. By the first ray of a fin is meant the one
nearest the head.”

Prrcipx&.— The Perch Family. This tribe is distributed over all parts
of the globe, and is distinguished, as a general thing, by its brilliant tints,
while some of the Perches are noted for their very gorgeous colors. Nearly
all of them are delicate eating, and as much sought after as the trout, pick-
erel, or bass.

They have an oblong body, covered with rough or hard scales, with the
gill-lid, or gill-flap, or often both, toothed or spinous in the margins. They
are mostly thoracic, or have the ventral fins under the pectoral, and are sub-
divided according to the number of gill-rays. Those in the first division
have seven rays in the gills, two dorsal fins, and the mouth is furnished with
rows of extremely minute teeth.

Genus Perca.—In this group is the P. fluvialis, or common Perch,

146 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCE

so well known in all the lakes and rivers of this country. Graceful and
quick in its movements, darting here and there in pursuit of its food, often- |
times turning its sides of green and gold to the sun, and flashing its brilliant
hues through the clear water, it offers a most interesting spectacle for observa-
tion. ‘There is scarcely a boy in the land who is not familiar with Perch
fishing ; and even now we remember the enjoyment, when a youth, we ex-
perienced in this sport, and particularly with what pride we returned home
2 ona

from a successful expedition, bearing the trophies of our skill strung
stick at our side.

Besides the genus Perea, this division contains fourteen genera, among
which is Labraw, the Bass (a marine fish), and Apogon, small fishes, of
a red color, found in the Mediterranean. The King of Mullets, or Beard-
less Mullet, belongs to this group. Some Perches of this division have two
dorsal fins, like the last, but lone, pointed teeth. They are all small fishes
peculiar to the warm regions of the east.

In the second division, they have also the same gill-rays, but only one
dorsal fin; and the genera are arranged according to the characters of the
teeth — Merous, the Great Perch, Serranius, the S ra-perch, and lnthias,
the Barber (a beautiful red fish of the Mediterranean, with metallic reflec-
tion), are found here. There are several other genera inhabiting the waters
of different parts of the world, most of them of extremely pleasing form
and appearance.

All the preceding Percidw have the ventrals placed immediately under
the pectorals, but there are others which have them upon the throat. They
comprehend several genera, the most remarkable of which are Trochinus,
the Weevers, and Uranoscopus, the Star-gazers.. The Weevers have the
head compressed, the eyes near each other, the mouth obliquely upwards,
the first dorsal fin short, but with a formidable spine on the first ray.
These fishes are small, but their powerful armor of strong, sharp spines
renders them nearly invulnerable to the attacks of their foes. They conceal
themselves in the mud, and inflict severe wounds, with their dorsal spines,
which are very painful, though it does not appear that the spines contain
any poisonous matter, as the fishermen believe. They are of a silvery
color.

The Star-gazers are so called, because the eyes are placed on the upper
surface of the nearly-conical head, directed towards the heavens. They are
cunning fishes, and catch their prey by concealing themselves in the mud,
through which they protrude a narrow slip, with which the mouth is fur-
nished behind the tongue, which attracts small fishes, and holds them fast.

The third division of the Percide comprises those which have the ventral
fins behind the pectoral. To this series belong the genera Sphyrena, the

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTIIOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 147

Sea-pikes, and MJudlus, the Surmullets. The first of these are powerful
and savage fishes, with oblong heads and projecting under jaws. One spe-
cies, SS. Barracuda, is as much dreaded, in warm seas, as the white shark.
Mullus is a very celebrated genus, and was well known to the ancients.
There are two species, the Striped Red Mullet and the Plain Red Mullet.
They are beautiful fishes, and “the luxurious Romans used to feast their
eyes on their changing colors, when dying, before they devoured their flesh.”

Tue Harp-cnerexs.— The second family of Acanthopterygii is thus
named on account of the singular appearance of the head, which is variously
mailed or defended by spines and scaly plates of hard matter. There are
several well-known genera,

Genus TricLta.— The Gurnards. These fishes derive their name from
the peculiar sounds which they utter on being taken out of the water.
“They have the head vertical, armed on each side with hard and rough
bones, two distinct dorsals, an air-bladder of two lobes, and extremely large
pectorals, by means of which they are able to leap to a considerable height out
of the sea. There are several species, among which the 7. euculus and 7.
hirundo are much esteemed for the table, although the latter is somewhat dry.”

Genus Prronotus. — This is a fish peculiar to this country, resembling

“support the

the former genus, but with pectorals so large that they can
body during a considerable leap through the air.”

Genus DacryLorrerus. —The fishes of this group have the sub-pec-
toral rays numerous, longer than the body, and united by a membrane,
by means of which they leap into the air to escape the pursuit of their ene-
mies; but, as they cannot fly, they soon ‘fall back again to become the
victims of their relentless foes. They belong to the Mediterranean and
Indian Oceans; they are small fishes, not more than a foot in length.

Genus Corrus. — The Bull-head. A depressed head, teeth in both jaws,
the gill-lids furnished with spines, gills with six rays and large openings,
bodies slender, and without visible scales, two dorsals, and small vertical
fins are the distinguishing characters of this class. They frequent both the
sea and rivers. The River Bull-head is said to evince the same parental
affection for its ova as a bird for its nest, returning quickly to the spot
where they are deposited, and being unwilling to quit it when disturbed.

Genus Arrpornorus. —The Pogge. This is a singularly-formed fish,
sometimes called the Armed Bull-head. The body is octangular, and coy-
ered with scaly plates, and its snout is furnished with recurved spines. It
frequents our rivers, and all the shores of the Northern Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.

Genus Scorpana.—Some of the species are gregarious, having their

148 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS IV. PISCES.

[
|
| haunts among the rocks. With the exception of their armed and tuber-
culated heads, they resemble the perches. Their spines are considered
poisonous. As a general thing, the fishes of the Hard-check family are all
very disagreeable in appearance, and most of them entirely useless to man as
food, and, with the exception of the following group, totally devoid of interest.
Genus Gastrrosteus. — The Stickleback. This fish receives its name
from the free spines on the back, and a bony covering on the belly. There
are several species, chiefly distinguished by the number and character of
| their spines. They inhabit both salt and fresh water. The Stickleback is a
small fish, but extremely voracious. It is, however, one of the few fishes
which exhibit anything like an affection for their progeny. It possesses the
parental instinct to a remarkable degree, and manifests much skill in the
construction of the nest which it prepares for its spawn. After the fish has
collected the materials, it covers them with sand, glues the walls with a
mucous secretion, and prepares a suitable entrance. At a later period, it be-
comes the bold and indefatigable defender of its eggs, repelling, with tooth and
_ prickles, all other Sticklebacks that approach the nest. If the enemy is too
| powerful, it has recourse to artifice — darts forth, seems actively engaged in
the pursuit of an imaginary prey, and succeeds in diverting the aggressor’s

attention from its nest.

Tun Sermxtp.2.— The third family of bony fishes is thus named. They
also resemble the perches, but have no teeth on the palate. The muzzle is
thickened, and there are a few scales on the dorsal fins. There are over
twenty genera, many of them distinguished for their fine colors. Most of
them are foreign, but quite a number are found in American seas, among
which are Ofolithus, with weak anal spines, no cirri, and some elongated
or canine teeth; Coreina, with small, crowded teeth, and the second anal
spine rather strong; Johniuws, much esteemed as food, the flesh being white
and easy of digestion; Z’ques, with a long and compressed body, elevated
at the shoulders, and tapering to the tail; and HZ@mulon, with a lengthened
muzzle, resembling that of a hog, and the lower jaw compressed, opening
very wide, and of a bright red, on which account, in the West Indies, they
are called “ Red-throats.”

The Mediterranean has a remarkable genus (the Umbrina), distinguished
| by a cirrus on the lower jaw. It is an extremely beautiful fish, of a golden
ground color, with bright bands of steel blue. It sometimes attains the
_ weight of forty pounds, and its flesh is highly esteemed.

THe Sparm«®2.—Sea-bream tribe. The Sparide constitute the fourth.
family of bony fishes. In general appearance they resemble the Scéwnide.

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 149)

They have no teeth on the palate, and no scales on the fins. The first
division of this family comprises five genera, which have the sides of the
jaws set with round, flat teeth, of remarkable strength. Among them is
the Genus Curysoruris, the Gilt-heads, one species of which, C. auratus,
is a large and beautiful fish, with a golden eyebrow. They all have very
strong teeth, capable of crushing the hardest shells. Most of the members

of this family are foreign fishes, and nearly all are noted for their fine colors.

Tue Menipm.—The fifth family of the Acanthopterygii comprises
only four genera. They differ from the last in the great extensibility of
the upper jaws, which is advanced or withdrawn by means of lone, inter-
maxillary pedistes. The genera Mena and Smaris inhabit the Mediter-
The first of these has a body like that of a herring — lead colored
on the back, and silvery on the belly. The third genus, Cwsto, belongs to
Indian Ocean, and the fourth, Geres, to the Atlantic. The latter has a

projectile mouth, and is much esteemed for the fine quality of its flesh.

ranean,

SQUAMIPENNES. — Sealy-finned. The sixth family of bony fishes are
thus named because the soft, and often spinous, parts of their dorsal fins are
so covered with scales as not to be easily distinguished from the rest of their
These fishes abound in warm seas, and are celebrated for the

They are found near rocky shores, and their flesh

bodies.
beauty of their colors.
is very palatable and nutritious.

Genus Crmtropon. — The generic name of these fishes is derived from
the peculiar brush-like appearance of the teeth. They all resemble each
other, even in their colors, being marked with a black band which passes
over the eye. In some there are several vertical bands; others have them
longitudinal or oblique; some have brown spots on the flanks; some have
glossed bands on the vertical fins, and one or two ocellated spots. Some of
them are also distinguished by filaments, produced from the soft rays of the
dorsal, and others have very few spines in that fin.

Genus Cretmon. — This fish is remarkable for the length of its snout,
at the extremity of which is its mouth, which is furnished with fine teeth,
One species, C. rostratus, found near the shores of Southern
When it sees

like hairs.
Asia, has a most extraordinary method of hunting its prey.
a fly alighting on any of the plants which overhang the shallow water, it
approaches, with the utmost caution, coming as perpendicularly as possible
under the object of its meditated attack. Then, placing itself in an oblique
direction, with the mouth and ears near the surface, it remains a moment
immoyable, taking its aim like a firstrate rifleman. Having fixed its eyes
directly on the insect, it darts at it a drop of water from the tubular snout,
NO. XV. 72

150 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

but without showing its mouth above the surface, from which only the drop
secins to rise, and that with such effect, that, though at the distance of four,
five, or six feet, it very seldom fails to bring its prey into the water. An-
other small East Indian fish, the Towotes jaculator, belonging to the same
family, catches its food by a similar dexterous display of archery. There are
ten other genera, mostly found in foreign seas.

Hleniochus (Coachman) have the first spines of the dorsal, and particu-
larly the third and fourth, extended into filaments, like a whip, and often
twice the leneth of the body.

Ephippus (Morseman), with a deep notch between the spinous and soft
portions of the dorsal, the first of which has no scales, and can be folded
into a groove on the back.

ScomBertp..— The Mackerel tribe. The Scomberida compose the

seventh family of bony fishes. They comprise, as Cuvier well remarks, a
vast number of genera, numerous species, and countless individuals.
Genus Scomper. —The Mackerel. This fish has a long, slender body,
beautifully colored, and nearly smooth, the scales being yery small. It
quickly dies on leaving the water, exhibits, for a short time, a phosphores-
cent light, and loses, ina great measure, the brilliancy of its hues. It is
not surpassed by any fish in its commercial value ; for, either fresh or salted,
it is a common article of food, at all seasons of the year, in the families of
nearly all civilized nations. It is an extremely voracious animal, and makes
ereat hayoe among the herring-shoals, although its own length is only from
twelve to sixteen inches. It ranges through all the seas of North America
and Northern Europe, and is everywhere esteemed as one of the most valu-
able of our edible fishes. In winter, it retires into deep water, probably at.
no great distance from the shores, where it appears during the summer and
autumn in such countless numbers.

The Mackerel is taken with seines, and with the hook and line; the latter
method is by far the most interesting and exciting sport. It bites greedily
at every bait, and often at the bare hook.

The vessels fitted out for this fishing are generally small schooners of from
twenty-five to sixty tons burthen, the largest of them carrying a crew of
from eight to ten men. When the fishing-ground is reached, the vessel is
“hove to,” and the deck prepared for action. The lines are furnished with
two hooks each, and are fastened to “ belaying-pins,” inserted in the cap-
ping of the bulwarks. One man tends two lines, and has placed near him,
on the right, a barrel to receive his prey. The gills of the Mackerel are
very tender, and the fisherman is not obliged to disengage the fish from the

hook with his fingers, as is the case with the cod and many other kinds of

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). L51

fish, a slight jerk of the arm being sufficient for the purpose, and which
lodges the Mackerel securely in the barrel with his brother-victims. When
the biting is “lively,” the work is more like sport than toil, as the excite-
ment takes away from the fisherman all sense of fatigue, and he stands by
his lines, drawing them in, one after another, with the greatest rapidity, and
without intermission, hour after hour.

A bait of ground fish is thrown out to ¢o/e the school up to the vessel ;
but the Mackerel is a very capricious animal, sometimes rushing at the
hooks, baited or unbaited, with perfect madness, for hours, and at others
refusing to bite for days together. We haye been among schools of Mack-
erel for two or three days, when their incalculable numbers actually darkened
the water, and yet not a single individual would be tempted to touch the hook.

The business of Mackerel-catching in this country commences in the
spring, off the coasts of Florida. As the summer advances, the shoals
migrate to the north, and later in the season the whole coast is alive with
them from Newfoundland to the capes of Delaware, when the waters of the
Atlantic, along the American shores, studded with countless numbers of
fishing-vessels, present a very animated spectacle.

This fishing appears to be prosecuted with equal zeal on the other side of
the ocean, especially on the coasts of Great Britain. In an interesting work,
entitled Wild Sports of the West, we find the following lively picture of
Mackerel-catching off the Irish shores : —

“It was evident that the bay was full of Mackerel. In every direction,
and as far as the eye could range, gulls and puffins were collected, and, to
judge by their activity and clamor, there appeared ample employment for
them among the fry beneath. We immediately bore away for the place

where these birds were numerously congregated, and the lines were scarcely

overboard, when we found ourselves in the centre of a shoal of Mackerel.
For two hours we killed these beautiful fish, as fast as the baits could be
renewed and the lines hauled in; and when we left off fishing, actually
wearied with sport, we found that we had taken above five hundred, includ-
ing a number of the coarser species, called Ilorse-mackerel. There is not,
on sea or river, always excepting angling for salmon, any sport comparable
to this delightful amusement: full of life and bustle, everything about it is
animated and exhilarating; a brisk breeze and fair sky, the boat in quick
and constant motion, all is calculated to interest and excite. He who has
experienced the glorious sensations of sailing on the Western Ocean, a
bright autumnal sky above, a deep-green, lucid swell around, a steady
breeze, and as much of it as the hooker can stand up to, will estimate the
exquisite enjoyment our morning’s Mackerel-fishing afforded.”

Nearly all of the Scomberidw family visit the shores in summer for the

ee ee

152 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

‘
purpose of “depositing their spawn, and they subsist, in great part, upon
the fry of the later spawners, as those again live upon theirs, which is a
beautiful adaptation, whereby the immense surplus of one family of fish
adequately supplies the wants of another.”

The genus Scomber is separated into several sub-genera. They are the
Gempylus, whose ventral fins are scarcely perceptible; the Cybiwm, found
in the warm parts of both oceans, some species of very large size; the
Souda, common in the Black Sea and Mediterranean; the Awa?’s, found on
the Mediterranean, of a fine blue on the back, with oblique blackish lines,
and the flesh deep red. A West Indian species attains an extremely large
size; Orcynus, with long pectoral fins, blackish back, and silvery belly,
visits, during the summer, the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean in
numerous shoals. But the following sub-genus is the chief of the tribe.

Tuynnus.— The Tunny. This celebrated fish has a soft corselet of
large scales on the thorax, a cartilaginous keel between the crests and
the sides of the tail, and the first dorsal approaching the second. It abounds
in the Mediterranean, where it is often found from fifteen to eighteen feet
in length. It is captured in vast numbers, and constitutes an essential
article of food. The flesh is as solid as that of the sturgeon, but is much
more finely flavored. Pennant affirms that he saw one killed in 1769 which
weighed four hundred and sixty pounds.

Tunny-catching, according to Mr. Yarrell, is a very important business
in the Mediterranean. He says, “In May and June, the adult fish rove
along the coast in large shoals and triangular array. They are extremely
timid, and easily induced to take a new, and apparently an open, course, in
order to avoid any suspected danger. But the fishermen take advantage of
this peculiarity for their destruction by placing a lookout or sentinel on some
elevated spot, who makes the signal that the shoal of Tunnies is approach-
ing, and points out the direction in which it will come. Immediately a great
number of boats set off, range themselves in a curved line, and, joining their
nets, form an enclosure, which alarms the fish, while the fishermen, drawing
closer and closer, and adding fresh nets, still continue driving the Tunnies
towards the shore, where they are ultimately killed with poles.

“But the grandest mode of catching the Tunny is by means of the French
madrague, or, as the Italians call it, tonnaro. Series of long and deep nets,
fixed vertically by corks at their upper edges, and with lead and stones at the
bottom, are kept in a particular position by anchors, so as to form an en-
closure parallel to the coast, sometimes extending an Italian mile in length ;
this is divided into several chambers by nets placed across, leaving narrow
openings on the land side. The Tunnies pass between the coast and the
tonnaro; when arrived at the end, they are stopped by one of the ecross-

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 153

nets, which closes the passage against them, and obliges them to enter the
tonnaro through the opening which is left for them. When once in, they are
driven, by various means, from chamber to chamber to the last, which is
called the ‘chamber of death.’ Here a strong net, placed horizontally, that
can be raised at pleasure, brings the Tunnies to the surface, and the work of
destruction commences. The tonnaro fishery used to be one of the great
amusements of rich Sicilians, and, at the same time, one of the most con-
siderable sources of their wealth. When Louis XIII. visited Marseilles,
he was invited to a Tunny-fishery, at the principal madrague of Morgiou,
and found the diversion so much to his taste, that he often said it was the
pleasantest day he had spent in his whole progress through the south.”

There are several species of Tunny, of which the bonito is the most strik-
ing. It forms the principal food of the sword-fish.

Xupuias.— This genus comprises the Sword-fishes, which, in their in-
ternal organization, minute scales, and the power of their caudal fin, resem-
ble the tunnies. Their principal characteristic, however, is a long, pointed
beak, formed like a sword or spit, which terminates their upper jaw, and is
a most formidable weapon. The gills are not divided, “but each consists of
two large and parallel lamin, with reticulated surfaces.” Their movements
are extremely swift, when pursuing their prey, but often their motions are very
slow and deliberate, and we have frequently seen them, for a considerable
period, apparently at rest, showing the apex of the dorsal fin above the
surface.

Niphias gladius, the species common in our waters, attains a length of
about fifteen feet. As the remarkable beak, or sword, that distinguishes
this fish, is not required or employed in procuring its food, which consists
chiefly of small fishes, especially the bonito, it must probably be regarded
as a weapon of defence against the attacks of powerful enemies. The stories
regarding the warfare made by the sword-fish upon the whale are, undoubt-
edly, “fables of the sea,” which have come to be believed from their long
repetition.. Experienced and intelligent whalers repudiate all these tales as
impossibilities. Yet it is true that, when in eager pursuit of its prey, — the
bonito, —it sometimes unintentionally, and unfortunately for itself, rushes
against a whale, and loses its sword in the whale’s blubber, which does not
materially injure the latter, while the sword-fish is irreparably damaged
thereby. In the same way, while similarly engaged, it has been known fre-
quently to run against the sides of a ship, and thrust its sword through its
thick and strong timbers. We have seen such timbers, with the broken
weapon still adhering. But these must be considered accidental and unin-
tentional encounters. :

There are several varieties of this fish; one, Tetrapturus, has a beak

154 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

shaped like a stiletto, and another, /s¢éophorus, has a beak like the preced-
ine, but the dorsal fin high, serving as a sail in swimming. All of the
eroup are of large size, and the flesh, especially that of NVphias gladius,
is much esteemed.

Centronotus. — This genus is distinguished by having free spines in-
stead of the first part of the dorsal; all the species are furnished with ven-
tral fins. The best known representative of the class is, —

Naucrates ductor, the Pilot-fish, which has a spindle-shaped body, free
dorsal spines, and two free spines before the anal. The South American
black species attains the enormous length of eight or nine feet. The Med-
iterrancan Pilot-fish does not exceed a foot in length, but is an extremely
swift and voracious animal, following in the wake of ships, accompanied by
sharks, which it was formerly supposed (erroncously) to lead, whence its
name. The following sub-genera are, —

Helacates, form and dorsal spines like the last, but the head flattened,
and the keel and anal spines wanting.

Lichia, has dorsal and anal spines on the back, one of the former lying
flat and direct forwards, but the body is compressed, and no keels on the
tail. There are several species in the Mediterranean, all eatable, and some
of large size. Trachinotus, merely has the body a little more elevated, and
the dorsal and anal longer and more pointed.

RiyNcuoppeLLa. —In their spinal structures the fishes of this group
resemble the former genus, but have no ventrals. The sub-genera are, —

Mucroguathus, with a pointed, cartilaginous muzzle, projecting beyond
the lower jaw, and the dorsal and anal separate from the caudal. JZes-
tacenbelus, jaws equal, and dorsal and anal joined to the caudal. Both
inhabit the fresh waters of Asia, and feed on worms, in search of which
they plough up the sand with their cartilaginous noses; their flesh is much
esteemed.

Noracontiuus. — The waters of the Arctic Ocean are the home of this
genus, where individuals are sometimes found- two feet and a half long.
They have a pointed, cartilaginous muzzle, abdominal ventrals, and a long
anal reaching to the top of the tail. }

SeRIOLA. — This genus resembles lichia, has a horizontal spine before
the dorsal, but the dorsal spines united by a fin, a small fin with two spines
before the anal, and no keel on the lateral line. One species is the Milk-
fish of Pondicherry, so much esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh. There
are several other species in both oceans.

Nomews, resemble the last, but have large ventrals attached to the abdo-
men by their inner edge; color, silvery, with transverse black bands on the
upper part. Has been confounded with the gobies.

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ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 155

TremMNopON (Blue-fish). Tail unarmed, spines or small fins before the anal,
first dorsal small, second and anal small, scales, one row of trenchant teeth in
each jaw, with small, crowded ones behind, and on the vomer, the parietals,
and tongue; seven rays on the gills, and the gill-lid forked. There are spe-
cies common to both oceans, and about the size of the common mackerel.

Caranx, have the lateral line, with scaly plates, keeled, and often spinous,
horizontal spine before the first of the two dorsals, last rays of the second
dorsal often detached, some spines or a small fin before the anal. These
fishes do not appear to have any geographical limits, but are found in all
seas. They resemble mackerel, and are called Bastard or Horse-mackerel,
and they sometimes make their appearance in immense shoals, literally
“banking the sea.” They feed on the fry of herrings, and are not in much
estimation as food.

“Vomer. — This genus have the body more and more compressed and cle-
vated in the different sub-genera, while the armature on the lateral line
diminishes, and the skin becomes smooth, like satin, without any apparent
scales. They have no teeth, except short and fine ones crowded together ;
and the sub-genera are chiefly distinguished from each other by various fila-
mentary prolongations of some of the fins. The following are the sub-
genera : —

© Olistus. — These resemble Scttu/w, a sub-genus of Caranx, but the mid-
dle rays of the second dorsal are not branched, but merely articulated, and
extend in long filaments.

“ Scyris. — Nearly the same in form and filaments, but the spines of the
first dorsal hidden in the edge of the second, and the ventrals short.

* Blepharis, has long filaments to the second dorsal and anal, the ventrals
very long, and the spine scarcely above the skin; their body is very ele-
vated, but their profile not so vertical as that of some of the other sub-
genera found in the warm seas; and, in the West Indies, one species is
called the “ Cobbler.” Gallus, similar to the last in all respects except hay-
ing the profile more vertical. Argyrezosws, has the profile still more ver-
tical, the first dorsal definitely formed, and some of its rays extended in
filaments, as well as those of the second dorsal; the ventrals are also very
long.”

Zeus, the Dory, has the first dorsal deeply notched between the spines,
and the intermediate membranes extend into long filaments, together with
the forked spines along the basis of the dorsals and the anal. One species,
the Common Dory (John Dory), is yellowish-brown, with golden or silvery
reflections, according to the position of the light, with a round black spot
margined with white on the shoulders. “The Dory has been a renowned fish
since the days of the ancients, who styled it not the fish of Jove, but Zeus,

ee erm LEE

156 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

that is, Jove himself. The monks also claimed it as the ‘ Tribute-money-
fish,’ from the black marks of the thumb and fingers of St. Peter on the
| shoulders, in which it is the rival of the haddock, neither of which fishes
Peter had any chance of seeing. It is still held in great estimation by epi-
cures; and, being a ground fish, it keeps two or three days, and is all the
| better for it.”

Following the Zeus, and resembling it in many of its characters, are the
genera Capraus, the Boar-fish ; Lampris, a large fish of the Arctic seas, of
a violet color, spotted with white, and having red fins; Hquula are small
fishes of the Indian Ocean; some of the species have a projectile snout,
with which they surprise their prey. Nearly motionless, the deceitful snout
contracted and concealed, they wait till the small fry, on which they feed,
are within reach, when they suddenly project the treacherous muzzle, and
sweep the victims into their hungry jaws; MJenqas is also an inhabitant of
the Oriental seas, of a silvery color, with a black spot near the back; Séro-
mateus resembles the foregoing, with the exception that its muzzle is blunt
and non-protractile ; Peprilus “has the pelvis trenchant and pointed before
| the vent;” “Lavanus, some species of which are of large size, of a silvery
color, with a red back; Seserdnes is a small Mediterranean fish, and Aurtus
is found in the Indian seas,

CoryriLe@Na (Dorades, or Gold-fishes), the Dolphins of the ancients and
of the modern Hollanders. They have the body long, compressed, and coy-
ered with small scales; the head trenchant in the upper. part; a single
dorsal, which extends the whole length of the back, with flexible rays the
whole length, but the anterior ones not jointed, and they have seven rays in
the gills. The following are the sub-genera : —

Coryphena, the Coryphene, properly so called, have the head much ele-
vated, the profile curved and descending rapidly ; they have teeth in the
palate, as well as in the jaws. They are large and splendidly-colored
fishes, celebrated for the velocity of their motions, and the havoe which
they commit among the flying-fishes. “ C. Aépparis, the common Cory-
phene, is found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. It is a brilliant fish,
and drives through the water like a radiant meteor. Its long dorsal is sky
blue, with the rays gold colored ; its tail-fin green; its back green, mottled
with orange, and its belly silvery, divided from the former by a yellow lat-
eral line. As it passes along, however, there is an extraordinary play of
colors upon it; and it is one of the fishes, with the changes of whose col-
ors, when dying, the luxurious Romans’ used to gloat their depraved fancy.
Some of the Indian species are brighter colored than this one; and, indeed,
all the Seomberidw have a tendency to get blackish in the cold seas, and
brilliant in the warm ones, owing to the greater effect of the solar light in

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGIL (SPINY-FINS). 157

the latter, for the sunbeam is Nature’s pencil, down even to the deepest fish
or pearl shell.”

Curanaxvamores. — These fishes differ from the above in having the head
oblong and less elevated. The other sub-genera are the Centrolophes, Pter-
aclis, and Astrodermus. The last is found only in the Mediterranean. It
has a very long dorsal. The body is silvery, spotted with black, and the
fins are red.

Te te (Ribbon-shaped Fishes). — These singular-looking creatures
compose the Aighth Family of the Acanthropterygii. They have long
bodies, flattened on the sides, and very small scales. They are separated
into three tribes ; those comprised in the first have an elongated muzzle, the
mouth deeply cleft, and armed with strong, trenchant teeth, and the lower
jaw projecting beyond the upper. There are two genera.

Lermworus. — The Seabbard-fish. It derives its name from the peculiar
form of the ventrals, “which are merely two scaly plates. The body is

thin and long. One species, L. argyreus, is sometimes found four or five
feet in length. It often swims with the head out of the water, and is ex-
tremely rapid in its motions.”

Tricniurus (Hair-tail).— These fishes have many characters like the
last, but “have no ventral, anal, or caudal fins, excepting a few little spines
on the ‘under side of the tail, which terminates in a hair-like point.” When
seen laterally in the beams of the sun, they appear like “ beautiful silver rib-
bons.” There are several species in the Indian Ocean. One, 7. Lepturus,
is found in the Atlantic. It is of a shining, silvery color, with grayish-
yellow fins, the dorsal mottled with black on the edge, and the irides are
golden.

The second tribe is composed of such of the Twnide as have the mouth
small and little cleft.

Gyuyerrus. — The fishes comprehended in this genus have a long and
flat body, with a long dorsal, but no anal fin. They are remarkably tender,
their bones soft, their fins extremely frail, and their flesh rapidly decomposes.
They inhabit the Atlantic, Arctic, and Indian oceans, and the Mediter-
ranean, and are sometimes found ten feet long.

SryLernorus. — This genus has a caudal fin like the last, though not so
long; “and instead of the tail ending in a hook in the middle of the fin, as
it does there, it is produced in a filament longer than the body.”

The third tribe consists of three genera, which have the muzzle short, and
cleft obliquely.

Seroia. — This genus has a long dorsal and anal fin, and the top of the
cranium flattened. The Red Snake-fish belongs to this group.

NO XV. 73

158 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

Loprnorrs. — These fishes belong to the Mediterranean. They have a
short head, with an osseous crest, surmounted by ¢ spine.

Tusuryes. —'The Laneet-fishes. These form the Winth Family of the
Spiny-fins. They have a compressed, oblong body, small mouth, and a
sinzle row of trenchant teeth in the jaws; but their distinguishing charac-
ters are the short, lance-like spines on the sides of the tail, and a horizontal
one before the dorsal. ‘Their spines are extremely powerful, and are used
very eflicaciously as weapons of defence. Their food is fue’, and other
marine plants. The family is small; we know of but six genera, most of
them inhabiting the Oriental seas.

Puaryncin.ze Lanyrinritorm. The Tenth Family of Spiny-fins.

By the term Pharyngine labyrinthiforme, is meant, that the upper mem-
branes of the pharynx are divided into small, irregular leaves, more or less
numerous in the different genera, containing cells between them, which the
| fish can, at pleasure, fill with water, and, by ejecting a portion of this
water, moisten its gills, and thus continue its circulation while out. of its
proper element. From this contrivance of Nature herself, we are to
understand that, if the gills of a fish can be kept properly moistened, by
salt water or by fresh, according as the fish is naturally an inhabitant of one
or the other, it may be carried alive over land to an indefinite distance. By
means of this apparatus, these fishes are enabled to quit the pool or rivulet,
which constitutes their usual element, and move to a considerable distance
over land. This singular faculty was unknown to the ancients ; and the peo-
ple in India still believe that these fishes fall from heaven.

In cold and temperate climates this apparatus is not necessary, because
all the ponds and streams there, which are capable of supporting fish, are
perenmal, and never dried up, except in seasons of extreme drought, when,
of course, all the fishes perish. But in tropical countries, where the seasons
are alternate drought and rain, there is neither food nor water for a fish dur-
ing the one season, and plenty of both during the other. Hence these fishes
are furnished with this peculiar apparatus in the pharynx, by means of
which they are enabled to follow the water over dry obstacles, and, in some
of the species, to climb steep banks, or even trees, in the course of their
instinctive journeys. The following are the genera :

Awnanas. — The Climbing Perch of India. This genus has the labyrinths
highly complicated ; the third pharyngi have pavement teeth, and there are
others behind the cranium; the body is round in the section, and covered
with strong scales; the head is large, the muzzle short and blunt, and the
mouth small; their Jateral line is interrupted for the posterior third; the
margins of the operculum, super-operculum, and inter-operculum are strong-

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS) 159

ly toothed, but there are no teeth in the pre-operculum ; their gills have five
rays ; they have many spinous rays in the dorsal and anal, and their stomach
is of middle size, rounded, and with three coecular appendages td the
pyrolus. Only one species is known, which not only quits the water, and
inoves over banks, but is said by Daldorf to climb bushes and trees by
means of its dorsals and the spines on the gill-lids ; but others dispute the
latter power. This species is very common in India.

Potyacantuus has the spinous rays as numerous as the last genus, or
even more so, and the same mouth, scales, and interrupted lateral lines,
but the gill-lid is not toothed ; the body is compressed ; there are four rays
in the gills, a narrow band of small, crowded teeth in the jaws, but no pal-
atal teeth; the labyrinths are less complicated, and the pyrolus has only
two coecular appendages.

Macroropus differs from the last in having the dorsal less extended, and
that in the caudal and ventral ending in slender points; the anal is also
larger than the dorsal.

Hesosroma have a small, compressed mouth, so protractile as to advance
from and retreat to the sub-orbitals: they have small teeth on the lips, and
some on the jaws of the palate; five gill-rays, on the arches of which,
towards the mouth, there are lamelle resembling the external ones; the
stomach is small, and has only two pyrolie coeca, but their intestine is long ;
the air-bladder is very stout.

OsPHROMANUS is so called from a conjecture, apparently erroneous, that
the labyrinths of the pharynx are organs of smell, resembles Polyacanthus,
but has the forehead concave, the anal longer than the dorsal, the sub-
orbitals and inferior edge of the pre-operculum finely toothed, the first soft
ray of the ventrals very long, six gill-rays, the body much compressed. One
species, O. alfax, grows as large as a turbot, and is considered more deli-
cious. It has been introduced into ponds in the Isle of France and Cayenne,
where it thrives well. The female, as in many other species of fish, digs a
cavity in the sand for the reception of her eges.

Tricnoropus has the forehead more convex than the last, a shorter dor-
sal, and only four gill-rays. The only known species is a small fish from
the Oriental Isles, of a brownish color, with a dark spot on the side.

Sprroprancuus resembles the Anabas, but has no teeth on the gill-lids,
but teeth in the palate. ‘The only known species is a minute fish of South-
ern Africa.

OpuicerHawus, like the rest of the family in most of its characters, es-
pecially in the pharyngeal labyrinth, and can creep for some distance over
land; but it differs from all other Acanthropteryeii in having no spines in
the fins, except a short one on the first of the ventrals; the body is long

160 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

and cylindrical; the head flat, and covered with polygonal plates; the
dorsal extends nearly the whole length ; the anal is also long, and the caudal
round it; they have five gill-rays; the stomach is obtuse, with moderately
long coeca, and the abdominal cavity extends nearly to the base of the
caudal. They are found in India and China, of various species, and differ-
ent sizes. In the former country, the jugglers, and even the children,
amuse themselves by making it crawl along upon dry ground; and, in
China, the larger ones are cut up alive for sale in the markets.

“All the genera and species of this family are fresh-water fishes; and
they have not hitherto been found, except in the south-east of Asia and the
adjacent islands, and in Southern Africa.”

Mucitipa. — The Mullets. This tribe composes the Lleventh Family
of the Order Acanthopterygit.

There are three genera— Mugil, Tetragonurus, and Atherina. The
last occupies a place between the Mullets and Gobies. It has two dorsals
far apart, and yentrals behind the pectorals. It is a small fish, but the flesh
is delicate. There are numerous species. Tetragonurus comprises but one
species, which inhabits the Mediterranean. It is of a black color, about a

foot long

g, and its flesh is poisonous.

Mugil, the Mullet, properly so called, must not, however, be confounded
with the Red Mullets, either plain or striped, which are included in the
Perch family. Their organization has so many peculiarities that they
might be formed into a separate family. Their body is nearly cylindrical,
covered with large scales, two separate dorsals, with only four spinous rays
in the first, and the ventrals are a little in rear of the pectorals. Their head
is a little depressed, covered with large, angular, scaly plates; their muzzle
is short; their form is an angle, in consequence of a prominence at the
middle of the lower jaw; and their teeth are very small, and, in some,
almost imperceptible. They have six gill-rays; the bones of the pharynx
give an angular form to the gullet; their stomach terminates in a fleshy
gizzard, resembling that of a bird; they have few coecal appendages, but
the intestinal canal is long and doubled. They are gregarious, resorting to
the mouths of rivers in large troops, and constantly leaping up out of the
water. They feed, in part, upon small crabs and other crustacea, which
they swallow entire. There are several species found in the European seas,
of which the flesh is much esteeemed. MW. Jabéo is an American fish. It is a
small species, but has proportionally larger lips than the European Mullets.

Gobiopa.—The Gobies. Twelfth Family of the Order Acanthop-
terygtt.

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 161

Thinness and flexibility of the dorsal spines are the peculiar characteris.
tics of this family. The genera are quite numerous.

Briennius. — “ The Blennies have one well-marked characteristic in their
ventral fins, inserted before the pectorals, and having only two rays each.
They live in small troops, among rocks near the coast, swimming and leap-
ing, and can exist for some time without water. Their skin is covered with
a mucous secretion, whence they have their common name, Blennies. Many
of them are viviparous, bringing forth their young alive, fully formed, and
capable of subsisting by themselves.”

There are several species —all small fishes, and of no value to man.
The B. phadlis is said to be remarkably tenacious of life, being capable of
living many days if kept in moist grass or moss.

From this genus, the following sub-genera have been separated : —

Myxodes, with a lengthened head and pointed muzzle; Salarias, an in-
habitant of the Indian Ocean; Clinus, with short-pointed teeth in several
rows; Cirrhibarba has a little filament over the eye, one in the nostril,
three longer ones at the end of the muzzle, and eight under the point of the
lower jaw. It is found in Oriental seas; Jurcnoides, the Spotted Gun-
nel, has the ventral smaller than in the others, and the body lengthened like
a sword-blade. It is eaten by the Greenlanders ; Opistognathus has the
short snout of the true Blennies, rasp-like teeth, and three rays in the ven-
trals, which are directly under the pectorals. It belongs to the Indian
Ocean; Zoarcus comes nearer to the true Blennies, though it has but one
spinal ray; Z. dabrosus is an American fish, of an olive color, with brown
spots, and specimens are sometimes found three feet in length ; Anarrichas,
the last of this series, is an extraordinary fish. “The whole body is soft
and slimy; the parietal bones, vomer, and mandibles are hard, with stout,
bony tubercles, surmounted by small, enamelled teeth; but the front teeth
are much larger and conical. This structure of the teeth gives them an
armature which, added to their large size, makes them both fierce and
dangerous fishes.”

One species, 4. lupus, the Sea-wolf, inhabits the northern seas, and is
often met with. It is six or seven fect long, of a brown color. Its flesh is
like that of the eel, and is salted by the Icelanders for food.

The Anarrhicas lupus has six rows of grinders in each jaw, excellently
adapted for bruising the crabs, lobsters, scallops, and large whelks, which
this voracious animal grinds to pieces, and swallows along with the shells.
When caught, it fastens, with indiscriminate rage, upon anything within its
reach, fighting desperately, even when out of its own element, and inflicting
severe wounds if not cautiously avoided. © Schinfeld relates that it will
seize on an anchor, and leave the marks of its teeth behind, and Steller

| 162 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

informs us that one, which he saw taken on the coast of IKKamtschatka, fran-
tically seized a cutlass, with which they attempted to kill it, and broke it
in pieces, as if it had been made of glass. No wonder that the fishermen,
| dreading its bite, endeavor as soon as possible to render it harmless by
heavy blows upon the head. The great size of the monster, which in
the northern waters attains the length of six or seven feet, and in the
colder and more extreme northern seas is said to become still larger, ren-
ders it one of the most formidable denizens of the ocean. It commonly
frequents the deep parts of the sea, but approaches the coasts in spring to
deposit its spawn among the marine plants. Fortunately for its more active
neighbors, it swims but slowly, and glides along with the serpentine motion
| of the eel. :
“Gopius, the Gobies, or Sea Gudgeons, are easily recognized by the
union of their ventrals, which are thoracic, and united, either for their
whole length or at their basis, into a single hollow disk, more or less fun-

nel-shaped. The rays of the dorsal are flexible, their gills have five rays

fe)

only, and, like the blennies, they have but little gill-opening ; they can live

| for some time out of water. Like the blennies, also, their stomach has no
cul-de-sac, and their intestines no ceca. In their reproduction, they further
resemble the blennies ; and some species, as in these, are known to be vivip-
arous. They are small or middle-sized fishes, which live among rocks near
the shore, and most of them have a simple air-bladder.”’

They admit of division into the following sub-genera : —

Gobius, comprehending the Gobies, properly so called. They have the
ventrals united for the whole of their length, and also a transverse membrane
joining their basis in front, so as to form the whole apparatus into a con-
eave disk. The body is lengthened, the head moderate and rounded, the
cheeks turgid, and the eyes near each other, and they have two dorsal fins,
the last of which is very long. Several species inhabit the European seas,
the characteristies of which are not sufficiently ascertained. They prefer a
clayey bottom, in which they excavate canals, and pass the winter in them.
In spring, they prepare a nest in some spot abounding with sea-weed, which
they afterwards cover with the roots of zostera (grass-wrack). Here the
male remains shut up, and awaits the females, which successively arrive to
deposit their eggs; and these he fecundates, and exhibits much solicitude
and courage in defending them from enemies. The Goby is the Phycis of
the ancients ; according to Aristotle, “the only fish that constructs a nest.”

Gobius Niger. —The Black Goby is a small species, five or six inches
long, and is of no value, except as bait for other fish. It is one of the few
fishes that evince affection for their progeny. It prepares a nest for its eggs.
This fish inhabits the slimy bottoms of the lagoons near Venice, and burrows

ORDER I. BONY FISITES. ACANTHOPTERYGIL (SPINY-FINS). 163

galleries in the clayey soil, where it spends the greater part of the year, pro-
tected against storms and enemies. In spring, it digs more superficial
dwellings among the roots of the sea-grass, to which the spawn attaches
itself. The architect watches over the entrance of the house, opposing sharp
rows of teeth to every intruder.

The sub-genus Goboides differs from Gobius only in having but one dorsal
fin; Zenotdes has a more lengthened body, eyes very small and almost hid-
den, and cirri on the lower jaw ; L/eotris has flexible spines in the first dorsal,
ventral fins separate, and six gill-rays. The fishes of this group live in the
mud, at the bottom of streams, in the warm countries ; Callionynaus has, in-
stead of gill-openings, a single hole on each side of the nape, the ventrals
are longer than the pectorals, and are placed under the throat, the head is
oblong, and the eyes are directed upwards. These fishes are adorned with
fine colors; Zrichonotes has wide gill-openings, a lengthened body, and a
single dorsal, the first ten rays of which are extended in long threads ;
Comephorus has an oblong muzzle, gills with seven rays, very long pec-
torals, but no ventrals. This fish inhabits the Lake of Baikal, and is valued
on account of its oil; Chérus has a somewhat long body, with small, cili-

ated scales, and a dorsal fin extending along the entire back. This fish is

found only in the Sea of Kamtschatka; Per‘opthalimus has the head scaly,
eyes with a movable underlid, and the pectorals scaly for more than half
their length, which gives the appearance of having wrists. As the gill-
openings of these fishes are much smaller than those of the Gobies, they
can live for a longer period out of water. Fleeing from their enemies, or
pursuing their prey, they are often seen creeping or leaping along the muddy
marshes of the Molucea Islands, which they inhabit.

PectoraLes Pepuncunati. Thirteenth Family of the Order Acan-
thopterygtt.

The name given to this singular family signifies /Vshes with wrists to their
pectoral fins.

“There are some spinous fishes in which the carpal bones are so elongated
as to form a sort of arm or wrist, to the extremity of which the pectoral fin
is articulated. The family consists of genera closely allied to each other,
though authors have sometimes placed them far apart in their arrangements ;
and they are also related to the Gobies, particularly to Periopthalmus, al-
ready noticed. This is a very peculiar structure of the fins, and gives these
fishes a strange appearance, enabling them, in some instances, to leap sud-
denly up in the water, and seize prey which they observe above them; and
in others to leap over the mud, somewhat after the manner of frogs.

“Lopuius. — Anglers. The distinguishing characteristic of these, besides

164 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

their demi-cartilaginous skeleton, and their skin without scales, consists in
the pectoral being supported as by two arms, each consisting of two bones,
which may be compared to the radius and ulna of an arm, but which, in
reality, belong to the carpus, or wrist; and, in this genus, they are larger
than in any other. They are also characterized by having the ventrals
placed much in advance of the pectorals, and by having the operculum and
the gill-rays enyeloped in the skin, so that the gill-opening is merely a hole
situated behind the pectoral. They are voracious fishes, with a large stom-
ach and a short intestine; they can live a long time out of the water, in
consequence of the small size of their gill-openings. They admit of division
into three sub-genera.

“Lophius. — These fishes have the head excessively large compared to the
body, very broad, depressed, and spinous in many parts; the mouth deeply
cleft, and armed with pointed teeth, and the lower jaw fringed round with
many fleshy barbules. They haye two dorsal fins, and some rays of the
first are free, and move on the bones of the head, where they rest on a
horizontal, inter-spinal process. In the Angler, or Fishing-frog, the motions
of these detached rays are very peculiar. Two are considerably in advance
of the eyes, almost close to the upper lip; the posterior of these is articu-
lated by a stirrup upon a ridge of the base, but the anterior one is articulated
by a ring at its base, into a solid staple of the bone, thus admitting of free
motion in every direction, without the possibility of displacement, except in
case of absolute fracture. The third one, which is on the top of the cranium
behind the eyes, is articulated much in the same manner as the posterior one
of the other two; and, of course, though these two have considerable motion
in the mesial plane of the fish, they have a very little in the cross direction.
The one near the lip, however, can be moved with nearly the same ease and
rapidity in every direction ; and, while the others terminate in points, it car-
ries a little membrane, or flag, of brilliant metallic lustre, which the fish is
understood to use as a means of alluring its prey; and the position of the
flag, the eyes, and the mouth, certainly would answer well for such a pur-
pose. The gill-membrane forms a large sac, opening in the axilla of the
pectorals, supported by six very long rays, and with a small operculum.
They have only three gills on each side. It is said that these fishes lurk in
the mud, where, by agitating the rays on their heads, they attract smaller
fishes, which mistake the appendages upon the rays for worms, and which
are instantly seized, and transferred to the gill-sac. Their intestines have
two or three short ceeca near the commencement, but the fishes have no air-
bladders.”

L. Piscatorius, the Fishing-frog, Sea-devil, and many other local names,
attains sometimes the length of four or five feet, and the extreme hideous-

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTIIOPERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 165

ness of its appearance has procured it some celebrity. Such is its propen-
sity to keep its great mouth in exercise, that, when captured in a net along
with other fishes, it speedily begins to swallow it companions, especially if
flounders, which appear to be its favorite food. On some coasts it is sought
for on account of the live fish in its stomach, its own flesh being but small
in quantity, and held in little estimation.

The Sea-devil is a slow swimmer, and would often be obliged to fast if
it did not resort to stratagem. Crouching close to the ground, it stirs up
the sand or mud, and, hidden by the obscurity thus produced, attacks
many a prize by leisurely moving to and fro the two slender and elongated
appendages on its head, the first of which, the better to deceive, is broad
and flattened at the end, inviting pursuit by the shining, silvery appearance
of the dilated part.

“ Comronecres. — These haye, like the last genus, free rays on the head,
of which the first is small, and often terminating by a tuft; and those be-
hind it are enlarged by a membrane, which is sometimes very broad, and
at other times they are united into a fin. Their body and head are com-
pressed, and their mouth opens vertically. Their gill-membranes have four
rays, and have no opening but a small hole behind the pectorals. Their
dorsal extends along the whole back, and they often have cutaneous appen-
dages all over their bodies. They have four gills, a large air-bladder, and
a moderate intestine without ceca. They can inflate their great stomach
with air, in the same manner as the Tetrodons blow up their bellies
like balloons. On the ground, their two pairs of fins enable them to crawl
along like quadrupeds ; and the pectorals, in consequence of their position,
perform the functions of hind legs. They can live out of the water for two
or three days. They are found only in the seas of warm countries, and
AMneas confounded many of them under the name of ZL. Aéstréo. In some
of the muddy estuaries on the north coast of Australia, from which the tide
ebbs far back in the dry season, these frog-fishes are so abundant, and eapa-
ble of taking such vigorous leaps, that those who have visited the places
have, at first sight, taken them for birds.”

The Frog-fish of the Asiatic Islands and the Southern Hemisphere is not
more remarkable for its hideous deformity than for its capacity of leading a
terrestrial life. Not only can it live several days out of the water, but
a facility which it owes

it can crawl about the room in which it is confined
to the great strength and the peculiar position of its pectoral fins, which
thus perform the office of feet. The whole aspect of these grotesque-
looking creatures, particularly in a walking position, is so much like that
of toads or frogs, that a careless observer would, at first, be at some loss to
determine their real nature.

NO. XV. 74

166 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

Matrnus. — These have the head greatly extended and flattened, prin-
cipally by the projection of the sub-operculum ; the eyes are forwards; the
snout projecting, with a little horn; the mouth under the muzzle, of mean
size, and protractile; the gills sustained by six or seven rays, and opening
by a hole above each pectoral. They have a simple dorsal, which is soft
and small, and there are no free rays in the head. The body is studded with
osseous tubercles, and bordered round with cirri. They have neither coeca
nor air-bladder.

The remaining genus of this family is Batrachus, the Frog-fishes, prop-
erly so called. They have the head flattened horizontally, and much larger
than the body; the gape deeply cleft; the operculum and sub-operculum
spinous ; six gill-rays; the ventrals straight, attached under the throat, with

3

only three rays, of which the first is broad and lengthened ; the pectorals

are carried by a short arm, resulting from an elongation of the carpal bones ;
| their first dorsal is short, supported by three spinous rays; the second is soft
and long, and has the anal corresponding to it; their lips are often garnished
with filaments; their stomach is an oblong sac; their intestines are short,
and without coeca; and their air-vessel is anteriorly deeply forked. They
lurk in the sand, in order to swallow small fishes, in the same manner as the
members of the last genus; and it is thought that wounds inflicted by their
spines are dangerous. They inhabit both oceans. In some the scales are
smooth, and they have a membrane over the eye. Others are scaly, and
want that membrane.

Laprip®.— Rock-fish tribe. The Fourteenth Family of the Order
Acanthopterygtt.

In this family are found several of our most valuable and delicious table-
fishes. They have generally an oblong body, covered with scales, and a
single dorsal, supported anteriorly by spinous rays, often furnished with
membranous laminw. The jaws are covered by fleshy lips. There are three
bones in the pharynx — two upper ones attached to the cranium, and a large
under one. All the three are furnished with teeth, arranged like a pave-
ment in some, and pointed, or in laminz, in others, and of unusual strength.

The Labride are a numerous family, constituting two great genera, many
sub-genera, and a multitude of species.

Lanrus. — The characteristics of this genus are an elongated body, cov-
ered with large, thin scales; a single dorsal fin, extending nearly the whole
leneth of the back, part of the rays spinous, the others flexible ; behind the
point of each spinous ray, a short filament ; lips large and fleshy, whence
the generic name of Labrus; teeth conspicuous, conical, sharp; cheek
and operculum covered with scales; pre-operculum and operculum without
serrations or spines.

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGIL (SPINY-FINS). 167

In the summer of 1869, I had an opportunity, through the politeness of
J. A. D. Worcester, Esq., proprietor of the Mattapoisett House, Matta-
poisett, Mass., of examining the three following species of Labri, which
were caught in Buzzard’s Bay, directly in front of that popular hotel, where
they are usually very abundant : —

L. Americanus. — The Black-fish, or Tautog. The favorite haunts of
this fish appear to be among the rocks of Mattapoisett Harbor, and the
waters in the vicinity of New Bedford. The species exhibits a considerable
variety of markings, although generally it is bluish-black above, varied with
bands and blotches, which become darker towards the abdomen, which is
whitish. The head is nearly without scales; lips thick and fleshy ; eyes cir-
cular ; pupils blue-black ; and the lateral line rises just above the operculum,
and curves with the body. The pectoral fins are of the color of the abdo-
men, and rounded at the extremity. The ventrals are situated a short
distance back of the pectorals, and are dark-colored above, and white
beneath.

The excellence of this fish has caused it to be transferred into Massachu-
setts Bay, where it seems to flourish quite as well as in the more southern
waters, large numbers being taken annually all along the coast. The Tau-
tog varies much in size, very large specimens being sometimes met with.
A few years ago one was taken in Mattapoisett Harbor, which weighed
fourteen pounds and three ounces. ‘The flesh is very delicate, and in great
demand among epicures.

L. Squeteague. —The Otolithus regalis of Cuvier. Weak-fish, or
Squeteague.

Dr. Storer, in his report on the Fishes of Massachusetts (1837-8),
says, —

* This species, which was, some years since, found in large numbers about
Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard, has, of late, entirely disappeared. Dr.
Yale, of Holmes’ Hole, writes me, ‘The Sgueteague has deserted these
waters; there has not been one taken for three or four years about here ;
they left about the time the Blue-fish came.’ Hlon. H. Barnard, of Nan-
tucket, also says, “The Squeteague, or Weak-fish, have disappeared since
the return of the Blue-fish, which are their avowed enemy. Our fishermen
say they have not seen one for six years.’ Thus it appears, that while
the Blue-fish was absent, they were abundant, and at the appearance of
the Blue-fish, they left us.”

Ihave no reason to doubt the general correctness of this statement re-
garding the eccentric movements of the Squeteague, — their long and mys-
terious absence from their usual haunts, — but I am quite sure the cause
must be sought-for in something very different from the one here assigned,

168 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

inasmuch as the Blue-fish and Squeteague are now (1869) both found
abundantly in the same localities ; and I have recently sat at a table where
both these fishes (caught in the same waters) were comprised in the bill of
fare.

Dr. Mitchell’s description of this fish is as follows : —

“Size commonly from a foot to fifteen inches.” (I have seen one nearly
two feet long.) “He never goes into fresh streams, or ponds, but, within
the limits of the salt water, is taken in almost all the places where rock-fishes
are caught. The Weak-fish is so much the companion of the basse, that I
once gave him the specific name of Comes. Head and back brown, with fre-
quently a tinge of greenish. The spaces towards the sides faintly silvery,
with dusky specks. These gradually disappear on the sides, until, on de-
scending to the belly, a clear white prevails from the chin to the tail. J/outh
wide. Jaws toothed, and, in the upper mandible, one, two, or three teeth
in front, larger and stronger than the rest, and resembling the fangs of ser-
pents. Throat, in front of the esophagus, armed above and below with
collections of small teeth. Eight softish rays in the foremost dorsal fin.
Pectoral, dorsal, and caudal fins light or pale brown, inclining sometimes
to yellowish. Anal and ventral fins pale yellow. Tuc even. Lower jaw
longer than the upper. Lateral line arched upwards, and, after its descent,
runs quite to the extremity of the caudal fin. Tongue yellow, with minute
black dots around the fore part; concave, with a soft and flexible margin ;
has a frenum. The swimming-bladder is convertible to a good glue. I
have eaten as fine blanc-mange from it as from the isinglass of the sturgeon.
He is a fish of a goodly appearance, and is wholesome and well tasted,
though rather soft. Is brought to market in great numbers during the
summer months. He is taken by the line and the seine. He is called
Weak-fish, as some say, because he does not pull very hard alter he is
hooked ; or, as others allege, because laboring men, who are fed upon him,
gre weak, by reason of the deficient nourishment in that kind of food.

“Certain peculiar noises under water, of a low, rumbling, or drumming
kind, are ascribed by the fishermen to the Squeteaque. Whether the sounds
come from these fishes or not, it is certain that, during their season, they
may be heard coming from the bottom of the water, and in places fre-
quented by Weak-fish, and not in other places; and when the Weak-fish
depart, the sounds are no more heard.”

In this last peculiarity, it shows a relationship to Pogonias, the Drum-
fish.

L. Versicolor. — Pagrus argyrops (Cuvier). — Scup, Porgee, Seapaug.
The length of the Porgee, or Scup, is from eight to twelve inches. The
general color is a lustrous silvery, varied with reddish-brown and_ blue.

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 169
The dorsal fin is composed of twenty-four rays — twelve spinous and twelve
membranous. It abounds in Buzzard’s Bay, and large quantities are also
taken at New Bedford, Holmes’ Hole, and in the Vineyard Sound, which
supply the Boston market. It is always a favorite on the table.
The European seas furnish several species. LZ. maculalus, the Balloon
Wrasse, is a foot or eighteen inches long, with twenty or twenty-one spines
in the dorsal. Its color is blue or greenish above, white below, marked all
over with yellow, and sometimes the yellow predominates.

This species is numerous upon the British shores, though they are not
very often caught; and, from the variations of their colors, they are not
easily identified.

selyes in fuci, and are understood to feed chiefly on crustacea.

They frequent deep pools among the rocks, hide them-
If the fish-
ermen know their haunts, they take a bait freely; and, according to the
report of Mr. Couch, the first taken are always the largest. They frequent
the rocky shores only. They spawn in April; and the fry, which are then
of small size, remain among the rocks during the summer. It is understood
that the blue color, which appears to be characteristic of the high condition
of the fish, is very evanescent. LZ. (éneatus, the Lineal-streaked, is more
clouded, has irregular bands along the flank, the ground of which is reddish,
and the dorsal spines are less numerous, and the soft part of the fin lower,
than in the former species. This species is named as a British fish, but it
appears to be exceedingly rare. L. variegatus, the Blue-streaked, is one
of the most beautiful of the family, of an orange red, paler on the belly,
haying the sides and irides striped with fine blue. The lips are capable of

It

is found in the British seas, but only on the south and south-west coasts.

great extension, and there is a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw.

LL. vetula is dark purple, black on the upper part, paler on the belly, and
has the fore part of the head flesh-colored, tinged with purple, and the eye-
lid blue.
four light spots, and three black ones intermediate, extending from the
It belongs to the Mediter-

LL. carneus, the Three-spotted Wrasse, reddish in the color, with

middle of the dorsal to the root of the caudal.
ranean, but has been found on the Channel-coast of England, in the Firth
of Forth, and even on the coast of Norway, and in the Baltic.

Among the sub-genera are the following, which are all foreign, with one
exception : —

Chellinus, differs from Labrus, properly so called, in having the lateral
line interrupted at the end of the dorsals, where it recommences a little
lower down. They are beautiful fishes, inhabiting the Indian seas.

Lachnolaimus (Captains), have the general characteristic of Labrus ; but
their pharynx has no pavement-like teeth, except in the posterior part, the
remainder of them, as well as a part of the palate, being covered with a

170 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

villous membrane. They are easily known by the first spines of the dorsal,
which extend in long, flexible threads. They are American fishes.

Julis have the head entirely without scales, and the lateral line forming a
curve near the end of the dorsal. There are some in the Mediterranean,
but they are more numerous in the tropical seas. They are generally small,
but beautiful fishes: some are violet, some bright scarlet, some rich green,
and some marked with golden color; and those which have the caudal fin
rounded, or truncated, have the first dorsal rays extended in long fila-
ments.

Ananipses have the characteristics of the last, with the exception of two flat
teeth, which project from the mouth, and curve upwards. The two known
species are from the Indian seas.

Crentlabrus. — They have the true characteristics of Labrus, both ex-
ternal and internal, and differ only in having the border of the pre-operculum
toothed. Some species are found in the North Sea, — such as Lutjanus ru-
prestis of Bloch, yellow, with clouded bands ranged vertically, and blackish ;
L. Norvegicus, brownish, irregularly marked with deep brown ; L. melops,
orange, spotted with blue, and a black spot behind the eye; LZ. exoletus,

remarkable for five spines in the anal fin. The Mediterranean furnishes a
number, most beautifully colored, the most splendid of which is L. /apina,
silvery, with three broad longitudinal bands, composed of vermilion dots,
with the pectorals yellow, and the ventrals blue. They are also abundant
in the tropical seas; and many species, hitherto included in the genus La-
brus, ought to be placed here. Several species of this sub-genus occur in
the British seas, the chief of which are — Crentlaubrus tinca, the Gilt-
head; C. corneticus, the Gold-sinny; C. gibbus, the Gibbous Wrasse ;
and C. leustas, the Scale-rayed Wrasse; but they are all small fishes, .in
little or no estimation.

Coricus. — This sub-genus has all the characteristics of the last, in addi-
tion to which the mouth is little less protractile than in the next. Only one
stall species is known, which inhabits the Mediterranean.

Lpibulus. — These fishes are remarkable for the extreme extension which
they can give to their mouth by means of a see-saw motion of their maxil-
laries, and the sliding forward of the intermaxillaries, which instantly forms
a kind of tube. They make use of this artifice for seizing small fishes
which pass near this curious instrument; and the same artifice is resorted
to by the Corey, the Zez, and the Smares, according to the degree of pro-
tractility of the mouth. The entire body and head of this sub-genus are
| covered with large scales, the last track of which advances upon the anal
and caudal fins, as in Chedlinus. The lateral line is similarly interrupted as
in the latter; and, as in Lubrus, there are two long conical teeth in the

ORDER I. BONY FISHES. ACANTHOPTERYGII (SPINY-FINS). 171

front of each jaw, followed by smaller blunt ones. The known species is
from the Indian seas, and is of a reddish color.

Clepticus. — This sub-genus has a small cylindrical snout, which is sud-
denly advanced forward, but which is not so long as the head. The teeth
are small, and barely perceptible to the touch; the body is oblong; the
lateral line continuous; and the dorsal and anal are enveloped in scales
nearly to the top of the spines. One species, of a red-color, and from the
West Indies, is the only one known.

Gomphosus. —- These Labride, with the head entirely smooth, as in Julis,
have the muzzle in the form of a tube, composed of the prolonged maxil-
laries and intermaxillaries, as far as the small opening of the mouth. Sev-
eral species are taken in the Indian Ocean, and the flesh of some is
considered delicious.

Scarus. — The Seari resemble the Labridw in their oblong form, large
scales, and an interrupted laterai line. Several species are found in tropical
seas, which, on account of their brilliant colors, and the form of their jaws,
are called Parrot-fishes. One species, S. cretécus, inhabits the Archipel-
ago, and is remarkable for the change that takes place in its color, being at
one season blue, and at another, red. This fish was much valued by the
ancients ; and the Roman admiral, Elipertius Optatus, during the reign of
Claudius, went to Greece to obtain it, and distribute through the Italian

seas.

Fistunarwe. The Pifteenth Family of the Order Acanthopterygii.

According to Yarrell, the characteristics of this tribe are as follows : —

A single dorsal, most of which, as well as of the anal, is composed of
simple rays. The intermaxillaries and the lower jaw are armed with small
teeth. From the two lobes of the caudal proceeds a filament which is
sometimes as long as the body. The tube of the snout is very long and
depressed ; the scales are invisible. There are two genera.

Fistutarta (Pipe-mouths).— They have a cylindrical body. Their
head is equal to a third or a fourth of the length of the whole body, which is
itself long and slender. One species, /. serrata, is sometimes found on
our shores. ‘There are several varieties of these fishes, one of the most
remarkable of which is the 2’. Chinens?s, or Chinese Tobacco-pipe Fish.
They are curious creatures, but of no value to man.

DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

ORDER Il.—MALACOPTERYGII
ABDOMINALES.

BONY FISHES.

Cyprinip&. — The Carps. First Family of the Malacopterygii
Abdominales.

The fishes of this family have a shallow mouth, feeble jaws, often with-
out teeth, and the margin formed by the outer maxillaries ; but they have the
pharynx strongly toothed. They have few gill-rays, a scaly body, and are
the least carnivorous of the whole class, feeding on seeds, roots of plants,
and mud, and the slimy substance which gathers on the rocks in fresh waters.
It is a numerous family, at the head of which is the genus

Cyprinus. — The Carps have a small mouth, without a single tooth, three
flat gill-rays. They have a smooth tongue. “Their pharynx is a powerful
instrument of mastication, having strong teeth on the inferior pharyngeal
| bones; and they bruise their food between these and a strong disk, which is
set in a large cavity under a process of the sphenoid. They have .a long

dorsal fin, the second ray of which, as well as that of the anal, is armed

with a strong

C. Carpio.

spine.
— The Common Carp.

This fish is of an olive-green color

above, yellowish below.

Tt bears transportation, or rather colonization,

better than any of the class; and, from its home in Central Europe, it has
found its way into the Jakes and rivers of both continents. It was intro-
duced into England by Leonard Maschal, about the year 1514.

Gesner brings an instance of one that was a hundred

Carp are
very long-lived.
These fish are extremely
They

will sometimes leap over the nets, and escape that way; at others, will

years old. They also grow to a very great size.

cunning, and on that account are by some styled the iver Fou.

immerse themselves so deep in the mud, as to let the net pass over them.
They are also very shy of taking a bait; yet, at the spawning time, they
are so simple as to suffer themselves to be tickled and caught by anybody
that will attempt it.
a fortnight in wet straw or moss.

CU. sluratus. —The Golden Carp. These are the Gold-fishes and Silver-
They are black when young, but by degrees ac-

It is so tenacious of life that it may be kept alive for

fishes of our aquariums.
quire the golden red for which they are esteemed, though some of them are
silvery, with various clouds of all the three colors. Some have no dorsal ;
others, a very small one; others, again, have a caudal of three or four lobes ;
and others still, very large eyes, —all of which varieties are merely acci-

dental, and the results of that artificial treatment which they receive when

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. — MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 175

kept in glass vessels for ornamental purposes. They flourish in our northern |
ponds and streams, and bear well the rigors of the climate.

They are the pets of ladies, who complain that, like all other beautiful
things, they die early. They are careful to change the water, and keep
them clean, but forget that the Carp is a semi-carnivorous animal, with a
sharp appetite, and as much in danger of starving to death in his narrow
quarters as a land animal. In confinement, however, it is best to give them
animal food, such as worms, only occasionally, and let. their principal fare
be of pellets of stiff dough, made of flour and water only. All the food
that remains uneaten should be removed.

Barbus. — The Barbel, or Bearded-fish, is so named from the cirri at its
mouth. 2. communis, the common Barbel, known by its long head, was
so coarse as to be overlooked by the ancients till the time of Ausonius, and
what he says is no panegyric on it; for he lets us know it loves deep waters,
and that, when it grows old, it was not absolutely bad. It frequents the
still and deep parts of rivers, and lives in society, rooting, like swine, with
its nose in the soft banks. It is so tame as so suffer itself to be
taken with the hand; and people have been known to take numbers by
diving for them. In summer they move about during night in search of
food, but towards autumn, and during winter, confine themselyes to the
deepest holes. They are the worst and coarsest of fresh-water fish, and
seldom eaten but by the poorer sort of people, who sometimes boil them with
a bit of bacon, to give them a relish. The roe is very noxious, affecting
those who unwarily eat of it with a nausea, vomiting, purging, and a slight
swelling. It is sometimes found of the length of three feet, and eighteen
pounds in weight; it is of a long and rounded form; the scales not large.
Its head is smooth; the nostrils placed near the eyes ; the mouth is placed
below. On each corner is a single beard, and another on each side the
nose. The dorsal fin is armed with a remarkably strong spine, sharply ser-
rated, with which it can inflict a very severe wound on the incautious
handler, and even do much damage to the nets. The pectoral fins are of a
pale brown color; tke ventral and anal tipped with yellow; the tail a little
bifureated, and of a deep purple; the side line is straight; the scales are
of a pale gold color, edged with black ; the belly is white.

Gosio. — The Gudgeons. The Gudgeon is generally found in gentle
streams, and is of a small size; those few, however, that are caught in the
Kennet and Coln Rivers, in England, are three times the weight of those
taken elsewhere. The largest we ever remember to have heard of was taken
near Uxbridge, England, and weighed half a pound. They bite eagerly,

and are assembled by raking the bed of the river; to this spot they imme-

diately crowd in shoals, expecting food from this disturbance. The shape
NO. XV. 75

174 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

of the body is thick and round; the irides tinged with red, the gill-covers
with green and silver. The lower jaw is shorter than the upper; at cach
corner of the mouth is a single beard; the back olive, spotted with black ;
the side line straight; the sides beneath that silvery; the belly white. The
tail is forked; that, as well as the dorsal fin, is spotted with black.

Apramis. — The Bream. There are two species — the Carp Bream and
the White Bream. The first is largest, and most highly esteemed ; and the
other is of no value except as food for more interesting and yaluable
species.

The Carp Bream is found in all the great lakes, and in rivers which have
a gentle current, and a bottom composed of marl, clay, and herbage ; and
it abides in the deepest parts. It is taken mostly under the ice; and this
fishery is so considerable that, in some of the lakes belonging to Prussia,
there have been taken to the value of two hundred pounds at a time; they
are also caught in great quantities in Holstein, Mecklenburg, Livonia, and
Sweden. In a lake near Nordkiceping, there were taken at one time, in
March, 1749, no less than fifty thousand, weighing cighteen thousand two
hundred pounds. — It is extremely deep, and thin in proportion to its length.
The back rises much, and is very sharp at the top. The head and mouth
are small. The scales are very large; the sides flat and thin. The dorsal
fin has eleven rays, the second of which is the longest; that fin, as well as
all the rest, are of a dusky color; the back of the same hue; the sides yel-
lowish. The tail is very large, and of the form of a crescent.

Casrosromus. — The Suckers. This genus has a single dorsal fin; gill-
membranes three rayed; head and operculum smooth; jaws toothless and
retractile ; mouth beneath the snout: lips plaited, lobed, or carunculated,
suitable for sucking; and throat with pectinated teeth.

oe

All of the species are American, and very common in our rivers and
ponds. Although not much prized by fishermen, I have often eaten them,
and found them very palatable. The Black Sucker (CQ. nigricans), how-
ever, is the best for the table. They appear to feed on the slimy substance
which gathers on the surfaces of rocks, logs, and other objects sunk in the
rivers. I have frequently seen long rows of them attached by their sucking
mouths to these sludgy surfaces, their fins slightly agitated, and their bodies
undulating in the current, reflecting the sunbeams in numerous lustrous and
beautiful combinations.

CO. Bostoniensis. —This is the common Sucker, too well known to ev-
ery boy of the United States to need description.

C. Tuberculatus. —The Horned Sucker. Although this fish has been
taken in the rivers and ponds of the New England States, it is not very

common. Le Sueur describes a specimen found in Pennsylvania. It

SOPs

Serena t

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Sparus Paciatus

e Banded Gilt Head

Samuel Walker & Co

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ORDER II. BONY FISHES. —MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 175

is about fourteen inches in length, color dark brown above, yellowish on the
sides, and white beneath ; scales large, with golden reflections. The pectoral
fins are reddish, tipped with brown, and the ventrals are of the same color.
But the distinguishing characteristic of the species is its tuberculated or
horned snout.

C. Gibbosus. —The Gibbous Sucker, This species was discovered by
Le Sueur, in the Connecticut River, and he thus describes it : —

“Back elevated in front of the dorsal fin, which is almost as high as
broad, and rounded ; anal fin bilobated ; head nearly as high as lone; snout
short, roundish ; tail straight; caudal fin semi-lunated ; lobes roundish, the
inferior one longer than the upper. The color of the back is a deep blue,
with golden reflections; pectoral, ventral, and anal fins of a fine reddish
orange color; caudal fin tinted with carmine and violet ; dorsal fin bluish-
green; abdominal scales red at their base ; lateral line hardly perceptible ;
body marked with four or five faint transverse bands. Length of the speci-
men, eleven inches.”

This is a beautiful fish, but must be very rare, as I have never met with
it in the rivers of Maine or New Hampshire.

C. Nigricans. — The Black Sucker. Iam tempted here to introduce Dr.
Storer’s excellent description of this species. The specimen here described
was about fifteen inches in length.

“© Color of the back, black; sides reddish-yellow, with black blotches ;
beneath, white, with golden reflections. Scales moderate in size. Head
quadrangular, one fifth the length of the fish; top of the head of a deeper
black than the body. Eyes moderate, oblong ; pupils black; irides golden.
Mouth large; corrugations of the lips very large, particularly those of the
lower lip. The lateral line, arising back of the operculum, on a line oppo-
site the centre of the eye, makes a very slight curve downwards, and then
pursues nearly a straight course to the tail; it is composed of sixty scales.
Back, between the head and dorsal fin, rounded. The pectoral, ventral,
and anal fins are reddish. The caudal and dorsal blackish. The dorsal fin
in height is equal to two thirds its leneth. The third and fourth rays of
the anal fin, which are longest, extend a little on to the rays of the
caudal fin.

“Tn two of the eight specimens examined, there were but twelve rays in
the dorsal fin.

“Tn larger specimens than that just described, the back is not black, but,
together with the sides, is of an olive-brown color; in others, again, the
back is neither black nor olive-brown, but reddish, like the sides. In some
specimens, a longitudinal band, of a deeper red than the rest of the side, runs
the whole length of the fish, just beneath the dark-colored back. The

176 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

golden tints reflected from the opercula, and the scales along the entire sides
of this species, give it a very brilliant appearance.”
Leuciscus. — This group has a short dorsal and anal fin; no spines,

cirri, or peculiarities of the lips; the species are numerous, but not much
valued.

L. Crysoleucas. — The New York Shiner. This is a handsome species,
but not held in high esteem, except as bait for pickerel and other fish. It
is from six to seven inches long ; the prevailing color is bright golden ; the top
of the head and the back are black ; gill-covers more brilliant than the sides.
The dorsal fin is of a light-brown color; the pectorals are yellowish, except
| the upper rays, which are of a dusky black.

L. Argenteus. — The Silvery Leuciscus. This species is about six inches
in length, of a shining silvery color, darker on the back, and the top of the
head is blue.

L. Pulchellus. — The beautiful Leuciscus. This is a larger species, and
quite common in our ponds and streams. I have seen it in great numbers
in the rivers of Maine, have caught it on numerous occasions, and have fre-
quently eaten it, fried, as the perch is generally cooked, and found it a very
agreeable food. Its length is from twelve to fourteen inches ; the top of the
head is bluish; the gill-covers silvery, with flesh-colored tints; the sides
and abdomen of a beautiful flesh color, tinged with golden reflections, and
the back is of a dark brown.

L. Atronasus. —The Brook Minnow. There are few who are not famil-
iar with this pretty little fish, multitudes of which may be seen at almost
any time sporting in the shallow waters of our streams and ponds. They
are from one to two inches in length. The upper part of the body is of a
ereenish hue; a black band passes along the sides to the tail; the parts
beneath this band are white. The gill-covers are silvery, radiating gold
rays. These tiny creatures present a very pleasing appearance when they
are swimming in the sunshine, darting here and there in pursuit of their
food, or in the wantonness of play.

HWyprarcira.— This genus is characterized by teeth in the jaws and
throat ; protractile jaws; head flat, shielded above with large scales; the
ventral fins have six rays.

HH. Nigro-fasciata. — The Banded Minnow, a pretty little fish, two inches
long, of a golden-green color above, and a silvery-white beneath ; 77. ornata,
the Ornamented Minnow, nearly three inches long, found plentifully in the
creeks along the coast, of a dark-brown color on the back, belly white, and
sides brown, with metallic reflections; and the JZ. flavula, the Basse Fry,
| compose the group. The latter species is about five inches in length. The
upper part of the body is yellowish-green, the under part a brilliant yellow,

ORDER IL BONY FISHES. MALACOPTERYGIL ABDOMINALES. 177

and on each side are four dark-colored bands, running almost the whole
leneth of the fish. It derives it name from the resemblance of the bands,
which mark its body, to those of the “ Striped Basse.”

Esocip%.— The Pike Tribe. Second Fumily of the Malacopterygii
Abdominales.

The members of this family, with one exception, have the dorsal fin far
back, opposite the anal. Many species are found in fresh waters, and all
are extremely voracious. At the head of the series is placed the- genus

Esox. — The Pikes. They have an oblong, obtuse, and broad muzzle,
and small intermaxillaries, furnished with small, pointed teeth in the mid-
dle of the upper jaw, where they form two rows. The vomer, palatals,
tongue, pharynx, and gill-arches are “roughened with teeth, like a card ;”
and they have in the sides of the under jaw a row of long and pointed
teeth.

#. Lucius. — The Common Pike. This fish is noted in Europe for its
large size, strength, fierceness, and yoracity. It flesh is good, and easy of
digestion, and it is consequently a favorite dish on the table. It is common
in most of the lakes of Europe, but the largest are those taken in Lapland,
which, according to Scheffer, are sometimes eight feet long. They are
taken there in great abundance, dried and exported for sale. According to
the common saying, these fish were introduced into England in the reign of
Henry VII., in 1557. They were so rare, that a pike was sold for double
the price of a house lamb in February, and a pickerel for more than a fat
capon. All writers who treat of this species bring instances of its vast
voraciousness. We have known one that was choked by attempting to swal-
low one of its own species that proved too large a morsel. Yet its jaws are
very loosely connected, and have on each side an additional bone, like the
jaw of a viper, which renders them capable of great distention when it
swallows its prey. It does not confine itself to feed on fish and frogs; it
will devour the water-rat, and draw down the young ducks, as they are
swimming about. At the Marquis of Stafford’s Canal, at Trentham, Eng-
land, a pike seized the head of a swan, as she was feeding under water, and
gorged so much of it as killed them both. The servants, perceiving the
swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat,
and found both swan and pike dead. But there are instances of its fierce-
ness still more surprising, and which, indeed, border a little on the marvel-
lous. Gesner relates that a famished pike in the Rhone seized on the lips
of a mule that was brought to water, and that the beast drew the fish out
before it could disengage itself’; that people have been bit by these voracious
creatures while they were washing their legs; and that they will even

178 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

contend with the otter for its prey, and endeavor to force it out of its

mouth.
no match for a trout of equal weight, the greater velocity of the latter fish

Yet, it is said that the pike, with all its strength and ferocity, is

giving it the advantage.

EF. Reticulatus. —The American Pickerel. This fish is found in all parts
of our country, and is one of the most popular objects of the angler’s pur-
suit. It derives its specific name from the network of brownish lines which
covers nearly the whole body. The color varies in different localities, being
in some places of a brilliant gold color, and in others of a greenish-brown.
Specimens are often taken weighing from six to eight pounds.

Another American species is the 4’. estor, which is sprinkled with round,
blackish spots.

Betone. — Yarrell gives the following generic characteristics : —

“Tlead and body extremely elongated; the latter covered with minute
scales; both jaws very much produced, straight, narrow, and_ pointed,
armed with numerous small teeth.”

LB. Truncata, the Gar-fish, is frequently found on our shores from ten to
fifteen inches in length. Dr. Storer describes a specimen as of a light-

There are some
The flesh is good

green color above, and beneath, a clear silvery-white.
species eight feet in length, which bite very severely.
and wholesome, although some persons refuse it on account of the greenish
color of the bones.

ScOMBERESOX. — The generic characteristics of the group are the same
as the former, save that the posterior portions of the dorsal and anal fins
are divided, forming finlets, as in the mackerel. The species are gregarious,
and are followed and preyed upon by porpoises, the tunny, and other large
members of the mackerel family.

S. Lqutrostrum. — The Bill-fish.
A few years ago, I found it in large numbers

This is the only species, we believe,
found in American waters.
in the waters of Cape Cod, and suppose it to be equally plentiful there
It approaches the coast about the middle of autumn, and is welcomed
as an agreeable and wholesome article of food. It is from eight to twelve
The upper part of the back is of a yellowish-green color ;
a silvery band, half an inch wide, and divided in its centre by a line of the
same color as the back, runs the whole length of the body. The belly is

now.

inches in length.

silvery, with a coppery tinge.

Exocerus. —The Flying-fish. These fishes are provided with pectoral
fins of so great a length, as to be able to carry them, like wings, a great
distance through the air. According to Mr. George Bennet (“ Wanderings
in New South Wales”), they cannot raise themselves when in the atmos-
phere, the elevation they take depending entirely on the power of the first

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 179

spring or leap they make on leaving their native element. Their flight, as
it is called, carries them fifteen or eighteen feet above the water, and the
lines which they traverse when they enjoy full liberty of motion, are very
low curves, and always in the direction of their previous progress in the
usual element of fishes. Their silvery wings and blue bodies, glittering be-
neath the rays of a tropical sun, afford a most beautiful spectacle, when, as
is frequently the case, they rise into the air by thousands at once, and in all
possible directions. The advantage afforded them by their wing-like fins,
in escaping from the pursuit of the bonitos and albacores, often, however, leads
to their destruction in another element, where gulls and frigate-birds frequently
seize them with lightning-like rapidity ere they fall back again into the ocean.
It is interesting to observe a bonito swimming beneath the feeble aeronaut,
keeping him steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment of
his descent. But the Flying-fish often eludes the bite of his enemy by in-
stantaneously renewing his leap, and not unfrequently escapes by extreme
agility.

The specific gravity of the Flying-fish can be most admirably regulated
in correspondence with the element through which it may move. The swim-
ming-bladder, when distended, occupies nearly the entire cavity of the
abdomen, thus containing a large volume of air; and, in addition to this,
there is a membrane im the mouth which can be inflated through the gills.
The pectoral fins, though so large when expanded, can be folded into an
exceedingly slender, neat, and compact form, so as to be no hinderance to
swimming. <A light displayed from the chains of a vessel in a dark night
will bring many Flying-fishes on board, where they are esteemed as a great
delicacy. Their fate, thus to be persecuted in both elements, and to find
security nowhere, has often been pitied in prose and verse; but, although
they excite so much sentimental commiseration, they are themselves no less
predaceous than their enemies, feeding chiefly on smaller fishes.

The Flying-fish of the West-Indian waters is frequently allured by the
tepid waters of the Gulf Stream into higher latitudes, and Pennant cites
several examples of its having been found near the British coast.

One species, /. volitans, is common in the Atlantic, and is said to have
the power to leap more than two hundred yards in distance, and upwards of
twenty feet in height. It sometimes, but rarely, visits our shores.

Smurm® (Sheat-fish). Third Family of the Malacopterygii Ab-
dominales.

“These fishes are distinguished from all the rest of the order by the want
of true scales, having only a naked skin, or large bony scales. The inter-
maxillaries, suspended under the ethmoid, form the margin of the upper

180 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.
jaw ; and the maxillary bones are either simple vestiges, or extended into

cirri. The intestinal canal is large, folded, and without ceca. The air-

bladder is large, and adheres to a peculiar apparatus of bones. A strong,
articulated spine generally forms the first ray of the dorsal and the pectorals ;
and there is sometimes an adipose dorsal behind the other, as in the Salmon
Family.

“Srunus. — These form a numerous genus, known by the naked skin,

from the mouth being cleft in the end of the muzzle, and from a strong
spine in the first ray of the dorsal. This spine is articulated only to the
bones of the shoulder, and the fish can at pleasure lay it flat on the body,
or keep it fixed in a perpendicular direction, in which case it is a formidable
weapon, and wounds inflicted by it are understood to be poisoned; which
opinion has arisen from tetanus sometimes following the wound, not from
poison certainly, but from the ragged nature of the wound itself.
“These fishes have the head depressed; the intermaxillaries suspended
under the ethmoid, and not protractile; the maxillaries very small, but
almost always continued in barbules attached to the lower lip, and also to
the nostrils; the covering of their gills is without sub-operculum or gill-flap ;
their air-bladder, strong and heart-shaped, is attached, by its two upper
lobes, to a peculiar bony structure, which again is attached to the first ver-
tebra; the stomach is a fleshy ezd-de-sac, having the intestinal canal long
and wide, but without eaeca. They abound in the rivers of warm countries ;
and seeds of plants are found in the stomach of many of their species.

“SiLurus, properly so called, with only a small fin of four rays on the
fore-part of the back, but with the anal very long, and approaching very
close to the base of the caudal. There is no obvious spine in the dorsal ;
and the teeth in both jaws, and in the vomer, are like those of a card.
S. glanis, the Sly Silurus, is the largest fresh-water fish of Europe, and
the only member of the genus in this quarter of the world. It is smooth,

of a greenish-black, spotted with black above, and yellowish-white below ;
head large, with six cirri— two large ones near the nostrils, and four shorter
on the lower jaw. It sometimes grows to six feet in length, and weighs
three hundred pounds. It is found in the slow-running rivers of Central
furope, and lurks in the mud to watch for its prey. Its flesh is greasy, and
is sometimes employed as hog’s lard. It is found in the rivers of Asia and
Africa.

“Scnitbus have the body vertically compressed, a strong-toothed spine in
the dorsal, the head small and depressed, the nape suddenly raised, and the
eyes low down. They have eight cirri, are found in the Nile, and their
flesh is said to be less disagreeable than that of other members of the

family.”

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. MALACOPTERYGIT ABDOMINALES. 181

Prvevopes. — The body is covered with a naked skin; no lateral arma-
ture; jaws, and often palatine bones, furnished with teeth, but there is no
band of teeth on the vomer parallel to that on the upper jaw. The form
of the head varies very much, as well as the number of its barbules. There
are several foreign species.

P. Nebulosus. — The Horned Pout. This is a well-known species in all
of our rivers and ponds. It is often eaten, and is much esteemed by many,
while others throw it away, not liking its appearance.

Satmonipe. Mourth Family of the Malacopterygit Abdominales.

The genera and sub-genera of this family are too numerous to be recorded
here. I shall confine my observations, therefore, to the most valuable of
them.

Satmo. — The Salmons have the head smooth; two dorsal fins, the first
supported by rays, the second fleshy, and without rays; teeth on the vomer,
both palatine bones, and all the maxillary bones.

S. Salar. — The Common Salmon, which was known to the Romans, but
not to the Greeks, is distinguished from other fish by having two dorsal fins,
of which the hindermost is fleshy, and without rays; they have teeth both
in the jaws and the tongue, and the body is covered with round and minutely
striated scales. Gray is the color of the back and sides, sometimes spotted
with black, and sometimes plain. The belly is silvery. It is entirely a north-
ern fish, being found both at Greenland, Kamtschatka, and in the northern
parts of North America, but never so far south as the Mediterranean. Salmon
are now scarce in all our rivers south of the Merrimac. In the Connecticut,
they were once so abundant as to be less esteemed than shad; and the fish-
ermen used to require their purchasers to take some salmon with their shad.
Within the memory of persons living, they were taken in plenty even as far
up as Vermont. The Indians used to catch a great many of them as they
were ascending Bellows Falls. It is supposed that the locks, dams, and
canals, constructed in the river, have driven this valuable fish away. About
the latter end of the year, the salmon begin to press up the rivers, even for
hundreds of miles, to deposit their spawn, which lies buried in the sand till
spring, if not disturbed by the floods, or devoured by other fishes. In this
peregrination it is not to be stopped even by cataracts. About March the
young ones begin to appear; and, about the beginning of May, the river is
full of the salmon fry, which are then four or five inches long, and gradu-
ally proceed to the sea. About the middle of June, the earliest fry begin
to return again from the sea, and are then from twelve to fourteen inches
Jong. Rapid and stony rivers, where the water is free from mud, are the
favorite places of most of the salmon tribe, the whole of which is supposed

"NO. XVI. 7H

182 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

to aitord wholesome food to mankind. These fish, when taken out of their
natural element, very soon die; to preserve their flavor, they must be killed
as soon as they are taken out of the water. The fishermen usually pierce
them near the tail with a knife, when they soon die with loss of blood. The
Seotch Commissaries of Fisheries, some years since, adopted an ingenious
device for learning the migrations of the salmon. They marked a large
number of fish, hatched from the spawn deposited the last year in the Tweed,
by placing around them a belt or ring of India rubber, numbered and dated.
One of the fish was caught, two days after being thus marked, and let go,
a bundred miles from the mouth of the Tweed. All fishermen, taking such
marked fish, were desired to take note of the weight, the place and date of
capture, and various other particulars named in the directions. The idea is
decidedly a novel and very amusing one, and may lead to valuable scientific
discovery in regard to the habits of the salmon.

This valuable fish is not so abundant in the Eastern States of the Union
as formerly, yet the rivers of Maine keep the markets pretty well supplied.
Civilization, with the industrial enterprises which accompany it, is as de-
structive to many of our most valuable river fishes as to the aborigines,
and the wild beasts of the forests. The manufaectories and numerous dams,
which interrupt their progress up the rivers, have greatly diminished their
numbers. It is interesting to observe the efforts they make to overcome these
obstructions, and the surprising leaps they sometimes make. I have seen

>

them shoot like arrows over dams of a considerable height, and against a
strong current.

S. Trutta. —The Salmon Trout. This species varies considerably in
color. It is generally bluish-black above, pale on the sides, silvery on the
belly, with cross-shaped spots towards the upper part. ;

The Sea Trout, or Salmon Trout, migrates, like the salmon, up several
of our rivers, spawns, and returns to the sea. The shape is thicker than
the common trout. The head and back are dusky, with a gloss of blue and
ereen, and the sides, as far as the lateral line, are marked with large, irreg-
ular spots of black. The flesh, when boiled, is red, and resembles that of
the salmon in taste. .

Trout-fishing affords excellent diversion for the angler, and the passion
for this pastime is very great. It is a matter of surprise that this common
fish has eseaped the notice of all the ancients, except Ausonius. It is also
singular, that so delicate a species should be neglected, at a time when the
folly of the table was at its height; and that the epicures should overlook a
fish that is found in such quantities in the lakes of their neighborhood, when
they ransacked the universe for dainties. The milts of murance were
brought from one place ; the Ivers of scar?’ from another; and oysters even

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. THE TROUT. 183

from so remote a spot as Sandwich; but there was, and is, a fashion in the
article of good living. The general shape of the trout is rather long than
broad; in several of the Scotch and Irish rivers they grow so much thicker
than in those of England, that a fish from eighteen to twenty-two inches
will often weigh from three to five pounds. This is a fish of prey, has a short,
roundish head, blunt nose, and wide mouth, filled with teeth, not only in the
jaws, but on the palate and tongue; the scales are small; the back ash-
color; the sides yellow, and, when in season, it is sprinkled all over the body
and covers of the gills with small, beautiful red and black spots; the tail is
broad. The colors of the trout, and its spots, vary greatly in different waters,
and in different seasons ; yet each may be reduced to one species. It sometimes
attains the weight of seven and a half pounds. In the Androscoggin River,
Maine, two brook trout were taken by Mr. Bartlett, the author of “ Familiar
Quotations,” at one cast of the fly, which weighed respectively seven and
a half and four pounds. It is usually much smaller, and is much in
request for the table. The large species of trout, which inhabit the larger
lakes of Maine, New Hampshire, and those about the sources of the
Susquehanna, have not yet been deseribed or properly distinguished, that
we are aware of; indeed, it is possible that more than one species has
been confounded under the common trout. A gigantic species of trout
from Lake Huron has been deseribed by Dr. Mitchell. It is said to at-
tain the weight of one hundred and twenty pounds. The flesh is remarka-
bly faty rich, and savory. The specific name Amethystinus was applied
on account of the purplish tinge and hyaline tips of the teeth. We add
some observations on the trout as an object of pursuit to the American
angler. It is particularly, abundant in New England, where the waters and
soil, being of a more Alpine character, are highly congenial to the nature
of this species of fish. They may be divided into three principal classes,
namely, Pond Trout, River Trout, and Sea Trout. Of these, however, there
are as many varieties and shades of difference as are known and described
in England, Seotland, and other countries ; but, for all the purposes of the
angler, it is umnecesary to enumerate any others than those above men-
tioned. Pond or lake trout vary in shape and color. Their size is gener-
ally in proportion to the extent of the water in which they are taken. In
Moosehead Lake, in Maine, they attain the enormous weight of forty or
fifty pounds, and in the lakes of other States, are found of the average size
of salmon. This large description of trout are seldom taken, except through
the ice in winter, and consequently afford but little sport to the lover of
angling. In the Winnipiseogee Lake, in New Hampshire, and Sebago
Lake, in Maine, the average size of the fish is about that of the largest
mackerel, which it also resembles in shape. The spots upon these and other

184 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

lake trout are seldom red, but dark and indistinct, according to their size.
The last-mentioned lake is one of the few in which the fish are taken by the
usual method of angling, for which they are more esteemed, as affording
good sport, than for their flavor ; and the common impression is, that these
fish sprung from salmon, but that, having been prevented by obstruc-
tions in the river from entering the sea, they have become, by confinement,
degenerated in size and quality, retaining only the color of the flesh. In
the interior lakes of New York, and in the great lakes of the West, the
trout grows to a vast size; but these lake trout, being coarse fish, and taken
without skill, in the winter only, are held in no estimation by the scientific
aneler. River or brook trout are common in the New England States ; but,
much to the annoyance of the angler, they perceptibly diminish in propor-
tion to the increase of mills and manufactories upon the various streams.
The size of this class of trout, and the color of the skin and spots, are
much alike in all, excepting that some are of a more silvery hue than others ;
and the color of the flesh varies, perhaps, as it has been observed, according
to their different food, being sometimes perfectly white, sometimes of a yel-
low tinge, but generally pink. There are also trout in various small ponds,
both natural and artificial, those taken from the latter being in all respects
similar to the brook or river trout. This is to be understood of ponds in the
interior, as there are many artificial ponds, situated near the sea-coast, at
the head of inlets from the sea and tide water, where the fish are very little
inferior in size and quality to those which are taken where the tide ebbs and
flows. Of the three classes of trout referred to, there is none so much
esteemed as the sea trout, which may be called migratory, in distinction
from those which have no access to the salt-water. In the early spring
months, they are taken in great abundance in the various salt rivers, creeks,
and tide waters upon the shores of New England and Long Island, but
more particularly in the waters of Cape Cod, where the celebrated Waqucit
Bay, with other neighboring waters, has long been the favorite resort of the
scientific fisherman. As the season advances, these fish repair to fresh
water, at which time, as well as earlier, they afford great diversion to the
angler, by whom they are highly prized, not merely for their superiority of
form, color, and delicious flavor, but for the voracity with which they seize
the bait of the artificial fly, and their activity upon the hook. In the United
States, as well as in Great Britain, this fish is the great object of the
angler’s art, the perfection of which is the use of the artificial fly.

S. Fontinalis. —The Common Brook Trout. I do not feel it necessary
to describe this beautiful species, which, “in speckled pride,” flourishes in
aul of our streams, and is the angler’s special delight.

fo)

Osmerus. — This genus has two rows of teeth on each palatal, but only

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 185

a few in front of the vomer. Form is like that of the trout, and the body
is of a brilliant, silvery color, with some greenish reflections, but withort
spots. The only species known in this country is

O. Eperlanus. —The Smelt. This is a pretty and delicious table-fish, and
millions of them, taken with scoop-nets, are brought into our markets.

Ciupripz. Lifth Family of the Malacopterygii Abdominales.

The Clupeide have no adipose dorsal ; their bodies are always scaly, and
most of them have an air-bladder. Several of the species ascend rivers,
and all periodically approach the shores. It yields in commercial value only
to the mackerel and the cod. We have, at the head of the family, the genus

Ciurea. — Yarrell gives the following characteristics of the genus : —

“ Body compressed ; scales large, thin, and deciduous ; head compressed ;
teeth minute or wanting; a single dorsal fin; abdominal line forming a
sharp, keel-like edge, which in some species is serrated.”

C. Elongata. — This is the common English Herring of our markets.
Tt is about a foot long, sometimes a little more. The color upon the back
is of a deep blue, tinged with yellow, paler on the sides, and silvery on the
belly. It is a fat, rich fish, and abounds in the Northern Atlantic, near
the shores of both continents. Although the herring fishery in this country
is of considerable importance, it does not hold the rank in our industrial
and commercial affairs which it does in Europe. In a German work, I
have found an article on this subject so interesting that [am tempted to in-
troduce a synopsis of it here.

“In mile-long shoals, often so thickly pressed that a spear cast into them
would stand upright in the living stream, the common herring appears an-
nually on the coasts of North-western Europe, pouring out the horn of
abundance into all the lochs, lays, coves, and fiords, from Norway to Ire-
land, and from Oreadia to Normandy. Sea-birds, without end, keep thin-
ning their ranks during the whole summer; armies of rorquals, dolphins,
seals, shell-fish, cods, and sharks devour them by millions, and yet, so
countless are their numbers, that whole nations live upon their spoils.

* As soon as the season of their approach appears, fleets of herring boats
leave the northern ports, provided with drift nets, about twelve hundred feet
long. The yarn is so thick that the wetted net sinks through its own weight,
and need not be held down by stones attached to the lower edge, for it has
been found that the herring is more easily caught in a slack net. The upper
edge is suspended from the drift rope by various smaller and shorter ropes,
called buoy ropes, to which empty barrels are fastened ; and the whole of the
floating apparatus is attached by long ropes to the ship. Fishing takes place
only during the night; for it is found that the fish strike the nets in much

186 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

ereater numbers when it is dark than when it is light. The darkest nights,
therefore, and particularly those in which the surface of the water is rufled by
a fresh breeze, are considered the most favorable. To avoid collisions, each
boat is furnished with one or two torches. From off the beach at Yar-
mouth, where often several thousand boats are fishing at the same time,
these numberless lights, passing to and fro in every direction, afford a most
lively and brilliant spectacle. The meshes of the net are exactly calculated
for the size of the herring — wide enough to receive the head as far as be-

hind the gill-covers, but too narrow to allow the pectoral fins to pass.

=

Thus the poor fish, when once entangled, is unable to move backwards or

forwards, and remains sticking in the net, like a bad logician on the horns
of a dilemma, until the fisherman hauls it on board. In this manner, a
single net sometimes contains so vast a booty, that it requires all the author-
ity of a Cuvier or a Valenciennes to make us believe the instances they men-
tion. A fisherman of Dieppe caught in one night two hundred and eighty
ihousand herrings, and threw as many back again into the sea, Sometimes
ereat sloops have been obliged to cut their nets, being about to sink under
the superabundant weieht of the fish. :

“The oldest mention of the herring fishery is found in the chronicles of the
Monastery of Evesham, of the year 709, while the first French documents
on the subject only reach as far as the year 1030, As far back as the days
of William the Conqueror, Yarmouth was renowned for its herring fishery ;
and Dunkirk and the Brill conducted it on a grand scale centuries before
William Benkelaer, of Biervliet, near Sluys, introduced a better method of
pickling herrings in small kegs, instead of salting them, as before, in loose,
irregular heaps. It is very doubtful whether Solon or Lycurgus ever were
such benefactors of their respective countries as this simple, uneducated fish-
erman has been to his native land; for the pickled herring mainly contrib-
uted to transform a small and insignificant people into a mighty nation.

“In the year 1603, the value of the herrings exported from Holland
amounted to twenty millions of florins; and in 1615, the fishery gave em-
ployment to two thousand buysens, or smacks, and to thirty-seven thousand
men. Three years later we see the United Provinces cover the sea with three
thousand buysens (nine thousand additional boats served for the transport of
the fishes), and the whole trade gave employment at least to two hundred
thousand individuals. At that time Holland provided all Europe with her-
rings; and it may, without exaggeration, be affirmed that this small fish
was their best ally and assistant in casting off the Spanish yoke, by provid-
ing them with money, the chief sinew of war. Had the Emperor Charles V.
been able to foresee that Benkelaer’s discovery would, one day, prove so
detrimental to his son and successor, Philip H., he would hardly have done

ORDER II. BONY FISHES. THE HERRINGS. 187

the poor fisherman the honor to eat a herring and drink a glass of wine over
his tomb.

“But all human propensity is subject to change; and thus, towards the
end of the sixteenth century, a series of calamities ruined the Dutch fisher-
ies. Cromwell gave them the first blow by the Navigation Act; Blake the
second, by his victories; in 1703 a French squadron destroyed the greatest
part of their herring-smacks ; and finally, the competition of the Swedes,
and the closing of their ports by the English, under the disastrous domina-
tion of Napoleon I., completed the ruin of that branch of trade which had
chiefly raised the fortunes of their fathers.

“In the year 1814, when the Dutch first began to breathe, after having
shaken off the yoke of the modern Attila, they made a faint attempt to
renew the herring fishery with one hundred and six boats, which, up to the
year 1823, had only increased to one hundred and twenty-eight ; since 1836,
however, there has been a steady progress, and herring catching in the Zuy-
der Zee during the winter months is yearly increasing in importance.

“During the second half of the last century, while the herrings began to
desert the Dutch nets, they enriched the Swedes, who, during the year 1781,
exported from Gottenburg alone one hundred and thirty-six thousand six
hundred and forty-nine barrels, each of them containing twelve hundred
herrings. But,.some years after, the shoals on the Swedish coasts began
also to diminish, so that in 1799 there was hardly enough for home con-
sumption. And now commenced the rapid rise and increase of the Scotch
herring fisheries ; and it is certainly remarkable that this should have taken
place at so late a period, since the British waters are, perhaps, those which
most abound in herring. When we think of the present grandeur of Brit-
ish commerce, which furnishes the most distant parts of the globe with
articles of every description, it seems almost incredible that, up to the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century, the herring fishery on the British coasts was
left in the hands of the Dutch and Spaniards, and that the enterprising Scots
should have been so tardy in working the rich gold mines lying at their
gates. But, if their appearance in the market has been late, they have
made up for lost time by completely distancing all their competitors. In
1826, the Scotch herring fisheries employed no less than ten thousand three
hundred and sixty-three smacks, or boats, manned by forty-four thousand
five hundred and ninety-five fishermen, who handed over the produce of their
nets to at least seventy-six thousand picklers and curers:; and, in that same
same year, the Scotch herrings were proclaimed superior to the Dutch by
the connoisseurs of Hamburg. The English herring fishery is also ex-
tremely important; for Yarmouth alone employs in this branch of trade
about four hundted sloops, of from forty to seventy tons, the largest of

188 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

which have ten or twelve men on board. Three of these sloops, belonging
to the same proprictor, landed, in the year 1857, two hundred and eighty-
five Jasts, or three millions seven hundred and sixty-two thousand fishes ;
and as each Jast was sold for fourteen pounds sterling, it is probable that
no whaler made a better business that season. The importance of the Yar-
mouth herring fishery may be inferred from the fact, that it gives employ-
ment and bread to about five thousand persons during several months of the
year, and engages a capital of at least seven hundred thousand pounds. No
wonder that, among the North seamen, the herring fishery is called the
‘oreat’ fishery, while that of the whale is denominated only the ‘small.’

“But the herring is a very capricious creature, seldom remaining long in
one place; and there is not a station along the British coast which is not
liable to great changes in its visits, as well in regard to time as to quantity.
The real causes of these irregularities are unknown ; the firing of guns, the
manufacture of kelp, and the paddling of steamboats have been assigned as
reasons ; but such reasons are quite imaginary.

“The supposed migration of herrings to and from the high northern lati-
tudes is not founded on fact; the herring has never been seen in abundance
in the northern seas, nor have our whale-fishers on Arctic voyages taken any
particular notice of them. There is no fishery for them of any consequence
either in Greenland or Teeland. On the southern coast of Greenland the
herring is a rare fish, and, according to Crantz, oniy a small variety makes
its appearance on the northern shore. This small variety, or species, was
found by Sir John Franklin on the shore of the Polar basin, on his second
journey. There can be no doubt that the herring inhabits the deep water
all round the coast, and only approaches the shores for the purpose of de-
positing its spawn within the immediate influence of the two principal agents
in vivification, — increased temperature and oxygen; and, as soon as that
essential object is effected, the shoals that haunt the superficial waters dis-
appear, but individuals are found, and many are to be caught, throughout
the year. So far are they from being migratory to us from the north only,
that they visit the west coast of Cork in August, arriving there much earlier
than those which come down the Irish Channel, and long before their breth-
ren make their appearance at places much farther north. Our common
herring spawns towards the end of October, or the beginning of Novem-
her; and it is for two or three months previous to this, when they as-
semble in immense numbers, that the fishing is carried on, which is of
such great and national importance. ‘And here,’ Mr. Couch observes,
“we cannot but admire the economy of Divine Providence, by which this
and several other species of fish are brought to the shores, within reach of
man, at the time when they are in their highest perfection, and best fitted to

ORDER IJ. BONY FISHES. HERRINGS AND PILCHARDS. 189

be his food.’ The herring, having spawned, retires to deep water, and the
fishing ends for that season. While inhabiting the depths of the ocean, its
food is said, by Dr. Knox, to consist principally of minute entromostraceous
animals, but it is certainly less choice in its selection when near the shore.”

C. Pilchard. —This species, in size and some other respects, resembles
the herring. Its range, however, is farther south. It is not common in
our waters, and, so far as I know, has never been an object of pursuit by
our fishermen ; but to the poor people of the British and French coasts, it
is of inestimable value.

The older naturalists considered the Pilchard, like the herring, as a visitor
from a distant region, and they assigned to it also the same place of resort
as that fish, with which, indeed, the Pilchard has been sometimes confound-
ed. To this it will be a sufficient reply, that the Pilchards are never seen in
the Northern Ocean. They frequent the French coasts, and are seen on
those of Spain, but on neither in considerable numbers, or with much regu-
larity ; so that few fishes confine themselves within such narrow bounds.
On the ceast of Cornwall, they are found throughout all the seasons of the
year, and even there their habits vary in the different months. In January they
keep near the bottom, and are chiefly hauled up in the stomachs of ravenous
fishes; in March they sometimes assemble in schools, but this union is only
partial, and not permanent, and only becomes so in July, when they regu-
larly and permanently congregate so as to invite the fisherman’s pursuit.
The season and situation for spawning, and the choice of food, are the chief
reasons which influence the motions of the great bodies of these fish; and
it is probable that a thorough knowledge of these particulars would explain
all the variations which haye been noticed in the doings of the Pilchard in
the numerous unsuccessful seasons of the fishery.

They feed with voracity on small crustaceous animals, and Mr. Yarrell
frequently found their stomachs crammed with thousands of a minute species
of shrimp, not larger than a flea. It is probable, when they are in search
of something like this, that fishermen report they have seen them lying in
myriads quietly at the bottom, examining with ‘their mouths the sand and
small stones in shallow water. The abundance of this food must be enor-
mous to satisfy such a host. “ When near the coast,” says the author of the
Ilistory of British Fishes, “the assemblage of Pilchards assumes the ar-
rangement of a mighty army, with its wings stretching parallel to the land,
and the whole is composed of numberless smaller bodies, which are perpetu-
ally joining together, shifting their position, and separating again. There
are three stations occupied by this great body, that have their separate influ-
ence on the success of the fishery. One is to the eastward of the Lizzard,
the most eastern extremity, reaching to the Bay of Bigbury in Devonshire,

7
ad

NO XVI.

100 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

beyond which no fishing is carried on, except that it occasionally extends to
Dartmouth; a second station is included between the Lizzard and Land’s
End; and the third is on the north coast of the county, the chief station
being about St. Ives. The subordinate motions of the shoals are much reg-
ulated by the tide, against the current of which they are rarely known to
go, and the whole will sometimes remain parallel to the coast for several
weeks, at the distance of a few leagues; and then, as if by general consent,
they will advance close to the shore, sometimes without being discovered till
they have reached it. This usually happens when the tides are strongest,
and is the period when the principal opportunity is afforded for the prosecu-
tion of the seine fishery.” The quantity of Pilchards taken is sometimes
incredibly large. In 1847 (a very productive year), forty thousand hogs-
heads were cured in Cornwall alone, representing, probably, after all deduc-
tions, a net value to the takers of eighty thousand pounds ; of these, sixteen
thousand were sold in Naples, and ten thousand in the ports of the Adriatic
—the two principal markets. The fish are cured simply by pressure in
layers strewn with bay salt.

Some investigations which we haye made into the natural history and
habits of the Pilchard serve to confirm our idea, that herrings of every
description breed all the year round, and that there are spring, summer,
autumn, and winter races of herring ever coming to maturity, as month
follows month, with the greatest possible regularity. Some writers have
indicated an opinion that fishes of the herring kind spawn twice a year.
We do not believe that to be the case. The individuals of the herring kind
that spawn in March are not the same fish that spawn again in August. They
evidently belong to different varieties. Mr. Jonathan Couch, a distinguished
naturalist of Polperao, is of this opinion.

The same idea prevails about this fish that used to prevail about the
common herring; namely, that it is migratory, or, at least, that it roams
about from place to place. An old poet says, —

“ Pilchards and shads in shoals together keep;
The numerous fry disturbs the mantling deep ;
No home they know, nor can confinement love,
But, fond of hourly change, unsettled rove ;
Now choose the rocks, now seek the wider seas, —
No place can Jong the restless wanderers please.”

We can only say of the Pilchard, as we have already said of the common
herring, that it is not migratory in the sense meant. The fish gather to-
gether from their feeding-grounds in order to spawn; after that is accom-
plished, they in all probability separate, and lead an individual life, till the
reproductive instinct again seizes upon them.

ORDER Il BONY FISHES. SARDINES, ALEWIVES. DESH

C’. Sprattus. —This species may be considered a small herring. It is
of great value to the common people of the British coasts, supplying them
during all the winter months with a cheap and agreeable article of food, and
the farmers with an excellent and economical manure.

C. Sardina. — The Sardine is a still smaller member of the same family,
and is found in the Mediterranean, where the herring is not known. It is
everywhere very much esteemed, and has become an extensive article of com-
merce. It makes its appearance in the spawning season in countless multi-
tudes along the shallow coasts. It is mostly caught in the neighborhood of
Antibes, Fréjus, and St. Tropez, and sent pickled in enormous quantities to
the fair of Beaucaire, from whence it is transported in small tin boxes to all
parts of the world.

CU. Minima.— This is a very numerous species in the waters along our
coasts. The individuals are from one to four inches in length. The back
is nearly black; the upper part of the sides is dark green, and the lower,
silvery, with roseate and golden reflections. They are pretty fishes, but are
of no value.

Atosa.— The generic characteristics are the same as those of the preced-
ing genus, with the exception of a deep notch in the upper jaw, in the
centre. There are several very valuable species.

al. Vernalis. —The Spring Herring, or Alewife. Iam satisfied that this
is the same fish which Le Sueur describes under the name of Clupea fusclu-

ta, and do not know why our ichthyologists give it a place in both genera.

‘

The old Indian name of the fish was s1/o0f, whence, by corruption, the
common designation, <cllew?/fe. Although the numerous iron mills and
manufactories of various kinds, which have rendered our streams impure,
have considerably diminished the tribe, it still is plentiful along our coasts,
and, in numbers, equal to the demand. The length of the fish is about
twelve inches; the back is bluish-purple; the sides light coppery, and the
belly silvery. The head is small; the eyes and mouth large.

Alewives are usually cured by drying or smoking, after being salted. They
are highly valued as a relish, The fresh fish, when broiled or fried, forms a de-
licious dish. In its dry state, it is an extremely cheap article of food, being
now sold (1869) at eighteen cents per dozen. Taunton River, and all the
streams that empty into Narragansett and Buzzard’s Bays, produce immense
numbers of them.

A. Vulgaris. —The Common Shad. This valuable and excellent tribe
of fishes, although much reduced by the same causes which have restricted
the salmons and alewives, is still sufficiently numerous to supply our markets.
They approach the coasts in the poetic season of the year, and when the

fields along the rivers and streams are glorious and fragrant with the bloom

192 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

of the orchards, they make their periodical visit to the interior. The old
Shad return in August; the young at a later period.
s usually from one to four pounds in weight, and has been

The species
known to attain the length of three feet. In its fresh state (broiled, baked,
or fried), it is an agreeable and wholesome diet. Ihave eaten it on the
tables of fishermen, in its salted state, boiled, and found it excellent.

A. Menhaden. —The Menhaden. This fish, sometimes called the 7/ard-
head and Pauhagen, although it has many of the characteristics of /osa,
in other respects comes nearer to the herring, especially by its excessively
oily flesh. As a general thing, it is larger than the alewife or the English her-
ring. From May to November it throngs our waters in countless millions,
and is used as bait, and manure for land. They are strewed by cart loads
over the fields, and, as they decay, become a powerful fertilizer. One Men-
haden is considered equal to a shovelful of barnyard manure. This method
of using them, however, is open to many objections. The decaying fish fill
the surrounding atmosphere with an intolerable stench, which is productive
of dysentery and other diseases. To obviate this difficulty, factories have
been established to manufacture the Menhaden into a kind of guano.

“The net, with which the fish are caught, is peculiarly managed ; it is
about one hundred and ten fathoms in length, and provided with corks ‘on
one side, and iron rings on the other. When a school of fish is discovered,
two seine boats, each bearing its portion of the seine, are started off noise-
lessly in opposite directions, and rapidly surround the fish. As soon as this
is accomplished, the boats having formed a circle and coming together, the
ends of the net are joined. The scine now encloses the fish, being kept in
a vertical position by means of the cork floats. Ropes pass through these
rings, and are attached to a heavy leaden weight, which is thrown over-
board, and, by drawing the ropes, purses the net. The fish are thus brought
near the surface, and loaded on board the ‘ carry-aways,’ to be taken to the
factory’s dock. At the factory, the fish are measured either in cars or
boxes, and are drawn upon the railway to the tanks, where they are thrown
into water, and a full head of steam turned on into the bottom of the tank,
which contains some sixteen to eighteen thousand fish. After thirty minutes’
cooking, the water is drained off, and a man, getting into the tank, fills the
curbs, which are circular, and formed of strong, wooden slats, bound and
lined with heavy iron. These are rolled under a solid, stationary head, fit-
ting closely the inside of the curb, and against which the fish are pressed, as
the curb is slowly, but powerfully, raised by an hydraulic press. The oil and
the water absorbed by the fish in boiling are pressed out throuch the slats,
and carried by leaders to the tanks in the shed by the side of the factory,
where the oil-man skims, boils, and otherwise prepares it for barrelling. As

BONY FISHES. ORDER II. THE COD. OS

soon as the pressure is taken off, the curb slowly resumes its position on the
railway, and is pushed to where a man stands ready to remove the cheese,
as it falls from the curb, upon the opening of its hinged bottom.

“This cheese, or scrap cake, is ground to different degrees of fineness to
form the fish-guano ; this substance, being rich in ammonia-producing mate-
rial, is used by some manufacturers of fertilizers to supply ammonia to
phosphates that are deficient in that constituent.”

BONY FISHES. ORDER III.—MALACOPTERYGII
SUB-BRACHIATIS.
The fishes of this order have the ventral fins under the throat, and the
pelvis suspended to the shoulder-blade, which gives them an advantage over

the Abdominal Fishes in ascending and descending.

GADID&.

First Family of Order III. :

This family of fishes far transcends all others in its importance to man. In
countless millions, they range the cold and temperate seas, and, being gen-
erally gregarious, rove in vast shoals, which renders the capture of immense
numbers of them a comparatively easy task. They have a body moder-
ately long, somewhat.compressed, and covered with very small, soft scales.
All the fins are soft. The head is well-proportioned and naked; the jaws
and front of the yomer have unequal-pointed teeth, of rather small size,
disposed in rows, like a card or rasp; the gill-openings are very large, and
there are seven rays. Most of them have two or three fins on the back,
some behind the vent, and a distinct caudal fin. The air-bladder is large
and strong. Linneus included them all in the great genus Gadus, but nat-
uralists, since his day, have separated them into several genera, the most
important of which is

Morruva. — The Cod. The generic characterestics are,

Body elongated, smooth, compressed towards the tail; back furnished
with three dorsal fins ; ventrals pointed ; abdominal line with two fins behind
the vent; the lower jaw with one barbule at the chin; seven gill-rays.

M. Vulgaris. —The Common Cod. The back of this species is of a
dusky hue, the sides lighter, and the belly is whitish. The whole of the
upper part of the body is covered with brown and yellowish spots. I do
not think the Cod admits of division into the numerous species which our
naturalists have designated. The differences in appearance and quality are
attributable to the nature of the ground where they feed, and other causes
which might easily be specified. The Common Cod abounds in all European

194 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

seas from Ireland to Gibraltar, but appears most abundantly on the eastern
side of the American Continent, and among its numerous islands from 40°
up to 66° north latitude, where it may be said to hold dominion from the
outer edge of the great banks of Newfoundland, which are more than three
hundred miles from land, to the verge of every creek and cove of the bound-
To support such a mass of living beines, the ocean sends forth

5

ing coast.
its periodical masses of other living beings. At one season, the Cod is ac-
companied by countless myriads of the Capelin (Sudmo «lreticus) , and, at
another, by equal hosts of a molluscous animal, the Cuttle-fish (Sepia
loligo), called by the fishermen, Squid. The three animals are migratory ;
and man, who stations himself on the shore for their combined destruction,
conducts his movements according to their migrations, capturing millions
upon millions of capelins and squids to serve as a bait for the capture of
millions of cods. In the United Kingdom alone, this fish, in the catching,
the curing, and sale, supplies employment, food, and profit to: thousands of
the human race; but the banks of Newfoundland are the chicf scene of its
destruction. As soon as spring appears, England sends forth two thousand
ships, with thirty thousand men, across the Atlantic, towards those teeming
shallows; France about one half the number; and the Americans as many
as both together. On an average, each vessel is reckoned to eatch from
thirty thousand to forty thousand fishes; and we may form some idea of the
voracity, as well as of the numbers, of the cod, when we hear that, in the
course of a single day, a good fisherman is able to haul up four hundred,
one after another, with his line, which is no easy task, considering that a
single cod often attains a length of from two to three feet, and a weight of
from twenty to sixty pounds. On the Grand Banks, I have frequently been
obliged to pause for breath when drawing a huge specimen of forty or fifty
pounds.

The waters along our coasts furnish the markets abundantly with fresh
cod at all seasons of the year; but the salted and dried fish, of which there
is such an immense consumption throughout the country, are caught chiefly
on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The. vessels employed by Ameri-
cans in this business are strongly built sea-boats, generally of from fifty to
seventy tons burthen; the French and English, for obvious reasons, employ
a much larger class. I cannot, perhaps, convey a clearer idea of the method
of prosecuting this valuable industry on the Banks, than by giving a brief
descriptlon of an actual voyage thither, and of the proceedings which are
In 1834, I visited these cele-
brated fishing-grounds with Captain Philip Cook, in the Powhattan, a

usually adopted in taking and curing the cod.

t=)

tela =)
schooner of about sixty tons, belonging to Provincetown, Mass., and

manned by a crew of nine persons. We arrived on the Banks a little

BONY FISHES.

after the middle of April.

ORDER

Ill. MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 195

These vast shoals, hundreds of miles from land,

and covered with a perpetual fog, thick as night, through which the sun
scarcely makes an opening more than two or three times a week, are dismal
enough. Yet they are rich in thousands of objects which interest the natu-
ralist. The bottom swarms with floral treasures of exceeding beauty, most.
brilliantly and delightfully tinted, rivalling the flowers which adorn the hills
and valleys of the upper world, yet all are instinct with animal life.

The first operation, after the anchor is dropped, is to prepare bins or pens,
if this has not previously been done, for the reception of the fish as they are
hauled in. Two of these are required on each side of the vessel, near the
fishermen who tend the lines. These last are attached to cleats, fastened to
the stanchions which support the bulwarks, over which they fall into the
water, and are allowed to sink until the baited hooks are within a few inches
of the bottom. If the cod are hungry, and bite briskly, a few hours fish-
ing will fill the bins, when the labor of catching ceases, and preparations
are made for dress¢ng them.

The crew of a fishing-vessel is divided into two watches, which alternate-
That of the Pow-

hattan consisting of eight, exclusive of the cook, each watch comprised four

ly relieve each other, at intervals of two or four hours.
persons. In the dressing and salting of the fish, there is a curious division
of labor, which necessitates a peculiar organization, in which each man is
assigned to a particular office; as, for example, our men were thus ar-
ranged : Philip Cook and James M. Turner, sp/étéers; Frederick Hunt and
Thomas R. Whorf, jr., sadters; Isaac Small and Charles Cook, throaters ;

J. I. Witherel * and A. C. L. Arnold, headers.

from the bin, places it upon the table temporarily erected for the purpose, and,

The throater takes the cod

with a sharp knife, cuts the throat and the muscles of the neck to the bone,
and splits open the belly, when he shoves it along to the header, who places
the fish on its back, with the neck just on the edge of the table, and then, with
a sudden movement or jerk, presses the head down, which breaks the neck,
and easily severs the head from the body. He then draws out the viscera,
which, after separating the liver, which slips through a hole into a vessel
prepared to receive it, he casts into a tub, and slides the fish down to the
bottom of the table, when the splitter opens it upon the back, along the
bone, the vertebrie of which he severs, as is seen in dried specimens, and flings
it into the hold to the salter.

The catch for the time being thus disposed of, the table is unshipped,
and the offal is cast into the sea, when the culls, in numbers innumerable,
commence their revels. These voracious birds, which can swallow a cod-

liver as large as their own bodies, have no respect for each other’s rights,

* Afterwards a distinguished clergyman of Maine.

196 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

and fight with one another, with the most desperate fury, for the possession
of dainty morsels, and continue their warfare with unabated violence, until
the great Black Sea-gull (Iawk of the Sea) sweeps down among them,
when they seatter like spray before the tempest.

The cod on the Grand Banks sometimes exhibit peculiarities, for which,
to my knowledge, no explanation is given. Schools are not unfrequently
met with, lean and lank, as if they had just arrived from a great distance,
without stopping to take rest or food. Others are often taken which have a
considerable quantity of stones in their stomachs. In regard to this last
phenomenon, the common opinion among fishermen is that these schools are
about leaving the Banks, and the stones serve as a ballast to enable them
more easily to descend into deep water. These fishes always dwell near the
bottom, and require a comfortable degree of coldness, and, as the summer
sun warms the northern seas, they naturally seck deeper and consequently
cooler waters.

A trip to the Grand Banks generally occupies from ten to twelve weeks,
often more, rarely less. A “full fare” having been obtained, the vessel
returns to port, when the salted fish are transferred to the land, spread on
“flakes,” and carefully dried in the sun.

Many fishermen now take the cod on the Banks by ¢razls instead of lines.
These are ropes of great length, with hooks attached along the entire ex-
tent. Properly baited, they are laid either in a straight line or semicircle
on the bottom of the sea, and retained there by suitable weights. These
trawls are visited at intervals, drawn up, commencing at one end, the fish
removed, if any have been caught, the hooks re-baited, and then they are
replaced for a new set of victims.

Nearly every part of the cod is of service to man. The flesh, as an arti-
cle of food, maintains the first place in the economy of all civilized nations.
The head fresh, properly cooked, is an exquisite delicacy. The liver sup-
plies an oil valuable in pulmonary diseases, and in the arts. The gall is a
powerful alkali, and softens the sea water so that the fishermen can wash
their clothing in it as easily as if it were taken from the running stream.
The tongues are well known to commerce, and the “sounds,” besides being
nutritious as food, furnish the isinglass with which cotton manufacturers
size their yarn.

M. cdglefinus. —The Haddock. In his report to the Massachusetts
Legislature in 1839, Dr. Storer says, —

“Immense shoals of this fish are found on our coast in the spring, and
continue through the season until the autumn. Ten years since, this species
Was comparatively rare at Cape Cod; now, it is almost as common there as
in any part of our bay. It is estimated that, in the warm season, about

Flate XXX/

1. THE PIKE 2, PLATYSTOMA TIGRINUM 1. WOLF FISH > PIKED DOG FISH

FLYING FISH

1, GUDGEON 4 rENCH 1, COMMON PERCH eg. THE RUFF

BOSTON, SAMUEL WALKER & CO

BONY FISHES. ORDER II. MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI. 197

twelve hundred-weight of Haddock are taken to one hundred-weight of
Codfish in Massachusetts Bay; and in the winter, about twelve hundred-
weight of Cod to one hundred-weight of Haddock; but, as the Haddock
fishery is of longer duration, the quantities through the year will average
about the proportion of three Haddock to one Cod. Large numbers are
sold in the market; and, during the entire summer, it is generally eaten by
the poorer classes, who are often able to obtain a fine fish weighing several
pounds for one or two cents. When taken in larger quantities than they
can be disposed of in the market, they are frequently strewed over the earth
for manure.

“The specimen before me is twenty-four inches in length. Length of the
head, compared to the whole length of the body, exclusive of the caudal
rays, as six to twenty inches; depth of the body, across from the anus, less
than the length of the head. Color, above the lateral line, a dark gray ;
beneath this line, a beautiful silvery-gray, with a large, and in many speci-
mens nearly a circular patch, on each side, on a line with the middle of the
pectorals, its upper portion generally extending above the lateral line, its
larger portion usually beneath it. Back of the head very convex; gill-
covers much lighter colored than the top of the head and snout; upper jaw
projects beyond the lower; teeth in the upper jaw longer than in the lower,
and nearly vertical; a very minute barbule at the chin; posterior nostril
much larger than the anterior. Longest diameter of the eye more than one
sixth the length of the head, pupils black, irides bluish; the distance be-
tween the eyes equal to nearly one third the length of the head. The
lateral line, commencing at a distance above the posterior angle of the
operculum, equal to the length of the head, assumes the curve of the body
until on a plane with about the middle of the second dorsal fin, from which
point it runs on in a straight line to the base of the caudal rays; through
its whole course, it is of a jet-black color.”

Dr. Storer’s-description of the species is correct ; but, regarding his esti-
mate of the quality of the flesh, many people entertain a different opinion.
I consider the Haddock as as far superior to the Cod, in its delicacy and
wholesomeness, as the chicken is superior to the goose.

The Haddock figures in the old Norse mythology. When the god Thor
went in pursuit of Luke to bring him to justice, for encompassing the death
of Balder the Beautiful, that evil spirit transformed himself into the form,
or concealed himself in the body, of a Haddock, and sought refuge in the
abysses of the ocean. The god pursued him to his retreat, marching over
the oceanic mountains, “as if they were rocks of little size,” and seized the
offender by the nape; but the cunning and treacherous demon wrigeled
throuch his fingers, and escaped. The black lateral line, which adorns the

NO. XVI. 75

195 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

fish from the head to the caudal rays, was believed by the Norsemen to be
the finger-marks of the god.

M. Tomcodus. —The Tomeod. This favorite species is found in all the
streams, ponds, and creeks of this country. Angling for this fish is a prime
amusement with our youth in winter, when it is taken with the hook through
holes in the ice. At other times, it is caught with scoop-nets. It is about
a foot long, of very variable colors, generally brown, yellowish-brown,
greenish, with darker splashes and spots; lighter on the belly.

Meriancus. —The generic characteristics are the same as those of the
Morrhua, with the exception of the cirri.

M. Merlangus. —The Whiting. This species is about a foot in length,
of a pale reddish-gray above, and silvery below. Its flesh is light and
wholesome.

M. Carbonarius. —The Coal-fish. This fish is two or three times the size
of the Whiting. Its color is blackish-brown above ; below the lateral line,
which is straight, the body is of a bluish-white ; the belly lighter than the
sides. The flesh of the full-grown Coal-fish is coarse and tough, but will
take salt, like the cod.

M. Polachius. —The Pollock. The Pollock, in its dried state, is a
well-known fish, and is esteemed by many above the cod. Its color is
ereenish-brown above, lighter on the sides, and white on the belly. The
sides are often spotted. It is about two feet in length.

Mervtucrus. — This genus is characterized by a flattened head, an elon-
gated body, two dorsal fins, the first short, the second long; and one
anal fin, also very lone.

M. Vulgaris. —The Hake. This fish is quite as well known as the Pol-
lock. It abounds in all parts of the Atlantic. It has no barbule, and the
first dorsal fin is pointed. It sometimes exceeds two feet in length, and is
of a brownish-gray color. It is captured in considerable quantities, and is
cured like the cod, but the flesh is coarse.

Lora. — The Ling, i. e., Long-fish, has two dorsals, one anal fin, and
cirri at the mouth. LZ. molva attains a length of from three to four feet,
and is said to be not inferior to the cod. The dorsals are equally high, the
lower jaw is a little shorter than the upper, and adorned with a cirrus.
The color is olive above, and silvery beneath. .

L. Lota. — The Burbot is from one to two feet long, has the dorsals of
equal height, and one cirrus. The head is considerably depressed, and the
body is eylindrical, of a yellow color, mottled with brown. This species
ascends rivers, and its flesh is highly valued. .

LL. Compressa (Kel Pout).—This small specimen was found in the
Connecticut River, and differs from the Burbot in nothing but size, being
but six inches in length.

BONY FISHES. ORDER II. MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACIIIATI. 199

Brosnivus. — An elongated body, one dorsal, extending the whole leneth
of the back, fleshy ventral fins, and one barbule at the chin, are the distin-
guishing marks of the genus.

B. Vulgaris. —The Cusk. This species is common in the Atlantic, and
is about two feet in length. Color of the body an uniform dark slate ;
head rather darker than the body. Head one fifth the length of the body ;
width of the body, across the commencement of the anal fin, exclusive of
the dorsal fin, equal to one sixth the length of the specimen ; width of the
head, across the posterior angle of the operculum, equal to two thirds its
length ; the scales on the head present a peculiarly corrugated appearance.
Mouth large. Jaws filled with sharp, recurved teeth. Upper jaw slightly
longer than the lower. A single barbule under the chin. In the spring
of the year it is not unfrequently met with in the Boston market, and
does not sell as readily as the cod; in the winter season it is rare, and then
sells readily for double the prices of that species. By many, as a fresh fish,
it is considered quite a delicacy, and when salted, is thought preferable to
the cod.

The liver of this species contains a large quantity of oil, which is some-
times preserved by the fishermen, who consider it an excellent application to
a burned surface.

Puycts. — This genus has a single ray in each ventral, which is produced
and forked; two dorsal fins, the first shorter than the second; and one bar-
bule on the chin.

P. Americanus. — The Codling, or American Hake. This species often
attains a length of three feet. The upper part of the body is grayish-brown,
the belly lighter. They are taken chiefly at night, with the hook. The
fishermen call it (erroneously) the “Old England Hake.” It abounds in
the vicinity of Cape Ann. I have found it served up on the tables of the
Pavilion House, at Gloucester, and of the Pigeon Cove House, Rockport,
Mass., and can testify to its excellence. Corned and broiled, it is a popular
item in the breakfast bill of fare.

Prevronectip®. Second Family of the Malacopterygii sub-
brachiata.

“These are all included in the great genus Plewronectes, which have a
character quite unique among vertebrated animals; this consists in the want
of symmetry in the head. An animal is said to be symmetrical when it is
supposed to be divided in a mesial plane, or plane exactly along the middle,
in a vertical direction, —the two sides being the exact counterparts of cach
other, and differing in nothing but in the one being turned to the right, and
the other to the left. These fishes have both eyes on one side, and this side

200 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES

always remains uppermost when the animal is swimming, while all other
fishes swim on the belly. The upper side is, in general, deeply colored,
while the other side is whitish. The body, from the head backwards, though
formed nearly as usual, partakes a little of this peculiarity. The two sides
of the mouth are not equal, and the pectoral fins are rarely so; the body is
depressed, and elevated in the direction of the spinous processes ; the dorsal
extends along the whole back; the anal occupies the lower edge of the body,
and the ventrals are sometimes united with it. The fins are thus lateral
fins, in respect of the swimming of the fish when in motion; and the action
of the spine is vertical, in respect of that position, and not lateral, as in
other fishes. They have six gill-rays; the abdominal cavity is small, but
extends in a cavity embedded in the flesh on the two sides of the tail, for
the purpose of containing some of the viscera; they have no air-bladder,
and they seldom rise far from the bottom. Notwithstanding the peculiarity
of the cranium, by that twist of the neck which brings both eyes to one
side, the bones are the same as in other families, but very differently pro-
portioned. They are found along the shores of almost all countries, and
are, generally speaking, wholesome and agreeable eating.

“Some individuals have the eyes placed in the opposite side to that in
which they are generally found in their species, and these are said to be re-
versed. Others have both sides colored alike, in which case they are called
‘Doubles.’ It is usually the colored side which is doubled, though occa-
sionally it is the white one.”

P. Platessa. —The Plaice. These fishes have a row of sharp teeth in
each jaw, and very often pavement teeth in the pharynx; the dorsal does
not advance more forwards than the upper eye, and both it and the anal
terminate and leave smooth spaces before the base of the caudal; they gen-
erally have two or three small cceca, and six gill-rays. DP. vulgaris (com-
mon Plaice) has six or seven tubercles, forming a line between the eyes, and
spots of aurora red over the brown on the upper side of the body. The
height is but a third of the length; and the flesh is soft, and soon decom-
poses. P. jflesus, the Flounder, similar, but with the spots lighter ; some
tubercles on the head, and some on the base of the dorsal and anal fins, and
have rough scales on the lateral line. They ascend a considerable way up
rivers, and reversed individuals are not unfrequently caught. 2. Uimanda,
the Dab, has the eyes large, the lateral line curved above the pectoral, the
scales rough, and the upper side brown, with whitish spots. 2. md¢croceph-
alus, the Laminder, with the eyes smaller, nearer each other, and the back
finely mottled with brown and yellow. Both these are found in the salt
water, as is also P. leménoides, the Long or Rough Dab, which has the
body elongated, something like a saw, and it approaches that species in

BONY FISHES. ORDER Ill. THE HALIBUT. 201

quality. P. pola, the Crayed Fluke, has the head small, the right eye
considerably in advance of the left, with the body yellowish-brown, and the
fins darker. All these, and some other species, are found on our shores,
chiefly on muddy or sandy bottoms.

HippoGiossus. — Shape and fins like a Flounder; lateral line arched.
The chief representative of the group is

H. Vulgaris. —The Halibut. Dr. Storer says, “This well-known and
excellent fish is taken in shoal water, in large quantities, during the summer
months ; at other seasons, it inhabits deeper waters. Great numbers are taken
upon Nantucket Shoals, frequently weighing two hundred pounds each. The
flesh of this species is rather coarse and dry, but is much esteemed by many ;
the fins are considered quite a delicacy. Tresh, this fish brings a higher price
than the cod; large quantities also are smoked ; and, occasionally, the dried
flesh is eaten. Some years ago a Halibut was taken upon the South Shore,
and brought to Boston market, which, after the head and bowels were re-
moved, weighed four hundred and twenty pounds; this specimen, when
perfect, undoubtedly weighed as much as five hundred weight. The largest
individual of which I have any certain knowledge, Mr. Anthony Holbrook,
a fishmonger in Quincy Market, a man of unquestionable veracity, and
whose knowledge of our fishes is equal to that of any of our fishermen, tells
me was taken at New Ledge, sixty miles south-east of Portland, Me., in
1807; it weighed upwards of six hundred pounds. The voracity of this
species is proverbial. Pennant cites two examples of ships’ sounding-leads
having been swallowed by them; one of these individuals was afterwards
captured.”

A large fleet is fitted out every winter at Gloucester, Mass., for the cap-
ture of this fish, which has became a favorite in the market.

Ruompbus. — The Turbot Genus. Teeth as in the Halibut, but the dor-
sal advances in front of the eyes, and the anal comes to the edge of the
jaws. The eyes are generally on the left, and in some they are separated
by a low crest.

R. Maximus. —The Turbot is the most esteemed of the family. — Its
height is nearly equal to its length, its form a truncated rhombus, and with
the lateral line much arched. The upper or left side is brown, and beset
with tubercles; but reversed specimens are sometimes taken. &. vul-
garis (Brill) is rounded on the sides, has the body without tubercles, and
the first rays of the dorsal split into filaments. The eyes are usually on the
left side. It is not so much esteemed as Turbot, still it is a good fish.

R. Aquosus. —The Watery Flounder. This fish is known among us as
the Turbot. It is frequently taken, when fishing for mackerel, quite near
the shore. Its average length is about eightcen inches, and specimens

202 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

weighing twenty pounds are not unfrequent. Body elongated, with small
seales, perfectly smooth. Left side of a reddish-gray color, with large, cir-
cular, oval, or oblong blotches of a darker color, surrounded with a lighter
margin, and also numerous white spots, which are more obvious upon the
fins. Right side white, without spots. Upper eye slightly back of the
under, in a vertical line. Eyes moderate in size, oblong; pupils blue-
black; irides silvery; distance between the eyes equal to the longest diam-
eter of the eye. Orbits, space in front of the eyes, jaws, spotted with dull
bluish spots. Gape of the mouth large; jaws equal in length, and armed
with a single row of separated, quite large, sharp teeth; the front ones
much the largest. A protuberance at the chin. Nostrils three lines in front
of the eyes. Gill-covers extend back of the eyes, nearly two and a half inches.

The lateral line makes a high arch over the pectorals previous to assuming
its straight course to the tail; the top of this arch is more than one inch
above the straight line.

Achivus. —In this group of the Plewronectide both eyes and color are
on the right side; the mouth distorted on the side opposite the eyes; small
teeth in both jaws, but confined to the under side only; form of the body
oblong; dorsal and anal fins extend to the tail; there are no pectorals.

A. Mollis, —TVhe Sole. This species is called the New York Sole, and
is found in the waters in the vicinity of that city.. It is considered a nutri-
tious and wholesome fish, and in color and size does not differ from the
S. vulgaris (common Sole of Cuvier), being from six to eight inches in
length, and of a dark-brown color, and white beneath.

Discopout. Third Family of Malacopterygtt Sub-brachiati.

The two principal genera are the following, both of which are found in
American waters : —

Lumrus. —The head and body are thick and short; the back has an
elevated ridge; the pectoral fins unite under the throat, and, with the ven-
trals, form a single disk. .

L. Vulgaris. —The Lump-Sucker. This fish is remarkable for the
aflection, so unusual in fishes, which it manifests towards its progeny. The
male keeps watch over the deposited ova, and guards them from every foe
with the utmost courage. If driven from the spot by man, he does not go
far, but is continually looking back, and in a short time returns. Thus we
are constantly finding among the inferior animals glimpses of a higher
nature, which prove that all created beings form a continuous chain, linked
together by one all-pervading and all-mighty Power.

The sucking organ, by which it adheres to foreign substances, is on the
top of the head, and consists of several plates.

BONY FISHES. ORDER II. THE SUCKING-FISH. 208

Dr. Storer says the species is frequently scen in Massachusetts Bay,
washed up on our beaches after a severe storm, “ Oceasionally, it is taken
in fishing for cod, with the hook ; generally, however, it is found attached
to sea-weed and other floating substances near the shore. Richardson tells
us that ‘the Greenlanders eat its flesh, either cooked or dried, and its skin
raw, throwing away only the tubercles ;’ and Dr. Neal observes ‘that it is
purchased at Edinburgh for the table.’ With us, however, it is not used as
an article of food. The common weight of this fish is from three to four
pounds, and six to twelve pounds. The whole appearance of this fish is
very forbidding, being, in young specimens, a soft, gelatinous, tremulous
mass; in older specimens, it is much firmer; but in both, is covered entirely
with firm, horny spines. My description is taken from a specimen seven-
teen inches in length.

“Length of the specimen, exclusive of the tail, fourteen inches; color
of all the upper part of the body a bluish-slate ; beneath, yellowish. The
whole surface of the fish is covered with an immense number of small stel-
lated tubercles, studding even the rays of all the fins. Three rows of
tubercles, much larger than those which are universally distributed over the
fish, are observed projecting from either side.”

Ecnrnets. — This genus has the body elongated, covered with very small
seales ; a single dorsal fin placed opposite the anal; the head flat, covered
with an oval disk, formed by numerous transverse, cartilaginous plates, the
edges of which are directed backwards.

FE. Naucrates. — The Indian Remora. This curious fish, which is about
twenty inches in length, has a propensity for attaching itself, by the ad-
hesive organ on the top of its head, to whatever object with which it comes
in contact, and therefore has the rare distinction of being employed by man _
as a hunting-fish. When Columbus first discovered the West Indies, the
inhabitants of the coasts of Cuba and Jamaica made use of the Remora to
catch turtles, by attaching to its tail a strong cord of palm-fibres, which
served to drag it out of the water along with its prey. By this means they
were able to raise turtles weighing several hundred pounds from the bottom ;
“for the sucking-fish,” says Columbus, “ will rather suffer itself to be cut
to pieces than let go its hold.” In Africa, on the Mozambique coast, a sim-
ilar method of catching turtles is practised to the present day. Thus a

knowledge of the habits of animals, and similar necessities, have given rise

to the same hunting artifices among nations that never had the least com-
munication with each other. Everybody knows the fables that have been
related of the small Mediterranean Remora (Mcheneis Remora). It even
owes its Latin name to the marvellous story of its being able to arrest a ship
under full sail in the midst of the ocean; and from this imaginary physical

L . .

204 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. — CLASS IV. PISCES.

power a no less astonishing moral influence was inferred, for the ancients
believed that tasting the Remora completely subdued the passion of love,
and that if a delinquent, wishing to gain time, succeeded in making his
judge eat some of its flesh, he was sure of a long delay before the verdict

was pronounced.

BONY FISHES. ORDER IV. MALACOPTERYGII APODA.

The fishes of this order compose but one family, —the Murenide, —
which are lengthened in form, have the skin thick and soft, the scales almost
imperceptible, and but few bones. There are numerous genera.

Mvurxexa. —This well-known genus, which contains our common Eels,
has a long, slender, cylindrical body, seales nearly invisible, no ventral fins,
and the vent far backwards.

M. Vulgaris. —M. Bostoniensis (Le Sueur). —The Common Eel.
The common Eel is most frequently*found in rivers and lakes, but also in-
habits salt water, and is sometimes taken on our shores in incredible num-
bers. Its ordinary size is from two to three feet, though it has been known
to attain the leneth of six feet, and to weigh fifteen pounds. Though im-
patient of heat and cold, the Eel can live longer out of the water than any
other fish, and not rarely creeps upon the meadows and humid fields to
eatch snails or worms —a faculty for which it is indebted to the small open-
ing of its gill-covers. It is abundant in all our rivers and ponds, and is much
prized as an article of food. Its color is a grayish-brown above, and yel-
lowish-white beneath, with a reddish tinge about the tail. In the winter,
it is speared through holes in the ice; at other seasons, it is taken in
nets.

AM. Argentea. —The Silver Eel. This fish differs from the former chiefly
in color, which is silvery-gray, darker upon its upper portion, with a clear
satiny-white abdomen. “It is taken in pots in October, when it leaves the
ponds, and seldom at any other time.”

M. Helena. —This Eel is common in the Mediterranean, and was cele-
brated among the ancients, whe carefully fed it in ponds. The color is
mottled-brown and yellow, and length from three to four feet. These fishes
have a very ferocious temper, and are extremely voracious. Viedius Pollio
amused himself and his friends by casting his offending slaves into the
ponds where these Murcence were kept, and witnessing their destruction by
these slimy monsters.

Ammopytres. — Head and body as in the former, but the gill-openings
are large, and the dorsal fin extends nearly the whole length of the back.

BONY FISHES. ORDER IV. THE ELECTRIC EEL. 205

This genus comprises A. tobianus, the Sand Eel, and A. ldancea, the
Sand Lance, species which burrow in the sand, and are supposed to consti-
tute, in part, the food of salmon.

Gyunotus. — The gills of this genus are partially covered by mem-
branes, but opening before the pectorals; vent far forward; anal fin occu-
pying the under line of the body. It has no dorsal. The true Electric
Eels have no caudal or dorsal fin, nor visible scales ; moderate intestines,
with several flexures, and numerous coca; stomach short, and plaited on
its inner surface. One long air-bladder extends in a cavity of the abdomen ;
the other, in two lobes, is placed over the gullet. Found only in the rivers
and stagnant fresh waters of tropical America.

G. Electricus. —The Electric Gymnotus, called from its form the Elec-
trical Eel. It attains the length of five or six feet, and communicates shocks
so powerful that men and horses have been stunned by them. This power
is voluntary, and can be sent in a particular direction, and even through the
water, the fish in which are killed, or stunned, by its shocks. By giving
these, it is greatly exhausted, and requires both rest and nourishment before
it can renew them. The immediate organ of this power extends along the
whole under side of the tail, occupying about half its thickness. It consists
of two large longitudinal fasciculi above, and two smaller ones below, rest-
ing on the base of the anal fin. | Each fasciculus is composed of numerous
parallel membranes, nearly horizontal, and close to each other, one end
being attached to the skin, and the other to the mesial plane. They are
joined by numerous transverse and vertical membranes ; and the canals and
cells thus formed are filled with gelatinous matter. The whole apparatus is
largely supplied with nerves, affording one striking instance of the intimate
connection between electric or galvanic action in matter, and nervous action
in animals.

BONY FISHES. ORDER V. LOPHOBRANCHII.

The name of this order (Lophobranchi?) signifies fishes with their gills
in tufts. “ All the fishes of the preceding four orders not only have a skele-
ton of fibrous bones, and the jaws complete and free, but their gills are
always in fibres or fringes, like the teeth of a comb; but those of the pres-
ent order, while they have the jaws complete and free, have the gills not in
equal lamin along the arches, but in small round tufts, disposed along the
arches in pairs—a structure of which there is no instance in other fishes.
These are defended by a large operculum, attached by membranes on all
sides, except one small hole for aliowing the water to escape ; and mere

NO. XVI. 79

206 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

vestiges of rays are shown in the substance of the operculum. These fishes
are also distinguished by shields, or small plates, which cover the body, and
often give it an angular form.”

There are two genera : —

Synenaruus. — The Pipe-fishes. They have the tubular snout of the
Fistularide. The gill-opening is near the nape, and there are no ventral
fins. They have a striking analogy to the Marsupials, in the Class Mam-
malia, in having a pouch under the belly in some, and at the base of the
tail in others. The eggs slide into this pouch, which is formed by inflation
of the skin, and remain there till they are hatched. There are several spe-
cies, of which S. fuscus, the Brown Pipe-fish, and S. Peckianus, Peck’s
Pipe-fish, are found in our waters. S. acus, the Great Pipe-fish, and
S. ophidian, the Snake Pipe-fish, and some others, are foreign. These all
have the pouch under the belly. In these fishes, the order of Nature, in
regard to reproduction, seems to be reversed; for it is the male, and not
the female, which has the pouch, and hatches the eves.

Hippocampus. — The jaws of this group are like those of the preceding ;
mouth placed at the end; the margins of the scales are formed into ridges,
and the angles into spines. There is no fin in the tail, but that organ is
prehensile, and enables the fish to climb or hold on by the stalks of marine
plants.

IT, Brevirostris. — The Short-nosed Sea-horse is sometimes found on our
shores. It is about five inches long, and of a yellowish-brown color.

BONY FISHES. ORDER VI. PLECTOGNATHI.

This order is composed of those fishes which have the maxillary soldered
to the side of the intermaxillary, which constitutes the jaw, and the palatal
arch connected with the cranium by an immovable suture. The differences
in the character of their teeth divide them naturally into two families.

The First Family comprises the G'ymnodontes, i. e., fishes with naked
teeth. They have the jaws covered with a substance like ivory, laminated
internally, and resembling the beak of a parrot. This structure is really
composed of teeth united, which are reproduced as soon as they are de-
stroyed by using. They live on crustacea and sea-weed, and their flesh is
mucous and inedible.

Trrraopon. — Each jaw is marked with a suture, so as to give the ap-
pearance of four teeth, and the spines are small and low.

T. Turgidus. — The Swell-fish. This singular fish, which is common in
Buzzard’s Bay and the Vineyard Sound, has the faculty of blowing itself

| BONY FISHES. ORDER VI. THE SUN-FISH. 207

up like a balloon, by filling with air a thin, membranous sac, which adheres
to the peritoneum, the whole length of the abdomen. When thus inflated,
it rolls over, and floats with belly uppermost. The length of this species
is about nine inches. The color on the upper part of the body is yellowish-
white, with innumerable minute black spots. The abdomen is white.

OrtHacoriscus. — The Sun-fish has the body compressed, spineless, and
incapable of inflation.

O. Mola. — The Short Sun-fish. This is rather a rare fish in our waters.
Dr. Storer gives the following description of one harpooned in Boston
Bay : —

“The body is oval; its whole surface a fine, unyielding, granulated cuti-
cle, covered with a thick, adhesive mucous; back dark gray. Abdomen
nearly white; the right side of the body rather darker than the left; both
sides of a dirty-white color, with silvery reflections. Length, fifty-four
inches ; depth across, from the middle of the pectorals, two and a half’ feet ;
from the top of the dorsal to the extremity of the anal fin, six and a half
feet. Weight, about two hundred pounds. Length of the head, from the
tip of the snout to the base of the pectoral fin, seventeen inches ; flattened
over the snout, which is obtuse, and projecting about an inch in front of the
upper jaw. Eyes rather large, convex, very movable in their orbits ; pupils
black ; irides a dark brown, encircled within by a silvery ring. Nostrils
double, just in front of the eyes. Mouth small. Jaws armed with a
broad, bony plate, sharp at the edges. Upon the top of the head, an
arched ridge commences on a line with the anterior angle of the eyes, and
is continued to a line above the origin of the pectorals, then a straight line
is continued to the dorsal fin. The sides of the head project out from the
body quite prominently over the eyes to the branchial aperture. Operculum
directly in front of the pectorals, three inches in its greatest diameter. — Its
motions are very sluggish, and it swims near the surface of the ocean. On
account of the great elasticity of its flesh, it is captured with great diffi-
culty ; it is generally gafted at or near the branchial aperture. Its flesh is
sometimes used for balls. Its liver is very oily, furnishing two or more
quarts of oil, which is used by the fishermen to grease their masts with, and it
is also by many of them considered a valuable application in cases of sprains
and bruises.”

The Second Family of the Plectognathi (Scleroderm?) is composed of
fishes with hard and granulated skins. They have a conical muzzle, which
is prolonged forwards from the eyes, and terminates in the mouth, with dis-
tinct teeth in both jaws. The skin is either rough or covered with very hard
scales. Some of the species abound in the warm seas, near rocks, or on the

208 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

surface of the water; and their brilliant colors sparkle in the waves like
those of the Chetodons.

The genera found on our shores are Monocanthus, the File-fish ; Aluteres,
the Unicorn File-fish ; and Ostracion, the Trunk-fish. They are all small
fishes, of singular appearance, but of no value to man.

CHONDROPTERYGII. (Second Series of Fishes.)

This series comprises the Cartilaginous Fishes, that is, those whose skele-
ton has no bony fibres, but the calcareous matter disposed in grains. The
cranium is always formed of a single piece, without sutures. The Chon-
dropterygit divide into two orders —those witlr free gills, like all other
fishes, and those with fixed gills, which are so attached to the skin by the
internal edges that the water cannot escape from their intervals except by
-holes in their surface.

ORDER I. CHONDROPTERYGILT LIBERIS. (Free Gills.)

This order is composed of those fishes which “have in their gills a single
wide opening, and a gill-lid, like the Bony Fishes, but they have no gill-
rays. There are two genera: —_

“ Accipenser. — The Sturgeon. General form like that of the Shark, but
the body more or less covered with bony plates in longitudinal rows, and
the head externally armed with the same. Their mouth, placed under the
muzzle, is small and toothless; and the palatal bones, soldered to the max-
illaries, form the upper jaw, while there are vestiges of the intermaxillaries
in the thick lips. Placed upon a pedicle of three articulations, this mouth
is more protractile than that of the Shark; the eyes and nostrils are on the
sides of the head, and barbules are suspended from the muzzle; the laby-
rinth within the cranial bones is perfect, but there is no external ear, the
hole behind the temple leading merely to the gills. The dorsal is behind
the ventrals, and has the anal directly opposite to it; the caudal surrounds
the extremity of the spine, and terminates in the upper lobe of the tail, but
an under lobe gives the tail the appearance of being forked. Internally, we
find the spiral intestinal valve, and the single pancreas of the Shark family ;
and there is a very large air-bladder, which communicates with the guilet
by a large opening. Sturgeons ascend some rivers in vast numbers, and
are the object of valuable fisheries. The flesh of most is agreeable.”

A. Oxyrinchus. —The Sharp-Nosed Sturgeon. This is the name applied

ORDER I. CHONDROPTERYGII. (FREE GILLS.) 209

by Dr. Mitchell to an American species, a little over two feet in lenoth. As

this eminent naturalist says that the Sturgeon “

grows seldom to a greater
length than five feet,” I conclude that he was not acquainted with all of our
species. I have seen specimens in eastern rivers at least ten feet long,
sporting, like the whales, in the exercise of breaching, shooting out of the
water, and falling upon the side with a noise that could be heard at a great
distance.

A. Sturio. —The Common Sturgeon has a pointed muzzle, and five rows
of plates, with strong spines. It abounds in the Northern seas of Europe,
where extensive fisheries are established for its destruction. Caviar is made
of the roe of the female, isinglass from the membrane forming the air-
bladder ; and the flesh, besides being preserved by salting and pickling, is
in request for the table while fresh, being generally stewed with rich gravy,
and the flavor considered to be like that of veal. It is, however, far from
enjoying the same repute as with the Romans, among whom it was brought
to table with much pomp, ornamented with flowers, the slaves who carried
it being also ornamented with garlands, and accompanied by music.

Some species attain a length of eighteen feet, and a weight of five hun-
dred pounds. The body is elongated from the shoulders backward, some-
what pentagonal in shape, with five longitudinal rows of flattened plates,
with pointed central spines directed backwards. The skin makes a good
covering for carriages.

The smallest, but most delicate, of the sturgeons is the Sterlit of the
Volga, which sometimes fetches such extravagant prices, that Prince Potem-
kin has been known to pay three hundred roubles for a single tureen of
Sterlit soup.

A. Huso. —The Great Sturgeon, has blunter plates, a smoother skin, and
shorter snout and cirri than the common Sturgeon. It is frequently found
more than twelve, or even fifteen, feet in leneth, and weighing more than
twelve hundred pounds. One specimen is mentioned which weighed near
three thousand pounds. Its flesh is not much esteemed, and it is sometimes
unwholesome; but its air-bladder yields the very finest isinglass. It is
found in the Po as well as in the northern rivers. —

Cumiera. — This second genus of Cartilaginous Fishes, with free gills,
closely resembles the sharks in form, and in the disposition of the fins; but
the gills open externally by one apparent hole in each side, though, if we
examine more closely, we find great part of their edges attached, and that
there are five separate holes terminating in the common aperture ; still they
have a vestige of an operculum concealed in the skin. Their jaws are more
reduced than in the sharks, for the palatals and temporals are mere simple
vestiges suspended to the sides of the muzzle, and the upper jaw is repre-

910 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

sented by the vomer only; hard and undivided plates supply the place of
tecth, four of them above, and two below.

This genus is not, to my knowledge, represented in American waters.

C. Monstrosa, sometimes called the King of the Herrings, inhabits the
Northern seas of Europe. It is three feet long, and of a silvery-color,
spotted with brown.

ORDER II. CHONDROPTERYGII FIXIS. (Fixed gills.)

This order is separated into two families, — Selachi, the Sharks and
Rays; and Cyclostomata (fishes with the mouth formed into a sucker), the
Lampreys.

Carcuarrus. —The Sharks. The members of this noted tribe have
trenchant, pointed teeth, usually serrated in the margins; the first dorsal
hefore the ventrals; the second nearly opposite the anals. They have no
spiracles; the nostrils are in the middle of the snout, and the last gill-
opening extends over the pectorals.

CO. Vulgaris. —Th> White Shark. This much-dreaded species is some-
times twenty feet long; mouth, isosceles triangular, ragged at the sides. It
is found in most seas, and its prodigious strength may be judged of from
the fact that a young shark, only six feet in length, is able to break a man’s
lee by a stroke of its tail.

Thus, when a shark is caught with a baited hook at sea, and drawn upon
deck, the sailors’ first act is to chop off its tail, to prevent the mischief
otherwise tg be apprehended from its enormous streneth. An anecdote re-
lated by Hughes, the well-known and esteemed author of the “ Natural

History of Barbadoes,” gives a good idea of the savage nature of this mon-

>

ster. “In the reign of Queen Anne, a merchant ship arrived at that island

from Eneland ; some of the crew, ignorant of the danger of the recreation
5 5 fo) ?

were bathing in the sea, when a large shark appeared, and swam directly

towards them; being warned of their danger, however, they all hurried on
board, where they afrived safe, except one poor fellow, who was bit in two
by the shark, almost within reach of the oars. A comrade and intimate
friend of the unfortunate victim, when he observed the severed trunk of his
companion, vowed his revenge. The voracious monster was seen traversing
the bloody surface of the waves in search of the remainder of his prey,
when the brave youth plunged into the water. He held in his hand a long,
sharp-pointed knife ; and the rapacious animal pushed furiously towards him.
It had turned on its side, and opened its enormous jaws, when the youth,
diving dexterously, seized the shark with his left hand, somewhere below

ORDER Il. CHONDROPTERYGII. (FIXED GILLS.) 211

the upper fins, and stabbed it repeatedly in the belly. The animal, en-

ove
>

raged with pain, and streaming with blood, attempted in vain to disenga
itself. The crews of the surrounding vessels saw that the combat was
decided ; but they were ignorant which was slain, till the shark, exhausted
by loss of blood, was seen nearer the shore, and along with it his gallant
conqueror, who, flushed with victory, redoubled his efforts, and, with the
aid of an ebbing tide, dragged it to the beach. Finally, he ripped open
the stomach of the fish, and buried the severed half of his friend’s body
with the trunk in the same grave.”

It is no uncommon thing for the negroes, who are admirable divers, thus
to attack and vanquish the dreaded shark ; but success can only be achieved
by consummate dexterity, and by those who are armed for this express
purpose.

Ordinary swimmers are constantly falling a prey to the sharks of warm
climates. Thus Sir Brooke Watson, when in the West Indies, as a youth,
was swimming at a little distance from a ship, when he saw a shark making
towards him. Struck with terror at its approach, he immediately cried out
for assistance. A rope was instantly thrown, but, even while the men were
in the act of drawing him up the ship’s side, the monster darted after him,
and, at a single snap, took off his lee.

C. Glaucus. — The Blue Shark. This species has curved-sided teeth
above, inclining outwards, and straighter ones below, all ragged on the
edges. It does not appear to frequent American waters, but is particularly
mischievous on the coasts of Great Britain. It does not attempt the fisher-
man’s life, but is extremely troublesome and injurious to him, by hovering
about his boat, and cutting the hooks from the lines in rapid succession.
This, indeed, often leads to its own destruction; but when their teeth do
not deliver them from their difficulty, the Blue Sharks, which hover about
the Cornish coast during the pilchard season, have a singular method of
proceeding, which is by rolling the body round so as to twine the line about
them throughout its whole length; and sometimes this is done in such a
complicated manner, that Mr. Yarrell has known a fisherman give up an
attempt to unroll it as a hopeless task. To the pilchard drift-net this shark
is a still more dangerous enemy, and it is common for it to pass in succes-
sion along the whole length of the net, cutting out, as with shears, the fish
and the net that holds them, and swallowing both together.

C. Vulpes. —The Thresher, or Fox Shark. This is a powerful fish,
with a most savage temper. It has triangular teeth in both jaws, and is
remarkable for the extraordinary length of the upper lobe of the tail, which
equals that of the whole body. It attains a length of twelve feet or more,
and a weight of two hundred pounds. It derives its name from the power-

212 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

ful blows it deals with its tail when attacked. It often visits our waters,
and feeds on mackerel and menhaden.

Lamna.— ‘his genus has the point of the nose conical, the nostrils
pierced on its under surface, and the five gill-openings before the pectorals.

L. Punctata. —The Mackerel Shark. This is the most common shark
of the Atlantic, and abounds on the American coasts, where it exercises its
mischievous propensities among the lines of the fishermen, often biting them
@ them of their prey. Its length is from six to ten feet,

fo.

off, and thus robbin
and its weight from three to four hundred pounds. Like the other sharks,
it appears to have little sensibility, and is very tenacious of life; I have seen
one of these fishes eat its own liver, which protruded through a wound made
by a harpoon,

Spivax. —'Two dorsal fins, with a strong spine at the anterior edge of
each ; absence of the anal fin; teeth in several rows, small and cutting, dis-
tinguish this genus.

S. Anthias. —The Dog-fish. This isa common species well known to
our fishermen, and resembles the shark, both in appearance and in its say-
age temper. The English call it the Piked Dog-fish, from the spines of
the dorsal fins. The length is from two to three feet ; the body is slender.

Dr. Storer furnishes the following description :

“All the upper part of the body of a slate-color, which is deeper upon
the head; lighter below the lateral line; beneath, white; just under the
lateral line, a row of circular white spots; a few similar spots irregularly
distributed upon the back. Length of the head to the whole length of the
fish, nearly as four to nine; the head flattened above, tapering to a blunted
snout. Eyes horizontally elongated; their longest diameter nearly equal
to one fourth the length of the head; pupils small, black; irides silvery,
with a cupreous tint. Orbit large, allowing great motion to the eye. The
distance between the eyes equal to more than half the length of the head.
Between the eyes, two longitudinal patches of numerous mucous glands,
which are indistinctly continued nearly to the extremity of the snout. Tem-
poral orifices back of the eye, and just above the line of the eye; their
length is equal to the short diameter of the eye. All the lower portion of
the head, in front of the mouth, sprinkled over with mucous orifices.

“In the spring and autumn, the Dog-fish appear in shoals in our bay ;
they are frequently met with in immense numbers. At their appearance,
smacks are fitted out at Truro and Provincetown for their capture, to the
neglect of other fishing, for the oil they furnish ; and it is said to be quite a
valuable business. The fishes themselves are dried for food for the cattle,
and their skin is considerably used for polishing by the mechanic. They
average about eight or ten pounds weight; sometimes they weigh fifteen

ORDER Il. CHONDROPTERYGI. (FIXED GILLS.) 213 |

pounds. They are readily caught with the hook. These shoals seldom
remain in shallow water, or near the shore, more than three or four days ;
they feed upon the offal and garbage thrown upon the bottoms by the fish-
ermen, and so perfectly do they clean the ground, that it is observed by old
fishermen, that when the spring shoal of Dog-fish has been unusually large,
the cod-fish are found in much larger numbers upon the same localities
afterwards. In Scotland, the flesh of this fish is much eaten by the lower
classes, and the refuse portions afford a valuable manure.”

ZyGENA.—In this genus is found that singular-looking fish, the /Zan-
mer-headed Shark. The snout of this fish is singularly produced, forming
two picces, like a double-headed hammer, with an eye in the middle of each
extremity. Some of the species attain a very large size.

Noripamus. — In this genus are found the largest specimens of the Shark
family. They have six gill-openings, triangular teeth above, and like a saw
below. Some species, among them the Squalus maximus, are between
thirty and forty feet in length. They are harmless fishes. .

A remarkable specimen was exhibited in Boston in 1868, under the sen-
sational name of Sea Serpent. It was thirty feet long, and had all the
characteristics of a shark, but in addition a pair of legs, which appeared to
grow forward from the base of the ventral fins. Those who had it in
charge asserted that it made frequent excursions upon the land, and was
shot in a meadow between two ponds. I was not, however, able to extract
from them anything reliable, and have found it utterly impracticable to
obtain an authentic history of this really curious animal.

Pristis. —The Saw-fishes. They have a long body, like the sharks,
with the gill-openings below ; the snout extended like the blade of a sword,
and with strong, trenchant teeth on both edges, which give it the appearance
of a saw, whence the popular name of the fish. This singular weapon is
probably a provision of nature for the defence of the animal against the
attacks of more powerful foes. Iam obliged to destroy another “romance

b

of the sea” in which the Saw-fish figures as engaging in frightful duels with
the gigantic Mysticetus, or uniting with the Sword-fish and Grampus in
making war on that mighty denizen of the ocean ; the Saw-fish is a shore fish,
and does not frequent the deep waters which the larger whales inhabit, and

we must, therefore, consider such battles as inventions of the novel writers.

Rata. — The Rays. These singularly unsightly fishes resemble the
side-swimmers by the flatness of their form, but differ widely from them in
many other particulars. Like the sharks and sturgeons, they are cartilagi-
nous fishes, and as their branchi adhere to the cells, these respiratory mem-
branes are not furnished with gill-covers, but communicate freely with the

NO. XVI. 80

214 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

water by means of five spiracles on either side. The rhomboidal, broad
body, the long, narrow tail, frequently furnished with two, and sometimes
three, broad fins, and mostly armed with one or more rows of sharp spines
along its whole length, the dirty color, and thick coat of slime with which
it is covered, render them pre-eminently diseusting. Their mode of defend-
ing themselves is very effectual, and forms a striking contrast to the help-
lessness of the flat-fish. The point of the nose and the base of the tail are
bent upwards towards each other, and, the upper surface of the body being
then concave, the tail is lashed about in all directions over it, and the rows
of sharp spines frequently inflict severe wounds.

Two species are found in our waters : —

Rh, Ocellata, —The Ocellated Ray. This species weighs about two hun-
dred pounds ; the upper part of the body is of a light brown, sprinkled with
circular, black spots of various size; the belly is white.

RR. Batis. —The Skate. This species is about the size of the last. The
flesh is hard, but not unwholesome, and is highly prized by some. ‘Thomas
Willoughby makes mention of a single Skate of two hundred pounds
weight, which was sold in the fish market at Cambridge, England, to the
cook of St. John’s College, and was found sufficient to dine the whole so-
ciety, consisting of more than a hundred and twenty persons.

The Skates are yery voracious; their food consists of any sort of fish,
mollusk, annelid, or crustacean, that they can catch. So powerful are their
muscles and jaws, that they are able to erush the strong shell of a crab with
the greatest ease.

“But our Atlantic Rays are far from equalling the colossal dimensions of
the Sea Devil of the Pacific. This terrific monster swims fast, and often
appears on the surface of the ocean, where its black, unwieldy back looks
like a huge stone projecting above the waters. It attains a breadth of twelve
or fifteen feet, and Lesson was presented, by a fisherman of Borabora, with a
tail five feet lone. The Society Islanders catch the hideous animal with
harpoons, and make use of its rough skin as rasps or files in the manufac-
ture of their wooden utensils.

“Creatures so voracious and well armed as the Rays would have attained
a dangerous supremacy in the maritime domains had they equalled most
other fishes in fecundity. Fortunately for their neighbors, they seldom
produce more than one young at a time, which, as in the shark, is enclosed
in a four-cornered capsule ending in slender points, but not, as in the for-
mer, produced into long filaments.”

Trycon.—The Sting Rays. They have on the tail a strong spine,
notched on both sides.

The South American Sting Ray causes the most excruciating tortures with

ORDER II. CHONDROPTERYGI. THE RAYS. 215

his long, serrated, and barbed sting. An Indian, who accompanied Rich-
ard Schomburgh on his travels through Guiana, being hit by a Sting Ray
while fording a river, tottered to the bank, where he fell upon the ground,
and rolled about on the sand, with compressed lips, in an agony of pun.
But no tear started from the eye, no ery of anguish issued from the breast
of the stoical savage. An Indian boy wounded in the same manner, but
less able to master his emotions, howled fearfully, and flung himself upon
the sand, biting it in the paroxysm of his anguish. Although both had been
hit in the foot, they felt the severest pain in the loins, in the region of the
heart, and in the arm-pits. So general a shock of the nervous system can-
not possibly proceed from the sting alone, but is no doubt caused by some
poisonous secretion. A robust man, wounded by a Sting Ray, died in
Demarara under the most dreadful convulsions.

The genus Trygon is represented by several species on our coasts.
Le Sueur has described five. Their sting is very poisonous, though not
often, if ever, fatal in its effects.

Torrepo. — A short, fleshy tail and circular body are the distinguishing
marks of the genus. The electric apparatus consists of numerous cells, like
those of the honeycomb, and subdivided by lateral diaphragms, the intervals
of which contain a mucous fluid. It is situated between the pectoral fins
and the head, and is well furnished with nerves. The electric shocks given
by the Torpedo are not so powerful as those of the Gymnotus, but are sufti-
ciently so to enable it to stun its prey.

The “Cramp-fish” of Cape Cod is, without doubt, a Torpedo. This fish
has been found at Wellfleet and Truro, and formerly was quite common. A
centleman, residing at the former place, had a dog trained to fish in shallow
water for flounders, which he seized with his mouth. In one of his fishing
excursions, he attempted to take a Torpedo, which gave him such a shock
that he dropped his prey, and ran howling away; and nothing could ever

induce him again to resume his fishing,

Cycrostomata. The Second Family of Chondropterygit Fivis.

This family comprises those fishes which have the mouth formed into a
sucker. They have no pectorals or ventrals. “Their body ends in a cir-
cular, fleshy lip, with a cartilaginous ring supporting it, and formed of the
soldered palatals and mandibularies. ~The substance of all the vertebrie is
traversed by a single tendinous cord, filled internally with a mucilaginous
fluid, without contractions and enlargements, which reduces the vertebra to
cartilaginous rays not easily distinguishable from each other. The annular
portion is rather more solid than the rest, but not cartilaginous through its
whole circle. They have no ordinary ribs, but the eill-ribs, noted as rudi-

216 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

mental in the sharks and rays, are more developed, and united with each
other in this family into a kind of cage, but there are no solid gill-arches.
Instead of being comb-shaped, as in other fishes, the gills have the appear-
ance of sacs produced by the union of the faces of the proximate ones. ‘The
labyrinth of the ear is embedded in the cranium, and the nostrils opened by
a single orifice, in front of which is a blind cavity, improperly thought a
spiracle. The intestine is straight and slender, with a spiral valve.”

Perromyzon. — The Lampreys. They have seven gill-openings on each
side, and the skin on the upper and under parts of the tail is formed into
fin-like crests, which, however, have no rays. They have strong teeth in
the maxillary ring, and the inner disk of the lip, which is circular, is cov-
ered with tubercles, hard and crusted, like teeth. The tongue also, which
moves backwards and forwards like a piston, and performs the suction, has
two rows of small teeth.

P. Americunus. —Le Sueur gives this name to the common Lamprey
Kel, as it is commonly called, of our rivers. The color of the species varies
somewhat, being generally an olive brown, of lighter or darker shades.
“All the upper portion of the body, mottled with dark brown, almost black,
confluent patches; beneath, of a uniform dull olive. Anterior portion of
the body cylindrical ; posterior compressed. A slight keel upon the back.
Head rounded, somewhat flattened on the upper portion in front of the eyes.
dyes moderate in size; pupils black; irides golden. Distance of the eyes
from the snout, two inches. A tubular orifice is seen in front of, between
the eyes, a line in its longest diameter. Seven large branchial apertures
back of each eye, passing backward in nearly a straight line; the first small-
est. When this species is unattached, the mouth is a longitudinal fissure.
When attached, it is circular, the lip forming a ring; within, furnished with
hard, horny teeth, of a yellow color. Teeth on the roof larger than those
upon the sides of the mouth; lower margin of the mouth furnished with a
semicircular row of compact teeth; teeth on the lip small; mucous pores
obvious in front of the eyes, passing towards the snout, and almost back
of the eyes. Two dorsal fins; the first commencing back of the middle of
the body, three inches long, nine inches high. Between this and the second
dorsal, one inch. Second dorsal, six inches long; more than one inch high
in its highest part. Anal fin, a mere fringe. Caudal fin appears like the
extremity of the solid portion of the body, very much compressed.”

This fish is about two feet in length at maturity, and weighs from three
to four pounds. In the spawning season, it ascends our various rivers, and
IT have seen it, in countless numbers, far in the interior of Maine, building
its mounds of stone in the clear streams. According to Dr. Bartlett, “ they
ascend the rivers a little earlier than the shad, and move mostly in the night.

ORDER I. CHONDROPTERYGII. “THE LAMPREYS. 217

It is not known by the fishermen when they return, as they are never seen.
There is a notion that they all die. They are often seen, in the summer, in
pairs, at work together, constructing a little mound of stones. They build
this about three feet in diameter at the base, and about two fect high, of
stones from the size of an ounce bullet to that of the fist. They often
aid each other in carrying the same stone. The young go down the river
when the water begins to freeze. They are then from six to eight inches
long.”

The prevailing opinion that these fishes do not return to the sea, but die
at the end of the season, is, I believe, correct. I have seen them in various
stages of decay, and in such numbers as to be very disagreeable to bathers.

The remaining species are P. marinus, two or three feet long, marbled
with brown, and a yellow ground; P. fluviatilis, silvery, with olive or
blackish spots on the back; P. planerti, a small river species, eight or ten

>

inches long; P. xégricans, the Bluish Lamprey, and some others. They
are all generally rejected as food in this country, though highly esteemed in
the Old World.

Ammocetus. — These fishes have the skeleton so soft and membranous
that there is not a bone in the whole, not even a tooth; they have the ex-
ternal form and gill-openings of the Lampreys, but their fleshy lip forms
only a semicircle on the upper part of the mouth, which is furnished with
numerous cirri. A. branchialis is from six to eight inches long, about the
thickness of a goose-quill, and of no use but as bait for other fish. It has been
accused of sucking the gills of other fishes, but perhaps falsely. It is found
in the sand and mud of small streams; preys on worms, insects, and dead
matter, and is, in return, preyed on by the eel.

A. Bicolor. —The Mud Lamprey. This is an American species, found
in the Connecticut River, and is thus described by Le Sueur : —

“Dorsal fins low, separated ; the second united with the caudal fin, which
is rounded; back and sides reddish; abdomen white; the color separated
by an undulating line. Anterior part of the body sub-cylindric, posterior
part compressed, and tapering to the tail; nape of the neck clevated; head
declivous, prolonged into a snout furnished with a lip having two short,
rounded lobes; these lobes, when the mouth is closed, embrace and conceal
the lower lip, which is very short; the nostrils are small, and placed in the
centre of a white oval, pellucid disk, easily movable; on the inside of the
upper lip, there are small granules, and at the opening of the throat small,
ramified papille ; the branchial apertures are placed in a longitudinal de-
pression, oblique and a little curved; the first aperture is above the angle
of the mouth; on each side of the head there is a whitish spot, which should
seem to indicate the position of the eyes, that this species is deficient of,

218 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. PISCES.

in common with the P. raber of Europe. The annular or ribbed appear-
ance of the sides of this fish is owing to the museles, which are endued with
great streneth, in order to enable it to burrow in the muddy sands of rivers,
where it penetrates, in a serpentine manner, by means of the snout, the large
lip of which performs the functions of a terrier. The European species is
ecnerally taken when the small rivers are cleansed of the superabundant
sand and mud which obstruct their channels. This last is much sought after
for food; but the American species is commonly rejected, as is almost every
animal that either has a real or fancied resemblance to a snake. This fish is
used for bait.”

The genera Myxine, Heptratremus, and Grastrobanchus all resemble the
Lampreys.

Ampiioxus. — This is a singular creature, and of doubtful character.
It has the body compressed, the surface without scales, and both ends
pointed. It has a dorsal along the whole line of the back, but no other
fins. The mouth is on the under side of the body, opens longitudinally,
and has a row of filaments on each side. A. /anceolatus, the Lancelet, is
the only known species. It is an inhabitant of the sea, in which it is found,
although very rarely, lurking under stones in pools left by the ebbing tide.
Pallas considered it as a molluscous animal, and not a fish; but Mr. Yar-
rell, in his British Fishes, argues that it is a fish, and that, in organiza-
tion, it is the lowest of the class. “The form of the fish,” says Mr. Yar-
rell, “is compressed ; the head pointed, without any trace of eyes; the nose
rather produced; the mouth, on the under edge, in the shape of an elon-
gated fissure, the sides of which are flexible; from the inner margin extend
various slender filaments, which cross and intermingle with those on the
opposite side. Along the sides of the body the muscles are arranged in
reeular order, diverging from a,central line; one series passing obliquely
upward and backward, and the other series as obliquely downward and back-
ward; the anal aperture is situated one fourth of the length of the fish in
advance of the end of the tail; the tail itself pointed; from the nose to the
end of the tail, a delicate membranous dorsal fin extends the whole length
of the back, supported by very numerous and minute soft rays ; the surface
of the body smooth.” These characteristics leave no doubt that the animal
is a fish; but that it ought to be classed with the Lamprey family is another
matter. The specimen from which the description was made was not above
an inch in leneth, very slender, and almost transparent.

Tue Eyevess Fis or toe MammMora Cave — This curious fish must
bear some relation to the preceding genus. The following description was
given to me by the late N. P. Willis : —

“We reached Lethe, with many stops and occasional drops of encourage-

ORDER If CHONDROPTERYGIL. THE EYELESS FISH. 219

ment and water from Stephen’s flask, and here we halted to catch one
of the Hyeless Fish who swim in this river of forgetfulness. I held the
lamp while the pole net was quietly slipped under the little vietim of celeb-
rity. He sww no danger, poor thing! and stirred never a fin to escape
being taken out of his element, and raised to a higher sphere. In size he
was like the larger kind of what the boys call a ‘minim,’ — say an inch anda
half long, — but very different in construction and color. His body was
quite white, translucent, and wholly without an intestinal canal. The stom-
ach was directly behind the brain, and all the organs of the system were
forward of the gills, the head alone having blood or other discoloration.
Under the chin he disposed of what was superfluous in his nourishment. He
was curiously correspondent, indeed, to the poetized character of the place
—like a fish in progress of becoming a fish in spirit-land, his dis-animali-
zation having commenced radically at the tail, and working upward. Noth-
ing could be more purely beautiful and graceful than the pearly and spotless
body, which had heavenlified first, *leaving the head to follow. IT looked
for some minutes at the others swimming in the stream. They idled about,
with a purposeless and luxurious tranquillity, and I observed that they ran
their noses against the rocky sides of the dark river with no manner of pre-
caution. Unhurt and unannoyed, they simply turned back from the opposing
obstacle, and swam slowly away. The scientific people tell us that these
blind fish once had eyes, and that the microscope still shows the collapsed
socket. The orean has died out in the darkness of the subterranean river

co)
”
yr

— dwindled into annihilation with lack of using.

The above is a poet’s description of the fish, not that of a philosopher or
man of science, who would see in this animal not an imperfect and half-
formed creature, but one plainly and perfectly adapted to its condition of
existence. Nature does not indulge in superfluities, and has created these
fishes without eyes, because those organs would be utterly useless in a state

of eternal darkness.

Proressor Acassiz’s CrasstFICATION OF Fisues. — The method of
arrangement adopted by Agassiz is founded on the character of the scales.
He divides the whole class into four orders: 1. GanorpEans; 2. Pxacot-
DEANS; 3. CrenomeEans; 4. Cyciorpeans. The fishes of the first order
have a bony armor, consisting generally of scales of small size, usually cov-
ered by a coating of enamel, which gives them a peculiar briliancy, whence
the name Glanoideans, from the Greek word ganos — splendor. In some
instances, as in the case of the Sturgeon, this armor is composed of plates
of large size, with jagged edges, which lap together.

In the second order, the fishes have a skin covered with hard, bony plates,

921) DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. PISCES.

which sometimes are of large size, but oftener are contracted to small points,
as scen on the skin of the Shark, and in the prickly tubercles of the Rays.
The name /7acoidean is derived from the Greek word plax — broad plate.

The fishes of the third order have the scales composed of horny matter,
their posterior edges, i. e., the edges directed towards the tail, furnished
with projections like the teeth of a comb. The order derives its name from
this circumstance, the Greek Atecs (hLtenos, gen.), a comb, suggesting the
designation Ctenotdean. The Perch represents this order.

The fourth order (the Cyclotdeans) derives its name from the Greek /a-
kilos —a circle. The Carp, Herring, and Salmon, whose scales have a
rounded furm, with smooth, simple edges, are examples which all can easily
examine.

In regard to the above arrangement, Mr. Mudie well remarks, that, in
comparing it “with that of Cuvier, we shall find that the Cyclodd fishes of
Agassiz are, for the most part, the Malacopterygii of Cuvier; and that the
Clenoid fishes of the former are generally the Acanthopterygtt of the latter.
Further, the Placotd fishes of Agassiz correspond with the principal section
of the Curtilaginous fishes of Cuvier, the Sturgeons and Chimere being
alone excepted. The existing G'anoid fishes of Agassiz, however, were
distributed by Cuvier amongst several different families.

“The application of this method of arrangement to the various forms of
extinet fishes, which geological research has brought to light, has given some
extremely curious results. In the first place, it may be stated as a general
fact, that of the Cycloid and Ctenoid orders, there are no remains what-
ever in any formation anterior to the chalk, and that, consequently, the whole
assemblage of existing fishes included in those two orders, probably about
four fifths of those now living, had apparently no representative whatever in
the more ancient seas. Even in the chalk, there seems to have been only
two or three of the largest of the existing families — such as the Herring and
Salmon Tribes, the Mackerel Tribe, and the Perch Tribe, which attained
any considerable importance. The others are cither but slightly represented
at that epoch, and have subsequently increased very considerably — such as
the Eels and the Pleuwronectide ; or first came in during the Tertiary period
—such as the Carps and the Mullets; or present themselves, for the first
time, in our own epoch, which is the case (strange to say) with the large
and important Cod Tribe. Further, no family belonging to these orders
has disappeared from the ocean subsequently to its first introduction ; nor is
there any that seems to have undergone any diminution. The other two -
orders, although they now form so small a part of the inhabitants of our
seas, were once the sole yertebrated tenants of the globe.”

SECOND DIVISION. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.

In addition to the extensive and interesting class of animals which we have
just reviewed, the oceans, lakes, and rivers swarm with other forms of life,
of almost infinitely-varied characteristics, some exhibiting aspects of remarka-
ble beauty, while others are extraordinary for their grotesque ugliness; yet
it will be seen that all are beautifully adapted, by their organizations and
attributes, to the order of being where the Creator has placed them.

Cuvier divides the Mollusea into six classes, as follows : —

The Crrnatorops, whose body has the form of a sac, enclosing the
branchiw, and open above, whence protrudes the head well developed, and
crowned with certain strong, fleshy, elongated productions, by means of which
the animals progress and seize upon objects. The Cuttle-fish is a represen-
tative of this class.

The Prrrorops. —In these the body is not open, and the head has no
appendages, or if any, they are very minute, locomotion being effected by
two wines, or membranous fins, placed on the sides of the neck, and in
which the branchial tissue is often spread.

The GasrEeropops, which crawl on the belly, on a fleshy disk, sometimes
compressed into a fin. Nearly all of them have a distinct head.

The AcEpHaLes. — These have the mouth concealed in the base of the
cloak, which also encloses the branchiw and the viscera, and opens either
throughout its whole length, or at both its extremities, or at one only.

The Bracntorops. — This class comprehends the species which, en-
closed also in a cloak, and without an apparent head, have fleshy or mem-
branous arms, garnished with cilie of the same nature.

The Cirrnoprops. — This class comprises those mollusks which have the
attributes of the preceding classes, but differ from them in having numerous
horny articulated members, and in a nervous system more allied to that of
the Annulose animals.

They all have a soft body, which is covered by a flexible skin (the so-
called mantle), under or over which calcareous or horny shells are formed
by secretion. The chief organs are symmetrical and in pairs, generally
disposed in a curve, so that the mouth is proximate to the opposite extremity
of the intestinal canal. The blood is white, flows from the heart’ to all

NO. XVII. 81 (221)

222 DIVISION If. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS I. CEPHALOPODS.

parts of the body, and finds its way back again to that organ, after having
been refreshed in the lungs or branchial apparatus. The nervous system
consists of ganglions connected by nervous filaments. From the fishes,
the mollusks are distinguished by the absence of an internal skeleton and
spinal marrow, and also by the great difference of their respiratory and

locomotive organs.

CLASS I. THE CEPHALOPODS.

The members of this class manifest a most extraordinary structure. They
consist of two distinct parts. The body, which, in form of a sac, opens to
the front, encloses the branchiw and digestive organs, and the well-developed
head, provided with a pair of sharp-sighted eyes, and crowned with a ring
of feet, arms, or feelers. It is to this formation that the Cephalopod owes
grow from the circumference of the

mouth, it literally creeps upon its head.

its scientific name; for, as the feet

They compose but one order, which is divided into the following genera,
according to the nature of the shell: Ocrorus, the Poulpes; Arconaura,
the Argonauts; Lonrco, the Sleeve-fish; Serra, the Cuttle-fish ; and
NavtTILus.

All the Cephalopods are marine animals, and breathe through branchiwe
rans are concealed under the mantle, in a cave or hollow,

or gills. These org
which alternately expands and contracts, and communicates by two openings
with the outer world. The one in form of a slit, serves to receive the water ;

the other, which is tubular, is used for its expulsion.

The first four genera — and which comprises by far the great majority of

living species — have only two sets of gills; while the last eenus, Nautilus,
Ss} a 8 g

which in the present epoch is only represented by a few species, has four,

two on each side.

According to the number of their arms or feet, — for these remarkable
organs serve equally well for creeping or seizing prey, —the first group
again divides into two classes, Octopods and Decapods; the former hay-
ing only eight sessile feet, the latter ten, two of which are elongated like
feelers. The feet are studded on the inner surface with small circular disks
or suckers, either sessile or pedunculated. The sessile cups of the Octo-
pods serve them as suckers, by means of which they attach themselves so
firmly to their prey, that once seized, it cannot possibly disengage itself
from the murderous embrace.

The stalked cups of the Decapods cannot, indeed, serve them as suckers ;

’ ’
but, to make amends for this want of adhesive powers, they are provided
with a sharp hook fixed in the centre, and are the more formidable from

ORDER I. THE OCTOPODS. —THE DECAPODS. 223
being able to move upon their stalk in every direction. The Decapod can
also voluntarily draw in or stretch out its claws like the cat, and thus runs
no risk of entangling itself when shooting backwards through the water.
The size of the arms and the arrangement of the cups differ very much in
the various species. Thus, in the common Octopus, the arms are almost of
equal length ; in the Philonexis there are four long and four short ones; and
in the Argonaut two of them expand sail-like at their extremity. In the
decapodal Calamaries and Sepias, the two feeler-like arms are considerably
lengthened, and in the Loligopsis, the disproportion is so great that these
organs are several times longer than the whole body. In the Octopods,
which generally lead a more sedentary, creeping life, and clinging to stones,
seize the passing prey, the arms, in accordance with their wants, are always
longer, more fleshy, and stronger than in the actively swimming Decapods,

In some species we find the arms separated; in others, they are united
by a membrane. The Octopus has on each arm a double row of cups or
suckers, the Sepia four rows, the Eledone but one. So wonderful are the
variations which nature, that consummate artist, plays upon a single theme!
so inexhaustible are the modifications she introduces into the formation of
numerous species, all constructed upon the same fundamental plan, and all
equally perfect in their kind !

When a Cephalopod has got hold of a fish or crab, the arms, by sucking
or hooking, instantly convey the helpless prey to the mouth, where it is
pitilessly crushed by two powerful horny or calcareous jaws, fitting one
over the other like the mandibles of a tortoise.

Besides their arms, by help of which the Cephalopods either swim or
ereep, the forcible expulsion of the water through the air-tube serves them
as a means of locomotion in a backward direction. By those which have
an elongated body, and comparatively strong muscles, this movement is
performed with such violence that they shoot like arrows through the water,
or even, like the flying-fish, perform along curve through the air. Thus
Sir James Ross tells us, that once a number of cuttle-fish not only fell
upon the deck of his ship, which rose fifteen or sixteen feet above the water,
and where more than fifty were gathered, but even bolted right over the
entire breadth of the vessel, like a sportsman over a five-barred gate !

Finally, the fin-like expansion of their mantle renders the nimble Deea-
pods good service in swimming. In the Sepias, this finny membrane runs
along the sides of the body ; in the Calamaries it is situated at its extremity.

The skin of the Cephalopods offers some remarkable peculiarities. It is
coyered with variously-colored spots, which, as long as the animal is quiet,
are nearly invisible, but as soon as it is excited, increase to about sixty
times their former size ; and then, by alternate contractions and expansions,

224 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.— CLASS I. CEPHALOPODS.

rapidly appear and disappear, so that the same Cephalopod is one moment
white and the next yellow or brown. The surface of the skin also changes
its nature under the influence of excitement. For instance, in the Octopus,
when tranquil, it is perfectly smooth, but as soon as the animal is disturbed,
the body, the head, and even the arms appear covered with tubercles and
elevations, where an instant before nothing of the kind was to be seen.

It might be supposed that the Cephalopods, by their swiftness, their arms,
and their powerful jaws, were sufficiently provided with means of attack or
defence ; but nature has besides favored many of them with a remarkable
secretory organ, producing a black fluid, and opening into the air-tube.
When the animal is in danger, or wishes to avoid observation, it ejects a
sufficient quantity of this inky liquid to form a thick cloud in the water,
which serves to conceal it from its foe. This black sepia-juice is, as we all
know, used as a pigment, the durability of which may be inferred from the
fact that even the contents of the ink-bag of fossil species have still been
found useful. It has been affirmed that grains of wheat, buried with Egyp-
tian mummies three thousand years ago, have germinated ; but it is surely
still more astonishing that an animal secretion, the origin of which is lost in
the dark abyss of countless ages, should have remained so long unaltered.

The Cephalopods are scattered in countless numbers over the whole ocean.
Some, like the Argonaut, constantly frequent the high seas; others, like the
common Octopus, invariably cling to the coasts. Two pelagic species —
Onmastrephes giganteus and sagittatus—leave annually, the first the South,
the second the North Polar Sea, and wander in enormous shoals to the
coasts of Chili and Newfoundland. The Sepias and Calamaries appear in
spring along the coasts, where they tarry a shorter or longer time, according
to the difference of species, and then withdraw again into the deep.

Almost all Cephalopods are nocturnal or vespertine in their habits. At
night they abound on the surface of the seas, but are not to be seen during
the day. With the exception of the Poulp or Octopus, which leads a soli-
tary life on rocky coasts, they love the society of their kind, and wander in
troops along the shores and in the deeper ocean. They are all of them
extremely voracious, destroy on shallow banks the hopes of the fisherman,
devour on the high seas countless myriads ef young fish and naked mollusks,
and kill, like the tiger, for the mere love of carnage. Thus they would
become dangerous to the equilibrium of the seas, if nature, to counterbal-
ance their destructive habits, had not provided a great number of encmies
for the thinning of their ranks. They form the almost exclusive food of
the sperm whales and dolphins, and various sea-birds love to skim them
from the surface of the ocean. Tunnies and bonitos devour them in vast
numbers, the cod consumes whole shoals of squids, and man catches many

millions to serve him as a bait for this valuable fish.

ORDER I. THE SEPIA.— ARGONAUT. 220

At Teneriffe, in the Brazils, in Peru and Chili, various species of Ceph-
alopods are used as food. Along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean,

fo)

the common Sepia officinalis is so numerous that the cuttle bones may be
seen heaped by the waves into a ridge, which fringes the sea for miles.
“As in ancient times,” says Edward Forbes, “these mollusks constitute
now a valuable part of the food of the poor, by whom they are mostly used.
One of the most striking spectacles at night on the shores of the gean is
to see the numerous torches glancing along the shores, and reflected by the
still and clear sea, borne by poor fishermen, paddling as silent as possible
over the rocky shallows in search of the cuttle-fish, which, when seen
lying beneath the water in wait for his prey, they dexterously spear, ere
the creature has time to dart with the rapidity of an arrow from the weapon
about to transfix his soft but firm body.”

Animals exposed to so many enemies must necessarily multiply in an
analogous ratio. Their numerous eggs are generally brought forth in the
spring. In the species inhabiting the high seas they float freely on the
surface, carried along by the currents and the winds, and form large gelati-
nous bunches, or cylindrical rolls, sometimes as large as a man’s leg. The
eggs of the littoral Cephalopods appear in the form of small transparent
grapes, or black pear-shaped sacs, the stems of which are attached to alow,
or any other convenient body. The young animals, hatched by the warmth
of the sun, emerge from the husk perfectly formed, and give immediate
proof of their social nature by herding together in large bodies.

According to trustworthy testimonies, some species of Cephalopods attain
an astonishing size. Thus Péron saw, near Van Diemen’s Land, a Sepia
as big as a tun, rolling about in the waters. Its enormous arms had the
appearance of frightful snakes. Each of these organs was at least seven
feet long, and measured seven or eight inches round the base. Not satis-
fied with reality, some writers have magnified the size of the cuttle-fishes
to fabulous dimensions. Thus Pernetti mentions a colossal cuttle-fish,
@, overturned a three-masted ship; and Pliny

3D?
notices a similar monster, with arms thirty feet long, and a corresponding

which, climbing up the riggin

girth.

All the Acetabuliferous, or eup-bearing Cephalopods, are destitute of an
outward shell, with the sole exception of the Argonaut, which poets, ancient
and modern, have celebrated as the model from which man took the first
idea of navigation. Its two sail-like arms expanding in the air, and the
six others rowing in the water, the keel of its elegant shell is pictured
as dividing the surface of the tranquil sea. But as soon as a breath of
wind curls the waters, or the least danger appears, the cautious Argonaut
takes in his sails, draws back his oars, creeps into his shell, and sinks

instantly into a securer depth.

226 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS II. PTEROPODS.

Unfortunately, there is not a word of truth in this pleasing tale. Like
the commonest cuttle-fish, the Argonaut generally creeps about at the bot-
tom of the sea, or when he swims, he places his sails close to the shell,
stretches his oars right out before him, and shoots backwards like most of
his class, by expelling the water from his respiratory tube.

As he sits loosely in his shell, he was supposed by some naturalists to be
a parasite, enjoying the house of the murdered owner; but this is perfectly
erroneous, as the young in the egg already show the rudiments of the future
shell, and the full-grown animal repairs by reproduction any injury that may
have happened to it.

The Nautili, which likewise are provided with an external shell, are
Cephalopods of a very peculiar kind. Tere, instead of mighty cup-bearing
ereat number of contractile and slender

or sharp-clawed arms, we find ag
tentacula. The handsome pearl-mother and spirally-wound shell is divided
by transverse partitions, perforated in the centre into a large number of
chambers. The animal takes up its abode in the foremost and largest, but
sends a communicating tube or siphon, the use of which is as yet but little
known, through all the holes of the partitions to the very extremity of the
spirally-wound shell. Recent researches in the South Sea have brought to
light three different kinds of Nautilus: the Pompdlius, found at the New
Hebrides and Feejee Islands; the Umbélicated Nautilus of the Solomon
Islands, New Georgia, New Breton, and New Ireland; and 1. Macropha-
dus, found at the Isle of Pines and New Caledonia.

CLASS IL THE PTEROPODS.

This class, although multitudinous in individuals, comprehends but one
order, and a small number of species. The Pteropods ( Wing-footers) are
thus named from their peculiar organs of locomotion, which are fins placed
like wings at each side of the mouth. Consequently they cannot creep, and
therefore frequent the high seas, where they swarm in countless myriads.
They are small creatures, not exceeding an inch in length, and yet their
numbers are so vast that they constitute the principal part of the food of
the gigantic whale. The genera are Ci1o, which has an oblong, membranous
body, without a cloak, and a head formed of two rounded lobes ; CyMBULIA,
which has a cartilaginous envelope in the shape of a boat or shoe, and a
body so transparent that we can see the heart, brain, and the viscera through
the envelope; PNeumopERMON, which has an oval body, and furnished with
lips, and two bundles of numerous tentacula, terminated each by a sucker ;
Hyauea, the Hyales, have two very large wings, no tentacula, and cloak

THE GASTEROPODS. 227

slit on the sides, and a shell slit in a corresponding manner; CLEOvORA,
the Cleodores, are like the preceding genus, only their shell is not slit
along the margin.

Some of these little animals are of a beautiful rose color, and others are
blue and violet, variegated with spots of red.

Godwin Austen describes the Pteropods as “the winged insects of the
sea, reminding us, in their free-circling movements and crepuscular habits,
of the gnats and moths of the atmosphere ; they shun the light, and if the
sun is bright, you may look in vain for them during the livelong day — as
days sometimes are at sea; a passing cloud, however, suffices to bring some
Cleodorwe to the surface. It is only as day declines that their true time
begins, and thence onwards the watches of the night may be kept by observ-
ing the contents of the towing-net, as the hours of a summer day may be
by the floral dial. The Cleodore are the earliest risers ; as the sun sets,
Hyalea gibbosa appears, darting about as if it had not a moment to spare ;
and, indeed, its period is brief, lasting only for the Mediterranean twilight.
Then it is that Hyalea trispinosa and Cleodora subula come up; Hya-
lea tridentata, though it.does not venture out till dusk, retires early,
whilst some species, such as Cleodora pyramidata, are to be met with only
during the midnight hours and the darkest nights. This tribe, like a higher
one, has its few irregular spirits, who manage to keep it up through the
whole night. All, however, are back to their homes before dawn surprises
them.

CLASS HI. THE GASTEROPODS.

This numerous class, well represented by the Snail and Slug, is interest-
ing from the exceeding beauty of the external covering which many of the
genera provide for their protection. The greater portion of the sea-shells
which adorn our cabinets are the productions of the Gasteropods. No archi-
tect ever constructed such magnificent and elaborate palaces, and no artist
ever blended such rich and glowing colors, or enlivened his works with tints
of such exquisite delicacy.

The animals of this class generally creep upon a fleshy disk under the
belly, whence the name (rasteropods — Stomach-footers. The back is cov-
ered with a cloak, of greater or less extent, and of a various figure, which
secretes a shell in the greater number of the genera. Their head, placed in
front, is more or less distinct, according as it is more or less drawn in under
the cloak. It is furnished with tentacula of comparatively small size, and
which do not encircle the mouth, their number varying from two to six,
although sometimes they are absent. They are organs of touch and smell.

2928 DIVISION Il. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS III. GASTEROPODS.

The eyes are very small, sometimes placed upon the head, sometimes at its
base, either to the side, or at the tips of the tentacula. The class is divided
into five orders, the characters of which are drawn from the position and
form of the branchix.

“The PuLMONEA breathe the atmosphere, receiving the air within a cavity
whose narrow orifice they can open and close at will: they are hermaphro-
ditical, with reciprocal copulation: some have no shell, others carry one,
which is often truly turbinate, but never furnished with an operculum.

“The Nuprprancuiara have no shell, and carry their variously-figured
branchiw naked upon some part of the back.

“The INFEROBRANCHIATA are similar, in some respects, to the preceding,
but their branchiw are situated under the margins of the cloak.

“The Trormrancnrata have their branchiw upon the back, or upon the
side, covered by a lamina, or fold of the cloak, which almost always contains
a shell more or less developed; or sometimes the branchiw are enveloped in
a narrow fold of the foot.

“These four orders are hermaphroditical.

“The Hererorops carry their branchie upon the back, where they form a
transverse row of little tufts, and are, in some instances, protected, as well
as a portion of the viscera, by a symmetrical shell. What best distinguishes
them is the foot compressed into a thin vertical fin, on the margin of which
a little sucker often appears — the only trace left of the horizontal foot of
the other orders of the class.

“The PkCTINIBRANCHIATA have the sexes separated: their respiratory
organs consist almost always of branchisw composed of lamelle united in a
pectinated form, and which are concealed in a dorsal cavity, opening with a
wide gape above the head. Nearly all of them have turbinated shells, with
the mouth sometimes entire, sometimes emarginate, sometimes produced into
a siphonal canal, and generally capable of being more or less exactly closed
by an operculum attached to the foot of the animal behind.

“The Scurrprancuiata have branchixw similar to those of the Pectini-
branchiata, but they are complete hermaphrodites, and require no union with
a second to effect impregnation: their shells are very open, and in several
like a shield; they never have any operculum.

“The CycLoprancHtaTa are hermaphrodites of the same kind as the
Scutibranchiata, and have a shell, consisting of one or several pieces, but in
no case turbinate nor operculate: their branchiw lie under the margin of
their cloak, as in the Inferobranchiata.”

“Nature,” it has been well remarked, “never passes abruptly from
one type of organization to another ;” and thus we find a long series of

|

ORDER I. THE PULMONEA.— ORDER II. NUDIBRANCHIATA. 229

intermediate and gradually-progressive forms, between the naked Gastero-
pods and those that are covered with a perfect spiral shell. First, there is
a rudimentary internal or external shell, nearly covering and protecting the
most important organs ; by degrees it expands and shields the whole animal,
and the first signs of a spiral development make their appearance ; and at
last the snail’s palace appears in all its perfection and beauty.

ORDER I. THE PULMONEA.

These mollusks breathe the atmosphere through a hole which opens under
the margin of their cloak, and which they can dilate or contract at pleasure.
They have no branchi, but only a network of pulmonary vessels, which
creep upon the walls, and more particularly upon the ceiling of their respira-
tory cavity. Some are terrestrial, and others aquatic; the latter are com-
pelled, at intervals, to come to the surface to receive within their pulmonary
cavity the air for respiration. They are all hermaphrodites.

The terrestrial Pulmoneans are separated into several genera, the best
known of which are the following : —

Lroiax.— The Limaces have no apparent shell. The group comprises
the family of slugs, one species of which, Z. rufus, was once thought a
valuable remedy for diseases of the chest, taken in the form of a broth.
Vacrnutus, Herrx, CrausmiA, and Acnatina comprehend the common
snails. Of the last, Somerby remarks, that they are, for the most part,
African and West Indian species. Two species, A. zebra and A. vir-
ginea, are distinguished for their beautiful shells.

The aquatic Pulmoneans, as they are obliged to come to the surface to
breathe, live in fresh waters, or near the shores and mouths of rivers. The
genera are OncuipiuM, PLaNnorpis, Limnaus, Puysm, ScaraBes, Avu-
ricuLA, and MELAMpES, the last two of which are noted for their magnifi-
cent shells.

ORDER II. NUDIBRANCHIATA.

Cuvier describes this family as having neither a shell nor pulmonary
cavity, but their branchiw exposed naked upon some part of the back.
They are all hermaphroditical and marine: they swim in a reversed posi-
tion, the foot applied against the surface, and made concave like a boat, and
use the edges of the cloak and the tentacula as oars to assist their progres-
sion. The principal genera are Dorts, found on the shores of all seas;
TRITONIA, a curious group, which has two rows of tufted branchie along

NO. XVII. 82

930 DIVISION Il MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS III. GASTEROPODS.

the back, and upon the head a very large membranous fringed veil, which
curves in its contraction under the mouth. 7. fimbria is a beautiful Med-
iterranean species, of a grayish color, spotted with white. The remaining
genera are SCYLLEA, Guaucus, Eourp1a, and TERGIPEs.

Nothing can be more elegant or various than the form and arrangement
of the gills in most of the Nudibranchiates. In the Glawet and Scylla
we see at each side of the elongated body long arms, branching out into
tufted filaments, and on the back of /Holides the gills are arranged in rows,
while in the Vorides they form a regular wreath, or garland, round the
lower intestinal aperture. The beauty of these animals corresponds with
their mythological names; for every part of them which is not sparkling
like the purest crystal, shines with the liveliest colors. Some of them creep
along the coast; others seek the open sea, where they attach themselves to
floating alew, or swim about upon their back, by rapidly contracting the
border of their mantle.

Although they are represented in all seas, they delight particularly in the
warmer latitudes. Though provided with no defensive weapons, they are
not left altogether to the mercy of their enemies. Some conceal themselves
under stones; and some, on contracting, cast off parts of their mantle,
leaving it in possession of their hungry foe, while they themselves make
their escape.

ORDER III. INFEROBRANCHIATA.

The Inferobranchiates resemble the Dorides and Tritones in their habit
and organization ; but their branchiw, instead of being situated upon the
back, are on the sides of the body, under the projecting margin of the
cloak, where they form two long series of leaflets. They are incapable of
swimming. The genera are Puytiipta and Dipnyiipes. The former
group belongs to the Indian Ocean; the latter lives in stagnant waters, and
in rivulets, adhering to stones and aquatic plants.

ORDER IV. TECTIBRANCHIATA.

In this order the branchiw are attached along the right side, or upon the
back, in the form of leaflets, more or less divided, are more or less cov-
ered by the mantle, which generally contains a small shell. This order
comprehends several groups, of which the most remarkable is the genus

Apnysta. — The mantle of this animal forms two wide folds on the back.
When these are opened, the delicately-fringed branchiz appear in a deep

ORDER V. HETEROPODA.—ORDER VI. PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 251

hollow on the right side, covered by a thin, transparent, horny shell.
These mollusks resemble a great naked snail. They dwell in every sea,
frequenting chiefly rocky shores, where they creep along, feeding upon the
alow. Some species, however, make use of their mantle folds for swim-
ming. A peculiar gland pours out, through an orifice near the vulva, a
limpid humor, which is said to be very aerid, if not absolutely poisonous,
in some species. A purple liquid also oozes from the edges of the cloak,
when they are alarmed, which discolors the water, and conceals them from
their foes.

ORDER V. THE HETEROPODA.

The Heteropods have the foot compressed into a vertical muscular lami-
na, which they use as a fin, and on the edge of which, in several species,
is a sucker, in the form of a hollow cone, that represents the disk of the
other orders. The body, which is a transparent, gelatinous substance, is
elongate, sheathed with a muscular layer, and terminated with a compressed
tail. The mouth has a muscular mass, and a tongue garnished with little
hooks. They have the power to inflate the body with water, the object of
which is not known; and they swim in a reversed position. The genera
are Frrota, ATLANTA, and CARINARIA.

The Cartinarie are very curiously formed animals, carrying on their back
a shell fastened to a stalk, under which the fringed branchiw project. On
the under side of the body the foot forms a round disk, furnished with a
sucking-cup. The whole animal seems to be made up of disjointed parts.
The species live far away from shore, and are generally found swimming
about, or attached by the foot to some floating objects. The most beautiful
species inhabits the Indian Ocean, and produces a shell worth from two to
three hundred dollars.

ORDER VI. THE PECTINIBRANCHIATA.

This order is, beyond comparison, the most numerous of the class, since
it comprehends almost all the univalve spiral shells, and several which are
simply conical. The branchiw, composed of numerous leaflets or fringes,
ranged parallelly like the teeth of a comb, are affixed in one, two, or three
lines, according to the genera, to the floor of the pulmonary cavity, which
occupies the last whorl of the shell, and which communicates outwards by «
wide gape between the margin of the cloak and the body. Two genera

932 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS III. GASTEROPODS.

only — Cyelostoma and Helicina —have, instead of branchiw, a vascular
network, clothing the ceiling of a cavity in all respects the same as that
of the order; and they are the only ones which respire the atmosphere,
water being the medium of respiration to all the rest.

All the Pectinibranchiata have two tentacula and two eyes, raised some-
times on pedicles ; a mouth in the form of a proboscis, more or less length-
ened; and separate sexes.

Cuvier divides the order into four families: the Trochoides, which have
a shell with an entire aperture, without sinus, or canal for siphon, and
furnished with an operculum, or some organ as its substitute; the Capu-
loides, which have a widely open shell, without an operculum or emargi-
native canal; the Luccinoides, distinguished by a spiral shell, the mouth
of which has, near the end of the columella, a sinus or canal, for the pas-
sage of the siphon, which is formed by an elongated fold of the cloak; and
the Strombuside, which comprise the shells, with a canal either straight, or
bent to the right, the external lid of the aperture becoming, at its maturity,
more or less dilated, and always marked with a sinus near the siphonal
canal, whence the head issues when the animal comes out.

In the first family we find several fine shells, —as the Trochus turritus,
Turbo, Ampulonia, and Nerita. To the third family belong those splen-
did specimens, known as Cones, Volutes, Buccinuim, and Murex, all
magnificent shells, beautifully colored. The last is remarkable for its
elongate canal, and the numerous spines which cover the whole, giving it
something of the appearance of a chevawa-de-frise. The fourth family
contains the Pteroceras scorpio, a shell highly valued by conchologists.

ORDER VII. TUBULIBRANCHIATA.

These mollusks have a shell formed more or less like an irregular tube,
spiral only at its apex, and fixed permanently to other bodies. There are
three genera: Vermetus, which has a tubular shell, whose whorls, at an
early age, form a kind of spine, and centinued on in a more or less irregu-
larly bent or twisted tube, like the tubes of. the Serpula; Macarius, with
a tube at first quite regularly spinal, and then extended in nearly a straight
line. It is common in the coral rocks of the Isle of France, and its tube
sometimes reaches the length of three feet; and SmiQquorta, which has the
irregular tube of the Vermetus, but there is a fissure on the whole length
of the shell.

ORDER VIII. SCUTIBRANCHIATA.—ORDER IX. CYCLOBRANCHIATA. 235

ORDER VIII. SCUTIBRANCHIATA.

These Gasteropods are clothed with shells quite open, and the greater
number are not in any degree spiral, and cover the animals in the manner
of a shield.

They are separated into two great genera: Haxroris and FissureLLA,
the first of which is the most richly embellished of the class.

ORDER IX. THE CYCLOBRANCHIATA.

These animals have their branchiw in the form of little leaflets, or pyra-
mids, attached in a circle, under the margins of the cloak. There are
only two genera: PaTeiia, the Limpets, and Cuiron, the Chitons.

The Limpets live on rocks or stones, to which they cling so fast by
suction, that it requires the introduction of a knife between the shell and
the stone to detach them. It has been calculated that the larger species
are thus able to produce a resistance equivalent to a weight of one hundred
and fifty pounds, which, considering the sharp angle of the shell, is more
than sufficient to defy the strength of a man to raise them. They often
congregate in large numbers in one place, and an old writer compares them
to nail-heads stuck into the rock. They live upon the green sea-weed, that
we find covering at ebb tide the stones with a thin emerald layer; and when
these are submerged by the flood, they creep along on the bottom, slowly
grazing on these marine pasture-grounds.

The Gasteropods surpass all the Molluscous animals in the beauty of the
form of the shells, and the splendor and delicacy of their colors. The
Haliotides ave handsome mother-of-pearl shells, frequently used for the
inlaying of boxes. If the spiral shells could be drawn out, they would
all be found to consist of a tube gradually widening from the apex to the
base. “ But,” says an enthusiastic conchologist, “ what an immense variety
of forms and ornaments, what a prodigality of splendid tints, has not
Nature spread over their countless species!) The same fundamental idea
appears to us in a thousand different forms, one still more elegant, in com-
parison, than the other. Thus the passion of the shell-collector is as con-
ceivable as that of the lover of choice flowers; and when we hear that rich
tulip amateurs have given thousands of dollars for a single bulb, we cannot
be surprised that hundreds are paid for the Scalaria pretiosa, or the Cy-
prea aurora, which the New Zealand chiefs used to wear about their

934 DIVISION Il. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS HI. GASTEROPODS.

necks. The giant Nerite commands any price; and many of the volutes,
cones, mitres, and harps are purchased at a price exceeding several times
their weight in gold.”

However different the form of the shell may be, its use is invariably the
same, affording the soft-bodied animal a shield, or retreat from injuries.
In this respect it is not uninteresting to remark, that those species which
inhabit the coasts, and are more exposed to the rolling of the waves, have
a thicker and stronger shell than those which live in greater depths, and
that the fresh water mollusks have generally a much more delicate and
fragile coat than those which live in the ocean. The greater the necessity
of protection, the better has Nature provided for the want. Thus most of
the larger sea-snails, besides possessing a stone-hard dwelling, are also
furnished at the extremity of the foot with an operculum or calcareous lid,
which fits like a door upon the opening of their house, and closes it like a
fortress against the outer world. But no animal exists that is safe against
every attack, for the large sea-birds sometimes carry the ponderous snails,
whose entrance they cannot force with their beaks, high up into the air, and
let them fall upon the rocks, where they are dashed to pieces.

The ordinary mode of locomotion of the sea-snails is by ereeping along
on their foot; those that have a very heavy house to carry, such as the
Cassis, or the Pteroceras, move along very slowly, while others, such as
the Olive, that are possessed of a comparatively strong foot, have rapid
and lively movements, quickly raise themselves again when they have been
overturned, and are even able to swim a short distance. The swiftness of
the sea-snails is not always in proportion to the size of their foot, as the
palelle creep but very slowly along on their broad disk. In some species,
that remain fixed to the rock to which they first attach themselves, as small
free-swimming larvae, the foot is naturally reduced to the state of an adhe-
sive organ,

Most of the Gasteropods are so heavily clothed, that they are necessarily
confined to the rocky or sandy sea-bottom. The Janthina, however, has
under its foot a vesicular organ, like a congeries of foam-bubbles, that
serves as a buoy to support them at the surface of the water. When the
sca is quiet, they appear in vast shoals on the surface, with their foot
turned upwards; but as soon as the winds rufiie the ocean, they empty
their air-cells and sink to the bottom, pouring out at the same time a dark
red fluid, which, according to Lesson, furnished the celebrated purple of
the ancients. The transparent shell is also of a beautiful violet color.

The sea-snails inhabit different zones of depth; some live only within
reach of the spring floods, and are therefore almost constantly out of the
water ; others dwell a little lower, so as to be bathed at least by every flood ;

ORDER I. ACEPHALA TESTACEA. THE BIVALVES. 239

and others, again, sojourn constantly near low-water mark. But by far
the greater number dwell completely beyond the limits of the flood oscil-
lations, at various distances from the surface, to a depth of five hundred
feet and upwards.

The sea-snails are either predaceous or herbivorous; the former bore
through the shells of the sedentary mussels with their rasp-like tongue,
or feast upon the dead animals which chance brings in their way. They
seem to have very acute olfactory organs, for animal substances let down
in a net to the bottom often draw thousands together in one night. In
their turn, they serve as food to many other inhabitants of the ocean; but
their deadliest enemies are the sea-stars, that not only swallow the young
fry, but also seize with their long arms the full-grown Gasteropods, and
clasp them in a murderous embrace.

CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

The mollusks of this class owe their scientific name to the circumstance
that they have no apparent head, the word being derived from the Greck
a, no, and kephalee, head. Their mouth is concealed between the folds
of their cloak, which latter is doubled in two, and encloses the body as a
book is enclosed between its covers. A calcareous bivalve shell

some-
times multivalve—covers the cloak. The brain is situated over the
mouth, which is destitute of teeth, and can seize only such objects as the
water floats into it. The class is divided into two orders — the Testaceous
acephales, and the Shell-less. The first order is by far the most numerous,

as all bivalves, and nearly all multivalves, belong to it.

ORDER I. ACEPHALA TESTACEA. THE BIVALVES.

The Testacea are distinguished from the preceding mollusks by a more
simple organization. The Gasteropod marches along by the aid of its
powerful foot, and can thrust from its shell a well-developed head, while
the Bivalve has neither foot nor head. Many of the bivalves, however,
have eyes, or ocular spots, which enable them to distinguish light from
darkness ; and some even possess auditory organs.

When danger menaces the Sea-snail, it withdraws its head, and closes
the entrance of its hermitage with a lid; but the bivalve shuts its folding-
doors when it wishes to avoid a disagreeable intruder. A strong elastic
ligament connects the two valves, and opens them wide as soon as the

DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS AMIMALS.—CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

muscular contraction which closed them ceases to act. In many the folds
of the mantle are quite open in front, as, for instance, in the oyster,
which, on opening its shell, fully discloses its internal parts; in others
they form a closed sack, with several openings —an anterior one for the
passage of the foot, and two posterior ones for the ingress and egress of
the water, which the animal requires for respiration. These posterior
openings are often prolonged into shorter or longer tubes, sometimes
separate, and sometimes grown together.

The use or purpose of this formation becomes evident when we consider
the mode of life of the animals thus endowed. Almost all of them live
buried in the sand or mud, where they spend the whole or greater part of
their life. Were their mantle open, they would inevitably be suffocated —a
danger against which their long respiratory tubes, emerging into purer
water, effectually protect them. Their strong muscular foot serves them
as an excellent spade for rapid concealment in the sand, when an enemy
approaches, and some species make use of it for creeping or hopping.
The common cockle stretches it out as far as possible, presses it against
the ground, springs up by suddenly contracting it, and hops rapidly along
by quickly repeating the same manwuvre. In other species the movements
are much more limited. Thus the Solenacea, or Razor-sheaths, content
themselves with moving up and down in the vertical holes which they have
dug, and which they never leave.

Most of the siphonous bivalves inhabit sandy and muddy coasts in such
vast numbers that the flat strand is often covered with their debris; but
there are some which bury themselves in wood or stone.

The Testaceous Mollusks are arranged in families, in the first of which
is the genus

Ostrea.— The Oyster. From its commercial value, and the rank it
holds in our domestic economy, the Oyster may be styled the chief of the
Molluscous animals. Although it is a universal favorite, and is consumed
in immense quantities by all classes, our coasts appear to be capable of pro-
ducing an inexhaustible supply. Its fecundity is extraordinary, a single
oyster reproducing itself by a progeny of more than twelve hundred
thousand.

The Roman naturalist Pliny called the oyster “the palm or glory of
the table,” and modern epicures will not question the excellence of his
judgment. This valuable bivalve congregates in enormous banks, par-
ticularly on rocky ground, though it is also found on a sandy or even a
muddy bottom. In the tropical zone it frequently attaches itself to the
roots and branches of the mangroves, and at ebb tide swings about as the

wind agitates its movable support. It inhabits all the European seas as

Plate X1..

1 EMPUSA GONGYLODES
2. EMPUSA LOBIPES

ACRIDA VIRIDISSIMA
ACRIDA VERRUOIVORA
PTEROPHYLLA OCELLATA

Wn

PHYLLIUM SICCIFOLIA.
FULGORA CANDELARIA ( Walking -Leaf-.)

BOSTON, SAMUML WALKER & CO.

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ORDER I. ACEPHALA TESTACEA. THE OYSTER. 237

far as the Westenfiord, where it finds its northern boundary, lat. 68° N.;
but the British waters may be considered as its headquarters, for nowhere is
it found in greater abundance, and of a richer flavor. In the United States
it abounds on the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to the extreme southern
limit ; but the Virginian and Carolinian oysters are the most esteemed.

Three sorts of oysters are distinguished in the trade. The first com-
prises those which are dredged from the deeper banks. These are the
largest sized, but also the least valued. The second consists of those that
are gathered on a more elevated situation. Being accustomed to the daily
vicissitudes of ebb and flood, they retain their water much longer, and can,
therefore, be more easily transported to greater distances than the former.
Those are preferred that grow on a clean bottom, near the estuaries of
rivers. The third and most valued sort of oysters are those that are
preserved in artificial basins or parks.

Oyster Cuntrure. — This branch of industry was known to the Romans ;
and Pliny names Sergius Orata, a knight, as the first who established an
oyster-park, and realized large sums of money by this ingenious invention.
At present, England and France take the lead in this important business.
Their oyster-parks, or gardens, are generally large walled basins, commu-
nicating by sluices with the sea, so that the water can be let in and out.
As infusoria and microscopic ale are produced in much greater numbers
in these tranquil basins than in the boisterous sea, the oysters find here a
much more abundant food, and being detached one from the other, they can
also open and close their shells with greater facility, so that nothing hinders
their growth.

Thus fostered and improved by art, they are vastly superior to the rough
children of nature that are sent at once to market, and condemned to the
knife immediately after having been dragged forth from their submarine
abode. The highly-prized green oysters owe their color to the numbers
of ulva, enteromorpha, and microscopic alge that are usually generated
in these parks, and communicate their verdant tinge to the animal that swal-
lows them.

Considering the increasing wealth and luxury of our nation, which annu-
ally raises the demand for oysters, the small number of artificial oyster-beds
along our coasts, and, above all, the improvident and ruinous manner in
which the delicate mollusks are collected on their native banks, it is very
much to be feared that ere long both fisherman and consumer will have to
deplore an exhausted supply. It is, therefore, extremely desirable that
new natural banks should be created; and fortunately the manner in which
the mollusks are developed, and several successful examples, warrant its
practicability.

NO. XVII. 83

938 DIVISION Il. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. —CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

The oyster spawns from June to September. Instead of immediately
| | abandoning its eggs to their fate, as is the case with so many sea-animals,
it keeps them for a time in the folds of its mantle, between the branchial
| lamelle ; and it is only after having thus acquired a more perfect develop-
ment that the microscopic larve, furnished with a swimming apparatus and

eyes, emerge by thousands from the shell, and are then driven about by the
floods and currents, until they find some solid body, to which they attach
themselves for life. The oyster produces in one single summer a couple
of millions of young, which, however, mostly perish during the first
| wandering stage of their existence.

Thus we see what rich rewards the industry of man might expect to earn
by protecting and fixing the oyster-larve at an early date; and that this
could easily be done in many places, is proved to us by the artificial oyster-
breeding that has now been successfully carried on for many ages in the
Lake of Fusaro.

Between the Lucrine Lake, the ruins of Cuma, and the promontory of
Misenum, lies a small salt-water lake, about a league in circumference, gen-
erally from three to six feet deep, and reposing on a voleanic, black, and mud-
dy bottom. This is the old Acheron of Virgil, the present Fusaro. Over its
whole extent are spread, from space to space, great heaps of stones, that
have been covered with oysters brought from Tarentum. Round each of
these artificial mounds stakes are driven into the ground, tolerably near each
other, and projecting from the water, so as to be pulled up easily. Other
stakes stand in long rows several feet apart, and are united by ropes, from
which bundles of brushwood hang down into the water. All these arrange-
ments are intended to fix the oyster-dust, that annually escapes from the
parental shells, and to afford: it a vast number of points, to which it may
attach itself. After two or three years the microscopic larve have grown
into edible oysters. Then, at the proper season, the stakes and brushwood
bundles are taken out of the water, and after the ripe berries of the marine
vineyard have been plucked, again immersed into the lake, until a new gen-
eration brings a new harvest. Thus the indolent Neapolitans give us, in this
| ease, an example which the men of the north would do well to imitate ;
| for on many of our coasts numerous localities are to be found where a simi-
lar exhibition of industry might convert worthless lagoons and creeks into

rich oyster-fields.

| | Peart Oyster AND Peart Fisntnc. —“ A shell nearly related to the
| oyster produces the costly pearls of the East, that have ever been as highly
esteemed as the diamond itself. The most renowned pearl fishery is carried
on in the Bay of Condatchy, in the Island of Ceylon, on banks situated a
few miles from the coast. Before the beginning of the fishery, the govern-

ORDER I. PEARL FISHERY. 239

ment causes the banks to be explored, and then lets them to the highest
bidder, very wisely allowing only a part of them to be fished every year.
The fishing begins in February, and ceases by the beginning of April.
The boats employed for this purpose assemble in the bay, set off at night
at the firme of a signal gun, and reach the banks after sunrise, where fish-
ing goes on till noon, when the sea-breeze, which arises about that time,
warns them to return to the bay. As soon as they appear within sight,
another gun is fired to inform the anxious owners of their return. Each
boat carries twenty men and a chief; ten of them row and_ hoist up the
divers, who are let down by fives — and thus alternately diving and resting,
keep their strength to the end of their day’s work. The diver, when he is
about to plunge, seizes with the toes of his right foot a rope, to which a
stone is attached, to accelerate the descent, while the other foot grasps a
bag of network. With his right hand he seizes another rope, closes his
nostrils with the left, and in this manner rapidly reaches the bottom. He
then hangs the net round his neck, and, with much dexterity and all possi-
ble despatch, collects as many oysters as he can while he is able to remain
under water, which is usually about two minutes. He then resumes his former
position, makes a signal to those above by pulling the rope in his right hand,
and is immediately by this means hauled up into the boat, leaving the stone
to be pulled up afterwards by the rope attached to it. Accustomed from
infaney to their work, these divers do not fear descending repeatedly to
depths of fifty or sixty feet. They plunge more than fifty times in a morn-
ing, and collect each time about a hundred shells. Sometimes, however,
the exertion is so great, that, upon being brought into the boat, they dis-
charge blood from their mouth, ears, and nostrils.

“While the fishing goes on, a number of conjurers and priests are assem-
bled on the coast, busily employed in protecting the divers by their incan-
tations against the voracity of the sharks. These are the great terror of
the divers, but they have such confidence in the skill or power of their con-
jurers, that they neelect every other means of defence.

“The divers are paid in money, or receive a part of the oyster-shells in
payment. Often, indeed, they try to add to their gains by swallowing here
or there a pearl, but the sly merchant knows how to find the stolen property.

“'The oysters, when safely landed, are piled up on mats, in places fenced
round for the purpose. As soon as the animals are dead, the pearls can

easily be sought for and extracted from the gaping shells. After the |

harvest has been gathered, the largest, thickest, and finest shells, which
furnish mother-of-pearl, are sorted, and the remaining heap is left to pollute
the air. Some poor Indians, however, often remain for weeks on the spot,
stirring the putrid mass in the hopes of gleaning some forgotten pearls from

240, DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

the heap of rottenness. The pearls are drilled and strung in Ceylon— _ |
a work which is performed with admirable dexterity and quickness. For |
cleaning, rounding, and polishing them, a powder of ground pearls is made
use of.

“The Pacifie also furnishes these costly ornaments to wealth and beauty ;
but the pearls of California and Tahiti are less prized than those of the
Indian Ocean.

“ Pearl-like excrescences likewise form on the inner surface of our oysters
and mussels, and originate in the same manner as the true pearls. The
formation of the pearl, however, is not yet quite satisfactorily accounted
for. Some naturalists believe that the animal accumulates the pearl-like
substance to give the shell a greater thickness and solidity in the places
where it has been perforated by some annellide or gasteropod. According
to Mr. Philippi, an intestinal worm stimulates the exudation of the pearl- |
like mass, which, on hardening, encloses and renders it harmless.

“ Brillianey, size, and perfect regularity of form are the essential quali-
ties of a beautiful pearl. Their union in a single specimen is rare, but it
is of course still more difficult to find a number of pearls, of equal size and

beauty, for a costly necklace or a princely tiara.” |

Precren. — The Clam. This valuable mollusk, in its numerous varieties, |
is too well known to need description. It ranks next to the oyster, and is |
everywhere highly prized as an article of food. The shores and crecks of
all seas supply inexhaustible quantities of clams, which not only furnish the
inhabitants with a cheap and nutritious aliment, but are extensively used as
bait for cod and other fishes. The fresh-water varieties are not edible. |

Sronpy us. — Like the oyster, these animals have a rough, foliated shell,
which, however, is often armed with spines, and is usually beautifully col- |
ored, for which reason it is highly valued. The shells often sell at enormous
prices, and ornament the cabinets of wealthy amateurs. “A Parisian pro- | |
fessor once pawned all his silver spoons and forks to make up the sum of
six thousand francs, which was asked for a royal Spondylus ; but on return-
ing home, he was so warmly received by his lady, that, overwhelmed by the
hurricane, he flung himself on a chair, when the terrific cracking of the
box containing his treasure reminded him too late that he had conecaled
it in his skirt pocket. Fortunately but two of the thorns had been broken

off, and the damage was susceptible of being repaired; his despair, how-
ever, was so great, that his wife had not the heart to continue her reproaches,
and in her turn began to soothe the unfortunate collector.”

Mytitus. — The Mussels. These mollusks have a cloak open in front,
but with a separate excremental aperture. They have a foot with which they
progress, and fix their byssus. Some of the species are smooth, others are

ORDER I. ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 241,

striated. One curious species, M. lithophagus, suspends itself to rocks,
like the common mussel, and then perforating it, buries itself in the excava-
tion, and is a prisoner for life.

The common Mussel (M. edulis) is found on every coast in extraordi-
nary abundance, and on the Eastern Continent is much used as food. The
clam, however, is preferred in this country; but the coast inhabitants of
France, Spain, and Great Britain consume enormous quantities of them,
and immense numbers are carried into the interior of the country, furnish-
ing an equally cheap and agreeable food ; but it is not easy of digestion, and
sometimes produces symptoms of poisoning, which have been ascribed to the
egos of asterias, on which it feeds during the summer. In the more north-
ern countries of Europe it is also in great request as a bait for cod, ling,
rays, and other large fishes that are caught by the line. Countless millions
of mussels are used for this purpose, and in many places they are enclosed
in gardens, the ground of which is covered with large stones, to which they
attach themselves by their byssus or beard.

“Tt is a curious fact that the rearing of mussels should haye been intro-
duced into France, as far back as the year 1235, by an Irishman of the
name of Walton, This man, who had been shipwrecked in the Bay de
VAiguillon, and gained a precarious living by catching sea-birds, observed
that the mussels, which had attached themselves to the poles on which he
spread his nets over the shallow waters, were far superior to those that natu-
rally grow in the mud, and immediately made use of his discovery by
founding the first dowchot, or mussel park, consisting of stakes and rudely-
interwoven branches.

“Wis example soon found imitators, and, strange to say, the method of
construction adopted by Walton six centuries ago has been maintained
unaltered to the present day. It may give some idea of the immense
resources that might be obtained from so many utterly neglected lagoons,
when we hear that the fishermen of 1’Aiguillon, although they sell three
hundred-weight of mussels for the very low sum of five franes, or four shil-
lings, annually export or send them into the interior to the amount of a
million or twelve hundred thousand francs.”

Tripacna. — The animals of this genus have in the front of the shell a
large aperture with denticulated margins ; for the protrusion of the byssus,
which is distinctly tendinous and continuous with the muscular fibres, and
in some of them these tendinous fibres, which suspend the animal to rocks,
are so hard and tough, that an axe is required to separate them.

T. Gigas. — This species is peculiar to the Indian Ocean, and is famous
for its enormous size. The giant clam-shell, which is now to be found in
the shop of every dealer in shells, was formerly an object of such rarity and

242 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

value, that the Republic of Venice once made a present of one to Francis
I., who gave it to the Church of St. Sulpice, in Paris, where it is still
made use of as a basin for holy water. The Tridacna attains a diameter
of five feet, and a weight of five hundred pounds, the flesh alone weighing
thirty.

The muscular power is said to be so great as to be able to cut through a
thick rope on closing the shell. It is found in the dead rocks on the coral
reefs, where there are no growing lithophytes, except small tufts. Gener-
ally only an inch or two in breadth of the ponderous shell is exposed to
view, for the Tridacna, like the Pholas, has the power of sinking itself in
the rock by removing the lime about it. Without some means like this of
security, its habitation would inevitably be destroyed by the roaring break-
ers. A tuft of byssus, however strong, would be a very imperfect security
against the force of the sea for shells weighing from one to five hundred
pounds. It is found in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific, as far as the
coral zone extends. The animal of the Tridacna, and of the nearly related
Bear’s-paw (Hippopus), distinguishes itself by the beauty of its colors.
The mantle of the Zridacna safranea, for instance, has a dark-blue edge

When a

large number of these beautiful creatures expand the velvet brilliancy of

with emerald-green spots, gradually passing into a light violet.

their costly robes in the transparent waters, no flower-bed on earth can equal
them in splendor.

Proxas. — The Pholades have two principal valves, wide and ventricose,
on the side ofthe mouth, narrowed and elongated on the opposite side,
and leaving at each end a large oblique opening; the foot issues by the
opening at the side of the mouth, which is the widest, and from the opposite
end there come out the two tubes united in one, and capable of being ex-
tended in every direction.

The Pholades secrete a corrosive juice, capable of dissolving calcareous
rocks. With the assistance of the secretion, and the action of its sharp-
edged yalves, the pholas forms a pear-shaped cavern, in which it is con-
demned to pass its whole life. The thicker part of the body, consisting
principally of the very short but strong foot, fills the broad base of the
hollow, while the long siphon is turned towards the narrow opening, from
which it may be protruded at pleasure. All the movements of the animal
are confined to a rising or falling in its narrow prison,

Most of these animals are small, but some species attain a length of
five inches. The fragile shell of the pholades seems to have prompted
them to seek a better protection in hard stone. They are, consequently,
noxious animals; they perforate the walls and calcareous jetties which

man opposes to the sea, or raises for the creation of artificial harbors and

ORDER Il. THE SHELL-LESS ACEPHALES. 243

landing-places, and destroy their foundations, gradually causing _ their
destruction.

They have an agreeable taste, and in some countries are much used for
food.

Trrepo. — The Teredines. This genus is celebrated for its power of
destruction. By means of its small rhomboidal valves it excavates wood
with great rapidity. It is not much over six inches in length, but in tropical
countries there are species of a larger size. “Its shells, which are only a
few lines broad, are very small compared with the size of the vermiform
body, and are, therefore, completely inadequate for its defence. For better
security, it bores deep passages in submerged timber, which it lines with a
calcareous secretion, closing the opening with two small lids. Untortu-
nately, while thus taking care of itself, it causes considerable damage to
the works of man. It is principally to guard against the attacks of this
worm that ships are sheathed with copper, and the beams of submarine
constructions closely studded with nails. During the last century, the
Teredo caused such devastations in the dikes which guard a great part
of Holland against the encroachments of an overwhelming ocean, that the
Dutch began to tremble for their safety ; and thus a miserable worm struck
terror in the hearts of a nation which had Jaughed to scorn the tyranny
of Philip II., and bade defiance to the legions of the no less infamous
Louis XIV.”

But while blaming the Teredo for its damages, justice bids us not pass
over in silence the services which it renders to man. If it here and there
destroys useful constructions, on the other hand, it removes the wrecks
that would otherwise obstruct the entrance of rivers and harbors; and we
may ask whether these services do not outweigh the harm it causes.

ORDER II. THE SHELL-LESS ACEPHALES.

This is a small order, divided into two families. The first family —
Segregata —embraces those genera whose individuals are isolated, and
without mutual organic connection, although they often live in societies.
The most remarkable genus of this family is ;

Satpa. —The Salpas “have the cloak and its cartilaginous envelope oval
or cylindrical, and open at the two extremities. On the side of the anus
the aperture is transverse, wide, and furnished with a valve, which allows
the water to enter, but prevents its egress; on the side of the mouth the
aperture is simply tubular. Muscular bands embrace the cloak and con-
tract the body. The animal moyes by forcing out from the anterior aperture

944 DIVISION II. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. ACEPHALES.

the water which has entered the body by the posterior, so that its motion
is always retrograde, whence it has happened that some naturalists have
mistaken the posterior aperture for the real mouth. It also generally swims
with the back undermost. The cloak and its envelope exhibit in the sun
the colors of the rainbow, and are so transparent that the whole structure
of the animal can be seen through them: in many they are furnished with
perforated tubercles. The animal has been seen to come out from its
envelope without apparently any injury. But a more curious fact in their
history is that, during a certain period, they remain united together, as they
were in the ovary, and float in the sea in long chains, the individuals being
disposed, however, in a pattern different in different species. MM. de Chamisso
assures us that he has ascertained a still more singular fact, which is, that
the individuals that have issued from a multiplicate ovary have not an ovary
of the same kind, but produce only isolated individuals of a form considerably
different from their originals; and these, again, give birth to others with
ovaries similar to the parents of the first, so that there is, alternately, a
generation of separated individuals, and a numerous generation

t=

scanty
of aggregated individuals, and these two alternating generations do not
resemble each other. These animals are found in abundance in the Medi-
terranean and the warmer portions of the ocean, and are frequently
phosphorescent.”

The second family — Ageregata — of this order is composed of animals
united ina common mass, so that they seem to communicate organically
with each other. This union, however, does not take place in the early
stages of their existence, but at a later period.

Borrytius. —The Botrylli have an oval form, adherent to various
foreign bodies, and are united by tens or twenties, like the rays of a star.
They form gelatinous crusts bespangled with stars on the leaves of alge.
Every star-ray is the body of one of the individuals of which the extraordi-
nary colony is composed; and in the centre lies the common intestinal
orifice.

Pyrosoma.— The Pyrosome unite in great numbers, so as to form a
large hollow cylinder, open at one end and closed at the other, which
swims in the ocean by the alternate contraction and expansion of the
individual animals composing it. They sparkle during the night with
all the brilliancy of phosphorus.

The two remaining classes of this division, — the Brachiopods, or arm-

footers, and Cirrhopods, or beard-footers, have nothing interesting to
offer, and we therefore pass them by without further notice.

THIRD DIVISION. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.

Tne Articulata have no internal skeleton, the articulated rings which
surround the body, and usually the limbs, in some measure supplying its
place. In the Annelides these rings are nearly the sole means of locomo-
tion, as they have merely a soft and membranous body. The term arti/cu-
lated signifies jyotnted, and the division embraces those animals, the various
pieces of whose bodies are joined together by muscles or flexible membranes.
Some of the families have a soft, membranous body, like the common
earth-worm, and others have a hard, bony covering, like the lobster. There
are four classes: Ist. The ANNELIDES, or Lted-blooded Worms; 2d. The
Crustaceans, or Lobsters and Crabs; 3d. The Aracunipes, or Spiders ;
and 4th. INsecra, embracing more species than any other class of the ani-
mal kingdom.

CLASS J. THE ANNELIDES.

The class of the Annelides, or annulated worms, to which also our com-
mon earth-worm and the leech belong, peoples the seas with by far the greater
number of its genera and species. All of them are distinguished by an
elongated and generally worm-like form of body, susceptible of great exten-
sion and contraction. The body consists of a series of rings, or segments,
joined by a common elastic skin; and each ring, with the exception of the
first or foremost, which forms the head, and the last, which constitutes the
tail, exactly resembles the others, only that the rings in the middle part of
the body are larger than those at the extremities. The head is frequently
provided with eyes, and more or less perfect feelers ; the mouth is armed, in
many species, with strong jaws, or incisive teeth. The blood is red, and
circulates in a system of arteries and veins.

We are accustomed to associate with the idea of a worm all sorts of dis-
gusting and revolting impressions ; and yet an examination of many of the
Aquatic Annelides will show us that it is not without some reason that
M. De Quatrefages remarks, —

“Talk no more of the violet as the emblem of modesty.
our Annelides, that, possessed of every shining quality, hide themselves

Look rather at

NO. XViIl.

8

4

ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS I. ANNELIDES.

246 DIVISION III.

from our view, so that but few know of the secret wonders that are hidden
under the tufts of algw, or on the sandy bottom of the sea.”

And if we look to outward appearance, we shall find that many of the
marine Annelides may well be reckoned among the handsomest of crea-
tures. They display the rainbow tints of the humming-birds, and the
velvet, metallic brillianey of the most lustrous beetles. The vagrant spe-
cies that glide, serpent-like, through the crevices of the submarine rocks,
or, half creeping, half swimming, conceal themselves in the sand or mud,
are pre-eminently beautiful. The delighted naturalists have consequently
given them the most flattering and charming names of Greek mythology —
Nereis, Euphrosyne, Eunice, Alciope, &e.

In the most of the wandering Annelides, each segment is provided with
variously-formed appendages, more or less developed, serving for respira-
tion and locomotion, or for aggression and defence ; while in some of the least
perfect of the class, not a trace of an external organ is to be found over the
whole body. Almost all of them, however, feed on a living prey, — Plana-
rias and other minute creatures, — which they enclasp and transpierce with
their formidable weapons. Some, lying in wait, dart upon their victims as
they heedlessly swim by, seize them with their jaws, and stifle them in their
deadly embrace; others, of a more lively nature, seek them among the
thickets of corallines, millepores, and alge, and arrest them quickly ere they
can vanish in the sand.

But the Annelides also are liable to many persecutions.
perpetually at war with them; and when an imprudent Annelide quits its hid-
den lurking-place, or is uncovered by the motion of the waves, it may reckon
itself fortunate, indeed, if it escapes the greedy teeth of an eel or a flat-
fish. It is even affirmed of the latter, as it is of the whelks, that they know
perfectly well how to dig the Annelides out of the sand. The sea-spiders,
lobsters, and other crustacea are the more dangerous, as their hard shells
render them perfectly invulnerable by the bristling weapons of the An-

The fishes are

nelides.

ORDER I. TUBICOL.

While the greater part of these worms lead a vagrant life, others, like
secluded hermits, dwell in self-constructed retreats, which they never leave.
Their cells, which they begin to form very soon after having left the ege,
and which they afterwards continue extending and widening, according to

the exigencies of their growth, generally consists of a hard, calcareous —

mass; but sometimes they are leathery or parchment-like tubes, secreted by

the skin of the animal, not, however, forming, as in the mollusks, an in-

ORDER I. TUBICOLZ. 247

tegral part of the body, but remaining quite unconnected with it. Thus
these tubicole Annelides spend their whole life within doors, only now and
then peeping out of their prison with the front part of their head.

As they lead so different a life from their roaming relations, their internal
structure is very different. Thus we find here no bristling feet or lateral
respiratory appendages ; but, instead of these organs, which in this case
would be completely useless, we find the head surmounted by a beauiful
crown of feathery tentacula, which equally serve for breathing and the
seizing of a passing prey. Completely closed at the inferior extremity, the
tube shows us at its upper end a round opening, the only window through
which our hermit can peep into the world, seize his food, and refresh his
blood by exposing his floating branchiw to the vivifying influence of the
water.

“Do not, therefore, reproach him with vanity or curiosity if you see him
so often protrude his magnificently decorated head ; butewejoice rather that
this habit, to which necessity obliges him, gives you a better opportunity
for closer observation. Place only a shell or stone, covered with serpulas or
cymospiras, in a vessel filled with sea-water, and you will soon sce how,
in every tube, a small round cover is cautiously raised, which hitherto her-
metically closed the entrance, and prevented you from prying into the
interior. The door is open, and soon the inmate makes his appearance.
You now perceive’ small buds, here dark violet or carmine, there blue
or orange, or variously striped. See how they grow, and gradually expand
their splendid boughs! They are true flowers that open before your eye,
but flowers much more perfect than those which adorn your garden, as they
are endowed with voluntary motion and animal lite.

“At the least shock, at the least vibration of the water, the splendid tufts
contract, vanish with the rapidity of lightning, and hide themselves in their
stony dwellings, where, under cover of the protecting lid, they bid defiance
to their enemies.”

Not all the tubicole Annelides form grottos or houses of so complete a
structure as those I have just described. Many content themselves with
agelutinating sand or small shell fragments into the form of cylindrical
tubes. But even in these inferior architectural labors of the Sabellas,
Terebellas, Amphitrites, &c., we find an astonishing regularity and art ;
for these elegant little tubes, which we may often pick up on the strand,
where they lie mixed with the shells and alow cast out by the flood, consist
of particles of almost equal size, so artistically glued together, that the
delicate walls have everywhere an equal thickness. The form is cylindrical,
or funnel-shaped, the tube gradually widening from the lower to the up-
per end.

ae sh

948 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS I. ANNELIDES.

Some of these tubicoles live like solitary hermits, others love company ;
for instance, the Sabella alveolaris, which often covers wide surfaces of
rock near low-water mark with its aggregated tubes. When the flood
recedes, nothing is seen but the closed orifices; but when covered with the
rising waters, the sandy surface transforms itself into a beautiful picture.
From each aperture stretches forth a neck ornamented with concentric rings
of golden hair, and terminating in a head embellished with a tiara of deli-
cately-feathered, rainbow-tinted tentacula. The whole looks like a earden-
bed enamelled with gay flowers of elegant forms and variegated colors.

The principal genera are SERPULA, SABELLA, TEREBELLA, AMPHITRITR,
Syruostoma, and DENTALIUM.

ORDER II. THE DORSIBRANCHIATA.

=

This order comprises those Annelides which have their gills distributed
throughout the whole length of the body. It is divided into twenty-four
genera. These are, for the most part, creatures of wonderful structure ;
and as our space will not allow us to refer to them all, we will introduce
two of the groups which, we think, will serve best to represent the whole.

Genus Evunice.— These animals are furnished with tuft-like gills, and
the trunk is strongly armed with three pairs of horny jaws, while each of
their feet has two cirrhi and a bundle of bristles.

With the idea of worms we generally connect the notion of incomplete-
ness ; we are apt to consider them as beings equally uninteresting and ugly,
and disdain to inquire into the wonders of their organization. But a cursory
examination of the Hunice gigantea, a worm about two and a half feet

jong, and frequently occurring on our coasts, would alone suftice to give us

>?
a very different opinion of these despised, but far from despicable creatures.
The whole body is divided into segments scarce a line and a half long, and
ten or twelve lines broad, and thus consists of about three hundred rings,
a brain, and three hundred ganglions, from which about three thousand
nervous branches proceed, regulate the movements, sensations, and vegeta-
tive functions of a Euntce. Two hundred and etghty stomachs digest its
food; five hundred and fifty branchie refresh its blood; six hundred
hearts distribute this vital fluid throughout the whole body, and thirty
thousund muscles obey the will of the worm, and execute its snake-like
movements. Surely an astonishing profusion of organs !

HAvirnea. — This animal has three leaflets in its branchix, between two
of which is a very small crest: it has no jaws. ‘There is one species —
aAlphiodita aculeata, Linn.—quite common, which is among the most beau-

ORDER III. ABRANCHIA. 249

tifully colored of animals. “Its form is oval, six or eight inches long, and
two or three broad. The scales of its back are covered and concealed by ¢
substance resembling tow, which originates at its sides : the latter have also
groups of stout spines, which partly pierce the tongue, together with
bundles of flexible bristles, as brilliant as gold, and changeable to every hue
of the rainbow. The colors they present are surpassed in beauty neither by
the scale-like feathers of the humming-bird, nor by the most brilliant gems.
Below them is a tubercle bearing three groups of spines, of three different
thicknesses, and finally a fleshy cover. There are forty of these tubercles
on each side, and between the two first are two little fleshy tentacles; be-
sides which there are fifteen pairs of broad scales, which are sometimes
bulged upon the back, and fifteen small branchial crests on each side.

“The animals of this group, which greatly resemble, in form, the Lu-
phrosine laureata, are well known under the name of Sea Mice, and are
often thrown upon the beach after a gale of wind. In some species the
lateral sete exhibit a beautiful structure, admirably fitting them for weapons
of defence, being barbed on each side at the tip; but, in order to prevent
the injury which might occur to the animal in consequence of the power it
possesses of retracting these seta, each is enclosed in a smooth, horny sheath,
composed of two blades.”

ORDER III. ABRANCHIA.

hese Annelides have no respiratory organs appearing externally, and
seem to breathe either, as in the earth-worms, over the whole surface of the
skin, or, as in the leeches, by internal cavities. Some have bristles, which
serve for locomotion, and others are not thus furnished; and from this
peculiarity they are divided into two families —the Lristled and the Un-
bristled.

First Famity. — This comprises the Earth-worms, or Nereides of Lin-
nus ; they are provided with silky bristles, have a long, cylindrical body
divided by transverse furrows into a great number of rings, and a mouth
without teeth. The genus

Lumpricus may be regarded as a fair representative of the whole family.
L. terrestris, the common Earth-worm, is a well-known species, which
often attains to quite a foot in length, with one hundred and twenty rings.
There are two pores under the sixteenth ring, the purpose of which has not
been discovered. It mines the ground in all directions, piercing it with
great ease, in search of the roots and animals on which it subsists. In the
month of June it seeks the upper world at night, and searches for a com-

|; 950 DIVISION Il ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS I. ANNELIDES.

| panion. “It is especially in rich and well-manured soils that the Earth-
| worm delights, particularly in gardens and meadows; they are extremely
sensitive to movements of the earth; and anglers, knowing well their
temerity in this respect, take advantage of it, in order to obtain a supply of
these animals for baits, by introducing a spade or fork into the ground, and
stirring the soil, when they soon appear on the surface. We are indebted
to Charles Darwin, Esq., for a remarkable and interesting memoir on the
_ utility of this animal, read before the Geological Society of London. The
| worm casts, which so much annoy the gardener by deforming his smooth-
/ shaven lawns, are of no small importance to the agriculturist; and this
_ despised creature is not only of great service in loosening the earth, and
| rendering it permeable by air and water, but is also a most active and pow-
' erful agent in adding to the depth of the soil, and in covering compara-
tively barren tracts with a superficial layer of wholesome mould. The
| author’s attention was directed by Mr. Wedgwood, of Maer Hall, Stafford-
shire, to several fields, some of which had, a few years before, been covered
with lime, and others with burnt marl and cinders, which substances in
every case are now buried to the depth of some inches below the turf, just
| as if, as the farmers believe, the particles had worked themselves down.
_ After showing the impossibility of this supposed operation, the author affirms
| that the whole is due to the digestive process by which the common Earth-
Worm is supported, since, on carefully examining between the blades of
vrass in the fields above mentioned, he found that there was scarcely a space
of two inches square without a little heap of the cylindrical castings of
worms ; it being well known that worms swallow earthy matter, and that,
| having separated the serviceable portion, they eject at the mouth of their
| burrows the remainder in little intestine-shaped heaps. Still more recently
| . Mr. Darwin has noticed a more remarkable instance of this kind, in which,
in the course of eighty years, the Earth-worms had covered a field, then
| manured with marl, with a bed of earth, averaging thirteen inches in
thickness.”
Second Fatty. —This comprises the wrebristled or smooth animals.
There are two genera, and numerous species, all which are aquatic.
| | Iinupo. — The Leeches have an oblong body, sometimes depressed and
wrinkled transversely, the mouth encircled by a lip, and the posterior
extremity furnished with a flattened disk, both ends being adapted to fix

upon bodies by a kind of suction, by means of which these animals move ;

for, having fixed their anterior extremity, they draw the other up to it, and
fix that, and then re-advance the first; besides which, they swim with
facility. Several have a double series of pores underneath the body, which
are the orifices of little internal pouches, considered by some naturalists as

ORDER III. ABRANCHIA. 201

organs of respiration, although they are generally filled with a mucous fluid.
The intestinal canal is straight and swollen at intervals, extending for two
thirds the length of the body, where there are true cceca. The blood they
swallow continues red, and without alteration for several weeks. The gan-
glia of their nervous system are much more separated than those of the
earth-worms. They are hermaphrodite; and several accumulate their eges
into cocoons enyeloped by a fibrous excretion.

On opening the Leech shortly after it has gorged itself with the blood of
its prey, it will be found that none of the blood has passed into the intes-
tines. The operation of digestion is extremely slow, notwithstanding the
rapid and excessive manner in which the Leech fills its stomach: a single
meal of blood will suffice for many months; nay, more than a year will
sometimes elapse before the blood has passed through the intestines in the
ordinary manner, during all which period so much of the blood as remains
undigested in the stomach continues in a fluid state, and as if just taken
in, notwithstanding the vast difference in the heat of the body of a mam-
miferous animal and that of a Leech.

From differences discovered in the organization of the mouth, several
subgenera have been established, of which the following deserve a brief
notice : —

SanauisuGa.— This is the Leech (//. medicinalis, Linn.) so well
known in pharmacy as an instrument for local blood-letting.

Gorpius. — The hair-worms so often seen floating in the water belong
to this group, and also the great Band-worm (Vemertes gigas) —a very
singular animal, which has many of the characteristics of the Entozoa. It is
from thirty to forty feet long, about half an inch broad, flat like a ribbon,
of brown or violet color, and smooth and shining like lackered leather.
Among the loose stones, or in the hollows of the rocks, where it principally
lives on Anomix,—minute shells that attach themselves to submarine
bodies, —this giant worm forms a thousand seemingly inextricable knots,
which it is continually unravelling and tying. When, after having devoured
all the food within its reach, or from other cause, it desires to shift its
quarters, it stretches out a long, dark-colored ribbon, surmounted by a head
like that of a snake, but without its wide mouth or dangerous fangs. The
eye of the observer sees no contraction of the muscles, no apparent cause
or instrument of locomotion; but the microscope teaches us that the Ne-
mertes glides along by help of the minute vibratory ciliw with which its
whole body is covered. It hesitates, it tries here and there, until at last,
and often at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet, it finds a stone to its taste ;
whereupon it slowly unrolls its length to convey itself to its new resting-
place ; and while the entangled folds are unravelling themselves at one end,

952 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS II. CRUSTACEA.

they form a new Gordian knot at the other. All the organs of this worm
are uncommonly simplified ; the mouth is a scarce visible circular opening,

and the intestinal canal ends in a blind sac.

CLASS II. CRUSTACEA.

This large class is divided by modern naturalists into two families — the
Malacostraca and Entomostraca, The first is distinguished by a solid,
calcareous covering ; ten or fourteen legs, with hooked tips; mouth placed
in the ordinary situation; eyes, in most species, supported on a movable
foot-stock, articulated at its base; and branchiz or gills, which are hidden
beneath the lateral margins of the shell; in some, however, they are placed
beneath the abdomen. This section is separated into five orders, founded

on differences in the situation and character of the feet, viz., 1. Decapoda;

9

2. Stomapoda; 3. Lemodipoda; 4. Amphipoda, and, 5. Isopoda.
The second section (Entomostraca) comprises the genus Monoculus of
Linneus, or the Shell-insects of Muller. “The envelope is corneous, very
slender, and the body in the majority is covered by a shell, composed of two
The eyes are ordinarily
The legs, of which the

number varies, are, in the majority, fitted only for swimming, without any

pieces, not unlike that of the bivalve Mollusea.
sessile, and often there is but one of these organs.
terminal hook. Some of them are most nearly allied to the preceding
groups by haying the mouth anteriorly situated, and composed of a labrum,
two mandibles (rarely palpigerous), a tongue, and at most two pair of max-
illee, the outer ones not being covered by foot-jaws. In the others, which
appear to approach the Arachnida in many respects, the organs of mastica-
tion sometimes merely consist of the coxw of the legs, advanced and lobe-
like, armed with numerous small spines, and surrounding a large central
pharynx ; whilst in others they form a small siphon or beak, used as a sucker,
as in many Arachnida and inseets; and even sometimes they are not, or
scarcely, visible on the exterior of the body, the siphon itself being either
internal, or the action of suction being performed by a kind of sucking-cup.”

The Crustacea — lobsters, crabs, shrimps — were reckoned by Linnzeus,
centipedes and spiders, among insects ; but they differ so much
and are so important from their great numbers, that modern

They have,

along with the
from them all,
naturalists have raised them to the dignity of a separate class.
indeed, in common with insects, an annular type of body, covered more or
less with a hard crust; are, like them, provided with tentacula or feelers,
and similarly-formed organs of mastication ; but insects breathe atmospheric
air through lateral pores and trachew, while the Crustaceans, with the

THE CRUSTACEANS. 253

exception of the land Onisci, respire in the water. The perfect insect
undergoes no further change; the Crustacean, on the contrary, increases in
size with every successive year. The Crustacean possesses a heart, which
propels the blood after it has been aérated in the gills; in the insect the
circulation of the blood is by no means so highly organized. No insect has
more than six legs, no Crustacean less than ten,

The centipedes respire air like the insects, and are distinguished by their
elongated form of body, and the great number of their legs, far surpassing,
in this respect, the most richly-endowed Crustacean.

Spiders, and particularly scorpions, have undoubtedly the greatest out-
ward resemblance to the Crustaceans ; but all spiders have only eight legs,
and are generally provided with eight eyes; while the Crustaceans have
only two of these organs of vision, which, in the higher species, are gen-
erally fixed on stalks. The claws of the crab or lobster are properly fore
feet, and serve for creeping, or the seizure of prey; while the claws of the
scorpion are nothing but peculiarly-formed feelers, which do not in the least
contribute to locomotion. Besides, the scorpion inhabits the dry land, while
the Crustacea, with the exception of a few species that dwell in humid places,
inhabit brooks and rivers, but principally the ocean, where their legions are
found along the coasts, or people, far from any land, the deserts of the
high seas.

The respiratory apparatus of the Crustaceans exhibits many interesting
particulars. In some of the lower orders it is seated in the legs, whose
extremely thin and delicate teguments allow the complete aération of the
blood. To move and to breathe are with these nimble animals one and _ the
same thing. In others the branchiw appear in the form of floating feathery
plumes, or as membranous vesicles attached to the basis of the fore feet.
In the most developed Crustaceans, finally, the crabs and lobsters, they are
enclosed in two chambers, situated one at each side of the under surface of
the carapace, or broad, shelly plate, which covers the back of the animal.
Each of these chambers is provided with two openings, one in the front,
near the jaws, the other behind. In the long-tailed species, the posterior
opening is a wide slit at the basis of the feet; in the short-tailed kinds, a
small, transverse aperture before the first pair of feet. By means of this
formation the short-tailed crabs, like those fishes that are provided with a
narrow opening to their gill-covers, are enabled to exist much longer out of
the water than the long-tailed lobsters. Some of them even spend most
of their time on land, and, still better to adapt them for a terrestrial life,
the internal surfaces of the branchial caverns are lined with a spongy tex-
ture, and the gill-branches separated from each other by hard partitions, so

NO. XVII. 85

254 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. — CLASS II. CRUSTACEA.

as to prevent them from collapsing after a long penury of water, and thus
completely stopping the circulation. ;

While in fishes the water that serves for respiration flows from the front
backward, so as not to impede their motions, the stream of water traversing

ill of the Crustaceans is made to flow from behind forward, and thus

oO
t=}

the
harmonizes perfectly with their retrograde movements. So wonderfully has
the anatomical structure of these animals, like that of all other living things,
been suited to their peculiar mode of life.

All Crustaceans, however different their external aspect may be, are
formed according to the same plan or fundamental idea. Among the lower
orders the body consists of a number of almost equal-sized rings, each
furnished with a pair of crawling or swimming legs. But as we ascend in

the scale, we find the rings coalescing more or less to larger pieces, particu-
larly in the crabs, whose broad, chalky carapace indicates its compound
nature only by the number of pairs of legs which rise from its lower

surface.
ORDER I. DECAPODA (‘Ten-footed).

The animals of this order have a shell or covering, which envelops the
body, limbs, and head, the latter of which is fixed compactly to the thorax.
They are slow of growth, and of long life. Some of the species attain the
leneth of a foot. “Their claws, as is well known, are extremely powerful.
They ordinarily reside in the water, but are not immediately killed by being
removed into the air: indeed, some species pass a considerable part of their
existence out of the water, which they only seek in order to deposit their
eggs in it. They are, nevertheless, compelled to reside in damp situations
and burrows. They are naturally voracious and carnivorous : some species,
indeed, are said to frequent the cemeteries in order to feed upon dead bodies.
Their limbs are renewed, when injured, with great quickness ; but it is neces-
sary that the fracture should have been made at the junction of the joints :
they, however, have the instinct to effect this if the wound has been of a
different nature. When desirous to change their skins, they seek for some
retired spot, where they may be at rest and secure from their enemies. The
moulting then takes place, the body being at first soft and of a delicate
flavor, as in the ease of the Black Crab of the West Indies, which is kept
in cages expressly for the table. The chemical analysis of the old shell
proves that it is formed of carbonate of lime and phosphate of lime in differ-
ent proportions. Dy the action of the heat the epidermis assumes a bright-
red color, the coloring principle being decomposed by the action of boiling
water.”

ORDER I. DECAPODA. 255

The order is divided into two families — Brachyura (Short Tails), and
Macrua (Long Tails). The first comprises the genus

Cancer. —The Crabs. The distinguishing characteristics of the genus
are, the tail shorter than the thorax, triangular in the male, and rounded in

the female; small antenne; the peduncles of the eyes larger than in the
second family ; and branchiw arranged in a single row in pyramidal plates,
composed of a great number of minute leaflets spread one upon the other.

Crabs are completely wanting in the Ingh northern seas ; their number
increases with the warmer temperature of the waters, and attains its maxi-
mum in the tropical zone. Here we find the most remarkable and various
forms ; here they attain a size unknown in our seas; and here they do not,
as with us, inhabit solely the salt waters, but also people the brooks and
rivers, or even constantly sojourn on land; as, for instance, the Thelphuse
and Geearcini. There are even some species of land crabs that suffocate
when dipped into water. They breathe, indeed, through branchiw, but the
small quantity of oxygen dissolved in water does not suffice for the wants
of their active respiration. They generally live in the shades of the damp
forests, often at a great distance from the sea, concealing themselves in holes.
At breeding-time they generally seek the shore for the purpose of washing
off their spawn, and depositing it in the sand; and no obstruction will then
make them deviate from the straight path.

They feed on vegetable substances, and are reckoned very excellent food.
When taken, they will seize the person’s finger with their claw, and en-
deavor to escape, leaving the claw behind, which, for some time after it
has been separated from the body, continues to give the finger a friendly
squeeze. In the dusk of the evening they quit their holes, and may then
be seen running about with great swiftness.

C. Pagurus. —This is the common edible crab. It has a very broad
shell, and arched for a great distance along the sides; the claws are large,
and the fingers are black, armed with obtuse points. It is captured by
sinking pots or baskets, properly prepared and baited, to a considerable
depth in the ocean along the rocky coast. It is the most abundant in the
summer. At low tide these crabs are found among the rocks in pairs, and
if the male be taken away, another will be found in its place at the next
recess of the tide. In winter they either burrow in the sand or withdraw to
deeper waters.

Portunas. —The Portuni have the ordinary crab-like form, but the ocu-
Jar peduncles are very short, and the terminal joint of the hind legs is much
narrower than in the Paguri. They are abundant in the Venetian lagoons,
and the catching of them affords a profitable employment to the inhabitants
of those swampy regions. Whole cargoes are sent to Istria, where they are

256 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS I. CRUSTACEA.

used for bait for anchovies. The fishermen gather them in a short time be-
fore they cast their shelf, and preserve them in baskets until the moulting
process has been effected, when they are reckoned a delicacy even on the
best tables. On attempting to seize this crab, it runs rapidly sidewise, and
conceals itself in the mud ; but when unsuccessful, it raises itself with a men-
acing mien, beats its claws noisily together, as if in defiance of the enemy,
and prepares for a valiant defence, like a true knight.

In

those which have been called sea-spiders they are very long, thin, and weak,

The legs of the crabs are very differently formed in various species.

so that the animal swims badly, and is a slow and uncertain pedestrian.
For greater security, it therefore generally seeks a greater depth, where,
concealed among the sea-weeds, it wages war with annelides, planaries, and
small mollusks. Sea-spiders are often found on the oyster banks, and con-
sidered injurious by the fishermen, who unmercifully destroy them whenever
they get hold of them.

In other species the legs are short, muscular, and powerful, so as rapidly
to carry along the comparatively light body. The tropical land-crabs and
the genera ocypoda and grapsus, which form the link between the former
and the real sea-crabs, are particularly distinguished in this respect.

The rider or racer (Ocypoda cursor), which is found on the coasts of
Syria and Barbary, and abounds at Cape de Verde, owes its name to its
swiftness, which is such that even a man on horseback is said not to be able
to overtake it. The West Indian ocypodas dig holes three or four feet deep,
immediately above high-water mark, and leave them after dusk. Towards
the end of October they retire farther inland, and bury themselves for the
winter in similar holes, the openings of which they carefully conceal.

A strange peculiarity of many crabs is the quantity of parasites they carry
along with them on their backs. Many marine productions, both of a vegetable
and animal nature, have their birth and grow to beauty on the shell of the
sea-spider. Corallines, sponges, zoophytes, alg, may thus be found, and
balani occasionally cover the entire upper surface of the body of the crab.
“All the examples of the Zvachus Dorsettensis which I have taken,” says
the distinguished naturalist Mr. W. Thomson, of Belfast, “were invested
with sponge, which generally covers over the body, arms, and legs; alge
and zodphytes likewise spring from it.” In this extraneous matter some of
the smaller zodphytes find shelter, and, together with the other objects, ren-
der the capture of the Irachus Dorsettensis interesting far beyond its own
acquisition. In Mr. Hyndman’s collection there is a sea-spider curying on
its back an oyster larger than itself, and covered besides with numerous
barnacles.

Tuetrnusa.—The Thelphuse have the ocular peduncles longer than

Plate

CORALS.

A Piece of Macciotta fished up trom 80 fathoms depth inthe neighbourhood of Calle

5 BALANOPHYLLIA ITALICA
© LLUM ANTHOPHYLLUM

tots 7. THECIDIA MEDITERRANEA

6 TERREBRAIULUM CAPUT SERPEN

BOSTON, SAMUETL WALKER & CO

ORDER I. DECAPODA. 257

the lateral antennw. The shell is nearly of a cordate truncate form. There
are several species of this genus which reside in fresh water, but being able
to exist for a considerable time out of their native element ; one noticed by
the ancients occurs in the south of Europe; it is the Cancer fluviatilis
(Belon.). It is often represented upon the ancient Greek medals. The Greek
monks eat it uncooked, and it forms a common article of food in Italy during
Lent. Delalande and De Latour discovered two other species, one in the
south of Africa, and the other in the mountains of Ceylon. There is another
species, Thelphusa cunicularis, discovered by Colonel Sykes, in the ghauts
of the Deccan, where it occurs in great abundance, and of which Bishop
Heber thus speaks in his Journal: “ All the grass through the Deccan gen-
erally swarms with a small land-crab, which burrows in the ground, and
runs with considerable swiftness, even when encumbered with a bundle of
food as big as itself: this food is grass, or the green stalks of rice ; and it is
amusing to see the crabs sitting, as it were, upright, to cut their hay with
their sharp pincers, and then waddling off with their sheaf to their holes as
quickly as their sidelong pace will carry them.” Colonel Sykes found them
on the table-lands at an elevation of nearly four thousand feet above the sea ;
and as they are met with of all sizes, he believes that their productive pro-
cess is completed without the crab having to undertake any annual journey
to the sea, their migrations having never been noticed. ‘To this section also
belong other species of land-crabs, composing the genera Gelasimus ocy-
poda and mictyris. The first of these genera has the carapax solid, and nearly
quadrilateral, but rather broader in front; one of the claws is generally
much longer than the other, the fingers of the smaller claws being spoon-
shaped. The animal closes the mouth of its burrow, which it makes near
the shore, with its larger claw. These burrows are cylindrical, oblique, and
very deep, each having a single inhabitant. It is the habit of this crab to
hold up the large claw in the front of the body, as though beckoning to some
one; whence they have obtained the name of Calling Crabs. The species
of Ocypoda has the eyes extended along the greater length of the foot-
stalks. Their claws are also unequal, but not to the same extent as in the
Gelausimi. During the day they sit in their burrows, venturing forth only
after sunset. The type Cancer cursor (Linn.) inhabits Syria and Northern
Africa. Other species of land-crabs are of a truncate cordate form, with
the shell rounded and dilated at the sides. They inhabit tropical climates,
and are called by the inhabitants painted crabs, land crabs, violet crabs,
&c., which names seem to be applied indiscriminately. There are few
travellers who have not mentioned their habits, often mixing up much
fiction in their accounts. They pass the greater part of their lives in
the earth, hiding themselves by day and coming abroad only at night.

258 DIVISION UI. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS II. CRUSTACEA.

Sometimes they frequent cemeteries. Once a year, as the period for
depositing their eggs draws near, they assemble in numerous companies,
and, following the most direct line, seek the coast without permitting any
obstacle to intercept them in their way. After laying their eges in the
water, they return, greatly enfeebled. It is said that they close the mouth
of their burrows at the period of moulting; after which operation, and
whilst still soft, they are reckoned a great delicacy.

Another interesting group constitutes the genus Pinnotheres (Latr.):
These are of very small size, of which there are several species, named
pea-crabs, and which reside, during a portion of the year at least, inside
various bivalve shells, such as mussels, &e. The carapax of the females is
suborbicular, very thin and soft, whilst that of the males is firmer and
nearly globular, and rather pointed in front ; the legs are of moderate length,
and the claws of the ordinary form; the tail of the female is very ample,
and coyers the whole of the under side of the body. The ancients believed
that the pea-crabs lived upon the best terms with the inhabitants of the
shells in which they were found, and that they not only warned them of
danger, but went abroad to cater for them.

Second Fatty oF Decaropa, Macrura. — In the genera composing
this family, the tail and antennx are much longer than in the former, and
the shell is narrower and more elongate. With few exceptions the Macrura
are all marine animals, and never quit the water.

Bincus. —This genus appears to be a connecting link between the short
and long tailed crabs. On account of their large size, the solidity of their
integuments, and the form of the tail, these crabs are not able to lodge in
shells, but must retire to crevices in the rocks, or hide themselves in burrows
in the earth.

LB. Catro. — This species is of a large size, and inhabits the Isle of France,
where it is called the Purse Crab. It is said to climb the palm-trees for the
sake of detaching the heavy nuts; but Mr. Darwin, who attentively observed
the animal on the Keeling Islands, tells us that it merely lives upon those that
spontaneously fall from the tree. To extract its nourishment from the hard
case, it shows an ingenuity which is one of the most wonderful instanees of
animal instinct. It must first of all be remarked, that its front pair of legs is
terminated by very strong and heavy pincers, the last pair by others narrow
and weak. After having selected a nut fit for its dinner, the c rab begins its
operations by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, from that end. under which
the three eye-holes are situated ; it then hammers upon one of them with its
heavy claws until an opening is made. Hereupon it turns round, and, by
the aid of its posterior pincers, extracts the white, albuminous substance.
It inhabits deep burrows, where it accumulates surprising quantities of

ORDER I. DECAPODA. 259

picked fibres of cocoa-nut husks, on which it rests as on a bed. Its habits
are diurnal; but every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea, no doubt for
the purpose of moistening its branchiw. It is very good to eat, living as it
does on choice vegetable substances ; and the great mass of fat accumulated
under the tail of the larger ones sometimes yields, when melted, as much
as a quart of limpid oil.

Pagurus. — The Hermit Crabs. The Pagurians have the four hind
legs much smaller than the preceding. The tail is long, soft, and narrowed
at the tip. As Nature has provided them with no sufficient covering or
protection, they have “to look about them for some shelter; and this is af-
forded them by several conchiform shells, bace’na, merit, in which they
so tenaciously insert their hooked tails, as if both were grown together. So
long as they are young and feeble, they content themselves with such shells
as they find empty on the strand; but when grown to maturity, they attack
living specimens, seize with their sharp claws the snail, ere it can withdraw
into its shell, and, after devouring its flesh, ereep, without ceremony, into
the conquered dwelling, which fits them like a coat when they take a walk,
and the mouth of which they close, when at rest, with their largest forceps,
in the same manner as the original possessor used his opereulum or lid.
How remarkable that an animal should thus find in another creature, belong-
ing to a totally different class, the completion, as it were, of its being, and
be indebted to it for the pretecting cover which its own skin is unable to
secrete !

“When the dwelling of the Pagurus becomes inconveniently narrow, the
remedy is easy, for appropriate sea-shells abound wherever hermit, crabs
exist. They are found on almost every coast, and every new scientific
voyage makes us acquainted with new species. According to Quoy and
Gaimard, they are particularly numerous at the Ladrones, New Guinea,
and Timor, The strand of the small Island of Kewa, in Coupang Bay, was
entirely covered with them. In the heat of the day they seek the shade of
the bushes; but as soon as the cool of evening approaches, they come forth
by thousands. Although they make all large snail-houses answer their
purposes, they seem in this locality to prefer the large Sea Nerites.”

The manceuvres of several species, when they have outgrown their hahi-
tation, are quite ludicrous. Crawling slowly along the line of empty shells
thrown up by the last wave, and unwilling to part with their now incom-
modious domicile until another is obtained, they carefully examine, one by
one, the shells that lie in their way, slipping their tails out of the old house
into the new one, and again betaking themselves to the old one, should not
this fit. In this manner they proceed until they have found a home to
their liking.

960 DIVISION IU. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS II. CRUSTACEA.

| Asracus. — This genus is distinguished by having the lateral plates of the
- swimmerets broad and rounded at the extremity. The two filaments of the
intermediate antenne are longer than their peduncles.

A. Marinus. —The Lobster. This valuable crustacean, which is cele-
brated everywhere for the delicacy of its flesh, is, in this country, an article |
of extensive trade. Many millions are taken annually along our coasts, and
distributed by railroad, packed in ice, through all the States. Like the

| edible crab, it is taken in pots, baskets, or nets. | |
The lobster breeds in the summer months, depositing many thousands of |

egos in the sand, and leaving them there to be hatched by the sun. But | |

| few, as may easily be imagined, live to attain a size befitting them to appear
| in red livery on our tables. Like all crustaceans, the lobster casts its shell
| annually, and with such perfection, that the discarded garment, with all its
feet and feelers, perfectly resembles the living animal. The process is
curious cnough to deserve a few lines of description. When, towards
autumn, the time of casting the shell approaches, the lobster retires to a
silent nook, like a pious hermit to his cell, and fasts several days. The

shell thus detaches itself gradually from the emaciated body, and a new and
tender cuticle forms underneath.

The old dress seems now, however, to plague the lobster very much, to
judge by the efforts he makes to sever all remaining connection with it. |
Soon the harness splits right through the back, like the cleft bark of a tree,

| or a ripe seed-husk, and opens a wide gate to liberty. After much tugging
and wriggling, the legs, tail, and claws gradually follow the body. The
claws give the lobster most trouble; but he is well aware that perseverance
generally wins the day, and never ceases till the elastic mass, which can be
drawn out like india-rubber, and instantly resumes its ordinary shape, has
been forced through the narrow passage. It can easily be supposed that,
_ after such a violent struggle for freedom, the lobster is not a little exhausted.
Feeling his weakness, and the very insufficient protection afforded him by
his soft covering, he bashfully retires from all society until his hardened
case allows him to mix again with his friends on terms of equality, for he
well knows how inclined they are to bite and devour a softer brother.
In the seventh and last order of the class Crustacea is placed a curious
croup of animals forming the genus
| Limvutus. — King Crabs, or Crabs of the Moluccas. These animals have
twenty-four legs; the ten anterior, with the exception of the two anterior
in the mules, are terminated by a two-fingered claw, and inserted, as well
as the two following, beneath a large semilunar shield; the Jatter are in the |
| form of large leaves, as well as the ten following, which are branchial, and |
| annexed to the under side of a second, which is terminated by a horny, |
|
|

METAMORPHOSES OF THE CRUSTACEANS. 261

movable style like a sword. One species, L. Polyphemus, is often found
near our coasts; and we have frequently seen numerous specimens, after a
storm, strewn lifeless along our shores. It is from one to two feet in
length.

As the other orders of this class contain nothing of peculiar interest, we
close our observations on the Crustaceans with a few general remarks.

The facility with which the Crustacea cast off their legs, and even their
heavy claws, when they have been wounded in one of these organs, or
alarmed at thunder, is most remarkable. Without the least appearance
After
a time a new limb crows out of the old stump, but never attains the size
of the original limb.

The wonderful metamorphoses of the insects are universally known, but

of pain, they then continue to run along upon their remaining legs.

the changes which the young crabs have to undergo ere they assume their
definitive form are no less astonishing. We are indebted to Mr. Vaughan
Thompson for the first discovery of the metamorphoses of the Common
Crab; and since then the evolutions of many other Crustaceans have been
observed by other naturalists, so that most likely all the more perfect Crus-
taceans undergo analogous changes.

Before Mr. Thompson’s observations, the small creatures, which he proved
to be young crabs, were considered as belonging to a distinct genus, called
Zoea. “On creeping out of the ege, these larve look very strange indeed.
Fancy a preposterously large helmet-shaped head, ending behind in a long
point, and furnished in front with two monstrous sessile eyes, like the win-
dows of a lantern. By means of a long, articulated tail, the restless chi-
mera continually turns, so to speak, ‘head over heels.’ Claws are wanting ;
while the old crabs have eight legs, the young have only four, armed at the
extremity with four long bristles, that are continually pushing food towards
the ciliated and ever active mouth. Who could imagine that a creature like
this should ever change into a crab, with which it has not the least resem-
blance? But time does wonders. Immediately after the first casting of the
skin, the body makes an approach to its future permanent form; the eyes
are raised on stalks ; the claws and feet begin to develop themselves ; but as
yet the metamorphosis is incomplete, for the tail remains long, like that of
the lobster, and is used by the young crab to swim about merrily in the
water. It is not before the next stage, when the little creature measures
about one eighth of an inch in diameter, that the crab form is complete-
ly developed by the tail shortening, and finally disappearing under the
shield.

“In these successive metamorphoses, we
stages of formation. In the first, the crab
NO. XVII. 86

see the peculiarities of several
is like one of the lowest and

262 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS III. ARACHNIDA.

most incomplete Crustaceans ; farther on it resembles the lobster, and at last
it appears in the compact shape which constitutes the highest perfection of
crustacean life.”

CLASS III. OF ARTICULATA. ARACHNIDA.

This class embraces the Spiders and Scorpions. Like the preceding
class, it is composed of species which are, in a manner, not liable to
change their form, not undergoing metamorphosis, but simple sheddings
of the outer covering of the body. But they differ from these animals,
as well as from the true insects, in many respects. As in the latter,
the surface of their bodies exhibits orifices or transverse slits, named
stigmata (but which it would be better to name pneumostomes, — mouth
for the air, —or spiracles, that is, respiratory orifices), serving for the
entry of the air, but being few in number (eight at most, generally only
two), and situated only on the under side of the abdomen. Respiration is
eflected either by means of aerial branchie, serving as lungs and enclosed
in bags, to which these spiracles form the entry, or by means of radiating
tracheew. The organs of sight consist only of minute simple ocelli, grouped
in different positions when there is a number of them. The head, generally
united to the thorax, merely exhibits at the place of the antennw two articu-
lated pieces, like small didactyle or monodactyle claws, which have been
injudiciously compared to the mandibles of insects, and so named ; but they
move in a direction opposed to the motion of mandibles, or up and down,
assisting, nevertheless, in eating, and replaced, in those Arachnida which
have the mouth formed into a siphon, or sucker, by two pointed plates, used
as lancets. A sort of lower lip (dabiéum, Fab.), or rather tongue (lan-
guette), formed by a pectoral elongation ; two maxillw, formed of the basal
joint of two small feet or palpi, or of an appendage or lobe of the
same joint; a piece concealed beneath the mandibles, and called the sternal
tongue by Savigny in Phalangium capticum, and which is composed of a
beak-like prominence, produced by the union of a very small epistome or
clypeus, terminated by a very small triangular upper lip, and of a Jongi-
tudinal lower rib (caréne), generally very hairy. These, together with the
pieces called the mandibles, generally constitute, with certain modifications,
the mouth of the majority of the Arachnida, ;

“The majority of the Arachnida feed upon insects, which they seize alive,
or upon which they fix themselves, and from which they suck their juices.
Others live as parasites upon the bodies of vertebrated animals. There are,
howeyer, some which are found only in flour, cheese, and upon various yege-

ORDER I. PULMONARIA.— SPIDERS. 263

tables. Those which subsist upon other animals often increase in a very
great degree. In some species two of the legs are not developed before a
change of skin, and in general it is not until after the fourth or fifth moult-
ing that these animals become fitted for reproduction.”

ORDER I. OF ARACHNIDA. PULMONARIA.

This order comprises those species which have pulmonary sacs, a heart
with distinct vessels, a system of circulation, and six or eight eyes.

ARANEA. — The Spiders. There are no creatures more common than
these curious beings, and few that are not looked upon with more favor and
less disgust. Every morning the housewife has to clean with brush or
broom numerous corners and by-places of the “ filthy cobwebs,” placed there
the previous night by these indefatigable workers. There is no place secure
from their intrusion, no part of a human dwelling where they do not at
times pursue their wonderful labors. The spider has eyes like those of a
cat, and sees in the night as well as in the day, and while we are sleeping,
may be constructing its marvellous palace on the very ceiling of our parlor.
The white, silky masses seen floating in the air in spring and autumn
mornings are evidences of its nocturnal industry.

It is probable that many of the spiders, not having a suflicient supply of
silk, merely emit single threads—such, for instance, as those made by
young Lycosw, which are to be seen in great abundance, crossing from
ridge to ridge, in cultivated lands, when they reflect the sun’s rays. When
chemically analyzed, they are found to exhibit precisely the same charac-
ters as the silk of spiders, and are, therefore, not formed in the air, as has
been conjectured by Lamarck. Gloves and stockings have been made of
spiders’ silk; but these attempts, not being capable of a general application,
and being subject to great difficulties, are more curious than useful. The
material is, however, far more important for the spiders themselves. It is
by its means that the sedentary species, or those which do not chase after
their prey, construct their webs of a more or less firm texture, capable, in
some exotic species, of holding small birds, and of which the forms and
positions vary according to the habits peculiar to each species, and which are
so many snares in which the insects which serve them for food are captured.
Searcely is one caught by the hooks of the tarsi, than the spider, sometimes
placed in the centre of its web, or in a cell near one of its angles, darts
forth, approaches the insect, uses all its efforts to wound the captive with its
murderous darts, and to discharge into the wound an active poison. When
it opposes too strong a resistance, and a struggle may be dangerous to the

964 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS TI. ARACHNIDA.

spider, the latter retires for a time, until it has lost its strength, and be-
comes still more entangled in its ineffectual efforts to escape, when, there
being no longer cause for alarm, the spider returns, and endeavors to twirl
it round, weaving at the same time around it a strong, silken web, in which
it is sometimes entirely encased. Lister states that the spiders discharge
their threads in the same manner as the porcupine is fabulously asserted to
do, with this difference — that the threads of the spider remain attached to
its body. This fact has been considered impossible. We have, however,
seen the threads issue from the nipples of some Thornisi, extending in a
straight line, and forming movable rays when the animal moves them circu-
larly. Another use of silk common to all female spiders is for the con-
struction of cocoons destined for the enclosure of the eges. The contexture
and the form of these cocoons are varied according to the habits of the vari-
ous races of spiders. They are generally spheroid; some have the shape
of a cap or a flat sphere; some are placed on a peduncle, and others are
terminated by a club. Other matters, such as earth, leaves, &c., sometimes
cover them, or at least partially ; a finer tissue often envelops the eggs in
the inside, where they are loose or agglutinated together, and are more or
less numerous.

The spider's web is undoubtedly one of the most curious and extraor-
dinary objects in nature. Most wonderful is the tenuity of these fairy-like
lines, yet strong enough to enable the aerial voyager to run through the air,
and catch his prey which ventures within its domain. It is so fine that,
in the web of the Gossamer Spider, the smallest of the tribe, there are
twenty tubes, through which are drawn the viscid globules, the gummy mat-
ter it employs in spinning. It takes one hundred and forty of these
globules to form a single spiral line: it has twenty-four circumlocutions to
go through, which gives the number of three thousand three hundred and
sixty. We have thus got the average total number of lines between two
radii of the circle; multiplying that number by twenty-six, the number of
radii which the untiring insect spins, gives the total amount of eighty-seven
thousand three hundred and sixty viscid globules before the net is com-
plete.

The dimensions of the net, of course, vary with the species. Some will
be composed of as many as one hundred and twenty thousand lines; yet
even to form this net, the spider will only take five minutes! Wonderful,
indeed, is the process by which the spider draws the thread from its body —
more wonderful than any rope or silk-spinning. Each of these spinnerets
is covered with rows of bristle-like points, so very fine that a space about
the size of a pin’s head will cover a thousand of them. From each of these
points or tubes issues a small but slender thread, which unites with the other

ORDER I. PULMONARIA. — WATER SPIDER. 265

threads, so that from each spinneret proceeds a series of threads forming
one compound whole; these are situated about one third of an inch from
the apex of the spinnerets; they also unite and form one thread, six hun-
dred and twenty-four of which are used by the spider in forming his net.
With the instrument which nature has given him, —the claws of his feet,
— the spider guides and arranges the glutinous thread as this seemingly in-
exhaustible fibre is drawn from his body, and interweaves them with each
other until the web is complete. In this way spiders are weavers of a
supple line, whose touch, for quickness and fineness, surpasses that of any
spinning-jenny.

A. Domestica, — These animals are found everywhere. They construct
in our houses, in the angles of walls, upon plants and hedges, in the ground
or under stones, large webs nearly horizontal, at the upper end of which is
a tube in which they station themselves.

A. Aquatica.—The Water Spider. This animal is blackish-brown,
with the abdomen darker colored, silky, and with four impressed dots on

the back. It resides in standing water, in which it swims with the abdomen
encased in a bubble of air, and in which it forms for its retreat an oval cell
filled with air and formed of silk, from which threads proceed to the different
adjacent water plants in all directions. Here it devours its prey, constructs
its egg-case, which it carefully guards, and where it passes the winter, hay-
ing first closed the cell.

Another species of weaving-spider (petra diadema, Linn.) is of a
large size, with the abdomen marked with a triple cross formed of small
white spots. It abounds most in autumn. The eggs, which the parent
deposits at the commencement of the cold weather in angles of the ceilings
of rooms, in passages, near gardens, and in walls, enveloping them with a
loose, white silken web, are hatched in the spring of the following year.

Another singular species is described by Dufour under the name of Uroc-
tea maculata. “It is about half an inch long, of a brown maroon color,
with the abdomen black, marked with five yellowish spots. Found in the
south of Europe and Egypt. Dufour has made some curious observations
on its habits. It constructs on the under side of stones, or in crevices of
rocks, a cocoon in the shape of a cap or patella an inch in diameter, its cir-
cumference having seven or eight festoons, the points alone being fixed to
the stone by means of threads, whilst the edges of the festoons are free.
This singular tent is of an admirable texture, the outer surface resembling
the finest taffety, and composed of a number of folds. When young it only
constructs two layers, between which it takes its station. But subsequently,
perhaps at each moulting, it adds additional folds, and when the period of
reproduction arrives, it weaves another apartment, expressly for the reception

966 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS III. ARACHNIDA.

of the sacs of eggs and young when hatched, of a softer texture. The
inside of its habitation is always singularly clean. The bags in which the
eges are placed are four, five, or six in number in each habitation ; they are
about one third of an inch in diameter, and of a lenticular form. It is not
until the end of December or January that the eggs are deposited, and they
are enveloped in fine down to guard them from the cold. The edges of the
festoons not being fastened together, the insect is able to creep in and out at
will by lifting them up. When the young are able to dispense with the
maternal cares, they quit their common habitation, and form separate abodes,
and their parent dies in her tent, which is thus the birthplace and tomb of
the Uroctea.”

The effects of changes of temperature and weather on the proceedings of
these creatures, and the appearance of their webs, very early attracted the
attention of mankind, and gave rise to the art of Araneology —a method of
deciding on the changes of the weather from the motions and works of spiders.
Intimations of it appear even in Pliny (H. N., book xi., sect. 28). It is
also treated of in the “ Lwigwahrenden Practica” (Things of Everlasting
Value), which appeared at Gorlitz in 1588. In later times Quatremére
Disjonval, member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, during an eight
months’ imprisonment, in which some spiders were his only companions,
made various observations on the subject; and in 1797, at Paris, made
known his discovery of the close connection existing between the appear-
ance or disappearance, the labor or rest, the greater or less circumference
of the webs and fibres, of spiders of different sorts, and the atmospherical
changes from fair weather to rain, from dry to wet, and particularly from hot
to cold, and from frost to a milder temperature. In the genus

Lycosa is the celebrated Tarentula, so named from the city of Tarentum,
in Italy, in the environs of which it is common. These spiders live on the
ground, and run with great swiftness. They dwell in holes, lining the in-
side with silk, and increasing the size as they grow. Some inhabit the holes
of walls, where they make silken tubes, the outside of which they cover with
earth or sand, and in which they moult and hibernate. It is the opinion of
the vulgar that the venom of the Tarentula occasions dangerous wounds,
often fatal, or followed by a singular kind of delirium called tarentism,
which can only be cured by music and dancing. All spiders are, in a degree,
poisonous, we believe, but not to the extent ascribed to the Tarentula, and
the medical art supplies effective remedies.

Mycate. —In this genus are some of the largest species of the family.
They have eight eyes, and form their nests in the slits of trees, beneath the
bark, in the cavities of stones, or on the surface of leaves of various vege-
tables. They feed on crickets, cockroaches, and, according to M. Moreau

ORDER I. PULMONARIA. — SCORPIONS. 267

de Jonnes, the young of humming-birds. One species, the Mason, or Min-
ing Spider, constructs, in dry, shelving situations exposed to the sun, sub-
terranean, cylindrical galleries, often two feet deep, and so tortuous that
traces of them are often lost. They also construct, at the entrance, a mov-
able lid of silk and earth, fixed by a hinge, which, by its exact .size, in-
clination, and weight, so closely shuts the opening that it can scarcely be
distinguished from the neighboring soil. In these hidden retreats it secretes
itself, and waits for its prey. A very large species of Mining Mygale is
found in Texas.

Scorrio. — The Scorpions. These animals are all peculiar to hot cli-
mates, and in all ages have been objects of dread. The agony caused by
their sting has, from the earliest times, been employed by the poets as a
figure of mental anguish, or of the torments of conscience. The great
dramatist makes Macbeth thus describe the tortures of his soul: “O, full
of scorpions is my breast, dear wife !”

The body of the Scorpion is elongated, and terminates abruptly in a
jointed tail, armed at the extremity with a curved and very acute spine;
under the point of this spine are two very small orifices, which serve to give
passage to a poisonous fluid. The anterior pair of feet, or palpi, are very
large, resembling those of the lobster in form, and serve to seize and bear
to the mouth of the animal the various insects on which it feeds; the other
feet do not differ essentially in form from those of the spider. At the junc-
tion of the thorax and abdomen are two movable plates, having the form
of combs, the use of which is not well understood. Several species of
scorpions are known —all inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. They
shun moisture, living on the ground in places exposed to a hot sun, and
hiding under stones or in crevices, and, when disturbed, run rapidly, with
their tails curved over their backs. The species of the south of Europe are
little more than an inch in leneth, while some of the tropical species exceed
five inches. The sting of the larger ones is very much dreaded, and is said
frequently to cause death. In some places they are so numerous as to
become a constant object of apprehension to the inhabitants, and even force
them to abandon their habitations. The Scorpions may be divided into two
sections, viz., those with eight eyes, and those which have only six, like
the species which inhabit the Southern States. The poison increases in
power according to the age of the animal, but may be neutralized by the
application of volatile alkali, either internally or externally.

968 DIVISION Ill. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS III. ARACHNIDA.

ORDER II. OF ARACHNIDA. TRACHEARLZE.

This order is divided into three families, the first of which is composed of
the Pseudo-Scorpiones — False Scorpions. With the exception of one or
two species discovered in Cuba, they inhabit the hot countries of the Old
World. They are small animals, having from two to four eyes, can run
with considerable swiftness, often sidewise, like the crab, dwell beneath
stones, decaying bark, and sometimes in old books and herbariums.

In the second family are the Pycnogonides. These are marine animals,
found among marine plants, under stones near the shore, and sometimes on
whales. .

In the third family are several genera, which contain a large number of
well-known species. The most of them have eight legs, although some have
but six.

PraLtancium. — This genus comprises those singular-looking animals
called Harvest Men. They have eight very long legs, which, when de-
tached from the body, exhibit, for some time, signs of life. Most of them
live on the ground at the roots of trees, and are very active; others conceal
themselves beneath stones, or in the moss.

Tromprpium, Fabr., has the chelicer terminated by a movable claw ;
palpi projecting, pointed at tip, with a movable appendage or finger beneath
the extremity; two eyes, each at the top of a small, fixed peduncle. 7.
holosericeum, Fabr., very common in gardens during spring, of a blood-
red color, with the abdomen nearly square, and narrowed behind. A much
larger species (JZ. cinctortum, Fabr.) inhabits the East Indies, and emits
a red dye.

Eryturmus, Latr., has the chelicere and palpi of Trombidium, but the
eyes are sessile, and the body not divided.

Gamasus, Latr., has the chelicerw didactyle, and the palpi projecting,
distinct, and filiform. In some the body is covered entirely, or in part, by
a scaly skin, but in others it is entirely soft. Some of the latter species live
upon different birds and quadrupeds ; others, as the Acarus telart tus, Linn.,
or the Red Spider of the hot-houses, form upon the leaves of various vege-
tables, especially upon those of lime trees, very fine webs, which injure
them greatly. This species is reddish, with a black spot on each side of
the abdomen.

Acarus. — The Acarides are universally distributed. Some are wander-
ers; and, amongst these, some are found under stones, leaves, the bark of
trees, in the ground, the water, or upon provisions — such as flour, dried
meat, old dry cheese, and upon putrid animal matters. Others subsist as

ORDER Il. OF TRACHEARLE. 269

parasites upon the skin and in the flesh of different animals, often greatly
weakening them by their excessive multiplication. The origin of certain
diseases is attributed to them. Other sorts of mites are also found upon
insects; and many beetles, which subsist upon cadaverous substances, are
often entirely covered with them. They have even been observed in the
brain and eyes of man. ‘The mites are oviparous, and exceedingly prolific.
Many of them are born with only six feet, and the two others are devel-
oped a short time afterwards. It has been asserted that they produce
the disease called ¢tch, by insinuating themselves beneath the skin. This,
however, is an erroneous opinion. ‘They are found, it is true, in the pus-
tules of the itch, as a resu/é of the disease, and not its cause. They are
created, and make their appearance, only after the pustules are formed.

A, Domesticus. —The most of these animals are very small, or almost |
microscopic. They occur everywhere, some being of a wandering character,
and to be found under stones, leaves, the bark of trees, or in provisions, as
meal, cheese, pepper, &c. ; others are stationary and parasitic, on the skin of
various animals, sometimes proving of serious injury to them. The mites in-
habiting cheese are so minute, that, to the naked eye, they appear like moving
particles of dust. They are very quick-sighted, and when once they have been
touched with a pin, it is curious to observe the cunning which they display to
avoid a second touch. They are extremely voracious, and will even prey on
each other, and are so tenacious of life that they have been kept alive for many
months between the object-glasses of a microscope. The species which is
found in meal occasions considerable injury. Leuwenhock states that they
may be expelled by placing a few nutmegs in the vessel or sack containing
the meal. A German writer, named Funke, advises a cheaper remedy,
which consists of the decorticated, thick branches of the lilac, or elder,
which are to be put in the flour, and will, it is said, completely prevent
their depredations.

Ixopres. — This genus comprises the Ticks. They have no perceptible
eyes; the palpi are in the shape of valves, dilated at the tip, serving as a
sheath’ to the sucker, of which the parts are horny and toothed; the body is
clothed with a corneous skin, or at least with a scaly plate in front. These
ticks are parasites, sucking the blood of various vertebrated animals; and,
although at first very much flattened, they acquire, by suction, a very large
size, and become swollen out like a bladder. They are round or oval.
They are found in thick woods, abounding in brushwood, briers, &c., at-
taching themselves to low plants by the two fore legs, extending the other
feet. They fasten upon dogs, cows, horses, and other quadrupeds, and even
upon the tortoise, burying their suckers so completely in their flesh that they
can hardly be detached by force, and by tearing away the portion of skin

NO. XVIII. 87

270 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

to which they are fastened. They deposit a prodigious number of eggs,
discharging them from the mouth, according to M. Chabrier. Their mul-
tiplication upon the ox and horse is sometimes so great that these animals
perish from exhaustion. The tarsi are terminated by two ungues inserted
upon a plate, or are united at the base upon a common peduncle. The
ancients appear to have known these animals under the name of Ricini.
They are our well-known Ticks, one species of which attaches itself to
sheep, and another to oxen. It is sometimes found embedded in the skin,
and I have seen them over a half inch in length.

CLASS IV. OF ARTICULATA. — INSECTA.

There is no department of the animal kingdom which offers a more varied
and interesting field for investigation than the Insect World; nor is there
any class of animated creatures that exhibits, in a more wonderful manner,
the wisdom, and condescension, and benevolence of the Almighty, than those
tiny beings that creep and flutter through their little life, fulfilling, for the
most part, in a few months, the mission and end for which Nature called
them into existence. The gorgeous and beautiful colors of some, the
extraordinary intelligence of others, and the remarkable structure and hab-
its of all, always excite sentiments of admiration, and often feelings of
amazement.

M. Louis Figuier furnishes the following brief but very correct descrip-
tion of the class : —

“Tf we wish to characterize insects by their exterior aspect, we might
consider them as articulate animals, whose bodies, covered with tough and
membranous integuments, are divided into three distinct parts: the head,
provided with two antennw, and eyes and mouth of very variable form; a
trunk, or thorax, composed of three seements, which has underneath it
always six articulated limbs, and often above it two or four wings; and an
abdomen composed of nine segments, although some may not appear to
exist at first sicht.

“If, in addition to these characteristics, one considers that these animals
are not provided with interior skeletons; that their nervous system is formed
of a double cord, swelling at intervals, and placed along the under side of
the body, with the exception of the first swellings, or ganglions, which are
under the head; that they are not provided with a complete circulating sys-
tem; that they breathe by particular organs, termed tracher, extending
parallel to each other along each side of the body, and communicating with
the exterior air by lateral openings termed spiracles; that their sexes are

THE INSECTA. 271
distinct ; that they are reproduced from eggs; and, in conclusion, that the
different parts we have mentioned are not complete until the creature has
passed through several successive changes, called metamorphoses, —a gen-
eral idea may be formed of what is meant in zodlogy by the word ‘in-
sect.’”

There are but few vegetable substances which do not fall under the attacks
of insects; and as those which are useful or necessary to man are not less
liable to them than the others, they often cause great damage, especially in
seasons favorable for their multiplication. ‘Their destruction depends greatly
on our knowledge of their habits, and on our own vigilance. Some are
omnivorous, such as the White Ants, Ants, &Ge., of which the ravages are
too well known. Many among these are carnivorous ; and the species which
feed upon carcasses or excrement are a benefit conferred on us by the Author
of Nature, and compensate, in some respect, for the losses and inconven-
iences which the others cause to us. Some species are employed in medi-
cine and in the arts, as well as our domestic economy. They have also
many enemies: fishes destroy a great quantity of aquatic species; many
birds, bats, lizards, &c., rid us of many of those which live upon the
ground or in the air. The majority strive to avoid the dangers which
menace their existence, by flying or running away; but there are some
which employ for this purpose particular stratagems or natural arms, and
exhibit reasoning powers of a most extraordinary character, as will appear
as we place under examination the several genera.

“ Like vegetables, the species of insects are subject to geographical limits.
Those, for example, of the New World (with the exception of a small num-
ber of the northern species) are essentially peculiar to it: it also possesses
many genera equally peculiar. The Old World, on the other hand, pos-
sesses others unknown in America. The insects of the south of Europe,
North Africa, and the west and south of Asia, have great general resem-
blance. It is the same with those of the Moluccas, and the more eastern
islands, including those of the South Sea. Many species of the north are
found in the mountainous regions of more southern climates. Those of
Africa differ greatly from those of the opposite countries of America. The
insects of Southern Asia, commencing from the Indus, or Sind, and going
to the east as far as the confines of China, have features greatly resembling
each other. The intertropical regions, covered with immense damp for-
ests, are the richest in insects; and in this respect Brazil and Guiana are
the most highly favored.

* Arrived at their last transformation, and enjoying all their faculties, they
hasten to propagate their race; and when this is performed, their existence

soon terminates. Thus, in our climate, each season of the year (winter

272 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. INSECTA.

excepted) presents to us many species which is peculiar to it. It nevertheless
appears that the females, and neuters of those which live in society, have a
longer existence. Many individuals bred in the autumn conceal them-
selyes during the rigors of winter, and reappear in the following spring.”

M. Lacordaire, in his “Jntroduction @ l’Entomologic,” makes some
interesting observations in regard to the eyes of insects.

They are of two kinds, called compound eyes, or eyes composed of many
lenses, united by their margins, and forming hexagonal fucettes; and simple
eyes, or ocelli. The exterior of the eye is called the cornea, each facette
being a cornea; but the facettes unite and form a common cornea; these
‘facettes, however, vary in size even in the same eye.

The facettes are the most numerous in the insects of the Beetle tribe,
a beetle’s eye having twenty-five thousand and eight; and least in that of
the Ant, whose eye has only fifty facettes. On the under side of each
facette we find a body of gelatinous appearance, transparent, and usually
conical, the base of which occupies the centre of the facette in such a man-
ner as to leave around it a ring to receive the pigment. This body dimin-
ishes in thickness towards its other extremity, and terminates in a point,
where it joins a nervous filament, proceeding from the optic nerve. These
cones, agreeing in number with the facettes, play the part of the crystalline,
or lens, in the eyes of animals. They are straight and parallel with each
other. A pigment fills all the spaces between the cones, between the ner-
vous filaments, and covers the under side of each cornea, except at the
centre. This pigment varies much in color. There are almost always two
layers, of which the exterior one is the more brilliant. In truth, these eyes
often sparkle with fire, like precious stones.

Of the wings of insects I shall speak when describing the typical species
of the Winged Insects, merely mentioning here one extraordinary character
of them. The buzzing and humming sounds produced by winged insects are
not, as might be supposed, vocal sounds. They result from sonorous un-
dulations imparted to the air by the flapping of their wings. This may be
rendered evident by observing that the noise always ceases when the insect
alights on any object. The sirene has been ingeniously applied for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the rate at which the wings of such creatures flap.
The instrument being brought into unison with the sound produced by the
insect, indicates, as in the case of any other musical sound, the rate of
vibration. In this way it has been ascertained that the wings of a gnat flap
at the rate of fifteen thousand times per second. The pitch of the note
produced by this insect in the act of flying is, therefore, more than two
octaves above the highest note of a seven-octaye piano-forte.

Some curious researches have been lately made on the strength of insects.

COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF INSECTS. 273
M. Felix Plateau, of Brussels, has published some observations on this
point, which we think of sufficient interest to be reproduced here.

In order to measure the muscular strength of man, or of animals, —as the
horse, for instance, — many different dynamometric apparatus have been in-
vented, composed of springs, or systems of unequal levers. The Turks’
heads which are seen at fairs, and on which the person who wishes to try
his strength gives a strong blow with the fist, represent a dynamometer of
this kind. The one which Buffon had constructed by Régnier’s Dynamom-
eter is much more precise. It consists of an oval spring, of which the two
ends approach each other; when they are pulled in opposite directions, a
needle, which works on a dial marked with figures, indicates the force exer-
cised on the spring. It has been proved, with this instrument, that the
muscular effort of a man, pulling with both hands, is about one hundred
and twenty-four pounds, and that of a woman only seventy-four pounds.
The ordinary effort of strength of a man in lifting a weight is two hundred
and ninety-two pounds; and a horse, in pulling, shows a strength of six
hundred and seventy-five pounds; a man, under the same circumstances,
exhibiting a strength of ninety pounds.

Physiologists have not as yet given their attention to the strength of in-
vertebrate animals. It is, relatively speaking, immense. Many people
have observed how out of proportion the jump of a flea is to its size. A
flea is not more than an eighth of an inch in leneth, and it jumps a yard ;
in proportion, a lion ought to jump two thirds of a mile. Pliny shows, in
his “ Natural History,” that the weights carried by ants appear exceedingly
great when they are compared with the size of these indefatigable laborers.
The strength of these insects is still more striking when one considers the
edifices they are able to construct, and the devastations they occasion. The
Termes, or White Ant, constructs habitations many yards in height, which
are so firmly and solidly built, that the buffaloes are able to mount them,
and use them as observatories; they are made of particles of wood joined
together by a gummy substance, and are able to resist even the force of a
hurricane.

There is another circumstance which is worth being noted. Man is proud
of his works; but what are they, after all, in comparison with the ant, tak-
ing the relative heights into consideration? The largest pyramid in Egypt
is only one hundred and forty-six yards high, that is, about ninety times the
average height of man, whereas the nests of the Termites are a thousand
times the height of the insects which construct them. Their habitations are
twelve times higher than the largest specimen of architecture raised by
human hands. We are, therefore, far beneath these little insects — as far
as strength and the spirit of working go.

274 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

The destructive powers of these creatures, so insignificant in appearance,
are still more surprising. During the spring of a single year, they can
effect the ruin of a house by destroying the beams and planks. The town
of La Rochelle, to which the Termites were imported by an American ship,
is menaced with being eventually suspended on catacombs, like the town
of Valencia in New Grenada. It is well known what destruction is caused
when a swarm of locusts alight in a cultivated field; and it is certain that
even their larvae do as much injury as the perfect insect. All this sufficiently
proves the destructive capabilities of these little animals, which we are ac-
customed to despise.

M. Plateau has studied the power of traction in some insects — the power
of pushing in the digging insects, and the lifting power of others during
flight. He has thus been able to make some most interesting comparisons,
of some of which we will relate the results. The average weight of man
being one hundred and forty-two pounds, and his power of traction, accord-
ing to Réenier, being one hundred and twenty-four pounds, the proportion
of the weight he can draw to the weight of his body is only as eighty-seven
to a hundred. With the horse the proportion is not more than sixty-seven
to a hundred —a horse thirteen hundred and fifty pounds in weight only
drawing about nine hundred pounds. The horse, therefore, can draw little
more than half his own weight, and a man cannot draw the weight of his
own body. This is a very poor result, if compared with the cock-chafer.
This insect, in fact, possesses a power of traction equal to more than four-
teen times its own weight. If you amuse yourself with the children’s games
of making a cock-chafer draw small cargoes of stones, you will be surprised
at the great weight which this insignificant looking animal is able to ac-
complish.

To test the power of traction in insects, M. Plateau attached them to a
weight by means of a thread fastened to one of their feet. The Coleoptera
(Beetles) are the best adapted for these experiments.

The following are some of the results obtained by the Belgian physician :
Carabus auratus can draw seven times the weight of its body; MNebria
brevicollis, twenty-five times; MWecrophorus vespillo, fifteen times; 7ri-
chius fasciatus, forty-one times; and Orystes nasicornis, four times only.
The bee can draw twenty times the weight of its body ; Donacia nymphee,
forty-two times its own weight.

From this it follows that if the horse possessed the same strength as this
last insect, or if the insect were the size of the horse, they would either of
them be able to draw one hundred and fifty-five thousand two hundred and
fifty pounds! Experiments have been made on the lifting power of insects
by fastening a ball of soft wax to a thread attached to the hind legs. The
proportion of the weight lifted has been found equal to that of the body.

ORDERS L., IL, I1.—MYRIAPODA, THYSANOURA, PARASITA. 275

The class Insecta is divided into twelve orders, as follows : —

I. Myriapoda; Il. Thysanoura; UL. Parasita; IV. Suctoria;
V. Coleoptera; VI. Orthoptera; VU. Hemiptera; VILL. Neurop-
tera; IX. Hymenoptera; X. Lepidoptera; XI. Strepsiptera; and
XIU. Diptera.

ORDER I. MYRIAPODA.

This order has twenty-four or more legs, arranged along the whole length
of the body, upon a series of rings, each of which bears one or two pairs,
and of which the first, and also the second in many species, appear to form
part of the mouth. They are apterous — that is, without wings.

The Myriapodes resemble generally small serpents, or Nereides. They
are commonly called Centipedes — hundred-footers. They are found every-
where in decayed wood, beneath stones and bark, and in moist places.
In the Linnxan System, they form the single genus Julus.

ORDER II. THYSANOURA.

The insects embraced in this order have six feet, and the abdomen fur-
nished at the sides with movable pieces, in the form of false legs, or termi-
nated by appendages fitted for leaping. They compose the two genera of
Linneus — Lepisma and Podura. They inhabit houses, under damp
boards, or beneath stones, and some dwell on trees, or beneath bark. Some
of the species, as the P. villosa, live in society in the gravel or sand, re-
sembling gunpowder ; sometimes they are seen on the snow after a thaw.

ORDER III. PARASITA.

These creatures are destiture of wings; have six legs; have no organs of
sight except ocelli; the mouth is interior, and only consists of a muzzle
enclosing a retractile sucker, or of a slit situated between two lips, with two
hooked mandibles. They compose but one genus —

Pepicutus. —The Lice. “The body is flattened, nearly transparent,
divided into eleven or twelve distinct segments, of which three, forming the
trunk, have a pair of legs attached to each. The first of these segments
often forms a kind of corselet. The spiracles are very distinct. The an-
tenn are short, of equal thickness throughout, composed of five joints,
and often inserted in an excayation. Lach side of the head exhibits one or

976 DIVISION Ill. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

two minute ocelli. The legs are short, and terminated by a very strong
nail, or by two opposing hooks, whereby these animals easily fasten them-
selves to the hairs of quadrupeds, or feathers of birds, of which they suck
the blood, and upon the body of which they pass their lives, and there mul-
tiply, attaching their eggs to those cutaneous appendages. Their generations
are numerous, and succeed each other very rapidly. Particular causes,
unknown to us, are very favorable to their production ; and this is especially
the case in respect to the common Body Louse, in the disease named _phthi-
riasis, and also in infancy. ‘They always live upon the same quadrupeds
and birds, or at least upon the animals of those classes which have analogous
characters and habits. One bird, however, often supports two kinds of
lice. They generally crawl very slowly.”

Man supports three kinds, their eggs being known under the name of
Nits. The Body Louse (2. humanus corporis, De Geer), white, without
spots, which multiplies excessively in the disevse called phthiriasis, and the
IIead Louse (P. humanus capitis, De Geer), ashy color, with darker
spots, found only on the head of man, and especially of children, form
Leach’s genus Pediculus, having the thorax quite distinct from the abdo-
men. The Pediculus pubis, Linn., or Morpeon Crabs, or Crab-lice, forms
Dr. Leach’s genus Phthirus. ;

The lice are chiefly found among filthy persons, but sometimes, by acci-
dent, afflict respectable people. They are easily destroyed by applying oil
to the head, or parts which they have attacked.

ORDER IV. SUCTORIA.

This order, like the preceding, has six legs, and is destitute of wings, and
the mouth is composed of a sucker. The animals, however, undergo meta-
morphosis, which those of the former do not, and acquire thereby locomotive
organs which they did not at first possess. The order comprises but one
genus —

Putex.—The Fleas. The body is oval, compressed, enclosed in a
tough skin. The head is small, very compressed, rounded above, truncate,
and ciliated in front. It has on each side a small, round eye, behind
which is a cavity, in which is placed a small, movable body, furnished with
minute spines. The legs are robust, particularly the posterior, fitted for
leaping. The two fore legs are inserted almost beneath the head, and the
beak is placed between them.

The female lays about a dozen white, slightly viscid eggs, whence emerge
small laryz, destitute of legs, very much elongated, resembling minute

Plate VITIf

PRIONUS DEMICORNIS

CALLICHROMA
EMPUSA

ATTACUS CECROPIA

ATTACUS LUNA

CENTRIS GROSSA

AESCHNA JUNIA RUTIDODERUS SOUARROSA

BOSTON, SAMUEL WALKER & CO.

wae

‘-

ORDER IV. SUCTORIA.—THE FLEAS. il

worms, very active, coiling themselves up in a circle or spire, serpentine in
their progress, at first white, and afterwards reddish. Their body is com-
posed of a scaly head, without eyes, bearing two very minute antenne and
thirteen segments, with small tufts of hair and a pair of little hooks at the
tip of the last. The mouth exhibits a few small, movable parts, of which
the larve make use in pushing themselves forwards. After living about
twelve days under this form, these larye enclose themselves in a small
silken cocoon, where they become pupw, and whence they make their escape
in the perfect state at the expiration of a similar period.

P. Irritans. —The Common Flea feeds on the blood of man, the dog,
and cat. Its larva lives amongst dirt, and beneath the nails of filthy persons ;
also in the nests of birds, such as pigeons, attaching itself to the necks of
the young, and gorging itself till it becomes red.

P,. Penetrans. —The Chigoe, or Jigger, forms a peculiar genus. Its
beak is of the length of the body. It inhabits the tropical regions of
America, where it is the terror of the natives. It introduces itself beneath
the nails of the feet and the skin of the heel, where it soon acquires the
size of a small pea, by the quick growth of the eggs, which it bears in a
large membranous bag beneath the abdomen, the numerous family from
which occasions, by remaining in the wound, an ulcer very difficult to heal,
which even sometimes becomes mortal. Frequent washings, and rubbing
the feet with fresh tobacco leaves, or those of other bitter plants, are pre-
ventives against its attacks. The negroes, or more commonly the negresses,
are in the habit of extracting the insect, with great skill, from its lodgment.

These singular little creatures appear to possess no small degree of intel-
ligence, and are capable, strange as it may seem, of some education. Geof-
frey. (“Litstotre abrégée des Insectes”) mentions that an Englishman
succeeded in making a gold chain the length of a finger, with padlock and
key to fasten it, not exceeding a single grain in weight. A flea attached to
the chain pulled it easily. He relates another fact still more wonderful. An
English workman constructed a carriage and six horses of ivory. The coach-
man was on the box, with a dog between his legs; there were also a
postilion, four persons in the carriage, and two servants behind, and the
whole drawn by one flea.

Baron Walchenaer, author of the “ [Zistotre Naturelle des Insectes Ap-
téres,” is responsible for the following remarkable account. In 1825, an
extraordinary exhibition amazed the people of Paris; it was no less than a
company of trained fleas. The learned baron says, “I saw and examined
them with entomological eyes, assisted by a glass.” To enable an assem-
blage of persons to witness the performance of these diminutive creatures
in a large room, the spectators were seated in front of a curtain, provided

NO. XVIII. 88

278 DIVISION Ill. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

with magnifying glasses, through which they looked, as they would at a
diorama, at landscapes, or buildings.

At this exhibition thirty jleas went through military exercises, and
stood upon their hind legs, armed with pikes, formed of very small
splinters of wood.

“Two fleas were harnessed to and drew a golden carriage, with four
wheels and a postilion. A third flea was seated on the coach-box, and held
a splinter of wood for a whip. Two other fleas drew a cannon on its ear-
riage. These and other wonders were performed on polished glass. The
flea-horses were fastened by a gold chain attached to the thighs of the hind
legs, and which was never taken off. They had lived thus two years and a
half, not one having died, and appeared to enjoy their mode of life. They
were fed by being placed on a man’s arm, which they sucked.”

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA.

This order derives its name from the character of its wings, Coleoptera
being a compound Greek word, —foleos, sheath, and pteron, wing, —
signifying sheath-wings. These insects have four wings, of which the
upper pair is crustaceous, and constitute the elytra or sheath.

“The elytra and wings arise upon the lateral and superior margins of the
hinder division of the thorax. The elytra are crustaceous, and in repose
are applied one against the other in a straight line along the inner margin,
or suture, and are always in a horizontal position. In almost every instance
they hide the wings, which are large, and folded transversely. Many spe-
cies are wingless; but the elytra are always present. The abdomen is
sessile, or united to the thorax by its greatest width: it is composed on the
outside of six or seven segments, membranous above, or of a consistence
less firm than on the under side.

“These insects, generally known under the English name of Beetles, are
the most numerous and the best known of the insect tribes. Their singular
forms, the brilliant colors exhibited by many of their species, the size of
their bodies, the more solid texture of their teguments, which renders their
preservation much more easy, and the numerous advantages to be derived
from the investigation of such a variety of forms of their external organs,
have merited for them the particular attention of naturalists.

“The head is provided with two antenne of variable form, and of which
the number of joints is generally eleven; two facetted eyes; no ocelli; and
a mouth composed of an upper lip, two mandibles, mostly of a scaly con-
sistence, two lower jaws (maxillw), each bearing one or two palpi, and a

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA. — BEETLES. 279

lower lip formed of two pieces, namely, the mentum and the tonguelet (dan-
guette), and accompanied by two palpi, generally inserted upon this latter
piece; those of the maxille, or the outer maxillary palpi (when they bear
two), have never more than four joints, whilst those of the lower lip have,
ordinarily, only three joints.

“ The anterior segment of the trunk, or that which is in front of the wings,
or elytra, and which is commonly named the corselet, and which bears the
first pair of feet, greatly surpasses in extent the two other segments,
which are compactly united together, as well as to the base of the abdomen:
their under part, or the sternum or breast, serves as a point of attachment
to the two other pairs of feet. The second of these segments, upon which
is placed the scutellum, is narrower in front, so as to form a short peduncle,
which is received into the inner cavity of the first segment, and which serves
as a pivot to assist in all its movements.

“Beetles undergo a complete metamorphosis. The larva resembles a
worm, with a scaly head and mouth, analogous in the number and functions
of its parts to that of the perfect insect, and also with six legs: some spe-
cies, however, few in number, are destitute of these appendages, or have
only simple fleshy tubercles.

“The pupa is inactive, and does not take any nourishment. The habita-
tion, mode of life, and other habits of these insects, both in their immature
and perfect states, vary very much.”

The immense multitude and variety of the genera and species, which
compose this order, compel us to select certain typical groups, exhibiting
the most prominent and remarkable characteristics and habits of the family
to represent the whole. It is estimated that there are over one hundred
thousand different species, besides many that have not yet received examina~-
tion and a name from naturalists.

The first division of this order is well represented by the genera Cvcin-
dela and Carabus.

CicinpELA. — These insects have a robust head, with great eyes, and
jaws very advanced and toothed. Some of the species are of a green color,
of various shades, with shining metallic tints, and with white spots upon
the elytra. They choose their dwelling in dry, sunny situations, run with
considerable swiftness, and when alarmed, fly off, but alight at a short
disance.

The larvz of some have very singular habits. They form a round hole in
the earth, of considerable depth, in the construction of which they employ
their feet and jaws. They detach the grains of earth, and place them on
the concave back of their head; and when their load is as large as they can
carry, they ascend backwards, resting at intervals against the inner walls

280 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

of their burrow. When they have arrived at the surface, they cast off their
burden, with a jerk, to a considerable distance. While lying in ambush for
prey, the flat plate of the head just fits the mouth of the hole, forming a
flat surface with the surface of the surrounding soil. They scize their
victim with their jaws, and even rush upon it, precipitating it to the bottom
of their burrows, with a see-saw motion of their head. They descend then
with equal quickness at the least danger. They close the orifice of their
dwelling when they change their skin, or undergo their change to the pupa
state.

Carabus. — Many of the species of this group are destitute of wings,
and have only elytra. They often emit a fetid odor, and discharge an acrid
and caustic liquid. The Carabici are very active insects, and live in the
earth, under stones, or the bark of trees. Some of them secrete a very
caustic fluid, which they discharge with an explosion. If the fluid falls
upon the skin, it produces a stain like that made by nitric acid, and some-
times a painful burn. Some species are social, and live in societies under
stones. One species (C. sycophanta) is three fourths of an inch in length,
of a velvet black, with the elytra golden-green, or brilliant copper, finely
striated, each having three lines of fine, impressed dots. Its larva lives in
the nests of the processionary caterpillars, upon which it feeds, devouring
many in the course of aday. Other larve: of its own species, smaller and
younger, attack and devour it when its voracity has overcome its activity.
They are black, and are sometimes found running on the ground, or upon
trees, especially the oak.

A second family of the Coleoptera is represented by the genera Dytiscus
and Gyrinus, and is called Hyprocantnari— the Swimmers. ‘Their feet
are formed for swimming. They pass the first and last state of their exist-
ence in fresh water. They swim well, and rise to the surface of the water,
from time to time, to respire, ascending easily by holding their feet still, and
suffering themselves to float. The body being turned upside down, they
slightly elevate the tip of the body above the surface of the water, raising
the extremity of the elytra, or bending down the abdomen, so that the air
introduces itself into the spiracles, which they cover, and thence into the
trachew. They are very voracious, and feed upon small animals, which
ordinarily reside in the water, which the Hydrocanthari only leave during
the night. They emit a very disagreeable odor. Sometimes they are at-
tracted by light into the interior of houses. Their larve have a long,
narrow body, composed of twelve segments, of which the first is the largest,
with the head strong, and armed with two powerful mandibles.

Dytiscus.— The larvew of this genus suspend themselves at the surface
of the water by means of two appendages at the sides of the tail, which

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA. — BEETLES. 281

they keep dry by raising them above the surface. When they wish to
change their place suddenly, they give their body a quick and vermicular
movement, beating the water with the tail. They especially feed upon the
larvee of dragon-flies, gnats, tipulw, aselli, Gc. When the period of their
transformation has arrived, they quit the water and bury themselves under
the earth of the adjacent banks, keeping, however, in very damp situations,
where they form an oval cavity in which they enclose themselves. Accord-
ing to Resel, the eggs of the Dytiscus marginalis hatch ten or twelve
days after being deposited: at the end of four or five more, the larva is
already four or five lines long, and moults for the first time. The second
change of skin takes place at the expiration of a similar interval, and the
animal is now as large again as it was before: when full grown it is two
inches long. In summer it has been observed to become a pupa at the end
of fifteen days, and a perfect insect in fifteen or twenty more days.

D. Marginalis. — This is a common species, an inch and a quarter long,
being of a dark-olive color, with a buff-colored margin entirely round the
thorax, and a line of the same color on the outer margin of the elytra, which
are not dilated at the sides; those of the female are furrowed from the base
about two thirds of the whole length. Fabricius says that the species when
laid upon its back gains its ordinary position by taking a leap. Esper kept
a specimen of this insect for three years and a half in good health in a large
bottle of water, feeding it every week, and sometimes oftener, with bits of
raw beef about the size of a walnut, upon which it precipitated itself and
sucked the blood entirely from it. It was able to fast for a month ata
time. It killed a specimen of Lydrophilus piceus, although as large again
as itself, by piercing it between the head and thorax, the only part of the
body without defence. According to Esper, it is sensible to the changes
of the atmosphere, which it indicates by the heights at which it keeps in the
bottle.

Gyninus. — According to Cuvier, this genus comprises those insects which
have the antennx in a mass, and shorter than the head; the two fore legs
are long, advanced liked arms, and the four others very short and depressed,
broader and oar-like. The eyes are four in number; the body is oval, and
generally very shining; the antennw, inserted in a cavity before the eyes,
have the second joint exteriorly elongated, like an ear, and the following
joints (of which seven are only distinctly visible) very short, and closely
united into a mass nearly like a spindle, and rather bent; the head is in-
serted into the thorax as far as the eyes, which are large, and divided by a
ridge on the sides, so that there appear two above and two below; the
upper lip is rounded, and very much ciliated in front; the palpi are very
small, and the inner pair of the maxillary are wanting in many species.

282 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

The thorax is short and transverse; the elytra are obtuse or truncated at
the posterior extremity; the two fore legs are slender, long, folded up,
and held nearly at right angles with the body when shut up, and terminated
by a very short, compressed tarsus, of which the under side is clothed with
fine plush in the males. The four other feet are broad, very thin, like mem-
brane, and the joints of the tarsi form small leaves.

The insects, which are called Whirlwigs, or Whirligigs, from their peculiar
motions, are, in general, of small or but moderate size. They are to be seen,
from the first fine days of spring till the end of autumn, on the surface of quiet
waters, and even upon that of the sea, often assembled in great numbers,
and appearing like brilliant points. They swim or run about with extreme
agility, curvetting in a circular or oblique, or indeed in every direction,
whence their ordinary French name of Tourniquets, or their English name
given above. Sometimes they remain stationary, without the slightest mo-
tion; but no sooner are they approached than they escape by darting under
the surface of the water, and swimming off with the greatest agility. The
four hind legs are used as oars, and the fore ones for seizing the prey. Or-
dinarily stationed upon the surface of the water, the upper side of the body
is always dry ; and when they dart down, a bubble of air, like a silvery ball,
remains attached to the hind part of the body. When seized, they discharge
a milky fluid, which spreads over the body, and probably produces the dis-
agreeable odor which they then emit, and which lasts a long time upon the
fingers. Sometimes they remain at the bottom, holding upon plants, where
also they possibly hide themselves through the winter.

In the third family are found the following interesting genera: Buprestis,
Lampyris, Ptinus, and Elater.

The Buprestide are noted for their splendid colors, some of which have
spots of gold on emerald ground, while others exhibit a variety of metallic
colors.

Lampyris. — The Lampyridw have the elytra weak and soft, like the
insects of the preceding tribe. In their perfect state, they frequent flowers.
Their larvw are carnivorous, attacking other insects or worms. It is to
this group that the Lampyris noctiluca, or Glow-worm, which one sees
shining during summer nights on grass and bushes, belongs. The Jumi-
nous properties with which these insects are endowed have for their object
to reveal their presence to the opposite sex; for the females alone pos-
sess these properties. In the same way as sounds or odors exhaling from
some insects attract the one towards the other sex, so with the Lampyris a
phosphorescent light shows the females to the males. The seat of the
phosphorescent substance varies according to the species. It exists gener-
ally under the three last rings of the abdomen, and the light is produced by

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA.—THE GLOW-WORM. 283

the slow combustion of a peculiar secretion. It has been stated that it is
evolved quickly when the animal contracts its muscles, either spontaneously
or under the influence of artificial excitement. Some chemical experiments
have been made to ascertain the nature or the composition of the humor
which produces this strange effect ; but, up to this moment, they have only
enabled us to discover that the luminous action is more powerful in oxygen,
and ceases in gases incapable of supporting combustion. In the most com-
mon species, the .Voctcluca, or Glow-worm, the phosphorescence is of a
greenish tint ; it assumes at certain moments the brightness of white-hot coal.

The females have no wings, while the males have them, and possess very
well-developed elytra. The females resemble the larva much, only they
have the head more conspicuous, and the thorax buckler-shaped, like the
male. The larve feed on small mollusks, hiding in the snail’s shell after
having devoured the inhabitant. They also possess the phosphorescent
property in a less degree than the adult females. The female pupa resem-
bles the larva; the pupa of the male, on the contrary, has the wings folded
back under a thin skin. The perfect insect appears towards the autumn.

Phe Glow-worm (ZL. noctiluca) is of a brownish-yellow. It is a common
insect. In a kindred species, the Luctola Italica, the two sexes are winged,
of a tawny-brown, and equally phosphorescent. They are met with in
great numbers in Italy, and the lawns are covered with them. Other in-
sects of this family are without the faculty of emitting light; as, for exam-
ple, the genus Lycus, of brilliant colors, which is met with in Africa and
India. One of the finest is the Z. latissimus.

Drilus is another genus, comprising insects of very singular habits. The
type is the D. flavescens. The male, —a quarter of an inch long, black
and hairy, with elytra of a testaceous yellow, and with pectinated anten-
ne, — for a long time, was alone known. ‘The female — from ten to fifteen
times as large, without wings and elytra, of a yellowish-brown — was not
discovered till much later, having apparently nothing in common with the
male in shape or color. The metamorphoses of these curious insects are
now perfectly understood. Mielzinsky, a Polish naturalist established at
Geneva, found the Drilus in the larva state in the shell of the Helix nemo-
ralis. These lary devour the snail whose dwelling they occupy, as do the
larvee of the Lampyris. Mielzinsky saw them emerge, but obtained only
females, which differed scarcely at all from the larye from which they
proceeded.

Prinus. — The Ptiniores are all curious little insects. When touched,
they counterfeit death by lowering the head, enclosing their antenne, and
contracting their feet, in which position they remain some time. Their
larv are very injurious. Many of the species inhabit the interior of our

984 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

houses, where they do much injury, in the larva state, by gnawing furniture,
books, &e., which they pierce with little round holes, like those made by a
fine drill. Their excrement forms the fine white powder observed in the
holes of worm-eaten wood. Other larve feed upon flowers, wafers, collec-
tions of birds, insects, &c. The two sexes, when calling each other during
the period of their amours, beat with their jaws upon the wood-work on
which they are stationed, for a succession of times, mutually replying to
each other. This is the cause of the noise, similar to the quickened ticking
of a watch, which is often heard, especially in old houses, and which has
received from the superstitious the name of the Death-watch. Anobi‘um
striatum, Oliv. (A. pertinax, Fabr.), is of a uniform brownish-black
color, and is very common in houses. A. pertinax, Linn., derives its spe-
cific name from the pertinacity with which it maintains its attempt at decep-
tion, preferring, according to De Geer, to suffer death under a slow fire,
rather than give the least sign of life.

Exvatrer. — The Elateridw are rather large insects, often of hard texture,
haying the prosternum prolonged into a point, and the antenne indented
saw-wise. They have the power of jumping when placed on their backs,
and of alighting again on their legs: hence their name of Elater (derived
from the same root as the word elastic). They produce, in leaping, one sharp
rap, and often knock many raps when they are prevented from projecting them-
selves. This is the mechanism which permits the Skip-jack to execute these
movements. It bends itself upwards by resting on the ground by its head and
the extremity of the abdomen, and then it unbends itself suddenly, like a
spring; the point at the end of the thorax penetrates into the hollow of the
next ring; the back then strikes with force against the plane on which it
rests, and the animal is projected into the air. It repeats this manceuvre till
it finds itself on its belly ; for its legs are too short to allow of its turning
over. Its structure supplies it with the means and the strength of rebound-
ing as many times as it falls on its back, and it can thus raise itself more
than twelve times the length of its body.

In America are found phosphorescent Elateride. These are the Py-
rophori, which the Spaniards of South America call by the name of Cucuyos.
They have at the base of their thorax two small, smooth, and brilliant spots,
which sparkle during the night; the rings of the abdomen also emit a light.
They give light sufficient to enable one to read at a little distance. The
Pyrophorus noctilucris is yery common in Havana, in Brazil, in Guiana,
in Mexico, &c., and may be seen at night in great numbers in the foliage
of trees. At the time of the Spanish conquest, a battalion, just disem-
barked, did not dare to engage with the natives, because it took the Cu-
cuyos, which were shining on the neighboring trees, for the matches of the

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA. — FIRE-FLIES. 285

arquebuses ready to fire. “In these countries,” says M. Michelet, “one
travels much by night to escape from the heat. But one would not dare to
plunge into the peopled shades of the deep forest if these insects did not
reassure the traveller. He sees them shining afar off, dancing, twisting
about ; he sees them near at hand, on the bushes by his side; he takes them
with him; he fixes them on his boots, so that they may show him his road
and put to flight the serpents ; but when the sun rises, gratefully and care-
fully he places them on a shrub, and restores them to their amorous occu-
pations. It is a beautiful Indian proverb that says, ‘Carry away the fire-fly,
but restore it from whence thou tookest it.’ ”

The Creole women make use of the Cucuyos to increase the splendor of
their toilets. Strange jewels! which must be fed, which must be bathed
twice a day, and must be incessantly taken care of, to prevent them from
dying. The Indians catch these insects by balancing hot coals in the air at
the end of a stick to attract them, which proves that the light which these
insects diffuse is to attract. Once in the hands of the women, the Cucuyos
are shut up in little cages of very fine wire, and fed on fragments of sugar-
cane. When the Mexican ladies wish to adorn themselves with these living
diamonds, they place them in little bags of light tulle, which they arrange
with taste on their skirts. There is another way of mounting the Cucuyos.
They pass a pin, without hurting them, under the thorax, and stick this pin in
their hair. The refinement of elegance consists in combining with the Cucuyos
humming-birds and real diamonds, which produce a dazzling head-dress.
Sometimes, imprisoning these animated flames in gauze, the graceful Mexican
women twist them into ardent necklaces, or else roll them round their waists,
like a fiery girdle. They go toa ball under a diadem of living topazes, of
animated emeralds, and this diadem blazes or pales according as the insect
is fresh or fatigued. When they return home, after the so¢rée, they make
them take a bath, which refreshes them, and put them back again into the
eage, which sheds, during the whole night, a soft light in the chamber. In
1766, a Cucuyo, brought alive from America to Paris, probably in some
old piece of wood which happened to be on the vessel, caused great terror
to the inhabitants of the Faubourg St. Antoine when they saw it flying in
the evening, glittering in the air. In 1864, a number of Cucuyos were
brought from Mexico to Paris by M. Laurent, captain of the frigate La
Floride. An experiment, made in the laboratory of the Ecole Normal,
showed that the spectrum of their light is continuous, without any black
rays; it differs, besides, from the spectrum of the solar light by a greater
‘intensity of the yellow color. The light is produced probably, as it is in
the case of the Lampyris, by the slow combustion of a substance secreted
by the animal. The Cucuyo can, nevertheless, at will, increase or diminish

NO. XVII. 89

286 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

the splendor of this light by means of membranes, which it superposes, like
screens, in front of the phosphorescent bumps which it has on its thorax.

In the Indies, and in China, the women use for dressing their hair, or as
ear-rings, another Coleopteron of the same tribe, which begins even to be
employed for this purpose by the women of the south of France. It is a
Buprestis, of splendid colors, and of metallic brightness.

In the fourth division of this order, we find the singular genus

Necrornorus. — These insects derive their generic name from the pecu-
liar habit they have of burying small animals. They are sometimes called
Sextons, Burying Beetles, and Undertakers. When they have discovered a
dead mouse or mole, they creep beneath it, and dig away the earth until a
grave, sufficiently large to receive the body, has been excavated, when they
place the carcass therein, after having deposited their eggs within it; their
larvee feed on the decaying body. All the species have a strong smell of
musk. Their power of scent is extraordinary ; they smell the dead nearly
as soon as killed, from an immense distance, and hasten to perform their
funeral rites.

As the fifth family presents no prominent characteristics, we pass on to
the sixth division, which contains the great and interesting groups Scara-
beus, Melolontha, and Cetonia.

Scanab.1us.— This genus is composed of species peculiar to the Old
World. They have a rounded body, depressed above, with antennx, nine-
jointed, and with a leaf-like club. They enclose their eggs in balls of
excrement, like large pills, — whence they are called Pill-makers, — which
they roll along with their hind feet until they reach the hole where they are
to be deposited. In this labor they often work in company.

S. Sacer. — This species and one other were known to and worshipped
by the ancient Egyptians, who introduced them into their hieroglyphical
writings. Their effigies are represented on all the monuments, and models
of them, executed in the most precious materials, were worn as amulets around
the neck.

MetorontiA.— The most commonly known insect of this genus is the
Cock-chafer. The French word for Cock-chafer, ZZanneton, according to
M. Mulsant, comes from the Latin Al’tonus (sonorous wings), which first
became Halleton. Linneus gave these insects first the name of Melolontha,
which they probably had among the Greeks, and which seems to be the case
from this passage in Aristophanes, in his comedy of “The Clouds :” “ Let
your spirit soar; let it fly whither it lists, like the Melolontha tied with a

thread by the leg.” We see that the habit of martyrizing Cock-chafers is. of

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA. — COCK-CHAFERS. 287

very early date. The Common Cock-chafer is one of the greatest pests to
agriculture. In its perfect state it devours the leaves of many trees, princi-
pally those of the elm ; and so children, in some countries, call the fruit of the
elm tree by the name of “ Bread of the Cock-chafer.” But the destruction
which they occasion in their perfect state is little when compared with that
which is caused by their larvee—those white grubs so dreaded by agriculturists.

Cock-chafers make their appearance in the month of April if the season
is warm. But it is in the month of May that they show themselves in great
quantities. And so they are called in Germany Maikiifer (May-chafer, or
May-bug). They are met with also in June. The duration of their life as
a perfect insect is six weeks. They fear the heat of the day, and the bright
sunshine; so, during the day, they remain hooked on to the under surface
of leaves. It is only early in the morning, and at sunset, that one sees the
Cock-chafers fluttering around the trees which they frequent. They fly with
rapidity, producing a monotonous sound by the friction of their wings.
But the Cock-chafer steers badly when it flies. It knocks itself at each
instant against obstacles it meets with. It then falls heavily to the ground,
and becomes the plaything of children, who are constantly on the lookout
for them. There is a saying, “ stupid as a May-bug.”

What contributes still more to render the flight of these insects heavy and
sustained only for a short time together, is, that they are obliged to inflate
themselves, like balloons, in order to rise into the air. It is a peculiarity
which they share with the migratory locusts. Before taking its flight, the
Cock-chafer agitates its wings for some minutes, and inflates its abdomen
with air. The French children, who perceive this manewuvre, say then that
the Cock-chafer “ compte ses cus” (is counting his money), and they sing
to it this refrain, which has been handed down for many generations : —

** Hanneton, vole, vole!
Va-t'en a l’école!”

“* May-bug, fly, fly !
To the school hie!”

During the day the Cock-chafers remain under the leaves in a state of
perfect immobility ; for the heat, which gives activity to other insects, seems,
on the contrary, to stupefy them; and it is during the night only that they
devour the leaves of elms, poplars, oaks, beeches, and birches. In years
when their number is not very great, one hardly perceives the damage done
by them; but at certain periods they appear in innumerable legions, and
then’ whole parts of gardens or woods are stripped of their verdure, and
present, in the middle of summer, the appearance of a winter landscape.
The trees thus stripped do not in general die; but they recover their former

288 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

vigor with difficulty, and, in the case of orchard trees, remain one or two
years without bearing fruit. It is principally the trees skirting woods, and
situated along cultivated fields, which are exposed to the ravages of the
Cock-chafer, because the larvw of these insects are developed in the fields.
In the interior of forests they are never met with in great numbers.

In certain years Cock-chafers multiply in such a frightful manner that they
devastate the whole vegetation of a country. M. Louis Figuier, in his
“Insect World,” says that, in the environs of Blois, fourteen thousand
Cock-chafers were picked up by children in a few days. At Fontainebleau
they could have gathered as many in a certain year in as many hours.
Sometimes they congregate in swarms, like locusts, and migrate from one
locality to another, when they lay waste everything. To present an idea
of the prodigious extent to which Cock-chafers increase under certain cir-
cumstances, we will give a few statistics. In 1574, these insects were so
abundant in England that they stopped many mills on the Severn. In
1688, in the county of Galway, in Ireland, they formed such a black cloud
that the sky was darkened for the distance of a league, and the country
people had great difficulty in making their hay in the places where they
alighted. They destroyed the whole of the vegetation in such a way that
the landscape assumed the desolate appearance of winter. Their voracious
jaws made a noise which may be compared to that produced by the sawing
of a large piece of wood; and in the evening, the buzzing of their wings
resembled the distant rolling of drums. The unfortunate Irish were reduced
to the necessity of cooking their invaders, and, for the want of any other
food, of eating them. In 1804, immense swarms of Cock-chafers, precipi-
tated by a violent wind into the Lake of Zurich, formed on the shore a thick
bank of bodies heaped, one on the other, the putrid exhalations from which
poisoned the atmosphere. On May 18, 1852, at nine o’clock in the evening,
a legion of Cock-chafers assailed a diligence on the road from Gournay to
Gisors, just as it was leaving the village of Talmontiers ; the horses, blinded
and terrified, refused to advance, and the driver was obliged to return as far
_as the village to wait till this new sort of hail-storm was over. M. Mul-
sant, in his “ Monographie des Lamellicornes de la France,” relates that, in
May, 1841, clouds of Cock-chafers traversed the Sadne, from the south-east
in the direction of the north-west, and settled in the vineyards of the Macon-
nais; the streets*of the town of Macon were so full of them that they were
shovelled up with spades. At certain hours, one could not pass over the
bridge unless he whirled a stick rapidly round and round to protect him-
self against their touch.

This is a remarkable statement, but the French imagination is very
creative.

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA. —THE ROSE BEETLE. 289

CrtTontA.—One of the most pleasing specimens of this group is the
C’. aurata, or Rose Beetle. It is nearly an inch in length, of a shining-
green color above, coppery-red beneath, with white marks on the elytra.
It frequents flowers, and has a special fondness for the rose, whence its
name. In Russia the Rose Beetle is considered a very efficacious remedy for
hydrophobia. In the governorship of Saratow, which is traversed by the
Volga, hydrophobia is very frequent on account of the heats which reign
during the whole summer in its arid steppes. The inhabitants, incessantly
exposed to be bitten by mad dogs, have tried in succession a great many
preparations to remedy the results of these terrible accidents. It appears
that the Cetonia, dried and reduced to powder, has produced on many occa-
sions good effects. This is the recipe which an inhabitant of Saratow pub-
lished in a Russian journal, adding that he had employed it for thirty years,
that not one of the patients treated by him had died, and that his remedy
could be employed with success in all the phases of the disease. In spring
they search at the bottom of the nests of the wood-ant for certain white
Jarve, which they carefully preserve in a pot, together with the earth in
which they were found, till the moment of their metamorphosis, which takes
place in the month of May. The insect, which is the common Rose Beetle,
is killed, dried, and kept in pots hermetically sealed, so that it may preserve
the strong odor which it exhales in spring, which seems to be a necessary
condition of the remedy proving efficient. When a case of hydrophobia
presents itself, they reduce to powder some of these, and spread this powder
on a piece of bread and butter, and make the patient eat it. Every part
of the insect must enter into the composition of this powder, which, for this
reason, cannot be very fine. During the whole time a patient is under treat-
ment, he must avoid drinking as much as possible, or, if his thirst is very
great, he must only drink a little pure water; but he may eat. Generally,
this remedy produces sleep, which may last for thirty-six hours, and which
must not be disturbed. When the patient wakes, he is, they say, cured.
The bite must be treated locally, with the usual surgical appliances.

As to the dose of the remedy, that depends on the age of the patient and
the development of the disease. They give to an adult, immediately after
the bite, from two to three beetles; to a child, from one to two; to a per-
son in whom the disease has already declared itself, from four to five.
Given to a person in good ‘health, the remedy, however, would be the least
dangerous. In cases in which the symptoms of hydrophobia show them-
selves some days after the employment of the remedy, they recommence the
treatment. They have also tried to prepare this remedy with insects col-
lected, not in their larva, but in the imago state, by catching them on
flowers; and it seems that these attempts have succeeded. According to

290 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED AMIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

M. Bogdanoff, in many governorships of the south of Russia, the lovers of
sporting are in the habit of making their dogs, from time to time, swallow
(as a preservative) half of a Cetonia, with bread or a little wine.

dyery one in those countries is persuaded of the efticacy of this means
for stopping the development of the disease. One ought not, perhaps, to
reject a belief so wide-spread and deeply rooted without some experiments
to guarantee us in doing so; for medicine does not yet possess any remedy
against hydrophobia. It might not, then, be useless to try this.

Two smaller species than the Rose Beetle, the C. stictiea, and the C. hir-
tella, which has yellowish hairs, live on the flowers of thistles. Western
Africa, the Cape, and Madagascar are very rich in species of Cetonix.
Among the Cetoniadw is the genus Goliathus — gigantic insects, which inhabit
Africa. Their total length sometimes attains from three to five inches.
Their colors are generally a dull white or yellow, which has nothing metallic
about it, with spots of a velvety-black; these are due to a sort of a down,
of an extreme thinness, and which very easily comes off. The head of these
enormous Coleoptera is generally cut or scooped out, and is adorned some-
times with one or two horns. Their legs, strong and robust, are armed
with spurs, and sometimes present on their exterior sharp indentations,
which give to these insects a crabbed physiognomy, which their inoffensive
habits are far from justifying. All these horns, and all these teeth, which
look so terrible, are nothing, in fact, with a great number of these insects,
but simple ornaments. They compose the picturesque uniform of the males.
It is equivalent to the bear-skin caps, the flaming helmets, and the bullion-
fringed epaulets of our soldiers. The dress of the female Goliathus is much
more modest, as is becoming to the sex.

Gestrupes. — As the name indicates, these insects make holes in the
ground, which they scoop out in fields, generally under the excrement of
beeves, which has grown dry. They fly at night with a dull, drowsy, buzz-
ing sound. The

G. Stercorarius, the Shard-borne Beetle, has been immortalized by the

great dramatic poet, who makes Macbeth exclaim, —

“Ere, to black Hecate’s summons,
The Shard-borne Beetle, with his drowsy hums,
Hath rung night’s yawning peal, there shall be done
A deed of dreadful note!”

In the section of Coleoptera named JZeteromera are found the Can-
tharidiw, or Blistering Beetles. There are several genera, possessing, in
various degrees, the same habits and yesicating qualities. They counterfeit
death when seized, and many of them at such times emit a yellowish liquid

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA.— THE SPANISH FLY. 291

from the joints of the feet, which is caustic and of a penetrating odor. The
most important group of the Cantharidia is the genus

Cantnaris. — The Cantharides of commerce (Cantharts vesicatoria)
are of a beautiful green, attain to a size of four fifths of an inch, and
are found on ash trees, lilacs, and other shrubs. Commerce, for a long
time, brought them from Spain, and some still come from that country :
hence the common name of Spanish Fly. As they live in great numbers
together, collecting them is easier and less expensive than would be that of
other species of the same family which are not gregarious, but which have
the same medicinal properties. The presence of the Cantharides is mani-
fested by the strong odor which they diffuse to some distance. When, by
aid of this smell, they are discovered, generally settled on an ash, they are
collected in the following manner: Very early in the morning, a cloth of
light tissue is stretched out at the foot of the tree, and the branches are
shaken, which causes the insects to fall. These, numbed by the cold of the
night, do not try to escape. When there is a sufficient quantity, the four
corners are drawn up, and the whole plunged into a tub of vinegar diluted
with water. This immersion causes the death of the insects. They then
carry them to a loft, or under a very airy shed. To dry them they spread
them out on hurdles covered with linen or paper; and, from time to time,
to facilitate the operation, they are moved about, either with a stick, or with
the hand, which is more convenient ; but it is then necessary to take the pre-
caution of putting on gloves; for, if touched with the naked hand, they
would cause more or less serious blisters. The same precaution must be
observed in gathering them.

When the Cantharides are quite dry, they put them into wooden boxes,
or vessels of glass or earthen ware, hermetically sealed, and preserve them
in a place protected from damp. With these precautions they may be kept,
for a long while, without losing any of their caustic properties. Dumeril
made blisters of Cantharides which had been twenty-four years in store, and
which had lost none of their energy. When dry, they are so light that a
kilogramme contains nearly thirteen thousand insects. Aretius, a phy-
sician who flourished in Rome in the first century of our era, seems to have
been the first to employ Cantharides, reduced to powder, as a means of ves-
ication. Hippocrates administered them internally in cases of dropsy,
apoplexy, and jaundice. But it is pretty nearly established that the Can-
tharides of the ancients were not the same species used at the present day.
They were probably a kindred species —the Mylablis chicortt. A_ blister-
ing principle has been extracted from these insects, called “ Cantharidine.”
This organic product presents itself under the form of little shining flakes,
without color, soluble in ether or oil. One atom of this matter applied to

292 DIVISION UI. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

the skin, and particularly to the lower lip, makes the epidermis rise instan-
taneously, and produces a small blister filled with watery liquid. In spite
of the corrosive principle which the Cantharis contains, it is attacked, like
other dried insects, by the Dermestes and the Anthrenus, which feast on
them without suffering the smallest inconvenience.

C. Vittata is a species peculiar to our own country, and quite equal to
the foreign insect in vesicating power. It inhabits the stocks and leaves of
the potato.

In the last tribe of Coleoptera is placed the genus

CoccrveLLa. — These very diminutive insects appear to inhabit all parts of
the world. They live upon trees and plants, and beneath the bark of decay-
ing trees, and under stones. They are easily known by the hemispherical form
of their bodies, the number and arrangement of the spots on the elytra,
which resemble a kind of inlaid work of black upon yellow or orange, and
also by the quickness of their motions. These little insects are not only
inoffensive, but extremely useful to man, as they destroy large numbers of
plant lice and other small animals injurious to vegetation. They are the
delight of children everywhere, by whom they are called Lady-birds. In
the United States and England, the children greet the appearance of one
with the couplet, —

“ Lady-bird! Lady-bird! fly away home!
Your house is on fire! your children cry, ‘Come!’”

In France they call it the “ Béte d bon Dieu,” i. e., “the creature of the
good God.”

ORDER VI. ORTHOPTERA.— COCKROACHES. LOCUSTS.

The name of the Order Orthoptera signifies “ straight wings,” and refers
to the manner in which the wings are folded on the back of the insect. All
orthopterous insects undergo a semi-complete transformation, the metamor-
phosis consisting merely of the increase and development of the wing-covers
and wings, which are seen in a rudimentary form in the pupa. In all other
respects the pupa and larva resemble the matured insect, eating and walking
in the same manner. They are wholly terrestrial, and mostly vegetable
eaters, although some are omnivorous.

They are divided into two families — Cursoria (?unners), and Saltatoria
(Leapers). The first section comprises three genera.

Forricuta. — The lower wings of this insect are very broad, and fold at
the same time like a fan, and doubled up. The abdomen terminates in a

ORDER VI. ORTHOPTERA. — COCKROACHES. 293

kind of pair of pincers, resembling those which the jewellers used formerly
for piercing the ears, preparatory to inserting ear-rings, whence the French
name of this creature, Perce Oreille, or Ear Piercer, and the English name
Earwig. These insects live chiefly on the petals and stamens of flowers.
They shun the light, and dwell in the cracks of trees, or under bark and
stones. The female guards her eges with much care, and watches over her
larvex, for a considerable time, with maternal solicitude.

Buarra. — These Orthoptera have a flat, broad body, the thorax very
much developed, the antenna very long, and the legs thin but strong, which
enable them to run with remarkable quickness. They diffuse around them
a sickening odor, which often hangs about objects they have touched. Aris-
tophanes, the comic Greek poet, mentions this peculiarity in his comedy of
“The Peace.” They come out mostly at night, and hide themselves during
the day. They are the most cosmopolitan of all insects. Carried over in
ships, they perpetuate everywhere, like weeds! Persian powder, com-
posed of pulverized pyrethra, is an excellent means to employ for their
destruction. A paste made of sugar of lead, flour, and molasses will also
destroy them.

The generic name Glatta is derived from the Greek word Llaptein, which
signifies to damage, and well indicates the destructive character of these
insects. These disagreeable animals devour our eatables, abounding in
kitchens, in bakers’ shops, on board merchant vessels, &c. Their flattened
bodies allow them easily to introduce themselves into the cracks of cases or
barrels ; so that, to be safe against their attacks, it is necessary, on long
voyages, to shut up the goods in zinc-lined boxes, or cases made of sheet
iron well soldered together.

Chammisso rejates that the sailors having opened some barrels, which
should have contained rice and wheat, found them filled with German
Cockroaches — Llatta Germanica. This transubstantiation was not very
agreeable to the crew! Other naturalists have seen this insect invading by
millions bottles which had contained oil. The Cockroach is very fond also
of the blacking on boots, and devours leather and all. One pupa eats the
skin cast off by another pupa; but a Cockroach has never been known to
attack another with a view to eating him afterwards.

The Aakerlaec Americana is from one inch to one inch and a quarter
long. It infests ships, running about at night over the sleeping passengers,
and devouring the food. They are to be met with in all parts of ao world.
They abound particularly in the warm parts of America.

The Blatta Orientalis is more commonly met with than the above. It
swarms in kitchens, and bakers’ shops, provision shops, &c., where it hides

NO. XVII. 90

994 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

in the cracks of the walls, or against the hinges of the doors. It is a small,
hideous animal, of a repulsive smell, and of a reddish-brown color. It is a
little larger than the Dlatta Americana.

In France it is called by various names, such as Cafard, Panetiére,
Noirot, and Béle noir. If, in the middle of the night, you suddenly enter,
with a light, into the down-stairs kitchen, you will often see these little
beasts running about on the table, and devouring the remains of the food
with astonishing rapidity.

The largest specimens of the genus of which we are now treating is the
Wakerlac insignis, which inhabits Cayenne and Brazil, and in length some-
times exceeds an inch and three quarters, and in the extent of its wings four
inches and a half.

It is principally in hot countries that the Cockroaches do the greatest
damage. In the Antilles, of which they are the pest, it is affirmed that they
can, in one single night, bore holes through trunks, through cases, and
through bags, and destroy objects which were supposed to be in perfect
safety. Sometimes the walls, the floors, the beds, the tables, everything,
in short, is infested by them; and it is impossible to find a way of presery-
ing the food from their repulsive touch.

Mantis. — These insects are inhabitants of temperate or hot climates,
and reside chiefly on plants, the leaves of which they resemble in color.
They are pretty insects, of very different habits from the preceding. They
alone of the Orthoptera are carnivorous. They eat live insects, seizing their
prey as it passes by them. They rest generally on shrubs, remaining for
hours together perfectly motionless, the better to deceive other insects which
are to become their victims. “It is this fixed, and, as it were, meditative at-
titude which has gained for them the name of JJantis, a Greek word, signi-
fying ‘diviner,’ as it was imagined that in this attitude they interrogated
the future. The manner in which they hold their long front legs, raised like
arms to heaven, has also contributed to make this superstitious notion be-
lieved, and sufficiently explains the names given to diverse species of Man-
tide, — such as Wan, Saint, Preacher, Suppliant, Mendicant, &c.
Caillaud, the traveller, tells us that, in Central Africa, a Mantis is an
object of worship.”

According to Sparmann, another species is worshipped by the Hotten-
tots. If by chance a Mantis should settle on a person, this person is con-
sidered by them to have received a particular favor from Heaven, and from
that moment takes rank among the saints !

In France the country people believe that these insects point out the way
to travellers. Mouffet, a naturalist of the seventeenth century, says on this
subject, in a description of the Mantis, —

ORDER VI. ORTHOPTERA.—SPECTRES, CRICKETS. 295

“This little creature is considered of so divine a nature, that to a child
who asks it its way, it points it out by stretching out one of its legs, and
rarely or never makes a mistake.”

In the eyes of the Languedoe peasants the Mantis religiosa is almost
sacred. They call it Prega Diow (Prie Diew), and believe firmly that it
_performs its devotions — its attitude, when it is on the watch for its prey, re-
sembling that of prayer. Settled on the ground, it raises its head and
thorax, clasps together the joints of its front legs, and remains thus motion-
less for hours together. But only let an imprudent fly come within reach
of our devotee, and you will see it stealthily approach it, like a cat who is
watching a mouse, and with so much precaution that you can scarcely see
that it is moving. Then, all of a sudden, as quick as lightning, it seizes its
victim between its legs, provided with sharp spines, which cross each other,
conyeys it to its mouth, and devours it. Our make-believe Nun, Preacher,
our Prega Diou, is nothing better than a patient watcher and pitiless de-
stroyer.

Allied to the above is the subgenus Phasma— the Spectres.
a very curious, filiform body, resembling a stick.

They have
Some species are a foot
in length, and, notwithstanding their remarkable and monstrous shapes, are
very harmless creatures. They love to repose in the sun, with their lone
stick-like legs stretched out in front. From their extraordinary appearance
they are called “ Devil’s Horses,” “ Phantoms,” and “ Walking-sticks.”

The second family of Orthoptera comprises the Sultatoria, or Leapers
—the Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Locusts.

All these insects resemble each other in the disproportion which exists be-
tween their hind legs and the other pairs. Another characteristic which is
common to them consists in the song of the males. This song, so well known,
which seems to have for its object to call the females, is nothing but a sort
of stridulation, or screeching, produced by the rubbing together of the wing
cases, or elytra. But the mechanism by which this is produced varies a
little in all the three kinds. With the Crickets, the whole surface of the
wing cases is covered with thick nervures, very prominent and very hard,
which cause the noise the insect produces in rubbing the elytra one against
the other. With the Locusts, there exists only at the base of the elytra a
transparent membrane, called the mzrror, which is furnished with prominent
And, lastly, in the Crickets,
The thighs, be-

nervures, and produces the screeching noise.

the thighs and elytra are provided with very hard ridges.

ing passed rapidly and with force over the nervures of the elytra, produce
the sound in the same way as a fiddle-bow when drawn across a violin.

With all these insects the male alone is endowed with the faculty of pro-
ducing sound.

296 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

The Crickets and Grasshoppers have very long, thin antenns, whilst the
Locusts have short antennw, and either flattened or filiform, or swelling out
at one extremity, like a club. The female of the first two is provided with
an ovipositor in the shape of an auger.

In the Linnwan system these insects composed the single genus

Grytius. —Although later systemists have separated them into several
genera, yet, as the nomenclature of the Swedish naturalist, for the most
part, still prevails, I shall consider them according to his arrangement.

G. Campestris. —The Field Cricket. This insect loves dry and hot
situations, where it constructs its dwelling, in which it lies in wait for its
prey. It leaves this retreat only at night. It is very timid, and at the
least noise ceases its song. If it is stationed on the side of its hole, it re-
treats into it the moment any one approaches.

The holes of these crickets are well known to country children, who take
these insects by presenting a straw to them. The pugnacious cricket seizes
it directly with its mandibles, and lets itself be drawn out of its hole. It
is this which has given rise to the saying, “A greater fool than a cricket.”
It is very susceptible of cold, and always makes the opening of its hole
towards the south. It lives on insects and herbs.

G. Domesticus. —The House Cricket. This species is about half an
inch long, of an ashy color, and is to be met with principally in bakers’
shops and country kitchens, where it hides itself, during the day, in the
crevices of the walls, or at the back of the fireplaces. It eats flour, and
also, perhaps, the little insects which live in flour.

“The habits of the Ilouse Cricket are nocturnal, like those of its congener
of the fields. It is only at night that it leaves its retreat to seek its food.
When it is exposed against its will to the light of day, it appears to be in
a state of torpor. This insect reminds one of the, owl, among birds, not
only from its habit of avoiding the light, but also from its monotonous sone,
which the vulgar consider— one does not know why —a foreboding of ill-luck
to the house in which it is heard. Formerly this singular prejudice was
much deeper rooted than it is at present. The song of the cricket has merely
the object of calling the female.”

G. Sulvestris. —Cricket of the Woods. This insect is much smaller
than the above, and is met with in great numbers in the woods, where its
leaps sometimes produce the noise of drops of rain.

G. Vulgaris. —The Mole Cricket. This species is an inch and a half
long, and of a brown color. These crickets are distinguished from all other
insects by the structure of their fore legs, which are wide and indented in
such a manner as to resemble a hand, analogous to that of the mole. This
hand betrays its habits much better than our hands betray ours. One need

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ORDER VI. ORTHOPTERA.—MOLE CRICKET.

not be much of a fortune-teller to read on it its digging habits. They make
use of their hands, indeed, as spades, with which they hollow out subter-
ranean galleries, and accumulate at the side of the entrance-hole the rubbish
Their French name comes from the old French word courtille,
It reminds one that these are the favorite haunts of

thus drawn,
which means garden.
these destructive insects.

If the Mole Crickets have spades to their front legs, their hind legs are
very little developed, so that it would be perfectly impossible for them to
jump, particularly as their large abdomen would hinder their so doing. The
wings are broad, and fold back in the form of a fan ; they make little use
of them, and it is only at nightfall that the Mole Cricket is seen to disport
himself, describing curves of no great height in the air. It is found princi-
pally in cultivated land, kitchen gardens, nursery gardens, wheat fields, &e.,
where it scoops out for itself an oval cavity communicating with the surface
by a vertical hole. On this hole abut numerous horizontal galleries, more
or less inclined, which permit the insect to gain its retreat by a great many
roads when pursued.

It is easy to understand that an insect which undermines land in this way
must cause great damage to cultivation. Whether the crops serve it for
food or not, they are not the less destroyed by its underground burrowings.
Lands infested by the Mole Cricket are recognizable by the color of the
vegetation, which is yellow and withered; and the rubbish which these
miners heap up at the side of the openings leading to their galleries, resem-

To

destroy them, they pour water or other liquids into their nests, or else they

bling mole-hills in miniature, betrays their presence to the farmer.

bury, at different distances, vessels filled with water, in which they drown
themselves.
entrance of their burrows, and make their cry of appeal.

From the month of April the males betake themselves to the
Their notes are
slow, vibrating, and monotonous, and repeated, for a long time, without
interruption, and somewhat resembling the cry of the owl or the goat-
sucker.

G. Viridissima. — The Great Green Grasshopper.
inches in length, entirely green, and without spots.

G. Locusta. —The Locusts. The Locustide are an exceedingly numer-
ous family, and have been arranged by naturalists in numerous genera.
Several varieties are peculiar to this country; one of the most remarkable
is the “ Seventeen-Year Locust,” so called from the circumstance that they
They sometimes fill the air, like clouds,

This insect is two

appear once in seventeen years.
They emerge from the ground
They begin to

and devour every green thing in their way.
near the first of May, in the night, and in the pupa state.
lay eggs about the first of June, on the twigs of trees; and as soon as the

298 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

young attain their growth in the grub state, they fall to the ground, and
make their way two or three feet under the surface, to undergo their change
into the pupa form. As soon as they undergo their last metamorphosis,
they make their appearance, and commence their destructive career.

Many of the grasshopper tribe, especially of the musical kinds, are erro-
neously designated, by the common people, by the name of Locust. These
musical insects are usually of a green color and nocturnal habits. They
conceal themselves, during the day, in the grass, or foliage of trees; but at
night they quit their hiding-places, and the exhilarated male makes the air
resound with the song of love, by which he seeks to charm his silent partner.
One of the best known of the insects is the “ Karypip” (Locusta concava,
Say). Its large, oblong-oval, concave wing-cases enwrap the abdomen,
and meet at their edges, above and below, very like the two sides of a pea-
pod. Perched on the topmost twig of a tree, the insect begins its nocturnal
call by separating, closing, and reopening his wing-cases. The friction of
the tabouret frames upon each other thrice produces three distinct notes,
which is the usual number, although sometimes only two are given. The
mechanism of these organs reverberates and increases the sound to such a
degree, that it may be heard, in the stillness of the night, a quarter of a
mile. At intervals of three or four minutes, the joyous insect repeats his
sonorous chant, while rival songsters echo the notes, and the woods resound
with the ery of “ Wuty did! Haty did't!” through the entire night.

The most destructive variety is the Migratory Locust, which is very
common in Africa, India, and throughout the whole of the East. This
insect is greenish, with transparent elytra of dirty gray, whitish wings, and
pink legs. A second variety (the Italian Locust) also does a great deal of
damage in the South. All these locusts undergo five moults, which take
six weeks each; the last takes place at the end of the hot weather, towards
the autumn.

It is especially in warm climates that they become such fearful pests to
agriculture. Wherever they alight, they change the most fertile country
into an arid desert. They are seen coming in innumerable bands, which
from afar have the appearance of stormy clouds, even hiding the sun.

As far and as wide as the eye can reach, the sky is black, and the soil is
inundated with them. The noise of these millions of wings may be com-
pared to the sound of a cataract. When this fearful army alights upon the
trees, the branches break, and in the course of a few hours, and over an
extent of many leagues, all vegetation has disappeared ; the wheat is gnawed
to its very roots ; the trees are stripped of their leaves ; everything has been
destroyed, gnawed down, and devoured. When nothing more is left, the
terrible host rises, as if in obedience to some given signal, and takes its de-

ORDER VI. ORTHOPTERA. — LOCUSTS. 299

parture, leaving behind it despair and famine. It goes to look for fresh food —
seeking whom, or rather, in this case, what, it may devour! During the
year succeeding that in which a country has been devastated by showers of
locusts, damage from these insects is the less to be feared; for it happens
often that, after having ravaged everything, they die of hunger before the
laying season begins. ;

But their death becomes the cause of a greater evil. Their innumerable
carcasses, lying in heaps and heated by the sun, are not long in entering
into a state of putrefaction; epidemic diseases, caused by the poisonous
gases emanating from them, soon break out and decimate the population.
These locusts are bred in the deserts of Arabia and Tartary, and the east
winds carry them into Africa and Europe. Ships in the eastern parts of
the Mediterranean are sometimes covered with them at a great distance from
the land. “Pliny relates that, in many places in Greece, a law obliged the
inhabitants to wage war against the locusts three times a year; that is to
say, in their three states of egg, larva, and adult. In the Isle of Lemnos
the citizens had to pay as taxes so many measures of locusts. In the year
170 before our era, they devastated the environs of Capua. In the year of
our Lord 181, they committed great ravages in the north of Italy and in
Gaul.

“Tn 1690 locusts arrived in Poland and Lithuania by three different ways,
and, as it were, in three different bodies. ‘They were to be found in cer-
tain places where they had died,’ writes the Abbé Ussares, an eye-witness,
lying on one another in heaps of four feet in height. Those which were
alive perched upon the trees, bending their branches to the ground, so great
was their number. The people thought that they had Hebrew letters on
their wings. A rabbi professed to be able to read on them words which sig-
nified God’s wrath. The rains killed these insects; they infected the air ;
and the cattle, which ate them in the grass, died immediately.’

“In 1709 locusts stopped the army of Charles XII., King of Sweden,
as it was retreating from Bessarabia, on its defeat at Pultowa. The king
thought that he was assailed by a hail-storm when a host of these insects
beat violently against his army, as it was passing through a defile, so that
men and horses were blinded by this living hail, falling from a cloud which
hid the sun. The arrival of the locusts had been announced by a whistling
sound like that which precedes a tempest ; and the noise of their flight quite
overpowered the noise made by the Black Sea. All the country round about
was soon laid waste on their route. During the same year a great part of
Europe was invaded by these pests, the newspapers of the day being full
of accounts relating to this public calamity. In 1755 Portugal was attacked
by them. ‘This was the year of the earthquake of Lisbon, and all sorts of
plagues seemed at this time to rage furiously in that unfortunate country.”

300 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

ORDER VII. HEMIPTERA.

The Hemiptera are furnished with a mouth fitted only for sucking.» The
delicate threads, of which the sucker is formed, enable them to pierce the
vessels of plants and animals; and the nutritive fluid extracted is drawn
up the main canal into the esophagus. Most of these insects have coria-
ceous or crustaceous wing-covers, with the posterior extremity membranous,
or semi-membranous. They undergo no transformation except in the de-
velopment of wings and an increase of the size of the body.

The name of the order, Z/emzptera, signifies half wings, and refers to,
the peculiar structure of those organs. The family is divided into two secs
tions —the J/eteroptera (different wings), and the Z/omoptera (similar
wings). The insects of the first section have the wings and wing-covers
always horizontal, or slightly inclined, and compose the two divisions Greo-
corise (Land Bugs), and //ydrocorise (Water Bugs).

The first division, Land Bugs, compose the three genera — Cimex, [?edu-
vius, and FHydrometra.

Crmex. — Some of the species have the sheath of the sucker composed of
four distinct and exposed joints, and the upper lip prolonged beyond the
head, like an awl. They suck other insects, and emit a very disagreeable
odor.

C. Ornatus, known as the Red-Cabbage Bug, is very commonly found
on the cabbage and most of the cruciferous plants. It is variegated with
red and black, and its colors are subject to numerous variations.

C. Griseus (Raphigoster griseus) is common throughout all the tem-
perate regions of the world. In autumn, these bugs are frequently to be
found on raspberries, to which they impart their disagreeable smell. They
are also to be found in quantities on the mullein when that plant is in
flower. The upper parts of the head are of a grayish-brown, sometimes
slightly purple. The coriaceous part of the hemelytra is of a purple tint,
but the membranous part is brown. All these parts are covered with black
spots, which are only to be seen with a magnifying glass. The wings are
blackish. The under part of the whole body and the feet are of a light and
rather yellowish-gray, with a considerable number of small, black spots.
The abdomen is black above, and it is bordered with alternate black and
white spots.

C. Lectularius. — The Bed-bug. This extremely offensive insect abounds
in dirty houses, principally in towns, and, above all, those in warm coun-
tries. It lives in beds, in wood-work, and paper-hangings. There is no
crack, however narrow it may be, into which it is unable to slip. It is

ORDER VII. HEMIPTERA.—BED-BUGS. 301

nocturnal, shunning the light. “ Wocturnum fwtidum animal,” says Lin-
nus. Its body is oval, about the fifth of an inch in length, flat, soft, of
a brown color, and covered with little hairs. Its head is provided with two
hairy antenne, and two round black eyes, and has a short beak, curved
directly under its thorax, and lying in a shallow groove when the animal is
at rest. This beak, composed of three joints, contains four thin, straight,
and sharp hairs. The thorax is dilated at the sides. The abdomen is very
much developed, orbicular, composed of eight segments, very much de-
pressed, and easily crushed by the fingers. The hemelytra are rudimentary.
It has no membranous wings. ‘The tarsi have three articulations, of which
the last is provided with two strong hooks.

“These animals,” says Moquin Tandon, in his “ Zodlogie Medicale,”
“do not draw up the sanguineous fluid by suction, properly so called, as
leeches do. The organization of their buccal apparatus does not allow of
this. The hairs of the beak, applied the one against the other, exercise a
sort of alternate motion, which draws the blood up into the esophagus, very
much in the same manner as water rises ina chain pump. This rising is
assisted by the viscous nature of the fluid, and, above all, by the globules
it contains.” The part of the skin which the bug has pierced, producing a
painful sensation, is easily recognized by a little reddish mark, presenting
in its centre a dark spot. Generally a little blister rises on the point
pierced ; and sometimes, if the bug bites are numerous, these blisters be-
come confluent, and resemble a sort of eruption. These disgusting insects
lay, towards the month of May, oblong, whitish eggs, having a small aper-
ture, through which the larva comes out. The larva differs from the insect
in its perfect state, in its color, which is pale or yellowish, and in having no
hemelytra or wings. This insect exists in nearly all countries, although it
is rare or almost unknown in the coldest regions. In the United States
it is a universal pest. The towns of Central Europe are the most infested
by this parasite, but those of the north are not completely free from its
presence. The Marquis de Custine assures us that, at St. Petersburg, he
found them numerous. It is found also in Scotland; is very rare in the
south of Europe, and seldom seen in Italy, where it is, however, replaced
by other insects, more dangerous or more annoying.

It has been said that this bug was introduced into Europe from America ;
but Aristotle, Pliny, and Dioscorides mention its existence. It is certain,
however, that it was unknown in England till the beginning of the sixteenth
century. The celebrated Spanish naturalist, Azara, has remarked that the
bug does not infest man in his savage state, but only when congregated to-
gether in a state of civilization, and in houses, as in Europe and America,
From this he concluded that the bug was not created till long after man,

NO. XIX. Su

302 - DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

when, after many centuries had elapsed since his appearance on the globe,
men formed themselves into societies, into republics, or little states.

The bug is not a gluttonous insect, always bloodthirsty ; on the contrary,
its sobriety is remarkable. It is only after a prolonged fast that it bites
animals; and Andouin has stated that it can live a year, and even two
years, without food.

RKepuvius. — This genus has the proboscis short, very acute, and capable
of pinching strongly. Some of the species produce a noise similar to that
made by the Capricorn Beetle.

I. Personatus. —This insect inhabits the interior of houses, where it
lives upon flies and other insects.

“This bug,” says Charles de Geer, “has, in the pupal condition, or
before its wings are developed, an appearance altogether hideous and revolt-
ing. One would take it, at the first glance, for one of the ugliest spiders.
That which above all renders it so disagreeable to the sight is, that it is
entirely covered, and, as it were, enveloped with a grayish matter, which
is nothing else but the dust which one sees in the ecrners of badly-swept
rooms, and which is generally mixed with sand and particles of wood, or
suk, or other similar matters which come from furniture and clothes, render-
ing the legs of this insect thick and deformed, and giving to its whole body
a very singular appearance.

“What instincts! what habits! Under this borrowed costume, under
this cloak, which is no part of itself, the insect, as it were masked, has
become twice its real size. What becomes of its disguise? and how does
it manage to walk? Of what use to it is this dirty and grotesque fancy
dress ?

“Tt walks as fast, when it likes, as other bugs; but generally its walk is
slow, and it moves with measured steps. After having taken one step for-
ward, it stops for a while, and then takes another, leaving, at each move-
ment, the opposite leg in repose: it goes on thus continually, step after step
in succession, which gives it the appearance of walking as if by jerks, and
in measure. It makes almost the same sort of movement with its antenne,
which it moves also at intervals and by jerks. All these movements haye
a more singular appearance than it is possible for us to describe.”

By means of this disguise, it can approach little animals, which become
its prey, such as fleas, spiders, and bed-bugs.

To see what a curious appearance the Reduvius presents, one should take
off its borrowed costume. Then it will be seen to be an entirely different
animal, and one which has nothing repulsive about it. With the exception
of the hemelytra and wings, which it has not yet got, all its parts have the
form which they are to have later, after the wings are developed.

ORDER VII. HEMIPTERA. — CICADAS. 303

Hyprometra (from huddr, water, and metre’n, to measure). — These
insects have linear bodies; the head, which forms nearly a third of the
entire length, is furnished with two long antennw, and armed with a thin,
hair-like beak. The legs are long, and of equal length.

II. Stagnorum. — The body and legs of this species are of a ferruginous
color, the hemelytra a dull brown, and the wings hyaline, or glassy, and
slightly blackish. Geoffrey says that it resembles a long needle, and calls
it the Needle Bug. The reader may have often seen the Stagnorwm walk-
ing by jerks on the surface of the water in a manner not unlike the move-
ments of skaters.

The second family of the //eteroptera is composed of the Water Bugs.
These insects have the antennz inserted beneath the eyes, by which they are
concealed, being shorter than the head. They are all aquatic and carnivo-
rous, seizing other insects with their fore legs. Their proboscis is sharp,
and is a powerful weapon; their eyes are of remarkable size. They com-
pose the two genera— Nepa (Water Scorpions), and WVotonecta (DBoat-
men).

The second section of the Hemiptera (Homorrera) differs considerably
from the foregoing. The proboscis arises from between the two fore feet.
The wing-covers are roof-like, semi-membranous, and throughout of the
same consistence. All the insects of this section feed entirely on the fluid
of vegetables. They are divided into three families — Cicadariv, Aphidii,
and G'allinsecta.

Crcapa. — The animals comprised in this group have transparent wine-
covers, and veined. The species are numerous, especially in the warmer
regions of the globe, where the males fill the air with their noisy music.
Some are adorned with brilliant hues, while others are destitute of color.
Their song is monotonous and disagreeable, and yet the ancient Greeks
revered the insect as the most mellifluous of singers, and poets and _philos-
ophers united in celebrating its musical qualities. It was with them a
symbol of nobility, and Cicadas of gold ornamented the hair of those who
laid claim to high birth.

The musical apparatus of the Cicada is somewhat remarkable, and we
are indebted to a French naturalist (Réaumur) for the discovery of its
exact mechanism. He shows us that it is not in the throat that the Cicada’s
organ of sound is placed, but on the abdomen. “On examining the abdo-
men of the male of a large species of Cicada one remarks on it two horny
plates, of pretty good size, which are not found on the females; each plate
has one side straight; the rest of its outline is rounded. It is by tie side
which is rectilinear that the plate is fixed immediately underneath the third
pair of legs. It can be slightly raised with an effort by two spine-like

304 DIVISION III]. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

processes, each of which presses upon one of the plates, and, when it is
raised, prevents it from being elevated too much, and causes it to fall back
again immediately.

“If the two plates are removed and turned over on the thorax, and ‘the
parts which they hide laid bare, one is struck by the appearance which is
presented — one cannot doubt that all one sees has been made to enable the
Cicada to sing. When one compares the parts which have been arranged
so that it may be able to sing, as we may say, from its belly, with the organs
of our throats, one finds that ours have not been made with more care than
those by means of which the Cicada gives forth sounds which are not always
agreeable.

“We here perceive a cavity in the anterior portion of the abdomen, and
which is divided into two principal cells by a horny triangle. The bottom
of each cell offers to children, who catch the Cicada, a spectacle which
amuses them, and which may be admired by men who know how to make
the best use of their reason. The children think they see a little mirror of
the thinnest and most transparent glass, or that a little blade of the most
beautiful tale is set in the bottom of each of these little cells. That which
one might see, if this were the case, would in no way differ from what one
actually sees; the membrane, which is stretched out. at the bottom of the
cells, does not yield in transparency either to glass or to tale ; and if one looks
at it obliquely, one sees in it all the beautiful colors of the rainbow. It
seems as if the Cicada has two glazed windows through which we can see into
the interior of its body.”

The Cicadas remain on trees, whose sap they suck by means of their
sharp-pointed beaks. It is difficult enough to catch them, for, owing to
their large, highly-developed wings, they fly rapidly away on the slightest
noise.

They inhabit the south of Europe; the whole of Africa, from north to
south; America, in the same latitudes as Europe; the whole of the centre
and south of Asia, New Holland, and the islands of Oceanica. The Cicada,
which in hot climates always exposes itself to the ardor of the most scorch-
ing sun, is not found in temperate or cold regions. The consequence is,
that the southern nations know it very well, whilst in the north the large,
green grasshopper, which is so common in those regions, and whose song
closely resembles that of the Cicada, is commonly taken for it.

Another remarkable group of the Cicadariaw is the genus

Funcora. — There are several species, some of which, especially in South
America, are very large. They have very large, elongated heads, which
nearly equals three quarters of the rest of the body. This prolongation is
horizontal, vesiculous, enlarged to about the same breadth as the head, and

ORDER VII. HEMIPTERA.— PLANT LICE. 305

presents above a very great gibbosity. The antenne are short, with a
globular second articulation, and a small terminal hair.

#’, Lanternaria. — The Lantern Fly is yellow, varied with black. The
elytra are of a greenish-yellow, sprinkled with black; the wings, of the
same color, have at the extremity a large spot, resembling an eye, which is
surrounded by a brown circle very broad in front. It inhabits Guiana.
This remarkable insect enjoys a great renown on account of its luminous
properties. Madame De Merian thus speaks of this peculiar character : —

“Some Indians having one day brought me a great number of the Lan-
tern Flies, I shut them up in a large box, not knowing, then, that they gave
light in the night. Hearing a noise, I sprang out of bed, and had a candle
brought. I very soon discovered that the noise proceeded from the box,
which I hurriedly opened ; but, alarmed at seeing emerging from it a flame,
or, to speak more correctly, as many flames as there were insects, I at first
Jet it fall. Waving recovered from my astonishment, or rather from my
fright, I caught all my insects again, and admired this singular property of
theirs.”

The second family of the Homopterous Hemiptera, the ApAi‘dii, contains
some singular groups, one of the most extraordinary of which is the genus

Apuis. —The Plant Lice. These insects are small, and have the wing-
covers and wings oval or triangular, the antennw longer than the thorax,
and the posterior portion of the abdomen furnished with two horns. They
live chiefly in society, upon trees and plants, which they suck with their pro-
boscis. They are not organized for leaping, and crawl but slowly. They
multiply with astonishing fecundity, and often are very injurious to vegeta-
tion, covering the leaves of the rose, oak, apple, and other trees and plants
by millions. The two horns at the extremity of the body, in several of the
species, are tubes, from which they have the power of ejecting, at will, small
drops of a transparent, honey-like fluid, of which the ants are very fond,
and which they appear voluntarily to yield to them, whence they are some-
times called the “ Ants’ Cows.” M. Huber describes the manner in which
these insects are mé/ked, so to speak, by the ants : —

“Tt had been already noticed,” says this celebrated observer, “that the
ants waited for the moment at which the Plant Lice caused to come out of
their abdomen this precious manna, which they immediately seized. But I
discovered that this was the least of their talents, and that they also knew
how to manage to be served with this liquid at will. This is their secret —
a branch of a thistle was covered with Brown Ants and Plant Lice. I ob-
served the latter for some time, so as to discover, if possible, the moment
when they caused this secretion to issue from their bodies; but I remarked
that it very rarely came out of its own accord, and that the Plant Lice,

306 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. —CLASS IV. INSECTA.

which were at some distance from the ants, squirted it out with a movement
resembling a kick.

“How did it happen, then, that the ants wandering about on the thistle
were nearly all remarkable for the size of their abdomens, and were evi-
dently full of some liquid? This I discovered by narrowly watching one
ant, whose proceeding I am going to describe minutely. I saw it at first
passing, without stopping, over some Plant Lice, which did not seem in the
least disturbed by its walking over them; but it soon stopped close to one
of the smallest, which it seemed to coax with its antennw, touching the
extremity of its abdomen very rapidly, first with one of its antennx, and
then with the other. I saw with surprise the liquid come out of the body
of the Plant Louse, and the ant forthwith seize upon the droplet, and con-
vey it to its mouth. It then brought its antennw to bear upon another
Plant Louse much larger than the first: this one, caressed in the same man-
ner, yielded the nourishing fluid from its body in a much larger dose. The
ant advanced and took possession of it. It then passed to a third, which it
cajoled as it had the preceding ones, giving it many little strokes with its
antennx near the hinder extremity of the body; the liquid came out imme-
diately, and the ant picked it up. A small number of these repasts are
sufficient to satisfy the ant’s appetite.

“Tt does not appear that it is out of importunity that these insects obtain
their nourishment from the Plant Louse.

“The neighborhood of ants is agreeable to Plant Lice ; since those which
could get out of the way of their visits, viz., the Winged Plant Lice, prefer
to remain amongst them, and to lavish upon them the superabundance of
their nourishment.”

The third family of the Homopterous Hemiptera (Gallinsecta) is com-
posed of the genus

Cocus. — Seale Insects. The males are destitute of a proboscis, and
have only two wings, which shut horizontally upon the body. The females
are without wings, but are furnished with a proboscis. Many of the spe-
cies are very injurious to trees, puncturing the bark, and causing a too
abundant overflowing of the sap, which occasions those warty appearances
which are often seen on many kinds of trees. Several of the species are
valuable in a commercial point of view. An East Indian species produces
the gum @ac, and another is employed in China for the manufacture of wax
tapers.

C. Ilicts lives on a small oak in the south of Europe, and was formerly
used as a dye; it is still employed in medicine.

C’. Polonicus, found in Poland, lives upon the roots of the scleranthus
perennis, and was also once valued for its coloring qualities.

ORDER VII. HEMIPTERA. — COCHINEAL. 307

C. Cacti. — This species exceeds all others in importance, inasmuch as
it furnishes the cochineal of commerce, and constitutes one of the chief
riches of Mexico. The female is of a dark-brown color, covered with a
white down. ‘The male is of a dark-red, with white wings.

These insects are rather remarkable, in that the male and female are so
unlike, that one would take them for animals of different genera.

The male presents an elongated, depressed body, of a dark-brown red.
Its head, small, furnished with two long, feathery antennw, has only a rudi-
mentary beak. The abdomen is terminated by two fine hairs, longer than its
body. The wings, perfectly transparent, reach beyond the extremity of its
abdomen, and cross each other horizontally over its back. It is lively and
active. The female presents quite a different appearance. It is, in the first
place, twice as large as the male, convex aboye, flat below. The larvae are
born in the dried-up body of their dead mother, the skeleton of the mother
serving as a cradle. The eggs are attached to the lower part of the moth-
er’s body.

“When the abdomen of the mother is empty, its lower side draws up
towards the upper side, and the two together form a pretty large cavity.
When the mother dies, which is not long in happening, her abdomen dries
up, her skin becomes horny, and forms a sort of shell. It is in this mem-
branous cradle that the larva of the cochineal insect are born. The cochi-
neal insect in its wild state lives in the woods. But it can, without difficulty,
be reared artificially.

** Every one knows that the little insect, called the cochineal, furnishes,
when its body has been dried and reduced to powder, a coloring matter of
a beautiful red, peculiar to itself. This circumstance has saved the cochineal
from the persecution to which so many other kinds of insects have been devoted
by the hand of man. In hot climates, in which the cochineal insect de-
lights, it has been preserved, and is cultivated as an article of commerce.
This is how the cochineal is reared in Mexico: An open piece of land is
chosen, protected against the west wind, and of about one or two acres in
extent. This is surrounded with a hedge of reeds, planted in lines, distant
from each other about a yard, with cuttings of cactus at most about two
feet apart. The cactus garden made, the next thing is to establish in it
cochineals. With this object in view they are sought in the woods, or else
the females of the cochineal insect, which are gravid, are taken off plants
which have been sheltered during the winter, and placed in dozens in nests
made of cocoa-nut fibres, or in little plaited baskets made of the leaves of
the dwarf palm, and hung on the prickles of the cactus. These are very
soon covered with young larvw. The only thing now required to be done
is to shelter them from wind and rain. |

308 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

“The larva are changed into perfect insects, which take up their abode
permanently on the branches of the cacti. The Mexicans gather them as
soon as they have reached the perfect state. The harvest cannot be difficult,
considering the immobility of these little creatures. When collected, the
cochineals are killed, packed in wooden boxes, and sent to Europe, to be
used in dyeing.”

ORDER VIII. NEUROPTERA.

The fore wings of the Neureptera are membranous, naked, transparent,
and furnished with a very fine network of lines like nerves, whence the name
of the order, Neuroptera — nerve-wings. The mouth is fitted for biting,
the mandibles and maxille being corneous and very strong.

These insects constitute the genera Libellula (the Dragon-flies), the
Ephemera, Panorpa, Myrmeleon, Hemerobius, Termes, and Phryganea,
which again are divided into many subgenera and numerous species, as

LipeLLuLa. — These insects are well known under the name of Dragon-
flies. They are distinguished by their large, gauze-like wings, which enable
them to fly with great swiftness in the pursuit of their prey; their varied
and often brilliant colors; their slender body; large, rounded head, and
great eyes.

L. Depressa. — The typical species, LZ. cancellata, are distinguished by
the fine leaden-blue color of the abdomen.

L. Grandis is two and a half inches in length, is swift of flight, and
skims near the surface of the water, and through the air, in the manner of
swallows.

L. Virgo is of a golden-green color, with wings of blue, and sometimes
of a pale-brownish yellow.

All the Dragon-flies have similar habits.

The author of “ Mémotres pour servir & UEistoire des Insectes” furnishes
the following interesting facts regarding them : —

Nothing is prettier than a troop of Dragon-flies taking their sport on the
side of a pond, or on the banks of a river, on a fine summer’s day, when a
burning sun causes their wings to shine with most vivid colors.

In the perfect state, as well as in that of the larva and the pupa, the Libel-
lulas are carnivorous. Their rapid flight makes them expert hunters, and
their enormous eyes embrace the whole horizon. They seize, while on the
wing, flies and butterflies, and tear them to pieces immediately with their
strong mandibles. Sometimes, the ardor of the chase leading them on far
from the streams, they are met with in the fields.

The female lays her eggs in the water, from which emerge larve which

ORDER VIII. NEUROPTERA. —DRAGON-FLIES. 309

remind one somewhat of the form of the insect, only their body is more
compact and their head flattened. The larve and pupx inhabit the bottom
of ponds and streams, where, keeping out of sight in the mud, they seek
for insects, mollusks, small fish, &c. If any prey passes within their reach,
they dart forwards, like a spring, a very singular arm, which represents the
under lip. It is a sort of animated mask, armed with strong, jagged pin-
cers, and supported by strong joints, the which, taken together, is equal to
the body itself. This mask acts at the same time as a lip and an arm; it
seizes the prey on its passage, and conveys it to the mouth. “When any
insect approaches them at a time when they are in a humor for eating,” says
Charles De Geer, “they shoot the mask forward very suddenly, and like a
flash of lightning, and seize the insect between their two pincers; then,
drawing back the mask, they bring the prey up to their mandibles, and
begin to eat. I have remarked that they do not spare those of their own
kind, but that they eat each other up when they can; and I have also seen
them devouring very small fish which I put by them. It is very difficult
for other insects to avoid their blows, because, walking along generally in
the water very gently, and, as it were, with measured steps, almost in the
same way a cat does on the lookout for birds, they suddenly dart forward
their mask, and seize their prey instantancously.”

The respiration of these larvw is very singular. Their abdomen is termi-
nated by appendages, which they open to allow the water to penetrate into
the digestive tube, whose sides are furnished with gills communicating with
the trachexw. The water, deprived of oxygen, is then thrown out, and the
larva advances thus in the water by the recoil. It has no tufts of external
lateral gills, which, in the case of the Ephemerx, do the duty of fins. The
pupa already presents stumps of wings. ‘To effect its metamorphoses, it
drags itself out of the water, where it has lived for nearly a year, climbs
slowly to some neighboring plant, and hangs itself there. Very soon the
sun dries and hardens its skin, which, all of a gudden, becomes crisp, and
eracks. The Dragon-fly then sets free its head, its thorax, and its legs ;
its wings, still and wanting in vigor, gain strength by coming in contact
with the air, and, after a few hours, they have attained their full develop-
ment. Immediately the insect abandons, like a worn-out suit, the dull,
slimy skin which had covered it so long, and which still preserves its shape,
and dashes off in quest of prey.

EpuemMera. — The generic name of these insects, known as May-flies,
indicates the short duration of their life, which, in their perfectly developed
form, is limited to a day, and often to a few hours. Their larva and pupa
life extends through two or three years, during which they reside in the
water, where they swim with great ease, concealing themselves at times

NO. XIX. 92

310 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

beneath the pebbles, or in galleries which they hollow out in the beds of
rivers and ponds. They feed on insects. When about to undergo their last
metamorphosis, they come out of the water and attach themselves to plants.
The transformation is accomplished in a few hours, when they flutter in un-
numbered millions in the sunbeams, apparently in the possession of a joyous
though bricf existence; for they hatch their eggs at sunset, and, having
fulfilled the purpose of their being, at sunrise have ceased to live.

Panorpa. — The Panorpas form a curious little group, having a peculiarly
shaped head, which is prolonged to a kind of long, slender beak. They
live on hedges and plants during the summer. Their bodies are slender,
marked with yellow and black spots; and their wings, which are four, are
also spotted with black. The abdomen of the male is terminated by a long,
jointed, recurved tail, with a claw at the tip.

MyrMetron. —The insects of this genus have the antenne gradually
thickened, curved at the tips, and much shorter than the body, and the body
is long and linear. The destruction which the larve of several species
make among the ants has given the insect the name of Ant Lion.

The larve of the Ant Lions live on the land, and are carnivorous. When
about to undergo their transformation into pup, they spin for themselves a
silky cocoon. The pupie, as well as the larve, of these insects breathe by
means of gills. :

The Ant Lion is an elegant insect, resembling the dragon-fly, but is dis-
tineuished from it by its antenna. Its larva is of a rosy, rather dirty gray,
with little tufts of blackish hair on its very voluminous abdomen. Its legs
are rather long and slender ; the two anterior pairs of legs are directed for-
wards, whilst the hind legs are fixed against the body, and only permit the
animal to walk backwards. These larve are met with in great abundance
in sandy places very much exposed to the heat of the sun. There they con-
struct for themselves a sort of funnel in the sand by describing backwards
the turns of a spiral, whose diameter gradually diminishes. Their strong,
square head serves them as a spade with which to throw the sand far away.
They then hide themselves at the bottom of the hole, their head alone being
out, and wait with patience for some insect to come near. Scarcely has the
Ant Lion perceived its victim on the borders of its funnel, when it throws
at it a shower of dust to alarm it, and make it fall to the bottom of the
precipice, which does not fail to happen.

Then it seizes it with its sharp mandibles, and sucks its blood; after which
it throws its empty skin out of the hole, and resumes the lookout. Ants
especially become its prey, whence its name of Ant Lion. ‘Towards the
month of July, the larvae make themselves a spherical cocoon, mixed with
grains of sand, in which they are transformed into pupx, which are hatched

ORDER VIII. NEUROPTERA.— TERMITES. Syl

towards the end of August. The perfect Ant Lions diffuse an odor of
roses; their flight, which is weak, distinguishes them from the dragon-flies.

Termes. — The animals constituting this group are noted for their ex-
traordinary characteristics and habits. Like the bees and ants, they organ-
ize a kind of political society, live under established rules, keep standing
armies, and make war, and construct fortifications, on scientific principles.
As miners, masons, and architects they exhibit remarkable skill and ingenu-
ity ; and, according to Mr. Smeathman, they form gardens for the cultiva-
tion of a minute fungus! With this insect-people royalty, caste, and
slavery are everlasting and immutable laws. There are three distinct ranks
or orders among them, constituting a well-regulated community. These are,
first, the laborers, or working insects; next, the soldiers, or fighting order,
who abstain from all labor, and are about twice as long as the former, and
equal in bulk to about fifteen of them; and, lastly, the winged, or perfect
insects, which may be styled the nobility, or gentry, of the state; for they
neither labor nor fight, being scarcely capable even of self-defence. These
alone are capable of being elected kings or queens; and it has been so
ordained by nature, that they emigrate within a few weeks after they are
elevated to this state, and either establish new kingdoms, or perish in the
space of one or two days.

The first order (the working insects) are most numerous, being in the

proportion of one hundred to one of the soldiers. In this state they are
about a quarter of an inch long, and twenty-five of them weigh about a
grain, so that they are not so large as some of the ants.

The second order, or soldiers, have a very different form from the labor-
ers, and have been by some authors supposed to be the males, and the former
the neuters ; but they are, in reality, the same insects as the foregoing, only
they have undergone a change of form, and approached one degree nearer
to the perfect state.

The third order, or the insect in its perfect state, varies its form still more
than ever, differing, in every essential part, from the laborers and soldiers ;
besides which, it is now furnished with four fine, large, brownish, transparent
wings, with which it is, at the time of emigration, to wing its way in search
of a new settlement. The difference is, indeed, so great, that these perfect
insects have not, until recently, been supposed to belong to the same com-
munity with the others, and are not to be discovered in the nest until just
before the commencement of the rainy season, when they undergo the last
change, which is preparative to the formation of new colonies. They are
equal in bulk to two soldiers and about thirty laborers; and, with the aid
of their wings, roam about for a few hours, when their wings fall off, and
they become the prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, and insects. Hence

Bie DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. INSECTA.

it happens, that scarcely a pair of the many millions of this unhappy race
find a place of safety to fulfil the first law of nature, and lay the foundation
of anew community. In this state, many fall into the neighboring waters,
and are eaten with avidity by the Africans, who roast them in the manner
of coflee, and find them delicate, nourishing, and wholesome.

The few fortunate pairs who survive this annual massacre and destruc-
tion, being casually found by some of the laborers, who are constantly run-
ning about on the surface of the ground, are elected kings and queens of
new states. Those who are not so elected and preserved, certainly perish,
and most probably in the course of the following day. By these industrious
creatures, the king and queen elect are immediately protected from their
innumerable enemies, by enclosing them in a chamber of clay, where the
propagation of the species soon commences. Their voluntary subjects then
busy themselves in constructing wooden nurseries, or apartments, solely
composed of wooden materials, seemingly joined together with gums. Into
these they afterwards carry the eggs produced by the queen, lodging them
as fast as they can obtain them from her. Plausible reasons are given by
Mr. Smeathman for the belief he entertains, that they here form a kind of
garden for the cultivation of a species of microscopical mushroom; and in
this belief he is supported by Mr. Konig, in his essay on the Kast Indian
Termites, by whom also this is conjectured to be the food ef the young
insects.

These wonderful creatures construct works which surpass those of the
bees, wasps, beavers, and other animals, as much at least as those of the
most polished nations excel those of the least cultivated savages. Even
with regard to man, his greatest works, the boasted pyramids, fall com-
paratively far short, even in size alone, of the structures raised by these
insects. The laborers among them employed in this service are not a
quarter of an inch in length; but the structures which they erect rise, as
has already been observed, to the height of ten or twelve feet and upwards
above the surface of the earth. Supposing the height of a man to be six
feet, this author calculates that the buildings of these insects may be con-
sidered, relatively to their size, and that of a man, as being raised to nearly
five times the height of the greatest of the Egyptian pyramids; that is,
corresponding with considerably more than half a mile. It may be added,
that, with respect to the interior construction, and the various members and
dispositions of the parts of the buildings, they appear greatly to exceed that
or any other work of human construction.

The most striking parts of these structures are the royal apartments, the
nurseries, magazines of provisions, arched chambers and galleries, with
their various communications; the ranges of the Gothic-shaped arches,

ORDER VIII. NEUROPTERA.— THE TERMITES. Bile

projected, and not formed by mere excavation, some of which are two or
three feet high, but which diminish rapidly, like the arches of aisles in per-
spectives ; the various roads, sloping staircases, and bridges, consisting of
one vast arch, and constructed to shorten the distance between the several
parts of the building,
passages. In some parts near Senegal, the number, magnitude, and close-

which would otherwise communicate only by winding

ness of these structures make them appear like the villages of the natives.

Authors relate many extraordinary particulars in regard to the great devas-
tations wrought by this powerful community, which constructs covered roads,
diverging in all directions from the nest, and leading to every object of
plunder within their reach.

These destructive animals advance by myriads to their work under an
arched incrustation of fine sand, tempered with a moisture from their body,
which renders the covered way as hard as burnt clay, and effectually conceals
them in their insidious employment.

Mr. Forbes, on his departure from his residence at Anjengo, to pass a
few weeks at a country retirement, locked up a room containing books,
drawings, and a few valuables; as he took the key with him, the servant
could not enter to clean the furniture; the walls of the room were white-

yashed, and adorned with prints and drawings in English frames and glasses :
returning home in the evening, and taking a cursory view of his cottage by
candle-light, he found everything in apparently the same order as he had left
it; but on a nearer inspection the next morning, he observed a number of
advanced works, in various directions, towards his pictures; the glasses
appeared to be uncommonly dull, and the frames covered with dust: on
attempting to wipe it off, he was astonished to find the glasses fixed to the
wall, not suspended in frames as he had left them, but completely surrounded
by an incrustation cemented by the White Ants, who had actually eaten up
the deal frames and back-boards, and the greater part of the paper, and left
the glasses upheld by the incrustation, or covered way, which they had formed
during their depredation. From the flat Dutch bottles, on which the draw-
ers and boxes were placed, not having been wiped during his absence, the
ants had ascended the bottles by means of the dust, eaten through the bot-
tom of a chest, and made some progress in perforating the books and linen,

The different functions of the laborers and soldiers, or the civil and mili-
tary establishments, in a community of White Ants, are illustrated by Mr.
Smeathman, in an attempt to examine their nest or city. On making a
breach in any part of this structure with a hoe or pickaxe, a soldier imme-
diately appears, and walks about the breach, as if to see whether the enemy
is gone, or to examine whence the attack proceeds. In a short time he is
followed by two or three others, and soon afterwards by a numerous body, who

314 DIVISION III ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

rush out as fast as the breach will permit them, their numbers increasing as
Jong as any one continues to batter the building. During this time, they
are in the most violent bustle and agitation, some being employed in beating
with their forceps upon the building, so as to make a noise, which may be
heard at three or four feet distance. On ceasing to disturb them, the sol-
diers retire, and are succeeded by the laborers, who hasten in various direc-
tions towards the breach, each with a burden of mortar in his mouth, ready
tempered. Though there are millions of them, they never stop or embarrass
each other; and a wall gradually arises to fill up the chasm. <A soldier
attends every six hundred or one thousand laborers, seemingly as a director
of the works; for he never touches the mortar, either to lift or to carry it.
One in particular places himself close to the wall under repair, and fre-
quently makes the above-mentioned noise, which is constantly answered by
a loud hiss from all the laborers within the dome; and at every such signal,
they evidently redouble their pace, and work as fast again.

The work being completed, a renewal of the attack constantly produces
the same effects. The soldiers again rush out, and then retreat, and are
followed by the laborers loaded with mortar, and as active and as diligent
as before. Thus the pleasure of seeing them come out to fight or work
alternately, Mr. Smeathman observes, may be obtained as often as curiosity
excites, or time permits ; and it will certainly be found the one order never
attempts to fight, nor the other to work, let the emergency be ever so great.
The obstinacy of the soldiers is remarkable: they fight to the very last, dis-
puting every inch of ground so well as often to drive away the negroes, who
are without shoes, and make white people bleed plentifully through their
stockings. Such is the strength of the buildings erected by these puny
insects, that, when they have been raised to little more than half their
height, it is the constant practice of the African wild bulls to stand as sen-
tinels upon them, while the rest of the herd are ruminating below. When
at their full height of ten or twelve feet, they are used by Europeans as look-
out stations, whence they can see over the grass, which, in Africa, is, on an
average, of the height of thirteen feet. But perhaps the most wonderful,
and, at the same time, best authenticated, part of the history of these curious
insects is, that which relates to the queen, or mother of the community, in
her pregnancy.

After impregnation, a very extraordinary change begins to take place in
her person, or rather in her abdomen only. It gradually increases in bulk,
and at length becomes of such an enormous size as to exceed the bulk of the
rest of her body fifteen hundred or two thousand times. She becomes two
thousand times heavier than her consort, and exceeds twenty thousand or
thirty thousand times the bulk of one of the laborers. In this state eighty

ORDER VIII. NEUROPTERA. ole

thousand eges — for they have been counted — are protruded in twenty-four
hours. They are instantly taken from her body by the attendants, —a sufli-
cient number of whom are constantly in waiting in the royal chambers and ad-
jacent galleries, — and carried to the nurseries, which are sometimes four or
five feet distant in a straight line. Here, after they are hatched, the young
are attended and provided with everything necessary until they are able to
shift for themselves, and take their share in the labors of the community.

PuryGaNnga. — Réaumur, De Geer, and M. Pictet have thoroughly inves-
tigated this group, and contributed many interesting particulars to its natu-
ral history.

Réaumur classed them as Aquatic Moths. The soft and delicate body of
the larvex is protected by a case to which it clings by two hooks placed at
the extremity of the abdomen. “They are called by different names, in
allusion to their habits; as, for instance, Case Worms, from their living in
a case covered with little bits of wood or sand, which they draw after them
as they go. Their scientific name, Phryganea, signifies fagot. The Phry-
ganex, in the adult state, very much resemble moths. They approach
them in having rudimentary mouths, and wings without articulations, but
furnished with small hairs analogous to the scales of Lepidoptera. They
may be said to form a sort of connection between the Lepidoptera and Neu-
roptera,

They have been called Mouches papilionacées, or Papilionaceous Flies.
The eggs laid by the female Phryganea are enclosed in gelatinous capsules,
which swell in the water and attach themselves to stones, &c. The larva
has the appearance of a little worm without feet. It is soon hatched, and
resembles at first a little black line, and may be easily reared in an aqua-
rium. The operation of making the silky case which it draws after it, and
which protects its abdomen, may then be observed. When it is disturbed,
it retreats entirely within its case. The interior is smooth, and lined with
mud; on the exterior it is fortified with stones, &c.

The P. Rhombica furnishes its case with bits of wood or grass. Some
species arrange these bits of wood and grass in spiral, others in parallel,
series. Poa

The P. Flavicornis covers its dwelling with little shells. “These kinds
of dress,” says Réaumur, “are very pretty, but they are also excessively
singular. A savage, who, instead of being covered with furs, should be
covered with muskrats, moles, or other entire animals, would have on an
extraordinary costume; this is, in some sort, the case of our larve.” Other
Phryganex employ for constructing the case, which serves them as a dwell-
ing, sand and small pebbles, each species always employing the same mate-
rials, unless they are entirely deprived of these, and obliged to employ

316 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

others. These cases protect the larva against the voracity of their enemies.
The larve have a scaly head, and the three first rings of their body are
harder than the rest. They live in water, and breathe by means of branchi-
ous sacs arranged on the abdomen in soft and flexible tufts. They eat
everything that is presented to them — leaves, and even insects, and the
larve of their own kind. The pupx are motionless. They stay about a
fortnight in their case, whose orifice is closed by gratings of silk, then break
through the gratings, and leave their prison. In this state they swim on
the water until they meet with an object to which they can attach them-
selyes, and so get out. Then they swell till they crack their skins over the
back, when the perfect insect emerges.

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA (Membrane-wings).

The Hymenopterous insects are furnished with four membranous, naked
wings, and a mouth with mandibles, maxillw, and two lips; the females are
armed with a sting, placed at the extremity of the abdomen. ‘They all
undergo a complete metamorphosis. In their perfect state they subsist on
flowers ; their existence, including all their states, is limited to a year.

The order is divided into two sections —the Terebrantia and Aculeata,
in the first of which is placed the great genus

Icnuxrumon. — As the Mammalian Ichneumon was supposed to destroy
the crocodile by depositing its eggs in its entrails, so the Ichneumonides
destroy the caterpillars of Lepidopterous insects, which are so injurious to
vegetation. They deposit their eggs in or upon the bodies of naked cater-
pillars, or pupa; and, when hatched, the larve kill their victim, and under-
go their changes in its body. It is an extremely numerous family, there
being not less than six thousand species.

Cyntrs. — This genus comprises several species known as Gall Insects.
A. globular excrescence is often observed on the leaves of the oak, called
by children Oak Apple, and which they often eat on account of its pleas-
ant, acid taste. This “apple” is produced by these insects, which deposit
their eggs in the leaf, where they increase in size and consistence; in the
mean while the excrescence grows, and becomes the temporary home of
the larve.

C. Galle Tinctorie produces the nutgall of commerce, which is a chief
ingredient in the manufacture of black ink.

Curysts. — This genus comprises the Golden-tailed Flies, which, in the
richness of their colors, rival the gorgeous hues of the humming-birds.

The second section of the Hymenoptera (the AcuLEATA) contains the
well-known and remarkable genus

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA.—THE ANTS. 317

Formica. — The Ants. The whole animal kingdom presents nothing so
extraordinary and mysterious as the habits, instincts, intelligence, domestic
character, and social polity of these diminutive creatures. Man stands awe-
struck and perplexed as he contemplates their wonderful ways, plainly
revealing as they do the possession of intelligence and reasoning powers,
which he, in his pride and vanity, has always arrogated to himself as
a peculiar inheritance. In regard to them the late Professor Godwin
well remarks : —

“The history of a tribe of insects so long celebrated for their industry
and frugality, and for the display of that sagacity which characterizes some
of the higher orders of animals, is peculiarly calculated to occupy the atten-
tion of modern naturalists. Ants possess the remarkable peculiarity of a
threefold distinction of sex —a circumstance which is met with in no other
order of the animal kingdom, and which appears, as far as observation has
extended, to be totally excluded from the plan of the vegetable creation.
Besides the males and females, there exists an apparently intermediate order
of neuters, which are also denominated laboring or working ants. The
neuters, thus exempted from every sexual funetion, exercise, on the other
hand, all the offices necessary for the existence and welfare of the community
to which they belong. It is they who collect supplies of food, who explore
the country for this purpose, and seize upon every animal substance, whether
living or dead, which they can lay hold of and transport to their nest. It
is they who construct every part of their dwelling-place, who attend to the
hatching of the eggs, to the feeding of the young, and to their removal, as
occasion may require, to different situations favorable to their growth and
development ; and who, both as aggressors and as defenders, fight all the bat-
tles of the commonwealth, and provide for the safety of their weaker and
more passive companions. Thus all the laborious and perilous duties of
the state are performed solely by this description of ants, who act the part
of helots in these singularly constituted republics of insects.”

The domestic life of the different species is nearly the same. The birth
and rearing of the little ones, and the duties of the adults, do not differ
perceptibly from each other in the various species of ants. The females
live together in harmony. They lay, without ceasing to walk about, white
eggs, of cylindrical form and microscopic dimensions. The workers pick
them up, and carry them to special chambers. In a fortnight after the lay-
ing, the larva appears. Its body is transparent. A head and wings can
be made out, but no legs; the mouth is a retractile nipple, bordered by
rudimentary mandibles, into which the workers disgorge the juices they
have elaborated in their stomachs; and as they lay by no provision, they

NO. XIX. 93

818 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED AMIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

are obliged to gather each day the sugary liquids destined for the food of
the larvx.

From their birth a troop of nurses is charged with the care of them.
They put them out in the open air during the day. Hardly has the sun
risen, when the ants, placed just under the roof, go to tell those which are
beneath, by touching them with their antennw, or shaking them with their
mandibles. In a few seconds all the outlets are crowded with workers
carrying out the larve in order to place them on the top of the ant-hill,
that they may be exposed to the beneficent heat of the sun. When the
Jarve have remained some time in the same place, their guardians move
them away from the direct action of the solar rays, and put them in cham-
bers a little way from the top of the hill, where a milder heat can still reach
them.

Nothing is more amusing than to observe the shifts ants are put to in
transporting objects of great size. They stumble; they tumble “head over
heels ;” they roll down precipices; but, in spite of all accidents, return to
their task, and always accomplish it.

The tranquil inhabitants of these subterranean republics are bound together
by a mutual affection in a devoted fraternity, which makes them ever ready
to assist each other. They are a real Essenean or Masonic order. They
all help one another as much as they can. If an ant is tired, a comrade
carries it on its back. Those which are so absorbed with their work that
they have no time to think of their food, are fed by their companions.
When an ant is wounded, the first one who meets it renders it assistance,
and earries it home. Latreille, having torn the antenne from an ant, saw
another approach the poor wounded one, and pour, with its tongue, a few
drops of a yellow liquid on the bleeding wound.

Iluber the younger one day took an ant’s nest to populate one of those
glass contrivances which he used for making his observations, and which
consisted of a sort of glass bell placed over the nest. Our naturalist set at
liberty one part of the ants, which fixed themselves at the foot of a neigh-
boring chestnut tree. The rest were kept, during four months, in the appa-
ratus ; and at the end of this time Huber moved the whole into the garden,
and a few ants managed to escape. Having met their old companions, who
still lived at the foot of the chestnut tree, they recognized them. They were
seen, in fact, all of them, to gesticulate ; to caress each other mutually with
their antenna; to take each other by the mandibles, as if to embrace in
token of joy; and they then reéntered together the nest at the foot of the
chestnut tree. Very soon they came in a crowd to look for the other ants
under the bell, and in a few hours our observer’s apparatus was completely
evacuated by its prisoners. When an ant has discovered any rich prey, far

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA. — SOLDIER-ANTS. 319

from enjoying it alone, like a gourmand, it invites all its companions to the
feast. Community of goods and interests exists among all the members of
this model society. It is the practical realization of the dream formed by
certain philosophers of our day, who were only able to conceive the idea,
the possibility, the project of such a community of goods and interests,
which is among ants a reality.

How do these insects manage to make themselves understood in such vari-
ous ways—ask for help, give advice and invitations? They must have
a language of their own, or else they must communicate their impressions
by their antenne.

When an ant is hungry, and does not wish to be disturbed in its work,
it tells a foraging ant as it passes by touching it with its antennw ; the latter
approaches it immediately, and presents it, on the end of its tongue, some
juice it has disgorged for this purpose.

The antenne, then, are used by the ants for the purpose of making them-
selves understood by each other. Dr. Ebrard, who studied these insects
attentively, is of opinion that they use them in the same way as a blind man
does his stick, to feel their way with, for their sight is not good. The age
to which ants live is not well known. It is believed that the workers live
many years.

Ants are also very fond of a peculiar liquid which the plant lice secrete
from a pouch in the abdomen. When they have got possession of a plant
louse, they excite it to secrete this liquid, but without doing it any harm.
They carry the plant lice into the ant-hill, or into private stables.
There they keep them, give them their food, and suck them. We have
already mentioned these curious relations which are established between ants
and plant lice. The Gallinsecta also furnish the ants with sugary liquids.

During the cold of winter the ants sleep at the bottom of their nests,
without taking any food. A small number of species only hold out through
the severe season by shutting themselves up in the ant-hill with a number
of plant lice. It is thus that they pass the winter with a supply of food.
We must mention, however, that in warm countries the ants do not hi-
bernate.

Tue Ants As SOLDIERS. —“ Two species,” says a pleasing author, “con-
stitute the warrior tribes which form societies mixed with the species they
reduce to slavery. They are the Russet Ant and the Blood-red Ant. They
always attack the nests of the Ashy-black (2orméca fusca) and the Miners.
The Russet Ant has mandibles made for war; they appear cut out for strug-
gling and fighting. The Blood-red Ants are less ferocious. They work
themselves, and make none of those sweeping raids by which the Russet
Ants depopulate the neighboring ant-hills.

320 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

“On the 17th of June, 1804,” says he, “as I was walking in the environs
of Geneva, between four and five in the afternoon, I saw at my feet a legion
of Jargish Russet Ants crossing the road; they penetrated through a very
thick hedge, and went into a meadow, whither I followed them. They
wound their way along the turf without straying, and their column remained
always continuous, in spite of the obstacles which they had to surmount.
Very soon they arrived near a nest of Ashy-black Ants, whose dome rose
among the grass, at twenty paces from the hedge. A few ants of this spe-
cies were at the door of their habitation. As soon as they descried the
army which was approaching, they threw themselves on those which were
at the head of the cohort. The alarm spread at the same instant in the
interior of the nest, and their companions rushed out in crowds from all the
subterranean passages. The Russet Ants, the body of whose army was
only two paces distant, hastened to arrive at the foot of the nest; the whole
troop precipitated itself forward at the same time, and knocked the Ashy-
black Ants head over heels, who, after a very short but very smart combat,
retired to the extremity of the habitation. The Russet Ants clambered up
the sides of the hillock, flocked to the summit, and introduced themselves
in great numbers into the first avenues; other groups worked with their
teeth, making a lateral aperture. In this they succeeded, and the rest of
the army penetrated through the breach into the besieged city. They did
not make a long stay there; in three or four minutes the Russet Ants came
out again in haste, by the same adits, carrying each one in its mouth a pupa
or larva belonging to the conquered. They again tock exactly the same
road by which they had come, and followed each other in a straggling man-
ner; their line was easily to be distinguished on the grass by the appearance
which this multitude of white cocoons and larva, carried by as many Rus-
set-colored Ants, presented. They passed through the hedge a second time,
crossed the road, and then steered their course into a field of ripe wheat,
whither, I regret to say, [ was unable to follow them.”

Huber adds that, having returned to the pillaged nest to examine it more
closely, he saw some Ashy-black workers bringing back to their home the
few larve which they had succeeded in saving. Tlaving later discovered the
nest of these Amazons, — which is the name he gives to the warrior ants, —
he found there many of the Ashy-black Ants living on very good terms with
their kidnappers.

The Amazons begin their expeditions at the end of June, during the hot-
test hours of the day. They come out in long files, eight or ten abreast,
preceded by their scouts. These columns start at a run, in a straight line,
and without feeling their way. They have no chieftain. The van is re-
formed every moment.

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA.— CURIOUS HABITS OF ANTS. aval

Those who are in front do not remain there; at the end of a certain time
they go and range themselves in the rear, and are replaced by those which
were behind. ‘The whole troop is thus in constant communication through-
out its entire length. Rarely does the expedition divide into two bodies.
Arrived under the walls of the fortress, the column halts and masses itself
into one corps. The assault is made with incredibie impetuosity. In the
twinkling of an eye the place is escaladed, taken by storm, and pillaged,
and the Ashy-black Ants are either put to flight or led away into captivity.
The same ant-hill may be invaded as many as three times running on the
same day; but then the Ashy-black Ants, on their guard, have barricaded
themselves in, and in that case the aggressors return home without pillaging
them.

The Mining Ants are less timid than the Ashy-black, and, as they defend
themselves with more energy, there are frequently deadly combats, and the
field of battle is left covered with heads, legs, and limbs scattered about,
here and there, with the dead and wounded. The Miners pursue the pil-
lagers, and snatch their plunder from them. But they are sometimes driven
back vigorously, and the Russet Ants gain their lair with their plunder.

The tactics of the Red Ants (Formica sanguinea) differ from those of
the Russet. They only sally forth in small detachments, which begin by
engaging in skirmishes with the scouts thrown out round the enemy’s ant-
hill. Couriers, despatched from time to time to the camp of the Red Ants,
bring up reénforcements. When the troop feels itself sufficiently strong, it
invades the nest of the Ashy-black Ants, and carries off their offspring,
which the latter have not had time to secure. Sometimes, also, the Red
Ants install themselves in the nest whose inhabitants they have ejected, and
transfer their own population to it. The motive for this emigration is, that
the old nest has become useless, or that it is exposed to some danger. The
Red Ants are not the only ants which thus desert their birthplace. Many
species abandon it likewise for analogous motives, and construct elsewhere
another dwelling, to which they transport all the population of the first
nest.

The species are very numerous.

Vespa. — The Wasps. These insects inhabit all lands, and may be easily
distinguished by having the upper wings longitudinally folded while at rest,
and a pedunculated abdomen, terminated by a concealed sting. Their larvae
resemble those of the bee, and their history is also similar in many respects.
They live in societies; the individuals share in common their labors and
danger. In general they construct their habitations with a sort of paper,
which they manufacture from vegetable fibres, agglutinated by a sort of
gum. The cells, in form, are similar to those of the honey-comb, and are

322 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

often disposed in several stories. They feed on animal substances, on dead
insects, ripe and saccharine fruits, fragments of which they cut off with their
mandibles, and carry to their young.

\. Crabro.— The Hornet, —a large species, —and V. vulgaris, the
common Wasp, are too well known to require a special description.

Bompus. — The Bumble Bee. It is difficult to conjecture how the name
of this insect came to be corrupted to “ Zumble Bee.” The Bumble Bee
has a robust body and very hairy, the hairs being often arranged in colored
bands.

BL. Lapidarius. —This is the common species of our fields and stone
walls. It builds its nest under stones, or in piles of stone, constructing it
of earth and moss, which the insects card with their hind legs. They live in
societies of fifty or sixty, and sometimes of several hundred. They have a
sharp and strong sting, notwithstanding which, children often hunt for their
nests, to rob these poor creatures of their winter store of honey.

Apis. — The Bee family comprises a great number of species, which were
all arranged by Linnwus under the single genus Apis. We are obliged to
pass by several groups, having only space left for a description of the most
useful and remarkable member of this tribe.

A. Mellifica. —The Common Hive Bee. We are indebted to Huber for
a great number of most interesting facts hitherto not noticed, and Cuvier,
Réaumur, and De Geer have added many important particulars to the natural
history of this insect. It was well known to the ancients, and its praise is
celebrated in the poetry of all nations. Virgil elegantly describes its habits
as far as they were known at his time.

Three sorts of individuals form a community of Honey Bees, viz., the
female, mother, or queen; the males, or drones ; and the working bees, erro-
neously called newters, as they are really females, although with imperfect
organs. <A hive consists generally of one queen, about eight hundred males,
and twenty thousand working bees. The last are the smallest, having
twelve joints to their antenne, and six abdominal rings. They are armed
with stings. The mandibles are spoon-shaped and indentated. There is on
the outside of the hind legs a smooth hollow, edged with hairs, denominated
the basket. The queen is of a larger size, especially in the abdomen; she
has a shorter sucker, and the mandibles grooved and velvet-like beneath the
tip. The males, or drones, differ from both the preceding by having thirteen
joints to the antennzx, a rounded head, with larger eyes, and shorter anterior
feet, the two first of which are arched.

The wax, of which the combs are formed, is elaborated from honey. The
pollen collected from flowers, mixed with a small quantity of wax, consti-
tutes the food of bees and their larve ; and this food appears to be modified

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA.— HONEY BEES. O20

in its composition according to the sort of individuals it is intended for.
Another substance collected iy bees from the opening buds of poplar and
other trees, and used by them for lining their hives and stopping holes, is
called propolis. .

The working bees, according to Huber, are of two kinds —one whose
duty it is to gather the food and materials for the hive; the other, composed
of smaller and feebler insects, which are employed exclusively in the care
of the young within the hive.

The comb is always built from above downwards. The cells, with the
exception of those for the female larva and nymphs, are nearly of equal size,
some containing the progeny, and others the honey and pollen of flowers.
The regal cells are greatly superior in size, and are from two to forty in
number. The season of laying commences early in summer, and continues
till autumn.

The female lays’ as many as twenty thousand eggs in twenty-four days.
Each sort of egg she places in the appropriate cell. The eggs laid at the
beginning of summer all belong to the working sort, and are hatched in
four days. The larve are regularly fed by the workers for about seven
days, when they are enclosed in their cell, spin a cocoon, and become
nymphs; they become perfect bees in about twelve days. These consecu-
tive generations form so many distinct communities, which leave the parent
hive to found new colonies elsewhere. This operation is called swarming,
at which time the community, including the queen, appears to be seized with
a kind of delirium, and the bees execute a number of extraordinary manceu-
vres before the colonization is fully effected.

A swarm of bees weighs about eight pounds.

The honey which fills the store cells is intended for daily consumption,
and also as a reserve for the period when the flowers furnish no more.

The empty cells are left open, the workers making use of them when they
want them, particularly during rainy days, which keep them at home. But
the cells which contain the honey put by in reserve are closed. “ They are,”
says Réaumur, “like so many little pots of jam or jelly, each one of which
has its covering, and a very solid covering it is too.”

Réaumur, the Hubers, father and son, and other observers have collected
an immense mass of curious and surprising facts regarding the bees, which
would fill many volumes. We must be contented with the introduction
here of a few of the most striking.

Tuem Mopr or Lanor. — The exterior of a hive —we employ in part
the words of M. Victor Rendre — gives the best idea of this laborious peo-
ple. From morning till night all is movement and industry. Hundreds of
bees are constantly arriving from the fields laden with provisions; others,

324 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. INSECTA.

having discharged their burden, are departing for the country for a new
store. Tere cautious sentinels scrutinize every fresh arrival; there purvey-
ors, in a hurry to be back at work again, stop at the entrance of the hive,
where other bees unload them of their burdens; elsewhere a working bee
engages in a battle with some rash intruder; at another point the workers
are occupied in drawing out the dead body of one of their companions ; at
the same time the surveyors of the hive clear it of everything which inter-
feres with their labors, or is prejudicial to health. The most admirable
order presides over all these movements, and a most perfect division of labor
is maintained.

THEY ASSIST EACH OTHER. — “ When a bee meets,” says Réaumur, “any
of its companions who want food, and who have not had time to go and get
any, it stops, erects and stretches out its trunk, so that the opening by which
the honey may be taken out is a little way beyond the mandibles. It pushes
the honey towards this opening. The other bees, who know well enough
that it is from there they must take it, introduce the end of their trunk, and
suck it up. The bee, which has not been stopped on its road, often goes
to the places where other bees ‘are working, that is, to those places where
other bees are occupied, either in constructing new cells, or in polishing or
bordering the cells already built ; it offers them honey, as if to prevent them
from being under the necessity of leaving their work to go and get it them-
selves.”

THE QUEEN SUBDUES HER REBELLIOUS SUBJECTS BY HER ELOQUENCE.
—In the process of swarming, the colony sets forth under a new queen,
who often finds it difficult to establish her authority over the community.
When the bees become violent in their mutiny, the young queen harangues
them in a musical speech, which has the effect to stop the wild commotion,
and compel the rebels reverently to bow their heads before her. The song
resembles that of the grasshopper. Francis Huber, speaking of a queen
which had just been hatched, and which was trying in vain to satisfy her
jealous instincts, says, —

“She sang twice. When we saw her producing this sound, she was
motionless; her thorax rested against the honey-comb, her wings being
crossed on her back, and she moved them about without uncrossing them,
and without opening them. Whatever cause it was that made her choose
this attitude, the bees seemed affected by it; all of them now lowered their
heads, and remained motionless. Next day the hive presented the same
appearance ; there remained still twenty-three royal cells, which were all
assiduously guarded by a great number of bees. The moment the queen
approached these, all the guards were in a state of agitation, surrounded
her, bit her, hustled her in every way, and generally finished by driving her

ORDER IX. HYMENOPTERA.— THE QUEENS AS DUELLISTS. 325

off. Sometimes, when this happened, she sang, resuming the attitude which I
just now described; from that moment the bees became motionless. But
the fever which had seized on the young queen ended by communicating
itself to her subjects, and, at a particular moment, they set out under her
guidance.”

Tue Queens as Duetrists.— When the emigration is effected, the
workers which had remained at home set free another female. This one
acts in the same way as the first. She tries to get at her rivals still impris-
oned, and whom she can smell in their cradles ; but the guard repel her with
vigor, and defeat all her attempts, ttll she makes up her mind to emigrate
with a new swarm. This curious scene is repeated, with the same circum-
stances, three or four times in the space of a fortnight, if the weather is
favorable, and the hive well-peopled. In the end, the number of bees is so
much reduced, that they can no longer keep such vigilant guard round the
royal cells, and it then happens that two females come out together from
their cradles. Immediately the two rivals look for each other, and fight,
and the queen that comes off victorious out of this duel to the death reigns
peaceably over the people she has won for herself. If, in the tumult which
precedes the swarming, a female escapes from her prison, it may happen that
she is carried away in the swarm. In this case the deserters divide into two
bands; but the weakest in numbers are not long in breaking up, the desert-
ers going to swell the principal swarm. At last all the troop is reunited,
and it then contains two queens. As long as the swarm remains fixed on
its branch, all passes quietly in spite of the presence of a second queen,
But as soon as it has become domiciled, the affair becomes serious; a duel
to the death takes place between the two aspirants to the command. Two
queens cannot exist in the same hive.

Francis Huber was the first to describe these duels between the queens.
He describes a combat which he watched on the 12th of May, 1790: “Two
young queens came out on that day from the cells, almost at the same mo-
ment, in one of our smallest hives. As soon as they saw each other, they
dashed one against the other with every appearance of the greatest rage, and
put themselves in such a position that each one had its antennx seized be-
tween the teeth of its rival; the head, the thorax, and abdomen of the one
were opposite to the head, the thorax, and abdomen of the other; they
had only to bend round the posterior extremity of their bodies, and they
would have stabbed each other with their darts, and both engaged in the
combat would have been killed. But it is as if Nature would not allow
this duel to end by the death of the combatants. One would say that she
had ordained that those queens, finding themselves in this position (that is
to say, face to face and abdomen to abdomen), should retreat that very

NO. XIX. 94

| 326 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. —CLASS IV. “INSECTA.
|

| instant with the greatest precipitation, And so, as soon as the two rivals
| felt that their posterior parts were about to meet, they let go of each other,
| and each one ran away in an opposite direction. A few minutes after they
had separated from each other, their fear ceased, and they recommenced look-
ing for each other. Very soon they perceived the object of their search, and
we saw them running one against the other. They seized each other as at the
first, and put themselves exactly in the same position. The result was the
same; as soon as their abdomens approached each other, they only thought
of getting free, and ran away.

“The working bees were very much agitated during the whole of this
time, and their tumult scemed to increase when the adversaries separated
from each other. We saw them on two different occasions stop the queens
in their flight, seize them by the legs, and keep them prisoners for more
| than aminute. At last, ina third attack, the queen which was the most
infuriated, or the strongest, rushed upon her rival at a moment when she

did not see her coming, seized her with her jaws by the base of her wing,

| then mounted on to her body, and brought the extremity of her abdomen

over the last rings of her enemy, whom she was then able to pierce with
| her sting very easily. .She then let go the wing which she held between
| her teeth, and drew back her dart. The vanquished queen dragged herself
heavily along, lost her strength, and expired soon afterwards.”

Execution or THE Drones. —The drones (that is to say, the males)
are now no longer wanted in the colony; their mission is over. By an
inexorable law of nature, they must be got rid of, and the working bees
proceed to make a general massacre of them. It is in the months of July

and August that this frightful carnage takes place. The workers may then

be scen furiously giving chase to the males, and pursuing them to the
| extremity of the hive, where these unfortunate insects seek a place of safety.
Three or four workers dash off in the pursuit of the male. They seize hold
of him, pull him by his legs, by his wings, by his antenna, and kill him
with their stings. This pitiless massacre includes even the larva and pupx
of the males. The executioners drag them from their cells, run them through
with their stings, greedily suck the liquids contained in their bodies, and
then cast their remains to the winds.

This slaughter goes on for many days, continuing till the males have been
| completely got rid- of, they not being able to defend themselves, as they
have no stings.
| Tur Brrs reason. — Francis Huber relates that he saw bees propping
up with pillars and flying buttresses of wax a piece of the honey-comb which
had fallen down. At the same time, put on their guard by this sad acci-
dent, they set to work to fortify the principal framework of the other combs,

ORDER X. LEPIDOPTERA. 32

[J]
“1

and to fasten them more securely to the roof of the hive. This took place
in the month of January, and, therefore, not during the working season,
and when to provide against a distant eventuality was the only question.
M. Walond has reported an analogous observation. Is there not here, in
the first place, a true and excellent reasoning, then an act, an operation, a
work executed as the result of this reasoning? Now, an operation which is
performed as the result of reasoning is attributable to intelligence. Again,
the bees give different sorts of food to the different sort of larve. They
know how to change this food when an accident has deprived the hive of its
queen, and it is necessary to replace her: this is another proof of intel-
ligence.

“But it is, above all, in the face of an enemy that the intellectual facul-
ties of these insects show themselves. There are always at the entrance
of every hive three or four bees, which have nothing else to do but to guard |
the door, to keep a watch over incomers and outgoers, and to prevent an
enemy or an intruder from slipping into the community. When one of
them perceives an enemy on the borders of the hive, it dashes forwards
towards it, and, by a menacing and significant buzzing, warns it to retire.
If it does not understand the warning, which is a rare occurrence, — for men,
horses, dogs, and animals of all kinds know perfectly well the danger to
which they expose themselves by approaching too near to a hive in full oper-
ation, —the bee gets a reénforcement, and very soon returns to the combat
with a determined battalion. All this is, it seems to us, intelligence.”

ORDER X. LEPIDOPTERA.

These insects, most of them beautiful, and many of them dressed in the
most gorgeous and brilliant manner, have four wings, covered on both sur-
faces with small, colored scales, resembling a farinaceous powder, which
come off at the slightest touch, whence the name of the order —a Greek

word signifying scale-wings. Their proboscis is rolled up in a spiral direc-
tion between two palpi, clothed with scales or hairs, and forms the most
important part of the mouth, and with which they draw up the nectar of
flowers, which is their sole food. The antenn are composed of a great
number of joints.

The larve of these insects are those ugly and repulsive-looking creatures
called Caterpillars. They have six scaly feet, corresponding with those
of the perfect insect, besides four to ten membranous feet, of which the two
last are situated at the posterior extremity of the body. Those which have
only ten or twelve feet are called Geometers, or Loopers, from their pecu-
liar mode of walking.

328 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.— CLASS IV. INSECTA.

There are few persons who have not observed this caterpillar moving
along on a twig or slender branch of shrubs, plants, and trees, and been
struck by the curious operation. It seizes hold of the twig with its six fore
legs, and then elevates the intermediate segments of the body into an arch,
until the hind ones are brought close to the others, when it disengages its
fore feet, and thrusts forward the body its full length, and then repeating the
operation till the journey is ended.

Most caterpillars are vegetable-eaters; but some feed on the hard and
solid parts of wood, which they soften with a secretion discharged from the
mouth, and others attack cloths and furs, —as the moths, —and do great
injury. Some of the caterpillars are social, and live together under a shelter
they construct together; others make cases to dwell in, and still others make
galleries in the pulp of green leaves. Some of them make their appearance
in winter, and we have often seen one of the moth species, in its furry coat
of black and reddish-brown, moving along on a sunny bank, in the coldest
weather. They generally moult four times before passing to the chrysalis
state.

This order is divided by systemists into three families, and these again
into many genera; but the three great genera of Linneus — Papilio,
Sphine, and Phalwna, represent the tribe with sufficient fulness for our
purpose.

Paritio. — The Butterflies. These are diurnal insects, which delight in the
sunshine, and flutter, apparently with e¢reat pleasure, through the sunny hours
of the summer day. The Papdliones are remarkable for their beauty, and
for the series of transformations they undergo before reaching the perfect
state. The female lays a great quantity of eggs, which produce the cater-
pillars so destructive to the foliage of vegetables. After a short period the
caterpillar becomes a chrysalis. These chrysalides are of various forms,
and sometimes adorned with bright golden or silvery spots. Here the cat-
erpillar closes its career, and the gorgeous and brilliant butterfly, born of
its decay, comes forth in glory and splendor, the admiration and wonder of
all beholders. It is not strange that this great marvel of nature should have
suggested to the poetic mind of the Greeks their most expressive and elo-
quent symbol of immortality, viz., the butterfly emerging from the
chrysalis.

The most splendid specimens of the genus are the Hquites, or Knights, of
Linnwus, the most beautiful of which are found in South America, espe-
cially Brazil, where they cover the groves, gardens, and fields with their
luxuriant glory.

The species are too numerous to be recorded here. 2. machaon, or
Swallow-tailed Butterfly, is a splendid insect. 2. Danai candidi and P.

PEATE RAKING

Helops fusea i.
S Bruechus
p= f

. Pimeha trawesita t
~
7
2S liispa

~—

Mylabms cichorer Fay

Mordella Bucolor

Mylabris cichorer Var a

Porlieula uitea

Kaphidia, Ophiopsis

Fm hy

Panorpa Communis

“

Thrips physapus

Canthams

Cunbex Loaporter

Co. Boston

ner St Boston

ORDER X. LEPIDOPTERA.—BUTTERFLIES. MOTHS. 329

brassice are the common whitish butterflies of our gardens and fields.
P. nymphalis has the under side of the wings ornamented with silver or
yellow spots on a buff ground. Among the most elegant of the family are
P. Io, the Peacock; P. carduz, the Painted Lady; P. Atalanta, the Red
Admiral; P. cris, the Purple Emperor; and P. C-album, the Common
Butterfly. The chrysalis of this last bears an extraordinary resemblance to
the human face.

This genus constitutes the family Déurna of the authors.

Another tribe of Lepidopterous insects reposes during the day and night,
and becomes active in the twilight of morning and evening, whence these
insects are called Crepuscularie. They compose the genus

Spuinx.— The Sphinges have the antennx prismatic, and a distinct pro-
boscis. They feed on leaves, and undergo their changes in the earth without
weaving a web. They fly with great swiftness, hovering over flowers, with
a humming sound like that of the humming-bird. The chrysalides have
generally the langue-case exserted, like a nose.

S. Atropos. —The Death’s-head Moth. This is one of the largest of
the species, and is regarded with superstitious fear by the ignorant on
account of the funereal emblem —a skull-like patch— it bears upon the
back of the thorax, and the dismal cry it utters when disturbed. This noise
is produced, it is supposed, by rubbing the palpi against each other.

This curious moth is not very common; the only specimen I have been
able to obtain was procured at Mattapoisett, Mass., by Mr. J. C. Forbes,
to whom I am indebted for it. The front wings of this insect are of a

Or. the

The hind wines
f=)

blackish-brown, varied with brown and gray above and below.
middle of the front wing there is a distinct white dot.
have two black bands, the upper narrower than the lower one; the rest of
the wing is a fine yellow. The abdomen has likewise from five to six yel-
low, and as many black, bands, and a long, blackish, longitudinal one in
the middle.

The Death’s-head Moth is very fond of honey, and consequently often
steals into bee-hives, to feast on the sweet stores which the bees have ac-
quired by their industry and skill. The poor bees are no match for this
powerful enemy, whose thick skin is invulnerable to their stings, and they
soon flee in consternation before it.

The members of another section of this order shun equally the glare of
day and the milder glimmer of twilight, and prosecute their labors and pur-
sue their enjoyments by night, on which account they are denominated Woc-
turna. They constitute the genus

PuaLaeNnA.—The Moths. These insects have the wings bridled, when
at rest, by a bristle or bunch of hairs arising at the base of the outer edge

.

330 DIVISION Ill. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

of the lower pair. The wings are horizontal, or deflexed, and sometimes
rolled round the body. The antennx gradually diminish to the tips. Some
of them are destitute of a proboscis, and many of the females are without
wings. The caterpillars generally spin a cocoon, and have from ten to six-
teen feet; the chrysalides are always rounded. To this group belongs one
of the most important and valuable animals known in the kingdom of nature,
and, at the same time, it contains some of the most mischievous and de-
structive.

The Linnwan genus Phalena embraces a vast number of families and
varieties, and consequently later naturalists have separated it into several
sections and numerous genera, not, however, without introducing consider-
able confusion.

Herratus (Fabricius). — The hind wings of this genus are destitute of
a bridle. The caterpillars live in the earth, and eat the roots of plants.
The Ghost Moth, Z/. humuli, is a well-known species. The males have
silvery-white wings, and the females buff, with reddish marks.

Cossus (Fabr.).— The caterpillars of this genus live in the interior of
trees, and form their cocoons of the sawdust they make. The chrys-
alis, immediately before undergoing its final change, works itself to the
outer opening of its cell, to make its escape.

C.. Ligniperda. —The Goat Moth. This is a handsome species, of a
white color. Its larva is like a thick, short, red worm, and lives in the
interior of various trees. When alarmed, it discharges a fetid liquor, which
softens the wood.

Bombyx. — The insects of this group have the proboscis very short; the
wings are extended and horizontal, or roof-like. The larve are exposed,
and feed upon the tender parts of vegetables ; they generally make a cocoon
of pure silk. All the species are, more or less, silk-makers, such are the
Great Atlas Moth of China, B. cecropia; the Great Peacock, B. pavoniu
major; and the Emperor Moth, B. pavonia minor, of Europe. 2B. Neus-
tria, the Lackey Moth, is so named from the color of the caterpillar, which
has longitudinal lines of various hues, and a blue head. Its larve live in
society, upon fruit trees, under webs of large size. They are very injuri-
ous to fruits.

B. Processionea. —The Processionary Moth. The caterpillars of this
insect are also social, and often change their abode, marching in procession,
one being in front, serving as a guide, followed by two, and then by three,
four, five, and so on.

“T kept some for a little time in my house in the country,” says Réaumur.
“T brought an oak branch which was covered with them into my study, where
T could much better follow the order and regularity of their march than I

ORDER X. LEPIDOPTERA. — PROCESSION-MOTHS. Sol

could have done in the woods. I was yery much amused and pleased at
watching them for many days. I hung the branch on which I had brought
them against one of my window shutters. When the leaves were dried up,
when they had become too hard for the jaws of the caterpillars, they tried
to go and seek better food elsewhere. One set himself in motion, a second
followed at his tail, a third followed this one, and so on. They began to
defile and march up the shutter, but being so near to each other that the
head of the second touched the tail of the first. The single file was through-
out continuous; it formed a perfect string of caterpillars of about two feet
in length, after which the line was doubled. There two caterpillars marched
abreast, but as near the one which preceded them as those who were march-
ing in single file were to each other. After a few rows of our procession-
ists, who were two abreast, came the rows of three abreast; after a few of
these came those which were four abreast; then there were those of five,
others of six, others of seven, others of cight caterpillars. This troop, so
well marshalled, was led by the first. Did it halt, all the others halted :
did it again begin to march, all the others set themselves in motion, and fol-
lowed it with the greatest precision. . . . That which went on in my study
goes on every day in the woods where these caterpillars live. . . . When
it is near sunset you may see coming out of any of their nests, by the open-
ing which is at its top, which would hardly afford space for two to come out
abreast, one caterpillar. As soon as it has emerged from the nest, it is
followed by many others in single file; when it has got about two feet from
the nest, it makes a pause, during which those who are still in the nest con-
tinue to come out; they fall into their ranks, the battalion is formed ; at
last the leader sets off marching again, and all the others follow him. That
which goes on in this nest passes in all the neighboring nests ; all are evacu-
ated at the same time.”

But the most interesting and important member of this genus is

B. Mori. —The Silk-worm Moth. This seemingly insignificant insect
has now become one of the most important to man of all domestic animals.
It was originally a native of China, and the neighboring parts of Asia, and
was there bred and domesticated for a long time before it was known in Eu-
rope. Now, the manufacture of silk is one of the most important sources
of wealth to many parts of that continent. At first, silk stuffs were sold
for their weight in gold; but they are now comparatively cheap. The Silk-
worm is a caterpillar, which, in due time, undergoes its metamorphoses, and
becomes a moth, like others of the genus. At birth, and for the first ten
days, the color of the worm is blackish or obscure. As it grows, it casts
its skin at stated periods, and turns whitish or bluish, and, when ready to
spin, becomes yellow. It is covered with scattering hairs, and has a little

332 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

fleshy tubercle on the upper part of the last ring. It feeds on the mulberry.
Before spinning, it fasts for thirty-six hours, voids all its excrements, becomes
soft and flaccid, and secks a suitable place for the construction of its cocoon.
Two or three days are occupied in this work; and the thread is stated by
Count Dandolo to be sometimes six hundred and twenty-five yards in length.
The worm then changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining twenty days,
the moth comes out, forcing its way through the cocoon. The males first
appear, and are very brisk in their motions, but do not fly, at least in cold
climates. They live but a few days, and the females perish also as soon as
they have deposited their eggs. The eggs are attached, often to the number
of five hundred or more, by means of a gummy substance, and hatch in the
ensuing spring. The successful rearing of silk-worms is a distinct art, and
requires peculiar attention. They are subject to a variety of maladies.
In many places it is usual to import the eges from some district that has
acquired a reputation for their production. These are packed like grain,
and are chosen much in the same manner. The eggs are in many places
hatched by the human body. The silk is contained, in the form of a fluid,
resembling varnish, in long, cylindrical sacks, many times the length of the
animal, and capable of being unfolded by immersion in water. The fluid
is easily forced out, and advantage is sometimes taken of this circumstance
to procure threads much coarser than usual, which are extremely strong, and
impermeable to water.

According to P. Mailla (“L’//istoire générale de la Chine”), the vir-
tues of the Silk-worm were first discovered in that ancient empire. He
remarks, —

“The Emperor Hoang-ti, who lived two thousand six hundred years be-
fore our era, wished that Si-ling-chi, his wife, should contribute to the hap-
piness of his people; he charged her to study the Silk-worm, and to try to
utilize its threads. Si-ling-chi caused a great quantity of these insects to be
collected, which she fed herself in a place destined exclusively for the pur-
pose; she not only discovered the means of rearing them, but, still further,
the manner of winding off their silk and of employing it in the manufacture
of fabrics.”

Upon this statement, M. Duhalde, in his “ Description de la Chine,”
thus comments : —

“Up to the time of this queen (Si-ling-chi), when the country was only
lately cleared and brought into cultivation, the people employed the skins of
animals as clothes. But these skins were no longer sufficient for the multi-
tude of the inhabitants; necessity made them industrious; they applied
themselves to the manufacture of cloth wherewith to cover themselves.
But it was to this princess that they owed the useful invention of silk stuffs.

ORDER X. LEPIDOPTERA.—THE SILK-WORM. 339

Afterwards, the empresses, named by Chinese authors according to the
order of their dynasties, found an agreeable occupation in superintending
the hatching, rearing,
ing itup when made. There was an enclosure attached to the palace for the

cultivation of mulberry trees.

and feeding of silk-worms, in making silk, and work-

“The empress, accompanied by queens and the greatest ladies of the
court, went in state into the enclosures, and gathered with her own hand the
leaves of three branches which her ladies in waiting had lowered till they
were within her reach; the finest pieces of silk which she made herself, or
which were made by her orders and under her own eye, were destined for
the ceremony of the grand sacrifice offered to Chang-si.

“Tt is probable,” adds Duhalde, “that policy had more to do than any-
thing else with all this trouble taken by the empresses. Their intention was to
induce, by their example, the princesses and ladies of quality, and the whole
people, to rear silk-worms; in the same way as the emperors, to ennoble in
some sort agriculture, and to encourage the people to undertake laborious
works, never failed, at the beginning of each spring, to guide the plough in
person, and with great state to plough up a few furrows, and there sow some
seed.

* As far as concerns the empresses, it is a long time since they have ceased
to apply themselves to the manufacture of silk; one sees, nevertheless, in
the precincts of the imperial palace, a large space covered with houses, the
read leading to which is still called the road which leads to the place des-
tined for the rearing of silk-worms for the amusement of the empresses and
queens. In the books of the philosopher Mencius is a wise police rule,
made under the first reigns, which determines the space destined for the cul-
tivation of mulberry trees, according to the extent of the land possessed by
each private individual.”

Silk commanded for centuries a prodigiously high price. In the time of
Alexander its value in Greece was exactly its own weight in gold, and so it
was very parsimoniously employed in silk tissues. These were so transparent
that women who wore them were scarcely covered.

Silk was unknown to the Romans before Julius Cesar. It was to him
that Rome owed its acquaintance with this new material. He introduced it,
moreover, in a singularly magnificent manner. One day, at a féte given in
the Coliseum, —a combat of animals and gladiators, — the people saw the
coarse tent of cloth, intended to keep off the rays of the sun, replaced by a
magnificent covering of Oriental silk. They murmured at this gorgeous
prodigality, but declared Cxsar a great man. The introduction of silk
among the Romans was the signal for luxurious expenditure. The patri-
cians made a great display with their silk cloaks of incalculable value ; so

NO. XIX. 95

334 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA

that, from the time of Tiberius, the senate felt itself called upon to forbid
the use of silk garments to men. Examples of simplicity are sometimes
set in high places; thus the Emperor Aurelian refused to the Empress Sey-
erina a dress so costly.

As one of the most useful animals to man is found in the preceding group,
so one of the most mischievous constitutes the following genus : —

Tinra.— These insects are small, but have a remarkable power of de-
struction. ‘They have a short proboscis, formed of two membranous fila-
ments, and a very hairy head. There are several species, all having the
same destructive habits — feeding on furs, clothes, woollen stuffs, and grains
of wheat in granaries. These moths are a constant nuisance and pest.

T. Tapezella. —The Woollen Moth is one of the most destructive. Its
caterpillar has the form of a worm, and is of a glossy whiteness, with a few
hairs thinly sprinkled over it, and a gray line on its back. It is enclosed in
a tube, or sheath, open at both ends, in the interior of which is a sort of
tissue of wool, sometimes blue, sometimes green, sometimes red, according
to the color of the stuff to which the insect attaches itself, and which it
despoils. The exterior of this sheath is, on the contrary, formed of silk,
made by the insect itself, of a whitish color.

The caterpillars are hardly hatched before they begin to clothe themselves.
| Réaumur observed one of these worms during the operation of enlarging its
| case. To do this it put its head out of one of the extremities of its sheath,
| and looked about eagerly, to the right and to the left, for those bits of wool
| which suited best for weaving in.
“The larva changes its place continually and very quickly. If the threads
| of wool which are near it are not such as it desires, it draws sometimes
| more than half its body out of its case to go and look for better ones farther
off. If it finds a bit that pleases, the head remnins fixed for an instant; it
| then seizes the thread with the two mandibles which are below its head,
tears the bit out after redoubled efforts, and immediately carries it to the
end of the tube, against which it attaches it. It repeats many times in suc-
cession a similar manceuvre, sometimes coming partly out of its tube, and
then again reéntering it to fix against one of its sides a new piece of wool.”
After having worked for about a minute at one end of its tube, it thinks
of lengthening the other. It turns itself round in its tube with such quick-
ness, that you would imagine that it could not have had time to do so, and
would think that its tail was formed in the same way as its head, and pos-
sessed the same address in choosing and tearing out the bits of wool.
“Furthermore, when the moth, which is working at elongating its case,
does not find the threads or hairs of wool to its taste within reach of its
head, it changes its place. Réaumur saw this insect walking, at some speed

ORDER XI. STREPSIPTERA. 335

eyen, carrying with it its case. It walks on its six front legs. With the
middle and hind legs it clings to the interior of its case.

“At the same time that the larva becomes longer it becomes stouter.
Very soon its garment will become too narrow for it. Will it enlarge its
old coat, or will it make itself a new one? Réaumur discovered that it pre-
ferred to widen its old coat.

“This is what our naturalist saw when he placed larve with blue cases,
for instance, upon stuff of a red color. The bands, which extended in
straight lines from one end of the case to the other, showed the part that had
been added. ;

“From watching them at different times,

”

says this admirable observer,
“T find that the means which they employ is precisely that to which we
should have had recourse in a similar case. We know of no other way of
widening a sheath— a case of any stuff that we find too narrow — than to split
it right up, and to let in a piece of the proper size between the parts which
we have thus divided; we should let in a piece on each side if the shape of
the tube seemed to require it. This is also exactly what our larve do, with
an extra, and which, with them, is a necessary precaution, so as not to re-
main exposed whilst they are working at the enlargement of their garment.
Instead of two pieces, which should each be as long as their case, they let
in four, each of which is not longer than half the length of their case; and,
as they never split up more than half the length of the case at the same
time, it has enough stuff left in it to keep it together while this opening
is being filled up.”

The wools of our stuffs furnish the moths not only with clothing, but also
with food. Their excrements are little grains, which are the same color as
the wool they have eaten.

ORDER XI. STREPSIPTERA.

The family of Strepsiptera, or Twisted Wings, is composed of some
very singular insects, both in structure and habits. The wings are large,
membranous, divided by longitudinal nervures, and folding lengthwise, like
a fan, on which account Latreille names the order Lhipiptera, from the
Greek word rhipis—a fan. They are mostly parasites, living in and on
other insects. The genera are NXenos, Stylops, Llenchus, and Lalic-
tophagus.

336 DIVISION II. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

ORDER XII. DIPTERA.

This order comprises the two-winged flies, as its name, formed from
the Greek words dis (two) and ptevon (wing) implies. The dipterous in-
sects have six feet, two membranous extended wings, having beneath them
two movable slender bodies, called balancers, which the insect moves with
great rapidity. The use of these appendages is not known. Many of these
insects are extremely obnoxious and hurtful both to man and beast. Some,
however, make partial compensation by consuming decaying animal matter,
which otherwise would infect the air.

The life of these insects, after arriving at the final state, is very brief.
They all undergo a complete metamorphosis, but modified in two material
ways. The larve of many change their skin in order to undergo their trans-
formation to pupx, and some spin a cocoon. The larvi of dipterous insects
are destitute of feet, but some have appendages which resemble them.
After passing through their various changes, and arriving at their perfect
development, the Diptera spend no part of their limited life in idleness.
They belong to every clime, and everywhere are disturbers of the peace, and
a perpetual annoyance to all living things which are within their reach.
“Besides their variety,” says Figuier, “and the number of their species,
they are remarkable on account of their profusion. The myriads of flies
which rise from our meadows, which fly in crowds around our plants, and
around every organized substance from which life has departed, some of
which even infest living animals, are Diptera.

This order is divided into several families, the first of which, Wemocera,
has the antennw, in some, composed of from fourteen to sixteen joints, and
in others of from six or nine to twelve. The body is elongated, with the
head small and rounded; the eyes large; the proboscis exserted, short, and
terminated by two large lips, or extended into a beak. Many of these
smaller Diptera often assemble in vast armies in the air, and disport them-
selves in a kind of dance. They compose the genera Culex and Tipula.

Cutrx. — The Gnats, Mosquitos. The body of the Gnat is long and
cylindrical. When in a state of repose, one of its wings is crossed over the
other. They present a charming appearance when seen through a micro-
scope, their nervures, as well as their edges, being completely covered with
seales, shaped like oblong plates, and finely striated longitudinally. These
scales are also found on all the segments of the body. The antenne of the
Gnat, particularly those of the male, have a fine, feathery appearance.
Their eyes, covered with network, are so large that they cover nearly the
whole of the head.

ORDER XII. DIPTERA.—GNATS OR MOSQUITOS. 337

Réaumur tells us that the sting of the Gnat is composed of five parts.
He acknowledges, however, that it is very difficult to be certain of the exact
number of these parts, on account of the way in which they are united, and of
their form. At the present day we know that there are six. Réaumur, as
also Leuwenhoek, thought he saw two in the form of a sword-blade with
three edges. These have the points reversed, and are serrated on the convex
side of the bend. The prick made by so fine a point as that of the sting
of the Gnat ought not to cause any pain. “The point of the finest needle,”
says Réaumur, “compared to the sting of the Gnat, is the same as the point
of the sword compared to that of the needle.” So small a wound would
heal at once, were it not that it has been imbued with an irritating liquid.

This liquid may be seen to exude, under different circumstances, from the
trunk of the Gnat, like a drop of very clear water.

Réaumur sometimes saw this liquid even in the trunk itself. “There is
nothing better,” he observes, “to prevent the bad effect of gnat bites than
at once to dilute the liquid they have left in the wound with water. How-
ever small this wound may be, it will not be difficult for water to be intro-
duced. By rubbing, it will at once be enlarged, and there is nothing to do
but to wash it. I have sometimes found this remedy answer very well.”

When the insect is about to change from the pupa state, it lies on the sur-
face of the water, straightening the hind part of its body, and extending
itself on the surface of the water, above which the thorax is raised. Before
it has been a moment in this position, its skin splits between the two breath-
ing trumpets, the split increasing very rapidly in length and breadth.

“It leaves,” says Réaumur, “a portion of the thorax of the Gnat easily
to be recognized by the freshness of its color, which is green, and different
from the skin, in which it was before enveloped, uncovered.

“As soon as the slit is enlarged, —and to do so sufliciently is but the
work of a moment, — the fore part of the perfect insect is not long in showing
itself; and soon afterwards the head appears rising above the edges of the
opening. But this moment, and those which follow, until the Gnat has
entirely left its covering, are most critical, and when it is exposed to fearful
danger. This insect, which lately lived in the water, is suddenly in a _posi-
tion in which it has nothing to fear so much as water. If it were upset on
the water, and the water were to touch its thorax or body, it would be fatal.
This is the way in which it acts in this critical condition: As soon as it has
got out its head and thorax, it lifts them as high as it is able above the open-
ing through which they had emerged, and then draws the posterior part of
its body through the same opening; or rather that part pushes itself for-
ward by contracting a little and then lengthening again, the roughness of
the covering from which it desires to extricate itself serving as an assistance.

838 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

“A larger portion of the Gnat is thus uncovered, and, at the same time,
the head is advanced farther towards the anterior end of the covering; but
as it advances in this direction, it rises more and more, the anterior and
posterior ends of the sheath thus becoming quite empty. The sheath then
becomes a sort of boat, into which the water does not enter; and it would
be fatal if it did. The water could not find a passage to the farther end,
and the edges of the anterior end could not be submerged until the other
was considerably sunk. The Gnat itself is the mast of its little boat.
Large boats, which pass under bridges have masts which can be lowered ;
as soon as the boat has passed the bridge, the mast is hoisted up by degrees
until it is perpendicular. The Gnat rises thus until it becomes the mast of
its own little boat, and a vertical mast also.

“Tt is difficult to imagine how it is able to put itself in such a singular,
though for it a necessary, position, and also how it can keep it. The fore
part of the boat is much more loaded than the other, but it is also much
broader. Any one who observes how deep the fore part of the boat is, and
how near the edges of its sides are to the water, forgets, for the time being,
that the Gnat is an insect that he would willingly destroy at other times.
One feels uneasy for its fate; and the more so if the wind happens to rise,
particularly if it disturbs the surface of the water. But one sees with
pleasure that there is air enough to carry the Gnat along quickly ; it is car-
ried from side to side; it makes different voyages in the bucket in which it
is borne. Though it is only a sort of boat, or rather mast, because its
wings and legs are fixed close to its body, it is, perhaps, in proportion to
the size of its boat, a larger sail than one would dare to put on a real ves-
sel; one cannot help fearing that the little boat will capsize. As soon as
the boat is capsized, as soon as the Gnat is laid on the surface of the water,
there is no chance left for it. Ihave sometimes seen the water covered with
Gnats which had perished thus as soon as they were born. It is, however,
still more extraordinary that the Gnat is able to finish its operations. Hap-
pily they do not last long; all dangers may be passed over in a minute.

“The Gnat, after raising itself perpendicularly, draws its two front legs
from the sheath, and brings them forward. It then draws out the two next.
It now no longer tries to maintain its uneasy position, but leans towards the
water, gets near it, and places its feet upon it; the water is a sufficiently firm
and solid support for them, and is able to bear them, although burdened
with the insect’s body. As soon as the insect is thus on the water, it is in
safety ; its wings are unfolded and dried, which is done sooner than it takes
to tell it; at length the Gnat is in a position to use them, and it is soon seen
to fly away, particularly if one tries to catch it.”

These troublesome creatures, during their season, allow us no repose.

ORDER XII. DIPTERA.—THE MIDGES. 339

They enter our chambers at night, and their loud humming forewarns us
of the bloody attack about to be made. Our only refuge is behind a bul-
wark of gauze, or, in other words, mosquito-nets. In our newly-settled
territories, where they most abound, the inhabitants are in the habit of driv-
ing them out with smoke. The Laplanders secure themselves from their sting
by greasing the exposed parts of their body. Yet, vexatious as they are,
we recognize their right to existence, and to those enjoyments which the
Universal Father has provided for them. \

Tiruta. — The Tipulraie have the antenne longer than the head, with
from twelve to sixteen joints. The wings (although some species are ap-
terous) are horizontal or roof-like, with but few nerves, and the feet are
long and slender. They resemble the gnats, but their trunk is extremely
short, terminating in two large lips; and the sucker is composed of two
fibres only. The species are very numerous.

T. Culiciformis. —The Straw-colored Midge. These insects are of so-
cial habit, and sometimes their immense multitudes fill the air like small
clouds. They frequent streams, the borders of forests, and marshes. Their
movements are rapid, and they seem to be constantly on the wing, rising
and falling always in the same vertical line.

A small black species of midges, frequenting damp places, is as trouble-
some as the mosquito. In new and partially-settled countries, at some sea-
sons, as in the spring and early summer, they are intolerable. Their bite
is worse than the sting of the mosquito’s lancet. They appear to be the
most active and bite the most fiercely in the evening twilight.

T’. Oleracea. — Father Longlegs. The extraordinary proportions of this
insect, which is common in fields and pastures, arrest the attention of all,
and children probably gave it its popular name. Father Longlegs has a
considerable power of flight, but does not go far at a time, generally skim-
ming along near the earth, or the top of the grass. Its hind legs are three
times the length of the body, and serve as stilts, to enable it to pass over
hich blades of grass.

The second family of Diptera—the Tunystoma (Wide or Long Mouth)
—comprises the seven following genera: Astlus, Empis, Cyrtus, Bom-
bylius, Anthrax, Leptis, and Dolichopus.

AsiLus. — The insects composing this genus have the proboscis directed
forward in front. They live by rapine and murder. The loud, buzzing
noise they make in flying is the death-knell of innumerable flies, bumble
bees, and beetles, which, with great adroitness, they catch and suck. Their
larve live in the earth, and are there transformed into pup.

Emrts. — This group resembles the foregoing, but the proboscis is either
perpendicular or directed backwards. The head is rounded, nearly globular,

340 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

with the eyes greatly extended. The insects are small, and, while they are
destructive to other species, have a taste for the honey of flowers.

Bompy.ius. — These insects have the antenne close together, and the
proboscis very long, and directed forwards. They make a loud, humming
noise as they hover over flowers, the honey of which they suck up with their
long proboscis. They fly with astonishing swiftness.

The Bombylii are clothed with a black and yellow fur. The feet are of a
light yellow, and the wings have the edges bordered with a sinuous brown
band.

ANTHRAX. — The antennx of these insects are always very short, as is
also the proboscis. They are very hairy, but less so than the preceding.
They often alight on the ground, and upon walls, where the sunbeams fall,
along which they are frequently seen flying. The wings, which are very
large, are clothed, at least in the principal species, in a garb of mourning,
sufficiently remarkable, in which the combinations of black and white are
admirably diversified.

“Here,” says M. Macquart, “the line which separates the two colors is
straight ; there it represents gradations ; in other cases it is deeply sinuous.
Sometimes the dark part shows transparent points, or the glassy part dark
spots. ‘

“This sombre garb, added to the velvet-black of the body, gives the An-
thrax a most elegant appearance; and, while resting on the corolla of the
honeysuckle and hawthorn to suck the juice, forms a most striking contrast,
and sets forth its beauty no less than that of those lovely flowers.”

Doticnorus. — The Dolichopi are insects of a green or copper color,
with long and very delicate legs. They station themselves on walls, the
trunks of trees, and leaves. Some run with celerity and grace on the sur-
face of the water.

The third family of the order — the Tubanides — comprises the genus

Tapanus. — The Tabani are large flies, well known for the torments they
inflict upon eattle and horses, the skins of which they pierce in order to suck
their blood. Cuvier describes them as having a head as wide as the thorax,
nearly hemispherical, and covered, particularly in the males, by the eyes,
which are generally golden-green, with purple stripes. It is only the females
which bite; their sucker, enclosed in the proboscis, is armed with six lan-
cets, with which they pierce the skin of man and beast.

T. Bovinus. —The Common Gad Fly. This species is of a blackish-
brown. The palpi, the face, and the forehead are yellow ; the antenne
black, with a whitish base; the thorax, covered with yellow hair, is
striped with black; the posterior edges of the segments of the abdomen pale
yellow; the legs yellowish, with the extremities black, and the exterior edge
of the wings yellow.

ORDER XII. DIPTERA.— THE TSETSE FLY. 341

These insects are of a most ferocious character, and often leave cattle
which they have attacked covered with blood. Those who keep horses gen-
erally clothe them in summer with a net as a protection against these per-
sistent and vexing foes. Even the lion himself flees in terror before an
African species, which Bruce has described under the name of Tsaltsalyia,
and Livingstone under the designation of Tsetse Fy. The latter affirms
that, in traversing a certain region in Africa, he lost forty-three fine oxen
by the bites of this fly. He remarks, —

“A most remarkable feature in the bite of the Tsctse is its perfect harm-
lessness in man and wild animals, and even calves so long as they continue
to suck the cows. We never experienced the slightest injury from them
ourselves, personally, although we lived two months in their habitat, which
was in this case as sharply defined as in many others, for the south bank of
the Chobe was infested by them, and the northern bank, where our cattle
were placed, only fifty yards distant, contained not a single specimen. This
was the more remarkable, as we often saw natives carrying over raw meat
to the opposite bank with many Tsetses settled on it.

“The poison does not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed
beneath the skin; for, when one is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it is
seen to insert the middle prong of three portions, into which the proboscis
divides, somewhat deeply into the true skin. It then draws it out a little
way, and it assumes a crimson color, as the mandibles come into operaticn.
The previously shrunken belly swells out, and, if left undisturbed, the fly
quietly departs when it is full. A slight itching irritation follows, but not
more than in the bite of a mosquito. In the ox this same bite produces no
more immediate effects than in man. It does not startle him as the Gad
Fly does, but a few days afterwards the following symptoms intervene : The
eye and nose begin to run; the coat stares as if the animal were cold; a
swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes at the navel; and, though
the animal continues to graze, emaciation commences, accompanied with a
peculiar flaccidity of the muscles, and this proceeds unchecked until, perhaps
months afterwards, purging comes on, and the animal, no longer able to
graze, perishes in a state of extreme exhaustion. Those which are in good
condition often perish, soon after the bite is inflicted, with staggering and
blindness, as if the brain were affected by it. Sudden changes of temper-
ature produced by falls of rain seem to hasten the progress of the complaint 5
but, in general, the emaciation goes on uninterruptedly for months, and, do
what we will, the poor animals perish miserably.

“ When opened, the cellular tissue on the surface of the body beneath the
skin is seen to be injected with air, as if a quantity of soap-bubbles were
scattered over it, or a dishonest, awkward butcher had been trying to make

NO. XX. 96

342 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED AMIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

it look fat. The fat is of a greenish-yellow color, and of an oily consis-
tence. All the muscles are flabby, and the heart often so soft that the
fingers may be made to meet through it. The lungs and liver partake of
the disease. The stomach and bowels are pale and empty, and the gall-
bladder is distended with bile. These symptoms seem to indicate, what is
probably the case, a poison in the blood, the germ of which enters when
the proboscis is inserted to draw blood. The poison-germ contained in a
bulb at the root of the proboscis seems capable, although very minute in
quantity, of reproducing itself. The blood after death by Tsetse is very
small in quantity, and scarcely stains the hands in dissection.

“The mule, ass, and goat enjoy the same immunity from the Tsetse as
man and the game. Many large tribes on the Zambesi can keep no domes-
tic animals except the goat, in consequence of the scourge existing in their
country. Our children were frequently bitten, yet suffered no harm; and
we saw around us numbers of zebras, buffaloes, pigs, pallahs, and other
antelopes, feeding quietly in the very habitat of the Tsetse, yet as undis-
turbed by its bite as oxen are when they first receive the fatal poison.
There is not so much difference in the natures of the horse and zebra, the
buffalo and ox, the sheep and the antelope, as to afford any satisfactory ex-
planation of the phenomenon. Is a man not as much a domestic animal as
a dog?

“The curious feature in the case, that dogs perish though fed on milk,
whereas the calves escape so long as they continue sucking, made us imagine
that the mischief might be produced by some plant in the locality, and not
by Tsetse; but Major Vardon, of the Madras army, settled that point by
riding a horse up to a small hill infested by the insect, without allowing him
time to graze; and, though he only remained long enough to take a view
of the country and catch some specimens of Tsetse on the animal, in ten
days afterwards the horse was dead.”

The fifth family of Diptera —-Athericea —comprises the genera Syrphus,
@strus, Conops, and Musca. ,

Syrpuus. — This group is separated into a large number of subgenera,
the most remarkable of which are Syrphus proper, Vermidlio, and Volu-
cella. The Syrphi have the abdomen narrowed from the base to the apex.
Their larve feed solely upon aphides, which they often hold up in the air,
and suck with great rapidity.

Vermiiio. — This insect has a white face; its forehead gray, bordered
with black; the thorax of a yellowish-gray, with four brown stripes in the
male; the abdomen light yellow, spotted with black ; and the wings glassy.

The larva of the Vermilio has a thin, cylindrical body, capable of bending
itself in every direction ; a conical head, armed with two horny points; and

ORDER XII. DIPTERA.—THE BOT-FLY. 343

the last segment elongated, flat, elevated, and terminated by four hairy ten-
tacles ; at the sides of the fifth segment may be observed a little angle, from
which projects a horny, retractile point.

It is of very singular habits. It makes a small tunnel in the sand, having
a conical mouth, where it waits, like the spider, immovable. As soon
as an insect falls into the hole, it raises its head, and, squeezing its prey in
the folds of its body, devours it, and afterwards throws out the skin. It
lives in this way for at least three years before attaining the perfect state.

Vorucetia. — The Volucelle have a strong resemblance to the bumble
bee. Certain kinds make use of and abuse this resemblance to introduce
themselves fraudulently into its nests, and to deposit their eggs therein.
When these eggs have hatched, the larvw, which have the mouth armed
with two mandibles, devour the larvie of their hosts (the bees), which is the
return they make for the hospitality they have received.

(estrus. — The Bot-Fly. In the whole insect world there is not a crea-
ture so mischievous as this. It is the curse of the ox, horse, sheep, deer,
and other animals during the summer. These creatures have an instinctive
consciousness of its approach and sinister designs, and exhibit much rest-
lessness and alarm.

@. Ovis. — This species deposits its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, where
the larva is hatched, and immediately ascends into the frontal sinuses, at-
taching itself very firmly to the living membrane by two strong hooks situ-
ated at its mouth.

@, Bovis. — This species deposits its eggs in the skin of young beeves.
They are soon hatched, and the larva, or worm, pierces the skin, making a
considerable hole therein, which it makes its temporary dwelling-place.
The back of the afflicted animal becomes covered with lumps, like tumors,
or boils, which are filled with a purulent matter, upon which the larve feed.
When their probation in this strange abode is completed, they creep out, fall
to the earth, and make their way into the ground from one to two feet.

@. Equi. — The Bot Fly of the horse deposits its eggs upon such parts of
the skin as are liable to be much licked by the animal, and thus they are
conveyed to the stomach, where the heat speedily hatches the larve, which
are so well known as Bot-worms. After fulfilling their destiny here, they
pass out with the excrement, and undergo their other change in the air.
Although they are not always hurtful to horses, they sometimes prove
fatal.

These insects, in their perfect state, are not often seen, as they take no
nourishment, and as soon as they deposit their eggs die.

- Conors. —In this group the insects have the antenna much longer than
the head, and the last two joints form a mass, with a terminal style.

344 DIVISION III. ARTICULATED ANIMALS.—CLASS IV. INSECTA.

C. Iufipes. — This species experiences its transformations in the bodies
of living bumble bees, escaping between the segments.

CO. Calcitrans resembles the Domestic Fly: it is often seen on windows,
and is very troublesome, before a rain, by its pricking bite, generally upon
one’s legs.

Musca. — The Flies. These insects have the antennxw inserted near the
forehead, the palpi placed upon the proboscis, and transverse nerves to the
wings.

M. Grossa.— This is the largest species known, being nearly, if not
quite, the size of the bumble bee. The body is very bristly and black; the
head is buff; the eyes brown; and the base of the wings reddish. It makes
a loud, buzzing noise, and settles upon flowers in the woods.

M. Vomitoria is the Common Meat Fly, with a fulvous forehead, black
thorax, and blue abdomen, with black marks. Its sense of smelling is very
keen, and it soon finds meats which are exposed to its attacks, and covers
them with its eggs.

M. Carnaria. —The Executioner Fly is rather larger than the Meat
Fly. It is of a dark, metallic, green color, with a slight ash-colored down.
It attacks oxen, and deposits its eggs on meat, and often in the wounds of
animals. “

M. Domesticu. —The House Fly. This insect has an ash-colored body ;
the face black, and also the feet; the sides of the head yellow; and the
forehead likewise yellow, with black stripes. This fly is common to all
countries, invades all houses, and soils, with its dark-colored exudations,
walls, ceilings, windows, mirrors, and all light-colored objects. It feeds on
sweet substances and the fluids that are diffused by perspiration over the
bodies of man and beast. In the early part of the season it does not bite
or sting; but towards the end of summer, it becomes nearly as annoying as
the mosquito.

After the JJuscides, the remaining Diptera, composing the sixth family
of the order, are all parasites

a kind of lice, living on the bodies of vari-
ous animals, birds, and other insects. They are sometimes called Spider
Flies; they run swiftly, and fly sidewise. They constitute the genus L/ip-
pobosca. Il. equina (the Forest Fly). This insect, in some places, is
very troublesome to horses, attaching itself in great numbers beneath the
tail. J. avicularia lives on various species of birds. ZZ. ovdna infests
sheep. Other species live on bats; one is the torment of the stag, and
another makes its home on the honey-bee.

The Dipterous insects, for the most part, are a very ferocious class of
creatures. They delight in blood, and live by robbery and murder ; other
insects, all kinds of beasts, and even man, suffer from their attacks. Yet
in the great economy of Nature they are not without their use.

FOURTH DIVISION. THE RADIATA.

THESE animals, according to Cuvier, have no mesial planes, but may be
variously divided into symmetrical parts, radiating {rom one or more axes.
Their organs of motion, when they have any, are movable spines attached
to the skin, or flexible papillw, capable of inflation. Some are of distinct
sexes, some bisexual, and some are produced by buds. They constitute a
wonderful and mysterious order of life, situated on the outer limit of the
animal kingdom, between which and the vegetable world seeming to form
a connecting link. The Radiated Animals are divided into five classes :
1. Echinodermata (Spiny Skins) ; 2. Hnatozoa (Intestinal Worms), para-
sites dwelling in the intestines of other animals ; 3. <clealepha (the Sea Net-
tles) ; 4. Polypi. These were once considered as plants. They are animals
of a gelatinous substance, with a mouth and digestive organs more or less
complicated. Many of them live in clusters upon branched or expanded po-
lypidoms —i. e., polypus houses. Individually, they are very minute, and
yet they are the most wonderful of architects, constructing vast reefs and
even islands of hard rock, consisting of salts of lime, cemented by animal
matter. 5. Infusoria (Animalcule). These are the most minute mem-
bers of the animal world, and can only be observed by the aid of the micro-
scope. Many of them are so vitalized, that, after having been for a
considerable time dried to a powder, they will revive on being moistened.

CLASS I. THE ECHINODERMATA.

The animals of this class have a well-organized skin, a digestive system,
and a kind of radiating nerves. They are arranged in two orders — those
with feet, or organs -answering the same purpose, constituting the first, and
those destitute of these appendages, the second.

Although these animals seem to be the lowest in the order of sentient
existence, yet a close inspection of their organization shows us many won-
derful peculiarities, and proves to us once more that Nature has impressed the
stamp of perfection as well upon her lowest and most simple creatures, as

upon those that rank highest in the scale.
(315)

346 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.— CLASS I. ECHINODERMATA.

ORDER I. THE PEDICELLATA.

The characteristics of the order are numerous tentacula, furnished with
suckers, which issue from small holes pierced in the skin, and which answer
the purpose of feet, by which they move or adhere to rocks. They com-
pose three great genera,

Asrerias. — The Star-fish. These animals have a body generally in the
form of a five-pointed star, whence their name. Some, however, have a
pentagon body, and others are with concave sides. “The framework of the
body is composed of horny pieces, variously arranged.” Some of the spe-
cies are very common, and specimens may be picked up on our shores at
any time.

The Common Star-fish has the back thickly set with tubercles, and of an
orange color, and the under surface pale. It has rows of feet, or suckers,
which serve as means of locomotion, and as instruments for procuring food.
It is interesting, when one of these creatures is placed on its back in a
plate filled with sea-water, to observe the activity which those sucking feet
display. At first the Star-fish is motionless; for, offended by the rough
handling it has undergone, the feet have all shrunk into the body; but soon
they are seen to emerge, like so many little worms, from their holes, and to
grope backwards and forwards through the water, evidently seeking the
nearest ground to lay hold of. Those that reach it first immediately. affix
their suckers, and, by contracting, draw a portion of the body after them,
so as to enable others to attach themselves, until, pulley being added to
pulley, their united power is sufficient to restore the Star-fish to its natural
position.

This act of volition is surely remarkable enough in so simple an animal,
which scarcely possesses the rudiments of a nervous system, but the simple
mechanism by which the suckers are put in motion is still more wonderful.
Each of these little organs is tubular, and connected with a globular vesicle
filled with an aqueous fluid, and contained within the body of the Star-fish,
immediately beneath the hole from which the sucker issues. When the ani-
mal wishes to protrude its feet, each vesicle forcibly contracts, and, propel-
ling the fluid into the corresponding sucker, causes its extension ; and, when
it desires to withdraw them, a contraction of the suckers drives back the fluid
into the expanding vesicles. All these little bladder-like cavities are con-
nected with vessels which communicate with a vascular circle surrounding
the mouth.

The internal walls of the suckers and their vessels are furnished with
vibratory cilia, and by this simple means a continual circulation of the fluid

they contain goes on within them.

ORDER I. PEDICELLATA.—THE CROSS-FISH. 347

A. Rubens. —The Cross-fish. This species, according to Forbes, is a
sworn enemy to oysters; and, as it is frequently found with one or more of
its rays broken off, the fishermen fancy that it loses them in consequence
of its oyster-hunting propensities; that it insinuates an arm into the incau-
tious oyster’s gape, with the intent of whipping out its prey, but that some-
times the apathetic mollusk proves more than a match for its radiate enemy,
and, closing on him, holds him fast by the proffered finger; whereupon the
Cross-fish, preferring amputation and freedom to captivity and dying of an
oyster, like some defeated warrior, flings his arms away, glad to purchase
the safety of the remaining whole by the reparable loss of a part, as it has
the power of reproducing the broken rays.

“There is, however, reason to think that the Cross-fish destroys his prey
in avery different manner from that just narrated; for star-fishes are not
unfrequently found feeding on shell-fish, infolding their prey within their
arms, and seeming to suck it out of its shell with their mouths, pouting out
the lobes of the stomach, which they are able to project in the manner of a
proboscis. Possibly the stomach secretes an acrid and poisonous fluid,
which, by paralyzing the shell-fish, opens the way to its soft and fleshy
parts.”

Some of the Cross-fishes are distinguished from all others by having four
rows of suckers in each of Te avenues which groove the under surface of
their rounded rays. In consequence of the great number of these singular
organs, the under surface of a living Cross-fish presents a sight truly curious
and wonderful. Hundreds of worm-like suckers, extending and contract-
ing, coiling and feeling about, each apparently acting independently of the
others, give the idea rather of an assemblage of polypi than of essential
parts of one animal. They are sensitive in the extreme, for, if we touch
one of those singular tubes when outstretched, all those in its neighborhood
are thrown into a state of agitation; and when it shrinks from our touch,
changing from a lengthy fibre to a little shrunk tubercle, some of its neigh-
bors, as if partaking in its fears, contract themselves in like manner.

A. Rosacea. — The Rosy-feather Star. This singular species is now the
only representative of the Lily Stars which adorned the bottom of the
primeval seas. It has five large articulated rays, often divided into two
or three branches, and both rays and disk are furnished with articulated
threads.

This beautiful little creature is found in all northern seas. In swimming,
the movements of its arms exactly resemble the alternating stroke given
by the medusa to the liquid element, and have the same effect, causing the
animal to raise itself from the bottom, and to advance back foremost, even
more rapidly than the medusa. When dying, either in fresh water or in

348 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS I. ECHINODERMATA.

spirits, it emits a most beautiful purple color, which tinges the liquid in
which it is killed.

The Snake Stars are essentially distinguished from the true star-fishes by
the long, serpent, or worm-like arms, which are appended to their round,
depressed, urchin-like bodies. They have no true suckers with which to
walk, their progression being effected with great facility by the twisting or
wriggling of their arms, which are moreover in many species furnished with
spines on the sides, assisting locomotion over a flat surface. These arms are
very different from those of the true star-fishes, which are lobes of the ani-
mal’s body, whereas the arms of the Ophiuridw are mere processes attached
or superadded to the body.

The Sand Stars have rays of a whip-like or lizard-tail appearance, while
those of the Brittle Stars look like so many centipedes or annelides attached
at recular distances round a little sea-urchin.

Many of the Brittle Stars are extremely handsome, presenting every vari-
ety of variegation, and the most splendid displays of vivid hues arranged in
beautiful patterns. Not often are two specimens found colored alike.

“The Common Lrittle Star,” says Edward Forbes, “ often congregates
in great numbers on the edges of scallop-banks, and I have seen a large
dredve come up completely filled with them—a most curious sight, for,
when the dredge was emptied, these little creatures, writhing with the
strongest contortions, crept about in all directions, often flinging their arms
in broken pieces around them, and their snake-like and threatening attitudes
were by no means relished by the boatmen, who anxiously asked permission
to shovel them overboard, superstitiously remarking that the things weren’t
altogether right.”

A. Fragilissina (Luidia Fragilissima).—This remarkable animal
measures nearly two feet across. The rays are from five to seven, and gen-
erally five times as long as the disk is broad. Above, the color is brick-red ;
the under surface is straw color.

© The first time I ever took one of these creatures,”

says Edward Forbes,
“T succeeded in getting it into the boat entire. Never having seen one be-
fore, and quite unconscious of its suicidal powers, I spread it out on a row-
ing-bench, the better to admire its form and colors. On attempting to move
it for preservation, to my horror and disappointment I found only an assem-
blage of rejected members. My conservative endeavors were all neutral-
ized by its destructive exertions, and it is now badly represented in my
cabinet by an armless disk and a diskless arm. Next time I went to dredge
on the same spot, determined not to be cheated out of a specimen in such
away a second time, I brought with me a bucket of cold fresh water, to
which article star-fishes have a great antipathy. As I expected, a Luidia

ORDERI. PEDICELLATA. — SEA-HEDGEHOGS. 349

came up in the dredge —a most gorgeous specimen. As it does not gener-
ally break up before it is raised above the surface of the sea, cautiously and
anxiously I sunk my bucket to a level with the dredge’s mouth, and pro-
ceeded in the most gentle manner to introduce Luidia to the purer element.
Whether the cold air was too much for him, or the sight of the bucket too
terrific, I know not, but in a moment he proceeded to dissolve his corpora-
tion, and at every mesh of the dredge his fragments were seen escaping.
In despair I grasped at the largest, and brought up the extremity of an arm
with its terminating eye, the spinous eyelid of which opened and closed with
something exceedingly like a wink of derision.”

Ecninus. — Sea-Urchins, Sea-Iledgehogs. The crust which covers the
body of these animals is composed of calcareous matter, disposed in seg-
a kind of mosaic,

ments nicely fitted to each other, and perforated by
regular rows of holes for the membranous feet. There are also smaller
holes in the crust, which, with four membranous tubes, seem to be the
breathing apparatus. Where the crust is not perforated, it is armed with
broad spines, articulated upon tubercles, and movable. The mouth is fur-
nished with fine flat calcareous teeth, which, as they wear away at their
cutting edges, extend by growth at the opposite extremity. They are slow
walkers, and feed on small crustacea and shelled mollusks, which they seize
with their feet, and crush with their powerful teeth.

EH, Esculentus. —The ovaries of this species are eaten in the spring
months, and have a very agreeable flavor. These Urchins are about the
size of an apple, and of a violet color. Other well-known species are
BE lividus, BF. melo, and E. sardicus. These are all edible, and their size
and abundance are among the striking peculiarities of the fish markets of the
Mediterranean coasts.

Hoornunrta. — Sea-Slugs. These curious animals have an oblong body,
with a leather-like covering, and an aperture at each end. They have the
power to extend the body, like worms, or to blow it up in the form of a
globe. The mouth is without teeth, but is surrounded by curiously branched
tentacula, which the animal can, at pleasure, retract entirely.

In tropical seas, where coral reefs rise nearly to the surface, the Holo-
thurie, or Sea-Cucumbers, as they are sometimes called, from their resem-
blance to that vegetable, are very numerous, and many of them adorned
with most brilliant colors, making the sea-bottom, when seen by the light of
an almost vertical sun, as beautiful as a tropical garden.

Many of the species are esculent, and of a very gelatinous nature. They
are caught and dried by the Malays, and great quantities are sent to market,
under the name of Zre-pang. The Chinese are very fond of them, and
use them in soups.

NO. XX. 97

350 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS I. ECHINODERMATA.

“The Holothuria of Raflles Bay is about six inches long and two inches
thick. It forms a large cylindrical fleshy mass, almost without any outward
sign of an organ, and as it creeps very slowly along is easily caught. The
essential qualities of a good fisherman are great expertness in diving, and a
sharp eye to distinguish the Holothurias from the similarly colored sea-
bottom.

“The great Sea-Cucumber is the largest of all the known European spe-
cies, and probably one of the largest Cucumertie in the world, measuring
when at rest fully one foot, and capable of extending itself to the length of
three. Under the influence of terror, it dismembers itself in the strangest
manner. Taving no arms or legs to throw off, like its relations the Luidia
and the Brittle Star, it simply disgorges its viscera, and manages to live
without a stomach; no doubt a much greater feat than if it contrived to
live without a head. According to the late Sir James Dalyell, the lost parts
are capable of regeneration, even if the process of disgorgement went so
far as to leave but an empty sac behind. Considering the facility with
which the Sea-Cucumber separates itself from its digestive organs, it is the
more to be wondered how it tolerates the presence of a very remarkable

parasite —a fish belonging to the genus /V%erasfer, and about six inches
long. This most impudent and intrusive comrade enters the mouth of the
Cucumber, and, as the stomach is too small for his reception, tears its sides,
quartering himself without ceremony between the viscera and the outer skin.

The reason for choosing this strange abode is as yet an enigma.”
o t=) ry Oo

ORDER II. APODA.

The species are few, and resemble the Holothuriw, but are destitute of
feet. The principal genera are Molpadia, Minyas, Priapulus, Litho-
dermis, Siphunculus, Lonellia, and Thalassema.

CLASS II. ENTOZOA.

This class of parasitical animals is very extensive, and, from the difficulty
of observing them, very perplexing to the naturalist. They live chiefly in
the intestinal parts of other animals, and, as Cuvier well remarks, must
have a use in the economy of nature with which we are quite unacquainted.

“There is scarcely one animal, especially of the vertebrated classes, which
is not infested by several kinds; and those which inhabit one animal are
rarely found in one of another genus. They are met with most abundantly

TAPE-WORMS. 351

in the alimentary canal, and the ducts which empty their contents into it;
but they occur also in the cellular tissue, and in the parenchyma of the most
closely invested viscera, such as the liver and the brain. They are most
frequent ine diseased states of the viscera, and they themselves occasion dis-
ease, or, at all events, annoyance ; but they occur even in healthy states.
The difficulty of conceiving how they could get into places so obscure, and
apparently so well protected, and the fact of their never having been found
alive except in the interior of living animals, caused it for a long time to be
believed that they were products of spontaneous generation. It has been
found, however, by actual observation, that most of them either produce ova
or living young ones, and that many of them have the sexes in different
individuals.” Some attain to a very large size.

The Entozoa are true parasites, and cannot assimilate matter for their own
growth and nourishment unless they receive it from the body of a living
animal. They have no vestige of breathing apparatus, which shows that
they must receive their nourishment aerated by the breathing of the animals
upon which they are parasitic. This supersedes all necessity of a circulating
system ; and the traces of a nervous one are so very obscure that many nat-
uralists have doubted its existence.

The injury which these intestinal worms occasion to the animals upon
which they live, when their numbers become éxcessive, is well known. As
is the case with all mysteries, these creatures, more especially those which
inhabit the human viscera, have led to a great deal of mystification and
quackery, and nostrums innumerable are recommended to the public; nor
are there wanting fabricated imitations of some of the more formidable spe-
cies, usually prepared from the intestines of other animals. The best
remedy for those inhabiting the human intestines appears to be animal oil,
mixed with spirits of turpentine.

This class is divided into two orders, several families, and a great number
of genera; we shall, however, confine our observations to the genus Tienia,
of the second order. This group comprises the Tape-worms, which are
among the most cruel enemies of those animals in which they dwell, as they
can absorb their nourishment and exhaust their substance.

The Tape-worm, one of the most stubborn worms which infest the bowels
of beasts, and also of man, has its name from the broad, flat, ribbon-like
appearance of each articulation, and of the whole body, which is composed
of these articulations. Bremser makes two species, — Tenia and Bothry-
ocephalus, —both of which were formerly united in one species under the
name of Zventa. One kind of both species appears in the human body ;
namely, 1. Tienta solium (the Single or Long-limbed Chain-worm), in
which the organs of generation are found on one side of every articulation.

352 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS II. ENTOZOA. CLASS III. ACALEPHA.

It is the kind most commonly met with in Germany, France, and England.
2. Bothryocephalus latus (the Proper or Broad Tape-worm), in which the
sexual organs are found on the flat sides of the articulations. It is met with
only in Russia, Poland, Switzerland, and some parts of Frances and causes
little pain. Both kinds often reach the length of twenty or thirty feet, and
usually only detached parts pass from the body, but not that which has the
head; before this has passed away, the worm reproduces itself; and, more-
over, what was formerly doubted, several Tape-worms are often met with in
one intestinal canal.

“The symptoms of the Tape-worm are a peculiar sensation of pricking
in the stomach, abdomen, anxiety, cramps, swoons, &c. ; but all these symp-
toms are uncertain, and only the actual passing of pieces of the worm from
the body is a certain proof its existence. The cure is difficult, and requires
an experienced physician.”

CLASS TI. ACALEPHA.

The Radiated Animals which find their home in the waters of the ocean,
and which have perceptible vessels ramifying the pulpy substance of the
body, constitute this class. They are seen swimming in all seas, and are
remarkable for their transparent, gelatinous bodies, which reflect every hue
as the rays of the sun fall upon them.

Swelling from almost microscopical dimensions to a diameter of two feet
and upwards, the Acalephx, in a long row of genera and species, inhabit
the icy as well as the temperate and torrid seas. In them also is seen the
influence of the more energetic solar light, which in the equatorial zone
tinges the whole animal creation with livelier colors ; for while the meduse
of our seas are generally obscure and dull as the waters in which they swim,
those of the torrid zone appear in all the splendor of the azure, golden-
yellow, or ruby-red tints which distinguish the birds and fishes of the
tropical regions. During stormy weather their delicate squadrons, incapa-
ble of standing the shock of the wave, sink into profounder and more
tranquil depths; but as soon as the winds are lulled they again appear on
the smooth surface, and delight the eye of the seafarer as he traverses the
equatorial ocean,

The Acalephex are divided into two orders — Simple and /1ydrostatic.

These creatures are of no direct use to man; but indirectly they render a
service of the most important character. They partly nourish the colossal
whale, which furnishes the oil of commerce, and millions of mollusks, which
feed the mighty herring-shoals, whose capture gives employment and wealth
to whole nations of fishermen.

ORDER I. SIMPLICIA. 353

ORDER I. ACALEPHA SIMPLICIA.

This order comprises the genera Medusa, Cyanea, Rhizostoma, Astoma,
Berve, and Cestwm, which are subdivided into several sub-genera. They
swim by alternate contractions and expansions of the body.

Mepusa. — This genus has a central disk on the upper surface, some-
thing like the head of a mushroom, and sometimes called the umbrella.
The margins of the umbrella, and those of the mouth in the middle of the
under surface of the disk, are furnished with tentacula, very much varied in
orm and size.

These animals resemble a crystalline mushroom endowed with locomo-
tive powers. The tentacles, however insignificant they may appear, are
formidable weapons against all minute marine animals they come into con-
tact with. Like those of the polypi, they are provided in many species
with numberless small needles, which not only wound, but seem also to poi-
son by the transmission of a corrosive liquid, which deprives the benumbed
animal of all resistance. Several species, on being touched, produce a burn-
ing sensation, so that they have been deservedly called Sea-nettles.

They move by alternately expanding and contracting their umbrella-shaped
disk, the convex upper surface of which is directed forward, while the fim-
briated vessels and tentacles follow behind.

This genus embraces all those Acalephw which have a true mouth on the
under side of the disk; this mouth, however, is, in some species, a simple
opening, and in others is placed on a peduncle.

Cyanrea.— A central mouth and four lateral ovaries distinguish all the
species of this group.

C. Aurita, a widely distributed species, has at maturity four long arms,
and another species, C. chrysaora, has the margin of the umbrella furnished
with long tentacula, and rows of brown or yellow spots, forming rays on the
convex surface.

Ruizostoma. — Those Acalephie which have no central opening or mouth,
and obtain their nourishment by suction through the tentacula, constitute
this genus. These are common animals, often attaining a diameter of two
feet, and a weight of twenty pounds. They are frequently left on sandy
shores by the receding tide. They seem to be of a social nature, being met
with in large congregations swimming in the same direction.

Astoma. —The animals of this genus have no central mouth, no rami-
fications of the peduncle, and no cavities for the ovaries.

Beror. — These animals have a globular body, provided with salient ribs,
extending from the centre of the upper surface to that of the under, and

B54 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS III. ACALEPHA.

are bristled with points or filaments, connected with a kind of vessel. They
receive their nourishment through a large and capacious mouth. The num-
ber four plays the same important part in the umbrella and globe-shaped
Acalephe, as the number five in the construction of the star-fishes. All
parts of the body are divisible by four, and radiate from a centre.

ORDER II. THE HYDROSTATICA.

The members of this order, according to Cuvier, are distinguished by one
or more vessels filled with air, by means of which they keep themselves sus-
pended in the water. Appendages exceedingly membranous and varied in
their forms are attached to the air-vessels, and with these constitute the
whole visible organization of the animal. The order comprises the genera
Physalia, Physsophora, and Diphyes.

PuysaLia.— The Physalie have a large oblong body, —a mere air-
vessel, — with an oblique and wrinkled salient crest on the upper surface.
They swim or float upon the sea when smooth, the crest answering the pur-
pose of a sail. The tentacles can be rolled together, or rapidly extended to
a length of twenty feet. They employ them as a net, and, dragging them
through the water, entrap small fishes, which are paralyzed by the venomous
secretion of their funnel-shaped suckers, and conveyed to the numerous
mouths of the compound animal, which, sucking like leeches, pump out
their nutritious juices.

Puyssornora.—The members of this genus have no crest, the air-
vessel is much smaller than in the preceding, and the numerous tentacula
are suspended in a bunch under the air-vessel.

Sars, and other naturalists, consider these animals to be merely alternating
generations of the bell-shaped Acalephx, belonging undoubtedly to the most
curious denizens of the ocean. They are composite creatures, forming a
kind of social republic, in which some individuals are exclusively destined
for locomotion, while others provide the colony with food, or are charged
with the propagation of the species. A whole republic grows out of a larva
or egg of a bell-shaped medusa, which, like a budding plant, gradually
unfolds itself to this closely-united confraternity, and the latter in its turn
gives birth to simple bell-shaped jelly-fishes. It has ‘also been discovered
that the delicate feathery forms of the sea-wreaths, sea-feathers, and sea-
bells, — sertulariev, plumularie, and campanularie, — which were for-
merly supposed to be polypes, proceed from medusa larve, and in their turn
bring forth perfect Acalephe.

Dirnyes.— The members of this genus are remarkable specimens of

—

ORDER I. THE CARNOSI. 355

anal organization, and so far are a puzzle to naturalists. They are
always found curiously paired, one within the cavity of the other; yet they
can in all cases be separated without injury to the life of either. They are
gelatinous and transparent, and move like the Meduse.

CLASS IV. POLYPI.

Most naturalists give the name of Polypus to certain gelatinous animals,
generally shaped like little bags, the borders of which are provided with fila-
ments, causing them to resemble those pulps which the ancients called
Polypi. Destitute of interior organs, without eyes, lungs, or brain, with-
out nerves, or even intestines, these animals subsist entirely by absorption.
They are wholly stomach, and throw off the surplus of digestion through
the mouth. When cut into a number of pieces, and each divided into par-
ticles, each separate fragment becomes a new and complete animal. They
may be turned inside outward, like a glove, without their vital functions
being at all impeded by the operation. Two Polypi, or two portions of the
same Polypus, may be grafted together, and the united mass will continue
to live as before. They are often connected together in greater or less
numbers, and possess one common vitality diffused among them all; for the
food taken by each contributes to the nourishment of the whole community ;
and yet each individual Polypus acts for itself, seeking its own sustenance,
and fighting for it with the other Polypi to which it is joined. They subsist
on shell aquatic animals, which they seize with their feelers, and introduce
into the pouch which serves them for a stomach. Sometimes their prey is
larger than themselves. During the hot weather they multiply by suckers,
like vegetables, with great rapidity; but on the approach of winter they
fall to the bottom of the water, where, it is said, they are protected from
the cold till the return of the spring.

This class forms three orders.

ORDER I. THE CARNOSI.

The Carnosi are those fleshy animals that have the power of fixing them-
selves by their base, though many of them can crawl upon that base, or
detach it and swim; but the motion which they most usually perform is that
of expanding or retracting the tentacula, and opening and shutting the
single aperture of the body. The order consists of two genera.

Actinta.— These Polypi have a fleshy body, frequently adorned with

356 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS IV. POLYPI.

very lively colors. The tentacula are arranged in several rows about the
mouth, resembling the petals of a double flower, whence these animals are
called “Sea Anemones.” The light exercises great influence upon them, and
they open or close their tentacula according to the fineness of the day, like
so many real flowers. The Actiniw are common to all seas; but in the
warmer climates they grow to a larger size, and expand in all the glory and
splendor of a flower-garden. They are very voracious animals, and feed
apparently on whatever comes within their reach — crustacea, small fishes,
and shelled mollusks, which they capture with their outspreading tentacula,
and convey, with remarkable quickness, to the mouth, and thence to the
stomach, ejecting the empty crusts and shells with the greatest ease.

The A. Sendlis is found on the sands, in which it conceals itself when
disturbed. It is about three inches wide, with a rough, leathery covering,
of an orange color, and two rows of tentacula, adorned with a rose-colored
ring.

A. Bquint has a soft, finely-striated skin, of a bright purple, frequently
spotted with green.

Lucernonia. — The Lucernarice are very nearly connected with the pre-
ceding group, but are of softer substance. The bell-shaped body rises from
a small stem, generally found attached to sea-plants on a rocky bottom.
The tentacles are arranged in tufts, at regular intervals, round the border of
the disk. The crystalline body sparkles with greenish and reddish tints, and
swims with considerable swiftness, by alternate contraction and expansion,
whenever it desires to change its place.

ORDER II. GELATINOSI.

The animals composing this order are wholly gelatinous, with no horny,
fleshy, or firm substance in the body. A simple cavity serves for a stomach.
They constitute the genus

Hypra.— Cuvier says that these Polypi are the simplest of all animals
in their organization, the whole of which consists of a small gelatinous horn,
beset with filaments which serye as tentacula; still they can swim, crawl,
and even walk, after the manner of the Loopers, or Geometrical Caterpil-
Jars. They stir the water with their tentacula, and thus bring their prey
within their reach. They love the light, which appears to affect them pow-
erfully and agreeably. They may be multiplied indefinitely by a division of
the body; but the natural reproduction is by buds, which shoot out from
various parts of the parent animal, and drop off when matured. They are
found in stagnant fresh water, and vary in color from green to gray.

ORDER III. CORALLIFERI.—THE CORALS.

eo
Gr
~1

ORDER III. CORALLIFERI.

This order includes many species which were once regarded as marine
plants, but are now known to belong to the animal kingdom. The individ-
uals are multitudinous, and so united as to form compound animals, gener-
ally fixed like plants, by a branched stem, or by simple expansions of a
solid substance at the base, or in the middle of the group. All are con-:
nected in a common body, and have a general nutrition, so that whatever
one eats contributes to the nourishment of the common body, thus forming
a most extraordinary republic.

The Greek name Polypidom — house of the Polypi—is usually given
to the common part of these compound animals. “These polypidoms are
formed in layers by deposition, somewhat similar to the ivory of teeth; and
they are of various degrees of hardness, the hind parts being composed of
salts of lime, but always united by means of animal matter.”

These apparently insignificant creatures, often so minute as to escape the
eye of man, perform labors in the ocean depths in comparison with which
the proudest and grandest monuments of human skill must be considered as
nothing. They’are the invisible architects which construct new islands and
enlarge the boundaries of continents.

The prodigious surface over which their combined and ceaseless toil ex-
tends, ought to be taken into consideration in order to understand the
important part they play in nature. They haye built a barrier of reefs four
hundred miles long round New Caledonia, and another which extends along
the north-east coast of Australia one thousand miles in length. “This
represents,” says an illustrious zodlogist, “a mass in comparison with which
the walls of Babylon and the Pyramids of Egypt are child’s toys. And
these edifices of the Polypi have been reared in the midst of the ocean wave,
and in defiance of tempests which so rapidly annihilate the strongest works
constructed by man.” Notwithstanding their extreme minuteness, the Polypi
have nevertheless, by their calcareous buildings, reacted powerfully on the
crust of the terrestrial globe. They have modified it in two ways — by rais-
ing the bed of the sea, and by forming large calcareous mountains with their
débris ; in fact, when we examine the layers of which these are composed,
we perceive that they are formed entirely of polypoids and bivalves which
swarmed in the ancient oceans of the globe.

Ground to dust by the furious waves, these creatures have only here and
there left a few traces to attest their presence, and serve as a light to the
modern investigators of science.

Such is the opinion of Lyell, and most modern geologists. In support

NO. XX. 95

358 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS IV. POLYPI.

of this view, it has been observed that certain lagoons are filled with a cal-
careous mud, evidently due to the detritus of polypvids, and that, so soon
as this is dried, it exactly resembles the chalk of our ancient mountains.
To the action of the waves, the chief agent in transforming polypoids and
bivalves into calcareous strata, there is joined another, much less energetic
it is true, but extremely curious. An observing man of genius, Mr. Dar-
win, relates that all around the Madrepore Islands the transparency of the
water allows one to see shoals of fish, principally of the genus Sparus, which
feed on the tips of the branched polypoids, exactly as flocks of sheep browse
on the pasturage of our meadows. In order to nourish themselves with the
workman, they devour along with him certain parts of his edifice; and, as
these are absolutely indigestible, the result is, according to the English
savant, that a part of the chalky substance which encumbers the bottom of
sea in the vicinity of the Madrepore Reefs, comes from the defecations.
When the Spari are dissected, their alimentary canal is seen filled with pure
chalk.

The Madrepore Islands generally lie on an upheaval of the bed of the
sea. Volcanic action begins the work, and the Polypi finish it: they bring
the construction up to the level of the waves. These islands always display
a peculiar configuration: they are nearly all circular, and there is a crater-
like depression in the middle. This peculiarity seems to be owing to the
fact, that the little workmen ean support their vital energies better where the
water, being agitated, brings them a more ample supply of nourishment.
The animals in the centre, placed under different conditions, wasted and
languishing, can only raise their living rampart more slowly. In the Pacific
Ocean, where a tolerably large number of these islands are seen, the polyp-
idoms reach the level of low tides, and after that the great surges raise the
middle part, by casting back upon it incessantly the fragments which they
tear away from the circumference. When in the lapse of years the island
rises above water, the detritus of marine plants raises it still more, and the
virgin soil is speedily fecundated by seeds which the winds, birds, and cur-
rents carry thither. Soon after man comes to crown the handiwork of
nature by raising dwellings on the ruins of those of myriads of unseen
beings. Then a king arrives, who sits proudly upon his throne, amidst this
mass of skeletons of Polypi abandoned by the sea.

This order is divided into three families and a large number of genera.
In the third family are found the Pennatula, or Sea-pens, and the Spongia,
or Sponges.

The Pennatula, and other related species, are capable of locomotion by the
contractions and dilatations of the fleshy parts. These are compound polypes,
and are attached to a stem which sticks loosely in the sand. The Sea-pens

ORDER III. CORALLIFERI. — SPONGES. 359

are phosphorescent; when stimulated or touched in one place, the light
spreads upwards from one branchlet and one polypus to another, until it
reaches the summit, while all the parts below remain dark. When the
whole is thrown into a vase filled with fresh water, it emits .sparks on all
sides, affording a most beautiful spectacle.

Sponeta.— The Sponges. These are well-known fibrous, marine bodies,
whose only sentient portion, according to Cuvier, is a sort of thin eclatine,
which soon dries off. The Sponges, of which we see in our museums but
the naked skeleton, are endowed with a wonderful variety of shape and tint.
Like the polypi and corals, they imitate every form of vegetation, and
decorate the submarine grounds of the warmer seas with their fantastic
shrubberies.

On examining a sponge, its centre will be found pierced with wide pas-
sages or channels, which, branching out like trees, terminate in the innumer-
able small oscula or pores with which its surface is covered. Dr. Grant has
made the highly interesting discovery, that the latter continually imbibe
water, which is expelled by the former as long as the sponge retains life. In
this manner a perpetual circulation is maintained, providing the sponge with
nourishing particles and oxygen, and performing the functions both of an
alimentary tube and a respiratory apparatus. Thus even in the lowest
stages of existence the bounty and admirable foresight of Nature appear in
all their plenitude.

The propagation of the sponges is provided for in a no less wonderful
manner. Their young eges, or sporules, germinate on the sides of the
canals, forming innumerable minute bud-like points. These, as they in-
crease in size, are gradually clothed with vibratile hairs, or cilia, and finally
detaching themselves, move about freely in the water, the united action of
the perpetually vibrating cilia creating strong currents round their little
bodies, and driving them forwards. In the open sea their wanderings con-
tinue for a short time, until, if they be not devoured on the way, they reach
a place suitable for their further development, where they attach themselves
forever, bidding adieu to all youthful rambles, and only desirous henceforth
of leading the quiet sedentary life of their parents.

S. Communi’s. —The Common Sponge, so serviceable in our households,
is most abundant in the Lycian Seas, the most valuable kinds of which
abound “about the Gulf of Macri, along the Carian coast, and round the
opposite islands. The species which live immediately along the shore near
the water’s edge, though often large, are worthless. These are of many
colors ; some, of the brightest scarlet or clear yellow, form a crust over the
faces of submarine rocks; others are large and tubular, resembling Holo-
thurize in form, and of a gamboge color, which soon turns to dirty brown

360 DIVISION IV. RADIATA.—CLASS V. INFUSORIA.

when taken out of the water; others again are lobed or palmate, studded
with prickly points, and perforated at intervals with oscula. These grow to
a considerable size, but, like the former, are useless, since their substance is
full of needles of flint.”

CLASS V. INFUSORIA.

Beyond the boundaries of visible animal existence the earth teems with
forms of life of the most extraordinary character, and which occupy a most
important place in the economy of nature. So small as to escape the scrutiny
of the naked eye, and discovered only by the aid of the microscope, yet their
calcareous shells, by immensity of numbers, and accumulating from century
to century, form no small portion of the composition of the solid crust of
the earth, and thus whole countries are built up of the remains of these
microscopical creatures.

As a general thing, the Infusoria, or Animalcules, have a gelatinous body,
and a very simple organization. They constitute two orders.

ORDER I. ROTIFERA.

These creatures have an oval, gelatinous body, a mouth, a stomach, an
intestine, and vent near the foot. They also have a tail variously formed,
and on the fore part of the body an extraordinary organ, like one or more
toothed wheels, which revolve with great rapidity. The genera are /uncu-
laria, Trichocerca, Tubicolaria, and Branchionus.

The Tubicolaria form little habitations for themselves, of foreign substan-
ces, out of which they protrude the rotatory organs in a manner similar to
the tentacula of Polypi.

ORDER II. TWOMOGENEA.

These have no viscera, or complex organization, and many of them have
no mouth. They form a considerable number of genera, all of which
resemble each other in the rapidity of their movements. Those constituting
the genus Vibrio have a round body, like a very minute thread, and are
often seen in vinegar.

They move with great rapidity, darting hither and thither, in an apparently
sportive mood, as we see minnows sport in their watery element.

AP RICAN

NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN

Samuel Walker & Co. Boston

Plate XAXV.

rr

APPENDIX.

FIRST DIVISION. . VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.

CLASS I. MAMMALTA.

THE reader will remember that we commenced this work with a consider-
ation of Order II. (Quadrumana), of Class I. This was done for special
reasons, of a personal character, which need not be mentioned here. Our
concluding pages, therefore, will be devoted to a brief investigation of the
first order of Mammalians, then omitted, —i. e., Man, and his varieties.

ORDER Il. BIMANA (Two-handed).

There is a great diversity of opinion among naturalists in regard to the
origin and natural history of Man. According to the older authors, he
constitutes but one genus, and one single species, and has sprung from a sin-
gle pair; the innumerable varieties, now existing, it is supposed, are the
results of the climates through which the race has been distributed. The most
eminent modern naturalists, on the contrary, affirm that man could not have
descended from a single pair, but must have been created by the Almighty
in nations, and in those regions of the earth where the several races find
their home. According to some of these authors, the race comprises two
hundred genera. We cannot here enter into this controversy, and will only
remark, that however, and in whatever manner, created, the human race is
still one in the common possession of superior and homogeneous attributes,
among which is the power to aspire to the Ideal, and to recognize Religion

as a supreme fact in human life.
(361)

za

362 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

Blumenbach, whose system of classification is the most generally adopted,
reduces the several races of men to five varieties, as follows : —

I. The first variety occupies the central parts of the old continent, viz.,
Western Asia, Eastern and Northern Africa, Hindostan, and Europe. _ Its
characters are the color of the skin, more or less white or brown; the cheeks
tinged with red; long hair, either brown or fair; the head almost spherical ;
the face oval and narrow; the features moderately marked ;_ the nose slightly
arched; the mouth small; the front teeth placed perpendicularly in the
jaws; the chin full and round. The Hindoos, the Abyssinians, the Ber-
bers, or inhabitants of Mount Atlas, have features not essentially differing
from those of the Europeans, except in the color of the skin, and which
among the Hindoo and Abyssinian mountaineers is quite fair, This varicty
is called the Caucasian, from its supposed origin in the Caucasus. It is
composed of the ruling and conquering classes.

Il. The second variety is denominated the Lastern. The color is yellow ;
the hair black, stiff, and straight; the head almost square; the face large,
flat, and depressed; the features indistinctly marked; the nose small and
flat; the cheeks round and prominent; the chin pointed, and the eyes
small. This variety comprises the Asiatics to the east of the Ganges, and
of Mount Beloor, except the Malays. In Europe it embraces the Lapland-
ers, and in America, the Esquimaux.

III. The third variety is composed of the aboriginal Americans, except
the Esquimaux. There are numerous tribes, or nations, all distinguished
by a copper color, stiff, straight black hair, low foreheads, sunken eyes, pro-
jecting nose, prominent check bones, and large face.

IV. This variety —the Malay —comprehends many of the islanders of
the Pacific Ocean. The color is tawny; the hair black, soft, thick, and
curled; the forehead projecting; the nose thick, wide, and flattened, and
the mouth large.

V. The Negro constitutes the last variety. Its characters are, — color
black; hair black and woolly; head narrow; forehead convex and arched ;
cheek bones projecting; nose large, and almost confounded with the upper
jaw; the upper front teeth obliquely placed ;_ the lips thick ; the chin drawn
in, and the legs crooked. This race is found in Western and Southern
Africa, and the great islands of the Pacific Ocean, generally in the interior.

The arrangement of Blumenbach, who adds the Malayan and American
races to the three admitted by Cuvier, has, as we have said, been very gener-
ally adopted; but there would seem to be quite as good reason for admitting
others. Fischer, in his Synopsis Mammalium, indicates what he conceives
to be seven species of Homo (reducing the number that had previously been
assigned by Bory St. Vincent) ; and the numerous divisions and subdivis-

ORDER II. BIMANA. 363

ions of that naturalist being tolerably in accordance with the apparent value
of the character presented, whether or not they truly represent the real dis-
tinctions, or, in some instances, similarity be confounded with identity, —a
problem to which philology seems to offer the only key, —the outline of
his arrangement may be transferred to the present work, where it may
chance to prove useful to some observers. His supposed species are as
follows : —

1. 7/1. Japeticus, Bory, — corresponding to the Caucasian race of Cuvier.
— This is distributed under three principal varieties, termed Caucasicus,
Arabicus, an@ Indicus: of these, the first is arranged into five sub-yarieties,
named Caueasicus (Orientalis), Pelagius (Meridionalis), Celticus (Occiden-
talis), Germanicus (Borealis), and Sclavonicus (Intermedius), which sev-
erally comprehend the Caucasic, Pelasgic, Celtic, Teutonic, and Sclavonic
(including the Sarmatic) nations; the second into two sub-varieties — At-
lanticus (Occidentalis), and Adamicus (Orientalis), respectively containing
the Pheenicians, ancient Numidians, and Guanches, or the Punic nations,
and the Abyssinians, primitive Egyptians (modern Copts), Jews, Armeni-
ans, Arabians, &e., or the Coptic and Semitic nations.

2. I. Neptunianus, Bory. — Ranged under these subdivisions : the first
unnamed (Qu. Malayanus), allied to, probably much mingled with, the
Indian variety of ZZ. Japeticus, and consisting of the well-known Malays,
which people the coasts only of the Peninsular of Malacca, the islands of
the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, &c., never penetrating inland; the second,
Occidentalis, comprising the New Zealanders, and natives of the Society,
Friendly, Sandwich, and other islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean: it
is suggested, also (but with due and much required hesitation), the ancient
Mexicans and Peruvians; the third, Papuensis, composed of certain in-
habitants of part of the north coast of New Guinea, the shores of the
Islands Waigou, Salwaty, Gammeau, and a few others, is obviously a hy-
brid race, derived from the intermixture of the Malay and true Papou.
Cuvier has remarked the affinity of language subsisting between the Malays
and South Sea Islanders.

3. H. Scythicus, Bory. — The first division of this, unnamed ( Qu. Mon-
golensts), consists of the Calmucks and other Tartars ; the second, Sinicus
(Tomo sinicus of Bory), of the Chinese, Japanese, &c.; and the third and
last, Hyperboreus (Homo hyperboreus, Bory), of the Esquimaux. It cor-
responds to the Mongolian race of Cuvier.

4. H. Columbicus, Bory. —The ordinary Red Indian of America.

5. H. Ethiopicus, Bory. — Divided into the true Negro, not otherwise
named ; Caffer (Lomo Caffer, Bory), inhabiting Caffraria, and part of the
coast of Madagascar; Melanoides (Z/omo melaninus, Bory), the Papous, or

-

364 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

indigenous inhabitants of Madagascar, the shores of New Guinea, the
islands of New Britain, New Ireland, and many others, also of Van Die-
men’s Land; and Hottentotus (//omo J/ottentotus, Bory), the Bush and
other Hottentots, which, it may be remarked, have not a few analogies with
the nomadic Mongoles. The last appear to have been much reduced and
encroached on, till a remnant only is left near the south coast of Africa, just
as the Celts are now confined to the extreme west of Europe.

6. I. Polynesius, Fischer (77. Australaricus, Bory).— The Alfourous,
the lowest in the scale of human beings, comprising the inland inhabitants
of the Malay Peninsular, the islands of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, New
Guinea, New Holland, &e.

Tne Caucastan Race (Homo Japeticus, Bory).

This variety, to which we belong, is distinguished by the beauty of the
oval which forms the head; and it is this one which has given rise to the
most civilized nations — to those which have generally held the rest in sub-
jection. It varies in complexion and in the color of the hair.

The name Caucasian, says Cuvier, has been affixed to the race from
which we descend, because tradition and the filiation of nations seem to
refer its origin to that group of mountains situate between the Caspian and
Black Seas, whence it has apparently extended by radiating all around.
The nations of the Caucasus, or the Circassians and Georgians, are even
now considered as the handsomest on earth. The principal ramifications of
this race may be distinguished by the analogies of language. The Arme-
nian or Syrian branch, spreading southward, produced the Assyrians, the
Chaldeans, the hitherto untamable Arabs, who, after Mahomet, expected to
become masters of the world; thie Phoenicians, the Jews, the Abyssinians,
which were Arabian colonies, and most probably the Egyptians. It is from
this branch, always inclined to mysticism, that have sprung the most widely-
extended forms of religion. Science and literature have sometimes flourished
among its nations, but always in a strange disguise and figurative style.

The Indian, German, and Pelasgie branch is much more extended, and
was much earlier divided, notwithstanding which the most numerous aflini-
ties have been recognized between its four principal languages — the Sanscrit,
the present sacred language of the Hindoos, and the parent of the greater
number of the dialects of Hindostan; the ancient language of the Pelasgi,
common parent of the Greek, Latin, many tongues that are extinct, and of
all those of the south of Europe; the Gothic, or Teutonic, from which are
derived the languages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the
German, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and their dialects ; and finally,
the Sclavyonian, from which are descended those of the north-east, the Prus-

ORDER II. BIMANA. 365

sian, Polish, Bohemian, and that of the Vandals. It is by this great and
venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, that philosophy, the arts and
sciences, have been carried to their present state of advancement; and it
has continued to be the depository of them for thirty centuries.

It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, whose tribes, once very numer-
ous, came by the north, and are now confined to its most western extremi-
ties; and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa into Spain, and have
become confounded with the many nations whose posterity have mingled in
the peninsula.

The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the Indians; and
their descendants still present a very close resemblance to the nations of
Europe.

The Scythian and Tartar branch, extending first, towards the north and
north-east, and always wandering over the immense plains of those coun-
tries, returned but to devastate the happier abodes of their more civilized
brethren. The Seythians, who, at so remote a period, made irruptions into
Upper Asia; the Parthians, who there destroyed the Greek and Roman
domination ; the Turks, who there subverted that of the Arabs, and subju-
gated in Europe the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian people, were all
offsets from this branch. The Finlanders and Hungarians are tribes of the
same division, which have strayed among the Selavonic and Teutonic
nations. Their original country, to the north and eastward of the Caspian
Sea, still contains inhabitants who have the same origin, and speak similar
languages; but these are mingled with many other petty nations, variously
descended, and of different languages. The Tartars remained unmixed
longer than the others throughout that extent of country included between
the mouth of the Danube to beyond the Irtisch, from which they so long
menaced Russia, and where they have been finally subjugated by her.

Tue Eastern or Moncortan Race (12. Scythicus, Bory).

The Mongolian is known by its projecting cheek bones, flat visage, nar-
row and oblique eyebrows, scanty beard, and olive complexion. Great
empires have been established by this race in China, and Japan, and its con-
quests have sometimes extended to this side of the Great Desert; but its
civilization has always remained stationary. Its branches (the Calmucks
and Kalkas), still wandering shepherds, traverse the Great Desert. Thrice
did their ancestors, under Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane, spread far the
terror of their name. A third branch (the Mantchures) have recently con-
quered and still govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all the
hordes which extend to the north-east of Siberia, subject to Russia, are also
to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race and such

NO. XX. a)

366 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. — CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

also is deemed to be the fact with regard to the original inhabitants of van-
ous islands bordering on that archipelago. With the exception of some
Chinese literati, the nations of the Mongolian race pertain generally to dif-
ferent sects of Buddhism, or the religion of Fo.

The origin of this great race appears to have been in the Altai Mountains,
as that of ours in the Caucasus; but it is impossible to trace with the same
certainty the filiation of its different branches. The history of these wan-
dering nations is as fugitive as their establishments ; and that of the Chinese,
confined exclusively to their own empire, furnishes little that is satisfactory
with respect to their neighbors. The affinities of their languages are also
too little known to direct us in this labyrinth.

One branch of this race, although of no account in the scale of nations,
yet occupying as it does so singular a geographical position, and separated
from the parent stock by oceans and continents, deserves a more particular
description. We refer to the Esquimaux, who are found in the northern
parts of our continent. By most persons they are regarded as Indians,
and are spoken of as such. But they have no characters in common with
the Indians. In stature, complexion, and the position of the eyes they are
entirely different. There is yet another point of difference between this peo-
ple and the Indians: from Cape Farewell to Behring’s Strait, the Esquimaux
speak one language, and derive almost their whole subsistence from the sea ;
whereas the Indians never resort to fishing where they can do otherwise, and
speak a great variety of dialects, even when the language of the several
tribes is radically the same.

The average height of those in Greenland and the eastern part of Amer-
ica is beneath five feet. They are deficient in physical strength, and the
muscle of even the young and strong men is not prominent or well devel-
oped. The necks of the men are small and shrivelled ; those of the women
are well proportioned. Distended abdomen is universal among them, but
corpulence is not common. Both sexes dress alike. Their dress consists of
a jacket, with a hood, a pair of breeches, which reach below the knee, and
an enormous pair of boots —all of seal-skin. The jacket has one flap be-
fore and another behind, both of which hang nearly to the ground. These
habiliments, doubled, or even trebled, are their protection in winter and
summer. Sometimes these garments are made of other materials. The
clothing of the children does not differ from that of adults. Their principal
articles of food are train oil and the flesh of seals and walruses. These
animals are watched for hours on the ice, and finally despatched with spears.
In summer the Esquimanx kill a few reindeer, and in districts where they
are found, musk oxen. They also attack and destroy the polar bear. Their
only arms are spears, and bows and arrows —all or most of which weapons

ORDER II. BIMANA. 367

are constructed of pieces of bone and fragments of wood, fastened together,
and tipped with ivory. As their country produces no wood, they are com-
pelled to resort to such means. In winter, they reside in huts made of
snow, which are lighted and warmed by lamps. Their summer habitations
are tents of skins, which are supported by the bones of marine animals and
reindeers’ horns. When they travel in winter, they transport their effects
on sledges made of bone, and drawn by dogs. Procuring food is the sole
duty of the men; but all other labors devolve on the women.

Both sexes are equally expert in the management of canoes, which are
made of seal-skins stretched on a frame of wood or bones. One tribe of
Esquimaux, discovered by Captain Ross in the south-eastern part of Baftin’s
Bay, have no canoes, or any means of floating, excepting on pieces of ice.
The Esquimaux have the rambling propensity which distinguishes the In-
dians, with this difference — they prefer the most desolate and inhospitable
regions. They have no settlements or fixed places of habitation ; but there are
several mustering points, at which they assemble at certain stated times:
Igloolik, the mouth of the Coppermine, and the mouth of the Mackenzie,
are some of them. There is no marriage ceremony among the Esquimaux.
Children are betrothed in infancy. Bigamy is common, but a man seldom
has more than one wife at a time. Sometimes they select wives for them-
selves. Divorces depend on the pleasure of the parties, and are very com-
mon. Children are also adopted, and the connection binds the parties as
firmly as the ties of blood. They are very fond of their children, whom
they never chastise or correct. This kindness is not reciprocated by the
children, who abandon their parents whenever they become burdensome.
The Esquimaux are superstitious, and have priests who pretend to hold in-
tercourse with the invisible world. The gods of their worship are many.
Where they have had little or no intercourse with the whites, the Esquimaux
are scrupulously honest. They never touch each other’s property without
permission. Yet they are envious to a degree scarcely credible. The pos-
session of any article draws on a man the ill will of all his neighbors.
Gratitude is absolutely unknown to them. In sickness or danger, the hus-
band cares not for the wife, nor the wife for the husband. Parents receive
no attention in their old age, and deny their children the rights of sepulture.
Selfishness is the ruling principle of the Esquimaux. Their hospitality, like
that of other savages, is universal. Strangers are received in the kindest
manner: every want is removed, every accommodation supplied. The good
quality is balanced by a proneness to falsehood. Their lies are chiefly con-
fined to calumnies against each other, and false accusations. This mostly
prevails among the women. ‘They are not quarrelsome, nor ferocious, nor
are they cowardly. In pain, cold, starvation, disappointment, or when ill

368 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

treated, their equanimity is admirable. They seldom dispute or quarrel, and
revenge is scarcely known among them. Yet they venture to sea on loose
cakes of ice, and attack the polar bear without the least hesitation.

Tie American Inpian (/1. Columbicus, Bory).
> ~

All the Indian tribes of the American continent have the same physical
characteristics. The bronze or copper color, the straight, coarse, black hair,
the hazel eyes, the high-cheek bones, and erect form, are common to them
all. There is, indeed, some diflerence in the stature of different. tribes.
The Osages are very tall, and the Shoshonees are below the middle stature.
Each race, and indeed each tribe, has its peculiar physiognomy. To a
European, or Anglo-American, all Indians look alike; but one accustomed
to them can distinguish the tribes with almost unerring certainty. Thus a
Dahcotah is as readily distinguished from a Chippeway, or a Winnebago, by
his features, as his dress. Yet the difference is not so great as to induce a
belief that all the tribes are not descended from the same stock.

The Indians in the northern part of North America are divided into
several great families. The Algonquin, or Chippeway, is one of the two
most numerous now in existence. All the tribes of New England were Al-
gonquins, if we may take identity of language, manners, and customs as a
proof of the fact. The vocabulary of the Narraganset tongue, recorded by
Roger Williams, proves them to have been a branch of the Algonquin stock.
The Mohegans, considered the progenitors of the other tribes in New Eng-
land, spoke the same tongue. The tribes in Maine claimed the same origin.
The Delaware, or Lenni Lenape, were of the same family; and their lan-
guage has been pronounced, by competent judges, the most perfect existing.
The Iroquois, or Six Nations, once dreaded from the Atlantic to the Missis-
sipp1, are Algonquins. This tribe did and still does extend from the mouth
of the St Lawrence to the Mississippi, and thence northward to Great
Slave Lake; for so far do the Nayheeowawk, or Knisteneaux, extend their
rambles.

On the western side of the Mississippi is another great Indian family,
viz., the Sioux, or Dahcotah. The Dahcotah proper inhabit the country on
the west side of the Mississippi, north of the Wisconsin, to the sources of
the Mississippi. Their territory extends westward to the Missouri. This
tribe speak a language radically distinct from that of the Algonquin race.
Their origin is unknown, and their own traditions are at variance on this
point one with another. One account, and the most probable, represents
them as having been driven from the confines of Mexico by the Spaniards.

The branches of this tribe are the Winnebagoes, the Otoes, the Toways,
the Missouris, the Assinniboins, the Omahaws, the IXansas, and the Osages.

ORDER II. BIMANA. 369

All these tribes speak dialects of the Dahcotah tongue. The Assinniboins
are known also by the names of Ossinneboins, Ossinnepoilles, Stone In-
dians, and Hohays. This last is the name they give themselyes. Their
secession from the Dahcotah stock is recent, and its cause is as follows: One
Dahcotah had eloped with the wife of another, and taken refuge in the tents
of his kindred. The husband, going to reclaim his spouse, was slain by the
adulterer. His father and uncles, demanding blood for blood, according to
the laws of the tribe, were slain also. The quarrel of the dead was taken
up by their relatives, and the kindred of the guilty persons were defeated
with loss. A series of bloody encounters ensued, till at last the party of the
original aggressor were worsted and separated from the tribe.

They were called Hohays, and have been at war with the Dahcotahs till
within a few years. They now roam over the plains from the Saskashawin
to the Missouri, where they live by hunting the buffalo. Their principal
resort is about Devil Lake. As well as the Indians farther north-west,
they have few guns, or other articles, the manufacture of the whites. Their
number cannot be ascertained, but it is certain they exceed a thousand fight-
ing men. A tradition of the Winnebagoes says they were driven from the
frontier of Mexico by the Spaniards, towards whom they entertain a heredi-
tary hatred to this day. Within two centuries, they were united with the
Otoes, the Toways, and Missouris. They are a fierce, warlike people, and
have more national spirit than any other Indians on the frontier. The Otoes
and Missouris, now united, are renowned among the tribes of the Mis-
souris for their bravery. They could muster, a few years since, about
three hundred men.

The Toways still dwell on the Mississippi. They have from one hundred
to two hundred men. The Osages are divided into three tribes, and can
boast over one thousand warriors. The Kansas inhabit the plains about the
heads of the Arkansas and Red Rivers. Their number is unknown. The
Omahaws live high up the Missouri. _ Besides these tribes, there dwell on
the Mississippi, between the River Des Moines, the Wisconsin, and the Mis-
souri, the Sacs and Foxes — a branch of the Chippeway tribe. They speak
the Chippeway tongue, and number above one thousand men. On the Mis-
souri are the Pawnees, divided into three tribes, of which the Arikarees are
a branch. They live by hunting the buffalo, and are said to have a language
of their own. The Mintarees, or Bigbellies, the Mandans, the Crows, and
the Blackfeet, also live on the Missouri; and each is said to have a language
of its own. Their numbers are unknown. The Shoshonees live between
the head waters cf the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. They are almost
constantly on horseback, and are at war with the lower tribes of the Mis-
souri. On the Columbia River are the Chohunnish, the Skilloots, Echeloots,

370 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

Multnomahs, Clatrops, and other tribes. Their haunts and numbers are
unknown. They live by fishing as well as hunting, and differ in manners
and customs from the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains. They are neither
so well fed or clad. Most of these tribes have the practice of flattening the
heads of infants between boards, whence the general name of Flatheads.
They have some commerce with ships on the north-west coast. Nothing is
known of the language of any of these people. In the south of the United
States, we have four tribes, viz., the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Cherokees, and
Creeks. All these have made some progress in civilization. The Cherokees
have a written and printed language, said to be radically different from all
others. They number about fifteen thousand souls. The Choctaws and
Chickasaws are each more numerous. North of Great Slave Lake is anothes
family of Indians, among which are the Chippewyans, the Copper Indians,
the Hare Indians, and the Dog Ribs. Of these the Chippewyans, the
Copper Indians, and the Dog Ribs speak the same language. They all
wage war with the Esquimaux. The Dog Ribs are also oppressed and per-
secuted by the Copper Indians, who rob them, and take from them their
women, whenever an opportunity occurs. These tribes live by hunting the
reindeer chiefly, and by fishing in the winter. Their morals and manners
are below the standard of their southern neighbors, and their number is very
small. There are also the remnants of some tribes residing within the limits
of the United States, viz., the Mohegans, the Delawares, the Shawanoes,
the Senacas, the Oneidas, the Piankashaws, and some others. Most of these
live by agriculture as well as the chase. Intercourse with the whites has
not been advantageous to them. They have learned all the vices of the
civilized state without its virtues. Besides all these, there is a tribe in the
interior of Newfoundland, who have shunned all intercourse with the whites..
The Indians have uniformly resisted all attempts to civilize them, where they
could support themselves by the chase. Some few tribes, such as the
Southern Indians and the remnants of the Six Nations, having been hemmed
in by the whites, and circumscribed in their limits, so as to be unable to live
by hunting, have turned to agriculture for subsistence. But such a depar-
ture from the habits of savage life is not to be found where there is a possi-
bility of supporting life by other means. The hospitality of Indians is

among their most striking qualities. In any of the tribes, a stranger is

>

received with the utmost respect and attention. His person and property
are considered sacred.
A pleasing and eraphie writer, whose name we have not been able to as-
certain, has furnished the following description of Indian manners : —
“With all, or almost all the Indian tribes, the sole care of the men is to
provide food. The labor is the exclusive lot of women. The use of the

ORDER II. BIMANA. 371

axe or hoe is considered beneath the dignity of the male sex. It belongs to
the females to plant corn, to make and mend garments and moccasons, to
build, to pitch tents, cut wood, bring water, to tend horses and dogs, and,
ona march, to carry the baggage. The women do not murmur at this, but
consider it a natural and equitable distribution of family cares. But they
are regarded as an inferior race, and often transferred as property. Polyg-
amy is general. Every man has as many wives as he can support, and, in
marriages, the will of the bride is seldom or never consulted. A man ad-
dresses himself, indirectly to the parents of his intended wife, and her fate
depends on their will. The custom of dowry is reversed among Indians.
The man makes certain presents to the parents of his wife, instead of receiv-
ing a portion with her. The marriage ceremony is always very simple, and
in most tribes there is none at all. Adultery is punished by cutting off the
nose, or otherwise mutilating the offending female; sometimes, though
rarely, with death. In some tribes, this crime is regarded as a venial fault,
and, in very many, the husband lends his wife to a friend, without opposition
on her part. Divorces are frequent, and at the pleasure of the contracting
parties. In such cases, the wife is usually left to provide for the children as
she may. It is no uncommon thing to see an Indian woman who has been
five or six times repudiated before she finally settles in life. In some tribes,
especially those of Dahcotah origin, it is held the duty of each man to marry
all the sisters of a family, and to have as many wives as he can support. In
most tribes, and we believe in all, incest is held in abhorrence. Instances
of devoted attachment are not uncommon. All Indians, of whom we have
any knowledge, believe in one Supreme God, and the immortality of the
soul. They attribute all good and all power to the Supreme Being. Many
tribes also believe in the existence of an intelligent evil principle, whose ill
offices they endeavor to avert by prayer and sacrifice. They never ask the
Supreme for anything, but merely return thanks for benefits received,
saying that he is the best judge of what is for their advantage. They be-
lieve in many subordinate deities, two of whom reside in the sun and moon.
They attribute supernatural powers to all serpents, especially rattlesnakes,
and will kill no animal of the genus. Even the eel escapes on account of
his resemblance. They pay religious honors to rocks and venerable objects.
They believe that brutes have immortal souls as well as men; and, in short,
that all animated nature teems with spirits. In their belief, sorcery is
blended with the healing art, and their priests are also physicians and jug-
glers. These priests practise feats of sleight of hand with all their religious
ceremonies ; but, with a few exceptions, they have no power or influence
over the multitude. The future state of the Indians is a material paradise,
where they will follow the same occupations, and enjoy the same delights,

372 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

they have experienced in this world. They have also a vague idea of future
punishment for sins committed in the body. Among the superstitions of the
Algonquin and Dahcotah tribes is a very singular one. A man is sometimes
devoted, by his parents or himself, to a life of ignominy. In this case, he
dresses like a woman, and performs all female avocations. He associates
with women only, and sometimes takes a husband. He is held in utter con-
tempt by all, though his condition be not of his own choice. This condition
is frequently owing to a dream of his parents while he is yet unborn. In
many tribes men have what they call their medicine bags. These are filled
with bones, feathers, and other rubbish. To the preservation of their medi-
cine bags they attach much importance. Besides this, each holds some
particular animal in reverence, which he calls his med¢ezne, and can by no
means be induced to kill, or eat when killed, for fear of some terrible mis-
fortune. Moreover, the Indians leave tobacco, worn-out clothing, and
other articles, on rocks, as sacrifices to invisible spirits.

“The above is nearly the sum of their religion. It is, we believe, impos-
sible to estimate the number of the North American Indians with any degree
of accuracy. It is, however, very small throughout, in proportion to the
extent of territory; for a hunting people cannot be very numerous. Their
wars, of which we have heard so much, do not materially affect them.
They are carried on in detail, by small parties, and consequently are not
very destructive. They very seldom give quarter; but when a prisoner is
spared, he is sure of being adopted by the conquering tribe. The tribes
who inhabit the prairies go to war on horseback, and their weapons are
spears and bows and arrows. Those who inhabit the forests are generally
armed with guns. Their courage is moral and passive rather than active.
They think it cowardice to be affected by calamity, or to give way to passion.
or feeling. To be always ready and willing to die, and to suffer whatever
may befall with constancy, is their idea of the perfection of courage.

“As to government among them, there is none. They have no laws;
but there are customs, which every individual scrupulously observes. In
cases of murder, for instance, the rule is, blood for blood, and the homicide
rarely shuns the penalty of his deed. They have chiefs, but the power of
these is limited to persuasion, and they can command no one. Sometimes a
chief becomes such in virtue of his achievements in war or his wisdom. In
some tribes there is something like hereditary rank; but even then author-
ity does not descend in a direct line. The son of a chief is often set aside,
to make room for one more worthy. But in war, implicit obedience is given
to the commands of the leader. The tribes that inhabit the prairies all live
by hunting the buffalo, mostly on horseback. Those who dwell in wooded
countries hunt deer and smaller animals. The more primitive savages are

ORDER II. BIMANA. 373

the poorest, but at the same time the least dependent; for they have few
wants, and can supply those few without assistance. Those who live nearer
the whites have more of the comforts of life, but are no whit more civilized
or happier; for their enjoyments are not multiplied. We may say, that if
the Indian trade of the Mississippi were interrupted for five years, all the
aborigines of that quarter would be in danger of perishing, as they depend
on the whites for clothing and weapons. The Indians ean never be danger-
ous, as there is no union among them. They have no letters, unless we
count a few rude hieroglyphics as such. On the whole, we may speak of

them as a brave, reckless, generous, and unfortunate people. The Indians
in the southern part of North America have been subject to the Spaniards,
and are now dependent on the Republics of Mexico and Gautemala, if we
except some tribes, such as the Apaches, the Nabajoas, and the Mosquitos.
The independent tribes of the north of Mexico resemble those of the United
States in manners and customs. Living by the chase and plunder, and pro-
vided with fleet horses, they harass the frontiers and hunters. On the coasts
of Yucatan, the Indians live by hunting, fishing, and the trade in dye-wood.
The extensive ruins of cities in Mexico prove the former extent of its popu-
lation. The natives possess great muscular force, are well formed, and live
to a great age. It is difficult to form an opinion of the character of a peo-
ple which has been so long subjected to the most cruel oppression. At the
time of the conquest, the rich inhabitants of Mexico fell a prey to the
rapacity of the Spaniards; and the Aztec priests, who were the depositaries
of all the historical knowledge of the country, became the victims of
fanaticism.”

The Mexican Indians are grave, melancholy, and silent; their music and
dances display the same character. The Indians of South America do not
differ materially, in their physical characteristics, from those of the northern
half of the continent, and, except those of Peru and Chili, are without civ-
ilization. In the extensive regions formerly belonging to Spain, they may
be divided into two classes — the independent Indians, or Indios bravos, and
those who have been reduced to submission. The former are entirely stran-
gers to agriculture ; support themselves by the chase and fishing; some of
them eat ants, and lizards, and even a kind of mud. The natives of Peru,
descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the empire of the Incas, have, as
well as those of Columbia, been emancipated since those countries have
delivered themselves from the Spanish yoke. Their services were important
during the war of the colonies against the mother country. They are, in
general, well made and healthy. They are superstitious, wearing amulets
on different parts of their bodies. They make a bitter, intoxicating drink
‘from a certain plant, and use poisoned arrows. Their villages are fortified,

NO. XX. 100

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374 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

and, in case of necessity, they retire into the mountains. The Indians of
Chili are mostly independent. Their features are regular, and their com-
plexions are not very dark. Their principal wealth consists in herds of
oxen, horses, and guanacos. They pay little attention to agriculture, being
nomadic in their habits. They worship the stars, and recognize a Great
First Cause. Astronomy is not unknown to them. In Buenos Ayres, the
mission of the Jesuits succeeded, in some degree, in civilizing the natives.
The tribes of Brazil are numerous; many of them are entirely savage, and
both sexes go naked. Their manners and habits are very similar to those
of the North American tribes. They live by the chase, which, with war, is
the only occupation of the men; the women are the laborers, beasts of bur-
den, servants, &c., of these warlike tribes. Their mutual wars are very
sanguinary, and many-of them are constantly at war with the Portuguese,
while others have entered into friendly connections with them. Some of
them have adopted fixed habitations, and practise a rude kind of agricul-
ture; some of them make vases of clay, gather cotton, and make cloth.
At the southern extremity of South America are the Patagonians, who have
large, nervous frames, a dark complexion, a flat nose, high cheek bones, and
a large mouth. The stories of their gigantic size have not been confirmed
by the later voyagers.

Tne Marays (//. Neptunianus, Bory).

The vast regions south of the peninsula beyond the Ganges contain those
peoples, which, according to Blumenbach, constitute the fourth type of
Mankind, and to which is assigned the general designation of Malays.
They are distributed over the coasts of all the islands of the Indian Archi-
pelago. The innumerable small islands of the Southern Ocean are also
peopled by a handsome race, who appear to hold a near relation to the In-
dians, and whose language bas much affinity with the Malay; but in the
interior of the larger islands, particularly in the milder portions of them,
there exists another race of men, with black complexions and negro faces,

all extremely barbarous, — which are named Alfourous ; and on the coasts
of New Guinea and the neighboring islands is a kind of Negro nearly similar
to those of the eastern coast of Africa.

Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles gives this name to a people of Asia who
have adopted the religion and language of the Arabians, and intermarried
with them, so that they have become separated from their original stock, and
form a distinct nation. In the thirteenth century we find the Malays on
the Peninsula of Malacea, where they built a city of the same name, and
founded an empire. Their sultans subdued Sumatra, where the nation seems
to have dwelt previously to their settling in Malacca. They afterwards
we

ORDER Il. BIMANA. 375

possessed themselves of the rest of the Sunda Isles of the Philippines,
the Moluccas, and some of the Australian groups, where Malay tribes are
found, resembling in their features, religion, and government the Malays
of Malacca. At that time they acted a splendid part in Asia; they carried
on commerce, in part with their own ships, and planted colonies. Great
numbers of ships from China, Cochin China, Hindostan, and Siam filled the
harbors of Malacca.

They are now divided into distinct tribes, without any general head.
This is partly owing to the superiority which the Europeans, particularly the
Dutch, have obtained in the Indian Seas, and partly to the feudal system
of the Malays, by which the national power has been divided, and a common
spirit prevented by the increasing power ‘of the vassals. The superior vas-
sals obey the sultan, or supreme commander, only when they please, and the
vassals under them have similar liberty. The great body of the nation con-
sists of slaves; their masters are the oramlai, or nobility, who are indepen-
dent, and sell their services to him whe pays them best. The Malays are
different from the Hindoos, Birmans, and Siamese. They are strong, ner-
vous, and of a dark-brown color; their hair is long, black, and shining ;
the nose large and flat; their eyes brilliant and full of fire. Impetuosity
bordering on fury, treachery, impatience of constraint, love of plunder and
blood, characterize the Malays of Asia. Those in the islands of Australia
are, in general, more gentle, kind, affable, open and honest, and are distin-
guished by the finest and most symmetrical persons. The Malays of Asia,
including the Eidahans and Dejakkese, in Borneo; the Biajoos (one of the
wildest tribes), and the Macassars, in Celebes; the Harafores, on the
Moluceas; the Sabanos, in Magindanio; the Tagats and Pampangoes, in
the Manillas; the Bisayans, in the lesser Philippines, have a remarkable
resemblance in their features, in their form of government, —a sort of
feudal system, —and in violence and cruelty. In general they profess the
Mohammedan religion, are fond of navigation, war, plunder, change of
place, and of all daring enterprises. ‘Besides the Koran, the Malays have
various local laws; each’ state has its own, relating chiefly to commerce.
The maritime code of Malacca was collected as early as 1276, and confirmed
by Mohammed Shah, sultan of the country. They pay more respect to
their absurd laws of honor than to justice or humanity; and we find force
continually triumphing among them over weakness. Their treaties and
their promises of friendship continue only as long as the interests which
prompted them seem to demand. They are always armed, and are perpet-
ually at war among themselves, or engaged in plundering their neighbors.
When they find opportunity, they will attack European and American ves-
sels by surprise, and kill the crews, if they succeed in capturing them. No

376 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

free Malay is seen without a dagger. The people, in general, are very
skilful in preparing weapons, particularly daggers. Their constant use of
opium contributes to infuriate them ; and when maddened by its effects, they
rush out, with their daggers in their hands, yelling, “ Amok! amok!” (ines,
kill! kill!), whence the expression to “run a-muk.” The Malays are active
only in war, where they are excited only by the thirst of robbery and blood.
At home they are indolent, leaving all the labor to their slaves, and despis-
ing agriculture.

Tue Necro (/1, Ethiopicus, Bory).

The Negro race is confined to the southward of the Atlas chain of moun-
tains; its color is black, its hair crisped, the cranium compressed, and nose
flattened. The projecting muzzle and thick lips, says Cuvier, evidently ap-
proximate it to the apes; the hordes of which it is composed have always
continued barbarous.

The negro formation prevails in Western Africa in the region of the Gam-
bia and Senegal, extending southwards, is most strongly marked in Guinea,
and passes gradually over into the Caffre and Hottentot formation. In East-
ern Africa, it commences to the south of Abyssinia, prevails in Zanguebar
and Monomotapa, though not in general pure. Of the tribes in the more
central of Africa little is known. The heat of the climate in all these regions
may have some effect on the tint of the skin, but is by no means the only or
the principal cause of the black color, since, under the same climates of the
torrid zone, there are found all shades of complexion. White men in Af-
rica only become somewhat swarthier, but never black, even in a succession
of generations, unless they intermingle with the negroes; and blacks, in
other regions and climates, are not found to lose their native hue. The seat.
of the black color is the rete mocosum, and the external surface of the true
skin (cutis) ; and when the rete mucosum is destroyed, as by disease, &e.,
the color is lost; so in parts of the body where the epidermis is unusually
thick, —the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet,—it is of a
lighter shade. Negroes are also distinguished from other races by other
external and by some anatomical peculiarities, particularly in the conforma-
tion of the cranium. The projection of the whole visage in advance of the
forehead ; the prolongation of the upper and lower jaws; the small facial
angle; the flatness of the forehead, and of the hinder part of the head
(occiput), and the compression in the direction of the temples, allowing less
space for the brain than in some other varieties ; the woolly, frizzled hair ;
the short, broad, and flat nose; the thick, projecting lips, with many other
peculiarities of formation, constitute some of the characteristics of the
Ethiopic race.

ORDER II. BIMANA. 377

The African tribes of this variety have, in -general, elevated themselves
so far above the simple state of nature, as to have reduced the lower animals
to subjection, constructed settled habitations, practised a rude agriculture,
and manufactured some articles of clothing or ornaments. In political in-
stitutions they have made no- advance, their governments being simple
despotisms, without any regular organization. Their religion is merely the
instinctive expression of the religious feeling in its lowest form of fetichism.
Their languages are described as extremely rude and imperfect, almost des-
titute of construction, and incapable of expressing abstractions. They have
no art of conveying thoughts or events by writing, not even by the simplest
symbolical characters. The Negro character, if inferior in intellectual
vigor, is marked by a warmth of social affections, and a kindness and ten-
derness of feeling, which even the atrocities of foreign oppression have not
been able to stifle. All travellers concur in describing the Negro as mild,
amiable, simple, hospitable, unsuspecting, and faithful. They are passion-
ately fond of music, and they express their hopes and fears in extemporary
effusions of song. The opinion formerly maintained, that they were of an
inferior variety of animals, would not now find an advocate, or a convert,
even in the ignorance or the worst passions of the whites. Whether they
are capable of reaching to the same height of intellectual cultivation as the
Europeans, is a question which we need more facts to decide.

The foregoing form Blumenbach’s five general divisions of the Human
Family. The varieties are so numerous that, with one or two exceptions, we
cannot attempt a description of them here, or indeed scarcely refer to them.

Tur HEBREWS.

The appellation of ZZebrew, so far as we can learn from history, was first
given to Abraham by the people of Canaan, among whom he dwelt. It
seems to have been applied to him on account of his emigration (about
2000 B. C.) from Mesopotamia, beyond the Euphrates, into the land of
Canaan (Palestine). Some, however, consider it as a patronymic derived
from Heber, great-grandson of Shem, from whom Abraham was descended.
Whatever meaning was attached to the term //ebrews before the time of
Jacob (Israel), it appears afterwards to have been limited to his posterity,
and to have been synonymous with Israelites. This singular people, which
has exercised a more permanent and extensive influence by its religion, than
polished Greece by her taste, or triumphant Rome by her arms ; which has
survived the last wrecks of its palaces and cities, and the annihilation of its

378 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

political existence as a state, and which presents the wonderful spectacle of
a race preserving its peculiarities of worship, doctrine, language, and feel-
ings, in a dispersion of eighteen hundred years, over the whole globe, pre-
sents to the mere philosopher a not less important subject of contemplation
than to the theologian, who reads in its history a series of direct and strik-
ing interpositions of Providence. Its history reaches back to the earliest
periods of the world; its code of laws has been studied and imitated by
legislators of other ages and distant countries ; and the two religions, which
now divide the greater part of the civilized world, have been ingrafted on
the stock planted by the children of Abraham. The Hebrew history begins
with the patriarch of the nation, Abraham ; but that of the Hebrew state,
with the acquisition of Palestine.

Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, they merely formed one nomadic family,
whose history exhibits pictures of the wild hunter, the migratory herdsman, and
the incipient husbandman ; and in which we already find the worship of one
God, the rite of circumcision, and other traits,of the future nation. It was in
Lower Egypt, however, whither Israel had migrated, and where his descen-
dants resided four hundred and thirty, or, according to some, two hundred and
fifty years, that they became a powerful nation. Joseph, having become
grand vizier of Egypt, assigns his brothers a residence in the fertile Goshen.
They increase rapidly, and become formidable to the Egyptian monarchs,
who require them to build and inhabit cities. The oppressions to which
they are subjected lead them to flee from the tyranny of their hard masters,
and they find a leader and deliverer in a lonely exile, who had forty years
before committed the crime of slaying an Eeyptian officer, and had since
resided on the borders of Arabia, tending the flocks of his father-in-law.
The number which left Egypt was six hundred and three thousand five hun-
dred and fifty fighting men, exclusive of the Levites. This unarmed, or
at least unwarlike crowd, is pursued by the Egyptians, but escapes across
an arm of the Red Sea, the waters of which swallow up the chariots and
horsemen of the pursuers.

Niebuhr thinks that this passage was effected near Suez, where he him-
self forded the sea, which is about two miles across. Burckhardt is of the
same opinion. The law —a code at once moral, religious, and political —
is given to the Hebrews from Mount Sinai; God himself is their Leader,
their King; the constitution is strictly theocratic ; a violation of it is sac-
rilege, and is attended with punishments from heaven; the possession of
Palestine is assured to them, and they set forward again for the promised
land. On arriving at the frontiers of their new country, their spies bring
them back word that it is occupied by a fierce and warlike people, and they
immediately demand to be led back to Egypt. But Moses determines to

ORDER II. BIMANA. 379

conduct them again into the desert, to form a new generation of bold and
hardy warriors; there they pass thirty-eight years as a nomadic nation.
After the death of their great lawgiver, on the summit of Mount Nebo, the
Hebrews entered the land which contained the bones of their fathers, and
the long-promised streams and mountains of their God. Joshua assumed
the command, led them across the Jordan, and, after a contest of seven
years, obtained possession of the country. This period of four hundred
years may be considered as the heroic age of the nation.

The most extraordinary fact in the natural history of this race, is the im-
mutability of its physical characteristics. All written descriptions of early
times, relative to the Jewish race, concur in establishing the permanence of
their type. We are informed, by modern travellers, that the same features
are common in Mesopotamia, their original seat, and also scattered through
Persia, Afghanistan, &c., the direction in which, we are taught by the
annals of modern times, some descendants of the ten tribes were dispersed,
long after the Assyrian captivity in the eighth century B. C. In short, the
Jewish features meet one in almost every country under the sun; but it is
worthy of special remark, that Hebrew lineaments are found in no region
whither history cannot track them, and rarely where their possessors do not
acknowledge Jewish origin. Nor will the fact be questioned, we presume,
that well-marked Israelitish features are never beheld out of that race; al-
though it has very frequently been contended that Jews in certain climates
have not only lost their own type, but have become transformed into other
races !

The number of Jews now existing in the world (of those that are regard-
ed as descendants in a direct line from, and maintaining the same laws with,
their forefathers, who, above three thousand years ago, retreated from Egypt
under the guidance of the lawgiver, Moses), is estimated by Weimer, Wolff,
Milman, and others, variously, from three to five millions. In all climates
and countries they are recognized as the same race. Weimer, whose statis-
tics are lowest, gives the following : —

* Arrica. — They are scattered along the whole coast, from Morocco to
Egypt, besides being found in many other parts. Morocco and Fez, 300,-
000; Tunis, 130,000; Algiers, 30,000; Gabes, or Habesh, 20,000; Trip-
oli, 12,000, &e. Total, 504,000.

* Asta. —In Mesopotamia and Assyria. The ancient seats of the Baby-
lonian Jews are still occupied by 5270 families, exclusive of those of Bag-.
dad and Bassora. Asiatic Turkey, 330,000; Arabia, 200,000 ; Hindostan,
100,000; China, 60,000; Turkistan, 40,000; Province of Iran, 35,000,
&e. Total, 738,000.

“ Eurore. —Russia and Poland, 608,000; European Turkey, 321,000 ;

880 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. —CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

Germany, 138,000; Prussia, 134,000; Netherlands, 80,000; France,
60,000; Italy, 36,000; Great Britain, 12,000, &e. Total in Europe,
1,918,053.”

In America, Milman averages them at six thousand only; but this was
certainly very far below the mark, even when his book was published, and
they have since been increasing with immense rapidity. We should think
that an estimate of one hundred thousand, for North and South America,
would not be an exaggeration.

This sketch suffices to show how the Judaic race has become scattered
throughout the regions of the earth, many families being domiciliated, ever
since the Christian era, in climates the most opposite ; and yet, in obedience
to an organic law of animal life, they have preserved unchanged the same
features which the Almighty stamped on the first Hebrew pair created.

Tre Gypsizs.

Accounts of the Gypsies offer such curious analogies with those of the
Israelites, that it may not be out of place to add a word respecting them.

“Both have had an Exodus; both are exiles, and dispersed among the
Gentiles, by whom they are hated and despised, and whom they hate and
despise, under the names of Busnees and Goyim; both, though speaking the
language of the Gentiles, possess a peculiar tongue, which the latter do not
understand ; and both possess a peculiar cast of countenance, by which
they may be, without difficulty, distinguished from all other nations; but
with these points the similarity terminates. The Israclites have a peculiar
religion, to which they are fanatically attached; the Romas (Gypsies) have
none. The Israclites have an authentic history; the Gypsies have no his-
tory ; they do not even know the name of their original country.”

This isolated race is involved in mystery, owing to absence of tradi-
tions ; though, from their physical type, language, &c., it is conjectured that
the Gypsies came from some part of India, but at what time, and why, can-
not now be determined. It has been said that they fled from the extermi-
nating sword of the great Tartar conqueror, Timtr Leng (Tamerlane), who
ravaged India in 1408-9 A. D.; but there will be found, in Borrow’s work,
very good reason for believing that they might have migrated, at a much
earlier period, north, amongst the Sclavonians, before they entered Germany
and other countries, where we first trace them. However, we know with
certainty that, in the beginning of the fifteenth century (about the time of
Timiw’s conquest), they appeared in Germany, and were soon scattered over
Europe, as far as Spain. They arrived in France on the 17th of August,
1427 A.D. Their number now, in all, has been estimated at about seven
hundred thousand, and they are scattered over most countries of the habita-

ORDER II. BIMANA. 351

ble globe — Europe, Asia, Africa, South America, and some few in North
America. “Their tents are pitched on the heaths of Brazil, and the ridges
of the Himalaya hills; and their language is heard in Moscow and Madrid,
in London and Stamboul.” “Their power of resisting cold is truly wonder-
ful, as it is not uncommon to find them encamped in the midst of the snow,
in slight canvas tents, where the temperature is 25° to 30° below the freez-
ing point, according to Réaumur,” while, on the other hand, they withstand
the sultry climes of Africa and India.

“The Gypsies are the most prominent of numerous and diverse tribes dif-
fused in little groups over the four continents, to whom Prichard’s term,
*Allophylian races,’ would properly apply. A list might be made of them,
their occurrence in islands, remote valleys, and mountain fastnesses, or even
amid dense populations, being far more frequent than is generally sup-
posed. In the absence of all record beyond that of modern days, — their
existence known only by their discovery, — we refrain from the labor of
enumeration, with the sole remark, that to us they all are mementos of the
permanence of type, athwart vicissitudes certainly endured, but unrecorded
by themselves: each being a relic of some primitive type of man, generally
displaced from its geographical centre of creation, that, having served in
days of yore the purposes of the Creator, is now abandoned (with so
many others, now lost, like the Guanches) to its fate, scarcely affording his-
tory sufficient for an epitaph.”

Tue Hrnpoos.

The Hindoos, or Gentoos, are the primitive inhabitants of the East In-
dies, one of the most ancient nations, distinguished for their humanity, gen-
tleness, industry, and polished by letters and the arts, at a time when most
of their Asiatic neighbors were yet only in the first stages of civilization,
when the Greeks lay in obscurity, and the people of Europe in general were
destitute both of the useful and the fine arts. They form a numerous peo-
ple, have preserved their national character for thousands of years, even
under the dominion of foreigners, and haye retained, to the present day,
their language, their written characters, their government, religion, manners,
customs, and habits of life. They are, in general, of a brownish-yellow
complexion, but the higher and richer classes are almost as white as Euro-
peans. They are somewhat above the middle height, well-proportioned,
and, in particular, very flexible and dexterous. They are remarkable for
their small hands.

Temperance, frugality, hospitality, and obliging manners are the’ favor-
able traits in their character. They are reproached with indolence and
avarice. They possess great natural talents, but are, at present, deprived

NO. XX. 101

382 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

of opportunities for their development. In earlier times, before they were
oppressed by a foreign yoke, they had reached a higher degree of civiliza-
tion, and their country has been considered as the cradle of all the arts and
sciences. They practise agriculture, breeding of cattle, fishing, hunting,
and mining. They cultivate forests, commerce, and navigation. They
manufacture cloths, of a great variety and value, particularly of cotton and
silk; among which are the finest muslins, fine shawls, mats, cordovan
leather, &c., and are inimitable in dyeing. In the arts of music and_paint-
ing they are backward; but in dancing, statuary, and architecture, they are
more advanced. They are acquainted with arithmetic, astronomy, and
chronology, and are very fond of poetry and singing.

The most extraordinary custom of the Hindoos is the burning of widows
at the funeral of their husbands —a practice which has prevailed from time
immemorial. This burning of the widows exists chiefly in the countries
governed by the native princes. The division of the people into several
entirely distinct orders, or classes, which has existed from the remotest
times, forms the castes. There are four castes, which, to the great disadvan-
tage of cultivation, are essentially and perpetually separate from each other,
so that no transition from one to another is possible; no connection between
them by marriage, or in any other way, is permitted, and no individual of one
class can assume the habits, or engage in the occupations, of another. .The
distinction is complete, in every sense, hereditary and personal; all the
privileges or disabilities are inherited; nor is any one permitted to become
what he is destined to be by nature, but he is obliged to become what his
birth permits, or to remain what it condemns him to be. The slightest
transeression of these laws is punished with loss of castes, and sometimes, in
particular cases, with death. Even the difference of food is precisely

-marked out. The three higher castes are prohibited entirely the use of flesh ;
the fourth is allowed to eat all kinds, except beef; but only the lowest
classes of the fifth caste are allowed every kind of food, without restriction.
Thus the lower the rank of a Hindoo, the less he is restricted in his food
and drink; but, on the other hand, the other burdensome restrictions in-
crease with the inferiority of rank. The first and noblest caste is called
Brahmanes, and is the class of the Brahmines, or Brahmanes, who are
priests, scholars, teachers in schools and academies, lawyers, and state
officers. The second noble order is called Cshatriyas, or Chehteree, and
is composed of the Cshatriyas, or Rajah-putras, the kings and warriors.
They preserve the name Rajah-puts, Rajah-putras, by way of distinction, in
their old hereditary dominions in Hindostan. The third noble caste is called
Bise, or Vaisyas: it is composed of husbandmen and merchants. The
merchants are called Banians, or Wannians. The fourth noble caste is that

ORDER Il. BIMANA. 83

eo

of the Soodras, or Shuder, and comprehend the artisans and laborers.
Besides these four castes, with their sub-divisions, there are numerous mixed
castes, or spurious classes, called Burrum Shunker, which have sprung from
the unauthorized unions of individuals of different castes. These mixed
races form a transition to the degraded outcasts, — the Parias, Chaclys, and
Pelaya,—that is, contemptible, vile, unclean men. These consist of
those unhappy wretches who are obliged to do whatever no one else can do
without pollution. They are not only considered unclean themselves, but
they unclean whatever they touch. They are deprived of all civil privileges,
and stigmatized by particular laws, regulating their mode of life, their
houses, and their furniture; they are not allowed to visit the pagodas, or
temples, of other castes, but have their own pagodas and religious exercises ;
they are not suffered to enter the houses of the other castes (if it is done
incautiously, or from necessity, such a place is purified by religious cere-
monies); they must not appear in public markets, are confined to the use
of particular wells, which they are obliged to surround with bones of ani-
mals, to warn others against using them; they dwell in miserable hovels,
distant from cities and villages, and are under no restrictions in regard to
food. To the Hindoos belong the Seiks, Jats, Rajapoots, Mahrattas, the
Singalese, &c., of whom some have gone over to the Mohammedan religion ;
others, like the Seiks, have a religion of their own.

Tue PHaNICcIANS.

Among the most ancient peoples of antiquity the Phoenicians occupy a
high place, by their commercial enterprise, their inventive genius, and the
perfection to which they brought many arts, especially that of architecture.
Located on a narrow strip of land lying between the ocean and the ranges
of the Lebanon, and forming part of the Syrian coast, in width nowhere
exceeding five geographical miles, and in length not above thirty-five, this
people, through the sole agency of commerce and navigation, spread their
dominion not only over Cyprus and Crete, and the smaller islands of the
Archipelago in their more immediate vicinity, but along the shores of the
Mediterranean —in Northern Africa, in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily,
and in the southern and western parts of Spain. But beyond even these
points the trading-vessels of the Phcenicians reached shores and established
commercial depots in countries the names and localities of which were un-
known to, and by them carefully concealed from, their contemporaries; as,
for instance, the Island of Madeira, the coasts of England and Ireland, and
the Baltic coasts of Russia. Around Sidon and Tyre, and many other
Pheenician cities and colonies, the Old Testament has shed the glowing tints
of Oriental phraseology, familiarizing us with their splendor and their great-

384 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

ness; but the Pheenician colonies in Africa surpassed in magnificence and
power the parent country.

According to an ancient inscription in the Phoenician language, which
says, “We have fled from the robber Joshua, the son of Nim,” and which
was discovered in Numidia A. D. 540, the first Phcenician colonies in North-
ern Africa must have been founded as early as the year 1490 B. C.,—a
circumstance which is by no means improbable when we consider that in the
book of Joshua, Sidon is already mentioned among the mighty princes, and
that the Phenician colonies of Utica, Hadrumetum, Hippo, Leptis, and
others, aré known to have existed on the northern coast of Africa centuries
before Dido there founded the city whose fame was soon to eclipse that of
all the older daughters of Sidon and Tyre.

On the northern coast of Africa, near where the city of Tunis now stands,
about the year 875 B. C., and one hundred and twenty-five years before the
foundation of Rome, she founded the city of Carthage, which soon gave
promise of its future greatness. A tribute for the soil was paid the na-
tives. The people of the neighboring territories were induced, by the offer
of great commercial advantages and of the rights of citizenship, to join the
new comers; and every means for promoting the prosperity of the new set-
tlement so effectually taken, that even during the lifetime of Dido the city
had acquired so much importance in the eyes of the neighboring nations,
that the hand of the princess was sought in marriage by a powerful Numid-
ian prince, who threatened to have recourse to violent measures in case his
suit were not accepted. To secure the independence of her new-founded
city, and to keep her faith to her deceased husband, Dido, acting in accord-
ance with the received opinions of her country, and the principles of her

religion, threw herself into the flames of a funereal pyre, which she had.

ordered to be lighted for her, and was ever afterwards worshipped as a deity
by her people.

The first periods of Phenician greatness are veiled in the mysterious dark-
ness of an unknown past; yet so much is certain, that their date must have
been very remote; as, according to the accounts which Herodotus received
from the priests, the foundation of Tyre took place thirty centuries before
the Christian era.

Long before the expedition of the Argonauts, the Phoenicians had already
founded colonies on the Bithynian coast of the Black Sea (Pronectus Bi-
thynian) ; and that at a very early time they must have steered through the
Straits of Gades into the Atlantic is proved by the fact, that as far back as
the eleventh century before Christ they founded the towns of Gades and
Tartessus on the western coast of Southern Spain. Penetrating farther and
farther to the north, they discovered Britain, where they established their

ORDER II. BIMANA. 385

chief station on the Scilly Isles, at present so insignificant and obscure, and
even visited the barbarous shores of the Baltic in quest of the costly amber.
They planted their colonies along the north-west coast of Africa, even be-
yond the tropic ; and two thousand years before Vasco da Gama, Pheenician
mariners are said to have circumnavigated that continent; for Herodotus
relates that a Tyrian fleet, fitted out by Necho H., Pharaoh of Egypt (611-
595 B. C.), sailed from a port in the Red Sea, doubled the southern prom-
ontory of Africa, and, after a voyage of three years, returned through the
Straits of Gades to the mouth of the Nile.

Less wonderful, but resting on better historical proof, is the celebrated
voyage of discovery to the south, which Hanno performed by command of
the senate of Carthage, the greatest of all Pheenician colonies, eclipsing even
the fame of Tyre itself. Sailing from Cerne, the principal Phonician set-
tlement on the western coast of Africa, and which was probably situated on
the present Island of Arguin, he reached, after a navigation of seventeen
days, a promontory which he called the West Horn (probably Cape Palmas),
and then advanced to another cape, to which he gave the name of South
Horn, and which is manifestly Cape de Tres Puntas, only five degrees north
of the line. During daytime the deepest silence reigned along the newly-
discovered coast, but after sunset countless fires were seen burning along the
banks of the rivers, and the air resounded with music and song, the black
natives spending, as they still do now, the hours of the cool night in festive
joy. Most likely the Canary Islands were also known to the Pheenicians,
as the summit of the Peak of Teneriffe is visible from the heights of Cape
Bojador.

The progress of the great mariners of old in the Indian Ocean was no less
remarkable than the extension of their Atlantic discoveries. Far beyond
Babel-el-Mandeb their fleets sailed to Ophir, or Supara, and returned with
rich cargoes of gold, silver, sandal-wood, jewels, ivory, apes, and peacocks, to
the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber, at the head of the Red Sea. These
costly productions of the south were then transported across the Isthmus of
Suez to Rhinocolura, the nearest port on the Mediterranean, and thence to
Tyre, which ultimately distributed them over the whole of the known world.

The true position of Ophir is an enigma which no learned CEdipus will
ever solve. While some authorities place it on the east coast of Africa,
others fix its situation, somewhere on the west coast of the Indian Penin-
sula; and Humboldt is even of opinion that the name had only a general
signification, and that a voyage to Ophir meant nothing more than a com-
mercial expedition to any part of the Indian Ocean, just as at present we
speak of a voyage to the Levant, or the West Indies.

But whatever Ophir may have been, it is certain that the Phcenicians

386 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.— CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

carried on a considerable trade with the lands and nations beyond the gates
of the Red Sea. Their trade in the direction of the Persian Gulf was no
less extensive. Through the Syrian Desert, where Palmyra, their chief
station or emporium proudly rose above the surrounding sands, their cara-
vans slowly wandered to the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, to provide
Nineveh and Babylon with the costly merchandise of Sidon and Tyre. Fol-
lowing the course of the great Mesopotamian streams, they reached the
shores of the Persian Gulf, where they owned the ports of Tylos and
Aradus, and the rich pearl islands of Bahrein, and, having loaded their
empty camels with the produce of Iran and Arabia, returned by the same
way to the shores of the Mediterranean. Wow far their ships may have
ventured beyond the mouth of the Persian Gulf is unknown; but the re-
searches of the learned Orientalists, Gesenius, Benfey, and Lassen, render it
extremely probable that, taking advantage of the regularly changing mon-
soons, they sailed through the Straits of Ormus to the coast of Malabar.

The progress of the Phaenician race in the technical arts, as well as in the
astronomical and mathematical sciences, so highly important for the improve-
ment of their navigation, was no less remarkable for the age in which they
livetl, than the vast extension of a commercial intercourse which reached from
Britain to the Indus, and from the Black Sea to the Senegal. They wove
the finest linen, and knew how to dye it with the most splendid purple.
They were unsurpassed in the workmanship of metals, and possessed the
secret of manufacturing white and colored glass, which their caravans and
ships exchanged for the produce of the north and of the south. By the
invention of the alphabet, which, with many other useful sciences and arts,
they communicated to the Greeks and other nations with whom they traded,
they no less contributed to the progress of mankind than by the humanizing
influence of commerce.

Thus, when we consider the services which these merchant-princes of an-
tiquity rendered to their contemporaries, wherever their flag was seen or
their caravans appeared, the annihilation of the maritime power of Tyre by
Alexander (332 B. C.), and the destruction of Carthage by the Romans
(146 B. C.), must strike us as events calamitous to the whole human race.
Had the Carthaginians, so distinguished by their commercial spirit and ardor
for discovery, triumphed over the semi-barbarous Romans, who, then at
least, had not yet learned to imitate the arts of plundered Greece, there is
every probability that some Punic Columbus would have discovered America
at least a thousand years sooner, and the world at this day be in possession
of many secrets still unknown, and destined to contribute to the comforts or
enjoyments of our descendants.

In the times of Homer, when the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic had long

ORDER II. BIMANA. 387

been known to the Pheenicians, the geographical knowledge of the Greeks
was still circumscribed by the narrow limits of the Eastern Mediterranean
and part of the Euxine, and many a century elapsed ere their ships ventured
beyond the Straits of Gades. Coleus, of Samos (639 B. C.), is said to
have been the first seafarer of Hellenic race who sailed forth into the At-
lantic, compelled by adverse winds, and was able on his return from his
involuntary voyage to tell his astonished countrymen of the wondrous rising
and falling of the oceanic tides. It was seventy years later before the Pho-
cians of Massilia, the present Marseilles, ventured to follow the path he had
traced out, and to visit the Atlantic port of Tartessus.

The town of Massilia had the additional honor of reckoning among her
sons the great traveller Pytheas. This far-wandering philosopher, who
lived about three hundred and thirty years before Christ, had visited all the
coasts of Europe, from the mouths of the Tanais, or Don, to the shores of
the Ultima Thule, which, according to Leopold Von Buck, was not Iceland,
nor Feroe, nor Oreadia, but the Norwegian coast. His narrative first made
the Greeks acquainted with North-western Europe, and remained, for a long
time, their only geographical guide to those hyperborean lands.

We give below the leading varieties of Man, according to Dr. Prichard.

“On comparing the principal varieties of form and structure which dis-
tinguish the inhabitants of different countries, we find that there are seven
classes of nations which may be separated from each other by stronely-
marked lines. Among their principal characteristics are peculiar forms of
the skull; but these are by no means the only difference which require no-
tice and particular description. These seven principal classes are, first, those
nations which in the form of their skulls and other physical characters re-
semble Europeans, including many nations in Asia, and some in Africa ;
secondly, races nearly similar in figure, and in the shape of the head, to the
Kalmucks, Mongoles, and Chinese. These two first classes of nations will
be designated, for reasons to be explained, Iranian and Turanian nations, in
preference to Caucasian and Mongolian. . . . The third class are the native
American nations, excluding the Esquimaux, and some tribes which resemble
them more than the majority of inhabitants of the New World. The fourth
class comprises only the Hottentot and Bushman race. <A fifth class are
the Negroes; the sixth, the Papuas, or woolly-haired nations of Polynesia ;
the seventh, the Alfourou and Australian races. The nations comprised
under these departments of mankind differ so strikingly from each other,
that it would be improper to include any two of them in one section, and
there is no other division of the human family that is by physical traits so
strongly characterized. There are, indeed, some nations that cannot be

3888 DIVISION I. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS.—CLASS I. MAMMALIA.

considered as falling entirely within either of these divisions, but they may
be looked upon as approximating to one or another of them.”

On the above, the editor of the last edition of Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom
offers the following observations : —

“It appears to be conclusively proved that barbarism and insufficient
nourishment tend, in a few generations, to deteriorate the physical charac-
ters of even the highest races of mankind, by increasing the facial angle,
&e., while the reverse induces proportional improvement. Still there is
reason to suspect that the diversities which are thus occasioned are restrained
within moderate limits; and this remarkable fact must be borne in mind
(which I believe has not been hitherto stated), that while an artificial mode
of life would seem to have produced those acknowledged varieties of species
which are noticeable among such of the lower animals as have been domes-
ticated, we observe very dissimilar races of human beings among those whose
manner of living is least artificial of any, and which, furthermore, in numer-
ous instances, inhabit the same countries, besides being widely diffused ; thus
proving that climate and locality exert less influence than has been ima-
gined. This most difficult subject of inquiry, in fine, is endlessly perplexed,
and, in several intances, rendered quite inextricable, by the occasional blend-
ing of two or more diverse races, in every degree of proportion. There are
also decisive proofs (afforded by architectural relics scattered over Siberia
and both Americas) of great nations having been utterly exterminated ;
whose very names have perished; and if civilized, or comparatively civil-
ized, populous nations have thus become so completely sunk in oblivion,
that we infer their former existence only as that of some lost tribes of ani-
mals can be recalled, how very many hordes of savages, who erect no memo-
rials, may have been extirpated, and are forgotten irretrievably! Hence the
extreme and apparently insuperable difficulties, which, it is probable, will
continue to oppose the definitive solution of the intricate and peculiarly in-

teresting problem which we have been considering.”

INDEX TO VOLUME II.

7X ie

Abdominal Fishes. s é A + 193) Cantharides. . : : . « 291
Aborigines of America. . ° * 368} Carabus. . : i : . . 280
Acarides, or Mites. ' fs - - 268 | Carinarie, value of the shell of. . . 230
Adder. : : . F ‘ . 136 | Cartilaginous Fishes. ‘ . 208
Albatross. ° . . + 110/Cassowary. . ; HE . . - 91
Alewife, Indian name of. : 7 : 191) Caucasian Race. Fy : : ‘ 364
Algonquins. : . . ‘ + 168|Cephalopods. . . 0 : . » 222
Alligator. . A : 3 A F 124) Chameleons. . £ 3 5 f 126
Anabates. * : - 13|Chatterers. . i 2 7 : ; 3
Anarrichas, singular structure and char- Chellinus. . . . ' 5 ° 170
acter of, . ; ‘ F - 166) Chimera. - ° - 209
Annelides. - e < : : 245 | Chatodon — brushy-teeth fishes. : 149
Ant Lions. . . ‘ - : - 3810) Cicada. . : F « 303
Ant Thrushes. . . . ° ° 8} Cicindela. . . : s . 279
Aphysia. Fi 5 F A ; eee 2ou'| Clams «ys 2 : : : : - 240
Arachnida, - 7 A : r 262) Coachman, . ‘ " 7 C 150
Argonaut. Fi ‘ ° 5 + 225) Coal-fish. : “ : : A - 198
Articulated Animals. : a F . 245 | Cobbler-fish. 4 c : 155
Asilus. . : A Fi ; : .» 3839)Cochineal. . ; A : « 807
Auks, : ° : . s . 114} Cockatoos. ; : : E 5 18
Cock-chafers. . ‘ : : . 286
Cockroaches. . A . ' - 293
iB: Cocus Cacti. . s 3 s . - 307
Cod. . : : 7 p A 3 142
Balloon Wrasse. . : 7 * + 169} Codling. : 6 F 5 + 199
Barbets. . ‘ * c . : 30 Coleoptera. B A 278
Basse Fry. . . . . ° . 176} Coleoptera, transformations of. . - 279
Beeards. . - 5 c A : 12] Colies. 5 é 5 . 2 32
Bed-bug. ° . . . - 3800, Common Gad Hy. . . ° - 340
Bed-bug, history of. . . . : 301; Condor. . > 7 , : 73
Bee-eaters. . . 7 E 7 - 386|Cones. . < A - 232
Bee Family. : . . . . 322 | Coots. 5 : : . . . 101
Beetles, Burying. . . ° . + 286) Coricus. . ° - 170
Beetle, Shard-borne. ~ . . 290! Coryphene of the ancient Romans. A 156
Bell Birds. . é c . . . 12/ Crab, description of. . 7 r . 255
Bill-fish. . - ; = ; 5 178 | Cranes. : 7 < 96
Black-fish. . ° ; : 6 + 167) Crenilabrus, description of. . e . 176
Blennies. . = . : A 5 161| Crickets. . F . 5 * 295
Blue-fish. 7 . c 5 4 + 155) Crocodile. . . r ci ~ . 122
Boas. ' . . c ‘ : 132) Crustacea. . : , ' E 252
Bombylius. . 2 ° . ‘ - 3840) Cuckoos. . ‘ ° 7 A - 25
Botryllus. . . 4 5 5 . 244 Curassows. . c . ; ‘ 82
Bimana. . 5 - - 861|Cusk. . A fs . « 199
Bream Carp, the value of. c % 174 | Cuttle-fish, gigantic. 4 : 3 7 225
Bream, White. . 7 . * » 174
Broad Bills. "4 a. tf 7c i 10
Bull-head. . : 0 ; A Spent IBS
Bumble Bee. . ‘ . * . 322
Burbot. . . B A . s + 198] Dab. . ° : . b . - 200
Bush Shrikes. . . . ° Fy 8| Dahotahs. . fs : : 369
Bustards. C F é 5 : . 92) Death-watch — Ptinus. ‘ i : » 283
Butterfly. . . . . . . 328 | Delawares. . . . : . 268

(389)

390 INDEX
Devil’s Horses. : . . . ‘
Diptera. . ‘ . : . .
Dodos. . . 7 7 . . .
Dog-fish. . ‘ . ‘: . .
Dolphins. . : - 4 ‘ 5
Dorides. . , . 7 : 5
Dory. . f ‘ : .
Dory, St. Peter and. ; . 3
Dragon. i ‘ , Z Z ‘i
Dragon-fly. ; P - :
Dragon- -fly ; Larve of. . f ;
Dragon- -fly, transformation of. ; 5
Drilus. . i ‘ Fi i ¥ *
Duck. F P . .

Duck, Canv as- -back. 3 4 F 5

Duck, Lider. . ; : ote

Duel of the Queen-bees. : 7 :
EF.

Eagles. . ; . ° ° . ‘

Eagle, White-headed. ‘ c ‘
Eagle, Harpy. . . . . .
Ear-piercer. : : . . .
Earth-worms. ‘ . ‘ °
Eastern Race, distribution Dierots z
Eastern Race, religion of. . ‘
Kel among the ancients. . ‘i as
Eel, Common. 4 > = . <
Eel, Electric. . < ° A
Fel, Silver... z ‘ ° 7 .
Elater. ‘i ‘ .

Elater, P. hosphorescent. . . °
Emen. F : A ‘ ‘ .
Empis. . é 5 . . . .
Eolides. ‘ : F F Fi ‘

Ephemera. .
Epilibulus, remarkable structure of the

mouth of. - : _
Epilibulus, artifice of, to secure prey. .«
Esquimaux. ° . .
Eunices, wonderful organs ‘of. : .

F’.

Falcon, Peregrine. ; . ‘ :
Father Longlegs. v ; : .
File-fish. 7 . . F .
Fire-flies, used as ornaments. ‘ .
Fishes, structure of. ‘s . . .
Fishes, elassification of. . .
Fishing-frog, curious appearance of. :
Flea. . ' ' . F : .
Flounder. : F ° . ‘
Fluke, Crayed. . . ’ 2 é
Flycatcher, Tyrant. Fi . . .
Flying-fish. z = F ° .
Frog. : ‘ .
Frog-fish, can rails on the land. -
Fulgora. é : r F ‘

G.

Gall Insect. ‘ ‘ ‘ . .
Gannet. 7 : ; . . .

TO VOLUME II.

295 | Gar-fish. a C . - , C
336 Gasteropods. —. 5 C . .
78 | Giant Clam-shell. . “ A . ‘
212) Gilt-heads. 7 : re . z
156) Glow-worm. . . . P F
230) Gnats. . ‘ .
155 Gnats, met imorphoses of, . ‘
166 Gnats, troublesome character of. r
125|Gobies. . - 5
308 Goboides, singular neni a 5 .
309 Goby, Black, affection of, for progeny.
3809 Golden-tailed Flies. ‘i ‘ . :
283 | Gold-fishes. . ; F a
101 Goose, Wild. < a a . .
102 Goshawk. ‘
105 Great Band-worm, curious proceedings of.
825 Great Green Grasshopper. . :
Grebe, Redbilled. . - : 7 *
Grouse, amours of. . A . 6
Grouse, Pinnated. . ‘ . z .
Guacharo. . = . .
55 Gudgeon, description of. Ae erie
65 Gulls. . ‘ ‘ ‘ . .
69 Gurnards. . > E é : A
295
249
365 Hi.
366 Haddock. Fs . - F 5
214 Hair-tail Fish. . . ° . .
214 Hair-worms. . ‘ 2 ‘i 2 .
205 Hake. * ‘ A . : :
214 Halibut. r i . ‘ .
284 Haliotis. . 2 r ‘ é .
284 Halithea. - 5 ‘ ra ; .
71 Hard-cheeks. . = 5 :
839 Harvest-men. i . ° ‘ :
230 Hawk, Swallow-tailed. . - :
309 Hell-benders. Fi a . . i
Hemiptera. . . . . .
170| Heron. . . . ° ‘ °
170 Heron, Night. = ‘ : , :
360 | Herring. . . 5 . . .
248 Homo Japeticus. ‘ ‘ - .
Hoopoes. . . : . . .
Hornbills. . 5 = . ‘ .
Hornet. . . . . . . .
Horse-mackerel. 3 ‘: .
56, Horseman. .« . . . . °
339 Humming Birds. r - : ;
208 , Hymenoptera. : . . . °
285
144
145 i
164
276 Ichneumon. . . . . . .
200 Iguanas. . . . ° . .
201 Indian Remora. . ° A ,
9 Indian Remora, fables of. ri ‘ 5
178 | Indian tribes ° F c
137 | Indian tribes, hospitality of. . .
165 Insects. . . r . . ° °
304 | Iroquois. . . . . . °
J.
316 Jacamans. . ° . a . F
109 | Jar Owl. : ° : : .

Jigger. 5 .
Julis, beauty of. . ° °

KS
King-crab of the Moluccas.

King-fis hers. F
King of the Herring. .

Ti.

Labrus.
Lachnolaimus, the Captains.
Lady-birds. . . =;

Lamprey. . ° . .
Lampyride. . . . .
Lammergeyer. . . .
Lance-fishes. . . . .

Lantern Fly. . .
Lark. . . . .
Lepidoptera. : . .

Leuciscus. . * Fy .
Limaces, or Slugs. . .
Limpets. F : ‘ .
Ling. . . a 5 c
Lizards. . : é °
Lobster, value of. a Z
Locust. . ‘ . . .
Longshanks. 7 . é
Loons. : .
Lophius, the anglers. .
Louse. . . . «
Lumpsucker. ° °

Lyre-bird. . . .

Mackerel. . : ‘ 3
Malays. . 5 A . a
Man. . 7 A .

Manikins. é , ° ‘
Mantis. ‘ . . .
Menhaden. . a A 5
Menide. . > - .
Men, races of. * : ry
Merganser, hooded. . ‘
Metamorphoses of Crustaceans.
Midges. o
Milk-fish of Pondicherry. .
Minnow. . 5 .
Mohegans. . a °

Molluscous animals.
Mother-of-pearl shells.
Moths, aquatic. . . .
Moth. . ~ A . 2
Mound Birds. . 5 P

Mosquitos. . 5
Mullet, organization of.
Mussel, common. . : .
Mygale.
Myriapoda, or the Centipede.
N.
Nautilus. E ‘ Z °
Needle Bug. . ; .
Negro. . . . . .

INDEX TO VOLUME II.

166

. . 170

292

. . 216

. - 282
. 75

. - 158
305

. 3

. 327

. - 176

. . 229 |

. 2 233

. Fs 198

- 125
. 260
297

. . 96

. « 114

. . 275

. . 202

| Negro, habitat of...

| Nerites. . : cE .
Neuroptera. . .
Night Hawk. . P .
Nudibranchiata. . .

Orthoptera. . : .

Osages. . . .
Osprey. . . . .
Owls. ‘ ‘ .

Oyster. . : . .

Panorpas. .« . :
Parrots. . . . .
Parrot-fishes. . :
Patella. . : F
Pectinibranchiata. :
Pelican. . < °
Penguins. . : .
Perches.

Perch- climbing of India.
Pholades. . .

Pickerel, American. .

| Pigeon, Passenger.

° ° 163 |

Pike tribe, description of.
Pilot-fish. . . .

Pilchard. . is .
Pipe-fishes. . .
Pipe-mouth fishes. .
Plaice. . .
Plantain Eaters.
Plant Cutter. . - .
Plant Lice. ‘ .
| Plover. . .
Pogge. . 2 2
Pollock, A : :
Porgee. . ° .

Pout Eel. ‘ . <

192) Pout, horned. .
° . 149 Pteropods. .
. 3862) Pulmonea. . ° .
107, Pyrosoma. . .
3 « 261
. 339
154 R.
191| Rails. . c . .
. - 168} Ray. . .
° 221 Red Cabbage- bug. ‘ ‘
e . 233) Red-snake ‘Fish. :
. . 315 Red-Throats. . .
* . 3829| Reduvius. . . 5
. 83 Reptilia.
+ 336 | Ribbon- shaped fishes.
. ‘ 147) Rock-fishes. . .
. « 241) Rollers. : . .
: 266 Rose Beetle. . . .
. » 275
Ss.
Salamanders. c 5
F - 225|Salmon. . . .
. . 303, | Salpas. . . . .

é . 3876| Sand Eel. . . .

7

————

392 INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Sand Eel Lance. . FS ' : 265 | Sword-fishes. . 153
Sardines. E . : ‘ ° - 191] Sword-fishes do not attack whales or ships
Saw-fish. . ‘ F ‘% PF Fs 213 but-by accident. . F ; 153
Scabbard-fish. ‘ ; - 157 | Sword-fish, species of. ‘ ; F 154
Scale insects. . . . . . 306 | Syrens. . 2 " : . E ode
Scaly-fins. . ’ . e - 149

Scapaug. . . . . : . 163

Scarabeus. . . ° - 286 uf fies

Scarus, brilliant colors of. . ‘ 171

Searus, valued by ancient Romans. +» 171) Tabunides. A ma a i < 340
Schilbus. . . ‘ . . . 108|'Tarentula. . . . . : . 266
Scienide. —. . . . . - 148/Tautog. . oe = 5 A 167
Scorpions. . : F; ° é 7 267 Tectibranchi ata. F ‘. . 230
Sceamers, : : : . - 100) 'Teridines, destructive habits of. c 243
Scup, description of. . . . 168 | Termites, extraordinary character of. . 311
Sea-breams. . ‘ ; . . + 148) Termites live in an organized state. 311
Sea Gudgeons. . . ‘ o* 162 | Testacea. . . c © i ch 235
Sea Mice. * . . . ; « 249) Ticks. . . é . 5 5 - ‘269
Sea-pikes. . . ° . . ° 147 | Toads. A - : A * ‘ 140
Sea-snails. . ° Fi - 234 |'Tom-cod. ‘ : : . 2 - 198
Sea-wolf eaten by Icelanders. . . 161) Torpedo. . : - 215
Serpents. ‘ . . . . + 126) Tortoise, land and Indian. . ; Peels)
Silurus Sly. ° . . . . 156 | Tortoise, Greek. . 3 : 117
Shad. . a c . ; - 191] Tortoise, soft, fresh- water. : . - 131
Shark. ‘ . . . . . 210 | Toucans. . ‘ : , F - 29
Sheat-fish. . . . . ° - 179) Tree-creepers. ‘ ° . - » 13
Shells. F ‘ . . ° 232) Tritonia. . A 3 P - 229
Shiner, New Y ork. Ff . é -» 176) Trochus, tirritts: ; F ° . *) woe
Short-nosed Sea Horse. . z . 206|Trogons. . 7 c ‘ : $ 31
Smelt. . . . . ° . + 155) Trout, Salmon. . ° p - 182
Snakes... . ° ‘ 3 ° 133 | Trout, pond, sea, and river. . . 182
Snipe. . ° . . : . - 94) Trout, species of. . ; ° ° - 183
Sole. Fi é . 202 | Trout, description of. : . ‘ 183
Spallanzani, experiments of. . . - 141) Trout, fishing for. . . . . » 183
Spanish Fly. . . . * . 291 | Trumpeters. fe . . . ° 100
Spectres. c = ; A c . 295) Trunk-fish. . : Fi : r . 208
Sphynges. . . . 5 . 329) 'Tubulibranchiata, —. . . : 232
Spider. . ; . . : - 243] Turtle. . : : . c . ae ale

Spiny-fins, order of. . . . . 145)Tunny. . . ° . z ° 150
Spondylus. 7 2 . : . 240) Twisted-wings. ° 4 . . . 335

Sprats. . . ° : 191

Squetague and Blue- fish. . 2 rene LH

Star-gazers. F 2 . . ' 146 nae

Stickleback. : ¥ * . ° - 148

Stickleback, remarkable parental in- Vipers. . ‘ P : . : - 186
stinct of. E 5 : : . i48 | Vomer. . : . fe . ° 155

Stork. . : 5 ° . . 96

Stormy Petrel. . : rs . . 100

Sturgeon. < ‘ ° ° - 208 W.

Sturgeon, sharp- -nosed. . ° 208

Sturgeon, common. . . . . 209] Wasps. . . ° . . . . 34

Sturgeon, ear . . . . . 209 | Water-bugs. . . . . . 303

Sucker. . 7 2 F ‘ . 174) Waterchats. . . : . * 5 9

Sucker, bl ack. . . . ° ‘ 175 | Watery Flounders. . . ° . 201

Sucker, horned. . . : 7 . 174, Water Scorpions. . ° . - » 303

Sucker, Jibbous. . . ° . 175 | Weak-fish. . . . . . 167

Sun-fish. a 2 e : . - 207| Weavers. : - ; . : - 146

Sun-fish, short. . ° . : . 207) Whippoorwill. . . * . . 46

Surmullets. . 5 ‘ : A . 147) Whirligigs. . : : ; . - 282

Swallow, Chimney. . F i ‘ 41! Whiting. . : a 5 Z . 198

Swallow, esculent. . 3 A ‘ + 43) Winnebagoes. Z ; C . + 368

Swell-fish. . : : . . ; 206 | Woodpeckers. . 5 . . 19

Swimmers. . : . . . . 280| Wrasse, lineal-streaked. . . . 169

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