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---K-s/^rS^.j<c-,

^m.^

L. RICHARD'S

COirEEHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY

OF THE

CHINESE EMPIRE

AND

DEPENDENCIES

ff ® 1* ^ I

Translated

SHANGHAI

rrSEWF.I PRESS

1908

All rights re«erved.

••l •» ■ •

f

TO ALL THOSE

WHO TAKE INTEREST

IN THE PROGRESS, WELFARE AND PROSPERITY

OF CHINA

THIS BOOK IS RESFFCTFl Ll;

XiX^^ PREFACE.

OrigiB of this Work. — Richard's ''Giographie de VEmpire de Chin^' published in 1905, by the T'usewei Press, Shanghai, was so appreciated in the East and at home, that an English Edition of the work was immediately requested. The Chinese Legation in London, Officials, Railway-prospectors, Merchants, Travellers, Missionaries, and all who take a special interest in China and Things Chinese, have at various times urged the necessity of the work, and augured that it would be of valuable service to the Public. The Translation, undertaken and carried out amidst the drudgery of class- work with Chinese pupils, remote from English surroundings, and without the assistance of the valuable home libraries, was unavoidably slow. As the work proceeded, it was remarked that the various reforms adopted by China, the new status of the Man- churian Provinces, and the progress of events in the Far East would require some recasting of the original. The new part has not been thrown into the shape of additional notes, but has been welded into the old paragraphs, with as little di,stur- bance as possible of the order of the original. The present English Edition is thus enlarged and revised, bringing all infor- mation, administrative, statistical and economic, thoroughly up to-date.

Plan of the >Vopk. — This Work given a Physical and Political description of China and Dependencies. The Physical part groups aU facts around the .V natural Regiojis or Great Basins of China : i^. the Northerji, around the Yellow River; V. the Central, around the Yangtze-kiang; and 3*. the Southern, around the Si-kiang or West River. A general outline of each region precedes the description of the Provinces. Each Province is the object of a particular study, in which its area, population and boundaries, its aspect and characteristics, its mountains and rivers, its geology, its fauna and flora, its climate, its agricultural and mineral resources, its people, race and language, its principal towns, its industry and commerce, its land-routes and waterways are minutely and methodically exposed. ' 77i€ Coast-line, which extends along 6 Provinces of the \ Empire : X!himi, iihantung, Kiangsu, CWkiang, Fokien and j Kwangtung, is treated in a special chapter. This has the advantage of combining in a general study important notions

, lU PREFACE.

■ i' " .

• bearing on winds, currents and tides, which could not be easiW connected with the study of each individual Province. The description of the coast-line proceeds from North to South, and follows the above mentioned order of the Provinces. For fuller d^ails. the Reader is referred to the Index at the end of this work.

The Political part describes the Government and Adminis- tration, the various Religions* the Army and Navy, the Educational system, . Agriculture, Industry and Mining, the Railway* Postfil and Telegraph departments. In view of the growing mtercourse with "other countries, and the expansion of Foreign Trade, the chapter on this subject will be found specially useful, an4«nq pains have been spared to enhance its value by full statistical tables/ Appen4ix II lat the close of the volume) embodies the latest Returns for the year 1006.

A brief account of the Rise and Progress of the Empire, and of its International Relations, is appended to this part. It is not a dry story of king9 and wa^s, but is intended to show the deTelo{mient of the Nation, in its manifestations good as well as evil. It will also a£ford a deep insight into the national mind and life, so essentiletl for the proper understanding of Things Chinese. The collection of dates cannot fail to be of service to all Readers,and must be correlated with events and facts described in the Physical part of the work.

Each chapter is followed by a library of references, and a list of standard Authors (French, English, German), many of whom are household words in connection with Chinese history, literature and scholarly attainments. To all, the Translator is much indebted for valuable information, and begs hereby to tender acknowledgement.

A full list of the Cities, Tgwns and Open Ports, in the 18 Provinces and outlying Dependencies, complete the work. Every proper name, romanised in EngKsh, is followed by its equivalent Chinese pictograph, a novel and valuable improvement which will help to avoid confusion in words so similar in sound.

The Index has been carefully prepared with the twofold purpose of securing completeness, and rendering research expe- ditious. The names of Authors and the titles of books are printed in Italics, while figures in heavy type indicate the parti- cular place where a subject is principally treated.

China is at present making every effort to take her place in the comity of Nations. Her Administration and Army art being re-organized, Schools are multiplied, Railways are opened, Postal work is improved, the opium evil is to be suppressed and a Constitutional Government is promised to the Country ir the near future. Other improvements, in Finance, in Law in National unity, will follow in due time. This awakening am

PREFACE. 11^* •

re-shaping of the country cannot but interest the Great Nations of the world. Richard's Comprehensive Geography will help much to make China and the Chinese people better known. Should it also promote mutual friendship between. £jist and West, it will have fulfilled a great need, and we hope be welcomed by all classes of Readers.

Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received by the Translator, who expresses his many obligations to hi^s friends for their valuable assistance and encourSgement in tKc > completion of this work. • *

M, Kennelly, S.J.

Sicawei College. Shanghai ■ » - .

18 December, 1907. . '"^ '^ ♦.

I

SYSTEM OF OKTHOGKAPHY,

In the irajasliteration of Chinese proper naines, the Nan- king Awanhwa or N^n kwanhwa ^ "^ ^ (Soulhern mandarin dialect) has been adopted preferably to the Pekingese, spoken only at the Capital and in a small portion of Chihli and Ho- nan Provinces. The Nankingese disoriimi nates between the initials si and hsi (as in f^ sin, a letter, a note; and ^ hsing, to go), tsi and ki (as in ^ tsi, to aid; and fg hi, to re- member), which are so bewilderingly confused in the Pekingese. The Nankingese is spoken by two-thirds of the whole population of the Empire, and is everywhere understood. Its syllabary is richer than the Pekingese, its** pronunciation purer (j£ -^ ch^ng yin, correct or standard pronunciation, as the Chinese say) and better, and being now largely adopted by the Postal and Tele- graph Administrations of China, it is most likely to outlive its competitors.

In the working out of details, familiar spellings are main- tained, as Peking, Fooc/iow, AmG%, Canton, Chefoo, Soochow, Fokien, Kansu etc. The vowels have their Italian or fixed sounds. The aspirates, a most essential element of the Chinese language, are indicated by an inverted comma (thus *), and the short abrupt final vowels by the addition of h (as in H teh, to attain). In all instances, the same sound is ever represented by the same phonetical equivalents. The initials si and hsi, ts, tsi, k and ch, sH and hsil have been carefully distinguished. The compound consonants : hw, kw, Iv;, .<jw, sh\K\ sz, ts and tz, recently adopted by the Postal Service, have been admitted and followed. The initial nasal ng, followed by a or e, is maintained, as its omission is considered unscientific and based on mere convention. The final nasals an and en; ang and eng, ung and 6ng, ilan and Hen, so generally confounded by English writers, have been represented by more exact phonetic equivalents. In

SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY. V

the alphabetical list, the aspirated characters follow immediately the Qitftspirated, and these Fatter are followed in turn by those of the short abrupt final vowel sounds. Throughout the work, every proper name, romanised in English, has beside it its equiTaJenI Chinese character or pictog^aph, a valuable improve- ment, which will help to avoid confusion especially in words which are similar in sound.

It is thus hoped that this system, which embodies the best elements of Morrison, Williams, Wade, Giles and of the recent Postal List, will meet with the approval of all competent Sino- logues, and go far in solving the yet unsettled question of uni- formity, at least so far as the English language is concerned. M** H. B. Morale, the learned Statistical Secretary of the Imperial Maritime Customs, to whom the work has hsen communicated a» the sheets left the press, appreciated its system of ortho- graphy in the following terms :. "as scientific romanisation, I fully approve of your system, and I have serious fnuU only wif/i your ngan." (Letter to the Author, 13 August, 1907).

Values of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, aspirates and nasals, adopted in this Work.

The Mandarin dialect lacks the initial letters b, d, g, q, r, v, x and z ; and all words end by a vowel, semi-vowel, n or ng.

Vowels and diphthongs.

a.

ai.

ao.

e. 6.

eh, ei.

eu. eul.

as in father.

as in aye.

(final) as ow in how, but

prolonged, as in men, yet. as the vowel sound in

earth. short and abrupt, as in height, or t in sigh (many English writers confound ai and ei). as ou in souse (some

write it ou or ow). as II in hull or skull, with an approxima- tion to rl, as in hurl, (English and American writers have trans- literated this sound in the most bewilder- ing manner, thus : |ir/i (Morrison). 'rh (Williams). irh (Wade, Giles). Hr (Jenkings). rh (Edkins). rl (Ballard).

I.

ia.

lao.

le. —

le/i. i7i.

in.

ing.

10.

ioh.

iu,

o.

oh.

ow.*

u.

a.

uh. ui.

as m pin,

as ya in yard.

i and ao sounded, but

slightly coalescing

into one sound, as in the Italian word

siesta, shorter than ie. short and abrupt, as the

vowel sound in chick. as the vowel sound in

chin, pin. as in king, sing, i as y in yawn, short and abrupt, as ew, in pew, yew. as o in long. short and abrupt, as ow in /low (see eu). as 00 in too, fool. as u in abuse, short and abrupt, u as in too; i as in

height, both slightly

coalescing into one.

Consonants, aspirates and nasals.

The aspirate is about the same sound as initial h in English, but often somewhat stronger. In English, the aspirate after a surd is a neglected sound, while in Chinese it is a substitute for the lack of the sonants b, d, g hard and g soft. TJte Mandarin dialect has 9 aspirates : the initial simple consonants k, p and t, and the compound consonants ch, chw, kw, shw, ts and tz.

A nasal sound is performed by doting th« 1^ Mid oaiudng the voice to pass into the nose.

Vll

ch.

— (always initial) as in

s.

— as in sand.

church, chair.

sh.

— as in shall, shut.

ch\

— the same sound aspirated.

.«?2.

— a peculiar sibilant, as

chw

. — as in chew.

if followed by a quies-

/.

— as in fat, find.

cent vowel.

h.

— as in hang.

8ze.

— an imperfect vowel so-

hs.

^ (always initial), a sibil-

und; e final as in table

ant sound as sh in

(Wade renders this

shin, she.

sound by ssfi, Wil-

hw.

— as w/i in what, -which.

liams by sz').

h

— as in the French jaune.

t.

— as in top.

jamais.

r.

— the same sound aspir-

k.

— as in king.

ated.

h'.

— the same sound aspir-

is.

— as in wits.

ated (in some places

ts'.

— the same sound aspir-

softened).

ated.

I.

— as in lamp, land.

tze.

— an imperfect vowel so-

m.

— as in man.

und; e final as in table

n.

— as in not.

(Wade and Giles ren-

p.

— as in pot.

der this sound by tzik;

P'.

— the same sound aspir-

Williams by tsz').

ated.

w.

— as in went, winter.

■KR)^

\

(X)NTENTS.

INTROTMTTIOX, U\.

(kM)graphy. Formation of the Rarth. Modifications of the crust of the Karth. Formation of new lands. 1. — I^^neoiis and sedimentary rocks. Formation of the soil of China, 2. — China in the various geological periods. Formation of coal and sandstone. Modifications wrought on the surface. Volcanic action and eruptions. Present geological action. Pre- df)minant rocks of the Chinese soil. New modifications wrought on the surface of China. 3. — Flora and Fauna of the first ages. Primitive origin of the Chinese. Pre-Chinese races. First Chinese Settlers. 4. — Actual China. Situation. Divisions. Boundaries. Area and Population. Reasons of the unequal distributi(Jn of inhabitants. Difficulty of a collective view. Study of the 18 Provinces, 5. — References. r».

BOOK I.

CHINA PROPER

or The Eighteen Provinces.

General Notions, 7-20.

Names applied to the Country and People. Situation. Boundaries, 7. —

Shape. Area and Population, 8. — Geological constitution. Orography or

^Mountain Systems^ 10. -ytiistorical or Sacred Mountains. Plains, 13. —

^ — Hydrography, 15. — Lakes. Coast-line. Fauna and Flora.

16. — Diffusion of the Population, 18. ~ Present Division of China. The

Three Regions or Basins, 10. — References, 20.

SECTION I. —THE NORTHERN REGION, 21-89. CHAPTRR I.

VHllevN of I ho Poh-ho ami of the Hwang^lio, 2i-84>.

Characteristics of this Region, 21. -— Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Loess or Yellow lands, 22. — Alluvial lands. Orography, ('liniate. Hydrography, 23. — The Hwang-ho, 24. — X'ariations in its Coursr, 27. — I'low, 28. — The Great Wall, 29. — A few other particulars conc<'rning the Northern Region. 29. — References, .SO.

CHAPTRR n.

Ueffion of Hie Ipper llwanir^lio iKansu ami Sliensh, 3I-4IL

Kansu niid Shrnsi Prf)vinces, IM . - I". Khiimi : Area. Population. Name. M(»UfHhiri«'s. Cnpitnl. ntluT iVrfcclures. ',\2. — .\spect and Characteristics. <ir(»ln/;i(iil ronHtitutinn . Orography. '^'^. — Climate. Hydrography, 3r>. — Fauna arul I'lora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People).

CONTENTS. rx

Lan^age, 36. — Cities and Principal Centres, 37. — Industry and Com- merce. Highways of communication, 38. — 2®. She>R8l : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Charac- teristics, 39. — Geological constitution. Orography, 40. — Climate. Hydrography, 41. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language, 42. — Cities and Principal Centres, 43.

— Industry and Commerce, 44. — Highways of communication, 45. — References, 46.

CHAPTER III.

ne^oii of the Middle Itwangylio (Sltaii.M mid Hoiian), 47-4V4.

Shansi and Shensi Provinces, 47. — 1^'. Sluuisi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 48. — Aspect and Characteristics. G€>ological constitution. Orography, 50, — Climate. Hydrography, 51. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People), language. Cities and Principal Centres, 52. — Industry and Commerce. Highway's of communication, 54. — 2". Hunan: Are.a. Population. Name. Houndaries. Capitaj. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 5(». — Geological constitution. Orography, 57. — Hydrography, 59. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 01. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 62. — References, 63.

CHAPTER IV.

ncifion of I he Lower Hwang-ho and of the Peh-ho (^Ihihli and Shantung), 65-8t».

Chihli and Shantung Provinces, 05. — i°. Chihii : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capitals. Other Prefectures, 06. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 07. — Climate. Hydrography, 09. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. 70. — Population (People). Cities and Principal Centres, 71. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 78. — 2". Shantung : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 79. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 80.- — Climate. Hydrography, 82. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral "W'ealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 83. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 80. — Open Ports. Notes,87.

— References,

SECTION II. — THE CENTRAL REGION, 90-166.

CHAPTER I.

VallcTsof the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 90-103.

Characteristics of this Region, 90. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution, 91. — Orography, 92. — Climate. Hydrography. The Yang- tze River (name, course, changes of, distance of Ports on from sea- coast, Navigation of, Steamboat Companies trading on), 93. — Further particulars regarding this Central Region, 101. — References, 102-103.

CHAPTER 11.

Kegion of the Upper Yangtze (Szeehw'an), 104-119.

SzechWan Province, 104. — Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 105. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological

X CONTENTS.

constitution, 106. — Orography, 107. — Climate. Hydrography, 109. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 111. — Population (People, Races). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 112. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 116. — Open Ports. Notes, 117. — References, 118.

CHAPTER III.

Kojjrion or I he Middle Yangtze (Hupoh and Hunau), 120-138.

Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, 120. — 1**. Hupoh : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 121. — Geological constitution. Orography, 122. — Climate. Hydrography, 123. — Lakes. Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 124. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 125. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 129, — Open Ports. 130. — 2". Hunan: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 131. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 132. — Hydrography, 133. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 134. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 135. — Industry and Commerce, 136. — Highways of communication. Open Ports, 137. — References, 138.

CHAPTER IV. Kegion of th<^ Lower Yangtze (Kiangsi, IVganhwei, Kiangsu), 139-100.

Kiangsi, Nganhwei and Kiangsu Provinces, 139. — 1°. Kiaugsi : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 140. — Aspect and Characteristics, Geological constitution. Orography, 141. — Hydro- graphy, 142. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 142. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 143. — Industry and Commerce, 145. — Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note. References, 145. — 2°. Nganhwei : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 146. — Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 147. — Hydrography. Lakes, 148. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 149. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 150. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 151. — Open Ports, 152. — 3°. Kiangsu : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 153. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 154. — Hydrography, 155. — Fauna and Flora, 156. — Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. 157. — Cities and Principal Centres, 158. — Industry and Commerce, Highways of communication, 163.

— Open Ports. Notes, 164. — References, 165-166.

SECTION in. — THE SOUTHERN REGION, 167-237.

CHAPTER L The Si-kiang Valley and the Coast-rivers of Fokien and Ch^kiang, 107-173.

Characteristics of this Region, 167. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Orogfriiphy, 168. — Climate. Hydrography, 170.

— References, 173.

' CHAPTER II.

Region of the Ippei* Sl-kli^ng (Yiinnan and Kweichow), 174-108.

Yunnan and Kweichow Provinces, 174. — 1". YUnnan : Area. Population. Nnme. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 175. — Aspect and Charac-

CONTENTS. XI

teristics. Geological constitution, 177.— Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 178. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 180. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal centres, 181. — Industry and Commerce, 182. — Open Ports. Note, 183. — 2". Kweichow : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 184. — Aspect and Characteristics. (Geological constitution. Orography, 185. — Climate. Hydrography, 187. — Agricultunil and Mineral Wealth, 187. — Population (People}. Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 188.— Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 190. — Note. References, 191- 193.

CHAPTER 111.

Kcffion of the Middle and Lower Si-kian^ (Kwaii^i and Kwangtung-), 104-210.

Kwangsi and Kwangtung Provinces, 19A. — 1". Kwani^i : Area. Popula- tion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 195. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. (>rngraphy. Climate. Hydrography, 196.— Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 198.— Popula- tion (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 199. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 200. — Note, 201. — 2". Kwang-tung: : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 202. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 203. — Climate. Hydrography, 204. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 206. — Population (People). Language. Towns and Principal Centres, 207. — Note (Hongkong, Macao, Kwang- chow-wan). Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 211.— Open Ports, 212. — References, 213-216.

CHAPTER IV.

The Coast Keg-ion (Fokien and ChOkiung-), 2t7-a«S7.

Fokien and Ch^kiang Provinces, 217. — P. Fokien : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 218. — Aspect and Charac- teristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 219. — Hydrography, 220. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 221. — Popu- lation (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 222. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of comnuinication, 225. — Open Ports. Note, 226.-2^. Cliekiang- : Area. l*opulalion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 227. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 228. — Climate. Hydrography, 229. — Fauna and Flora. Agri- cultural and Mineral Wealth, 281.- Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 232. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note. 235. — References, 236-237.

SECTION IV. —THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA, 238-294.

Preliminary observation, 238. — 1". (leiieral Notions: Extent of the coast- line. Its configuration. Seas, 239. — (ieneral remarks on the seas of China (the Yellow Sea, Eastern China Sea, South-China Sea), 241. — Nature of the coast, 242. — Coast winds. Winter and Summer Monsoons, 243. — Cyclones. Continental landstornis. Typhoons, 2'i5. — Fogs. Lighthouses, buoys and beacons, 2'i(). — Tides, 249. — 2«. The Coast of Chilill : The Poh-hai. Gulfs. Islands. Ice, 251. — Windy. Nature of the Coast. Ports, 252. — 3". Tlio Coast of Shandiiig : A. The N. W. Coast. B. The Miao-tao Islands, 253. — C. The Coast of the Shantung Promontory. Bays. Capes, 254. — Islands. Ice.' Wind. Tide. Nature of Coast. Lighthouses, 255. — Coast-towns (Chefoo, \\ eihaiwei, Tsingtaoj, 250. — 4**. The Coast orKian^- su : A. The Coast to the N. of the Yangtze. B. The mouth of the Yangtze

^ III

Xn CONTENTS.

and the Port of Shanghai, 261. — Islands and sand-banks. Channels, 262.

— Lighthouses. Tides, 263. — W'oosung Inner and Outer Bars, 264. — Height of water on Woosung Bars, 265. — Shanghai (Historical sketch. Population. Industries and Manufactures. Trade. Shipping and Tonnage. Table of Shipping. Inland Navigation), 266. — C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze, 271. — 5°. The Coast of Ch^kiang : 1°. Bay of Hangchow and its barrier of Islands, 272. — Lighthouses. 2°. Coast of Chekiang, S. of Hang- chow Bay, 273. — Bays, 274. — Islands. Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 275.

— 6<>. The Coast of Fokien : Bays. Islands, 276. — Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 278. — 7°. The Coast of Kwangtung: Bays. Islands, 281. — Tides. Currents. Lighthouses, 283. — Sea-ports (Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Kwangchow- wan), 284. — Time-zones on the Coast of China. Note, 292. — References, 293-294.

SECTION v. — POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY,

295-485.

CHAPTER I.

4aOvernment and Administi^ation. — Revenue and Expenditure. — Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and IVavy, 21K(-3d8.

1**. (Government and AdminlKtration : The Emperor, 295. — The Kmpress. Manchu Administration, 296. — Central Government, 297. — Provincial Administration, 301. — Provinces of China and their Capitals, 304. — Territorial Sub-divisions of the Provinces, 306. — Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces, 312. — General appellation of Officials. The Yam^n, 313. — Rank and degrees of Officials. Hereditary reward for Merit, 314. — 2**. Kevenue and Expeiidlluro : Chinese Currency, 316. Cash. Sycee. Various kinds of Taels, 317. — Gold equivalent of Haikwan Tael (1870-1906), 319. — Necessity of uniform Currency. 320. — Revenue of the Empire. Taxes (land-tax, salt-tax, likin, native Custom dues, opium-tax, miscellaneous), 321. — Expenditure of the Empire. Foreign Debt, 324. — 3**. Imperial Maritime Customs: Origin and development. Organization, 325.

— Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326. — Re\enue collected by I. M. Customs, 327. — Apportionment of Revenue between Foreign and Home Trade. Ports where trade is most important, 328. — 4". Army and Navy: Manchu or Imperial Army (The Eight Banners), 329. — Provincial Forces or Army of the Green Standard, 330. — Irregulars or Braves. The New Chinese Army scheme, 331. — Reorganization of the Army, 332. — Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904. Navy, 333. — Arsenals and dockyards. Ports, 334. — References, 335-338.

CHAPTER II.

Population (People). ~ Lanflrua8:es. — Religious. — Rdueation, 339-31>2.

P. Population (People), 339. — Physical and moral characteristics of the Chi- nese Race, 340. — Aboriginal tribes and remnants of former Races :Lolos, 342.

— Miaotze, Ikias, Hakkas, 343. — Hoklos. Yao or Yu tribe. Sai, Si or Li tribe, 344. — Mosus (Musus), Lisus. Minkias. Sifans. Distribution of the Population, 345. — Foreign (Commercial) Population in China. 346. — 2<*. LancHMS^s : Th^ Chinese Language, 347. — Mandarin. Varieties of Mandarin. Dialects (number of persons conversing in each), 348. — Charac- teristics of the Chinese Language. Chinese writing, 349. — Dialects and writi ng of the Aborigines. Chinese Literature, 350. — 3<*. Religions: Confucianism. Taoism, 351. — Buddhism, 352. — Ancestor worship. Shamanism, 353. — Catholicism. Catholic Missions in China, 354. — Protestantism, 358. — Pro- testant Missions to China, 359. — Mahomedanisni, 362. — Judaism, 363. —

CONTENTS. XIU

4®. Education: Old System of Education, 364. — Competitive examinations and degrees, 3(\b. — Modern System of Education, 367. — Grades of Schools and Degrees in new System, 368. — Normal and Special Schools. Admi- nistration of the Schools. Private and Mission Schools, 369. — Old Style military examinations. References, 370-392.

CHAPTER 111.

.V^ricMiitiii'o, :I93-40I.

Chinese Agriculture, 393. — Methods. Distribution of Crops. V^arious agricultural products, 394. — Plants cultivated for food, utilized in industry, 395. — Tea. The Poppy-plant, 39(). — The sugar-cane. The cotton plant. Useful trees, 397. — The Bamboo. Fruit-trees. Domestic animals. Pisciculture and fishing, 398. — References, 399-401.

CHAPTER IV,

Mining: and Industry, 402-406.

Mining: Coalmines. Iron ore. Copper, 402. — Zinc. Tin. Quicksilver. Gold. Silver. Argentiferous lead mines. Kerosene. Salt. Mining regulations. Industry: 403. — Porcelain. Silk. Silk-filatures. Cotton-spinning and wea- ving mills. Sugar refineries. Arsenals. Mints. Printing establishments, 404. — References, 405-406.

CHAPTER V.

Trade and Commerce, 407-484.

Home Trade, 407. — Trade with the outlying Dependencies. Foreign Trade. Its Importance, 408. — Annual value of China's Foreign Trade (1891-1905). Principal l^oreign Countries with which China trades. Annual value of the Direct Trade with each country (1903-1905), 409. — Principal Imports from Foreign Countries, 411. — Principal Exports to Foreign Countries, 412. — Principal Re-exports. Value and Importance of the principal articles of Trade (cotton piece-goods and yam), 413. — Sorts of Opium imported. Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 414.— Principal Exports from China : Silk and Tea. Sorts of silk exported. Total Export of silk for the past 10 years, 415. — Sorts of Tea exported. Total Export of Tea for the last 10 years, 416. — Tea: Exportation direct to Foreign Countries. Principal Marts for export of I'ea, 417. —Share taken by each Foreign Country in China's Trade. Shipping. Carrying trade between the Treaty Ports, 418. — Trade of Shanghai (1903-1905), 419. — Traders and Trading Houses in China. Trade and population of the Open Ports (1903- 1905), 420. — References, 422-424.

CHAPTER VI.

Means of Communiealion, 425-442.

Roads and Bridges, 425. — (iovernment Courier Roads, 426. — Modes of conveyance and travel. Waterways, 427. — Canals. The Grand Canal, 428. — Railways, 430. — Railway lines completed and working (1907), 431. — Under construction, 433. — Projected, 434. — Postal Service, 435. — Present TariflF: Imperial Post Office, 436. — Postal Sections and Work, 437. — Telegraphs, 438. — Steamship Companies trading to and from China, 439. — References, 441-442.

CHAPTER VII.

Rise and Progress of tlie Chinese Knipire. — Foreign Relations. —

Chinese Emigration, 44.1-485.

I**. Rise and Progre.ss of I he Chinese Empire. /". The Mythical Period, 443. — //". The Ancient or Legendary Period : 1". The Five Sovereigns.

XIV CONTENTS.

2^. The Three great Emperors (Yao, Shun, YQ), 445. — ///<>. The i? Dy- nasties : 1". The Primitive Dynasties, 445. — I'he Chinese Imperial Dy- nasties, Table of, 446. — The Hsia dynasty. The Shang or Yin dynasty, 4i8'. — The Chow dynasty, 449. —2". The Ancient Dynasties : The Ts'in dynasty, 450. — The Han dynasty, 451. — The Minor Han. I'he Tsin dynasty, 453. — The Liusung dynasty. J'hc Three Short-lived dynasties, 45/1. — 3«. The Mediaeval dynasties, 455. — I'he T'ang dynasty, 450. — The Five Ephemeral dynasties. The Sung dynasty, 457. — The Yuen or Mongol dynasty, 459. — 4^. The Modern dynasties : I'he Ming dynasty. 400. — The Tats'ing dynast^', 461-471. — 11". Forolarn Relations, 471. — Famous Travellers to and from China, 472. — Intercourse of Western Powers with China from the XVI"' century to 1842, p. 473. — Relations of China with Foreign Powers from 1842 (Treaty of Nanking), 475. — 111". Kmigrnlion (Chinese abroad), 478. — References, 479-485.

BOOK II.

OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTER I.

Manchuria or the Manchu Country, 48(V-.*>08.

Note. Area. Population. Name, 480. — Boundaries. Capital. Provinces and Prefectural divisions, 487. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 488. — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 489. — Lakes. Coast-line, 491. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 492. — Population (People), 493. — Language. Religion. Towns and Principal Centres, 494. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of commu- nication, 501. — Railways in Manchuria, 503. — The Palisade. Adminis- tration, 504. — Open Ports, 505. — Historical sketch, 500, — References, 507-508.

CHAPTER II.

Mong'olia or the Mong-ku Country, 509-522.

Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 509. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 510. — Orography and Hydrography. Region of Kobdo and Urga, 511. — Region of the Mongolian Desert or Gobi, 512. — Region of the Great Khingan (Hsingnan). Ordos Plateau Region, 513. — Alashan Region. Climate, 514. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People), 515. — Religion. Language, 510. — Tow^ns and Principal Centres, 517. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 519. — Postal service (Russian overland^. Administra- tion, 519. — Army. References, 520-522.

CHAPTER III.

Chinese Turkestan or tlio Now Dominion, also ealloH Siiikiang*, 528-587.

Area. I'opulation. Name, Boundaries, 523. — Prefectural divisions. Aspect and Characteristics, 524. — (Geological constitution. Orography, 525. — Depressions. Passes. Climate, 520. — Hydrography, 527. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 528.— The different Regions and their Towns. 529. — I'opulntion iPeople). Religion. Language. Admi- nistration. 533. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 53'j. — Historical Note. References, 535-537.

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER IV.

Tiliel or Sit^nir, 53H-ft57.

Area. Populntion. Name, lioundaries, 538. — Aspect, (ieologicnl consti- tution. Orography, 53U. — Climatt*, 5U. — Hydrography, 542. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 545. — Government and Admini.strative divisions: Kingdom of Tibet, 545.— Kuku-Nor. Population People and Races). Religion, 547. — Language, 548. — Taxation, tribute and currency. Army. Towns and l*rincipal Centres, 549. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 553. — Postal communication. Open Trade-marts. Historical Note. Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. British Rxpe- dition to Lhasa. 554. — References, 555-557.

List of the Prefectures and Sub-prefectures (Departments aud Districts) in the 18 Provinces, arranged under their respective Provinces and supple- mented by the Indendancies administered by a Taot'ai), 558-58L

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures of Manchuria and Chinese Turkestan, 582-585.

Alphabetical List of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports of China and Dependencies, 586-639.

Appendix L Signification of the Principal Chinese Geographical Terms, 640.

II. China's Foreign Trade in 11K)6, p. 645.

III. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China for the vear ending,

1905, p. 657.

IV. The Woosung Bar, Hwangp'u Conser\'ancy and Approaches

to Shanghai, (iaU. ,, V. Work and Progress of the Imperial Post Office in 1906, p.

661. Index (alphabetically arranged , r)63. Corrigenda, 712.

LIST OF MAPS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

In Text.

Fig. Page

1. Skflch-plan illustrating Formation of the Soil of China 2

2. Geological Map of Northern China according to Richthofen,

Pumpelly and A. David 9

3. Rough sketch-plan of the Tpper Hwang-ho 24

4. Sketch-plan showing changes in the course of the Hwang-ho. ... 28

5. Section of the Richthofen M** at their Southernmost Pass. ... 34 <). Loess Plateau of Shansi according to Richthofen 49

7. Section of the Mountains of Western Honan, proceeding from

HwaikMng Fu to Nanyang Fu, 58

8. Map of Northern Chihii and Approaches to Peking 68

9. Plan of Peking, with Index 72

10. Sketch-map of T'ientsin 76

11. Geological Map of Shantung according to Richthofen 81

12. Sketch-plan, Port of Ts'ingtao 85

13. Section of the Mountains from Tatsienlu to the Min River Plain. 108

14. Sketch-plan of Ch'ungk*ing 115

15. Wuch*ang, Hanyang and Hank'ow 126

16. Sketch-plan of Shanghai, with Inset of P'ootung 161

17. Geological sketch-map of the Chinese Provinces bordering on

Tongking, by M. A. Lecl^re 169

18. Approaches to Canton 171

19. Section of Yunnan and Kwangsi Plateaux 176

20. Sketch-plan of Canton and the Pearl River 208

21. Sketch-plan of Foochow and the Min River 220

22. Sketch-plan of Amoy Harbour 224

23. Section of the Pacific Ocean along the 20»»» parallel, N. Lat. ... 240

24. Diagram illustrating the Winter and Summer Monsoons. ... 244

25. Lighthouses on the N. Coast of China 247

26. Lighthouses on the S. Coast of China 248

27. Sketch-plan of the Lower Peh-ho and its Mouth 250

28. Sketch-plan of Chefoo Bay 256

29. Sketch-plan of Weihaiwei Harbour 257

30. Sketch-plan of Kiaochow Bay 259

31. Diagram showing swirl at mouth of Yangtze at flood and ebb

tides 264

32. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 264

33. Diagram showing Height of water on the Outer and Inner

Woosung Bars (1897-1902) 205

34. Sketch-plan of Samsa (Sansha) Bay 277

35. Sketch-plan of Hongkong including Kowloon and New Territory. 284

36. Sketch-plan of Macao with Dependencies of Taipa and Colowan. 288

37. Sketch-plan of Kwangchow-wan 290

38. Railway system of Manchuria 502

39. Section of Asia, following Meridian of Lob-Nor and Turfan. ... 540

40. Sketch-map of Southern Tibet 542

41. Height of Water on the Outer and Inner Woosung Bars {1902-

1906) 659

42. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River tiOO

In Pocket.

1. Large Map of the 18 Provinces, in 7 colours (27 x 21 inches .

2. Physical and Political Map of China and Dependencies, in 5 colours

(15 X 10 A inches).

3. Map of the Hupeh Plain, in 5 colours (9 A x 8 inches).

4. Map of the Lower Yangtze Basin, in 5 colours (9 A x 8 inches).

LIST.

OF STATISTICAL TABLES.

1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 5

Area and Population of the 18 Provinces 8

Distance (nautical miles) of Yangtze Ports from Shanghai. ... 101

Hank^ow shipping Table 128

Foreign Population of Shanghai 267

Gross and Net Values of the Shanghai Trade (1900-1905) 269

Custom Dues collected at Shanghai (1900-1905) 269

Share of Dues contributed by G. Britain, Germany etc 269

Shanghai shipping Table (1900-1905) 271

Gross and Net V'alues of the Canton Trade (1900-1905) 287

Total Value of junk trade between Hongkong and Macao (1900-

1905) 289

The 10 Ministries or Metropolitan Boards 299

The 8 Viceroyaltics 302

Provinces of China and their Capitals 304

Provincial Government 305

Territorial sub-divisions of the Provinces 306

Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces 312

Insignia of OflFicinl Rnnk 314

The 9 Ranks of hereditary reward for Merit 315

Table exhibiting the sub-divisions of the Tael 31(i

Gold equivalent of the Hnikwan Tael (1870-1906) 319

Revenue of the Chinese Empire 321

Expenditure of the Chinese Empire 324

Ports and Marts open to Foreign 'IVade 326

Customs Revenue (1900-1905) 327

Share of Duties paid by Foreign and by Home Trades 328

Ports where Trade is most important 328

Bimner Ciarrisons in the Provinces 329

Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 190'j 333

Table showing increase of Chinese Population 346

Foreign Trading Houses and 'Traders in China 3'i6,420,654

Population speaking Dialects of the East and South of China. ... 348

Number of Syllables in the various Dialects of China 348

Statistics of Catholic Missions in China, 1906 356

,, ,, ,, ,, in Korea and Japan, 1906 358

Statistics of Protestant Missions in China 359-360; 657-658

M. A. Graduates in each Province, 1903 366

L.L.D. Graduates in each Province, 1904 367

Grades of Schools (New System) 368

Degrees conferred in New System 368

Annual Value of China's Foreign Trade, 1891-1905-1906. ... 409,645 Annual Value of direct trade with each Country, 1903-1905-1906. 409,645 Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906. 410,647

Principal Net Exports to Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906 Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905-1906. ... Importation of Cotton piece-goods and yarn

Importation of Cotton yarn

Opium imported

Silk exported for the past 10 years

Tea exported for the past 10 years

412,648 413,649 413,649 414,649 414,650 415,651 416,651

XVIII

LIST OF STATISTICAL TABLES.

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

50. 57.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign Countries, 1 905-1 90r).... 417,652 Shipping : Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1905-1906. ... 418,653 Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1904-1905-1906. 418,653

Shanghai, Gross and Net Value of its Trade, 1903-1905 419

Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Open Fort, 1905-

1906 420,654

Government Courier Roads or Postal Highways 426

Railway Lines, completed and working, 1907 431,432

,, ,, under construction, 1907 433

,, ,, projected, 1907 434

Postal Tariff ; Imperial Post Office, 1907 •. 436

Head and Branch Offices, Imperial Post Office, 1901-1905-1906. 437,661

Postal Sections and Work, 1904-1905-1906 437,661

Telegraph Cables in China 438

Steamship Companies sailing to or from China 439

Coast and Riverine S. S. Companies 440

Imperial. Dynasties of China 446

Emigration Statistics 478

Newchwang : Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906 499

GEOGRAPHY

OF

THE CHINESE EMPIRE.

INTRODUCTION.

"^CSeoyraphy. — (reography is uothing else than a description of the earth.

The Geography of (-hina will consist therefore in describing that part of Asia which is called China.

But the description of the earth cannot be made without some preliminary* notions of geology, that is to say, of the science of the earth, its fonuation, its cons- titntion and its various modifications. By means of this study we can give a readier acconnt of the snrface, of the distribntion of [the waters, and also of the fauna and flora of China.

Formatian of the earth. — Tlio whole universe has been, in its elements, created by God, that is to say made from nothing by His Almighty Power.

According to the hypothesis the most generally held among scientists, the sun and its planets formed at first a single nebulous body, that is to say, an enormous spheroidal mass of gas occupying an immense space.

This mass, animated with a slow movement of rotation, condensed in concentric rings, tuniing around the common centre in the plane of its equator. Each of the rings broke up. The fragments, forming in their tarn small spheres, continued, while condensing, to turn around the principal mass. In this way the planets were formed. The earth is one of these planets.

Separated from the sun, the earth, continuing to cool, passed slowly from the gaseous to the liquid state. Blocks of solid matter soon began to float upon its snr- face, as ice does on the surface of ponds, when the temperature has fallen for some time below 32 degrees Fah.. Then these blocks fused together, forming like archipela- goes upon the liquid mass, and incrusted this burning sea, somewhat as in the new egg the shell hardens although the interior remains fluid.

Modlflcatlons of the criibt of the earth. » But this mass continued to cool down, and its crust, which is none other than the shell of our globe, remained of slight thickness. Hence splits and depressions, and when the compressed interior gases found vent through less resisting parts of the crust, violent eruptions took place. These covered the crust with volcanic outbursts, or upheaved within it what have been called the eruptive rocks. This action, intense in the first ages of the earth, continues down to the present day. Certain portions of the earth rise up, others become depressed : islands suddenly emerge or disappear; earthquakes shake this or that part of the crust; volcanoes cast around them fiery- or liquid matter, issuing from the bosom of the earth.

FormatkNi of new lands. — Simultaneously with this interior work another went on, and still continues on the exterior of the crust of the earth. As the central

1

CHINBSB EMPIRE.

core of the earth condeDsed by cooling, there occurred a similar condensation of some of the constituent! of its gaseous envelope. Heav}* mists and abundant rains developed over the crust an immense sheet of water. This mass, consequent on the never-ending changes wrought on the surface of the crust, withdrew, now in one cavity, now in another, thus forming mighty seas above which rose continents.

Upon these continents, as in the seas, living beings subsequently appeared; plants, fish, birds, and quadrupeds. Some of these still exist, others have disappeared, leaving their traces beneath the soil. Thanks to these marks, we can discover the age of such or such strata of the earth. These strata are, in order of age, and beginning by the oldest :

The Azoic

strata (without trace of life) or primitive,

The Primary

strata,

The Secondary-

strata.

The Tertiary

strata,

The Quaternary

strata.

Igneous and oedlmenlary rocks.— In these layers two kinds of rooks are found: igneous rocks, of which the Azoic strata are formed, and sedimentary or stratified rocks.

The igneous (or Plutonic) rocks are formed by the solidifying of the exterior layers of the molten matter : gneiss, mica-schist.

'The sedimentary (or Neptunian) rocks are formed by the disintegration of the igneous rocks. These debris deposited at the bottom of lakes and seas, together with the remains of animals, form, througli a process of drying and hardening, new rocks [clay, sand-stone, limestone] .

This rapid and very incomplete sketch of the formation of the earth will enable us now to study the formation of the soil of China.

Formation of the soil of China. — China, as we stated in the beginning, forms a part of Asia, the South-Eastern. From primitive times two portions of Asia seem to have emerged. In the North, in the region of Irkutsk and extending as far as Korea, was the continent called Eurasia (formed by Europe and Asia), which soon continued to the North by Anga- ra. This continent occupied h large portion of present Siberia. In the South, in the present peninsula of Hindustan, and extending ,to Australia, was the land of Gundwana (so called from the ancient flora of Gpnd- wana, common to its different parts). Between these two conti- nents, occupying consequently nearly the whole space now forming China, was the central Mediterranean sea, called some- times Thetys (the sea). In the primitive period,therefore,China, except Manchuria, the Western border ot Mongolia and some

rpaitM of Tibt't, vvfts buried be-

Formation of^the soil of China. [2 Sea. ^ Land.

In the North, Eurasia. In the South, the land of Gundwana. Between the two the Central Mediterranean Sea.

INTRODUCTION. 3

/-^ CSiina in the dilTereiii fireolo^iGal periods. — At the close of the Primary period, the greatest portion of China emerged, save the Sonth -Western.

During the whole of the Primary' period and the first part of the Secondary period, China remained nnder water. It then emerged definitively. Snhsequently c&me foldings and dislocations, which evolved hollows like that of Sungaria, or emerged in peaks like those of the Altai mountains, TMen-shan, K'nenlun, Nan-shan and Tibet.

Several of these summits, the K'nenlun and Nan-shan for instance, were formerly very high, but erosion has greatly lessened them. Of the sedimentary coating that covered the high summits, there remain but fragments in the less elevated parts, as in the South- Western portion of China.

After the first half of the Secondary period, the geological constitution of China was nearly completed. No trace is to be found of jura-limestone and chalk formations, such as were formed elsewhere at the end of the Secondary period.

During the Tertiary and Quaternary period, China, now completely out of water, underwent but modifications of its surface, and developed no new rocks.

Formatioo of coal and sand-6tone. — At the close of the Primary period, immense deposits of coal formed along the coasts of Eurasia and Gundwana, in the place now occupied by Yiinnan, Kweichow, Honan, Shensi and Shan si.

Great lakes occupied a portion of Eastern China from the Secondary period. When these disappeared, they left behind a thick bed of rocks deposited in their depths; to these rocks has been given the name of sand-stone, so abundant still in many pla- ces of China, and particularly in Szechw*an and tliroughout the whole of Southern China.

Modifications ivrou^iit on tiie surface. — At the same time the mountain- tops were attacked by glaciers, winds, frosts and torrents, and the debris borne away ; lakes were filled, the gentler hills became plains, islands like Shantung were joined tog«*ther, and there were deposited in the North those thick layers of yellow and fertile earth, called loess, which we shall have more than once occasion to speak about.

Volcanic Action and Eruptions. — Volcanic action does not seem to have been intense. There remain traces of it however in the neighbourhood of Nanking, in the North of Peking, in some regions of Mongolia and in Tibet.

The eruptive rocks play a more important part. These rocks, the principal of which are porphyry and granite, were spread over a great part of China. The moun- tains of Fokien, for instance, are mostly composed of porphyry. «

Present s^olo^ical action. — This work of geological formation still goes on at the present day, and is more especially to be seen at the mouths of the great rivers where new lands, called deltas, are continually forming.

Predominant Roolui of tlie Cliinese soil. — From what has been said upon the geological formation of China, it is easy to account for the rocks that predominate. For the most part the strata are either Primary or Secondary. The Azoic strata are scarcely represented, covered over as they are by the others. Coal takes up a large place, and loess covers a vast portion of Northern China, extending from Kansu to Shantung and Kiangsu.

A peculiar kind of limestone, known as China limestone, and formed before the coal-beds, is found all over China. Its thickness is at times 10,000 ft. and sometimes more. It is the rock the most widely diffused throughout China.

Nevr modifications wrou^pht on tiie surface of Oliina. — It may be said in general, that the surface of China slopes from West to East, the highest peaks being found in Tibet and the vast low-lying plains in the East. This slope is moreover

4 CHIKBSB BMPIRB.

clearly indicated, by the general direction of the great rivers. But it has not always been thos. Many actoal monntain-masses : Tibet, Szechw'an, Tiinnan, were onoe great table-lands, that sloped in course of time to the East. It is thns thst the same layer of Tocia is fonnd in the sea, on the coasts of Ton^king, and at an elevation of 6500 ft. in Yunnan and Szechw^an. Other parts, now immense plains, were formerly mountains, but the unceasing action of alluvion-charged rivers, and sand-laden winds grsdually filled up the valleys, leaving nothing henceforth emerging but the highest peaks. The table-lands were also vigourou&ly attacked by the combined action of climate and water which constantly eroded and disintegrated them. Mighty glaciers, bke those nowadays in Tibet and Ea«>tem Turkestan, dug out deep valleys; long frosts rent the rocks; and the water, to find an issue, worked a passage through the least resisting parts of the strata.

Lakes, encircled by a girdle of rocks, deposited there heavy alluvion, and then filling up, overllowed their low banks. This action of the wster gradually wore way the rocks, rapids dug deep gorges, until at last the lakes were drained, and left behind a fertile soil, which brought prosperity to its possessors.

FWvtt MKl faoMi •£ ttee first a^es. — What were the pnmitive fauna and flora of China ? This we can learn by studying its rocks. Suffice it to state that copious vegetation once covered its high peaks; it is this vegetation which, buried in the depths of the earth, has formed the present coal-fields. Animals, much larger than these of to-day, among others the mammoth, inhabited the country.

The lln* HriMbitaata^f Ohina. THeir place ef eri^in. — \l*ho were the first inhabitants of China ? In the present state of science, an answer to this question is impossible. Did they come from the S.-W. by Burma ? From the X., by the great plain of Siberia, or from the N. W. by the valley of the Hwang-ho? In the absence of trustworthy documents, we will follow the Chinese traditions, according to which the hundred familiet, the blaek-haired racf, came from the West.

THe llrst rMTllP iaJwhitBatiD (according to their ancient descriptive chara- cters). — When the race first entered the country, they found it still covered with swamps, and transformed it little by little into agricultural land. They had also to dwell temporarily in mountain caves, and wage constaat war against wild animals : the lion, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, panther, bear, wolf etc... all these being then more numerous than now. They came likewise into contact with a half- savage population, frequently hostile, ^ith whom they had at times to dwell together, but were compelled oftener to fight. Several of these races are still extant in China, in the S. especially : the Lolos, and the Hiao-tze. Others, the I, seem to have been driven Northwards and thence to have crossed over to America.

What were the life, manners, language, and religion of these first Chinese? They were nomads, shepherds and hunters, but settled down gradually and cultivated the soil. Covered at first with the skins of wild beasts, they learned later on to ma- nufacture cloth and make garments.

Their food was meat and afterwards grain, when they became tillers of the soiL They had a knowledge of copper and knew also how to work in wood. Shellf^ soon replacetl by ingots of copper fulfilled the office of money. They were fond of noise, dancing, and music. To preserve the memory of great events, they made knots on cords, and later on, notches on sticks. Their writing first consisted of rude outlines. At their head was a chieftain, whom they considered as the medium between heaven and earth. Around him gathered several clans. The laws were very harsh and paren- tal authority reigned supreme in the family.

Their religion recognized and honoured a Supreme Lord. They paid great

INTRODUCTION. 5

attention to natural phenomena, and tried thereby to ascertain the will of heaven; for this purpose, they also applied fire to the carapace of the tortoise, and tried to discover the future by the lines that resulted therefrom. They feared the influence of evil genii. They did not bury their dead, but wrapping them up in bundles of hay, watched over them until decomposition set in.

Actual China. — Having briefly examined ancient China, how its soil was formed and shaped, and what were its first inhabitants, it now remains for us to study what actual China is.

Sitnatioii. — By the Chinese Empire is understood all that part of Asia which V lies between 53* and 10** N. latitude, proceeding from N. to S., and going from W. to E., the whole region extending between the 74" and 134" longitude E. from Greenwich. Divisions. — In this vast Empire, certain parts are governed more or less immediately by the Emperor of China. Some are merely tributary states. The most important region is caUed CHINA PROPER, and compHspa t.hfl ]« Pv^«.;»^^a It is this latter whicli will be the principal theme of the present work. Mangjuiria, Mojigolia, Eastern_Turkestan or the New Territory (Sinkiang) and Ti^t will afterwards be studied, each in turn.

Boundaries. — China is bounded on the N. and N.W. - By Siberia, W. — Bj^ Russian Turkestan, S.W. — By Hindustan,

S. and E. — By Tongking and the Pacific Ocean, N.E. — By Korea. Area and Population. — The population of the Chinese Empire, according to jtUft- latest offioiai <!>onoiio inken in^\jj^h said to amount to 130,000,000 inhabitants. These are distributed over the 4,278,352 square miles which form the country, as follows :

Population. Square miles. /

China Proper (i.e. the 18 Provinces) 410,000,000. 1 ,532,800.

Manchuria 8,500,000. 303,700.

Mongolia 2,580,000. 1,307,953.

Chinese Turkestan 1,200,000. 550,579.

Tibet 6,430,000. 463,320.

Reasons of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. — The climate, the mountainous character of the country, the nature of the soil, explain this unequal distri- bution of inhabitants in the different parts of China, as we shall see further on, when studying in detail each of its Provinces. Manchuria, cold and hilly, is far from affording its people the resources which abound throughout the rich and sunny plains of the J 8 Provinces. Mongolia and Turkestan, frozen in Winter, excessively hot in Summer, and swept continually by sand-storms exhibit but few fertile spots, wherein the bare necessaries of life are found. Tibet, with its snow-capped summits, is a fit abode for man only in those deep valleys where milder air is to be found.

Diaiculty of a collective vieiv. — It is by examining each of these countries / in detail, that we can study their mountains, plains, table-lands, the distribution of their waters, their climate, resources, and administration, in a word, everything which constitutes tlieir geography. Their different features var>' too much, and thereby hinder anything like a general view.

Situdy of the 18 Provinces. — The 18 Provinces forming the most important part of the Empire will be the object of a more special btudy.

GU1NB8E EMPIRE.

References :

S. W. WUliams. — The Middle KiDgdom.

London, 1883. Ooitlier.— Bibliotheca »iuica. Paris, 1904,

1905... - Oordjer. — Les Etudes chinoises. Leide,

1895, 1898, 1003. T'oung-pao (from ]8l»0;. Bulletin du Comitc de TAsie francaiso. Kevae frau^aiiM; d*exploration. La Geographic. Anuales de Geographic. Geographical Journal. RictaUiolen. — China. Berlin, 1877 83. ' Soulier. — Hi8tor>* of China. Dii Halde. — Description fjrcogi-aphiquc

de I'empire de la Chine. Paris, 1735. Mimoiresconcemant rhi8toire4e8 sciences,

les arts etc. cles Chinois. Paris, 1776. Grosier. ^ Description gin^rale de la

Chine. Paris, 1818-1820. J.F.Davto.— The Chinese. London, 1857. FnuUiler. — Cliinc modeme. Paris, 1853. Wiener. — Textes historiques. Hokien

fou, 1903 (Introdnction). Meany. —Chinese Miscell. Shanghai, 1895,

9G, 99, 1905. Ball. — Things Cliinese, 1905. Giles. — A glossary of reference. Pr.KuropatkiiB.— The orography of Asia

((ii'og. Journal. 1904 p. 176).^

For fjeuloijij :

Richibofeu. — China, and also : Letters.

Shanghai, 1873. |

Sucs0. — La face do la terre. Parib, 1897 !

et 1900. (2^ part cli. VII, VIII et XII S'l '

part, ch. III). de Lappnreiil. — Lemons de geufcraphio ■

physique. Parin, 181H> (2*> le^on : Les i

terres asiatiqucH). |

Leprince-Kin^uet. — Ktude gvologique ■

sur le Nord de la Chine. PariB, 1001. ;

Leel^rc. — Etude goologiquo et miniere |

des provinces chinoi-ses voisinea dn Ton- •

kin. Parib, 1902.

Piunpelly. — (teological researches in Chuia.

TieRseu — China, das Ueiche der achtzehn Provinzen. Erster Teil. Die allgemeiue geograpliie des Landes. Ikrlin, 1902.

Oh the Chinese Empire^ see also passim : Echo de Chine, North-China Daily News, China Review, Journal aHiatique,Biilletiu de I'Ecole fran^aise d'Extrf*me-Orient, Far Eastern Review, Ost Asia, Chine et liflgique....

BOOK I. CHINA PROPER

OR

THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES

GENEEAL NOTIONS.

Ifaiues applied to tlie oountry and Its people. — We :

shall call the principal part of this vast Empire China proper \ or the 18 provinces, for such is the division that prevails at the ; present day. The country is also called Ohina, presumably on \ account of the Ts^in ^ dynasty, under which it became better \ known to the nations of the West. This name underwent various ' tranformations such as : Jin, Chin, Sina, China. The Romans called it Serica or the silk-producing land. In the Middle-Ages, it received the name of Cathay. It is also known as the 3iiddie KingtUnn (Ghung-kwoh rp g), this name being applied by the Chinese to the central part of their country ; and as the Fiowerp Kingdom (Hwa-kwoh |jlB). The Chinese are often called Hanr fen (^ A)« ^^^ o^ H^^) ^h^^ being the name of a celebrated dynasty.

SUnatlon.— China JProper lies between 18® and 43® North Latitude, and extends from 98® to 122® longitude East from Greenwich.

Boundaries. — China proper is bounded on the

N. By Mongolia,

W. By Chinese Turkestan and Tibet,

8.W. By Burma,

S. By Tongking % jjf and the Gulf of Tongking,

8

BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

8.E. By th§ South China Sea, E. By the Easterfi Sea,

N.E. By the Yellow Sea, the Gulf of Chihli g[ H, and by Manchuria.

fflimpe. — China is shaped like a fan, the handle of which would be N.W. Kansu "g* J|f, and the semicircular edge, the coast-line with two horns standing out 'at the two extremities. To the N.E., is the Shantung ilj jK Promontory, and to the" S.E., that of Leichow Fu ^ ^ ^, terminating in the sea by the island of Hainan ft^ ^.

Area and Population. — The area of CFUna JPraper is

1,532,800 square miles, and its population 410 000 000 inhabi- tants, distributed as follows, according to the oflicial census of 1902.

AREA AND POPULATION.

Provinces.

1

Area in

Population.

Persons

Square mii«es.

Per sq. mii,e.

Chekiang H jL

36 680 1

II 5«o 000

310

Chihli K 9k

115 830

20 930 000

180

Fokien jS }i

46 332

22 870 000

492

Ilonaii flr Jti

1 67 954

25 317 820

373

Hunaii M n

83398

22 169 000

265

Hupeh « «

71 428

35 280 000

495

Kansu -fr ft

125 483

10 386 OCX)

82

Kiangsi {£ JS

69498

26 532 000

382

Kiangsu fi |||

38 610

23 980 230

620

Kwangsi Jft JS

. 77 220

5 142 000

66

Kwangtung Jf| fH

100 000

31 865 200

318

Kweichow It^

67 182

7 650 000

114

Nganhwei* $ ffi

54826

23 672 300

432

Shansi ^| |f

81 853

12 200 000

149

Shantung ^ ^

55984

38 247 900

683

Shensi Hfi f|

75 290

8 450 000

112

Szechw'au E9 jll

218 533

68 724 800

314

Yiinnan ( M

146 718

12 721 500

i

86

• Also written "Auhiii" aud "Auhwei".

GBNBRAL NOTIONS.

It may be seen from the above tableau that the largest Provinces are those of Szechw'an ajid Yunnan, and the smallest one, that of Ch^kiang. The Provinces of greatest population are those of Szechw'an and Shantung, Kwangsi has the least num- ber of inhabitants. It is in Shantung and Kiangsu that the population is most dense, while it is thinnest in Kwangsi. Gene- rally speaking, the N. W. and S. W. Provinces are those in which the inhabitants are the least numerous. This arises

-^--O)

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTHERN CHINA.

According to Richthofen, Pumpblly and A. David

^ [I

AUavion. Yellow earth. Red alluvion Paleozoic. Metamor- Volcanic. Carboni-

of A. David. phic. ftrous.

10 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINGBB.

principally from the mountainous and less fertile nature of the country, and also from the various Mahomedan rebellions, which overran these regions. In regard to mining prospects, as we shall see subsequently, those latter are the richest in mineral deposits. Industry, perhaps, will give them a new lease ot life and activity, which will place them for wealth in equal rank whith the others. These abound especially in agricultural productions.

Geological oousftltutlon. — We have seen above how the formation of the soil of the Chinese empire was effected. It is especially in the N. W. and in the W. that China has undergone the greatest upheaval. In the S. of the Yangtze- kiang ^ -^ 2C) ^^^ ^^^^ calcareous table-land developed there, sloped towards the E. sinking down however towards its centre, in the portion occupied by the Siang-kiang jfB 2C, a tributary of the Yangtze-kiang, and by several of the tributaries of the Si-kiang fg f[]^ : the Liu-kiang ^ (£, Yuh-kiang ^ Jt, and Tso-kiang ^ f£.

This calcareous table-land, nowadays much intersected by the rivers that flow through it, offers the most varied and fantastic features : table-lands, mountains, peaks^ spurs, conical- shaped hills, pinnacles, and castellated forms. The parts that have offered the greatest resistance to the work of erosion are limestone, sand-stone, clay and the eruptive rocks. Those com- posed of slate, on the contrary, have been deeply indented, and in places completely eaten away by erosion. In the Western part of this region are abundant deposits of coal, occupying a qua- drilateral, whose corners are Laok'ai ^ pg, Yunnan Fu :p ^ ^, Tungchw'an Fu Jjg^ )\\ }^ and Kweiyang Fu jH ^ jj^.

The coast region of Kwantung g^ 3^, Fokien jjg |^, and Ch6kiang j^ f£ presents quite a different geological com- position and belongs to another period. It is in great part composed of granite and porphyry, the granite prevailing along the coasts. Several islands are of volcanic formation.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang j^ ^ 2C) ^^^^ geological cons- titution varies. In the N. W. the great upheavals, half covered with a layer of loess, prevail. They continue Eastwards, sloping down towards an immense alluvial plain^ which partially encloses Shantung [1| ;^, formerly an island, composed of azoic and primary rocks.

Oroi^rapby or JMIouulaln MjsteiuM. — Tiic massive and elevated table-land of Tibet forms the centre or backbone from which all the mountains of China branch off throughout the country.

GENBRAL NOTIONS. 11

To the yarth, the EaHem - Mfuetdtm % ^ throwing out numerous chains into Kansu "^ Jf", and splitting up towards the E. into 3 principal systems :

1^ The AloBhan (Holan-shan 5K H ill) I'ange, running Norlh^Eastwards through the Ordos plateau into the hend of the Hwang-ho |^ fpf, then continuing through the Shansi il| |f plateau, the In-shan f^ ^J mountains and Inner Hsingngan ^ ^. The Alashan range attains towards the South an elevation of more than 9800 ft. The Ordos plateau averaging in height from 4,900 to 5,200 ft.,, slopes down in its Northward part.

The Shansi plateau, whose average height is from 6,500 to 8,000 feet, attains towards the N. an elevation of 11,500 ft. The In-shan mountains extend S. E. of Mongolia and separate it from China. We shall deal with them when describing this high table-land.

To this system may be attached the Kansu '^^M mountains, N. of the Ku-ku Nor region, their elevation frequently sur- passing 16,400 feet. The range here inclines from the N. W. towards the S. E..

2^. The Bastern K^ueniun ^ ^. properly so-called. This range separates the basin of the Hwang-ho |^ ^ from that of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iL, and takes successively, as it runs from W. to E. the names of the Sik'ing shan |f j^ (Ij, Ts'inling- shan l^*^ lU, Funiu-shan >^ ^{i ^J and Hwaiyang-shan fH ^ lij. These mountains have a descending slope from W. to E. and attain an elevation of 13,000 feet, in several parts of the Ts'inling, whose average height is about 6,500 feet. They rise again to the same elevation in the Funiu range, which averages only 2,600 feet in height. Further on, to the Eastward, they can be easily crossed in the Hwaiyang range, which attains an average elevation of 3,200 feet, and has a few peaks.double this altitude. As far as the Hwai-shan range, the K^uenlun mountains form a strong barrier between the Hwang-ho and Yangtze rivers. These various chains cannot be crossed except near their extre- mities, and the passes over them are all very steep.

S^" The Mh^Bhun % il| and KMung % f| ranges. The

12 BOOK I. THESIS PR0VINCB9.

former runs along the Northern limit of Szechw'an, the second separates the Han-ho ^ fpf from the Yangtze-kiang ^^fL^ The Min-shan attains an average elevation of 8,200 feet, and rises even higher as it advances Westwards. The Kiulung has an average height of 11,400 ft. Between these two mountains, there is but one pass, that which the Kialing-kiang ^ ^ it has chosen and whereby it enters Szechw'an gg j||.

Iii the Centre we find tjte high taJde-land of Sseechu^au, or rather of Ch'<^ngtu ^ ^, composed of red sand-stone, excee- dingly fertile. It reaches in elevation about 1,640 ft, and is sur- rounded on the N.,E., and principally on the W., by high moun- tains. These rise to an elevation of 19,680 ft and incline East- wards as may be observed by the course of the rivers rising in their midst. Their passes are diflicult. The principal one is that of Tats'ienlu 4T ^ jjt^ near Pat'ang Q j|f.

Zn the South, the mountains of Eastern Szechw'an |B )\\ run from the N. W. to the S. E. and continue towards the W. of Yunnan ^ '^, where they expand to the N. and E. into the immense tabie-latids of YUniian, Kweichofv jH #| and Kwangmi Jjl H . All three slope gradually from W. to E.. The Yunnan plateau is the highest, and reaches an average elevation of 7,600 ft. while those of Kweichow and Kwangsi attain only 4200 ft. and 1000 ft, respectively. \

These 3 table-lands continue between the Si-kiang "^ Jt and the Yangtze-kiang in the form of hills, the elevation of which seldom exceeds 6000 ft. Wc shall call them the Nati-slum f^ ill or Southern inountains, a rather irregular mass, running at first from N. W. to E., and which finally takes at the E., a North-Eastern and South-Western direction. The Nan-shan, though not a verj^ high range, forms to some extent, a barrier between the basin of the Yangtze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang. Three principal passes unite the 2 basins. The Kwei-Ung ;g| ^ pass, between Kwei-lin ;g j^ and the valley of the Siang- kiang Jffl ttl the Chel^-Ung jg ^ pass, between the basin of the Siang-kiang and tho PeUkiaiig 4b it, u tributary of

GENERAL NOTIONS. 13

the Si-kiang; the Mei-Uno ^^ pass, between the basin of the Kiang-si ^ |g and the Pei-kiang.

Otlier Systems. — Besides the above systems, which cover nearly the whole of China, there Qy« 9 ^i^^^ ^'"^portftnt ^^^j"^^ extending along the coast, one to the South, and the other to the North, forming the Shantung ^Ij jg promontory.

1® The TayU'Uno ^ J^ -ft covers a great part of Fokien jjg ^ and of Ch^kiang j^ Ql- "^^^ range runs parallel with the coast, North-East and South-West, and forms the boundary line between these two Provinces. Its elevation ranges from 6500 ft to 9800 ft. The geological constitution of these moun- tains is porphyry and granite.

2® The Shantutig ^ '^ hills are formed by several groups, whose highest peak, the T'ai-shan ^ [Ij, attains 5,060 feet in height. Gneiss and granite abound in them, and their passes are less steep than those of the «Yii-ling. We shall examine these mountains more in detail, their structure and their divi- sion, when describing the Provinces in which they are found.

Htstorlcal or Sacred mountains. — Let us mention, before concluding the orography of China, its 5 Sacred Mountains, (Wu Toh 3Li^) famous in the annals of the country. These are the following : the J^ai-shan ^ [I], in Shantung [Ij jg ; Hang- Shan ^gUj, in Shansi lU||; Sung^shan ^ |1|, in Honan fp) ft' ; Hwarshan ^ ^], in Shensi ^ |||; Hen^'Shan ^ [Ij, in Hunan

SB *•

Several other mountains are also famous. The principal are: ihe S peaks of Boherla, near Atuntze, N. W. of Yiinnan ^ ^ ; Ngintielrshan (ft ^ llj> in Western Szechw'an Q )\\ ; Wmfai- Shan 3S1 il llj, in the N. of Shansi |1| |f.

Plains. — The Chreat Flain lies to the N. E. of China, and occupies the greater part of Chihli jf; ^, Honan frj '^, Ngan- hwei ^ ^, Kiangsu jx. |i| ^^^ Shantung ^j 3^. It is slightly undulated and is of alluvial or loess formation.

Besides the Great Plain, there are others of lesser impor- tance, the principal of which are : the Tungt4ng Lake plain j^ ;g, that of Hank'ow 3| D and of the P'oyang Lake |^ ^, all of which

14 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

are situated in the Yangtze ^^ valley. The plains of Hangchow Fu lit M /j¥ And of Canton are much less important.

Climate. — Speaking in general, it may be said that China enjoys two quite distinct seasons : 1® Thai produced by the North-winds. This becomes more rigourous as one advances Northwards. The weather is generally dry when dust-storms prevail over the plains of the North. It lasts from November to April. 2"^ That remOUng from the Southerpirfvinde. The chief features of this season arc its excessive heat, which is moister and more unhealthy along the coasts, while in the interior, it is greater, but healthier and less depressing. Rain falls fre- quently during this season and rivers overflow their banks.

Betiveen theee 2 Seasons are a short Spring and Autumn. The winds change their direction and the temperature is un- steady. Spring is generally ushered in by spells of increasing warmth; Autumn, on the contrary, is mild and agreeable, and lasts from the end of September till the middle of November.

At T^ientsin ^fftjff the thermometer falls in Winter to — 4 Fahrenheit, and rises in Summer to 100 F..

At Shanghai J^^ it reaches in Winter 17?5 or occasionally 10^5 F. and rises in Summer to 96®5, and sometimes to 102* P..

At CkMfiton it rarely falls in Winter below 32** F., while in Summer the maximum varies from 96?8 to 100^4 F..

Taken on the whole, China enjoys a rather dry climate, that is, it rains less there than in other climates lying within the same limits of latitude. Szechw'an |S )\\ and the neigh- bouring regions : lower Yunnan ^ ^, Kweichow J( ^, the South of Kansu "H* 'Jfl and of Shensi Jgf^ |f are however exce- ptions, the climate of these Provinces being foggy and rainy.

These features of the climate of China are especially due to its situation, on the South of the vast and lofty table-land of Mongolia. Hot air tends by its nature to ascend to the higher regions of the atmosphere, while cold air, on the contrary, tends to descend. In Winter, the high table-land of Mongolia, deprived of the warmth of the sun, pours its cold air upon the regions of China that are less elevated and whose air is warmer ; there is then pradimd a current of air coming from the N.. In ^ummer|.^jii^Hbpntrary, the sands of Mongolia are heated by

pro^md a (

GENERAL NOTIONS. 15

the sun. They are thus covered by a warmer layer of air than that of China, cooled by its rivers and the sea that bathes it. A current then sets in from the 8.. As the sea changes its temperature more slowly than the land, the coasts of China undergo less variation in their climate than the interior.

These two great movements, bear also close relation to the variations of the atmospheric pressure, and belong in fact to the great phenomenon of the monsoons, to which the whole Asiatic continent is subject.

Kydroffrapliy* — No country in the world is so well watered as China. Her river system, like her mountain system, / is intimately connected with Tibet. Her rivers rise there like ! her mountains and run in a West to Easterly direction. China\ poMesses 3 great rivers.

In the Northf the Hwang^ho (YtUmv Biver ^ ^)^ which rises South of the Ku-ku Nor or Ts^ing-hai ^ j(|, takes an extensive Northerly sweep round the Ortos plateau, forms the Western boundary of the Shansi |]j |g plateau, and flows into the Gulf of Chihli g ^. Its total length is about^^OO miles.

In the Centre, the Tangtze^kiang ^ ^ fL (Yang Kingdom river), called also the Blue Biver. The Yangtze rises to the S. of the Hwang-ho, and runs at first Southward, under the name of the Kinsha-kiang (Golden sand river ^tJ?tt)» ^l^en takes a North Easterly direction, leaving to the North-West the Szechw*an IS/ll plateau, and flows into the Tung-hai y^^ or Eastern Sea, a little to the North of Shanghai J:^. Its length isj,200jniles.

In the 8&uth, the Si^-kiang (Western river "gf ^), which rises in the Yunnan ^ |^ plateau, and empties itself near Can- ton into the South China Sea, after a course of ^,250 miles.

Of the m<fu>r rivers, which water through themselves, or through their tributaries, the greater part of China, the vnost important are the 3 following :

!• The Beh-ho (White river jQ fpf) rising in Mongolia, runs through the Chihli £ j^ Province and flows into the Gulf of Chihli.

2** The Bwei-'ho JUfpf which drains the Provinces of Honan Jf ^ and Nganhwei ^ jK and flows into the Hungtseh lake

mm-

16 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

3" The jmnrh'^'^W TfliC* which flows through Fokien j0j^, and empties its waters into the China Sea, N. of Formosa.

The Mekmkn or lAxnH^aug'liiang f| t^ jT ^"^ ^^^ Sahveen or L'H'kiang }jj[ JJ, are also important streams, but they drain ^ •■ only the lower and less considerable part of Yunnan ^ |{f. ^

. Of all these rivers, the Yat^f'tze ^ -^ is by far the most , :I important, being an excellent water highway of communication. Tfie Si'kiatiff ||g f£ olYers a good netw^ork of navigable chan- nels but of less limited extent. The Htvang-ho H fpf is navigable ' - only in some parts. The waters of all three, rise exceedingly in m Summer when heavy rains fall, and the snows melt on the mountain sides. Thp waters of the Yangtze then rise to 30, 45 i' and even to 80 feet abt>ve the ordinary level, transforming • marshes and even simple ponds into immense lakes. * :

liakes. — The principal lakes are found in the Yangtze valley, and are the following : the Tufiglfifig ^ Jj^ lake, in Hunan ^ "^ ; the JP'oyang % % lake, in Kiangsi iQ B ; the T^aihn ;fc jjj J"^ Kiangsu it j||.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang, the most important is the Ilungtseh ^ 3» which lies partly in Nganhwei ^ ^^ partly in Kiangsu 2C |$- 1\\\^ latter Province is the one that possesses the greatest number of lakes and water-courses. Let us mention also the Utkes of the tabte-land of YHnnan g |(f , the two prin- cipal of which lie, one near the town of YQnnan Fu .^ "^ ||Ef, the other near Tali Fu ;fc g )flf.

Coast-line. — The coast is low and straight along the Chihli jg IJk Province, but indented and abrupt along the Shan- tung [Ij ^ Promontory, while it falls again to a low level and almost straightens out till it reaches Ch^kiang j^ f£. From Cht^kiang to the Gulf of Tongking ]ft ^, it is very steep, indented and studded with numerous islets. It is here and along Shantung, that the finest and deepest bays are found, and facilities afforded for opening well protected and promising ports.

. Fauna and Flora. — As the fauna and flora of a country bear close relation to its climate and soil, we shall finr*. the animals and vegetation of China varying accordiner to both.

I

OBNERAL NOTIONS. 17

The lower portions of the Southern region alone possess a tropical climate, and consequently the fauna and flora of the tropics. The valley of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iL, although very warm in Summer, is too cold in Winter for the animals and plants of the tropical region to live there. Still less can they live in the region of the Hwang-ho JJfpf, covered as it is during several Winter months with ice and snow, espe- cially in the high mountains of the W.. We shall study sepa- rately, the fauna and flora of each of these regions. A few words only on the principal animals and vegetation of China, and how they are divided.

Fauna. — Wild animalB* Neither the lion, elephant (except in Southern Yunnan H ^) or rhinoceros, are met with in China. The tiger, panther and bear infest the mountainous regions. The wild bear, the Wolf and the fox abound through- out the country. Several varieties of monkeys are found in the regions bordering on Tibet. In the South-Eastern mountains near Tibet, the yak or grunting-ox exists.

There are also in China several varieties of deer, the camel and wild-ass (in the regions bordering on Tibet), the hare, the rat, the gerboa etc.

IHnnesHe amlmais* China's domestic animals are princi- pally the horse, ass, mule, camel, cow, zebu or humped ox, water-buffalo, yak, sheep, goat, dog, cat, pig, rabbit etc...

Birds. There are a great number of birds, perhaps more than in other countries. About 800 species are indigenous to the country. The principal are the eagle, vulture, crow, magpie, and pheasant, and among the tame birds, the duck, goose, hen and pigeon.

BeptUes. The large and venomous kinds of reptiles are rarely encountered, except in Kwangsi Jj| |f and Kweichow jfcjHi- Various kinds of turtle and the salamander abound in fresh and salt water.

lUh. Fish of various kinds are very plentiful, both in the numerous inland lakes and rivers, as well as on the sea- coast, and furnish excellent food for the people. China has no lobsters but instead has an abundant supply of shrimps and fresh- water crabs.

18 BOOK I. THE 18 PROYINGBS.

Floim. — Xn the Narihem reffUm, or that of the Hwang- ho ^ }^, the Winter is generally too severe to allow the development of perennial tropical vegetation ; however a good number of annual (living only a year or a season) plants proper to the tropics are raised, such as cotton, rice and sesamum. The vegetation of this region is, in general, poor and little diversified. The principal crops produced are indian-corn, millet, sorghum, buckwheat, peas and wheat. The trees are few and include the poplar, willow and pine. (The bamboo is not indigenous to this region^ it being never found growing wild.) Fruit-trees abound especially in Shantung |lj iK, and in the Western Provinces. The principal are the peachy pear, and apple-trees. The apricot, chestnut walnut and cherry-trees are also found. (The persimmon and plum-tree are imported from the South.)

Jn the CentrtU regUm, that of the Yangtze m 7, the Winter being generally milder, more varieties come to maturity. Perennial tropical plants are however found only exceptionally in some well shaded parts of Szechw^an \Bi)\\ and Hunan jgD f|f . In this region are found the bamboo, the persimmon or date-plum, the orange, the tea-plant and the camphor-tree. Rice and cotton are cultivated throughout all the lowlands. Here also flourish the gum, tallow, wax and varnish-trees, with the mulberry so dear to the silk-worm. It has but one kind of palm-tree which is indigenous.

Jn the Southern reffUm, that of the Si-kiang "g 2t, tropical vegetation makes its appearance, though it is confined to the lowlands. Summer rains are more frequent, and vegetation luxuriant, without being however much diversified. The charac- teristic plants are the sugar-cane, the banana and palm-trees, the lichee, pine-apple, ebony, mahogany and teak-wood trees.

I>ifliuiioii of tlie Population. — From what has been said so far, it is easy to see that the regions, which offer the most favourable conditions of existence, are the Yangtze ^ ^ valley, the Great Norlh-Eastern plain and the country along the coast. It is there also that the population is densest. The North-Western regions: (Kansu ^TJf, Shcnsi p$|g, and Shansi lU HOi £^nd those of the South-West: (Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow jj( ^ and Kwang|dJUB» are less populous. The Chinese race

GBNBRAL NOTIONS. 19

occupies almost exclusively the Hwang-ho )( f^ region and that of the Yangtze valley. In the valley of the Si-kiang U^t, it is otherwise, and we find there several races mingled together.

Presenl; dlTtsioii or Clilna. — For administrative pur- poses, modern China is divided into 18 Provinces. In past times, this number has frequently varied. Some divisions are relatively recent, for instance that of Kwantung ^ ^ and Kwangsi ^ fg , that of Hupeh jgg 4b ^^^ Hunan ^ ^, that of Kiangsu jT^ m and Nganhwei ^ ^.

These six provinces formerly made but three. Kansu "^ ffj is a Province of still more recent formation.

Tlie tluree Regions. — To render our plan easier, and also because it is the natural division of the country, we shall in this work, divide China into 3 regions or spheres, each of which we shall study successively: the Northern region, the Central, and the Southern region. On general lines, these comprise :

1^ The Northerth regUni: the basins of the Hwang-ho )( f^ , and of the Peh-ho j^ fpf.

2® The €!entrai reffian: the basin of the Yangtze-kiang ^

3^ The Sauihem regUm: the basins of the Si-kiang '^XL^

and of the Min-kiang ^ XL-

To avoid dividing the study of a Province into two, we shall at times be obliged to encroach upon a neighbouring region. It is thus that the South of Shensi g)[ ^ belongs rather to the Central region ; in the same way, the North of Kiangsu {][ 2^ belongs rather to the Northern region^ lower Yunnan H ]^ to the Central region and also the North of Kweichow

To facilitate likewise the work, we shall group in the same study, those Provinces which are administratively connected. If at times they have similar characteristics, it may be said that they are oftener widely divergent. This will have the advantage of impressing the main features of those Provinces more vividly on the reader's mind.

Tables exhibiting the administration, ways of communica- tion, and sources of wealth, will combine in a general view, various notions scattered over the chapters describing each Province in particular, and thus help to remember them better.

20

BOOK I* THE 18 PROVINCES.

References :

E. RecloB. ' G^ographie univerBelle. T.

VII. La Chine. Paris, 1882. K. et O. Beelus. — L'Einpire du milieu.

Paris, 1903. TieeseD. — China, das Reich der achtzehn

Provinzen. Berlin, 1902. L. GallokB. — La structure de I'Asie ori- entale (Aunales de Olograph ie. Mai 1905, p. 245-259). rharahre de commerce de Lyon. — La mis- sion lyonnaise d'exploration. Lyon, 1898. Len>y-Beaulieu. — La Renovation de

PAsie. Paris, 1900. PinOD. — La Chine qui s'ou\to. Paris, 1900. Hue. — L'Empire chinois. Paris, 1887. Monnier. — Le tour de TAsie. L'Empire

du milieu. Paris, 1899. China. Diplomatic and Consular reports. OonraDt.^ En Chine. Paris, 1901. Bretsctaneider.— Early European resear- ches into the flora of China. — Shang- hai, 1881. BreUsetaneider. — History of European botanical discoveries in China. London, 1898. Bret4Kfaiieiiler. — Botanicum sinicum.

London, 1888-92. Henry (A). — Chinese names of plants.

(R. As. Soc. vol. XXV). Fronehet. — Plantae ex Sinamm imperio.

Paris, 1884-1888. Bureon et Franchet. — Plantes nouvel- les du Tibet et de la Chine occidcntale. (Journal de Botanique, 1891). Natural History of North-China compiled chiefly from the travels of P^re Armand David. 1893. Forbes and Hamsley. — An enumera- tion of all the plants known from China. 1891. DoTid. — Journal d'un voyage dans le cen- tre de la Chine (Nouvelles archives du museum d'histoire natnrelle t. VII, VIII, IX et X). DoTid. — Journal de mon troisi^rae voyage

en Chine. Paris, 1S75. Swinhoe (Robert). — {Ser : J. Proo. China

branch, the Ibis..,). Milne-Edwards. — Reoherches pour ser- vir k I'histoire natnrelle des mammlfdres. Paris, 1808-74. David et Ooatalet. — Les oiseaux de la

Chine. Paris, 1878. Proceedings of the zoological society of

London (passim). The Ibis (passim^ Zi-ka-wei. M^moires coucemant I'histoire

natnrelle de Perapire Chinois. Qeode. •— Conchyliologie fluviale. Zi-ka-wei. — Bulletin mensuel de I'Ob&er- vatoire magn^tique. — Chang-hai, 1874 and sq.. Zi-ka-wei. ~~ Calendrier de robaervatoire.

(From 1903). P. Froc. — L'atmosphire en Extreme- Orient, son itat normal, ses perturba- tions. (Extrait des Annales hydrogra- phiques, 1901-1902). Raulin. ^ Hegenfall in China. 1886-1892. Ratael. — Schnee und Eis in siidchina in

Jan. 1893. China sea Directory (for the climate of the

ports). Maps.

S. Chevalier. ^ Carte de la Chine. Zi-ka- wei, 1904 (character and romanisation). Bi^tsehneider. — Map of China. S* Pe- tersburg. 2<» edit., 1900. Service g6ogi-aphique de I'arm^e. Asie.

181>9-1901. Service g^od^sique de I'Empire japonais. Carte g^n^rale de la Chine. Tokio, 1894. La unbans. — Politisch militarische Karte

von Ost Asien. Gotha, 1900. IMadrolle. — Atlas de TEmpire chinois.

Paris, 1900 (in the press). Bianooni. — Carte sp^ciale de la Chine.

Paris, 1900. Oxenham. — Historical Atlas of the Chi- nese Empire. Paris, 1900.

SECTION I.

THE NORTHERN REGION.

CHAPTER I.

VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO ^ M AND OF THE HWANG-HO 31 fiif.

CliaracteriBties of tlils Region. — Among the numerous characteristics of this region, the follbv^ing are the principal :

1. The region lies immediately to the South of the Mongolian table-land, the average height of which is 5000 feet. Its effects are therefore felt more than elsewhere in China, hence the Winter is exceedingly cold, and the Summer very hot.

2. Loess or alluvial lands are found there in abundance. These are very fertile when rain falls sufficiently, hut in case of drought, the country is exposed to famine.

3. Towards the West, the region is mountainous, but level to the East. Communications with the neighbouring regions are v^ry rare, except in the South-East.

4. The rivers and canals are scarcely navigable, hence the great difficulty experienced in travelling, and the necessity of using carts in the plain. During Summer, these vehicles sink deep into the mud, while in Winter they raise clouds of dust, anything like good roads being totally lacking.

5. The country is very much exposed to inundations, on account of the erratic nature of the Hwang-ho ^ fif , the waters of which, flowing above the level of the surrounding plain, are maintained with the greatest difficulty within their too weak embankments.

'22 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

ProTinces comprising tliis region. — Proceeding from West to East, we find them to be the following :

Kansu ^ Tf,

Shensi ^ |g, ^

Shansi ilj |g,

Honan ^ lM>

Chihli It i^,

Shantung llj j|[. Of these Provinces, three, namely Chihli, Shantung and Honan are partly level ; and the others : Kansu, Shensi and Shansi, mountainous.

Geological C!on8l;itntion. — The three maunia4n&ue Pro- vinces are to a great extent covered with ioeea. In the takers, which are chiefly of aUuvml fonnioHon, loess is but partially found.

Shantung how&ver is an exception, being of granitic con- formation almost throughout. Loess deserves special attention because of its prominence in this region. What is ^^Iioemi'' and what are its qualities?

IiOe8« or Yellow Eartb (Hwangt^u H J:). — JLoesB is a

solid but friable earth of a yellowish or reddish colour, very fine and of great cohesion. It is rather porous, while its mass is, as it were perforated by very fine tubes which branch out in the shape of grassroots. Water permeates it like a sponge, but does not transform it into mud. It is filled with the remnants of extinct organic matter. It is not superposed in stratified layers^ and has a great tendency to split vertically, especially when a river has undermined its basis. Inundation and currents dig beds into its surface, and the inhabitants find shelter and protection in the numerous caves of its perpendicular cliffs* As to its formation, it seems to be accounted for by the remnants of countless generations of plants, embedded under sand and dust, blown over from the desert. In some parts, it forms a stratified mass, to the deptK of about 2000 ft, and imparts to the country which it covers, a monotonous yellow hue; trees^ houses, fields, water-courses, all, even the very atmosphere, is permeated with this yellow dust. The soil notwithstanding is fertile, and would produce abundant crops^ were the climate a little moister and the region better wooded. Decomposed. by rain, loess resolves itself into 3 parts: Carbonate of lime, sAndy which forms a rather barren element, and clay, which imparts fertility to the soil.

AllnTiAl ^M^^Hlfe Alluvial lands are those formed by

■1%

GHAPTBA I. VALLEYS OF THE PEU-UO AND OF THE HWANO-HO. 23

the depoaita whjch rain^ rivers and glaciers^onstantlX-accumu- late. The great Eastern Plain has teen fhus formed by a certain species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by the waters of the Hwang-ho % fSJ, the Peh-ho g ^ and very likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli BlUf will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial \ lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.

^^roi^rmpUy. — No special feature requires to be added to

what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the

mountain systems of China, We shall enter into more ample

details'when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at

present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls

in the Hwang-ho Jj[ frj , and precludes every outlet, save through

the Chihli £ ffi plain, situate to the E. of Honan {EJ ^, a course

which in fact it formerly followed.

Climato. — The climate of the region is jy^ry «ftv^»'^ and dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to — ■'^"V. in tne unihli jg jfH region, and the rivers remain frozen during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made for the S. of Kansu "^ jfl and Shensi ^ |||, where the climate is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are obliged to resort to the use of SJove-b^idM nr K^nM^m ^^^ npnn which they lie down to rest for the night. These Stove-beds are entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China (Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re- gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ -^ ft.-

Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei ^%, Province, and the North of Kiangsu 2Cj|||, where nevertheless they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.

Hjrdroffraplijr. — All this region is watered by ihtjawang^

hf^"^^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ^^ drained by the

network of the reh-ho g }|jf, and Honan ^ ^, watered almost

throughout by the Jgwai-ho J| |Bf . We shall deal in detail with

this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the

Peh-ho ^19, its natural place will be found, when we shall

24

SECTION 1. THE NORTHERN REGION.

study the Chihli Province. At present, we shall speak only of the Hwang-ho.

The Hwang-ho (TeUow river Jff jjij), '^'"gth ^.'^^^ mil^fl. Like the Yangtze J| ^ it» '* rif^?fl in Tihft. flnnth nf tht Kn kn Nor region, and the K*uenlun ^ {Hj' range. Here, at an altitude of more than 13,800 feet, in the midst of jiagged hills, towering a little beyond the plateau, the mighty river has its source.

Its course may be divided into 3 parts : the upper, middle and lower.

1^ Upper C!oiirse. — In this part, which extends from its source until it leaves the Kansu '^"1f[ Province, it is interrupted by cascades and rapids, teems with boulders wrenched from its banks, and is seldom navigable.

UPPER HWANG-HO.

CHAPTBtt 1. VALLEYS 01^ THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANO-HO. 23

the depoaita which rain^ rivers and glaciers constanAlx^CQUmu- late.. The great Eastern Plain has Veen ihiis formed by a certain species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by the waters of the Hwang-ho % fij, the Peh-ho |g fjf and very likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli BlUf will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial \ lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does . not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.

Orogm,phy. — No special feature requires to be added to

what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the

mountain systems of China. We shall enter into more ample

details'when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at

present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls

in the Hwang-ho Jj[ frif , and precludes every outlet, save through

the Chihli |E[ fit plain, situate to the E. of Honan fi}^ ^, a course

which in fact it formerly followed.

Climato. — The climate of the region is vecy.jieD;jece^amL dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to — ■'^"V. in tne unihli jg jfH region, and the rivers remain frozen during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made for the 8. of Kansu "^ jfj and Shensi ^ |5' where the climate is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are

obliged to resort to the use nf San^it^-hfid^ nr t^n/ngm ^^^ npnn

which they lie down to rest for the night. These Siove^beds are entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China (Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re- gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ -^ ft.-

Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei ^^ Province, and the North of Kiangsu 2][j|||, where nevertheless they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.

Hjrdroffraplijr. — All this region is watered by thjeja^uwmjg^- /

h^l^^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ^^ drained by the ■

network of the Pe^-Ap g }f|f, and Honan }f|f ^^ watered almost ,

throughout by the ^jvai-ho f^ |pf . We shall deal in detail with

this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the

Peh-ho ^19, its natural place will be found, when we shall

26 SECTION I. TUB NOKTHEKN KBdlON.

northerly direction, the Hwangho ^ fj} is forced Eastwards by the mountain range, which forms the Southern limit of Mongolia. Soon again the table-land of Shansi ilj "g compels it to flow Southwards, until meeting the Ts'in-ling |^ ^ chain, it is obli- ged to force a passage for its waters between the mountain and the Shansi ^| "Jg plateau. In this part of its course^ up to its Southward bend, it attains a width of over 425 yards, becomes occasionally navigable^ and is not obstructed in its channel as it was previously. In its bend from the N. of the Ordos country, it has changed its course several times^ and left its former bed, which is covered with a rich layer of alluvion and produces a plentiful harvest.

As it advances from N. to S., it skirts the Shansi |1| |S Province, which it separates from the Ordos country' and from Shonsi ^ "g. It is from this latter Province that it receives its principal tributary, the beautiful and turgid Welrho ff ^. We shall have occasion to speak of it, when describing Shensi ^ H. Somewhat higher up, but on the left bank, it receives tho J'^-Ao ^ ^, the great river of Shansi iIj f|. It runs afterwards along the Hwa-shan ^ iIj mountains, and follows the direction of tho Wei ho \^ ^, hemmed in between two cliffs of yellow earth. The loess held in suspension by its waters im- parts to them a yellow hue. Thus far, its bed is pretty high, almost L300 feel above the 5>ea-lcvel.

S'' l«#wer OMirse. — On leaving the T*ungkwan Pass {K im, the river enters the lowlands. Henceforward it takes suc- cessively a twofold direction : \V. to E. till it reaches a little to the N. of K*aifung Fu H i^ ^« when it swerves from South- West to North>East« and pursues this direction till it enters the tUilf of i'hihii It IK* I<) its first part« it divides Shansi |1{ f| from llonan ^ iff, then bisects the Northern extremity of Ho- nan ; in its second part« it runs along the great plain. North- West of Shantung |lj 4(* Throughout its whole lower course, its waters run through the plain. Here it is most to be dreaded, because the mud and sand carried down by its stream, conti- uually raise the bed of the river* which is several ^-ards above tho K\ol piMlMwnroundinc country.

CHAPTBR I. VALLEYS OF TUB PBU-UO AND OF THB HWANO-HO. 27

To hinder its overflowing, embankments have had to be raised. These hem it in, some nearer, others farther, ranging one behind another at variable distances. In this manner, if one gives way, another prevents the inundation. In its present state, the work is still very inefficient, the dikes being weak, and cons- tructed with materials that ofler little resistance. The mud and sand, which frequently obstruct the Hwang-ho, render it also very difficult of navigation. The only portion where it can be availed of, is to the N. of Honan fpf "^^ and in the last 25 miles of its course. But even in this part, a shoal prevents junks drawing more than 6 ft. of water from passing.

From the T'ungkwan Jf JgH bend^ ferry-boats ply on the river, and take from one side to the other thousands of travellers, carts, animals^ and a vast quantity of general merchandise. In crossing, the oar or sail is liped, or even if a suitable place is chosen a long pole. In Summer when the waters are swollen, the current renders the passage difficult; in Winter on the con- trary-, water is lacking^ and there is danger of running aground.

Throughout all this part^ the Hwang-ho f)t fpf receives no important tributary. The only ones needing special mention are ; the Loh'-ho ^^, flowing into it from the right, through Honan ^ ^; and the Ta^iwho ^ ^, which rises in the Shansi ii| H plateau.

TarlatlonB In Its €)oarse. — The Hwang-ho H ^ has not kept regularly to its present course. In the past it has changed many a time across the vast North-Eastern plain. Frequently it has run to the N. or to the S. of the Shantung ii| J|[ mountains, flowing in turn, either into the Gulf of Chihli {ft H or into the Yellow Sea.

Formerly it followed the bed of the lower course of the Peh-ho iS }BJ. Its last important deviation dates from 1851*.. Previously to this, it flowed towards the South, in the Northern part of Kiangsu f£ H, whence it emptied itself into the Yellow sea. In that year, its dikes gave way to the N. B. of K'^aifung Fu Hi^jfiF* For two years, its course varied considerably, and finally leaving the South, it definitively followed the bed of the Tsi-ho fff

28

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

^, a river so far of little importance. Since then its embankments have burst several times. In 1877, it inundated an immense region, and caused the death of a million of people. In 1898, 1,500 villages to the N.E. of Tsinan Fu HH ^ fff, and a still larger region to the S.E. of the same town, experienced its ravages. These changes of bed and the terrible inundations that followed, have deserved for it the name of **ChinfV8 sorrow^^^ **the Ungo' vernahie,*^ **t1ie Scourge of the sons of Han^% all of which are indeed but too well merited. The Mongols call it Karamuren (black river). The name ** Hwang-ho'* (H fpj yellow river), has been given it, becau- se of the yellow land which it traverses, and which imparts to its waters a yellow tinge.

Neither along its middle or lower course, is there, any important city built on its banks. Such a terrible neighbour is always dreaded and therefore avoided with the greatest care.

Flow. — The flow of the Ilwang-ho H fpf varies much with the season. It has been reckoned to be a little over 4,000 cubic ' yards per second, in its middle portion, near Tsinan Fu (Shan- tung ilj y^) The flow is three times greater in the flood season. It is on the whole relatively small for such a great river, but this is accounted for by the waste of the water that filters through the embankments or escapes through other causes. The mud and sand, which it unceasingly deposits in the Gulf of Chihli il; gj, constantly lessen the depth of this latter, and form there new alluvial lands. Opposite the former mouth of the river (1851) it can be seen what great quantity of sediment it carries in its waters.

The Great; Wall. (10,000 li rampart ^ M :g j|£ Wan- licli^aiig Cli^^ng). — The great Wall extends along the Northern Provinces, from Chihli (IC |0( to Kansu "H* JH', skirting them all to the N. ; we shall therefore describe it briefly

sketch, sliowiug the

various chanf(os in tlie conrne of the

Hwaug-ho.

CHAPTER I. \ALLBYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 29

here. It was built by ShihmvanaH fh B,^ (246-209 B. C), of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, as a means of defence against the Hun tribes, and was repaired under the reign of Haieniming jgi^ (1465-1487 A. D.), of the Ming ^ dynasty. In a straight line it is about 1,300 English miles in length, and with its windings, over hilly districts and mountains, some exceeding 4000 feet high, it measures a distance of 1,500 miles. Its height varies from 15 to 30 feet. At intervals of 200 yards, are towers some 40 feet high. It is still in a fair state of pre- servation, except on the Western slope, where it has in some places entirely crumbled, this part being principally faced with yellow earth. On the Eastern side, the bricks with which it has been constructed, have enabled it to resist better. It attains in this latter part, a thickness of over 20 feet at its base, and is fully 12 feet wide at its summit. TlWLQxfiat WallJias-jiowadays little military importance, and serves only as a^gepgraphical boundary. The passes are the only places where military posts are main- tained. The most important of these are the following : the Shanhaikwan Bass [}]\^^ mountain and sea Pass or Barrier) at the Eastern extremity; — the Kalgan Pass (Ghangkia k'oAv % lie D) at the N. W. of Chihli %^\ — the TSnmen Bass (goose pass ff^ f^) at the N. of Shansi lij H ; — the Kiayu rass (Kiayii kwan jftlS^M), at the extreme West leading to Barkul. It is noteworthy that in speaking of China, one meets frequently with such expressions as ''within the Great Wall" (Kwan-nei g|^); and *'beyond the Great Wall'* (K*ow-wai P^), meaning the region or country on the outer side.

A few otlier Particulars concerning tlie IVortherii Region. — We will but mention them here, as they are to be described further on.

Tlie Grand Canal {^f^ Yunrho. Transport river) con-' nects the basins of the Hwang-ho j| fpf and Yangtze ^ ^ in their lower Course.

Tlie Peking-Hankow Bailwajr will also connect Chihli jg; H, Honan f^ ^, Hupeh j^ j/^ and the whole Western region.

30

8BGT10N I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

while the line from .feMmg l» Manehmria will henceforward facilitate communications with Europe.

The great highway, which crosses Shansi [Ij "g, and con- tinues through Shensi f^ || and Kansu -g* Hf, connects the NoHhem Begion with Central Asia, while that of Kalgan and several others, starting from the Northern Provinces, lead into Mongolia.

(JBhr farther details, wee : section V. ch IV. Highways of communication).

Among the minerai weaUh of the N., the principal is jfUr. eoai. It abounds chiefly in Shansi [I] "g, Shensi |^ f|. Shan- tung iIj j|[ and Honan ^ ]^. Jron is also found extensively {See : Section V. ch IV. Mining and Industry).

References :

GfomArj. ^ China present and past. Lon- don, 1895 (ch. 15, the Hwang-ho, p. 418 sq).

Ney KUas. — (Jonmal of the Geog. Soc. 1870. Feh. — On the Hwang-ho).

BouflQari. — The Yellow river, 1898.

BletckDikOtfT — La civilisation et les grands fleuves historiques. (c. XI. Le Hoang-ho et le Yang-tsc-kiang) Paris, 1889.

bnlMivli Hvari. — Une excursion k la

grande muraiUe de Chine (Magasin

pittoresqne. 1888). lAirien. — La grande moraille de la Chi- ne (Revae d'Extrtoie Orient. 1885). MarCia. — La grande xnnraiUe de la Chine

(Revue scientiflq. 1891). /

WilliAmaon. » Jonmey in North China, v*^

London, 1870. China : Imperial maritime cnstoma. I. —

Statistical series : N*6. Decennial imports.

1892-1901. Shanghai, 1901.

CHAPTER II.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER HWANG-HO

(KANSU t M AND SHENSI f^ W-

The Provinces of Kanau "y* -ff, and Shensi ^ g* are both governed by the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of 8hen-Kan

These two Provinces are traversed from N, W. to S, E. by spurs of the K'uenlun ^ !^ ranges and are for the greater part mountainous. Loes9 covers all the Northern part of Shensi, and the North^Eastern part of Kansu, To the N. of both, lie the elevated buttress^ridges of the Mongolian table^land. Influenced thereby, their climate is dry and very cold (o'wards the N., while it grows milder and enjoys more rain in the S,, this part being included in the basin of^ the Yangtze m •^. Highways of com^ munication are difficult from one Province to another, and even -within the same Province, should one wish to travel from N. to S. or in the contrary direction.

Another remark not to be forgotten, and which applies equally to the aforesaid Provinces, Fifty years ago, they were by far richer, and more populous than at the present day. The reason is, because they have been overrun and laid waste by a twofold rebellion. The first, that of the T^tdpHngs ^ 21^, which lasted /rom J_830 to 1864^ and affected especially the Yangtze region, in the South, The second, still more disastrous, devastated the whole of the N,, This was the Mahamedttn revolt, which broke out there in 1861^ and was completely put down only in 1878^ after the taking of Khotan, the last stronghold of the rebels. The number of those who were then killed in the two Provinces, is estimated to be about 10,000,000. It was chiefly through the agency of Tso Tsungt^ang £ ^ ^^ that order wa/? established.

32 BBGTION I. THB NORTHERN REGION.

V. Kansu "fr M

Area. — 125,483 square miles. In this respect, it is the third province of China, being surpassed only by Szechw'an B )\\ and Yunnan ^ ^.

Population. — 10, 386,000, thus giving 82 persons per square mile. Kwangsi JJJ || alone is l«8s thinly inhabited.

IVaine. — It is so called from two of its principal cities : Kawchow Fu -H* ^ /j^ and .Stt Chow ]j| j^.

Boundaries. — On the

N.

— Mongolia,

W.

— Sinkiang ff ^ and Tibet,

s.

— Szechw'an gg j||,

E.

— Shensi ^ jg.

Car^itai.— LANCHOW JFV f^ jW /j^, situated almost in the centre of the Province, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho Jlfpf. Oilier Prefeelinral Cities. — These are 7 in number : •Oii the left banh of the Hwaftg-ho ^ ^, skirting the yarthcrn frontier, and proceeding from W. to E. :

V' Kanchow Pu ff ^ «p,

2" Leangchow Fu m M ^,

3" Ninghsia Pn m H ifiP. Betiveen Ku-kn Nor anfl Lanchow Vn :

4" Sining Pn W HI Iff. On the right bank of the Hwang-ho, going from N.E. to

a.w. :

6" K*mgyang Pu Bl^ «P,

e-' P*mgleaiig Pn ^p ||c fl^,

7'^ KnngcVang Pu S li *. There are also 6 independent Chow j^ cities : K'tiyuen Chow EJgf jHI, King Chow ^j^, Kiai Chow ^j\\, T^in Chaw '^ ^, St9, Chow m ^, Ngansi Chow ^ S Mi ^"^ ^^^ inde- pendent Ting JH City : HwapHngchit^an T^ing .f^ 2p j|| J||. (Independent Chows and Things, closely resemble Prefectural cities, although of the 2"d and 3»<' order. We shall therefore place them generally after the Fu ^ cities, or Prefectures of the first order.)

CHAPTER II. KAN8U. 33

Aspect and Cliaraeterlstles. — The immense course of the Hwansf-/io||jjjJ runs through the Province from S.W. to N.E., making headway with great difficulty, its bed strewn with rocks, and navigable only from the spot where it touches on Mongolia. On its teft, are long chains of mountains, sloping from N, W. to S,E. and reaching an elevation of 6,500 to 20,000 ft. On the right, towards the N., is an iminense loess plateau, into which the Wei^ho fg }|J and its tributaries have cut deep channels. To the South, are 2 parallel ranges, prolongation of the K'uenlun % W« *^^ following the same direction as the mountains on the left bank. The population swarms towards the centre, in the environs of Lanchow Fu g| ^ jjSf, and to the South. Another chain, bordered by important cities, rises towards the N., near the Great Wall. The climate, dry and cold in the N., tones down us one advances to the S., where it becomes mild and rainy. Being an important place of transit, Kansu -^ JHf lacks neither mineral nor agricultural resources and may subsequently become prosperous and densely populated as in former times.

Geolo^i^^al constitution. — Kansu is sandy in its Northern part, sohistoun and granitic in its mountain chains, which are a prolongation of the K'nenhm range. It is also for the most part, especially in the E., covered over with rich loess terraces which the inhabitants excavate for dwelling purposes. In several sandy plains, as at Ninghsia Fu, Lanchow Fu and Su Chow, a well organised system of inigation makes the soil yield splendid harvests.

Oragrapliy. — To the N.W. S pr^incipaZ chains^ running in the same direction, N.W. to S.E.. They continue a little on the right bank of the Hwang-ho J| :{pf, and fall gradually in elevation from N.W. to S.E.. They are the prolongation of the JEki9i€m K'uenlun ^ {^ range, and are sometimes called the Nanrsh4in ^ ^J mountains (not to be confounded with the Nan- shan range on the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^). These chains are:

To the N. of the highway leading from Leangchow Fu \^ ^ ^ to Kanchow Fu -^ )^ )(f : tJie Shanfan jlj f^' mountains.

To the 8. of the same highway, the Bichthofen or T^ien" Shan (celestial mountains ^ \\\) mountains. This chain which rises in the N.W. to an elevation of over 20,000 ft, is crossed with difficulty. Several of its peaks are snow-clad, and covered with glaciers the whole year round. The most important pass of • - 3

34

SBCnOK 1. THE NOETBKRN EB^KW.

the N.. Ihat of Lagiobo, is nearly 10,000 ft high. From its Xorth- Eastem slopes run down, in Spring and Summer, torrents which give fertility to the country.

Further to the South, between the Hwang>ho f| ^ and the Ta- t*ung-ho;jl;2l«f, are the X«<Sm# ^ f^ tmmmmimimm, an irregular mass, but better watered and covered with woods and forests on its sides and valleys.

Qmim «» tto &y two principal chains.the moi>& Northern of w hich is the ML^iwp aftgw M ff lU * inter- sected in Its centre by the T^ao- ho j% |vf : the other further to the S. is the JKii ^M IK lb* <^>«^ also the Jai iwiy £ H by the natives.

These two chains run in the same dinfction. from W. to E . They are ditHoult to orciss.and r^jch an elevation of 6.500 to !0.0l»0 it. Their summits are rather barren. ^" *

andoneofthem,theSha$olomoon- zf ^ ^

tain in the extr^pme Sooth, even |. g. 1^

exceeds this elevation. -^

T¥ IM irMH. between the Siking-shan W ff A- ^^^ &^ Hwang-ho H |i|. is an im^gular mass of anoostains aad hil!$. TW ro^d however ti^c^m Singan Fu f| |( !|f Shensi ||( S ^ Lam- chow Fu ^ ill ^ cn>sses it by pas^s^e^ w5L:>:i: r«;ach tear^y lO.«ftiM» rt. The whole is a m^^uataur^^^jis reg^oc ;ercLiaa]:i&g ui lae X. by .^ grcAl table land o: Ioe5$ wi;ii deep gcM**.

T^ IM >\R iS the .x^r-;:ri:ai:oc o: t^e Ibc^d^Xf zi 3&o«3.5 sloping Nor(h^E<iist\^arvis. >ii^h:Ie :be JRlir«»-«te»4^:t A-

2

X

I

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 35

out opposite the Aituhan (Holan-shan JHH llj),and exceeds even 10,000 ft in height. These two chains hem in the Hwang-ho )| $J, as it issues from Kansu -^ Hf, while a long and very rich plain lies to its left.

With the exception of a few plains to the North, the Province of Kansu is therefore very mountainous.

Climate. — During the long Winter months, Kansu is covered with snow and ice; all the rivers are frozen over, and the inhabitants though clad in skins, protect themselves with difficulty from the cold. A bleak wind also blows from the table- land of Mongolia. In Summer, the thermometer rises at times to 104 degrees F.. At thisperiod, vegetation is luxuriant, and crops grow with great rapidity. An exception however must be made for the South, which is very wet, owing to the rain-laden clouds that are wafted up from the same direction. In some valleys, the climate there is so mild, that the fruits of Southern China come to maturity, as the medlar or p'ip'a and the persimmon.

Hydroffraplijr. — The greater part of Kansu '^'Hf is watered by the Hwang-ho ^ ^ and its tributaries. We have already described this river (see ch. I). Its chief tributaries in Kansu "^ Tfl SLTe the following:

On the hifi batik, and flowing from the Southern side of the Richthofen chain and the Tat^ung ;l^ ^ llj mountains, is the SMkng-ho 5 W fRf) ^^ Which the VUmrmwren or Ta^ung-ho ;^ jH ^ joins its waters. (A vast number of torrents and rivers water the whole region of the Tat'ung :;iic Ml lU mountains).

On the right hank, its principal tributary descends from the Sik'ing || ^ mountains, which it crosses. It is called the T'ao'ho ^|c fpff a long and winding stream, which empties its waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fPf, a little beyond Lanchow Pu Nf M M* ^^ ^^^^ bank, many other rivers flow into it from the Sik'ing mountains, from the hilly region of the E. and from the table-land of the N.E..

In their South-Eastern portions, these two latter regions are watered by the Weirho ^ ^ and its tributaries. (For the Wei-ho, see the description of Shensi.)

The extreme S. is watered by the KiaUng^hiang ^^fH^ which flows almost immediately into Szechw^an Q J||, and traverses the whole N.E. of the Province before emptying itself into the Yangtze-kiang # ^ JQ

In the N.W., skirting the Richthofen mountains, is the Heir M^ Jl^ fpf, a water course of little importance save in the Sum-

36 8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHERN RBGION.

mer season, when it is swollen by the torrents which descend from these lofty snow-capped mountains. Its waters, mingled with those of the EMngoi, flow into a lake on the table-land of Mongolia.

Fftami and Flom. •— Kansa has remained one of the wildest regions of China, on account of its isolation, its severe climatei and the difficulty of its means of commu- nication. A great number of tigers, leopards, bears, wild boars, wolves and foxes, are accordingly found there, as well as eagles and vultures. Game is plentiful. Throughout the whole of the moist and wooded region of the S.E., numerous and various kinds of birds abound. The flora of all this region, as well as that of the IHit'nng mountains is also very rich : the pine, birch and beech thrive at the bottom of the valleys and on the mountain sides. Higher up is found the rhododendron or rose- bay, and flocks of sheep and goats are reared on the slopes.

Agricultural Wealth. — Although the elevation and sleep slope of the mountains render cultivation difficult throughout a great part of Kansu, in other places, as at Ninghsia Fu ^ X fff, Lanchow Fu j| ^ jj^", Kanchow Fu -^ j^ Jff and Su Chow Hf ^, abundant crops are found : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian-corn and even rice. In several parts, there are even two harvests annually. The cultivation of rhubarb, formerly thriving, has nowadays much diminished. On the other hand the cultiva- tion of the poppy has increased, and tends to become universal. Even in the Han-ti (dry lands ^)fe), which the people cover with stones and shingle to maintain them moist, the poppy is largely cultivated, as also the water melon and the common melon.

Fruit is the great wealth of the region. Besides the jujube- tree found almost everywhere, apples, pears, apricots, walnuts, plums, strawberries and myrtles abound.

Mineral Wealtli. — So far, it is but little known. Ex- tensive coal-fields exist at the N.E. and E., and especially in the vicinity of Kungch'ang Fu j|| g jj|^. Iron-ore, gold, sifver, and petroleum are also found.

Population. — The population of Kansu is chiefly composed of ChineMey a great number of whom are Mussulmans. The country* surrounding Ninghsia Fu is lai^gely inhabited by Mongols. They are likewise found throughout the whole of the N. W. and in the neighbourhood of Sining Fu. In this latter region there are also many* Tiini7ut!t or Fautze aiid inhabitants of Korth-Eastem Tibet. In the S. a great number of immigrants from Szochw'an have settled down.

The population swarms especially in the S. where it is very dense, as also towanls the centre and E.. — The people of the S. are gentler and more cultured than those of the N., but the latter are hardier. They are for a great part illiterate.

I^narwn*^. — ^ ''"'»«'' »8 spokon throughout the greater part of the Province, save in the n^gions inhabited by tht> yfouQi^h and Taugntit. Turkish doe* not begin to Ih^ spi^ken until furth»»r W., in Chiuest» Turkestan.

CHAPTER 11. KANSU. 37

Cities and principal Centres.— LANCHOW FU^ ^ jj^, population, 500^000.

Capital city of the Province, and residence of the Viceroy of Shenkan gjj ^y", is a very commercial city. Its environs are well cultivated : gardens, orchards, tobacco-plantations, poppy- fields etc.... Corn is imported from Sining Fu ^ % j^^ the land near Lanchow Fu being considered too valuable to culti- vate it thereon. A bridge of boats is established every Summer over the Hwang-ho ^fpf , instead of the ice which has then melted.

Sining Fu "gf |^ jj^ at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet, and with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, has important commercial relations with Tibet. The Governor-general of Ku-ku Nor has his residence there. The town was recaptured from the rebels only in 1872.

NinghHa Fu ^ J }^^ population^ 12,000,— laid waste by the Mahomedan insurrection, but rising slowly from its ruins. The enterprising spirit of the Mussulmans has seized upon all the sources of gain which exist in the country. The city is situated in a vast plain, 125 miles in length. It is well watered by a skilful network of canals, abounds in fields of rice, corn and poppies, and is studded with numerous villages nestling amidst luxuriant clusters of trees. Unfortunately, it is ill protected from the inundations of the Hwang-ho H fpf, which has again devastated it in the year 1904.

Leangchmv JFt« ?j^ ffl jfl^, population, 200,000.— The largest agglomeration of the Province after Lanchow Fu ^ j^Jff- The city stands at an elevation of over 6,000 ft.

Kanchow Fu [J* j^ )(f, •— A wretched town, built upon moving sand. Its importance is especially due to its position upon a frequented route.

8u ChaW^H\^ — in the North-Western extremity ofKansu, and in the W. of perhaps the most fertile region of China. In Spring and Summer it abounds with rice, wheat, millet, maize, melons... jujubes, pears, peaches.

KHnayangFn^ ^ jS^ — ^^ad formerly 300,000 inhabitants, but possesses now only one unimportant street.

38 Section i. the northern region.

Among the other towns may be mentioned : Chwngwek iMe»* rfi KfJH, a commercial place where the Hwang-ho )| ^ begins to be navigable ; "r:jn§^in Chow^^^ 150,000 inhabitants, to the S. E. of Kungch*at%g Fu f^^}^. It \s perhaps the most impor- tant market place of the Province after Lanchow Fu §| f\ }ff.

Kutn^m, to the S.W. of Sining Fu "Sli f(f^ ^^ ^^ exten- sive lamasery, possessing a living Buddha. People come there from afar on pilgrimage.

Industry and Commerce. — These are of no great importance. Lanchow Fu Wi)^)ff ^^ ^^^ ^^^V remarkable centre of industry, and manufactures chiefly cloth. The prindpca- export articles are: opium, tobacco, furs, musk, wool and medicinal plants. The impwrta are stulTs and salt. \ Higliways of communication. — Communication is very

! difficult except by the few roads that cross the Province. I Carts may be used on them. Outside these ways nearly all traffic is carried on upon th^backs^^f men, the roads being too difficult even for animals. The Hwang-ho )| ^ is not really navigable until below Chungwei hsien ^ ^ JH) although rafts are employed elsewhere. The principal roads are:

l"" The road from Singan Fk$ 'S^Hf (Shensi ^^) <o Imi- chow JBki i|j)t|)j^. This follows the valley of the King-ho |E j|^, passing by P4ngleang Fu ^ \% )(f, and continues beyond by Sining Fu "gf 1^ )j^ as far as Tibet. (Another road leads from Singan Fu (Shensi] to Lanchow Fu^ passing more to the S. by Ts'inchow Fu ^ ;|t| ^j^. The way is very difficult.)

2'' The road from Ninghsia F^yg J[f^ to Su OhowJflJ\H. This passes by Leangchow Fu \f^)\i{^ and Kanchow Pu '^^Jff, and continues beyond into Sinkiang ^ j||.

3® A third road starts from Lanchow Fu §| ^ ^, skirts the Hwang-ho and joins the preceding.

4'' The road leading from Lanchow Fk^lg^j^Jfi to Sseehu^im m J||, and passing by Minchow fg^ j^ (Kungch'ang Fu jf; g }^).

Difficulty of conveyance and communication is the greatest hindrance to the development of Kansu -^ Jlf.

Hote^— KaoBU '^ffy formerly made only one Province with Sinkiang fH H, but was separated from it in 1882.

"i

dHAPTER II. SliENSI. 39

2" . Shensi B^ g

Area: — 75,290 square miles.

Popnlatlon : — 8,450,000, or 112 per square mile. Name : — It is so called because this Province is situated lo the West of the famous T'ungkwan fj p| pass. Shensi means to the "IFe»e of the Toss.** Bonndarles. — On the

N. — The Ordos plateau^ which is the Southern extension of the Mongolian table-land. Shensi is separated from the Ordos country by a portion of the Great WaU, W. — Kansu ^ Jf,

8. — Szechw*an Q )\\ and Hupeh jj^ ^fc, E. — Honan fpf ^ and Shansi ilj "g. The Hwang-ho Jl fpf separates it from this latter Province. Capital. — 8INGAN FU |g ^ jj^, near the right bank of the Wei-ho fg fpj and almost in the centre of the Province, as Lanchow Fu H ^ ^j^ in Kansu -^^ ||.

Otiier Prefectures. — These are 0 in number : Aloftg the WeArho fg Jpf, proceeding from W. to E.: V Pnngsiang Pu JR J« ;ff , 2«» T'ungchow Pu ig ^ fl?p. To #/a6 i^. of the Wei'Fio, the lirsl in the extreme N., the second mid-way between the Great Wall and the Wei-ho fg fpj : 3° YtllingPu<6*;fiP, 40 YAnngan Pu 3i 56 *P. To the 8. of the Te'inrlifig ^ ^ mountains and along the Han-ho ^ ^, as it runs Eastwards : Sf* Hanchimg Fu ffi 4> iAP, ep Hsingngan Fu X $ iAP. There are aUo in Shensi RjISf H ^ inOepenOent Chows j^ : Shang Chow ^ jt|, K'ien Chow |g ji\, Fim Chow % j^, Fu Chaw Jlp ^, Soeiteh Chow |t ^ ^•

Aspect and Cliaracterlstlcs. — The^ .county^ w -exactly divided into 2 parts by a well-mar/ied chain of mountains w/iic/j tnay be crossed only vvie/i difficulty at its tv;o extremities. All

40 SECTION I. THB NORTHERN REGION.

activity i8 centered upon the 2 rivers, which flow one on t/ieAT., and the other through the S, The 2 valleys, especially the Northern one, afford important passages to those travelling West' ward. On the N. of the Wei-ho f^ fif a long plateau of yellow land rises gradually towards the N.. To the S. of the Wei-ho and especially of the T 'sin-ling |g ^ mountains, the yellow earth disappears,

CSeolO^ioal constitution.— The Tsin-ling mountains are composed of granite, Kchist, limestone rock and sand-stone ; the granite however predominates. On both sides extends an immense layer of quaternary strata, which continues towards the N. of the Wei-ho under the form of loess. To the S. of the Han-ho it takes the shape of schist, Kaud-stone and the limestone rocks of Kiulung.

Orograpliy. — It is easy to remember and is most char- acteristic.

On the N. of the Wei'ho fg \^ exists an extensive platoau of loesB, which rises from the 8.E. towards the N.W. and is more and more furrowed by ravines as one moves away from the S.E.. This plateau terminates on the North side in a series of chains which support the Ordos plateau, and rises on the S. to an elevation of more than 4,000 ft.

On the South of the Wei-ho, rises the massive chain of the Tt^in-iing ^ ^ mountains, a prolongation of the K*f*enlun g -^ range. It runs from W. to E., reaching in height 9,000 ft, which it even surpasses in several places. One of the most celebrated summits, which stands out a little to the W., is the Tixp^'Shan :Jt S lU with an altitude of 11,500 ft. With its steep rocks, perpendicular paths, its torrents and gloomy forests, the Ts'in-ling S^ ^ is crossed with great difliculty. Two pftssea are easier of access, one to the W., the other on the E.. The Northern slope is the steepest and descends quite abruptly upon the Wei-ho fg f^, the other inclines gradually towards the Han-ho iSttRT* Richthofen compares the Ts4n-ling to a heavy bar applied slantwise upon a wrinkled cloth with parallel folds, and which would then be moved in a direction perpendicular to its axis, till the folds deviated completely from tho'point of contact.

On the SotUh of the MMmmlkB ]|| fff originates the Kiuhnw

CHAPTER II. SHBNSI. 41

^ fl chain. II is less massive than the Ts'in-ling range, runs along the whole North-East of Szechw*an (Q )\\ ^nd continues the 3Bn'Bhan f|g lL| of Kansu '^'Hf Province. It attains more than 12,000 feet in height. A pass traverses its Northern extremity and connects through the Wuting 3ET pcMs, — [4,000 ft. high] — the upper valley of the Han-ho ^fpf with 8zechw*an Q j||.

Climate. — The climate is widely different in the N. and in the S. of the Ts'in-ling.

In the N.f it resembles that of the region of the Hwang-ho, with its dry cold, its dust, and its violent storms.

In the S.y it is rather like that of Szcchw'au without Northern or Southern winds, these being prevented from blowing by the two mountain ranges. From February to October, the sky is overcast and the atmosphere damp, while excessive heat prevails in Summer. The cold sets in only at the end of November. It is the fine season of the year.

Hydrograplijr.— On the J^., the Wei^ho fg {pf ^nd numerous streams, running N.W. to S.E. All flow into the Htvang^ho H J^, which skirts the E. of the Province, and is navigable only from the place where it receives the Jt^h^ho ^ ^ from Shansi llj Hf. The most important of these rivers is the Loh-ho j^iijf. None however are navigable.

On the &, the Hanrho ^ fpf, which receives numerous torrents from the Ts*inling ^-§| mountains, but is not navigable in Shensi. Till it leaves this. Province, it runs through steep gorges where it is obstructed with rocks and rapids. Junks of small tonnage avail themselves of the flood season to travel to Hanchung Fu ^ tfi ;fl^ (For the Hanrho ^ \%, see section II, ch. III.)

The Weinho fg fpf. The Wei-ho is the principal tributary of the Hwang-ho j| fpf. Its sources are in Kansu -^ Hf, near the mining region known as Kungch*ang Fu ^g^* It runs like all its affluents on the left bank — these are the most numerous and important — through the i€kess plateau of the N., in which it cuts deep channels. These beds diminish in depth as they advance towards the S.E.. As it enters Shensi g^ g, the WH-ho jfl fp[ runs at a depth of 600 feet, amidst those towering stratified cliffs so characteristic of the ioess region. It then widens and swerves gradually from the ioess land. It is navigable after llsingp^ing hsien ^ ^ j||. Henceforward up to the bend of

42 SECTION 1. TUB NORTHERN REaiOK.

the Hwang-ho H ^, near T'^ung-kwan |fj| H, boats of shallow draught ply on its waters^ for although it is pretty wide in this place, it never runs deep. — Its chief tributary is the Kimg-ho ^ fpf, an important river, which with its affluents, waters the whole North-Eastern part of Kansu *^ )||f.

Fauna and Flora. — xliese differ completely in Northern aud Southern Sheusi, the ridge of the Ts'in-ling constituting almost the dividing line. In the N. the fauna aud flora are those of the H\vang-ho; in the S. those of the Yangtze (See Preliminary Notiofia : fauna and flora, p. 10, 17). Wild animals are less numerous than in Kansu, though they arc extensively met with on the Northern loess plateau and in the Ts'in-ling. Aquatic hirds teem in the valley of the Wci-ho : the wild goose, heron, ibis, and snipe.

Asrlcnltnral Wealtli. — Agricultural products abound in the 2 plains of the Wei-ho f^ ^ and of the Han-ho ^ |i^, as well as on the loess plateau, wherever it can be tilled. In certain parts of the Wei-ho plain, rice and cotton are cultiva- ted, and there are 2 harvests every year, that of Spring yielding corn, and that of Summer, cotton. Elsewhere, the crops raised are those peculiar to the Northern region : barley, pulse^ peas, lucerne, hemp, tobacco and Indian-corn. The valley of the upper Han-ho ^ jpf perhaps much richer, produces besides various fruits, abundant crops of corn, cotton and tobacco. Silk is manufactured, and the mulberry, palm, bamboo and even orange-tree are found there in abundance. Throughout the whole Province, the cultivation of the poppy is the all-absorbing pursuit of the inhabitants.

Mineral Wealth. — The Province is exceedingly rich in coal mines but they are little worked. Iron, salt of inferior quality (towards the N.), quartz veined with gold, nickel and magnetite (in the upper valley of the Han-ho ^ ^) are also found. Stones for building (marble, granite, and porphyry) abound, especially in the Ts4n-ling ^ ^ mountains.

Population. — The population is very dense in the two valleys aud becomes thinner as one travels away from these two centres. The people are largely agiven to agriculture. As in Shansi, many skilful hankers are nevertheless found among them. The alien clement is scanty: Mongols (in the N.),Szechw*an and Hnpeh lmmigrani^{in the S.).

Like Kansu, though for a shorter period, Shensi suffered exceedingly from the two rehollions : that of the T'^aip^lng^ to the S. of the Ts4n-ling; and that of the Mutgulman» to the N.. The city of Singan Fu was almost the only one which held out in the North.

LoD^ua^e. — It is only in the N. that a little Mongol is heard. Everywhere elfae, Mandarin is the common tongue.

tiHAt>TBR 11. SHBNSt. 43

Towns and cUer Centres.

In Northern ShenH ^ || :

8INQAN FUfS^)^, a few miles to the 8. of the Wei-hgi,' i^<5^< at an elevation of 1, 600 feet. — Population, about 1, OOO^^^O. It is the capital and one of the most important cities of Shensi, perhaps even of all China, not only because of its historical remi- niscences, but also because of its site, the number of its inhabi- tants and its wealth. Singan Fu or a neighbouring city has been the capital of China under several dynasties. Jt.aoquired Itg "^ greatest celebrity, ejpejcially. during!. theL..T*ang J^ dynasty. It was then called Siking (1^^ Western Capital)^. InlQOQ^ when the Boxer insurrection broke out, the Court withdrew there for a time. A short distance from it, towards the E., the Annals of the Empire were burnt under Shih Hwang-ti ^^^ (246-209. B. C). The Mussulmans who are said to have arrived there about the VIII*** cen- tury, occupy quite extensive quarters and have a famous mosque. Not far from the city, towards the W., is found a slab bearing date from the VIII^^ century, and testifying that the Nestorians, an heretical christian sect, were established there at that time. A cele- brated museum, called the Pei-lin {^i^ forest of slabs or stone- tablets) is rich with the remnants of ancient civilisation. The city has its Tartar quarter, which is surrounded by a high wall. In the centre of the town there is a large agglomeration of petty shop- keepers. The Eastern suburbs is a very populous and rich quarter where cloth, silks, porcelain, foreign-made articles and iron are stored. In the year 189SL»-.a^-cotiOR«miH was established. within the city._

Hsienyting hsien J^ ^JH This town is not far from Signan Fu, and owes its importance to its being the terminus of naviga- tion on the Wei-ho ^^fpf, hence great traffic is carried on there.

THingchmu Jt* |^ ^ jj^. — On the Lohho ^ fgf.

iSifigkwan hsien }£ BR JR* — ^^ *^® bend of the Hwang-ho ^ fif. It is rather a garrison town than a commercial place, and owes its importance chiefly to its position which borders on the Western regions.

44 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Hwctyimniao ^ ^ 1^- — This is a pilgrim resort and has a ramous shrine. It is here that people start when making the ascent of the Hwa-shan ^ (Ij, one of the 5 sacred mountains of China.

Futigsiati4f tu^^^}^ , — It is picturesquely situated upon a high iocM terrace and on the Kansu ^ "ffj^ road which follows the course of the Wei-ho ff JjJ.

Bing Chatv ^g ^. — On the King-ho ® ^. It is renowned for its excellent fruit.

Tiiiin JP^ ij^^i}^. — In the extreme N.. A garrison town and important market place for furs.

In Southern Shensi :

Hanchung Fu ^ ^ }^, on the hanks of the Han-ho and at an elevation of 1,600 ft, like Singan Fu "g" -^^i^, — population 80,000. — It is a large commercial city and important centre in the midst of a plain over 90 miles in length and from 25 to 40 miles wide.

Hsingngan Fu ^ ^ }^. — A more important commercial centre than Hanchung Fu. Commerce is carried on with Sze- chw'an Q j||, Kansu -^^ Jfj^ and Southern Shensi ^ J^.

Industry and Commerce. — These are more developed than in Kansu ^ )|f, but are however in a rather backward state. Besides the somewhat industrial centre of Singan Fu jg ^ |3^, a certain number of towns exist along the lower Wei-ho ?S ST' which engage in special branches of industry: T'ungkwan hsien 'Ji^ PH j||, tin-ware ; Hwayinmiao ^ |^ J^, straw-shoes; Ch'ihshui "^ 7X, incense sticks and bamboo articles ; Weinan hsien {1 '^ j||i> a large coal-mart....

To the S., Sihsiang hsien 5 ^ j||> S.E. of Hanchung Fu 1^ ^^ fl^T and famous for its manufacture of gum.

Shensi ^ 0 imports silks from Ch^kiang ffi j^t and Sze- chw*an B jll tea from Hupeh ^ 4fc and Hunan jj^ |j}, and sugar from Szechw^nn 0 jl|. It estports opium, skins and furs. Besides it is a place of transit for all goods coming from Tibet and Central Asia, or going to these two regions.

CHAPTER II. SHENSI. 45

Shensi holds perhaps the first rank for the varnish-tree which supplies varnish and vegetable tallow.

Higltways of comumnieatioii. — Two roads connect l^- ngmi 1^* g jg ^ with Lanehow Fuf(jik\fff (Kansu -^^). The most important of these is the Northern one, passing by P'ing- leang Fu 2p Jf^ ^ (Kansu). It is a very beautiful road, and was formerly bordered with trees like French boulevards. It was constructed by Tso Tsungt'ang 4 ^ ^i the General who put down the Mussulman rebellion. Besides these 2 roads, three other important highwarjs deserve special mention.

1"*. The road leading from Singan ^^ "^^Jff to T^ung- k^van hHen }} Mill- ^^ this latter place, it branches off into two, one going at the S. of the Hwang-ho )(f ^ to Honan ^ f| ; the other, crossing Shansi il] If, following the course of the F^n-ho ^ fpf, and leading to Peking ;|t ^.

2''. The road connecting Singan Fki W ^ ij^ with Sxe^ chu^an^ This passes at the Weslern extremity of the Ts'in-ling H'gl, over the T*iensha-ling ?5 j^^ pass, (3,300 ft. above the Wei-ho, and .5000 above the level of the sea) and at the North- western extremity of the Kiulung ;^ H mountains over the Wuting 3E T P^ss (4000 ft. high). It is the famous road of the golden^ ox ^Kinniu-tao ^^M) built at such enormous expense. (According to local legends it was constructed in order to seize oxen on the mountain, as it was thought Iheir fodder was changed into gold.) ^

3'*'. The road connecting Singan lu with t^hang Chow ^ ^. This passes to the E. of the Tsin-ling, and connects the capital of Shensi |^ f| with South-Western Honan fp| ^ and the middle course of the Han-ho ^ fpf.

We have previously mentioned the navigable rivers.

Note. — Sliensi is considered as the cradle of the Chinese race. It is here that it grew up, developed, ~and expanded totKe E. and S.. ^hensi commands all passes of the great Eastern plains leading to Central Asia^ and thanks to the Sze- chw^an gg j|j road, connects them easily with the whole South

46

SECTION I. THB NOKTHBRN REGION.

of the Emfiigfi^ The valley of the Wei-ho |f| )i^ is especially of unparalleled importance in the history of China.

Beferences :

Roc*kliill.--Tho Land of the I^mas. New- York, 1891. (ch. I.).

GrenarcL—Mission scieutiiiqiiede la Haute Asia. Paris, 1898. (II'* p. pp. 46M72, note on the ethnography of Kansu ; — I*^ part. p. 371 sq., from Sining to Peking).

Prjevalski. — Mongolie. Paris, 1880 (CIi. IX. Province of Kansu).

Fotanine. — Expedition dans le Kan-sou. 1884-1887. St Petersbourg, 1891.

Voo Kreitoer. — Die Chinesische Pro- vinz Kan-su. 1888.

Journal des Missions Beiges de Mongolie et du Kan-sou, from 1892.

RouHBet.— A travers la Chine. Paris, 1878. (ch. IS to 19 : Kansu and Shensi).

Lo uwaert. — Observations barom^triques

faites au S. du Kan-sou. S« P^tersboiirg,

1898. Ricbthofen. — Letters. Shang-hai, 1878.

(p. 70-74, Shensi; p. 96-110, Northern

Shensi; p. 111-114, Southern Shensi). David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.

(vol. I. ch. 7 to 17 and vol. II. ch. 18

and 19). Leprince-Rin^uet. — (Tour du monde.

1902 p. 347 sq). Swen Hedin. ^ Travels. P. Havret. — La stMe de Si-ngan fou.

Ohanghai, 1895 et 1897. HOffff.— Hsi-an (Singan). (Written for the

North-China Daily News).

CHAPTER III.

THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE HWANG-HO

(SHANSI lU H AND HONAN ^ ^,)

The Provinces of Shansi jlj "gf and H&nan j^ f^ do not depend on the same Viceroy as Kttnsu "fjf JHf and Shensi g|r n. Each of them has its own Governor,

If we study them in common, it is because the mpwiUains- of these 2 Provinces constitute a powerful barrier on the W. of the Great North^Eastern Plain. Both also hem in the Hwang-ho JIflf below its last great bend^ and before it enters the lowlands. Moreover, both abounding in coal and iron, are partly covered with loess or yellow earth, especially Sfutnai jlj "g". Finally they have been in former times the residence of the Emperor of China and the seat of the Capital,

The differences existing between them are very prominent :

8han»i ^J ^ is mountainous throughout; Hanan ^ f^ only in part. Shansi is very rich in mineral wealth: JSbnum in ^ricultural products. Access to ShanH is difficult save through a few highways; Human on the contrary, except on the N,W., is rich in means of communication.

Both Provinces have suffered from the T'aipUvg ^ ^ rebellion.

48 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

r. Shansi lU H

Area. — 81,853 square miles.

urnmber of Inhabltanto.— 12,200,000, or 149 per square

mile.

Haine.— Shansi lIlH BignideB ^^We^i of the Mouniaif^ff But

what mountains are meant? Perhaps the peaks which bound on the E. the entire plateau of Shansi. It would however be more exact to say that they are the mountains on the W. of Chihli {If ^ as Shantung ]\\ ^ means E. of the same range, that is of the T'aihar^shan ic ^ lU-

Boundaries. — Shansi is bounded on the N. — By Mongolia,

W. — By the Ordos plateau (being part of Mon- golia and Shensi |^ If, S. — By Honan jpf ^,

E. — By Chihli it Jj^- — The Hwang-ho H Jlf fixes exactly the boundary line on the W. and S..

Capital city. — T^AITtfBN JFT7 Jc J^ ;j§f, which is situated in the centre of the Province and on the left bank of the P^n- ho ^ fpf.

Otlier Preftetnres or First class cities. Th4^ are S.

namely, To the N. of T^aiyueti JFVi -Jj J^ ^ :

V Shohp'ing Pu f! 2|i «P,

2^ Tattling Pu * H *,

3" Ningwu Pu W R «P. To the S. of T^aipUen Fu, atUl alou^ the right batik of the Fhu-ho ^ fpf as it runs into the Hwang-ho :

4« Pfinchow Pu }» ^ «P,

5° P'ingyang Pu ^ li HT,

6" P^nchow Pu m #1 fflP. At the S.'Ba9terH extremity^ proceeding from N. to S..

7* Lungan Pu SB * «p,

8" Tsehchow Pu ^ #i ;j^. There are besides in Shansi il||| lOiudepetidefU Chowe )^:

CHAPTBR III. 8HAN8I.

49

LOESS PLATEAU OP SHANSI [Ij |f . According to Richthofen.

fiO SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RB0ION.

TUngting Ch4nv ^ £ M, JOMn Chaw ^ j^, T*ai Chaw f^ ^, Baoteh Chmv %^j^f Hoh Chaw ^^, JEMoi cakawfj^fVi, Kiang Chawlf^j^, aih Chaw {| ^, m'in Chaw\j^ jf\,LeaaChaw jj^JW.

I Aspeet and eluunielertotios. — Shansi is a plateau ascen- hiing in gradual terraces and intersected by mountain-ranges towards \the N.. It has long monotonous ridges of yellow land and several ^lluvial plains very rich and fertile. There is great difficulty of com- munication. The people are industrious, but the soil is rather poor, anSTTiifcompels them to seek elsewhere the prosperity they lack at home. Coal and iron abound, but up to the present, the absence of good roads has rendered the working of the mines rather unprofitable. The Province has also a lengthy river, the Ffirimho^ ^, which runs through its centre and develops there, more than in the other parts, wealth and prosperity. Such are in brief, the most striking features of Shansi.

Geological constitotion. — A layer of limestone covers a rich bed of coal. Over the layer itself are found sand-stone and yellow earth. This latter reaches in the S. a depth of 2,000 ft. In the N. there are'.long mountain-chains of granite, schist and poi'phyry. In the Centre, skirting the Eastern bank of the ^Han-ho Htff^i is the Hoh- shan ( |lj, a granitic and metamorphic mountain.

Orogimpliy. — Shansi is formed by a strong mountain ridge, which, more or less wide, inclines gradually from N. to 8.. This iitrge plateau^ varying in elevation from 2,600 to 5,000 ft., is flanked on the E., N.E. and N. by peaks which ^ rise to a still higher altitude. Its steep slopes have been deeply furrowed and eroded, and disclose to the eye at the present day the calcarious and coaly deposits which cons- titute its base. On the N., long chains traverse it from 8.W. to N.E., and continue the massive crest of the Southern Ordos table-land. These attain an elevation of 3,600 feet in the Wutairwhan 3l S ll]. The Sirshan H Ul o^ T^aihamM^an JC 'ff llj' which stretches along the plateau to the S.B., rises only to 3,200 ft., although it appears to look higher when viewed from the Ghihli |j|; ^ plain. Further to the W., running along the left bank of the F^n-ho ^ fpfi i^ ^^^ Hahrshan || |Ii, the height of which is 7,860 ft. In the emUre af the rravimee there eooiete a series af degrtsaUms incUning in the direction of

GHAPTBR III. 8HAN8I. 51

N. to 8. and separated from each other. These are the dried- up beds of former lakes, which have disappeared, leaving behind a thick alluvial sediment more fertile than the surrounding loess or yellow land. The number of these lakes is 7, and upon their principal sites stand the following cities : Tat^ung Fu ;fc ^ ^, (3,900 ft. high); T*aiyuen Fu ^c ^ ^ (2,600 ft. high); P*ingyang Fu ^ H^ ^ (1,800 ft. high). The Southernmost, that of Hsiai Chow jH i>H» attains an elevation of only 1,200 ft.

J&» the SL, is a mountain of sufficient importance to be men- tioned, the ChunglfiaO'Shan tfij^lll (3,300 ft. high), which must have been separated by an earthquake from the Hwa-shan ^ il| (see section I. ch. I. p. 26.), which lies opposite to it. The Hwang-ho now flows between the two.

Climate. — The climate of Shausi is severer than that of the N. taken in general. This resnlts from the mediocre elevation of the country. Snow covers it during the long Winter months and the thermometer falls to — i degrees F. and even further. At T'aiytten Fu, the lake was frozen over from November to March in 1908-04. The thermometer then fell to — 9 degrees F. and reached in Summer 82 F..

Kydi^iprapliy. — In the £L, there are two important rivers, the jR§fi-Ao ^ ^ and the Ts^in-ho l^ jpf, both tributaries of the Mwang^ho ^ fpf . In the N; the Province is traversed by several large affluents of the Peh-ho j^ fpf. In the W^a, vast number of streams cutting deep ravines in the soil empty their waters into the Hwang-^ho )| jpf*

The I^hirho j^ fpjf is the largest river of Shimai. It rises to the 8. of Ningwu Fu ^ ;^ ^, and after leaving T'aiyiien Fu 'M JSi Hf^ waters the most fertile part of the Province. It is navigable only up to Kiang Chow ^f. jjjj, but from T*aiyiien Fu to the latter city, a very frequented road traversing numerous important centres, runs along its banks. It crosses the two richest plains of Shansi [Ij'g : that of T'aiyiien Fu :fcjg /jj and that of P4ngyang Fu ^ R^ Jj^. Its waters are wont to rise suddenly and devastate the adjoining region.

The T/^inrho JtJSf, which descends from the 8.E. of the pla- teau is of less importance. It waters however one of those regions richest in mineral wealth: Tsehchow Fu j^f^fff] and one of the most fertile and populous of all China : Hwaik'ing Fu ^ J| ^ (Honan M Hr)-

52 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Fauna and Flera. — There is nothing special to mention, save the huntings gronnds in the North, which are reserved for the Emperor.

~ — ^KfHraltiuml Weftltli. —Agricultural products are conflned to a great extent within the valleys of T'aiyiien Fu ikSiftf ^^^ Kiang Chow |j| j^, and consist mainly of cojn, tobacco, cotton and sometimes rice. The climate is too severe to obtain two harvests, so Shansi ill H ^^ compelled to procure from the neighbouring plains the products it lacks itself.

Even as regards opium, reputed to be the best in China, the crop is insufficient. — Shansi grows excellent gr^T*^** from which wine is made, unequalled it is said, throughout China.

Mlneml Weftltli. — Minerals are the great wealth of Shansi ill 'jl^ Province. They consist especially of pit-coal and iron. No part of the world is perhaps so rich in cgal-fields. The three principal mining-centres are the following: the basin of T^aiyiien ^^ -k B Jlf^ ^h^^ o^ P'ingting Chow iqji Jg ^ and the country around Tsehchow Fu H ^ ^. On the S., to the B. of Hsiai Chow ^^, there is a salt lake called Luts^un ^^ which has consi- derable importance^ X Taot^ai is in charge, to superintend the collecting of taxes upon the salt, which is afterwards sold extensively throughout Shansi |lj "g*, Shensi ^ ^ and Honan

FOpulaikMi — Shansi is hospitable, industrious and eager in the pursuit of gain. The best bankers of China and her shrewdest merchants are recruited from this Province. Nearly the whole commerce of the South of Mongolia is carried on by Shansi traders, some of whom even go as far as Tibet. When enriched, they return to settle down at home, bringing back with them the means of comfort, if not of luxury.

In the N., the population is largely made up of Mongols, who number 500,000. They have their sacred mountain, the Wut'ai-shan, where they lovingly bury the remains of their relatives. A large Mongol lamasery occupies its summit. They have also their own town, Kweihwa ch'Ang, or the Blue City, called in Mongol Ku-ku Rhoto.

Lan^aa^. — Mongol is spoken throughout the N.. Everywhere else the Man- d^rin dialect is prevalent.

Cmem and Principal Oentres. — T'AITVBffr ru -j^ gi

fff^ with a population of 230,000 inhabitants, is the capital of Shansi [Ij fg ^^^ ^^^ residence of the Gk)vernor. It is situated at an elevation of 2,600 ft., on the N. of a vast plain studded with populous villages and neatly constructed houses. The valleys which open out on the plain have nearly all mines, occupying

CHAPTER III. 8HAN8I. 53

each about 200 workmen, while rows of carta drawn bv oxea\ ,and whe^^^^aTrnw ^y»"ff t^^<* coal dailj^Jo the capital. Formerly' this city manufactured defensive weapons on a large scale, and even at present it possesses an arsenal. It has its Tartar quarter and important barracks for the soldiers. It is surrounded by beautiful gardens and orchards. Its commerce is very brisk. In several places throughout the plain, pit-coal, iron and sulphur are found ; there is also in a neighbouring village a famous spring which has been turned to advantage by the people.

To the If. of T'aiuUen J^ i: ff. fff -

Kweihica ch^htg 0| ffc JA-— population, 200,000 inhabitants. — The Blue €Xty or Ku^Jcu Khoio comprises two towns, the one, ' religious and military, with its schools and its Lama monas- teries (the grand Lama of Mongolia, actually at Urga, resided formerly here) ; the other, largely commercial, is an important market for skins and camel-hair ropes, imported from every part of Mongolia and exported chiefly to T*ientsin Ji fjf f(f. The environs are covered with fruit-trees.

TeOfung Fu -^ ^flfif. — A town situated 4,000 ft. above the the sea-level, in a long plain of scanty fertility where several volcanic peaks arise. There are important deposits of coal and sodium carbonate in the vicinity.

To the S. of T*aiy^ilen Pu:

Fhuihmv Fu ^ jfl^ ^, — An important town, near a rich valley abounding in coal.

P*ingy€nig Fu ZJ^JfU^J^. — population, 19,000 inhabitants. — It/ isj)ne of the oldest cities of China (tradition states that the | Emperor Yao ^ resided there), but of its ancient splendour, Ihe' only remnant to-day is a^magnificent city-wall. It is situated in a vast alluvial plain where the system of irrigation is unrivalled.

Kianff Chaw l^jHi- — WilhiTTtTirKlrtrcf The Fiin-ho j^ jpfi towards the W.. — It is a prettily situated town, the terminus of navigation and the principal market-place of Shansi. It lies in a plain of considerable ferlility and is in the neighbourhood of coal-mineij.

54 8BGTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RlftlON.

1^ the Acf I^oiyOen .F%« ic M iKFi descending towards Chihli H H :

FHngUng Chaw Zp Jg ^. — 20,000 inhabitants. — A great manufacturing (gold and silver-ware, iron) and commercial city. In its vicinity is the rich coal-mine known as SMhpuhimU ^

Two other cities deserve also to be mentioned. They are situated in the T*aiyiien Fu -^Mftf plain : F'ifHnfoo haien ^PJSfli, population, 60,000 inhabitants, — an important market for exports into Honan }IJ ^; and M^i haien j^ fli, a very commercial town with a population of 30,000.

To the 8. A:

Taehehow .Fl* H jHi^) situated in a district which abounds in coal and excellent iron-ore. As moreover, its communications with the plain are numerous, it is the c^tre of a very industrial ref^ionij^ principally iTQn ^worjLS .

Industry and Oommeroe. — In both of these, Shansi holds a prominent place. This is the natural outcome of the industry of its people, its rich mines and the poverty of its soil.

Several cities and large villages devote themselves specially to industry. We have mentioned above P*ingting Chow ^ Jg j^, famous for its goldsmiths' work ; others are engaged in the paper, iron, and sulphur industries. Kiang Chow |j| j/l\ has started lately a cotton-mill.

The eaoport articles are principally : coal, iron, salt and products from Mongolia, such as skins and ropes. The importe, which seem to exceed the exports, consist of corn, silk, woollen- goods, tea and salted provisions.

BOi^liway* of Oommnnleatloii. — The communications are difficult through lack of good roads. Transport is extensively made u^on the . JDacks 4>f ani4nal6'4-oai»el9-,--imriiMh«iul.a88fifli — The principal roads are :

Two carriage roaAs. — If they can be so called, for they are very impracticable. — These are :

1' The road leading frwn OhSngOng JMi JE )K JlP (OUhli

GHAPtBR III. 8HAN8I. 55

itSS to ShenH gKlf , passing by T*aiyuen ¥m ±^}lf, P4ng- yang Fu ip B| ^, P'uchow Fu ff jHi iflP and T*ungkwan hsien !t M ili (Shensi). (At P*uchow Pu one may also cross the Hwang-ho % J^, and proceed by T'ungchow Fu to Singan Fu S ^ iff, Shensi).

2^ The road leading from T'oiyfim Su i;|S(^ to TcU^ung •^^ :fc 1^ JKF* I^ passes by Y6nmen-kwan )B P^ M) a famous and much frequented gate of the €hrta$ WaU. Here the road branches into two : one branch going by Shohp'ing Fu ^^^ to Kweihwa ch'6ng|${tji|ft; the other leading to Kalgan {GhiMff,^ Two oiher roaOs or rather pathways are less frequented : I'' One ttom Ttehehow FU ^ fl\ J(f to JP'ingyang JRi. 2^ A second from nehehow Fk* to T^atyiien JPk^, passing to the W. of Lungan Fu }|| ^ ^.

J%e oniy good Waier'Highwafyo are: the Fhnrho ;{^fr^, from Kiang Chow j|^ ^ to the Hwang-ho Hfi]'; and the Mwang-ho* This latter is navigable from P»uchow Fu f|f ^ ;|^ to T*ung- kwan hsien ft H) IR, and in several places to the W. of Shansi ^| 'jl^, especially near its North-Eastern bend.

Extensive traffic is carried on upon the road leading from Chihli It iMt to T'aiyuen Fu *|5(^. Prom 2,000 to 3,000 mules and asses, and 200 to 300 camels, pass every day opposite a fixed place. The same activity exists in the N., at the Y6nmen )]g P^ pass. The raUroad from CMngHng Fu J£%Jti (Chihli) i to T'a^fiken JPIf^ connecting the capital of Shansi il| '^ with thalf great trunk-line from Peking ;([j jjc to Hank'ow :^ P (Hupel/f iW fll), 'Will afford easy tranport for the rich mines of Shansi \ and at the same time increase its wealth.

Mote. — We have seen above thatJP*ijigyang Fu ^ J^ ^ was the capital of the celebrated sovereign Yao ^, in the early times of the Chinese empire. In the S.E., the present district town oQIsia.hfiifia J|.jR (Hsiai Chow f^, ^) had in its midst the court of the Emperorp of the HsiaJI dynasty, the first that governed China (2,205 to 1,766 B. C).

56 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REfilON.

2" , Honan M %

Area. — 67,95 i square miles.

Popnlallon. — 25,317.820 or 373 per square mile.

Ito IVame. — Honan fpf ~^ signifies Smah of the river,

and in fact the greater part of the Province lies to Ihc South of the Hwang-ho JJi fpf , while only a small tract of land extends beyond it on the North.

Bonndaiies. — Honan is bounded, on the

N. — By Chihli jt gt and Shansi 4IJ g, W. — By Shensi |^ |g and Hupeh jgj fl:, S. ~ By Hupeh JM ft,

E. — By Nganhwei ^ ff[, Northern Kiangsu f£ j|^, Shantung [i| }^ and Ghihli ]i[^. CapittA. — K'AIFUNG FU^^)ff, situated in the Norlh- East of the Province, and towards the South of the last great bend of the Hwang-ho ^ f^.

Otber Prefeclnral Cities. — These number S, three of which are to the North oftlie Hwang^fio. They are, proceeding from the West to the North-East : l"* Hwaik'ing Fu tt ft /fip, 2° Weihwui Pu > » #, SoChangteliFiil^ai^MP. T/a€ 5 others lie along Iho Southern course of the Hwang- ho Jl ^, one to the N.W., another to the S.W., and the rest in the basin of the Hwai-ho ^ fSjf . 4" Honan Fn fflrfll W", ^ Nanyang Pu W IB *, 6° Jnning Pu ift W «^, 7" Cli*enchow Pu » #1 flf, 8" Kweiteh Pu B It /fiP. Honan has besides 5 independent C/unv cities : .HMl (^htnv fj: ^, Sh^i Chow 1^ ^, Kwang Chow jft fH, fTu Chow ffc f^f and Cheng Chow |^ j^.

Aspect and Cliaraeterlstlcs. — Honan is a vast fertile plain, but exposed to the cold winds of the North, It has no nutuval sepiiration^^fie East from the neighboxwing Provinces,

lonjmJAe Ea

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 57

but is closed on the S. and principally on the W,, by a semi' , circular chain of mountairiSf which ai/ow only few passages \ towards the Yangtze ^^ valley, and that of the upper Hwang-ho l M ^^ Its fertility, compared with the other Provinces of the N. has deserved for it the name of '^Iiand of tlie Oentml Flower",^ and perhaps the designation of Chung^kwoh S^ ^ or **Middle Kingdom^' given lo the whole of China, may be traced back to that origin. It affords also, excepting however the mountains of the West. commQdinuf^ ftigh-uiays s>inH can exchange its products, especially agricultural wealth, although coal is not lacking, better than the other Provinces which we have previously studied. The railwaii which runs through it and connects the basins of the Hwang-ho H jpf and the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ ft, will henceforth attract thereto increasing wealth and activity.

Geological cooBiitatioii. •— Yellow earth predominates in a large portion of the North, and is mingled with alluvial soil in the basin of the Hwailio (H fif. In the W., the Funin Mountains are composed of marble, sand-stone and granite. The mountains which are their continuation to the S., are formed also of granite, schist iiud gneisp.

Orosrapliy. — On tfie North of tFt^e Hwmig'-ho ^ fpf, the surface rises slowly towards the N. E., but more abruptly to ihc N.W., where it forms the first slopes of the T'aihcmg'Bhan >k^ llj range.

On the South of the Htvang-ho )| fpf :

Throughout the whole Western and South-Western part of the Province, the last branches of the Bagtem K^ueniun ^ Ifjjff throw out numerous spurs, which are called, proceeding from N. to S., the Hwa-Bhan H ^.lUniu-shan^ ^ il|, and further Southwards, the HwaUung-'Bhan f|| |£ ll] and JB[wti4)g€mtr^fum tH 1^ ill* The whole mass varies from 2,600 to 3,000 feet in average elevation, though it exceeds at times the height of 6,000 feet. The Funiu-shan reaches also an elevation of 7,800 ft. in the rehy^m-shan g .^ llj, while the Sung-shan ^ \l\, an important mountain-mass advancing into the plain to the S. E. of Honan Fu fpf ^ ^, rises likewise to the height of 7,800 ft. in the YangMing-shan |^ jfjft llj. The plain slopes slightly down as these mountains advance towards the E..

58

8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBftlON.

.ViOtlJ ui-

b4

a

I — r-r

i? ^. :*»

SI

I ' I

GHAPTBR III. HONAN. 59

The climate of Honan becomes milder as one advances Southward. Hero the same prod acts grow as iu the valley of the Yangtze. lu the N., the cold and dust- storms are severely experienced during the Winter season.

Hjrdrogimpliy. — The rivers may be divided into four different systems.

1^ On the N* of the JStuang^ho ^ fpf , sever€a streame, the principal of which is the Weirho ^ ^, run into the Grand CanaL The Weirho is navigable up^ to Tao-k*ow Jg P, and throughout the greater part of the year, even up to Siuwu hsien ft f( fli ^^^^ Hwaik'ing Fu ^ J| ^, considerably higher than Weihwui Fu f^ m ^. Numerous and limpid streams fertilise all. this part of Honan fr^ ^.

2'' The foUowing empty themaeiveB into the Hwang-ho

On the N., the Ts^in-ho fjj^ fpf , flowing down from Shansi ^| 'jl^ (see description of this Province p. 51), and on the &, the Z^h'ho f^ jSJ. This latter waters a very fertile valley running parallel to the basin of the Hwang-ho and famous in the history of China.

3^ On the 8.W. of the J^mtu^han jft ^ \\iy ^^ rivers, the reh'ho jg ffif and the T^ang^ho jH fr^, which water the whole region of Nanyang Fu "^ |^ fff^ and after uniting their streams, flow into the Han^ho ^ fvf opposite Siangyang Fu Jfj^ fflf fff, in Hupeh ^ ^. The Peh-ho is navigable at all times up to Nanyang Fu. — Another river, the Tan^fyiang -pj^fL^ runs a little further Westward into the Han-ho ^^^ and is navigable in Winter up to Kingtze-kwan ^ j^ ^, affording thereby a highway to Singan Fu |g ^ ;|^ in Shensi Iff^ '^.

4* The Hwairho ^ Jfif and its tributaries, the principal of which is the Sha-ho j^ ^. Nearly all its affluents flow from N.W. to 8.E.. The Hwai-ho, after flowing for a time from W. to E., but impeded in its course by the mountains of Western Nganhwei $4(f runs in a North-Eastern direction upon entering Nganhwei,and there empties its waters into the Hungtseh Lake ^ ^. It is navigable below Sinyang Chow f^ |^ JHi (Juning Fu ^H;^). The Sha-ho is so likewise below Gheukia-k'ow ^Jgf, D 1 where it receives the KkUurhoJl^ff and the TUrho jft fJi-

60 8BGTI0N I. THE NORTHERN RBOION.

\ The Hufong'ho, which bisects the Northern part of Honan

I fn}~^, is navigable from Szeshui hsien f£ tK IR ^^^^ K^aifung

U^'u Wi $i Hf^ ^ little ^o ^he ^'^ o^ Honan Fu, till it leaves

^ Honan ^ ]|f. Navigation on it is however rather difficult. At

low-water season, it is very shallow, and when the flood sets

in, the current is too strong for junks. To the N.E. of K*ai-

fung Fu, its former bed is still visible, and we shall deal with

it when describing North-Kiangsu f£ fjj^.

Fauna and Flora. — There is nothiut^ deserving any pai-ticulftr meution, Have that in the S. the fauna and flora of the Central Region begin to appear in some places.

, Agrlcnltnral Wealtli. — The soil of Honan is very fertile

' and produces excellent crops : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian- corn, cotton and opium. The most fertile parts are 1^ the region of HwaikMng Fu flUlJ^) a real garden with numerous planta- tions of trees and shrubs; the soil is well irrigated. 2^ the region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ ;|^, which produces cotton, opium, and a little silk. 3^ the Loh-ho jS'fpf valley, a splendid alluvial country, growing corn, fruit and the poppy in abundance. The Western mountains alone are barren, being for the greater part destitute of trees. The Funiu {^4^ mountains are however partially covered with dwarf oaks, upon the leaves of which numerous silk-worms are fed. The rearing of the silk-worm is the chief source of prosperity of this region.

Mineral wealtli. — The mineral wealth consists prin- cipally of coal-mines (between Lushan hsien ;(imiJ|| and Ju Ohow ^^). Iron, tin and argentiferous lead-ore are also found.

Population. — The people are principally ^iven to agrioulture, and few Rlien elements are fonnd among them. K'aifung Fu had formerly an important colony of Jeivs^ hut they have now dwindled to only a few members. The population is very dense everywhere, but particularly to the N. of the Hwang-ho, and in the country- sur- rounding Nanyang Fu. An exception must however be made for the moantainous district of the W..

Lankan gre. — Mandarin is Kpoken throughout the w^hole Province.

Cities and Principal €}enirem.—K'AIFl[JNG JPVjfUUfff.

— population, 200,000 inhabitants. Situated to the S. of the bend of the Hwang-ho ^ f^, it was formerly a city of great imppr- tance, but iy nowadays without either commerce or industry.

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 61

Despite the numerous embankments which surround it, it is much exposed to the inundations of the Flwang-ho, to which it has already fallen many times a victim.

To the North of the Hwang-ho )| fjf :

Hwaikfing JPli ^J|^. — a large city but doing no trade.

Tt^inghwa ehhi JKftUt* — ^ ^^^ miles to the East of Hwaik^ing Fu, is a large emporium and carries on a consider- able trade in coal and iron. It is moreover a very populous city and an important transit centre. Stfi£L_ingtrum£nts are extensively manufactured there, and it is the chief market for the medicinal plant called ^^Ti-hwang** A 31 (a medicinal root, perhaps allied to cumfrey and used as a febrifuge. — Williams.), the sale of which realises £160,000 annually.

Taok^ow ehSn ^ D IK- — to the N.B. of Weihwui Pu. A considerable commercial mart upon the Wei-ho D| }i^, which is always navigable up to this place except when the ice has formed. By this river, a large portion of the mineral and metallurgic products of South-Eastern Shansi llj U, and also corn from HwaikMng Pu fi|J|^i are exported to the N.E. Taoh'o^v rhAit^ is the terminus of the Honan fpf ]^ raUwtty.

In the part S. of the Hwang-ho J^j^. To the N.W. and W.:

Honan JPU fpf |f| /|^. — In the rich valley of the Loh-ho f^ }i|. The city is advantageously situated at the crossing of the highroads leading to Singan Pu 'jl^ ^ H^ in Shensi |j|{19. It is nowadays of no importance. To the S., rises the sacred Sung- shan Jjg ill mountain, and to its W. is the famous defile known as Lung-m6n|KP^, whose banks are adorned with pagodas and ancient sculptures carved in the limestone rock. Several of the statues of Buddha are over 60 feet in height.

Ju Chow^j/l\. — A town situated in the midst of splendid scenery and in a ^weH-jvatered valley. The environs were formerly very industrial, but have lost their activity. The manufacture of common pottery is still carried on and gives it some importance.

62 SECTION I. THB NORTHERN REftlON.

iMBhan hBien 41 |Il IR. — Centre of .the silk trade in this district. Paper is also manufactured as weih"ffft pottrry^ftnd waggons with cast-iron wheels, much in demand throughout the whole of this region.

To the 8. XL and 8. :

KtMnytinff Fk& -^ ^ f(f. — An important city, both as a transit place and as the centre of a populous and fertile region.

MbfKfttMn^j^^:' — A very important commercial centre between the Provinces of the N, E. and those of the W. It has large warehouses.

Bit^yamg Chaw fS^f^- — ^^ important town and the head of navigation on the Shih-ho Hip f^, a tributary of the Hwai-ho jH jpf. It is the terminus of the high-road which comes from the N., and continues Southwards over the mountains by a mule-path. Numerous rafts bring salt from the maritime Pro- vinces. The Peking-Hankow railway ]g ^ which passes near it, gives it a still greater importance.

TotheJEL:

Cheukiarkfaw J^ if D • — to the W. of Ch^chow Fu |$ j^i f[f. — The^ most._important comnvercial centre of Eastern Honan fpf ^. It is situated at the confluence of 3 rivers. The Sha-ho j^ jpf is navigable up to this place the whole year round, and all three are navigable in the flood season.

Industry and Commerce. — If we except its iron and earthenware trade, Honan is not a very industrial Province.

Its eoppart trade consists chiefly of agricultural products : corn, cotton and opium, while its imparts are textile fabrics from Hupeh ^ ft and Tientsin Fu 55 }> ;^ (in Chihli ft |t), and iron supplied by Shansi llj Iff.

Klgliwi^s of commimleatlon. — Communications are easy, save in the W. . We have seen to what extent the Hwang-ho 31 fpf, Wei-ho Ijf fpf, Hwai-ho fH ^ and Peh-ho g fff are navigable. (The T*ang-ho ^ fp[, which joins this latter, is also navigable as far as Sh6kM ch6n ^ jjj^ ^). The princfpia roade 0te i

CHAPTBR in. HONAN. 63

1*» The road ftwn BeMng ft ]{( to Hank'mu ^ p (Hupeh m ft), passing by Changteh Fu jg ^ ;|^, Weihwui Fu % ^ fff, K*aifung Fu |B ^ ^iJf, Cheukia-k»ow ^ Sjf P and Sinyang Chow em in (Juning Fu ?* ^ jj^f).

2^ The road leading from K^a4fung JFu to Singan JBk$ || ^ Jfi (Shensi |^ ff), passing by Honan Fu ^ ^ jj^f and then skirting the right bank of the Hwang-ho J| fpf .

3^ The road leading/rom Honan Fu to Siangyang Fu m^ jjj (Hupeh JMft), on the Han-ho g|fBf, traversing Ju Chow, Lu- shan hsien and the Nanyang Fu ^^jj^ pass. This pass stands at an elevation of 1,500 ft., and is situated between two moun- tains whose altitude varies from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. It is nearly 25 miles in length, but offers no difficulty.

4'' The road leading from Weihwui Fu ^j^Jf^ to Honan Fu, passing by Hwaik'ing ^^ ^ $k Jft*

5^ The road leading from J^aifung Fu to Fungffong Fu JR, Rl JlJ in Nganhwei ^ fg, passing by Kweiteh Fu |5 ;§g jfl:.

The FeMfng-Hixnik^ow raiUoay passes by Yungtsch hsien ^ ^ H, Shenchow Yn^j^J^, Hsii Chow ^ ^, Yench'^ng hsien g|i jjl |||, Sip'ing hsien |f iq^ J||, Suip'ing hsien ^ H^ JU, K4ohshan hsien {ft lU JH ^^^ Sinyang Chow fE ^ iKl*

Ainother Une, tJuU of Honan ^ ^, runs from Sinhsimig ^•^^ $^ ^ H ^ ^t^^ohfow ehhh ^ P i| on the Wei-ho %^.

A third Une, recently opened, runs from ChSng Chow fl^ji\ to K'aifung JFI* P| ^ jfl^.

Ifoie. — The ancient ^pital of China stood severaU times in Honan f|if ^. It was situated in the valley of the Loh- ho i&fij, in the environs of K'aifung Fu P|i|-^, or at Kweiteh Fu U :§g[ JlJ. If we believe the legend, Fuhsi {^ ^ the first Emperor of China, had also his capital there.

References

Gretiftrd. — Mission scientifiquo do la Haute Adie. Paris. 1897. (ch. VII, p. 423 to 440).

Leprince-Rin^iiei. — Tour du Monde. 1902. (p..S14 sq. and p. 847 sq).

Roekhill.— The Land of the llamas. Now-

York. 1891. ch. I. Williamson. — Journey in North-China.

London. 1870. (vol. I. ch. 9. and 10, Shan-

«i; ch, 15 to 19, Honan).

64

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

RIoMlMiren. — Letters. Shanghai. 1873

(p. lH-44), Honan and Shansi. — p. 77-

90, OhihIi» Monitolia and Shanai'. Kerral. — Deux niartyrK fran^ais (au

Chan-si). Kome, 19*^3. R^uMKi. ^ A travers la Chine. Paris. 1S78

(liv. II. eh. 11 and 12, Honan\ OlMiTM«ML ~ Le d4fil6 de Longmen.

(Joarnal Asiatique. 1002). Wllltenui. ^ The Middle Kingdom. Vol.

I. A^ Edit. New-York. (Shansi. p. 78-79;

Honan. p. 79-80). ^GrOfder. — Ueneral description of China.

liiMidtm, 179r>. (Vol. I. .Shansi. p. 88-87;

Paris, 1875

HonaB.p. 73-78). Davici. — Journal dcrvo3'age.

(vol. I. ch. 5 and 6). TolMir. — Inscriptions juives dc K^ai-fong

fou. Chang-hai. 1900. Marmy. — Historical and descriptive

account of China. Edinburgh. 1843. (Vol.

III. Shansi. p. 21-^.; Honan. 27-28). LiUle A. — The Far East. Oxford. lOOTi.

(Shansi. p. 29-88; Honan. p. 39-40. ^fappa della Provincia di Ho-nan (Diseg-

nata'da un alnnno della Missione Ita-

liana di Kin-kia-kan).

CHAPTER IV.

THE REGION OF THE LOWER HWANG-HO AND OF THE PEH-HO

(CHIHLI It ^ AND SHANTUNG |Ij jH).

Thi'fie 2 prow/nce/?, lihe tho 2 precedinti ones, aro indepen^ dent of each other. The former, ChihH ]|[ ||^ has however n Vicerotj residing nt Paoting Fu ^ ^ fff, while Shanimig jlj ■$[ is ruled by a Governor, whose residence is at Tsinan Fufff'^fff. ' Like Shansi ilj f| and Honan ^ ^, CkiMH ]g[ ^ and ShatUunff |1] )|[ differ widely from each other. CMhH g[ H in times gone by, a gulf, but now filled up, is hemmed in by a semicircle of high mountains, Shaniung, a former island, sur^ rounded little by little by alluvial deposits, strikes boldly out into the ocean, ChihH has but one very shallow sea, which washes the coast, and is very little indented. The caast^line of ShatUung is dotted with bays, several of which are of great depth. €^ihH is traversed by long rivers, which descend in cascades and rapids from the mountains that surround it.

Shantung has long rivers only in the N.W., and they all run in lowlands. The 2 provinces, as we shall see further on, have many other distinctive characteristics.

Moreover, they are densely populated, and lack neither min* eral nor agricultural resources. ^o//i are important from an historical standpoint, ChihU possessing for several centuries the Capital of China, and ShoMhmg having given birth to €km^teiiUB (K'ung Futze ?L ik T- 5r>1.479. B.C.), and to his pHncipal follower, MmH^s (mnqize i ^ 372-289 B.C.).

66 SECTION 1. THE NORTHERN REeiON.

r. chihii mm

- 115,830 square miles. P^pulaUon. — 20,930,000 inhabitants, or 180 to the 'square mile.

It must however be remarked^ that as the greater part of the inhabitants live in the plain, the density is greater therein.

Name. — Chihii 'n ^ signifies ^'MtecOif ruied^, or ^^im- mediaMv o&eyintr*. It was formerly called BelrChlhU Jl^ g[|| or Nwrthem CMMi, in order to distinguish it from Kiangnan fL ^ (the present Kiangsu fL Jg^ and Nganhwei ^ |g[), which bore the name of Nan-CMMi li) ]|[ ^ or Southern ChihU.

II«an€Uurle«. — The Province of Chihii is bounded on the N. — By Mongolia, W. — By Shansi |lj H, S. — By Honan ftj Iff and Shantung |I| JK, E. — By the Gulf of Chihii |gf f| and Manchuria.

dapital*. — Two Capitals are to be distinguished in this Province : Thai of China, which is BBKJJfG jf^ }^, also called ttlmni^leii Fn Jig 5^ /ff, not far from the Western mountains, on a tributary of the Peh-ho ^ fpf .

That of the Ftovinee of ChihU, which is JPAOTING FT ^ ^ Jl^, also on a tributary of the Peh-ho and situated to the S.W. of Peking.

Otlier Prefeetures. — The§e are 9 in number : To the N; in the mouniainoue region proceeding from W. to E. :

r Stlenhwa Fu ft ft «p,

^' Ch'dngteh Fu fc ft MP> called also Jebol ( Jehho-eul Hif ft

warm river), 3« Yungp'ing Fu * T *. 1^ the 8. of Fektng, on the Peh-ho g ^ :

i** T^ientsin Fu ^ » ». To the W. of the TrofHnee, descending from N. to 8. :- &> Qo)deii Fa AT n «, O'CMMllMraJE^W,

CHAPTBR lY. GHIHLI. 67

7»ShnntehFu«ft«,

8" Kwangp'ing Pu H T *,

9r Taming Fu :A: « *. There are besides in Ghihli J^ ^, <? indei^endeni €Jhoum : nuHhwa Chaw jg^ it jVi, I Chaw |^ ^, Ki Chmv ^ j^, Chao Chaw }§ jf^, 8hen Chaw ^ ^, and Thtg Chaw £ ^.

Aspect and CliarafCierlsttcB. — T/ie traveller from Mon- goliSLj descending from the high plateaux abounding in pasture- lands, finds himself all at once in presence of mountains, -which descend rapidly to a large plain, irrigated by turbid rivers, and nearly all unfit for navigation. This plain, covered in Summer wii/i an abundant harvest, but also with thick mud, as soon as the rains set in, is swept in Winter by a cold blast, which covers it with a cloud of yellow dust. It is nevertheless inhabited, but by indigent families. The South^Western portion alone is remar- hable for its greater fertility and its richer vegetation. Consi- derable activity reigns throughout Chihli ||[ fj^, and is directed especially towards Tientsin Ji ff^ fff and Peking ^fc '^, the two great centres of the Province.

Geolosieal vanmtiUtUon, — The f^^reHt Eastern plftiu of Chihli is entirely composed of allavium, depositrd doubtless by the delta of the Yellow River (Hwang- ho) and by the Pch-ho. A small tract of yellow earth is found towards the W.. The mountainous region contains chiefly China limestone, and is travorsed in many places, as it abuts on the plain, with volcanic streaks of porphyry and granite. Then further on, are found granite, schist, and gneiss, partially buried l)eneath volcanic eruptions and yellow earth or loeaa. Generally speaking however, especially in the volcanic region of the N., the China limestone is prodominant, and is covered over with rich coal measures. The denndod layers arc conspicuous in the mountains which lie to the W. of Peking.

ihemt^emp^. — The piain rises gradually ^ith only a few undulations up to the mountains. These then soar abruptly, running in the direction N.E. — S.W., and constitute the pro- longation of the chains, which we have already noted on the N. of Shansi (il |f . They form towards the W. several parallel lines, which are called, as they proceed from the plain towards Mongolia : the Hmtg-shan |[ (Ij, Sfiaawutfinirshan ij> £i| ll]i Hw€mguang-ah4m %iHi\U^ and the Kulu-shtm ^ K |lj. This latter extends to the N.W. of Kalgan (^^D Changkia-k'ow), under the name of the Yinrshan ff^ |lj and the Wei-shtm If^ |lj

68

8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN REGION.

NORTHRRN GHIHLI

anil Approaches to Peking.

GHAPTBR IV. CHIHLI. 69

mountains. The Wei-shan has the highest peak in Ghihii ||[^: the JP0i%-elk'a jg ^, i^hich attains an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet. Towards the N.E. these mountains descend gradually, praoeeding from the Peh-shan to Jehol (Ch'^ngteh Fujfc^ftf). In this very hilly region, there are large valleys, which are used for agricultural purposes, when they are covered with loess or volcanic earth.

. — The climate of Chihli is excessively hot id Sammer, both on the moantains And in the plain. The Spring is dry; rain sets in only in July and August, and ialls principally in the plain. It is very cold in Winter, and the rivers ant froiseu over from the middle of November. When snow falls, it melts quickly in the plain. The inequality of the raiu-fall renders the harvests very precarious, and so tlie Provinoe verges often on scarcity and suifers even from famine. Moreover, the Summer rains make the roads impracticable, and the dry persistent westerly gales of Winter, raise thick clouds of dust (the famous Peking dust-storms, March to Jane) throughout the plsip.

y. — Chihli ||[f| is exceedingly well irrigated, and its rivers flow into the Gulf of the same name. The most important is the Beh'h^ ^ )!f, with its numerous tributaries. The others are : to the N., the JAoanF-ho ^ fjf; io the A, the JimM^-^ H S|, the Weirho y^ ff and the Chmng-f^ » fff. These latter streams traverse only the Southern extremity of the Province. The Wei-ho, as we have seen (see Honan pf j^ section I. ch. III. p. 59), is navigable there, but the Hwang-ho is not. The Chang-ho, which comes from Shansi |il ||f, and runs for a considerable distance beside the €frand Canai, into which it finally flows, is also unfit for navigation.

The Teh-ho g {if (white river). — The Peh-ho rises in tb^ Yin-shan |^ ^j mountains. After running parallel to the OrMt Wall, and descending suddenly between denuded mountains, it enters the plain to the N. of Peking 4t JlCi already swollen by several torrents. It becomes navigable however only at T^ung Chow j(^. Henceforth, it runs S.E. and assumes great impor- tance at T4enliin Ji^JH- From this city to the sea, it takes an Easterly dirbotion, and empties its waters into a muddy bay. The bar which exists at its mouth, has only about three feet of water on it at ebb-tide, which renders the passage very difficult.

It is al Tientsin Ji^fH, and on its right, that it receives

70 SBCTION 1. THB NORTHERN RBSION.

its principal tributaries : 1* the Sangkanrho ^ JK }9i called also Yt^ho ?a fl^f and Yungtlng-ho ^ ^ f^. 2« the JBTtH'o- *• ?)t i*6 fPfi which comes from Northern Shansi jlj If. The Sangkan-ho receives on its right the Ta&'ho JK 19) ^ tributary of which, the T^ingffuenrho ^ ^ ^, \s navigable as far as Paoting Fu fli J£ jff.

These two rivers have this in common, that rising in denuded mountains, and flowing down into the plain, they at times over- flow their banks and cover the country with an immense sheet of water. The region around Tientsin is especially exposed to these terrible inundations. Here also are found the principal lakes of the plain.

The lAiKmrho ^ fij, after having made an immense sweep to the N. of Dolon-Nor (city in the N. of Ghihii ii[9|. — Mongol, '*seven lakes''), traverses from N.W. to S.E. the whole moun- tainous region of North-Eastern Chihli ||[ §|, then passes to the S. of Jehol (Ch'^ngteh Fu ^ |g /j^), and flows into the Gulf of Ghihii, a little beyond Yungp4ng Fu ^ 2p j|(.

No large river flows through Peking if^ 7|r, but only two streams of little importance.

\ and Flora. — The fauna aud tiora of Chihli, are those of the Northern

lU^ioii, intersperHcd as one advances towards Mongolia with the characteri»tiu« peculiar to those high tahle-lands. [see Book II. Mongolia : fauna aud flora).

Agriciiltiiral Wealili. — The agricultural wealth of Chihli consists in corn, barley, buck-wheat, millet, sesamum^ beans and peas. Fruit grows plentifully in the S.W., especially grapes. — Horses, donkeys, mules, oxen and the Mongolian camel are found extensively throughout the country. In the mountainous region, cows, sheep and goats are reared, and largely supply the Chihli j|[ ^ markets with food.

Fish is very scarce in the rivers and ponds of Chihli ; a few kinds however are caught in some of the lakes.

Mlneiml Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Chihli consists mainly of coalmines, which are found principally to the W. of Peking, and at K^aip^ing |g^, near the railway, which runs from T'ientsin ^^Hf to Manchuria. Kaolin and sand-stone are also

CHAPTBR IV. GHIHLI. 71

found, as well as a great quantity of stone for building purposes.

F^pulaUon. — The population is very deuse throughout tlie whole plain, and principally towards the 8. W. — In the mountainous region it is centred in the most fertile valleys.

The inhabitants of C'hihli are hardier, more robust and braver than those of the Southern Provinces. This is due to the predominance of Tartar blood iu their veins, the stimulating and cool climate, and their dry-grain diet : wheat, millet and sorghum.

At Peking, more than elsewhere, a large admixture of several races is found : Chinese from the 18 Provinces, MotigoU and Manchus. Constant intercourse is main- tained with Mongolia, but much less with Sinkiang and Tibet.

ClttM and PHnclpal Centres.— flBKXyo ;jt}j(, the Ca- pital of China, is built on the Tunghwui-ho, atributary of the Peh-ho l^jif . It received the name of Peking (Northern Capital), to distin- guish it from Nanking ^ ;^ (Southern Capital), under the Ming ^ dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644). Peking was originally founded by the Leao jJK dynasty A.D. 920, and then called Yenking ^ -fiC. The Kin Tartars or Colden Horde, conquered the House of Leao, and occupied the site of Peking from A. D. 1115 to 1234. The Kin Emperors were in turn ousted by the Mongols, who made it their capital under the name o( ShuniHen JBU 1^^^ (city obedient to heaven). Its Mongol appellation, according to Marco Polo, was Kambalu (city of the Khan). In 1341, the Mongols were driven out by the native Ming ^ dynasty. These established their first Capital at Nanking, but owing to renewed Tartar in- cursions, Tungioh ^ HI (1 403-1425), the 3^^ Emperor of the Ming dynasty, removed in 1416 to Peking, which has remained the na- tional Capital ever since, about 500 years, without interruption.

The actual city has a population varying from 600,000 to 800,000 inhabitants. It stands upon a flat plain, and is composed of 2 parts, both forming a rectangle, and communicating with each other : the Tartar CUp on the N. and the Chinese CUif to the 8.

The TarUjar CU^, called also the Interkn' CUlf (^ ^ Nei ch'dng), comprises the Imperial Bredntim (^ J^ Hwang ch*^ng) and the Bed JPoHMden CU^ (IU ^ ^ Tzekin ch*6ng). It has also numerous temples, courts and parks. The rjeaation9 are in the S.E. of the Tartar City.

72

8ICTI0N I. TUB NOanWUM MMiON.

PLAN OF PEKING

. :« « ^ H

A. HWANG CH'ENG ^ Jg(.

Im^iial Cily (within the Tartar CityX

B. NEI CH'£:NG 9% M-

Northern or Tartar City,

rv

C. WAI CH*feNG ^ M-

Southern or Chinese City.

CHArnWIV. CMIBLI.

73

INDEX

TO PLAN OF PEKING.

1. — Nganiing mht ^^ Jg I").

Peaceful Gate.

2. — Tehshengmht H H ffl.

Gate of Victory.

3. — Prefecture cf Shunt' ten Fu^^Jim^

4. — Sichih ffUn JS ([ fl.

Direct West Gate.

Western Church (H.C.X

6. — Tmgchih^m^n ^j ([ H-

Uifect Kaal V*te.

7. — ri#f^a« m^n Hi 56 H-

Gate of Temaitrial l*eac<f.

8. — Feuch'ing mhi JJJR H-

Gate of Abundant Wealth.

9. -- Singan tpUn B $ fl-

Gate of We»tem Peace (It^rior gale leading to the Imperial CKyX n^ _ Sin^itHentsU'l'ang if(^X±M New Pdt'ang (R. C. Cathedral).

ir. — /V'/-A<ii * J>. Northern I«ake.

12. — Chung-hai ^M-

Central Lake.

13. — Chi$qyangminiiliW^ fl.

Gate of the Riilig^ Bun.

14. ~ Tat\'ing min^^\^.

Gate of Great Purity (reigning title of the preaent Manchu dynasty).

I5v ~ Chingyang mht i li H- . Meridian or Noonday Gate.

16. — Railway station to Hank'ow*

17. — Railway station to T^ientsin,

18. — Foreign Legations,

19. — Sipien m^n B *[ fl-

West-privy Gate.

20 — Changi min |^ B Pi- Gate of Pompous Ccremon\-.

2£. — SUenwu mSn 1[ Jft R.

. Gate of Military Renown.

- Ch^ungivfn fnin ^ * H- Gate of Hublime Uterature.

- Tungpien min % B PI-

Kast-privy Gate.

- kwangk'ii mht B til Pi- Gate of the Large Canal.

— Siennung't'an A K Jf. Temple oi Agriculture.

- T^tem^n % JB.

TempJPff Heaven.

^ KllfWl«« fnM ^ * Pi- Gale of Peace (on the rightX

— Yungting min ^^r\, GatI' of Perpetual SUbility.

— Tsongan mM ;£ £ H- Gate of Peace (on the leflX

— Railway to Tientsin.

H 8BCTIOH I. THto NORTHBRN R&eiOH.

The CMne&e Ciiif contains 2 parks in which are the TempieB c/ Hea^fen and of Aarieuliure. It is the great centre of industry and commerce.

Both cities cover an area of 40 square miles, but there are many empty spaces. Two streams run through them, but are scarcely sufficient to supply the great city with water. Thick walls surround the Capital, and are so broad at the top, that one could drive several waggons on them side by side.

The roads of the Chinese City are constantly crossed by caravans of camels, mules and asses, transporting wool, tea and coal. ~

Peking is not only the residence of the Btnperor and his Court, but also the seat of the Orana ComnoU^ the Grand Seereimriai, the various BoardB, and the Gmri of Ommf. The city has its special administration, distinct from that of Chihli llfl, and at the head of which is a Maifor or Qovenmr called Kimiffu 3j[ JH (Imperial Prefect) or JPW-trin J^ ^ (Metropoli- tan Gk)vernor).

The Port cf Bek4$kg is at a short distance to the E. and is called Tfung Chaw JH W- It is situated on the Peh-ho. Rail- ways bring the capital into easy communication with Hank*ow ^P, the great central mart of China, and with Europe, through Manchuria. Tientsin connects it^lso with Japan, Shanghai, Canton, and the other important places on the coast.

The Summer Baiaee of the Emperor is to the N. W. of the Tartar City, and is called the TuenmimthTmen H 91 H (round bright garden). The Emperor has also his private hun- ting-grounds to the 8. of the Chinese City. They are called the Vofi-rtcm Hi is (Southern Park) or NmUkaU^e f|jK ?.

Several reasons determined the Emperors of China to select this place, in preference to any other that seemed more central, such as Nanking ^ ]K or Singan Fix ^ ^ )ff. In the eyes of (he Mongol or Manchurian Emperors, it has been chosen, beoause of its proximity to their native country; in regard to the Chinese limpcrors, because of the greater facility it afforded to control both countries. Moreover, it is central with respect to the 18

CHAPtBR IV. CHIItLI. Ih

Provinces, to Mongolia and Manchuria, the most important parts of the Empire.

JPAOTINO ru^iEftf — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. Provincial Capital of Chihli, and official residence of the Viceroy. As a city, it is unimportant and devoid of activity, but the Pe- king-Hankow railway will undoubtedly arouse it from its torpor. A university was erected there in 1901.

IHatiMn Fk*^ fit )ff. — Population, 750,000 inhabitants.

_TlifintsuL.j£..tbe most important commercial and industrial

city of the whole N.. It is situated at the junction of the Peh-

ho 1^ jif with the Grand Canal, a little below the place where its principal tributaries enter the Peh-ho. Besides, the railway brings it into constant communication with Peking ^ "^ and Manchuria. England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Russia and Japan, have Settlements there. The Peh-ho attains there a width of 300 yards, while a wharf, nearly two miles long, aflords steamers and junks every facility for coming alongside. Commerce in skins, bristles, furs, ropes and camel-hair fabrics is very important. T^ientsin exports also a vast quantity of wool and coal, while the market of rice and stuffs is very extensive. The city has vast stores of cereals, and an abundant supply of salt, of which it holds the monopoly. — The Viceroy, although not re- siding officially in the city,has his Yam^n ^f^ there, and close by it, is an important arsenal. — As to industry, cotton mills deserve special mention. Since the Boxer Insurrection, in 1900, the aspect of the city has completely changed. Wide roads have been opened, the city-wall has been pulled down, the course of the river straightened out, electric lighting and tramways introduced, and a system of pure drinking-water established, so that the city of late shows all the signs of active development and progress.

To ihe 8. W. of BanMng I'V* ^ ^ /(Sp, on the road leading from Ch^ngting Fu jE £ j|( to Shansi |lj |f :

HwokMk JMen 9|jKIK* — ^ market-place of great impor- tance from a commercial and industrial point of view. It is the trading centre between Shansi and Chihli. Excellent stoneware is manufactdred^ere, and the article is in great demand.

76

8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBGIOM.

SKETCH-MAP OF T'lENTSIN

Ji m )ff

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 77

TiUheN. JB.€f Tungp^ing J^ ^ ^ ^ :

UlUMilaU-kwan lU Ik H (mountain and sea-barrier).

Population, 30,000 inhabitants. It stands at a distance of two and a half miles from the sea, and is situated near a famous pass, which gives it importance. A military station is established there.

Fehiai'^ko. — A celebrated watering-place, some 22 miles S. W. of Shanhai-kwan, and 9 miles from the portof TsMnwangtao.

^ the MminkHno%i9 region^ to the W. :

aSealiwm Vm 'MltJff- — Situated in a region covered with loesfi, and owing its prosperity to its being in the centre of a number of large valleys. Cereals, vegetables and fruit thrive well in the whole region, and supply largely the Peking markets.

Kalgftn or ChangMa-kfaw ^ ^ 0, with a population of 30,000. It is one of the most important commercial centres in Ohioa, and the great emporium of the tea trade with Siberia and Russia, during the Winter season. JJearly half a million camels are employed in this transport.

DolMt-lVor (Tohinnoheul ^ H ^ IK • — Mongol, ''seven lakes'*).

At a short distance from Shangtu J: ^^ the ancient Summer Capital of the Mongol Sovereigns, but now in ruins. DoYon-Nor has a population of 15,000 half-Mongol inhabitants, and is rather an encampment than a city. It is the great market for horses brought in from Eastern Mongolia. A few miles from the town are Lama monasteries, which have given to the place the name of Lama-miao (IN PK M Lama temples).

Tg the NgrthrJOoBi. :

JTeli^l ^ ^ ^ (Jehho-eul, warm river).

Formerly the cherished country-seat of the Chinese Em- perors. The park is surrounded by a battlemented wall, which has a circuit of 15 miles, while the palace and its appurtenances occupy a vast space. A great number of monasteries are built in the environs. The city, although abandoned by the Court, possesses still many officials and a strong muster of troops.

78 8BGTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBftlON.

The Prefecture of Jehol, called in Chinese 7j( H JH^ (Oh^eng- teh Fu), is governed, not by a civil officer, but by a Military Lieutenant-Gk)vernor or Tu-T'ung ^ |(.

IndoBiry wnd Cenmieree. — Besides the industries already mentioned, several others may be quoted, though none attain any great importance. The principal are distilleries, dyeing works and cotton manufacturing.

A very brisk commerce is carried on with Mongolia, Man- churia and Japan, the entrepot of which is Tientsin Ji ff/L )lf.

The chief faiiiwrf articles are : fabrics, tea, rice, fruit, opium, skins, furs, timber, coal and iron.

The eaoparts are : skins, bristles, ropes, camel-hair carpets and wool.

Kigiiways of e^aiBiinloatloB. — Besides the rwriiwa^^ the Grand Canai (see for both : Section V. ch. VI. Highways of communication), the Peh^ho g fjf and some of its tributaries, the principal ways of communication are :

!<" The road from FeMng 4k M ^ Shanhai kmm% |1| Hi Hi passing by T*ung Chow f| ^ (at the E. of Peking), and Yung- p*ing Pu ;^ 2p ;ft:.

2^ l%e rmulfrmn F^Mm^ to XMon-JITor, passing by Fungning hsien ^%^^9SieT\i9L\\ii% crossed the Kupei-k^ow iffjbn pass.

3^ The road from FeMng to KaXgan, (proceeding thence to Urga), passing by Suenhwa Fu Sffcjj^tand crossing the Ohang- kia-k'ow S )|t D or Kalgan pass.

4^' The road fronk FeMng to Z'«4yAm A* :1c jR jNFt in Shansi lU S, and thence to Singan Fu f| $ J|p (Shensi m |f ), passing by Paoting Fu fit ^ ^jj^, and Ch^ngting Fu JE j^ JNf.

5*" The road from F^Mn^ to Totmm l'^ H ^ JHf (in Shan- tung ilj %), passing by Hokien Fu JJ B| ;ft=.

Open P#rte. — Two ports are open to Foreign trade in the Province of Chihli H ^ : — T^imtohi ^ H jj^ and TUfimr wamg-tao |^ £ A« depending on Yungp'ing Fu ^ flt JJ^f. — There is besides a custom-house at Tak^ ^ jjff , and Tmmtikm ]|[ ^, near the estuary of the Peh-ho g ^, on the hi^way to T'ientsin 55 H ^flf.

CHAPm IV. SHAMTtma. 79

a*. Shantung ili M

AreiU — 55,984 squnre miles.

P#|NiHUtoB. — 38,247,900 inhabitants, or 683 per square mile.

This province has the densest population of China, and as to the number of its inhabitants, it comes immediately after Szechw^an 0] j||.

Mame. — Shantung |Ij jK means ^Av## of the Maunitrtn^^

and, in fact, a great part of the Province lies to the E. of the T^ai-shan |g (Ij, the famous mountain frequented by so many pilgrims.

B««M4arlMU — Shantung is bounded on the

N. — By the strait of Chihli jt 9|, the Gulf and

Province of Chihli, W. — By Chihli |t 91 and Honan ^ |f;, S. — By Honan ^ Hf, Kiangsu fl; j|| and the

Yellow Sea, E. — By the Yellow Sea H ji|.

€)m;i^UM.—TaiirAir ru ^ l/H Jff, which stands at a short distance from the right bank of the Hwang-ho J|Jf, and to the N. W. of the T^ai-shan |f| |Ij mountain.

OiiMr Piefeetnes. — l^e^ mte mIim^ as follows : T»ihtS.W.z

V Ts'aochow Fn W ^ ff • AUmg IM CfWMf Gomol or near it, proceeding from N. to S. :

d^Tmigcli'aiig Fn JR A Mf*

»>Te]ichowFn«^)f|f,

^ Ichow Pn » « *. Toik^V.^ 9oUHf firmn W.to A:

Sr Wuting Fn ft % tt,

6»TB'ingchowFnWM»>

S^Tdngchow Fa C W Mr. To the A of TMrnrn^ A*.-

9" T'aingan Fa « 5K /ff-

80

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

There are also in Shantung S independent Chow eiUes / TMming Chaw K t| M. JAnt^ing Chow 1^ ^ j^, and Kiao

ch0w m «

Aspect wnd Oliaimctorisitc0« — Shantung is made up of i* a mountainous region, w/iic/i lies to the E. of the Hv;ang'ho Jl fif, ^nd of the Grand Canal; 2^ of a level region situated to the W,. It is of all the Provinces, except Kwangtung j|| J|[, the one that has the greatest length of coaKt^line. Its coasts are prO" foundly indented and abound in deep hays and excellent harbours. To the W., its great plain differs but little in aspect from that of Chihli j|[ jj, wrhile to the E,, numerovis rivers rise in all its mountains and hills. ToxK^ards the E., the Province is rich ih coal and metals; to the W., cereals and fruit abound. It enjoys moreover a very mild climate, because of its proximity to the fiea. The Grand Canal has hitherto afforded it an easy outlet for ?r«? products, but ere long, its railways will still further* increase ?7« wealth. The historical memory of Confucius (K'ung Futze ^ ^ ^) imparts to it also a certain celebrity, as well as the pre^ sence of the T'ai-'Shan ifj^ i|j, one of China's five sacred mountains.

Cle#lo^<*Al c—atitttti— . — Slia;itung wu formerly «n island cat off from the coiitineni by Aii arm of the Yellow S«a, but in, the coune of time bcwmme linked witli the mainland through allnvial depoftilR. This name alluvium mingled with Iopum, predomiuateA in the \V.. Ifi the centre, a large portion of the aoil is composed of gneifw, mixed with limestone and jblay. In the R., gneiss is also found, but mingled to % grNii- i r extent with granite, sand-stone and limestone, while to the N. especially, it is veined with basalt and porphyry.

Or^simplur. — Adjacent to the Mwang-ho j| flf and the Grand Canalf a vaM piain extends to the N. and to. the S. of

these 2 rivers.

In the centre is an important nkoumtain mmm formed hy several chains, whence issue in all directions a great number or rivers. The principal peak is the T^airohan f^ |1|, wbich attains an altitude of 5,060 feet.

To the Baet of Kiao Chow J§ ^ Bait is another mass, for- med by several chains, running N.E. to S. W. and of which the highest, called the Lao-shun ^ ilj, rises to 3,700 feet. A Ihinl chain exists to the S. E. of Chefoo ^ ^. It is a spur of the K^nrntmiLM Ilk |lj rnnire. and is only ?,9i0 feet in height.

i-t«».gyi«a

CHAPTBR IV. SHANTDNA.

81

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SHANTUNG |Il y^ according to Richthofen.

8? SECTION I. THE NORTHEHN HBGION.

Clim.'iti*.— The climaU-, iiiiMi r in tin- S. is in ^fncval \. i v Inalthy. The N.W. i.j<.n«Mni i kt I nlv ft !t -in th<' Xin'tlx-m r^r.^'st, and tin- S. K. nioniM.'Ui (r.\ \.\n Smitln'm coa^t Tlu' rftiny t?. nf-.'H ( lmv-i. ? c > ii^ July and August, and llic- snow wl-icli rnll: in al)iindanr<- during- Winter, di^^aitpiar-. v-ry M"i<'kly. In JulyJotrH art- fnqiii-nt iiimn lln^ (Mil t :. At Clu-foo thii( i.- ana .-a;.-, rainfftll .>f 21,1 inohcs, and ir»,n ii-rl,. - nl Tx'iir^'tact. In Winti-r. tli'- rnrks f.n t'n- Nin'tln rn K('afoa'5t aiv at tiiiu s rovfrod will' Uo. Tliis aris«<< froMi ilir> wa- «<5 )r«nk:iv_' on ti.. -ili'^rr.ni d tin- icr mflv la«t fr.v «;i v« ml wi i k-.

Hydrofn^pliy* — To the W. arc long rivers confined lo the plain and running through the lowlands. The principal ono is th«^ n^iHinif'ho |5[ }fij, which runs from S.W. to N.E., and crosses the Oraml Onial (its hod is then 16 feet above the level of the C-anal). The Hwang-ho being far higher than the neigh- bouring country, is maintained within its bed by embankments. Thes«* sometimes irive way and thus cause dreadful inunda- tions. It is navigable only during the last '25 miles of its course. (see J^ection T. Ch. I. p. 27V — Several other streams are also navigable, especially the T'nFutir-ho ^ i|^ fpfi which runs to the N. in n panilh^l direction with the Hwang-ho fl fjir. Tsinan ^''" ?!f I& )fiF j'^ connect(»d with the sea by a naviffafde c^tfiai, which in the last ]»Mrt of its course, follows the bed of the SiiioU^i'mf^ho /\\ ^f JmJ. — Nearly all the rivers, which run through the mountainous part, bear the aspect of torrents, and none of them have any r<al importance.

In the S.f '2 large rivers How into the Qntntl ikitiai : the t-ho ffl^ JnT «'in(l the Tfitrrtt-fio :fc St fpj-

At the West^Tfi nctreuiity, but terminating at the Grand ('anal, is the Wvi-ho ^j }pj. navigable throughout the grcat«-r part of its course, as we have stated when describing Honan JpJ "j^.

The iiranfl Cutkul or Yvu-ho iy^ |p[ transport river), traverse's ilir whole Wf»sl'rn and >(>iith-Weslern part, and runs through S4'vrral lakes. Its higlnsl point is at its junction with the Tawen- *^<' 'M vi W \'^*"'' ^^ectiuii \'. Ch. VT. Means of Oommunication).

The Province has several iakes, the most celebrated of which are : the TsiiiL'--shui fjlf 7}^ lake, to the N. of TsMngchow Fu J|^ ^ }(f : -_ the l>eli-meh Y\ 5* i?*!^*'. to the N. W. of Kjjio Chow J5 ^ iK.y; -- the ChaoyauLi- ||,^^ |C| and Wei-shan ^ [I] lakirs, alon£r the irrand ('anal, as il leaves Shantung \\\ ]i(.

GHAPTBR IV. SHANTUNG. 83

Fauiia andFIOni.— The faunaand flora are those of the Northern Region. Shan- tnng abonndfl also in wild boars, wolves, foxes, badrrers, partridp^es, qnails and snipe.

The principal trees met with are : the pine, oak and poplar: willows and the cypress-tree are also ver>' plentiful.

Agricaltniml Prodneto.— These are abundant in the great Western Plain, and consist principally of millet, corn, barley, sorghum, maize, peas, cotton, hemp and the opium poppy. Rice grows only in the extreme 8.

Numerous fruit-trees give a plentiful crop of pears, apples, peaches, apricots, plums, grapes and jujubes.

Shantung [Ij ^ furnishes also a vast quantity of silk, both common and wild, (the woven stuff is called pongee), the latter being produced by a silkworm that feeds on oak-leaves.

The country possesses besides, good strong mules as well as horses, oxen and goats in great number. The camel is found only in the Western part.

Various kinds of good fish are caught on the coasts and rivers, such as the sole, cod and mackerel... also crabs, shrimps, oysters and mussels.

Mineral Wealtli. — The principal mineral wealth of the Province is found in the centre. Coalfields exist in 3 places : at Wei hsien mH, Pushan hsien JS llj jR, to the S. W. of Ts'ing- chow Fu ^ ^ /l^, and at Ichow Fu fjf ^ |flf. — Iron, copjier, argentiferous lead-ore, gold, diamonds, gypsum, clay and sand- stone are found, as well as building stone in great abundance.

Populatioii. — The poi»iilation is very crowded in the plain, but much less in the mountain districts, <'xcept near the larj^e centres.

The people of Shantung an; a vigorons and sturdy race but rather pii;<iiariona. In the nt'ighbourhood of TAngchow Fu are found some 200,000 imniigrantR from Hu- p«'h, who arc much more militant and less religious than tin- natives of the rrovinc*-. They entered the country, and settbd down there about the middle of tho XIV*'- cen- tnr>' A. D.

Lan^oa^e. — Then- is nothing deserving any particular mention. Mandarin in spoken, but with the rudo accent, of the North.

CltlM and PrtncliMtl Centres. — T8INAN rv p jf; ;|^, 4 miles to the South of the Hwang-ho.

Population, 100,000 inhabitants. The Governor of Shantung llj ^ resides there. The walls enclpse a very large space,

8^ SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RBftlON.

Tsinan Fu was formerly famous for its silks and its imitation precious stones. Nowadays it is the j^reat commercial q^nt^^ ^ all Western Shantungs ji vast trading, jaaarjt. but not a manufac- turing centre. The city owes much to its late Governors. At the present day it has a university, a military school and a well- organized police force. A highway connects it with the Hwang- ho )| jif, which flows at a distance of nearly 4 miles to the N.

AUmg ihe Ormnd CkMnai :

lAnUHng Chaw J^^ f\/{.— Population, 48,000 inhabitants. Formerly a very considerable town on account of its trade and its extensive warehouses, but it has much declined since it was taken by the T^aip'ings ^ ^ in 1855. T^^'^^nufftfit^'^^ ^^ bricks however gives it even nowadays some importance.

IMnhHf Chaw ^^f^.— Population, 150,000 inhabitants. One of the most populous cities of Shantung il] ^ formerly a large trading centre^ now an industrial city, where copper, iron and bamboo articles are manufactured. The town exports a vast quantity of salt provisions.

2^ the Narth:

l^ingchaw FuH ^flf. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. A town destitute of industry and commerce, but to which the coal-mines in its vicinity and the passage of the railway impart some activity. Not far from it is B^hskan hMm^ -|f ilj j||, which supplies excellent coal, and manufactures pottery, glass, oil and bricks.

CheU'U^un j^ Ijff;, depending on Gh^angshan hsien £ |1| JKi is a great distributing centre whence the silk manufactured in the Province is exported.

IjmUihmv Fu % fl{)^. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. A town deriving importance from its position. It is famous for its marble quarries and its soapstone.

TSngettaw I^9)'^)(f.— Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It occupies a fine position on the coast, and was formerly a great commercial city.

C9uifbo S ^ or Yentai j@ S- — Population, 82,000 ia-

CHAPTSR IV. SHANTUNft.

85

habitants. An important comflxcrcial port open to foreign iracter

WeShoflwei JlJc M( IK- — ^n excellentjnrhflnr ^"^ fl*M4H^^flg1', leased to Great Britain in 1899, and now used as a large supply station and sanatorium. The town is governed by Chinese officials under the direction of a British Commissioner.

Baif* Leased to Germany in 1898 for 99 years, and vigorously developed into a great trading and promising port. It is 3^ ^f Shanghai.

PORT OP T8*INGTA0 T^f ft.

Wei JMen |K IK* ~ Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A laigejown situated near the great commercial highway of that

86 SfiCTIOK I. THB NORtHBHN RBOIOK.

region and monopolizing all business. The new railway passes close by, and affords easy transport for the coal which lies in abundance to the S.E. of the city. It is a great mart for goods, such as cotton, tobacco and coal. Wei hsien is the great com- mcrcial centre in Shantung for the sale of straw-braid.

Indastry wnd Oommeree. — A certain number of cities arc engaged in industrial pursuits. We have already mentioned several. At Pohshan hsien 1^ lU JK^in the prefecture of Ts*ing- chow Fu ^ ^ ^, clay is utilized in making pottery renowned throughout all Northern China. Close to this, a special kind of sand-stone is employed in the manufacture of enamel cloi- sonne. In other places, stone and marble quarries abound, while gypsum, and asbestos are also extracted.

Commerce is principally carried on through the treaty-ports • and the Grand Canal, T'ientsin ^ j^ and Shanghai J: ^ being the great distributing centres. The chief exparia are : fruit, pottery, bricks, beancake (used for manure) and straw-braid. The itnpartB consist of fabrics, rice and petroleum.

HlgliwajB of OoniBiaiilcatloii. — We have spoken of the navigable waferways. Further on we shall study the coasts (see Section IV. The Coasts ; and Sect. V. ch. VI. Means of Communication.) A raUway links Ts'ingtao ^ i% with Tsinan Pu P ^ Wi via Wei hsien ]^||, and will soon extend to T*ien tsin Pu 55 ^ ^ (see the same ch. VI, as above). Moreover, several roads connect Shantung [Ij ^ with the other Provinces.

1*» Theroaafrem FtMing it -ff, to IMmm JPk$, passing by Teh Chow H ^. This forks off at Tsinan Pu into two roads : one continuing Southwards by T'aingan Fu ^ ^ ;)|i and Ichow Fu W W )ff towards Kiangsu fLjS^; the other, leading to the B. by Laichow Fu ^ ^ /j^, TAngchow Fu » ^ ;flp and Ohefoo -^ ^. From this latter road a branch runs to Wei hsien J|| JK and Ts'ingtao ^ ft.

2*" A road almost paraUel to the Grand Canai starts from Teh Chow Uf W, in the N., passes by Yenchow Fu ?^ j^ J^^ and goes on to North Kiangsu by Siichow Fu :^ ^ J||^.

CHAPTBA IV. SHANTUNG. 87

Open Porto. — Four ports arc open to Foreigri trade : C'/5w?/bo -g^ (in the prefectun^ of Tcngchow Fu ^ ^ fl^), TMfmn ^* 9t^ )ff^ ^^ hMen JH fl (in the prefecture of Laichow Fu M W /fiP)» ^"^ Cheu-U^un ^ ;f;^ (in the prefecture of Tsinan Fu W S /ff)' Two ports are leased : one to Great Britain, namely Weihaiwei J^ ^ $^, which depends on Tengchow Fu S jHI /^ ; the other to Germany, namely Tei^in^tao |J ]^. near Kiao Chow Of ji\. This latter has a custom-house.

Notes. — 1". The T^ai'-Bluin ^ ^ mountain is situated 5 miles to the N. of T'ciingan Fu ^ ^ ^. It was a famous pilgrim resort twenty centuries before Ihe Christian era, and as tradition records, the ancient monarch Shun ^ (one of the (irst Emperors of China, who reigned \\. C. 2,255 to 2,205), is said to have sacrificed there. At Iho present tlay, each sect has erected temples and monasteries on ils peaks, and thousands of pilgrims throng to them in the Spring season.

2^ The Sub-prefecture or district city of KHifeu hsien |t|| {^.% (Ycnchow Fu '^ ^ ^) is the ])irth ])lace of Omfn^diis (Kung Futze :JL ^ "?)• ^^^' ^v^s '^^^'"^ there 551 H.C. (2^^ year of the reign of the Emperor Ling-wang fj 3^, of Ihc Cheu-dynasly), and died in 479. lie travelled much, olTering his services to several princes, but with scant success. His leaching may l>e summed uj) in a few ethical principles, and some maxims on state-government, gleaned from the sages of anti<iuity.

References

Madrollo. — Chine Jii Nonl. I'm is, r.'-tl

(p. 4 to 27) liCbOiicq. —Vie ilv: Mj^rDiilKir. Paris, 1^7'.!

(ch. 3, 1, 5). ^,„-«— Rig:r Favicr. — ro-kinj^. Ilistuii* cl dib

cription. Lille, 11KK». Iieit>y. — Ku ('hint- : au Tchc-li S. Vj

LiUo, liHH).

PliOVryCK nV CIIIHLI.

^\m\ Lere <l-. l.ilJiu.rrc. Seivicv. ;.e<vr.q»lji <in.' i\v \[\.y\\\(:k. N')!ic.- .1- c.!|>i.i\« «. I statistiqu" (111 Tell. li. Paris, II»<h». Miuislcrc tic la CiiuiTc C-arU- clu tluatn-. ties I'pcrati'jii. r)i ChiiR-. V Lc P«.i IcIk.- 11. — i® Li'S iHviroiiK dt' I'o-kin;:. Miiiisloiv ill- la (Jiu'rro. Plan i\y Peking'.

8ECTION I. MS NORTBIRN RMION.

Garrem. - Carte du Tohe-U S. E. Fwis,

1890. BichtlMrfeii.— Letters. Shmugbw, ltt73-

(p. 77-96. ChihUi MongolU aud Shaiisi)

- BreMclneMer. - Peking and m envir-

one. Shanghai, 1876. De Rocl»clMMi«rt. - P6-kiu. PaHs, 187^ Jamelel. — P6-kin. Paris, 1887. Boarne. - Notes of a Joamey to th© Im

pcrial Mausolea, East of Pekiug. {Pro oeed. of the Geog. Soo. 1888).

- IteIaitK5lie-Veriiet.-LePei-boetTmi^

tsin. (Boole des soienoes politiqutJB, imfh Franke. — Beschrelbung des JeholKebie-

tes in der Provinz ChihU. Leipzig, 1902 Momler. — L'Bmpire du Milieu. Paris,

1899. ^ Revue Fran^se d'exploration. D6c. ml :

Tientsin sous radministration Eorot»^nne China Field-force Survey. — China. Cfaihl^

Province. WlUiani- — The Middle Kingdom. (Vcl

I. p. 53-72). Gvtwier. — General- Desoriptioo of Cbiua

London, 1795. (Vol. I. ChihU. p, i-Ml WintgriwrttM^"* "" Historical and Oeo-

graphical View of the Chinese Efaff^lte.

London, 1795. (Chihli. p. 87-52).

Marray.— Historical and descriptive »o^'

count of China. Edinburgh, 1848. (Vol.

III. Chihli. p. 18).

Da Halde. — Description of the fknpire

of China. London. 1788 (V<d. I. ChihU.

p. 66-72). - '

GatalAir. — China opened. London, 183b.

(Vol. I. ChihU. p. 58-71). Davto Sir J. F. — The Chinese. Londoii;

1844. (Vol. IL Ch. XI. p. 71-94). Utile A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

(Chihli. p. 88-39.) P»rker E. H. — Uevenue of ChihU (N.

C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895-96. p. 107-110). B^ffiMfli J. >- The bituminous coal-mines'^ of Peking (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1867. art. 12. p. 248-250). BMUendbrtf O. F. Von.— The VertebraU of the Province of ChihU (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1876. art. 2. p. 41-112). WIUIaimMMi A.^ Notes of a journey from Peking to Chefoo, vi& the Grand Canal. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1866. art. I. p. 1-26). Hedley J. — A trip into the ChihU Pro- vince. (Geog. Journal. 1906. p. 618-525).

PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG.

Fao^el.— Description du Chan-toung (Re- vue Fran9ai8e d*ezploration. 1898. p. 236 sq.). Faa^rel. — Description de Kiao-tcheou.

(ibid. p. 218-221). pila. — Une Province ohinoise en pro- gtha: le Chan-toung. (BuUetin du Comity de r Asie Fraufaise. Juillet et AoOlt 1904). ' Anmtronff .— Shantung. Shanghai, 1891. Fam^l.— La Province chinoise du Chan- toung. BruxeUes, 1892. Betaie ami Krieser. — FUhrer durch

Tsing-tau und Umgebung. 1904.

Pieper. — Unkraut, Knospen und Blikten

aus dem "Blumigen Reiche der Mitte'*.

Stey 1,1900. (Flora and fauna of Shantung).

Von RicMliofen. — Schantung und seine

Eingangspforte Kiautschou. 1898.

Goederts. — Reisen in Schantung. 1896.

Faarel. — Carte du Chan-toung.

HaflBeoslelii.— Karte der Provinz Schan- tung. 1898.

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. — I. — SUtistical Series : N** 6. Decennial re- ports, 1892-1901. — Shanghai, 1904. (I. p. 46, Chefoo. — p. 87, Kiaochow).

Wllliaoia. ^The Middle Kingdom. (Vol. I. p. 78-78).

Groaler. — General description of China. (Vol. I. Shantung, p. 78-83).

WlnleiiiattMuii. — View of the Chinese Empire. (Shantung, p. 89-98).

Marmy's China. (Vol. III. Shantung.

p. 20-21). Da Halde. — Description of the Empire of China. (Vol. I. Shantung, p. 104-106).

CHAPnR IV. SHANTUNG.

80

; — Ohina opened. (Vol. I. Shan- tiing. p. 90-95).

Ultte A. — The Far East. Oxford. 1905.

(Shantang. p. 44-48. --Tsingtao. ibid. p.

48-52). flarker K. ■. — Bevenne of Shantung.

(N. C. B. B. A. Soo. 1895-96. p. 182-84). WilllainllB A. — Notes on the prodno-

tions, ohiefly mineral, of Shantnng. (N.

C. B. R. A. Soc. 1867. art 8. p. 04-73).

I J. — Notes on the Shantang

Province. (N. 0. B. R. A. Soc. p. 1-80).

needier ■. M.^ Notes on the mineral re- sources of Kastem Shantung. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1887. p. 22-28).

TeclMpe A.— Der T*ai-sohan. Tentschou- fu,l906.

Am W. — Eine Winterreise durch Sohan- tung and das u^rdliche Kiangsu. (Peters mann's Mitteilungen. 1901. Vol. 50. p. 181-140).

SKcrnoN II. THE CENTIfAL IJECilON.

CHAPTER I.

VALT.KYS OK TMK YAN(;TZK % if- tL AND OK THE IIWAI-HO fft fiif.

</liaracterlsll<M of tloAn Roslon. — We now pnler upon I ho inoi^t important region of China, the richest, the most popul- onsj the largest and the most favoured by the facility of its com- munications.

1 . The valley of tlie Hivai-ho ff| jpj fias but a very secondary importarice, as this river irricfates only the North of Nganhvcei, after having crossed the Honan }nf ~^ Proviiice, w/iic/i we hatye already studied. But as it forms a x])ecial system, and traverses an intermediate rogioity situaieil bet\KH'en that of the North and that of the Centre, it is preferable perhaps to describe it here. We shall study this river particularly u*/icn treating of Nganhv^ei 4jf JK and Northern Kiangsu fji H (See : Ch. VI. of this Section). What we are going to say here may be applied more especially to the region drained by the Ttmtgttse Wl "f iL '"^^^^ ^^^ affluents,

2. The region has a great central artery of communication, the Yangtze |R "^ flC* ^^ith a very important network of navigable^ rivers flowing into that vast stream. All kinds of wares and merchandise are borne on its waters and distributed throughout the Provinces that border on its banks.

3. It has a temperate climate and is not subject to the great variations of the North. It is indeed very hot in Summer. but does not e.xperience the e.xcessive cold of the Winter. The

/ i

CHAPTER I. VALLBYS OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO.

91

K^amg JX or SUnfe-hed is therefore unknown there, iind the rivern^ are not frozen in Winter. The r:iiny season in Summer is con~ stant, and the crops are less irregular than in the North.

4, /( is the region M?here tea, rice, silk and cotton abound, while the sugar-cane is cultivated only in some places.

5. Less rich in coal-beds than the North and South, it /s not however destitute thereof, and its mineral wealth is great, pspecially in Hunan fg\ "^ and Szechw'an pg )\\.

G. This Central region of China is connected with those of the North and South by several frequented highways.

7. It is the lake region, and includes some expanses of wa- ter which are very large, such as the Tungt'ing ^ fj^, P'oyang IS f§, T'aihu ± JS8, Hungtseh ^% % and Ch'aohu J| ^ lakes.

8. It is the great manufacturing region : industries of silk and yam being found in Kiangsu fL^'y ^f Indian ink in Ngan- hwei ^ H; porcelain ware in Kiangsi iL f^; cotton cloth and steelworks in Ilupeh ^ ;|t; silk, salt and oil in Szechw'an ^ )\\,

9. It is the region of the great treaty jforts open to Foreign tra- de: Shanghai ± ft^, ChCmkiang ^ f£, Wuhu ^ f^, Hank'ow ^ p , Ch'ungk^ing J[ ft, Hsixchow ^ f\\, this last in Szechw'an pI j|| .

ProirlBcea e^mprised in tlilB Roglon. — They arc the following, proceeding from W. to B. :

Szechw'an H j||,

Hunan JM r|,

iiupch m *>

Kiangsi fL |f,

Nganhwei ^ ;|K,

Kiangsu fL j|^.

Geological CoutiUtation. — The io€8S or yellow soil which has been found so abundantly in the Northern region, exists here only excei)lionally, in the Province of Nganhwei ^ JK and in that of Kiangsu f£ ||, so iar as Ch^nkiang H f£. The predominating formations of this region are alluvium, lime- stone and sand-stone. The Szechw^an Q )l\ table-land is for^ med chiefly of this latter rock.

Immense lakes, larger than those of the present day, for-

92 SECTION II. THB CBMTRAL RBGION.

merly covered the Eastern plain, as also the low parts of Hunan fl ^, Hupeh fl jk ^^^ Kiangsi {£ f|. The actual sheets of water are the remnants of those ancient lakes. Little by little they wore away the low portions of the rock-bound banks which hemmed them in, and their waters formed an immense river, the Yangtze-kiang JH 7 {C, which carried their overflow to the sea. As the water ran off, it gradually eroded the rock, and dug a deep channel through the lakes. Their original surface area was thus much diminished. As they lessened in extent, vast alluvial deposits were disclosed, some of which when dried up proved exceedingly fertile; others remained still saturated with water, and these formed swamps. All these swamps are anew enlarged into lakes when the Summer floods set in. Such lakes and swamps are therefore of great advantage ; the waters rush to them and leave behind a large quantity of alluvium. For this reason, the inhabitants are not obliged to construct, as on the banks of the Hwang-ho j| ^, high embankments, which, when they give way, produce such terrible disasters in the region of the North. It has been necessary, however, to erect dikes in many places along the banks of the Yangtze |§ 7 {t« in order to protect the lowlands.

€hP98>ttpk]r. — The land surface inclines both on the N. and S. towards the Yangtxe H ^. The outlines of the basin are distinctly traced. T^theW^the Bhuisrn JCSmrImm J|| H extends its different branches even into Nganhwei j|f |||. These are the Mft«<ii9-MM V II lb, 2>iMiNif ji il, J^^ yiir 9km% SA III- T9 ikB A, mrm jifaiiaiMi/ those of Yun- nan fl llf, Kweichow H ^ and Kwangsi jH f|, continuing in the NmUkH^ fl H or Nanshan f| |1| and the gW^iifciy AjRH mountains, form the water-parting of the Yangtie |§ ^ from the Si-kiang f| f£, and the coast-rivers of Pokien H H and Oh^kiang m {[* Nowhere, save to the W.,are there any high peaks. The general configuration of the Northern chains is oloar enough, but it is quite otherwise to the 8., where the grouping is rather irregular and too little known to enable us clearly to d^ribe its features.

y

GHAPTim I. VALLBT8 OF THE YANOTZB AND OF TAB HWAI-HO. 93

CniBUKle. — During Winter, the thermometer descends sel- dom below 14* Fahrenheit, and rises in Sammer to 104'' F. The rainy season is in Summer. This period is much damper in Kiangsu 2L jfilf because of its proximity to the sea, and the large sheets of water scattered over the country. In Szechw'an B )\\ likewise, the climate is very damp and fogs are frequent. The cold dust-laden winds cease in the Province of Nganhwei ^ ^, but on the other hand, mosquitoes and the close heat atten- dant on the frequent thunder-storms render the Summers very unpleasant.

Hydroci^pliy* — The Central region is the most favoured part of China, both for the number of its rivers and the advan- tages derived from them. As the Yangtze ^ ^ {t receives all these streams, and traverses the region from E. to W., we shall study this river more particularly.

TMMI TANOTZB BIFBR #| ? {£• --^

lim Comme — The Ytm^Ufe rises in Tibet, and runs at first towards the S. B. It makes a great bend to the S. of Szechw'an B j||, then two others of less importance (also Southwards) at the W. and E. of Hank'ow ^ Q (Hupeh ^ :{(; Province), and after making a last one towards the N., it approaches Nan- king {H jjC) and empties its waters into the Eastern China Sea, a little to the N. B. of Shanghai.

Pr^TtiMMMi wlilcli it traveMes, mm H ll^wa Htmmm W*

to £• — The Yangtze traverses the following Provinces : Yiin- nan f| Hf, Szechw'an B j||, Hupeh fg^ ^, Kiangsi ft Mi Ngan- hwei ff ^ and Kiangsu ft jK*

Ito name. — It is generally called the Yim^ime'Kimmm %

^ It J but in several parts of its long course, other names have been also applied to it. Up to the Szechw^an Q ||| bend, it is called the Ukm^^mren^ the MmrfUrumi, the lVI^«iMi« fy H^ (white river) or also the KimBhrn-Mang jt t^ iL (golde«*sand river). At Hsuchow Fu §( ^ Iff.'ii is styled the Hu-Mmmtf fi ft (great river), which corresponds to the MImrkkmg |K iC ^^

94 8BCTI0N II. THE GBNTRAL RBGION.

Chinese literature and geography. Up to the TungtMng lake, it is known as the ChUtfi4f'kiaftg ^ f£ (long river). In the latter part or its course it is called the Yangtme-hUmg m ^ 2ll* It owes this last name to the ancient Yang ^ Kingdom established formerly near its then mouth in Kiangsu fji j|||, — capital, the present Yangchow Fu ^ ^ J|^ — and which imparts its name to the whole course of the river. The rendering San «/ the Ocean ^ ^ tt Js utterly unfounded, and based only upon the similarity in sound of two Chinese characters, ^ and j^, both pronounced Yang. Instead of Yang ^, character of Yangchow Fu, another Yang ;^ signifying poplar-tree is also found in some Chinese geographies, but this is erroneous.

Foreigners sometimes call it the Bhie lUver^ presumably to contrast it with the Yellow Uiver of the North.

Ttfi dlflfereiit iMurto. — The Yangtze may be divided into three principal parts : the first, torrential; the second, semi- navigable; and the third, navigable throughout. r \^ The tarrenUai pcurU — This extends from its source to

^ PMngshan hsien ^^ llj )||i a little above Ilsiichow Fu j^ ^ ^,

called also Suifu. The river rises in the centre of the high Tibftan plateau, in a region up to the present insufficiently explored. It seems at first to follow a S. E. direction, and re- ceives in this part numerous torrents.

When it has reached the S. of the sources of the Hwang- ho ^ fpf, from which it is separated by the Baiankara range, it takes a N.W. — S.E. direction. At the town of Sogon-gomba, its bed is still at an altitude of 15,700 ft. It then flows between perpendicular mountain barriers, which separate it from the Hwang-ho and the Mekong (Lants'ang-kiang f| ^ JL)- Its width is 400 feet, and its depth from 20 to 26 ft. Throughout the whole of this region, its course is rapid. A little above r»atang g, ^ (Pat*ang), it passes through a large valley where its bed is at an altitude of only 9,000 ft. It then assumes a tor- rential aspect and flows between narrow defiles to the W. of the Szechw'an Alps (thus shall we style the high mountain mass

ph forms the Western limit of Szechw*an |S jl|). The river

CHAPTBR I. VALLBY8 OP THE YANGTZE AND OP THE HWAI-HO. 95

continues in this same direction till it impinges on the high table- land of Yunnan ^ ^. Impeded in its course, it cuts its way with difficulty through the Szechw'an Alps, forming three great bends (the first, from Chungt^en tft ^; the second, from Yung- pei t*ing ^ 4b JNI > ^^^^ third, from Huili Chow -§• Jg ^).

Before its last bend, it receives its longest tributary on the left side, the Taiung-kianff ® f| JH, torrential like itself, and rising near the sources of the Hwang-ho f| fpf . After this bend the Yangtze ft -^ jtC flows at an altitude of ?,600 feet, and is skirted on both sides by powerful ranges and mountain masses. On the left, are the Szechw'an Alps, and on the right, the last spurs of Yunnan H ^ and of Kweichow j^ jHi» It is thus compelled to follow a S. W. — N. E. direction, which it keei>s till it reaches I'-ingshan hsien ^ ^j J|f, in the prefecture of Hsiichow Fu ^ ;H1 ^ ^^ ^^is latter town, its bed is at an altitude of only 1.000 ft. It has flowed through a distance of 1,250 miles, but has still to run 1,800 more before it reaches the coast. A little above P'ingshan hsien is a rapid almost impossible to pass.

In all this part, the river may be crossed only where it is dammed for mill-streams.

^^: ' 2" The setni-fiat^gabf^ part. — This extends from P'ing- shan hsien ^ lU JB to Ich'ang Fu '£ g ^. lielow P'ingshan hsien, the direction of the river inflects Eastwards. From the last bend at PMngshan hsien it runs S.8. W. — N. N.E.: now it turns W.8.W. — E.N.E. Alter Wan hsien ^ f| (in K'weichow Fu 5^ ^ fff)^ it tlows even W.-E., its waters being obstructed by the Tapashan ;^ C* llj mountains, which form the North- eastern boundary of Szechw*an flj j||. The river having no longer suqh a steep incline, becomes navigable, except in the region of the rapids.

Up to K'weichow Fu ^ )^ f^^ the river is from 500 to 050 yards wide, but further down, it narrows in and flows be- tween two high ranges, its breadth being only 200 to HOO yards, but it widens out soon again till it reaches the Wushan ^ |lj jj^ gorges.

/ /

96 SBCTION II. THE GBNTRAL mieiON*

V

The vmi^aa appear in numerous succession, one of the fiercest being between Ich'ang % ^ Jff and Patung £ JK f|- When the water is low, the new rapid — Sin-t'an tiJ^ or Sin- lung-t'an 0f till — ^^^^ Yiinyang hsien 4i |li JK* ^^ ^^bo very dangerous. If the descent of those rapids is an expeditious matter, it is however not unattended by danger (as regards three or four of them at least) ; their very slow, tiresome ascent is still more dangerous. The boats used in crossing them have ap enormous scull in firont. This is manned by 4 or 5. men, and is intended to strengthen the rudder. In the low- water season (Spring and Autumn), and especially in Winter, they are more easily crossed, and the distance from Ich^ang tt fi JfiF ^ Ch'ungkMng Jt Jtt ftf ^^Y ^ covered in a few days, although this same journey requires sometimes as much as 30 days and more, and at the least 3 weeks. The time requited to perform the voyage varies in fact to a great extent, and depends especially on the buoyancy of the boat and the number of the trackers.

In this part, the Yangtze J| ^ jl receives 0h CM k^ from Szechw'an |B j||, its chief affluents, l"" the Mk% kkmtf H {£ or Ch*6ngtu river AH /Iff, which has long been considered, and is still considered in China, as the parent branch of the Yangtse, on account of its importance. 2* The KiaMm0^kimm0 jft ft {£• Both of those are navigable, as are also several of tkeir tribu- taries. €)H ike Htiki, the Yangtze receives the JMMUflHir 4t tC or ClM*w*iii Ht }|C, and the W^a^kkm§ A fiCi two rivers suitable for navigation, and coming both from Kweichow JH Mv At Hsiichow Fu §( ^ J^f, the bed of the river is at an alti^ tude of 900 ft.; at Ch'ungk'ing fl; JURp, it is only 600, while at Ich'ang jK fi JKp, it hw fallen to 130 ft. This latter port is distant 2 J 75 miles from the sources of the Yangtze, and 960 from P'ingshan hsien P |1| H. Before the river reaches the ocean, it has still to flow a distance of another 960 miles.

It is in this portion of its course that its waters rise highest, reaching sometimes to 96 feet beyond low-water mark.

B"" The iimfprtlpgipi — This extends from Ich'ang ft g JNf

^

CHAPRR I. VALLBY8 OF .t^HB YANaTZR AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 97

to the sea. In this last part of its course, the river makes two hends to the 8.; the first, which is the more apparent, occurs to Ihe N. of the Tungt'ing |l) fj^ lake ; the second, to the N. of Lake P'oyang KM* A third is faintly traceable to the N. of the T'aihu :lc fH lake.

Running in the imoiands, the Yangtze JH 7 ft ^^^ ^ ^^^ rapid si^pe^ and a very winding course, especially from Tch^ang A & ftf ^ Hank^ow ^ p. During all this period, it runs in level ground covered with lakes and marshes, into which it pours the overflow of its waters when the flood-season sets in.

It is always the eiape of the ioftd surface which imparts to it its Mf'eeHan, and not the aflluents flowing into it, although this direction is modified whenever it receives an important tributary. The first change of direction is where it receives the waters of the Siang-kiang Jfg f£ and of the Tungt'ing ^ J§| lake ; the Second, where it receives those of the Han-ho M fpj ; the third, those of the "^n-kiang jf^ Jt and of the P*oyang lake f5 M! while a fourth has already been formed, before it re- ceives the waters of the Grand Ganal, but then becomes more marked.

In all this part, the river is eaMy na^figiibie, and large steamers can sail up to Hank^ow i^ D* In this third portion of its course, it receives four targe affluents: one on the left, the Tioftkrho j)( jlf or Hanrshui ^ H/i ; and three on the right : the Tuettrhiafiikg ^ {L ^"^ ^^^ Sianfr-kinnff ffg f£^ which flow into jt through the Tungt^ing ^ Jg lake ; and the Kan-kiang H 2C, which reaches it by the P'oyang lake % jS^. All these rivers are navigable, [see for these tributaries, as well as for those from Szechw'an B }\\ and Kweichow j^ ^, the Provinces they traverse).

The riv^r throughout all this lower part often exceeds a mile in width, and is from 30 to 60 feet in depth. At its estuary, where it is divided into two branches by Ts*ungming ^ ^\ island, it is 20 miles wide, reckoning from the extremity of Haim^n jllP^to the mouth of the Hwangp'oo f| •j^; and 60 miles, if we reckon from Haim6n to P*ootunc: Point fl||]ft. The rise of

98 8ICTION IK TRB CINTRAL RBeiON.

the waters in the Summer season, makes it run 30 feet or more higher than the usual low- water level. It then overflows its banks. Ships drawing up to 25 feet, can at this period of the year, sail up to Hank^ow ;$ Di in Hupeh.

Near its mouth, it receives the Hwangp^oo )( tt^^ Shanghai river, the waters ef which at high-tide run into a multitude of canals, and establish easy communications throughout the whole neighbouring country.

Changes in the course of the Y€mgtKe ft ^ 2C. The Yang- ^ze has not always followed its present channel. The two principal changes seem to have alTected its upper and lower course.

!• Its ufper couree. — After skirting the W. of Szechw*an m J||, the river seems to have formerly run in the valley of the Sungkoi or Red River, which empties itself into the gulf of Tongking % }}(. An upheaval of the Yunnan H ]^ plateau occur- ring later on, obstructed this course, and forced the river to work a passage to the E. through the chains of the Szechw^an.Alps.

2® Its lower eouroe* — The river flowed formerly into the sea through 3 branches : the Northern, which it follows even at the present day; the Southern, which commenced at Wuhu hsien ||f| M JHf ^"^ ^^" Eastwards towards the lake region of South Kiangsu ^ ]||, until it reached the Northern extremity of the T*aihu >lc Hfl O^" Great Lake. Here, it branched into two : one, the Woosung ^ ^ river, commonly called Soochow Creek; the other, an outlet which flowed into Hangchow |( ^ Bay^ in the Province of Ch^kiang ^ f£.

The toua length of the Yangtze is 3,200 miles.

JMoimnee of the pHnoipai porto oh the Yangtme firovn the

Shanghai J: j|| on the Hwangp'oo )( i| 45 miles. Hank'ow ^ D 630 ,,

Ich'ang igjff 1,000,,

Hsiichow ^j^Jff 1,500,,

Mean flow of water. — It is hard to estimate even approxi- mately the mean volume of the Yangtze waters. It has been calcu-

GHAPTBR I. VALLBT8 OP THB TANGTZB AND OP THB HWAI-HO. 99

lated, that at Hank'ow ^ Dt the flow per second is 173,000 cubic feet at low-water lev^ ; at high-water, it attains 1,270,000, which would give a mean of 540,000 cubic feet per second. At the 4iiQ]jth, its average flow" is esHmated to be 650,000 cubic feet per qecond^ but to be nearer the reality, this result should be more than quintupled. Giving the river a width of 6 miles, a depth of 5 fathoms, and a current running 3 feet per second, that is to say 2 miles to the hour, we would thus have a mean flow with a volume of 3,530,000 cubic feet per second ; but this result is in fact greatly inferior to the reality.

Area «/ Hb ia*in.l— The Yangtze river drains in this Central Region an area of 700,000 square miles.

J^pMlaWofi. — The population of the Yangtze basin is reckoned to be 200,000,000 inhabitants, and embraces the Provinces of Szechw^an, Hupeh, Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu and the Northern parts of Yiinnan and Kweichow.

nOai imflmenee. — The tide is felt to a distance of 375 miles from the mouth of the river, or a little beyond Wuhu HH

mm-

Share UOeen h§^ the FerU ef th4e Begien to CM fereli§m eemmeree ef China. — The ports of this region absorb almost 60 7o of the whole commerce of China with foreign countries.

TangUm shlpp4na» Arnmal ienmage. — According to the returns of the Imperial Maritime Customs (1902), this amounts to 2,000,000 tons, borne in 1,733 steamers which have transported 1,800,000 tons, and 1,196 junks carrying 185,000 tons.

Na/HaaUmn ef the Biver.

At He meuih. The Yangtze is obstructed at its mouth by sandbanks, which leave but a depth of 13 to 16^ feet at low- water. At high-water, however, the largest steamers can enter.

From Ue mouih te Ebrnkfaw. A regular service of large steamers is maintained up to Hank^ow.

From Hanh^ew i^ D <^ Ith^ang jiC g Jgf . Large freighters ply as far as Ich'ang ; the river is however filled with shoals, and boats cannot find in Winter more than 6^ feet of water.

Beyond Ich^ang is the region ef therapide. Here, native

/

100 SBCTION II. THE CENTRAL REaiON.

junks and cargo-boats must be hauled through the rapids, but at medium or low-water season, small steamboats can easily cross them.

From Ch'ungk'ing jt JE ^ ^ HsUehow (Suifu) ^ jl\ Jif. Despite the rapids, the channel is still easily navigable for large junks. Small steamboats can also run there without difficulty.

From HMehaw JP^ ^ jV{ )ff ^^ rHngahan JMen J| [Ij ||. This part is navigable only for junks.

Timere quired for the voltage. JHeUmee-itMe en the TangUie. -^"^ - -

From Shiti^hai to Hank^ow. — Distance, 600 miles.

3 days by steamboat. Owing to an elaborate system of buoys and lights being erected at the more dangerous places, steamers can proceed on the journey day and night.

From Hmtkfew to leh^aung, — Distance, 370 miles.

4 days by steamboat. During the Winter season, boats can travpl only during the day-time, as lights and buoys are lacking beyond Hank*ow.

From Ich^aing to Ch'ungl^ing. — Distance, 400 miles.

20 to 40 days are here required, and the journey can be performed only in junks hauled by trackers. The hire of a boat costs from 150 to 200 taels {.£ 22 to £ 30). At the flood-season, the voyage becomes very diflicult, and accordingly much more time is required.

From Ch*Mngh'ii%a to HeOchow JPW (Suifu). — Distance, 100 miles.

Large junks hauled by trackers take about 20 days. The downward voyage is performed with varying rapidity, and depends principally on the velocity of the current. Junks which take 20 days to make the up-voyage, may sail down in three days, or even less. The difTerence is not so great for stea- mers, but the up-voyage often requires double the time taken in going down, (for the navigation of the tributaries of the Yang- tze, 000 the Provinces they traverse).

Steamboat Companiee trading on the Yangtee. — -

Several steamboat Companies carry on regular services with the large ports between Shanghai J: % and Ich'ang g|[ g.

CHAPTER I. VALLBY8 OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 101

The principal are : — ''The China Merchants Steam Namga- lion C«" (Chinese). — *'/nc/o-C/iina Steam Navigation C^*\ Agents, Jardine, Matheson and C*. and ''China Navigation C^'\ Agents, Butierfield and Swire (these two, English) — ''Norddeutscher Lloyd'\ Agents, Melchers and C*; and "Hamburg- America Line" {Yangtze Steamers). Agents, Arnhold, Karberg and C® (both German). — "Osaka Shosen Kaisha'' and ''Yangtze Shipping C*^" (both Japanese). — There is also a French C": "Compagnie Asia^ iique de Navigation''. Agents, Racine, Ackermann and C*. — The boats of mostly all these Companies call at the following ports :

JDitUtnce fnnn Shanghai. miles.

Kiangyin jtt ^

105

ChdnkiangH ^

165

Nanking * j^

212

wui.u m m

264

Ngank'ing^ H Kiukiang X iL

370

458

Ilank'ow ^ p

600

From Hank^ow, small steamers run regularly to Ich^ang ^ g flf^ a distance further up of 370 miles.

Numerous small steamers ply on the large canals throughout the whole region around Shanghai _t fli*

JPiiriher parHcuktrB regarding this Central Begimu

1*. Like the preceding region, this would naturally comprise ^arts of Provinces which we place elsewhere : thus the South of Kansu -Q* m and Shensi ^ If ; the N. of Yiinnan ^ |f| and Kweichow j|| ^. On the other hand, the N. of Nganhwei ^ ^ and Northern Kiangsu jQQ ^ should on account of their general characteristics be attached to the Northern Region. In order to avoid the inconveniences arising from the division of these Provinces, we shall describe here only the 6 Provinces mentioned above. (000 p. 91).

2* In this region, the caravans of camels so common in the N. disappear altogether. They cease at the N. and W. of Szechw'an H Jli* the N. of Honan ^ ^, of Nganhwei ^ ^, and of upper Kiangsu ^ jt|. Camels are seldom seen 8. of the

102

8BCT10N II. THB CBNTEAL RBOION.

Yangtze ^ 7 jH; on the contrary, conveyance by carts becomes more and more frequent. In the mountainous region, on accpunt of the lack of roads, they are of little use, and the level parts are too intersected with canals, lakes and bridges of primitive construction to render them serviceable, and so boats take their place. Everywhere else, mules, horses, asses and sedan-chairs borne by coolies, and not by mules as in the N., are the chief means of transport. The jinricsha (\ fj JfL j^nlihch'^. Man's strength cart), where the roads allow it to be used, is coming more and more into favour. It is faster and more comfortable than the wheelbarrow. This latter has however the advantage of being able to travel almost everywhere, and so it is very largely used by the natives.

S"" The erainA Cemai and the Bekk^g^Hankfaw rmikvm^ A Mi establish easy communications between this Region and. the N. Other railway lines, and among them, that from Han- k'ow to Canton, and from Szechw'an H j|| to Yiinnan Fu f| {I Jffy will render the same service in regard to communications with the Southern Region. (000 Section V. ch IV. Means of Communication) .

References :

S. dwrmlier. — Le Hant Yang-tse- kiaDg, de I-tch'ang foa k P^ing-chau bien. Voyage et Description. Atlas. Chang- hai, 189J>.

Bmm d'Anty.— Navigation & vapcur sur le Haut Yang-tse-kiang (GAog. 15 aoat,1903).

de Vaalserre. * Chine. Le Fleuve Bleu et son Bassin (Rev. Ck)loniale, 1900).

de Vaoleerre.— Le Fleuve Bleu, de Soei- fou i la hauteur de Tali fou (Gdogr. 1900. vol. 1. p. 449 sq).

MroiT»l. * The Laud of the Dragon. London, 1889.

MelcknUiOir.- La Civilisation et les grands fleuves historiques (C. XI. Le Hoang-ho et le Yang-tse-kiang). Paris, 1889.

Byae6ric.^ Notes sur les rapides du Yang- tse-kiang (Annales de Gtog. 1895-1896).

de Beiaare.— Le Fleuve Bleu. Paris, 1899.

MeHBier.—L'Enipire du Milieu. Pari8,18W.

Mliiistdre de la Guerre. — Service gto- graph ique do Tarmte. Bassin infdrieur du Yai)g-tse-kiang. Paris.

Aloook.— The Journey of AIai||;ary (Kiang- su, Nganhwei, Kiangsi, Hnpeh, Hunau)^ London, 1876.

de Vlllard. ^ Map of the Yangtso-kiang.^ 13 sheets. Shanghai, 1895.

Hoiinit. — Dans les rapides du Fleuve Bleu. Paris, 1904.

■oan*. — AUas du Haut Yang-tM. 21 feuilles, 1905.

Gatslair. — China opened. Loudon, 1888. ' (the Yangtze. Vol. I. p. 26-28).

BkOMOp Bl" J. F. — The Yangtze Valley - and Beyond. London, 1899.

Barclay Parsoni W.— From the Yaog— - tze kiang to the China Sea. (Geog. Joor- tuJ. London, 1902. Vol. XIX. p. 711-

CHAPTBR I. VALLBT8 OP THB YANGTZE AND OP THE HWAI-HO. 103

Wllh.l— J. — > On the Ancient Moaths of

the Yangtze kiang. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.

p. 77-64. Shanghai, 1060). OolqpitaOaD A. K. «- The Overland to

China. London, 1900. (Ch. XV and XVI.

p. M9-417. The Yangtze valley). Boame F. S. A. — The new Rapid on the

Yangtze. Geog. Journal. London, 1897

(vol. X. p. 191-195).

SiODke G. B.~ A trip in Summer through the Yangtze Gorges. East of Asia Maga- zine, Shanghai, 1908 (vol. II. p. 3-28).

lbuiM>ldO.O.«Recent Exploration and Economical Development, in Central and Western China. (Geog. Journal. London, 1904. p. 281-81S).

Idegtndwe Dr F. A. — Deux ann^es au Setchouan. Paris, 1906. (Shanghai to Cheugtu. p. 5-194).

Dm^Ui Sir J. F. — Chinese Miscellanies.

London, 1875. (Valley of the Kiang to the

Port of Hankow, p. 175-191). Gill W. — The River of Golden Sand.

London, 1888. (Ch. IV. p. 44-58. Shang- hai to Ichang — Ch. V. p. 59-81. Ichang to Chungking).

Cfuppy H. B. ^ Notes on the Hydrology of the Yangtze. (N. C. h. R. A. Soc. p. 1-11. Shanghai, 1881). Oftrles W. B. — The Yangtze Chiang. Geog. Journal. London, 1898. (vol. XII. p. 225-240).

LiUle A. — Through the Yangtze Gorges. London, 1898. (Ch. II. p. 15-36. Shanghai to Ichang — Ch. IV. p. 50-86. Above Ichang. — Ch. XII. p. 253-171. Physio- graphy of the Yangtze Valley).

Little A. ^ Notes on Szechw'au and the Yangtze VaUey. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. p. 165. Shanghai, 1888).

Little A. — The Crux (Yehtau, 60 miles above Ichang) of the Upper Yangtze. (Geog. Journal. l.ondon,1901. vol. XVIII. p.498-508).

Uttle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1915. (Ch. IV. p. 53-68. The Yangtze River).

CHAPTER II.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER YANGTZE

(SZECHWAN n jll).

This region nalumUy comprises the Province of Szechvf'an H }\\, also lower YiXnnan ^ ^, and the Northern part of Kweichow j^ ^ . These three parts are closely connected through their rivers, which all flow into the Yangtze :B| ^ ff. Their mutual relations are unceasing, their inhabitants have many characteristics in common, their climate is practically the same and more liable to fogs than in the rest of China, Their isolation is also identical, for all three experience the same difficulty of commufUcation with the neighbouring regions. To avoid dividing into two the stvuiy of them, we shall here describe only Szechw'an fi j||.

Szechw'an H j|| alone, like Chihli jH ^, has the special privilege of having its own Viceroy, who resides at Ch'Sngtu A M J(f' //^'"imrd in between Yiinnan .f| ^ and Kansu '^ Jfl, it is the only link that connects the Northern with the Southern region. It is also completely isolated, for its Western, Northern, atui eren North^Easlern mountains offer but few passages into Tibet, Khhhu, hwI the valley of the Han-ho ^ fif.

CHAPTER II. SZBCHIV'aN. 105

Szechw^an \S )\\

Are*. — 218, 533 square miles. It is by far the largest of the 18 Provinces. This results from its recent extension, whereby it has acquired a part of Eastern Tibet. Yunnan ^ ^, which comes immediately after it, has but an area of 146, 718 square miles.

Popniattoii. — 68,721,800 inhabitants. A more correct approximation would be about 45 to 50,000,000. It is the most populated Province of the Empire, Shantung |1| j|[ being next with 38,247,900 inhabitants. Its population however is not the densest, as it has but 314 persons to the square mile, and is surpassed in this respect by 8 other Provinces. The reason is, because the population unusually dense upon the table- land, is very sparse towards the W. and particularly along the whole fringe of the plateau.

NwHie. — Szechw'an H /l| signifies **Four Rivers''. These 4 rivers to which it owes its name are, proceeding from West to East : the Yalungkiang ^^ ft, the Min-kiang fg^ ^:, the Ch'ung-kiang jl|i f£ and the Kialing-kiang |^ R jtC*

B««dmrlMi. — Szechw^an is bounded on the

N. — By Shensi ^ 'gf and Kansu -Q* ||, W. — By Tibet,

8. — By Yiinnan ^ ]|f and Kweichow -^ jf|, E. — By Hunan jM fH and Hupeh HH ;||;.

Ctepttal. — CB^BNQTV JPT^ jA IK ^1 in the centre of the Province, a little toi^ards the N. W. It is built on the Min- kiang IK a:-

IMher Preftetnr^s. — Thme are 11 in number.

T^ikeir.ef ChfM%0tm:

I- LungngaA Fa M S 1^-

T9 ihe 8. W. ef €fh^h%giu:

2*" Yachow Fa II M MP.

106 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

3» Kiatmg Fn X % ff.

To the N. A of Ch'Sna^iu, and in the order of dmanee:

io T'nngchw'an Fu WL )\\ Hf, 5»Shimk'iiigFulRftJff, e» Paoning Pu » Hf *f , T** Suiting Fu ft % «p.

Deoeending the ratnnoe, to theieft:

8» HsUchow Fu (Suifu) Ik M «P, 9»Ch*uiigk*ingFua»J(|P, lO^'EwWhowFuH^fiP.

To the 8. W., in the Sgeeh^an Atpe:

IV" Ningyuen Fu W a *• Besides, there are in Szechw'an Q J|| 8 independent Chaum ^ : T»e Ohaw ^ j^, Mien Ch&w H ^, Men Chaw jK W, Tiu^ana Chaw g Kl M, Chung Chaw ^ M, Met Chaw jg ^, XfiOng Chaw jp ^ and Xu Chaw }t M- — There are also S independent T*inge || : HMpung TUng ^^t$, Shlhehu T'ing 7^ f£ ||, and 8ungp^an THng ;& tf ||-

Aspeei Mid Cluurftoierlfltlcs. — Szec/iWan t^* composed of a plateau of red sandstone sloping towards the S.E. Irrigated by several rivers, it is rich in minerals, fertile, populous and sur^' rounded by high mountains, less massive and less elevated to the N.,E. and 6'. than to the W, hi the W. are high chains sejMira- ted by long and impetuous torrents. Bisecting the Province from S. W. to N. E., flows the Yangtze fl| ip it» ^*'^ ^^^ almost useless for navigation in the mountainous region of the W,, while it is navigable in the Eastern part. The population is of a very mixed kind, not only to the W. where half-savage tribes, Sifans II H in the N.W., Lolos ^^ in the S. and riumerous Tibetans are still found, but also in the Chinese part, to the E. of the Min-kiang HJ f£. This region is especially given to agricuiture. It has however its mines, its industry and commerce, all in a most thriving condition.

GeolO^U'al oonHtliutlOii. — The K. of SzocbNv*wi, formerly the bed of a dric<l up Uk(s iu an iiiimunHu baBiii of red and green sandstone. Between the llin- kian^ and thu THpa-uhan, the thickness of the sandstone formation is very gnat.

CHAPTIR II. SZBCHW^AN. 107

while beneath it lies a thin coal geam. It is encircled on all sides by primitive and primary rocks (gneiss, granite, schist), which once formed the borders of the lake. The waters eroded the rocks of the E., and thus found an issue on this side. The flow seems to have been at first great, but diminished little by little, as the outlet deepened, till it became eventually the actual bed of the Yangtze t§ ^ ft river.

r. — Three-fourths of Szechw'an Q )\\ are co- vered with high mountains. The table-land of red sandstone alone is an exception. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide the mountainous region into three groups, all running in different directions.

1"^ Qrwip. — The North-Eastern mountains of Szechw^an B JIh separating it from Kansu -^ m, Shensi ^ If and Hupeh jH 4b, form the first group. This is the last Southern spur of the K^uenlun JH ^ mountains. The range is called to the W. the MiMrBhan IK lljt to the E. the Ki/uUang ji ||, the Ta9ar9han :A: G» |1| or the Kiut^^aa-shan ^ ^ [Ij. The first has an average elevation of 8,200 feet. Between the two, there is a depression which is crossed by the highway from Peking 4b 3$( to Ch'6ngtu Jift US jj^. This is called the Wuting J[ f pass ; its elevation is 4,000 feet.

V^ Srmip. — This is the largest as well as the highest, and forms the boundary limit between Szechw'an 19 j|| and Tibet. It is composed of long and elevated chains running from N. W. to S. E., and separated by deep gorges. These chains often attain a height of from 16,000 to 19,000 feet. We shall call them by the name of the 8zechw*an Alps. They extend up to the Min-kiang ff^ jtL- "T^^ principal road which crosses them is that from Tatsienlu ff 11 Jt to Batang E jf (Pat*ang).

V^ Qvenp. — This extends to the E. of Szechw'an m j||, and reaches to the S. of the Yangtze i| -^f it. Its chains have a N. B. --S. W. direction, and rise sometimes at the S. of the river to an elevation of about 6,000 feet.

The Bed Baeku This basin varies in altitude from 650 to 1,900 feet, and contains but few plains, the principal being that of Oh'togtu )^ M ftf- ^t is broken by hills which run generally in a rather confused direction. This results from the

108

SBCTION II. THB CBNTRAL REGION.

UI«((| J^IAI^I UI]V

.\ionji»^\^

11|II<)I8|«X

c '3

-^ 1:!

. I

s ft,

0) •«-

C8

5

2 .^

•5 -e

jiiuvin

O ec

c o

o

00

Q)

.C K

*iiiii»»tl

fr o «' O « eo 1 ^^«^ ^H

CHAPTER II. BZSCHW^AN. 109

action of the rivers upon the soft red sandstone. The height of these hills above the bottom of the valleys ranges generally from 350 to 2,000 feet, but some of them attain a higher elevation. Towards the E., they run into the third group of the moun- tainous region, and follow a N. E. — 8. W. direction.

To the W. of Kiating ^^ M^ fif is sl celebrated mountain frequented by Buddhist pilgrims, and called the €>mei or iVpo- mei-^han Kg Ji (Ij. It rises to a height of 10,150 feet.

Otimate. — There ig an exceedingly great difFerence between the climate of the mountainous parts and that of the table-land. This latter place, sheltered as it is by the mountains which surround it on the N.W., N. and N.E., has a very mild climate, but fogs are of frequent occurrence. Owing to the great moisture and warmth,^ klkrvests are generally gathered. The table-land is not swept by those violent winds which prevail further to the N. and upon the. TUnnan plateau. In the S., bordering on the Yangtze m ^ {£, and in the valleys which slope towards it, the moisture and great warmth render the climate semi-tropical.

Hir^racraplu^. — We have already spoken above of the TangUmJ§ ^ ft, and of the ToMna-Mang H 9 jt (p. 93-95). Several rivers flow into the Yangtze : —

JP^'om the yarih, deBeendimg the river :

The Min^Mang fg j5l, which rises quite to the N. beyond Sungp^an H^ tt« at an elevation of more than 13,000 feet^ and becomes navigable for small craft when it enters the Gh'^ngtu A IS plaii^- Here it splits up into numerous branches and conti- nues its course to the R. It is navigable for junks below Kia- ting Fu jft i£ Ij^i and flows into the Yangtze |§ ^ 2C near Hsiichow ^ M iff- ^^ receives on the right the TiiiU'ho ^ j||F jp[, a long torrent obstructed by. boulders and rapids and quite unfit for navigation. However, an affluent which it receives on the left, the Tarho ^fgf^ is navigable up to Yachow Fu JH^^.

The ChHmg-kkmg # ft. This is a shorter river which rises in the N. of the Gh'Sngtu jft ^ plain, and is navigable below Kien Chow j|| ^. It irrigates in its lower part a very industrious and fertile region, and terminates near Lu Chow |||

The Kialiikg-kUmg JK |$ j^. This is the longest of the three rivers. It rises in Kansu -^ jlf, passes into Shensi ^ ff

110 SBcnoN n. the cintiul imion.

and thence into Szechw^an Q j||. It here receives from Kansu "ti* M ^^^ F^eh-^ui 1^ yfi, Afler numerous windings, it passes through Paoning Fu ^ ^ Jff and Shunk'ing Fu Jf^ ft Jff, and ends at Gh'ungk'ing Fu £ J| j|^. It is navigable for junks below Paoning Fu ^ ^ Jff, though in fact the navigation is easy only up to Hoh Chow ^ ^, and for small craft as far as Kwangyuen hsien fi tcM- On the right it receives the Ftm^K4am0 fff ^, the Lungngan Fu f| j|^ jj^ and T'ungchw^an Fu '^ j|| Jff river, which is navigable up to Ghangming hsien Ij^ fjfl JH, and even to Ghungpa' rf 1^ \ and on its left the KHHko fg jlf, navigable for junks up to Suiting Fu |g^ ^ j)^, and even further for small boats. These two affluents join it almost at the same time near Hoh Ghow ^ ^.

A common feature of these three rivers is that they gene- rally run from N.W. — 8.E. ; owing to the climate they have always water in abundance, their current is rather strong, and they are often obstructed by rapids. The descent is made quick- ly, but the up-journey is difficult and requires much time. It is not only for navigation that their waters are of service, the inhabitants turn them very adroitly to advantage for the irriga- tion of their fields, chiefly in the Ch'^ngtu plain ^ ^ fff.

F^om the & :

The rivers which flow here have neither the same length, nor the same importance as the preceding ones. The principal are, as one descends the river:

1 . The Hung-kiang i^ 2L> which flows into the Yangtze ift *? £C at Nganpien $ A, a little above Hsuchow HtJUftf- Although navigable only for a short distance, it is the principal water communication between Szechw'an B )\\ and Y&nnan

««.

2. The HMuung-ho ^ ^ ji^, navigable for small craft up to Ilsiiyung TSng ^ ^ ji||. It flows into the Yangtze at NahkM hsien |^ ^ JH, a town depending on Lu Ghow K f^.

3. The Hoh-ki4mg ^ fL or Ch^ihshui ^ :^, navigable for large boats up to Tap^ingtu ;)t ^ flf (ford or ferry of great tranquillity) in Kweichow Jt j{\.

CHAPTBR n. bzbchw'an. Ill

4. The Wu-ktang j^ f£. This river is navigable np to Kungt'an H H^ as it enters Kweichow j(; jH|» and even to Sze- nan Fu ^ ^ ^ in Kweichow. The salt from Szechw'an m j|| is carried through this waterway. Numerous rapids render frequent transhipments necessary. Its valley is very narrow and its current rather strong. The difference betwaen low and high-water level reaches even to 60 feet. — The very peculiar build of the boats which sail upon this river makes them appear as if they were lying half down on their sides.

To the S. E. of Szechw'an (9 j||, there is a small affluent of the Tuenrkianff ^ f£, which becomes navigable at the large village of Lungt'an H jp. It is the chief means of communi^^ cation for all traffic between Szechw^an Q )\\ and Hunan ^ f^.

Szechw'an Q Jj) has neither large lakes nor canals. A canal connecting the 3 rivers of the N. would render immense service, and establish between the W. and E. of the table-land easy communications, which are at present very difficult. It seems however that such a prospect cannot be easily realised.

and Flora. — The fauna and flora of Bzechw'an are far richer than those of the other Provinces.

In regard to the fauna, suffice it to mention especially the great number of ante- lopes, deer, >'ak8, bean, monkeys and parrots found in the region of the Szechw'an Alps. Several kinds of silkworm, as well as the wax insect, are peculiar to this Pro- vince.

As to the flora, besides rich pasture-lands, Szechw*an has splendid yew-trees, rhododendrons or rose-bays and giant azaleas. It possesses also a great variety of bamboos, a peculiar kind of tea called "white tea*', while to the E. there are flne forests abounding in different kinds of wood, bindweed and other tropical creepers. The tallow, varnish, soap and wax-trees, the China-grass plant (ramie-fibre- Boehmeria nivea) and lac-tree are also found in this Province. The best rhubarb of China grows in Szechw'an.

AcH«iiltaral Wealtli. — Agricultural produce is the chief 'wealth of Szechw'an B J||, and consists principally of opium, silk, tea, rice, sugar, hemp, vegetable wax, indigo, shellac, wax, varnish, timber, medicinal plants and oranges. On the mountains, sheep, goats and yaks are abundantly reared ; and upon the plateau, buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies.

Mineral Wealtli. — Salt (found in 3 principal places : Tze-

112 WCTION II. TUB CBNTHAL RBOiON.

liu-tsing: g $K #« Kiating Vu ^ ^ fff and Paoning Fu OHi H Iff), also coal, iron, eopper, silver, gold and petroleum.

Up to the present day, the activity of the inhabitants has been especially directed towards agriculture. They have how- ever worked some salt-pits and coal-mines.

FopalaiiOn. — In the S. of the Szechw'an Alpn, an almost independent raoe inhabits the Ki«iich*ang K J| 'valley, and the neighbouring country. They are called yianite flI'T' (barbarous tribes of the South), or Iro2o< m |B, also written }S^ Lao- lao, and |K K Lii^liM) (wild hunters). The Chinese call them sometimes iHi jm Kwolo (monkey-nosed savages). In the N. W. are the Si fan ffif tribes, who have reoo^ized the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese ofiScials. TihetuM with their lAnias and monasteries are extensively scattered throughout the W. They are eitpe- cially numerous in the neighbourhood of Batang or Pat^ang Q i^- (^or a more com- ph'te account of these aboriginal tribes, Me Section V. Ch. !!.<.

The Chinese race is predominant throughout the rest of Ssechw'an, bat th«>ir features vary exceedingly : some are of the Mongol type, others belong to the Himloo or even the Aryan branch. Many have blue or grey eyes, and some have brown hair. These varieties result from the position occupied by Szechw'an, it being the limit and liorder-land where widely different races come into contact with each other. Revola- tions have also largely modified the population of the country. Among those upheavals, we must mention the great massacre which took place there at the close of the Ming dynasty. Three-fourths of the inhabitants are said to have been exterminated. To repeople the Province, a large number of immigrants flowed in towards tiie middle of thr XVII*** c«Mitnr>'. Traces of this immigration are still met iiith at Ch*ungking, where the local Council of the Gentry* is called Pah8h(^ng A H the 8 Provinoen), alluding thereby to the 8 Provinces, to which the members of the Assembly originally iM^longed. The predominating element of the population is said to have a striking resemblance with the aborigines of Yiinnan, as the Karhtfna (Burmese, **wild men*'), who inhabit the Burma-Chinese frontier, and Mhose principal characteristics are : a triangular face, large, obliqut-ly-set eyes, light hair, and extremely short stature (4 ft. 8 to 5 feet). ~ In the K., a portion of the population is made up of families that came from Hunan.

The people of Szechw*an are shrewd, active, quarrelsome, but nevertbeleM very polite. They are also hospitable, and migrate easily from their homes, being fonnd in KauHU, Shensi, Kweichow, and even upon the lofty table-lands of Yiinnan.

The inhabitants,orowded especially upon the *'Red Basin'* or sandstone plateau, are v(>ry numerous in the rh*Angtu plain, which is dens<-]y populated.

Lanyuace. — The Loloa, Si fan tribes and Tibetant have their own particnlar diaWts, and these are pretlominant in the Szechw'an Alps. Kverywhere « Ise, Man- tlnrin in generally spoken, and with a peculiar clearness of enunciation.

Towns an4 Prlncipi^l Centres.

CH^BNBTV FV ^ig^Jff. — Population, from 150,000 to 500,000 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful plain, and is the provincial capital and residence of the Viceroy. Its walla, which

CHAPTBR II. SZBCHW'AN. 113

are over 12 miles in circumference, enclose, like Peking, three parts: the Chinese, Tartar and Imperial cities. The Chinese city, which is the most important, has some fine streets lined with rich shops. Besides its flourishing commerce, Ch^Sngtu has also various industries. Large boats can reach it by the Min-kiang Kg fL during 6 months of the year, from May to No- vember ; and smaller ones during the rest of the year. It has a military and medical school, a university, an arsenal and a mint. Numerous officials reside there awaiting appointment.

The €h*hHftu lYaifi.— The Ch'^ngtu plain is about 70 miles in length by 30 in width. Few regions in China can compete with it in wealth and prosperity, the density of its population and the perfection of its irrigation system. It comprises no less than 18 Chows ^ (departments) or hsiens||| (district cities), most of which are very populous. Its population is reckoned at about 5,000,000. The great thoroughfare leading from P^ingshan hsien J^ (Ij JH to the capital, is during a distance^ of 50 miles, like one long street lined with houses. The plain is well cultivated, and is covered with rice, cotton, beans, sesamum, poppies, sugar-cane, tobacco, corn and mulberries ; in fact not a single patch is left untilled.

To the N. mf Chfhtgtu Fu :

Chungpa tf> j^. — A large centre, situated a little to the N. of Changming hsien !j^ ^ H (dependent on Lungngan Fu H 4|^ jjjf), and upon the Feu-kiang J|f 2t- ^' ^^^ ^ population of from 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly a mart for the sale of medicinal plants, which realise a sum of more than £ 120,000 annually.

Sungp^an T*ing @ j# ||. — Population 10,000 inhabitants. An important border city and mart for the sale of wool, musk, rhubarb, deer horns, skins and sheep brought in from Tibet and Kansu -y* jlf. Tea is sent in exchange to Tibet. The climate is very healthy, and there are rich pasture-lands in the neighbourhood.

To the W.:

Tarchendo or TuMenlu THtig fT Iff ilt H* — At an altitude

ft

114 ncnoN ii. thb cbntral bimon.

of 8,850 feet and with a population of 20,000 inhabitants. The town is largely Tibetan, and carries on an important trade in musk, wool, gold, furs, medicines, bristles and yak tails, all coming from Tibet. It exports thither chiefly tea, and also silks and cotton goods.

Tmek^w m$^ f^ Jff. — Population, 30,000 inhabitants.

K4a$k%g J^ jR % Jff. — Population, 150,000 inhabitants. It is the great mart for white vegetable wax, and the principal silk-producing centre of Szechw^an.

n&Mu fwi$w li $K ^- — r A_great industrial centre with its thousand salt-wells, its bamboo scaffolding, its numerous junks, its roads constantly enlivened by caravans, carriers, and flocks of buffaloes led to work at turning the wheel. The brine-wells extend over an area of 60 square miles.

Ai&ng the Tungime Jbiang §| -^ 2tf following its downward course:

JOMekmw A* ft iW jjfiF or ShUJ^— Population, from 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. — Hsiichow is a commercial port at the mouth of the Min-kiang f|^ fL. Trade is especially carried on with Yunnan K ^ and the Kiench'ang ^ -f^ valley. The toi|N>r<t consist in medicines, opium, metals, musk and indigo. The empmrU are : white wax insects, petroleum, cotton-yam and cloth, which are exported to Yunnan ^ 'jlf.

IM Chaw {11^. — Situated at the mouth of the Gh^ung- kiang ^ f£. It is a trading place, but by far less important than the preceding one.

ChUtngkHng M M Jif— Population^ 620,000 inhabitanti. This city derives its importance from its commerce. It is the principal trading centre of Szechw'an, which finds in it a mart for all kinds of merchandise. Its imparts are : cotton-yam and piece-goods, woollen goods, bazaar articles, ginseng, aniline dyes, soap, silk-stuffs, silk ribbons, metals and petroleum. Its emparU are : opium, silk, skins, vegetable wax, musk, hemp, medicinal plants, sugar, oil, tobacco^ wool, bristles, feathers, metals and straw-braid. Extraordinary activity prevails in the

CHAPTBR II. B^BCHW^AM.

115

^ift/'l >*

riLni4

^^^ fittUt

'1^:^'^

CH'UNOKINO ft H iff.

streets, and numerous rich shops filled ivith merchandise are everywhere apparent. Its harbour is visited by hundreds of junks of large tonnage.

Fbu Chma fg JW- — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. Formerly the great opium mart of Szechw^an, but now a decadent town. The leading merchants met there, and fixed the market-price of the article.

Wan h9ien ^ ||. — Population, 140,000 inhabitants. After Ch'ungk^ng, this is the most important po^ nn^Afl TTppar v^^g-

tze m ^ jm. It is a grPftt. <iiBtTibuting rpntrA^lAr nnttnn-y5tm,

ciSUuii elotfay-raw cotton and Hupeh j0| iH^ fabrics. Opium is also extensively exported, and sugar and rape-oil in small quan- tities. A wide coal-field stretches to the rear of the city.

KM^eiehow 1^ f| M ^) more commonly known under the name of Ku^ei Fki. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It is a small distributing centre and exports : cotton-yarn and fabrics from Hank^ow ]^ Di and fans from Canton. Salt, extracted in the neighourhood, is likewise exported. Being a frontier custom-station, it collects Likin in behalf of two Provinces.

116 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RB6I0N.

IV» tfie S. W., in the Kiench*ang j£ ^ wiUey:

Ningyuen Fu ^ ^ fff. — Chief town of the Kiench'ang region. It is situated in a very fertile valley, abounding in fruit-trees and producing three crops annually. It is in this country, inhabited by the IaOos, that the most productive wax- insects are found. Thousands of people flock there every year, in April, to collect them.

To the W. €Mim) in the S»eeh*wan Alpe :

TMang JJ IJ. — It comprises a Tibetan town with its pal- aces for the two petty Kings; a Chinese town with crenelated walls, and a Lama monastery built on a small eminence, and inhabited by 1000 Lamas.

Baifang or Ta^ofng g^ |}. — It lies in a beautiful plain covered with corn in Summer. It has also its two rulers and its Lama monastery. Several Chinese officials represent the Emperor. It is a frontier town and hence an important halting place.

Industry an4 Oommeree.

The industry of Szechw'an B J|| is pretty brisk. The Province manufactures principally : silk, cotton cloth, cooking utensils, paper, Indian ink, sugar, indigo and tobacco. Coal- mines are extensively worked, but the coal is of inferior quality.

The chief silk-producing centres are, in the order of their importance : Kiating Fu ^ £ j|^, Paoning Fu ^ ^ /|^, Shun- k*ing Fu Jl H ;ff, T*ungchw*an Fu {f /H M- The production is estimated as reaching annually about £ 1,000,000 sterling.

The Province trades with Hupeh jJjQ 4fc» Hunan j0| lift Yiin- nan ^ ^ and Tibet (For imports and eoQports, aee Ch'ungk'ing).

HtgUwayiai of Coinraniilcatloii. — .We have already des- cril)od the navia€Me rivers. On all of them traffic is brisk and unceasing. The Province owns no less than 10,000 junks, which trnde on the Yangtze and its tributaries, and give employment to a population of 300,000 boatmen. The roads are also much frequented. The principal are:

1° The road which comes front 8. ShenM [ijik g, passes through Paoning Fu fl|i ^ ;fip, T^ungchw'an Fu {f JM Jff»

CHAPTER II. SZBGHW'aN. 117

Ch*6nglu Fu )§L iJH fff, Yachow Fu j}| iW ^i and continues Unvardm Tibet by Tatsienlu fl" ^ J|» ^'^'^^S ^M a^d Bat'aiig

2" The road going from Yachow JP%* ijfl ^ ^fip to Tumhan S A) passing through the Kiench'ang ^ ^ yaiiey.

3° The road frmn Ch'Stifftu J^ ^ ^ }ff io Mauchaw FHi, ^ ifl iff > skirting the Min-kiang |||g ft, and continuing along the S. of the river : one branch running Westward, towards Yiinnan ^ ^ ; another proceeding Eastward, towards Kwei- chow Jl ^.

4*> The road from Ch'Sngiu JPki JSft flj jff to Ch'ungk'ing ^^ M M Hf^ passing through Tze Chow Jf j{\.

5^" The road from Ch'Sngtti 1^ J$ tf jff to Ich*ang Fu !0[ S iffi passing through ShunkMng Fu Jg H jj^f* Suiting Fu fie >£ ;fiF» and Wan hsien H ||.

8zechw*an is chiefly jleficient in ^crosshrqads.rypiupg Xrom. W. to E. The rapids of the Upper Yangtze ^ ^ fL have also been, even to the present day, a great hindrance to the expansion of its trade. When the Yiinnan g ^ railway shall be completed, it will largely promote the interests of this Province.

Open PorUi. — In Szechw'an, there is but one port, {Jh*ufkgk^ifkg JFW £ J| ^, open to Foreign trade.

Ifotes. — 1®. Szechw'an was formerly part of the State of Shu ^, hence its present literary name. It was for the purpose of connecting more easily this State with the Ts^in |^ kingdom, that the first road mentioned above, and known by the name of the *^road of the golden ogc^^ ^ ^ jg, was constructed at such considerable expense. Popular tradition however assigns another reason for it, as we have previously stated [see p. 45).

2**. lA T^aipeh 5^ ^ ^, the most famous poet of the T*ang JH dynasty, was born in this Province A. D. 705-762.

S"". Mount Omei or Ngomei t^ M ]h^ which lies to the W. of Kiating Fu ^ % fff, is a pilgrim resort for Buddhists, who flock there especially in Summer. The country around is excee- dingly beautiful and well wooded. On the sides of the mountain,

118

8BCTI0N II. THB CBNTRAL RBftlON.

the extraordinary jjumber of 56 pagodas hfifl ^^''" of^ntori^ the highest being situated at an elevation of 10,000 feet.

Beferences

Lft Mission Lyoiinaise. Lyou, 1896. (I^re par- tie, li V. II et liv. Ill, c. 1 et 4 — !!• partie, Icre s^rie. Rapport sur le Se-tchoan ; 2« s^rie. Mines du Se-tohoan. Rapport sur la Boie. Appendioe. Note sur les operations chinoises k Tchonng-king).

RiclilhOfeii. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873. (p. 115-143. Province of Szechw*an).

Bulletin dn Comit6 de TAsie Fran^ise. — 1903, p. 21. (La situation 6conomique du Se-tcboan k la fin de 1901).

Meyners dVslrey. — Notes de Voyage au Setchouan et au pays des Mau-ze. (Soc. G6og. 1894).

Von Bosttoom. — Eine Rei»e in westli- chen China. Wien, 1895.

WinleriioChBai. — View of the Chinese Empire. London, 1795. (p. 100-102).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 125-157).

Vi^neron. — Deux ans au Se-tch'oan. Paris, 1881.

Madrolle. — Itin^raire dans TO. de la Chine. Paris, 1900.

Legenrtre D' A. F. — Deux ann^es au Setchouen. Paris, 1906. (Ch. XV. p. 145- 194. Description G^og. de la Province de Setchouen. — Ch. XL VI. p. 189-502. Sol et sous-sol, productions. — Ch. XLVII. p. 503-526. La transformation teonomique dn Setchouen).

Da Hal<le. — Description of the Empire of China, London, 1788. (Vol. I. p. Ill- 118).

Chitilair. — China opened. Loudon, 1838 (Vol. I. p. 165-168).

Marray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843. (Vol. III. p. 41-45).

Grosler. — General Description of China. London, 1795. (Vol. I. p. 93-97). . Bisiiop M" I. — A Journey in Western Szuchuan. (Geog. Journal. 1897. Vol. X. p. 19-50).

IK" I. — The Yangtse Valley and

Beyond. London, 189*J. GUI W. — The River of Golden Sand.

London, 1883. (Ch. VI-VIII. p. 82-168). Hart V. — Western China. Boston, 1888.

PSArker E. H. — Chinese Revenue, Sze- chuan (N .C.B.R. A. Soc. 1895-00. p. 136-39).

ParlLer E. H. — Up the Yangtse. Hong- / kong, 1891.

Litton. — Journey to N. Ssu-ch'uan. (For- eign Office MisceU. N*» 4r.7. 1898).

Pratt. ^ To the Snows of Tibet through China. London, 1892.

Balier E. O. — A Journey of Exploration in Western China. (Roy. Geog. Soc. Sup- plementary Papers. London, 1882. Vol I. P* 1. p. 1-152).

Maniltold O. O. — The Problem of the Up--^ per Yangtze Pro^ces and their Com- munications. (Geog. Journal. 1905. Vol. XXV. p. 589-620).

Lo^an Jack E. ~ Two trips to the N. of Chengtu. (Geog. Journal. 1908. Vol. XXI. p. 282-288).

Von ROhtliom A. — Thu Salt Adminis- tration of Szechw'an (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1892-1893. p. 1-SJ).

Vale J. — Irrigation of the Cliengtu Plain (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1899-1900. p. 105- 119).

Vole J. ~ Irrigation of the Chengtu Plain and Beyond (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1905. p. 36-50).

HOBle A. — Three Years in W. China. London, 1890.

Hosle A. — Journey through Ssuohu'an, Yunnan and Kweichow. (China Blue Book. N* 2. 1884).

Ho«ie A. — Journey in Central Ssuohu*an.

(China Blue Book N" 2. 1885). Hooie A. — Report on the Province of

Ssuch'uan. (China. N! 5. 1904).

CHAPm II. BZBCHW^AM.

119

-1896-97 Ssacb'uan. (Ch. III. p. 29-72). China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decen- nial Report, 1892-1904. ShauKhai, 1904.

(Chungking. Vol. I. p. 183-179). LiUIe A. •* The Far East. Oxford, 1905. (Szechuan. Ch. V. p. H9.77. The Cheug- tu Plateau. Ch. VI. p. 78-90).

CHAPTER III.

THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE YANGTZE

^ (HUPEH in * AND HUNAN JM *)•

Hiip^ and Hunan constituted formerly only one Province, called HfihibafHi^ j0| ^, -which under K'anghsi j|| Jf^, v?a8 divided into two. These two Provinces are nowadays administered by one and the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of Huhwang or Liatiffhu j9| j0|. He has his residence at Wuch'ang jg^ g fff.

Both Provinces^ occupying the centre of China, have the follo- wing common featureB : both slope towards the TanffUse m ^ f£, where are also their lakes and plains. Both have their great river penetrating deeply into the interior : the Hanrho jf^ ff in Hupeh JH ^, the Siang-hUmg M XL in Hunan JH ^. Both have likewise their more hilly portions on the W., and in regard to both, the Yangtze serves as a connecting link.

But there are also several chmraderiMcs wherein ^e§f di^H^BT. Hupeh ^ ^ has in its lower part only lakes of moderate size, while a great lake extends on the frontier of Hunan fH^ ||f . HU" peh j0| :||; has its great plain almost as vast as its mountainous region ; Hunan j|| fff, save on the borders of its great lake, is mountainous throughout, Hupeh j0| ;Jt is wealthy, owing espe- cially to its industry, its commerce, its cotton and rice fields ; Hunan jfjg |Jf, because of its coal-mines, its tea and its forests. Hunan j0| ^ and Hupeh ^ ^ are in close relation with Sze- chw'an jg j||, and the region of the lower Yangtze |§ ^, but Hupeh is chiefly in communication with the Northern region, while Hunan m ]^ is connected rather with the Southern,

CHAPTBll III. HUPBH. 121

Areiu — 71,428 square miles.

PopvlaAlon. — 35,280,008, or 495 to the square mile. As to the density of its population, Hupeh is the third Province in China, and is almost equalled by Fokien fg j|[.

Urame. — Hupeh ^ 4b signifies : '*JV. of^ke Lake''. The lake meant is obviously the Tungt4ng lake ifl Ji iM*

Bonndarles. — Hupeh is bounded on the

N. — By Honan ^ ^ and Shensi ^ If, W. — By Shensi ^ If and Szechw'an Q j||, S. — By Hunan ^ ^ and Kiangsi {£ If* E. — By Nganhwei ^ ^.

Capital City.— WVCWAIfG J^Uf^^fff, upon the right bank of the Yangtze ^ -^ iL> and opposite the mouth of the Han-ho ^ fij.

Other Prefeotnres. — The^e are nine 4n number. To the N., descending the Hannrho ^ ^ :

1" Yuenyang Pu Rp P& Jflp, 7? Siangyang Fn M lA W, 3" Nganlnli Pu « « *.

To the B. of Nganiuh J^n fi jj^ Jff :

4» Tehngan Fu Mi JB ^. neecemUng the TangtMe ^ ^ tL :

5r Ich'ang Fu S I #, &* Kingchow Pu IW * #, 7** Hanyang Pu« M *, 8" Hwangchow Pu H ^ Jflp.

TO the 8. W. :

9" Shinan Pu jtt M JNP. There is besides in Hupeh one independent Chow j^ : King- iwM Chow ^ P^ iWI-

Aspect an4 CliaraetertotieB. — Hupeh ^ 4: is an elon^ gaied Province, and extends from W, to E, It is rather narrow.

122 8BCTI0N II. THB CB1«TRAL RBOION.

where the Tangtme ^ ^ ft rwns through the rapids, and where it winds afterwards and flows with a slight descent, A beautiful river, the Han/^ho ^ ^^ joins it to the W. Between the two streams^ from Kingchow Fu ^ j^ )ff dov^nwards, the country is dotted with lakes and marshes, and possesses rich fields of cotton, rice and poppies. Below Hank'ow ^ P, the mountains hem in the river more and more as it advances towards the E, At the confluence of the Han-ho ^ fpf with the Yangtze JH ^p ft, there is a natural trading-mart admirably situated, a great attractive and distributing centre. As the largest steamers can reach it, it is the principal emporium for the products of the country, and the chief place of supply for the central Provinces of China. Three large cities, forming almost one, are built there, and develop unceasingly. We have called it so far, and will still continue to give it the name of its most active and populous part : Mtmt^^w

m a-

CSeoio^ical comUSbvttiOik. — One half of Hnpeb is made up of an allnvuJ plain. These lowlands were in prehistoric times the bed of an immense inland lake, and are even at the present still covered with lagoons and swamps. The other half of the Province is mountainoas. To the N. and W. as well as on the banks of the Han-ho, sandstone and limestone predominate, interspersed in places by schist, granite, conglo- merate and marl.

Ow^^prmphj* — To the N., two branches of the

Kfuenimi ^ •jBt ^^™ ^^ ^^^ Han-ho i^ fpJT* ^" ^^^ '^^ ^^ ^ P^*^" longation of the JFunlm whan ^ 4^ (I] , the HumiUmt^ wkmn JH m ill and the Hkwrfyoti^-tfJkm }g| ^ ill* known also as the MMMna ;fc |$. This latter chain, the average height of which is 2,940 feet, slopes gradually towards Hupeh j0| 4b) ^^^ affords several easy passages, one of which, that of Hank^ow 10 D to Sinyang Chow 1^ fii M, in Honan j0| ;|f, has been utilized by the Peking-Hank^ow railway line.

On its right, the jan-mhtm IK [Ij continues through the ^^apoF-^^an i^ ^ ]JH or KUOHaa^^hmn X flk Uit ^^^ I'lses to 11,500 feet. The WuUmg-shan fC # lU, on the right bank of the Han-ho ^ jsj, reaches an altitude varying from 8,000 to 9,500 feet.

GHAPTBR III. HUPBH. 123

To the W., is a rather irregular mountain mass, the altitude of which attains nearly 3,900 feet. It is a prolongation of the Kweichow JK )i\ table-land, and we shall call it ihe4Jhinan Fk* Mim fff ^'ongey from the principal city in the vicinity.

The rest is but an immense piain, about 100 feet above the sea-level, and only a few yards above the level of low-water in the river. A few mounds and hills are the most that can be seen.

Olhnate. — The climate of Hupeh is pretty much tho same as that of Shanghai, 'lliftt^iB less moist. The sea-breeze is however absent to cool the Summer atmosphere. At tmH seasou, the nights are sometimes almost as warm as in the day time.

Hydroi^rmpliy. — Two principal rivers irrigate this Pro- vince: the TitngttBe ^^iL ^"^ i^^ tributary, the Mim^ho iKfpf.

We have already described the Yangtze («0e Section II. Ch I. p. 93-98). Besides the Han-ho ^ flj, it receives also nu- merous rivers flowing from the Hwaiyang-shan JH H( |lj , Tapa- shan :^ £ llli and Ohinan ^^ M f^ )ff mountains.

The Hanrho i$ JpT^ or more exactly the Han^'^hui ^ ;|c,

or Man'kiang ^ j^, according to Chinese maps, rises in Shensi ^ fl, near the frontiers of Szechw'an |29 )\\, The Han is now navigated by small steamers as far N. as Siangyang Fu ^ Jf^ fff^ a distance of 300 miles, and during the Summer freshets, by junks and small craft, up to Hanchung Fu M ^ )(f^ in Shensi gf^lf , 600 miles further. Throughout the whole of Shensi Dl[ If , it is obstructed by rapids, and navigation thereon is difficult and dangerous. Above Hsingngang Fu H ^ ;|^, and till it leaves Shensi ^ |f , it traverses abrupt gorges, and its bed is strewn with rocks. It becomes really navigable only at Laoho-k*ow jS fif Q» where it widens out rapidly and attains 2,600 feet in breadth. Further on however, it narrows in, and at its mouth has a width of only 200 feet in low-water season. In this part of its course, it has a peculiar feature, already noticed when speaking of the Hwang-ho )f f^ : its bed is higher than the neighbouring plain, and this has necessitated the construction of embankments. During the Summer freshets the level of the Han-ho ^ ff rises 22 feet, and sometimes more, beyond the surrounding plain.

124 SBGTION II. THB GBNTRAL RSaiON.

The Han-ho ^ ^ has a threefold direction in Shensi ^ f|, and a little further on, runs from W. to E. At Yuenyang Fu f& Jfk Jtf^ ^^ takes a South-Easterly course, while midway ))etween Nganluh Fu ^ g| ^ and Hanyang Fu M ffk Jff^ ^^ assumes its primitive direction. In this last part, it runs at its highest level above the plain, and its windings are most nume- rous.

In April and May, its waters begin to rise, and large junks can then sail on it. In Winter, numerous sand-banks extend between Shayang j^ ^ and Siangyang Fu Jf^ Jf^ ]ff, and leave only one channel open for navigation. To travel from Hank^ow ]g| p to Hanchung Fu ]^ + /flp, 60 to 100 days are required, and 15 days at least to make the down-river trip.

The Han-ho ^ fpf receives on the left ttvo affluenis, both important, especially the second. These are :

The Tim-kiatHf f\^ f£y which comes in from Eastern Shensi ^ H above Laoho-k*ow ^ fpf P ; and the Fieh^ho ^ fpj, swollen by the T^anff'-ho )§ jjf, from Honan ^ ^. It empties its waters into (he Han-ho ^ fpf, opposite Siangyang Fu Jf^ ff^ Jff,

The first river is navigable only during part of the year, and the two others the whole year round {see Sect. I. Ch. III. p. 59. Honan).

Ijakes* — Aseries of lakes extends between the Han-ho ^ ^ and the Yangtze jj -f £C« Their volume varies according to the season, and they are connected by a network of rivers. Flotillas of small junks and boats ply unceasingly on their wa- ters, and fish is found in them in abundance.

Fauna xind Flora. — Tho fftuiia niul flora of Ilupoh arc those of the Central Ko{j;ion, hut they are richer and more ahuudant in the S. than in the N. throaf^hout the Han-ho valley. Tlie flora of the mountains to the W. of the Ilan-ho is the richest and most remarkahle of the world. It probably includes more than 5,000 species, and comprises plants of the semi-tropical, temperate and Alpine regions.

Agrlcnltural Wealtli. — The staple productions are : cotton, rice, corn and tea. Cotton is cultivated principally in the Han-ho ^ ^ plain. The chief producing centre is Mienyang

GHAPTBR III. HUPBR. 125

Chow )i$ fiS ;H| ;. Hwangchow Fu ^ j^ Jff produces also a crop much esteemed in Szechw^an Q j||. Rice is grown, but to lit- tle extent, in Ihe Han-ho valley, save in some places enjoying good exposure. On the mountains, to the W. of the Hanho ^ }ij, mushrooms are extensively gathered. They grow on the dead or decaying wood of the oak, and are called by the natives ;#; 5 muh-eul (wood-ears). They fetch a high price in the market, and are sold throughout the whole Empire.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Hupeh ^ jt is inconsiderable, except to the S. of Wuch*ang Fu ^ g jj5f, where coal, iron and chalk-stone exist. In other places are found iron, zinc, rock-crystal and coal, this latter near Siangyang Fu MkfSfJtf- ^"* ^he greater part of the coal used in the Province comes from Hunan JM ^*

Gold-washing is carried on, but in small quantity, in the Han-ho.

Popalation. — The population of Hupoh is dense in the plain. The people are gentle, poAce-abidin^, and enj^aged for the most part in ap^ricnltnral or fishinp pursuits. Some of the inhabitants of the W. have migrated to Npanhwei.

Lan^un^e. — Nothinjj: very special to mention. The Mandarin dialeet is spo- ken throughout the Province.

€ltle« »nd Principal Centres.

The Hank^ow group. — This comprises three cities : one on the right bank of the Yangtze ^ ip JQ : Wnch^ang Fn f^ g 1^, capital of the Province; the two others, on the opposite bank: HdfOefaw ^ Di on the left bank of the Han-ho ^ fpf, and Hanyimg Pu^^ Jif, on the right.

WUCWANG JFTT-J^gjjJ. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. A large walled city, well constructed and inhabited chiefly by officials. The Viceroy of Hukwang ^ ^ resides there. The city has a military academy and an agricultural school.

Hank^ow jH D- — Population, 870,000 inhabitants. This city, reckoned as one of the four emporiums H (Ch6n) of the Empire, is governed by a special official of Taot*ai rank, who is Superintendent of Customs and resides there.

126

SECTION II. THE CEMTBAL RESION.

Wl-rH'ANG ^ iJ,, HANYANG ^ Hf AND HANK'OW H p.

CHAPTER III. HUPBH. 127

Besides the Chinese quarters, the city has also several Foreign Settlements: English, Russian, German, French and Japanese. Hank^ow is the most commercial of the three cities. Opposite it, the river is 1,300 yards wide, and the largest stea- mers can come alongside its docks. It is connected either direc- tly or indirectly with the most important waterways of the Em- pire. Through the Yangtze |K ^ {t and the Han-ho ^ fpf, Hank^ow receives : rice, sesamum, tobacco, sugar, medicinal plants, tea, coal.... Musk and furs come from Tibet; petroleum from the United-States, Russia and Sumatra ; cotton piece goods, cotton-yarn and sugar from Hongkong ; opium and silk fabrics from Szechw'an Q )\\. Its chief export article is teoy two-thirds of which is produced in Hupeh ^ :[[^ and Hunan jg^ |f|, and one-third in Kiangsi JQ f|. This tea is re-exported chiefly to Russia.

Btmm»»^ -^ ^ l%^- — Population, 400,000 inhabitants. The real Hanyang Fu is about a mile and a half distant, but the place on the banks of the Han-ho ^ fpf seems more and more to take this name. The city is principally industrial. It has its forges, blast furnaces and foundries, which supply largely the material required for the Peking-Hank'ow railway. It manu- factures alto fire-arms, has started cotton-mills and silk-filatures, and possesses immense timber-yards.

The river, as it flows along these three cities, and especi- ally at the mouth of the Han-ho ^ fvf^ exhibits the greatest activity, and is covered with long rows of junks and steamers, which load and unload their cargoes. The same activity and bustle are noticed in the streets of the three cities, but especially in those of Hank*ow ^ p. Next to Shanghai J^ f(|, Hank*ow is the most important port of the Yangtze ^ ^ fiCi o^ which it is the chief emporium, while the railway connecting it with Peking, imparts to it still more value.

Shanghai has undoubtedly far more importance, but it is rather a seaport than a river-port, and thus Hank*ow depends on it, and will continue to depend on it for a long time to come.

128

SECTION II. THB GBNTRAL RB0ION. HAKK'OW. Table of Shipping. 1900-1906.

YEAR

1900 1001 1902 1903 1901 1005

Ent<»ml Iiiwanls.

^ Total. Steamers) ^»j^{^ ^.^^ Toiis.

1.152 1,273 1,S42 1.377 1.417

2,eoe

Cleared Out ward*.

Totftl.

23fi

254

219

1.681

1,241

1,388 1.527 1,561 3,008 2.6.'>8

1.201 I 2,003

I

. i steamers

. i'

1,106,5U ,j 1,162

1.310,298 1 1 1,865

1,456,002 !| 1,340

1.635,926 ii 1,366

1,684,45;^ 1,430

1,087,809 :: 1,602

Sailing Veftselfl

901 075 1,161 1,635 1,236 1,296

Na

2,068 2,240 2.510 3,001 2,666 2,90(»

Tons.

1,161,162 1.367,948 1,548,101 1,034,012 1,687.860 1,966,840

Besides, under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, thefe entered and cleared at the port during the year 1905, 2,760 small steamboats, transporting 65,653 tons.

The number of Foreign firms doing business in the port, during the year 1905, was 114 : 32 British, 25 German, 18 Japanese, 12 American and 27 of other nationalities. Foreign residents totalled 2,151 : 537 Japanese, 50 i British, 500 Ame- ricans, 162 Germans, and 448 of other nationalities.

AUmg the Yamatze ^ ^ fL^ descending the river :

If^*ang % g llljf. — Papulation, 45,000 inhabitants. A commercial port, situated below the rapids of the Yangtze. This position gives it importance, both as an emporium and as a centre for transhipping cargo. It has the advantage over Shashi |||||^ 7^, of being protected from the current during 8 months, owing to the proximity of an island.

Shatihi ^ rfi. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. Shashi is a great commercial mart, and its docks occupy on the right bank of the river a length of two or three miles. It is practi- cally the port of Kini^chow Fu ^ ^ /|^, and the great cotton- market of the country.

Hwangchow 1^ || j^ jjtp.

Upati the Hat^'ho ^ ^, going down-stream :

Laoha^kfaw ^ ^ Q- A considerable port and market- town. It owes its importance to the fact that the river begins

CHAPTBR III. HUPBH. 129

to be easily navigable there, and to its being at the junction of two roads, one coming from Shensi |K( H ^y ^^^ Han-ho ^ ^, the other from Shansi [Ij H ^y *^® Tan-kiang f^ f£.

Bkangyang JFk$ Wkftj^ffi' — It owes its importance to its situation at the confluence of the Han-ho JH ^ and the Peh-ho 1^ ^. This latter river is the great commercial waterway for trading with Honan {if|' Iff . It is less important however than the towns lying on the opposite bank of the Han-ho : Ijunghin fit ^1 PO^^ situated at the mouth of the Peh-ho, and Banr eh*%$ig H ji^. Both of these places hold large fairs, and carry on petty manufactures, such as ribbon and silk-making, ivory and bone-carving.

Industry and Contnieree.— Besides the industries already alluded to, the manufacture of cotton cloth deserves a special mention. There is scarcely any place in Ilupeh ^ 4(^, where the people are not engaged in weaving cotton cloth for expor- tation. A special kind, called broadcloth (^ ;j|f hwang-pu), is chiefly manufactured. All this cloth is exported to Szechw^an 15 }\\, Kweichow jH j/i\ and Yunnan H ^.

Trade is (irincipally carried on through Hank^ow ^ P, and we have already seen in what it consists. Upon the Han- ho ^ f^, the chief imports are coal and timber, both of which come from Hunan ^ ^. The main eaypart article is raw cotton, which is despatched to Szechw'an 0 )\\ in large quantity.

IItg:1iwnyB of Commnnlcaiton. — Besides the rich network of streams, especially throughout the whole plain, Uke prindpml roads are:

l*" The road from Peking 4k TSC ^ Hankfow ^ D- This road crosses Honan ftj ^ Province, and after reaching Hank'ow, proceeds to Yohchow Fu -g j^ jj^ (in the Province of Hunan), and finally leads to Canton.

2'' The road from Ngmihwei $ ^ to HatUsfow ^ Q, passing through Hwangchow F\x f( j^ fff.

3* The road which comes from Monan jpf ^, via 9Umff- Uang Wu $i f^ Jff. A little to the S. of this latter place, it hrofiehes off^nio 2 : one going via Kingchow Fu ^ j^ j|( and

9

130 SBCTION II. THS CBNTRAL RBeiON.

Shashi ^ TfT, to Ch*angteh Pu f^ H ^ffi in Hunan ^ It ^ *^ other leading to Hank'ow g| P , via Nganluh Fu ^ |^ /jj. — The main highway continues also to the N. of Sianayang FU and UadB to Southern Shenoi ^Jg- — The land-road from Hank^ow ^ D to Hanchung Fu ]^ rf« jjtp (Southern Shensi), is much shorter than the water route on the Han-ho ^ ^. Travelling by the latter, there are 1,120 miles from Htnk'ow to Flancliung Fu, whereas the land-ro^d running between the two, reduces the distance to 6'?0 miles.

(For Railways, oee Sect. V. Ch. VI).

Open Porta. — Hupeh f^ :\\^ has three ports open to Foreign trade : mmk^ow ^ D , Ieh*ang £ g and Shashi fp 1$ (this latter depending on Kingchow Fu ^ j^ fff). There are besides,lMro porU of eaii: WufMeh ^^, depending on Hwang- chow Fu K iW ^1 And Luhk^i^kfow ]StM O, depending on Hanyang Fu ^ fSf J(f' — P^*^ of eaU are those in which only passengers and luggage may be embarked.

GHAPTBR III. HUNAN. 131

2°. Ihman MM

Area. — 83,398 square miles.

Populmilon. — 22,169,000 inhabitants, or 265 per square mile.

Name. — Hunan ^ ]f) means **Houih of the lak^^ and

in fact nearly the whole Province is situated to the 8. of the TungtSng lake i^ Jg i|.

Ronndarlefi. — Hunan is bounded on the N. - By Hupeh ^ *,

W. — By Szechw'an Q )\\ and Kweichow :S !H|. ' S. — By Kwangsi J)| ]S and Kwangtung )f( %, E. — By Kiangsi f£ ||. On the N., the Yangtze ^ iF it forms during a short por- lion of its course, the boundary line between Hunan ^ "^ and Hupeh JJO 4fc^ tl^at is, from Yohchow Fu ^ ^ j^ to a distance of nearly 60 miles further down.

Capital. — CWANQSMA TV -g 3? ;|ljf , on the right bank of the Siang-kiang jffl it-

Otlier Prefectures. — The^e nuwher HgM^ awl are: On the y. W.:

V Ytrngshnii Pn ^ )H Wf • On the Tuen-Manff ^jq J£ :

2^ Ynenchcw Pn r^ ffl W, 3" Ch*§iichow Pn JR « «p, 4** Ch*aiigteli Pn * tS *.

Of» the n&'Mang ^ ^ :

5« Paok'ing Pu 5J » ».

On the Siang-kiang ffH fji, deeeenMt^ its cotifM* :

e» Yungchow Pu * ^ «r, 7° Hfingchow Pu «f #1 », BP Yohchow Pu S ^ W. There are also in Hunan four indpppndont r/?ow.<? ji\ : 14

€;hMif jf ^, Ku^eiyang CFmvf i^l |^ W, TfHvg Chntr f^ ^

and Ch^hig Chaw |J0j jHI— and pvp iiifJcpendent T'ivf]f^ J||; Fftng-

132 SECTION II. THE GBNTIIAL RSeiON.

Hwang T*ing JHL jSi Hi ^^^^'^'^^ T*ing ^ £ j||« Kiendkmo ^^^^ lit jVi M^ ^tf^'^^^chaw TUng ^ ^ H. and Nanchaw

Affpect »nd CliaraeterlBUiMi. — Hunan is a mountainoua country covered -with forests^ vchile ioa^plnntations and rice-fields are found in 8ome valley fi. The country is deeply carved up by the SUtng-Mafig Jfg ^ and its affluents, all flowing into the great Tungifing take ^ fl^^, "which overflows its banks in Sum- mer, but is nearly half empty in Winter, All activity converges towards this lake, and conveys thither : coal, tea and timber, which constitute its principal wealth. Through the S,, the Province has easy communications with Kwangsi ^ ]gf and Kwangtung J( ]ft, hence its importance as a transit centre for all goods pro^ ceeding to these Provinces,

Geolo^eal constitution. — lied BandBtone predoiniuatcs iii the monntainous part, intersectc'd here and there with limeBtone, conglomerate and fi^nite, and overlyinf; almost everywhere thick coal measures. The portion bordering on the Tnn^*inf;: lake, belongrt like the f^at plain of Hupeh, to the allnvial formation deposited by the vast inland sea which once covered the whole of this rep^on. The bottom of the Tnnfift'ing lake is formed of micaceous sand. A similar formation gives rise in the Siang-kiaug (Siang river) to quicksands, which are very dangerous for boats.

Orograpliy. •— The mountainous part of Hunan is excec- dingly and wonderfully broken up. As one approaches H^ngchow ^" ft iW ^1 ^^^ mountains form a less compact mass, and branch ofF into a considerable number of low hills. It is towards the 8.W. and W., that Ihe highest altitudes are found, but these seldom exceed an elevation of 3,250 or 4,000 feet. The Hhtg^ Shan ^ [Ij, one of the five sacred mountains, which is situated to the N.W. of H^ngchow Y\x^ ^ ^, has scarcely an elevation of 3,000 feet.

Beyond the banks of the lake, there are hardly any plains, the only ones of importance being those of Leiyang hsien ^ ff^ m and H6ngchow Fu ^ ^ J^.

Climate. — The climate of Hunan resembles that of Flupeh. In the mountain- ous region, it is rather like that of Kweichow, where it is moister than in Hupeh. At Yohchow Fn, the thermometer ranged in 1002, from 23'' to 95° Fahrenheit.

Hydroi^rapliy. — A river traverses the Province from 8. to N., the Siang'^kUmg j|g jtti which receives on its left two

GHAPTBR in. HUNAN. 133

considerable afTluents: one, the Txe-Mang "jK f£, before flowing into the lake ; the other, the Y^ien^Mting \jc f£, before it issues from the lake. The waters of the Yuen-kiang and the Siang- kiang, even at flood-season, can be distinctly traced as they flow through the lake, and so the Yuen-kiang may be really considered as an aflluent of the Siang-kiang.

The Siang-kiang p^ f£ rises in the N. of Kwangsi J(| f|. It is navigable for large boats up to H^ngchow Fu |ig ^ ^, and for small craft up to the frontier of Kwangsi JH ]§. One of its affluents, the Leirho ^fpj, is also navigable to the frontier of Kwangtung ;J| ^. In Winter, junks with a draught of five feet, sail up as far as Yohchow Fu -S* ^ Jj^ ; those drawing three and a half, can go up to Siangyin hsien ^ |^ J||, and those requiring two and a half feet can reach Siangt*an hsien ^ JV JH- Three Steamship Companies have opened regular services between Hank^ow ^ D and Ch^angsha Fu ^ ^ ^.

The Tze'hiang ^ fL'i^ navigated with difliculty, on account of its numerous rapids, which have deserved for it the name of T*€mrho f^ ^ (river of rapids). Only small craft can ply on its waters.

The Yuen-kiang \jt fC rises in Kweichow J|; jij. There, it receives on the right its longest tributary, the Ts^ingsFiui g| ;fC. The rapids, which commence 35 miles above Gh'angteh Fu '^ ^ J^, render navigation on it rather diflioult. Nevertheless, thousands of small boats traffic unceasingly upon its Waters and those of its principal aflluents, even up into Kweichow j|; j^f, and to the S.E. of Szechw'an Q J||.

In the N.W., the TA-shui |[{[ ;);, which is navigable in its lower portion only.

The Tungtfing lake ^ Jg fjjQ is about 75 miles long, by 60 broad in Summer, while in Winter, it is but a marsh through which flow several streams. In Summer, the overflow of the Yangtze ^ '^ it runs into it, forcing back the waters which it receives from the Siang-kiang {ffltC and its aflluents. In Winter, the lake pours its waters into the Yangtze, with which it com- municates through the Yohchow Fu ^^jj^ canal. Modifying its

134 8BCTION U. THE CBNTRAL RB0ION.

aspect according to the seasons and the rise of the waters, it is however the centre of a very active movement of boats, owing to a system of sluices which adapts it to navigation in all sea- sons. Thousands of junks carrying rice, timber, coal and salt, traverse it unceasingly. Immense rafts composed of an assemblage of beams and planks, attaining sometimes 330 feet in length, in fact floating villages with their huts and inhabitants, traverse its waters. A network of canals surrounds it, but the land is too low and inundations too much feared, to enlice anybody to settle down near its banks. The few villages found in the environs are all enclosed within high embankments, which pro- tect them when the waters rise.

In the N. the T^aifgHng -jj^ 2^ canal, much longer than that of Yohchow Fu ^ ;H1 il¥i t>ut less important, connects the lake with the Yangtze |K ? {£, a little to the S. W. of Shashi ^ 1^ (dependent on Kingchow Fu ^ ^ /f^f , in Hupeh ^ ft). The canal of Ngeuch*i-k'ow ^ ift Di more to the E., is better and moreover is navigable nearly the whole year round.

Fauna and Flora. — Nothint^' cl< starves any particalar mentiou save that the moiiiitaiiis of the W. are wooded, a circumstance pretty rare in China. In the foivsts, Konie f,Mp:antic trees are still found. Notwithstanding the excellent climate, there is litth" silk, sugar or opium produced in the Province.

Afi^ciiltiiral Wealtli. — Tiiis consists chiefly oitea, which is one of the best in China, and supplies in part the demand of the Hank'ow j|| P market. Besides, Hunan jjyj ]g produces rice, cotton, tobacco, oranges and oily tea. Among the trees, we may mention the pine, oak, cedar and camphor-trees.

The best tea grows at Nganhwa hsien ^ flj |||, Ch'angsha Prefecture -ft jj? jj8f , to the S.W. of the lake, while it is exten- sively cultivated in the region of the lower Siang-kiang jfg j^, up to H6ngchow Fu :f|f j^H iff '^^^ beyond. The W. of Hunan produces no tea.

Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Hunan consists principally of coal* When ascending the Siang-kiang jfg j^t, the coalfields commence near 8iangt*an hsien }^ ^ J||, and extend to the E. as far as Kiangsi jX Bl) ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^' ^ ^ distance

CHAPTBR III. HUNAN. 135

as yet unascertained. Goal is chiefly extracted at P4nghsiang hsien J^ ^JR (Yuenchow Fu ^ ;Hi iff), in Kiangsi fl |f, upon the Li-ho ]^ j^, but it is transported on the Siang-kiang j^lQ f£. The largest coal-beds are found to the S. of the confluence of the Li-ho {§ ff with the Siang-kiang }|| jX. Its extraction is easy, and the mines have been worked for a long time. This coal is despatched even to Shanghai J: ^. In the Southern part, anthracite coal predominates, but further to the N., between Siangt^an hsien }|| if HI and P'inghsiang hsien |$ ^ J||, the coal is bituminous. As anthracite coal is principally exported, it is called Hunan coal. t;

Hunan ^ ^ has also rich deposits of gold, silver, iron,^"^ copper, lead, zinc, antimony and sulphur, but the mines are not much worked, and await the advent of scientific enterprise.

PopulatUm. — The population is concentrated especially along the Siang-kiang, and in the lower course of the Yuen-kiang. Many officials are natives of this Prov- ince, which was once famous for its schools. The people of Hunan have always betrayed a violent anti-foreign feeling towards Westerners. They are renowned throughout China for their military spirit. — In the S. E. are found immigrants from Kiangsi. The S. W. is inhabited by the semi-independent tribe of the Miaotse "f^ ^ (shoots, sons of the soil), or Yaohu H p (jackals), of whom we shall speak again when dtiscri- bing the Southern Provinces and the different races of China. They form '/» of the whole population of Hunan.

LanSaa^. — The Miaotee have theii* own peculiar dialect. Everywhere else Mandarin is spoken, but the local accent with which it is pronounced renders it less distinct than that of the N., and makes it hard to be understood.

€itle« and Principal Centres. — CH*ANGSHA JfV ^

^ J^ (long sands). — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. The city is principally engaged in the manufacture of furniture, paper and various gold articles. Besides, it is an important commer- cial place, situated in a rich and fertile region, which allows it to absorb alone one-third of the foreign imports which are brought into the country.

Aiang the Stang-Mang ^ f£^ proceeding down-stream :

Hhi^aunv JFt* If ^ ;jjf. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.

An important trading mart and transit centre at the junction of

two highways: one coming from Kwangsi Jf fj, the other from

Kwangtung Jl )|t- — Upon this latter, and on the banks of the

136 8BCTI0N II. THB CBMTIIAL RBeiON.

Lei-ho ^ fify is Leii^ang hHen 3|^ HI J||. It has a population of 4,000 to 5,000 inhabitants, and is the centre of a mining region.

atanffifim hHen }tt # H. — Population, 300,000 inhabi- tants. A great depot where commission agencies are esta- blished. The shops are thronged with customers, even more than at Ch'angsha Fu. The city extends to a distance of nearly 4 miles along the Siang-kiang f|fl {H, whence originated the idea that it was more populous than it is in reality.

fltoft^ym hHen fM |t f|- — Population, 20,000 inhabi- tants. It is a rather important port. The town is transformed into an island in the flood-season.

Toh<^aw -Flft •£ iW jfiF- — Population, 20,000 inhabitants. A trading city which prospers, thanks to its site. It is built on the canal which connects the waters of Ihe lake with those of the Yangtze # ^ JQ river.

On the YuenrMang ^ j^ :

Ch*angteh F^ % % f(f.— Population, 300,000 inhabitants. Situated at the mouth of the Yuen river, it is the {>reai central mart of N.W. Hunan ^ ^. It exports to Kweichow jK ^ and Szechw^ri"'P71/ cotton-yarn and piece-goods from Hupeh ^ Jf^^ also foreign-made cotton goods ; and imports from Hupeh and Hunan: salt, opium, oils, varnish

Indasiry »nd Comuieree. — The extraction of coal, tree- growing, pottery and brick-making to the 8. of Ch'angsha Pu -fk IP fif constitute important and thriving industries. This latter city has also its special products, which we have already mentioned.

Comuieree. — The eaopart arHclee are : coal, tea, wood, pottery and bricks, silver, antimony-ore, hemp, hides, beans and preserved eggs. The imparU are : cotton and woollen goods, copper, salt, opium, sugar and petroleum.

The commercial movement of the Province is important. Through the canal of Yohchow Fu {| ^ J^ alone, the annual number of junks sailing to the interior reaches 26,000.

GHAPTBR III. HUNAN.

137

Higliwayfl of Communleatlon.— The principal highways arc the water raufsaJSiheRdy mentioned, especially the Siang- kiang ffg jt. The mosi important roads are :

1^ The Wueh^ang Fu "^ ^ J^ road in Hupeh ^ ^fc. This runs along the Siang-kiang, and passes through Yoh- chow 1^ © '>H iff' Oh*angsha Fu ^^ }^, Siangt^an hsien itt tS H and Hengchow Pu ^ ^ ;j5f. Here, it branches into two : one keeping to the W. and passing through Yungshun Fu ^ li iff* towards Kwangsi ^ H; the other to the E., running through Ihe Lei-ho ^ fpf valley. It then goes over the ChelUhig ® ^ paea, and continues into Kwangtung J| ^. Between Ichang hsien £ j|l JR, terminus of navigation upon the Wu-shui ^ ;^, and Ch'^ng Chow ^ ^, the head of navigation on the Lei-ho ^ fpir, a road connects the two basins. This is a very ancient route, and is paved. It is 30 miles long, and furnished from end to end with inns, warehouses and cattle-sheds, all bespeaking the great activity that prevails throughout it.

2« The road which goes from the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^ jX, opposite Shashi g^T^, in Hupeh, to Kweichow j^jHi, passing through Ch'angteh Fu % % M^ Ch*^nchow Fu jg jfjj iff and Yuenchow Fu \x j^ jff.

Open Porto. — In Hunan Jijfl ^, there are two ports open to Foreign trade : Yohctunv JPw # ^ iff» and Ch^angaFui 1%

References :

PliOVINCE OF UUPETL

Mission Lyoiumise.— Lyon, 1898 (2« par- tie. Notes surle Coramorce do Hau-k*eou. p. 357, le centre de fabrication de Cha- cbo. Voir aussi I»« partie. Liv. III,ch.IV).

David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875. (Vol. II, ch. 20, 21, 22. Le Han et Han- k'eou).

Ronsset. — A travors la Chine. Paris, 1878. (cb. 8-11, and ch. 18).

Du Ualde. — Description of the Empire of China. (Vol. I. p. 98-100).

Gutalair. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 108- 112).

Parker E.II. —Chinese Itevenue, Hupeh. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895-90. p. 115-117).

UUie A. J. — Through the Yangtse Gor- ges. London, 1898. (Ch. II. p. 15-30. Shanghai to Ichang. — Ch. III. p. 37-50. Ichang and its Environs. — Ch. XI. Hankow).

Little A.J. —The Far East. Oxford,1905. (Ch. IV. p. 91-96. Hupeh).

138

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RBGION.

Roohop.— NottJHdu voyage »ii Chine Ct'n- Uale. (liuUetiii dc la Soc. Geog. Comni. Paris, 1898).

WIIIianM. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol. I. p. 120-122).

Grosier. — General Description of China. (Vol. I. p. ti9-73).

WlnterboUiain. — View of th«- Cliinese Empire, (p. 83-8(J).

Murray's ChlnA. - (Vol. III. p. 28).

Gill W.— The lUver of Golden Sand. Lon- don, 1883. (Ch. IV. p. 10-.%fi. Hankow and Shasi descrihed).

Allan O.W.— Hankow.lEastof Asia Maga- zine. Shanghai, 1903. Vol. II. p. 2C5 273).

OomabyW.— Morning walks around Han- yang. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. I. p. 2«i2-268. Vol. II. p. 279-283. Vol. III. p. 2:<2-237).

Stuhlmaim P.— Shasi. (East of Asia Ma-

gazine. 1902. Vol. I. p. 119-200). Woodbricise S.I.~Kuliug. (East of Asia Magazine. 1903. Vol. II. p. 327-33<>).

l^uUetin dii Comite de I'Asie Fran^st*. 1902. .p. 24(5-253. Han-k^eou).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen- nial Reports. Shanghai, 1904. (Hankow. Decennial Report, 1892-1901. p. a»3-32i. — Ichang. Decennial Report, 1892-1!H)1. p. 179-219. — Shasi. Report, 1896-1901. p. 221-25()).

RioliUiofeii. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873. (The Han River, p. 13-16).

- Parker E. H. — Up the Yaugtse. Hong- kong, 1891.

China. Imperial Maritime Castoms. lUs- tums of Trade, 1905. (Ilaukow trade Re- port, 1905. p. UM81. — Ichang trade Report, 1905. p. 102-112. - Shasi trade Report, 1905. p. 113-123).

PliOVINCE OF HUNAN.

Williiims.—The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.

I. p. 122 123). GrOsier. — (ieneral Description of China.

(Vol. I. p. 69-73). Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese

Empire, (p. 8:^80). Murr.»y'« China. — (Vol. III. p. 28). Du llalde. — Description of tlie Empire

of China. (Vol. I. p. 100-102). GutzlalT. — Clihia opened. (Vol. I. p. lOS-

112). Parker E. II. —Chi iiosr Revenue, Hunan.

(N. C. 15. R. A. Soc. lS9r,-9o. p. lU-Uh). Ban* lay ParsOns \V. — Voyage tlnough

Uunun. (Gtog. Journal, 11M)2. p. 711-73:;). Kielithoren. — Letters. Slianghai, l.s7o.

(lluuan. p. 1-13). Gill W.— The River of (iolden Sand. Lon-

don, 1883. (Tuugting lake described. Ch. IV. p. 52-53).

OarlesW.R.— The Yaugtse Chiaug.(Geog. Journal, 1898 Vol. XII. p. 235-237).

Preston T. J. — Progress and Reform in TIanan Province. (East of Asia Magazine,

1905. Vol. IV. p. 210-219).

Wingrate A. -Recent Journey from Shang- hai to Rhanio, through Uiuian. (Geog. Journal, 1899. Vol. XIV. p. 609-616).

Little A.J. The Far Kast. Oxford, 1905.

(TTunan. p. %-99).

China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Dcoeuuial Repoits. Shanghai, 1904. (Yochow.Reiwjrt 1899-iyul.p. 251-21>1).

China. Rctuvnb of Trade, 1905. (Ch'augsha trade Rcpoi-t, 1905. p. 123-13;^.— Vochow trade Report, 1905. p. 13M43).

CHAPTER IV.

THE KECaON OF THE LOWER YANGTZE

(KIANGSI a If* NGANHWPn^^R AND KIANGSU aH).

These three Provinces are governed by the same Viceroy, styled the lAang^hiang p^ XL Vieeropf -who resides at Nanking ift M ^^ Kiangning fE Iff.. For this reason, we shall study them together. Kiangsi jtt f| has however this particular feature that its Governor has the charge of nearly all civil affairs, and depends on the Viceroy only for military matters.

KUnngai differs widely from the other two Provinces. It is nearly all covered with mountains, has hut one lake which irri- gates its extreme N.. only one highway of communication, and one navigable route which traverses it from S. to N. The other two Brovinees, on the contrary, are covered with immense plains, intersected with canals and navigable rivers, and watered by several large lakes. The whole Northern part of Nganhwei ^ ^ and Kiangsu f£ Jf^ borders on the hasiji of the Hwang^ho Jjf fnj, and partakes of its characteristics, while to the S. of Kiangsi f£ U, the climate, productions and. even the dialects resemble those of Kwangtung ^ Tg.

The three Provinces have this in common, that the same river flows through them, and their productions are to a great extent the same. All three have greatly suffered from the T^tU' pHuff rebeliiou, which 50 years ago devastated them and reduced their population.

140 8BGTI0N II. THB GBNTOAL RBGION.

l"", Kiangsi tH S

Area. — 69, *98 square miles.

Popnlallon. — 26,532,000, or 382 to the square mile. Marne. — Kiangsi {H |f means **Wmi reach of the Kianff*\

This Province is in fact to the W. if we consider the Kiangsu and Nganhwei ^ '^ Provinces, sometimes styled collectively Kianf/nan f£ ^, or Provinces S. of the Kiang ^, a name which would better suit Kiangsi, as it lies entirely to the S. of the Yangtze ^ ip jQC river.

JBonndartes. — Kiangsi is bounded on the

N. — By Nganhwei ^ ^ and Hupeh Hfg ^fe,

W. — By Hunan ^ ^,

S. — By Kwangtung j|| ;^,

E. — By Fokien || ^ and Oh^kiang f^ ft.

VwLpiiMl. — NANCIFjiNG PU ^ ^ )ff, on the Kan-kiang g( Jc, to the S. of the P^oyang f) ^ lake.

Other Prefeotares. — These are 12 4n number, rraeeeditifjf from the Yangtze ^ ^ tL towarde Kwatig- tung J5JJ ;^, through the lian-kiang @ ft vaUey :

r Kinkiang YuiiilM,

2r Nank*ang Pu W fll fflp,

3^ Linkiang Pu tt ft ff,

d'' Kihngan Fu W ft fl§P,

6" Kanchow Pn « ^ «,

6" Nanngan Pn ffi ft W". i)n the Weetem affluetUs, going from S. to N. :

7" Yuenchow Pn fi ffl «P,

8» Shuichow Pu 5» ^ «P. €hi the FJaetem ajfflftente, going also from S. to N. :

9" Kiench'ang Pu ili A M¥,

W Puchow Pu » ^ W,

11" Kwangsin Fu J» ^ fflp,

12" Jaochow Pu 1» ^ jfr. There is also in Kiangsi ft H one independent Chtnv^: Ningtu Chow ^ i( M-

CHAPtBR lY. KIANG8I. 141

Aspect and C^iaraeiertslles. — Of all the Provinces in China, there is none which is so simple in structure. Hunan iM 1^» ^^^ neighbouring Province, is the one which resembles it most, Kiangsi fl[ If, entirely mountainous, except in its low part (to the North), is traversed from S. to N. by a great valley through which pows the Kan^hiang jH j^l, and into which run all the affluents of the same river. These affluents, or nearly all of them, rise within the Province, A great lake occupies the low-lying part of the Province, and fulfils the same duty as the Tungt'ing lake f^ ]^ ^, overflowing like it in Summer, and becoming empty in Winter, Junks likewise ply on its waters. Tea, rice, cotton, silk, as well as porcelain ware, constitute its principal riches. Its mineral wealth has not been so far availed of. At the present day coal-mines begin to be worked in the Western part, but the export takes place chiefly through Hunan

W W •

Geological constitution. — The ^eolo^y of Kiangsi has bo far been bnt little explored. Ked sandstone seems to predominate in the W. It overlies, as in TInnan, rich coal measures. In the E., although red sandstone is abundantly found, still as one advances in the same direction, it is replaced by granite and porph5'r5\ The sandstone wonderfully broken up, ofTers in this Province the name picturesque {(-n- tures which we have already mentioned in Hunan. It imparts great variety and charm to 4he country, otherwise so rich in limpid streams, and also in trees and shrubs.

Orograpliy. — With the exception of the great pittin which surrounds the P*oyang ^ ^ jjfl lake, and extends to the S. as far as Linkiang Fu gg it ifiF» ^^^ country is covered with mountain chains and ridges running in the general direction S. W. — N. E. To the E., the high mountains of Fokien JH ^ interpose a powerful barrier between the two Provinces. Else- where, their altitude reaches 1,600 feet and seldom surpasses 3,200 feet.

Climate. ~ The climate of Kiangsi generally is hot in Summer. During Winter, the lakes between Kinkiang and the mountain-background are occasionally frozen. In the neighbourhood of the P'oyang lake, the climate resembles much that of Hank'ow and Hupeh. In the S., as evidenced by the flora, it is tropical like that of Canton.

Hydrograpliy* — The water system of Kiangsi is compo- sed of a large river flowing into the YtMngixe |§ ^ it, a large

142 SECTION II. THB CBNTRAX RBGION.

iake which receives this river before it reaches the Yangtze, and numerous afTluents flowing from both sides into the Kan-kiang

mtL

The Ktm-kiang ^ fH rises in the 8. E. of Kiangsi, and is then called the Kuna-Bhui "^ if^. On the W., it flows up to Kanchow Fu ^ ^ )|^, and receives there the ChmMf-^h^tfi j|t ^. It runs subsequently to the N. E. as far as the P*oyang ^ 1^ lake, into which it empties its waters through several mouths. Above Kihngan Fu ^ $ Jf^y it has a certain number of rapids which are called the Shihpahrl^an '^ A fl (eighteen rapids). In the flood-season, it is however navigable for small steamers up to Nanch'ang Fu "^ g /|^ ; for junks of middling tonnage up to Kanchow Fu ^ ^ ^, and for small craft up to Nanngan Fu ^ ^ ;fif.

The T^^fffamg laks ^If^M ^^ ^^^ miles in length and almost 20 in breadth. It is very deep like the TungtMng lake S| JH iMi especially in its Southern part. In the flood-season, it rises to nearly 30 feet above the ordinary level, and overflows into all the neighbouring marshes. It is dotted with numerous islands, while its Northern banks, though rather steep, are covered with trees and villages. Its violent storms are greatly feared. Numerous small steamboats convey passengers across its waters. The Hukfow ^ Q canal connects it with the Yangtze Sr iF tt river.

Throughout the Province, there are numerous ponds which are used for rearing fish.

Fauna and Flora. — Tho fauna and Hora of Kianprsi are peculiar, aft tlipy bolonf* like those of Hnnan to the Romi-tropical ro^ion. The RpocimonR of the fanna arp ratbor raoafjro thr«n^h lack of extcnsivo forrsts. Even the birds arc not very nnmeroiifl, oxcopt tho palmipeds or w<*b-footod, which abound in Winter on the laken. A few kinds of serpcjuts arc found, but thoy arc not of a dangerous sort.

The country is well wooded and iioasesses tall firs, camphor-trecR, oaks, banyans, canielliaH, kidney-btan trees and azaleas. Trees of large girth are randy found, and this ntTicssitatcs the importation of wood for building purposes.

Aiprtealtnral Wealth. — This consists chiefly of rice, aotton, tobacco and hemp. The Province has also the ordinary crops of the N. : corn, barley, millet, sorghum and indigo. Tho tea-plant is confined mostly to the N. W.

CHAPTBR IV. KIAN6SI. 143

BuiTaloes and zebus, or humped oxen, are largely employed in tilling Ihe ground, but few horses and asses are found, and so goods are transported either by water or on the backs of carriers.

Mtneiml Wealtli. — Goal is extensively found in the N. W. and also in the E., at Lohph'ng hsien ^ 2^ )||. Excellent Kaolin (Kaoling 'f^ ^, literally high ridge or pass — Decomposed granite made into paste, and forming an important ingredient in all kinds of porcelain), abounds in the N. E. and is used in ihe manufacture of the famous Kiangsi porcelain.

Population. — The popnlation is espocially crowded in the N. of the Troviiice i and in the valleys. The country was formerly mnch more populated, but like its neif^h- bours, it suffered severely from the devastation of the T'aip'infjs. A large number of immigrants poured in from Hupeh to cultivate the vacant lands. The people rival in business-ability those of Shansi, but the majority are engaged in agricultui*al pursuits and lead a rather secluded life.

• Lan^uo^e. —Mandarin is spoken in the E. and S., but intermingled with various

dialects. In the extreme E., a peculiar dialect is spoken, whicli n sombles much that of Fokien.

dliles and PHnctpal Centres. — NANOWANG JFU ^

^ Jff. — Population, 300,000 inhabitants. It stands in the centre of an alluvial plain, and was originally built on the shore of the P*oyang lake, which has since receded 30 miles Northward. During the T*aip*ing rebellion, it successfully withstood a long siege, until the arrival of the Imperial troops from the N. compelled the rebels to retreat. Of late it has risen from its ruins, become an important trading town and has also some manufactures.

To the N. of take T*o^fmng :

K^Uhkmg J^ JL tt Jff- — Population, 36,000 inhabitants. One of the Yangtze ports open to foreign trade in 1861. It is 12 miles distant from the outlet of the P^oyang lake. It has considerable commerce in tea, which it exports principally to Hank*ow ^ P and Shanghai J: ff|. There are two fine granite quays along the river front, which widens out there to 5,000' feet. To the rear of the city are the Lu-shan ]( \\\ mountains, which attain a height of 4,000 feet.

144 8BGTI0M II. THB GBMTRAL RBGION.

Kiuttnff ji ^ (nine ridges). — An excellent health resort and aanaiariufn open for Foreign residence since 1895. The Summer is delightful and the climate pure and bracing. It is* 5 hours* distance from Kiukiang, and the journey may be made in a sedan chair.

*TaocIiow JP^ ^ )^ J^' — Built on the Eastern bank of the P^oyang lake, it is with Nank^ang Fu ^ j^ fffy the great empo- rium for the sale of the porcelain manufactured in the Province.

Kingieh ehSn ^^^^ (mart of brilliant virtue). — A cenlge manufacturing highly esteemed porcelain. It extends in a plain along^the l^anks ofthe river Chiang ^ gjli ^^^ Js flanked by high mountains. It was established A. D. 1004, under an Emperor of the Northern Sung ^fc tIc dynasty, whose title of reign it bears. The kilns destroyed by the T'aip*ing8 have been rebuilt. Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At tbcf present day, it has but 160 furnaces (instead of 500), and employs 100,000 workmen (instead of 1,000,000). The finest porcelain manufactured there, is despatched annually to Peking for the use of the Emperor. A small amount of fancy articles is exported to Europe and America. The remainder, consisting especially of rice bowls, is sold cheaply throughout the country, but it possesses the practical qualities of hardness, solidity and useful- ness. The value of export sales amounts annually to about 3,000,000 taels, or £ 480,000 sterling. '

IndiMtry and Commeree. — The principal industry is the manufacture of porcelain. The weaving of silk and cotton cloth, the preparation of tea for export purposes, a few soap and glass manufactories, match and paper-making occupy a large number of hands.

The chief eoftparts are : porcelain, paper, tea and tobacco, while the imparts include cotton cloth, linen fabrics, petroleum, mulberry-trees, sugar, salt and fans. The traffic through the Province, principally with Canton and the Northern region, is considerable. From 20,000 to 30,000 junks visit annually the port of Kiukiang.

CHAPTBE IV. KIANG8I.

145

Highways of €)oinni«Mieatton. — Besides the navigable waterways already described, a single but very important route deserves to be particularly mentioned : it is that which follows the Kan-kiang j|| fL valley and proceeds to Canton J| ]|C. It is the way formerly known as ^^Ambtumidaraf rouU^^^ and by which several embassies journeyed from Canton to Peking 4b ^. It runs to the S. over the MeUing ;ff| ^ pasB, which owes its name to the numerous plum-trees that grow in the neigh- bourhood. It was over this pass, that the embassies to the Court of Peking of Lord Macartney and Lord Amherst passed when returning to Canton, the former in 1793 and the latter in 1816.

In the N. W., a short raUwaw W»»e conveys the coal from the P^inghsiang hsien jl^ ||p f| mines to Liling hsien H 8^ f|, in Hunan fJH ^.

Open Porta. — In this Province, there is but one port open to Foreign trade : KiukUmg ^ it jfr. Further on, Hu- k^mv h9ien ^ p fl is a port of coil.

Note. — To the W. of the P'oyang lake flS |A j|j0 are the ffote and graUo of the ffhUe deer (pehluh-tung j^ j£ jp^), where lived and taught ChtthH ^ D( (A. D. 1130-1200), the disciple and commentator of Confucius. The spot is a celebrated place of pilgrimage for Chinese literati.

Beferences :

Willians. ^ The Middle Kingdom. New

York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 91-93). Grosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. p. 46-51. VTialerbotliaiii. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. p. 66-79. Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1813.

(Vol. in. p. 26-27). Da Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Vol. L p. 79.*'8). Gatalair — China opened. London, 1888.

(Vol. I. p. 81-90). David. — Journal de Voyage. Paris, 1875.

(Vol. II. Oh. 23-28). ^"^^^ Bocber. — Notes de voyage en Chine

Centrale. 1898. topography of Kiangsi (Chinese Reposi- tory. Vol. XI. p. 375-386).

Parker E.H.~ Chinese Revenue, Kiangsi.

(N. C. B. H. A. Soc. 1895-96. p. 120-123). Davis Sir J. F. — Sketches of China,

London, 1811. Ch. 14. LiUloA. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

p. 99104. 01e«nel W. J. — Region of the Poyang

liake. Central China. (Geog. Journal.

1906). Decennial Report of the Trade of Kiu-

kiang. 1892-1901. (China. Imperial Marit.

Customs. Vol. I. Yangtse Ports, p. 325-

366). Returns of Trade for Kiukiang, 1905. (Imp.

Marit. Customs, p. 184-196. With sketch-

map. of the Poyang lake,by W.J.Clennel). Geogr.Notes on the Province of Kiangsi.

(China Review. Vol. Vll. N« 2-5). . ,

10

146 8BCTI0M II. THB CENTRAL RBftlON.

2^ , Nganhwei $ jfe

Ar«u — 54,826 square miles.

Population. — 23,672,300 inhabitants, or 432 to the square mile.

Name. — The name of this Province comes from the combined names of two of its principal towns : l^jTOftk^ng Fu * J* *f> and Hweichow Fu % j^ Jff.

Boundaries. — Nganhwei is bounded on the N. — Hy Honan Jf ^, W. — By Honan Jf -^ and Hupeh f^ :|k, S. — By Kiangsi fL H and Gh^kiang ffi i£, E. — By Kiangsu i£ H.

Capital. — NOANK^ING FV ^ J/tHf. to ihe S.W. of the Province, and on the left bank of the Yangtze #| ^ JC river. Otlier Prefectures. — These are seven in nimnber*

To the N.W.J one; and to the EL, another:

1" Yingchow Pu ffl ^ *, 2° Fimgyang Fu A A MP.

A lUOe to the N. of take Ch*ao Jk '

a> LUchow Fu ■ M «. To the & of the Yangtze, proceeding dokm-eireftm :

i'* Ch'ichow Fu yOi M Jl!P, 5* T'aip'ing Fuik^fff.

To the S. of T'aipHng F^ ^ I^ fff :

e^ Ningkwoh Fu « « «, 7<*HweichowFu«Mjf)f.

There are also in Nganhwei ^ ^ five independent Chmv ^ eUies: Kwangteh Chow jK Ifii M, Ch'u Chow fg^ ^, Ho Chow Tfo jHlf lAihngan Chow ':f^ ^ )^ and Soe Chow fH fH.

Aspect and Cbaracteristics. — Nganhwei ^ ^ compri- ses three quite distinct regions. On the 8. of the river, the country is mountainous^ rich in tesj cotton and industries, .fo the cemre^ between the TiV9T jmi the /fwai-Zio ffk^^ it is partly

^

CHAPTBR IV. NOANHWEI. 147

mountainous, partly flat and marshy, and dotted with lakes as Kiangsu ft fjj^ is approached. The people are not so rich as to the S. of the river, and productions are less abundant^ though tea is still grown. IH the N., beyond the Hwai-ho ^ Jf , there is a vast plain with a few hillocks. It is the prolongation of the Great Northern Plain, with its dense and impoverished population, its cold dust storms, its waggons and its monotony of vegetation. Throughout Nganhwei ^ ^ however^ communications are facili- tated by numerous navigable waterways, even in the mountainous region of the S, Nganhwei ^ jff^ combines in the same Province the characteristics of three regions : of the N., the Centre, and the Coast Region of CMkiang fjf^ JL a^d Kiangsu jH jflf. All three are found in its vegetation and animals, in the character of its inhabitants^ and even in its language,

Geoloerlcal confititation. — The Great Northern Plain extends into the upper part of the Province. The soil is a mixture of alluvium and loess, and the surface is diversified hy the prolongation of the last spurs of the K*uenlun range. These moun- tains terminate not far from the Hungtseh lake, and are composed of sandstone, marble and granite. In the S., we find a prolongation of the mountains of Fokien and Ch^kiang. Their formation is chiefly of granite, limestone and schist, while alluvial lands are found at the bottom of the valleys and along the Yangtze river.

ihpofgrmpUy. — To the N. of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL, contin- uing the BuHtHf€mg''Shan ^ |^ |i| and skirting the N. of Hupeh jjJD 41^, are the Hoh-Bhan ^ |i| nwunitrins. These extend from S.W. to N.E. between the Yangtze #| ^ Jc and the Hwai-ho ^ ^. They afford beautiful sites, have difficult passages, and rise in places to an elevation of 6,500 feet. Their average height varies from 1,600 to 3,300 feet.

To the S. of the river, is the Hwang'Shan ^ |i|, which follows the same general direction, and reaches at times an altitude of 6,560 feet. It is however a very confused chain, especially in the Hweichow ^^ % j^ ftf region. Its numerous valleys seldom exceed a few hundred yards in breadth.

dimate. — Nganhwei enjoys a climate similar to that of the Northern Region, especially in the plain N. of the Hwai-ho. In the mountainous tract of the Centre, the cold is intensely felt in the Winter season, and snow at times blocks up the roads. Snow is also found occasionally on tlie mpnntains of the ^nthern pfirt, but the climato is mjld^r ftere |n generi^,

148 SECTION II. THB CENTRAL RBftlOK.

Hydropmplur. — The rivers of Nganhwei ^ % run in three distinct basins :

1^ ^ the N. — The Hwai-ho JH fE|, commonly called the Mwai. This stream rises in the S. of Honan fE|^, and is navigable there below Sinyang Chow # |# jHI- When it reaches Ngan- hwei ^ Ht, it is already a large river. It is in this Province however that it receives on its left bank its principal affluents : the Sha-hm ^^j^, FtirhmXt^, Km-h^ {ft ^ and SM-km^fff. The Hwai-ho JSfEl runs in Nganhwei ^^ from S.W. to N.E., and flows into the HungUeh ^flt lake. Formerly it received a part of the waters of the Hwang-ho )| j^, through the Sha-ho fjf j!|', which is still its principal affluent. The Hwai-ho is trom 500 to 1,300 feet wide, and is subject to violent floods which inun- date the surrounding country to a distance of from 10 to 20 miles. It is navigable, as are also the greater number of its tributaries, but canals connecting them together are sorely needed. Yii Jl| the Great, it is said, had formerly opened several, but they have been allowed to silt up, or are obstructed by fish preserves.

2<' In me cenlra.— The YmHn»e H^fll, which is very wide and deep throughout all this part of its course. It receives on both banks numerous streams, of which several are navigable. In Summer, it overflows its banks, especially the left, in the flood-season. It then forces back, even as far as lake Ch'ad j|, the waters of the rivers which flow into it. We have described above [eee ch. I p. 98) the different branches through which it flowed formerly through the S. of the Province.

S"" In the eaOreine A, near Hwelchow Fu ^ ^ J|^, the rivers run partly towards the P'oyang lake flS lA iM* >" Kiangsi; and partly towards Hangchow Fu U ^ ;fif bay, in Ch^kiang Province.

ijOces. — Lakes abound in the Province, especially along the Northern bank of the Yangtze. The principal are: the Mtmgt^eh lake f^ M M^ which we shall find again when describing Kiangsu fL fti ^^^ ^^^ Ch^aifk'hu J| j||.

The Ch'oMk-hu Jl iKQ, to the S. of Liichow Fu Ji ^ j||^, fills the bottom of the basin formed by that region. It teems with

CHAPTER lY. N6ANHWBI. 149

fish, and is navigable for large junlcs. Its circumference is about 125 miles. Rivers flow into it from every side, except on the E., where it empties itself into the Yangtze ^ ^ fL through a large canal.

Fauna and Flora. — The fanua and flora of this Province vary according to the three regions of which it is composed. Meagre in the North, they become more numeroas and rich in the centre, especially in the mountainoas part, where there are still some tracts pretty well wooded. The Southern region abounds in splendid forests, though some are more denuded since 18G0. In these forests are found beautiful speci- mens of the camphor-tree, the thuja, the cuuninghamia and the yew-tree. The fauna is also rich in deer, wild boars and panthers. It is said even that there are some monkeys, which have probably crossed over from the mountains of ChCkiang or of Fokien. In the N. are found numerous aquatic birds: swans, cranes, bustards, pelicans, storks and herons.

Agrlealtaiml Wealili* — Agricultural products diminish from S. to N. In the S., besides the productions peculiar to the N., tea, rice and cotton are extensively cultivated. In the N.y rice and tea are lacking, and only wheat, beans, sorghum and millet are found. In the Central part, tea and rice grow, but much less than in the S. The best tea is that of Luhngan Chow jri 4t )^i sometimes called 9ungto ijg^ m (pine range) iea^ from a mountain of the country. The Hweichow Fu §( JHI j|| tea is also much esteemed. If the timber of the same district were exported, it would be likewise a source of prosperity for the country. The poppy is cultivated more and more throughout the whole Province, chiefly in Yingchow Fu |p jt| j|^, and Lii-

chow Fummfif

Mlnend Wenlih. — Coal is extensively found in the S., but the mines are little worked up to the present. Iron-ote is extracted at Hoh-shan ^ |1|, and it seems that formerly gold, silver, copper and lead mines have been worked in the S.

Pupnlalion. -- The poorest portion of this Province, that of the N., is also the most populoua.^ The inhabitants are very simple, but robust and hard-working. They ^reckon but few scholars from their ranks. In the Centre, the population is still denser, except in the mountainous part. This region produces a few more scholars. The South- em part is the one that suffered most from the T'aip'ing rebellion. It is now however being gradually repeopled, owing to immigrants from Hupeh and Honan.

The people of Hweichow Fu,in the extreme S.,form a category by themselves.They are shcttwd business-men, and living in a place abounding in resources, have succeeded in makiiig large fortunes. During a considerable portion of the year, the men travel

150 ncnoM ii. the cbhteal BiftioN.

on business, and leave their liomes in charge of immigrants and slaves from Ngank'ing Fa. The former constitute one-third of the population, and the latter nearly one-sixth. Lnn^nasc. — Mandarin^ but more or less altered, is spoken everywhere, except in the S. The Northern dialect much resembles the language of Ghihli. Hweichow Fu has a tongue so peculiar that it seems to form a dialect by itself.

dliles Mid Principal Centrem.—NGAlfKfJDrG JPV^ft

Iff. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. Capital of the Province, and a port of call on the Yangtze. It has a military academy and a provincial mint. The city is beautifully situated and has a certain commercial importance. The suburbs extend on both sides along the Yangtze.

On the right bdnk of the river:

Wuhu heien K| JjJ ||. — Population, 137,000 inhabitants. ^ treaty TOTt and important city exporting rice, wheat, cotton, tea, opium,- furs, timber", sugar, paper and feathers. The prin- cipal export articles are : rice, cotton and tea. All other goods are imported and distributed throughout the Southern Region. There are also a few industries, such as a flour-mill and an egg factory. The total net value of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 24,542,783; in 1904, Tls. 23,223,383; and in 1905, Tls. 30,623,809. The new General Foreign Settlement was opened on the 16«»» May, 1905.

T^aip^ing JP** ic ^ iff- ^ A. scholarly and military town. It has however some steel and copper works, and manufactures vermilion.

Xn the eadreme SL :

BweUhow F^ flLJf\ Jd- — Centre of the tea-packing dis- trict. It is also famous for its Indian ink. The country around is one of the richest of Nganhwei, and furnishes timber and bamboo, which are largely exported.

To the N. of lAOoe CWao :

Hohfei heien 'fr- flC JK (dependent on Liichow Fu). — The native home of Li Hungchang, China's great modem statesman (1823-1901).

To the N.B>:

Fungyang i^ j@L |^ jff (Rising phoenix). — Birthplace of the Mings Q|. The first Emperor of this dynasty, Hungwu

GHAPTBR IV. NC^ANHWEI. 151

Wi ^f resided there in A. D. 1368, before he transferred the seat of Empire to Nanking f^ "fiC* In the neighbourhood, 5 miles to the 3.W., the mausoleum which he erected upon his father^s burial place is still to be seen.

To the N.W.:

JPoh Chaw ^ iHI* — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A large city, where an important trade in hides is carried on.

IndiMtry and Cyommeree. — The most important indus- trial region of the Province is Hweichow Fu ^ ^ ^, famous for its ^^Indian ink^^, its engravings on copper and its varnish ; eacTr^f the district cities of this region has its special branch of trade. In other places, silk is manufactured, and iron-works carried on.

Nganhwei ^ ^ eccpariB: tea, rice and cotton, and imports: furs, sugar, opium, cotton fabrics and paper.

KIgliwayB of Oommanlcatlon. — Besides the numerous navigable rivers, some of which are practicable only for 6 months, the princlpai highways are.

To the N. of the Yangtze :

All the roads radiate from LiMtaw ^^^ ft j{\ Jtf, and lead thence :

1^ To the N.B», towards Shantung [Ij ^, via Hwalyuen hsien HE ^ H, ^nd Suh Chow ^ %.

2* To the JV.IF., towards Honan jpf ^, via Ch^ngyang-kwan JE It R, and Yingchow Fu ^ « jff .

Z"" To the A IT,, towards Hupeh Jjfl ft, via T*ungch*6ng hsien ;tg :M H, and T'aihu hsien :ic ^ H* At T'ungch^^ng hsien a branch-road runs to NgankMng Fu ^ JH )|^.

A road distinct from the others, coming from Peking, and formerly one of the finest of the Empire, starts from Fungyang T^^ M.% M' ^"^ proceeds via Ch*u Chow Jlfe ^ to P'ook'ow ^ D, opposite Nanking 'HH "^^ A cross-road connects it with route n® 1, mentioned above.

To the 8.^ the Yangtze :

1® A road coming from Nanking ^ ^ skirts the right bank of the Yangtze, passes through Wuhu ^ ^ M and

1^2 8BCTI0M It. THB CKMTRAL iMlON.

Gh'ichow Fu ^ ^ Jl^, and terminates opposite Ngank'ing

2^ Several roads start from Hweichow Fvt ff^ j^ Jff. All of them are kept in a state of good repair, and they connect the district towns with each other.

To the y» of the Hwairlio f^ fjf^ the roads are wide and carls travel on them. Everywhere else conveyance is performed by carriers and pack-animals. A great number of ponies, mules and asses are employed in this transport.

Open Ports. — In this Province there is but one port open to Foreign trade: Wiihu ^jgf^. There are besides two ports of eail : Ngankfing JP^ ^ ft fif and Tatfun^ ^ j||, in the Prefecture of Ch'ichow Fu f^ f(/i fff.

GHAPTBR IV. KIANMU. 153

3^, Kiangsu it M

ArMU — 38,610 square miles. Next to Ch6kiat>g j|f {Ct Kiangsu is the smallest Province of China.

P^pnlaii^ii. — 28,980,230 inhabitants, or 620 to the square mile. It is, especially in the S., the most densely popu- lated Province of the Empire, and comes immediately after Shantung |lj %.

Ifame. — The name of this Province is derived from the combination of the names of two of its principal cities : Kiang- ning Fu in H: flfif or Nanking ^ jjt* and /Stoochow Fu 1^ ^ J)^.

Boundaries. — Kiangsu is bounded on the N. — By Shantung |ll %, W. — By Honan fH |f| and Nganhwei ^ fjjf^^ 8. — By Ch^kiang ^r tL E. — By the Yellow Sea j( % (Hwang-hai).

CM^plial. — NANKING ^ ^ or Ktanffiitos Fn HI Hf A"-

Former Capital of the Empire, and nowadays the residence of the Viceroy of the Liang-kiang fff jTt, or two Kiangs. It is built at a short distance from the Yangtze Ji -^ it river.

Otlier Prefeelwral Cities. — The&e are 7 in nun^er. On ike Grand Canai :

vsoocEowYummw.

T^ the 8.BL of Soeeh&w JPW ;

2" Sungkiang Fu S tc JRf.

AUmg the Grand €kinai, to the N.W. of Soochow FW ; 30 Ch'angchow Fu • /H Mf . io Chftnkiang Fu IR tc H^f .

AUm9 the Grand €fanai, proceeding from 8. to N : 5» Tangchow Fn H ^ JKP, 6° Hwaingan Fn it £ ffip.

To the N W.f near the fortner bed of the Bwang^ho )|f ^ •

7° StichowFutt^MP. '

154 8BCTI0N II. THB CBYITRAL RBOION.

There are besides in Kiangsu fL M '^ independent Chmw ^ eUUs: Hai Chaw % ^. T'nng Chatv Jft ^ and T'aUt^ang Chow >(c ^ W ; and miejndependeni T'ing jg ; Haimhi THng

A^peei and Chu«eterlstics. — Like Nganhv^ei ^ %, Kiangmi is traversed in its /ouer part hy the Yangtze ff^ ^ fL river, and is divided into 3 regiattm: — The first or NcHhem

extends almost to Hv^aingan Fu f^ ^ )ff. This tract is poor, densely inhabited^ and has all the characteristics of the Northern plain. It has however no navigable river like \orthern NganhyK-ei, and the fwtner bed of the Hwang-ho J| fpf runs through it from N.W, to S.E. Thii^ bed is half filled up in the flood-season.

The second or Central extends from H\Kaingan Fu f^^fff to the Yangtze ^ ip fiQ. It is a region covered vrith 8haI/ow lagoons, «uamps, and canals, very poor also, though in Summer rich crops of cotton, maize, v:heat and rice are raised. Fish abound, and afford it a resource -which is lacking in the Northern region. The Orand Canal, the numerous lakes and canals, the rivers which traverse this part, render communicationii very easy.

Tlie third or Southern one comprises all that region which lies to the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL river. A little mountain- ous to the W., it exhibits toxKards the E. a long and inextricable maze of lakes, rivers and canals. The Cfmnd Canal runs through it, and it is the most fertile part of the v:hole Proviiice. Fiice, silk, cotton and fish are plentiful, -while the neighbourhood of the great commercial and industrial city of Shanghai J;;, f^ contributes much to increase its prosperity.

Geologrieol coiwlHatiOn. — KiangKu is largely a low, wido, alluvial plain, formed by the silt of China's two ^T^at rivora: tlie Ilwang-ho in the N. and the Yang- tze in the S. Loess however covers a rather large part of the eountrj', both to the N. of the Yangtze, and also to the S., down to Cbenkiang and Nanking. In the bills ex- tending along the S. of tlie Yangtze, the predominating formations aru : sandstone or quartzite, then limestone and conglomerates. Around Nanking, volcanic rocks betoken that tho region was formerly the scene of violent eruptions.

Orognrapliy. — From end to end, except to the W., Kiangsu fC jH is a vast plain broken merely by a few undulations. To the 8, W., in the environs of Nanking )|f JjCi ^^^^^ ^^^ found,

CHAPTER IV. KIANG8U. 155

and attain along the river an elevation of from 500 to 1,950 feet. Several hillocks also dot the country on the banks of the T^ai- hu ;;i^ Jig or great lake, and extend to within some 20 miles to the S. W. of Shanghai. In the N., the Shantung ||j ^ hills continue in a series of low undulations.

Olimate. — In the N., in the Prefectare of Siichow Fn, the climate is that of the Hwang-ho region with its rather severe Winters, its dry heat, and its cold wind covering the whole country with dast. Everywhere else, the climate of Shanghai prevails with its almost mild Winters, snow falling seldom and melting quickly; its N. W. wind in Winter, its S. W. in Summer ; its moist and unhealthy heat during the latter season, and finally its heautiful Autumn period. Owing to the proximity of the sea, the differ- ences of temperature are less felt than in the interior.

BjdragmpiMy. — Besides the Yanfftze ^ ^ ^, of which we have already spoken (p. 93-102), there is no other stream to be mentioned, except the Htumi^oo J(f -j^, or Shanghai Jt ^ river, which is a large, deep and useful waterway. It rises to the S. W. of Sungkiang Fu ;^ ^ jjSf . Ships of heavy tonnage can sail up to Shanghai, and the river is connected with a very important network of canals and lakes. When the tide rises, all these canals are filled up, and when it falls, they are almost dry, except a few large ones which are always navigable. At high-water, the whole volume rushes up the Hwangp^oo tJ| ^, making thereby this river the great thorough- fare for all boats that ^OTn<> up q«^^ ^^ffppnH y{\\\{ th? V'^^_

To prevent inundations (such as the one that occurred on the !■* and 2"^ September, 1905, and 'caused such terrible havoc), embankments have been built on the E. to oppose a barrier to the inroads of the sea.

The canals of the Central region are less numerous, and receive their waters from several quarters. The larger ones alone are navigable, and on the whole, do not render to the country the same services as those of the S. Two embankments, running from N. to S., protect the lowlands situated to the E. of Yangchow Fu ^ jHi jfif ^^^ Hwaingan Fu }{| ^ J)^, from the waters which flow from the W. and threaten to inundate the country. The first of these embankments is formed by the Eastern bank of the Grand Canal ; the second known by the name of '*Fankung-ti" %^^ (Duke Fan's dike) is parallel to the first,

156 SICnON II. THB CBNTIAL KMION.

and about 40 miles distant from it. The whole country to the E. of the Grand Canal is called the HBim'hm f ^, or region below the level of the Canal.

(On the Grand Canal, see Section V. Ch. VI.).

lAtkeB are numerous both in the N. as well as in the S. Th€ mo&t imparioiU are :

Jnthe 8.: the T'ai^hu :ic M or Great lake, situated to the W. of Soochow Fu jl^ jHi ^* I^ >s ^^ immense sheet of water, as large as the P'oyang % m lake at high-water season, but less exposed to the same great variations of volume. Some ten islands, three of which are inhabited, and several islets dot its waters. Small steamboats can ply on parts of it. It is infested with pirates. Fish abound in it, and numerous fishermen draw therefrom their livelihood. In Winter, it pours its waters into the Grand Canal, while in Summer its current varies according to the rainfall of the surrounding country. When the rain is heavy, its overflow runs off into the Grand Canal, but should the season be dry, the Yangtze % ^ fL sends down to it the excess of its waters.

In the y. : the Hungteeh ^ H UOse, which is almost as

large as the T'ai-hu. Its waters lie partly in Nganhwei jgf %

and partly in Kiangsu {l jK* Heavy-laden junks can cross it

in its entire length, and navigation is very brisk on its waters.

The Hwai'ho {|| fjf runs into it on the W. The country which

lies to the E. of it being very low, a stone causeway has been

raised to protect it. The lake teems with fish. Channels con-

I nect it on the N.E. with the Qramd Canals and on the S.E.

I with the JFiTooifiu ^ % iake, which is situated to the W. of the

I Grand Canal.

To the E. of the Kaoyiu ^ % lake and of the Orand Canal, is found the JMeung ^ HE kOce.

Wmmm mad Flora. — In regard to the fauua and flora of Kiangsu, the i observations are to be made as (or the Province of Nganhwei. The Northern regjon, around Siirhow especially, is in nowise different from that of the N. of China. It is even less rich and has but sparse clumps of bamboos, while the willow, poplar and a fuw acacias arc the only trues that afford a little vurduru to this impoverished tract. The mulberry is scarce, and ibe ocmaftlj hM neither rice uor the tea-pUot. Then are

GHAPTBR IV. KIANGSU. 157

a few frnit-trees, and the fruit is excellent, especially the peaches. The Central region is not much superior to the Northern, but its canals and lakes teem with fish, and the cotton which grows there is of excellent quality. The Southern region is the most favoured, cotton, rioe and the mulberry constituting with the ordinary cereals the staple products. The bamboo thrives well, but the tea-plant is backward. The hills are completely denuded. In the Yangtze river, as well as in the canals and lakes, a great variety of fish is found.

On account of its general configuration, the absence of forests and the universal density of the population, this Province is one of those which has the least number of wild animals.

Asrlenltniml Wealtli. — In the Narihem pari, the poppy 18 extensively cuUivated, and the cereals found there are those of the Northern region. In the eetUre, cotton is the staple crop, while rice and the other cereals of the N. are also grown. The enterprising population of Haim^n fj^ p^, accustomed to make the best of their marshes, are constantly reclaiming new lands from the sea. In the Southern part, rice, cotton, silk and vegetables, form with the ordinary cereals an abundant source of wealth. Owing to the fertility of the soil and the warmth of the climate, as much as 3 crops are produced an- nually.

Around Nanking ||| }{(, and in the Northern part of the Province, donkeys abound; elsewhere the services of the water- lUilTalo and of the zebu or humped ox are availed of. Horses and mules are less rarely found.

M tneiml Weallli. — The mineral wealth of Kiangsu {I H is not considerable, and so far has been little worked. In the N., are found coal and iron. In the 8., marble was formerly quarried near Nanking, and even at the present day some lime- kilns still exist. In the Central and Southern parts of the Pro- vince, the extraction of salt is actively carried on along the seacoast.

PopalatiOD. — The population is very dense throughout the whole of this Province, especially in the Haim{'n promontory, Oh*ungming Island jft W (locally pronounced Z*ungming) and around Shanghai. The Island of Ch*ungming alone has more than one million of inhabitants, or about 500 to the square mile.

The inhabitants of Slichow Fu, in the extreme N., differ vastly both in general characteristics and in manners from the rest of the Province. The latter are of gentle disposition, polite, scholarly, and slightly effeminate; the former are rude,

158 SICTION U. TBI CBNTRAL MIOION.

f«turdy and turbnleut. Many of theM.- NorthernerR havo a rather prominent soTtietinu's even aquiline, while the clieck-hones do not protrude, and the eyes are not Hhnond-shap<:d, all Avliich eharacteristicK dibtinguish them from the popnlation of Shanf^hai. The inhabitants of Haimi'ii are also more robust than those to the S. of the river.

Language. — Two lan^ai;es are used in this Province. In the \V. and N. the

.\//fN(7<fiiii dialect is spok«-n. In th«^ Haiiuen promontory, the Island of Ch'nngmin^, uimI aloiif,' the S. of the Yanprtze aR far an Chenkianp, the Situgkiang or Shanghai diaUt't is spoken. Great variations however prevail even in these two langnages.

Cities and Principal Centres.

NANKING ^ Tic (Southern Capital) or KUmgwk^ 1%

fLM M— Population, 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants. The city is built on the Southern bank of the Yangtze f^ ^ ^L, and at a short distance from its waters. It was formerlyjhe Capital .pf the Empire under the first Emperors of Ihe Ming Jg^jlynaBty. The tombs of these monarchs are still seen in the vicinity of the walls. Those walls have a circumference of 24 miles, thus making the city larger than Peking :||* ^, the Northern Capital. It is however inhabited only in the Southern and Western parts. Like the Northern Capital, it has its Tartar City, occupied by about 4,000 Manchus, and also its Red or Forbidden City. In 1853, it was taken by the T'aip'ing ^ 2p rebels, who withstood there a 10 years* siege before it was retaken by the Imperialists in 1864. For long years afterwards, the city was but a heap of ruins, from which it rises but slowly. The Viceroy of the Liang-kiang ||| tC or two Kiangs, resides there, as well as the Tartar GeneraMn-chief. It has a military academy. Trade is very backward. The principal industry is the manufacture of satin and velvet ribbons. The exports are: silk piece-goods, unmounted fans, raw cotton, hemp, hides, feathers, groundnuts, medicines and sesamum. The imports comprise copper (for minting), machinery, cotton and woollen goods, flour^ umbrellas and opium. HwUHmmm f gU is the port of Nanking. Steamers stop there, and the Custom-house imparts a little activity to the place. The total net value of trade for the year 1905, reached to only Tls, 10,578,545, or one-third that of Wuhugf fj ||[.

CHAPTBR IV. KIANGSU. 159

800CH0W 1^17 H W ^* — Population, 500,000 inhabi- tants. A vast and populous city renowned for the beauty of its site and its canals, which have won fot it the title of ** Venice of the Bast*** The Chinese have a proverb : *^ Heaven ttbove, and helmo Sooehaw and Hangchow**. It is, 60 miles W^^mL^ Shanghaij^jautb which it is connected by rail, and 40 miles S. of the Yangtze. It is built in the form of a rectangle, being 5 rnlTes long by 2 1/2 to 3 in breadth. Former Capital of the Wu ^ Kingdom, overthrown A. D. 473, it is at the present the home of scholars and expectant mandarins, but perhaps it is better known for ita^ilk-looms (7,000) . brocaded satins and gauzes, which are in great demand throughout the cities of the Empire. It has besides, some cotton mills, and carries on an important trade in rice. Originally it was on the banks of the T'ai-hu ^ ^ or Great lake, but the lake having receded, it is to-day 12 miles distant from its banks. The Grand Canal passes through it, and thus affords it all the advantages of easy communications. At the close of the Chino-Japanese war, 1896, it was opened to Foreign trade. The Settlements (Japanese and General-Foreign), are located to the 8. facing the Grand Canal.

To the N. W. of Soochotv :

Wusih listen M % ^. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants. This city is growing every day more important, both as the general mart for the country round about, and also as a^centre for the rearing of silkworms. It has supplanted Soochow, as a aepoi ana transit piace for goods coming from the W. and destined for the Shanghai Jt % market. Between these 2 cities, all exchanges are now carried on directly by rail.

To the 8. IL of Sooehow :

Sungkiang ^u jj^f^fff. — Population, 50,000 inhabitants. Situated about 25 miles S. W. of Shanghai, it is renowned for its square pagoda and the grave of General Ward (an Ameri- can who fought against the T'aip'ings,and died in the year 1862). The HUis, the principal of which are Funghwang-shan gL ^ lU (hill of the rising phoenix), £^kaoh0iang'ahan JK # ll] (hill

160 SECTION II. THB CBNTEAL KMION.

for burning incense) and Sh^^shmn ^ ||| (locally pronounced Zdsai), are but a few miles distant, and form an agreeable plea* sure-resort for Shanghai residents.

At the fuHciUn mf the Grtma Ckmta wiih the Ttmi^t»e : ChhUeUmg ^^ Mi tL Jfi- — Population, 168,000 inhabi- tants. A prosperous treaty port and commercial centre, which owes its importance to its position at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yangtze |§ ^ 2C river. It is about 40 miles from the capital of the Province, ancMbO miles from Shanghai^ The Chinese suburb (between the EngililT Concession and the city) has been recently lighted by electricity. It has silk fila- tures, an albumen factory and a flour-mill. It exports : rice, cattle, groundnuts, beans and peas; and imports : coal, sugar (in large quantity), petroleum, cotton goods, metals and glass. The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. TIs. 34,439, 707; in 1904, TIs. 32,323,204; and in 1905, TIs. 33,344,208.

0» the Hwangp^oo H ^ river :

Shanghai ±ill|i|. — Population of native city, 300,000; of the Settlements, 540,000 inhabitants. The number of Foreign re- sidents is about 13,000. Situated on the left bank of the Hwang- p*oo, and 12 miles from the Yangtze, it is the largest port, the most important trading mart, and in fact the Commercial Cupital of China. The city is continually extending in both directions along the river, and has even passed to the opposite side. It comprises several parts, which, commencing on the S., lie in the following order : Tungkadoo 1[ j|t H, the Chinese dig still sur- rounded with its walls and moat, the n^eneh Ctmeeeai^m and the JniemoHanaiSettlemeni, "Within which is comprised Hongkewjkt D (Hungk*ow),the so-called American Settlement. The ]SurmpemH City monopolizes the tea, silk and cotton trade of N. China. Incessant activity reigns on the wharves which border the river. In the long streets running far inwards from the river, the same animation may be observed. Up to comparatively recent time, there have been but docks and ''godowns*' (from the Malay gO'dong, a warehouse for the storing of goods) on the right bank;

CHAPTKa IV. KIaMBU.

tei

11

162 SECTION II. THK CSNTRAL MIOION.

of late however, industry has been started there and this attracted a large number of hands. If the work continues, in a few years hence, the quarter will be as populous as on the opposite aide. Commercial activity is exclusively confined to the city on the left bank. Here are found the consulates, city halls, banks, hotels, the custom house, markets, churches, hospitals, schools, mills, factories, warehouses and splendid shops. The streets are crowded with carriages, jinricshas and native wheel-barrows. The motorcar has been recently introduced, and an electric tramway line will be completed this year. The city has also its public garden, its racecourse, clubs, theatre, library, museum, its foreign and native newspapers. The weather forecasts are due to the 8lcawel ^ 4t S (Siikiahwei) Observatory. Shanghai is in daily communication with the principal cities of China. Steamers ply continually between the port and Japan, Manchuria, Korea, Southern Asia, Europe and America. It is the great importing and distributing centre of the whole Yangtze^ ^ {][ valley, and even to a large extent of Northern China. The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 118,812,899; in 1904, Tls. 145,480,170, and in 1905, Tls. 176,979,193 [£ 26,550,600 sterling). (For other details : Woosung bar, shipping and tonnage, inland navigation, see Section IV. The Coasts. Shanghai).

Jh yarthem Kiimgeu^ near the tnmOh of the Tamgime t T'umg Ch&w ji jH|. — 100 miles below Chtokiang. The place has recently made great industrial prdgfessT It has cotton and silk-spinning and weaving factories, a mill for extracting oil from cotton-seed, a dyeing factory for cotton and silk fabrics, a canning factory for meat and fish, a printing establishment for books and maps, a soap factory, and will soon have a dock- yard for building and repairing small steamers.

I^riher JV:, td&tig the Gratut CatuU :

n'imgkiatHn^oo ffj f£ ^. — Population, from 50,000 to 80,000 inhabitants. Formerly the Director-General of the Grain' Transport resided there, but now the General-in-chief of North Kiangsu fL 4; i^Kiangpeh) takes his place. Ts'ingho hsien Hjif ||,

CHAvna nr. kiakasv. 163

the walled city, is almost deserted, all activity extending along the Grand Canal, where a brisk commerce is carried on. The first locks are about a mile from the city, so part of the boats stop at this port, whence goods are conveyed by waggons to Northern Kiangsu, Honan and Chihli. Small steamers ply daily between the place and Ch^nkiang iK {£ jj^*

Tangehaw JPW ^^jj|^. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A^^jnnnfl niri city, former-^apitri of tfar^fang Kingdom, and the residence of numerous scholars. It is 20miles N. pf Cl^^nk'«>"g Long rows of junks travelling on the Grand Canal impart to the place a certain amount of animation. It is however neither an important industrial or commercial centre.

Hwalnffan JPk& f^ ^ J^- — Chiefly important as a salt- manufacturing centre. The salt is evaporated from sea-water and is a government monopoly.

SUelUHv JP^ ^ ji{ Jl^. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. This is another ancient city, deriving celebrity from its being built on a beautiful site, and qn the former banks of the Hwang- ho^^J^. When the river changed its course, it left behind only a bed of sand, and so this city is now one of the poorest Prefectures of North Kiangsu f£ ^fc (Kiangpeh), hence the local proverb: ^ Vegetables and gold hairpins are scarcer than meat in Fokien" (Fokien being largely a fish-eating Province).

InduBiry and €)ommeree. — The principal industrial centres are confined to the following cities : Shanghai Ji ftf, Soochow 1^ ^, Ch^nkiang ^ i£ and Nanking j^ ;^. Manu- factures consist chiefly of satins, reeled silk, cotton-yam, nankeens, oils and household furniture. The general commerce of the Province differs but little from that of Shanghai, through which, as well as through the Grand Canal, most business is carried on.

mgiiinus of €)ominnnleation. — Nearly all communi- cations are carried on by waterways : the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ tC, the Hwangp^oo H ^ river, the Grand Canal, lakes and several canalized streams, and so the land routes or rather pathways are little kept in good repair, The only ro»d deeervinj;

164 8ICT10M It. THB cimtra'l kfieiON.

mention, is that which coming from Nganhwei ft #(« leads to Shantung |Ij ]K, vi& Siichow Fu 1^ jll{ )ff.

In the extreme N., near Suchow Fn ^ jHH Hf, there are no canals, and so carts are employed, but the tracks they foliow' are scarcely existent. In the E. of this region, faravnnB of fiamris are sometimes met with, winding their way along the Grand Canal, as far as Hwaingan Fu f^ ^ Jff. Further Southwards, the camel is never seen; the ass, horse, mule and water-buffalo being the only animals used for transport. (For railwatys^ mm Section V. Oh. VI.).

Open PiMrta. — The Province of Kiangsu fL H has 5 ports open to Foreign trade : Sham^hai J:i|j||, Nmmkim^ Hfff^^ CMmkkmg H fil Kf , 8mchaw M ¥Mlf apd Woommtf ^ }«.

Ifeies. — l"" In former times, Kiangsu f£ H and Nganhwei ^ ^ constituted one Province, but were separated in 1667, under the reign of the Emperor K^anghsi j^ |R. In the early part of 1905, Kiangsu 2£ fjUL was divided into two: Southern and Northern Kiangsu or Kianghwai XL fll, but this step having proved unpopular, the division, after lasting aboCit 3 motiths, was revoked. Since then, N. Kiangsu XL 4k (Kiangpeh) has been administered by a General-in-chief who resides at Ts'lng- kiangp^oo f| XL idf and fulfils the duties of the short-lived Governor.

2^ The Grand Canal traverses this Province from N. to S. It crosses the Yangtze river at ChSnkiang, 160 miles above Shanghai. ^ 3* The Yangtze delta is steadily growing seawards, and every year sees new lands reclaimed from the sea and cultivated in polders. In the neighbourhood of Shanghai, the water- courses are filling up, and the volume of the Hwangp^oo river has now diminished by one-third. In the next century, the place, already distant 45 miles from the sea, will be beyond tidal influence and thus become relegated to the position of an inland mart.

GHAFTIR IV. KUNG8U.

165

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>^\

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Topography of Kiangsu. (Chinese Reposi- tory. Vol. XI. p. 210-222).

Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. (Vol. I. p. 80-89).

Grazier. — General Description of China. (Vol. I. p. 28-45).

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire of China. (Vol. I. p. 73-76).

snr la Province de Kiang-sou. (Revue de Geographic. 1902).

Desctemps. — Shanghai. (Tour du Mon- de, 1905. p. 265-288).

Raques. — An Pays des Pagodes. Chang- hai, 1901.

Tschepe A. — Histoire du Royaume de Ou. Chang-hai, 1S96.

Gandar D. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang- hai, 1908.

ftfission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1898. (II* par- tie. Conclusions : le mouvement com- mercial du port de Chang-hai. — Dans Tappendice : Torganisation commercialc de Chang-hai).

LI fong-pao. ^ Carte du Kiang-sou (In., Chinese).

166

SECTION II. THB CBNTRAL RSeiON.

B. ~ Conchyliologie fluvUtile de U

Province dc Kiang-soa et de la Chine

centrale. Paris, 1880. Heade. — Notes snr les Mollusques ter-

restres de U YalUe da Flenve Bleu.

Ghang-hai, 1882. GntelafT. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 71-

84).

pository. (Vol. XVin. p. 18-22). Description of Shanghai. — Ch. Bepoaito-

ry. (Vol. XVI. p. 529-576). Notices of Shanghai. — Ch. Bepository.

(Vol. XV. p. 465472). Sdmldl O. — Extracts from the Hittoiy

of Shanghai. (N. C. B. B. A. Soo. 1873,

, p. 31-44). Ptorkar K. R— Chinese Bevenue. Kiang-";; i^^lks ahout Shanghai. — Ch. Bepoeitoiy

#«T n t> -D A Oyw. IfiQi; wi 10«.19J«V ^r_i ^tr,w _ liMk Am ^^A KMUHMti

8U. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1895. p. 128125)

Ufttte A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19(^.

(Kiangsn. p. 104-100). ^l\»rlimD. — Wanderings in China. Kiang- sn. (Ch. Bepository. Vol. XVI. p. 569-^ 576).

MIcMe A. — The Englishman in China London, 1900. (Shanghai. Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 124-160).

[foiBMiB H. — The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. London, 1895. (Outpctots of Empire, Shanghai, p. 3-36).

jen^aii T. R. — China's Easiness Me- thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1005. (Shang- hai, p. 877-406). ' Pryer W. B. —Entomology of Shanghai. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1867. p. 74-79).

Decherreni M. — The Climate of Shang- hai. (N. C. ». B. A. Soc. 1881. p. 281- 246).

de Bloidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of Shanghai. (Oriental Press. Shanghai, 1901).

Hampden da Boae. — Beaatifal Soo. Shanghai, 1899.

Gandrj R. S. — Excursiou to Nanking. N. C. Herald Office, 1876.

Historical Sketch of .Shanghai. — Cli. Be-

(Vol. XVII. p. 468-477 and 5»W»6). /Lang H. — Shanghai considered socially.

1875. /OUirk J. D.— Shanghai hy Day and Night Vol. I. (Shanghai Mercnry Office 1898).

Fink O.— The Sicawei OhMrvatoiy. (East of AsU Magazine. Vol. L p. 350-877).

Trip to the Hills. — Ch. Bepository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 181-186).

LitUe E. S. — The Saddle Islands. (E. of Asia Magazine, 1905. p. 183-193).

Darwent O. E. — The Taiha. (E. of Asia Magazine, 1902. p. 333-349).

China. Imp. Marit. Castoms. Decennial Beports. Shanghai, 1904. (Trade of Nan- king, 1892-1901. p. 405-488. — Trade of Chetikiang, 1892-1901. p. 439-464.— Trade of Shanghai, 1892-1901. p. 465-542. — Trade of Soochow, 1896-1901. p. 543-557).

Blackham China Mission, 1896-07. (Trade of Shanghai. Part I. p. 1-13. Part II. p. 1.14. _ Taxation in the Settlement of Shanghai, p. 107-112.— Taxation at Ports supplied by Shanghai, p. 112-124.— Trade ofChenkiang. Part I. p. 14-18. Partll. p. 15-20).

China, lletums of Trade,11905. (Shanghai trade Bcport. p. 235-298).

^

SECTION III.

THE SOUTHERN REGION.

-K-3^

CHAPTER I.

THE SI-KIANG If ft VALLEY, AND THE COAST- RIVEES OF FOKIEN AND CHt.KIANG.

Oliaraelerlsltes of tlils Beslon. — Compared -with the regions -which -we have studied so far, this is rather diversified and more difficult to describe distinctlij. We shall simply dv^ell upon a few prominent features, leaving each • Province to be studied more in detail,

1. The region is mountainous, the only exception being the loM^-lying plain of Canton.

2. It is for the greater part a semi-tropical region.

3. It is a region -where the Chinese race is scantily repre* sented.

4. It is a region where mineral -wealth abounds, and holds as much importance as agricultural products,

5. /( IS a region where the Government of the country is more difficult than anywhere else in China, because of the variety of races, and the enmity which exists between them. Fokien H Ife SLnd Chikiang fff f£ are however exceptions.

168 SECTION III. THB SOUTRBRN RBGIOK.

Provlneefii comprised In ililii Rcgton. — Proceeding from W, to E., then from S. to N., we find Ihcm lo be the following;: ^.j .; ^o j

Yunnan 1 Iff,) N\ ." ' , .>" ^ ^/'

Kweichow JJl ^/ ( "^

Kwangsi M JSSk,/ " ., ^.V'

Kwanglung M M^ ,v , "

Fokien ff jti

Ch6kiang m fL. ' /^" ^^

Of these Provinces, the three last border on the sea, and arc the most populous and the richest ; the three first, extending inland and of difficult access, afford neither the same resources nor the facilities for subsistence.

All, except the two last, are watered by the Si-kiang "g" f£\ Yunnan H ^ also by the Yangtze ^ ^ f£, the Red river^ and the great rivers of Indo-China. Kweichow J| ^ too is watered by the affluents of the Yangtze. Did these Provin- ces and the races inhabiting them not enjoy a semi-tropical climate, they should be comprised rather in the Central than in the Southern Region.

Geological OonHtitntioii. — In Fokien H jj^ and Gh^- kiang ^ f£, and also in the Kwangtung J( ^ region, porphyry, granite, schist and sandstone are predominant. Elsewhere, lArge tracts of limestone of the secondary period cover the primary formation, which but rarely emerges veined here and there with granite and porphyry. The limestone, curiously excavated and furrowed, imparts to this region a peculiar and characteristie aspect. There is no yellow land or loess, and few alluvial deposits except in the Si-kiang "g" f£ delta.

Orosrapliy. — To the W. is a series of table-lands sloping from W. to E. Along the sea-coast, a well-marked chain of mountains establishes a definite limit between the tributaries of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL and of the Si-kiang H it <>" *he one side, and those of the coast-rivers on the other. In the N., is the i^ai »-«Aai» Iff l||.pr IkmrUng ^ JH range.

CHAPTBR I. THE SI-KIAN& VAtLBY AND THB COA8T-R1VBRS. 169

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-MAP

OF THB CHINESE PROVINCES B0RDBRIN6 ON TONGKING.

f^ From Af, A, LecUre,

Fjower Jurassic.

Triassic and Upper Permiaii.

' Upper Carboniferona Shalo. I Middle and Lower Terinian.

t Carboniferous. Dcvouiau.

Silurian and Cambrian.

Granite.

170 BSenON III. THB SOUTHERN RBGION.

CllBuUe. — The climate, semi-tropical in the low-lying valleys and the low regions, becomes mild and liable to few variations upon the high table-lands of Yunnan H ^. In general, it is damper than in the two other regions, and the Summer rains are more prominent there. However the variation is great according to the altitude, and frequently even in the same Pro- vince, as we shall see when describing Yiinnan.

Hydr^cnvliy. — A large number of rivers are found in this region, but one only deserves a special study : the iSH-Motia H it' ^^^ ^^ waters four Provinces of China. We shall study the others when describing the Provinces which they traverse. The Min^fckmg ^ f£ belongs so particularly to Fokien H j^, that its description will naturally have its place there. The T^Heni^ang-kUmg S^JfUtL belongs likewise to Ch^kiang ^ JQ, and will be described there. All these rivers have this in common, that as they traverse woodless tracts, where storms and sudden rains are frequent, they have a torrential character, and are rapidly swollen and quickly dried up.

The Birkiang Ji fH or Wmt river rises in the Eastern part of the Yunnan table*Iand where it bends at first towards the 8., then takes a Northerly direction towards the frontiers of Kwei- chow jtt W- So far, it is called Fahtah-ho ASM- '^ rext shirts the S. of Kweichow, separating that Province from Kwangsi jH |f for a distance of nearly 160 miles; it afterwards Hows towards the S. E., passing through the centre of Kwangsi JdH and ofKwangtung Jd^. It is called i7ttng-«l^tfi It ;^ or Red river till about 60 miles from the boundaries of Kwangsi. Hence- forward, it is called the Sirkiatig fS it- ^ ViMe beyond Chao- k'ing Fu 1|| Jl^ )|^, it splits into several streams, and traversing an immense delta, flows through numerous mouths into the South China Sea. The Northern river of this delta, which passes through Canton, is called the Chu-Mang ^ f£y or JPeari river.

Its principal a^fl/uenU are

On the right :

The Tuh'kUnig ^ gC, which rises in Yiinnan || ^. It follows at lirst a course nearly parallel to the Si-kiang Jg 2C,

GHAPTSR I. THI SI-KIANG VALLEY AND THB COA8T-RIVBR8. 171

"^ — rr

172 8ICTI0H III- THB SOUTHBRN AMIO^.

and receives a little beyond Nanning Fu iff ||J)^ the n^kknm 4 JQ, coming from Tongking J|[ ]j[.

OntheU/i:

I"* The LiU'Mana ^ f£, which comes from the E. of Kwei- chow H ^, and joins it towards the middle of Kwangsi j|| ||. .2"* The Kwei'Mang 4i jXi which comes from the N. E. of Kwangsi Jf| |f , and flows into it near Wuchow Fu j|§ ^ j)|f .

3* The Behrhimng 4k Dl« coming from the S. of Ilunan Hm ^, and joining it near the extremity of the delta.

4"* The Tung-hkmg % {Li which comes from the N. E. and flows into the delta.

The volume of the Liu-kiang and of the Yuh-kiang is superior to that of the Hung-shui, and so they are sometimes taken, one or the other, as the main stream. For the sake of clearness, we shall call Si-kiang, the river which begins at the Pahtah-ho, and continues as the Hung-shui and the 8i- kiang.It is the longest, and extends more to the W. Its total length is about 1^250 miles.

Its eouTBe is very rapid till it reaches Siinchow Fu JH ^ Jff. Its voiume is exceedingly variable; thus while during the iry season it is only 7 feet deep, no sooner have the rains set in, than it rises to 25 and even 30 feet. It runs hemmed in by long narrow gorges, till it reaches the delta, and it seldoms widens out. The tUU is^feflt to a distance of 185 miles from Its mouth.

In the flood-season, the Si-kiang "S j^ is navignhU for steamers having a draught of 16 feet, but in ordinary circum- stances, only ships whose draught is G ^/^ feet can navigate it up to Wuchow Fu tg W Jl^. Beyond this place, the rapids prevent navigation ; junks or small flat-bottomed boats may however sail up to the S. of Hingi Fu H JJ ;jj, near the frontier of Kweichow Jt jH|-

Among its affluents :

The Yuh-kiang % fl S^ navigable for steamers, up to Kwei hsien jH H (in Sunchow Fu jf f\ Jff) ; for junks, up to Pohseh or Pehseh T'in^j^^L J|| ; for small craft, up to Pakngai or

CHAPTER I. THB'Sf-KMNG YALLBY AND THB COAST-RIVBRS. 173

I^^Ai M I&* — '^^^ Tso-kiang £ 2)1, its tributary, is navigable for junks, up to Lungchow T'ing f| ^ j|| ; and for small craft, up to Caobang, in Tongking ]|t J§r.

The Liu-kiang ^^ 21 is navigable up to Sankioh H V> >" Kweichow j|( ji\.

The Kwei-kiang ;|^ f£ is navigable up to the N. of Kweilin Fu Jj^^fff, wliere a canal connects it in the flood-season with the great river of Hunan jjJH ^.

The Peh-kiang 4l ill is navigable up to the N. of Shaochow

Fu « « ;».

The Tung-kiang ;^ jDC is navigable throughout the greater part of its course.

References :

\|mbaaIt-Hiiart. — f<e Si-kiang on Flenve

de rOuest. 1898. (bibliographie abon-

dante). NSc-bainaclier.-'Ber WestfluBs (Si-kiang)

and M'ino Wirtschaft liche Bedeotang.

18£8. Leeldre. — Geographie ginirale dt-s Pro-

vinctf^s voiHines da Tonkin. (Geographic.

1900. Vol. L p. 267-288). Leclftre. — Etnde Otologique et roiniire

drg Provinces voisines du Tonkin. Paris,

1902. ll«ilr»lle. — Guides (Chine du Sad. —

Chine da Nord.— Indo-Chine) Paris, 1902

and 1904. '^ — MailrOlle. — Sud de la Chine- Hongkong.

— Canton. — .Macao. — Le Si-kiang. A. lAooay. — Atlas des Missions de la

Society dfs Missions-Etrangftres. Ltille.

( Yun-nan, Kooitcheou, Koang-si, Koang-

tong). ^ Coarse of tho Pearl River. (Chinese Repo- sitory. Vol. XX. p. 105-110 and 11S-122|.

Tho West River or Si-kiang. — China Re- view. Hongkong, 1874. (Vol. JII. p. 46- 49).

Kingtmill T. W. — A sketch of the geo- logy of a portion of Kwangtiing.province. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1865. p. 21-38).

WilllaniM.— The Middle Kingdom. New York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 127128. The Chn- kiang or Pearl River. — p. 129. The Si- kUng delto).

Oolquhoun A. « Across Chrys^. London, 1883. From Canton to Mandalay.

O>lqalioiin A.— Exploration through the S. China Borderlands, from the mouth of the Si-kiang to the banks of the Ira- waddy. (Proceedings of the Geogr. Soo. 1882).

OoIqobOQii A.— The Overland to China. London, 1900. (Southwest China. Ch. XVII. and XVIII. p. 369-418!.

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen- nial ReporU. 18921901. Shanghai, 1905 (Southern Ports. Vol. II.).

CHAPTER 11.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER SI-KIANG

(YUNNAN S * AND KWEICHOW j| W).

Yfnman and KwHehmv are governed by the same Viceroy, who bears the title of Viceroy of T4inkwei f| jH, and resides at YUnnan Fu ^ Ij^ )ff.

These two Provinces have in eammon that they are both situated on high table^lands, in the basins of the Yangtze ^ ^ f£ and of the Si-kiang fg tLi «^d ^^^^ ^^^ «*"« inhabited partly by CMnese and partly by nUmt raeeB. Both hold relations with Szechw'an Q Jl|. Both also partially enjoy a tropical climate. They have but few navigable rivers^ and in both, communications are difficult.

If Kweichow 'f^j^ may be styled a sea of numniain^, Yiknnan ^ ^ exhibits the aspect of an imtnetise staircase in the N.E., while in the W. and S., it is a vast field fiirrawed wiih l&ng and deep ravines.

These two Provinces abound in opiufn and minerals^

Kweichow jH j^ however has neither the altitude nor the varieties of climate and race peculiar to YiXnnan ^ ||f. Neither has it its lakes, nor its long and deep gorges^ nor its relations with Burma and Tonghing )K tR. On the other hand, it enjoys better communications with the rest of China, either through Szechw'an |S J|| or Hunan ^ '^, or through Kwangsi J( Jg, and it is not so isolated as YiXnnan ^ ^, wedged in between Tibet, Burma and Tongking -^ g{(.

Both Provinces have suffered from the Makmne^an rebeJHan (1856-1872), but YUnnan ||^ the mof^ its population especially having been considerably reduced, .

CHAPTBR II. YUNNXN. 17S

V. Yunnan M ^

Area. — 146,718 square miles. It is next to Szechw^an 19 J|| the largest Province of China.

Popiilaiioii. — 12,721,500 inhabitants, or 86 to the square mile. Arter Kiangsi tL^ ^"^ Kansu '^^^ it is the least popu- lous Province of China.

IVame. — Yunnan |g fj^ signifies **clmidy 8&uth^\ If its

low-lying tract of the North, which is first encountered when coming from Szechw'an Q j||, is almost continually covered with clouds and fogs, the air breathed by the inhabitants of its high table-lands is however very pure.

Bonndarles : — Yunnan is bounded on the N. — By Szechw*an Q j||, W. — By Tibet or Sitsang "g ^^ and Burma or

Mientlen ^ ^, 8. — By Burma and Tongking y^ jjc, E. — By Kiangfli fc |S and Kweichow J| jH|-

Capital. — TCNNAN ruif ^ J^, often called Yunnan Seng, is situated a little towards the N.E., in the region of the tablelands.

CHlier Prefisetiires. — These are 13, and are situated as follows, in the order of distance from the Capital :

TO the N.BLt

2» Timgchw*an Pu He Jll W, 3» ChaotSmg Fa « li ff. ToiheAJR:

io Ch'togkiang ¥u9iiLJ(f, Sf Kwangnan Fa H Dlff, 6' K'aihwa Fa R) ft «P.

To the 8.:

70 Linngran Fu K SKIf .

17G

SBCTiON III. TBI sourauw. auiON.

MQQQt^

•nj ui[iajiiX

MOQUtC

^

^

•%} tm'at

•%} flO£*l

•*H«'i mi

'%} wr/f

'%l OOO'o

8»Fii«alFa*m«.

9» ChHiMug Fa S « MP. ir ShiuudngFaHVURP, 11° Tugch'ang Fa j)c 8 ff .

To the If. W* :

12-TaUFa*a», ia» Lildang Fa ■ & JRP.

There are besides in Yiinnan ^ ^ Mree tft*4l«^i Chmo jH| duet .- JSTiMMifvi CMm; JR Bf M> IFuMiflr f?lii»«i M, T^mUtkmg Chaw fie {C M; ^nd /Tre independent T*in0i Kin0§mng TUng f[^ ]|t jg» JttwJbtra 2^lft0r ^ ft Jg, Wungpeh ^1"*^^ 7k 4b JM» CJMiyifeM THfi0r ||;^j|| and Chtnptenfui THn^f m fm vlk W m-

Aspeel ftBd dMMMlerUitloik — Three dffflnreni regUme may be distinguished in Yiinnan H ]ff : The /Irei, to the N, E., near the Yangtze-kiang fH ^ ft- This tract is low, damp and unhealthy, interspersed with peaks, gorges and torrents, and is scarcely inhabited. .j:^ The second, to the E., has large and verdant plains, now encircled with boundless horizons, now studded with mounds and hills, but everywhere abounding in marshes, lakes and rivers. Its sky is pure, the temperature mild iknd pteeeanty while the population is concentrated in the valleys and near the lakes.

The thitrdp to the W. and N.W. This is a series of high

but narrow mountatn-ridgfcs, separated by deep gorges, at the

bottom of which the air is heavy and suffocating. The popU"

lation is for the most part savage, and the country difficult of

access, on account of the hostility of the natives and of the lack of

communications .

^••lostcal e^Bfttliailon. *- Strata of the secondary period still cover a large portion of this Province, leaving however exposed vast tracts of primary formation, while here and there eruptive rocks (granite, greenstone and porphyry) are apparent. •^Traces are found of volcanic eruptions, which must have been formerly considerable. Limestone, wonderfully folded and broken up, predominates. Sheets of rain-water have wholly or partly filled up the numerous lake-basins of this region. They are the only traces of recent alluvial formation.

12

178 SBCnON III. THB SOUraSRN BBGION.

r* — Throughout the Eastern part, ar« found vast table-lands varying in elevation from G,500 to 9,800 feet, and sloping gradually towards the E. Rocky peaks soar into the air, covered with fir-trees in the limestone regions, with splendid forests in those of schist formation, but denuded and barren in marly districts. To the W. are high ridges, separated by deep gorges, in which run foaming torrents, white many passes attain an altitude of 11,000 feet.

iMwer rVniMm f| 'ff^^ towards the N.E., is one great mountainous mass, rising peak after peak, and exceeding sometimes an altitude of 6,500 feet.

All these mountains are the prolongation towards the S.E. of the Tibetan buttress, which expands in the table-lands, and divides to the W. into chains like the fingers of the hand, while its spurs extend into the S. of Tongking. "'

Olinyite. ~ lu Lower Yiiuoau there are contiuual fogs, and ntio faUs every day. At the iMjttom of the valleyR, the eliinate i'h tropical, 8u£Focating and inBalabriooB.

On the high tablelands, the sky is pare, and the temperature mild and agreeable. If the thermometer goes up to 82**, it seldom falls below 32** or at most 25** Fahrenheit. The dry season extends from the end of September to the middle of May ; the wind then blows from the 8. W., increasing after sunrise and decreasing at sonaet. The rainy season is from the middle of May to the end of September; the dampness however is not excessive.

At the bottom of the long and deep valleys of the S. and W., the olimite is damp, scorching and insalubriouH.

Hydrocraplajr. — Several large rivers water Yunnan ^ ^. The most of them run from N. W. to S. B. They are, proceeding from N. to S.:

The YangUt/e-kiang # ^ jtC- The Yangtze makes a great bend towards the N. and is called the KinMharkiUm9 ^^ XL (golden sand river]. It receives on the left the Yalung-kiang A ® 211 1 And constitutes during a long part of its course, the boundary-line between Szechw*an |S )\\ and Yiinnan ^ ^. In all this part, the river is but a torrent, hemmed in between high mountains, which exceed at times 16,000 feet in elevation. It may be crossed in some reaches, but is unsuitable for navi- gation. It receives on the right numerous torrents, none of which seem to be easily navigable. One of these, the

€HAFrBR II. YUNNAN. 179

MiOanr'ho 4^ ^M M) &^ords through its valley the brest road for a railway-line from Yunnan ^ $ to Szechw'an |S Jl|-

The FeOUah-ho A j8 W ^^ Upper Si-kiang |f it, and the yUr-kiang ^ f£ rise in the high tablelands of the E. The first makes numerous bends and waters rich valleys, but neither the one nor the other is fit for navigation in this part of their course. ^

The Sungkai or Mung-ho )j£ }p[, called also the .Bed lUver, is more important. It almost cuts in two the entire Province, running through it from N. W. to S.E. It is navigable for boats up to Manhao ^ ^, and for canoes up to Yuenkiang Chow ft iL ^, at certain times of the year. It is the great artery of communication between Yunnan ^ f^ and Tongking ^ }j(, and the new railway-line runs partly in its valley. Throughout nearly the whole of Yunnan, it is but a torrent, running in deep gorges and intersected with rapids. — A parallel direction is followed by the Biack river, one of its tributaries on the S.W.

The Mekong or LanU^ang-'kiang JM tft itC Hows in the same direction, but more to the W., and crosses Yunnan from N. W. to S.E., intersecting it like an immense ditch. This channel has a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, while its banks are at times covered with thick forests and at others denuded. The river has an average width of 400 to 500 feet, and is very deep. Its current is rather weak and occasionally obstructed with violent rapids. Some boats venture to cross it, but none can traffic on 4ts waters. Its temperature is very high, and the air breathed on its banks sufTocating.

The Salween or iM'kiang ^ jtt has the same features as the Mekong, but it is larger. It crosses the Western extremity of Yiinnan. Two afTluents of the lraw€tdag irrigate also this region.

Numerous lakes dot the neighbourhood of Yunnan Fu ^^ fff and Tali Fu :k M f^^ ^^^ *hey have not the same importance as those of the Yangtze ^ ^p valley. Two deserve to be mentioned :

The Tien-hu }K JUfl, situated to the S. of Yunnan Fu. It is

180 ntcTioir iii. tbb soranm mmmicm

crefcent-shaped, and lies at an elevation of 6,300 feet. Smalt boata can sail on it, but not in the middle of the day, for the wind is then too strong. It runs into the Yangtie-kiang f| ^ m through the F^uim km ^ B fl-

The tMkmi {K 4| 9akm, to the E. of Tall Fu. This ib also crescent-shaped, but its altitude is a little higher, and reaches about 6,500 feet above the sea-level. Pish abound in it, and numerous fishing-boats are stationed on its waters. Its overflow is drained off by a tributary of the MeAmm^.

These two lakes are from 35 to 40 miles long, and from 6 to 10 miles wide across the middle.

Fan— aad Wlmrm. — Yiinnan, owing to the divenity of its jnui^^ And climiil^, hMM the richest faniiA and flon of China. Whilst the deep vmlleys of the W. and S. ahoand in Inxuriant~vegelan?ni, and possess the wild animals, panthers especiaUy-, of Indo-China and Burma, the high momitains display every variety of the NoctliMrn regions, nntil all traces of vegetation disappear beneath everlaKting snows. The region of Lover Y&nnan is the poorest and least favoured, except in the valleys hocdering on the Yangtze river. Here grow trees : the caontchouc, csctns and fan-palms, all of which are rarely found outside the tropics.

AgHealtima Wetfili. — In Jj&wtr TMrnmn ^ jff, maize is chiefly cultivated, and also a littU wheat, barley, tea and tobacco. Rice is an exceptional crop.

Om the high igifs ygwifs, rice and the poppy are principally raised, also wheat, barley, oats and maize. Fruit and vegetables abound. There are numerous buffaloes, goats and sheep, which constitute an additional source of wealth for the eouotry. To the S.W. is a kind of lea, particularly esteemed and called 1^- Ml |[p {9 tea, although it is cultivated throughout the whole region. The sugarcane grows in the neighbourhood of M^ngtze hsien X g jRi, and the rearing of the silkworm is a fairly remunerative industry.

MlDeiml Wemlili. — Minerals are abundant and consist chiefly of eepper, argentiferous lead, zinc, tin and coal. Valuable salt-mines are also found in several places throughout the Province.

IH»palatlOii.~The population of Yiinnan is the most migcellaneouB and the moat dispersed into small groups of all the Provinces of China. This is due to the aitnatioii

. CBAFm II. jVONNAN. 181

ap4 geologioAl .cpnotituiion of the cpnntry, where only the ancient Iftke-beds and valleys are suitable for coltivation. It is upon the high table-lands that the population, composed of Chinif$ei Lolos and Miaotze tri^s, is the most numerous. In the S. t^i W'i seVeral' tribes occupy the country. They come from the Laos States, Burma, and in the N.W., from Tibet^ Among the N.W. tribes^ the most important is that of the Mu9us, who formerly occupied a kingdom extending over part of Eastern Tibet and of actual Ylinnan. Further to the S. is tht; Tjarf trilrti

hmugumge. ~ The language of YUnnan varies with its races, and tribet. Xhe if afi<2ann dialect is spoken by only a small number, and especially upon the high table-lands, where a large number of immigrants from Szeohw^an have settled down.

T0WD8 Mid Prtaelpftl deatres. — tDnnan FtJ f| ||

fff. — Population, 45,000 inhabitants Formerly a very populous city, but ruined ever since the Mahomedan rebellion. Commerce is carried on in three or four large streets. Its suburbs exten'i^ fai* beyond the city. It owes its importance to its central posi- tion, communicating with the highways of the Province. It is situated to Ihe N. of a fertile and thickly inhabited plain.

Tali JFI4 ^ IB JHf. — Population, 6,U00 inhabitatit8.~^A city formerly very populous, but ruined likewise by the rebellion above mentioned, and by a plague (1872-1873), during which a great number of its inhabitants perished. It trades chiefly with Bhamo, and every year a great fair is held there^ The plain which bounds it, is very fertile an4 hfts more than 100 villages inhabited for the greater part by the M^nchUm,^BL tribe jwihose capital was formerly Tali Fu. . . , ^.

TwHgehw'an rk$ J|[jl|;flp.— Population, 2ft,000 inhabitants. A town lying iji the midst nf a vgry-jri«k-m»ntiiy-vt*gTAn Hs almost only industry is carpet-weaving, but it holds a certain importance as a place of passage.

dfcml'tMi^ 1^ U^i ji Jff* — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. It is a commercial and administrative centre. Cattle-rearing, but in small quantity, is carried on in the country around.

To the 8.B. :

Mimgme KHen K g JK- —Population, 12,000 inhabitants. A great commercial centre. Its trade with Tongking ]|[^, Canton and Hongkong, is largely in the hands of Szechw'an Q jilf Canton and Kiangsi fJi |f people.

18? SECTION III. THE 80DTHBBM RiaiON.

Miinhao S j^. — This is but a mere hamlet. Its only title to special notice is that it is the iemUnms of navigation on the Red River, and a trading mart. It is situated at the bottom of a gorge the sides of which reach 6,500 feet in height. The climate is oppressive and malarious, and one cannot remain long there without risk of sickness.

Suemao T*ing ^^ ^ M- — Population, 9,000 inhabitants. A pretty little town in a fertile and well watered plain. Il is the largest mart of Yunnan for the tea, opium and cotton trade.

To the N.'W:i "^ ' '

Ateniae. — A large village, situated at an elevation of 11,000 feet. It is the centre of trade with Tibet Chinese merchants exchange woollen goods, skins, wax, honey and musk from Tibet for blue piece-goods, tea and tabacco, from China. Near to this are the three peaks of Dokeria, surrounded by a magnificent circle of glaciers. The mountain attains nearly 19,700 feet in height, and is considered os sacred by the Tibetans, who crowd there to perform pilgrimages.

To the 8. W.:

Tengyueh T'ing ffil^ jg H or Jfom^in,— Population, 12,000 inhabitants. It borders on a fertile and populous region, and is the centre of trade with Burma. Margary was murdered there in 1875.

Indasiry and Commerce. — The extraction of ores, tanning, the preparation of tea and opium, working copper, iron and tin, occupy a large number of hands, though few indeed if we consider the great riches of Yiinnan ^ ^, Trade with Szechw'an H j||. Canton, Hongkong, Tongking, Tibet and Burma consists principally of the following imports: cotton yarn and cloth, petroleum, timber, matches and furs, while the exports are : tin, hides^ tca^ Chinese medicines and opium.

Highways of Communication* — Numerous routes radiate from Yunnan Fu ^ "^ )^, the Capital. Starting from the city, the following deserve to be mentioned :

1' Thergj^ Kweiehow jt^, via K'uhtsing Fu jjjmtllf.

CBAPTBR 11. VCNNAK. 183

2<' l%e road to Sxeekm^€m (S j||, via Tungchw'an Fu ]|t ;i| J^ and Chaot«ung Fu iQ ji ;^.

3* The road to Burma, via Tali Fu :fc 31 /jff and Yung ch'ang Fu ^ g Jff. — A road forks off at Tali, and leads to Tibet, viii Ate'ntze.

4"* The rmad teadit§g io the Tamm eeuniryp via P'ueul Fu 5 W ^!f and Szeraao T'ing B ^ B*

5® The road to T^igMng j^ ^, via Mengtze hsien ^ g m and Manhao H ^.

G* TAe road to Kwangot jKlf, via Kwangnan Fu JfCffifti^

The fieti; raUway Une, which will bring Yiinnan ^ f^ into direct and rapid communication with Tongking ||[ ]j(, starts from Laokai ^ ^ (Laokiai), follows the Namti valley, and has its terminus at Yiinnan Fu |§|{i j|Sf, via Mengtze hsien fH g jRi, and Ami Chow R £| M-

<Hl»eit Porto. — In Yiinnan, four cities are open to Foreign trade : Mhtgtze heien Jt g jRi, in Linngan Fuf^^Jff, Ho- t^ow 29 a 1 in K'aihwa ^^tHitJff' i^nuw THng JB> tI^ |l> in P'ueul Fu ^ )9 Jl^, and TetHnn»€h l^tng )K j^ 0 or Momein in Yungch'ang Fu ^fc S /Af* '^^^ treaties provide also for the opening of Yungch'tmg FU :^ g /jj^.

Note. — Yiinnan § $ has long been tributary to the Chi- nese Empire, but was^JBnally^jncpiyfirated to- ii- only, in the Xyil"^ cf nl"*'y The Musulman rebellion, which lasted 16 years, was well nigh wresting it from its allegiance. This revolt ended in 1872 by the taking of Tali Fu i^: M flf^ the last stronghold held by the Musulmans.

184 SECTION lit. THB SOUmMM ■■SION.

2* Kweichow Jl fij.

• V

► — 67,182 square miles.

P^ulaU^n. — 7,650,000 inhabitants, or 114 per square

mile.

Ifaate. — Kweichow j|| ^ means **JVigctew li^»ef #r JSfl^ion.'' The Province deserves this name on account of its mineral wealth. History states that the conqueror Hnngm^u ^ f(, who organized the country under the Ming iffl Dynasty, gave it this name through vexation, exasperated as he was by the obstinacy of its inhabitants.

B«««dari«s« — Kweichow is bounded on the N. — By Szechw'an B jH* W.— By Yunnan # H,

S. — By Kwangsi JH H, E. — By Hunan M ^.

CApitel. — KWEIIYANO JPXr Jip ;^, In the centre of the Province.

Oilier Preftctnres. — Th€&e mre eieven in HMinMr.

To the y. of Kweiyan^ JFkt, a little towards the E. :

l°TiimiFu!l«*. Toihe If. IT. «/ KweHnmg 1% ••

l^TatingFu*a*. T6 the S. W. ^f Kweliifm^ JPu :

3» Kganshim Fa ft M JtP,

4»HnngiFaf|«MP.

To the 8. RofKwei^aiM^ JPW;

5" Tuyun Fu « ^ », a^Iap'ingFulg^Jll.

TothmN. a.ef Kweiiftmg Af :

B^SiechowFae^jRp,

9bSliihttienFa:i?|Ef MP, lO^rimgjtoFulllt*. ll^'SsenanFaSMAP.

OHAFRR II. ! KWIICHOW. 14S

There are besides in Kweichow m%€ Ukiei^ma&ni Ck^m jM : FHmyUA ChmP ^ M ^ ; and three independet9i T^ws jg : Summfam TUmg tR 4Ni A ^^mgam, THnw # 4tf jg and J^n-

Mmj^m^ Mkl CiMuriMtorifliiw. — This Province has the eppear&nce of a mmmmiaim^^m eem, as already stated above (p. 174). Seven^enths of it are mountainous, says the Chinese proverb. These mountains, though rising from a table-land, are hovfever leM elevated than those of YUnnan 9 it* »rid the climate is moister and more unhealthy. On account of this marked mountainous structure, K'weichovf Jt ^ is probably with Kansu •g' ff, the Province in which the means of communications are the most difficult, Kweichow f^ fH is inhabitated for the greater part, per- haps its three^fourlhs, by an alien population. The same variety of races however is not found there as in YUnnan ^]lff. Its mtn- era/« would afford it an abundant source of wealth, were they properly worked, but Jhey are too much neglected. Its soil produces scarcely anything except opium and timber. As this Province is one of the most picturesque in China^ it is on the other hand, one of the most wretched, owing to its unproductive soil.

GeolO^ieal coasiiiuUOii. — Kweichow is a vast table-land of primary forma- tion covered over with layers of the secondary period* more or less folded and disclosing occasionally to view the primary strata. Limest<me is the predominant rock. Here and there, it underlies alluvial basins of recent fonnatioD, or Is veined by seams of porph3rr>' and granite. SchiMt and red sandstone are also frequently encountered.

QwQgrmpUy. — Kweichow jH jH| is a large table«land covered with mountain masses and peaks, which assume the characteristic shape of 9Ugar-loaves. The South- Western part is the highest, even the valleys lie at an elevation of from 5,000 to 6,500 feet, while the summits rise to 8,000 or 9,000 feet. This table-land has a great number 6f basin-shaped depressions, and is intersected by rivers, which run in narrow and deep chan- nels. Towards the 8., the table-land descends abruptly, and it is through a series of steps that a passage is effected from one valley to another. The table-land itself, or rather the moun- tainous group, has a mean altitude of about 4,200 feet («m p. 176).

1^6 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN RBftlON.

OliMUile. — Moisture uid dense fogs prevail throa|;hoat the wbole Proviuoe of Kweichow, bnt particniarly in the deep valleys of the S. Here, out otS Winter montlis (from October to February-). ftcarr<ly more than 25 days of fine westlier ean be found. The climate is also ver>' changeable. This is due to the pecnliar configoration of the Province, and to the fact of its being wedged iu between Yiinnan and'Kwangttmic. Ill Summer, the thermometer rarely reaches 86* Fahr. upon the table-land, while in Winter, it falls to 18" or U* Fahrenheit.

Hjdbra^i'apliy. — The waters of Kwelchow j|| jl\ flow partly into the Yangi»e ft ^ JCi partly into the iSK-Mmr Ig f£, which shirts the Province to the S., and bears the name of JAiti^- ^f^^fUL * or Red river.

The following rivers discharge their waters Into the FoNir- toe ft 7 tt river.

On the N» : the Wtt^kiang $lf j^, Ihe principal river of Kweichow jft ^, which traverses the Province in a 8.W. — N.E, direction, then bends to the N., at Szenan Fu JgL ^ J|^. The Wu- kiang ^ f£ flows through deep and narrow gorges aJt a depth of 2,300 feet, and becomes navigable from Szenan Fu JgL Iff J|^ in the flood-season. It flows into the Yangtze, near Feu Chow \^ ^, in Szechw'an iS jl|.

On the y* Els the H^h^kianff {^ j^.. It is navigable up to Tap'ingtu ;fc 2p gf , not far from J^nhwai T*ing fl fl| J(, This river forms in the upper part of its course the boundary limit between 8zechw*an Q )\\ and Kweichow JJ j|f|.

On the JSi .• the Tuen-kiathg iTCtL- This is the great water- way through the Eastern part of the Province. The river Is navigable for small junks up to Gh^nyuen Fu j|| jg|| Jff. Ligh- ter craft may however go further up when the water rises, but rapids are numerous. It empties itself into the Tungt4ng f| fj^ lake, in Hunan jJH) J/^.

The ogjlifente of the Slrkkung f| XL are :

Ofi the 8. W.: the Hwarkian^ (fc iL^ which with its tributaries, carves through the table-land, narrow and deep chan- nels. It is navigable from Pehtseng j^ /| for small boats.

On the S. B. : the LMmhkmg ijgf ^, navigable from Sankioh H IVt where it attains 380 feet in breadth. Soon aaerwarda, it is contraotedf «A, flows between narrow and

CHAPTBR II. KWEICHOW. 187

steep banks. It joins the Si-kiang ff fL towards the centre of Kwangsi J[ W-

The Si'Mang ||| jr£, scarcely navigable in this part of its course, flows ))etween high hills of sandstone, and is obstructed with rapids and rocks.

Fauna and Flora. — The fanna of Kweichow bears a close resemblance' to that of Kwangsi M 9 (^^^ Kwangsi : fauna and flora), and varies much with the altitude. In the low and deep-lying valleys, it is tropical, as evidenced by the palm, orange and banana-trees which grow there. It is also much varied throughout the rest of the country, rice and sugar-caije being cultivated in places. The varnish-tree (rhus vemicifera) grows especially in Kweichow, as well as the tallow (stillingia sebifera), gum-lac, wood-oU (aleurites cordata), vegetable wax (fraxinus chinensis) and camphor- trees. The oak and fir are the species the most widely diffused. Among the wUd animals, suffice it to mention the tiger, panther, bear, wild-boar, wolf, fox and monkey.

Ai^enltural Wealth. — In regard to agricultural wealth, this Province produces principally the opium-poppy, varnish, oil, wild silk and timber. The North-Eastern part is relatively well wooded, as also the South-Eastern portion. In this same South-Eastern region, excellent tobacco is grown in the neigh- bourhood of Lipo hsien ^ i$ j||.

The other agricultural products are : wheat, maize, beans, hemp, buckwheat, rape, barley, indigo, tea, cotton and gall- nuts. A special breed of ponies is also reared.

As to fruit trees, Kweichow jj ^ possesses the peach, apricot, plum, cherry, orange and arbutus. Strawberries are raised in a few parts of the Province.

m

Mineral Wealiii. — Besides qtUehMver^ (which is found principally at Pehmatung 6 H jg, to the N. of Kweiyang Fu :S: l§ ^1 i^ the N.E. near Wuchw'an hsien fg jl|||,and in the 8.W. near Hsingi Fu H H /j^); iron, coal, copper, zinc and argentiferous lead abound throughout the Province. Sulphur and nitre are very common, and fine marble quarries are also worked. As there is no salt in the Province, it is imported by the Northern rivers from Szechw^an IB j||.

Kweichow ^ jHI has also mineral waters, and those of Sbihts'ien V\x ^ ^ Jff are visited by thousands of bathers.

488 SRCTIOH IW. THE SOUTHBillf HBGION.

• iMp«l«llM. — The N:E. and N.W; of Kwekhow are thinly pppqlftodiM the reit of the country is even more bo, eepecially the E. and centre. The popol^tto^ is composed of v^ry hetero^neons elementv^The Chinese form but a fourth of this population, and occupy especially the N. and E! and also the towns thMtagbont the rest of the Province. Th.ey are acttye and engage^ in trading. Among thepi ||i a luge number of immigrants from Szechw'an and Hopeh^ v* . i »

The lest of the country is inhabited by tkeaboriginal Miaofee S ^ tribes, tbe Ikia$%tL (barbarian race) or Chungkiat ifi X (old Chinese race) and the lioidi K K* The IkiaB are principally confined to the low-lying valleys of tl^a S.W. ; the Miaotte occupy the W., the centre, and S. E.; and the Iro/os the S.W. (see section V. eh. n. Population).

The MiaoiM^y having taken advantage of the Mahomedan rebellion in Yfinoan, rose up against the Cliipese, but were massacred in large numbers by the Imperial troops, and this considerably diminished the population of the country. They are even at present largely kept under military rulej especially in the S.B. The insurrection which they started, lasted from 1860-1869. — The Miaotze are divided into a great many tribes, numbering it is said, more than 50. They are often called from the colour of their dress : Peh-miao A ft (white Miaoa), Heh-ndao JK S (black Bfiaos), and HitOr-miao !p "H (flowery or civilised Miaoa).

The Chungkiaa are the descendants of former soldiers, who settled doini.in the oountr}' in the X*^ century A.D., when Kweichow was subdued by China. They are nearly all of high stature and form a sturdy race. Their complexion is darker than ifaal of the Miaotse. Various -naines have been given to them : T$^ng Chumgkui H 4l jK (biue-gowns), Tvjen ± X (anns of the tpil), or what they like better Xao JPSnkia ^ 4^ St (the old stock). They style themselves Pudioi or Pu^iei. Like the Miaotse, they ^ear the queue and Chinese jacket, but discard the long gown. The femalM wear a dress differejit from that of the Chinese women.

The Chinese themselves are divided into o?cf and modem Chineae, The old Chinese are sub-divided into many tribes whose customs are similar with one another. The modem Chinese are of recent immigration and came from KwangBi,H«kwang (to-day Hupeh and Hunan) and especially from Sxechw'au.

The Miaotze uA Chungkiatze are, generally speaking, suspicious of strangers, addicted to lying and drunkness, but are good workmen. They live also at ^rariance with one another, but there is still more antipathy between the Chinese and the Miao- tze. Tfiose latter have a special administrative oiganization.

hm^nM^e. — Each of the noM-Chinete mee$ speaks its own dialect,- which varies much according to the tribe. The Chinese speak Mmnidrin, The OkmrngHaiu speak a dialect resembling that of Siam (Shans), but it Is net fixed by aagr written characters.

T»w«8 Mkl Prtaelpia Cmirak — KWMirAIfa BV J|

|§ jf • — PopulaUoD, 100,000 inhabitants. All the roadi of the Province converge, towards this town, which is situated at an altitude of 3,300 feet, and is built in the largest plain oC Kwei- chow jl M- "^^^ \\9ixn is about 40 miles In length and 4 la breadth. nMl||^iorives its importance chiefly from the pre*

CMtfTBB II.. KWBICOHW. 189

sence of the High Provineinl OfBcials. Its commeree i» of little vslxte.

I Tq the N. of ike Cai^Ual :

'^ ^Mcti< i^ jl H m. — Population, 45,060 inhabitants. A pretty busy town on account of its trade in wild silk, its manu- facture of cloth, and its paper industry.

tm the y. W. 9tU^ CapUai : .

FihiHeh heie9i |l gf ||.-. Population, 20,000 inhabitants. Principal centre of the Western region, but the surroundings atone are populated. Cloth is manufactured there.

To iheS.W. of the €k^ua t "

yffinkehfm FU ^flfiftf. — Population, 50^000 inhabitants^

Jt lies in a beautiful plain and is t)ie second important_clty_o/'

Kweichow.

JETekHrt FU fj^jjU^Jlf. — Population, 40,Q00 inhabitants. Before the Mahomedan rebellion, the town was said to contain over 70,000 souls. It is now rising from its ruins, and enjoys a certain prosperity, owing to the poppy, which is extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood. The city stands at an Qltit^de of 4,250 feet.

To the &Ek /

K^ehmff T*i9iff 1& iW II- — A very small town, but head- quarters of a military circle. A Tapt^i. resides there and control^ all relations w|th the native population.

Sanktoh H M* — ^ V^^^^Y l^^^l® ^^wn, at the fgrmjpsM of navigatioia on the Liu-kiang ijff f£. It is an emporium of Chinese goods for the Mlaotze "Q ^ tribes. Timber ts floated from this place down to the 8i-kiang || f£.

^the B.:

CMnyuen Fhi ^ ffi^^/ff.^^ K city which diraws itis impor- tance from being the principal temUmue of navigation on M^ ITuen fjg river, the centre of a well ik)pulated region, and a lurge market place for (he distribution 6f goods'. Two-flftfas Off the exterior commerce of Kweichow J| f^ are catKed oa through this place »

190 SBCTION Til. m SOUTBCRN BfteiON.

Tn^kmArf ftnd C^Btmeroe. — Besides the extraction of guMMfoer and coa1« and the worMmg •/ f^veaU^ we may

mention as industries of the Province, the manufactured otetb, which employs a large numher of hands at Pihtsieh hsien J|l 0 j|[, in Tating Pu ^ )g ;ff, silk-weaving in the N.B., and a few paperjpiUs.

The principal appwto are : apium and twintM^ raw silk, pongees, timber, beans, indigo and camphor. The chief inq^rU are : piece-goods from Hupeh m 4k t cotton -yam, woollen goods, salt, kerosene and matches.

Highways of Oemmuiiioatlon. — Communications are difflcult in this mountainous country. Navigable waterways are not wanting, and we have mentioned them, only they do not penetrate far into the interior, but rather serve especially for communications with other Provinces. The country being too broken up, is ill-suited for carts, though these are used on ^ the high tablelands of Yiinnan S ^. In Kweichow J| ^ however, all transport has to be done by carriers or pack- animals. The principal ro€ids, UarUng ftfom the OlapUai, are the following:

I*' The road to Ch*ungk^ing ^^ M M Iff ^^ Szechw'an m )M via Tsuni Fu ^^ ^ fff.

2^ The rooA to Bihieieh heien ^ ® ||, in the Prefecture of Tating Fu :k ISS, )ff, which continues Northward towanfs Szeehw^an S )\\ ; and Westward towards Tjower FlinfMm f| ^.

3® The road to Upper T^nnan^ via Nganshun Fu ^Jf^ifft^ and which branches into several routes: one, the Jbt^^erted route, passing through Langfai T'ing flf tit H 5 another, passing through Hsingi Fu H H /jj^.

'i«^ l%e road to Kwanffoi JH f|, via Tuyiin Fu ^ ^ Jff and Sankioh H Jtl*

5^ The road to Hunan Jgfl ||, via Ch^nyuen Fu f)^ ^ Jff and Szechow Fu jg. ^ ^. The road to Kwangsi H f| is connected with this latter at^Kweiting hsien j^ Jfe ||, in the Prefecture of Kweiyang 1^'u Hf p| ^-

ang ju K» W^

GHAPrm II; XWRICHOW.

191

Note. — The Province of Kweichow jH j^ hafi only been incorporated with the Chinese Empire for two centuries. The whole portion to the 8. of the Wu-kiang J^ f£ (Crowriver), once formed a large kingdom, occupied by the Ikia ^ ^ tribe in the W., and the MiaotzeK ^ in the E. China having seized it, added to it a detached strip of Szechw'an |S j|| (the actual portion of Kweichow lying to the N. of the Wu-kiang), forming thereby a new Province, with Kweiyang Fu J| m /|( as Capital. The S. Eastern portion still remained independent until the late war (1860-1869), at the close of which, it too was obliged to submit. Its petty princes continue to govern it under the supervision of Chinese otTicials.

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in Western China. London, 1882. B^wrae F. 8. — Report of a Journey in

S. Western China. London, 18S8.

■osle A. — Three Years in W. China. London, 1890 (Ch. III. IV. VII. VHI.

IX.).

to British India. (Geogr. Jovunal.

p. 800-809). OrleaaB, Friaee M. •£ — > A Jownwy

from Tonkin by Tali Fa to AnMn

(Geogr. Journal. 1896. p. 666-565). BUckbum China Mission. -1896-97. <Pftrt L

Ch. IV. p. 78-98, and Part n. p. 5M1

Yiinnan. — Native made Coktan-dotiui

in YUnnan. p. 2S6-366). CMqukMM A. m. -- The Oyeriandlo

China. London, 1900. (YUnnan. Oil.

XVII and XVin. p. 969^17). UUIe A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

(Yttnnan. p. 122-181). UMle A. - Across YUnnan and TonkiBg,

Shanghai, 1905. (Chftngtn to Yttnaftii.*

YUnnan to Hongkong).

Topography of YUnnan. ^^ Ohinew B»- pository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 588-6rH»). ^

•«lWc9k T. L. — The Graat Kahomedan rebellioi^ in YUnnan. (China Review. Vol. XVI. p. 88-95).

China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Retnms of Trade. Frontier Ports. 1905. (MengtM trade Report, p. 524-S84. — Sxemao tnde Report, p. 586-548.— Tengyneh trade Re- port, p. 544-5.70).

The Bliaotxe of Xweicbow andYUonan.^ (China Review. Vol. V. p. 92-106).

The old Thai or Shan Empire of Western'^ Yiiunau. — (China Review. Vol. XX. p. 387-340).

Pvlkivd S. » Sketches from N. YUnnan. East of Asia Magasine. Shanghai, 1!08^ (Vol. II. p. 228-227).

Pvlkud S. « Refuse Towers of N. YUn- nan. East of Asia llagaxine. ShMighai, 1908. (Vol. U. p. 17M76).

PROVINCE OF KWEICIiOW.

Madratle. » Chine du Nord. Paris, 1901 (Koeitcbeou p. 128 133).

Mission Lyonnaise. — I^on. 1898 (1^ Par- Ue. liv. I. Ch. 6 et 7; liv. III. Ch. 8 et 7, Le Koei-tcheou ; — II« Partie, Ure s^rie; Rapport sur le Koei-tcheou; — £• sArie: mines du Koei-tcheou, note sur la aoie nauvage du Koei-toheoa).

^

Mtf r OlMHimy. — 400 lieues il travem le Koang-si et le Koei-tcheou (Missions Catholiquos, 1885).

Revue Fran^aise d*Exploration. 1890 (des- cription du Koei-tcheou).

Airtiij. — Les Chinois chez Eux (Koei- toheon) Lille, 1889.

CHAPVSft II ^ KWBICHOW,

198

. ^ An Pays des Bagodes. (Koei- .Idieofi) ShftDghai, 1900. Annales de la Soci6t6 des Missions-Etran- gftrea. 1904. (La ProTince du Kouy-toheou ^282aq.). Cmmttking. — Vie de Mgr Fanrie. Paris.

CavalMie. — Chez les Chong-kia. (Anna- let de la Soc. des Missions-Btraug^res. MaKTuin, 1889).

Laaaerteor. — Les Y-jen. (Missions Oatholiqnes; 1877).

Wllliiiiiui. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.

I. p. 146-148). Orosler. — (General Description of China.

(Vol. I. p. 116-121).

Winlarlwlliain. — • View of the Chinese Empire, p. 115-119.

MttrMigr's OhiiM...— (Vol. III. pr 45-4(^

9. — Description of the Empire of China. (Vol. I. p. 127-129).

Gotolair. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 163- 165).

* B. H. — Chinese Revenue. Kwei- ohow. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895-96 p. 129- 180).

Parker. E. H. — Up the Afangiae. Hong^ . kong, 1891. (Noriihern Kweichow. p. 246-274).

Hoale A. — Journey through Kweichow and Yunnan. (China Blue Book, N® h 1883)

Rod me F. S. — Journey in U'estem China. (China Blue Book, No 1. 1888). .

Blackburn China Mission. — 1896-97. (Part 1. Ch. V. p. 99-117, and Part II. p. 54-60. Kweichow. — Native made Cotton-cloths in Kweichow. p. 266-275).

Olark G. W. -» Kweichow and Yunnan Provinces. Shanghai, 1894.

Topography of Kweichow. — Chinese Re- - pository. (Vol. XVUI. p. 526-532).

The Miaotze of- Kweichow and Yunnan. (China Review. Vol. V. p. 92-108).

Cltti^SrR. — The Miao and Chungchia tribes of Kweichow. (East of Asia Maga- zine. Shanghai, 19(M. Vol. III. p. 193-207).

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire -.e{>China.r (the Miaotze tribes. Vol I. p. 81-32).

Nerman H. — T^he Peoples and Politiqs of the East. Ix>ndou, 1895. (on the Franco- Chinese Frontier. Ch. V. p. 95-102).

13»

CHAPTliR III.

THE UFXaON OF THE MIDDLE AND LOWER SI-KTANG

(KWANGSI H B AND KWANGTUNG j|| )([).

KwangH and Kwangtung Provinces are gor^emed by one and the same Viceroy, "whose residence is at Kwangchov; Fu Jl jfi[ fff or Canton, They form the Viceroyalty of LUmt^ kwmmg lH Jl or two Kfvana^.

Both Provinces are irrigated by the Sirkiang ffjl, and offer partially the characteristics of the tropical regions. They are in- habited for the greater part by different races hostile to one another.

The Provinces differ yvidely however one from the other, Kwangst JH H ts a mountainous and quite inland region, while Kwanatung H )K has its vast plain, and an extensive seaboard indented with numerous bays. Kwati^H jK |f is wild, barren, and almost a desert, while Kwangtung Jl )|[ is well culti%>ated, rich and populous. Trade is scarcely possible in KwamgH JH B; JKwoiigtung Jt )|[, on the contrary, is one of the most commercial and enterprising Provinces of China.

CHAPTBR III. KWAMOSI. 195

l"" . Kwangsi M M

Area. — 77,220 square miles.

Popnlaiton. — 5,142,000 inhabitants, or 66 per square mile. It is the least populous Province of the Empire.

Ifame. — Kwangsi Jjjf |f means **Weal of the Kwang/^f a

denomination which refers to Kwangnan )> ^^ the old Annam Kingdom.^ Others would have it mean the **Broad Wesl^.

lloiiiidarle«. — Kwangsi is bounded on the

N. — By Hunan ^ ^ and Kweichow ff Jfl, W. — By Yiinnan ^ ^ and Tongking 3|[ #, * 8. — By Tongking )K ^ and Kwangtung ^ 3|[, E. — By Kwangtung JMf %.

€}m.p\UA. — KWBlTsINjm1^ 1^ fl^, situated to the N.E., on the Kwei-kiang j|^ fx^.

atber Preftetares. — These are lO in number.

On the KweMeUmg i^ft-

loFinglohPu^giW, 2» Wnchow Pu ff ffl *.

lb the y. of the Sirfciang, proceeding Westwards :

3» Liuchow Pu flU ^ ff, 4'> K'ingyiien Pu » « «.

To the A of the Si-kiang, ascending the basin of the Tuhr-

hiang ff f^, from R to W.:

6* Stinchow Pu ?« « «P, e^ Wanning Pu WT Jt *, ?• Szengto Pu g A «P, »» T*aip*ing ¥xLic^»y V Chdnngan Pu f| !ic ff , lO^Szech'ingPuJHttW.

There are besides in Kwangsi JH ^ two independent Chows ^ ; Kweishun Chow ^ M Wf Yuhiin Chouj {g # ;H|/ and two independent Things J||.* Tehseh THng "g* 'g, J||, and Sha$HfS9e Ting J: jQL ||.

198 SECTION III. 'THB SOUTHBRN RBGION.

& tt» formed by the confluence of two rivers, which come from Tongking )|[ j^, and unite at Lungchow T'ing ft ^ H, in the Pre- fecture of T'aipMngFu •j^2ff(f. Both are navigable down into Tong- king, large junks ascending as far as Lungchow TMng H {HI jM* Another but less important tributary, the Ywig-kiang § JL» which joins the Sikiang ^ fL abov.e Wuchow Fu ;|§ ^ ;fl^, establishes easy communication with Pakhoi :|t % (Pch-hai). Goods coming by the Lien-kiang ff^ JH, as far as Foisien (ijg ^ ^ Fohweik*u, to the S.W. of Yuhlin Chow % i^ jt|), are trans- ported thence upon the backs of carriers to the Yung-kiang ^ Jq, which is navigable from Pehliu hsien :|b j(t JK and beyond.

Fauna and Flora. — On account of the dcvaBtation prevailing in Kwangsi, a great nnmber of wild animals are fonnd there : the tiger, rhinoceroH, panther, tapii*, wolf, bear and fox. Deer are also encountered, as well as stags, nronkeys, scaly ant- eaters, and a large variety of serpents (the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, green serpent, adder and aspic). Besides the birds common to the rest of China, there are some that bear a close resemblance to those of Hindustan.

The flora is luxuriant and largely tropical. Suffice it to mention the sugar-cane, cinnamon and aniseed-trees, this latter growing profusedly in certain parts. Ground- nuts are also found, as well as the papaw-tree, the shaddock, the palm-tree, tlje pine- apple and orange, the lichee or persimmon, the mange-tree, arbutus, pomegrauitc;, guava and betel-nut... The maple, ebony, teak- wood and mahogany-trees furnish excellent timber.

Ainricnltiiral Wealtli. — Besides fruit-trees and timber, Kwangsi produces the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and almost everywhere maize. The poppy and the mulberry are scarce. Potatoes are grown nowadays especially in the N. W. The fruit-trees of the N. : peach, plum, pear and walnut, are also easily grown. There are scarcely any forests, except In the N., but a great number of trees are found in the W. There also, buffaloes and ponies are extensively reared.

Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Kwangsi is little worked, though it is considerable, and consists chiefly of gold, silver, coal and antimony.

Popalation.— The population of Kwangsi, as we have seen, is very scanty, and is centred especially in the neighbourhood of the principal towns, where it finds greater protection against brigands and evil-doers. It is composed of 3 principal racei : the aborigines or Ikiaa % jC (bairbariaus), the Canioneae, and the Uakka* ffi ^ or K*ohkias (alien or guoat families, squatters). ; "^ "^ — —

• :CHAt»l«R III. ^-KWANttSI. 1^

valleys, and being obstructed with rocks and rapids, it is little available for navigation. Henceforward, widening from 240 id 320 feet, it abandons its direction W.E., and follows a S.E. course. It is not navigable till a little above Ts^eifikiang hsien IS 2ll d* ^^ becomes a large and fine river after receiving the ^ters of the Yub-^^ip"ff y ff.^ which come in from the 8. Numerous boats then ply on its waters, and it is navigable for steamers.

The iwo tributaries on the ieft aide are :

The lAu-kiang ijf^ {[, which comes from Kweichow jH ^, where it is navigable for small boats from Sankioh ^ |||. It is navigable for large junks from Ch^angngan-sze ftft ^« a little to the 8. of. Hwaiyuen hsien HI ^ )||l* The Liu-kiang flaws through rather fertile plains, but its usefulness is diminished on account of its rapids. It is especially availed of for the transport of timber, floated down from Hunan iM A ^^^ Kweichow jjt jfi|.

The Kweirkiang ^ J^. This river comes from the N., and is connected by a canal with the Siang-kiang jfg {t, which rises in Hunan iM ^* ^^ ^^ navigable despite its many rapids. It joins the 8i-kiang f| 2C ^^ Wuchow Fu i@ ^ ;|Ep, and attains there a width of 330 yards.

The tributary of4 the right is :

The Tuh'k4an0 |^ {Hi which issues from Yunnan ^ ^, close by KwangnUn Fu ;^ ^ ;((. It is navigable for smttll boats from Pakngai or Pohai jg^ |^, and for large junks from Pehseh T'ing "g* ^ ||, whence it flows with a conside- rable descent through very low-lying plains, where however it is easily navigated. After receiving the Tso-kiang ^ fx^^ Mh bed winds successively through long, narrow gorges, and vast plains. In low-water season, a rapid obstructs steam-navigation', below Kwei hsien jK J||. Two landing places, one above the rapid, the other below it, render navigation possible during the whole year, up to Nanning Fu ;^ ||[ JjSp, and even up to Pehseh TSng "S "£ jR* ^^ ^^^ flood-season. The Yuh-kiang ^ {L ^^' ceives on its right, above Nanning Fu ^ K j|^, the Teo^kkmg

198 SECTION III. -THB SOUTHERN REGION.

& tt» formed by the confluence of two rivers, which come from Tongking )|[ jfr, and unite at Lungchow T*ing ft ^ J||« in the Pre- fecture of T'aip*ingFu -jl^Z^fff. Both are navigable down into Tong- king, large junks ascending as far as Lungchow TSng H {HI JS- Another but less important tributary, the TutHj^'kiaiw § it, which joins the Si-kiang f| JH abov.e Wuchow Fu ;|§ ^ ^j^, establishes easy communication with Pakhoi :|t M (Peh-hai). Goods coming by the Lien-kiang jjj^ f£^ as far as FoiiSien (|g ^ ^ Fohweik*u, to the S.W. of Yuhlin Chow ^ ^ jt|), are trans- ported thence upon the bs^cks of carriers to the Yung-kiang ^ f£, which is navigable from Pehliu hsien :|b j(t JR and beyond.

Fauna and Flora. — On acconnt of the devastation prevailing in Kwangsi, a great number of wild animals are found there : the tiger, rhinoceron, panther, tapir, wolf, bear and fox. Deer are also encountered, as well as stags, nronkcys, scaly ant- eaters, and a large variety of serpents (the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, green serpent, adder and aspic). Besides the birds common to the rest of China, there are some that bear a close resemblance to those of Hindustan.

The flora is luxuriant and largely tropical. Suffice it to mention the sugar-cane, cinnamon and aniseed-trees, this latter growing profuscdly in curtain parts. Ground- nuts are also found, as well as the papaw-tree, the shaddock, the palm-tree, the pine- apple and orange, the lichee or persimmon, the mango-tree, arbutus, pomegranite, guava and betel-nut... The maple, ebony, teak-wood and mahogany-trees furnish excellent timber.

Ainricnltiiral Wealtli. — Besides fruit-trees and timber, Kwangsi produces the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and almost everywhere maize. The poppy and the mulberry are scarce. Potatoes are grown nowadays especially in the N. W. The fruit-trees of the N. : peach, plum, pear and walnut, are also easily grown. There are scarcely any forests, except In the N., but a great number of trees are found in the W. There also, buffaloes and ponies are extensively reared.

Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Kwangsi is little worked, though it is considerable, and consists chiefly of gold, silver, coal and antimony.

Popalation.— The population of Kwangsi, as we have seen, is very scanty, and is centred especially in the neighbourhood of the principal towns, where it finds greater protection against brigands and evil-doers. It is composed of 3 principal races : the aborigines or Ikias % SC (bairbarians), the CajUgtiesef and the Uakkaslg^ or K'ohkias (alien or guesl families, squatters). ^. "^"^^

CHAPTBll III. KWANG8I. 201

Hote* — Kwangsi $1 f| and Kwangtung JH >|[ formerly made but one Province. Kwangsi was separated from the^latter by the Emperor Hjai)igwu^^ft.XU68-1399), of thl^Ming jg dyn"asly^| andits administration entrusted to a Provincial Treasurer.

The present system of governing the Province offers this peculiarity, that some of its district towns or sub-prefectures are still administered by hereditary chieftains. These officials are the descendants of sofdiers who received this charge in return for former services.

ZOQ SECTION III. THB SOUTHBBN REGION.

It is situated within a bend of the river. Numerous junks come up to the place, and a small trade is carried on, chiefly in wood, 1)rought from Kweichow J| j^.

JP^heO^ T'ing "g* ^ jR. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants. A commercial centre trading with Yiinnan ^ 1^ and Kwei- chow -^ ^, whence it imports opium in large quantities, and with which it exchanges cotton piece-goods, woollens, kerosene oil and matches.

Industry and Commerce. — The country is too agitated to favour the development of industrial pursuits. Formerly the silk industry was important, but it exists no longer, and the manufacture of sugaj^ has supplanted it. Staj-amse«d oil is also found; grouQdput oil and indigo are likewise sources of industry for the country.

Trade is chiefly carried on with Ganton, Pakhoi, Tongking A ^' Yunnan ^ J^ and Kweichow •$[ ^. The impmts are : cotton and woollen cloths, cotton-yarn, kerosene oil, opium and clocks. The eaoparis are: sugar, star-aniseed oil, false gambir, timber, cinnamon and indigo. Traffic with the neighbouring regions is extensive.

Hlsbways of Commnnleallon. — The principal means of communication are the navigtMe nmies, which comprise a j/ast network of waterways, and establish easy communications : with^nton by ihr*ftt"=10fang {| jJq; with Hunan iM ^ ^y ^h® Kwei-kiang i^ fl^ ; with Kweichow jjt M by the Liu-kiang ijff j^ ; with Yunnan K ^ by the Yuh-kiang ff f[^; with Tongking )|[ ^ by the Tso-kiang ^ i£; with Pakhoi ;|b % (Peh-hai) by the Yung-kiang § {£ and the Lien-kiang JH ^.

The tonci rpiilei are hadly kept up, and are nothing more than unbeaten tracks, darts travet'^on their more level parts.

Open Porto. — Kwangsi has three ports open to Foreign trade: Tjungchmv T'ing % ^ J||, in T'aip'ing Fu ic^^t ^^~ cfUM -FW ;© « ;fif and jronnincr Fu H^ % fff.

CHAPTBR m. KWANGSI. 199

The Ikias aloue form */3 of the population, but their name varies much with the rcgioQ which they occupy. Their dress, customs, manners, and the dialects they speak, closely resemble those of the Siamese (Shans).

JThe HakkaB are a cross betvven Chinese soldi^jm^d^Ikia^womeUj^ and. have adopted most of the Chinese customs. They mingle with the natives, and being bold and eill(»ryjllliliig, succeed often in supplanting them.

T*^^ ^ -'*Tffrnpfi' fl^t*''?V'*°t *^""^''^^i)fl, ivni1n^mryr*^''^T*^"y '^^'^^ ^ ^nd S,.E.

They are nearly all traders.

Lnn^ua^e. — Besides the Cantonese language, whicli differs very much from | Mandarin, each of tho Ikia tribes speaks its own peculiar dialect.

Oitles and Principal Centres. — KWBILIN FV 1^1^ Jff (Cassia grove). — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. The town is situated at an altitude of 650 feet, and stands in the midst of an amphitheatre crowned with madreporite peaks, which give to the scenery a most peculiar aspect. The Southern quarters, which are the finest of the town, possess numerous fur and silk- stores, and clocks are manufactured. Almost all commercial relations are carried on with Canton, by the Kwei-kiang ;g j^.

Of I the Si-kiang ff f£ :

Wuehaw Fki^ff{Jff. — ^o^jjjution, 65,flflfl inhaWtanttsr. The most important city in Kwangsi JH "g, and the centre of all trade in this Province, owing to its excellent position. Steamers reach it from Canton in two and a half days.

On the Yuh'kiang ^ ^ :

Xannina Fu^%)ff. — Population, 25,000 inhabitants. A town noteworthy because of its trade, and its position as a transit centre. Numerous junks proceeding Westward, or des- cending the river, pass through the place. Western Kwangsi Jl If being inadequate for its own supply, is compelled to import rice and other commodities from Canton, and from the country round Kweilin Fu ;g| i^ ;j^.

On the Teo-Mang ^ JI •

lAinffchaw Ting ^ ^ j|||. — Population, 12,000 inhabitants. This city owes its importance to its custom-house and its trade with Tongking % -ff^.

On tiie lAvr-Mang ;gj| ^L *

lAuchmo JPki igf f/K Jif. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.

202 SBCTIOII HI. THB SOUTHBRN RB6I0N.

2^ . Kwangtung

Area. — 100,000 square miles.

Popalation. — 31,865,200, or 318 per square mile. This region is the most populous of the whole Si-kiang "g ^ basin.

IVame* — Kwangtung J{ ^ signifies **East of the Kwang**,

Kwangnan gl f^ being the old Empire of Annam $^. Others render it by the ** Broad BaaP\

Boandarles. — Kwangtung is bounded on the

N. — By Fokien jg^, Kiangsi fllH ^^^ Hunan jJjQ ^, W. — By Kwangsi J(| g and Tongking ^ jjr, S. — By the Gulf of Tongking and the South-China

Sea ^ %, E. — By the South-China Sea.

Capital. — KWANQCHOW rv M 9I{ lH ^^ Canton, si- tuated to the N. of the Si-kiang "g f£ delta, and on the Chu- kiang 3^ fiC or Pearl River.

Otber PreftetareiBi. — TheBe are 8 in nufnber.

To the N. of tlie Si-kiang, proceeding from W, to E. : 1« Chaok'ing Pu 81 R ;fip, on the Si-kiang H ft, 2° Shaochow Pu ffl W fflp, on the PehJ:iang ^ ft, to the A'., 3" Hweichow Pu 3K ^ W, on the Tung-kiang Jg f£, in its lower

part, 4" Ch'aochow Pu il! ^ rtP, on the Han-kiang ft jx, not far from the sea.

To the 8. of the 8i-Mangy proceeding likewise from W. to E. :

fp Lienchow Pu IS ^ )(p, on thegtUfof Tongking )K jj[,

6" Leichow Pu S ^ jfif» in the peninsula of the same name,

T Kaochow Pu K « ff , « mile to the N, of the Leichow

peninsula, 8° K'inngchow Pu jl ^ W» ^'« ^^'^ A', of the island of Hainan

There arc besides in Kwangtung Jf| ]^ ^ independmU Chow ^ cUies: lAeti Chow ^ ;Hi# Nanheiung Chow '^ tfj^ )ti.

GHAPTBR III. KWANGTUNa. 203

Kiaying Chew ^ ^ift ^, K*in Ch&w j^ ^, LaHftg Ounv Ji ^ ji\; and :i itidependent Things f^: lAenshan T'ing ^ llj JH* TmvffMung THng |^ ^ ||, and ChHhk'i THng # ;Ei ||-

Aspect and Cliaracteristlca. — Kvpangtung is for the !

most part a mountainous region^ except in the delta tract; it is |

however well watered, and provided with means of communications, *

by its canals, rivers and coast. Along the latter, we find nume^

rous islands, of which the largest is Hainan fH ^, and the most

commercial, Hongkong ^ p^. As in Kwangsi Jjl '^, several

races are intermingled in Kwangtung Jjl ^. Enterprising^ com^

mercial and industrious^ brought into contact for long years with

foreign traders, the Cantonese have exerted great influence over

the neighbouring countries, and even as far as America, Although

situated partly in the tropical zone, the Province, owing to the

monsoon^ enjoys in Winter a dry and almost cold climate. These

conditions preserve the inhabitants from that excessive exhaustion

resulting from moist and prolonged heat, and at the same time,

favour the growth of many tropical products, which constitute its

chief wealth. If the Province enjoys no longer, as in former times, !,

the monopoly of trade with foreigners, nor the privilege of con^

veying ambassadors to Peking ^fc ;^ {see p. 145), it remains

however the great distributing centre of the Si-kiang ff ^

valley, and exchanges its wares with remote regions, and chiefly

with Szechw^an |S )\\.

Ctoolo^ioal constitution. — More than half of Kwangtung, the W. and N.W. especially, is of the same formation as Kwangsi, and is composed of sandstone and limestone intorspersed with porphyry and granite. As the coast is approached, granite predominates. The delta is of alluvial formation, and is broken by hills of red sand- stone overlying a granite basis. The I^eichow peninsula is of red clay-grit formation, while the island of Hainan is granitic and schistous.

Oroi^rapliy. — Almost wholly mountainous, this Pro- \ vince has however a large plain, extending over the delta of the ' 8i-kiang fliHi ^^^ ^^® lower part of the Peh-kiang ^t tL- All its mountains run in the general direction S.W. — N.E., and are continued in the sea along the coast, where they attain in some islands an elevation of 3,000 feet. On the continent, they rise to a height of 5,000 feet, and even in the N., to 6,500 feet. The

204 SBCnOM 111, TUB SOUTHBRH RBOION.

principal peak of Hainan f^ ||f, atlains an altitude of 4,900 feet^ It is part of the large mountain mass, which stretches ^ out into ridges and forms a large portion of the island.

Cliaiate. — The climate of Kwrnogkaag is very changeable and depends on the dry N. E. wind, or the moistore-laden one which blows from the S. W. From October to April, the former prevails, and in the neighbonrhood of Canton, seldom causes the temperatore to fall below 32* Fahrenheit, bat the high ridges do not fare so well, and are at times covered with snow. The rainy moQ^oon, which oocors in Summer, oocasibns often dangerous epidemics. Macao is famed for its excellent climate, due to its site, whereby the town is protected from the cold, and from the moist heat of the delta. It does not escape however the plague and the cholera. Hongkong, less well situated, is subject to fogs. Both Macao and Hongkong are often visited by tjrphoons which cause such terrible ravages on the coast.

My&r^grmpiiy. — The atrhkmg ^ £[, with its two large affluents on the left : the F^h^Mang $^ 2t and the Tun^^-tdang % fLi drains the greater part of the Province. The Hdn^'Mamg Ij^tL and its affluents water the N.W. The S.W., less favoured, has but a few short rivers, which flow directly into the 8ea«.

The Sirkiang f| f£. When this stream enters Kwangtung M ya^ ^^ ^^ already a fine, large river. At Chaok'ing Fu HJI ^, it is over a mile wide. Further on, it flows through a narrow gorge, and is only 270 yards in width. Its course here becomes very impetuous and its depth increases. This gorge, the last through which the Sikiang f| fL flows, is three miles long. After issuing from it, it widens anew to a breadth of one. mile. It subsequently runs, now through vast and well cuUivated plains, now between parallel ranges of barren mountains. In the flood-season, it discharges its overflow into the Peh kiang ^fe ^, through a canal nearly half a mile in length. At Sanshui hsien ^ ^ JH, it divides into several branches. At this place, the delta begins. Its Northern branch, called the Chwkiang ||( {t or Teari Siver, flows past Fatshan Hi |Ij (Fohshan) and Canton M i^ Jffy ^"^ empties its waters into the sea through the Boeea Tigris or Bggue, called also the Gate of the Tiger^m Head gt gi n (Huteu-m^n), between Hongkong and Macao. The Southern branch, less frequented, goes by the name of the Si- kiang, and terminates S. of Macao. Between these two branches, and in the environs, is a network of canals and rivers, and: a

CHAPTBR Illi KWANOTUKO'. 805

countless number of boats ply on their waters at the rise and fall of the tide. Depths are extremely variable, and the sand- banks shift frequently from one position to another. A number of embankments have been constructed to protect the low-lying lands from the floods caused by the rise of the waters. These contrivances sometimes give way, and then the flood rushes on, devasting all before it, until it is stopped by a new embankment. The vast sheet of water is not drained off until the low-water season sets in.

The JPeh-kkmg 4f; {T* an affluent of the 8i-kiang H fi, rises in the South of the Meiling i^ {jf range, which separates Kwangtung Jt )K from Kwangsi |K ig. It is called at first by the name of Tahig'Shui |j( :^, and becomes navigable for small craft at Nanhsiung Chow ^ Kl ^, but navigation on its waters is rather difficult, on account of the rapids and the lack of depth, down to Shaochow Fu f^ j^ Jff. Here it receives on the right the Wn^shui f^ tJc, which comes from the 8. of Hunan ^ $, and is also partly navigable. It then abandons its first direction N. E. — S.W., and takes a Southern course, which it maintains to the end. It passes through wild and picturesque gorges, of which the last is that of Ts'ingyuen 91 M' Henceforward it flows in the plains, and reaches the drita near Sanshui hsien ^ :^ JH, dependent on Kwangchow Pu M W Jff' ^^ ^^ navigable for large boats from ' Shaochow Fu H IH iflf « ^^ ^^^ Summer freshets render its current very violent and hard to ascend ; even the down-trip is not unattended with danger. — Its principal tributary on the right is the lAeu' dkow^kiattg jft #1 {C* which is navigable from Lien Chow M fH' — The Peh-kiang, formerly very important, as the great water route not only to Kiangsi j^ ^ and Hunan ^ ^, but also to Nanking j^ t^ and Peking :|t Tjr, is now but bf secondary importance^

The TmtmHclang ]|C tL ^^^^^ in Kiangsi fL H« and makes several bends Westward, the last being near Hweichow Fu X ^ Jif. Here it flows through a small delta into the large delta of the 8i-kiang f| gC- The Tung-kiang Jfji it receives

206 SBcnoN HI. the sodthbbic mi»i<m.

several aflluents, and affords an excellent network of navigable streams.

The Htm-kiattg t^ iL- — ^s regards its navigation, this river has neither the same importance nor the same interest as the preceding ones. Its affluents however, the principal of which is the MH'-hkm^ #2llt open communications with Fokien JH 9^9 while its delta, covered with sugar-canes, possesses at a distance of five miles from the sea an excellent harbour : Shant'eu }il| |g or Swat^ow.

iii the S.W^ the rirerm 0/ lAemOtmtf J^ tk ¥\ Jti «"€! of KHh Chaw Jk j^, although verj- short, have a certain impor- tance on account of the large boatj^pulatipn that lives on their waters. (For other details on the coast and islands, «ee Section IV.).

Fauna and Flora. — The fauiie and flora of Knangtimg are identical with tho.<^ of KvAii^f^if but the wild animals are less nnmerous, and tLr coontiy is nearly ever>-u'here ucdcr cultivation. The N. is pretty well wooded, especially with fii^treea.

litraides the &pei-;i::t:ns aln-ady named, suffice it to mention in regard to the &a- r.a : dy-cat^Lers, [^arroi:!. the mandarin duck and ^or^geocs butterflies : and in regard 10 '.'ue flora : the 6^^ and olive-trees, thujas and magnolias.

In the island of Hainan, the fauna and flora have a closer resemblance to those r.l the tropical ref.'ion. In the island are found large deer and stags, monkeys and very -.'.sli::.i.> i::.akt:>. It has also its cocoa*nnt groves, arecas, nut-palms and pine- aH/......

Af^rlcmltiirml Wemltli. — The mountainous tract is rocky

and unproductive, but that of the plains, of the delta and valleys, is exc'llent and well irrigated, and even produces three crops annually. The principal products are : rice, sugar-cane, wheat, cassia, tea. tobacco, groundnuts, ginger and' oranges. The silk- worm is also reared in the Si-kiang ff jQQ delta. The grasscloth plant is cultivated principally in the N., as well as hemp and indigo. .\ species of rush, growing in the recent alluvial soil, is employed in making mats, which arc in great demand.

Cattle are extensively reared in the Province, as also poultry and bees, while the fish of the rivers and coast provide the inhabitants with a valuable food-supply.

Mineral Wealtli. — Extensive coal mines are found in the Prefecture of .Shaochow Fu gg ^ JjfJ^. in the district of Hwa

a

■1

CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNfi. 207

hsien {g ||, in Kwangchow Fu JH ;^ /j^, and near the gulf of Tongking ^ Tjf. Iron-ore mines are worked in several places, and salt is extracted from sea-water. The Province possesses also in various localities important mines of silver, copper, lead and tin.

Popnlation. — The popalatiou is especially crowded in the Si-kiang delta and on the coast, and offers the same diversity of races already noticed in Kwangsi. The principal of these races are : 1" the Cjjiiitpneaej called also the Pu7iti or PSnti JIfi ^

(original or native stock) ; — 2® the Hakkas or Klohkiat^ ^ (squatters, aliens) ; 8» ^

ihejiokloa or Hsiolaos fjf- ^ (^people from Fok, or as it is locally pronounced Hok^ Province, i.e Fokien Province) ; — 4° the Ikiasi/^ j^ (barbarians) ; — 5" the Yao or Tu ' tribe ff (jackals) ; ~ 6° the TunqkoiOT Tungkias ^ 9|c (cave-dwellers). — The^Cawfo- nMc form more than half pfj^^*^ population, and occupy especially the centre of the rrovmce and the delta. They are active, industrious, and consider themselves the rightful owners of the soil. — ^Qie^aAArrM descend from the same stock as those of Kwangsi. They came very likely from Fokien, and mhTrtrtt chiefly the N.E., hut are / also found throughout the whole iProviricelntermingled with the Cantonese. They are / excellent cultivators, and being of strong build are also employed as coolies or carriers. / They furnish the largest number of Fokien emigrants. — The Uokloa^ who come also from Fokien, are confined to the N.E. and the coast, but arc less numerous than the other races. — The Z!UiJflilf*.W<'i-<^( short stature and are dark-featured. They are especially given to petty trades, aud^e on their boats in the neighbourhood of Canton, where they form floating villages. They seem to be near akin to the Hakkas, but are much despised by the other inhabitants of Kwangtnng. — The Ikias or Miaotee arc but semi-civilised, and inhabit especially the N.W. — The Yao tribes, who number about 90,000, are located in the S.W. They seem to be of Burmese origin, and are much coQtidered among the other races for their knowledge of medicine. Their jvengeance is nmch dreaded, as it is transmitted from father to son through several generations.

In the island of Hainan, the population is composed of Sain or Sin, who number 1 1 ^ about 100,000. In the centre are found 5,000 Meus, The remainder is occupied by 2 V million Ch%ne$e who have settled especially along the coast.

Lan^aa^e. — Each race clings to its own dialect. Cantonese however, on ac- count of its importance, is spreading more and more. It constitutes the Peh-hwa ^ J^,

or fashionable language, differs much from Mandarin^ and has its own litrrntnm. "

The JJakka dialect is near akin to Mandarin ^ being a transition phase between Canto- nese and the latter. It is spoken by -I millions of inhabitants. — The l^af*oiv region has its own peculiar dialect, which resembles the Fokienese, and is spoken by 3 million people.

Besides the j^^t and Meu dialects, Hahian has a Chinese dialect of its own, called \^ the dialect of KHungchow Fu.

Towns and Principal Cehlres. — KWANGCHOW JFU

9( jVi fff or Canton. — Population, 900,000. Capital of Kwang- tung, from J^664, at which period it secured this privilege from Gbaok^ng Fu ||| J| j|^. It is a large city, as its name signifies

?08

aBcnoM III. THi soDTHamf umiom.

GHAPTIR III. KWANGTUlia'. 209

(kwang meaning broad) ^ and very ancient. It is built on the left bank of the Chu-kiang l^tL or Pearl River, and its suburbs extend along the river far beyond its walls, above and below the ^ity ^ ^"hJng nhp'ilfition nf y(^]] nigh 20^000, form on the river a peculiarly interesting portion of the city. Well situated for facility of communications, it became the most populous centre of the delta. Several times the Capital of an independent state, it enjoyed, up to 50 years ago, the monopoly of commerce with foreigners. • The rapid rise of Hongkong, and the opening of other ports have since diminished its importance. It is nevertheless a great jmamifacturing an^ poninn#>ro^^i /»Hy Its principal industries are : silk-spinning, factories of cotton and woollen cloths, satins and paper. Its articles of household furniture, tortoise-shell, lacquer and stoneware, its fans and pottery Cfnjoy a world-wide reputation and are sold far and wide. Its eeoi^aH& are chiefly silk, tea and matting, while it imparts cotton-yiim and piece goods, woollen-cloth, rice, sugar, beans, kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery, opium, tobacco and matches. The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 110,559,826; in 1904, Tls. 96,247,076: and in 1905, Tls. 92,243,650.

Opposite the town is FaH Ifl^ % (Hwa-ti), famous for its gardens, and near by is the island of Shameen j^^ (Shamien, i.e. sand-flat), upon which are established the Foreign Settlements.

- Large steamers are unable to reach Canton, but anchor at i>jtiii|isii fl ill (Hwangpu), 10 miles further down, where ihey find sufBciently deep water and a safe anchorage. Here also aire repairing-docks and vast warehouses for the storage of cargo. Whampoa itself is a rather large place, extending 2^ miles along an island of the same name, which lies on the right bank of the Cbu-kiang |^ f]^.

On th€ air-hUmg ^ ft :

ChaokHmg jPU JDI JH Jff. — Former Provincial Capital^ now a decadent city but not without some importance. It has splen- did houses, well-stocked shops, and its streets are paved. Con- siderable trade is carried on in tea, porcelain and marble slabs, which are quarried in the vicinity.

U

210 8BCTI0N III. THB SOUTHBlUf BSeiON.

On the Behrhkmg JlciL-

Nanhsiunff JFu '^ |{| Jff. — An ancient city well situated, formerly famous, and even still a large transit-place for goods entering from Kiangsi {[ f|, or forwarded through the Meiling # ^8 pass.

Shaoehow Fu ^j^THf- — A large town, and a much fre- quented port, at the confluence of the Wu-shul f^ ij/s, with the Peh-kiang fl: tC-

8an»hwi hsien H 4C H (Samshui). — Population, 5,000 inhabitants. It is separated from the Peh-kiang :f|: 2C by a large suburb, which is used as its port. This town is agreeably situated at the foot of beautiful! hills, and owes its activity to its position. Samshui is a port open to foreign trade.

Abone Canton:

FaUhan ^ ll] 4| (Fohshan ch6n). — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. A large town, 12 miles in length, renowned for its vast silk manufactures, cloth-making, embroidery, cutlery, matting, paper and porcelain. The town is divided into two parts by the river, and is not fortified.

€)n the Tung-kiang }K tt, at the head of the delta : SMMung ;& H- — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A large sugar and food-stuff emporium.

To the H.IL, at the mouth of the Han-kiang |§: JjQ : Swaiow Jill M (Shant*eu). — Population, 60,000 inhabitants. A port situated five miles from the sea, and exporting chiefly sugar, groundnuts and camphor. Among its imports are bean- oil cake from Manchuria, employed in large quantity for manu- ring the fields; also rice, kerosene oil, cotton and woollen cloths. Numerous emigrants start every year from this place.

To the 8. W. :

Fakhoi it m (Pehhai). — ^Eppulation. 20,000 inhah»tAnt« A port situated on the gulf of Tongking. It is the commercial outleT, and the mart7or a large pOriion Of Kwangtung JH j^, Kwangsi J(J f|, and even of Yunnan ^ ^ and Kweichow f^ ^. Its chief exports are star-anjseed and star-aniseed oil| hides.

CHAPTBR III. KWANGTUNa^^. 21 1

Indigo, opium and tin, while its imports are cotton-cloths and kerosene oil.

In the JaUmA of Hainan ft^ "^ :

K*4ungehaw Fu 3|^/|^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. — ^ Hoihmv % D_(Itaik^^i>^s its port, and trades principally with ( Hongkong. It exports pigs, sugar, betel-nuts, leather and / poultry. Its imports consist of cotton-cloths, rice, kerosene oil ' and India opium.

Note.^ On HoB^kooff '^ t/^ (Hsiangkiang) and Kowlooa % ■ (Kiulang), both British possessions ; Mac^io ft P^ (Ngaom^n) belonging to Portngal, and Lapiia IK 4 (Kungpeh), an island opposite Macao ; K'wan^cho'w^raii JR M IVi belonging to Pranc<^, see Section IV. Coasts.

Indastry and C)iMMmer<>e> — f:aipiinn and. Jinrfiftflw are the

two principal industrial centres. We have seen the principal articles, . and may add thereto the manufacture of matches, jewellery and glass-ware, sugar-refining and iron-works.

Trade is carried on through SufaUno and PiakhM^ but Gonial holds the first place as a commercial centre, its exports 1/ going as far as Yiinnan H ](f and Szechw'an Q ^l^j We have stated their nature when describing the principal ports of this Province.

Higbmrnym of CoinmanlcalAoii. — Communications are carried on principally by waier routeB, The Si-Mang ff f£ delta offers an excellent network of navigable streams. The river itself is a convenient outlet towards Kwangsi J| ig and the adjoining Provinces.

The Teh'leiang :|t 2C ^^^ long been the water route towards the N. The river forks into two at Shaochow Fu fg ^ ^, one stream leading to Kiangsi f£ f|, v'\k Nanhsiung Chow '^i^j^; the olher on the W., leading to Hunan ^^, viH Wushui ;JC;JC. From Nanhsiung Chow, a land route continues through Kiangsi. This road is paved, and as it issues from the immense plain of rice- fields, it winds through quaint and picturesque hills. All along, at regular intervals, are built sheds to afford shelter to the carriers. These number about 50,000, and travel unceasingly to and fro, in two nearly endless files, The boundary-limit of the two

212 SBCTION III. THB SOUTHERN RSaiON.

Provinces is at the Meikwan 4^ JB o^* plum-tree barrier, situated at an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea level. Between that place and Nanngan Fu '^ ^ Jff, the journey is still made by land and then by water. The same process is repeated onJHe route through Hunan Jtfl ^. At Ichang hsien ^ ^T^ (^^~ pending on Ch'6ng Chow ^ ^), the Wu-shui S ?K ^^ abandoned for a paved road, which leads via the ChehHnff JS {^ pasB to Ch*6ng Chow on the Lei-ho ^ fjj. This road is 30 miles long, and is bordered throughout with inns and warehouses. The Chehling pass attains an elevation of about 1,000 feet, and like the land route is situated in Hunan ^ '^.

The Tung-kiang ]^ f£ supplies an excellent way North- Eastwards.

The Lienchow Fu {H ^ /j^ and K'in Chow 0c jf\ rivers open easy commnications between Pakhoi 4t M (Peh-hai) and Kwangsi jft g.

A raUway connects Samshui ^ ifC (Sanshui) and Fatshan ^ ill with Canton, and will subsequently be continued to Kowloon 3^||. Another is to run between Canton and Macao.

The Peh-kiang fl; JI valley is the natural course which the CantonHank*ow line will follow.

Carts, though occasionally met with, are little employed.

A regular steamship service brings the principal ports :into constant communication with one another.

€>peii Porto. — Kwangtung has six ports open to Foreign trade : Ctmtan or Kwangchow Fu J^ ^ J(Sf , Swaiow or Shan- t*eu ;ilj ^ (in the Prefecture of Ch^aochow Fu ^ ^ /fif), Haihow or Haik*ow ff^ fj (in the Prefecture of K'iungchow Fu 3^ ^ ;i^, Hainan fft |j| Island), Fakhoi or Peh hai ^fc ^ (in the Prefecture of Leichow Fu ^ jtj /j|^], SammH or Sanshui hsien H ?K K i^^ *h® Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu Jf| 4i) }pf), and Kiangmhh fx. R (>n the Prefecture of Chaok^ing Fu 91 M fff)' '^^^^^ Ai'c besides three parte of oaU: Kanchuh -^ f}- (in the Prefecture of Chaok^ng Fu ^jjt gi )ff), Chaok^ing Fu 9^ tt M ^"^ TehkHng Fu ^ $t Jff, and three euetom etatiotie: Whampoa or Hwangpu )| J^ (in the Prefecture of Kwang-

GHiO^TBR III. KWANGTUNC.

213

chow Fu JH ^ )(f)^ Kawioan or Kiulung ;fL fH 0^ ^^^ Prefec- ture of Hweichow Fu jg ^ /fif), and Lappa or Kungpeh ^gt :|{j (in the Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu JH ;^ ;i^).

Three ports have been eeded to Foreign Powers : Macao or Ngaom^n |J|P^, occupied by the Portuguese from 1^553, and ceded oflicially to Portugal in 1887 ; Hongkong or Hsian^kiang # tS« ceded to England in 1842 (to which must be added the Kawloon exiension on the majinland, leased in 1898); and Ktvangchounvan JH ;H1 J9« ^" ^^^' Prefecture of Leichow Fu ^ ;^ fffy leased to France in 1898.

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GHAPTBB III. KWANOTDNO.

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p. 101-119). Aaber P. — China. London. 1834. (Rriti^b

Iiitercoarse with China, Canton. Ch.

IV-VII).

Hainan and its Aborigines. — China Re- view. (Vol. XI. p. 42-50).

Parker E. H. -* China Review. (Fauna, Flora, Zoology and Reptiles of Haiimt). Vol. XIX. p. 369-376 and Vol. XX. p. 167-172).

Loi Aborigines of Hainan. — China Re- view. (Vol. XX. p. 296-305).

The Aborigines of Hainan. — China Be* view. (VoL XXV. p. 247-251).

Th Miaotse of Canton. — Chinese Repof^i-

tory. (Vol. XrV. p. 105-117). ^Eitel B. jr. — Oatline History of the Hak^ ^ kas. OhioA Review. 1873. (Vol. II. p 160^ 164). ' Pit0B C— Origin and History of the Hnk- kas. China Review. (Vol. II. p. 222-22^)- China. Itt^rial Marit. Cnstoms. Decen- Dial Beport, 1882-91. Shanghai, 1893 (Oaaion. p. 543-580). — Trade Reports for 1905. Southern Coast Reports. Cati- ton. p. 886-485. — Swatow. p. 888-8fl5,— Pakfaoi. p. 505-514. — Samghni. p. 470- 479. — Kiungchow. p. 494-604). , 4 The \a Aborigines of Kiangchow, HaTnnn. — China Review. (Vol. XIX. p. 88:i3^7) Svrifllioe R.— The Aborigines of HainAti. -^ (N.C.B.B.A.SOC. 1871. p. 25-40).

Mayers W. F. — Historical and StatiFi^

, tical Sketch of Hainan. ( N.aB. R. A.

Soc. 1871. p. 1-24).

SchselTer K. L. — The Lois or Abori^neR

^ of Hainan. East of Asia Magazine. T90I.

(VoL III. p. 46-f.O). Little M" A. — Hanoi and Kwangchow-

wan. (Scottish G. Magazine. 1906. p. 181- 188).

The Peninsula of Leichow. — China Re- view. (Vol. II. p. 149-160).

Ethnographical Sketches of the Hakka ^ Chinese. — China Review. (Vol. XX. p. ?63-267).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn, 1896-97. (Canton and Hongkong. Part I. Ch. VII. p. 133-UL Part II. p. 62^ 72).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1814. (English Intercourse with China. Vol. I. Ch. II. IlL and IV. p. 31-133).

Miohie A. — The Englishman in China. London, 1900. (Vol.1. Ch. IV. p.60.77. The first China War. 1839-1842.— Vol. I. Ch. XVII. p. 308-350. The An-ow War.— Vol. I. Ch. XIV. p. 271-286. Hongkong^

Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics of the East. London, 1895. (Outposts of Empire, Hongkong. Ch. I. p. 22-36).

Oolqahoun A.— China in Transformation. London, 1898. (Hongkong. Ch. XII. p. 304-320).

Collins vrood C. — Naturalist's Rambles in the China Seas. London, 1868. 'Hong- kong. Ch. I. p. 1-20 and Ch. XIX. p. 311-329).

Norman F. M.— Martello Tower in China. London, 1902. (Hongkong. Part II. Ch. I. p. 81-98).

Kitel E. J. — Select Chapters from an unpublished History of Hongkong.British Trade with China A.D. 1625-1834. (China Review. Vol. XX. p. 173201 etc).

Eitel E. J. — The History of Hongkong. < China Review. (Vol. XX. and XXI. passim).

Eitel E. J. — Supplementary' Notes on the > History' of Hongkong, with tables showing Population, Income, Expenditure, Ship- ping, from 1882-1890. China Review. (Vol. XXII. passim^ Notices of Hongkong.— Chinese Repository.

(VoL XIV. p. 291-298). Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn, 1896-97. (Import trade in Hongkong. Part I. Ch. VII. p. 143-144. — Communi- cation in S. W. Cliina by the West River. JPart II. p. 78-&3. —Freight and tranship- ment to Wuchow and Tiinnan.p. 100-107 and 167-177).

216

BBCnON in. THK 80UTHBII BBftlOM.

Hongkong Chronicle and Directory. — (Pablished anniuJly : contains List of. Foreign Besidento in the Far East, des- cription and statistics of the principal Treaty Ports). -^Tomer J. A.~Kwangtiuig or Five years in Sooth China. London, 18M.(Honf^ng described. Ch. VIII. p. 97-110).

The Colony of Hongkong.— China Beview^. (VoL I. p. 163-176).

Wawmei. — A tnnvers-l^ Chise. Farisi 1878. (Typhon k Hongkong, p. 415 119).

Eariy Portngnese Interconrse with China. China Review. (Vol. XXHI. p. 318- 321). - — 'Origin of the Colony of Macao. — China B«view. (VoL XXIV. 137-142). ^.^-'ICaoao in the eariy Days. — China Riview. (VoL XXV. p. 183-188).

Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Review. (Vol. XXI. p. 140-159).

^^Marray's Ohiiui. — Edinburgh, 1843.

Arrival of the Portuguese in China (Vol.

I. Ch. VI. p. 182). ^ The Portuguese in China. — Chinese

Repoutoiy. (Vol HI. p. 289-303). -Historical Sketch of Macao. — Chinese

Repoutory. (VoL I. p. 396-406, and 425-

446. -*> Assassinafcion of Governor Ama-

raL Vol. XVIH. p. 513-544. — Camoens*

Cave. VoL VHL p. 563-560). Qatslair. — China opened. London, 1838.

(Macao. VoL L p. 144-148).

A. The Kngl«***"*^" in China,

London, 1900. (Macao. VoL I. Ch. XV.

p. 287-196). NonoMill.— The Peoples and Politics of

the Kast. London, 1895. (Macao, the

Lnsitanian Thole. <^. XD. p. 183-194).

MofllAlto «D JemM. — Hisiorio Macao. Hongkong. .1908.

WilMMML^The Bliddle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Settlement of Macao. Vol. I. Ch. nL p. 140-141);

Tamer J. A. — Kwangtong or Five years in S. China. London, 1891. (Macao described. Ch. XI. p. 137-139).

FflvesnaB-HIUbrd A. B. — The Attach^ at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong and Canton, p. 1-32).

CHAPTER IV.

THE COAST REGION

(FOKIEN IB ft AND CH^KIANG ffi tt)-

FkOeien fJH H^ forms v?ith Chikkmg ^ 2l <^^ Min^M gQ ^

Viceroyalty. The Viceroy resides at Foochov; fJH ^. Formosa Island or T'aiwan ^ fif, was formerly a pari of this Viceroyalty,

The two Provinces, both separated from Kiangsi iL IS ^V high chains of mountains, both having a coast^line abounding in bays and ports, both irrigated by short rivers, both principally composed of porphyry and granite, remain considerably isolated from the rest of China, and have a race and dialect proper to each: Both have a large agricultural population. In the East, their climate is tropical in Summer, and is without severe cold in Winter. Towards the W., it becomes more continental, and the mountains are covered with snow during .the Winter.

JFMiem IJUMi has few plains; iJhUcUmg ^{t in its Northern part has a very large one, the continuation of that of Kiangsu iL fle* CMMang ^ fL being more industrial, has larger towns and easier communications with the neighbouring regions, f. Tea is cultivated in both Provinces. Moreover, J^hikiang produces silk in large quantity, v^le _^Mm seems to possess abundant^ minerai wealth.

The Northern part of Chikiang ^ f£ has greatly suffered from the T'aip'ing ^ ^ rebellion. Fokien HHH, more isolated, has seldom suffered from the revolts which have afflicted the rest of China.

218 SIGTION III. TBI SOOTHBRH aBOION.

r. Fokien 0 jj

j^irea. — 46^332 square miles. It is after Gh^kiang ^ 2ll, and Kiangsu JI J^, the smallest of the Provinces.

Popolmtlon. — 22,870,000 inhabitants, or 493 to the square mile. It is one of the most populated Provinces, and occupies the fourth place, coming successively after Shantung llj %. Kiangsu fL H and Hupeh JM ft.

IVame. — The name Fokien comes from two of its principal towns : Jbochow Fu JH ^ /j^f and JiTienning Fu ^ Hf /j^f, and means **happw e&iabiishmeni^.

Boiindmrlee. — Fokien is bounded on the N. — By Ch^kiang ffi j^, W. — By Kiangsi f£ |g, 8. — By Kwangtung g^ )|[, E. — By the Formosa Channel and the EastOhina Sea.

Capital. — FOOCHOW jg Jfl /jj, on the Min-kiang BQ f£. Oilier Prefectares. — Thme are 8 <f» tmmber.

T9 the N. JEL, on the coast : !• Puhning Pu « « Iff . To the N.W., ascending the Min-kiang f^ f£^ and iim trihaiariee:

2r Ycnp'ing Pu ii ^ «p, 3" Kienning Pu a « «p, 4» ShaownFaSg^Jflf.

On the coast^ to the & of the MSnr-kiang :

Se Hsinghwa Fa H il: MP, &* Ts'tLenchow Fa Jft ^ HT, T* Changchow Fa j» « *.

T4 the 8.W.:

8» T*iiigchow Fa fr « Ifr. There are besides in Fokien two independent Chow ^ dues: Tungeh'un Chow ;^ ^ ^ and lj%mggen Chow K j|KM-

CHAPTBH lY. FOKIBN. 219

Aspeet and Cluuraeterlstics. — Fokien is a mountainous countty, with the special characteristic that its chains are almost parallel, and run S. W. to N. E. These chains hinder the development of rivers. These latter either run into the sea after a short course, or flowing between two chains, join the largest river, the Minrhiang g^ fl[, which with great difficulty has forced its way through the mountain ridges. Enjoying an extensive coast-line with numerous bays and fine harbours, the Province is well fitted for producing a sturdy race of fishermen. It has also furnished the largest number of emigrants. Its well cultivated soil produces good crops, especially tea, which is in great demand. On account of its isolation, Fokien JH j^ has, perhaps better than any other Province, maintained its dialects, which differ greatly from those of Ch^kiang ^ fx. and Kwangtung Jfl ;^, and still more from the Mandarin lan- guage. These dialects are spoken by those who have emigrated to America, to the Straits Settlements and to South Africa.

Geological constitution. — The mountains which run through Fokien, as well as through part of Ch(^kiang, are probably of less ancient formation than those of the rest of China, and bear a close resemblance to the geological formations of Japan. They are the outcome of^a mighty upheaval, interspersed in the centre with pcrphyry and granite. Sandstone, as well as schist and limestone, are also found there, but these do not form the principal formation. Volcanic strata are met with in some places, especially in the islands.

Orosrapliy. — Fokien JS ^ is covered with a series of mountain-chains running parallel to the sea. The most Wes- tern of these, the TayiMing "^^ ^ ^^ forms the limit between Fokien jjg ^ and Kiangsi JH H* "^^^ summits of these chains generally exceed 3,000 feet, and attain near Gh^kiang ff^ f£^ even an elevation of 9,000 feet. The surface rises in ge- neral from B. to W. Thus Yenp'ing Fu Jg ^ ;j^ is ^.00 to 600 feet higher than Foochow JM jHI /fiF* ^^t even along the coast, there are a few summits which reach over 3,000 feet.

Climate. — The climate of Fokien is semi-tropical in the Eastern portion of the Province, and the thermometer rarely falls there below 33^ Fahrenheit. In thu Western part, the climate is temperate and even very cold during Winter.

220

SBcnoir in. ths southibii Bi^nm.

— A large river, the JHst-Mmt^ BQ 2Ci

with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Fokien jjg J^. Several coast-riveta irrigate the N. E. and S. B. The affluents of the Ilan-kiangfini water the S. Western part of the Provinee.

FOOCHOW JB M MP AND THE M1N RIVER ^ {£.

The Jfii» kioMW ^ iL or Snake river. This river is for- med by three principal tributaries which unite near Yenp'ing J^o M ¥ iff • Tfe^se are : 1* the KietOsH jg gg, which comes from the X. E., and passes through Kienning Fu j$ ^ J|f ; 2* the ShmmtmM^ V ft S« which comes from the W., and runs through the Prefecture of the same name : 3* the TWwrfciimii'f K ft dl^ coming in from the S. W., running near the district city of the same name, and after a bend towards the S., taking again a Northeriy direcUon. The largest of these tributaries is the JnenitS, which, almost from its source near Ch^kiang ^ JCt »» navigable for small boats, despite the rapids and rocks that obstruct it. Fairly large-sized craft, called frm lafs,can go as far up as Kienning Fu ft Hf j(|p, in the flood- season. Those three rivers, like their tributaries, swell rapidly in the flood-season, and in the heavy Summer rains. Their level then rises considerably above the ordinary, and their current becomes exceedin^y rapid and impossible to ascend.

GHAPTBR IV. FOKIBN.

221

From Yenp'ing Fu j^ ^ ^, the Min-kiang |Q {C is com- pletely formed, its current becomes slower, but shoals, rocks and rapids render it of liltle use till Shuik'ow tK D is reached. Here navigation on the river begins in reality, arid fair-sized junks find enough water in every season, and the shoals are no longer to be feared. After a bend below Fdochow |g ^ jj^, the river flows into Ihe Eastern China Soa by two branches, between which lies an island. The Northern Channel is the deepest. At low-water, the depth on the bar is 12 feet, and large ships cannot enter the river, but are compelled to await the rise of the tide, when the depth of the water reaches 27, and sometimes 30 feet. Steamers have again to stop, and this time finally, at Pagoda Anchoraae. 9 miles below Foochj)w, which is itself 35 miles distant from the mouth of the river. Kocks lying across the bed of the river above Pagoda Anchorage, with the alluvial deposits thus formed, have created a second bar, which only boats of light draught can cross. Throughout all its last part, between Foochow and the sea, the Min-kiang BQ iL ruiis through a deep valley, and widens out occasionally from half a mile to 2 miles. The Min-kiang ^ ^, with its tributary the Kienk*i j^ ]g|, is about 350 miles in length.

To the S.E., is the Zung-kiang ]K jt, a river scarcely navigable even for local craft, on account of its little depth and its numerous rapids. It flows into the sea, near Amoy ^ p^ (Hsiam^n).

(For the coast-line see Section IV).

Fauna and Flora. — The fanna and flora of Fokien are those of the tropical sone, in the Western part, and those of the temperate zone in the Eastern portion of the Province. Even in this latter part, the valleys offer specimens, although in small quantity, of the flora of the tropics. Suffice it to mention OEly the species the most widely diffased : the tea, orange and banana-trees, the lichee or persimmon, splendid i)r-trees, maples and camphor-trees. The sugarcane is cultivated in the region aroqnd Amoy.

Asricaltaral Wealtb. — This consists principally of tea. Rice, wheat, the sugar-cane, the opium pot)py, as well as ginger are also cultivated. The inhabitants, by a skilful system of

222 8BCTION III. THB SODTHBBM EBaiOir.

terraces, have succeeded in cultivating every patch of ground, even to the summit of steep hills.

To this wealth must be added the fishing industry, which supports a large number of people, especially along the coast.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Fokien is most important, but so far it has not been worked. It consists of gold, silver, lead, tin and coal.

Salt is extracted from sea-water.

Fopalation. — Fokion, owing to its itoUtion, has better preserved its primitive race than any other of the Provinces. The people are proud, enen^tie and Tentnresome, and fumistli excellent fishermen, as well as good cultivators and colonists. They have their dialects, customs and drt'ss, and like the population of Kwangtung, hold aloof from and despise the boat people or Titngkia* }| DC, who are scattered throughout the oonn- tr}*. In the N .£., the Siakas or Siik'ias fjg ^Siik*ohs) have their own peculiar dress and customs. Their hair is of a brownish colour. They intermingle with the Chinese, and seem to be of the same race. — It is stated that the opium habit has caused more ravages in this Provinct' than anywhere else.

Lon^ua^e. — Fokien has its o\^'n peculiar language, which comprises several dialects. The principal of these dialects are : !• the Fokienese dialect properly so-called. It is harsh and guttural, and spoken by about 5 millions of the population. It is used throuKhout the Prefectures of Fokien, Yenp'ing and Hwahsing; 2* the Amof ^^j^ImM It has its peculiar nasal sounds,and is spoken by 10 mUlions and more oi the population, both in the Province and in the island of Formosa. The greater part of Ohinese emi- Krauts speak this dialiH?t, which has also numerous variations.

Towns and Princlpul Centrea FOOCHOW ff JM JSF-

— Population, 6'24,000 inhabitants. — A large city situated in a wellcultivaled region, on the left bank of the Min-kiang PQ ft, and about 35 miles from its mouth. The walled town, including a Tartar-jjuarler, is 2 miles from the water's edge. A numerous population swarms also on the banks of the river. Opposite the town JH ih« Foreign Sotllement, on Nant'ai ^ -^ Island. A brhl/^r, \\\:y yards in length, made ofVpTfilrttm-TIag^^tones and known aH lh«' Fmio BrUMge, or Bridge €f ten thaueana ogeBjS # *| (WanHhowkiao), unites Nant'ai with the left bank of the MIn-lilanK,anil the populous JMand of Chungeh^ ^ %. Poo- <^»'ow, Ihoutrh the homo of expectant ofTicials, and a literary ""•> inililary r.ntre, has also considerable industries and trade. H«lk and woolU-n ntuITH, paper and household furniture are

CHiSTTBR IV. FOKIEN. 223

manufactured there, while timber, canes, paper umbrellas, silk, tea, camphor, paper and oranges are exported, in exchange for -cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, sugar, flour and matches. Formerly the tea-trade was extensive, but it has of late declined, Ceylon tea having supplanted it on the English market. The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,738,718; in 1904, Tls. 17,265,968; and in 1905, Tls. 17,724,198. As at Canton^ a large boat-population has established itself a little above Chungshow t|* ||.

Nine miles down the river, at the place where the two streams meet, and bolow Nant'ai island, is JPagoda Anchorage or IJoHngtfaii JS M ^« ^"^ Mamoy arsenal. This arsenal, situated on the left bank of the river, opposite a small island where docks are established, employs 1,700 workmen, and constructs large ships. The establishment is administered by French experts, in the employ of the Chinese Government.

Along the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the Min- kiang ^ H io Kwangtung J| ^ :

T9^1&enchow ^Pu ^ f^ J^- — Formerly a celebrated port, but at the present day obstructed by sand-banks which have caused it to be supplanted by Amoy. It still remains a large and populous town. Several consider it to be the ancient SUMun mentioned by Marco Polo, and then one of the most populated cities of the world. Trade is carried on through the port of Nganhai ^J*.

Amoy or Hsiamhi M PI- — Population, 11.4,000 inha- bitants. The harbour, situated to the W. of an island at the mouth of the Lung-kiang t| 2L» >» excellent, and one of the finest on the coast. It has very good anchorage and docks, where large steamers may be repaired. BmigruHon is extensive, and ^has at times reached 90,000 in a year. Its exports are princi- pally : bricks and tiles, hemp bags, paper umbrellas, tea, sugar and tobacco. It imports cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, rice, mats, flour and matches. Trade is chiefly carried on with Formosa and Japan. The total value of the port has been in 1905, Hk. Tls. 18,654,610. A Japanese Settlement was marked

224

8BCTI0N III. THE SOUTHBRM EMIOlf.

out in 1899, and its occupants are extremely enterprising. — Amoy is connected by submarine cable (French-owned) with Tongking. — The Japanese line from Formosa, lands at Sharp- Peak H >S lU (Sanshth-shan, i.e. three stone mountain).

Opposite Amoy is the little island of Kmkma-M «[ iR Ift (Drum-wave island). In the midst of the fo- liage and around the foreign houses, rises a new Chinese city, with more elegant and better buitt dwell- ings than those of Amoy.

Chan/ffehow Fk* ^ ffl Iff. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. A large town, with broad paved streets, situated on the Lung-

ki^ng 11 fill 2^ miles from the sea.

S$JK- —A rather frequented port, lying at the extremity of a bay, to the N. of Amoy. The surround- ing country, like that of Changchow Fu, is rich and well cultivated, now started there.

o <

X

o <

Vast plantations of sugarncane are

A9eema4nQ ike Jfto-Mongr g| Jq and the Kienk'i j^ g| :

CHAPm IV. FOKIIK. 325

YmtpHng JFu JjE 3^ Jff. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants. A town situated at the confluence of the principal tributaries of the Min-kiang.

Kimming JFU ^ fff, Jff. — A town built at the junction of two rivers, in the principal tea growing country, at a place to which large boats can ascend, and on the road leading from the N. to Foochow, to which facts it owes its activity. It is better constructed and more populated than Yenp'ing Fu. Its trade consists chiefly in tea and salt.

Ch^unanpan hsien ^ ^ fgf,. — Population, 100,000 inha- bitants. A district town situated at the foot of the Wui -^ ^ hUi. This hill rises to aboiit 1,000 feet over the level of the plain, and is composed of schist, sandstone and granite. The best tea of Fokfen j^ ^ grows in the neighbourhood. English people call it the ''Holrea hiU^^^ and the tea grown there ^tBohaaLUail^ Ch*ungngan hsicn is the principal market for the article, and it is forwarded in large quantities through Kiangsi 2l W*

On the N» of the ARnrkiangi upon the coast, proceeding Northwards :

TAmUeUma hHen ^ jX JR* — Population, 250,000 inhabi- tants. A frequented port.

Inning -FIc H 1)$ jj|Sf . — A port formerly of considerable importance, and still a thriving and busy town. The best opium of Fokien is cultivated in the neighbourhood.

Industry and Commeren. -7 We have seen, when des- cribing the principal towns, the chief articles of industry and trade. In regard to eotporitf the most important arc timber, bricks, pottery, silk, tea, sugar, paper, camphor and oranges.

HiifliwayB of CSommnnlcatlon. — Besides a very brisk service of boats along the coast, especially to Foochow |B ^ JfJ, there are only 2 land routes which deserve to be particularly mentioned :

1® The road which starts from Whiehaw FU ^ jf^ Jf^, in Ch^kiang fjfi ^, and leads to Foochow jji M JSF-

15

226 SBGTIOlf III. THE SOUTHBHlf REGION.

2® The road which starts from Foochow, and passes through Yenp'ing Fu J^ Zf^ Jff and Kienning Fu ^Jjjg, Jff. It then forks into several branches, running some into Ch^kiang ^ f£, and one into Kiangsi fL Hi ^i^ Gh'ungngan hsien ^ $ fgf^.

Open l*ortB. — Three ports of this Province are open to Foreign trade : Amop or HHam&ft ^ P^ (in the Prefecture of Ts'uenchow Fu ^ H\ //}), Foochow j^ ^H |A^, at Pagoda Ancho- rage, and Sanittnffao H % ]ft ^^ Santiuaio (in the Prefecture of Puhning Fu jji K ;ff).

Iffeie. — In tlie Amoy dialect the Chineoe eharacier 1^

ch*a (tea-plant), is pronounced ieh^ and it is from this source that the French word tMy the German thee, the Italian i^ (also da) and the Spanish t^ are all derived, as well as the English word lea. It may be also remarked here that the word J^mk, French fonque, Spanish and Portuguese junco, comes from the Chinese word ehu/^anfH^ (boat or ship), pronounced in the Amoy and Foochow dialects respectively, eh*un and cti^ion^^ and in Javanese fuftff.

CHAPTBR IV. CHtelANG. 227

2". ChekiangmU.

Area. — 36,680 square miles. It is the smallest of the eighteen Provinces.

PopnlaHon. — 11,580,000 inhabitants, or 310 to the square mile.

Name. — Ch^kiang ^ f£ signifies **crooked river^^ Pro- vince. This name has been given it on account of the bore or tidal wave of its Northern river, which drives back, and as it were bends its waters. This is the meaning of the character fjff eM i.e. lo bend ar break.

Boundaries. — Ch^kiang is bounded on the N. — By Kiangsu JQ jj|^,

W. — By Nganhwei ^^^ Kiangsi f£ f|, and Fokien IS^, S. — By Fokien jji jf, E. — By the Eastern China Sea.

CmpiiBl. — HANGCHOW FV iia ji\ Jff^—U is built at the Southern terminus of the Grand Canal, and on the left bank of the TsMent'ang-kiang ^ ^ fL*

Otber Prefectures. — These are lO im number.

To the N. of Hangchow Fu tS; ffl ^, on the Grand Canal :

V Huchow Yumm w, 2^ Kiahsing Fn S XJKp.

A9cend4ng the Tafientfang-kUmff ^^fL aaul its affluetUs:

3" Ynenchow TuKt^M^ 4° Kinhwa Fn * ^ #, 6" K*1ichow Pn « ^ «p.

Not far from the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the Ts'ient^ang-kiang ^ ^ fL towards Fokien || ^ : 6" Shaohsing Fn $S X A", 7** Ningpo Pn JK ft «P, 8» T'aichow Pn -ft ^ ».

Ascending the Ngeu-kiang ^ 2t '

9" Wfinchow Fu ia ^ *, 10" Ch'uchow Pn tf « *.

228 SECTION III. THB SOUTHERN RBOION.

There is besides in Chdkiang one independetU T*ing f^: TinghiH T*ing % U B^

Aspect and dliaraeterteilcs. — Situated between Ngan- hv;ei ^l/fi and KiangsuXLjSk ^^ '^^ ^'' ^^^^' Folt ten jjg jH on the S. , CMkiang ^ f£ has some /eaiures of these three Pravineem in

the tracts -which border on each of them. The Toy Haling ^ ^ ^ or great etaek fnountaine terminate in the Province, After crossing its centre from S.W. to N.E., they continue in the sea, and form the Chusan jif \jj (Cheushan) archipelago. This range of mountains divides the Province into two nirongig eonira^ ttmg regions. Jn the &, the soil^ climate, fauna, flora, resources, language^ people, the deeply-indented coasts^ everything bears a strong resemblance to Fokien jjg j^. Jn the Nsrthem region, the contrary is the case, and the country resembles rather its two neighbouring Provinces : vast plains, canals, embankments, rice^ fields^ the culture of the silkv;orm in the E,, tea-grox^ing, ys;ooded hills, rivers navigable in the flood-season, tracts laid waste by the T'aip'ing ^ 2^ rebellion, but rising from their ruins in the Western part. The poverty of Ch^kiang ^ fL in regard to minerals , is largely counterbalanced by its agricultural products, the prosperous state of its industry, its excellent harbours, and a highly developed networwk of navigable streams. The Province is fast recovering the prosperity and dense population it enjoyed previous to the T'aip^ing -jj^ Zp rebellion,

Geolo^cal cotMSiitotioo. — In the Western part of the Province, to the N. of the TsHent^ang-kiang^ schist, sandstone and limestone are the predominant rocks. In the E. of the Province, the Great Plain is of alluvial formation.

To the S. of the T»'ienVang-kiang, porphyry and granite are the principal rocks, with limestone and sandstone here and there, while traces of volcanic eruptions are found in the Chusan Islands.

Oroi^rapby. — The T0y€tHing :fc ^ jj| or great stack mountains terminate in this Province by t%vo partOiH hrunches running S.W.-N.B. The Souihern branch reaches an elevation of nearly 4,000 feet in the T*ientfai-shan 5^ -^ lij, S. W. of Ningpo ^ iS, and running into the sea, ends at the Chusan ^ ill (Cheushan) archipelago.

CHAPTER IV. CHlftKIANG. 229

The whole country lying S. of the Tayu-ling ^ J$ 'M is mountainous.

Between Ningpo ^ jg and Hangchow jg^ )^, and also to the W., as well as to the N. and N. E. of Hangchow, extends a iarge plain.

Further to the W., throughout the central and upper region of the Ts*ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ iLi the country is again moun- tainous, and resembles much by its broken and picturesque hills the S. of Nganhwei ^ l/fi. The T'ienmuh'Shan ?c B lU ^^ Heavenly Eye mountain, to Ihe W. of Hangchow 1^ f^, Is nearly 5,000 feet high. Another range more to the W., connected with the T^ienmuh-shan, and called Lungtanrshan H M [Ij (dragon-gall mountain), constitutes the boundary-line between Nganhwei ^ ^ and Ch^kiang 5^ f£.

Climate. — To the S. of the Tayii-lin^, tho climate is Bemi -tropical as in Fokien, but the heat is less intense. To the N. of the Tayii-lin^, the climate is much more temperate, less warm in the Summer and colder ia the Winter. Throughout the Great Plain, the climate is tho same as that of Shanghai, though a little warmer on account of the difference of latitude.

Hydn^i^rapliy. — The watershed of the Province is establi- shed by the Tayu-ling :M J§i ^ mountains. Tfie T^ien^ang- kiang IH jlf jli a large and beautiful river, runs Northward, while to the S. flow others of lesser importance.

The Tt^ient^mig-kiang ^ ^ iL is formed by iwo streams, which run between the two parallel branches of the Tayii-ling, as mentioned above. These two streams flow in opposite direc- tions, one from the W., passing through K'uchow Fu ^ ;H1 )ff, the other from the E., passing through Kinhwa Fu ^ H ;j|^. Both unite at Lank*i hsien M % M^ ^"^ ^^^^^ ^ passage through the porphyry in the Southern branch of the Tayii-ling :k j^ ^ range. At Yenchow Fu j|||| j^ Jff, the river receives an important tributary from Nganhwei 5g %, after which it flows into the sea at Hangchow |j5; ^. The estuary widens out into a large bay, at the entrance of which lie tl;e Chusan -fjj^ llj (Cheushan) Islands.

The Ts*ient'ang-kiang fii^tt. '» too shallow at its mouth,

230 SECTION III. THE SOUTHBRN REGION.

and too obstructed by shoals, to allow vessels of heavy tonnage to reach Hangchow jgi jf\. Small steam-boats run toYenchowFu Sk iW Jff^ notwithstanding a few rapids. At the flood-season, fairly large junks go far up the river and its affluents. At the same period, several of these latter are navigable almost up to their source, although at times boats have to be carried over difficult places. Numerous rafts are also floated down on the river and its aflluents.

The tide is very strong at the mouth of the TsMent'ang-kiang flm^ZCf ^"^ rushing against the current of the river, occasions a violent bare or eaffre^ which rises to a height of 15 feet, and is dangerous for small boats when taken unawares.

Among the other pritusipal waterways are :

The Yung-hiang ^^ or Ningpo ^ j$ river, formed by the junction of two streams which meet at this city. It is navigable up to Ningpo for steamers of considerable tonnage. The two rivers however can be navigated for some distance further.

The Tsiao^kianff ^tft ?1 or T'aichow Fu -fj j^\ Jff river.

The Ngeu-Mang || ^, also called the Wu-Mang, A fine river, the banks of which are rather steep, and resemble those of the Min-kiang ^ JQ, save that they are less cultivated. Des- pite its rapids, it is navigable for fairly large boats as far as Ch'u* chow Fu iK W M' Several of its tributaries can also be utilised. It rises near the Northern border of Fokien |g ^ Province, and flows into the sra a little beyond W^nchow Fu jg ^ Jff,

Numerous canals intersect the North-Eastern plain. The principal of these is the Orand CatuMl ^ fpf (Yun-ho or Transport river), which terminates at Hangchow 101 ^, but its waters are not connected with those of the Ts'ient*ang-kiang ^ ^ f£, A canal connects also this town with Ningpo % ^ Jfi- It passes by Shaohsing Fu |g H jj^, but terminates on the right bank of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang. The dilTcrence of water-level in the rivers and the canals prevents their inter-communication, and this is a great obstacle to navigation in these parts. Tra- vellers must either change from their boats or have them transported overland ironi one waterway to another.

CUAPTBR IV. CHiKIANG. 231

A canal, more to the S., connects W^nchow Fu jg ^ ||^ and P'ingyang hsien ^ |^ J||.

(For the T^ai-hu -js: M ^^ Great take, the Southern part of which borders on Northern Ch^kiang, tee Section II. Ch. IV. p. 156).

To protect the country from the violent lidcs, n sirong sea- wall has been constructed from the Yung-kiang ^ ft to a point opposite Hangchow (t/t ^}.

(For the coast-line, see Section IV).

Fauiia and Flora. — To the S. of the Tayii-liug, the fauna and flora are those of Fokieu, but less luxuriant and less abundant. The banana becomes rare, but many orange and palm-trees are found and especially splendid bamboos.

To the N. of the Tayii-ling, the fauna and flora are identical with those of Kiangsu and Southern Nganhwei ; the tea -plant grows there, and aUo rice and mul- berry-trees.

Among the principal species of animals found in the Province, suffice it to mention the panther, tiger, wild-boar, wolf, deer, and several kinds of monkeys ; among the trees: the tallow and varnish-trees, the pine, fir and camphor- trees, the bamboo, mulberry, chestnut, azalea, camellia, kidney-bean tree and rhododenron or rose-bay.

The coast and also the rivers abound with fish. On the coast are found oysters of extraordinary size, and in the rivers, turtles measuring 3 feet in length.

Asricaltuiml Wealtb. — This consists chiefly in tea, rijce^ silk, coUon and indigo, together with fruU, especially oranges. Wheat, maize, the sugarcane, hemp and the opium-poppy are also cultivated.

Some parts of the Western region are fairly well wooded, and this is a source of revenue for the country. Vegetable tallow and beeswax are also important articles of trade.

Mineral WealtlL — The mineral wealth of Ch^kiang is of little importance. Some coal-mines arc worked at Ch*uchow Fu M i^ JH' Building-stone, lime, gypsum and alum are the only articles which are lound to any extent.

Salt is extracted from sea-water.

Populatton. — This Province has much suffered and been almost depopulated by the T'aip*ing rebellion ; it has had however little recourse to the other Provinces to recuperate itself. The population, active and indnstrions, fQnli^hes excellent seamen, who have succeeded in monopolizing a large part of the coast-trade of the neighbouring regions, especially of the lower Yangtze-kiaug. They do not differ in features and

23? SECTION III. THE SOUTHBBN RBGION.

customs from the population of this latter tract. S. of theTayii-ling, are found dipsrsed hero and there, remnants of a former race, the Zikaa or SUkias 4jg HC called also the Yaos K (jackals), probably on acconnt of their resemblance with the tribes of the same name, who occupy the upper leach of the Si-kiang or West river.

iMWi^uakgB.'^ Mandarin is spoken in all the towns, and even in many places outside them. Two dialecU however, are spoken by the people of the country : the Winchow dialect^ which prevails to the S. of the Tayft-lin^. It is near akin to the dialecM of Pokien, and is not understood by a mandarin-speaking Chinaman. It is spoken by a million of individuals; — (^ Ningpo di^lectf which is used to the N. of the TayA-liiig. It resembles the Sangkiang or Shanghai dialect, and is more easily under- stood by a Chinaman of the N. It is spoken by the great majority of the population throughout N. Chokiang. Xli^ T*aichow Fu and Shaohting Fu dialect* are two varieties of the Niugpo dialect; the latter is harder to be understood by a native of Ningpo.

CiUes mad PrlndiMa Centres. — HANGCHOW ru f^t

; jVi )ff' — Population, 350,000 inhabitants. Situated 150 miles 1 8.W. of Shanghai, and 80 from Ningpo, it is a treaty port and ' one of the Gnest and most famous cities of China. ^Ab^ve is Heavem^, says the Chinese proverb, ^and be^w, Sooeh^w amd Mmm0€k0w^» It is built on the left bank of the Ts'ieni'ang- kiang H jf jH, and at the Southern terminus of the Grand Canal. Its site is most beautiful, beside the river with its great tidal wave, while to the rear of the city rises a grmefal hill crowned with pagodas and kiosks, and in the distance is a range of mountains furrowed with deep valleys. One of the sights of Hangchow is the famous Si-hu 5 9| oi* ^^^^^ Mk«» celebrated by poets, covered with elegant boats, dotted with islets upon which are numerous kiosks and villas, while in Summer the surface of its water is decked with thousands of water-lilies. Hangchow is sUH noted as a pleasure-resort. It is also a silk manufacturing centre, but it no longer enjoys its former celebrity, for praclically speaking, it has but one long street bordered with rich warehouses, the rest of the city being a vast desert since its devasUtion by the T'aip'ings. It itHparis kerosene oil, soap, sugar, iron and copper: and eacponm green tea, piece- goods, medicines and paper fans. The total net value of the port has been in 190.1. Ilk TIs. 15,607,133: in 190i, TIs. 17,747.662; and in 1905, lis. 17,496,980.

About 30 miles to the N. of the city is the ii lafuKym eT

CHAPTBR IV. CHlftRlANG. 233

^ M^kkanrshan H -p (Ij, resorted to in Bummer by foreigners.

To the N. of Hangehow :

Kiahoing Fu^f^Jlf, — A town intersected with numerous canals, and ruined also formerly by the T'aipMngs -j^ ip. It is famous for its gauzes and silk neckties.

Huehow FU^ j^ J(f. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A town situated like the preceding one, in a plain abounding in mulberry-trees and rice-fields. It was the last place where the T*aip*lng8 ^^ held out in Gh^kiang fjfif£. Here their leader at the head of 60,000 men had to surrender after a desperate battle. The Province henceforth enjoyed peace (1865).

Along the oen-ooaoif a little distance inland : Shaokoing Fnfgif^}^. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. A large city styled sometimes like Soochow jjgf j^ the '^Venice of China^\ It is situated in the centre of a fertile plain inter- sected by large canals. Excellent rice*spirit is manufactured there. It supplies a large part of the secretaries to the various Provincial Government offices of the Empire.

Ningpo F^^^fff (tranquil wave). — Population, 260,000 inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Ranking treaty of 1842. It is built in a plain, on the left bank of the Yung- kiang ^ {£, and is 15 miles from the sea. The town is walled in and surrounded by a moat. The streets are fine and spanned by memorial arches. It possesses a valuable library of Ghinese works, and manufactures household furniture, matting and carpets. The principal imporis are kerosene oil, cotton piece* goods, matches, sugar, coaU opium, tin, iron, soap and candles. Its exports are rush-hats, matting, paper fans and umbrellas, green tea, carpets, raw cotton, medicines, groundnut oil and joss-paper (tinfoil paper in the form of shoes of sycee, burnt by the Chinese before the shrine of thl^god of wealth, and at the burial of the dead). Ice-preserved nsh is a considerable article of commerce. The total net value of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 22,240,093; in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412; and in 1905, Tls. 19,163,630.

234 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

ffhuOkmc Fu ^ j^ J(f. — Population, 80,000 inhahitanls. A treaty port situated on the right bank of the Ngeu-kiangQ^j^t, a few miles from the sea. It formerly monopolized the tea trade, but this has much declined of late, owing to careless cultivation and selection. The principal imparis are kerosene oil, palm-leaf fans, cotton yarn and piece-goods, aniline dyes, sugar and matches. The exports are limber and soft wood in large quantity, paper umbrellas (kiltysols), medicines, orangrs (33,385 piculs in 1905, or 39,744 cwt weight), otter skins and tobacco leaf. The total net value of the port has been in 1903, Ilk. Tls. 2,589,333; in 1904, Tls. 2,388,699; and in i905, Tls. 2,257,02i.

Jh the C/MfMin ;^ ilj (Cheu-shan) JsUmdB :

Tinghai T*ina % % 0. — Population, 30,000 inhabitants. Capital of the Ghusan (Cheushan) ;^ }\\ archipelago, and a com- mercial town, exporting matting, ropes and fruit. It is a strategic point of great importance, but its harbour is difficult of access.

Ascending the Tti'tentfanff-kimig and its affluents :

YSnehaw Fu iSt f^ )(f' -- Population, 15,000 inhabitants. A town well situated at the confluence of the Ts^ient^angkiang and a tributary flowing into it from Nganhwei $ ^. The place does a good trade, and exports indigo, paper, timber, tea and beeswax.

Jjunk^i hMet^ M % %* — Population, 200,000 inhabitants. A large mart at the junction of the two rivers which form the Ts*ient'ang-kiang. Devastated by the T*aip*ing rebellion, it has rapidly risen from its ruins. The pawnshops and banks are in the hands of Nganhwei people $ flt A 5 1*^^ foreign goods and native cloth stores are conducted by Shaohsing Fu |g H jj^ merchants, while the Fokienese |@ ® A- monopolize the sugar, date, fruit and general-merchandise trade. The Chinaware business is carried on by natives of Kiangsi f^ f|.

Kinhwa JFIi ^^Jfi- — A town well situated, and celebrated for its hams, its preserved eggs and its ginseng.

K*iichow /^# ^ ^ Jj^. — A commercial city, up to which large junks can ascend, as to Kinhwa Fu. Excellent fruit grow

CHAPTER lY. CH&KIANG^

235

in the surrounding country. It exports to Lank'i hsien |j| ^ JH large quantities of paper, cereals, bamboo and timber.

Industry mad Comiuerce. — Tiic chief products of Ch^- kiang comprise silk piece-goods, carpets, matting and household furniture.

Its principal eopparis are silk and satins, tea, rice and oranges; its ImparU are cotton piece-goods, kerosene oil and opium. Half the trade of the Province is carried pxK through Shanghai

±»'

Hiffliways of Cominnnlcailon. — Nearly all the commu- nications are made hy jjggierw^fs, the sea route, rivers and canals. IHtches connect the water courses beyond the places where they are no longer navigable. It is thus that through communication is established with Nganhwei $ ||j[, Kiangsi f£ jS and Fokien ^ ^, as well as between the tributaries of the Ts*ient'ang^^Eiang ^ ^ fL and of the Ngeu-kiang B[ i£.

The important viaduct which reaches from the mouth of the Yung-kiang ^ f£ till opposite Hangchow Fu ;^ ^ ^ deserves special mention. Constructed formerly on a swamp, it is about 5 feet wide and 95 miles in length, and is still used both as a road and as a tow-path for boats travelling on the canal, which it skirts, now on one side now on the other.

Open Ports. — Chekiang ^ Ql has three ports open to foreign trade : Ninffpo Fu ff ^ )ff, WSnchaw ^^ ^& j^ f^ and Hanachaw l^* fgi )l\ M-

Note. — Hangchow Fu ^ ;Hi ^^^ the capital, of the Empire during the laat half uf tnTSuT^ dyi^sty A.D. 1127-1280.

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236

SECTION III. THI SOUTHBRN RBOION.

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CHAPTER IV. CH&KIANG.

237

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SECTION IV.

THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

PrellmiiBary Otoervaiion.

On account of its extent, and also of its importance, the coast-line of China cIof;orve8 special attention. It might have been studied in portions, in connection with each of the 6 Maritime Provinoes; the knowledge of these Provinces would thereby have been more complete. This coast however forms a whole, being washed by the same ocean, visited by the same ships which trade in its numerous harbours, and so I it seemed preferable to make it the object of a special study.

It would have been likewise necessary to refer constantly to general notionn, which could not be repeated each time over. A collective study would moreover contribute to give prominence to the differences that exist between such and such a part of the coast. Besides, it will be easy to connect, should the reader desire it, the study of the Maritime Provinces and their coast-line. The division here adopted, and references to the Provinces in which the towns are situated, will faci- litate this work. After some general notions, the coast of each of the Maritime ProvinceB will be studied separately, commencing at the N. and proceeding Southwards, thus: OhUiU flt Vk, Sbantunff |1| X, Klanssa tC S* OMkianff fH jl, T^klen a It and Kwamgtenff JR %.

GBNBRAL NOTIONS. 239

1". General notions.

The study of the coast naturally comprises: the nature of its formation, its level anil configuration, the seas bordering on it, the winds, currents and tides which prevail throughout it, its harbours and ports, lighthouses, buoys and beacons for navigation purposes, with an account of the shipping that is carried on along it. All these details are necessary indeed for the navigator and the merchant, but we cannot but touch upon them briefly in this work.

Extent of the eeaftt-line. — The coast-line of China is extensive, being up^vards of 2,150 miles in length, or if we in- clude the minor indentations and inlets, from 4,500 to 5,000 miles, which gives one mile of coast to every 306 miles of surface.

Conflsar^^on of the Coast. — The coast of China has the form of ^ immense semicircle. The most advanced point is situated in the islands opposite CMhiang ^ ££» longitude 123* E. of Greenwich, At both extremities are a gulf, and a promontory or peninsula : the gulf of ChihU ^^ or Boh-hai j^ ^, and the ShmUuntf lU % pranumtory on the N., the guff of Tengking % TSC iH 9S (Tongking-haiku), ottri the J^eichaw f| j^ petUneuia on the 8. If the latter is less important than Shantung [Ij ^ pro- montory, the island of Hainan ff^ '^, -which is its extension into the sea, makes both nearly equal in length.

Seas. — The coast of China, like the rest of Eastern Asia, is washed by the JPaeWc Ocean*

The Paet^ Ocean or T^alp^ing^ifang ^^f^ (great peaceful sea), lies between Eastern Asia, Australia, N. and S. America. Expanding largely to the S. between Tasmania and Cape Horn, it narrows in towards the N., where it is separated from the AfrUefksean or JPiehpi'ing'Uemg^^fli, by Bd^Hngai^ (mehling-hsiah, i.e. dark pass). Its area is about 62,000,000 square miles. Bordered on the W. by archipelagoes and shoals, it attains on the E. great depths up to the coast of America, along which run lofty mountains. It is surrounded by a circle of volcanoes, several of which are still in activity. Its depth is very great, and varies from 900 to 4,000 fathoms, which it reaches to the

vy'

240

SECTION IV. THB C0A8T-L1NB OF CHINA.

America.

Hainan I.

Gulf of Tongking.

Tongking.

E. of Japan, in the J^^tmearoru fiepremaimi; in the S., near the Tmtga or Friendiy Iwimrndw, it at- tains in one place as much as 5,000 fathoms in depth. Two principal eurre»UB traverse it on the N. of Ihe Equator : 1* a warm ane^ called the Kuro miwo or biack sea, which comes from the E., and after meeting the Philippine coast, takes a N. E. direction, running along the E. of Formosa, the Liuk'iu j§t ^ Islands and Japan, and finally warming the coast of North Ame- rica; 2® a eoid^eurreni eireutn, which descending from Behring Strait, divides into several bran- ches, and runs along the coasts of Kamchatka and Alaska. The latter is of much less importance than the former.

In its Western part, the Paci- fic Ocean forms on the Asiatic coast several seas, separated from the deep waters by a chain of volcanic islands (the Philippines, Formosa, Liuk^iu, Japan and the Kurile Islands). These shallow and less saline seas are scarcely influenced by the kuro-siwo. They are the South China Sea or Nan-hoi ^ ^, and the Baatern China Sea or TunO'hai % j||, the Teiiew Sea or Hwang-hai ^ ftf^ the Sea of Japan or Jshph^hai B ^C JH, and the Sea of Okhotsk ^ ^ * jft iH (Ngohhohts'ekoh-haS). Of these only the three first mentioned, border on the coast of China, and so we shall des- cribe only them.

6BNIRAL NOTIONS. 2*41

• ^ ' Geaeml remarks on the eeas ef Chiaa. ^ 1^ They are far less saline ibaa the Pacific Ocean .

2° They are much less deep, never reaching over 1,000 fathoms, except in the depression which lies between Hainan Island and the Philippines/

8* The height of the tides is exceedingly variable. It is hardly noticeable in the gulf of Chihli and at Hongkong, where it scarcely exceeds 6 .^ feet ; it is much more marked between Amoy and the Min-kiang or Foochow river, where it rises to 10 feet and even more.

4^ The variation in the temperature of the water is much less than on the main- land. It has been calculated that in February, when the temperature of the sea attained 78^ Fahrenheit opposite Hainan, it reached from 68° to 59* opposite Hong- kong, and was respectively 50°, and from 41° to 32° opposite Ch6kiang and Shantung. In August, when the temperature of the sea ranged from 82* to 8(>°Fahrenheit opposite Hainan, it attained from 77" to 66', between Hongkong and Shantung Point, and reached from G9^ to 59° further to the N. The difference therefore between extreme heat and cold is found to be but 86° in those seas, while on the Continent, it reaches ta and exceeds 140° Fahrenheit. It is thus easy to see the great influence which the proximity of the sea has upon the coast regions, either in raising their colder atmosphere, or cooling it in the hot season.

XheTMow Sea or Hwang-hai )([ ifi|. — This is situated between the Western coast of Korea, and the coast of China, from the Miaoiao j||f % islands to the mouth of the Yangtze-kiang % ^ iL' ^^ i^ BO called, because of the colour of its waters, which are yellow, being mixed with the silt of the Hwang-ho ]^ fpf. It formerly flowed directly into the sea, but since 1854 reaches it through the Poh-hai j|ft j^. — The Poh-hai itself is situated between the Eastern coast of Manchuria, the coast of Ghihli ]t H and the N. W. coast of Shantung |lj ]|[. It comprises two guifs: the ffulf of Chihii {![ |Qt to the W., and the gulf ef Leaotung jjt "M Vi (Leaotung-wan) to the N.

^^ Baetem China 8ea or Tung-hai ]|[ j||, lies to the S. of the Yellow Sea, between the strait of Korea, the South Japanese islands, the Liuk'iu ^ ^ group, Formosa island, Formosa strait, and the coast of China, from the Min-kiang ^ fL to the Yangtze-kiang ft ip it-

The J^^^ffnnMaC^ is situated to the S. of this sea, between

Formosa island, and that part of the coast of China, which extends between the Han-kiang |{t XL and the Min-kiang PQ JQ rivers.

Tj^tL.aouih'^Chima ^leaw-Nmnhai |^ %, lies to the S. of Formosa channel, between the Philippines, Borneo, the Malacca

16

243 MBCTION IV. THB COA8T-LINB OF CHINA.

peninsula, Indo-China and the coast of Kwangtung JK ^. It forms to the S. of Kwangtung the important if^ «/ TwngMng (Tungking-haiku) %%%W'

Naimre of the Coast. — The coast of China is of a tv?ofold character : alluvial and granitic.

The first exhibits straight lines or regular curves, the neigh- bouring country is flat and covered with marshes or lakes^ the sea is shallow and interspersed with shoals, there are few good harbours, and these are accessible only to boats of light draught. Large rivers cutting a channel through the sand can alone enable vessels of heavy tonnage to enter; a bar is moreover sometimes formed at their mouths, and thereby lessens the depth of the water. Chihli g[ ^, the N. and N. W. of Shantung llj ]^ and Kiangsu j£ jH have a coast-line of this kind.

All the other parts of the coast are granitic These offer an uninterrupted series of indentations, the coastal region is hilly, the sea pretty deep, and almost free from shoals. Instead of these latlef'are countless islands and islets, which generally form deep and well sheltered havens. All along this coast^line, harbours are to be found, either beside a bay or an island, or near the banks of a river, and afford excellent anchorage. This latter coast may be further subdivided according as the mountain chains are paraUet or perpendiekkir to the seaboard.

In the former case, long chains of islands generally border the coast. These islands abound in excellent havens, but the currents that pass through them are at times dangerotis, and the water between them is of little depth.

In the latter case, the chain of islands prolongs into the sea the coast of the mainland. They have lengthy and deep bays, which are closed at their extremities. Long excursions must be often made to find through these islands a safe anchorage.

Shantung [[j jK and ChSkiang offer a coast-line especially of the second kind ; both kinds are found in Fokien jJB |$ ; as to Kwangtung J| J^, its coast^line belongs rather to the first type.

OBNBRAL NOTIONS. 243

Coast Winds. — The prevailing system in the China seas is that called monsoona. ManMum^ are periodical Avinds of con- siderable steadiness, blowing in one direction during part of the year, and from another, during the remaining part. At the time when the winds change, there is an intermediate stage during which they are variable.

In the China seas, the wind blows as a general rule during Winter, from the N.E., and during Summer, from the S.W.

This system is however liable to numerous exceptions according to localities and to latitude. It is also necessary to remark that this wind is subject to both a diurnal as well as an antwuMl variatiofu

The Winter numaaon begins to be felt in the N. of the East- ern China sea, about September, but in the S. scarcely before November. It sets in at times by a sudden and violent gale, which lasts from 10 to 12 days. It attains its maximum force in December, January and February. It lessens in March, April being considered in the N. as the finest Month. May is an intermediate season, during which the wind blows at times from the N.E., and at others from the S.W.

The Summer monsoon commences to be felt earlier in the S., towards the middle or end of April, as a general rule. It fol- lows at first the Southern coast, and then reaches the high sea and the Philippines. It lasts also longer in the S. than in the N. ; thus it is felt at Singapore till the middle of October, and at the mouth of the Yangtze till the beginning of September. It blows regularly during June, July and August. This is the sea- son of torrential rain and cloudy weather.

The Summer monsoon is much less constant and less violent than the Winter one, and so offers less hindrance; to navigation when proceeding in a direction contrary to it. In the South-China Sea, the wind during this monsoon blows frequently from S. or S.S.E. In the Formosa channel, at the same period, July- August- September, a violent wind blows at times from the N.E. during the tjrphoons.

At Shan^rhai, according to the Sicawei Observatory, the direction of the wind is as follows :

"l^ DiamAl variation. During the Winter monsoon, September-March, the wind tends to blow from W. in the morning, then from N., and from E, in the evening, as if the atmosphere were attracted sunwise. From 6 p. m. to 6 a. m., the breeze does not complete the circle, but backs to W.

'^During the Summer monsoon, June-July-Augnst, the \\'ind blows from S. towards midnight, shifting to tbe K. at Buurisc. It then h^\iR to the S. fibout 10 ». m.,

244:

BBCTION IV. THB COA8T-L1NB OF CHIMA.

veen agun towards the B. until soiiBet, and backs once more to the S. in the night. "During the inMsHioo perioil, March to May, the direcUon passes progres- sively from one system to the other.

Tbc^ letters J. F. M... indi- cate tbi? months of the y^ar: Jannfl.r3% February, March etc.

SuRiitter ]

DireeiioD of the Wind.

"2^ Annnal Taiiatlon. From November to January, the wind blows from N.N.W., the greatest sally to the W. being in December; in November and January, the wind blows from the same direction, bearing closely on the N. In February, it blows from N.N.E., and in March, from N.E.; from April to August, it comes from S.E., July giving the most Southerly resultant; in September and October, it blows from N.R., bearing closer and closer on the N., which it crosses again in November.

**In the annexed diagram, as given by the same Observatory, the length of the lines connecting each apex of the polygon with the centre (c) of the mariner's card, is proportional, not to the force of the resultant (which may be very small), but to the aggregate of the wind for the month. The lines ON and CD, give at the same time the set direction of the resultant.

"It may be seen hereby that the sum total of the wind is the least in October, and the greatest in July".

The following is, according to the above Observatory, the cause of these monsoons and the direction from which they blow.

"The Summer moasooa, or that which blows from S. W., is caused by the tiigb temperature and low atmospheric pressure which prevail over the continent.

OBNBRAL NOTIONS. 245

'*Tbe wind rashes landwise from the sea, but is deviated to the right on account of the earth's rotatory motion. It is thus that the monsoon blows / from S. or S.W. in Kwangtung^ I

from S.W. in the Formosa Channel y j

from S.E. at Shanghai^

from S.W. in Shantung.

"The monsoon sets in progressively, the change beginning in March and April, in the N.; and in May, in the Formoaa Channel. In June, the Summer system prevails along the whole coast. At Shanghai, it lasts from April to August, i.e. about 4 months.

"The Winler monsoon, or that which blows from N. E., is caused by the low ^ temperature and high atmospheric pressure prevalent on the Asiatic continent. The wind / blows seaward from the land, always deviating to the rights and thus it turns around / the continent in the direction of the hands of a watch, or forming a clqckwise system. The direction is N. in Shantung, —

N.W. at SJuinghai,

N. E. in the Formoaa Clumnel^

£. at Hongkong,

"Contrary to what happens in India, the Winter monsoon is steadier and stronger than the Summer one, at least in the Formoaa Channel. A N. K. gale may be said to blow with short interruptions at the Pescadores, during the whole season.

"The Winter monsoon sets in towards the first half of September, or even at the end of August. At Shanghai, it lasts nearly 7 months".

Oyclones U Hi (Stien-fung i.e. revolving winds). ~ The China seas are often visited by oyclones, which cause immense ravages on the coasts.

Cyclonea are whiriinfc storms, and originate as follows. The barometric pressure is abnormally low over a more or less restricted area. All around this depreaaion or centre, the wind blows sometimes with extreme violence, moving from right to left contrariwise to the movement of the hands of a watch (thus in the Northern hemis- phere ; in the Southern one, they move in an opposite direction). These winds blow spirally inwards towards the centre.

The whole vortex of the cyclone has a movement of translation, of variable dire- ction and velocity. The area covered by the storm is sometimes very considerable, and may extend (as on the 3^ of August, 1901) from Nagasaki to Ma?ao, a distance of 1360 miles. ,\

•^^ Two distinct classes of cyclones may be distinguished: continental lanilUtormg knaifj^hoqnH. The former are experienced ia the N. of the China seas, the latter in the S.

l*" OonUnenlal landstorms. — These originate in Siberia or Western China, and travel towards the sea, with a marked curve to the N. £. After crossing the coast- line, they generally gain more strength, and become very violent in reaching Japan or the sea of Japan.

They are principally to be feared in Winter. Their passage is generally followed by a N. or N.W. gale, on the Northern part of the China coast; in the S., by a sometimes very severe increase of the N. E. monsoon.

Their velocity of translation may reach 60 miles an hour or fall to 8. It averages from 25 to 80.

2* TypbooiM K S (Paofnng i.e. violent or devastating winds). — These are formed over the Pacific, S. of the 20*'» parallel, N. I^at. After travelling first to N. W.,

\

246 8ICTI0N IV. THB COA8T-LINI OF CHINA.

some of them cross the China Ses, towards Indo-China and the golf of Tongldng, whilst others hend to N. E., to visit the China coast or Japan.

It is especially in Summer that they are dreaded. They are announced on the coast of China by a fall of the glass with N. E. winds, which veer round in accordance with the laws of cyclonic storms.

Their velocity of translation, low whilst recurving, increases rapidly when they move away from the China coast. Typhoons scarcely approach Shanghai, except from July to September. They may travel at the rate of 50 miles an hour.

PigH K (Wu, i.e. mist or vapour). — Fogs, so dreaded by seamen, are common at the mouth of the Tangtse, in Spring, and quite exceptional in Autumn. The same fact is verified along the coast, down to the S. of the Formosa channel.

On the N. etxut of China^ the maximum takes place in July; and the minimum, from August to November.

At Hongkong, the densest fogs prevail in Blarch and April.

UahthmumB^ bmops tmd beaemms. — To guide seamen in the darkness of the night, and through fogs, reefs and shoals, jarcely anything had been done up to 1854. A few smoky lanterns easily exUiiguished, some "bamBoo poles stuck into the mud, a bell tolled in foggy weather, were all that existed.

Since that time, thanks to the energy of Sir R. Hart. In- spector-general of the Imperial Maritime Customs, numerous Jighthouses have been erected at the most important points of the coast. Lightships have been placed at the most frequented places, and buoys and beacons fixed in the passages rendered most dangerous by reefs, currents or shoals. In 1905^ there were to be counted no less than 102 lighthouses, 25 lightships, 113 buoys and 109 beacons, along the coast of China _and on its principal rivers. We shall mention the most important light- houses when describing each part of the coast. Two of them are connected with the Chinese telegraph system, and give timely warning of approaching cyclones to the Sicawei Observatory, near Shanghai Jii(|. In foggy weather, gongs, sirens, and the firing of cannon constantly warn ships and junks of impending danger.

The flrmi HghMhomae •» <^ CMtma tmui^ properly speaking, was erected inJ.SS'?, near Chefoo J^ jg, in Shantung jlj ]|[, on Kfurngfumg IgiWi A (K^tmgl'ung-tao) iaUmO. As early as4$S^ however, a light had been placed on the TSmgrrt ti 4||^^ bmUt at the mouth of the Yangtze #-?^{C river. TheTatest constructed lighthouse is that of Tungyung ||[|| island, at the mouth of the Min-kiang ffi fll, in Fokien. It is 325 feet above the sea-level, and is visible to a distance of 25 miles.

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248

SECTION IT. THB COAST^IMI OP CRINA.

eSNERAt NOTIONS. 249

The lighthouse of our Lady of Ouia, has existed for long years at Macao*

^one of these lighthouses yet employ electric light. All use vegetablfe 01l^6kcept those of the N. which burn kerosene, as the severe cold would freeze vegetable oil. ' "

One of the most famous is the Fthy^-Bhan 4l jft llj light- house, on Shasho island, S. of the Ningpo ^ j$ river, in Gh^- kiang fg^ f£ Province. It is 345 feet above the level of the sea, and flashes its light to a distance of 26 miles.

Tides H m (Haich'ao, i.e. sea-flow). — The sea rises and falls twioe daily aloog the coast. This phenomenon is dne to the united action of the sun and moon, which attract, and as it were heap up the waters of the glohe. The moon however being nearer to the earth, exerts a predominating influence in the ratio of 2i to 1. It is shortly after the new and full moons that the tides are highest. In proportion as the moon is nearer, and its influence more combined with that of the sun, the more is its action felt. With the two bodies acting in concert, we have the spring or high tides, but when they act in opposition, we have the neap or low tides.

Tides are locally affected by the son figuration of the coasts, variation in the depth of the ocean, winds, and also to a slight extent by the changes of atmospheric pressure, hence the impulse is not felt everywhere at the same time. This retardation is a matter of observation peculiar to each locality, and known technically as the eatabliahnient of the port. It is thus that at Hongkong, the impulse is felt an hour earlier than at the Chusan -jH" U| (Cheushan) islands.

Between the Southern coast of Korea and the extremity of the gulf of Chihli, the diflerence is much more marked. It is only 8 hours after being felt in Korea, that the tides reach Shantung Point, 14 hours afterwards they reach the Miaotao IR K islands, and 20 hours later penetrate to the extremity of the Gulf of Chihli.

Islands and promontories, around which the tides have to turn, greatly retard their progress.

Tides are of great importance for navigation. Owing to them many rivers become navigable to a considerable distance from their mouth, shoals and bars can be crossed, and large boats may enter ports, which would otherwise be inaccessible.

It is on the coast of Fokien, as stated above, that the tides of the China seas attain their greatest height, reaching about 17 i feet ; South of the Formosa channel, they reach even 28 feet, helped by favourable winds in certain extraordinary circums- tances.

A rather remarkable phenomenon occurs on the coast of Tongking, where there is but one tide daily. A dissimilar curious modification is noticed in England, at South- ampton, Poole and Weymouth, where 2 tides occur in twelve hours.

250

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THE COAST OF CHIHLI. 251

2"" , The coast of Chihli tit ^

The coast of Chihli jf; ^ is washed by the Poh^hai {gj ^. Low and frozen during part of the Winter, it v^ould have little importance but for Us proximity to Peking 4b A* ^^^i A>^ the Peh'-ho iQ fpf, which flows into the gulf of Chihli.

TUe Poli-lial 2^ ^. — Poh-hai signifies ^armofihe Bea^\

It forms in fact a kind of small sea to the W. of the Leaotung ^ ^ promontory (called also Laot'ieh-shan -^ K jlj), and of the Miaotao |^ j^ islands. The strait of Chihli separates the Leaotung promontory from the Miaotao archipelago. Its greatest depth is 40 fathoms. The Poh-hai is not so deep, and attains at most 24 fathoms. Along the low coast, it is necessary to keep at a distance of 10 miles, to find a depth of from 16 to 20 feet, unless a river running into the sea opens up a deeper channel through the sands. The principal rivers which thus enable large ships to approach the coast are the Leaa-'ho ^ JSJ, the Behrho j^ jp[ and the Hwang-ho ^ Jpj. The first flows through Mancliuria, the secof^d through Chihli, and the third through Shantung [I| ^.

The Poh-hai washes the Western coast of Leaotung, the Chihli coast, and the North- Western coast of Shantung,

GnlffeL — Two gulfs are formed by the Poh-hai : the gtOf of €JhihU^ and the gulf of Leaotung. The latter is but the continuation into the sea of the great Manchurian valley.

Islands. — There are no islands of importance along the coast of Chihli, but there are several long sand-banks. The largest of these is the Tt^tiofeUien "^ jfi fl], called also Shaliutien ^ jilt %, situated to the N. E. of the mouth of the Peh-ho. It is very low, and is distant from the coast about 10 miles. It measures from 20 to 25 miles in length. A lighthouse, 50 feet above the sea-level, has been erected on it, and is visible to a distance of 10 miles.

Ice. — From the month of November, the ice begins to form on the rivers and over the coast of Chihli. It extends aU along the shore and seldom disappears until March. The Peh-ho remains however navigable at times until the month of January-. Navigation then stops, and ships may find good shelter near Ts'aofeitien, where the sea is not icebound. The ice forms on the sand-banks at low-water, and is carried by the rising tide upon the coast, where it develops into a thick mass. The buoys are taken out of the river during the period while it remains frozen.

252 8BGTI0N IV. THE C0il8T-LINB OF CHINA.

At this Reason, neamen should beware of floating ice, which attains sometimes about one yanl in thickness.

In tlie N. of the gulf of Leaotung, the ice lasts much longer, 4} months on the average, i.e. from the end of November to the middle of April.

WliMli.^Fi*om October to March, the wind blows from the N., and from April to Sfptoinbor, from the S. When it comes from the W., it is laden with dust, as in the iiitt*rior of Chihli, and obscures the atmosphere to a distance of about 5 miles ont from the coast.

IViUiire of tbe coast. — The coast of Chihli is low, sandy, and scantily inhabited by an impoverished popuUition. As the coast'line is but slightly above the sea-level, the smallest objects viewed from the sea assume gigantic proportions.

Towards the N., near the Great Wall, the coast'-line rises a little, and offers a few good harbours in which the water is deeper.

Ports. — Three only deserve to be mentioned :

lyimwwir t«> li 3E A* — Population, 5,000 inhabitants. AiUCXCoHtftt -haibuurr SHuated near Shanhai-kwan |b HI ■ and the Great Wall. It is free from ice and has deep water, thereby enabling large steamers to enter it at all seasons of the year. Ships with a draught of 17 feet can anchor at its pier. Iron and coal abound in the neighbourhood, and so it is destined to become, especially for coal, a large export station.

IVAlStNir 4k H* — A. small port on the banks of a river bearing the same name. The water is shallow, and boats with a draught of (^ feet can alone enter it, and only at high water. Formerly its entrance was protected by two forts.

'^•^•* "^C Jft* — A >;^."*S<' situated at the moolh of the Peh- ho |g ^. The forts which protected its entrance have been de»tn>\ed since the lV>xer revolt in 1900. The mouth of llie IVh^ho IS about 3:^0 yards wide. Three .miles ftuther up stands

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THE COAST OF SHANTUNa. 253

3"" The coast of Shantung lU '^

The coast of Shantung is watered by the Poh-hai ^ f(^, and the Hwang-hai j| jt| or Yellow Sea. In the upper part of the Province^ that is as far as TSngchow Fu ^ j^ Jff and the Miao- <ao jj^ ]^ islands, the coast-line is low, and offers the same characteristics as that of Chihli jjl ^. J&t the Southern part, except in the vicinity of Kiangsu ^C 1t^> ^^^ coast is rocky and indented^ and abounds in bays among which are found some good harbours. We may call it the coast-Hne of the promontory, in order to distinguish it from the other. We shall say but a few words about the former; the second requires more details. While dealing with this subject, we shall give a brief account of the Miaotao islands, which are of considerable importance.

A. The N. W. coast of Shantung.

This commences at the Miaotao J^ ft islands, and forms an arc of a circle, somewhat irregular and broken up on the W., by the mouth of the Hwang-ho j| iPj* M first, some 10 or 12 miles inland, hills run along the shores and throw out a few spurs into the sea. After bending Northwards, this part offers but low plains intersected by turbid rivers, and quite resembles the coast of Chihli. Long sand-banks extend along the shore, and allow only flat'bottomed junks to approach the shore.

The HuHMUtfho ^ fpf itself can be entered only by small junks. A bar situated at three miles from its mouth obstructs the entrance, so that the depth at high^tide is but 7 J feet, and at slack water only 4 ^. The river is moreover constantly dimi- nishing the depth of the Poh-hai ^ ^, by the alluvial deposits which it brings down, and so the gulf seems doomed to become one day an immense plain, continuing that of Chihli jj ^.

B. The Miaotao Jti A Islands.

Between Tingehow F^ ^, )^ fff P^^int and TMotieh-shan

jg H (il or BegenPs Sword, the distance is about 60 miles. A great part of this space lying between the Poh-hai ^ ^ and the Hwang-hai f|[ ^ or Yellow sea, is occupied by the Miaotao

254 SECTION lY. THE G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.

ffi 1^ archipelago, a remnant of the mountainous chain that formerly connected Leaotung jj^ jK with Shantung ilj ^. This archipelago comprises about 15 islands, forming two groups, the Northern and Southern.

Ch'angshan :g [I], the largest, is 7 miles long, while its highest summit attains 470 feet in height.

HeuM ^ ^, more to the N., is smaller, and reaches an elevation of 325 feet above the sea-level. It has a lighthouse of the 1"« order, 329 feet above the sea-level, and visible to a distance of 24 miles.

The surest route for ships passing through the Miaotao group is to the S. of this ishind, and hence adopted hy steamers going to Taku ;fc {jjp.

To the N. of the archipelago, the passage is easy, and is rendered moro so by the Laot'iehshan lighthouse, 316 feet above sea-level, and visible to a distance of 25 miles.

The archipelago has good anchorage where ships are quite safe. The best is on the S. of Ch'angshan Jl |1].

C. The coast of the Shantung promontory.

The coast of the promontory is washed by the Hwang-'ha.i H jtf or Yellow Sea. High, broken and indented, it offers a series of hays and promontories, these latter often running out into the sea in the shape of dangerous reefs and sometimes of islands. There are however much less islands along this part of the coast than opposite the three Southern Provinces, but none of them is considerable. There are some good harbours, but these are more numerous on the N, On the S.E., as well as on the N, W., the hills diverge from the coast, while this latter becomes straight and low, and abounds in long sand-banfes.

Bays. — The bays of this part of Shantung open wider, and run less inland in the N. than in the 8. The principal are : ati the North: Chefao ^ ^ or Tenl^ai jtQ H hay, and the hay of WeihaiwH ]^%1^\ — on the JEiast, Tungch'Sng 0k M ^<^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^f Sangheurhfofv ^ Ht Xi\ — on the South, the baye of Shihiaa-k'ow :^ j^ H* Shuhshan Tjjfi ]}\, Laoshan ^ (Ij and Kiaochow (^ jfl^.

Capes. — The principal capes are: Chefoo cape, the Narih" Vaetern and S^uth-JEattem capes of ShafUung, cape Adk4n§ or

THE COAST OF BHANTUNO. 255

Chfanshan if^ ^J, and the two headlands which enclose Kiao- chow bay, the Southern, called CkipeJaeschke, Hnd the Northern, Timnithan ^ ifi ]Jil^

Islands. — On the IT., KSmatung 1$ Ji ft Mand, in Che- foo bay, and Aloetie isUmd or Hallii-lao jt| Ml ^) ^'^ ^^^ N.W. of the promontory.

On the 8; Siauntan Mand or Sushan-tao H llj ft, the Ceniral ialandB and the iOandB in Laoshan §^ |1| bay.

Ice. — Ice is more rarely found, and lasts less long in the Yellow Sea than in the Poh-hai. It often however obstructs some bays, hinders navigation, and as in 1877, blocks measuring from 4 to 5 feet in thickness have been seen floating opposite Cht^foo. Kven in the S., in the Bay of Kiaochow, the water is partially frozen over during Win- ter, and one may walk on the ice without danger.

Wind. — There is nothing to add to what has been said above (p. 243).

Tide. — The tide is first felt at Staunton island^ and extends rapidly thence to the whole coast of the promontory, attaining in the vicinity of Alceste island (HailU- tao) its greatest velocity, 3 to 8 ^ knots at high tides. The tide, which rises to only 5 4 feet on the E. of the promontory, reaches 11 i feet (8.) feet at slack water) in Kiaochow Bay.

Ifatiire of tbe coast. — Composed of gneiss and granite, and of a volcanic nature near TSngchow Fu ^ ji{ )ff, it is for the greater part broken and often skirted on the mainland by chains of hills. At times^ it rises abruptly, and at others, it is low and sandy. In several places, it runs out into the sea and rises in dangerous reefs, w/iic/i compel ships to keep at a great distance in sailing round it. Among the ships wrecked in these regions, mention must be made of the German gunboat **Iltis'\ which in July 1896, sank at Flat Rocky Point, a little to the N. of the light- house erected on the South-Eastern promontory, and at the entrance to Sangheu-k'ow |^ ff| P bay.

IJi^litlioases. — Seven lighthouses are erected along the Shantung coast: l"", the Chefoo light on K'ungt'ung 1$ |||g ft island. It stands at 242 feet above the sea-level, and is visible to a distance of 22 miles. During the year 1905, this light was removed to the top of the old stone beacon or Tower Hill ; 2«, the 2"<* and 3'^, at the entrance to Weihaiwei J|Jc ^ Itl ^^Y'^ 3% the 4***, at tbe extremity of the N.E. promontory; 4*, the 5'^,

256

SBCnOir IT. THB COAST-Lllfl OP CHINA.

at the point of the S.E. promontory. It is 96 feet above sea-level, and visible to a distance of 16 miles ; 5*, the 6^, on Ckalien m % A island (ChaoUen-tao), to the S.E. of Kiaochow bay; and 6*, the 7^ and last, at the entrance to Kiaochow bay.

wwmm. — IjhH^chmc .Fte S jf| Jj^f. — Formerly an important port, but at the present day invaded by sands, and accessible only to junks, which carry on there a fairly good trade in wheat and peas.

Ckif^o S 5|^t or more properly Yent'ai jg| H (the Chinese name of the place called Chefoo by foreigners, is Yent^ai, Chefoo being but a large village on the opposite side of the bay). — Population, 82,000 inhabitants. An excellent port-town, on the W. of the bay of the same name. The harbour, protected by a headland, except from the N.E. wind, affords excellent anchorage, with a depth of from 20 to 40 feet, and even 45 at the entrance. On the E. of the bay is a chain of islets, among which the most important, K'ungt'ung fg^ jjg, was ceded to France in 1860. A lighthouse, 242 feet above sea-level and visible to a distance of 22 miles, has been erected upon it. The place enjoys a dry and salubrious climate, and a beautiful shore, which makes it an

Towet Poipl

CHEFOO BAY ^ ^.

T9B COAST OF BHANTHlie.

257

attractive health-resort for foreigners. The principal eocpori^ are firesh eggs, beancake and bean oil, straw braid, rush mats, silk, felt capSf vermicelli, groundnuts and dried fish. The impm^ are cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, hemp bags, straw mats, aniline dyes, ginseng, sugar, iron, coal and matches. The total net trade of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 38,183,912 ; in 1904, Tls. 34,255,175; and in 1905, Tls. 39,131,384. [9ee Section I. Ch. IV. p. 84. Shantung).

WelhmlwH iril Hi ^- — A port leased to Great Britain by China, on July 1"^ 1898, '4n order to provide Great Britain with a suitable naval harbour in North-China, and for the better pro- tection of British commerce in the neighbouring seas'*. The leased territory comprises the island of lAmkmmg 9| & A (Liu- kung-tao], all the islands in the bay, and a belt of land 10 English

^^Copt. Co^ « T^PS^if f«»^

lUKONa TAO

WBIHAIWBI Jrit » #.

17

258 SECTION IV. THB COHeT-LINB OF CBDU.

miles along the coast-line. Its area is about 285 square miles, and the population 150,000. In addition to the leased ter- ritory, there is a sphere of influence extending over an area of 1,500 square miles. The climate is excellent. The chief port of the dependency is Port Edward, which has good anchorage, with a depth of 45 feet. The Government is adminis- tered by a Commissioner. In 1905, the revenue amounted to $ 105,930, while the expenditure was $ 146,000. The grant from the Home Government amounted to £ 3,000. Mining and the planting of fruit-trees have been of late much developed, and progress would be improved were the place connected by rail with the interior. Weihaiwei is a port of call for steamers running to and from the N. of China, and there is regular steam communication with Shanghai, (fee Sect. I. ch. IV. p. 85).

'ItHnotao |^ % (Green island). — A port at the entrance of Kiaochow JP ^ bay, and leased to Germany by China, in 1898, for a period of 99 years. The leased territory comprises the bay up to high-water mark, its islands, and the N. and 8. tongues of land at the mouth of the harbour. Its area is 193 square miles, but if we include the sphere of influence, or a zone 30 miles from all points of the leased territory, the total is about 2,750 square miles. The interior of the bay is not very deep, but its entrance has 16 to 24 fathoms of water. It affords good shelter to ships, and is not icebound. TsMngtao has a foreign population of 1,110 persons, and 120,000 Chinese.

The entrance to the bay is } of a mile across. A lighthouse, 108 feet above high-water level, stands on the S. W. end of the headland, and is visible to a distance of 10 miles. Another, 92 feot high, and visible 4 miles, is erected within the bay. The harbour is rapidly developing. A pier, 4 miles in length, encloses the inner wharf. The area of the latter is about 1 \ square miles, and it has been dredged to a depth of 6 fathoms. A second wharf will be soon completed. A floating dock, capable of taking in vessels of 16,000 tons capacity, commenced work towards the close of 1905. From January 1906, the free-port area has been reduced to the harbour. Henceforward all mer-

TBB..G0A8T OT aBAMTVKft.

25td

KIAOCHOW BAY

W'

pSa s-„j 10.20.30. Dopth in metres (1 metre « 1,093 yard). ^^ ' 100.500. Height in metreti (100 metres s 328 feet)«

260 8BCTI(m !▼. THB COA8T*LINI OF CHINA.

chandise pays import duty according to the general treaty tarifT, and then travels to the hinterland without further restriction.

The Burroanding towns and villages are rapidly developing, and iheir population is also increasing. They enjoy like Ts*ingtao the great advantage of being connected with the interior by railway.

The port of T«4ngtao can be easily fortified, owing to hills which snrround H on the W. and E., and rise respectively to 1,000 and 5,000 feet. In the vicinity are important coal-beds, and the ooal extracted will soon become the staple export article of the port.

Trade increases every year, bnt is still however far behind that of Ohefoo. The Imperial Maritime Onstoms report the total net value of Kiaochow to be for 1905, Hk. Tls. 22,882,680.

A weekly service oonnecta the port with Shanghai. There is besides a steamer running every 5 days between Shanghai, Ts^ingtao, Ohefoo and THentsin.

THE COAST OF KIANaSU. 261

4"" The coast of KiangsuVi iSk

The coast of Kiangsu is washed, partly by the Tettaw Sea or HwmHt'hai H ^, partly by the BaMem China Sea or Tung-

^^^ )K %' ^^^ A^^ bordered by sand-banks, it is of little importance, except at the mouth of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL, not far from which, stands the great commercial pOrt of Shanghai^ built upon the Hwangp'oo ^^ river. For the sake of clearness, we will study : 1"^, The coast N. of the Yangtze; ^% The mouth of the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai; 3^, The coast to the S. of the Yangtze,

A. The coast to the N. of the Yangtze.

Long^ low and flat, this coast is bordered by immense sand- bankSj between which are found only shallow channels.

The most important of these banks is situated to the S.E, of Hai Chow fH ^, and is called the ToMha ^ j^ or Great mmdr^anh. It is more than 90 milm' kmg by 30 wide. It has been formed^ like the other shoals, by sands and alluvial detritus deposited there in former times by the muddy waters of the Hwang-ho H ff.

The coasts are protected by long embankments, provided with numerous sluices, whereby the overflow of the water escapes into the sea in the flood'Season.

A single island deserves to be mentioned, the Yuh 5E A or Pearl itdand, to the N.B. of Hai Chow d ^ headland. This headland, situated to the S.B. of Hai Chow, reaches an altitude of from 800 to about 1,000 feet. Some 16 miles further to the N., lies the port of Ts'ingk'ow # P* It is situated at the extremity of a canal cla|^ on the W., and is the only port on this long coast. It is an important fishing station, and sends its catch down to the Shanghai J: (| market.

B. The mouth of the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai.

The great river called the Yangtze ^ ^ discharges its waters into the sea, through a large mouth, which measures no less than 60 miles from the extremity of Haimtn j^ ^ to Tang- iMS cape or P'aoiung ^ ^ point. Though obstructed with

262 SECTION lY. THB G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.

• *

islands and sand'hanks, this mouth has ^wo good channels, one of w/iic/i, the Southern^ is highly valuable for navigation. The sand-'banks shift constantly, but owing to lighthouses, buoys and beacons, ships can easily enter, and ascend either to Shanghai Jt, fi$ or to the numerous ports situated up the river. We can give but a brief account of the main characteristics of the mouth of the Yangtze and of the port of Shanghai,

UlaadM and Hand-liaiiluu — Among the islands which lie at the mouth of the Yangtze, Ch^ungminff ^ |^ is by far the most important. It is about 40 miles long, and from 5 to 8 broad. Its area is 270 square miles, and its population a little over 1,000,000, or about 3,500 to the square mile. It has been formed by constant alluvial deposits from the Yangtze fjj^ •F it river. It is low and flat, and protected by embankments from sea-action. It is being constantly eaten away at its North- western extremity, whife it is gradually increasing at the other. The island is highly cultivated, and produces rice, maize, cotton, yams and excellent sugar-cane. The soil, especially in the N., is considerably impregnated with salt. It possesses no harbour of importance, nor any town of considerable size, except the district city of the same name.

Further to the 8., in the same direction N.W.-S.E., is a chain of islets, among which Hwangsha :|K {^ or Hau^ iskmd is the most important. These islets are continued on the E. by a large sand-bank called THntgmhfu^jf^ jj^ shoaL

E. of the mouth of the Yangtze, 40 miles from the 8. E. extremity of Ch*ungming, is a sand-bank by far much larger than T'ungsha bank, and called the Cfreaimina'btMnkofihe Yamg- tme fiangtze-tasha) % ^% r>. It is over 125 miles in length, and from 30 to 40 miles in breadth. It is composed of grayish or dark-coloured sand. As there are from 10 to 22 fathoms of water over it, it is no hindrance to navigation, and moreover the water on both sides attains a great depth.

CbMtnels. — The mouth of the Yangtze j|§ -^ tl has

The l^^y or tifffMr ^toimI^. This is situated between Ch'ungming ^ ^ and Haim6n % f^. Small junks alone can

THB COAST OF KIANGSU. 263

**

sail through it, for it is very shallow, and ii^ constantly invaded by the sand. A new island is actually in process of formation. It may totally emerge one day, and thus connect Ch'ungming with the adjoining promontory of Haim^n.

The 2*^^^ or Norih channel, called also Shaweishan fjf jg ll], is situated to the S. of Ch'ungming, between that island and the series of islets and sand-banks which terminate at the T'ungsha ^ fp bank. It extends from E. to W., but narrows in and diminishes in depth. Towards the E., it is about 2 miles wide, and has a depth of 46 feet, whilst in the W., its width is only a little over a mile, and its depth from 16^ to 20 feet.

The S''^^ or SatUh channel, lies between the right bank of the Yangtze and the islets just mentioned. It is the best and the most frequented route.. It is from 17 to 20 feet deep at low-water of spring tides, and from 13 to 19 ^ opposite the mouth of the Hwangp'oo j| t§ or Shanghai river.

lilglitlioiMies. — Several lighthouses are erected at the entrance to the last two channels. Two are situated on the Northern aide of the N. channel: one at Ch'ungming Point, called Drinkwaier Ughihouee or Ch^ungminglao-tungkioh Sj( fj^ ft X ^ ! the other, more to the E., called ShaweUhan UgHt-- hmtee. Two are on the Northern aide of the 8. channel: one, on Hwtmgsha ieland, near the Kiutoan ^ ^ light-vessel ; the other, more to the S. E., is called the T^ungeUta $^ fp liffhU Five others are erected at Woosung 1^ }|i, where vessels enter the Hwangp'oo JJ HH rivei^

S. of the Southern channel, opposite P^ootung Point, is Quiz-' U^ielund^ called in Chinese Tach4h ::^ ^ or Tats'ihshan -f^ Jllllj. It has a lighthouse, 283 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance of 24 miles. It is besides an imj^rUnU ieHegraph siaHon, 6 cables landing there.

Tides. — The tidal corrent at the mouth of the Yangtze commenceB to the Southward. The water rises 14 i feet at OatzlafF in high tides, and nearly the same at the mouth of the Hwangp'oo. It reaches at the S. of GutzlafF its maximum velocity of 3 knots at springs, and 2 knots at neaps on a flood ; 4 to 5 knots at springs, and 3 ^ knots at neaps during ebb. At the latter place, and below Woosung, the tides take on the average 5 hours to rise and 7 to fall, or the ebb is longer than the flood.

264

SECTION IT; TBS COAAT^IMt OF CHINA.

As the tide rises and falls, a rather peculiar swirl or rotatory movement is pro- duced at the month of the Yangtze. Its different phases may he seen in the annexed diagram.

N

I

!

Yf

f

Last of

First of

1

Flood

Sbb

T7

\

First

Last

)

111

\ \

A

of Flood

of Ebb

^\

•-^

A

The tide is felt at Shanghai 2 hours after it has passed Gutzlaff. IT M subject to diurnal inequality, which causes the day tid6s to be the highes't in Winter, the mor- ning tides in Spring, the night tides in Summer, and the evening tides in Autumn.

Wootfon^ Imer and Outer Bars. — Two bars . prevent large steamers ascen- ding as far as Shanghai. The firti or Outer Bar, a little below the mouth of the Hwang- p*oo, is rapidly silting up, and had in 1897, 20 feet of water over it at low- water of springs, but at the present, it has scar- cely more thaKi 13. The second or Inner Bar lies within and a little up the river itself. It un- dergoes less change and tends rather to improve. A periodical silt of Ipom 2 to 4 feet generally sets in upon it in May and ends in October, after which it again scours away. Attempts at dredging having proved ineffective, the river aband- oned to itself has formed a new island, caUed Gough island. The Junk channel to the B. of it, has bnt a depth of from 10 to l.'f feet at low-water of springs. SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'oo River.

THB COAtr OF «AM«80.

215

HEIGHT OP WATER

on the Onter and Inner Wj— uwg Bars

al low water of the syzygies.

(According to W, P. Tyler, Cooit Inspector I. M. C).

Ifl fi

s

G*

V

\^

\a H

V

ft"

1i ft

\-

"\

4m

19 ft

A

/\

A

f

1™

|\

/\

r^

j

1 \

f^

1A ik.

1

\

1 .

l/

\i

1/

8"!

xU I*.

\^

\,

V

V

1/

8 ft.

\

\\

1897

1896 1899 1900 1901 1902

The lower tracing exhibits the changes on the Inner Bar; the upper tracing thoae on the Outer Bar.

266 SBCTIOlf IT. THX COAST-LIMI OP CHDU.

± fff. -^ (mee also Sect. II. Ch. IV. Kiangsu. p. 160-162). JBMoHml ^keieh. — If we believe old records, Shanghai, as its name means ^otci; &r%q^im ike eem^, was formerly nearer the sea than it is at present, but little by little, sands and alluvial deposits accumulated to the E. of the port, and formed there the low flat plain nowadays called P^ootung ^ )K, or East of the Hwangp^oo. Through this plain the Hwangp^oo )| ^ river opened a way to the Yangtze ^ •^. According to native annals, a custom-house was first established at Shanghai in the XI*** century, and^jtwasonly in the XIV«*» that it -wits raised to the dignity of a walled city ^8 I miles in circuit) with sub-prefectural or district rank. In the XVI*'* century, it was attacked by Japanese pirates, who extended at the same time thair incursions to Ningpo $( ^ and Hangchow ^ ^. Up to 1842, it:WyM{^|t a port of call, for sea-going junks. At the above mentiojftM date, it was taken (19(*> June) by British troops under Sir HMKjQpiigh, and formally opened to foreign trade, 17th November, VMt. _ Captain Baltour, the british Consul, established there the limits of the English Settlement. The site originally selected, lay half a mile N. of the native city, between the Yang- kingpang ffi 3 fH^^^d Soochow f| jf| Creeks, and extended backwards from the river to Defence Creek. Other extensions were subsequently granted, the last being that of 1901. The French were in 1849 granted the ground between the city walls and the British Settlement on the same terms. In 1860, this Concession was extended to the S., between the city walls and the river, and further to the W., in 1902. In 1862, Americans rented land immediately N. of Soochow Creek, in the place called HoDgkew Jbl P (Hungk'ow). In 1863, the so-called American Settlement was incorporated with the British, into one municipality, styled the ^JbUemaHanai SeUiemenP'. The Muni- cipal Council administering the Foreign Settlement, N. of Yang- kingpatig, began in 1855. A separate administration and council for the French Settlement were appointed in 1862. At Shanghai, and at all the other open Ports, Foreigners are in judicial matters subject to the immediate control of their respective Consuls.

THB COAST or KlAMOStT.

267

In local affairs, Foreigners within the Settlements govern them- selves by means of the Municipal CauncUs, under the authority of the ^land reffutoiUm^\ Chinese residents in the SettleVnents are amenable to their own laws, administered by what is called a ^nUxed eaurPf, established in 1864. It is presided over by a Chin^Uif URl^ial and is watched by Foreign Assessors from the principal Consulates. The working of this institution, despite some recent reforms, has never been satisfactory, as the judge has not sufficient authority and rank to enforce his decisions, which are besides frequently fraught with great vagaries. The Council in the International Settlement consists of 9 members, and in the French Concession, of 8. The resolutions of the latter are inoperative, until sanctioned by the Consul-General. The Council divides itself into Defence, Finance, Watch and ^Wpriu Committee. In cases of contest or infringement of pi14|ple tlf|fiB, it can be sued before the **OMirf 0fyO»n0uU^ •• ^^-^

JPiopuiaUatu — The cen

gave number of Joreign residents in the International Settlement as 11,497 persons, while in the French Concession on the same date, there were 831 persons, aggregatii\g a total of 12,328 Foreigners, composed as follows :

cr

Intematioiial Settlement.

French Concession.

Total.

British

3,713

109

3,822

Japanese

2,157

73

2,230

Portuguese

1,331

51

1.382

American

991

21

1,012

German

785

47

832

Indian

568

—

568

French

393

274

677

Russian

354

60

414

Austro-Hungarian

158

5

163

Itelian

148

14

142

Spanish

146

5

151

Danish

121

3

124

Other Nationalities

632

169

801

(LIu-s^jl J

'- ' ■ b

^f.?'^ ^

-17. r

/■"^^Jl^f-' ^J«.<_v

v..-/'.

268 8BGT10M IV. THB GOA8T<-LINB OF CHINA.

The Chinese population was also found to be in the Inter- national Settlement 452,716 inhabitants, and in the French Conces- sion 84,792 inhabitants, aggregating a total of 537,508 persons. The population of the native walled city is estimated at 300,000.

IhdMi&trim and Matntfmehires. — Shanghai J;^ ^ has several large docks, the^ principal of which are on the right banK of the Hwangp^oo river or P*ootung gjdfi^ The Chinese Govern- ment has an arsenal, dock and shipbuilding establishment, a short distance above the native city. Several manufactories, both foreign and native, have sprung up since 1895, consequent upon the Japanese treaty allowing henceforth the importation of machinery.^ At the prfiaspt jay, there are ^ cotton-spinning . and weaving mills in operation ; there are also a number of ginning factories, native and foreign owned. Of silk filatures, Shanghai has 25. which give employment to 20,000 natives. There are besides, paper mills, flour mills, mills for extracting oil from cotton-seed and beans, several printing establishments, soap and match factories.

2ViMl0 mmd OMMifMrve. — Shanghai is the great emporium for the trade of the Yangtze river, for the Northern ports of the China coast, and to some extent for Japan. The prine^pai eoppmn oriMes are silk (97,800 bales, or 150,000 piculs in 1905), tea (black, 104,323 piculs; green, 263,900 piculs; brick, 98,389 piculs; leaf-dust and tablet, 19,574 piculs in 1905), raw cotton, cotton-yarn and cloth, beans and beancake, groundnuts, sesamum seed, wood-oil, rice, wheat, flour, straw and rush- hats, chinagrass, hides and goatHikins, bristles, wool, carpets and fresh eggs. The imparis are cotton and woollen goods, machinery and engine oil, timber and soft wood^ kerosene oil, opium, cement, palm-leaf fai|J|, rush and straw-mats, gunny cloth and bags, aniline dyes, printing paper, stationery^ photo- graphic materials, clocks and watches, glass, millinery and perfumery, shoes and boots, lamps and lampware, coal, iron- bars and nails, copper slabs and spelter, beer, wines and 8)>irits, edible birds' nests, sugar, condensed milk, butter, cheese,

THB COAST OF KIANOSU;

m

soap; cigarettes and matches. The total gross and net values of the trade of the port from 1900-1905 were as follows :

Gross and Net Value9 of Trade, 1900-1905.

YKAB.

Gross VaIims.

Net Values.

1900

Hk. Tls. 248,606,777

Hk. Tls. 97,729,169

1901

296,454,790

118,425,776^

1902

S46,t22364

188,7751^86

190S

851,200,609

118,812,899

19(M

405,064,260

1-15.480,170

1905

448,954,262

176,979,193

\f

During the same period, the following duties were collected by the Imperial Maritime Oustoms :

Hk. Tls.

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905

7,117,387

8,152,69«

10,814,077

9,924,890

10,323,433

12,080,185

Of this sum, Great Britain contributed in 1905, Tls. 7,650,462

Germany

America

France

Japan

Austria

Sweden

Russia

Denmark

Tls. 1,371,325 Tls. 751,890 382,500 152,326 122,078 20,530 11,052 8,253

Tls. Tls. Tls. Tls. Tls. Tls.

— The port of Shanghai J: f$ extends along the left bank of the Hwangp'oo j|||, to a distance of over 8 miles. The water frontage is lined throughout with landing places, jetties, wharves and warehouses ("godowns"). The

270 sEcruM IT. TBI GOAn^m or emu,

river opposite the Foreign Settlements was formerly 1,800 feet broad at low-water, but it is to-day only 1,200. Ships with a draught of 16 feet can come up to the wharves, yhwig***' '"(j^ miles from the seiiHOoas{| and 12 mUes from Woosong ^ ^1* ^^ outer port, with which it is connected by rail since the 1"* Sop- t^niber. ISM.

The windings of the Hwangp^oo j| ||, and the two bars whidi are developing at its mouth, will perhaps one day necessitate extensive works. It has already been proposed to rectify the course of the river, and dig a canal to the W. , but the immense alluvial deposits brought down by the Yangtze render every attempt of this kind rather ineffectual. The Woosung bars are a great drawback to the prosperity of the port, and the cause of heavy loss to shipowners, through the impossibility of large draught steamers crossing them, and coming up to Shanghai. The average depth of water on the outer bar, at high-water springs, is 19 feet, the greatest being 23 feet. The Chinese\ Government has recently consented to the establishment of a ^Cmwerffmu^^ Boards, and this will, it is hoped, do much to for- ward the interests of commerce, and maintain the preponderance of Shanghai as the great commercial metropolis of China. Large men-of-war and huge liners, as the Manchuria, Minnesota and Mongolia^ are compelled to anchor in the Woosung roadstead, beyond the outer bar, but middle-sized cruisers, and ordinary sea-going and river steamers trading on the Yangtze, can easily come up to Shanghai, and this amply imparts to the place an activity and bustle which are unequalled by any other port in the Far East.

Shanghai is in constant communication with Japan, Manchuria, Korea, Southern Asia, Europe and America. Several steamship companies (see Sect II. Ch. I. p. 101) carry on regular services with the Yangtze ports and the coast. The number of vessels which entered and cleared at the port, as well as their tonnage, from 1900-1905, is as follows.

THB COAST OF KIAIIG80.

SHAHGHAL Table of Shipping. 1900-1905.

271

TBAB

Steanierh

1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905*"

3,273 8,698 3,978 4,093 4,059 1,811

Entered Inwards.

Total. Sailing Vessels

894 484 448 584 652 15,506

No.

Tons.

3,667

4,726,441

4,182

5,395,9-J5

4,427

6,025,317

4,677

6,179,554

4,711

6,076,279

27,316

7,692,207

Stt'amers

Cleared Outwards.

Total. Ko. Tons.

3,269 3,692 3,965 4,079 4,057 11,589

Sailing Vessels

386 487 438 574 666 24,176

3,655 4,179 4,403 4,653 4,723 35,765

4,705,978 5,335,260 6,015,849 6,162,981 6,105,519 7,887,103

^^Inclading towed passenger boats and cargo junks.

It can be seen from this table that the total tonnage of the port is about 15 ^ million tons.

J^iloml naviffaOan. — Numerous small steamers ply on the Ilwangp'oo ^ ^ and the large canals, throughout the whole region around Shanghai, thus connecting it, some with Ch^ung^ ming island ^ ^ and Haim^n j^ f^ promontory, others with Soochow HM, Ningpo ff^ and Hangchow j^^. The number of these small craft registered at the close of 1905, amounted to 275, of which 205 were native, and 70 foreign owned. All trade under inland steam navigation rules. The total of these small steamers and passenger boats, entered and cleared for the year 1905, was 6,870, transporting 94,102 tons. The total, which entered and cleared between Shanghai, Soochow and Hangchow, reached 16,789, while the tonnage transported, amounted to 1,141,046 tons.

C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze.

From the mouth of the Hwangp^oo )(j^ or Shanghai river, to Ch6kiang^2li^x^^i^^B the low-lying region of P^ootung|§j|[. It is protected by several embankments from the inroads of the sea. Beyond the sea-wall, vast alluvial tracts are in process of forma- tion, and the delta is constantly growing seawards. Scarcely a few islets lie along this part of the coast. As soon as found inhabitable, they are occupied by immigrants from the overpeopled neighbourhood of Ch.^ungming and Haim^n, communications being kept up with the mainland through small sea-going junks.

iX

272 SECTION IV. THB COABT-LINt OP CHINA.

5*. The coast of Chekiang tjf it

ChAkiang marks the transition from a low and flat coast, to the indented aM rocky coast-line of the South. The former in represented by the large bay of HaniQBboir iti M* down to which extends the Southern part of Pootung Mb the latter begina ai the Ningpo % |k river.

P The hay of Hang chow tt fH and its barrier qf islands.

Hangohow bay is as broad at its entrance as the Yangtze ^ ^ XL estuary, and is obstructed by a cluster of rocky islets, known as the ChMmn -jff;^ il| (iJhmuihmn) grafc^psiwiPe It forms the mouth of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang g| jf {Lt ^ut affords few facilities for navigation, especially on account oi its bore or tidal wave, the strength of the current, and the shallowneee of the water. Hangchow bay is funnel-shaped. It is 60 miles wide at the outer extremity, and contracts gradually to 12 at the other. When the tide rises, the waters rash in with great force, and finding little depth, 6 or 7 feet at meet, fhey are suddenly confh>nted by the current of the river, and more and nu>re concentrated as they advance. These circumstances make them assume a wall-like formation, and growing to a height ' of several feet, they overflow the banks and are most dangeions for boast taken unawares. The immense pressure firon^ liehiiid, and the great height of the tides, which rise to 26 or even 30 feet, impart an extraordinary strength to the current, which rushes forward with a roar like thunder, and at a rate somettmes exceeding 6 knots. On this account, large boats prefer anchoring at Chap'oo ^ H or Tsop'oo, 50 miles up the coast, and the outer port of Hangchow. Here they find water to a depth of 23 feet. Boats with a draught of 2 ^ feet can go up to Hang- chow only by sUges. They come down, availing tkeaaselves of a few hours of ebb tide. On both sides of the bay, a sea- wall protects the vast adjoining plain. On the 8. side, a little to the E. of 8haohsing Fu IR J| J|f, sands are accumulating and' forming an alluvial land, upon which already several houses have been erected.

THE COAST OF GHftKlANO. 273

The CSktMon^ |[| (Cheushan, i.e. boat island) ttrehipelaffm* •-^Pmn Ningpo or Kitao m $^ Point, as far as Yangtze Cape, extend several groups of islands and rocky islets, of which the principal are the Chusan ^ ilj isUMnds^ the VoUsano istande or ^ ill, the Bugged UUmOs or Tangehan ^ |lj, Bencher or rtMhhohUfthrtao j\ ;|^ ^J ftt ^^^ <^ Saddlee <n

The total number of islands in the archipelago is over a hundred. Chusan ^ llj or boat island is the largest, and im- parts its name to the v^hole archipelago. It is nearly 25 miles long, and from 6 to 10 broad. Its highest peak attains 1,300 feet. The population of Chusan is about 70,000. T$nghaiTHng^ ^JH is the capital of the island, and has a population reckoned at 30,000. It exports salt fish, raw cotton, sweet potatoes and salt. The harbour is one of the best on the coast, and accessible fey three or four passages. Ships find there good shelter and excellent anchorage at a depth varying ftrom 23 to 50 feet.

Navigation is difficult thronghout all this archipelago, on account of the very' •Iroiig onmiit which runs at 7 or 8 knots, and is extremely variable because of the Bfunerons windings it has to make. Fogs, which are frequent from March to July, ' render navigation still more dangerous.

— Several important lighthouses are placed Aeiar the difficult channels. We have already (p. 263) mentioned €Hmddff'0T T€U3hHh :k # iighihauee. Six others are erected : the l«t/ at the Saddtee (Mangan-tao) ||]@[ JH ; the 2""], on Banhmn (Pehtsiehshan) ^ tjf llj Mand; the 3'<\ on Voiamo (Siishan) f^ ill ielandf the 4^^ on Steep (Siaokweishan) >J> H ij[| UUmd; the 5^^ at JMMaehan ^ti\U^ and the 6^1% on Tiger (Hushan) jj^ ill island, at the entrance to the Ningpo ^ j$ river.

2^ The coast of (Mkiang, South of Hangehow Bay.

• • -

Below the Ningpo river,, the coast becomes indentedj but still remains lov^, and is bordered with shoals^ which emerge at low- water, and extend to a distance of 2'h to S miles. Some good sea- ports and excellent bays give it a certain importance, but Shanghai

18

374 SECTION IV. THB G0A8T-LINB OT CHINA.

J^^ IS too near, and its position too central, to allow the develop^ ment of another large port on the coast of CMkiang }|f ft- -^ naval port alone -would perhaps be advantageoxisly sittiated in these parts.

Bays. — Numerous and deep bays or estuaries open along the coast, below the Ningpo ^ J^ river, and down to the frontier of Fokien |g ^. The principal are :

7%e eMduary of the Yuna-hiang % iL ^^ Ningpo river («00 Ningpo. p. 275).

y^mrod half or BUmg9hmnf4ekmg |^ |ll it- — This ba^r penetrates deeply inland to a distance of more than 25 miles, and seldom exceeds 4 miles in breadth. Numerous islets render the entrance to it rather difficult. It has good anchorage and well sheltered inlets, but no sea-port of importance. It ia separated from Sanm^n 3 P^ ^^7 ^Y * ^^^S headland.

SanmSn H P^ ^off. — This bay is accessible by 3 passages, hence called Sanm^n, or *'the three gateways". Larger and enjoying a wider opening than the preceding one, it is also dotted with islands and islets. The N. channel forms the roadsteoA of Shihip^oo T*ing ^ ti JN* ^^ called from the town situated beside it. Depths vary from 16 to 28 fathoms, but there are also some dangerous shoals. The 8. channel is 16 miles wide, and has a maximum depth of 12 fathoms. It g^ves access to excellent anchoring ground with depths varying from 23 to 30 feet. Further on, the depth diminishes, but anchorage varying from 36 to 42 feet may be found down almost to the extremity of the bay. Too exposed to winds from the high sea and to typhoons, frequently also shallow, this bay lies moreover in an impoverished region, and the islands in it are the rendezvous for pirates. It thus does not deserve the reputation formerly bestowed upon it.

T^aichow -^ ji[ )ff hag. — Wide and shallow, a bar renders the entrance to it still more difficult. Ships with a draught of more than 11 \ feet cannot cross it, except at high tides. At high-water of springs, vessels with a draught of 19 \ feet can ascend as far as T^aichow Fu ^ ^ J^-

WhicKow 2J ^ b€ig9 or the estuary of the Ngeu-kiang K in- — This bay has fairly good anchorage. The best is in Buttock harbour, situated in the midst of a group of islands.

THB COAST OF QBtKlAXB. 275

laimn4»> — The islands in this part are numerous and generally of granitic formation. None of them have any great importance, either in regard to extent or position. Those to be chiefly remembered are the groups in Nimrod or Siangshan- ^^^e H [Ij 2L» ^^^ SmmUn ^ p^ ha^s. Further Southward are the T^hkUhan ;||: f|- [Ij and Ntmkiahan ^ H* llj praups. A good harbour is found in the latter.

IdgMliMMML — The reh^HBhan g ^ [Ij Ughih4mm is

the only one of this coast. Erected on Shasho island, a little outside the bay, it is 345 feet above high-v^ater level, and visible to a distance of 26 miles.

B«. — Mngpmfffg[ alone deserves special mention. The others : iSM^M THnp :^ ^ jM, T'aieh^w I^ -^ f^ Jif, Whusk^w Ai S M /HP ^"^ Nanki |fj f|*, have scarcely any commercial importance.

mnapo JPk$ ff fg(^ Iff (tranquil wave). — Population, 260,000 inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Nan- king treaty of 1842. It is situated on the Yung^kiang ^ 2llf 12 miles from its mouth and 15 from the sea. Ships with a draught of 16 feet can reach the port at high-water of spring tides. The bar at the entranc to the river has but a depth of 12 feet over it at low-water of springs. The trade of Ningpo is principally carried on with Shanghai. Three steamers, one Chinese, one British, and one French, carry on a daily service between the two ports. The itnporU are cotton goods, iron, lead and tin, kerosene oil, sugar, coal, opium, flour, medi- cines, soap and matches. The eui^aris are rush-hats (3,413,940 in 1905), matting, paper fans and umbrellas, silk, green tea, carpets, raw cotton, medicines, fi^undnut oil, ^^samshu" or rice- spirit, joss-paper (9,596 picu)s in 1905), and cuttle-fish. The total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 22,240,093; in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412 ; and in 1905, Tls. 19,163,630.

Large steamers anchor at the outer port, Chenhat JMen fH f$ Hi A small district town with a population of 35,000 inhabi- tanlv, and situated at the mouth of the river. (See Section III. Oh. IV. Oh^kiang. p. 233).

J7fr SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OP CHINA.

& . The coast of Fokien jB ^.

The coast'line of Fokien tins no large bay like that of Hang" chow j^ j^, nor any archipelago comparable \<nth that of Chusan ^ llj. The coast is indented and broken^ and forms a seHea </ tay^^ several of which penetrate far inland. They afford good shelter and anchorage for ships. There are also several excellent ports, two of which, Amay or HMamin ]g P^, and JPboehmv H ^, are of great importance.

These parts are generally rocky and abrupt. They become however sometimes low and sandy, and are bordered by shoals and reefs. They are then dangerous, especially on account of the currents which run there with great violence, and the services of a pilot are necessary to approach them with safety.

They are washed on the N. by the waters of the BaaUm CMna MO or Tianwhai ]^ jf|, and further down by those of the JFkHr^

Bajoi. — The principal are, proceeding from N. to S. :

Nankwan )|| H ^^^ — '^^■^ ^^y ^^ about 16 miles long, but is shallow, except at its entrance.

Sa$nsa or Sansha ^ fp half. — This bay lies between the island of the same name and the coast. It is very deep and affords good shelter. It is said to be on a small scale like the inland sea of Japan.

The half or eeittarp ef the Min-hUiug fl^ j^. — [eee below : Poochow. p. 278).

SMtoH ji| jy[ hay and pass. — Lying between the Island of the same name and the coast, thjs inlet may be entered by ships with a draught of 21 feet. Excellent anchorage is found there, with depths of from 30 to 50 feet. The tidal stream is very strong, and is to be guarded against when vessels enter and depart. The current attains a velocity of 5 knots at high-water of spring tides.

HMnghwa fH ffc hay* — This is a fine bay, but the entrance t9 it is ditlicult.

THE COAST OF FOKIBN.

277

SAMSA or SANSHA H fS^ BAY.

Tg/^Uenchaw Fu ^ )i\ fff baiif. — The entrance to this bay is shallow, but good anchorage and shelter are found in the vicinity.

Tiger^a he€id or Hui^eu J^ ^ doy.

Amoy or Hsiamen ^ f^ inty. — {nee below : Amoy. p. 279).

TAingihan^ffi [Ij bap* — This bay has deep anchorage, and is one of the best of this coast.

Islands. — Rocky and bare, they are nearly all inhabited by fishermen whose boats go far out to sea. The most important is the isUma of Amoy, though it is not the largest. The^SSflrm- Ms or Sanaha H ^ or^up, including thp upper Ji H IP

278 SECTION IT. THE COAST-LINE OF GHDfA..

(shangsantu) and iower IF H ^ (hsiasantu) Ui€is, MmU^m^ m iK istand, Quenunf or KioMnJhk ^ f^ (golden harbour) UUmA^ T^wnoBhan m il^ and WhUe dog iOamd^ are the largest.

TJi^gMSbmfomfm. — Several lighthouses are erected on the coast of Fokien, especially at the entrance to the Min 0 river, and to Amoy harbour. Four are in the lower reaches of the Min river : 1^ Tunimfufng ]|[ ^ UghXhouae^ on Tungyung island ; 2* the Middte dag or Tungk'iien-shan }K :^ ll| U^MteMM/ S"" Twtnabgwl or Niushan-tao ^ }^ % UghUhouae. The two latter are 257 feet above high-water level, and visible to a dis- tance of 23 miles; 4'' Oekseu or Taokweisii i^ fi ||| UghMhrnu^e. It is 286 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance of 24 miles. Four others are at the entrance to Amoy harbour: one, on nodd or Pehling ;||^ || Mand, a second, on T^mUan ^ Ig Ukmd, and two others, respectively on 2Mm^«6 ^ |||, and Chapei or Tungting j|[ ^ Mands.

Csurt-towa. — Only three are of importance at the present day, from a commercial standpoint : JFooehow, Ammg and San"

HIKiH* ^ Population, 8,000 inhabitants. It is

situated on Saniu inlet and is the port of Fuhning Fu H )|f ^. It is the best and safest port on this coast, and exports principally tea, camphor, paper and pottery. The total net value of its trade was in 1905, Hk. Tls. 2,220,032. In 1900, a jetty, 160 yards long, was constructed there. The harbour however has so far realized but little the hopes entertained of its future success.

Fo9€how JS jHi ^* — We have spoken above (Section III. Ch. IV. p. 222) of the city, here we will describe only the entrance to the river.

About G miles outside the Min-kiang PQ 2Ct llicre is an outer bar which is exposed at low-water, and then becomes a large sand-bank. At high-water of spring tides, there is but one channel which is navigable for ships drawing up 19 19 feet.

The inner bar has a depth of 6 J^ feet over it at low-water, but as the tide rises to a height of 18 feet, it is easily crossed.

Between the two bars, there is excellent anchorage in moderate depths.

THE COAST OF FOKIBN. 279

Two Other difficult passages have to be crossed before reaching Tag^^du anehorage: ihe Kimpai or K^p^aimSn ^ fff^ n IM>^ ^^^ <^ JkOnnffonmSn 1^ ^ f^ p€Ms. The first, lying to the N. of Wuhu £ ^ island, is narrow and dangerous at high-water of spring tides, as the stream then runs with great velocity and develops a considerable eddy. The second, longer, is less dangerous, although the current, at high-water of springs, attains there a velocity of from 4 to 5 knots.

The channel at the S. of Wuhu island cannot be crossed on account of the sand-banks that have formed there.

JPtiffoda anehorage or Ix^elingtah Ml £ :^ is excellent, but ships must anchor carefully, as the force of the current is very strong.

This anchorage lies to the S. of Bagoda Mand. The sand- banks which are found there shift constantly from one place to another, and so a pilot is necessary when vessels require to anchor there.

Boats drawing less than 1 \ feet of water can alone proceed further up the river, and reach Foochow, where considerable trade is carried on.

Amgg or HMamin ^P^. — Population, 114,000 inhabitants. It is situated upon the island of HaimSn j(| P^, at the N. of a fine bay, and has consequently rapidly developed. The island is about 40 miles in circumference, and contains large vil- lages besides the city. It is hilly and rugged in its Southern part, and has a sandy beach at the extreme S. Rocks extend to more than ^ of a mile from the shore. Opposite the island, on the W., and about ^ of a mile from it, is KuiangM "f^ ^ f^ (drum- wave island). It is a mile and a half in length by one in breadth, and contains the residences of nearly all the forei- gners. The population is 3,500. Between these two islands lies U^ iwner port of Amay, one of the best harbours and most easy of access on the coast of China. It is two miles long, and from 400 to 600 yards broad. The entrance is at the S., but is difficult, as the passage is obstructed by dangerous shoals. There is good anchorage and deep water, but the place is visited

280 8BCTI0N IT. THB C0A8T-LtNB OF GHDfA.

occasionally by typhoons. Hke mUer hmrb&mr is at the B. of

Haim^n and Kulangsii islands. It has good depth and holding ground like the inner harbour, and so can be entered without assistance from a pilot.

Springs rise 17 ^ feet at Amoy. In March and September, the rise is scarcely perceptible.

Amoy has excellent dockyards, where large ships can be easily repaired [see Section III. Ch. IV. p. 223).

THB GOikST OF KWANOTUNa. 281

T . The coast of Kwangtung Wk %

The coast of Kwangtung is rocky like thai of Fokien jJB j^, at least to a great extent, and indented like it. It has also good bays and possesses the largest island of China, Hainan ^ J^, the long peninsula of Leichow ^ f^, and the vast delta of the Si-kiang Ig jH- Of all the Provinces of China, Kwangtung is the best provided with excellent ports. It can boast of Hongkong (Hsiangkiang) § p^. Canton (Kwangchow Fu) M i^ M* Swatow (Shant'eu) }|Ii ^, Haihow (Haik'ow) % P, Macao (Ngaom^n) jH P^, Pakhoi (Peh'hai) ;|k %, and Kwangchov^-wan J| ^ j^-

Its coast is washed by the South-'China sea or Nan-hai y^ fj^, and borders on the S. W. upon the gulf of Tongking j|[ jjf.

BajTA. — The principal bays are :

Swaiaw or Shan/Ufeu }|I| H tey, at the estuary of the Han- kiang 4| jtL ip^ Swatow. p. 284).

H%^hai or Hwanghai % f^ baif* — This bay is large but shallow, and exposed to the winds which blow from the high sea.

Mirs or Tap^inghai :kWift^ ^og. — This bay affords good shelter and anchorage in depths of 54 feet.

M&ngkang (Hsiangkiang) ^ fj^ bay [see Hongkong, p. 284-286).

Lappa or Kungpeh ^ ifa btay, opposite Macao (NgaomSn)

*«•

Kwttnffchaw J| ^ bay {see below, p. 290).

Island*. — We shall mention only those more generally known:

Namoa or Nannyao "j^ j||. — This island is 12 miles long and is well populated. Some peaks rise from 1,600 to 1,900 feet. The inhabitants live principally by fishing.

n^ubieManaoTMoMjBI g|. — ^This is a small island lying to the S. E. of Swatow. It offers the phenomenon of appearing double when approached from the S.E., hence its name. («00 below, p. 284-286).

282 sicnoN it. thb C0AgT-4.iifB or chima.

1^0dr9 Bkmeo, also called T^aitsMng-chen :i: 1|F if*, or

T'aising^tsan -jk: M, W' — '^^^^ '^ ^"* ^ mere rock, well known on account of its prominent position, and its affording a land- mark for seamen. It is a little more than one degree to the E. of Hongkong, and has almost the same latitude.

Idmiao or TaMshan ^ ff^ [Ij. — This island is situated to the W. of Hongkong, and opposite the Northern branch of the Si-kiang || fL delta. It is 13 miles long by 6 broad. Some of its peaks attain an elevation of 2,900 feet.

The Lamma oreMpelaao or Nanifa % Y* ^ ^^^ ^- ^- of Hongkong. Lantao and Lamma islands belong to Hong- kong.

The Ladrane Uiands or l4t»waM8han ^ || ^J. — This group of islands lies to the 8. W. of Lantao, and helps to guide seamen who enter from the S. towards Hongkong or Canton. One of them especially has a very peculiar dome- shaped peak which rises to a height of 1,300 feet.

The aiream or Chiu^an }\\ islands^ situated some 60 miles to the S.W. of the Si-kiang delta, and not far from the coast. On the largest of these islands, Sfuingtik/ufan Ji )\\ or 8anokm^ also called 8t Jchn^B^ S' Francis Xavier, the great apostle of India, died in 1552, at the time that he intended to preach the gospel in China, as he had already done in Japan.

BMnan % ff| (South of the sea). — A large island between the China sea and the gulf of Tongking. It is 185 miles long by 120 broad, and contains an area of 13,900 square miles. It is very mountainous. The central and Southern mass is called the V^ive finger mountain**, and has peaks rising to an elevation of i 4,900 feet. Its mountains contain gold, silver, copper and iron; -the lowlands are extremely fertile. The coast is indented and broken^ and occupied chiefly by Chinese, while the abori- ginal and barbarian tribes are confined to the interior. The capital of the island is K^iungchow Fu ]|| ^ ^, on the N. W. coast. Hoihow or Haik|owjftp is its port, and is open to foreign trade since 1876 (see SecUon III. Ch. III. p. 211).

JEUmnd ieUmd or Weiehmo H )!H* — ^ small island of volcanic formation lying to the N. E. of the gulf of Tongking jKjSC* It is 4^ miles long by 3 broad, and has a populatibn of

G0A8T or KWAManma. 283

6,000 inhabitants. In the S., is a good port, which is a very busy fishing centre during three months of the Winter.

The Bmrwmis or TtHhehmo ^ §\ (seven islets). — These lie to the 8. E. of Hainan, and seem attached rather to Annam than to China.

■. — The tide is much less felt along the coast of Kwangtung than upon the coast of Fokien. At Swatoto or Shant'eu, the tides reach from 5 ^ to 8 ^ feet at high- water of springs, hut from April to October, they seldom rise beyond 2 i feet. At Hong- kongj the maximum is 7 1 feet. The tide is here more than elsewhere extremely com- plicated, as the lowest ebb does not coincide with high-water of springs, and besides there is but one tide daily. At Canton^ the height of the tide varies from 2 J to 5 J feet. Oarrenta. — On accoimt of the weakness of the tidal-steam the currents here have not the velocity of those that prevail along the other parts of the coast. They scarcely reach 2 or 3 knots at the most. Swatow is however an exception, and has currents which attain a velocity of 4 knots.

— The lighthouses on the coast of Kwang- tung form 3 groups : those of Swatow or Shant'eu ]'ilj ^ ; those at the entrance to the Canton river ; and those of the strait of Hainan j^ ^.

l%e Swatow tn'owp comprises 4 lighthouses : 1"^ The Xom^eto or Tungp^hHMao }|tS^ A it^hihouBe, It is 241 feet above high- water level, and visible to a distance of 22 miles ; 2^" Suffar Ijoaf or Tehehaw HM Uahihaute. It is 200 feet high and visible to only 8 miles; 3"* Cape Good Hope or JPiaoMoh $t A ^M- houee» It is 171 feet above high-water level, and visible 15 miles. These 3 lighthouses are all erected upon islets ; 4® Breaker JBNM or Shdhpetehan ^ 9| [Ij UgMhouee. It is 153 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance of 19 miles.

Jhe gro^ap at the entranoe to the ikmton rivor comprises 3 principal lighthouses : 1"^ one, on WagUtn or JEhm^rlan 1ff( H MteMi. It is 225 feet above high-water level, and visible 22 miles ; 2'> Gap Bock or Maweiehow % % jl'^ ttt^hthouee. It is 140 feet above high-water level, and visible 18 miles ; 3® Guia or Macao (Ngaom^n) ^ f^ UghUiOuee. It is 332 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance of 20 miles.

l%o group of the 8§rmU of EMnan j|| ^ comprises also 3 lighthouses, but of less importance : l"" that of Bktihow or Ai<- k^ow f^ p harbour. It is 93 feet above high-water level, and is visible 10 miles; 2^ Cape CanUorKwrnMrnowetMigg,. It is 67

284

81CT10M IV. TBS COAST-LIMB OF CHINA.

feet above high-water level, and visible 14 miles; 3® Tmmkm oi §0 t^^ff^fuMO Ijl H U^hihtmse. It is 63 ^ feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance of 13 i miles. _,

Sei^-porto. — The principal are : ^

Swaima or ShatUfeu {ill m. — Population, 00,000 inhabitants. ^ This port is situated at the mouth of the Han j^ river. J^luitt k with a draught of 20 feet can easily enter the bay. The rows i oPpostslalTby fishermen between Double isiand and the ancho- t rage are alone to be guarded against, especially at night. Trading | 1 vessels can find good holding ground with a depth of 30 to 36 feet opposite the town. The bay is in constant communication with Amoy, Foochow, Hongkong and Shanghai [see Section HI. Ch. HI. p. 210).

Hongkong or EManghiang ^^' (fragrant lagoon). — Hong- kong is an island at the Eastern entrance of the Canton river, and

HONGKONG f= }§

including Kowloou and ihe New Territory.

TH9 COAST OF KWANOTUNac 285

a Grown Colony of Great Britain. It is a mass of granite, schist and basalt, varied with hill and dale, woods, rocky creeks and sandy beaches. The Teah upon which stands the signal-stafT is 1,825 feet high. The island is 11 miles long and from to 2 to 5 broad. The colony has been increased in 1898, by the lease for 99 years, of a tract of territory on the mainland. The whole of the Colony, now including Kowloon ^ H (acquired by the Peking Convention of 1860), has an area of 400 square miles. The population, according to the census of November 20^^, 1906, is 305,400 inhabitants, of whom 294,426 are Chinese. The white residents, exclusive of the army and navy, number 10,981. The chief town is Victoria (population, 182,000), on the N. coast of the island, facing the mainland.

When the island was first taken possession of by Great Britain, in January 1841, it had a population of only 2,000 inhabitants, mostly fishermen. Since its cession by the Treaty of Nanking, in 1842, and its erection into a British Colony, April 5**^, 1843, it has uniformly prospered. The harbour, which lies between Kowloon and the N. coast of the island, has a water-area of 10 square miles, is well sheltered, and is one of the finest in the world. It is unfbrtunately situated within the cyclonic limits, and in 1874, as many as 33 large vessels, several hundred junks, over 1,000 houses, and many thousand lives were lost. Another disastrous and terrific typhoon, the incidence of which was aggravated by the absence of warning from the local observatory, swept over it oh September 18^^\ 1906. During the tornado, 9 vessels were sunk; 23 went ashore, including H. M. sloop of war "Phoenix", and two French torpedo boats; 21 were damaged, among them being 11. M. gunboats ''Moorhen'* and *'Robin*', and several large liners. Great destruction took place also among small craft, buildings collapsed, and trees were torn up by the roots. Over 1,000 dead bodies were recovered. The loss of property is estimated at over £ 1,000,000 sterling.

Hongkong is the centre of a vast trade in many kinds of produce, chiefly opium, sugar, flour, cotton, ivory, betel-nuts, sandalwood, rice, tea, silks, woollens and salt. The €aoi^mHs

286 SBcnoif iv. tbi CO40T-Lnfi or china.

to the United Kingdom are principally silk and hemp; and the impmrist cottons, metals and woollen stuffs. In the year 1903, the aggregate tonnage of the port was 21,710,000; in 1904, it reached 22,405,000.

jlongkong is a free port. It is calculated that the traffic, which merely passes through the harbour without breaking bulk, amounts to over £ 20,000,000, and the total trade to £ 50,000,000 sterling per annum.

Industry is also prosperous, cotton-mills and sugar refineries being particularly developed. Much encouragement has been given by the government to education. In 1902, there were 91 schools subject to government supervision, attended by 5,754 pupils, mostly Chinese. There are besides many private schools, attended by 2,983 pupils, and special schools for European children.

There are excellent naval yards and docks, capable of holding the largest vessels. These give employment to 30,000 workmen.

Hongkong is the chief British naval station in the Far East. It also maintains a strong garrison for the protection of British commerce.

As a Crmim CbtoiHfy it is administered by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 8 members, together with a Legislative Council of 14 members, including the Governor and a repre- sentative from the Chamber of Commerce. The Kowloon territory has also its special administration, partly Chinese and partly English.

Cani&m j9| ^ ^ and the dmUen river or Chm jrfgiig {^ f£^ also called the Feari river.

We have described above (Section III. Ch. I. p. 170; and Ch. III. p. 207-209), the City of Canton and the Si-kiang delta; we shall therefore deal here only with navigation.

The Feari river is entered through the Boeea Tigris (Hu- mAn) J^ n or Bo^tte. This name was given to it on account of Tiger ieiands or Hushan J^ [[j , which lie above the entrance. This latter is situated between TaikokiaH or Tiakiehteu ^ ^ 9g and Anunghet^ or Ttmiangheiai 3S lift Hi-

Once passed, the Bienheitn <Jkmmei or Sintsaoshui fg( ^ ;^^ is the best course for navigation, but two bars oppose an

TRB COAST 9F KWAlf6Tim0.

287

obstacle to ocean-going vessels. Ships with a draught of 22 feet can reach Whampoa or Mweanpu j| i^^ 9 miles below Canton. Vessels drawing 10 feet can alone go up to Canton, where the safest anchorage is within 150 yards of the river wall, at Shameen j^ fS (Shamien, i.e. sand-flat).

Gsffttoti was at an early date, the great port of European c(mi- merce. The Arabs traded there in the X*^ century, the Portuguese reached it in 1516, and later on the Dutch and English. The East-India Company established a factory there in 1684, but its monopoly ceased in 1834. Since 1842, the proximity of Hongkong, and the opening of Foreign ports, especially in the N., have much limited its former trade, which of late years has exceedingly declined. Its eooporis are chiefly silk, tea and matting. The imp^ris are cotton-yam and piece goods, woollen cloths, rice, sugar, beans, kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery, opium, tobacco and matches. ,X/anton is 95 pr^flfla frnm Hppg. kong, and steamers ply daily between the two places. From 1901 to 19037Tts^ommerce nearly doubled, but it fell again in 1904, and still further in 1905. The total gross and net values of the trade of the port from 1900 to 1905, were as follows:

aro88 and Net Values of Trade, 1900-1905.

YEAK.

Gross Values.

Net Values.

1900

Hk. Tls. 58,036,553

Hk. Tls. 52,405,172

1901

60,845,410

59,990,274

1902

80,727,948

79,744,707

1903

111,268,748

110,559,826

1904

96,858,478

• 96,247,076

1905

92,793,830

92,243,650

99^hampoa or JSwangpu ^ j^ enjoys no longer the activity of former days, especially since Canton has been open to trade. Its dockyards have been purchased by the Chinese Government.

Macao ^ ijg^ or Nga&mM 91 n* — A Portuguese colony situated at the Southern extremity of the Si-kiang f| 2L delta.

288

SECTION lY. THB COABT-LINB OF GHlilA.

The Portuguese first settled there in 1557, and during several centuries, especially during the eighteenth, it was the groA itrading centre between China and the West. Since the cession of Hongkong to Great Britain, its trade has constantly deolinefd^

MACAO or NGAOMfiN ^ f^

with its dtipendencios of Taipa and Colowaii.

It was held at a rental to the Emperor of China of Tls. 500 a year till 1848, when Governor Ferreira do Amaral refused to pay any longer, and forcibly drove out the Chinese Custom-house, and with it the last vestige of Chinese authority. He was treacherously murdered in August, 1849, near the barrier of Porta do Cerco, and his head taken to Canton. . The sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was oCIicially recog- nised by China in the treaty signed with Portugal in 1887.

Macfto has an area of 11 square miles, and with its depen- dencies, a population of 78,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 are Portuguese and 30,000 Chinese in the city alone. Macao is 88 miles distant Cram Canton and 40 from Hongkong. It has

■ ^ « ..i. TBB €04BT OT KWANGTUNG. i%t

8#¥eral churches and possesses the Orotto of Gamoens, the . ^ebrated Portuguese poet. The town is built in amphitheatre shape on the sides of a hill. It is very picturesque, and has a beautiful and well-shaded promenade, the Praya-grande, run- ning along the East sea-wall. Numerous visitors and invalids throng there on account of its salubrious and braciog climate. This however does not preserve it from ^epfde^lie diseases, which frequently break out there. Of its fornieT'Commercial activity, it still retains a few manufactures, and carries on a small trade in tea (8,129 piculs imported from Lappa in 1905), silk, opium, essential oils, tobacco, bricks i^d cement, fire-crackers and preserves. The harbour however is fast silting up, and will seriously injure trade unless efficient dredging operations are resorted to. Ships drawing more tha»i 9J feet of water cannot enter the inner section of the port. Thjs consists of a canal, running between the W^^coast, and Lappa or Kungpeh ^ jf^ island. Large sea-going vessel#are compelled to anchor 5 miles off, where they are exposed to the N. E. monsoon and to typhoons. During the year 1905, the number of junks which entered from Hongkong reached 518, while those that cleared for the same destination amounted to 368, transporting 115,986 tons. The total value of the junk trade between Hongkong and Macao from 1900-1905 was as follows:

1900 Hk. Tls. 4,314,397 '

1901

■ —

3,923,534

1902

—

4,293,060

1903

—

3,321,752

1904

—

2,979,779

1905

—

2,253,254

Lappa or Kunffpeh ^ ^t. — Lappa is an island lying opposite Macao. A Chinese custom station is established there. The total net value of the trade was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,756,562; in 1904, Tls. 17,735,132; and in 1905, Tls. 16,858,584.

Kwangchawwan fj W If • — The bay of Kwangchow is situated ii> Kwangtung Province, to the E. of the Leiqhow H ^

19

290

SECTION lY. THB G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.

peninsula, and was leased to France by China on April the 22nd 1898, for 99 years, together with the adjoining islands and territory. The Chinese population of the territory is about 190,000 inhabitants, and its area 84,244 hectares or 325 square miles.

KWANGCHOW-WAN H ^ ||.

The two islands of Nanchow '^jt{ and Tunghai ^ fl^, lying at the entrance of the bay, make an excellent land-bound port, into which ships can enter by two narrow passes, the N. one being the deepest. The bay is from 18 to 22 miles in length, and from 6 to 7 broad, and has depths ranging from 3 to 11 fathoms. It is formed by the mouth of a river, and by several islands, the largest of which are Amphitriie or J^unghai jK ^ island and la Rigaudiire. A new town is being built at NiveiJPaimL Several steamboats connect it on the S. with Pakhoi and Haiphong (Tongking), and on the N. with Hongkong. .JKwan^chow-wan is a free port. The territory is divided into 3 circumscriptions*

THB GOA8T OF KWANOTUN^. 291

The superior administration is performed by a first-class adminis- trator, under the control of the Govemor-Oeneral of Indo-China. The tidal stream is very strong at the mouth of the bay. The entrance from the high sea is effected through a narrow and shallow channel, which runs through a line of breakers parallel to the coast.

JffolftMf or JliDM'ofcr fH p. — Population, 12,000 inhabi- tants. A port situated on the N.W. of the island of Hainan fHf^. The water is shallow, and consequently ships have to anchor 2 miles off. Its tides are moreover very variable, and typhoons are to be feared, Hainan being the playground of these destructive storms. Trade is however brisk, as the town is the only sea-port of the large island. The principal e^porto are straw mats, gunny bags, hemp, cattle and pigs, poultry, medicines, brown sugar, groundnut-cake, fresh eggs and betel-nuts. The in^^rts are cotton and woollen goods, opium, kerosene oil, rice, beans and peas, flour, aniline dyes and matches. Communications are chiefly carried on with Hongkong, Pakhoi and Swatow. (see Sec- tion HI. Oh. in. p. 211).

Faklk0i or JP^h^hai J/t ^.— Population, 20,000 inhabitants. This port is situated on the N. of the gulf of Tongking )|[4Ci ^^^ was opened to foreign trade in 187*7 . It was till lately a great depot and import channel for large tracts of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Kweichow and Yunnan. It reached its greatest prosperity in 1888. Then the decline commenced, and has continued ever since, the reasons being the proximity of Haiphong, the opening of treaty ports on the West river, and lately the French lease of Kwangchow-wan. The area of trade is at present restricted to the neighbouring regions. The e^porto are liquid indigo, brown sugar, groundnut-cake and oil, star-aniseed, pigs, duck feathers, hides, and leather. The imports are cotton goods, kerosene oil, opium, manufactured iron, lamps, rice, flour and matches. The total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 3,431,418; in 1904, Tls. 3,013,416; and in 1905, Tls. 2,830,938.

The town is badly located, being deprived in Summer of the S.W. breeze, and exposed in Winter to the full force of the

2»t

8BCTI0N IV. THE C0A8T-L1NS OF CHINA.

N. E. monsoon. The harbour ie good and easily approached* The entrance is effected through a large and deep channel^ which ships have no difficulty in crossing at high-water, but at ebb tide only small craft can enter. During the year 1905, the (kirt was visited by 119 steamers and 886 sea-going junks, while the number of clearances reached respectively 119 and 616. The total net value alone of the junk trade was Hk. Tls. 880,383.

•f llie OoasI of CXiiHi. — The time-zone syetem wm ikdopted i^t

Shanghai, on January the 1"* ISOS, at Ts^ingtao on January the 15^, and BubsequenUy at other t>laoes. It has become officii^ for aU stations of the Imperial Maritime Ouatoms lying within the coast lone, as well as for the telegraph and railway adminiatration. In the 7^ hour zone, it is optional.

IMe. — The globe is supposed to be divided into 21 zones or sections, extending 7* 30^ on each side of the central meridians, and the local mean time is us^ for aU places within that zone. The 9tandard meridian passes through the centre of each zone, and in each of them, aU docks indicate the same time. In each zone, the maximum difference between the local mean time and standard time is 30 minutes. As one of the standard meridians is that of Greenwich, standard time is often called Greenwich time. The zone of the China coast, whose standard meridian is 120^ B. from Greenwich, differs by 8 hours from that of Greenwich. That of Central and W. China, which has its standard meridian 105^ E. from Greenwich, is 7 hourtf ahead of Greenwich time. Hoihow and Pakhoi lie both within the latter time-zone.

References :

'Fan^viel.^Les T^l^graphes, la Poste et les Phares en Chine. (Questions diplomati- ques et Coloniales. Paris, 1899).

Vnn^FBl. — Les bases navales en Chine. (Bevue politique et parlementaire. Juin, 1899).

Dolaaniy. — La Chine : ses chemins de fer et ses ports maHtimes. (Annales des travaux publics de Belgique. IMo. 1897).

WenrloBBC.^ Chine ancienne et nouvel- le. Paris, 1902. (Hongkong, Canton, Ma*^ cao, Fou-tcheou, Chang-hat, Tsin-tau).

HeoeUe. — Chine et Japon. Paris, 1881.

Instructions nautiques sur les mcrs de Chine. Introduction. Navigation gdnd- rale. 1883).

Instructions nautiques sur les mers de Chine. Tome II. Du ddtroit de Singapour aux approches de Canton. — Tome III. de Canton k llle Quelpaert. 1884).

Fau^el. — Le nouveau port de San-tou- Bo. Ln G^ographie. 1900. Tome I. p. 885 sq).

Die Wichtigten Hafen China. Berlin, 190L

Dentsohrift betreffend die Entwickelung des Kiautschou-Gebeits, von Oct. 190S bis Oct. 1904. Berlin, 1905.

de la Gravldre. — Voyage de la Bajroti- naise dans les mers de Chine. Paris, 1872.

-The China-sea Directory. Vol. III. .^^-Hongkong Chronicle and Directory for China and Japan. — (PnbUahed annual- ly : contains description «Dd statistics ol the principal Treaty Ports).

China. Imi)erial Maritime Customs. •*

Miscellaneous Series, N* 10. Names of

Places on the China Coast and the

Yangtze River. 1892.-- ibid. N* 6. List of

ofl90S.

THB COAST Of KWANGTUNa.

293

— ibid. N* 20. Typhoon anchorages. 1803. (with plan of Hongkong and surround- ings).

Beport of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. —July !■*, 1903 toJune30*^ 1903. — Appendix V. The Cotidal lines for the world, by RoUin A. Harris, with 36 Charts, (p. 307. tides in the China seas).

Gundry G. — The China Coaster's tide- book and nautical pocket Manual. Shang- hai, 1906. (published annually, and contains valuable information on the tides, currents, winds and lighthouses of the China coant).

DeclieTrens At. — The typhoons of the China Seas in the years 1880, 1881 and 1885. Zikawei. 1881-85. — The typhoons of 1882. Part II. typhoons in September and October. Zikawei , 188 4 .

Chevalier S. — Etude sur I'^tablissement de la mousson d'6t^ et d'hiver sur la cote de Chine. Zi-ka-wei, 1887. —The Bokhai a Typhoon. October, 1892. — On the ty- phoons of the year 1893. — Essay on the Winter storms on the coast of China. Zikawei. 1895.

Froo L. — Tjrphoon highways in the Far

Bast. Zikawei, 1896. — The typhoons of September 9*»' and 29* 1897. Zikawei, 1398. —The atmosphere in the Far East during the six cold and the six warm months. Hints to Navigators. Zikawei, 1900-1901.

de Moidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of Shanghai. Shanghai, 1904.

Bulletin de I'Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei, by the Jesuit Fathers. XXXII Vol*.

Calendrier-Annuaire (published annually by the same. 1908-1907). --<^l9ii6 J. — The Cyclones of the Far East. Manila, 190t.

Berghol9 P. — • The Hurricanes of the Far East. Bremen and Shanghai, 1900.

Dolierck W. — The Law of Storms in the Eastern Seas. Hongkong, 1896.

PalHwr. — The typhoons of the Eastern Seas. 1882.

Deutsche Seewarte Die wichtigsten Hafen Chinas. Berlin, 1901.

Darwin Pr. G. H. — The Tides and kin- dred phenomena in the Solar System. (Bores, p. 50-71).

Gatelair O. -- Journal of three Voyiges along the Coast of China. 1881^,88. London, 1834.

Chinese Repository. — Coast ' of China. (Vol V. p. 337.35L VoL VL p. 8-16).

Forbes F. K.— Five years in China. Lon- don, 1848 (Nautical surveys. Ch. XV. p. 243-262).

Norman F. M.— Martello Tower in China. London, 1902. (Hongkong. Part. Ii; Ch. I. p. 81-98. Ch. V. p. 162-188. - Canton. Ch.

* VI. p. 184-204. — Whampoa. Ch. VII. p. 205-221).

Collinffwood O. — Naturalist's Kambles

! in the China Seas. Loudon, 1868. (Hong- kong. Ch. I. II. XIX. — Canton. Ch. XX. p. 380-881).

OammlM^ G. F.— Wanderings in China. LondoDyl 900. (From Hongkong to Canton. Ch. il. p. 18-41. — From Hongkong to

' Amoy. Ch. V. p. 78-86. — Shanghai. Ch.

' XXI. p. 265-275. — City of Ningpo. Ch. XXII. p. 276-283. — From Shanghai to Tientsin. Ch. XXIX. p. 851-859).

Fortune R. ^- Visit to the Tea Countries. London, 1853. (Hotikong. Vol. I. Ch. I. p. 1-14. - Canton. Ch. VIII. p. 115-184. Chusan. Vol. II. Ch. IV. X. and XV. — Ningpo. Ch. VI. and IX. — Shanghai. Ch. VII, XI and XII).

Fortune R. — Residence among the Chi- nese. London, 1857. (Several coast-towns described).

Davis Sir F. — Chusan in British Occu- pation. (Chinese Miscellanies. London 1865. no 7. p. 127-162).

Gundry R. S. — Sketches of excarsions to Chusan and Pootoo. Shanghai, 1876.

M« Lead J. — Voyage of H. M. S. Aloeste to China. London, 1818.

Halloran A. L. — Eight months' journal \ during visits to Liukiu, Pootoo, Shanghai and Ningpo. London, 1856.

Bernard W. D.— Narrative of the voyage of the Nemesis. London, 1844.

Oolqnlioun A. — China in Transforma- tion. London, 1898. (Hongkong. Ch. XII. p. 304 820).

Biemian H. — The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. London, 1895. (Outposts of Empire. Hongkong. Ch. I. p. 22-36. — Shanghai, p. 3-36. — Macao. Ch. XII. p. 183-194).

294

8ICTION lY. THB COAflT-LIKB OP CHIMA.

MIcMe A. — The Bngliflhinan in China. London, 1900. (The new Treaty Ports : Foochow, Anioy,Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch. VIII. p. 112-12$. — Hongkong. Ch. XIV. p. 271-286. — Shanghai. Ch. IX. p. 124-160.

— Macao. Ch. XV. p. 287-398. — Piracy. Ch. XVI. p. 299-307).

OarvMi G. — Problems of the Far East.

(Great Britain in the Far Kast. Ch. XIV.

p. 41S-42B). Fitiiiiiw Miii^rd A. B. — The Attach^

at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong, p.

1-18. — Canton, p. 14-32. — Shanghai, p.

S3-42. — Chefoo and Tientsin, p. 4S-54). fiknUli G. — Visit to each of the Consular

Cities of China. London, 1847. The Colony of Hongkong. — China Re\'iew.

Vol. I. p. 163176. Bnglish Trade with China A. D. 10251834.

— China Review. Vol. XX. p. 178-201 and 311-845.

Origin of the Colony of Bfacao. — China Keview. Vol. XXIV. p. 137442.

Macao in the early days. — China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 188-188.

GmrmbK. J. — - Sanchoan, the Holy Land of the Far East. Hongkong, 1906.

Brace-mifMtL — The Territory of Wei^ haiwei. Shanghai, 1902.

MaoldUui J. W. — The Story of Shang- hai, from the opening of the Port to For- « reign Trade. Shanghai, 1889.

MaMel B.— Physico-Geographioal Sketch of the China and Yellow Seas. S* Petem- boigh, 1904.

Admiralty Charts. — China.

Map of Hongkong. — London, 1905. (topo- graphical Section. War Office).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. De- cennial Reports. 1882-1891. Shanghai, 1898. — I>eoennial Reports. 189t-1901. Shanghai, 1904. Vol. I. and H.

China. Imperial Maritime Oostoms. Trade Reports for 1905.

SECTION V.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY^

CHAPTER I.

Gk>yeniment and Administration. — Bevenne and Expenditure. Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy.

/^ Gavemment and AdmiimtraUon.

The government of China is, theoretically speaking, an absolute monarchy. The Bmperor is the only and absolute master. His will is law, and is manifested by Imperial decrees. All State officials hold their authority from him. He appoints, removes, degrades, and punishes them as he pleases. Nothing restricts his power. He has indeed a CmmoU^ but is not bound to follow its advice.

The Emperor is expected to act for the general welfare of his people. He is the refresehiaUve of heaven, and if he fails to govern in accordance with its dictates, heaven will withdraw its mandate, and send calamities and misfortunes upon the people. Such is the belief prevalent throughout the Empire.

— The Emperor is styled the Supreme BuOer (Hwangti ^^), the August Tjeflg One (Hwangshang ^ Jl), or simply the Ijofig One (Shang Jt). The title, San of Heaven or T4entze Ji ^, is given to him as a mark of respect. His popular appellation is : the Buddha of the preeeni dap or

296 SBcnoN v. political and BCONOMICAL GIOaiUPHT.

Tangkin Fohy6 |F "^ H )S* He is also called the Jfaatgr or Aord (Ghutze ^ 7], and in adulatory addresses : the JAHl mf Ten Th&ummd yeare (Wansuiy^ % M fS) y ^^ JMfer One (Sh^ng H) ; the OeieMal Buler (T'ienwang Ji 5E); ^^ aeweteH^n Ruier (Yuenheu X J^) i ^^ ^^^^ Venerabie (Ghitsun £ d|L).

Besides his permmai name, which is never used, the Emperor has also a «%|0 er tlUe of reign (Nienhao ^ H). The personal name of the reigning Emperor is Tsait'ien fl*^, and his style of reign Kwangsii % Vt (Brilliant Success). The style of reign may change, and is not always taken on the day of accession to the throne.

The heir or imeeesner to the throne is chosen by the Emperor. If he i§ not the natural issue of the reigning Sovereign, he must be adopted by him, on account of the requirements of ancestor worship. After his death, an Emperor receives a new or Temple nmne called Miaohao JfH H, and he is henceforth designated by this name alone.

The Eiprc— . — 211a Bbnpreea is styled the Jbnpertai Oeneert or Hwangheu £ jgf ; <^ B^npreee nowaaer is called llwangt^aiheu £ :Jc J& (Grand Queen); and the Bmperer^e €Fnm<imo#J^«r,T'aihwang T'aiheu jc£ jfciB^vOreat Grand Queen). In Hterurp nfifle^ the Empress is called the One who oeomptBa the Omtmi Baiaee or Chungkung rf $• ^^8 ^ mark of respect, tho title of Mother of the State or Kwohmu ■ # is also given her. When thoro are two Consorts of equal rank, one is called Sikung H ff^ or Empress occupying the West Palace ; the other, Tungkung ]|[ ^, or Empress occupying the East Palace.

CIdmeae A^mtatetimUen. — The Manchu dynasty, which has ruled the country since 1614, introduced hut few modifications into the Government system. In some instances. Boards received two incumbents, Manchu otVicials being placed side by side with native ones. Some few new pieces were added to the governmental machinery', as necessity required it, among ottiers : the Ommd C^imcil or Kiiinki C*hu ||[ (■ |t established in 1732; and the Bonrtt e^ Foreign AgmtrtL^ formerly the Tsungli Vam^n H 3 K P|. established in t861.

CMikJfmR I. eOTBRNlfSNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 297

The administration comprises two prineipai MviMons: the CeMrai or MeirepoHian, and the Provinekd,

CeBtral GoTemmeiit. — According to a decree issued November the 6th 1906, the Metropolitan or Central Admi- nistration, hitherto carried on through the Grand CouneU tmd the Mao Boards, was remodelled. Of the former Boards, only the following remained : the Grand Council of State Affairs, the Grand Secretariat, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Board of Civil Appointments, the Board of Rites, and the recently estab- lished Board of Education. The official administration will be subsequently reformed in the Provinces, and the country thus prepared for a Constitutional Government, and the new order of things. The Central AdminiatraHon is carried on at present through the agency of the foUouring (Jouneiis and Boards :

l^ The Hweiri CMngwu Ch'u H* M $Sc ilF JK« Grand €J(mncU of State Affa/^e or Brivy Coutidt. — This was formerly called the Kiiinki Ch'u 9MlK (^la<^^ ^^ Military Plans), estab- lished for the first time in 1732. In the late reorganization, it was maintained with its designation modified as above. It has no special function, but deals with all matters of general adminis- tration. It is presided over by the Emperor. The number of its members is not fixed. At present it is 5. They are called High Ministers of State or Hwei-i Tach'^n #Mt :^ £• Meetings are held every morning at dawn. Numerous Secretaries, called Siaokiiinki iJ>9Mi perform the clerical work of the Council.

2^ The Seikoh ff\ ^ (Inner Cabinet), Grand Secretariat or Imperial Chaneery. — This department has lost much of its importance since the organization of the Grand Council of State Affairs. It is composed of 4 members (styled at present Tahsiohshi :^ ^9^ dbt Crr^nd Secretaries; but formerly called Kohlao ^ ^, or Cabinet Elders, under the Ming ^ dynasty), two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese. They are all chosen from among the most distinguished officers of the State, usually Governors-General. Their functions are almost purely nominal, and the members sometimes do not even reside in.

one ChitMsOj*- attend

298 8BCTI9K..¥< POLITICAL AND BGONQMIML M(

Peking. ■ Two Assistant Grand 8ec! Tahsiohshi H^'jc^'il^ ^"^ Mane! to the departmental work of the Gabii

3^". The mmimmru^.i/fill^MigUsmpM'Fimei^n. This was formerly the Vwrntltk Tamh^^fUi give its Tsungli Ko))kwohBhiwu YkaaMj/H M^M^BW I the Bureau generally msfkmging each Kingdom's was establishe^j^'tt^i, after the capture of V^f^ by the allied forces of Oreat Britain and France. The fi^Bent Ministry was instituted by '*d«eree of July the 21" 4^01. It is generally composed of 10 'members, all of whpfh are Presidents or Vice- Pcesidents of other Boards, includfng a majority of the members ofjln Grand Council. They, aire spoken of collectively as Wang Trnttkiin I ::fc El or th^^rince and Ministers. There are four ^ Eirtments.,^r the afifairs of Great Britain, France, [id the Jkfnited^l^liifeiB'; The clerical work of each section IL con^^ict^d^ by 'Secretaries, styled Ghangking jft }9Ci ^"^ " called Szeyuen ^ g, or Szekwan ^ l§f.

hina is represented near Foreign Courts by ato Amttaa'

One for England, Italy and Belgium ;

One for France ;

One for Knssia ;

One for Germany and HoUaiid ;

One for the United-States and Peru ;

One for .Tapan.

the institution of the Tsungli Yam6n, Foreign affairs

e control of the Lifan Yuen 3 iK iSi Board for

on of vassal countries.

4^ The l«g*r<ieHg|||^|^, Board farthe aOmfUUairaikm of woBsal 0CiiiiiM|^ — This Board controls all the affairs of Mongolia, Turkest^and Tibet, and has on this account been sometimes called th^^ongolian Superintendency. It has to-day one President styled ^^angshu fSf ^ (literally, Controller of the Records), and two Vice-Presidents, styled Shilang^ £p (literal- ly, Gentlemen in waiting.

1. WYEBKumm AND AjmtkimMif^^i^' i99

5*. The 8MhBu -j- K, Tm Bomrds or JHnliiHM — Pre- vious to the decree of November the 6^ 1906, there were but six Boards : Civil Appointments or Li Pu jg K, Revenue or Hu Pu Ji |(, Rites or Li Pu j^ ^^ War or Ping Pu Jj^ |(, Justice or Hsing Pu ^|(, and Public Works or Kung Pu XM' As stated above, all were remodelled and their number inereaeed to lO, as follows:

L Li Fn X IBi Board of Civil Appointments.

2. Minchdng Pu K Hir IB, Board or Ministry of Home Affairs.

3. Tnchi Pa A[ A IB, Board of Finance and Paymaster-General's

Department. L Hsioh Pu 41 jis, Ministry of Education.

5. Fah Pu & K, Board of Judicature or Ministry of Justice.

6. Luhkitin Pu ■ V K, Land Army Office or Ministry of War.

7. Nungkungshang Pu A X 9IIB» Ministry of Agriculture, ^Works

and Commerce. Besides its President and two Vice-Presidents, this Board has also two Councillors.

& Ttlchw*an Pu M ft IB, Ministry of Posts and Communications.

a Li Pu A S, Board of Bites.

10. Sinking Pu jB V IB, Ministry of Public Safety or Board of Gene- ral Constabulary.

A Beard ef Adm^krcMy or BtMMmBu fl^% will be also . soon organized. ^^^,

In regard to the incumbents of all Boards, there is t(^l>e no further distinction, at least theoretically^ between pinchus and Chinese. Bach Board is also to have but one JPreMlMi^ styled Shangshu f| fj^, and tme V^ee-'Fifeeidemts^ stgHed Shilang ^ JK) distinguished respectively in each class as senior and junior Vice-Presidents.

6"*. The mauMtk FtMM )| ^ K (Hterally, Forest of pencils), liHiiai'liig Aeadminy er Supreme Cettege ef lAteroMmre* — It is

composed of all the Literati who have successfully passed the Palace Examination or Tienshi ^ ||K, and obta]ne(i[^lhi5 title of or Jmperiai Aeademiet. It has two Ohancellors, one

\

n

300 8BGTr5N Y^ POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL OBOMAMY.

Manchu and one Chinese. They are styled Shangyuen Hsiohshi 4C 1^ 9 dr* ^t has also several Readers and Expositors. Adibis- sion to its ranks is the highest literary honour obtainable by a Chinese scholar. Its functions are of a purely literary character. It is entrusted with the compilation of dynastic history, imperial decrees, and literary works in general. Its members also draw up prayers and sacrificial addresses, write eulogiums of deceased Emperors, and make offerings at the tomb of Confucius. They are besides required to attend on the Emperor as readers, instructors, and sometimes as advisers.

V. The Tueh'ah Tuen # ||t ^, CmsatYtie or CMtri ef

Cen9ors. — The Censorate is composed of Manchus and Chinese recruited in equal proportion from the different official depart- ments. It has 2 Presidents, one Chinese and the other Manchu. They are styled Tsotu YUshi 2^ # Hi ^- There are besides 4 Vice-Presidents, 24 Supervising Censors and 38 Censors.

The Censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the Emperor himself, for any act which they consider unjust, illegal or extravagant, and they do so at times with boldness and courage, though they are occasionally degraded for their unpalatable advice. They also censure the manner in which all other officials perform or neglect their duties, and if there are any shortcomings, they may denounce them to the Throne. They receive appeals made to the Emperor, either by the people against their ofQcials, or by subordinate officials themselves against their Superiors. In accord with the Ministry of Justice, they exercise an oversight over all criminal cases, and give their opinion whenever the death-penalty is to be pronounced. They superintend likewise the working of the different Boards, and are sometimes sent to various parts of the Empire as Imperial Inspectors, hence they are called the *'ears and eyes" of the Emperor, Eulmuh Kwan "^ S '^.

8». The TaH &e ;*; 8 ^» Grand Cmuri of BevieUn. — This department, together with the Ministry of Justice and the Cen-

CBAPTBII I. OOVXRNMBNT AND ADM 1NI8TBAT10N. 301

Borate, exercises a general supervision over the administration of criminal law.

All three are styled collectively Scmfah Sue H ji ^ » or the S High JuMees. ^

9^ The KUtWiei^ Kiet$ gC 75 ft, ImpeHal Board of Asiro-

namg. — This department compiles the Imperial calendar, proclaims the days in which the Emperor is to ofYer sacrifice, and predicts the eclipses of the sun and moon.

lO'. The T*aich*ang Am -j; ^ ^, Court of SacH/Mal

Worship. — This department is charged with all arrangements when the Emperor offers sacrifice.

ll^". The Hunffiu Sge y^Jjj^^, Court of State Cerenumtat.—

This department superintends everything connected with State meetings, and conducts the ceremonies.

12^. Several other Departments are connected with the private service of the Cmperor and the Imperial Palace. The principal are :

The Tsungjdn TniHAHfor Imperial Clan Court.

The Neiwu Fu A S^ iff or Imperial Household.

The Lwani Wei IS fl Hf or Imperial Eqtdpage Department.

The T'aipnh Sze 4c H # or Court of the Imperial Stud.

The Ewanglnh Sze 3t^ tl ^ or Court of Imperial Entertainments.

The T*ai-i Yuen * W K or College of Imperial Physicians.

ProTlnclml admlntotnUlon.

China Proper is divided into 18 JProvinees, called Shhkg 4t« These are not all governed in the same manner. Some are under a Oovemor^Geiierca or Viceroy^ called Teungtuh f/^ ff, and commonly styled Chiifat ^ ^ ; others have no Viceroy but only a Cfovemor or SUnfu ^ ||[(, commonly called JP'utfai ^^. A Viceroy administers one or several Provinces, has under him Governors, and in some cases fulfils this function himself.

302 SMTION ▼. POLITICAL AND BCONOMICAL MCMMUUmT.

There are 8 Vieereyaitiee:

l"". Ch4hH S H. — The official residence of the Viceroy is at Paoting Fu ^ J^ ^, though he resides in fact during the greater part of the year at Tientsin Fu Jiff^Jff. This Province has no Governor.

2''. Leangkitmg {H f£y comprising the Provinces of jt JlK, Nttmnhwei $ % and Kkmgei jl 9. — The Viceroy resides at Nanking Hi iJL or Kiangning Fu fLf(lf.Jff. There are 3 Governors, residing respectively: one at Soochow Fu j||^ fti Jtf^ o^^ ^^ Ngank^ing Fu ^ ttHf^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ Nanch^ang Fu

3*. Sk^mktm }ffl "Q*, comprising the Provinces of 8kem§i }ffl If and Kmmwm "H* Jt*. — The Viceroy resides at Lanchow Fu m ^ J)^, in Kansu, and a Governor for Shensi |||[B, at Singan Fu

4*. Mlmek^ PlIKf comprising the Provinces of JWrfsw H f^ and CMkiam^ ]K {L- — The Viceroy resides at Foochow Fu ff ^ fff^ in Fokien, and a Governor for Ch^kiang ^ {t, at Hang- chow Fu «; « ;».

5^. Lemmgkm M M or Hmkwam0 m ||, comprising the Provinces of liM|ia» IR 4b ^^^ Mmmm HI llf, or expanse to the

N. and S. of the Tm%a1fH%g JiW ^p] Ji f^ or Tungt4ng lake. — The Viceroy resides at Wuch'ang Fu f( g J)^, and a Governor for Hunan f| Jif, at Gh'angsha Fu J| t^ j|^.

6^ Seeehm^im ^ Jl\. — The Viceroy resides at the capitel, Ch'^ngtu Fu jg^ ^ Iff . This Province has no Governor.

V. Leanghwane Hi H, comprising the Provinces of Km «^«^ H HL and Kw(m0ei || ||. — The Viceroy resides at Canton or Kwangchow Fu H jt| J|^, and a Governor for Kwangsi H fi, at Kweilin Ful^ ^ fff.

GHAFima I. aOVBRNMBMT AND ADMINI8TBATI0N. 303

S"". YunkwM H jjt, comprising the Provinces of Tumum H fg and Kweteh&w f^ j^, — The Viceroy resides at Yunnan Fu H lIK HGf , and a Governor for Kweichow Jl ji\, at Kweiyang Fu « » iff.

Three Provinces : Shanihmg |I| ]|[, 8hanH [I| |f , and JBEmmm i9 llf , i>^«e no GcvemmrB Oeneral over them. Their €favemmr» reside respectively at Tsinan Fu Dl|p ^ J||f in Shantung, T'aiyiien ^^ :k JSi )ff ^^ Shansi, and K^aifung Fu |B §) J||f in Honan.

Seven Provinces : ChihU jt f|, KtMum* -g* J||, SMoMc^ait B jll, HmimI^ JM *, riifiium H « , AMm fj^ ^ and Kwm^ghmg J( ]|[, ftore no €Sfov0rfiar, the Viceroy officiating as such.

There are thus in all, 8 Viceroys or Oovemors-Oeneral, and 11 Governors.

The Vioev^ or IViiMigtwh tfft <^d the Governor or SlhiTii JKUli i^ both invesied with supreme authority in their Province. When they govern the same Province, they act in accord. There are however special departments which are administered hy the one rather than hy the other. The Viceroy controls the military forces within his jurisdiction, and so to him belong the inspection, promotion and changes of military officials, the repression of revolts, and the supervision of the salt administration.... To the Oovemor belong the inspection, promotion and changes of civil officials, the supervisorate of criminal cases, the collecting of the land-tax, of duties on certain manufactures, and transit-duties on native produce. This latter is collected at the numerous Custom barriers established throughout all the Provinces.

Viceroys and Oovemors are almott independent in their Provincea^ and have full control over the finances, army and the administration of justice. If their adminis- tration is bad, they are summoned to Peking, where they have to answer the charges brought against them.

The Viceroy of ChihU is also Superintendent of Commerce for the Northern ports, and the Leangkiang or Nanking Viceroy^ Superintendent of Commerce for the Southern ports.

For the 18 Provinces, there are besides : 18 Literary Ohancellors or Prorin- cIaI Bdncatiooal BxamlnenB, styled hsiohchSng j^ flt ; H Salt Oomptrollers, called YenyHn Shiaee^HH^^tOr Commissioners of tne revenue derived from the Pro- vincial salt monopoly; 8 Grain IntciMlanto or Leangtao C jK (previous to 1905, the latter were subordinate to the Director-General of the grain transport or Ta'aotuh JK, whose function was then abolished); 3 Direcstors-General of tlie Tellovr River or HwangJio X A*, and Grand €3anal or YUn-ho fjg H*

304

8BCTIOM V. . POLITICAL AMD BCOMOMICAL

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306 SECTION V. POLITICAL AMD BCOKOMIC «OmAPHT.

Pr^Ttectal AiMlMlfltrattoB. — Besides the Viceroy or Governor, or both, there are in each Province the 8mtia» fj JH, or 4L mgh offiekOB immediately below the rank of Gk)vemor, and constituting in each Province a Oommittee or Board of Provincial Administration. These are :

Ths ruehMHir S9e;t^jgcri,JP^bugneka Conwmisalm^er or MK^h TrovineUU Treamairer^ commonly called the TamJtai |§ (.

ThB TfgamMah Si» ^%%, JwHUAaH Onrntm/kBtlUmfT or Wgh Tr^vineUa J^tdge^ colloquially styled fhe JHthtaH J||^)|.

Ths Ten ChJhng H |^, 8aU tknnpirotUr. — Ohief Commis- sioner of the revenue derived from the salt monopoly. This function is sometimes fulfilled by the Viceroy or by the (Jovemor.

The T^eang Toe H ^^ Grain IhtendanL — Ohief Ck>mptroI- ler of the Provincial revenue derived from the grain tax. The Viceroy or Governor performs the same functions respecting the grain supplied to the troops in each Province,

Territorial SobdlTlslons or the PreTiaeeM.

The Provinces are divided into CiretMe or called Tao j^. Officials in charge of a Circuit superintend either the mere civil administration of their subordinates, and are styled Fhteun Tao ^ ^ ^ ; or add to these duties the control of the military forces within their jurisdiction, and are styled JPhkehew 2Vio ^ ^ ^*

IfUendaneies or Tao ^ comprise :

!•. JFirei^elass Brefedures or JPus jg- ;

2®. Seeand-^iaea JPrefedures or independetU Chews jHli styled in Chinese Ohihii Chews g| H jHI- These are called Depariments by some vsrriters. They are subject to no Prefectural control, but depend directly on the Viceroy or Governor ;

3®. Third-eiass Trefeetures or independent TUnffs JH, styled in Chinese ChihH T'ings jS H j||. Like the inde- pendent Chows, they report immediately to the high Provincial authorities.

CHAPTBR I. eOYBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 307

FlTB^'dass BrtfeehtreB or JP%m, and indtpendmU Chmos and TUi9HfBf have subordinate to their control :

l"". Sub-prefectures of the first order, called Hgiens JH or

JDUtHcis. 2^. Sub-prefectures of the second order, called Shuh Ohmvs

JH jVi or dependent Chaws. 3^. Sub-prefectures of the third order, called 8huh iHnge

A JH or dependent THngs. •

4**. Sub-prefectures of the fourth order, called Ifwngf^an

T'inffs jft ^ JK o^ dependent euXnT^ings.

(There are but 4 T*ungp*an T*ings or dependent sub-TMngs in the 18 Provinces ; 3 in Sjsechw'an |S /l|» and 1 in Shensi

BemI^ drenU is administered by an Iniendant or T^aei^ai ^ 2. T'ai 2 is a title of respect for officials, and may be rendered by His Excellency. Taot^ai means therefore ''His Excellency the Intendanf*. This functionary has the control of a certain number of Prefectures or Fus, independent Ghows or Ghihli Ohows, and independent Things or Ghihli TMngs. He attends to matters of general vsrelfare, and controls all the officials of his Gircuit or Intendancy.

Bvery Frefeeiure of the flrgi order or Fki Jff' is governed by a Frefeei, called Chi JPte ^ ^ (literally, he who knows or manages the Fu). The authority of the Prefect extends over all subordinate officials within his jurisdiction, and the people may appeal to his bench from decisions given by the lower courts or Sub-prefects. Part of his duty is also to preside over the 2^^ examination preparatory to the competition for the B. A. degree.

GontroUingeaefo Brefeeiure of the 2^^'^ order or independent Chew is a Chi Chow ^^ (literally, he who manages the Ghow), or Ghihli Ghow g| H ^i Magistrate of an independent Depart- ment, reporting direct to the Provincial Governor or Viceroy. Ik He is distinguished from the Prefect by his having a fixed or ^ well-defined territory over which he rules as local magistrate,

v

308 8BCT10N y. POLITICAL AND IGONOMIG GEOORAPBY.

while the Prefect is only at the head of, and controls the subor- dinate Sub-prefectures within hits jurisdiction. In this ultimate capacity, he is obliged to refer certain matters to his Taot^ai or Siintao jg^ j|t-

At the head of each Prefedure of the S^'^ order or indepen' dmu 7Hn0 is a CM T^ing ^ j||| (literally, he who manages the Ting) or ChihiUHnff T*ungchi It || jK ^ ft) Magistrate of an independent Ting. His functions do not differ from those of the magistrate of an independent Chow. Like him, he also controls a Sub-prefecture, ihoug^h regularly speaking, there should be no such Sub-prefectures.

Bnery Suh-^prefedure of the 1"^ order or Heien JH, is governed by a Suh-ftrefeet or Disiriet Ma^fUHrate called Chi MeieH 40 fl (literally, he who governs the Hsien). It is he who rules directly over and is ih* immediate contact with the people. His principal functions are the following : l"* to collect the land- tax either in bullion (Titingyin j|| T fti there being no gold currency in China), or in kind, principally in rice or grain (Ts^apleang (f )^, literally grain-tax). He has also to collect the dues levied on trading establishments, and registration fees for the sale of land and house property ; 2^ to judge criminal and civil suits ; 3^ to seize and punish robbers and evil-doers ; 4® to provide couriers for the government postal service ; 5® to inspect the establishments of benevolent societies and appoint their administrators ; 6® to preside over the entrance examination preparatory to the competition for the B. A. degree. He must besides report every ten days to his superiors on the weather, the market price of food-stuffs, the cash or copper equivalent of the dollar and tael, and the general state of the crops. He has also to render a monthly account of the cases brought before his bench.

At the head of each Sub-prefeeture of the 2"^^ order or Dependent ChoWy called SIkuh Chow j^ ^, is an official styled Chi Shuhchow ^ M iWi or Magistrate of a dependent Chow. He discharges the same duties as the Chi Hsien, but has superior rank.

CHiUrrBA I. GOVERNMINT AND ADMINISTRATION. 309

At the head of each Sub-^prefecture of the 3'^*^ order or dej^endent T-inff, is an ofUcial styled SFiuhf*i$iO J^jg^ or Fumin- titng T'ungchi |k J^ JN ^^f JMb-prefed controiUng a depethdent

T^intf, He fulfils the same functions as the Chi Hsien but has superior rank.

Below and of lower rank than the above named officials is the AsHHant of the Brefect, called Fut^ungchi ^ p| ^ (literally, assisting with him who manages) or also Fenfut'ing ^ J^ j|||. He does not control the affairs of the people, but is entrusted with some special function, as the defence of the sea-coast, in which case he is distinguished by the title of HaifangtMng T^ungchi f$ ^ Jfk^ i^^ or Maritime Sub-prefect; he may also control the police of a city, and is then styled, Tsungput^ing T'ungchi K| ^ jR ^ ^« Police Sub-prefect; or he may be in charge of water communications, and as such is called Shuili T^ungchi ;)C 4^ iPi ^i Sub-prefect of waterways.

In several Provinces, there is at present a special Board called Yangwu Kuh ^^ ^ (literally, Foreign Affairs' Super- visorate), entrusted with the management of affairs connected with Foreigners, Commercial and Missionary.

The JSMr-prefeeture or IMstrid, as it is commonly called, is itself divided wholly or partially into TounisiUp^ or SMe ^. Each of these is controlled by a petty official who fulfils almost the same functions as a Sub prefect. He is specially entrusted with the pursuit of robbers, gamblers, swindlers and ruffians, and practically judges all local cases brought before his bench. He is styled JP^i Sxe ^^, Jfhi Msieti ^ JR or ^M Chaw ^ f\ (literally. Deputy official), according as he controls with subor- dinate authority a township, a district or a department.

The towthship is further subdivided into Wards, called Bovo % or T^u |g, in each of which an Btder or one of the local gentry (sometimes two or three), fulfils almost the same functions as a country squire in England, while an agent, called Tipa^ Jft ^, Baoch*ang ^ -ft or BaoclihHf % jEi discharges the duties, of haMff and rural oo^istable*

The ViUage Eider or Squire is called by the various names of Tufngaa H Tflk (literally, discerning things wisely, or local

310 8BCTI0N V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC 0BO«RAFHT.

Don), Sheniung |^ H (sash-wearing Don), Shemhi ||l ^ (sash-wearing scholar or gentleman), and IAei%tmm0 H ^ (silk-clad controller). The wishes of the people being previously consulted, the local officials select him from among the influen-' tial families of the township. The approval of the same families ratifies the choice made^ and the elect acts henceforward as Justice of the Peace in all local petty suits and squabbles.

The baUijr or rurai eangiabie, Tipao ^ ^Pj^, generally a man of low standing, is much more under the control of the local official, and is held responsible for all misdemean- ours committed within the ward. In most parts of the country, he must witness all deeds of sale, and attend the marriage ceremony of widows.... He is the first to whom runners apply when sent to arrest a culprit. He is also the first witness sum- moned by local magistrates in every judicial inquiry. All matters of local importance are known to him, and generally speaking, nothing can be done without his connivance.

Some Elders, called Taunatung ||( H (collective Elders) or OPufonUung ^ K| (body of Elders), administer several townships. On account of their ability, their literary degrees, and their family influence, these acquire at times such authority that they must be practically considered as the sole rulers of the locality, and the officials themselves have to reckon with them.

Members of the local gentry, in charge of city wards, are styled Kiaitunff ^ ^ (street wardens), those in charge of market towns THhchu ^ ^ (market wardens)^ while those of trans- port-stations or Wei ^ and of Ghai ^ or military posts, are styled respectively WeUhu Kg ^ and Chaichu ^ ;^.

To the above must be added the heads 0/ famUiee who assemble in their a$ice8tral hali or Tz^et^ang |g ^, in order to decide family questions. These impose sometimes very severe punishments (Kiafah |gc fflf domestic punishments), and decree even the death-penalty against one of their members, guilty or simply accused of having impaired the honour of the clan.

The inhabitants of one or of several neighbouring villages assemble also at times for the same purpose, and to avoid the

CHAPTBK I. GOVBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 311

heavy expenses of a lawsuit, commit downright acts of lynching. Such conduct is undoubtedly unlawful, but superior authority seldom visits it with condign punishment, and rarely to uphold the cause of violated justice.

In these cases as in many others, it must be admitted that the state of Chinese society is still in an uncivilized condition, ^ and that the office of Attorney-General or Prosecutor for the Crown is unknown.

In the last place comes pcOemtU tMuth&rlty, much less res- tricted in China than in Western countries. The father or head of the family is absolute master in his home, and is responsible, at least in regard to damages, for misdemeanours committed by any member of his household, or anywhere on his property.

Besides the officials above mentioned, there is an army of expectant mandarins and underlings, whose functions vary according to the importance and special require- ments of each district. We will mention here only the principal :

1« Tlie Enlfa H iff and Sanlii H MF» or AsBistanl Magistrates to the Prefect. — These sometimes take the place of the Prefect in matters of minor impor- tance. They can be delegated by him to guard the seal (Huyin ff^) of an official whose vacant post has not been yet filled. They are also commissioned to administer Departments which depend directly on the Prefect. They are then styled Finfu ^ fH or Deputy Maffiatrates.

2° The Pat*ins H ■ (PoUce Sub-prefect) or Saeya B ff, Police Aaaiatant to tlie Sub-prefect. — This magistrate is a sort of Justice of the Peace, and sits espe- cially in the police court, where he tries all cases brought before his bench, as the F^nsze ^ fli or Deputy Sub-prefect does in a Department.

3° Tbe Sliiyd tf Mtj Secretaries to the Sub-prefect. — These cannot on principle try oases with authority, but they sit in the court as Assessors of tbe Sub- prefect, and of the Police Magistrate or Put'ing.

Other petty officers invested with administrative power are frequently stationed in the more important Sub-prefectures, and take at times the place of the Sub-prefect as Depnty-assistaiit Judges (Pangpan fff IK).

Tlie administrative Bureau of a Sub-prefect is generally divided into 6

departments, after the model of the 6 principal Boards of the Metropolitan Govern- ment, and comprises on a small scale a bureau of Civil Appointmenta (Lifang )|^|9),of Finarhce (Tuchifang S.'%Hi formerly Hufang JI9 g}-), of Bites (Lifang fj^ J5|), of Military OrgantMation (Pingfang f^ ]^), of Punishment or Justice (Fahfang ft JJJ, formerly Hnngfang Jfi ^), and of Public Works {Kungfang X JB|). As stated above (p. 297) this organization will be soon remodelled.

A

Oouit Underlines, called Oh*aJdn j| A (official messengers), or %itt (venerable Controllers). -— They are divided into four groups with distinct funoi- iions, but of these they generally keep but the title for themselves. Practically they

312 8BCTJ0N V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC WOORAPBY.

are engaged in drawing up warrants of arrest, which is a more paying bosiuesa, and for the serving or execution of which, they have at hand a large number of subordinate agents unattached to the Court, and hence of no official standing. The latter, like the proper incumbents of the office, receive no salary, nay more, are obliged tp pay a fee for each arrest entrusted to them. They natiurally indemnify themselves at the expense of the accused and prisoners, a necessity undoubtedly, but which affords ample opportunity for continual acts of extortion, commonly known in China under the euphemistic name of ^^squeeze**.

In every Sub-prefecture, a military officer, variously styled and ranked, is entros- ted with the police of the district, under the orders and control of the Sub-prefect.

In department towns or in some large villages of the Sub-prefecture, there are also other military officers who perform similar duties. They are called Tiinf,ji It 9 (controllers) or Fuj^ M H (petty deputy officers), and oommand only 4 or even 2 soldiers, but they sometimes display the greatest ingenuity to expand and outstep when possible the limits of their petty jurisdiction.

It is needless to add that the military division^ as in other countries, eorreapondt in nowi$e with the civil divi9ion (See further on : Army). This is the reason why we cannot assign with ^'reater accuracy the functions of these military officers entrusted with police duties. Moreover, they are regularly attached to the ranks of the Provincial Army, although on account of their special functions, and during their tenure of ofBoe, they are distinguished from those who fulfil camp or garrison duties. They may be withdrawn at the call of their superior officers, at least when regularly enrolled in the ranks of the army.

Number #rterrllorlal dlvlslens In Uie 18 Pr»TiBce«« —

The following table exhibits the aggregate of territorial divisions

in China Proper:

Intendancies or Circuits, called Tao j^ 95

Prefectures of the first Order or Fus Jff 184

Prefectures of the second Order, also called Depart- ments, independent Chows or Chihli Chows ||[

H « 71

Prefectures of the third Order, also called indepen- dent Things or Chihli Things Wi 9i M - ^^

Sub-prefectures of the first Order, also called Districts

or Hsiens H 1,277

Sub-prefectures of the second Order, also called dependent Chows, dependent Departments or Shuh Chows Jl ji\ 154

Sub-prefectures of the third Order, also called

dependent Things or Shuh Things jR j|| 32

Sub-prefecture^ of the fourth Order, also called dependent Sub-T*ings or T*ungp'an T'ings jftfl

GHArrSR I. GOVlRMMSNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 313

The aboriginal tribes of Szechw'*n, YUnoAD, Kweiohow And Kwbd^ : MiaotMe B ^, Lolos IK S ^^^ others, have in some places a peculiar administration of their own. Authority is transmlHed from father to son (or near relatives), and the local administrators or chieftains ikte called T*ukwan J: 1^ or T*UBze J: 8] (local chieftains). Some tribes are even under |k ifliini-military administration (see pp. 188,191 and 201), especially in the S.E. of Kw^i^Uow.

General appelltfUion of Officials. Appalntment to Office. — In the Chinese language, officials are collectively called Kwan ^ (rulers, magistrates). In Foreign countries, they are styled Officials, Magistrateg or MttndtMrins, this latler word being derived from the Portuguese mandar (to command).

Metropolitan High Officials have various titles {see p. 297- 299). Provincial Officials, appertaining to ranks down to that of Taot'ai inclusively, are addressed as TaJr^-^ A or your BooeeUeney. Those beneath the above-mentioned ranks (Prefect, Department and District Magistrates) are addressed as Tala^y^ >^^)S (S^^A^ ^^^ m2iTi) or your Honour, and in the lowest ranks simply as lAJMyk ^ ^, which is equivalent to Skr in English.

Competitive examination is the stepping-stone to official employment. A large percentage however of incumbents, espe- cially of late, obtain office by purchase, though the Throne has at times attempted to supress the evil.

Tlie Tam^n :^ f^. — The official and private residence of any mandarin holding a seal is called a Yam6n. Offices of man- darins who have no seals are called Kungeu ^ 0f, or public places. An OoloMon waU called YingpU% ^ g| (shadow or screen-wall) is placed before the entrance to counteract all evil influences, and a huge scaly animal called T*aot4eh fBH (glut- tonous ogre), the symbol of avarice, is painted on the inside to warn the official every time he leaves his residence, to be on his guard against this degrading vice. Sometimes an enormous sun is painted on the screen-wall. The native legend explains that the ogre having attempted one day to devour the mighty orb unfortunately came to grief. It is also tyjpical of the pure or Yang IQf principle, and suggests that official administration should be upright and pure in a similar manner.

314 SBCTION V. POLITICAL AND BGO^MIC eBOORAPHT.

RaalK and degrees ef mileials. — Officials are classed in 9 ranks called Kiup^in )l ^, distinguished by a coloured knob worn on the cap or head-dress, a square embroidered badge on the breast and back of their official robes, and a clasp on their girdle. Each rank is further divided into two grades : chtog jE or principal, and ts^ung fj^ or subordinate, the knobs of the latter being engraved with the character **show" H or longevity. The annexed table will exhibit distinctly these ranks.

Insignia of Official Rank.

M

Knobs.

BaD»E8.

GmnLE CiAAfiPfi.

«

Colour.

Material.

Civil.

Militabt.

Xiff MM9M^mmm9 ^^MS^k^mOm

1

Red— pUin.

Ruhy.

Manchurian

Unicom of Chi-

Jade set in Rn-

Crane.

nese Fahle.

bies.

2

Red-chased.

Coral.

Golden Pheas- ant.

Lion of India.

Gold set in Ru- bies.

S

Blu^— clear.

Sapphire.

Peaoock.

Leopard.

GhaaedGold.

4

Lapis lazuli.

Wild Goose.

Tiger of Man- churia.

Chased Gold with silver button.

5

White— clear.

Rock Crystal.

Silver Pheas-

Black Bear of

Chased Gold with

ant.

Tibet.

plain silver button.

6

White— opa- que.

Adnlaria.

Lesser Efnret.

Tiger Gat.

Mother of PftarL

7

Gold- pUin.

Gold.

Mandarin Duck.

Mottled Bear.

Silver.

8

Gold— chased.

Gold.

Quail.

Seal.

Clear horn.

9

SUver— plain.

SUver.

LoMgtailed Jay.

Rhinoceros.

Buffaloes horn.

It can be seen from this table that the distinguishing badges of civilians are birds of gay plumage, while those of military officers are wild animals. The Chinese oriole is worn by the lowest grade of underlings and unclassed officials. The wives of officials wear the same embroidery as their husbands, but no knobs.

Heredltery vewMNto fto MeHi or T^iohpin KK. — ^There are 9 ranks of hereditary reward for merit. They do not confer

X

CHAPTBR I. GOVBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 315

aristocratic position as in Foreign countries, and last only for a fixed number of lives. The five first are called high ranks, while the four latter are inferior, and conferred mostly on military officers of the Imperial Equipage. These ranks are as follows :

I. Kung ^ Duke. 6. K4ngch»e Tuyii ^ (L 19 || Kquery of the

Imperial Equipage.

7. K*ituyu M 19 II Imperial Equery.

8. Yunk4yu mm Standardbearing Equery.

9. Ng6nk*iyu A lltt Kquery by privilege.

2. Heu ^ Marquis.

3. Peh la Earl.

4. Tze ^ Viscount.

5. Nan J§ Baron.

Titles #r lioiiMir for Merit or rktngtshHf ^ ||. — The

Throne grants also titles of honour to functionaries or their near relatives, as a reward for merit or service. These titles are set forth in all historical papers, family records, mortuary cards, ancestral tablets and tombstones. They are also displayed on ornamental boards near the entrance to dwelling houses. They may be conferred posthumously on officers killed in battle, or lost at sea, in the service of the State.

I^eeerattons rer MeHi or Shanghmng K ]^. — The

principal decorations for merit are four :

V. The YeUow BiMna cJocJto^ called Munrngnuikwa )( JE5 #^

or HMnffkwa ff ^' — This is bestowed for military service. It has been awarded to two Foreigners, General (Gordon and M^ Giquel. To this distinction may be attached that conferred upon high public officials, of riding on horseback within the precincts of the Red Forbidden City, and called Tzekinch^^ngnei k'ima nnm^MJS^i^ Peking p. 71).

2''. The JPiume or Feather, called I^ngehih ffi HE- — This is bestowed for public service, civil and militaryi and may also be obtained by purchase. It comprises three degrees, each marked respectively by the bestowal of a three-eyed, double-eyed, and simple-eyed peacock feather, while a very inferior degree is marked by a dark-blue or crow feather, called Lanling |g ^.

Note. — The riding jacket and feather are sometimeo withdrawn as a mark of Imperial disapprobation.

316 8BGTI0N V. . '^LITICAL AND KGONOMIG 9B0aiiAPHY.

S^*. TheBoifuru Q H| ZX«MncMon. — Bat^uru is a Manchu word meaning **brave*\ This distinction is conferred for active service in the field. It has no outward mark, but entitles tp wear the one-eyed peacock feather. Among Foreigners, it has been conferred upon General W. Mesny, for service in Kweichow Province.

4"*. 17^ Soldier^B Medal or Kungf^ai T^ Itf^- — This is conferred upon soldiers at reviews and inspections, and has the character **shang*' Jf or reward in relief upon it.

2^ Revenue and Expenditure.

€lilne«e Ciirrencjr. — The Chinese unit of currertcy is the iaei or Tjeang ^f . It is not a coin, but represents a Chinese ounce-weight of pure silver, and is equivalent to 583.3 griail^s, or 1 ^ ounces avoirdupois (437.5 grains being the standard avoirdupois oz). Its French equivalent is 37.783 grammes. The tael is divided as follows :

1 Tael or Leang jjg, equal to 10 Mace or Ts*ien ft.

1 Mace ,, 10 Candareens or F^n ^.

1 Candareen ,, 10 Cash or Li ]||.

Hence a tael contains 10 mace or 100 candareenB, and is

worth theoretically 1000 cash. Practically however the rate of

exchange varies, and then 800 or even 1,800 copper cash are

given in exchange for one silver tael.

The word tael comes from the Hindu "tola'' through the Malayan word 'HahiV\ The word tticvce comes from the Hindu word "mas/ia" through the Malayan word "mas". The word oafidareeti comes from the Malayan word "kondrin". The word criHii comes from the Portuguese "caioca'^ which was th« name of a small tin coin found at Malacca in 1511, and brought there from Malabar.

€)mmU {vulgo Ts'ien ^). — The mace and candareen are but decimal divisions of the tael. The cash is a small coin

CHAPTER I. RBTJCNUB AND .BXBBHDITURB. 317

with a square hole in the middle for -the purpose of stringing large quantities of them together. It should weigh 58 grains Troy or 3.78 grammes, and contain the following alloy :

copper 50

zinc 41 I

lead 6 ^

tin 2

It has a variable value of from -g to -^ of an English penny according to degree of debasement and scarcity. If we take the average of 35 cash to the penny, and the silver dollar at 2 shillings, a cash is —- of a dollar. It is used Tor all retail transactions, and hence is the universal money of the people. In the interior, large and small cash are in circulation, and as the larger ones are less debased and contain more copper, they are. generally much preferred. In some cities, both kinds are current, and this creates endless confusion, trouble, and not unfrequently ends in disputes.

Historically, the origin of the cash seems to go back to the Emperors of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, 246 B.C., previous to which time, cowrie shells, called Pel ^, were used as a medium of exchange.

Sjreee. — Ingots or lumps of uncoined silver are called *'Sycee*\ from the Chinese 8Uze fjgi ^ (fine silk, because if the silver is pure, it may be drawn out, when heated, into fine threads). An ingot of about 10 taels or ounces is called a ping f,^, while one from 40 to 50 taels is called a shoe or Tuenpao it W) ^^^'^ ^^^ resemblance to a native shoe^ It is through this medium that all large payments are made in the interior, the percentages for fineness and scale being added or deducted, when the silver is tendered in another district or Province, where a different fineness and scale obtain. In the large cities sycee is appraised, and the fineness determined by a Kunffku ^ ^ or asmiy office, generally in the hands of the leading guilds and banks.

Tartovn kinds of Taels. — The tael or ounce of silver varies in weight and purity according to places, and has no

318 SBCnOif T. POLITICAL AMD ICmfOMIC ttlOeBAFBT.

fixed ratio with the cash or copper coinage of tfie coDntry. Even in the treaty ports different tael weights are in ase. We will mention bat the principal :

1*. The JkmUomtaA — This is equivalent in wei^t to 579,84 grains Troy. It is used in Canton, Hongkong and in Shanghai for weighing bar silver. In this latter case 82,78 Canton taels or ounces are equal to 100 ounces Troy.

2*. The T^€wt^mg }ff If, or Skcmghmi taei. — This is equivalent in weight to 565,69 grains Troy of a Oneness of 916 $. It is used in Shanghai for weighing silver and gold sycee, but not for bar silver. It is practically the local money of account, and that which is meant when speaking of exchange on London, the rate being fixed by telegraphic transfer for each day. Shan^ai not being a large credit centre draws on London for the cost of her exports, and remits to London the cost of her imports. One Ts'aop^ng tael of silver was worth 700 copper cash in 1736, 900 in 1780, 1,400 in 1796, 2,000 in 1853, and is worth at present from 1,500 to 1,700 cash.

3*. The K*uf^i(ng J|[ ^ or Treuemry TkgeL — This is the official tael in which taxes are paid to the Government, an allowance of 2 being made for every 100. Its weight is from 575.5 to 580 grains Troy with a fineness varying from 916 to 1000. Eight K^up4ng taels have a market value equal to jff 1 gold.

4''. The Ha4kwan/p^ing j^ || ^ or {Justeme TaH, — This tael has been adopted by the Imperial Mantime Customs at all treaty ports for the payment of customs duties, and to measure the value of foreign imports and exports. Its weight is 581.77 grains Troy. Its par value is 6 s. 8 d., but since 1872, owing to the great fall in silver, its exchange value has gone steadily down. Its annual sterling exchange is fixed by the customs authorities. Thus, in 1903, its value was 2 s. 7 § d.; in 1904, 2 s. 10 t d.; in 1905, 3 s. 0 i^ d.; and in 1906, 3 s. 3 4 d.

The following table exhibits its fluctuations in regard to sterling from 1870-1906.

CHAPTBR I. HBYBKUB AND SXPBNDITURB.

Ck)ld EqniYalent of the Haikwan Tael from 1870-1906.

YEAK

YEAR

8

1870

6

1871

6

1872

6

1873

6

1874

G

1875

6

1876

5

1877

o

1878

5

1879

5

1880

5

1881

5

1882

5

1883

5

1884

5

1885

5

1S86

5

1887

4

6i 64 7i 5i 4i 2.i

Hi oj

118 7i

6fi 8-1 7i 7i 3i 0* 10 4

1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906

8

d

4

Si

4

8«

5

24

4

11

4

44

3

114

3

2il

3

34

3

4

2

IM

2

10 i

3

Ok

3

14

2

114

2

7\

2

7i

2

ion

3

o,V

3

34

A large quantity of silver dollars are imported into China. From the XV1'*» century and downwards, the most widely circulated was the Spanish dcUar^ called also the CoroltM or TUkur doOar. The former name was given it because it bore the effigies of the two Spanish monarchs Charles III and Charles IV ; and the latter, on account of its having on the reverse the fabled pillars of Hercules. For a long number of years, this dollar, on account of its purity and uniformity, became almost the current coin of the land. The accounts of foreign mercantile houses were kept in it down to 1856, and it is still in use at Ningpo and Hangchow in Ch^kiang Province, and at Wuhu, in Nganhwei Province. With the loss of her S. American colonies, Spain ceased to export Carolus dollars to China. They thus became scarce, and their market value attained finally the rate of the Shanghai tael.

320 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOOEAPBT.

Hereupon, the banks and foreign merchants changed the headings of all accounts from dollars to taels, the figures remaining the same, and this alteration has continued down to the present day. Accounts are kept in dollars and taels, and in exchange quotations, the dollar is quoted in terms of the tael.

The Spanish dollar having almost disappeared, is at present superseded by the MeMean Mver d^Uar^ which bears as its device on one side, the cap of liberty, and on the other, an eagle strangling a serpent. This dollar is divided into 100 Cenim called Fh^ ^^^ or 10 iemree$U j^ieoM, which the Chinese call Kioh Pi in Mandarin, and Koh in the Shanghai vernacular. In 1905, the Haikwan tael was equivalent to about one dollar and a half, or exactly $ 1.55 ; in 1906 it was worth $ 1.57 ^exican^dgilars.

The Provincial minis of China have lately introduced new copper coins of ten cash ^face valae) called T'ongldohtze Wlfi'f'* i"^ ^t is estimated that there are some 10,000,000,000 of them now in circulation. They are rapidly spreading and displaeiiig the old coins (vulgo cash), hut on account of their enormous output, they are at present much depreciated.

Oralis and bills mt eirlMisgfi have also been in use in China for a vexy long time.

Several attempts were made to have the Government adopt the Aierirsa inide dsllar, the dmaon or OasUwi dollar, and the ■apeh dollar, but so far all have ended in failure. At Hongkong and Canton, the Boa^kans .dollar and the Siraita dollar are current, but in no'other places.

Up to present, China has aa gsld carreaey.

If ecemltjr •f a nnlTonn diirrenejr. — The confusion of the national monetary system, due principally to the absence of control of the Central Government, the banking system of the country, and the cupidity of high officials, has of late engaged the attention of the Foreign Powers, and it has been mutually agreed to establish a uniform currency. The basis of the new standard as proposed by Sir Robert Hart (''Suggestions concerning a uniform currency, presented to the Waiwu Pu by Sir Robert Hart, Bart., Inspector-General of I. M. Customs, China"), and Professor J. W. Jenks, is to be as follows :

, : t /GSbMP^R J. lUiySNUB AND RXPBNDITURE. 321

1^. China to maintain a national silver currency.

2®. To establish a uniform exchange value between this silver currency and that of countries having a gold Standard.

3^. Uniformity in exchange to be secured by mtp^i^j^ silver and copper coins of fixed weight, purity and value throughout the Empire, and maintaining them at parity with a standard unit of value, not necessarily coined, but containing a fixed number of grains of gold approximating to the monetary unit of countries with which China holds large commercial relations. The complicated details of this problem must be left to the economist and. the statesman. If the scheme is realized, it is hoped it will secure honesty in internal administration, benefit domestic trade, remove eco- nomic losses and develop international trade.

Hk. Tls.

Land Ux in silver

26,500,000

lAnd tax in grain

3,100,000

Salt tax

13,500,000

Imperial Maritime GustomB

211300,000

Likin

16,000,000

Native Customs

2,700,000

Native Opium

2,200,000

Provincial Income

2,600,000

;

SI and Bxpendiiare of the Empire. — According to Sir Robert Hart, the principal Bonrces of revenue of the Chinese Empire for the year 1901, were the following with approximate annual values :

Total. Tls. 90,400,000 (The exchange value of the tael for 1901 was 2 s. 11 ^ d.).

liMid-tex in frtlTer. — The tax in money upon good rice-producing land is on the basis of 200 cash per mtow y^ (ope acre is equal to 6 mows) or f of a tael an acre. In 1712, Jhe amount of this taxwM deflnitely fixed, wid the pc^l-tax upon adult males abolished.

liMid-tex in gimin.— > This tax is paid by the Provinces of Kiangsu tH || and Ch^kiang ff( XL* They are to send every

21

322 8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL AKD BCOMOMIC aiOeaAPHT.

year to Peking a little over 100,060 tons of rice. Formerly, i of this was carried through the Grand Canal, while the rest went by sea. The cost of transportation is fixed at 30 per cent extra, and is paid by the taxpayer in addition to the proper tax.

■alt-teau -* This tax is exclusively a Oovemment monopoly. The salt is produced in certain specific districts along the coast, by evaporation or boiling from sea-water, or it is obtained from brine-wells, especially in Szechw^an. All the salt produced must be sold either to Oovemment officials or to licenced salt-merchants, who have purchased the right to supply certain areas of consumption. By treaty, the importation of foreign salt is prohibited. For the collection of the tax, China is divided into 11 circuits. Each of these has its specific means of production, and it is forbidden to transport salt from one circuit to another. The cost price varies, and is generally from 1 ^ to 4 cash per catty, or weight of 1 ^ lbs avoirdupois. The retail price varies also from one district to another, and averages from 25 to 60 cash per catty. The total annual consumption of salt throughout the 18 Provinces is estimated at 25 million piculs or 1,488,000 tons.

Salt is largely smuggled, and when seized, is liable to confiscation.

Impertel MarttiHe Cvstoins. — {8ee further on. p. 325).

^ UidB jK ^- — '^^^^ is ^ recent fiscal regulation, and is

levied upon goods while in transit from one Province to another, or from one district to another within the same Province. It was originally imposed to defray the expenses of the MaMomeden^ and T'aifHme reMUmms, and was not in force before 1853, nor extended to the whole country till 1861. Stations are placed at all large towns, and along the main routes of commerce whether by land or water. These barriers are very numerous in some places, as along the lower parts of the Grand Canal, where they follow one another at intervals of 20 miles or so. In places where trade is scanty, barriers are few and can

' CSAPTER I. RBYUfVB AND KXraNDirUBB. 323

Bometiines be avoided by detours. A tariff is published for the information of officials and traders, but practically it is ignored. Nearly all merchants and boats make a bid, and haggle until they come to terms. Guilds and regular traders pay lump sums. The tax collected iis generally 3 per cent at the departure station, and 2 per cent at each inspection station. The amount collected within the Province, seldom exceeds 10 per cent, but when goods travel through several Provinces, it easily reaches 15 and 20 per cent. The general amount to be collected and the number / of toll-barriers in each Province are fixed by the Oovemor. I

As stipulated by treaty, goods imported and exported by\ , Foreigners are exempt from likin taxation at native barriers, on I payment to the Imperial Maritime Customs of half the import \ duty, plus the usual ad valorem tariff. 1

The likin regulations are a serious hindrance to native as, well as foreign trade, and according to the recent treaties concluded with Great Britain, the United-States and Japan, they are to be permanently abolished. To compensate for this abolition, '^foreign goods are to pay, in addition to the effective 5 per cent import duty, a special surtax equivalent to 1 ^ times die said duty, whereupon they shall be immune from all other taxation, examination or delay" (British Treaty, 1902. Article VIII. Section I. and Appendix B (1) and (2). — Commercial Treaty between the United-States and China, 1903. Article IV).

Hattve ClMiteiiis. -— The organization of the Imperial \ Maritime Customs has not abolished native custom houses. At the open ports and at important stations on the coast and inland, Government has native custom houses, which control the trade carried on in native junks. These custom houses are farmed out, and each collector is bound to pay a fixed miimimmm mmtm If he returns more, he can claim a reward for his extra diligence. — Of late, several native custom houses have been transferred to the Imperial Maritime Customs.

I. — Up to recent years, the growth and j manufacture of opium were prohibited in China. They were/

324 SECTION y. political ami) sconomic oeo«rapht.

finally allowed on condition of paying a tax. The collectioh of this tax is entrusted to the Provincial authorities. They are to keep a separate account of it, and hand over the sum collected to the Board of Revenue.

The total amount of native-grown opium is estimated at about 400,000 chests per year.

MUieellane«Mi mad and«flned taxes. — Under this title are comprised various items, as land transfer fees, pawn- brokers* and other licences, sale of official titles or brevet rank, duties on reed flats, exemption from forced labour and purvey- ances.

■xpendltare of the ttnplre (In tBOl). — The (expenditure of the Empire for the year 1901 was divide 1 as foUows : J

Hk. Tls.

Imperial Honsehold and Central Government

12,480,000

Navy

5,000,000

Army

90,000,000

1,000,000

Interest and Repayment of Foreign Loans

24,000,000

Railway Gonstraction

aoo,ooo

River Conservancy Works

940,000

Customs, Lighthouses and Revenue Cruisers

3,000,000

Provincial Administration

20,1100,000

Reserve Funds

3,000,000

Total 101,120,000

Vorel^a DeM. — China had no foreign deht till the end of 1874, when a loan of \M 627,C7S, hearing 8 per cent interest, was contracted through the Hongkong and Jshanghai Bank, and secured hy the customs revenue. Afterwards, a number of other loans were contracted through the same bank. Up to the war with Japan in 1894, the ! total foreign debt was inconsiderable, but since then extensive borrowings were made j to meet the expenses of the war and the large indemnity demanded by Japan, which was ; Tls. 200,000,000 (at exchange of 3 s. 3 i d), with a further sum of Tls. 20,000,000 for the retrocession of the Leaotung Peninsula. The last instalment of this debt was paid in 189S, and the total indebtedness of the country up to 1900 was £ 55,755 000 , the principal loans being the Russian of 1895, the Anglo-German of 1896, and another I Anglo-German in 1898, each of £ 16,000,000, and bearing interest at from 4 to 7 per ' cent. Recently, several minor loans, amounting in all to about £ i,000,COO, have been contracted for the purposes of railway construction. In January 1907, a further small loan of £ 650,000 at 5 per cent has been contracted for the completion of the railway from Shanghai to Nanking. In 1901, the country's obligations were increased consequent upon the Boxer uprising by a sum of Hk. Tls. 450,000,000, the amount of the indemnity to be paid to the Powers, to meet the expenses of their expedi- tionary forces, and compensation for losses to oommercial societies, miasiona and

. . CHAPTSR 1. IMPBRIAI. MA^lTiMB CUBTOMS. 32.5

individuals. This Bum conslitutes a gold debt calculated at the rate of the Haikwan Tftel to the gold currency of each country (3 s. for Great Britain), and bearing interest at 4 per cent. The capital is to be reimbursed by China in 8(^ years. The amortiza- tions are to be paid annually, and began January 1"* 1902. The revenues assigned as security are the following : the Imperial Maritime Customs, the revenues of the native customs, administered in the open ports by the Imperial Maritime Customs, and the total salt revenue, except a fraction already set aside for other foreign loans. (Imperial Edict. May 29^ 1901, and Final Protocol ■ signed at Peking, September 7"» 1901).

The total foreign debt of Chiua amounts at the close of 1906 to £ 54,500,000, upon \ which the interest due is £ 2,500,000.

3^ Imperial Maritime Customs.

Origin and Devetopment. — The Imperial Maritime Customs, or Sinhaikwan iUr JK H, commenced in 1854. The work started in Shanghai, the first Inspector-General being M' H. N. Lay. Owing to the T^alpMng rebels capturing the native city, the collection of custom dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands of Foreigners, and this developed into a permanent institution, with a large and efficient staff recruited from most of the European nations, though the English are in the majority.

At the head of the service is an In^pedm^Oenermi, Sir Robert Hart since 1863, assisted by a Deputy Inspector*General and about 40 Commissioners, one of whom is generally in charge of a custom house.

By an Imperial decree of May, 1906, the Maritime Customs Department was transferred from the control of the Waiwu Pu to that of the Board of Revenue, and two Administrators-General were appointed.

Oivuiisi^ittn. — The administration is divided into 3 departments : 1^ Bevenue or the collecting of dues ; 2® CoasUng mnd Harbour duHes; 3^ JPosiai service*

The first of these departments is that which is generally styled Imperial Maritime Customs.

The Indoor, Outdoor, Lighthouse and postal staff, totalled (l8t July 1906) 1,345 Foreigners and 10,636 Chinese.

The Maritime Customs are entrusted with the care of

326

8IGTION T. POLITICAL AND ICONOMIC MCMHUPHT.

buoys, beacons and lighthoases on the coast of China, the police of rivers and harbours in the open ports, and principally with the collecting of custom dues at the treaty ports. The duty is 5 per cent ad valorem, and is levied on all imports and exports.

Custom houses are principally stationed in the ports which were opened to foreign trade.

The following is a complete list of these ports. It has been made out according to the chronological order in which it is pro- vided for their opening. The first five treaty ports were opened in accordance with the treaty of Nanking, August 29^^ 1842.

The name of the Prefecture on which the port depends, is omitted, when the port itself is a Prefectural city.

Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade. 1842-1906.

Number of

Port.

Foreign Settlementi

Prbfectxtbx.

Pbotince.

I

Canton

2

m^m

Kwangtung.

2

Amoy or Hsiam^n

2

K n

Ts'iienchow Fu.

Fokien.

3

Foochow or Pagoda

I

mm»

4

Ningpo [Island

mkMF

Ch^kiang.

5

Shanghai

2

±mm

Sungkiang Pu.

Kiangsu.

6

Chefoo or Ycnt'ai

2 5!

T^ngchow Pu.

Shantung.

7

Swatow or Shant'eu

an n

Ch'aochow Fu.

Kwangtung.

8

Hoihow or Haik'ow

m n

K*iungchow Pu.

Hainan I,

9

Ncwchwang Szc

2

♦ttsi

Pungt'ien Fu.

Manchuria,

lo

Ch§nkiang

I

muM

Kiangsu.

II

Nanking

m A

Kiangsu.

12

Tientsin

8

??ffw

Chihli.

13

Kiukiang

I

Att*

Kiangsi

14

Hank'ow

5

m p

Wuch'ang Fu.

Hupeh.

^5

Ich'ang

KA«

Hupeh.

i6

Wuhu

WMM

T*aip*ing Fu.

Nganhwei.

17

WInchow

ft««

Ch^kiang.

i8

Pakhoi or Peh-hai

« m

Lienchow Fu.

Kwangtung.

19

Lungchow

K«B

T'aip'ing Fu.

KwangsL

20

Mangtze

■SK

Linngan Fu.

Yunnan.

21

Ch'ungk'ing

I

■»ff

Szechw'an.

22

Yatung

Tibet.

23

Hangchow

I

tt^W

Ch^kiang.

24

Soochow

2

wmm

Kiangsu.

I. QIPBBUL 1CABIT»S CUSTOMS. 327

Ports and Karts open to Foreign Trade, 1842-1906. (continued).

Number of

Port.

Foreign SettlementB

Pbefectuke.

Province.

25

Shashi

I

» *

Kingchow Fu.

Hupeh.

26

Hok'ow

Jf P

K'aihwa Pu.

YUnnan.

27

Szemao

ssm

P*ueul Fu.

Yunnan.

28

Samshui or Sanshui

H4cR

Kwangchow Fu.

Kwangtung.

29

Wuchow

m^jff

Kwangsi.

30

T€ngyueh or Momein

mm

Yungch'ang Fu.

YUnnan.

31

Yohchow

mm»

Hunan.

32

Santungao or Santuao

HMI

Fuhning Fu.

Fokien.

33

Ts*inwang-tao

«£A

Yungp«ing Fu.

Chihli.

34

Woosung

ft m

Sungkiang Fu.

Kiangsu.

35

Nanning

WHUf

Kwangsi.

36

Kongmoon or Kiaiig-

u n

Chaok'ing Fu.

Kwangtung.

37

Ch'angsha [n^^n

*»m

Hunan.

38

Wan hsien

X m

Kw'eichow Fu.

Szechw'an.

39

Ngank'ing or Ank'ing

^tm

NganhweL

40

Hwdchow

mmm

Kwangtung.

41

Tsinan

***

Shantung.

42

Wei hsien

m m

Leichow Fu.

Shantung.

43

Chowts'un or Cheuts'nn

m n

Tsinan Fu.

Shantung.

44

C'hangteh

««»

Hunan.

45

Gyantze

Tihet.

46

Gartok

Tibet.

47

Ngantung or Antung

«1R»

Funghwang T.

Manchuria,

48

Mnkden or Fungt4en

mxm

Manchuria,

49

Dalny or Tairen

Manchuria,

In the YIII'^ Article, Section 12 of the British Commercial Treaty with Ohina, signed at Shanghai, September 5^ 190J, it has been agreed to open to foreign trade 5 ports : Kongmoon, Gh'angsba, Wan hsien, Ngank'ing and Waichow (Hweichow), but up to present, the 8 latter have not yet been effectively opened.

The Bevtenue collected l»y the Imperial Maritine Onatonwi has cons- tantly increased, as can be seen by the following table :

Cnstoms Berenue 1900-1905.

YBAB.

Hk. Tls.

1900

22,873,986

1901

25,587,574

1902

80,007,044

1903

30,580,688

1904

81,498,156

1905

85,111,004

Sf% 8BCTI0M Y. FOLirrCAL- AMD BCONOMfC eBOGRAPHT.

These duties are apportioned between the Foreign and Home Trades as follows :

YEAR.

Foreign Trade.

Home Trade.

Total.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1900

18,182,815

4,091,171

22,878,986

1901

19,800,900

5,676,674

25,587,574

1902

24,180,574

5326,470

80,007,044

1908

24,054,785

6,475,903

30,580,688

1901

24,788,688

6,704,518

31,493,156

1905

27,544,295

7,566,709

35,111,004

The porUi where trade Is iimmi( Important are the following :

IMS

1901

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shanghai

118,812,899

145,480,170

176,979,193

Canton

110,559,826

96,247,076

92,248,650

Hank'ow

99,129,500

107,449,374

111,048,046

T'ientsin

68,729,061

68,951,694

96.565,672

Newchwang

47,682,059

41,517,878

61,752,905

Swatow

43,792,227

49,280,786

48,006,806

Kowloon

42,501,795

48,771,666

42,946,800

Chefoo

38,188,912

34,265,175

89,131,884

Chfenkiang

84,489,707

82,323,204

33,344,906

Ch'ungk'ing

29,222,120

29,403,966

27,781,627

Wuhu

24,542,788

28,223,383

30,628,800

Riukiang

22,985,794

24,347,560

23,228,644

Ningpo

22,240,093

21,297,412

19,163,630

Amoy

16,985,898

17,204,571

18,654,610

Foochow

16,738,718

17,265,968

17,724,198

Hangchow

15,607,138

17,747,662

17,496,980

4" Army and Naoy.

Army. — China has two independent sets of military organizations : the Mkunehu or Ifnperiai Arm^p and the JEVoriti^ ekU JPi&rem. Important changes however, as stated further on, will soon completely alter the above organization.

1 or Imperial Army, called also the BIghiBmnmerB

(Pahk*i A Jll)- — This army is composed mainly of Manchus,

CHAPm I. ARMY AMD NAYT.. . 329

Mongols, and the descendants of those Chinese who first joined the.Manchu dynasty in the early part of the XVIP** century. The Banners are distinguished by 4 colours : yellow, white, red and blue, and are further divided into 3 superior (Shangsan- k'i'Jt H K)i and 5 inferior (Hsiawuk'i "F 31 JJ) Banners.

Each adult Manchu is by birth entitled to be enrolled in the Eight Banners, and as such to receive his allowance of tribute-rice, whether in active service or not.

All these soldiers, Manchus, Mongols and Chinese, are called JSHiSn ;K A or Bannermen. Those stationed in the Tartar or Interior City (Nei-ch*^ng ^i)K), in Peking, occupy the garrisons set apart for each Banner.

BandservmUs or Pno-i @ ^ (from the Manchu Bo-i, a slave), recruited from the three upper Banners (Shangsank'i Pao-i J: H ill "Q <k)i are garrisoned in the Forbidden City (Tzekin ch'^ng ff^ $^ j^), and do service in the Imperial House- hold. Their principal duty is to keep guard over the Imperial Palaces. Those of the Ave inferior Banners are attached to the various Princely houses or Wang Fu ^ jjf (Palaces of Princes of the Imperial Lineage).

The JB€mners have also branch garrisons in twrrfotM Pro^ vindai CMes. As in the Capital, the men are entitled to draw a pittance from the provincial taxes as rations. These ffarrimmsp or dni/bft^ m (1^, are stationed in the following places :

Singan Fu

mum^

in Shensi

»n

Ninghsia Fu

«3i;».

in Kansu

*ir

Kiangning Fu

itHfff

or Nanking

^ ]!5ti

in Kiangsu

itm

Hangcbow Fu

fit W W'

in Ch^kiang

ffifL

Foochow Fu

M /M /ff '

in Fokien

mm

Ch'^ngtu Fu

m 9 /n »

in Szechw'an

IS )\\

Kingchow Fu

^ n m^

in Hupeh

««

Kwangchow Fu H ^ jjjf,

in Kwangtung MM

At the head of these 8 Garrisons is a Mane

It is computed

that the total number of

Manchu troops

330 sicnoK V. politigal and BCONOICIC eBOeiUPHT.

amounts from 200,000 to 220,000 men, of whom 15,000 are stationed near Peking :[[; -fji, and 20,000 within the city itself.

Pv^Tlnetel Faroes or Amty •r the Green

(Luhying Ht ^). — The Provincial Forces are divided into .the JUand Army or IMUm |g [^, and the Aavy or Shuishi ^ f/f (for this latter, see below, p. 333).

The nominal strength of the Land Army is from 20,000 to 30,000 men in each Province, thus aggregating from 400,000 to 500,000 men all told. The actual strength, however, does not exceed 150,000 or 200,000 men. They are enrolled for the purpose of maintaining peace and order throughout the Provinces, and are in fact more like a local constabulary force than a national army.

They are distributed in small camps or garrisons in the principal towns. They are miserably paid, ill fed, badly drilled, and as a fighting force are practically of little value.

Each BravinckU Army Ceri^ is under the command of a Bravineka Generair^nrChief or THtuh H fp, vulgo THteA H H. The bulk of the troops which he commands is called P^pioo H Ht ^^ TMtuh*6 brigade.

A MMtfl 6M|r o/froo|M is specially enrolled to do duty in the Tr^vlmdM Cbfiital. It is called the ¥uipkto j|| fl| or Governor's brigade, and is under the control of the Provincial Gk>vemor.

The FiMray has also his epeeua hriyade, called Ikthpimo

««.

The forcee under the etnmnand of Ube TrevkMilka Get%erai- inreMef are divided into CMnptao H H or hHgadee, and those again into reyimenU or JBMefc j^. The Hsieh are divided into haUtMons or Yimg ft, and the Ying is further divided into mmiary paste or Shais Hg, and the posts into pair^ts or 9m %.

The €h%as^ Transpert Adm4$^istraMan, for the conveyance of tribute-rice to Peking (now principally despatched by the ''China Merchants Steamship Oompany**), had a special military organization under its control, designated by the name of P*^"^ Iff tti or grain-transport brigade.

GHAPm I. ARMT AND NATT. 331

or ^limfMi**. — To the regular army must be added the socMed^Bravet^ or Tuna ^^eAso styled V^imUeer^. They are called "Braves" from the character Tung H (meaning brave) being written on the back and front of their jackets. They arc better paid and armed than the regulars, and are now drilled in foreign style.

Since the Japanese war, they have been quartered near Peking ^ jjf and Tientsin ^ ^, and arc generally spoken of as the **Army of the North".

They are grouped in 5 divisions, under the command of a Generalissimo, and number about 70,000 or 80,000 men.

Army ff^fcc— c. — An Imperial deoreei issued in 1901, ordered the reorganization of the military forces of the Bmpire. The scheme comprised the 8 following divisions : campaign, reserve and police corps.

Another and more recent decree suggested to the Bmperor by the Board of Army Beorganization (Lienpingch'a K f^ J(), appeared in 1905. This decree laid down the following regulations (On the old military examinationt^ now obsolete, see Gh. II. Rdncation).

1® TrainiTiff Schools for Officers of the land forces shall be of four kinds :

a) A Lower or Preparatory School, called I^u^A^n Siaoheioht^ang ■ 9^ ^ S S (Military lower school).

b) A Middle^grade or Secondary School, called LuhkUn Ohwnghsioht*ang ■ Ifi 4^ 9 JK (Military middle school).

o) A Training OoUege for Officers, called LuhkUn Pinghwan Hsioht^ang B W a^ 9M (Military officers* college).

d) A MiUtary High Academy, called Luhhan Tahsioht'cmg MWiC^M*

In this latter, the higher branches of military science will be tanght.

The first coarse will comprise 8 years of instmction, and the second 2. When these 5 years are over, cadets will pass four months in the army, to learn the dnties of offioen. They will then enter the Training College for Officers, where they are to remain for a year and a half. They will subsequently go back again to the ranks, for a period of 6 months, with the title of Instructor. At the close of this stage, they will return to the College for Officers, and undergo there an examination. Those who obtain good marks will be definitely classed as officers. After two years, the most distinguished among them will be admitted to the Biilitary High Academy, to study for a further course of two years. They will then graduate with the title of Military Staf -Officer. 2* A lower or preparatory school will be opened in each of the 18 Provinces, as well as in each of the military divisions of Manchuria.

3* There will be 4 middle-grade schools for the whole Bmpire, one in each of the following Provinces : Ghihli (St, Hupeh H Jh, Shensi K K ^^^ Kiangsu {£ J||. 4* The training college for Officers, and the Military High Academy will be ettobliBhed at Peking i^M*

333 8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL >|fD BCONQMIG GBO0RAPaT.

5" A short trainififf-course school or LuhkUn Suhch*ing HnohVang WtW^Wk ffk S (miliUry hasty-formatiou school), for the expeditious training of Officers, will be opened at Peking, with accomodation for 800 applicants.

G** A special short-training school for Instructors, or LuhkUn 8uheh*im§ Shi/an Hsioht'ang BI9^9tttlViEVft> ^'^ ^ likewise opened in the Gi^tftl.

•f Ulte Armjr. — The new army • is to be organized on the following lines :

Army CmtneU and General Siaff. — This Department wHI have : l^ A War Office with 6 bureaux ; 2". A Oeneral Staff divided into 3 sections, and entrusted with the drawing up of plans of campaign ; 3^. A Directorate of Military Education for the instruction and efficient training of Officers.

AcHiM Army. — The active army is to be distributed into 20 territorial sections, that is, one to each of the 18 Provinces, one in Chinese Turkestan, and one near Peking.

Bkieh secHan will have two fuU divMonB forming together one army corps.

Baeh Mviaion will comprise : 12 Infantry battalions,

1 Cavalry regiment, 3 Batteries of artillery, 1 Company of engineers.

A division will number 12,000 or 12,500 men, and so the 40 divisions will make a total effective force of 480,000, or 500,000 fighting units.

Beserve JP^oroo. — All soldiers after their time of active service will pass 9 years in the First, and 3 years in the Second Reserve Corps.

The men of the First Reserve Corps will drill every year during a month, in Autumn, and another month, in the Spring.

The Second Reserve Corps will be called in annually for a few days service.

The above scheme of reorganization will be fully carried out in 1910.

Artny Ifisirudors and Equipment. — Instructors for the Chinese Army are engaged especially in , Germany and Japan^

CHAPTIR I. ARMY AND NAVY.

333

Some measures have already been taken to effect uniformity in artillery (heavy guns and rifles), in the pay of officers and men, m regimental uniforms, manoeuvring and drill. Of the present Provincial troops, the best organized are those of Chihli jj|[ ^ and Hukwang ^ J| (combined Provinces of Hupeh 0| ;||; and Hunan |ti IH)- '^^^ Generalissimo of the former is Yuen Shik'ai $i jgi 9L^ Viceroy of Chihli. At the close of 1906, this army numbered 80,000 men. The Hukwang troops are under the control of Chang Chitung M il M^ Viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, and number from 30,000 to 50,000 men.

EfflMrUiFeBOf the Pravliicbil Army do^-n to 1904 (at learst as returned on paper). — We append here the units of the Provincial Army, or Green Standard, down to 1901. The figures given, are those published in 1904, by the War Office of China The accompanying dates indicate when the returns were made.

Province.

Effectives.

Year.

Province.

Effectives.

Year.

Chdkiapg

17>9»5

1903

KwangtuAg

69,000

Chihli

18,490

1904

Kweichow

7,670

1902

Fokien

34,906

1902

Nganhwei

8,451

1903

1,287

1902

Shansi

26,500

Hunan and Hu-

7.112

1903

Shantung

20,200

Kansu [peh

55,800

Shensi

42,300

Kiangsu

50,000

Szeohw'an

21,796

1902

Kwangsi

2S^W)

Ylinnan

17,996

1902

Ifmry or SliidMlil yf^ $$- — At the outbreak of the. war with Japan in 1895, the Ohinese Navy consisted of 2 divisions, the N^rihern (Pehyang ig^ #) and S^^tiherm (Nanyang |fi )^), each under the control respectively of the Viceroy of Chihli and the Viceroy of Nanking or Leangkiang, with the title of Shuishi T^ungling ;i!K SI It fl« ^^ High Admiral. During the war, 10 important war vessels of the Northern squadron were sunk or captured by Japan. The Southern division remained in the waters of the Yangtze, and took no part in the conflict. In 1900, the Allied Forces further captured and appropriated 4 destroyers built In 1898-99. Various attempts have since been made to restore the fleet. China (including a flotilla under the control

334

of the VicerojB of Foochow and Canton, for the Wippwion of piracy) DOW possewes i seoond-cUM (4,300 tons), and 11 tkird- claM cmiaen ;875-2,500 tons}, 3 torpedo gnnboata (350-l«000 tons), 4 river gnnboats \i\b^i2 tons'. 32 first-claas and 12 second-class torpedo boats. Of the torpedo boats, about half only are fit for action, the others being allowed to Ul into the ordinary decay common to Chinese administration. The fUl compliment of men is about 2,500.

The combined divisions of the North and Sooth were lately placed under the control of a Commander-in-chief (Admiral 8ah) with the task of reorganizing the navy. A naval school will be established at Shanghai, near the Arsenal dock. The r^n- lations and cnrriculnm will correspond with those issued for the reorganisation of the army.

iiBMrta mm^ ^^cksravda. — There are military areenals at T'ientsin ^ ^, Shanghai J: f| (this now competes with private dockyards), Nanking |f| ]|[, Wuch'ang g( 0, Ch^togta ift 41 and Canton (Kwangchow Fn J| j|| Jff)^ besides smaller establishments in other principal centres of the Empire. Several can turn out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammonition (inida- ding smokeless powder) in large quantities.

There is an important naval arsenal and sliipbuilding yard at Fkg^mda, 9 miles below Foochow, in Fokien JH K Province. It is in the hands of French engineers in the employ of the fiovemment (ass p. 223).

— A great number of forts and batteries have been erected at the entrance to the principal rivers. The most impor- tant are the Kiangpin 2L f^ /orfs commanding the entrance to the Yangtze H ^, the JffifJWcmy J^ fL /^^ commanding the approaches to Foochow in Fokien, and the Bsyws or Bocca Tigris (Hu-m^n J^ f^) f^ru at the entrance to the Canton or I 'carl River. These forts and batteries are armed with powerftil guns of European manufacture.

The Taku -^ fb ^"^ T'ientsin ^ ||t forts have been demo- lished as a sequel to the Boxer revolt of 1900.

CHAPTER I. eoyiaNMBOT AND ADMINISTRATION.

335

References :

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Alabaster Sir O. — Notes and Com- mentaries on Chinese Criminal Law. London, 1899.

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Mlohie A. — The Englishman in China. London, 1900. (China and her Rulers. Vol. II. Ch. 29. p. 368-402).

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Dyer BallJ.* Things Chinese. 4<^ Edi- tion. Shanghai, 1908. (Government, p. 318-322. — Laws. p. 378-388. — NobiUty. p. 482-484. — Decorations, p. 195-199.— Chinese Cities, p. 17M72).

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336

SECTION y. POLITICAL AMD ECONOMIC aBOORAPBT.

Pmw%aBr B. ■. — ChinA Past aud Preseui. London, 1903. (The ImperuJ Power. Book IV. p. I»-l». — The Trance Yamen p. 207-222. — The Way China is f^remtd. — The Life of a Chinese Man- darin. Book VL p. 223-252).

Murker B. ■. — John Chinaman. Lon- don. 1001. (Viceroys and Governors. Ch. VIIL p. 16M79).

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janriSMi T. B. — China's Business Me- thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1901. (The Emperor. — ^Power and Restraints, p. S44- 357. — The Imperial Hooaehold. p. 190- US. ' AdministratiTC System. Ch. I. p. 1-26. ~ Law-coorU. p. 60-76. * Family Uw. p. 1S9-1S0).

JenrigSB T. B.— </hina in Law and Com- moroe. New-York, 1905. (Government. Ch. n.p.3S49. Uw. Ch. in. p. 70-100.

— Courts. Ch. VII. p. 176-198.— F^nHy Law. Cli. IV. p. 111-131).

H»nMM B. — The Peoples and PbUtiet of the East. London, 1895. (PtekinK and iu InhabiUnti;. Ch. XIII. p. 195-210).

Bji— BuiW — The Office of Diatrict Magistrate in China. (N. C. B. R. A. Soe. 1897-98. p. 36-6.5;.

Vurmj-WemmJUmm P. ^The AwakMiii^ of the East. London, 1900. (The Litanuy and Mandarin Class. Part IIL Ch. IV. p. 301-211).

Free«— MBfcrd A. B. — The Atteoh* at Peking. London, 1900. (How Maada- rins are made. Appendix, p. 357-^75).

■isltey J. — The Chinese Mandarin. (East of Asia Magazine. VoL m. p. 314- 356).

OalqulMi A. B. — China in Transfor- mation. London, 1898. (Chinese Demo- cracy. Ch. XI. p. 283-303. ~The Chinase People. Ch. X. p. 218-282).

Dyer Bali J. ^ Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Associations and Secret Soo^ ties in China, p. 632-658. — Slavery, p.

REVENUE AND BKPENDITUBE :

Tlllat H. — Notes sur la Monnaie et les MMaux prfeieux en Chine. Chang-hai, 1898.

TtllOi H. — Notes Commerciales sur la Chine. Chang-hai, 1901. (La Monnaie en Chine, p. 36-41. — Impots. p. 42-60).

Sealfari. — Rapport sur la Circulation mon^taire en Chine. (Mission Ly 1898. 2>partie).

Sealfari. — Notes sur les Operations des Banques Chinoises de Tchongking. (ibid.).

Bmmss p. — Notions Techniques sur la Propri^t^ en Chine. Chang-hai, 1897.

BoMig p. — Expose du Commerce public du Sel. Changhai, 1898.

Terrien de Laceaperle. — Catalogue of Chinese Coins from the VI1**« Centur>' B. G. to A. D. 62L London, 1893.

WiillaiiMi.^ The Middle Kixigdom. New- York, 1801. (Revenue of the Empire. — Sources and Amount of Revenue. -~ Sa- laries of Officials. — Taxation. Vol. I. Ch. V. p. 235-239).

Marae B. B. — Currency and Measures

in China. Shanghai, 1800. (Contains valuable notes on Gold, Sflver and Cop- per Currency, Paper Money, Weights etc. — In Appendix : Origin of Fiper Currency. — ^Paper and Silver CfDrrenpy.— Want of Control over Circulating Me- dium.— Silver in China.— Copper Cash). J. — The Revenue and Taxation of the Chinese Empire. Shanghai, 1903.

Bfflri— J. » Chinese Currency. Shanghai, 1901.

JaarieflMiCl. — Bndyclopndia Britanai- ca. London, 1902. (Article on China : Finanoe and Souroea of Revenue. — Expenditure and Eztanal Debt).

JnilBBaM J. W. — The Revenue and Ex- penditure of the Chinese Empire.

Parker B. M. — Chinese Bevenoe. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895. p. 103-141).

Parker B. M. — China, her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Revenue. Ch. X. p. 195.208.— The Salt GabeUe. Ch. XI. p. 209-226. — Likin. Ch. XII. p. 227-843).

CHAPTBR I. RBVBNUB AND BXPBNDITURB.

337

I^Tker K. H. — The Financial Capacity of Ohina. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895. p. 74-102).

Pftrker B. H. — China Past and Present. London, 1903. (The Population and Revenue of China. Book I. Ch. II. p. 25-41).

Ciandry B. S. — China Present and Past. London, 1895. (Currency. Ch. VII. p. 151-158. In Appendix : Mining and Cur- rency Decree, 1884. p. 404).

Opium Statistics, Foreign and Native, ^anghai Mercury Office.

Bsaer A. H. — Sources of Revenue of China* (China Review. Vol. XVII. p. 376-292).

China Review. — Coins of China in pres- ent Circulation. (Vol. XXIII. p. 105-114).

China Review. — Land Tenure in China. (Vol. XVIII. p. 561-573).

AadenHNi F. — Memorandum on Chinese Currency. Sbang^iai, 1903.

Addis O. S. —The Daily Exchange (Ro- tations. Shanghai, 1903.

Ferdval W. S. — The Land of the Dragon. London, 1889. (CTonsumption and Revenue. — Likin Stations. Ch. X. p. 286-304).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1908. (Currency, p. 189192. -- Banks and Bank-notes, p. 78-80. — Mints, p. 431. — Opium, p. 488-41)7. — Likin and some other Taxes, p. 896-399. — Tenure of Land. p. 699-703).

IHnigliiB Sir B. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Coins and Art. Ch. XXV. p.38&'393).

Jeml^B T. R — China's Business Methods and Policy. Shanghai, 1904. (Sources of Revenue, p. 42-59. ^- Money, p. 77-91.— Banks and Guilds, p. 92-119.— Land Tenure, p. 27-41).

Jernl^n T. B. — China in Iaw and Commerce. New- York, 1905. (Taxation. Ch. VI. p. 154-175. — Guilds. Ch. IX. p. 205-221. — Banks. Ch. XI. p. 275-290. — Weights, Measures and Currency. Ch. xn. p. 291-306. — Tenure and Transfer of Property. Ch. V. p. 132-153).

Hart Sir B. — Suggestions concerning Uniform Currency (N. China Herald. July 3. 1908. p. 51).

UUle E.S.— A Plea for Immediate Action with a View to an Establishment of a Gold Currency in China. (N. China Herald. Jan. 21. 1903. p. 126-28).

l^lmer G.B.— The Currency (^estion.^ Points against a Gold Standard. — China not civilised up to Gfold. (N. China Herald. Jan. 27. 1903).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blaokbom, 1896-97. (Currency in China. Part II. Ch. V. p. 177-185. — NaUve Banks and Guilds, p. 240-253t — Despotic Power of Bankers. — Trading and Exchange./^ Guilds and Exchange. — The Boycott, p. 307-319. — The Compradore and the Compradore System. Part II. ^. 328>di0. — Depreciation of Silver. — Scarcity of Copper. — Revision of System, p. 344- 858j.

JamletMNi J. W. — Foreign Trade of China for the Year 1908. Foreign Office, 1904. (Diplomatic and Consular Reports. China. N* 8280. — Change of Stited«d. p. 8).

Hoale A. — Foreign Trade of China for the Years 1904-1905. Foreign Office. 1906. (Diplomatic and Consular Reports. N** 3725. Exchange Fluctuations, p. 6 and 58. — Depreciation through excessive Minting, p. 13 and 59. — Abortive Currency Reform, p. 13).

British Commercial Treaty with China. 1902. (Article II. Currency Reform. — Abolition of Likin agreed to. Art VIII).

Commercial Treaty between the United- States and China. 1903. (Likin to be abolished. Art. IV. — China agrees to a Uniform National Coinage. Art. XIII. — Reform of Judicial System; U. States willing to assist. Art. XIV).

Commercial Treaty between Japan and China. 1908. (Uniform National Curraocy agreed to. Art. VI. — Also Uniform Standard Weights and Measures. Art. VII.— Reform of Judicial System; Japan agrees to give assistance. Art. XI).

338

raGnoN ▼• wdLmcAL and iconomic moabapht.

IMPBBIAL MABITIMB CUSTOMS :

Obvdter ■. — Lm Dounefl ImpMales

Ifftriiimes OhinoiiM. (Poang-pao, 1902.

p. 228-3M0). 0»rdtor H. — Lm Doiumefl ImpArudes

HuitiinM Ohinoiiei. (Bulletin du Comitd

de I'Ade Fran^aiM. F«y. 1905. p. 72-78). OnHfn ■. ~ Lea Donanes Imp^riales

Maiiiimefl Chinoiaes. Lea Originea et le

Diyeloppement. — Gage das Empronts.

(T'oang-pao. Ootobre, 1906. p. 515-585). Oanthier. ^ Lea Doaanea Mariiiines de

la Chine. (Bulletin de la Soo. G^ogr. de

Paria, 1800-91. p. 380-430). Ifoi MMIH H. — The Peoples and Politics

of the Bast. London, 1895. (The Imperial

ICaritime Customs. Ch. XYI. p. 231-248). Qillij R. S. — China Present and Past.

London, 1895. (The Imperial Maritime

Customs. Ch. DC. p. 188-200).

A. — The Englishman in China. London, 1900. (Chinese Maritime Cus- toms. — Creation of Foreign Customs. Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 148-166.— The Foreign Customs under the Peking Convention. Vol. II. Ch. XX. p. 156-167).

Dyer Ball J.— Things Chinese. Shanghai, 1903. (The Imperial Maritime Customs, p. 192-194. * Lighting of the Coast and open Ports, p. 395-396.. — Chinese Im- perial Post Office Duties, p. 578).

Report on the Working of the Chinese Imperial Post Office for the Year 1905.— (I. M. C. Abstract of SUtistics. Shanghai, 1906.p.XXXI-LXXin).

China. — Trade Reports (Annual and Decennial) of the Imperial Maritime Customs. Statistical Department. Shang- hai.

ABMT AND NAVY :

CMiifcmlFfej.-L'ArmfeChinoise. 1908.

Dabry. — Organisation Militaire des Chi- nois. Paris, 1859.

Mimoires sur les Chlnois. Tome VII. (Art militaire des Chinois).

L*Armde Chinoise. — (Echo de Chine. 19 et 20 Avril, 1905).

D6crets sur les £ooles Bfilitaires. (ibid. 12 F6vrier, 1905).

D. PlanlL — Die Chinesische Armee. (In Schorer S. Familienblatt. 1892).

de Greedprey. — Les Armies de la Chine en 1903.

Jamileeoii G.-— Army and Navy of China. —Arsenals and Dockyards.— Forts. (En- cyclopedia Britannioa. London, 1902. Article on China).

Mayens F. W. -— The Chinese Govern- ment. Shanghai, 1886. (The Manchu Bfilitary Organization. Part VI. — The Chinese Army. Part VII).

Weeiig P. — Melanges sur I'Administra- tion. Vari6tto Sinologiques. N*21. Chang- hai, 1908. (Des Mandarins des Banniires. p. 186. — Des Mandarins Militaires. p. 187. —Mandarins Militaires. Expose 11. p. 48-51. — Des huit Banniires. Expose vra. p. 107-114).

Chinese Repository. — Military Skill of the Chineae. (Vol. V. p. 165-178). — The

Soldier's Manual. (VoL XI. p. 487-li6).

— Important Instructions for Soldiers. (Vol. Xn. p. 69-75).

OneninyhiiMi. —The Chinese Soldier and other Sketches.

Wade 8b> T. — The Army of the Chinese Empire. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XX. May, June and July. 1851).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (The Chinese Army. p. 45-54.

— Navy. p. 478-477).

Slefliy W.— Chinese Ifisoellany (pasaim).

Parker B. H. — The Chinese Army. 1903.

Parker E. H. — China, her History, Di- plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (The Army.— The Banner System.— Pro- vincial Tartar Troops. — Braves. Ch. XIII. p. 244-259).

Parker E. H.— John Chinaman. London, 1901. (Army and Navy. p. 229-262).

Bealser D. B.— A Short History of Chi- na. London, 1893. (Army and Navy. Ch. XXU. p. 369-371.— M' Lay's abortive Scheme of a Chinese Navy. p. 311-18).

Kraoeee A. — The Far East. London, 190S. (The Chinese Army. p. 161-62. — Navy. p. 159-161).

lyOllone. — La Chine Novatrice et Ouei>- rihre. Paris. 1906.

CHAPTER II.

Population. — Languages. ~- Religions. — Education.

P. POfJUlatiofL

The population throughout the greater part of the Empire is made up of the Chinese race, except in the Southern Provinces^ where the aborigines or alien element predominate. In the Provinces bordering on Tibet, Turkestan and Mongolia, elements belonging to the different peoples of these countries are mixed with the Chinese, the latter being however in the majority.

The Chinese race is very ancient. According to the oldest records, it first occupied the valley of the Yellow River in Kansu "H* JVy Sl^ensi ^ JS and Honan iff ^. If we wish to solve the problem as to where it came from, indications seem to point that it was from Ghaldsea or Assyria. These first Chinese settlers are called in thftjiatiye annala thft n^tMA^^a ^mtuffimi (rffftniuiji Jgjjr). or the biadh-haired gaogle l^min.^ J^. l^ihM jft gl is credited with having been their first chief. Among the ancient Emperors, OoangU )| f^, 7a* ^ and Amm H, are those more widely known.

Confined in the beginning to the Northern Provinces, this pri-/ mitive race did not begin really to expand until under the 2Mm||B dynasty, 249 B.C. Under the JBtat ^ dynasty, 206 B.O.-203 A.D.,l it occupied a large portion of the present Eighteen Provinces,! except the coast-region of Ch^kiang ff^ 2C, Fokien jR |^, and] Kwangtung J| j|[. The native tribes were also numerous and \ inhabited the S. and S. W. They were called XMm H 3|E (barbarians), and have several branches still extant : the SWans 15 H in the W. of Szechw'an Q jl| ; the Mm^hm fl^ '^ or

340 tmcnasf t. political and Bcoofomc

r ijlf ijlf io the S. W. of the same Province and In Tonnan J| IB; and the mmUm H ^ inbabiting Kweichow j[|^ Kwangm Jl fl and Kwaogtong || ]|[ (aee p. 4, and below, p. 342).

These aborigines are sometimes called the jprscfciaaas wmimm^ because they occupied the country previous to the coming of the Chinese. The prechinese races, thoroaghly lM>mogeneoa8 and {vosperoos, om^ formed powerful states along the Yangtze |[| ^ valley. Among them, we may mention the P% ^ Mm^Omm (1 122-473 B.C.)f which comprised in the days of its splendour the present Provinces of Kiangsu fl ||, Nganhwei ^ % and Nordi K>Mgn {CS; the €»% f^ Unworn (112^323 B.C.), which occupied Hukwang fjg J( (actual Hupeh and Hunan), and parts of Honan jpf jg and Kiangsu fL 0, ^nd attempted oonataatly to annex North Kiangsi f£ |g, which owed allegiance to the W« kingdom; the akmh % kim^dmrn (A.D. 302347), which lay in Central and Southern SzechVan B ji|t ^nd in Southern Hnpeh in Jt; the jr«M* H kimwdmm (2057?- 334 B.C.), which comprised actual Ch^kiang ^ f£, Fokien JH J^ and Kwangtung jm ]|[. This last completely overthrew JtacMii ^ ^, Prince of the Wu ^ state, and annexed his territory, 473 B. C.

Somewhat less than a century afterwards, the King of Tueh |g, whose name was Wukiang ^ §|, declared himself vassal of the feudal Prince of Ch^u ^g, 356 B. C. , and the state thus became extinct, 334 B.C. The Ch*u kingdom, conquered in its turn, lost its independence, and was annexed by the Emperor gVtortil* Hwmn&U mUs.^ ^» 223 B.C.

Fluraical ebWMleriflttcn ^Ttke Odscne mm«.— With regard to physical characteristics, the inhabitants of the 18 Provinces differ widely from one another, and the same may be said sometimes even of the inhabitants of the same Province. There are however certain features which are common to the race. The stature is below the average, and seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 inches, except in the North. The head is normally brachy- cephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-

CHAPTBR II. POPULATION. 341

shaped, oblique upwards and outwards^ and the hair coarse,' lank and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and remains generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight, and the iris of the eye is black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to obesity. The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge; Yellow however predominates, as with the Japanese, Manchu and Mongolian races, and so the appellation of '^pettow rat^* is . generally applied to these people collectively.

M^iml ebaracteristles of tbe CUnelie race. — To sum

up briefly the character of the Chinese is a complex and difficult problem, and perhaps as hard to decipher as the language. By some, it has been over-estimated, and by others undervalued. Considering that truth is fairly in the mean, we shall deal with it on broad lines.

With regard to the intellectual qualities of the race, it is admitted that the Chinese mind is rather of a practical and matter- of-fact kind than of speculative or abstract. The educational system of the country develops wonderfully the memory, but cramps the reasoning powers, hence there is generally but super- ficial knowledge, lack of precison and order in ideas (called by some intellectual turbidity, by others topsyturvyism), and a total absence of the critical spirit. There is also to be noticed a pre- vailing lack of foresight, of consideration of cause and effect, in- capacity of taking a general view of things, and in the individual and social acts of life a great amount of credulity and silliness.

The general temperament of the people is morose and leth- argic, but when excited, they are fitfully vehement.

With regard to moral qualities of the humbler kind, the Chinaman is patient, frugal, laborious, peaceable, law-abiding and respectful of authority. He is polite and ceremonious, and displays great veneration for parents and elders. He has a wonderful aptitude for agriculture and commerce. The honesty of the merchant-class is proverbial and deserves all praise. On ^e other hand, he is not over nice or particular about truth, and will

342 acnosf t. folithul Am ecomnoc cbimbapbt.

eanly lie to ooooeal neglect, or secure some personml advantage. Id mao j cases he considers it impolite to plainly contradict or giTe a direct refusal, and in general does not see the claims of troth and sincerity as clearly as Westerners. He is also said to be proad and conceited with his own superiority; he is aTaricioos, and can seldom handle money witii honesty ; he is cmel and rindieatiTe, calloas to the sufferings of others, and backward in showing gratitude for benefits. He likes gambling and litigation, and will be profligate whenever opportunity offers. He has an otter disregard for time and punctoality. He hates Foreigiiers, becaose their excellence is conspicuous, and he fears ttkeir in- fluence. He is not particularly clean, either in his person, haUts or sorroundings, and is rather indifferent about nnells and noises. He has no lofty ideal of life, and is deflcient especially in the higher moral qualities : sense of duty, trustwoithinees, ^ sacrifice for the general welfare, public spirit, entfaoaiaam and active courage in danger.

The IsImPBp Abo written ^^(LMlao) and KB (Lboliao). ^Md himteny. -- llie Loloi stftte thftt they eune from the icgkui situated betwecu Tibet and Bmna. At the origin of their history, they place 12 patriarehs, vho are aatd to have taught them the oae of clothing and to vork for their living.

They are divided into two classes: the Wl^ie and Blaek Lolos, being diatiiigiii* shed from each other by the ooloor of their head-drces.

The LoloB are of the Indo-Bnropean or Aryan race. The skin is white, the nose hooked, the hair brown, the iris blue or grey,and the eye not afanond-shaped. Therooli of the booses are flat. The dead are buried in caves or dilb. Wcmmn is the aqiial of man, and infantiride is unknown. TheLdlo is a waRi^aiid4uaii^,sometimeBapaator, but seldom a tiller of the ground. As to his reCgMn, he worships Nature wSHiu % great fear of evil genii.

The Lolos have no affinity with the Chinese, either in language, wni^^iMff or charaeter.

The Chinese treat them with the greatest contempt, and consider that *Hfaoagfa they have a human form, they are little removed from the brute crmtion'*.

The liolos are found chiefly in Kweiohow jjt 9k And Tfinnan H K. The Sae- chVan Lolos are called MamUe S ^ (barbarous tribes of the South).

The Lolos have their own language, which is very simple. AH the words ai« formed by a single consonant and vowel. There is no diphthong and no final oonaoii* ant. Each ol these monosyllabic words has its special and distinct meaning.

The language is the same everywhere, though it is divided into a grsftt i*iiinfr<M' of flialfifils

CHAPTia II. POPULATION. 03

The written Uuigoage wm originaUy ideographic, but like that of the Chinese, it underwent transformation during the course of ages, and so it is difficult in its present state to retrace the objects which the ideographs primitively portrayed. The Lolo iMiguage is represented by about 3000 written characters. (On the Lolos, see p. 112).

The Miaotoe f •=p (shoots, children of the soil). — In their language, the Miaotze call themselves Mdng (Burmese equivalent, Mong; in Siamese, Muang). — They state they came from the East. They are divided into a great many tribes, numbering it is said more than 50. They are often called, from the colour of their dress, wMie Miaos (Peh-miao ft ■)« hl^^ck Miaos (Heh-miao B ff )i *nd flowery or embroidered liiaos (Hwa-miao Ifl S- The women of this tribe engage in embioidery- weaving, and wear beautiful dress-sleeves, hence the name).

Like the Lolos, their language, customs and habits differ widely from those of the Chinese. They are ^j^plft «^"^ ^^ifrpftnFit pfiftplf

In Tiinnan S IHi the Miaotze are nomads or pastors, and hence are seldom found in large numbers together.

Miaotze and Lolos are great wine-drinkers, and celebrate annually the arrival of Spring by music and dancing.

It is considered by some that the Japanese are descendants of the Miao tribes, who migrated from South China to the islands of the North. (On the Miaotze, see also above, p. 112, 181, 188).

The IkUui f^ fH (barbarians). — This is the name given by the Chinese to allj the tribes of the S. and S. W., and especially to certain tribes inhabiting Kweichow H M and Kwangsi JK ■. It was also formerly employed by Officials to designate' Foreigners, but is now forbidden by treaty to be used in official documents.

The Ikias differ little from the Miaotze, and are often confounded under the same name, or under that of Shane, tribes inhabiting the border-land of Burma and Siam. The word **Shan*' comes from the Siamese **8ajfam" (brown-red, alluding to the colour of the people). The Shans are called by the Chinese Pot-t fl X or P'ohri H f^ but style themselves Luk-iai, or children of Tai. (On the Ikias, see above, p. 188, 196, 190,207).

The Makkag or E'rtilrtaB 1^ X (ftlien or guest families, squatters). * The Hakkas aro located principally in Kwangtung and Kwangsi, but are found also in Fokien, Kiangsi, Chdkiang, Formosa and Hainan.

They live in small and scattered groups, but in the Prefecture of Kiaying S JB, in the N. B. of Kwangtung Province, they are almost the sole occupants.

Their language holds an intermediate position between the Mandarin and Cantonese. It is spoken by about 4 millions of people in the Kwangtung Province

Generally speaking, they are poor, although there are rich men among them, as , well as literary graduates.

The sexes are not so separated in domestic life as with the Chinese. The women do not bind their feet, and their dress diffen somewhat from that of the Cantonese^ their jackels reaching down nearly to the knees, while their heads are covered with broad-brimmed hats, through which protrudes a top-knot of hair.

The Hakka children often have a ring of silver round their neck, though this is not the custom with the Cantonese children.

The Hakkas are generally a simple people, but very contentious, and hence ' oonstantly engaged in lawsuits.

344 mcncm v. polrical amd bcomomic

A gnmi number of them work at Hongkong m barbers and stone-cottars.

They are rather numeroas in the Straits, where they are known as ig>gtoor Kehtf this being the Swatow and Amoy pronunciation of the word Hak.

As to their origin, we have indicated it above, when describing Kwrnogsi aad Kwaogtong (p. 19d and 207), wheie they are mingled with the Ikias. With ragazd to those of Kwangtong, the following is the sUny gathered from their family traditkiBs,

They were located formeriy, some in Shantung and Shansi, and othon in N9UI- hwei. A &ni persecution, under the Tt^n |K dynasty (B.C. 219-200), drove them firom Shantung, and compeUed them to settle down in Nganhwei, Honan and KiangsL —A second persecution, under another Tsin ff dynasty (AD. 419), scattered them into the mountainous regions in the S. E. of Kiangsi, and to the borders of Fokien. — A third persecution, under the Tang jK dynasty (A. D. 890), compdled them again to take refuge in the mountains of Fokien, and the high chains which separate Kiaogii from Kwangtung. — Under the Svn^flS dynasties (A.D. 960-1280), many became adldien, and thousands of them perished uith the last Chinese Prince of the Southern Song, in A.D. 1279, West of Macao. — At the beginning of the Ming 9| dynasty (A.D. 1208), when they were driven from Fokien by disturbances which agitated that Province, tkey Anally settled down in large numbers in the N. of Kwangtnng. Henoe they spread over the W. and S. W. of Kwangtnng, and over different parts of Kwangsi.

An implacable strife, in which about 150,000 perished, took place between the Hakkas and P(*nti (original or native stock), in the 8. W. of Kwangtnng, from A. D. ] 864-1886. The Chinese Government was then obliged to take vigorous measores and remove a large number of them to Kwangsi, the Island of Hainan and other parts of the country. (On the Hakkas, aee above, p. 199 and 207)*

The ItolLUMi or Uttolmmm 9^ ^ (peoj^ from Fok, or, as it is locally pronounced* ^A Province, i.e. Fokien Provmee). * The Hokloe or Foklos are found principally in the N. E. of Kwangtnng Provinee.

Their language, which is akin to that of Fokien, is spoken by 3 wiWinwa of these immigrants in Kwangtnng.

They migrated to this latter Province from Fokien a few centuries ago. They are a rougher, wilder, and also stronger set of men than the Southern Cantonese. There are a great number of them in Hongkong, where they ue ca«||pgped aa chair- bearers. Many Hokloe emigrate, and are to be found in the «li#r«p|iii^ leglMis of the N.

In the Straits, they are known as Tmo-chewB, an appellation derived fram the Prefectural city of Ch'aochow M M (pronounced Tewchew in the local dialect), from which place many of them come.

The Tao ff (jackals) or Tu tribe. — The Yao tribes inhabit principally the S.W. of Kwangtuug, and are also found in the S.W. of Hunau. The Hunan tribe is litUe known. The Kwangtnng Yaos number about 80,000, and are located in the Prefec- ture of lienchow K ^, near tlie gulf of Tongking. They seem to be of Burmese origin, and migrated from Kwangsi to Kwangtnng in the XI1*»» century. Their hair is wbm long, they are of short sUture and have scanty beards. They are at present confined by the advancing Chinese to the high and inaooessible mountain regions. They are much considered by the other races for their knowledge of medicine, but their vengeance is feared, and the more as it is transmitted from father to son through several genera- tions. They have no written language, and their speech is quite different from that of the Chinese (see above, p. 207).

The Sal, SI or LI tribe. — This tribe is located in the Island of Hainan, where it has maintained its independence against the Chinese, for neiurlylSOOOyeiRrwithdrawing

CBAPTBRII. POPOLATION. ^45

from the coast into the motintiuns of the interior. They number about 100,000. There are also some Miaotze among them. They are divided into civilised and uncivilised Lis, and are a strong and well-built race. Their writing is most curious, and there is such great difference in their tribal dialects that the}' converse sometimes with one other in Chinese. The women are tattooed.

In the N.W. of TUnnan S Kf are found the MoMMi ]tt $ (Mo%uh) or Mmtm. They are a branch of the Miaotze, and live near Likiang Fu. Their houses are huts built of planks and branches. They live mostly on barley, but many hunt for musk, deer and other animals. The prevailing religion i? Buddhism. The Mosos constituted formerly a powerful state, which extended over part of Eastern Tibet and of actual YUnnan.

Further to the S., are the Lisas fj % (Lihsuh). They live in the mountain recesses of the Likiang valley. Their clothes are made of grass and plants, and their hair is worn twisted into a knot. They hunt birds and beasts for food, and never lay their arms aside even at night (see p. 181).

The Minkias or Mlncliias R Sjt (MinkiaJ live along the shores of the Eulhai lake to the E. of Tali Fu, which was formerly the capital of their tribe. They are the descendants of the White Prince or Peh Wang j^ 3E, who ruled about the time of the christian era. They have no written character, but many of them study Chinese, and some have taken degrees in the civil or military examinations (see Tali Fu. p. 181).

The W. and K.W. of Szechw'an, and the Western border of Kansu are inhabited by SIfansfl 1( r^<^^<^'^ a^<>^^Vi^<^< &^ ^^^^aria/i«^. Most of them have recognized the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese Officials.

Dlfltrltaiiimi m€ the Papulation. — The density of the population of China differs greatly in different parts of the country. The great plain of N. China, the Yangtze ^ ^ basin, the 8ze- chw'an |5 )\\ table-land, the coast-region and the Si-kiang f| jx delta, are the parts the most densely populated of the country.

The Provinces which have the largest population are 8ze- chw'an. Shantung, Hupeh, Kwangtung, Kiangsi, Kiangsu, Ngan- hwei and Fokien. In each of these 8 Provinces, the number of inhabitants ranges from 60 to 20 millions. The Provinces which are least populated are Yiinnan, Chdkiang, Kansu, Shensi and Kweichow. Here the number of inhabitants in each Province dwindles from 12 down to 7 millions {see p. 8).

The Mussulman revolts, which broke out in the Provinces of Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kweichow jH jHli and also in those of Kansu ||* jf and Shensi £([ W ; ^he T'aip'ing ^ 2fi rebellion likewise, chiefly in the Yangtze ^ ^ valley, have exerted a most depopulating effect on large tracts of the Empire in the second part of the XIX^^» century.

It is well nigh impossible to calculate at the present day the exact number of the inhabitants of China. The country has no census taken on European principles, but an attempt is made to ascertain the number of households for the purpose of collecting revenue, and from these a return of the total inhabitants is made out. The official census therefore which we have followed in this work (see p. 5 and 8), must be considered only as approximative. The different censuses taken by the Chinese in the past are however worthy in many instances of a considerable amount of credence, and in fact, form the only retoms available for the entire Empire. Compared

34*

8ICTI0N y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC MOGBAPHT.

with some estimates made by foreigners, they may be said to be tolerably trastworthy. From these censuses, it will be found that the population has considerably increased during the preceding centuries. The following table will exhibit some statis- tics showing this increase.

YEAR

NUITBBB OF FAMILIK8.

Population.

609

8.700,000

?

755

9,619,000

58,000,000

1014

9,055,000

22,000,000

1097

19.435,000

38,000.000

1196

7,228,000

48,000,000

1^98

16,000,000

60,000,000

1578

10,621,486

61,000,000

1786

125,000,000

1741

144,000,000

1792

383,000,000

1812

860,000,000 ,

1897

410,000,000

(If these statistics are reliable, and taking into account the increase of land under tillage, it must be admitted that they show a really great increase in the population of the Empire).

ypid^tt PopnlalloB In CMoa. — According to statistics published by the Imperial Maritime Customs, the total foreign population of China, and the number of foreign commercial houses, for the years 1904 and 1905, were as follows :

CoMMSBciAL Houses.

Pebsons. 1

Nationality.

-mT-

'1906

190ft

"^SoP

Japanese

C50

729

9,139

16,910

British

436

434

6,981

8,493

American

106

105

3,220

3,880

German

173

197

1,871

1360

French

67

77

1,374

2,148

Dutch

15

9

•209

181

Danish

11

13

198

201

Spanish

32

7

278

249

Norwegian

8

10

186

166

Swedish

1

1

122

187

Russian

21

19

808

682

Austrian

16

17

205

250

Belgian

G

8

286

273

Italian

22

22

866

412

Peruvian

2

Brazilian

8

8

Portuguese

36

44

3,387

2,462

Korean

22

49

Non-Treaty Powers

3

1

70

155

Total

1,602

1,603

27,227

88,001

CHAFTIR II. LANMAUS. 947

2". Languages.

The Cnhlnese Idutgaage. — Chinese is spoken throughout the length and breadth of the land, but with widely different pronunciation, constituting thereby an obstacle to its being understood by those who come from different regions within the Empire. It may be divided into 2 kinds : the Ptrrfr flUytef and the {MUpqmkU or spoken language.

The various forms «/ the Book Styie are as follows :

!<". The Aneimi 8iyie or Kuwh^ -j^ -jjq, — This is simple and concise in its construction, obscure and unintelligible with- out explanation, even for Chinese scholars themselves. The Classics and the early dynastic Annals of the Empire are written in this style.

2*. The LUerarp Styie or JfhM $ S- — This is a little more diffuse, but nevertheless stilted and filled with allusions and word-particles, either difficult or impossible to translate into English. The essays of candidates who compete at the public examinations are composed in this style.

3*. The omeitU or BuMmess S^yie^ called 9lmo WhM ^^^ $ 31 • — This is good prose with few particles. It is generally used in government and official documents, legal and statistical works, history and business correspondence.

The Sfpoken Lanattage. — This is divided into numerous dialects with their local pronunciation, intelligible to the people of the places where they prevail, but unintelligible to outsiders. The higher ranks and the learned also use them, adding a few book phrases, which are pronounced as in the dialect. Books are generally not written in the colloquial. It is considered to be beneath the dignity of a scholar to write books in the local dialects, and abandon the style of the Classics.

The Mandarin ianguaffe or Kwtmhwa ^ S^. — This is the common or public language spoken in the Chinese Empire, as opposed to the various local dialects. Though not universal, it is the most widespread, being spoken in 14 or 15 of the 18 Provin- ces, or by about 250 millions of people. It resembles the written

348

SECTION ▼. rOLITieAL AND BCSOMOIffC OBOIIIUPHT.

language more than any other dialect, but is more diffuse, and contains synonyms and particles to render the sense clear. Mandarin has S marked varieties t the Neriherth or Pekingese, the aeuihem or Nankingese, and the Weeiem.

In the Eastern (8. Kiangsn, ChMdang, Fokien and Kwangiung) and Scmtirarii ProSdnoes (Kwangsi and Kweichow), other dialects are spoken hy the people. These are more or less akin to Mandarin, but nevertheless sufficiently different to be unintelligible to a mandarin-speaking Chinese coming from other Provinces. The following is a list of those dialects with the approximate number of people who con- verse in them :

Dialects op the E. an© S.

Spoken by.

1* The Cantonet DialecU^ comprising :

I — The Cantonese proper.

15,000,000

2 - The Hakka.

5,000,000

i* The Min H or Fokien Dialeci*^ comprising:

1- The Amoy dialect.

10,000/NW

2 — The Swatow (Hoklo) dialect.

^.OOlMttO

S — The Foochow dialect.

5^)00,000

1 ^ The W^nehow dialect.

1,000,000

2 — The Ningpo dialect

25,000,000

3 - The Sun^^iang or Shanghai dialect.

is,m,ooo

A sub-dialect of this latter is spoken at Hweichow C IH in Southern Nfpanhmei

«e.

Tht" number of syllables in some of these dialects varies considerably. Thai (generally assigned for the principal dialects, including also several varieliee of Man- darin, b as folIoiR-s :

Dialect.

Dialect. ! Nr«»ar 1

SVLLABLXS. 1

1. Amoy.

' SIS

7. Feidngeae tmaDdariii).

«»

2. CMiti>u«*^.

ISO

a ShanghaL

«0

3. Foochow,

' 7S«

S. Swatow.

Cfl

4. Hakka.

TOO

10- W»iich«yw.

4ai

5k Haak\>w (Bsandarin).

316

11. Taii«chew(>MiidariDV

415

«. .\ingpOk

\H

Hainan has a dialect d ito own. called the dialect of Kiungchow Pu^ which is the most wid«>Iy sprvad in the island. It is near akin to the Aaaoy ^M $watow dmlects^ I by 3 3

CHAPTBR II. LAMUAGB0. 349

CauuractortaUcs •T ilie CHhlnese I^lnciimge. -^ The

principal characteristics of the Chinese language may be reduc- ed to the 4 following:

l"*. It is tH^nmgyiiab^ This must however le restricted to the book style, for the spoken language has several dissyllabic expressions, formed either by a combination of two symbols, or by the addition of an auxiliary particle joined to the primitive ideograph.

2''. It is t<ii<ft>Z0elecl, which gives it a simplicity and terseness unparalleled in any other language. The relations of words to one other are determined by position and the use of auxiliary particles. These latter precede or follow the symbol, and thus perform the duty of affixes, prefixes, noun and adjective termi- nations, tenses, prepositions, conjunctions, and all that is called grammar in Western languages. This terseness and economic simplicity constitute the great difiioulty of the language.

3®. The ideographs or symbols express neither letters nor words, but things or noHans.

4®. It has no alphabet but a system of initials and finals called ^'fantsMeh*' ^ ^ (fan, meaning to turn back ; and ts'ieh, to cut), and introduced by Buddhist monks from India. This helps to give the sounds of the ideographs, the tone or sh6ng Jjf being indicated by the word used as final. In this system, the initifBil of one sound is joined to the final of another, to form a third which expresses the sound of the given character, as f-ang 'Jj- and w-dn ^ make f^n ^. (On the Mongolian language, see below. Book II. Ch. I. and II.).

Clitaese Clomieier-wHtlng. — The early Chinese charac- ters seem to have been pictorial representations, or rough symbols of natural objects and phenomena, each symbol representing a single object, as <{< (chw'an) running water or stream, il] (shan) a mountain, \ (j6n) a man, [] (k'ow) the mouth etc.... These symbols however, gradually underwent modifications, and it is difficult to make out in the present characters the objects which were originally represented. The number of written symbols or characters is considerable. K^amghsl^s /jj^ ^ dictionary

350 SBCnOlf T. TCLHieAL AMD BGOMNaC MOMAPBT.

contains 44,449 of them. No soholar knows them all thovou^ilj, and practically there are but 7 or 8,000 of them employed. Bach character comprises two parts : a radical or key, indicatiiig the general meaning, and a phonetic part indicating the proniincia- tion. The number of radicals varied, some lexicographers giving 500, others 300, and under the Ming fj^ dynasty 214. The authors of K^anghsi's dictionary adopted this last number, and this method has been followed down lo the present day.

The written symbols are the same throughout the whole empire. The inhabitants of Pokien, Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Oh^ kiang and 8. Kiangsu pronounce them differently, and even add some other characters, to express sounds and idioms peculiar to their own dialects.

liB—sg IMaliirta. — The Miaotze, Ikias, Lolos, Ifosoe and other tribes, have their own dialects and manner of writing, which are completely different from those of the Chinese. Some tribes employ symbols or ideographs, while others have rudi- mentary alphabets.

Cnhlneae Utomtare. — The literature of China is very voluminous. The Emperor KUmUum^ (^ |g| (1736-1796) divided all these works into famr etaaaes : 1*. Ciaasiea or JCfH# fi; 2: HUHmrioalwmrks or Shi ^; 3^ FlUimeophUwa wmHts or ne ^; 4*. LUerary emmfiiaiimne or T9ih ||. This last category com- prises especially collections of celebrated authors.

y. Rdigions.

Religion is taken here in the sense of doctrine or system. Thus there are in China ^^ree primcipai reU0imHs, called by the name of the S dmOtimss or SatUbimo H Hc - CsmAiekmsimn, the only orthodox doctrine ; Taoiem and JDtMliXMam. Of these 3 sjTstems, the two former are indigenous, Buddhism being introduced from India in the early part of the christian era. Taoism and Buddhism have received at times official patronage, and a large amount of toleration, because it was thought that their doctrines agreed with Confucianism, but they were also often persecuted, one or the other, by the Qovemment.

CHAPTIB II. BKLWHHIS. 351

or MMam {§ j|f[ (doctrine of the literati). — CSonfuoianism is chiefly the system of the literary class. It is not so much a religion as a poiMeo-tfCIMcol coda of state-govern- ment, and social etiquette, gathered from the writings of Confucius (K*ung Putze ^ ^ :f . B.C. 551-479) and his disciples. There is no place in it for a primary cause, and no relation between man and this cause. Man is said to know good, but fails to perform it. Instruction and example are set forth as remedies against this weakness. The Sage insists on the fulfilment of social duties — obedience to authority, filial piety, kindness, friendship, concord with neighbours, moderation and economy, propriety and courtesy— because they lead to temporal happiness and fame, and will be rewarded in man's posterity. He had a poor idea of man's happiness. The whole system is incomplete, and proposes a commonplace ideal, which pervades all Chinese life and conduct.

Though he died in 479, it was not until B.C. 49 that his doctrine obtained favour at Court. It reached its acme under the Sung Jff dynasty (A. D. 420-478), and was subsequently expounded by Chuhsi ^|Jf (A.D. 1130-1200), as a great political means for paternal government and social order.

Confucius received the titles of ^Htmoher and exampie /br ten ih&umjmd peart^, and ^equai with heaven and earths (these two latter are the supreme object of state worship). His temples abound throughout the land, and are placed in large areas ornamented with trees and water, and in close connection with the government examination-halls. Sacrifices are offered to him by the Emperor, at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. Oxen and sheep are slain, and silk, wine and fruit offered. The mandarins are present. No prayers are used, but prostrations are made before the tablet of the Sage. Children on entering school make the same reverences, and also literati, after taking their degrees.

Ta^lsiii or Taekiao ^ j|f[ (doctrine of the right way). — Taoism is a more abstruse philosophical system than Confucian- ism, and is filled with misty and enigmatic ideas. It may be

352

cmlled a crude atlempl to explain, how all thiags erohred out of chaos, or the Tagoe onknown. The sjitem is chiefly cxpoaed in the Hisit* JTiiv JHH (f or Ihiiig rinsrfr The work was written bj Mjamme ^ ^ (Grand old man. or venerable philosopher. Bom B.C. 604; time and place of death onknown), and cootiiias 5,320 characters. The return to Am, whatever that mxj mean (the right and correct coarse, or the simplicitj of natere), is held to be the key to homan happiness.

Taoism as a religion nowise represents the abotractiona of Laotze, hot was ioTented by the disciples of the philosopher. These also borrowed mnch from Conlncian and especially from Boddhist literatnre. At the present day, this so-ealled religion is a medley of grotesque polytheism, in which gods, goddeases and genii are numerous. It also panders much to the rhinaaian^n dread of spirits, and dispenses magic swords, incantataoos and charms to ward off evil influences.

mm§miimm or ^fctlsi ^ f|; ;doctrine of Foh or Foh). — Chinese Buddhism is of more recent date than Confucianism or Taoism. Confucius and Laotze lived both in the VI*^ century B.C. The oflBcial introduction of Buddhism into China dates only from the first century of the christian era. In the year A. D. 61, the Bmperor Mingti i^ ^ had a dream, in which a mysterious person told him to go to the W. and seek his law. Hereupon, the Emperor's brother went to India, and brought back Buddhism, instead of the true religion of Christ, which was then being preached in the country. Buddhist literature thus entered China, and subsequently penetrated into Korea and Japan. BudAism, through often peraecuted by the Bmperors 6L China, and obnox- ious to the literati, was easily accepted by the people. It somewhat degenerated in the XIII**^ century, but there was a revival in the XV<^. .\t ihe present day, Buddhisas oonaste in inviting priests for burials, making prostrations beioR Buddha or OmitS>fuh |9 S Pl£ ft* «im1 Us disciples, and burning joss- sticks ^sticks of incense made from the dust of TUiious Ooented woods, mixed with a little clay, and used in temples for wonhip) before their statues. Buddhist monks or homes (fhsai the Japanese

Botiflo, a Buddhist priest, and in Chinese, Hpshang %i fH), are generally very ignorant and little considerecjl, though there are found among them a few scholars. They are despised by the people, and he)d up to contejnpt and ridicule. The nuns like- wise hold a very low position in the public estimation.

These three reUgionB are practically blended into mme in the eyes of the great bulk of the people, who practise indiscriminately one or the other, as occasion requires. They add to them the warOUi^ e/^naasHi >» who have also their temples or tz^et^ang |g ^, and tablets or p^aiwei Ml |9[ (a board with the name of the deceased on it). They worship also atrll &fiiHU or mokwei H Jl, believe in the ttwnmn^graHan cfemUs/in merU aequired by sparing animal life, and numerous other eupereHU&us

Besides these three religions, the most widely diffused in China are 8ha$nan4sm, €fhH9UamUw and MahotnedmUenu

ShminrnttiBm prevails chiefly among the tribes of Yiinnan and Kweichow, in S.W. China. They fear spirits, worship natural objects (the sun, wind, mountains, rivers etc.) and have wizard-priests, who propitiate with offerings the malevolent spirits.

ClurtaiteBHjr is spread throughout the whtile df China, in two different forms, the CaiihMe and the BreUitkmM*

CMlMlleism is called in China THeitd^u-iUM ^ ^ fi:, or HaMrlOft «/ ihe Ijord «/ Jfesrefs this name having been adopted to signify that the proper object of its worship is the true and living Cod, Creator of Heaven and Barlh, and not the material heavens, which together with the earth, are the object of Imperial worship in China. Catholicism is the ancient religion revealed by Ood to man, at the origin of the world, and which Christ, Son of Ood and God himself, perfected 1900 years ago. It teaches that there is but one personal and supreme Ood, whd is the Creator of heaven and earth, and to whom alone is diie divine honour. It acknowledges but one true and universal

23

l^

354 8BGTION y. POLITICAL AKJb BCCHfOMIC ftBO0RAFHT.

Church, to which all men are called. The power and mission of this Church do not come from man, but directly from Ood, and its object is to help all men to be good, to save their souls imd lead them in accordance with Cod's will to eternal hap- piness in heaven.

The Catholic Church reckons at present in China about one million believers.

Whether S* ThomM, one of the twelve Apostles of Christ, carried the light of the Gospel to the Chinese Empire, is not sufficiently goAranteed, but certain it is that some of his disciples early announced the new faith to the country.

The first historical monument attesting the introduction of Christianity into China dates from the YIII*^ century. It is a stone slab discovered in AJ>. 1625, near the oity of Singan Fu, in Shensi. It bears the dAte of A J>. 781, and was erected by the Nestorians, a Christian sect separated from th^ main body of Catholics, and whopro> bably came from Syria or Persia. According to this slab, the Nestorians then poppeaocd several churches and monasteries, and enjoyed liberty to preach the Oospel. They mfty \ . even have erected their first church as early as 686. The Nestorians were banished in *' • y J A.D. 845, by an edict of the Emperor Wntstmg t^ffj^oi the T*ang Jlf dynasty.

Scattered groups however continued to live in China during the following centuries, and the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, found several Nestorian oongregations at Kashgar, Samaroand, and even at Peking, towards the close of the XIII^ century. \n the second half of the same century, and during the XIV***, several Ctetholio Missionaries were sent to China by the Boman Pontiffs and by Catholic Soverojgi^s^ The best known are the Dominican Andrew of Longjumsau^ and the Franciscans John de Piano Carpini^ William of Bubruquitf and John of Montecortnno. In 1807, this last reached Khanbalig (Peking), the capital of China, and was appointed Archbishop, with seven suffragans, by Pope Clement V^^. He retained his bishopric until his death, which occurred in 1330. His successor in the see of Peking was NiehoUta Bonnet.

The Mongol invasion of Tamerlnne closed the land-route to China, and so the Missionaries had henceforth to reach the country by sea. ( Dominicans and Franciscans attempted at various times to found churches in

. the S. They set out from Manila and Macao. The Portuguese occupied this latter place ; towards the middle of the XVI^ century, and a bishopric was erected there in 1557.

St Franols Xavler was the first Jesuit who attempted to enter China. He started from Malacca, but died in 1552, at the island of Sbangohw*an or Sanoian, off the Canton coast. Shortly afterwards, a missionary of the same Order, Matthew Bicei (called in Chinese Li Matow ^ 41 V)> succeeded in entering the country. In 1583, Bicci settled at Chaoking Fn fli glJRf, then the official capital of the Two Kwang Pro- vinces. In 1588, he removed his residence to Nanoh'ang Fu Kf B MP) >ii Kiangsi Pro- vince. He subsequently extended his labours to Nanking M £l) which he reached in 15!^. Here, observing that the success of his mission was at the mercy of local mandarin caprice, he set out for Peking, and after two unsuccessful journeys (1595 and 1598), finally settled in the capital of the Empire, in the year 1601. He there secured

GHAFTIK II. RBLieiONS. 355

the esteem and good-will of the Emperor, and of the learned class, and was thus enabled to open China to other Missionaries. One of his principal converts in the capital was the HanUn Doctor Sii Kwangk'i 49^ A JK« a native of Shanghai. The tomb of this famous man is at Siikiahwei Ik X H (locally pronounced Sicawei), and the Jesnit Observatory is so called from its being in the vicinity of the monument. When Ricci died in 1610, the Emperor himself offered a burial ground for his mortal remains, and a great concourse of the literary class attended his funeral.

After Ricci, several Catholic Missionaries : Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Augustinians, came to preach the Gospel in China.

It was owing to his scientific knowledge that Ricci won the favour and esteem of the Chinese, flis successors retained them by the same means. Among them, two are especially famous : Schall and Verbiest.

Adaai SdMill wmt Bell (1591-1660), known in China under the name of Tang \ Johwang 9 ^ S* reached the country in 1622. I

Schall settled at first in Singan Fu, in Shensi Province. Summoned to the Court, to I reform together with Fr. James Rho the imperial calendar, he was appointed President / of the Board of Astronomy and Mathematics. The Emperor Ch'ungchdn mm held him in / great e8teem,and when this prince succumbed in the catastrophe of the Ming QQ dynasty, the new Emperor of the Tats'ing /C ffi or present reigning house, maintained the Missionary in the same honourable position. Schall obtained an imperial decree securing the preaching of the Gospel throughout the Empire, and guaranteeing pro- tection for converts. Thanks to this favour, 100,000 Christians were received into the | Church in the short space of 14 years.

Verbieal (1628-1688), known in China under the name of Nan HwaijSn R#|t:. t entered the country in 1659. Schall ordered him to come to Peking to assist him in his \ astronomical labours. He too became President of the Board of Mathematics, and the Emperor K'anghsi JH |K showed him the most sincere friendship. When he died, the Board of Rites prescribed the honours to be paid him, and his funeral was carried out at the expense of the State. The Emperor wrote his eulogium, and had it engraved upon his tombstone.

Notwithstanding the Imperial favour in Peking, the native converts had neverthe- less to suffer many persecutions throughout the Provinces. They did not cease however to increase in number. The first pioneers of the Gospel were soon followed by the French Foreign Missions, and when the Society of Jesus was suppressed in Europe, the Vinoentians or Lazarists took up and continued its labours in China.

The propagation of the Gospel, which experienced a set-back at the close of the '• XVIII^ century and the opening of the XIX**>, started with renewed vigour in the latter | half of the present century. Its progress was frequently Hindered by persecutions, the i , last of which was in 1900, when the blood of thousands of martyrs flowed at the hands of ^ the Boxers. The preaching of the Gospel is now officially authorized by treaty. The divi- sion of the country into Apostolic Vicariates, and the apportionment of the field between the various religious Orders and Congregations, thus preventing overlapping and fric- tion, have further facilitated the task. The annexed table will exhibit in detail the present divisions, the number of vicariates, churches and chapels, convertp and appli- cants for baptism, or in other words, the pratiral result of Catholic Missionary work.

3S6

SBCnON T. POLITiiSAt' AMD BCOMOatC aKMBAVHT.

CATH0U6 MISSIONS nr CHnrA. ues.

ApfMtollC

To Whom Entranled

Beside I ice

1^

1

For- Ni

eiRO tivt

Bap^ ti£ed Coti veria

A HP

licnnti

for

Bftp-

tiim

cbei» or Chap- elt

mrm RetfkNi 1

N. Ohfhll

n

l'«king

Yiiri|:p*iiig

6

1<)

8

4?

1

90,fil? 5.270

80,000

],orD

4^1 2$

w.

n

ChOtktinif

I!

17

Jl

11,880

6,<K»6

344

S.E, „

Inniu

iRsianbaien |(Iidbi«ti)

C

4**

20

M»,616

9J79

m

N. H€»llAli

Mil^ n Foiwiyn Minniana

Weiliwei

4i

12

a

5,:boo

7,000

70

S. MjimibariB

Pari*FarmgnMi*nom

Mukden

0

m

7

1S3I3

4,500

to

K.

II

Kinu

il

n

8

14,984

a,725

08

]Si]iigobow- 1 Isiqil^c

Siwviise

37 41

21

15.715

22,300

8,100

s,soo

47

125

w. „

II

SatilAo-ho

6

44

I

0.7SS

4,76«

31*

Sec«i«l ne^iott.

1

Hi (MO

Btt^an Foreiffti Mk-

in

IS

0

5«»0

3

N. Kmiiu

[tiona if

Leaugctiuw

a

1

2.S70

230

23

S, „ (P.A.)

»»

Tslncbow

u

n

i,oai

fiOO

13

N. ShiUii

K«oUei

a

SG

24,100 '

5.000

ao3

s.

Forfffyii Mimom of

iQb'eiiRku

5

3

11,100

0,100

61

H. dhftntl

FmnHscam

T'ttly*fi?«

5

13

10,500

B,m

in

s.

ir

Laug»u

e

22

e

]3;«n

7.52S

113

K, Sbftiilun^

PI

Tstuau

i>

23

If

20,7li|

17.30&

187

B-

iBimn

Cbefoo

B

23

3

10,400

13,560

1B3

a^

German FojTJ^n Mia-

Yl^nchow

fi

411

12

35^)1

^m

147

THinI RfiftlM. 1

W, Honan (PA.)

[Parttm

Sianift^b'f'iig (H8« Chow;

6

S

0

BOS '

800

8

s.

Mit^ ft Foreign MimiortJi

Kftnyang

rt

12

10

11.300

0,000

S3

E. Hup^b

Franri»riinn

Wucb'ftMir

5

St

17

»3,:i04

20,000

105

N.W. .,

If 1

jL»olio-k*<>w KSijwig>'»Tjg)

6

12

1$

um

7,000

75 1

S.W. ,

i»

Ich**fjg

6

1?

6

9,626

6,67i

75

N. Hunsti

Spanish A nifttittininni

Li Chow

6

U

f

2,184

3.968

as

B.

Frantiat^a ft 9

H«'^n(?chovv

U

10

6

0.116

l,SO0

22

H. Kiaiigii

Vinfjmiiam

Kiukbrig

(}

U

5

11,000

8j000;

110

K>

M

Fuchow

0

SO

@

15,S00

4,a00

56

s.

n

Eibuf^u

@

17

B

7300

2»400

43

CliftkiAng

M

ISiugpo

«

30

17

^,018

10.020

153

hwt-i(KiAti|rTianl

^JrmitM

Shiin^Ii&i

B

127

01

152,873

87,500

9BI

CiUfTMl It. aiLMIOMS.

357

CATHOUC MISSIONS nr CHIHA. 190& (continued).

Vipariates . Apostolic

To Whom Entrusted

Head- quarters and Principal Residence

1

Priests

For- Na- eigii tive

Bap- tized Con-

verts

A|.p.

licants

for

Bap.

tism

ThS?

ohes or Chap- els

VvllVMI ~ He^MB.

Kweichow N.W. Szechw'an E.

s.

YUnnan Tibet

Paris Ftxreign Mia-

[aiona

II

11 II i» II

Kweiyang

Ch»<^ngtn

Ch*ungk4ng

Suifu

YUnnan

Tatsienlu

6^

0 6 0 5 5

48 39 48 45 30 17

17 48 37 13 14 1

24,018 22,825 40,000 11,078 34,100 17,761 24,000 10,000

9,«M)

2,050

112

105

103

40

71

14

FlfMi meglmm.

Foochow

|4moy

Uongkoug

Kwangtung(P.A.)

Kwangsi (P.A.)

Macao

Spaniah Dominicana

II Milan Foreign Miaaiona

Paria Foreit/n Mia- [aiona

Foochow

Amoy

Hongkong

Canton

Nanning

6 6 G 5

G

87 13 11 09 26 ?

16 1

10

15 4

?

44,799

4,225

18,295

54,(100

8,431

?

26,806 5,80# 2/WO

6,546 ?

116 57 78

490 47 ?

Blission Agencies Trappists

28 6

4

8

Total

1218

555

952,985

t29^l

5,681

Summary

Vicariates ApostoUc 38

PrefecturesApostolic 4

Diocese of Macao and Mission of Hi 2

Priests Foreign i Native 1

1218 5o5

1773

Baptized Converts

Churches

and Chapels

Grand Total for China

-^2

»

953,935

5»68l

The Abbreviations P.A., mean Pcelectures Apostolic, and M., means Mission. In indicating the year of report, we have given but the last figure, thus 5 means 1905, and 6, the year 1906. The number of Priests comprises the Bishops. The other helpers, Foreign and Chinese, are not mentioned in this list. It may be also gathered from these statistics that there is but one priest to attend to evezy 587 baptized converts ; that out of every 1,717 such converts, one native priest is famished for the ministry ; and finally, that for one native convert who has entered the Church, there are still 430 pagans outside th« fold, or in other words, that the number of catholic converts is but the ^^ pArt of the total population of the Chinese Empire.

358

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OBOeiUPHT.

Korea and Japan. 1906.

Mid 1 lo^^hom Apo«lo|ic '

— IKd-" ^ iluarterB

FlindpAl RpBidetioe

T

1

6

For \m-

Chur- ches qr Cli»p

Kon*» (V.A ) PiuhFvnifuMi^fHi^

Seoul

42

Id

61,290 le,430

6S

Tofcio (Areh l)j

Tokio

$

35

»,4ftS 1

39

V*mU (D,

Ouka

6

30

a.9ou j

32

N«ir«Biil^i iiu

Nii|!«««kt

0

3S

2G

43,810 1

01 j

ijAkmtjiit^ m.i 1

Sendni

6

«l

4.2S5I

31

Shtkciliii iP.A.t iiptfUi^h tktmiiiirumit \

KtfLhi

1)

7

300 80

S

on Aiiioyi ^'

Ani^y

e

13

m ,

2,na 200

IS

« Qr»nd TotmJ . 1 Kor^a »«d Jftp«ii 1

290

131,167 |«.7lO

«1

Tli«r altbruvialioiib Arch. D., luvan Archdiocfbi- ; D., dioc«i>«.> : V.A., VicariaU; Apa«»to]ic, ami P. A. Pn'fwturv Apostolic.

is generally called in China mt 9fc or JMifiwt ^ «r«tiMu The Protestant form of Christianity originated in the XVT^^ rpntury. Tt rejected the headship and aattiority of the Catholic Chorch, and set itself up as a free and self-governing Church, based on the Bible interpreted by private judgment. It is divided into numerous sects and denominatioiis, and has in China about 150,000 full adherents.

Prolestaiilism entered China only in |fee befginning of the XDC^ eentofy. Tbe ftnl Protestant Xissionanr to the connlry was the Rev. Robert XoniMn, who anivcd in A.D. I9(C- On accoont of opposition to foce%a>is enterinfr the conntnr, he vas then unable to eaj;a|ee in dirert eTanfr^Ucal work. He thetefote directed his eneifj- to lite> nury iind<»Ttakin^ and pablished a lar|ce dictionaiy. and a Chinese traMdatioti of the New TKtament Tliis latter appeared in 1811. Tlie tame 5«ar, he TiaptiMil the fint Protectant <x>n\-ert in China. In 1818. he be^an, tofeether with I^ Milne, 1 of the Old T^vtament into Chinese. It was printed firoin wtJod-blodEs* aad in It^SS^ About the same time, an .\q^lio-Chinese coDsfce was opened at 1 the newly arrired Piote^tant 3li«cioaiarie8 wttled, and wne trained in tbe lancna^ and cnttomss till more faTorable ctrnunstancws alhmvd tlMM to rntii the conntrr. Sleanwhik foonU of moveable types w^ere cast* ill Him J to iiptoee the ^ bkclEi which D» Movrison had first employed.

.CHApm ii. ULiaiOMB... 3S9

In addition to the English Missionaries, others came from America to Macao in 1880.

After the Nanking treaty of 1842, opening the five {wrts of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Sttianghai, the Missionaries proceeded from Malacca to China, and others soon arrived from home. Twelve Missionary Societies immediately estahlished them- selves in these ports, and there opened schools, hospitals and dispensaries. Since then, more treaty ports have been opened, and numerous other Missionary Societies followed the first, the principal being the "American Methodist Bpisoopalians" (South), ^'Baptists" (of the Southern Convention, Missionary Union, Independent Movement, and Seventh- day), "Presbyterians" (North, South and Reformed), and the "China Inland Missicm", which started work in 1853.

Besides the distribution of Tracts and Bibles, and the establishing of Churches, they have opened colleges and schools, and translated numerous works, religious and scientific, into Chinese. They publish also several periodicals, and have hospitals and dispensaries in the principal cities where they work.

It is now one hundred years since they commenced work in China. We append here the state of their Missions for the year 1902, as published by the Rev. Timothy Richard, no complete statistics having appeared since that date :

OrdainedMen 610

Unordained Men (including Physicians) 578

Missionaries' Wives 772 Other Missionary Women (including Physicians) 825

Native Workers (both Sexes) 6,888

Ifissionary Stations or Residences 653

Missionary Out-stations 2,476

Communicants 112,808

Adherents, not Communicants 91,864

Day-schools 1,819

Pupils in same 85,412

Higher Institutions 170

Students in same 5,150

Foreign Male Physicians 162

Foreign Women Physicians 79

Hospitals or Dispensaries 257

Patients during year reported 691,782

The following is a full list of Protestant Missions in all China, alphabetically arranged. The table gives the date of their starting work in China, the number of foreign Missionaries, male and female, including physicians, the number of native helpers of both sexes, and the total native constituency, comprising communicants and adherents, not communicants. The results tabulated are those supplied by the various Societies themselves.

I t

li".

t

SECTION T. )kfLmijas amb fecMokic aioasAPHT. Statiitics of Proteftaat Wiiions in all China, IMS.

NAMES OP SOCIETIES.

oo2

AXXUCAM SOCKTIEH.

American Advent Miesion Sodeiy 1897

American Baptist Missionary Union 1843

American Bible Society 1876

American Board of Fon>ign Missions 1830

American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions ... 1890

American Norwegian (Lutheran) China Mission ... 1899

Board of Foreign Missions, Presb. Church, North 1814 ■Board of Foreign Mission, Iteforraed Church in

America 1842

Board of Mission & Church Erection, Cumb. Presb. 1898

Board of Missions of the M. E. Church, South ... 1S48

Christian and Missionary Alliance 1890

Pom. and For. M. S., Protestant Episcopal Church 1835 Exec. Com. of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian

. Church, South 1867

Foreign Christian Missionary Society 1886

Foreign Department, Y. M. C. A. North America 1P9.5

Foreign Mission Board, Southern Baptist Convention 18 15 Foreign Mission Committee, Presbj'terian Church,

Canada 1888

Gospel Mission (Independent Baptist Missionary

Movement) 1892

Hauges Synod's China Mission 1892

Home and Foreign Missionarj' Society, United

Kvang. Church 1900

Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada 1891

Missionary- Society of the Methodist EpiscopalChurch 1847

Mission Board of Seventh-day Adventists 1888

Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America 1891

Scandinavian American Christian Free Blission ... 1888

Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Soci<'ty 1847

Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America 1890 Synod of Reformed Presbyterian Church in North

America 1897

Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, M.E. Church,

South 1878

Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, Blethodiat

Prot. Church 1000

Woman's Missionary Association, United Brethren

in Christ 1889

Woman's Missionary Society, Methodist Church,

Canada 1893

AVoman's Union Mibbic)nary Society 1881

4 77

7

95 10

7 188

24 5 31 49 52

68 25 12 49

21

18 10

2

14

159

1

55

6

6

6

5 143 ISI 405 16 7 502

? 135

31

14

12

1,065

15

16

5

2

4.3

19 20

Communi-I' canta.

Natiy OonatitoeBcy.

AdlMrBBt^

not com; nmnicftniU

25

2,887

6,017 77 30

1,874

1,180

?

1,294

392 365

2,410

180

20

18

25 25,244

44

100 51 87

58

5,40S

790

?

70

4,285 61 00

2^18

CBAPTBA II. aiLieiONB.

StatifticB of Frptertant Hiisions ii| •!! Chilli^, W/SL (contiimed).

961

NAMES OF SOCIETIES.

Native Constitaenoy.

British Societies.

Baptist Missionary Society

Baptist Zenan* Mission

Bible Christian Home and Foreign Missionary

Society ... ...

l^ritish and Foreign Bible Society

Christian Missions (oommonly called "Brethren*')

Church Missionary Society

Church of England Zenana Missionary Society ... Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committ«>e dburch of Scotland Women's Association for F. M. Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian Church, Ireland Foreign Missions Committee, Presb. Church,

England

Friends* Foreign Mission A ssociation

London Missionary Society

Methodist New Connexion Missionary Society ...

Missions to Seamen ...

Mission to Lepers in India and the East ... ...

Mission to the Chinese Blind

National Bible Society of Scotland

Society for Propag. of the Gospel (North China

Mission)

United Free Church of Scotland Foreign Missions United Methodist Fren Churches, H.and F. Missions Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society

1S59

1885

4,652

6.;(58

206

1,589

4,795

16

7,CU0

2,640

IU,185

9,212

12,600

96

4,059

2,000

49d

10,015

2,500

2,6li7

445 2,»55 :%400 8,215

Continental Societies.- AUg. evangelisch'protestantischer Missionsverein

Berliner Frauenverein fClr China ,

Danske Missionsselskabs

Deutsche Blindenmission in China, in Hildesheim

Deutsche Ohina-Allianz-Mission

Svangelische MiFsions-Gesellschaft, Basel

Frauen Verein fiir christliche Bildung des weibli-

chen C«eschlechteR in Morgenlande ...

Oes. z. Beforderung d. ev. Missionen unter d. Heiden

Norsk Luthersk Kinamissionsforbund

Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft

Sallskapet Svonska Baptist Missionin

Svenska Blissionsforbundet

Intehnational Society. China Inland Mission

Grand ToUl, 66 Societies.

1885

1896

1889 1852

1900 1882 1894 18»7 1891 1890

1P58

7

4

13

' 1

16

41

1

27 18 22 6 14

779

2,785

1 8 2

15 144

65

23

581

6,888

4.141

1,486 20

100 8.553

112306

11

180 6,197

2,169 ?

91,864

The Foreign Missionaries comprise ordained and unordftined men. Missionaries' wives and physicians. The native helpers comprise workers of both sexes.

362 SECTION ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eSOeRAPHT.

known in China as Mweihwei Mtm B

g jft (returning religion, because they turn to Mecca in prayer), was founded in Arabia by Mahomet, in the VII^^ century of the christian era. Part of its doctrine is borrowed from the Jewish religion or from Catholicism, while other parts are due to the * founder himself. Mahomedans came to China for the first time in the IX^^ century, as traders. Some entered the country from central Asia, while others arrived through the seaport towns of Canton and Hangchow. Much of the science and arts of the West was brought to China by them. In 1272, a Mussulman observatory was established in Peking. In 1311, it is again mentioned in Chinese annals, and lasted till 1622, when tiie Jesuit, Adam Schall, was appointed President of the Board of Mathematics. In 1645, the Mussulmans of Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan, sent tribute to Peking. Mussulmans are found a4 present especially in the N.W. and 8.W. of China. In Shensi Kl[ If, there are 4 millions, and in Kansu '^ Jfl, about 6 millions of them. In Yiinnan ^ ||f, they number from S to 4 millions. These three Provinces contain four-fifths of the whole Moslem population of the country, which according to official censuses reaches from 15 to 20 millions. Peking has 200,000 Mussulmans, who monopolize the inn and cart trade of fhe N. Socially, they keep aloof from the Chinese, and do not intermarry with pagans. In regard to religion, they have been treated by China with the broadest toleration, and are eligible to all posts in the State open to ordinary Chinese. The principal mosques are found at Singan Fu, Nanking, Hangchow and Canton.

There have been several rebelljons of considerable impor- tance by the Mahomedans against the Chinese government. AH these troubles have grown out of the occupation of Kashgar by China in 1760. The two principal uprisings are known as the Tungan and Panttiay revolts.

) the TmtHHm rev9H broke out in Kansu in 1861. and was

I. '

'. caused by the Moslem aspiration to restore the Khoja dynasty. The rebellion spread Westward, and extended to Hi and Eastern Turkestan or Kashgaria. In 1871, Russia occupied Hi, and

CHAPTiR II. RiLieiora. 363

held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. In 1872, the Chinese General Tso Tsungt*ang 2lc ^ ^) at the head of the Imperialists, attacked the rebels, and took successively their strongholds, at Hami, Urumtsi, Yarkand and Kashgar. The revolt was finally crushed by the taking of Khotan, 3^^ Janvary, 1878. This Northern rebellion lasted 17 years, and exerted a most depopulating effect upon the Empire. The number of those | who were killed is estimated to be about 10,000,000. (a&e p. 31).

The BmtUhai^ rev9H originated in Yiinnan in 1856. The \ Lolos also joined in it. It was caused by local tyranny, the success of the Mahomedans in gold-mining, and the ill-will and treachery of the Chinese officials. The Mussulmans seized Tali Fu« and in 1858, held the whole of Yiinnan, except the Capital. In 1872, the Viceroy Ts6ng Kwohfan ^ 0 |§ and the Chinese general, Yang Yuhk^o ;|| ^ ^, attacked and recovered Tali. Relentless cruelty and wholesale massacres marked the victory. Seventeen chieftains were beheaded^ 20,000 of the defenceless people of the city put to the sword, and 24 large baskets full of human ears sent to Yiinnan Fu. The Sultan's head was severed from his body, and sent preserved in a jar of honey to Peking. The Panthay rebellion lasted 16 years, and was well nigh wresting Yiinnan from its allegiance to Peking. Like the North- ern rebellion, it resulted in largely depopulating the Province and ruining local industry. {8&e p. 174, 181 and 183).

¥■<■!■■■ — The Jewish religion is represented at present in China, by a colony of about 400 Israelites, who are found at K'aifung Fu f^ ^ Jif, capital of Honan fif |f| Province. They are in a state of ignorance and poverty, and their creed has almost died out in the midst of their heathen surroundings.

Their religion seems to have been introduced into China at the close of the X^^ century, or even as late as the XII^^, if we credit some stone tablets and inscriptions. The oral tradi- tion of the colony states however, that their ancestors came to J China under the »n|ier>r M4mgU ^ f^, of the Mmn g| dynasty, J between A.D. 58 and A.D. 76, or perhaps even before the \ christian era.

4\ Educatim.

— In former times, Ohina properly speakiiig had no educational system. Two principal forms of instructiotr could however be distinguished, elementary and secondary.

MiemetUmrif Mm^rucNmu — This was imparted to childrm within their families, by private pedagogues^ or by teachers in small schools. These schools were seldom frequented by more than 20 pupils. Parents and guardians were free to send their children to school. There were no schools for girls, and their education was generally neglected. Masters received lio salary from the State, but the families of the pupils paid them a small remuneration. No certificate or grade was required for teaching, and no book or curriculum was compulsory. There was however a selection of books and a programme imposed by tradition.

The child began by memorizing the Classics for 4 or 5 years. During all this time the meaning of the characters was not explained. There was no class-system, but each boy made a class by himself. Play was unknown, and was considered a waste of time. At the end of the 4 or 6 years' memorizing, an explanation or translation of the book style was given in easy language (m0 above, p. 347. n"" 1). This explains how a good many Chinese can read the characters, but do n<^ understand them, and are in fact illiterate. If the boy wished to proceed a stage further, he was taught letter-writing and easy tempoei- tion. This latter required little intelligence, being largely made up of quotations, allusions, antithetical phrases and word-particles.

The whole system laboured under serious disadvantages, resulted in a considerable waste of time and had no educational value. The memory and imitative power were marvellously develop'ped, but the mind was not stored with valuable ideas, nor trained to precision or accuracy, and there was an otter lack of originality.

Secondary JbuirueUmn. — This comprised beyond the pri- mary stage a short course of Chinese literature, a smattering of

'..V. . GHAvrm ^ir. . . BauCATiw 365

history gleaned principally from the annals of ancient times, the writing of literary essays, and some artificial verse making.

The curriculum being completed, the student could test his proficiency, and compete at the Civil Examinations. These were three in number, and in each of them a degree corresponding to our B. A., M. A., L.^.D., was conferred upon successful candidates.

The pTtH wmpHM^ eBoam4fnaN»n took place in the Prefec- tunfd city. , The degree conferred was that of aiMU^mi H ^ (budding talent) or B.A.

The 99e9nd eoeamlfnaHon took place at the Provincial capital. Successful candidates were styled J(ll#l» ^ \ (promoted scho- lars) or M.A., also called Provincial graduates.

The IMr« MmHiMrflm was held at Peking ^ Hf,. The degree obtained was that of XMimM |K db (entered scholar) or L.L.p., also called Metropolitan graduate.

A large number of candidates competed at each of these examinations, but only a small percentage was received. Thus out of 12,000 or 20,000, who competed at the second examina- tion held in each Provincial capital, the number received was between 110 and 100. Again, out of 6,000, who underwent the third examination in Peking, about 320 were received, or a little over 5 per cent.

Before undergoing a superior examination, it was necessary to hfive passed the preceding inferior one. There were however spine exceptions through privilege. Several inferior degrees coald be secured by purchase.

The second and third examinations were held but once every tiiree years. Through privilege, or on the occasion of Imperial rejoicing, they sometimes took place more frequently.

The exercises proposed at these examinations comprised original poems and literary essays or WPntJummg ^ j|^ upon texts selected from the Glassies. Each examination lasted thnmgh several sessions or days, three for the B. A. and M. A. degrees, and one for the L.L.D. degree.

Bach Province had a fixed number of admissions for the

S66 SICTiaif T. POLITICAL AMD BGONOIflC MOMAFHT.

M.A. and L.L.D. degrees. Those for the M.A. were as follows :

Ch^kUng

104

Kansn 40

Nganhwei

55

Chihli

280

Kumgsi 104

70

Fokien

100

KiAngBU 87

BhADtung

71

79

Kwftngsi 51

Shensi

50

HUBAD

56

Kwangtung 86

Ssecbw*ftn

80

Hapeh

57

Kweiohow 50

YUnnan

64

The number of those who effectively received the M.A. degree in 1903, was however as follows:

Name

Chinese

M.A. Graduates.

M.A. Graduates.

Approx-

of the Provinces.

characters.

Chinese.

Manchus,

imated.

Chdkiang

mu

104

3

18

Chihli (Shunt*ien)

mmmic)

230

27

Pokien

«i

93

3

18

Honan

tm

?

Hunan

mm

57

9

Hupeh

«*

57

3

9

t«

42

6

Kiangsi

am

104

18

Kiangsu

am

92

3

14

Kwangsi

mn

51

9

Kwangtuog

mm

86

2

14

Kweichow

mm

50

8

Nganhwei

*m

50

8

Shansi

aim

70

12

Shantung

Ul»

74

13

Shensi

K«

53

8

Szechw'an

mn

94

II

Yfinnan

•m

'

Under the name of Manchn Ki*(^nAtes are comprised all Manchns, Mongols, and Chinese Bannermen, or descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchn dynasty in the early part of the XVI1"» centary (aee above : Army. p. 329).

It may be seen from thin table that the number of admissions for each Province does not always tally with that which has been previoofdy fixed. — An appro»iwatiMt confers on the recipient no privilege for subsequent examinations.

The number of those who effectively secured the L.L.D. degree in 1904, was as follows :

CHAHU II. BMMUTMN.

S67

ChAldang

20

Kiangsi

20

Shantnng 20

GhihU

22

KiangBU

25

Shensi 10

Pokien

18

Kwangsi

10

Szeohw*au 18

HoDan

17

Kwangtung

16

YUnnan 10

Hunan

13

Kweiohow

10

Manohn Bannermen 8

Hupeh

IS

Nganhwei

15

Manohoria 2

Kansu

7

Shansi

10

The session for obtaining this degree lasted from 15 to 20 days.

It is from the ranks of M.A. and L.L.D. graduates that officials are generally recruited. The grade however confers no substantive office or appointment, but paves the way to sub- sequent official preferment.

Most of the Prefectural cities have two IHteetPrB €f JUmtm $km, styled UwM^^M # ff or Ktoaiwwwi |f[ H.

The Trovinolai Bmmmltt^BrB are generally officials of high literary rank, who are appointed from IVMnir to serve for 3 years in this capacity. They are called Wittlmhthh^ # 0[, vulgo M&lmhtmi 4^ ]|[, or Provincial Literary Chancellors. Each Province has one Provincial Examiner, who resides gene- rally in the Capital of that Province.

Sj«tom •TlMfaMttttoB. — In the year 1902, new regulations were sanctioned by the Emperor, with the purpose of reforming the old system of public instruction avowedly insufficient, and inadequate to the requirements of the present day. In accordance with the same regulations, Betltntf ift Hf. was to have a Owiwiislly teaching the following branches : civil administration, law, literature, science, agriculture, industry, commerce and medicine. To the University were also to be attached a TeekmAtal CMegm for teaching superior branches, JftwuWes^ a rr^fmwwMry Cowrae^ and a ^Meioi Diporimaia/br Uke traHmMng ^ ^ffieUUs amd ^ ieaehers for government schools. Subsequently another Imperial decree, dated September 2^^ 1905, abolished, beginning from the year 1906, the old-style programme and method of examinations, as well as the annual competitions in the Provinces for the obtaining of degrees. The great power and wealth enjoyed by Western countries, the

ma

TV IctdfMrji^ '» » iiuirt 4fe«ea. if a* ^

Grm^f^ liirUm^

jtc—

i — rii—ij ■rEliMifij SAc 4^HlghSeft«»A»

4

3 : Sflr4

ElMMMtefJ Sti«M4ft «« to l« 4

Hi«rli#*T PnaMXT in Uac- District t4i«ikft or 8«b fgkciim».

Miidlfr fklM^i ia tW Pfrftctwal ritiML

Hafiai 4cbo«lt in rrcrr Pfv\innal cafiiAL

nta Vmrenitj mod TeHuucal Ccilktw ar^ to bf r|w«f4 id P«ti^.

Tl^c- ftodj erf f*/rmgn loRgmmpt* v e^^ttmllj Dot Allcm-«>d in e^rtDftttory vrbooln, lArt It ^oKifinH V> tJMr Middk- Mid Hi|!b Sr booU. Efi^^th and Jap*imrw aiv to be piin- «!rf«ll): «todifid, vbilc Fnmcii, G^rvun and Basnan an- optkmaL

Tbe Vuirenaty it to ka\«' ci^t Famltif^ divided iiito 16 brandtea.

candidaUfi arr* aa folkmii.

• Tbe di«reM to be eonfeiv^d «poQ joewarful

i^hi complKini^ tbe Higbcr Piimafy Coorae tbe Middle Ooorae „ the Hif^ Goarae

„ the Univenity Gonrae

„ the Technical CoIU^ Courae

B.A. Piatif^niahed B Jk

L-LD.

i T.C.LLJ>. or { IXKlorofibe f Technical Colli«i

CBAiriK II. IDUCATION. 369

I and Special Sclioola. -^ Besides the ftbove-mentioned Schools, there are Also Lower And Higher Normal Schcgola ; ^ IttdusiricU SchoOl$ (agricultnx^ and manufactures) ; — and Commercial SchooU. The Industrial Schools are divided into three grades, lower, middle and higher.' The Normal Schools are devoted to the training of teachers for the Industrial and Commercial Schools. .£^^ ( . Koseover, there is to be at Peking a special course for th» new LX.!). graduates, . , a. preparatory department for the University ^during the first years)^ and a special

school for translating foreign works, • '''-' '' In future, OfElcials will be selected .from amongst those who have I'eceived a :. modem education. In Kaval and Military Schools, Foreign Instructors are generally employed. In the Government Schools of Chihli and Hupeh, the Foreign Teachers are mostly Japanese.

The Government sends a large number of students abroad, especially to Great Britain, the United-States, France, Germany and Belgium. Of late, many have found their way to Japan. In July 1906, the number of them studying in the Universities of this latter country attained 18,000, half of whom were maintained at Government expense.

During the year 1906, the new system has been carried out with praiseworthy efforts. Officials^and geiftry vied with each other in establishing Schools, elementary and technical, but the pratical results are comparatively small. Lack of funds, and especially of competent teachers, proves a great hindrance to real progress.

Adminiiitration of tbe Sclioolm — The administration of these Schools is to be conducted as follows :

1** A Board of Education in Peking. This will be composed of High Literary Officials.

'T A Provincial Bureau^ with a special Staff for each Province.

8^ A Local Educational Bureau, to which will be admitted leading members of the gentry of the place.

• 4^ A Provincial Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees on candidates from the Middle and High Schools.

5^ A Metropolitan Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees on University candidates.

Primary education is granted free of cost, and is not compulsory. A tuition, fee itf td be paid for all other grades, except in Normal Sshools, where the expenses are defrayed by the Government, but students must engage to teach during a period of six years in the State Schools.

The programme and moral tone of the Government Schools are exclusively Con- :. 'fueianiBt^ and the teacbing of foreign religions is prohibited.^

Prhraie and lllBflioii Schools. — Numerous private Schools have been , opened in the large towns and other important centres, by the local gentry, and by leading merchants. Mission schools and colleges are also nuTnerous throughout the coun- try, Roman Catholic predominating. The Shanghai Catholic Mission has a University, a College and Industrial School at Sicawei, 5 miles from Shanghai, and maintains, in and around Shanghai, 50 other schools, with an attendance of .S,750 pupils. The Protestants have Universities at Peking, Nanking, Shanghai and Soochow, and several Colleges and Schools throughout the Empire. — All these Schools offer opportunities for general CQlture, and tend to develop an enlightened and useful citizen. Their aim is to

370 8ICTI0N T. MLinCAI. AND BGOMOillG MOftBAPBT.

bring up "Young China** at home, and give a thorough Uterary, scientific and practical wluoation. Instruction ia given in both Western and Chinese languages.

OMMltyle Mlltlarj ITiaMhiatli— — These examinations oompriaed IHdb th« civil ones thrve sessions. The first was awarded the title of MiUia/rff B.A. at Wu SiuU'ai K 9 1*. the second that otJrilitoryjr.il. or Wu KUjin tt9A» and the third, that of JTili/ary X. X. i>. or IFm Ttintki A S ±. little knowledge of if^tt^^rs however was required of the candidate. T6 pass successfully, he waa to be above all a man of muscle, and show it in the lifting of heavy weights, swctdmanahip and skiU in archery.

The number of graduates was fixed for each Province. The aggregiate lor the whole Kmpirv was 99S military B JL. s. and 128 mHitaiy L.Ti.D. s.

It was fr>>m the ranks of successful candidates that mHilaiy ofBcera wen neatly recruited. Having scarcely any knowledge of letleim, of tactioB, gnnneiy, engiiiecKiDg or foriifk-ationsi they w«iv generally little esteemed by the people.

The abov>» old-style of examinaiion is now abolished, and the New Anny is drilled^ armed and disciplined in foreign style. Soldiering is bemming mora rriwsiiBUhl, and eveiy endeavour madeto organise a national aimy {wmm above; Ansy. pu 3B-38).

O^' THE CmSBSB PEOPLE,

osi<?iy, Fx^rvutTios. social life xxd csjleactemistics.

li» C^isrcy — L ^r:^ ire Jh£ yCisec Fsrs^

Wve^'^iMivlteei F <— La Kf«eo>ra3d.*c:

Iisei>in T m. - i^ti::=A rz Lnw aai v>atatti<cw. N*w-\jck. ISI^ P^ysacal FVMkS%:M«» ss»i \.V^;3z». CH I ^. :>3S.

L.*»d»u :>«fl^ r^h^aLasKy EssucF I?' I&aacy. Ch. IL U>4i^: ] «*• EL fw ^-94.

»«T 50vk : Oh. I ?. :^. 3*.wi» T^ IXp. :

•^ C%e«wae«imm — I*s OuLaHn Mmfiute Oux^ie Sii^usiita^. ~ Fq,

Wto^^r Ik-^TiA'Sr* i.sjojr?nii«;. S^litta *r. ?r(itli«eMn{qH« ;f« 2iaSLm{inMi. H^^ ]

'CHAVTBR n. ' POPULATION.

371

y SmiUi A. — Bstimftting the Pepulfttion of Ghinft. Recorder. Shanghai, 1893. (Vol. XXIV. p. 2980). -^ Parker E. H — Population and Bevenne of China. (Otia Mersiana. 1899).

Chinese Bepository. — Virtues and Vioes of the Chinese. (Vol. IX. p. 284-288).

81 r H. O. ~ China and the Chinese. London, 1849. (National Character and Vioes. Vol. n. Ch. XV. p. 419^25).

1¥llliaBaMi.»The Middle Kingdom. New- Tork, 18ei. (Lights and Shades of Chinese Character. Vol. U. Ch. XIV. p. 95-99>.

Ije^enclre IK A. F. — Deux Ann^s au Setchonen. Paris, 1906. (L'Ame Chi- noise. Ch. XUV. p. 433-474).

Hoolittle J. — Social Life of the Chinese. New- York, 1867.

SmiUi A. — Chinese Characteristics. New- Tork. S>« edition. 1908.

Smtth A. — Village Life in China. New- York, 1903.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Characteristics of the Chinese People, p. 157-167).

PartLer B. H. — China : Her History, Di- plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Personal Characteristics. Ch. XIV. p. 260-279).

Kraoflse A. — The Far East. London, 1903. (Character of the Chinese, p. Vyjn 109; 185-137).

Parker E.H. — John Chinaman. London, 1901.

Doaclaa Sir R. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Village Communities. — Mechanics and Merchants.— Filial Piety and the Position of Women. — Marriage. -!- Food and Dress. — Amusements).

M" J. -> Chinese Scenes an4 People. London, 1863.

Winterliothn m. — View of the Chinese Empire. London, 1795. (Manners and Customs of the Chinese. Ch. VIII. p. 864-398).

Holcomb. — The Beal Chinaman.

Lay T. — The Chinese as they are. Lon- don, 1841.

OheDS Kiianff. — The Chinese painted by Themselves. Eng. Edition by J. Mi|-' lington. London, 1885.

Bard E. — Les Chinois chez qux, Paris, 1900.

Coamiit M. — En Chine : MoBurs et Ins- titutions, Hommes et Faits. Paris, 1901.

Leboocq. — Lev Associations en Chine. Paris, 1880.

Pol Hori^an. — Chinois e# Chin^iiseries.- Paris, 1902.

EionB* — Politesse Chinoise. Chang-hai, 1906.

Boaa^ P. ~ Le Mariage Chinois. Chang- hai, 1898.

Oobbold R. H. — Pictures of the Chinee^ drawn by Themselves. Ix)ndon, 1880.

Marilna R. F. — Manners and Customs of the Chinese at Macao. Shanghai, 1877.

Le CVmipte L. — Memoirs and Observa- tions made in a Journey through th% Empire of China. London, 1697. (Of the peculiar Character of the Chinese Na- tion, its Manners, its good and bad Qualities. Letter V. p. 119-149. — Of the particular Character of the "Wit and Temper of the Chinese. Letter VIII. p. 209-240).

Jonea A.G.— Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette. (Recorder. Shanghai, 1906).

ABORIGINAL BA0E8 OF CHINA.

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Sifans, Lolos,

Hiaotse. Vol. I. p. 2S-34). Oroatof . — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Sifans, Lolos, Miaotze.

Vol. L Oh. V. p. 208-222). IVInlerliollMUB. ~ View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. (Tribes subjected

to the Chinese. Ch. UI. p. 144-148). Vial P. — Les Lolos : Histoire, Beligion,-

MoBurs, Langue, Ecriture. Chang-hai,

1896.

Vial P. — L*Esprit et le CoDor chez les

Lolos. (Annales des Missions-Etrang^res.

Paris, 1905. p. 129 sq.). Deblenne. — Baces de la Chine Mdridlo-

nale. (Mission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1888.

p. 347-386). Les Pan-y, les I-jen, lesTou-jen. (Missions

Cathdiques, 1877-1878). OralMMilllel.— Les Lolos du Setch*ouan.'

(Missions Oath. 1873. p. 71-72; 95-98;

105-107).

372

SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC eSOaBAPHT.

Be Harto^ — L'Bthnognphie dn Midi de la Chine.

Oftvalerie. ^ Chez les Choay-kia. (An- Dales dee Misdona-Etrangires. 1899. p. 101107).

Les Miaotse et les Tohong-kia. — ( Annales des MissionB-Etraiig^res. 1904. p. SS^ S57).

Mom tf'Afliy. — - Bxounion dans le Pays Chan Chlnois. Chang-hai, 1900.

UfitaWL — Les A-D}h et les Lon-Oo. (Annales des Missions Etrangfcres. 1901. p. 74 sq.).

Mtooires oonoemant les Chinois. — (Tome XIV. p. 127. Les Si-fan).

The Non-Chine?e Races of Chinese. — (Natoie. 1888. VoL XXXVni. p. 845- 846).

Opcfmfl W. ■. — The Wild men of Sse- chw'an. (Recorder, Shanghai. Vol. XXni- 475-478).

fflnifi^ni T. W. — The Aboriginal Tri- bes on the S.W. Frontier of China. (China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 108-109).

Parker B. M. ~ China : Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Mantle : Marco Polo's Manxi. Ch. DL p. 187. — Shans of Tfinnan. Ch. VI. p. 129).

Ferker K. ■. ~ Lolos. (China Review. Vol. XVIII. p. 56).

PlayCalr G. M. — The Miaotse of Kwei- chow and Ttinnan. (China Review. Vol. V. p. 92-108. This notice contains the names of 42 Sab-tribes. The Chinese writer states they are in all aboat 70).

OI*rk G. W. — Kweichow and Y&nnan Provinces. Shanghai, 1891. (Aborigtital Tribes of Kweichow : Miaotse. p. i:^ 156. — The Minkia vocabnlary. p. ZifZ).

Oiark G. W. — The Aboriginal Tribes of W. Yunnan. Shanghai, 1885.

Oi»rk & S. — The Miao and Chnngkia Tribes of Kweichow. (East of Asia Maga- aine. Shanghai, 1901. p. 193-207).

BridCnaaB- C ^ Sketches of the Miao- tse. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1859. p. 257- 286).

WlUiMue S. W.* Notices of the Miaotse. (Chinese Repository. XIV. p. 105-115).

Lecskhari W. - On the Miaotse or Abori- gines of China. (Transact, of the Ethno- graphical Soc. of London. 1861. p. 177- 185).

GniveeS.S.— The Miaotse. (Recorder. Vol. UI. p. 265-267).

Irtlii— J. — History of the Miaotso TM- bes. (Recorder. VoL m. p. 88-96 ; 74-76. — Vocabnlary of the Miao Dialects, ibid, p. 96^99; 131-137; 147-149).

The Miaotse. — Recorder. VoL X. p. 385- 387.

The Miaotse of Szeohw'an. — Racorder. Vol. XXni. p. 475-478.

Henry A.~ The Lolos of Western China. Part I. p. 96-107).

Beber B. C — A Joomey of Kzploimiion in W. Ssechw'an. London, 1882. (Loloa, Sifans, lisns, Moens. p. 58-102. — Voca- bnlary of SUun and Lolo languages, p. 73-78. — Lolo writing and charaoters. p. 126-127. — Ijen and Mantse. p. 1UM23).

■eeie A.— Three Tears in W. China. Lon- don, 1890. (Miaotse Houses and Women. Ch. III. 88-40. — In the coontxy of the Lolos. Ch. VI. p.l02-lll.~Lolo and Sifim languages. Ch. VI. p. 104-106. — The Pho or Black Miaoe — Bxerdses in the Pho language. Ch. XIH. p. 224-238).

W&Um G. B. — Social Life of the Miaotze. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1900. VoL XXXHI. p. 84-104).

The Miaotse of Canton. — Chinese Repo- sitory. VoL XIV. p. 1<».117.

MsK^SewMi J. ^ Notes on the Ch^ldang Miaotze. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1869. p. 123- 128).

The Aboriginal Ti-ibes ot 3. W. China, in

the time of the Han Dynasty. B. C. 140-

186. — China Review. (Vol XXV. p. 103- 109).

CUiide. ~ Notice Ethnogn^hique snr 1 principales races indigtoes de la (Sii. o m^dionale. 1902.

The old Thai or Shan Empire of Western Yannan. — China Review. Vol. XX. p. 337-^6.

Weodltaerpe ■- G. — The Country of the Shans or Tai. (Oeogr. Journal. 1896. Vol. Vn. p. 557-602).

Oarey F. W. — Journeys in the Chinese Shan Stotes. (Geogr. Journal, 1900. Vol. XV. p. 486-516).

Oolqnkoua A. S. — Amongst the Shans. London, 1885.

BUae N. — Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Western Yiin- nan. Calcutta, 1876.

CHAPTBR II. LAN0UA0B8.

373

M< MahOD A. S. — Far Gaihfty and Fur- ther India. London, 1S93. (The Shane. Ch. VII. p. 161-176. — Chino-Burmeee Border Tribes. Oh. IX. and X. p. 211-260).

Eltel E. J. — An outline History of the Hakkas. (China Review. Vol. II. p. 160- 164).

Eltel E.J. — Notes and Queries on China and Japan. (Hakkas).

Eltel E.J. — Customs of the Hakkas. (Hongkong Daily Press. 1886).

Eltel E. J. — Ethnographical Sketches of the Hakka Chinese. (China Review. Vol. XX. p. 263-267).

PitonTC. — On the Origin and History of the Hakkas. (China Review. Vol. II. p. 222-226).

Parker E.H. - Syllabary of the Hakka Dialect. (China Review. Vol. VIII. p. 905- 217).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1908. (Aboriginal Tribes, p. 5-7. —

Hakkas. p. S23.326.-Hoklo8. p. 346-347). Dyer Ball J.^FAsy Sentences in Hakka.

Hongkong, 1881. Jeremlnasen O.O. — Loi Aborigines of

Hainan and their Speech. (China Re- view. Vol. XX. p. 290-305*. Gllman F. G. ~ The Languages and

DiHlects of N. and W. Hainan. (China

Review. Vol. XX. p. 128). Gllman F.G.— The Aborigines of Hainan.

(China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 247-251). Swlnbee R. — The Aborigines of Hainan.

(N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1871. p. 25-40). SchaelTer K.L. — The Lois or Aborigines

of Hainan. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904.

Vol. III. p. 4(?-50\ Taylor G. — Aborigines of Formosa.

(China Review. Vol. XIV. p. 121-126;

194-198; 285-290). Oolqaiioiin and Stewart-Lockhart.—

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Stent 6. — Chinese and English Vocaba- laiy in the Pekingese Dialect. Shanghai, 1904.

fidolUUl W. B. — The Student's Pocket Dictionary. Shanghai, 1901.

GaodrlchO. —Pocket Dictionary (Chinese- English) and Pekingese Syllabary. Shang- hai, 1904.

Vd«ler M" A. — An English and Chinese Dictionary in the Mandarin Dialect. Shanghai, 1908.

Bailer F. W. — Analytical Chinese English Dictionaxy. Shanghai, 1900.

FoleUl P. — A Chinese and English Dic- tionary, arranged according to the Bad!- cals and Sab-radicals. Shanghai, 18B7.

Petit Dictionnaire Chinois-Fran^ais-Ang- lais. — P6kin, 1906. (Lasarist Miasioii Press).

English and Chinese Pronouncing Pocket Dictionary. — Commercial Press. Shang- hai, 1904.

MaoGllllTray. ~ Mandarin-Bomaniaed Dictionary. Shanghai, 1905.

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Giles ■. A. — A Chinese-English Dietio- nary. 3 Vol. London, 1892.

DIALBOTS IN OBNBBAL.

WUllaBML — The Mandarin Dialect as exhibited in the Wn-Fang Tuen Tin. (Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Langnage. 5^ Edit. Shanghai, 1904. Introduction).

Wtlllams.— Range of Dialects. (Syllabic Dictionary. Introduction. Section VIi.

Bdkiiui J. — The Mandarin, a modem form of Speech. (China Beview. Vol. XXI. p. 203-205).

Djer Ball J. ^ Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. Pialects. p. 202-211).

A. ^ Comparative studies of Nor- thern Chinese Dialects. (China Beview. Vol. XXI. p. 181-203).

The old Language of China. « China Be- view. (Vol. XXII. p. 596-698).

Recent Researches upon ancient Chinese Sounds. — China Review. (Vol. XXII. p. 565-570).

Parker E. H. — Chinese Dialects. (Giles Chinese- Eng. Dictionary. Philological Essay. — The Separate Dialecto. ibid.).

CANT0NE8B DIALECT.

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Ohalmeni J. — English-Cantonese Dic- tionary. Hongkong, 1878.

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8WAT0W DIALECT.

Aahinore W. — Primary Lessons in

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GriAPTBA II. LANatmOrtS.

HAKKA DIALECT,

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Basy Sentences iu the Hakka Dialect,

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A^Or DIALBOT.

Matcgm^rtok J. — Msypnal of the Amoy Dialect.

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Oanatatra-DooflrlA** — Chinese-English

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FOOOHOJ^ DIALECT.

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W^NOHOW AND NINOPO DIALECTS.

Parker E. II. — The Wftnchow Dialect.

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Parker B. H. — The Ningpo Dialect.

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SHANGHAI DIALECT.

I J. — Grammar of the Shanghai

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P6tlllonO.— Petit Diotionnaire Fran^ais- Chinois (Dialecte de Chang-hai). Chang- hai, 1905.

Silaby J. A. — Shanghai Vernacular Chi- nese-English Dictionary. Shanghai, 1900.

BELIOIONS OF CHINA. QENEBALITIES.

De Harles O. — Les Religions de la Chi- ne. Leipzig, 1891.

Kdrllle A. — La Reb'gion Chinoise.

0odard. —Les Croyances Chinoises et Ja- ponaises. Paris, 1901.

Medhorst W. H. — China, its State and Prospects. London, 1888. (Religions of China. Ch. VIII. p. 181-219).

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81 rr H. O. — China and the Chinese. Lon- don, 1849. (Religion of the Chinese. Vol. II. Ch. VIII. p. 145174).

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De Grooi J. J. M.— The Religioas System

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Le^Se J. — The Religions of China. Lon- don, 1880.

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Hanpden DoInmw ■. O.— Dragon, Image and Demon. New- York, 1887.

Deafflas Sir B. — China. London, 1882. (The Religions of China. Ch. XVJU. p. 306-829).

Douglas Sir B. — Society in China. Lon- don, 1895. (The Religions of China. Ch. XXVI. p. 394-415).

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Oomaliy W. A. ~China under the Search- light. London, 1901. (The Three Reli- gions. Ch. IX).

Piarker B. fl. — China Past and Present. London, 1905. (The Religions of the Chi- nese. Book III. p. 80-127).

Parker E. H. — China and Religion. Lon- don, 1905.

STATE BELIOION.

WORSHIP OF HEAVEN AND EABTH. — OF DEIFIED NATUBB,

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Montgomery Martin B. — China, Poli- tical, Commercial an Social. London, 1847. (State Religion f China. Vol. L Oh. II. p. 68-64).

Daryl P.~ Le monde Chinois. Paris, 1885.

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CHAFTIB II. RBLIftlONB.

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Doollttle J. — Social Life of the Chinese. New-Tork, 1867. (The State Religion. Vol. I. Ch. XIV).

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WilUaBML— The Middle Kingdom. New- Tork, 1861. (Character and Object of Wor- ship in the State Religion.— Nature Wor- ship.—Official Worship required of all Magistrates. Vol. II. Ch. XVIU. p. 238- 236. —Ancestor Worship, ibid. p. 262-275).

Iieif^e J. — The Notions of the Chinese concerning Qod and Spirits. Shanghai, 1853.

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CONFUCIANISM.

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CSeme^Foiae F. — Confucius: Essai Histo- riqne. Paris, 1874.

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Genealogy of Confucius. — Chinese Repo- sitory. (Vol. XVIII. p. 264-259; 393-399).

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p. 61-88). Faber K. — Confucianisn^^lReoorder. Vol.

XXXIII. p. 159-175). ^ The Systems of Buddha and Confucius

compared.— Chinese Bepository. (Vol. II.

p. 266-270). sate! E. J.— Confucianism. (China Beview.

Vol. I. p. 260-266). Elliel E. J. » Chinese Philosophy before

Confucius. (China Beview. Vol. VII. p.

388-392). JjBgge J. — The Life and Teachings of

Confucius. London, 1872. Jjegge J.— Christianity and Confucianism

compared. Shanghai. I^ogge J. — Imperial Confucianism. 4

lectures. (China Beview. Vol. VI. p. 147-

158 etc.). Kmns P. ^ Legge's Criticism on Confu- cianism. (Becorder. Vol. XXIX. p. 279-

282 etc.). Krans P. — Confucianism and Christ, not

enemies but friends. (East of Asia Maga- zine. Vol. I. p. 31-42). Faber E. — Notes on Taoism and Confu- cianism. (Becorder. Vol. XXXIII. p. 271-

276). AlexaiMler G. ^ Confucius the Great

Teacher. Doaslaa Sir B. ~ China. London, 1882.

(Confucianism. Ch. XVII. p. 306-312). Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,

]8i4. (Confucianism. Vol. II. Ch. XIII.

p. 126-158). Forbes F. E. ^ Five Years in China.

London, 1848. (Confucius. Ch. VII. p.

115-129). Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Confucius and Confucianism.

p. 178-180). Bloale A. E. — Confucius. (East of Asia

Magazine. Shanghai. Vol. III. p. 128-

136). Odontius L. — Plato and Confucius. (East

of Asia Magazine. Vol. II. p. 119-13l\ Ware J. — Confucius and Mencius. (East

of Asia Magazine. Vol. II p. 201-209).

The Worship of Confucius. — Chinese Be- pository. Vol. I. p. 502).

Confucius. — Chinese Bepository. Vol. X. p. 614-616.

Waiters T. — Guide to the Tablets in a Temple of Confucius. Shanghai, 1879.

Mac Olatclile T. — Confucian Cosmogony from Choo Footsze. Shanghai, 1874.

Bart V. O. — The Temple and the Sage. Toronto, 1891.

Chinese Cosmogony from Chuhsi. — Chineee Eepo8itor>-. Vol. XVIII. p. 343-347.

Astronomy of the Shu-king. — Chinese Bepository. Vol. IX. p. 573-586.

Cbalmers J. — Chinese Natural Theo- logy. (China Beview. Vol. V. p. 271-281).

Chaliners J.^ Chinese early Mythology. (China Beview. Vol. XIII. p. 406-il9; XIV. p. 33 36).

Ettel E. J.>- Ancient Chinese Philoeophy. (China Beview. Vol.XV. p. 338-844; XVTI. p. 26-35).

Essay on the Terms: "Nature, Heart, Breath or Vapour, Will or Intention." — Becorder. (Vol. XII. p. 96.1011.

Chaloiier Alabaster. - Doctrine of the Chi. (China Beview. Vol. XVIU. p. 299- 307).

Sliemeld D. — A Discussion of the Con- fucian Doctrine concerning Man's Na- ture. (Becorder. Vol. IX. p. 11-23).

Balfour F. H. — The Principle of Nature. (China Beview. Vol. IX. p. 281-297).

Mac Clatchie T. — Confucian Theology : God. Shanghai, 1877.

Blod^ee H. — The Use of T^ien-shn for God. Shanghai, 1893.

Oomaby W. A.— China under the Seaioh- light. London, 1901. (The Gospel and Confucian Ethics. Ch. VII).

Decay of Confucianism. — North-China Herald. 1908. part I. p. 726.

Parker E.H. — China and Beligion. lion- don, 1905. (Confucianism. Ch. III. p 51. 71).

Le^Se J- — The Life and Works of Men- cius. London, 1875.

Biographical Notice of Mencius. ^ Chinese Bepository. (Vol. X. p. 320-328).

Faber E. — The Mind of Mencius. Shang- hai, 1897.

Mencius on Human Nature. — Recorder (Vol. XXIX. p. 128-130 ; 169-174).

CHAPTBR II. RBLiaiONS.

381

TAOISM.

De Boooy L. — Le Taoism. Paris, 1892.

Jallen S. — Le Livre de la Voie et de la Vertu. Paris, 1»I2.

^RQtliier. — M^moire sar I'origine et la propagation de la doctrine de Tao. Paris, 1881.

Von der Gabelenls 6. — Life of Laotze. Chin* Beview. (Vol. XVIII. p. 189-198).

Dn Halde. ~ Description of the Chinese Empire. London, 1788. (Taoism. Vol. I. p. (M8-650).

WIntorlNitlMuii. — View of China. Lon- don, 1795. (Taoism, p. 882-387).

Davifl Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1844. (Taoism. Vol. II. Ch.XV. p. 190-208).

WilUanMi. — The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (The Sect of Tao or Ratio- naUsts. Vol. II. Ch. XVIIL p. 2-l2-2i8).

Frii— iwi X — Histoire des Religions de rSxtrdme Orient. Amieos, 1888. (Laotsen et le Taoisme).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Taoism and its Foonder. p. 671681).

Critical Notice of Laotze. — China Beview. (Vol. XVI. p. 195).

Btel E. J. —Taoism. China Review. (Vol. (L p. 209-220).

Historical Characteristics of Taoism.— Chi- na Review. (Vol. XIII. p. 231-247).

Hwangti in Early Taoism. —China Review. (Vol. XV. p. 233-289).

PMier K. — Notes on Taoism and Confu- cisnism. (Recorder. Vol. XXXIII. p. 271- 876).

JiMiiMi ■. — Taoism. (Recorder. Vol. XXVin. p. 581-587)

BJkiiMi J. — Steps in the Growth of early Taoism. (Recorder. Vol. XV. p. 176-191.

— Taoism in the Ts'in and Han Dynas- ties, ibid. p. 335-350). Hears W. P. — Philosophy, Ethics and

Religion of Taoism. (China Review. Vol.

XIX. p. 225-212). Bnlfoar P. H. — Taoist Texts. Shanghai

1884. '

Lesse J. — The Taoteh King and its

CharacterisUcs. (Sacred Books of the

East. Oxford, 1891. Vol. XXXIX. p. 45-

163). to^^e J.— The Texts of Taoism. Oxford

1891. Parker B. H. - China and Religion.

London, 1905. (Taoism. Ch. 11. p. 32-50). Parker E. ■. — The Taoteh King or

Classic of the Correct Way. (China and

Beligion. Appendix). Doa^laa Sir B. — Confucianism and

Taoism. London, 1879. Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New

York, 1896. (Taoism. Ch. VI. p. 102-106). Similarity between Buddhism and early

Taoism. — China Beview. (Vol. XV p

96-99). Giles H. A. — The Bemains of Laotze

China Beview. (Vol. XIV. p. 231-280:

Balfoar P. H. — The Works of Chuang

tze,'Taoist Philosopher. Shanghai, 1881 Deagrlaa Sir R.— Society in China. Lon

don, 1895. (Taoism, p. 402-408). Deagrlas Sir R. — China. London, 1882

(Taoism. Ch. XVII. p. 311-318). I^ff^e J. —The Beligions of China. Lon

don, 1880. (Taoism. Ch. III. p. 167-230) Oomaby W. — Laotze Bedivivus. Be

corder, 1906. (Vol. XXXVII. p. 67-74

124-131).

BUDDHISM.

9. — Le Bonddhisme en Chine

et an Japon. Paris, 1898. Oldenber^. — Le Bouddha. Paris, 1804. de la Valine Poaaslii. — Bonddhisme :

Etudes et Mat^riaux. Londres, 18l»8. History of Buddhism. — Chinese Beposi-

tory. (Vol. XIV. p. 423-435). Da flalde. — Description of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1738. (Buddhism. Vol.

I. p. 650-057).

Wlnterboiham. — View of China. Lon- don, 1795. Buddhism, p. 337-357.

DaTlaSlr J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1844. Buddhism. (Vol. II. Ch. XIV. p. 159189).

WIlllanMi. —The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (The Sect of Fuh or the Bud- dhists. Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 249-258).

382

SECTION y. POLITICAL AMD BCOMOICIC «OeRAPHT.

I J. — China and the Chinese. New- York, 1869. (Buddhism and Taoism. Ch. VH. and X.).

. ^ Buddha. Berlin, 1896. I J. — Chinese Buddhism. London, 1880.

Beal S. — Buddhism in China. London, 1884.

Beal S. — Buddhist literature in China« London, 1882.

Be»I S. — A Life of Buddha (translated from Sanskrit into Chinese, and from Chinese into English). Oxford, 1888.

Beal S. — A Catena of Buddhist Scrip- tures from the Chinese. Lond6n, 1871. \

BMel B.J. ^ The Nirvana of Chinese Buddhists. Becorder.;(Vol. III. p. 1-6).

BMel B. J. — Chinese Buddhism. Lpndon. 1870.

BMel BJF. —Three Lectures on Buddhism. Hongkong, 1871.

BMel B.J. — Handbook of Chinese Budd- hism. Hongkong, 1888.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1908. Buddhism, p. 120-125.

BdkUui J. — Religion in China. London, 1878. (Buddhism. Oh. VI. VII. VIH.).

Deo^lae Sir B. — China. London^ 1882. (Buddhism. Ch. XVII. p. 318-329).

DoubIas Sir B. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Buddhism. Ch. XXVI, p. 408-415).

D'OlIone. — La Chine Novatrice et Quer- ri&re. Paris, 1906. (Introduction duBoud< dhisme. — Progr&s. Ch. II. p. 102-112). \ Airker B. H. — Early Buddhism in Chi- na. (Recorder. Vol. XXV. p. 224-234).

Parker E. fl. ^ China and Religion. London, 1905. (Buddhism. Ch. IV. p, 72-100).

The Systems of Buddha and ConfociuSi^ compared. — Chinese Repository. (Vol.

II. p. 214-225).

Allen H. J. — Similarity between Bud- dhism and early Taoism. (China Review. Vol. XV. p. 96-99).

BIchard T.— The Influence of Buddhism in China. (Recorder. Vol. XXI. p. 49-64).

Chinese Pagodas. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. VI. p. 189192).

flaokmanB fl. ^ ^Buddhist Monastery Life in China. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. I. p. 289-261).

Kupfer O. F. — Buddhism in Hupeh. (East of Asia Magaiine. Vol. il. p. 185-

' 194).

WIleoB H. fl. — Travels of Fa-Hsien in India. (Chinese Repository. Vol. IX. p. 384-368).

de Groot J. M. J.<-Le Code de Mah&y&na en Chine. Amsterdam, 1893.'

Remarks on Buddhisi^ with a brief Notice of Pootoo Island. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. II. p. 214-225).

Bailer J. — ^2P<><'^o<>f ancient and modem. (Recorder. Vol. X. p. 108-124).

KnpiDr O. F. — Pootoo, China's sacred Island. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. III. p. 264-281 ; 367-362).

Bliye Davids T. W. — Buddhism : A Sketch of the Life and Teachings of Bud- dha. London, 1886.

Montor^Wtlllaina Sir. — Buddhism in its connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism, and its contrast with Chris- tianity. London, 1890.

SlMnce flardy B. — A Manual of Bud- dhism. London, 1854.

WacUel II. A. — Buddhism in Tibet. Lon- don, 1895.

Gilea H. A. — Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms. London and Shanghai, 1877.

LeBB® J- — Fa-Hien's Record of Bud- dhistic Kingdoms. Oxford, 1886.

MAHOMBDANISM.

DeiT<6iia 6. — Origine de I'lslamisme en

Chine. Paris, 1895. De^Ha G. — Musulmans et Manichdens

Chinois. Paris, 1898. Dabry de Tliiereaiil. — Le Mahom^- tanisme en Chine. Paris, 1878.

II. UtlOIOifS^

S83

irOllOBe. — La Ghine Novfttrioe et Gner-

ri&re. Paris, 1906. (Ulamisme. Ch. m.

p. U4-116). WIlllAflMi. — The Middle Kingdom. New-

Tork, 1861. (Mohammedans in China.

Vol. II. Ch. XVm. p. 285-286). ■jiMii^Bi^ J. — Notes on Mohammedanism

in Peking. (Beoorder. Vol. I. p. 176-177). Dmi^las Sir WL — China. London, 1882.

(Mahommedanism in China, p. 829). Ihillrr*^ T. L. — The Great Mahomedan

Behellion in Tl!buian.(China Review. Vol.

VoL XVI. p. 88-96).

Boalger D.O.— A Short History of China.

London, 1893. (The Mahomedan Rebellion

in Kansa and Kashgaria. Ch. XXV. p.

323-826). Noye« H. V. — Mahomedanism in China.

(Recorder. Vol. XX. p. 10-18; 68^72). Pftrker B. ■. ^ Seryices of Turks in

joining Civilisations. (Asiatic Quarterly

Review. April, 1904). Pftrker E. II. — China and Religion.

London, 1905. (Islamism in China. Ch.

VII. p. 139-163).

JUDAISM,

Wkm J. "— The Jews in China. London,

1848. fflBB J. — The Orphan Colony of Jews in

China. London, 1872. Wylie A. — Israelites in China. (China

and Japan Repository. Vol. I. p. 13-22;

48-52). Visit to the Jews in Honan. — Chinese

Repodtoiy. (Vol. XX. p. 436-466). Jews in China.— Chinese Repository. (Vol.

ni. p. 172-175. Vol. XIV. p. 305-334?

1 6. — The Jews at K'aifong Foo. Shanghai, 1851.

WUllaBM.- The Middle Kingdom. Kew- York, 1861. (Jews fonnd at K'aifung Foo. (Vol. n. Ch. XVni. p. 287-289),

WinteriioyMUB. — View of China. Lon- don, 1795. (Jews and Mahomedans in China, p. 858-863).

Martin W. ^ A Cycle of Cathay. New- York, 1896. (Visit to a Colony of Jews. Part n. Ch. IV. p. 265-280).

Toiiar J. — Inscriptions Juives de K*ai- fong Fon. (Variit^s 3inologiqaes.**Catho- Uo Press^.lShanghai, 1900).

Bn» B. I. — Chinese Jews. (East of Asia Magazine. 1902. Vol. I. p. 278-296).

Parker E.H. — China and Religion. Lon< don, 1905. (The Jews in China. Ch. VIII. p. 164-177).

On Jews in China.!— North-China Herald. Jan. 18. 1851).

Notes on the Jews in China.^ The Jewish Chronicle. July 11, 1879.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Jews in China, p. 358-859).

Martiii W. — The Jewish Monument at K*aifung Fu. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1906. Vol. XXXVn. p. 1-20).

EABLT 0HBI8TIANITT.

i P. — l^hlissement et Destruction

de la lire Chr^tienti en Chine. Louvain,

1U6. Frothier. — De I'Authenticit^ de I'lns-

oription Nestorienne de Si-ngan fou.

Paris, 1857. Dabcy de TbleraaiK.— Le Catholicisme

en Chine au VIII* sitele. huris, 1877.

BaTret. — Vari6t6s Sinologiques, N" 7, 12 et 20. (La StMe de Si-ngan fou). Chang- hai, 1895, 1897 et 1902.

lyOIloiie. — La Chine Novatrice et Guer- riire. Paris, 1906. (Destruction du Nes- torianisme. lire P. Ch. III. p. 112-114. — Ch. VI. p. 182-158).

384

ncnoM T. r<N.mcAi. and iBomoiae eioeaAPBT.

7

Bohrliaclier. — Histoire Uniyenelle de rfiglise CftthoUqae. 29 Vol. Pwis, 1857- 18G1. (La Pierre de Si-ngan fou. Vol. X. 1857. p. 179184. — La Chine au VII« et an YUI* Bitoles. VoL XI. 1857. p. 61-73).

Brid^maa ■. O. — Barly Introdaction of Christianity into China. (Chinese Re- pository. Vol. I. p. 447-452).

Lowrle W. M. — The Land of Sinim. Philadelphia, 1850. (Early Christians in China, p. 38-36. — Nestorians in China, p. 36-45).

Le^Se ^' — Christianity in China (Nes- torianism, B. Catholicism, Protestan- tism). London, 1888.

Brid^oaan E. O. — The Syrian Monu- ment. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 201-229. Some corrections. Vol. XIX. p. 552 554).

Etf kiiMi J.^The Syrian Mission in China. (Recorder. Vol. XIII, p. S65-861).

On the Nestorian Tablet.— China Review. (Vol. XXIII. p. 180).

Nestorianism at Canton. ^ China Review. (Vol. VIII. p. 81-84).

Fiarker ■. H.~ The Earliest Christianit) in China. ^Dublin Review, 1902. p. 880- 404).

Fiarker ■.■. — China and Religion. London, 1905. (Nestorianism in China. Ch. VI. p. 120-188).

Dyer Ball J. <— Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1908. (Ancient and Nestorian Mis- sions, p. 435-4X7).

WtlllanMi— The Middle Kingdom. New- Tork, 1861. (Nestorians in China. — Tablet recording their laboors. Vol. II. Ch. XIX. p. 290-298).

Parker B. ■. — The Early Christian Road to China. (Asiatic Qoarterly Re- view. October, 1903).

MEDIJBVAL CHBI3TIANITY.

Henrton. — Histoire G6n4rale des Mis- sions Catholiqnes depnis le XIII* Sitele jnsqa'lk nos jours. Paris, 1847.

BohrHaclier. — Histoire Universello de I'^lise Catholiqne. Paris, 1857-1861. (Jean de PUn-Carpin. Vol. XVIII. 1858. p. 213 sq. — Rnbmqnis. p. 660-571. — Jean de Montcorvin. Vol. XIX. 182%. p. 410-415. —Odoric de Prioul. Vol. XX. 1858. p. 150-152).

Parker E. B. — China and Religion. London, 1905. (Carpiui, Rubraqois, Men- tecorvino, Friar Odoric. Ch. IX. 178-190j.

Pallatfloa. — Traces of Christianity in Mongolia and China in the XIII^ Cen-

tury, from Chinese Sources. (Recorder. Vol. VI. p. 104-118).

Tale H. — Cathay and the Way Thither. London, 1866. (Letters and Reports of Missionary Friars from Cathay).

Tale fl. ~ The Book of Marco Polo the Venetian, concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. 2 Vol. London, 1875.

WilllaaML —The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Prester John. Vol. IL Ch. XIX. p. 298-299. — John de Monte Cor- vine, p. 299-.'W0).

Oordler H. » Les Voyages en Asie an XIV* Sitele da B' Fr^re Odoric de Por- denone. Paris, 1891.

BOMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS.

Hue. — Le Christianisme en Chine, en Tartarie et au Tibet. 4. Vol. Paris, 1857- 1858.

Hue. — Christianity in China, Tartary and Tibet (translated by Hazlitt). 2 Vol.

London, 1857. — New- York, 1887. Marshall T. W. — Christian Missions Their Agents, Methods and Results. 8 Vol. London, 1862. (Missions in China. Vol. I. Ch. U. p. 94-819).

OUVm Hi BtLlMONS;

p^

A. — Reoent Introdnotion of Ghiistianity into Chiaa. (OhinA Illastn- to. Amsterdam, 1097).

80aMd» A. — Histoire UniveneUe de la Chine. Lyoo, 1667. (De I'RUt Spiritoel dn Royamne de 1* Ohine. Partie II. p. 24S-458).

SetHOIwiBeUA. — De Ortn et Pro- gresea Fidei orihodozae in Regno Sinensi ab Anno 1581-1669. BaUsbon, 1673.

■rHTlMMiHlpir. — Medieval Researches from Bastem Asiatic Sonrees. Ix>ndon, 1888. (The Jesnit Missionaries, Biooi and others at Peking. Vol. II. p. 924-882).

Bo HaMe. — Description of the Empire of China. London, 1738. (Bstablishment and Progress of Christianity in China. Vol. II. p. 1-87).

Betelirte VM a --Vie de Riool. 2 Vol. Toomai, 1869.

ObrlMi O. —Notice biographique snr Ver- biest. Bruges, 1838.

Prmmdk. — Memoirs of Fr. Ripa daring 13 Years Residence at Peking. London, 1846.

BrM^MMi K. 0. — Paol Stt's Apology of the Jesuits. Chinese Repository. (Vol. XIV. p. 118-135).

Imperial Deeiree authorizing Christianity, and granting the Restoration of Real Est- ate to Christians throughout the Chinese Empire.— Chinese Repository. (Vol. XV. p. lM-155).

Hspper A. P. --Roman Catholic Missions in China with particulars respecting the number of Missionaries and Converts, and the Ecclesiastical Divisions of the Empire. Chinese Repository. June, 1846. (Vd. XV. p. 298800).

lie Cmmpfi& L. — Memoirs and Observa- tions made in a Journey through the Empire of China. London, 1607. (On the Bstablishment and Progress of the Chris- tian Religion in China. — Fervour of the new Christians. — Edict approving the Catholic Religion, p. 345-480).

lliiiiililTM Til du P. Trigault. Paris, 1664.

S85

A. — Lettres 4difian(es et ourien- ses. 14 Vol. Lyon, 1819. Paris. 1877. (On missions in China. Vol. IX., X., XII., XIII. and XIV).

Nouvelles Lettres 4diiUntes des Missions de la Chine. 8 Vol. Paris, 1878.

LeekBuiM J. — Travels of the Jesuits into various parts of the World, particu- Isrly China and the East Indies. London, 1762.

de Prtemre. — Vestiges des Priucipaux Dogmes Chretiens tiris des Anoiens Livres Chinoit. Paris, 187^.

SIrr H. O. —China and the Chinese, Lon- don, 1849. (R. Catholic Missions in China. Ch.X.p. 186-236).

Oerdter H. — Relations de la Chine avec les Puissances fitranggres. 3 Vol. Paris, 1901).

BriilfiaM E. C — Roman Catholic Mis- sions in Shanghai, 1849. (From personal observation and reports).Chinese Reposi- tory. (Vol. XVIII. p. 574-588).

proclamation from the Shanghai fifagis- trate securing protection to the new Jesuit Residence at Sicawei, 1848. — Chinese Repository.(Vol.XVILp.477-479).

Parker B. ■. — The Preaching of the Gospel in China. China Review, 1889. (Vol. XVIII. p. 152- 177).

Parker E. B. — China : Her History, Di- plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Arrival of European Missionaries. Ch. V. p. 82-115.)

Bellbar F. fl. — Waifs and Strays from the Far East. London, 1876. (Educational Work at the Jesuit Sicawei College, p. 122-129).

Vlek a — The Sicawei Observatory. East of Asia Magazine, 1902. (Vol. I. 856-877).

SclMnidt C — Sikawei and Sakwangki. The Far East. (Vol. I. p. 12-14).

■foMlalte de Jeeoe. — 86 KwangU's Centenary at Sicawei, 1904. (Bast of Asia Magazine. Vol. IV. p« 148-157).

Menlelte de Jeeoe. — Historic Macao. Hongkong, 1902.

sw

ol ftbe PortngiiMe Sel«lanflnls a«d olthe

B. Gsfth. Ckarah an

B<Mtoe,1898.

Ptaii,lMa TUifeMiGte^niaMHiHians CbftholiqQH

ea Chine ea IStt. » MiaBOU OOfaoli-

qpm, Jjfim, 1MB. H« 74-7S.

. ~ Bdinlmicifa, 18IS. B. itoChiBA. (YoLLOi.

YILTni). ■ii <>■■ 1 W. ■. ^ China, ItsStefeettBd

PRMpeel. LoodoB, ISSS. (Ckftbolio Mia.

■ioBt in China. Oi. IX. p. 2aD-tS0). MkiHi J. — RftKgion in China. London,

1906u (&. Cath. ICiawna. Ch. XIY. p. ICS-

177). inma— — The Ifiddla Kii^dom. Nev-

York, IML (Bied, SdiaO and Ycrtfaal

in China, rwaant Gonditinn ol B.C.

yoLiLai.xix. p.aoo^8»).

r BnllJ.— Thin^Chineae. Shaacfaai, 19(tt. (Roman OHholie MiMiana. p. 437- 440).

■alHrtaMter. — Hlatoiia UniwnOede I'^^iae Oatholiqae. Pana, U57-18S1. (Le Cliriatianlaina on Qiina i la ftn dn XVI* Bftdo. YoL XXIY. p. 727-28. — La Missimi de Chine d^ois Biod jnaqn'i SehaU (1»0-167I9. YoL XXY. p. €B>75w— Histotre dea lfl«i<mi de Chine depnis Schan jnaqa'i I'annte 17». (SehaU, Yer- biesi, Intoroetta, Martini, Boirrel, Oer- faillon, Yladeloo, Prftmare, Paramin). YoL XXVL 1850. ^ Question dee Bilea. YoL XXYL p. 60»-«t2).

Mmy JX — EQstoize nbrigit dee Iftnaimiii Caflwliqiiea depnis le XY* sitele joaqa'i nos jooiB. Toiin,I8S&

9mrmmA — Lee Mission Franfaiaea. Pans, 1874. Chine. »paitie. pl90M2I».

FtaaM. — Missions OatfMliqnes de I'Asie. (Dietionnaire de Thfelogie CalhoKgne par Yacani ei Mangenoi. Pane, 19IM. YoL L p. 207-209).

J.BL'Lea] Fianfaises. Fteii, 19M. China and Japan. YoL m).

XIX* sitele. LiDe el Ptais, IflK^ (The CfasR^inOiinalim-Mt. Ch-ZILp. 215^24).

eainea dans rSztiteBe-QiiBBL I^on, 1865L(YoLLai.IV>. S.P. mstoire UnivcEseOe dea 1

Ptais, 12K. (YoL L el ip. lyA. — Hisloiredela &an0lRa. (Pana (). S YoL Paris, UM. ty A. <— Ia Miwion dn (Paris Foreign Miasianay. Paria. 12«L

da la SociM dee LiDe. Annales de la Soei4tf dea

■tevlar Mr. — PMin, Hirtoire d Dea-

criptian. P^kin, 1897. Mbj—J Mr. — Anefter China. Dublin,

1897. r>iBilaM Mr. — Hail Ana an Tnn-nan.

LiDe, 1888. YISBevHi. — Deoz Ana an *lBii tnhnin.

Paris, 1881. rniat Ll — lA Mission dn Sn-I^BeB an

XYIlI«siMe. Paris, 1892. Lefl«ya.J. — EnChine,anTtohMi S.B.

LiDe, 1900. Chine, Cejlan ei Madagaaear. ( Joonal de

la Miaaion dn Teh^U SJS.y. Mtssionii en Chine el an CongOu (Joornal

dee Missionnairea Belgea de Sefaenl'lea-

BnaeQea'. ■lanlH— — MAmoire snr llfctel aelod

dn Kiang-nan, 1842-185SL Paria, 1865. PAtftor. — Le Kiang-nan en 1899. Paria. PlaUtee G. — Le PUerinage de Z0-e4.

•K^tbolio Press." Shanghai, 1895. La Mitsinw dn Kiang-nan : son Hialoixe el

sea (BBTres. Paria, 1900.

GHAPTIA li. BBbieiONS.

S87

lA Mission daKiang-nan 1899-1900.*'Catho- lio Press." Shanghai, 1902.

Belations de Ohine : Kiang-nan. (Reports of the Shanghai Catholic Mission).

Les Missions Catholiqnes. Lyon, 18691d06. (Weekly PnbUcatiou in French).

ninstrated Catholic Missions. (Office of the Tablet. 19 Henrietta St. London W. C).

Hllliard AUerUkge A.— Notes on Catho- lic Missions. London, 1887.

OaflAvtelU L. — Catholic Missions. Lon- don, 1891.

Missiones Catholicae. Rome, 1901. (China and Japan, p. 265-831).

F»aTeI A. — Nos Missionnaires, Patriotes et Savants. Paris, 1900.

Blamil S. — Chinois et Missionnaires. Li- moges, 1896.

Memorandom on Christian Missions ad-

dressed by China to the Treaty Powem. Tientsin, 1892.

Midiie A. — Political Obstacles to Mis- sionary Saccesin China. Hongkong, 1901.

Gnndry B. S. — China Present and Past. London, 1895. (Antagonism to Missiona- ries. Ch. X. p. 202-281. — Canses of AnU- gonism. Ch. XI. p. 232-262).

Jemi^aii T. B. — China's Business Me- thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1904. (Mis- sionaries and their Work. p. 254-272 ).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. London,1901. (Religion and Rebellion. Ch. XV. p. 178- 291).

Plarker E. H. — China and Religion. Lon- don, 1905. (The Roman Church and its Work. Ch. IX. p. 178-208).

Werner.-— Atlas des Missions Catholiqnes.

PB0TE8TANT MISSIONS.

^ Wameek G. — Outline of a History of

Protestant Missions. Berlin, 1901. Ohrlflilleb. — The Foreign Missions of

Protestants (from the German). London,

1881. Dennis J.S.— Centenial Survey of Foreign

Missions. Edinburgh, 1902. Dennin J.S. — Christian Missions and

Progress. Smtth G. — A short History of Christian

Missions. Edinburgh, 1897. Dean W. — The China Mission, embracing

a History of the various Denominations

among the Chinese, and a Biographical

Sketch of deceased Missionaries. New-

Tork, 1859. Bro'wn. — ^History of Missions. Edinburgh,

ISM. T(ean^.— Modem Alissions. London, 1883. Butth A. — Bex Christus: An outline

Study of China. New-York, 1908. (Ch. IV.

and V). PIton O. — La Chine, sa Religion, ses

Moeurs. Toulouse, 1880. ¥r— Ml — The Cross and the Dragon.

London, 1854.

Blonle A.E. — New China and Old. London, 1892.

Handbook of Christian Missions.

Conference of Foreign Missions. London, 1879 and 1886.

Pinanl. — Les Missions Protestantes k la fin du XIX* siMe. Paris, 1904.

Muirhead. — China and the Gospel. London, 1870.

Menely W. — Origin of the first Pro- testant Mission to China. London, 1842.

Memoirs of the Life and Labours of Morrison, by his Widow. liondon, 1839.

Brld^nian E. O. — Letters on China. Boston, 1840.

Morrlnon B. — Memoirs of Milne. Mal- acca, 1824.

Philip B. — Life and Times of Milne. London, 1888.

Milne W. — Life in China. London, 1859. (Early Life in Ningpo. Part H. Ch. I-V. p. 62-215. — Protestant Missions at Shanghai. Part IV. Ch. V. p. 411427).

Alieel D. — Journal of a Residence in China. London, 1886.

388 wMcnon ▼. fowwcal awd BCOMOifiG osogiiapht

Mjillinnrt W. H. - Chinft, its State Mid PpospecU. London, 18S8. (Protestant

Missions to Canton, M»laoc» and Bata- via. - Arrival of MUne. — BapUsm of ^ Tsai Ako, the first convert. Ch. X-XI. p. 251.83. Ch. XU. p. 806-828.- Voyage to Shantung, Kiangsu, Chftkiang and Pokien. 1885. Ch. XIV-XIX. - Class of Lftbonrers for China; other Desiderata. Ch. XXI-XXII).

OutmiMUt O. — China opened. London, 1888. (Protestant Missions. — Morrison and Milne. Ch. XY. p. 283-237).

Dooliiile J. — Social Life of the Chinese. New- York, 1807. (Missionary Topics. — Native Ministry. — Obstacles to the spread of the Gospel. Vol. n. Ch. XYII- XVIU).

IHeviiMi J. L. — China and the Chinese. New- York, 1869. (Missionary Life in China.— Methods and Results. Ch. XXI- XXIV).

WlllUaUL —The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Protestant Missions to the Chinese. — Morrison's labours. — Work in Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Shanghai. — Missionary Hospitals. — Distribution of Bibles and Tracts. Vol. II. Ch. XIX. p. :)25-8d0).

9jer Bi^ll J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Protestant Missions in China, p. 440-443|.

Parker E. U. — China and Religion. London, 1905. (Protestantism in China. Ch. X. p. 209 2-9).

Mtlne W. ^ Retrospect of the first ten Years of the Protestant Mission to China. Malacca, 1820.

WliliaBMi — Position and Operations at the 5 Ports. — Preaching, distribution of books, medical practice, schools. (Chi- nese Repository. Vol. XVIII. p. 48-50.

Brldsman E. O. — Protestant Missions in Shanghai, 1819. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XVin. p. 881-391, and Slfi^m. Vol XIX. p. 330 348).

TbomwHi and JotaMson.— British Foreign ]^isBion8, 1837-1897. London, 1399.

LoTett. -> History of the London Mission- ary Society. London, 1899.

Held J. M. — Missions and the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. New- York, 1896.

^iook E. — History of the Church Missio- nary Society. London, 1899.

Centenary Volume of the Baptist Missio- nary Society. Loudon, 1892.

HodflOD Taylor. — China, its spiritual need and chums, with brief notices of Missionary effort, past and present. London, 1865.

GuinneMB M. ^Story of the China Inland Mission. London, 1893.

Morrison in Canton.— Recorder. (Vol. VII. p. 174-178,.

BoK E. — Morrison, Milne and Medhurst. —Recorder. (Vol. XXXV. 1904. p. 79 87; 117-126).

Early Days of the Swatow and Foochow Missions. — Recorder. (Vol. XXVIII. p. 419-425).

Home O. S. — One Hundred Years of Missions, 1795- 1899, or the Story of the London Bfissionary Society. London, 1896.

Ninety Years of Protestant Work in China. — Recorder. (Vol. XXVIII. p. 403-409).

Rise and Progress of Protestant Missions in Hangchow. — Recorder. (Vol. VII. p. 34 1-354).

Missionary Work in Shanghai, 1901. — Recorder. (Vol. XXXII. p. 633).

Bdklnsi J. — Fif ty Years in China. Re- corder. (Vol. XXIX. p. 519-527*.

Eltel E. J. — The Protestant Missions of Hongkong, 1878. Recorder. (Vol. VII. p.

2129:.

Statistics of the Hongkong Protestant Mis- sions. — Recorder. (Vol. VIII. p. 30-46).

China Mission Handbook, Shanghai, 1896. (Contains statistics of the various Deno- minations. — Notices of the Religions of China).

WyMe A- — Memorials of Protestant Mis- t|ioD|Ml#9 (0 the Chinese. — Shanghai,

CHAPTBR II. RILIOfOm.

389

Records of the Missionary Confereitce held at Shanghai May 10-24, 1877. Shanghai, 1878.

Records of the Missionary Conference held at Shanghai in 1890. Shanghai, 1890.

Annaal Reports of the Diffaslon Society 1887-1906. Shanghai.

Directory of Protestant Missionaries in China, Japan and Corea. Hongkong, 1907. (According to this Pnhlication, there are at present 80 Societies and 3,832 Foreign Missionaries in the Field).

0»niaby W. A. — China nnder the Search-light. London, 1901. The "Native Foreigner." (Ch. VII. p. 8r.ll0).

Tomer J. A. — Five Years in S. China. London, 1891. (Mission work in Fatshan. Ch. X. — The Church in China, rpsnlts of missions, causes of disorder. Ch. XIV- XVI).

MoniSOinery-Illartiii B. — China, Poli- tical, Commercial and Social. Tx>ndon, 1847. (Protestant Missionary Societies in China. Ch. X. p. 488-502).

Gundry R. S. — China Present and Past. London, 1P95. (Antagonism to Missiona- ries. Ch. X. p. 201-231. — Caases of Antagonism. Ch. XI. p. 232-2C2 .

Ckiraon 6.N. — Problems of the Far East. London, 1896. (The Missionary Question, Protestant Missions, Objections and Drawbacks, Irresponsible Itinerancy, Hostility to Chinese Ethics, Disputes as to the name of the Deity, Church Polity and Translations of the Scriptures, Ap- peal for gunboats. Employment of wo- men. Ch. IX. p. 28d-310t.

Mcllle A. — Missionaries in China. Tien- tsin, 1893.

Doa^laa ^IrR. — Society in China. Lon- don, 1895. (Outrages on Missionaries. Ch. XVI. p. 282-289).

l^rker E.H. — China : Her History, Di- plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Religion and Rebellion. Ch. XV. p. 285- 291).

Medharsl W. U. ^ The Foreigner in Far Cathay. London, 1872. (Missionaries in

China. Ch. IV. p. 81-49).

Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New- York, 1896. (The Missionary QacRtion. Ch. XI. p. 439-457. — Betrospect and Outlook. Ch. XV. p. 439158).

^ionley Pmlih. — China from Within. London, 1901. (Lady Missionaries in the interior of China. Ch. XVI. p. 211-224).

Wen Chln^. — The Chinese Crisis from Within. London, 1901. (The Growth of Reform. Ch. I. p. 3-16).

Burden J.S. ~ Causes of Hostility to Mis- sionaries. Recorder. (Vol. IV. p. 263--.67).

Richard T. — Christian Persecutions in China : their .Nature, Causes, Remedies. Recorder. (Vol. XV. p. 237-248; 433- 45^.

lieutenoni Wood. — On Missionaries in China. R corder. (Vol. XX. p. 507-513).

Bttllour P.U. — Waifs and Strays from the Far F:ast. liondon, 187^. The Rival Evangelizirs of China. (Ch. Xlll.p. 113- 129).

Fifgg J. J. — Iteceiit Criticisms of Missio- naries and their Methods. Recorder. (Vol. XXI. p. 553-557).

Genaehr J.— TheTrue and Deepest Cause of anti-foreign Riots in China. Recorder. (Vol. XXV. p. 112-119).

Ckirdner O. T.— The Missionary Question in China. Seoul, 1894. Recorder. (Vol

XXV. p. 503-508).

Denby.— On Missions in China. Recorder.

(Vol XXVI. p. 424-426). Proclamation of the Nanking Viceroy in

favour of Missionaries. — Kecorder. (Vol.

XXVI. p. 561-562).

Nature, Work, and Aims of Protestant Missions laid beforo the Tsungli Yam An. November U"", 1895. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXVII. p. 62-72; llC-224).

The Religious Liberty Article of the Trea- ties. Recorder. (Vol XXVII. p. 200.2!6).

The Origin of Missionary Troubles. — Re- corder. (Vol. XXVII. 323-331).

Denby. — Shall we still send Missionaries to China. Recorder. (Vol. XXXIV. p. 484- 492).

390

SBCnON y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aiOaRAPHT.

Barton J. L. — The Missionary and his

Critics. New-York, 1906. Broomliall M. — Martyred Missionaries

of the China Inland Mission. London,

1901. Miner L.— China's Book of Martyrs. New- York, 1093. Edwards E. H. — Fire and Sword in

Shansi. London, 1901. Smith A.H. — China in Convulsion. New- York, 1902. hegge J.— Christianity in China. (Nesto-

rianism, R. Catholicism, Protestantism).

London, 1888. Boone W. J. >- Essay on the Term for

Deity. Shanghai, 1876. MedhanH W. H.— The Proper Rendering

of God into Chinese. Shanghai, 1818. Medhnnfl W. H. — On the Theology of

the Chinese and the Appropriate Term

for the Deity. Shanghai, 1817. Blod^et H. — The Use of T'ien-Chn for

God. Shanghai, 1893. Shangti in the Classics. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXVin. p. 593 694K Medical Work as an Evangelistic Agency.

- Recorder, 1884. (Vol. XV. p. 1-18). Work by Native Medical Assistants. —

Recorder. (Vol. XXVII. p. 294-296). Kllbom. — Medical Mission Work in

China. Recorder. (Vol.XXXlI.p. 175-190). Lockiiart W. — The Medical Missionary

in China. London, 1861. Webfller J. — Medical Missions. Recor- der, 1907. (Vol. XXXVIII. p. 46-49). Protestant Missionary Characteristics, by

Observer. Shanghai Mercnry Office, 1902. The Mission Press in China. — Recorder.

(Vol. X. p. 206-219; 270-275). Bible Societies and Colportage.— Recorder.

(Vol. XXXI. p. 340-344). The Bible in China. — Recorder, 1905.

(Vol. XXXVI. p. 279-282). Statistics and Number of Missionaries in

China 1875.— Recorder. (Vol. VI.p.3?0). Strength of Protestant Missiobs in Ohina

1878 — Recorder. (Vol. IX. p. 5-11. —

Statistics, ibid. p. 108-118). Table of Missions and Missionaries in China

1884. — Recorder. (Vol. XV. p. 73). Missionary Statistics for 1890. — Recorder.

(Vol. XXIII. p. 469-475; 506-512). Statistics of Protestant Missionary Societies

in China for 1898. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXX. p. 144-145 ; 153-54^. Total of Missionary Societies and Adherents

for 1901. — Recorder. (Vol. XXXIII. p.

101). Richard T. — China-Mission Statistics.

Shanghai, 1904.

EDUCATION.

Zi E. — Pratique des Examens Litt^raires.

"Catholic Press." Shanghai, 1891. Zi E. — Pratique des Examens Militaires.

"Catholic Press." Shanghai, 1896. Tolmr J. ^ La lUforroe des Etudes en

Chine. (Etudes. 5 Dte. 1903f. Tobar J. — R^lemeuts sur 1' Education.

(^cho de Chine, 1903. passim \ Bibliographic, R^lement sur Tlnstmction

approuv6 par I'Empcreur. — (Echo de

Chine. 28 Mars, 1905). Telia n^ Tetie-ton^ (Viceroy of Hunan

and Hupeh). r- Exhortation 4. 1'^tuiole.

(traduotiou Frau^aiBe par le P. Tubar.

Chang-hai, 1898).

Wan^ Ohaiis-Yu. — Future Education

of Ohina. Biot.— Essai sur I'Histoire de rinatruction

Publiqne en Chine. Paris, 1874. Daryl P. — Le Monde Chinois. Paris,

1^85. (L* Education et les Sciences. Ch.

V. p. 64-?3). Ooarane M. » En Chine. Paris, 1901.

(L* Education de la Chine, p. 260-875). OoumntM.— Etudes sur TBdncation et

la Colonisation. Paris, 1904. CSainet. — Etude sur la Chine. Besan^on,

1881. ( Education des Enfants. Ch. XIV.

p. 317-325).

i

CHAPna II. BDUGAmOlf.

391

He 0»«rey. —E'Empire da MUiea. Paris, 1867. (De I'Bdnoation et des Ezamens litMndres. Livre lY. Oh. II. p. 348-860).

lyOHmie. ^La Chine Novatrioe et Gner- ritee. Paris, 190^ (Bxamens. II* Partie. Ch. II. p. 162-168.— B^orme de I'Ensei- gnement. p. 280-284).

WUliams.— The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Edncation and Literary Bxaminations. Vol. I. Oh. IX. p. 421-457).

GitMAer. — Gleneral Description of China. London, 1796. (Bdncation of Children.

Vol. n. Book vn. Ch. n. p. 281-291).

DoolilAle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.. New-Tork, 1F67. (Competitive Literary Examinations. Vol. I. Ch. XV-XVII).

fkmglmm Sir R. — Society in China. London, 1895. (The Competitive Exami- nations. Oh. IX. p. 160-179).

Iljer Bmll J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Edncation in China, p. 284- 243. — Bxaminations. p. 264-270).

Ctamdry R. 8. — China Present and Fast. London, 1895. (Educational System of China. Ch. m. p. 52-68. — Educational Beform and Appendices A and B. p. 283- 383).

OolcpihoaB A. — China in Transforma- tion. London, 1898. (The Native Press. Ch. IX. p. 228247).

MrkerRIL — John Chinaman. London, 1901. (Work of Education in R. Catholic Schools 1885. Ch. IX. p. 197-200).

BiUS»ar F. IL — Waifs and Strays from the Fiur Bast. London, 1876. Chinese Views ofForeignCulture.(Oh.XIV.p. 130- 188).

Martte W.— ACyde of Cathay. New-York, 1806. (The Tongwen College. Part II. Ch. V-Vn. p. 293-328).

MbvUn W. — Chinese Edncation, Philo- sophy and Letters. New-York, 1898.

Idtiietl F. R — Five Years in China. London, 1848. Bdncation. (Ch. VI. p. 108- 114).

Oimwihl^ O. — Wanderings in China. London4900XCompetitive Examinations, Literary Degrees. Oh. XXXIV. p. 408-

413).

Jeml^aD T. It — China's Business Me- thods. Shanghai, 1904. (Educational Sys- tem of China, p. 201-218).

EncyclopoBdia Britannica. — Education in China, p. 23.

Maoklin W.E.— The Triennial Examin* ations in China. East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. n. p. 372-375).

Smith A. ^ The School System of China. East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. HI. p. MO).

Education among the Chinese. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. IV. p. 1-10).

Literary Examinations in China. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. IV. p. 118-185).

History of Instruction in China.— Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 67-86).

Parker E. H. — Educational Curriculum of the Chinese. China Review. (Vol. IX. p. 1-13).

Adfttfl O. S. — Education in China. China Review. (Vol. XVm. p. 205-212).

Chinese School-books. — China Review. (Vol. XX. p. 35-41 ; 101-108).

Mateer O. W. — Chinese Education. Re- corder. (Vol. XIV. p. 463-469).

Eltel E. J. — Address on Education 1895. Recorder. (Vol. XXVI. p. 324-330).

Fer^iMKNi J. O. — Chinese Education, Past, Present and Future. Recorder. (Vol. XXVin. p. 329-335).

sues M. L. — A Study in Pedagogy. Re- corder. (Vol. XXXV. p. 245-256).

Chang CSilioii^ (Viceroy of Hunan and Hupeh).— "Learn" (translated by Wood- bridge). Recorder. (Vol. XXIX and XXX).

Pitcher L. W. — The New Education in China. Recorder. 1850. (Vol. XX. p. 305- 310; 345-348; 403-410).

Tenney O. D. — English in Chinese Edu- cation. Recorder. (Vol. XX. p. 469-471).

Fer^awm J. O. — Higher Education in China. Recorder. (Vol. XXIII. p. 149- 157 ; 556-563. Vol. XXIV. 7-12).

Present Educational Needs of China. — Recorder. (Vol. XXVII. p. 242-248).

Educational Reconstruction in Peking. — Recorder. (Vol. XXXn. p. 619-628).

192

Bicnaii y. politicai. and BccmoMic gboorafht.

Japanese Edaoational Inflaenoe in China.

— Recorder, 1905. (Vol. XXXYI. p. 857-

861. — idem. p. 628). Ten W. W. ^Chinese Students in Japan.

East of AsU Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 194-

196). Ten W. W. — The Retnmed Student.

East of Asia Magazine. (V<d. UI. p. 8:^

45). I^ron W.^A Phase of the New Education.

(Development of the military spirit).

Bast of Asia Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 818-

aao).

Lewis. — The Educational Conquest of

the Far East. New- York, 1908. Gee N. 6. — The Educational Directory

for China. Shanghai, 1905. I

The Recent Imperial Metropolitan Examin- 1

ations held on the H^ and 16^ October 1906. - Recorder 1907. (Vol. XXXVUI. p. 34-89. Themes proposed, Examiners, Successful Candidates).

The Recent Imperial Bfdtepolitan Examin- ations for Returned SWents.— (World*s Chinese Students' Journal. December, 1906. p. 2-4).

Education in Chihli (Schools and Curricu- lum). — The World's Chinese Students' Journal. Shanghai. September 1906. — Prominent Foreign Educated Chinese, (ibid. p. 15-28, and December, p. 18-21).

Lee S. K. — The Educational Problem and the Adoption of Kuan-hua as the National Language of China. (The World's Chinese Students' Journal. September 1906. p. 7-lS).

CHAPTER III.

AGBICULTUBE.

China is essentially an agricultural country. More than tv^o thirds of the inhabitants are cultivators of the soil.

Ohinase acrleulimre. — A striking feature of Chinese agriculture is that cattle-breeding and the planting of trees are almost entirely neglected. There are no large herds of cattle or flocks of sheep, as are found in other countries, no natural or arti- fical meadov^s, and the v^oods or forests are not thinned. The only pasture'lands are the slopes of mountains, which cannot be used for any other purpose; the only forests, those which have grown spontaneously in high and uncultivated places. Even these latter, which are seldom met with, except in Hummn jMlR^ Fi>kien Hit and KweUkaw jH f^, are disappearing rapidly. The consequence of this lack of foresight is that China is almost destitute of firewood^ and has to import timber at heavy cost from distant countries.

The only fmlUvaied viaeea are the hnttnms of na/,/fi|tf . and the plains. In the richer and more thickly populated districts, mountains are however utilized, and the slopes are sometimes terraced even to the top of lofty hills.

Cultivation voHes with the nature of the soil, the altitude, irrigation^ and climate. Biee for instance, thrives in the N* of Kmmm "g* jfl, but does not grow in KUmgpeh iL^ or Nmrthem Klangeu {t ft* Some plants cannot be raised beyond a certain latitude. 2\m does not grow in the valley of the Hwang^ho % fif, and the sugar-cane is rarely found beyond the Southern bank of the Yangtze H f. The bananOf paim and Uchi ^ j^ trees bear fruit only in the South.

The f&mmber of ermps also varies with different regions. In I iff there is generally but one crop; 4n the Cernire^ two or three.

394 ncTum t. political akd iconoinG eioeftAFHT.

while 4mthe &, especially in the (ow plain of the Si-kiang |f tt or West River, three are generally raised.

The meUkmdB applied have not yet got beyond the moai ruOi- meniarp Mmge^ and improvements arrived at in oiker countries are but little knovm. Jriiploiwawfj are rough and imperfect, the manuring is insufficient, and the rotation of crops scarcely ever carried out. There are no machines for thrashing the com, and the rice^leaning and cotton'-ginning instruments are most primitive. There are nm roads on w/itc/i horses or buffaloes can bring home the crops. The small, vfeak plough does its vtfork but superficially. If the soil produces an abundant harvest^ this is entirely owing to its fertility and the patient labour of the husbandman.

In the great N&riherm piain, the thmngecMe dhairaibUir of the weaiher renders the harvest verp uHeeriain* Drought, rain or floods, often destroy the fruit of long and toilsome labour. In the Central tmd Southern regiono, the harvest is ieoa

IMairffltattoai •C ermpm. — In the great Northern

wheat, barley, millet^ buckwheat and maize are the siapie

In the Fropltncea ef the Vpi^er Bwamg^ho JK ^, rice (but only in some districts), rhubarb, the poppy, tobacco and fruit" trees are chiefly cultivated.

In the Central Brovinees are found rice, tea, cotton, the Chinagrass plant or ramie fibre, the poppy, mulberry, varnish, lacquer and tallow trees. The silkworm is also reared in this region.

In the Souih'Baetem FroHneet are found the sugar-cane, rice, the groundnut and cinnamon. The silkworm also abounds.

In the SmUhrWeetem Trovtneeo, the poppy is cultivated, and also tea, tobacco, rice, wheat, maize and barley.

Tartoas asHewlteiml protfneto •r CUn a.

Fkmts euMwMted /or food. — By these are meant all those products which man uses for his food. In CMnoy the following are principally found : riee, wheat, btuieg, mUlet, poiatoee, peas, bea/ns^ and a great variety of leguminous and aquatic plants.

Btee, called in Chinese taomi fg ^» is the staple product and food of the country. Two Mnde of it are chiefly cultivated :

CHAPTBE III. AmiGULTURB. 395

one which grows only in water, and the other, or rtd Hm^ cultivated on the uplands. It generally requires 4 months before a crop of rice can be harvested.

JPtonto uMitfecl i&k indusiri^m — By these are meant all those that must first undergo some process of transformation before they are fit for use by man. Some of these, he uses to supply him with drink. Among them, we may mention wine* In China, this is made from the fuiee of the grape^ but in small quantity. A special kind of spirit is obtained from rice and nUOei* TeooMe ptaeUe are transformed into cloths. These plants abound in China, the principal being the eoUonrpUnUf hemp, the CMimi- ttraee-piatU or ramie fibre (Boehmeria nivea). 8Uk is also used for clothing, but mostly by the richer classes. Fkiper is made from the puip of the bamboo, and cords from its fibres, as well as from those of the palm-tree. The aii of the country is obtained from rape, coOon'eeed and groundnute. The most extensively cultivated of all these plants are the tea and eoUan shrubs, the the bamboo and the poppy plant. The leaves of the are much esteemed, and are used throughout the country for feeding the silkworm.

Tea is the general beverage of the Chinese people. The iea^piant or ctH'a Iff^ {see above : p. 226), is chiefly cultivated in the following Provinces : .FMWan |B |t, Nt^nhwei ^ ^^ Kianaei fL H, Hupeh ffH ft, Hunan ^ ^, Seeeh^an |S J\\ and Yunnan ^ ^. A highly esteemed kind, called F'ueui ^ 19 iea, is cultivated in this latter Province [eee p. 180). The tea crop is gathered 3 times a year. The first, which consists of the tender sprouts of the shrub, furnishes the best and most delicate teas. The greater part of the crops is consumed in the country, while part is exported to foreign countries. The chief export towns are Bdnl^ow ^ P in Hupeh m 4t i St^onghai J: m in Kiangsu flQ fl, Hangchow i$i % \n Ch^kiang fH it, Fmh chow |g ;H| in Fokien |B |^, and Oanion or Kwangchow Fu J| ^ Jj^ in the Province of Kwangtung JJ ||[. Of late years, Chinese tea has not been so well prepared as €fegian and Indian teas, hence its export has much decreased. The leaves when gathered

396 SSGTibN y. political and SG0N<Hf1C OBOORAPHY.

are prepared in four difTerent ways, thus producing the following kinds : btackf green^ brick and dugt teas. Brick tea is mostly forwarded to Siberktf MongoHa and Bncsia, vi& Kiakhta and Tientsin ^|^, and to Tibet, via Hank*ow ^ P . The other kinds of leaf-tea are exported principally to Gfr«ol BHfaIn and the VhitcdF' aUMicsp the Continental, countries being largely coffee-drinkers.

The piypy pimU or yingsuh ^ m (jar-seed, so called from the jar-like shape of the capsules) was grown in China at an early date for ornamental purposes. Its medicinal pro- perties became known by Mahomedan merchants {see p. 36?)^ who entered the country through Central Asia, and through \ Canton. Opium'sm^Mng was introduced from Java and For-

1 mosa in the early part of the XVIII*^ century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729. The cuMvitHign of the poppy, for the sake of its extract, began in China about 1830,

^and developed rapidly. It is chiefly grown in the following Provinces : inkmum H ^, Kweichmv J| ^, SKeehu^an Q j||, Kaneu -^ H, 8kenei (^ H, SkauM [Ij If, SkaHtuNg ii| ]K, HonoH PI ^, Nortk Kimngeu {L ^. and CkiMmtg ^ fL. It is less extensively cultivated in the other Provinces. It has been estimated that there are 25 or 30,000,000 opium smokers in China. Its abuse by rich and poor has injured and beggared the country. To remedy the evil. His Majesty Kwanghsii has issued September 20^^, 1906, an edict, directing that the growth, sale and consumption of opium cease within 10 years, and ordering that the Government prepare measures for carr3ring out the Imperial Will. These measures have been subsequently drawn up and sanctioned by the Throne. They may be summed up as follows : 1® the cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by one-tenth of its present area; 2* all persons using it to be registered; 3® all shops selling opium to be closed gradually, and all places where opium is smoked will have to dis- continue this practice within six months; A® anti-opium societies will be officially encouraged. Moreover, all officials are requested to set an example to the people. Those over sixty will be treated leniently, but all under this age must abandon the habit

CHAPTBA III. AGRlCULTUaS. 397

within six months, and if they cannot do so, they must withdraw from the service of the State. Some Viceroys have already enforced these regulations within their respective juridictions. Great Britain has been approached by China, in regard to the gradual importation of Indian opium, while the other Powers have been requested to co-operate in the solution of this whole- some reform.

The Mfpor-oirtitf^ called in Chinese kaneht '^ J|[, is prin- cipally cultivated in the Provinces of Kwangtung H j)[, jPMien IB tt and a^eehu/an |E] j||. The methods employed for the manufacture of sugar are still very primitive. Several foreign sugar refineries have also been established, and are doing good business. The greater part of the sugar is despatched to Himgkimg^^^ (m0 p. 286), whence it is re-exported into China.

The cHUmrpUinif or mietiMta-tlhu % '/^ ||f, is chiefly grown in Kiangtu {t jH, NffmhhwH ^ ]|||, and Hupeh fgH ;f^ Provinces. The seed is sown in May, and the crop gathered in September. The down or floss is of two colours, icrMto and yM^w. The white kind is the more widely cultivated, and also the more lasting, while the yellow is shorter, and much less esteemed.

IJaefU trees. — China abounds in useful trees sought after for their timber, or prized for their industrial properties. The principal of these are the g%amr4ac tree or ts'ihtzc-shu ^ ^tf« ^h® vttrnUh'tree or t'ungtze-shu #|^i[|f, the iaU9w<ree or kiientze-shu ^g ^ flj*, the waoD-tree or pehlah-shu j^ Ml W« the eamph^r^iree or chang-shu ^ Hf , the •ooy-irgg or tsao- kioh-chu J^ H tf « and the palm-tree or tsung-shu f^ Hf .

The imiiiiirry-<rgg» or mmg-shu ff^ |^, is cultivated for its leaveSt which serve for rearing the silkworm. It is found prin- oipally ia the Provinces of Kiamgmu XL H, ChHOamg ^ {£, and amBchmfam R jl|.

A special kind of silkworm feeds on the leaves of the wild oak in the Provinces of Kweichow j|; f\^ Honan ^ |f|, and Shantung |Ij %.

(China is one of the principal silk-producing countries. Its produce alone attains 27*/, of the total amount consumed by

398 SECTION T. POLITICAL AMD ECONOMIC eEOGEAPHT.

foreign countries. Of this, 18 7« comes from the N., and 7*/^^ from the 8. of China. As to the remainder of the world's silk, Italy furnishes 25*/o, Japan 28 7^, and the other countries 20 ^o)*

Here, we may also add the tetntoo or chuhtze fj* ^, which embellishes the Chinese landscape and homestead, and may be called the naUonaipUmi. Native botanists reckon sixty varieties of it« all applied to numerous domestic and industrial purposes. Its tender shoots are used for food, its roots are transformed into canes, its tapering culms supply poles and masts, or are made into tables, stools, chopsticks, pipes, umbrellas, fans, and even musical instruments.

— The principal fruit-bearing trees are : the peach (t'ao-shu i|^ W) ^"^ pear-trees (li-shu ^ j^), the aprieoi (hsing-shu :^ W)t the appie (p4nkwo-shu ;|j| || f^) and phtm^ treee (litze-shu ^ ^ 10*), the orfttcfiM-iree (wumei-shu ^ fjl^ ^), the m^mae (kOhtze-shu ;|R ^ m), J^fMe (tsao-shu |K W) and btmana (patsiao-shu |F H 91), the Ueh4 (^ ig[), the pine'€fppie (polo-shu ^ H Hf), the mango'^ree (mangku-shu ^ 1& tlf)i the vine (p'ut'ao-shu ^ 1$ Ig^), eheetmU (lihtze-shu H 7 91) and walkmMfreee (hoht'ao-shu ^ tl 9f), the per- Hmmen (shitze j^ ^. Diospyrus kaki), the medlar or iegguai (lukiih Ift ;R, pronounced in Cantonese lukwat, i.e. rush-orange). This fruit is also called p^a (i|;]£ i[C pronounced bibo in the Shanghai dialect), or Mwa {aee p. 18).

]>»iiie8tlc anlmala. — The principal domestic animals are : the horse, ass, mule, water-buffalo, dog, cat, rabbit, pig, goat, sheep, hen, duck, goose and pigeon. In the N., the camel is also employed as a beast of burden {eee p. 17).

Szechw'an Q J\\ and Kweichow j|; ^ produce the best breed of ponies. They are also imported in great numbers from Mongolia.

Plflcloultare. ^ In some parts of China, principally in the low valley of the Yangtze t| f, the spawn and fry of fish are gathered, and oast into the rivers and lakes. A little yolk of egg, bean-grael, or ohopped grass, afford at first sufficient food. The fish grow rapidly, and form a considerahle extra to the diet of the people.

Fishing is extensively carried on in the rivers, and along the coast, and for- niflhea millions with a means of subsistence (see p. 17)*

CHAPTIR III. AeaiCULTUAB.

399

References :

MiMion LyoniudBe d'Bzplorftiion Commer-

dftle en Chine. Lyon, 1806. (II" Partie.

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nan, le Koei-toheon, le Se-tobonan, et lee

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(Tome II. Oh. YIU). BArd R — Les Ghinois chez eox. Paris,

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1885. (L'Agricnltnre. Ch. III. p. 34-40). Leccndre D' A. F. — Deux Annies an

Setohonen. Paris, 1001. (Agrioig^ture. Ch.

XI. p. 880-401). He OhftTMMMsH. — Les Ghinois pendant

onep^riode de 4,458 ans. Toors, 1845.

(Agricnltare.— B^e YAgital. p. 266-283). Irlflna M. — La Chine Contemporaine.

Paris, 1866. (L'Agricnltnre. Ch. Y. p. 108-

120). De 0»aroy. — L'Bmpire da Bfilien. Paris,

1867. (De TAgricnltnre. Livre Y. Ch. I.

p. 421-448). AntoniBL — An Pays de Chine. Paris.

(L'Agricnltnre. Ch. lY. p. 204). ClaJact.— Etade snr la Chine. Besan9on,

1881. (Agrionltore. Ch. YI. p. 204-236). ■hmmmA a. — La Chine et les Ghinois.

Paris,. 1847. (Agriculture. Ch. X. p. 148-

168). SlmoM L. — La Chine, son Histoire, ses

Bessonroes. Paris, 1874. (Productions.^

Agriculture. Ch. lU. p. 177-818. Volflin M. — Agriculture et Horticulture

en Chine. (Bevue de TOrient. Yol. Y.

p. 207-302). Us'Mm I. — Description de I'Agriculture

et da Tissage. Paris, 1850. (Agriculture

de la Chine). OMrrreor. — Agriculture. (Missions Ga-

thollqaes. Yol. Y. p. 587 sq.). QrmtitDr, — General Description of China.

London, 1705. (Fruits,Leguminoas Plants,

Trees, Shruhs, PUnts and Herhs of China.

Yol. I. Book lY. Ch. Y-YIII. p. 422561).

WUIiami « The Middle Kingdom. New-

Tork, 1861. (Natural History of China :

Botany, Trees, Flowers, Bamboo. —

Pishes. Yol. I. Ch. YI. p. 857-205. — Industrial Arts of the Chinese : agricul- ture, cultivation of rice, cotton, hemp. — Tea and silk. — Modes of catching fish. Vol. ILCh.XY. p. 100-145).

DavUb Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1842. (Agriculture. Yol. U. Ch. XX. p. 362 sq.).

Forbes F. E. — Five Years in China. London, 1848. (Agriculture. Gh. lY. p. 78- 92).

MontcoBieryMarifeilt.— China. London, 1847. (Agriculture and Yegetable Produc- tions. Yol. I. Ch. lU. p. 81-89).

Strr U. O. — China and the Chinese. Lon- don, 1849. (Agriculture. Yol. I. Ch. XIX. p. 329-344).

GotelairO.— China opened. London, 1838. (Natural Productions of China. Yol. I. Ch. IV. p. 33-44).

Dootf las Sir It. — China. London, 1882. (Agriculture. Gh. YI. p. 133-151).

Deotflas Sir R. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Farmers and Farming in China. — Cultivation of Bice. — The Silk industry. -Tea. Ch. VI. 120-137. — Gardens in China. Gh. XXIII. p. 367-870).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Agriculture in China, p. 13-25. — Silk. p. 616-623. - Tea. p. 681-697. - Bice. p. 605-607. — Cotton, p. 188-187. — Flowers, p. 284-287. Fruit, p. 296-300. — Gardens, p. 301-30:i).

TlMHiisnii J. — The Land and People of China. London, 1876. (Agriculture. Ch. IX. p. 216-240).

WUllBins. — ^Agriculture of China-Chinese Bepository. (Yol. III. p. 121-128).

WUliama. — Agricultural Implements used by the Chinese. Chinese Bepository. (Yol. Y. p. 485-494).

Green 6.R.— Agriculture of China. Wash- ington, 1856.

Jamieaon 6. — Tenure of Land in China and the Condition of the rural Population. (N.C.B.B.A. SocYol. XXin.p.69-78).

Smith A. — Village Life in China. New- York, 1903.

WllUama. — Bice, its Varieties, Mode of Cultivation etc. Chinese Bepository. (Yol. III. p. 281-284).

400

SECTION ▼. POLITIGAL AKD BCmiOllIG eSOOlUPHT.

B. — Tea Coantries of Ohina. LondoD, 1853.

FOrtone B. — Residence among the Chi- nese. London, 1897.

Voa Bf timr* — On the Tea Cultivation in W. Ssach'nan. London, 1882.

Remarks on the Tea Plant. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 13-18).

OtolllMi V. D. — Sorgo or Northern Sugar- cane. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. New Series, 1865. p. 85 sq.).

Jnllm S.— Rtenm6 des principanz traits Chinois snr la culture des MAriers et r Education des vers I soie. Paris, 18*7.

V^rce P. — Sammary of the Principal Chinese Treatises on the culture of the Mulberry and rearing of Silkworms. Washington, 1838.

Allom. — Details of the Manufacture of Silk and the Culture of Silkworms. Chi- nese Repository. (Vol. XVI. p. 223-28C*.

Fauvel A. — The Wild Silkworms of the Province of Shantung. China Review,

1877. (Vol. VI. p. 89-107). BatlMNils O. — Des Vers I soie sauvages

de la Province du Chan-toung. (Etudes,

1878. p. 55W72).

Fauvel A. — Les S^ricigtoes sauvages

de la Chine. Paris, 1895 M* Carlee D. B. — The Wild Silkworm

of China. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1866. art.

5. p. 75 sq.). SB KwanBlKi Paal- — Dissertation on

the silk manufacture and the cultivation

of the Mulberry. Shanghai, 1849. (See also

Chinese Miscellany n* 8). La Fabrication de la soie illustr^e. — La

Culture du riz illustr^e. — L' Agriculture

et la soie illustr^e. Shanghai. Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. —

Special Series. (Silk and Silk Statistics.

n<» 3 and 12). The Manufacture of Silk. — Chinese Repo- sitory. (VoL XVI. p. 228-236). Cultivation of the Mulberry. — • Chinese

Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 303-314). Les Vers k soie sauvages. — M6moires

concemant les Chinois. Paris, 1786. (Vol.

II. p. 174-19:). Bobertaon D. B. — Cotton in China. (N.

C. B. R. A. Soc. 1859. p. 302-308). Cultivation of Cotton in the District of

Shanghai. — Chinese Repository. (Vol.

XVIII. p. 449-469).

BrldBOMiii E. O. — Chinese Orassdoth.

Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVI. p. 209-

223). Wllllama. — Manufacture of Orasscloth.

Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 209-

216; 554-560). JarHe B. — Respecting Chinagrass. (N.

C.B.R.A. Soc. 1865. p. 171 seq). Moerman T.— La Ramie ou Ortie blanche

(Boehmeria nivea), sa description, son

origine, maniire de la preparer indus-

triellement. Gand, 1871. MacBOwan D. J. — The Tallow-tree.

Chinese Repository. (Vol. XX. p. 428-

426). M^moires concemant les Chinois. Paris,

1786. — (C^rimonie du Labourage. Vol.

III. p. 449-504. — Sur les Cotonniers.

Vol. ^|f p. 196-212. - Sur le Bambou.

Vol. II. p. 212-228.~Notioes snr quelques

plantes et arbrisseauz de la Chine. Vol.

III. p. 437-498. — Observations sur les

plantes, fleurs et arbres de la Chine. Vol.

XI. p. 188-268). Parker B. fl. — Chinese Account of the

Opium War. Shanghai, 1888.

MoirtBoaaerjMarlfeiB.— China.London, 1847. (Opium : Progress and extent of consumption.— Individual and National effects. — Denounced by the Chinese Government. « Unchristian conduct of England. Vol. II. Ch. IV. p. I7^2C2).

l^lrr H. O. — China and the Chinese. London, 1849. (Opium : consumption and cultivation in China. — Religious and Moral obligation of England. Ch. Xn. p. 251-280).

MecBraral W. fl.^The Foreigner in Far Cathay. London, 1872. (Opium-smoking. Ch. IX. p. 84-88).

TkoDMmi J. — The Land and the People of China. London, 1876. (Evil effects of Opium. Ch. VI. p. 145-150).

Turner F. S.— British Opinm Policy and its Results to India and China. London, 1876.

IHMlBeofi J. — The Evils of the use of Opium. (Annual Reports of the Peking Hospital).

Bdkliia J.— Historical Note on the Poppy in China. Shanghai, 1898.

Ballbar F. fl. — Waifs and Strays from the Far East. London, 1876. (Opium. Ch. xn. p. 109-112).

CHAPTER III. AaaiGULTORB.

401

Thelwttll A. S.^Iniquities of the Opium trade with China. London, 1S39.

Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Opium trade. —Mode of cultivating the Poppy. — Preparation of Opium. — Prohibited by China. Vol. II. Ch. XX. p. 381-396).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Opium. — Evil results from Opium- smoking, p. 488-497).

Park W. U. — Opinion of over 100 Phy- sicians on the use of Opium in China. Shanghai, 1899.

Day H. — The Opium Habit. New- York, 1872.

Hart E. — On the Use of Opium in India. London, 1894.

Ouraon 6. N. — Problems of the Far East. London, 1896. (The Opium i)nostion. Ch. IX. p. 283).

Martin IK E. — L'Opium : ses Abus ; Mangeurs et Fnmeurs d^Opium. Paris, 1898. (L'Opium en Chine. Ch. IIMV).

lilieniiaiBi D' H.— Les Fnmeurs d*Opium

en Chine. Paris, 1862.

The Customs Opium-smoking Returns. — Recorder. (Vol. XIII. and XIV. passim).

The Spread of Morphia in China. — Recor- der. (Vol. XXXI. p. 266).

Opium imported into Shanghai. — Recor- der, 1906. (Vol. XXXVII. p. 432).

Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. — Opium, 1864-1881. (Special Series).

Dabry de Thlersant. — La Pisciculture et la Pf^chc en Chine. Paris, 1872.

Williams. -The Middle Kingdom. New- York 1861. Modes of catching Fish. (Vol. IL Ch. XV. p. 109-112).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. Cormorant fishing, p. 181-182.

Cormorant fishing. — East of Asia Maga- zine. (Vol. II. p. 95-97).

Carp Culture in ChOkiang Province. — Recorder. (Vol. XVI. p. 201-207).

Chinese Imperial Maritime Cnstoms. — Pisciculture in China. (Miscellaneous Series. N«« 9 and 11).

26

n..

CHAPTER IV.

lOKINO AND INDUSTBT.

- Mines are numerous and rich throughout the 18 Provinces. In the past, they were almost unknown, but in recent times, their exploitation has become more and more important. When worked they will certainly prove a great source of wealth for the country. «

The chief minerals are 000!; iron and emm^erm

The loiyMf ^T^fflf** ^f 1""^^ ^Te found in Shansi |I| |5, Hunan m f||, Kweichow j|| fH and Szechw'an B /U- There are also important coal-fields in Ohihli ^ f|, Shantung |I| ^, Shensi ^ Hi Honan fgf J^, Yiinnan f| Iff, Hupeh H 4fc and Kwangtung JH ]K Provinces. The amount of coal in Yunnan, Kweichow, and Kwangsi seems to reach 30,000,000,000 tons, and it is estimated that the vast coal measures of South- Shansi would amply supply the world with coal, at the present rate of consumption, for thousands of years to come.

C&ai mtines are principally worked in the Province of Chihli git H, at K'aip'ing || Zp, and also to the W. of Peking 4fc]gE; in Shansi ilj ff Province, near T*aiyuen Fu ^j; JS( J|^; in Hupeh fl 4k Province, to the S. of Wuch'ang Fu ^ g J|^; and also in the Provinces of Hunan f| ||f, Kwangtung J| ]|[ and Shantung ^| % (see each of these Provinces : Mineral Wealth). ^JronjMaa is found throughout all China. The best known, and also the richest and most actively exploited beds, are those of Tsehchow Fu J^ ^ ^ and P'ingting Chow 9 £ M ^n Southern Shansi [I] Hf; those likewise of Szechw'an Q j||, Hunan H ||f, Honan flf iff and Shantung \Jn ^.

Oi^PPiBrjB extracted in Yunnan f| ^ and Kweichow j|| j^. The mines are the property of the Chinese Government,

CHAIPTIR IT. MININft AND INDUSTRY. 403

which has monopolized the output for its own benefit. The copper extracted in those places is inadequate for the needs of the country, and about 30,000 tons are imported annually.

2SlHe and Un are extracted in Yiinnan ^ ]|f, and 911Mb* Mlmer in Kweichow jH jl\.

€Mdp jUmt, and arywtH/hronj tmtd mtmeB are little worked. They are mostly found in the Western and South- western Provinces. Gold is found in grains in the beds of several rivers of the West, especially those of the Htinrtkmi ]g| jijC and of the Upper Yangtze ^ ^p. This latter river owes to this particularity its name of Kinsha-kiang §t H^ iLy or golden- sand river. The amount of the precious metal thus obtained is very small.

Km^mmme is found in small quantities in Szechw'an (9 j|| and Kansu "^ jlf.

SaU is obtained from brine-wells in Shansi |lj f| and Sze- chw^an B j||, and from evaporated sea-water along the coast.

WinHig regiilaitoiis. — According to mining regulations established in March 1904, the Chinese Government reserves for itself 25% of the profit of all mines. A further charge of 20% 18 to be levied on the output of diamonds and precious stones ; 10% upon gold, silver and mercury; and 5% upon coal and iron. All minerals are moreover to pay an export duty of 5% and likin to the amount of 2^%.

latAMtey. — Industry on a large scale is represented only by a few hundred manufacturing firms in the large cities. The crafts and small trades on the contrary are extensively developed, and comprise various branches but make little progress. Their methods being rudimentary, and their instruments so inadequate, they turn out only inferior articles despite long and tedious labour.

We shall mention among these articles .^ulkm jtO^jnanu- factured in Nganhwei ^ ^ and Szechw^an B jl| Provinces; oglim iioih in^ Hupeh m ^ ; fmn0,h0umh^Ud furnJi^r^Jlagammr wmrm and wmiWiigr in Kwangtung ]f^ jK ; wtmUhed Mies in Hu- >^^ HMf? <iy^>P Chihli Jtffi and Oh^kiang iT&^I^nd almost everywhere jN^er, emrih^mpmre, ftricte and eeJkiA

404

SBCTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG 0BOaRAPHT.

Two manufactures deserve to be especially mentioned : an^^^v both of which were formerly in a flourishing condition. The poropy^i^^ ftf Kinnpsi |J2 Hf obtained world-wide celebrity, and was in great demand on account of its brilliant colours, its exquisite finish and its quaint designs. In 1850, the T^aipMng ^ 2p, rebels destroyed the kilns, which have since been rebuilt, but the articles turned out are far from equalling in colour and finish those of former times. (See Kiang- si. p. 144). Th^Mks and fftgumcB of Soochow g jH and Nan- ^^ng ^ ]9C in Kiangsu 01 Sl« ^"^ ^^ Hangchow ;^ ^ in Ch6- kiang ^ {t, are highly valued throughout China, but are in little demand by foreigners, as they have neither the lustre, variety or finish of the French, Italian or Japanese silks.

Jndusiry on a large eeaie is carried on principally at the open ports. CaUonrgpiniiiUna and weavhtp miUs (17 in all) are established in Shanghai J^ jm, Hank'ow ^ P, Wuch*ang gj g, Ningpo tlf fSi and Foochow |B jl\ -^ Mk^fiiaiurSM^M Shanghai, Soochow jjll j^ and Canton JH ^; dmckyards in Shanghai, Foo- chow and Tientsin 3^ ||t; ^jtigttr^fVtymtaHag^ in Canton ; Ueel' works in Hanyang ^ ^ (Hupeh ^ ^ Province) ;^€iraenaia in ShangEai, Wuch^ang and Tientsin; n^nts in Peking ^ ]^, Nanking ifi ]$[) Canton and other Provincial capitals; large ptJSfff'Hf etUMiahments in Shanghai, Tientsin, Foochow and Canton.

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Paris, 1894. Ohavannes. — La Sculpture sur pierre

en Chine au temps des 2 dynasties Han.

Paris, 1893. Paldolo^ae M. — L'Art Chinois. Paris,

1887. de Mar^uerye R. — L'Art chez les Chi- nois. Paris, 1904.

GHAPTBK lY. MINING AND INDUSTRY.

405

Lebouoq. — Vie de Mk' Dubar. 1879. (In-

dustrie. Ch. V.). Julieii S. — Fabrication de la Porcekine

Chinoise. Paris, 1856. Jullen S. — Industries Anciennes et Mo-

demes de I'Empire Chioois. Paris, 1860. Fol Korl^An. — Metiers Chinois. (Dans

I'Echo de Chine, 1904-1905. passim). Daryl P. — Le Monde Chinois. Paris, 1885.

(Llndostrie. Ch. IV. p. 50 63. Soie, coton,

c^ramiqae, richesses mioieres. — PAche.

— Associations on Quildes dans la vie

indnstrielle). Bard E. — Les Chinois chez eux. Paris,

1900. (Les principanx produits de la

Chine. Ch. XIX. p. 212-225. - Le Mar-

chand Chinois. Ch. XX. p. 240-249. —

Le P6ril Jaune, on la concurrence du

travail Asiatique. Ch. XX. p. tldZSQ). Strautm L. ~ La Chine : son Histoire, ses

Ressources. Paris, 1874. (Mines : houille,

pdtrole, fer, cuivre, m^taux pr^cieux.

p. 336-422. ~ Industrie, p. 423-428\ Antoniiii. — An Pays de Chine. Paris.

(L*Industrie. (Ch. IV. p. 196-204). Bonacofli. — La Chine et les Chinois.

Paris, 1847. (Manufactures ct Industries.

Ch. XIL p. 186-190). IriMRMi M. — Etudes sur la Chine. Paris,

1866. (I'Industrie. p. 127-136).

De Courcy.— L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,

1867. (Industrie : m^tallurprie, cerami- que, poterie, laque. Livre V. Ch. II. p. 444-468).

Tlllot M. — Notes Commerciales sur la Chine. Chang-hai, 1901.

Murray's Ohiiia. — Edinburgh, 1843. (Geology and Mineralogy of China. Vol. III. Ch. V. p. 266-282).

Groaler. — General Description of China. London, 1795. (Mines of China, metals, atones, clays. Vol. I. Book IV. Ch. IV. p. 898-422. —Silks and porcelain of China. Vol. II. Book VIII. Ch. XI. p. 451-479).

'Williains.— The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Industrial Arts of the Chi- nese : metallurgy and porcelain. Vol. II. Ch. XV. p. 113-144).

GulslafrC. — On the Mines of the Chi- nese Empire. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1847. N« 1. art. 5).

DaTAS Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1842. (Industrial Arts, metallurgy.— Silk and porcelain manufacture. Vol. II. Ch.

XVII. p. 216-250).

Mining in China. — N. China Hrrald. April 2, 1864.

Richthofen. — letters. Shanghai, 1873.

RIohttioren. ~ The Distribution of Coal in China. (Ocean Highways. Nov. 1873).

Gandry R. R — China Past and Present. London, 1^95. (Edict in favour of Mining; Mineral resources. Ch. V. p. 109-119. — Industries, cotton manufacturing in the East. Appendix G. — The Hanyang iron and steel mills. Appendix E.).

Leroy-Beaulieu P. — The Awakening of the East. London, 1000. (Industries limited to the open parts. — Salaries in Shanghai. — Working hours in silk fac- tories. Ch. VII. p. 237-241).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn, 1898.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. X**» Edition. London, 1902. — China: (Production and Industry. — Precious Metals.— Manufac- tures, p. 27-28).

Lamprey. — Notes on the Geology of the Great Plain. (N.C.B.RA. Soc. Decemb. 1865).

Edkins J. — The Bituminous Coal Mines, West of Peking. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. r67. p. 243-2.50).

Kin^smill T. — Notes on some out-lying coal-fields in the S. E. Provinces of China. (N.C.B.K.A. Soc. 1866).

Bickmore A. S. — Notes on the Distri- bution of Gold in China. (Notes and Queries on China and Japan. Vol.1, p.22).

Wllllainson A. — Travels in North- China. London, 1870.

Pumpelly R. — Geological Researches inrhina.(SmithsonianInstitute.January, 1866. Coal-fields).

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19<»5.

Jemi^an T. R. — China in Law and Commerce. New-York, 1905. (Physical Features. Ch. I. p. 1-32).

JamiewNi J. W. — Cotton Mills of China (Diplomatic and Consular Report. China. N" 629. Foreign Office, 19u5).

Hlrth. — Ancient Porcelain : a Study in Chinese Medieeval Industry and Trade. Hongkong, 18S8.

Bushel 1 S. W.— Chinese Porcelain before the Present Dynasty.

Hippisley. — A Sketch of the History of Ceramic Art in China, 1902.

406

BIGTION ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIG eSOGBAPHT.

On the Porcelain Rock of China. — (Ame- rican Journal of Science. March, 1871).

Hod^flBO. — How to identify old China. London, 1905.

GUes H. A. — Introduction to the Stady of Chinese Pictorial Art. London, 1905.

S. W. ~ Chinese Art. London,

1904. AndenDB W. — The Pictorial Arts of

Japan. London, 1887. AoMley G. A. — Keramic Art of Japan.

London, 1881.

CHAPTER V.

OOIDEERCE.

0Mna*9 trade has undergone greater modifications than her manofactni^s. Up to 1842, the whole foreign trade of the country was carried on only through two ports : Ifotfoo and OanUm, all the others heing closed. Since then, 50 ports have been thrown open, and every year sees new additions made to the list. China has reaped therefrom a certain amount of prosperity and well-being, which, although still far inferior to those of Europe^ are however of no mean importance. She would undoubtedly benefit largely were she to open her doors much wider. While being bettered by foreign products, the export of her wealth would bring in gold and silver, and enable her to reach a higher standard of perfection in her implements, methods and ways of transit.

For greater clearness, we will study her trade under three different headings : the home trade, that carried on with the outlying dependencies of the Empire, and finally her foreign or exterior trade.

— The home or inter-provincial trade consists in the interchange of goods within the 18 Provinces. It is by far the most important of the country, but impossible to estimate through lack of efficient control and reliable statistics. Its special feature is that of being largely a re— ff ircwig. This

characteristic is carried to extremes owing to the currency in use, the cash. This facilitates the retail sale of articles, which every- where else would be effected wholesale.

We can however consider separately the retail and wholesale trade of the country. The reirrfHteg^e is carried on in the shops^ of small towns, or at faiirs Whl6h are held on fixed dates, now in one place, now in another. A great variety prevails as to the holding of these fairs in different Provinces, and even in seveial parts of the same Province. The jcJItiaswIs irads is

? \

\

408 SBCnON ▼. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftBOORAPHT.

{ C- monopolized by rich merchants or guilds. These sell wholesale

to shopkeepers, who retail the commodities to their customers. Shopkeepers deal generally in only one kind of merchandise. Thus

\ there are rice, tea, opium, fur and other petty traders. Provin-

j I ces, rich families and guilds engage in special branches. There

are thus in China the tea-merchants of NgamhwH $ K, the rice- merchants of Kufon^tung JH ]K and of Kiangsm (£ J|, and the bankers of ShanM |lj H- ^^ regard to families, suffice it to

V I mention the rice spirit of the Im Fikin family in JPeMng :^ ]jc, and the tea of the Fang family in NgtMnhwH ^%i. Inter-provincial trade is also extensively carried on. Thus Hunan fjjf^ ^ sends its coal to Mupeh ^ 4k; •H'^^mA exports its cotton-cloths to 800- e/ntfan B jl|« Kweiehaw jH ^ and Hnnm^ ^ gf; Kwangtnng JH % sends its fans, KganhwH ^ |g( its Indian ink, and Kiangsi {£ Ji its porcelain, to every Province of the Empire.

Trade witti tU» outlying ]>epeiideiiele« ofttie Eaaplre.

(Tibet, Ch4n€8e Tm^kesian, Mangoiia, Manchuria). — The 18

Provinces export to the outlying dependencies of the Empire the following articles : tea, silk, opium, Ghinaware and foreign- made piece-goods. They import furs, musk, jade, ponies (from Mongolia), and beancake (from Manchuria).

Foreign Trade. — Foreign trade is carried on through the open ports with Japan, Hongkong, JnMa, the ZhMed Siates, Atrope etc.

Importenee of CTlilna** Foreign Trade. — The impor- tance of China's foreign trade is annually^jBcreasing. It has almost trebled since 1891. The following are the statistics published by the Imperial Maritime Customs since the above mentioned year. By Net Imports, the Customs understand the value of the foreign goods imported direct from foreign coun- tries, less the value of the foreign goods re-exported to foreign countries during the given year. All values are in JEToMNean taels {see gold equivalent of the Haikwan tael from 1870-1906. p. 319)-

GHAPTIR ▼. COMMIRCB.

Annual Yalne of the Foreign Trade of China, 1891-1905.

409

Year.

Net Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1881

134,003,863

100,947,849

234,951,712

1892

135,101,198

102,583,525

237,684,723

1893

151,362,819

116,632,311

267,995,130

1891

162,102,911

128,104,522

290,207,433

1895

171,696,715

143,293,211

314,989,920

1896

202,589,994

131,081,421

333,671,415

1897

202,828,625

163,501,358

866,329,983

1898

209,579,834

159,037,149

368,616,483

1899

264,748,456

195,784,832

460,533,288

1900

211,070,422

158,996,752

370,067,174

1901

268,302,918

169,656,757

437,959,675

1902

315,363,905

214,181,584

529,545,189

1903

326,739,133

214,352,407

511,091,600

1904

344,060,608

239,486,683

583,541,291

1905

447,100,791

227,888,197

674,988,988

Principal Foreiipn €)oanftries witli wliicli Oliina trm/detL — The distribution of the trade among the principal countries of the world is shown in the following table. The figures given cover the years 1903-1905, and include the sum total of imports and exports.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-1906*

Country.

1908

1901

1906

Total, Hk.Taels.

Total,Hk.Tael8.

Total,Hk.Tael8.

Greftt Britain.

60,627,867

72,490,918

104,536,613

Hongkong.

226,716,058

227.9*3,027

229,523,8^1

British India.

35,800,240

34,606,493

37,518,977

Singapore and Straits.

7,301,757

7,729,070

7,864,509

Australia and New Zealand.

472,802

713,146

1,610,675

South Africa (including Mauritius).

52,497

100,522

68,775

Canada.

1,081,828

2,693,735

2,794,019

United States of America.

45,399,391

50,268,921

103,917,010

Philippine Islands.

875,745

1,080,757

906,977

Mexico and Central America.

47,168

410 SEGTION ▼. POLIVIGAL AMD IGOMOIIIC MOMAPHT.

Annnal Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-lMK.(oontinaed).

Gountry.

IM

ISOi

IM

Total, Hk. TaeU. Total, Hk. Taels.

Total, Hk.TaeU.

Bonth AmerioA.

4,948

26,088

18,084

Germany.

20,228,724

Fnmoe.

22,688307

Belgium.

11321.020

Italy.

83^5,098

Austria and Hungary.

1328.682

Netherlands.

1,961381

Norway, Sweden, Denmark.

147,261

Spain and Portugal.

70,688

Macao.

7,146,247

7,958,884

7,745,616

Bossia, Bnropean Ports.

6,097,757

7,226,478

5301,044

Bnssia and Siberia by land Frontier.

6,886,509

2,208,129

2,928.478

Russia, Pacifio Ports.

2,648,701

94,286

8,024,607

Korea.

2,684,949

2,270,015

8,989,628

Japan and Formosa.

80,781,778

88,150,914

96,780311

French Indo-China.

8,186388

4,706,468

8,978,264

Siam.

1,225,829

1,556.272

1,506,687

Dutch Indies.

4,167,565

5,557,862

5,086,850

Turkey, Persia, £g3rpt, Aden.

2,672,308

5,538,044

2,145,294

Prteolpal Imports fvom F»velsii Oomitiies. — The principal imports irom Foreign Countries are set out in the following table. The figures range from 1903*1905, and the values are given in Haikwan taels.

Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-10(M^

Description of Goods.

1908

1901

1906

Value :Hk.Tl8.

Value :Hk.Tl8.

Value : Hk. Tls.

Opium.

43,830,892

37,094,172

34.070,021

Cotton Goods (Shirtings, DriUs, T-Cloths).

128320,004

124,083,305

181,452358

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.

511,053

1,032382

1,198,434

WooUen Goods.

8,965398

4,161,819

4,240,751

Miscellaneous Piece Goods.

1,652,650

1,958,859

2,086,000

Metals.

15316,823

21,284,775

45,428398

Coal and Coke.

8,488,788

7,160,675

7,121353

Cigars and Cigarettes.

2,540,768

8,279,718

4,734,679

Tobacco.

507.789

851,825

1314,883

Dyes, Colours and Paints.

4,809,681

5,173,525

6,452,727

CHAPRH ▼. COIOIBBCB. 411

Principal Het Imports from Foreign CountrieB, 1003-1906. (continued).

Desoription of Goods.

1908

190i

1906

Value :Hk.Tl8.

Value :Hk.Tls.

Value iHk.Tls.

Fish and Fishery Products.

4,742,677

5.510.956

8,828,542

Bags of aU kinds.

1,699.418

961,661

2,032,423

Candles.

644,567

562,705

1,384,054

Flour.

2,869,708

8,591,071

3,706,159

Ginseng.

1,779,418

1,412,384

2,000,283

Glass and Glassware.

1,357,597

1,170,710

1,481,880

Kerosene Oil, American.

6,679,769

13,214,908

11,878,271

Borneo.

89,192

49,897

l,097,3n

„ Burma.

143,745

175,516

„ Russian.

8,332,040

5,535,946

1,700,430

„ Sumatra.

6,925,928

8,963,547

5,985,492

Leather.

1,047,011

1,213.437

1,799,576

Machinery and Fittings.

8,169,500

2,660.089

5,836,927

Matches, Japanese.

3,808,949

4,743,209

5,658,130

Medicines.

1,336,506

1,506,297

1,908,578

Paper.

8,372,463

2,549,082

2,453.039

Kice.

7,650.711

8,879,630

8,554,071

Baflway Plant and Materials.

7,996,325

6,046,459

7,846,739

Soap.

1.167,891

911,051

1,564,461

Stores, Household.

1,372,445

1,491,817

2,384,584

Timber, Hard-wood.

781,643

998,990

809,277

„ Soft-wood.

1,328,468

1.496,991

2,309,130

Sugar, Brown.

4,787,995

5,498,510

7,863,058

„ Candy.

1,292,266

1,887,918

1,578,189

„ Refined.

6,285,546

6388,723

8,248,312

„ White.

3,596,244

4,556,307

5,482,548

Wines.

943,312

903.532

1,016,351

Spirits.

:»5,225

504,004

1,272,204

Beer and Porter.

600,939

669,883

789,862

All these imports come from different countrie$. Thus, cotton yam from India; cotton goods from Great Britain and the United States of America; opium from India; kerosene oil from the United States of America, Sumatra and Russia; wine from France; matches from Japan; rice from Indo-China; aniline dyes and colours from Germany ; flour from the United States of America and window-glass from Bel- gium. In thus speaking, we do not mean to state that all the matches are imported solely from Japan, or all the window-glass from Belgium, but we wish to point out the supply-source whence such articles are chiefly derived. Likewise, it must not be inferred from the above table relating to the trade of the various countries, that all the products come from these countries themselves. Thus Hongkong, and to a large extent Great- Britain too, are furnishers of imports manufactured in other countries, but shipped in Boglish bottoms.

412

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOaRAPHT.

Principal Exports lo Foreign OiMiiitries. — The following table shows the principal exports from China to Foreign Countries for the years 1903, 1901 and 1905. The values are given in Haikwan taels.

Principal Net Exports to Foreign Countries, 1903-1905.

Dr^cripiioii of Goodfi.

IBOS

1901

1906

ValuoiHk.Tk.

Valui^:Hk.Tls.

Value :Hk.Tl&. 70,393,^33

Stlk.

74,389,703

7H,255.412

Tea.

''lt\2M,bl3

30,031,9^

2&,145,&>2

Raw Cotton.

I3,2£M,61I

24,«n,sa5

12,029,326

SMtis (Fara), SMu ClothidK, Roes.

5,Soa,llS 5,550,544

7^27,543 4,926,^5

9,^l,2a6

IIeaiicak«t«

S,293»406

2,355,918

ri,m,»iT

Straw Braid. Sheep's Wooi Bides, Cow *nd Buffalo.

4,127,906 2,475J5S

4,718,100

4,502320 4,602344

7,112,420

2,210,fSgg

6.070,157 4,995J49

Oils (Ik^au, Groumlimt, Ti?a, Wmdj Paper. lAois««d, Caaaia).

ThXj in Slftbfi.

2,034,717

4,^2,105

aj6e,7oo

;i,S0O,7ft8

4,oijri,oes

5,551,R3|

3,441,547

Mats and Mstling,

Cattle (Shefp, Pigs, Goalii}. Uristles.

4,H0,45ri 2,671^,755 l,088,26n

a,S89,542 3,120,190 3,197,040

a,iii9,;i?E0

3,21M0fl 2,5-^5.610

Fire- crackers and Firoworks,

Henip.

Uedielnt'S,

2,433,0^ L 1 1, 716,643

!,Ji!ll,910

2,717,90fi 1

1,851,131

1,940,7^

2,972,250 2,ai2,007 2,111,616

Sugar.

Provisions and Vpg^tableB. Busamum Set'd*

il87,fl77 l,fi77,fm *2,!?23,73,^» 2,029,9%

1,:I56,179

2,651,860

2,100,802

5;i5,930

2,101,^1*0 2,021,589 2,474,703 2,349,746

Tabaco, Leaf and Prepared. Cbinawart^

2,0:25,1*23 2,20^^,713

2,5r^,-i00 l,663,mi

2,312,713 1,721,474

Fruits of oM kinds.

1,653.177

l,7a\407

1,671,992

GraBscIoth,

660,349

768,98:1

1,259,5Be

Fish and Fiuhery Products,

002,011

9K7.55a

l,l&l.3i7

Timber and Wood of all kinds.

1,400,^0

1,390,3^

1,1.15,246

Yermicelll and Macaroni.

ijKo,a">.j

l,43*,30n

1,377,9(12

Principal Re-exports. — The value of China's re-exports is inconsiderable. The total was in 1904, Hk. Tls. 13,384,055; and in 1905, Hk. Tls. 14,093,741. The following table will exhibit the most important articles for Ihe years 1904 and 1905» with their equivalent values in Haikwan taels.

GHAPTBR V. GOMIIBRCB.

413

Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905.

Description of Goods.

1904

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Cotton Goods.

5.017,815

5,020,061

Formo&ft Tea.

8,9-15,815

2,554,609

Metals.

410,785

889,23;?

Coal.

491,875

641,625

Honsebold Stores.

71,331

516,8(i7

Kerosene Oil.

471,445

512,309

Ginseng.

297,820

435,684

Opium.

174,721

219,626

Flour.

5,633

2;V2,118

Condensed Milk.

8,3a>

181,539

Woollen Goods.

171,304

173,962

Bags of all kinds.

333,328

108,^85

Sugar.

33,249

122,410

Ceylon Tea.

44,055

82,795

Spirits.

26,623

225,277

Beer and Porter.

11,762

142,743

Wines.

36,589

106,587

Talne and Importance of Uie principal articles of trade. — The pi'incipal imparU to China are 6 : Cotton piece goods, opium, ytettiis, keroeene oii, maehinerp, railway plant ana tnaieriaiB. The following table shows the details of cotton goods supplied from 1903-1905.

Importation of Cotton Piece Goods and Tarn.

Description.

1908

190i

1908

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.

31,818,938

30,602,826

05,387,593

Drills, Jeans, T-Cloths.

10,113,635

9,616,902

21,525,938

Fancy Cottons (Italians, Lastings, Spanish Stripes).

19,311,126

24,348,00<»

27,330,425

Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls and Spools.

67,376,305

50,515,568

67,208,997

Cotton fabrics are imported especially from the United States of America and from England, and in lesser quantity from Japan, Germany and India.

414

SECTION ▼. POLITICAL AND IGONOVIC OIOORAPHT.

Cotton yam is imported principally from India and Japan. The following table shows the quantity supplied from 1903- 1905.

Importation of Cotton Tarn.

1908

1901

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk.Tls.

Indian.

45,279,099

42,406,135

47,556,302

Japanese.

20,759,664

15.975,»0

17,791,868

EngliBh.

640,568

363,666

815,430

Hongkong.

206,426

118,226

77,727

The sorts of Opiam imported from 1903-1905 were as follows.

Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1905.

1908

190ft

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk.Tls.

Benares.

8,189,056

6,161,962

6,587,092

Malwa.

17,024,215

16,097,055

12,899,966

Patna.

16,884,857

13,160,719

13,748,796

Other kinds (Persian).

2,282,764

1,674,416

889.147

Net ImportatkNi of Opium into the Open Fortm. ~*The following table shows the exact quantity of opium which passed into consumption at the principal ports from 1900-1905.

Opium : Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1900-1908.

Port.

1900

1901

1908

1908

190ft

1905

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Shanghai.

13,173

13,859

14,950

17,492

15,203

14^11

Canton.

6,915

8,013

8,499

9,461

9,453

10,209

Swatow.

5,248

4338

4,921

5,891

4,865

4,129

Foochow.

2,921

2,702

3,418

4,419

33^1

3,801

Amoy.

2,457

2,556

3,486

3,919

3,428

8.899

Ch^nkiang.

3,960

8,866

2,996

8,508

8,462

2,851

Hangchow.

1,797

1,862

1,870

2,227

2,487

2,099

Ningpo.

2,559

2,857

2,025

2,207

2,209

1,814

Lappa.

1,591

1,410

1,406

1,089

1,870

1.788

Kiukiang.

2,223

2,116

1,785

2,240

2,418

1,715

Wuhu.

2,453

1,980

1,325

2,855

2,860

1,685

K4ungchow.

582

:«2

422

100

4A0

ijm

CHAPRH ▼. GOMmBCI.

415

The Picul is equivalent to 133 ^ lbs avoirdupois, or 60,453 kilogrammes.

The principal oajpaili from China are Mk and Ua. These two articles constituted up to 1880 more than 80% of the whole export. The following tables show the various kinds, value and quantity of each of these exports.

Sorts of Silk exported, 1903-1905.

Desoription.

1908

190ft

1006

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Silk, Raw, White.

11,603,374

19,581,790

13,524,010

„ YeUow.

8,649,601

3,857,823

8,866,402

„ wad.

4,673,434

9361,668

8,639,062

„ Steam Filature.

81,284,941

28,526,115

27,395,999

Cocoons.

2,704,268

945,685

1,344,286

Waste SUk.

5,016,637

3,014,202

4,288,525

Coooons, Refuse.

402,503

400,519

555,818

Piece Goods.

12,096,173

10,600,800

8,897,627

Shantung Pongees.

1,688,787

1,162,568

1,041,123

Prodncts, Undassed.

1,170,085

804,742

840,981

Total Export of Silk to Foreign Countries for the past 10 years.

Raw,

Re-

Steam

Raw,

Waste

Refuse

Waste

Year.

White.

Yellow.

Reeled.

Filature.

Total.

Wild.

Cocoons.

SUk.

Cocoons.

Yarn.

Piculs.

Picnls.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

1896

28,547

6,775

9,673

27,041

72,036

16,370

11,020

44,987

6,823

1897

34,691

7,610

13,778

41,485

97,564

19,064

10,969

54,808

8,501

1898

82,738

7,746

10,799

41,050

92,833

16,489

9,058

68,737

9,526

1899

42^93

14,145

10,452

49,434

123,424

24,629

12,656

87,993

9,221

1900

22,204

11,267

9,519

35,277

78,267

18,867

9,148

58,812

9,643

86

1901

29.187

13,669

15,903

49,937

108,696

20,499

8,5a5

66,044

11,710

12

1902

22,280

12,636

15,146

50,557

100,519

19,179

13,436

72,436

11,962

23

1903

12,706

9,375

6,638

43,979

72,695

22,127

19,430

79,822

16,879

207

1904

21,260

10,374

12,964

47,2<>7

91,885

33,527

11,015

66,781

14,719

161

1905

15,418

10,718

8,857

45,347

80,335

25,584

14,207

87,114

20,806

53

Silk is priticipally purchased by France (74,100 piculs in 1904, Mid 70,820 in 1905), which takes alone annually about

416

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND BC(mOMIC ftEOQRAPHT.

250,000,000 francs worth {£ 10,000,000), or 12 % of the total export. Italy comes next, having taken 22,116 piculs in 1904, and 21,620 in 1905. The United States of America hold the third place, having taken 17,800 piculs in 1904, and 16,246 in 1905. The great silk exporting centres are Shanghai and Canton. China*s silk trade is at present in an unsatisfactory condition. The eggs of the worms are diseased and nothing is done to remedy the evil. In the Shanghai district, from 1000 eggs, 400 are failures, 300 arrive at the spinning stage, while the remainder produce only inferior cocoons. To make a picul of silk, it took formerly 3 to 4 piculs of cocoons, now it takes 4 to 6, and the article produced is of inferior quality. The total value of the silk export of 1904 was Hk. Tls. 78,255,412, and in 1905, Hk. Tls. 70,393,833, a falling off of 7,861,579 taels.

Sorts of Tea exported, isos-isos.

Description.

1903

1901

1905

Hk.Tlfl.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Tea, Black.

13,144,875

16,567,706

12,721,213

„ Green.

8,362.574

9,469,787

8,292,474

„ Brick, Black.

3,983,880

3,576,846

8,366,263

„ „ Green.

1,690,240

406,910

586,750

„ Tablet.

159,569

115,388

128,980

„ Dust.

2,436

65,287

54.967

Total Export of Tea to Foreign Countries for the past 10 years.

Year.

Black.

Green.

Brick.

Tablet.

Dust.

Total.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

1896

912,417

216,999

566,899

16,234

292

1,712341

1897

764,915

201,168

588,298

6,149

1,628

1,582,158

1898

847,133

185,306

498,425

7,117

019

1,538,600

1899

9,15,578

213,798

474,026

6,105

1,288

l,6S0.7a5

1900

863,374

200,425

816,923

3,027

575

1,884,324

1901

665,499

189,430

293,522

8,570

972

1,157,998

1902

087,288

253,757

570,037

7,156

973

1,519,211

1903

749,110

301,620

618,458

7,679

657

1,677,530

1901

749,002

241,146

447,695

4,550

8,856

1,451,249

1905 1

597,045

242,128

518,498

4,859

6,768

1^69,^

CMAraUi T. COMIUaCB.

417

Tea : Exportation Direet to Foreign Conntriet , 1905.

Destination.

Black.

Green.

Brick. Piculs.

Tablet.

Dust.

Grand ToUl.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Great Britain.

252,841

31,524

68,3(»

1,185

358,858

Hongkong.

81.976

1,645

7

SI

83,659

Other British Colonies.

U.970

13,416

44

28,430

United SUtes of America.

62,678

116,884

2,566

182.123

Russia (Bnropean Ports).

1,637

59,477

88,781

2.847

152,242

Russia and Siberia (by land frontier).

67,410

320,225

1,S27

9,836

395,298

Russia (Pacific Ports).

15,927

103

36,958

71

53,059

Continental Europe (Russia excepted).

51,681

6,829

1,540

15

39,317

Turkey, Persia, Kgypt.

25,298

8,944

29,237

The primeipai nutrU far Oke empmri e/lM are Hamt^^m jt

n in Hupeh IR 4;, Bhtrnghmi ± tH in Kiangsu fn ||, F^^aehow H ^ in Fokieti fi j^, and GomlM or Kwangchow Fu JH ^ ^ in the Province ol Kwangtung JH %. Hank'ow exports its article principally to Siberia and Russia in the shape of brick tea. Two-thirds of this tea come from Hunan ^ |ff and Hupeh fl 4ti ^^^ ^^^ remaining one-third from Kiangsi fa j^. Black tea is exported chiefly to Great Britain, and green tea to the United States of America, this latter country taking in 1905 about 15 \ million lbs, or nearly half the total output. Of late years, China's tea business has degenerated, and now occupies but a secondary place in the list of exports. The growth and preparation of the leaf are carelessly attended to, and the packing, is at times fraudulent. Thus in 1904, the London Customs rejected 6000 chests of scented capers, as adulterated with iron filings and sand, and totally unfit for use. In 1905, a Chinese Commission visited the tea districts of India and Ceylon, but so far no steps have been taken to improve the produce, and place on the market a leaf of better quality and purity.

Imparumce of the {Commerce of the varkme Forte (eee Imperial Maritime Customs, p. 328).

Share taken hy each WereHfH Couairw in the Ftereign Trade ef China, 1903-1905.

27

418

SICnOH ▼. POLITICAL AND ICOMOMIG eBOaBAPHT.

Shipping

: Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1906.

Flag.

1908

190ft

1908

1908

190ft

1906

No

No

No

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

British.

25,927

31,298

30,442

28,122,987

32,933,873

85,095,658

Japanese.

7,554

5,755

5,850

7,965,358

4,290,350

6,238,918

German.

6,424

6,841

7,387

7,310,427

7,602,304

8,187,871

French.

2,596

2,647

6,184

1,178,200

1,264,320

1,699,121

Norwegian.

1,184

1,528

3,246

1,136,056

1,349,868

2,922,826

American.

736

716

689

559,6.%

924,809

1,293,416

Russian.

765

81

36

569,903

56,279

82,155

Portuguese.

326

726

926

28,064

83,466

146,290

Danish.

125

70

68

158,692

82,623

72.337

Swedish.

119

68

178

103,798

54,780

156,466

Dutch.

78

101

119

112,811

183,197

227.500

Austrian.

49

50

52

99,616

155,202

195,705

Korean.

50

40

6

33,382

10,176

1,296

Italian.

1

44

65

200

12,286

19.906

Spanish.

s

2

6

84

8,790

Chinese Shipping.

1908

190i

1908

1908

190ft

1906

Vessels of the Foreign Tjrpe.

Junks.

No 22,697

8,011

No 25,482

121,383

No 35,076

118,679

Tons. 9,510,631

400,578

Tons. 9,779,152

4,988,819

Tons. 11,349,911

5.057.441

All these vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.

Carrsring Trade between the Treaty Ports,

Share taken by each Nationality.

Chinese Flag, and have 1901-1906.

Flag.

Clearances and Entries at Treaty Ports.

Total Tonnage Outwards and Inwards.

190ft

1906

190ft

1906

British.

83,998

21,768

22,897,301

25,369,849

Chinese.

20,601

88,584

9,759,749

12,754,408

Japanese.

8,858

25,222

8,920,988

5.747,393

German.

4,981

5,299

5,169,346

5,543,198

Norwegian.

486

1,476

416,444

1,277,978

French.

1.366

2,807

300,875

898,868

American.

110?

172

172,524

166.097

Swedish.

37

106

28,199

94,201

Dutch.

15

:^

24,998

50,142

Portuguese.

200

274

23,510

46.222

Danish.

28

43

28,250

^.264

Russian.

67

7

39.583

11.747

Italian.

33

86

10,405

11,084

Austrian.

1

2

2,929

6.642

Korean.

29

2

4,089

940

CHAFTBH Y. GOMMBRGB. 419

tianghai : Gross and Net Values of the Trade of the Port, 1903-1905.

ign Goods.

i from Foreign ries and Hong-

1 from Chinese

Foreign Im-

rted to Foreign rieB And Hong-

rted to Chinese

(chiefly to

9m and Yang-

rts).^

oreign Re-ex- i*al Foreign

'O Produce.

ed (chiefly from Brn and Yang- rts). .„

rted to Foreign ries. ^^^^^^

rted to Chinese Native Re-ex- al Native Im.

Produce of irl^inexport- iorei^^ Count-

Produce of irl^inezport-

■niorte of on^lB

Value of tlie 9 of Uie Port.

line of the 3 of the Port,

reign and Nati- ports, less Re- tt and Native bs of local origin.

1908

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

184,192,959 1,028,:W

185,821,856

5,791,949

140,''23,698

146,015,64?

100,937,1M 6:^,365,074 23,006,994

86,372,068

87,885,068 27,156,586

851.200,609

Net.

Hk. Tls.

89,205,714

14,865,081

68,0«,104

U8,818,880

1904

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

195,025,937 1,880,061

196,905,998

0,008,612

142,609,286

151,617,898

187,970,888

78,822,999 29,093,193

107,966,192

81,191,801 88,998,688

Net.

Hk. Tls.

80,004,686

80,187,484

145,480,110

1905

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

258,881,878 1,194,387

850,578,768

10,199,186

157,169,406

167,368,592

118,847,851

69,120,-537 30,485,940

99,606,477

88,841,004 88,868458

448,964,888

Net.

Hk. Tls.

98,807,178

18,607,774

78,104,816

176,979,198

) above : Gross and Net Valaes of the Trade of Shanghai, 1900-1905. p. 269).

420

nCTION Y. POLITICAL AMD BGOMOMIG eiMMAMnr.

Peroentages of Trade and share of each Nationality, together with the total foreign population of China* and the number of foreign commeroial hoasee for the yean 1904-1905.

NationaUty.

Percentages of Tratle. ' 1901 1 190f

Commercial Houses.

Persons. ' 190S 1 i9Q6

Britiah.

52,89

50,78

436

434

5.981

8.498

Chinese.

27,05

24,96

German.

10,02

9,92

178

197

1.P71

1,850

Norwegian.

2,07

6,24

8

10

186

166

Japanese.

8,92

*.12

650

729

9,139

16,910

French.

2.25

2,06

67

77

1,874

2,148

American.

0.78

1,82

106

105

3.220

8,880

Austrian.

0.39

0.25

15

17

205

250

Dutch.

0,16

0,18

15

9

209

181

Swedish.

0.12

0.37

1

1

122

m

Italian.

0,01

22

22

366

412

Russian.

0,28

0,19

21

19

808

682

Danish.

0,0G

0,07

11

18

198

201

Belgian.

6

8

286

273

Portuguese.

0.01

0.01

86

44

3,887

2,462

Spanish.

0,01

0,01

82

7

278

249

Popnlatton Mid €ommer«e of (be Open

We have given in this work the estimated population of the large cities of the Chinese Empire. Approximate as it is, it affords at least valuable information on the relative importance of the principal centres of population. We now append here the population and annual value of the trade of each of the open ports. The list of the Ports is arranged alphabetically, and the statistics are taken from the returns of the Imperial Maritime Customs.

Aimnal Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Port, lM3-lfiK.

Port.

1908

190*

190S

PopolAUon.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk.Tls.

Amoy (IIsiamAn).

■ n

16,0853i>8

17,204,571

18,654,610

114,000

Canton (KwangchowPu).

MM*

110.r>59,826

96,247,076

92,243,650

900.000

Ch'angsha.

« n^

2,^17,514

5.895,880

600.000

Chefoo.

^ s

38,1^3,912

;M,255,175

80,131381

82,000

Chdnkiang.

m i£

34,439.707

82,323,204

33,344.206

168.000

Ch'ungk'ing.

ffi K

29.222,120

29,403,906

27.731,687

620,000

Foochow.

m M

16,738.718

17,265,968

17,724,198

624,000

GHAma V. COMMUCB.

421

Annnal Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Port, lM3-10tl&(conUiiaed).

Port.

1961

1901

190ft

FopuUtlon.

Hk. Tls,

Hk. Tie.

Hk. Tk.

Hongohow.

tt

M

15ie07,l33

! 17,747,662

17,496,980

350,000

HAnk*ow,

m

p

&0,1£9,5OO

107,419,^4

111,043,046

870,000

Ich»»ng.

ft

m

3,189,560

2,961,227

3,263,670

45,000

B

m

H,5fJ'^,411

18,BC;i,80H

22,322,660

120,OUO

Kmkung.

A

n

^ASS5,^4

21,317,560

23,22^,644

36,000

K'mngcliow*

a

m

4,530,372

5,018,603

6,^76,804

35,000

Koiigmooti (Kifrngm^n).

tt

n

2,57t,l26

3,161,444

55,000

KowIooQ (Kiolaug^).

A

m

42,501,795

43,771,566

42,946,E00

f 9ee

Lappa {Kaogpeh),

1^

«

16,756,5^

17,735,132

16,858,534

(Hongkong

LongcUow,

«

m

132,IH

395,526

230,452

12,000

Mengt^e.

»

m

6,435,578

10,747,290

9,592,945

12,000

Nhnking.

M

«

7,352,525

8,826,048

10,573,545

300,000

Newtthwftng.

'¥

m

47,632,^59

41,517,878

61,T59|90S

74,000

Ningpo.

«

ft

22,3I0,0&3

21,297,412

10,163,630

200,000

Pa^oi (Peh^haj).

*

»

3,341,413

8,013,256

2,^30,938

20,000

SuiLBbal (SADshui)'

H

*

7r30a,S^KI

5,286,405

3,883,259

5,000

SftntuAO {SADtungfto).

B»»

l,95S,06^

1,905,376

2,220,032

8,000

Sh&ngh«i.

^

i«

11M12,8&&

145,m0,l70

17ti.97f?.l93

840,000

Sbftabi.

^

nr

2,4l7,fi79

1.958,371

1,317,514

80,000

Soochow.

«

m

3,0S4,B28

3,131,579

4,240,013

500,000

Swfttow (3h*Dt'euJ.

lii]

Bt

43,792,?27

40,2aO,7B6

48,005,306

60,000

Szemiu>>

m

^

2N,767

266,8!'3

2l6,aia

9,000

Tengyneh,

M

>s

1,715,053

2,^^501

1,679,999

12,000

Tientsin*

^

m

68,729,061

08,954,691

96,565,672

750,000

Ts'iDwatig-Uo.

«£I9

8,111,730

10,l72,66ti

21,851,079

5,000

W&Dcbow,

a

m

2,569,333

2,388,699

2,257,021

80,000

Wachow,

A

m

8,267,124

11,080,037

11,185,513

65,000

Wuhu,

il

«

24,542,783

23,223,383

3^^,^8,809

137,000

Tohohow,

«

ffl

S.47B,?4l

2,162,553

490,053

20,000

eraiMtTotoL

e8i,0OQ,O98

720Aa6,9eS

8&i,0S9,i59

7,768000

ITiluo of Exports abroad *

2l4,llft2,467

239,4«6,683

227,888,197

V*lae qf Home Trade.

l3»,fi47.SlO

132,036,189

131,800,777

The estimated population of each port is that of the Chinese inhabitants of these cities. In Ta*ingtao V fti a port sitoAted at the entrance to Kiaochow B M bay, in Shantong |1| JR, and leased to Qermany by China in 1898, the Chinese population is aboat 40,000, but if we include the sphere of interest, 120,000. The foreign civilian

422

8BCTI0N Y. POLITICAL AMD BGONOMIG eBCHHUPHT.

population is 1,1 10. The German garrison of Kiaochow consists of 102 officers, 3,400 non-commissioned officers and men, and one battalion of the East Asiatic Garrison brigade.

The share of Hongkong in' the trade of China amounted in 1903 to 81 % of the imports and 14 % of the exports; in 1904, it reached 40 % of the imports and 30 % of the exports, while in 1905, the imports attained 43% bat the exports dropped to 34 4 %.

References :

Oourant M. — En Chine. Paris, 1901. (Les Commer9ant8 et les Corporations. Les Associations).

Oourani M . — Ktudes sur 1* Education et la Colonisation. Paris, 1904.

Frandon. — Du D6veloppement possible du Commerce entre le France et la Chine. (Bulletin de la Soc. G6ogr. Commerciale de Paris, 1900).

DiO<'>''<^~Baainets. — Le Commerce de la Chine avec I'Etranger. (ibid., 1897).

Olavery E. — Etude sur les Relations Economiques entre I'Europe et 1' Ex- treme Orient.

de Bray. — La Belgique et le Marchi Asiatique. Bruxelles, 1903.

KeCelfl M. ' Le H61e du Compradore dans les Relations Commerciales en Chine. (Chine et Belgiqne. Juillet, 1906. p. 99- 102).

L'Industrie dans la R^on de Hank'ow. (Chine et Belgique. Novemb. 1906. p. 174- 181. — Hank'ow au point de vue com- mercial, ibid. p. 188-192).

Moycns de d6velopi)er les Exportations Beiges sur Ic March* de Hongkong. — (Chine et Belgique. D6oemb. 1906. p. 207- 214).

Usages Commerciaux en Chine; Importa- tion, Exportation. — (Chine et Belgique. Jauv. 1907).

Rondot N. — Etude pratique du Commerce d'Exportation de la Chine. Paris, 1848.

de Monti^ny M. O. — Manuel du N^o- ciant Francis en Chine. Paris, 1846.

de Ooarcy. ~ L'Empire dn Milieu. Paris, 1867. (Commerce. Livre V. Oh. III. p.469- b2i).

IriflSDn M. — Etudes sur la Chine Contem- poraine. PariH, 1866. (Le Commerce. Ch. VII. p. 1:59 151).

Gainet. — Etude sur la Chine. Besan^on, 1881. (Le Commerce. Ch. XI. p. 275-284).

Tllloi M. — Notes Commerciales sur la Chine. Shanghai, 1901.

Hanctaecsome M. A. -^ La CUsse Mar- chande et le Commerce Indigtoe en Chine. H&vre, 1901.

Bard E. — Les Chinois cbez enz. Paris, 1900. (Le Commerce stranger. Oh. XXV. p. 270281).

La Chine : Expansion des Grandes Puis- sances, 1895-1898. Paris, 1899. (Descrip- tion ^conomique des Provinces Chi- noises. — Le Commerce Chinois. — Ex- plotation dn March6 Chinois).

PInon B. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris, 1900.

La Mission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1888. — (Sor- tout 2* Partie. Rapport sur le Tun-nao, III. — Rapport sur Hong-kong. Notes sur le Commerce de Canton et Koang-si. — Rapport sur le Koei-toheou. — Rap- port sur le Se-tch'oan. — Notes sur le Commerce de Han-k'eou. — Rapport sur le Coton, III. — Notes diverses : organi- sation commerciale de Chang-hal; im- portation des vins i Chang-hai. — Con- clusions: Commerce de Chang-hai; part des divers pays dans le commerce g6n6- ral de la Chine).

Grofller. — General Description of China. London, 1795. (Trade of the Chinese. Book VII. Ch. X. p. 864-858).

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1S43. (View of the Trade with China. Vol. III. Ch. II. p. 49-96).

Ullllams. » A Chinese Commercial Guide. Canton, 1856.

WUIIamfl.— The Middle Kingdom. New- York, 1861. (Commerce of China. Vol. II. Ch. XX. p. 881-416).

CHAPTBR V. GOMMBRCB.

423

Revue of the Trade of ShAnghai in 1850.

Shanghai, 1851. IngHa R. — Influence of Foreign Com- merce and the Political Relations of the Chinese Empire. (Chinese Repository V. p. 22). Auber P. — China, its Laws and Policy. London, 1834. (Commerce. — British In- tercourse with China.— Trade at Canton. Ch. I and IV). Braddel T. — Ancient Trade in the East, XV1M» and XVII«> Centuries. (China and Japanese Repository. Vol. III. p. 57-72). Gutelair O. — China opened. London, 1838. (Native and Foreign Trade. Vol. II. Ch. XIV. p. 16-142). DaTis Sir J. F. « The Chinese. London,

1842. (Commerce. Vol. II. Ch. XXI). Forliea R. B. — Remarks on China and

the China Trade. Boston, 1344. MartiD B. M. — China, Political, Commer- cial and Social. 2 Vol. London, 1847. OolqubOon A. B. — Across Chrys6. 2 Vol.

London, 1883. Oolqataoaii A. B. — The Problem in China and British Policy. London, 1900. (China's Foreign Trade.— Britain's trad- ing interest in China. — The Policy to be pursued). Oolqataoaii A. B. — China in Transfor- mation. London, 1898. (Commercial De- velopment. Ch. VI. p. 141-166). Gandry B. S. — China Present and Past. London, 1895. (Trade with S. W. China. Ch. VII. p. 159-182. — Cotton manufac- turing in the East. Appendix G. p. 407). Hart Sir R. — These from the Land of Sinim. London, 1901. (China and her foreign trade. Ch. II. p. CO-83. — Memo- randum concerning commercial rela- tions. Appendix 11. p. 182). MIctale A. ^ The Englishman in China. London, 1900. (The New Treaty Ports : Foochow, Amoy, Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch. VIII. p. 112-128). MIctale A. » Reports on the Trade of the

upper Yangtze. Shanghai, 1869. Parker E.H. — China : Her History, Di- plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Modern Trade. Ch. VII. p. 130-160). ByerBallJ. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Trade p. 723-736.^ Expansion of Foreign Trade.— Treaty Ports, p. 736- 744.— Silk. p. 616-623.— Tea. p. 681-b97).

Hoale A. — Three Years in Western

China. London, 1890. Douglas Sir B. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Our commercial relations with China. Ch. XIII. p. 228-241. — Foreign trade with China. Ch. XVIII. p. 303-329).

Kraaaae A. — The Far East : its History

and its Question. London, 1903. Patnam Weale. — The Re-shaping of the Far East. London, 1905.

UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

Temple Sir B. — Progress of India, Japan and China, in the Century. London, 1902.

Jeniisan T. B. — China's Business Met- hods and Commerce. Shanghai, 1904. (Commercial Trend and Statistics of Trade, p. 151-183. — The Tea and Silk business. — Tables of Chinese weights and measures).

Jemi^an T.B. — China in Law and Commerce. New-York, 1965. (Guilds. — Business Chistoms. — Banks. -« Weights, measures and currency. Ch. IX-XII. p. 205-308).

Ptallips G. — Early Portuguese Trade in Fokien. (China Review. Vol. XIX. p. 42- 57).

Phlllpa G. — Early Spanish Trade with Changchow. (China Review. Vol. XIX. p. 243255. Vol. XX. p. 25-28).

Eltel E. J. — British Trade with China A.D. 1625-1824. (China Review. Vol. XX, XXI and XXII).

Eltel E. J. — Hongkong from 1882-1890. (China Review. Vol. XXII. p. 532-543).

Russian Trade at Kiakhta. — Chinese Re- pository. (Vol. XIV. p. 280-288).

Chinese Guilds. — China Review. (Vol. XII. p. 5-9).

Olavery E. — Hongkong : le Passd et le Present. Paris, 1905.

B^u. — Le BMe ^conomique de Hong- kong. (Bulletin du Comit6 de I'Asie Fran^aise, 1903. p. 451-455).

Le Commerce Anglo-Chinois et le Com- merce Franco-Chinois. — (Bulletin du Comit6 de I'Asie Frau^aise, 1905. p. 29- 83).

Boofli d'Aoty. — La Situation ^conomique au Seutchouan k la fin de 1901. (Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Fran^aise, 1903. p. 22-

424

8ICTI<m Y. MLIttCAL AKt> BCONOMIC eiOeRAPHT.

Morel M. —Lea Allemands k Kiaotoheoa. (Bulletin da ComiM de I'Asie Fran^te, 1906. p. 111-114.— Le rayonnement com- mercial de Kiaoicheon. ibid, 190S. p. 308 and 506. Activity Allemande au Chan- toang. ibid. p. 156. — Les inUi«i8 AUe- mands en Chine, ibid. p. 121-122. — Pro- gr^B de la navigation Allemande en Chine, ibid. p. 43. — Anglais et Allemands en Chine, ibid, 266. — La nonvelle Politique Allemande en Chine, ibid. 1905. p.412-41 8) .

Commerce KusBo-ChinoiB par route de Kia- khta. ^ Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Fran^aise, 1908. p. 489-470. ~ Commerce aux frontiiresRusso-Chinoises.ibid. 1905. p. 128,.

Commerce du Yunnan aveo la Birmanie.— (Bulletin du Comitd de TAsie Fran^ aise, 1906. p. 361).

JanleaMi G.— Eocyclopoedia Britannica. X^ Edition. London, 1902. (China : Com- merce, table of imports and exports. -» Shipping. — Treaty Ports).

Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce. — (Minutes of Annual Meetings, Reports and Memoranda).

■••Tne. — Trade of Central and Southern China. (Miscellaneous Series. Foreign Office. London. 1899.

iB. — British Commercial Prospect in the Far Bast. (Journal of the Society of Arts. March, 1905).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn, 1896-97. (Taxation and Duties on Goods at Treaty Ports. — Likin. Part I. p. 107- 177. — Currency in China, ibid. p. 178- 185. — Competition, ibid. p. 185-210. — Cotton Mills in China, ibid. p. 221-2S3.— Guilds and their relations to Trade, ibid, p. 807-319. — Consuls and Commerce, ibid. p. 819-330. — Compradores and the Compradore System, ibid. p. 823-880).

Hoflle A . — Foreign Trade of China for the yt ars 1904-1905. (China. Diplomatic and Consular Reports. N** 8725. Foreign Office. London. October, 1906).

Chronicle and Directory for China and Japan. — Hongkong, 1907. (Published annually : contains description and trade statistics of the principal Treaty Ports).

Phlltp.^Mercan tile Marine Atlas. London, 1905.

China: Imperial Maritime Customs. — De- cennial Reports. 1882-1891 and 1892-1901. — Annual Returns of Trade and Trade Reports. — Abstract of Statistics and Reports on the Foreign Trade of China. (Annually).

CHAPTER VI.

XEANS OF COXmiHICATIOH.

In no civilised country of the world are communications so difficult as in Chimu Of late, a certain amount of progress has been made in the Postal and Telegraph services, in railways and steam-navigation along the coast and on the rivers, but every thing is still to be done in regard to good roads and the up^keep of canals.

md Bridc«k — Except the Oovernment courier roads, China has only fo^ipaihs of variable dimension, some of which are paved or laid with flag stones, while others are merely beaten tracks through the fields.

In the N,^ the roads widen out enough in the plains to allow rough carts to travel on them. In ike Centre and the 8^ where the country is largely mountainous, they seldom exceed 5 feet in breadth. In TOimiom Hlff however they attain 6 feet. In the N, W; they are generally sunk deep between high walls of loess or yellow earth.

Bridget Mre generally of stone and Bometimes of wood. In the W.,ib8in Snechw^an (S JHi there are some iron-chain snspension bridges, but they cannot bear heayy burdens. In seyeral places, where the river is too wide, bridges of boats are established. The most famous is that of Lanchow FuUMHt^ KatiMu "H* M Province. Fine stone bridges with arches are found in several Provinces, especially in SMechw^an |B fU and Fokien JH ft.

In the Central and Maritime Provinces, no governmental provUion is made for i the repairing of roads and bridges, and all such public work is carried out at the expense of the inhabitants of the locality. When traffic becomes actually impossible, the officials levy a tax in the district to make the necessary repairs. It sometimes happens, though seldom, that a well-to-do member of the local gentry, or some guilds take the work in hand, in which case the latter collect themselves subscriptions and supervise what is done. In the Western Provinces, where the population is scanty, the officials have to make provisions for occasional repairs. They employ soldiers to do the work, or impose it upon the population of the adjoining villages.

We have mentioned, when describing the 18 Provinces, the principal roads, and here refer the reader to each of these Provinces (aee each Province : Highways of Communication).

426 SECTION y. political and BGONOMIG aBOaRAPHT.

// ^Ctovemmeni Oonrler JSLmmAm or PMtol ISM^^wmsn^ called in Chinese^fMmffiiiHalii 'g j^ :A: |0r (.Public horse great roads). — Such is the name applied to the principal roads which connect BeMng H^ H with the remote regions of the Empire. The number of these roads is generally stated to be_ t\. Like the customary tracks of the country, they adopt approximately a straight line. They are often cut into the steep sides of mountains, or run through them by means of tunnels. When the plain expands, they attain ^ width of from 20 tn gfi y^^^i and are Raved, and SQmelimes bordered with rows of trees. At intervals of every 3 miles, a signal tower is erected. All along the way are found inns« relay-posts and stations of soldiers. Taking JMWfia as the centre or starting point, the following are the principal of these roads :

1 — BMkng :|(: ]9C to MukOm^ in Manchuria.

2 — Wkkng ^t ^ to Ch^mng^ Ai jj( |K j|^ in Szechw'an H

j||. This road passes through TVi^yiian Ai j; J^ ;|^ in Shansi (Ij |f , and thence proceeds to Mi^an JPti H ^ ^ in Shensi |^ flf. Here it branches into two, one leading to iMnOww At H ^ ||^ in Kansu -^ J^^ the other to Oh^engiu JPU J^ ^ fff in Szechw'an B jl|-

3 — reMnff 4: M ^o Tunman J^ 9 Jl^ fff- This road passes

vi& Weihwui Fu ^ ff, JQ, K^aifung tk^ IgU fg^ ^/^ and Nanutmg JPU -^ f^ Jff in Honan fpf f| Province. It thence proceeds to Stangpang ]Pk$ $t fjf^ Jff in Hupeh m *, Ch'amgteh JFU IJ « jfif and YwrnOn^w Fu jjt ^ f^ in Hunan fg Kf, Kweigang JPk$ -f^ fjf^ Jff in Kweichow jl jHli and leads finally to rfiinMin F^ §^ j^ Jff.

4 — IVMfiflr * 3j( to KweUin R* ^ ^ )ff in Kwangsi JH H-

This road, like the preceding one, passes vi& WeiMmmi 1^« » ;flF in Honan ^ jff, EUrnkfrnw jK D in Hupeh f| 4b 1 Ch'angBha JP^ & ip Iff in Hunan ffl |ff, and thence leads to KweiUn At # # jflf , the Capital of Kwangsi JH H-

5 — J^eking ;|t ^ to GEMilon or Kwtmgehaw JP^ M M Hf-

This road passes through JTcmeAViMtfr JPm |(f g j|^ in Kiangsi 2C |g, and thence continues to

CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OP COMMUNICATION. 427

6 — IVMfia ft m to Fooehaw JPW fg ^ jg^ in Pokien H jg. This road passes \\& OMnMang J^ ^ fLj^ in Kiangsu a: H, Hmgehaw FU ]ffi ji\ Jff in Ch6kiang flff ff, and thence leads to Foochmo Fu yj^ j^ fff, the Capital of Fokien ^ ^ Province. The up-keep of these roads is entirely neglected, and they are almost impassable^^ especially in the rainy season. //

Modes of Oonveyance.^ In the Northern Provinces the nsual mode of oonvey- ^ ance for passengers is by i^ draw^ hy pnnifiH. mnles or oxen. Some also travel in _8edan-chairs borne by carriers, or in mole-litters (both are however rare and reserved for distingnished persons), and in barrows propelled by hand and sail. Others xiiB[sja& horseback or on mnles and donkejs. For goods, conveyance takes place by QkJ^ff^t by mules, by camels and by donkeys. Goods are also transported to a large extent on the shonlderq pf nan^ftra. Tkethree-muU cart is the most comfortable way of travelling when one starts on a long joomey. Besides the passengers, these carts will carry from 6 to 8 owt weight of Inggage. Beyond the main roads, carts cannot be nsed in Shensi Ml B and Kansu "tT "Jf^ while in Shanai |1| JH the highways are even in such a bad state that it is difficult to travel on them.

In the Central and Southern Regions^ carts are seldom found. Passengers d ^ ^ travel on the barrow or sedan-chair. Others ride on ponies, mules or donkeys. Jinricshas are found only in the large towns an^in the suzTonndings. Carrier$ are even more numerous than in the North.

Watonrajs. — {Jhtna possesses an excellent network of waterways, especially in the Central Region. The principal are: the TangUm |§ ^ and tributaries; the a^hkmg |f f£ and tributaries; the lower Behrho g ^, the Jfin ^ or F^mehow rUfer^ the Mwairho fH fpf in Nganhwei 9 4(> ^^® Ta^ienr tang^h^oeng IS Hf 2C i" GhSkiang, portions of the MMJOfng^ho y ^ and tributaries, chiefly the IFM-Jlo jg j^ (see these rivers).

The TofiirfM holds the foremost place with its tributaries : the JETon ^, the amechn^an Q }\\ rivers, the SUMng^kiamg j|g tl and Kanrkkmg H fL. Its great lakes, its ever abundant water- supply, all afford the greatest facilities for navigation.

Many of these water-courses are navigable only in the flood-season. Others, near the seaboard, are available only when the tide comes up.

OmaU are numerous, especially in_the deltas^of the Tam^ IM and the a^hkmg* They are carelessly looked after, and

428 SECTION Y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOHIC 0B06BAPHY.

sometimes even quite neglected, the consequence being that they become more and more filled up with silt.

The most important of these is the €frana Cawf.

The Qrand Canai or JmpeHai €kmmi, called in Chinese Yii-ho ll ^ (Imperial river), Yiin-ho f§ fjf (Transport river), or Yiinliang-ho M9i9f (Tribute-bearing river). — The Grand Canal extends from Hangchow 10L j^ fff it^ Ch6kiang, to Tientsin J^ ^ ^ in Chihli jt 8f« a distance of about 1000 miles,

According to the most reliable ftccounlfl.^t iyA« nQpimfttinpH ip ih^ vitb nfintpyyJB^XL., nfiH finiahpH jn Qiily A, D,. 1283. The most ancient part is that which lies between the Yangtse ^ ^ and the Hwai-ho fH ^. The Southern part, extending from Hangchow to Ch^nkiang, was constructed l^m A.D. 6Q5 tp fil? The upper part, extending from the old bed of the Hwang-ho Jljii]' to Tientsin, was constructed by the Emperor Shitsu ftM, of the Yuen Jc dynasty, and completed within a space of 3 years (A. D. 1280-1283). Shitsu then transferred his capital from Hangchow 10iif\Jff to Peking 4(; ^, As the Northern Provinces were not very fertile, and the trade along the seaboard unsafe, he was forced to get provisions from the Southern Provinces. He therefore resolved to complete the work left unfinished by his predecessors.

The Southern jMrO^tiy extending from Hangchow jjf^ jH^Jp Ch6nkiang jf^ 2t, offers no difficulty as to its water-supply. The slope is gentle and water is plentiful. Navigation on it is easy. Boats are sometimes retarded by bridges, but there are neither rapids nor locks to pass. The floods and tides of the Hangchow river are the only obstacles to overcome. A strong embankment has been constructed to maintain apart the water of the river from that of the canal.

The Cmiral pmtiot^ extending from the Yangtse tK 7 ^ Ts'ingkiangp'oo iH tL )ff« is the most ancient. This part skirts several large lakes. It was formerly fed by the Yangtze m <7, and its stream flowed in a S.-W. direction. It is fed at the present day by the waters of the Hwai-ho fit fff^ as they issue from the Hungtseh ^ ^ lake, and the stream runs in a N.-S. direction.

CHAIPTBR VI. MBAN8 OF COMMUmCATlON. 429

The current is strong and difficult to ascend when one proceeds on the upward journey. The level of the country lying to the W. of the Grand Canal and called the Skaf^^ho J: ff, (above the river), is higher than the bed of the Canal^ while the country to the E., or HmUmtHo f M (below the river), is lower. Waste- weirs constructed on the Eastern embankment, and opening on the Hsia-ho, discharge the surplus waters in the flood-season, and thus relieve the banks and hinder injury of the works. There are few bridges in this portion of the Canal, but nqmerous (errv-boats facilitate passing at almost every place. This part of the Canal is far from ofTering the same advantages for navigation, at least when one proceeds from S.-N., as the Southern portion. Boats however can easily travel on it.

^The Jr»riJfcg'i»yorii»nf extending from Ts^ingkiangn'oo H ft jH to Tientsin ^^, is the most recent and also the most difficult for navigation, and hence the least utilized. Between TsMng- kiangp^oo and the Hwang*ho )| ii^t the canal is fed from the Hwai-ho fH ^ and the W6n-ho j$ }i}. The current flows in a S.-N. direction from the junction of the Taw6n-ho :^ i$ ^ with the Orand Canal at Nanwang |(f IQE. The passage of the Hwang-ho )| ^ is difficult. If the water fails to rise 7^ feet beyond the ordinary level, junks are unable to cross it. If it rises higher, the current becomes too strong, and so travellers must at times wait a whole month before an opportunity offers to cross it. At Lints^ing ^ J), the Canal joins the Wei-ho ||[ ^, borrows its channel, and is again easily navigated. From Ts'ingkiangp^oo to Lints'ing, the Canal is navigable with diffi- culty. Water is often lacking, and the locks or tMah m (such is the term applied to the narrows that stem the velocity of the current, and establish a strong difference of level above and below) constructed to remedy this drawback, are passed with difficulty. On the up-voyage, the boat must be hoisted by means of hawsers, while in the downward trip, it must be kept in check. There are numerous capstans, and hands are not wanting (about 80 or 100 men are at work at times), nevertheless the operation is not performed without trouble and risk of danger.

lAl

4 SO 8BCTI0N Y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eBMRAPHT.

! The tribute-fleet, which carried the rice to Peking, formerly

followed this way, and comprised 4,000 to 5,000 boats divided

I into 65 sections. The voyage was performed but once annually.

I Of late years, the grain despatched to Peking is largely forwarded

I by the sea route, through the agency of the **China Merchants*

/ Steamship Company*'.

As a means of communication between N. and S., this part of the Canal is at present of little value, as it is defectively constructed, silted up by the mud-laden waters of the Hwang* ho, and rendered ineffective through official neglect.

In its Southern and Central portions, the Grand Canal, although badly kept up, is much more utilized, and several thousands of boats traffic on it. From Ts4ngkiangp*oo to T4en-

^tsin, travellers frequently hire carts which jolt them on to Peking. Numerous officials were formerly entrusted with the up-keep of the Grand Canal, under the control of a JHredor-Qemertd «/ the Grain Trantpori^ or Tt^aoifun TmmMmh 1% g jt »t|>-This official was of equal rank with the Viceroys. He resided at Ts'ingkiangp^oo, as well as his first Assistant, who bore the title of Tribute Taot'ai, or Ts'ao-Hot'a£|ff « ||. The office of Director- General of the Grain Transport was libolished in January, 1905.

Railwajs. — The pioneer railway of China was constructed by the firm of Jardine, Matheson and C* in 1876, and connected Shanghai J^ ^ and Woosung J^ }4iy a short distance of 12 -^^ ^ miles. The Chinese Government gave no regular permission, and official opposition being manifested, the working of the line was stopped by the British Minister. In 1877, it was sold to the Chinese Government, the rails and sleepers were torn up and the entire rolling stock shipped ofT to Formosa. About 20 years elapsed before the subject was taken up again. The Shanghai -Woosung line was rebuilt in 1897, by German engineers, in the service of a Chinese Company, and opened to traffic, Septemb. l^t, 1898.

In 1886, the Imperial Northern Railway Company was started under Government approbation, and obtained the cons- truction of a line from T^ientsin 31^ ^ to the K'aip4ng ^ 2p coal mines in North Chihli JH ]|. This line was further extended to

GHAPTBH YI. 1IBAN8 OP COMifimiCATION.

431

T'angku pj^ f^ ^t the mouth of the Peh-ho ^ ^, and opened to \ traffic in July 1888. In 1897, nine years later, it was completed as far as Peking.

Several important lines have since been built, others are in process of construction, or are being contemplated. Railway/ enterprise is of great importance to the success of the Imperial,^ Post Office in China. It will also much facilitate other inland communications, and develop trade throughout this vast Empire] which could so far be crossed only with difficulty, and with great! loss of time. Chinese finance being inadequate to such a vast scheme, foreign capital was borrowed, and certain lines mort- gaged to Foreign powers and companies, but the Government can redeem all concessions under certain specified conditions.

At the close of 1906, there were about 3,500 miles of railway lines open in China, inclusive of Manchuria.

The following list will record briefly the principal lines now completed and working, as well as those under construction, or pro- jected in the near future. It is made out proceeding from N. to S.

I. Railway LineB completed and working, 1907. ^

" i

Length

Name,

^i

in

Designation of Line.

Romanised.

Description.

English MUes.

754

Peking to Hank^ow.

Kinghan.

mm

Grand Trunk Line of China. —

Open to traffic Noyemb. 14, 1905.

French and Belgian capital.

Imperial RaUways

ofNoHhOUna.

Peking to Tungchow.

Kingt'ung.

mm

Short Branch Line.

12

Pekingtoyink*ow(New.

TnnyU.

mm

Called generally the Shanhaikwan

170

ch wang) yik Tientsin,

Line. The character "Ytt" is the

T*angkii and Shan-

name of a river near the E. end

haikwan.

of the Great WaU.

Kenpangtze H fV 7" to

Sinmin Fu.

msm

Kenpangtze is the junction on the

70

Sinmint*an sK A 4L-

Shanhaikwan-Newchwang Line.

Sinmint'on to Mukden.

Fungnn.

»«r

This section was restored to China by Japan, April 16, 1907. A De- canville line joins Mnkden with Antang (175 miles) on the Yalu. It will be converted to the stan- dftrdgai]gein2yew8.

36

432 SICTIOIf T. POLITICAL AND ICONOMIG MOeftATHT.

I. Bailway lanat completed and working, 1907. (oontinned).

Deaignation of Line.

Name, Romanised.

Description.

LengtEi

in Bnfflkli MDfls.

Kinchow Fa to the Nan-

ao

p*iao Coal mines.

Kaopoiien to the West- ern Tombs.

Kaopotieu is on the Kinghan Line.

so

bllway.

Mancharia SUtion, via Harbin to Port Arthur

TungUHng.

mm

The Northern Section of this BaU- way is now controlled by Kassia, as far South as Ch'angcb'un (Kw'anch'6ngtze).From Ch'ang- ch*an to Dal^Plhe line has been transferredto Japan^and isoalled the 8. Manohurian Railway.

A short branch (15 miles) runs from Tashihk'iao to Yink*ow (New-

laoo

and DaJSwr*^ Harbin to East Man-

chwang). A line connecting Kirin with

aoo

churia Frontier.

Ts'infirtao to Tsinan Fa

(Shantang). Taok*ow to Ts'inghwa

(Honau).

Kiaotsi. TfwU^ing.

mm

Ch'angch*an will be jointly con- structed by China and Japan. German Direction.

This line crosses the KinghanRail- way, and connects Weihwui Pa, Hwaik'ing Fu and Honan Fu. Constructed by the Peking Syndicate (BriUsh), and Uken over by China under Loan

S80 90

Sbangliai to Woosung (Kiangfiu).

SiinnhH.

mm

Agreement of July 9*, 1905. Forming part of the Shanghai- Nanking Railway in course of construction. "Hu" is the

12

P'inghaiang to Liling (borders of Kiangsi- Hunan).

Canton to Samshai

P'ingli. Sanahui.

literary name of Shanghai.

Conveys coal from the Ping- hBiang mines to TJling in Hu- nan.

Branch of the Yuehhan Line.

GO

ao

(Kwangtung). Swatow to Ch*aochow , Ch*ao8han.

llliill

Constructt^ by Chinese and

32

Fu (Kwangtung).

Japanese Engineers at a cost of $ 3,000,000. Sand used as bal- last. No foreign capital invested. The Swatow terminus is a mile and a half from the town.

#

I

CHAPTER VI. MBAN8 OF COMMUNICATION.

II. Railway Lilies under Comtrnctioii, 1907.

433

Designation of Line.

Name, Romanised.

Description.

Length

in BnffUsh miles.

Peking to Kalgan.

Kingchang.

AH

Chinese capital and construction. Open as far as Nank'ow (33 miles).

125

Peking to Jehol.

Jeh-ho.

mn

Ch^ngting to T'aiyiien

ChSngt'ai.

IE*

Shansi line from Ch^nt*ow to T*ai-

150

(Shansi).

ytien Fu. Russian capital.

P'ingyang to Tsehohow

P'ingUeh.

■i^jf

Constructed by the Peking Syndi-

88

Fu (Shansi).

cate. Tsehchow Fu is the centre of a vast coal-field.

K'aifung to Lohyang

K'aihh.

n a

Belgian capital.

130

(Honan).

Shanghai to Nanking.

Huning.

««

Concession granted to the British and Chinese Corporation, L<> .,by Loan Agreement of July 9, 1903. Completed as far as Wusih, 30 miles beyond Soochow, and opened July 18, 1906. Whole will befinishedin 1907. The Shanghai line will be extended to Hang- chow and Ningpo; also from Sinyang (SE. Honan) to P'uk*ow (N. bank of Yangtze, opposite Nanking).

160

Shanghai to Kiahsing.

Sukia

mm

Opening ceremony took place January 21, 1907.

Canton to Hank*ow.

Yuehhan.

««

Concession originally granted to an American Syndicate, but now redeemed by China for a sum of Tls. 3,000,000. Opening ceremony took place June 28, 1906. So far, construction little advanced. The line from Canton to Sam- shui, already constructed, forms part of this railway. The char- acter "Yueh" is the name of the region South of the Meiling, and early subdued by the Han

745

/ /■•"

-ft.lt

dynasty.

Canton to Kowloon. Laokai to Yiinnan Fu.

f^iijle*ti/trtff^

British capital and construction. This is the Tonkin-Yilnnan rail-

120 280

Timyueh.

Kitt

way, conceded to France. Will

be open to MAngtze in 1907.

The character "Tien" means the

country occupied by the Lolos

and other tribes.

28

434 8BCTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC MOORAPHT.

m. Projected Railway Lmee, 1907.

Desigation of Line.

Name, Romanised.

il

Description.

in Englidi MDes.

Ealgan to K'nlan.

K^uchang.

«ll

K*nlun or K'urun is the Chinese

(Mongolia).

name for Urga. It is built on the Tola river, a branch of the iHelenga.

Lanchow to Ili.

Lani.

■ 0»

Ili Province is a part of ChineseTnr-

(Kanro).

kestan, or the New Dominion. It Ues to the N. of the T^ien-shan, and is watered by the Ili river, which flows into Lake Balkash.

T'ientsin to OhAnkiang.

T8inc7t^n.

mm

This line is to pass through Tai-

seo

(Kiangsu).

nan Fu in Shantung, and SU- chow Fu in Kiangsu. British and German capital. China is now working to have the conces- sion cancelled.

T'ungkwan to P*uchow

Fu. Wnhu to Kwangteh

Tungp^u.

»»

Borders of Shansi-Shensi.

Wnhwang.

mm

Construction commenced. Tbeline

Chow. (Nganhwei).

will be extended to W^nohow in Ohftkiang Province.

Hank'ow to Ch*ftngtu.

Chw*anhan.

mm

The Capitals of Hupeh and Sze- chw'an, vi& Ch<ungk*ing.

Kiukiang to Nanch'ang

Fu. Ch*6nchow to Oh'ang-

Kiunan.

AM

Kiangsi Province.

Ch*Snch'anff

Kit

North Hunan.

tehFn.

Soochow to Ningpo, vift

Suhangning

mmm

Kiangsn and Chftkiang Provin-

170

Hangchow.

ces. British capital.

Amoy to Foochow Fn.

Fokien Province. Japanese capital.

150

Foochow to Wuch'ang

Wuch'ang on the right bank

450

Fu. (Hupeh).

of the Yangtze, opposite the mouth of the Han-ho, is the Ca- pital of Hupeh. Japanese capital.

Canton to Kanchow Fu.

Kwangkan.

mm

Kanchow Fu is in South Kiangsi, on the Kan-kiang, which flows into the P*oyang lake.

Canton to Amoy.

Kwanghsia.

mm

Kwangtung Province.

Macao to Samshui and

Canton.

Sinning to Yungkiang.

Sififiing.

mm

S. E. Kwangtung.

Langson to Nanning,vi&

Southern Kwangsi. The line will

150

Lungcbow.

be further extended to Pakhoi in Kwangtung. French capital.

Bhamo to Tftngyneh.

Tiefimien

mm

YUnnan. British capital.

146

GHAPTBR YI. MBAN8 OF COMMUNICATION. 435

Many years will elapsp before all these lines are built. The Upper and Lower Yangtze, the Canton-Hank'ow, the coast lines will no doubt be made, and passing through the richest and most populous regions of the country, they will decidedly prove a success.

rt-/

/^

u

<

FiMlal Serrlce. — Till within a few years ago, there was no Post Office Depart- ment in China similar to what exists in Western countries. The Government had mounted couriers who carried the Imperial commands enclosed in a sealed casket.' They could be recognized from afar by a small yellow flag attached to the collar of their dress. There were relays of horses every 30 miles, and the postal couriers passed from ^ . ^ />* one horse to another without alighting. Whenever waterways were available^ loxig '"^S^' barges replaced the mounted service. This couri(?r^^rvice was however only for go- t*. , i^ yemmental purposes, and the common people shared nowise its advantageji. Private '^ {'

^if figpfllStlehce' was entrusted to postal agencies or "letter hongs", who undertook, on '

payment of a small sum, to convey it to its destination.

In 1874, Sir Robert Hart, tlie Insjpiector- General of the Imperial Maritime Cus- toms, established a postal system between Peking and Shanghai, and subsequently extended it to the foreign mercantile community. Thus originated the postal system of China, called the Imperial Post Office^ opened on Feb. 2~* , 1897. It is conducted by a special branch of the Imperial Maritime Cus^ms (see above": p. 325). Peking, Shanghai and Canton, have Postal Commissioners, with jurisdiction over inner Pro- Tinces; Wanhsien(in Szechw*au; the most important port on the upper Yangtze after Ch'ungking. see p. 115) has a Foreign Inspector, who controls all mails forwarded to China's Far West. The Imperial Post Office (I. P. O.) deals with all mail matters ordinarily enumerated in postal tariffs : letters, postcards, newspapers, printed matter, '^-^ V-

gamples, and also with parcels (domestic and international), and a special kind of native ^^ v mails known as ^^clubbed' letter mails, made up and transmitted on account of Native ^<-

Postal Agencies under certain regulations. Stamps are sold and registration conducted ' V , ' C under much the same rules as in Union countries. Money Orders are issued and '

cashed within the domestic area only. Conventions passed with Great Britain, Hong- / ^ ' V kong, Prance, Germany and Japan recognise its postage stamps (4 dollar-cents being /^ N \

equivalent to 1* for postal purposes), and thus enable it to forward mails to Foreign ' \

countries. During the year 1905, the tariff has been recast and better adopted to the requirements of the people, n letter being now forwarded within a district for 1 cent {\* ), and for 2 cents (J* ) per .J oz. to any part of the Empire, a wonderfully cheap rate indeed when we consider the difficulty of communications, the distance covered, and the necessary staff required for such an arduous undertaking. Means of transport,. rncrnl^riij nn^H irpTiri^ hn^rt u}irt hrrn imr^r^t"^ Official support has been gained and prejudices broken down, but the new system has still to compete with native "letter . ^gng«"T and struggle against likin charges on parcels, and smuggling of "clubbed" mails. Fixed rates and prepayment are much resented, the Chinaman ever wanting to bargain.

At" tlie close of 1905, Postal Establishments, including Head Post Offices and Agencies, numbered 1,626, and reached in 1906 to 2,09^1. The bulk of articles dealt with rose from 66 ^ millions in 1904, to 76 millions in 1905. Parcels also have advanced from 772,000 to over 1 million.

The following tables will exhibit the work and its progress from 1901-1905.

436

SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHT.

Present Tariff: Imperial Post Office (from Notiflcation No. 41).

r

2* 1

1 1

Ma{] Mailer.

Unit of cbar^.

Doi PI

T"

Lo- cal.

aeetio , »ces.

Do- mes'

tio.

Foreign CountFies.

III.

Un- ion.

^au.

Hongkotig Macao

Tg'iiigtao Weihatwei.

Ots.

Cts.

CU.

OiB.

Cts,

Letterg,

Every J o si. or friction thereof. (Limit of weigbti iJbs.).

1

2

10

S

4

Foitcards,

j Single, f Double.

1 2

1 2

8

s

1 1 2

Newspapers

Ever}^ 3 oa. (singly or in bulk)* (Limit of wdght, 4 Iba.),

4

1

2

i

2

Booki and Pnnta ;

Up to 3 £)Z. 1

1

2

2

2

Cora m ere ial Pipers.

(Limit of wctgbt, 32 os.).

Ssmtile^,

Up to 3 oz, (Limit of weight, 8 OE.).

1

2

2

2

0

Regifttration*

Simple.

5

5

10

7

10

With return Kec^ipt.

10

10

20

10

10

Parcelrt.

Up to I lb.

1 lb. to 3 lbs. (Limit of i^-oight, 22 lbs. For inland placea reached hj overland courier, 6 lbs. J.

10 15

15

20

Money Ordt^r^.

Per Dollar.

El

2

Not iisurd.

(Limit of order, #50. For

inland places not reached

by Ht«&m, $m.

Local. — Tariff I. i.e. Mail matter within delivery radius.

Domestic. — TariflF II. i.e. Mail matter between Imperial Post Offices in China.

Tariff V. franks foreign letters and postcards inland, where an I.P.O. exists, but foreign heavy mail articles (Newspapers, Books, Commercial Papers, Samples), if carried to places not reached by steam, have to pay additional Tariff II. (domestic).

All foreign parcels, where and however carried, have also to pay additional tariff II. (domestic), over and beyond Union postage on parcels.

CHAPTBR YI. MBAN8 OF COMliUNICATlON.

Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled 1901-1905.

«7

1901

1902

1908

19M

1905

Head aud Sub- Offices.

30

30

3i

40

41

Branch Offices.

134

263

3.0

352

396

Agencies.

12

153

609

927

1,189

Articles dealt with.

10,500.000

20,000,000

42,500,000

66,000,000

70,000.000

Parcels: Number.

126,800

260,000

487.000

772,000

1,032,000

Weight (KUos).

250,000

515,000

1.213.000

2.702,000

3,262,000

Letters in native "club- bed" mails.

7,300,000

8,000,000

7,267,000

8,300,000

8,896,000

fv^f-^

Postal Sections and Work, 1904-1905.

SortH China: Piiktiif^ to Kiaochow. Central Gbina : OhHiQgk'irig to KiukiAiig, ■ fchow.

Lower Yangtze ; Wuhn to Hang- South Cbiuaand Yttnnati Stations

Total,

Ei^tftblish-

mentfe.

1901

1905

341

403

324

381

S24

2C3

427

579

1.319

i,mn

Artlck'fl.

190i

!fl,O0O,0O0

12,000,IMJO

25,000,000 10,000,000

1906

66,000,000

20.000,000

14,000,000

30,000,000 12,000,000

70,000.000

197,000 I 255,Oi>0

2*Ji>.000 115,000

361|000 302,000

772,000 1 1,132,000

Besides the Imperial Post Office, the principal Foreign Powers maintain their

own Post Offices in the Treaty Ports. Thus there are in Shanghai : British, German, French, American, Russian and Japanese Post Offices. These generally distribute letters aud parcels by their own letter-carriers, though some (as the United States) entrust this work to the Imperial Post Office. The tariff of Foreign Post Offices varies, as the mail matter is internal or external to the country conducting the office. Thus the British Post Office in Shanghai forwards letters to Great Britain, and some English Colonies, at a tariff of 4 cents (1<* ), and to Union countries at a tariff of 10 cents ( 2** j ) per ^ oz. If the same letter is despatched through the French, German and Chinese Post Offices, and franked with their stamps, it must pay Union rates, or 10 cents ( 2^ i ) per ^ oz. weight. From April 1907, all Ittters to Europe may be again forwarded via the Trans-Siberian route.

Tele^raplui. — Up to 1884, China had no other system of rapid communication than beacons lighted on towers, which thus quickly flashed important news or orders to remote regions. These towers however were few in number, and the signals were . s.^ not always comprehensible.

In 1884, the Danish Great J^ttKerik Tcltur^ph Company put up the first line, ^hich connected Peking and Shanghai, and was completed August 22»**, 1881.

Great difficulty was experienced at first to preserve it from wholesale destruc- / r tion. The villagers in the neighbourhood frequently pulled up the posts \o make '^' firewood, and cut the wires to make nails. To check this destructiveness, an Imperial

438

sicnoN T. poLincii. amo bcomomic esoMuioT.

K.I

decree was fixed on each post, threatening uith immediate decapitation any one who would be caught cutting down the posts or wires.

New lines soon followed this first attempt, one linldng Tongldng with Shanghai, another connecting Shanghai and Hank'ow etc.

In 1887, China requested to connect her telegraph system with that of Siberia, thus putting Peking in communication overland with 'Europe, but the permission was not granted till 1892.

;Chetotal length of ^nf in '-■p***-***'^" thrnDfj^^"^*^*' whole Empire at the end of 1005 was 34,000 miles. A main line connects N. and S., and runs' down alon^the coast. The S: YiSF sirottier main line. From the Northern and 'Southern main lines spring three branch lines, one going Westwards, another through the inland Northern Provinces, and a central one aWiig the Yangtze valley. _A Jine a,nnn m\l^ lon^ runs across the GoJa^dfts»rt. By means of all these, telegraphic communication is maintain^^ from Peking with every Province, while short branch lines connect the principal towns within the Province itself. The rate per word for inland messages is veiy high (Shang- hai to Peking 0^42 cents X \0^ ] ; Shanghai to Hongkong 0,45 cents [ 11<> ] ), and this /debars the people froip benefiting by its advantages. At the close of 1906, the Im- I perial Telegraph Company, almost wholly Chinese, had 379 offices, and employed over I 1,200 workmen together with 8 foreign engineers.

Ohinese writing being not alphabetic but syllabic, there being as many char- acters as there are words in use, and these words having gieat similarity in sound, the telegraphic messages are sent in a number cypher. For transcription, a double- ended type is used ; on one end is the character or ideograph, but only 8,000 are used, and on the other the corresponding number. When a message is received, it is set up by the numbers, and then printed from the reverse or character end.

Otiior Telegraph Oompanle* in Ohina. — In 1871 Jbhe Eastern Extension Telegraph Co. (English), connected at Madras its lines with those of the Eastern Tele- graph Co., and thus linked Shanghai by cable with Hongkong, Singapore and Europe.

Since then, numerous other lines have been laid by Greai Britain, France, Russia, Germany, the United States, Japan and by the Northern Telegraph Co (Danish).

The lines connecting the principal ports of China with each other, and with the outside world, are the following :

Places connected.

Length of cable in Nautical Miles.

1. (-ape S* Jacques (Indo- China) and Hongkong.

2. Tourane (IndoChina) and Amoy (Fokien).

3. Hongkong and Amoy.

4. Amoy and Woosung (near Shanghai).

Amoy and GutzlafT. . Gutzlaff and Woosung. n. Hongkong and Foochow (Fokien). C. Foochow and Woosung.

7. Woosung and Nagasaki.

WooHuug and Gutzlaff. Gutzlaff and Nagasaki (2 cables).

8. Nagasaki and Vladivostock. (2 cables).

952 925 330

590

58

475

460

58

428

418

(770

1764

/^

CBAPTBB TI. MRAMB Of COmCMKUTIOM.

439

Places connected.

Length of cable in Nautical Miles.

9. Woosimg and Chefoo (Shantung).

10. Chefoo and Taku (Chihli). 2 cables.

11. Woosnng and Ts'ingtao (Shantung).

12. Ts'ingtao and Chefoo.

13. Chefoo and Weihaiwei.

14. Chefoo and Port Arthur (Manchuria).

15. Sharp Peak (Foochow) and Tamsui (Formosa).

16. Shanghai and Tap (Caroline Islands).

Shanghai and Guam, vi4 Manila. Tap and Guam.

Guam and Honolulu, via Midway I. Honolulu and San Francisco. Guam and Tokohama, via Bonin I.

516 (212 1218

380

246 42 88

115 1,780 2,900

560 3,800 2,270 1,500

Steamflhip Oompaniefl aailln^ to or from drina. — Several Steamship Companies have established communication? between China, Europe, America, Australia and Japan. The principal of these are the following :

Nation-

Number

Name of Line.

aUty.

Pljdng between.

of sailings.

1* Be^ular aeryices.

Peninsular and Oriental Steam

British.

London, Shanghai.

Bi-monthly.

Navigation Co. (P. & 0.).

Canadian PacificRailway(C.P.B.),

»

Vancouver, Hongkong.

))

or Empress Boats.

Messageries Maritimes (MM.).

French.

Marseilles, Tokohama.

))

Norddeutscher Lloyd.

German.

Bremen, Tokohama.

»>

Nippon Tusen Kaisha (N.T.K.).

Japanese.

Tokio, San Francisco, Marseilles, Anvers.

li

Toyo Risen Kabushiki Kaisha.

»

Tokohama, Hongkong, San Francisco.

Monthly.

Austrian Lloyd Steam Naviga-

Austrian.

Trieste, Tokohama.

II

tion Co.

Pacific Mail Steamship Co.

American.

San Francisco, Hono- lulu, Hongkong.

II

Occidental and Oriental Steam-

M

San Francisco, Hono-

II

ship (y (o. & 0.).

lulu, Hongkong, Manila.

r oilier lines oomeottn^

Chftna.

^ith Europe.

•

Glen Line (Cargo and Passeng-

A-ra\

British.

Glasgow, Shanghai.

Ben Line.

}>

Ocean Steamship Co. Ifi , and

»i

Glasgow, Liverpool,

Weekly.

China Mutual Steam Naviga-

' Shanghai.

tion Co.

i»

London, Tokohama.

440

SBCnOII T. POLITICAL AMD BCONOlilC 6B0ftRAPHT.

Name of Line.

Nation- ality.

Number of sailings.

Hamburg- America Line. Compagnie Asiatique. Chargeors K^unis.

With America. United States and China-Japan S S. Line. SUndard Oil Co. Great Northern S.S. Co. of U.S.

With Auttralia. Eastern and Aastralian S.S. Co. Nippon Yosen Kaisba.

With Japan. Osaka Shosen Kaisba.

The Boats of nearly all Companies plying between Earope and America. V Ootmt and RlTerine S.S. Oompanies. China Merchants' Steam Navigation Co. (C.M.S.N.

Co). Indo-China Steam Navigation Co.(Jardine,Matbe8on

.feCo.). China Navigation Co. (Butterfield & Swire). China and Manila S.S. Co. Hongkong, Canton and Macao S.B. Co. Apcar and Co. Geddcs and Co. Spitzel and Co. Douglas S.S. Co. Shan Stramcrs Co. China Engineering and Mining Co. Molchers and Co. Hank'ow-Swatow Line. Norddeutscher Lloyd Orient Linie. Hamburg America Linie.

China Coast Navigation Co. (Siemssen and Co). Taito Steam Navigation Co.

Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Osaka Shosen Kaisba, and Daito Hunan Kainha (combined Aug* 16, 1906. — Formerly "Yangtze Shipping Co".). NiHshin Kisen Kaisba.

MitHui Hussan Kaisha. [Orient.

Compagnie Francaise dea Indes et de I'Extrf'me Compagnie Asiatique de Navigation (Racine Acker-

mann ct Cie). Chinese Eastern Railway Steamship Co.

German. French.

American.

British. Japanese.

Japanese.

Chinese. British.

German.

Japanese.

Monthly.

Franco-Chinese. French.

Russian.

CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

441

References :

CftleDdrier Annuaire (published annually

by the Jesuit Fathers of the Zika-

wei Observatory, Shanghai. 1903-1907.

Up-to-date information on the Postal,

Telegraph and Railway Systems of

China). FauTel. — Les T^I^graphes, la Poste et

les Phares en Chine. (Questions diploma-

tiques et coloniales. Paris, 1899). Fauvel. — Les Chemins des fer en Chine

(ibid. 1P98. — Les Voies navigables de la

Chine, ibid. 1900). de Marcillac. — Les Chemins de fer

en Chine. (Questions diplomatiques et

coloniales. 1899). Oordier H. — Relations de la Chine avec

les Puissances Occidentales. Paris, 1903.

(Les T616graphes. Vol. III. Ch. VI. — Les

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fer en Chine. (T'oung-Pao. Octob. 1906.

p. 546-552 . Les Chemins de fer en Chine. — (Bulletin

du iComitd de I'Asie Frangaise, 1904. p.

535-538.— Chemins de fer Chinois, ibid.,

1905. p. 376-77. — Regime des Chemins de fer en Chine, ibid., 1905. p. 420-424 ; 468-472).

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1906. p. 160).

Le P6kin-Hank*ow. — (Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Fran^aise. 1905. p. 421-425).

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Gandar O. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang- hai, 1903.

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Gandry R. S. — China Present and Past, l^ndon, 1895. (Memorial in favour of Railways, 1887. Appendix C. p. 394-398. — Prospectus of the first Chinese Railway. Appendix D. p. 399-340).

442

8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC WO0BAPHT.

G. N. — Problems of the Far EAst. London, 1896. (Railways in China : Great Trunk Line, Pekiflg-Hankow. — Manchurian Railways. — Other Com- munications. Ch. X. p. 311-820).

Michle A. — The Englishman in China. London, 1900. (Yangtze and Grand Ca- nal. — Eoads and Waterways between Tientsin and Peking. — Map of Canton waters).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History, Diplomacy and Trade. London, 1901. (Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 57-81).

Len»y-Beaallea P. — The Awakening of the East. London, 1900. (Means of Communication in Siberia. —The Trans- Siberian Railway.— The Railway through Manchuria. Part I. Ch. VUl-X. p. 56-75).

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litUe A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

Kraufltiie A. — The Far East, its History and its Question. London, 1903. (Origin of the Siberian Railway. — Manchurian Railway Agreement. Ch. VI. p. 114-118. — Map of Russian Railways in N. China, p. 175. — Convention between Great Britain and Russia with regard to their respective railway interests in China. Appendix B. p. 355-358i. -^King^emili T. W.— Various Contributions to Inland Communications in China. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1898. p. 1-213). '- Ohiflbolm C*. — The Resources and Means of Communication of China. (Geogr. Journal, 1898. Vol. XII. p. 500-519).

jemi^ao T. U. — China's Business Methods. Shanghai, 1901. (Interior Trade Routes, p. 184-200).

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Eucyclopajdia Britaunica (X**» Edition. London, 1902). — China : Internal Com-

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Doaslaa SUr B. — China, 1882. (Tra- velling. Ch. XI. p. 197-212).

Doaslas Sir B. ^ Society in China. London, 1895. (Manner of Travel. — Various kinds of conveyances. — Chinese carts, waggons and wheelbarrows. — Poetical description of a Chinese inn. Ch. XXIII. p. 370-374).

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The Railway to Soochow and Wusieh. — ^ (North-China Herald. July .O"*, 1906).

Plry T. — Report on the working of the Imperial Post Office, 1905. (China: Im- perial Maritime Customs. Statistical Series 3 and 4. Shanghai, 1906. p. 31-78. With descriptive Catalogue of stamps and postcards, 1878-1898, by J. Mencarini).

List of Telegraph Stations in China, ar-\ ranged according to Provinces. Shang- hai, 1906.

Demys N. B. — Notes for Tourists in the North of China. Hongkong, 1866.

Hurley B.O.— Tourist's Guide to Canton, the West River and Macao. Hongkong, 1898.

Darwent C- E. — The Shanghai Guide. Shanghai, 1905.

Berol's Guide to Shanghai (illustrated, and with map). Shanghai, 1904.

The Hotel Metropole's Guide to Shanghai and Environs, by W. E. B. Shanghai, 1903.

CHAPTER VII.

Aise and Progress of the Chinese Empire. — Foreign Relations.

Emigration.

P. Rise and Progress

of the Chinese Empire.

The Chinese nation is the oldest in the world, and its history goes back to the most remote antiquity, but there isjin absence of anft^epjiic ]-**^/^i-/»a^ in the shape of either monuments or written documents, whereby a trustworthy account of the early ages may be sketched. We are therefore compelled, at least for the present, to rely upon what tradition furnishes us.. As time rolls on, more documents will be available, and facts will be more substantiated. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide this study into 3 parts : V the Mythical Period ; IV the Ancient or Legendary Peri^jd; III** the Historical Period^ or that of the 22 Dynasties. — The first period commences with P^anku 42 ISTi ftnd is a medley of absurdities and inconsistencies which deserve no credence. The second period begins with Fahfll flt jH, and contains some facts which seem better established. The third period commences with the Haia X dynasty (B.C. 2205). In this period, facts become more and more evident, at least if they be considered in their collectivity.

I\ - The Muthieal reriod.

This period opens with the "formation of heaven and earth", and covers from / 45,000 to 500,000 years, according to the statements of the ancient Chinese.

The first man nr P^jjilf n |B •ft, fhrf^hirinr Adam, is said to be the archi- tect of the universe. He is represented with chisel in one hand and hammer in the other, bringing the rude chaotic mass into shape and form. His labours lasted for 18,000 years. Just as his task is completed, and the earth roughly fitted to receive I its future inhabitants, he dies. His breath is then changed into wind and clouds, his i voice into thunder, his blood into rivers, his right eye into the sun, his left into the \ moon, and his hair into plants and trees. His flesh is transformed into fields, his bones into mountains and minerals, his dropping sweat into rain, while the crawling insects which stuck to his body become the human race.

The Chinese believe that in the first ages of the world, there were giants upon the earth, for P'anku was followed by three sovereigns : the heavenly or T'ieu 5?, the terrestrial or Hwang J| , and ^/m; ^uman or Ti fi, who were of gigantic form. They reigned on the aggregate during 18,000 years, during which numerous inventions were made, and men learned to eat, drink and sleep.

444 SECTION y. political and bconomig obographt.

These ages comprise the first 8 2>erio(h of the 10 epoclw or Kl fl^, into which Chinese writers divide the early history of the country.

11% — The Ancient or Legendary Teriad.

(B.C. 285:-2205).

]"• The Five Sovereigns. — The history of this period oommencea with Fuliiri (^ JH, the first of the five sovereigns. The four others are ^hglUluii^ p K (<Iivi'ne hushandmau), or Yinti |ft ^ (fiery ruler); Hwim^ j| 'ft (yellow ruler); $hfiohao ^ fh (waning brightness); and ChwonfuBtt Jg( I^ (conspicuous rectitude).

Fnhsi (B.C. 2852-27.^7) fixed his capital in Honan Province, near the present K'affung Fu. He is credited with having invented the art of writing, in the shape of rough pictorial symbols, from which the present system of Chinese writing has been developed. Shennung (B.C. 2737-2007) invented the plough, and taught the art of agriculture, and the medical use of herbs. He is honoured at the present day as the God of Agriculture and Medicine. Hwanj^ti (B.C. 2697-2597) is looked upon as the founder of the ICmpire. He invented music and the fine arts, and fixed weights and measures. He built vessels, constructed roads and made carts, while his wife Leitnu iV Jfi taught the people to rear silkworms, and to make garments of silk. He divided hi^ territory according to the ilecimal system^ as follows : 10 towns formed a district; . 10 districts a department; 10 departments a province, and 10 provinces the entire Empire. The cyclic period of GO yearSy or kiatze ^ ^, owes its origin to him, and was lienceforth employed in constructing chronological tables.

These three first founders of the Empire are known by the the name of the three H^«rangs or San Hwon^ (three August Ones).

Shaohao (B.C. 2597-2513), the son of Hwangti, established the 9 degrees of civil magistrates, and the 9 grades of military officials. The badges of the former were various birds, while those of the latter were wild animals.

Chwanhsii (B.C. 2513-2435), grandnon of Hwangti, was a pious and religious prince, and is credited with having invented the calendar.

Under Hwangti , the Empire extended from Slu^usi in the West to the leacoast, and from modern Chihli in the North, to the Yargtze-kiang in the South. ChwanhsU is said to have still extended these limits as far as Tongking in the South, and ^[anchuria in the North.

tl\ The Three Great Emperors. — A distance of 78 years, or the

reign of an Kniperor, intervened between the grandson of Hwangti, and the three Great Sasies : Yao ^ (lofty), *S7/wh f^ (benevolent) and YU ^ (perfect), whom Con- fucius and Mencius have extolled, as the most perfect models of the Golden Age of China. "Heaven alone is gnat", says Confucius, "and only Yao imitated it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it."

X«0 JSI (1^- C. 2:^57-2255). — Yao was a wise and learned prince, humble, frugal, and of great filial piety. "The hunger of my subjects" said he, "is my hunger, and their otTences must rest on my person." His rt-ign was peaceful throughout, and only disturbed by u great fiood (B.C. 2l97), which is considered to be an overflow of the Yellow Biver possibly changing its chauuel.He fixed his court at P'ingyang ^ ffi iuShansi (ilPf

CHAPTER yil. RI8B AND PROGRESS OP THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 445

Province. He corrected the calendar by the insertion of an intercalary month, thus / making the seasons recur at the proper time. He appointed Yii the Greats subsequently his successor on the throne, to regulate the overflow of the waters. Yao hearing of the great filial piety of Shim, then a youth of twenty, summoned him from the fields, and made him his associate in the management of the affairs of the Empire. Before dying he appointed him his successor, and gave him his two daughters in marriage.

Shand, also called TUahun Ht f^ (Shun of the fabulous beast. B. C. 2255- 2205). — Shun succeded Yao, and was not less conspicuous for his brilliant virtues. He had a board erected in front of his palace, upon which every one could freely note down the drawbacks remarked in his conduct. He enacted that coffins sliould be made of wood. Several aboriginal States submitted of their own accord to his sway. He divided the country into 12 regions, and appointed Yii the Great as his successor.

Y« H, also called TayU ;^ S (Yu the Great. B. C. 2205-2197). — Yao had formerly appointed Yii his Superintendent of Works, and entrusted him with draining off the waters of the disastrous flood, and canalising the rivers. The work was com- pleted in 13 years. Shim had chosen him as his associate in the government of the Empire, and had him appointed as his successor. Yii, on learning the honour that awaited him, fled, but his hiding-place being discovered, he was compelled to rule the State. Confucius said of him : "I can find no fault in the character of Yii. He used coarse food and drink, and displayed the utmost filial piety towards the Spirits. His ordinary dress was poor, but he affected the greatest elegance in his pacrificial cap and apron. He lived in a low mean house, but expended all his strength in opening ditches and water-channels. I can find nothing like a flaw in Yii." Like his pre- decessors, he displayed intelligence and foresight. Seeing the disastrous effects of drunkenness through excess of wine, he forbade its use throughout the Empire. Several treatises on agriculture and drainage are attributed to him. He divided the country into 9 Provinces.

With Yii commences the series of Chinese dynaMies, 22 in all, 9 great, lesser. The first three arc the most celebrated of all, and lasted during the space 1,957 years.

ed the

. and 3 %tfYi pace of '/ /

ITI\ — The 22 JDynaMes.

For the sake of clearness, we shall divide these dynasties into 4 periods : V The three first or primitive dynasties. 2* the ancient dynasties, that is from the 4"* or T8*in m dynasty, to the 18**» orT'ang H dynasty. 3* the meditpval dynasties, that is from the T'ang to the Ming QQ, or 21"* dynasty. 4* the inodern dynasties, or those extending from the time of the Mings down to the present day.

V, The Primitive Dynasties, (B.C. 2205-249).

Three dynaailes occupy this long period. The Hsia J( dynasty (B. C. 220.5- 1766), the Shang ^ or Yin Jt dynasty (B.C. 1766-1122), and the Choic JQ dynasty (B.C. 1122-249). The first held sway during 439 years, the second during 644, and the third daring 873 years.

446 SBCTION ▼. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG OBOft]

TKE CmBnBSi:\niPERIA£

The Chinese Empire was ruled, from the fouudatiou of the Monarchy (B.C. 2S09

Name of Dynasty. J

Family Name.

V

Began.

SOYKBEIOin.

1

M. H8ia

m

Sze

aC.2205

17

2

ijjB Shaug /fit Yin

1^

Tze

{

1766 1401

29

3

M Chow

je

Ki

{

1122 770

88

4

^ T84n

0

Ying

249

4

5

|l^ Han (Western)

iM ^ Tung-Han (Eastern Han)

«

Liu

1 206

(A.D. 25

25

6

3 Jll Shuh-Han (Minor Han)

»i

„

221

2

7

|W Tsin (Western)

'^ 9 Tung-Tsin (Eastern Tsin)

{?IJS5

Szema

{

265 317

15

8

9i 5|5 Liu-Sung (House of Liu)

11

Liu

420

8

9

|& If Nan-Ts'i (Southern Ts4)

IF

Siao

479

5

10

flf ffk Nan-Liang (Southern Liang)

11

,t

502

4

11

^ M Nan-Ch*(^n (Southern Ch*^n)

m

Ch*An

557

5

12

IW Sui

m

Yang

590

3

i:<

^ T'ang

^

Li

620

20

M

m JR Hen-Liang (Posterior Liangj

*

Chu

907

2

15

ft ^ Heu-T'ang (Posterior Tang)

*

Li

923

4

16

ft ^ Heu-Tsin (Posterior Tsin)

s

Shih

936

2

17

ft 1§| Heu-Han (Posterior Han)

84

Liu

947

2

18

ft A Heu-Chow (Posterior Chow)

US

Kwoh

951

8

19

J ^ Sung

f ^ ^ Nan-Sung (Southern Sung)

^

Chao

{

960 1157

18

20

TC Yuen

mn

K»ioht*eh

1280

10

21

BJ Ming

*

Chu

{

1868 1416

16

22

Jft Ts'ing

f^

Tung

1644

Hitherto 9

CHAPTBR Til. BI8B AND PRO0RB88 OF TRB. CHINBSB BHPIRB. 447/ DYNASTIES (LXH-CWAO ft $}).

» the present day, by twenty-two dynasties succeeding one another as follows :

DuaATlON.

Capital (Ancient Name).

Capital (Modern Name). \/ 1

489

li X Yanghsia

* HIR T'aik'anghsien

(Honan)

644

$ Poh i& Hao

ml ro JB Shangk'iu hsien (Honan) :& >? JR Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)

873

9 9 tt

iS a Lohyih

»' " '» „ „ „ ft Iw Si Lohyang hsien

It It (Honan)

43

m H^ Hsienyang

^ R& ^ Hsienyang hsien

(Shensi)

426

•B ^ Ch'angngan ffi^ H9 Lohyang

S ^ IK Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi) ft H9 JRi Lohyang hsien (Honan)

44

JA IP Ch'Angtu

JK 9 IK Ch'Angtu hsien

(Szechw'an)

155

JS Hk Lohyang

fli jft Kienk'ang(Nanking)

ft HJ JR Lohyang hsien TLmm Kiangning Fu

(Honan) (Kiangsu)

50

»» '» » »

M »1 »» „ „ „

It tt

28

»» »' n n

»'»»'» ti It It

It f

55

'♦ »» »

1» M »» „ „ „

It tt

33

♦» ♦' »

'» M '» ti It It

tt tt

80

S ^ Ch*angngan

ft $ IK Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)

287

'» »» It »

»» »' " It It It

It It

16

ft 1^ Lohyang

ft RB IB Lohyang hsien

(Honan)

IS

»» »» ,. M

11 M n „ „ „

It It

11

fl* IK Pienliang

M fA Jtf K*aifung Fu

(Honan)

4

»» »» M It

»*»»'♦ It It It

It It

9

«» »» It It

»» 11 11 It tt tt

It It

320

»» '♦ It „ Kg 3C Linngan

11 i» 11 „ „ „ ft jHl ^ Hangchow Fu

It It (Ch^kiang)

88

M Ydn (Peking)

^ 3? ^ Shunt'ien Fu

(Chihli)

276

jfll ^ Tingt*ien (Nanking) '4fc ^ Pohp^ing (Peking)

inHlfiF Kiangning Fu l^mM Shunt'ien Fu

(Kiangsu) (Chihli)

m. 5^ Shunt'ien (id.)

IB 5^ ^ Shunt'ien Fu

(Chihli)

448 SECTION y. political and economic oeoorapht.

I. Tlie Hsla X dynAil^y* (BC. 2205-176C). — During the Umes of Yao and Shun, the primitive patriarchal form of Governmeut developed into the monarchical. The succession to the throne was not however hereditary, but the fittest and most capable ministers were chosen to govern the State. Thus Yao appointed Shun, and Shun in turn appointed Yii to succeed him, preferably to his own children. Generally the ruler, a short time before dying, indicated his successor. Uudor the Hsia dynasty, the succession becomes hereditary. All the princes who succeed one another beIong"tcrnieTame fafhlly.""" TEe' whole population of the Empire then ranged from I to 2 millions, forming, it seems, stations of colonists dispersed I amongst the aboriginal tribes {sre p. i). The greater part of the country was at that ! time, except in Honan and along the Yellow River, overrun by luxuriant vegetation, and wild animals abounded. The ^Empire had not the cohesion and unity which it possesses at the present day, but was divided into several petty states^ whose rulers frequently engaged in mutual warfare!" TEose who bore the title of Emperors were but the most powerful among compeers, and it was with no little difficulty that they asserted their authority.

Some of the first monarchs of this dynasty governed the Empire with con- summate wisdom. Foremost among them is Ki 0C (B. C. 2197-2188), the worthy tton of the Great Yii. Of the succeeding 9 sovereigns, little record is found of their doings. Others were conspicuous for their tyranny and debauchery, and this hastened the downfall of the d3masty. Kieh ^ or Kiehkwei id 9$, the XVII*** and last reigning monarch, was so voluptuous and cruel, that he became an object of hatred to his people, and was compelled to flee (B. 0. 1818) to Nanch'ao ^ ft (in the present Province of Nganhwei), where he died three years later on.

The Haia dynasty (so-called from a small territory in Honan) reckoned in all 17 sovereigns, and lasted 439 years, thus averaging 26 years to each monarch's reign.

S. Tbe Sbang m or Tin 0 dynasty. (B.C. 1766-1 122).- The Shang

dynasty was founded by Ch*^ngVang JK 3|, a prince who lived in .the principality of Shang US, situated in the East of the present Province of Honan. Compelled by the people to avenge their wrongs, he took up arms aganist Kiehkwei^ and being victorious, supplanted him on the throne. He established his Court at Poh 4^, in the Eastern part of Honan. The principal occurrence of his reign was a great famine, occasioned by a drought of seven years. So great was the suffering that it was thought' a human victim should be offered to appease the wrath of heaven. The prince c«me forward, and attributing the disaster to his sins, publicly besought heaven to punish him. Tradition states that in answer to his prayer, copious rain fell immediately, and thereby relieved the misery of the people. His successors soon gave themselves up to vice and debauchery. Several were however arrested in their downward career by the prime Minister lyin 0* ^, and his sou /cM7* ^ |^. During the reigns of 14 other sovereigns, nothing noteworthy is recorded in histoiy. P'ankdny B flf (B. C. 1401-1373), the XVII*»> Emperor of the dynasty, had a happy and peaceful reign. He removed his capital to Y/w Jg^ a town in Honan, N. of the Yellow River, hence the dynasty was henceforward known as Tin instead of Shang. At this period, public morality deteriorated very much. Staoflin <h 3p, sou of P*ank6ng, was a weak and dissolute monarch, while Cliowsin D* 3p, the last ruler of the dynasty, was notorious for his cruelty, extravagance and debauchery. Being defeated in battle by Wutcang jR i, Prince of the Chow State, he fled to a tower, set it on fire, and perished miser- ably himself in the midst of the flames.

The Shang dynasty reckoned 28 sovereigns, and lasted 644 years.

GHAPTBA Til. RISE AND FAOaRBSS OF THE CHIIIB8B BMFIRB. 440

S. Tlie Clftow M dynasty. (B. c. 1122-249). — Wu Wan^ ft £>

After defeating Chototin ff $i founded a new dynasty, called Chow JMi. from the name of a Principality over which he ruled in Shenai Province. This dynasty numbered 3» sovereigns, and lasted for 873 years, the longest time known in history.

Like his father W&n Wang ^ £, and his brother Chow Kung JR ^^Viu Viang jR 3E, (B. C. 1122-1115) was conspicuous for his erudition, integrity, patriotism and inventive genius. Win Wang }K X united the principal chieftains against the misrule of the Shang dynasty, and in dying, left to his son Wu Wang the completion of the work. This prince, notwithstanding his great ability, committed the blunder of \ dividing the Empire into several petty states, which he parcelled out to those who had ^ helped him in his struggle with Chownn.

Wu Wang ft £ was succeeded by his son di'diic Vfmmg ft X (B. 0. 1115' 1078), who governed the Empire with much integrity, and successfuUy^quelled a rebellion of the former dynasty.

Yn Wanf ft 3E (B. C. 781-770), Xll^ sovereign of this dynasty, was a most depraved and voluptuous prince. Having put .away the Empress and her son P*ing Wang ^ 3E, the father of the dethroned queen attacked him in his capital, defeated him, and placed the rightful heir on the throne.

P'lpf V/amg 7 X (B.C. 770-719),on ascending the throne,entru8ted to the DmAt^ of TsHn ft the defence of the Western frontier (the present Province of Kansuf llgainat the Tartars. The standing army maintained for this purpose, and the independent spirit of the Duke, soon made him the chief rival of the Central Government. P*ing Wang, fearing much for his own safety, transferred his capital from Hao ft fOrCh'ang- ngan hnen Jl itc ft in Shensi, to Lohyih H g, or Lohyang h^ien ft ft M in Honan. This was a fatal mistake, and resulted in the weakening of the Central Autkorky^ and the growing influence of the Feudal States^ ever engaged in mutual wArfkre for supremacy, and all belittling the authority of the ruling sovereign. The bumber of these States varied constantly, being at times 41 and 52, atid at others 125. In the year B. C. 314, the powerful Duke of TsHn advanced against Btaa Viamg ft X, the then reigning emperor, and defeated him in battle. Henceforward all real power was in the hands of 7«*in, and soon after, the Chow dynasty came to an end.

This dynasty is memorable for having given birth to China's three great philo- $opher$ : IrfMtae ^ ^, OonracliMi or K'ung Futze % A ^t ^^"^1 MeadiMl or MSngtte ft 7, aU of whom had the greatest influence on the religion, government, morals, customs and civilization of the country.

lAOtee (B. C. 604) wrote the famous Taoteh King ft ft ft, and was the foun- der of Taoism.

Ooofiicla* (B. C. 551-479) edited the ancient Classics, and compiled the annals of the Kingdom of Lu flk, from the year B.C. 922 to 484 (teo p. 351).

MeaeliMi ( B.C. 872-280) is regarded as being second olily to Confucius, and his works form one of the Four Classics.

The closing years of the dynasty were a period of great confusion, trouble, intrigues gfuf pfofa.^The'cbiittBmil BtrifB airtTotfmpiJtition in arms were not however without benefiting the people. The Empire reached a higher level of military ability and skill, and great material progress was made, principally in the towns, for in the country places, the effects were but feebly felt.

The Chinese Empire comprised at ^is period : Shansi, Shensi, Honan and Shantung, and extended at the close of the dynasty in all directions, and South- wards even beyond the Yangtze river.

29

450 8BCTI0N ▼« POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG aSOaBAPBT.

Ts The Andent Dgnaatiet,

(B.C. 249-A.D. 280).

Nine dynasties occupy this period : the IWin ^ (B.C. 249-206), the Han 8| (divided into the Western and Eastern Han B.C. 206 — A.D. 221), the BIlBDr Hab or Shuh Han ^ ft (A.D. 221-265), the Trin § (divided into the Western and Eastern Tain (A.D. 265-420), the S11119 ^ A.D. 420479), the TW'llff (A.D. 479-502), the lianff J9k ( A.D. 502-557), the Oh'te M rA.D. 557-590), and the Sui PR (A.D. 590-620) dynasties. Of those nine dynasties, two only were of long duration^ the Han X* which lasted 426 years, and the Tain 9 > which lasted 155 years. The Han dynasty is the moat widely known^ while the TsHn dynasty, although it lasted hut 43 years, will remain for ever memorable on account of_Sbi«Hi»«i«a ftl Ik'itt (B.C. 246-209), connected with the building of the Great Wall (achieved B.C. 214), and the burning of the books (B.C. 218).

1. Tbe Ts4n ^ dynasty. (B.C. 249-2O6).— Of the many Feudal States

struggling for supremacy, two were foremost, that of TsHn 1|^, and that of TaH ff •

The former, being the more powerful, finally prevailed over its rival. The Prince of

T^Hn having proclaimed himself Lord of the West, the Emperor Nan Waaifr tk BE >

the last but one of the Chow dynasty, fought against him, but was defeated in battle

and compelled to surrender to his captor (B.C. 314). Tungchow KiUn JK JH S* (B.C.

255) succeeded Nan Wang, but reigned only nominally, and despairing of socoess,

abdicated the throne (B.C. 249). The Empire then recognized the Prince of TtHn as

its Sovereign.

I This new dynasty was of short duration. Chwavf Slang'^raiiff S JH 3Et

', its founder, reigne4 but three years (B.C. 249-246). The memory of his son, Prince

I OhSng (Ch(\ng Wang |^ £), better known under the name of Shi H'vraqstl tt Jl #

i (First Heavenly Emperor. B. C. 2*16-209) has come down to posterity as one of the .

! greatest Emperors, but also as one of the most execrated rulers, especially in the eyes

of the literati. Shi Hwangtiy or Ts^in Shihwang fl^ fj^ fk (the first Emperor of

Ts'in) established his capital at Hsienyang JK IB, in Central Shensi, and soon showed

he was a mati of consummate skill and strength of character. Ambitions, cmel and

a cunning despot, ho c-onsolidated the Empire by dividing it into 36 hiHn IK or yro-

mnces, over each of which he appointed 8 High Officials directly I'esponsible to himself.

Owing to the constant incursions of the Tartar tribes on the N.W. frontier, he cogi-

pleted the building of the Qxfat^WaU o/J?j!fina«.. which ertended from I20*4o 100*

East Longitude, and measured 1,500 miles in length. Under the Ming 91 dynasty,

it was repaired (A.D. 1470), and 300 more miles added to the part already existing

(A.D. 1547). Shi Hwangti erected also, numerous palaces an/l pT1^^^^^ hF*^^'"fT*i

opened canals, and built roads leading to all parts of the Empire. His memory how-

', over is imfortunately connected with the destruction of the claMic^_JiiexaiiUDe (aU

: works being ordered to be destroyed, except those on astrology, divination, medicine

and husbandry), and the burying alive of 460 of the literati. (B.C. 218). A literary

nation like the Chinese cannot forget nor forgive this cmel act, bnt it must be

remembered that Shi Hwangti was prompted thereto 1** by the safety of the Empire,

whoso integrity was menaced by the Feudal system from within, and Tartar inonraions

from without ; 2° by the venality and lack of enlip^htened patriotism of the literati ; 3*

by their rigid attachment to antiquity and its supposed superiority, and their opposition

to all his reforms (a case of conservatism against progress) ; 4* by their intemperate

GBAPm TIK RI8B AND PROaRBM OF THB CHniBtB BIIPIRB. 451

lADguAge when the order to bom the books was issned, and which the Emperor held to be treasonable.

After the death of Shi Hwangti, the dynasty lived but a few years, His two suocestors were too weak to maintain the unity of the State recently established, and withstand the factions of the rival Feudal Princes. A civil rebellion broke out, and g^ye the throna to Liupang H ^ Prince of Han.

%, Tbe Han |R dynasty, divided into the We%t«nm or Farmer Han (Ts'ien Han || H B.C. 206— A.D. 25), and the EoMtem or Lattr Han (Heu Han fl|R A.D. 25-221).

TheV»nnerHao(Ts*ienHan M H B.C. 20&-A.D.25).— This dynasty was founded by liapm^ n ft, Prince of Han K* & Feudal State on the Southern border of Shensi and Western Honan, near the river Han, hence the name of the dynasty. When Liu- pang ascended the throne, he took the dynastic title of KaoH ^ ffP* (lofty or august Emperor).

Kami X IV* or KaolMi fil JH (B.C. 206-194) began his reign by repealing the decree of Shi Hwangti in regard to the destruction of literature. All the boAks that escaped were sought out, and the literati appeased. He is the first Emperor who offered ioerifiee ai the tcmb of Confueiue, He established his capital afClTOlKllgm #"^ (Si- ngan Fu), in Shensi, an^ connected it by a highroad with Lohyang ft H, in Hooan. ! This road still exists, and its suspension-bridge, its resthonses and post-stations are marvels of skilful engineering and practical durability. The incureione of the Tartar tribee (Hsiungnu IQ ft and Tungku jR ijr : QfPt» and Tunguum. — From the former are descended the JCurks, Onigurs and Modgpls.; and from the latter, tt^^ljy^mfl, _|fiiii>hus I ml Kontos) became more frequent, and seriously menaced the stability of the Empire. Kaoti advanced against them, but being defeated, wis dbmpelled to sue for peace, and give his daughter in marriage to their chief. The remiainder'of his life was occupied in suppressing internal revolts. He died at the age of 5S, and left the throne to his son H'weltl ( ^,

■wellt ■ Hf (B.C. 194-179) being but 11 years of age when he succeeded to his father, his mother LU 8hih S R acted as regent, and after the dealVof the young Em- peror at 24, managed to keep the government of the State in her own hands. She was cruel and cunning, and plotted to found a new dynasty, bit failed. After her death, W4hI1 ^ If* (B. C. 179-156), the illegitimate son of Kaotsu, was summoned to the throne. He encouraged literature, established able judges and governors, and rendered the pnnithments of his times less barbarous (commuting the branding of the face, ezdaion of the nose and mutilation, into flogging). He died after a reign of 2S years. His ■on KlBi;!! j^ IfP* (B.C. 156-140) continued his good work, and was succeeded in turn by WatiR*.

Watt ft If* (B. C. 14(^86), the younger son of Kingti, ^ddfidJPplden, Kwaog- timg, Tftnnan, Szechw'an and Liaotung to the Crown. He waged incessant war •galnirtliu HeimngnUy but afHrst had little success. During his reign, a Tartar tribe of Kansn, set out for the West, and took up its new abode in the Ozus region, tin it rabsequently fell upon the Roman Empire in conjunction with the Huns. Further attacks against those warlike qomads proved at last successful. The Chinese cavalry pursued the enemy beyond the T'ien-shan (Heavenly mountains), and returned laden with booty, anu^ng which was a golden statue of Buddha. Wuti was a great ruler, who added to the stability of the throne, achieved great military conquests, and consi- derably enlarged the Empire. He died after a reign of 54 years, and left the throne

452 nCTlOM ▼. FOLITIGAL AMD BCOMOmC OBOOHAVUT.

to Chaoti ■ ly*. the yonngest of his sons. Chaoti (B. C. 86-78) and his saooesson oontinaed the war against the Hans, and wero at times felicitous.

P'la^ jp i|^ (A D. 1-6), who reigned at the h«>ginning of the Christian era, was a weak monarch, and aUowed Wang Mang 3E % a military official dismissed nnder the previons reign, to seize the power.

Waaiir MaBfr £ 9 placed a two-year old child, Jntae Tl«r ■ ?" Si on the throne, hut having poisoned him, he openly usurped the Imperial authority (A.D. 9), and governed the country during 16 years, amidst the greatest disorder. He was killed at Ch*angngan by the Princes of Han. The dynasty was then restored, and is sub- sequently known as the Eastern (Tung Han )R H) or Later Han (Heu Han K ft).

The Later Hm (Heu Han ft i( A. D. 25-221). — KwMifr ^ntl A A fP* (A. D. 25-671, the first Emperor of the Later fliaw, removed the capital from Ch*ang- Dgan in Shensi, toj^hyang in Honan. He was a brave and just ruler, and constantly engaged in hostilities with internal factions and turbulent princes. He reigned 82 years, and left the throne to his son Mingti 9| fP*.

Mli^il n fP* (A.D. 58-76) kept the Huns in check throughout his reign, and maintained the Imperial authority over them. One of his most important works was the building of a dyke, 80 miles long, to relieve the overflow of tha Hwang'luk.lZiideUiJm, Buddhism was offieiaaffi^UfSSaSbd (A.D.61) from Hindustan into China. In conaequenoe of a dream, MingtTBent envoys to India, and they ifetumed with a copy of a Sutra and some Buddhist priests. The new religion at first made but little progress, and was not firmly established in the country till three hundred years later. Though not the official religion, it is at the present day extensively entwined with the social customs and life of the people. Mingti was a clement and peaceful prince, and reigned 18 years. His son dMNi^ 9 Hf (A.D. 76-89) succeeded him.

■etl m at (A.D. 89-106) ascended the throne at the age of 10, and reigned for 17 years. His able generals defeated the Huns, and pursued them to Kashgar,and even as far as the Caspian Sea. After his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides, and threat- ened the djmasty with extinction.

Hwaott C ift (A.D. 147-168) was still an able ruler, and defeated the Bastem Tartars. After his death, several Generals disputed the throne, and the decline of the dynasty was rapid. HnienU flt # (A.D. 189-221), the last reigning prince, retired into private life, thus bringing to an end this famous dynasty. The 2 Hana lasted 426 years, with a total of 25 monarchs.

IThe Hasi dynasty was one of the most famous of China, whether we consider it from a literary, historical, military, commercial or artistic point of view. Moreover, I no ruling family was ever more popular with the masses, and this is shown in the pride ! with which the Chinese, especially those of the N., still r**^^.^"! ^''^I?^«**'^ftff "f** Sams of Han*\ Numerous public works were undertaken, prominent among whioh were bridges, aqueducts, roads and canals. The wealth and trade of the country developed. The Classics were restored and engraved on stone ; Buddhist literature was officially introduced from India, and intercourse opened with the Boman Bmpire. The competitive examinations for Utemry degrees, lately abolished (Septeinber^2, 1905), orightated under this djmasty, and a Penal Code was drawn up. Years of peaofl, dnring which the nation prospered, alternated with incursions by the nomad Tartars. The modem Fokien, Kwangtung, YUnnan, Ss«chw*an and Liaotung, were incorporated with the Bmpire. Chinese armies marched as far ^'est as the Caspian Sea, and China occupied a foremost position among the nations of the East.

GHAFTM Tit. MlSt AMD FRO0RBS8 OF THB CHXMMB BHPIRB. 453

In the beginninK of the dynasty, the Empire was divided into 108 KUln ff or Feudal PrinciptUHiea. These came more or less under the jarisdiction of the civil Governors appointed to administer the IS Chows M or Provinces.

The Han dynasty is also remarkable as having given birth to Snema Ts*ien M

S. The Minor HbUI (Shnh-Han S 81) and the Tliree MJngihuiM (San- Kwoh H H A.D. 221 -265).-* The diificolty of governing the Han Empire was great, and so the State was divided into 3 separate principalities, called the Saa K^rvli H H <^ Tliree Wugdiomm. The first of these was the Kingdom of Wei M, whicbroompriaed the Central and Northern Provinces, and had for its capital Lohyang. It lasted SO years. The second was the Kingdom of Wa H, extending down to the Yangtze river, and comprising Hunan, Ilupeh, Kiangsu and ChAkiang, with its capital at Nanking. It lasted 46 years. The third was the Kingdom of Shnk i| in Szechw'an,with its capital at Ch*6ngta. It lasted 44 years.

A struggle for supremacy soon began between these 8 Kingdoms. OlHie UeMI 0 iOI # (A.D. 221-223), a descendant of the Han dynasty, ruled Shuh. He attacked Wo, but was defeated. Headra H ^ (A.D. 223-258), his successor, made peaoe with Wu. Both then combined in a joint attack upon the Wei kingdom, but this latter vanquished them. Heuehu was taken prisoner, led captive to Lohyang, and thus brought to a dose the Minor Han dynasty. The supreme authority was now wield[ed by SMema Chao f| B| 0, General-in chief of the Wei troops. He died A.D. 265, and his son, Ssttma Yin W| B| jK* founded a new dynasty, that of the Western Tsin^

The period of the Three Kingdoms is one of the most interesting of Chinese history, and has been immortalized by the famous historical novel called the Sm^ Kw«li H ■, or Hlalerjer Use Tliree $lAtes. The actions recorded abound in marvellous adventures and thrilling incidents, and it may be compared to the age of chivalry in Europe. Chinese and Japanese story-tellers draw largely from these times, while the greater part of Chinese stage-plays reproduce the characters of the period.

Although governed by different rulers, these three States spoke the same language, and had a like administration, and so the influence of the Chinese race had been aMe to extend far Southwards.

4. Thm TbIs ff dysmiljr (A.D. 265-4*J0) was founded by Szema Yin 81 BI K, who took the dynastic title of Watt ft # (A.D. 265-290). He estobUshed his capital ^^^^hywugt '" WAn^« Internal discord and agitation, combined with the dread of hostile neighbours, rendered the consolidation and unity of the Empire an \ imperious duty. The main object of Wuti was to add the Wu A principality to his i dominions. A naval expedition was fitted out, and a battle having taken place in the , Tungt'ing Lake (Hunan), Wu was defeated. China was now united again under one ruler. Wuti however at the close of his reign gave himself up to pleasure, entertained a company of 5,000 female comedians, and travelled in a car drawn by sheep. He reigned 35 years, and left the throne to his son Hweiti.

Hweitt S IV* (A. D. 290-907). — During this reign, the Tartar Huns ^ni forth claims to the throne. Nothing of importance however took place till the next Em- peYorJBwBllMlt'# <A^^ ;t07-»K)), ««canded the throne. The Tartan then invaded the N. of the Empire, took Lohyang (A. D. 310), and carried off in succession the liw and IV^ Emperors of the dynasty. After this reverse, the Tartars reigned

454 aiGTlOlf T. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC MOaAAFHT.

supreme over N. China, while the enfeebled Tsins removed their capital to Nanking, Ih^KJiXigsVL ProVfnbei hence the name of Eastern Tain given to the dynasty from A. D, 817-420. Of the 11 Emperors who ruled during this latter period, all were weak and incompetent. LiuyU H Hi, an ambitious General, who formerly supported the Eastern Tsin, in their struggle with the other rival chieftains, murdered one Emperor, and compelled the last, Knnctl f^ f (A. D. 419), to abdicate in his favour. He then establisbed a new dynasty, known as the Sung $|;,wtth himself as first Emperor.

The Empire during the Tsin dynasty was divided into 19 Ohovf ^ oriVvotneei, controlled by Civil Ck>vemor8. Nmiieroua wan also took place between the chieftains of the IS principal Feudal States, those of the N. being generally viotorioiis over the Southerners.

The Wentem snd Eastern T$in ruled for 155 years, under 15 monanshs.

5. Tke iS^IISK SR dynasty, known as the Liusung S| ^ (A. D. 480- 419).-- LiuyU (| Hi, on becoming Emperor, took the dynastic title of Watt ft ffP* (A.D. 4^9-423). At this time, there was a constant struggle between the Ghinese of the S. and the Tartars of the N., and hence it is called the period of Use dMfltoDbeiweea tto N. and 8. The N. was in the hands of the Tartars since Hwaiti (A. D. 810), of the Tsin dynasty, and was divided into several petty principalities : Wei (T'obaTkriars; Capital Lohyaug), Hsia (Hsiuugnus), Northern Yin (Eastern Tartars), Weetem Liang and Tein (Tangut Princes). Wati held sway only over the Southern part of the Bmpire, and had his Capital at Nanking, in Kiangsu. He reigned but 8 years, and left the throne to his soon SlMOil >> ^ (A. D. 423), who was deposec^ and murdered after a nign of one year. WteAl (A.D. 424*458) succeeded him, and struggled against the Toha Tar- tars of Weiy for the conquest of Honan. W^nti finally recovered this Provinoe, bat was soon after compelled to'relinquish it,- and died murdered by his son, while the latter was murdered in turn by his own brother. The two next Emperors, llkiytt 9! 1|P'(A.D. 465-478) and T«'Mir«^a Waaiir ^ ft 3E (A. D. 478), were cruel and bloodthirsty, while the two last, being adopted children, held but nominal sway over the oountry. The dynasty thus ended miserably, after a series of unwonted crimes. It lasted 59 years, and had 8 sovereigns.

0. Tke Three sliortllTed dynasiles : the a<nuhem ivi H

(A.D. 479-502), Liaof 9^ ( A. D. 502-557) and Ch'te K (AD. 557-500). — During the whole of this period, as under the previous Sung dynasty, there was m doal BMpIre In CXrfoA. The Southern Empire or Nanch^ao HI tfl had three short dynas- ties, while the Northern or Pehch^ao it ff ruled through the three houses of Wei Hi Chow H, and the Northern Ts*i Dl|. A struggle for supremacy constantly existed between these houses, and the balance of success finally declared itself in favour of Wei. We shall deal here only with the 8 Southern dynasties :

The TS^I 9f dynmily (A.D. 479-502) was founded by Siao Taoeh'Sng jR jK JRt A famous General who rose to prominence by his wars with the Wei Kingdom, and finally usurped the Imperial power. On ascending the throne, he took the dynastic title of Kaott |S # (A.D. -179-488), and maintained the capital at Nanking^ He was a wise, upright and frugal prince, but reigned only 4 years. He was followed by 6 other short-lived rulers, the last of whom was Hotl fD ff^ (A.D. 501-602). This prince, aged but sixteen, was cast into prison and strangled by Siaoyen JH ff , another usurper, who set up a dynasty called the Liang.

CHAPTER Til. aiBB AMD PROORBSS OP THB rCHlNBSE BHPIRB. 455

Thm lilaoK K dynasty (A.D. 502-557). -^This dynasty was established by SiaoySn ■ ff , who took the dynastic title of WuU ft ^ (A.D. 502-550). His ambition was to conqaer the Kingdom of Wei, but be was defeated at Siangyang |K m, in Hupeh. In another campaign, he was more successful. Wei however soon after recovered its strength. Wuti, at the end of his reign, became a fervent Buddhist, and abandoning his palace, entered a Buddhist monastery. The affairs of the State being neglected, a rebellion soon broke out, and resulted in the downfall of the dynasty.

The Clft*6n W dynasty (A. D. 557-590) was founded by Ch'Sn Paaien ffl m 5bi ^^^ ^' ^^^ Generals of the former dynasty, who compelled Kingti Qc ffP*, the last ruler of the Liang dynasty, to abdicate in his favour. He took the dynastic title of Wuti jft #■ (A. D. 557-560), and reigned three years. A new Kingdom, that of fH^^r JQ, arose at this time in the North. It soon absorbed Wei^ and became the rival of Ch*^n. At last, Yan^klen IB iS) ft distinguished General, usurped the supreme power, and marched upon Nanking at the head of 500,000 men. Having taken the city, he led the last Emperor of the Ch'6n dynasty, Heiicha ft ^, captive to Shen- si (A« D. 590). The ruler of Chow then established a new dynasty, known as that of

SuiUf-

\

7. The Snl PR dynasty (A. D. 590-620). — Tangkien iB j£, on ascend- ing the throne, took the title of Wdnli 3$t ^ (A.D. 590-605). He was a wise and able prince, and had a magnificent court at Ch'angngan A $• He reigned but 15 years, and was succeeded by his second son Tatigiit who reached the throne through par- ricide, and through the murder of his elder brother.

Tan^ fli V (A. D. 605-618) was an intelligent ruler, bnt a man of violent temper, who also g^ve himself up to extravagance and debauchery, and squandered immense sums in his palaces and pleasure-grounds at Yangchow ^ ^ . He trans- ferred hia capital from Oh*angngan to Lohyang^ in Honan, and extended a system of canals from the Hwan^-ho to the Yangtze-kiang. He ordered also several works to be collected, and instituted the literarydegree ofTfocfor. He engaged in several expedi- tions against Korea (A.D. 612;6]4), and made th© country. pay tribute to China (A. D. 6l^). At the close of his reign, Liyiien ^ ^, one of his Generals, leagued with tHie KHtaft Tunguses, and soon became the virtual ruler of the Empire. Yangti fled to Yangchow jft ^, in Kiangsu l*rovince, where he was shortly afterwards assas- sinated. His son and grandson were also both murdered. LiyUen was thus the undisputed master, and established a new dynasty known as the T*ang J|p.

y. Tht MedUeval Dgnasties.

(A.D. 620-1368).

This period comprises 8 djniasties : the 'Fanff IS {G20-907), the Poaterior lianff or Heu Utmg ^ 9^ (907-923), the Pnrterior T'an^ or Hen r*ang ft ff (92a-936), the FMlerlor Tito or Heu Tsln ^ V (936-947), the Fofllerior Han or Hea Han ft 8t (947-951), the PUMterlor Chow or Heu Oliow ft j^ (951-960), the Sni^ SK (960-1280), and the TAen yt (1280-1368) dynasties. Of these S dynasties, 8 have been illustrious : the first and the two last. The 5 others were but of short duration, and are known by the name of the Fhre Dynasties (Wut*ai 3£ fC) or Ten ^^o^ (907-960).

456 SKTIOM ▼. MLITIGAL AMD ICOMOMJG AlOOaAfflT.

]• The T^mmU iff dysasljr (A.D. 620-907). — Under this dynasty, an en of unity, peace and'prosperity opened for China, with the result that literature, agriculture and trade were especially developed. In the year 029, the Empire was divided into 10 Too M or ProvinceB, and later on into 15.

Wmmtmn X jft (AD. 020-087).'— JLty^lm ^^M, the founder of the T<ang dynasty, hut better known hy the Imperial title of JToo/fii, established his capital at Ch^angngan (Singan Puj^Jp, Shensl He pacified the warring factions and encouraged leaning, while his second son, Li Shimin ^ ft St led the army to battle, and was suooessfnl in all his campaigns. This excited the jealousy of his brothers, especially of the eldest, who conspired against him, and were subsequently killed by Shimin. Later on, Kao- tsu abdicated (surviving still 9 years) in favour of Shimin, who succeeded him on the throne under the dynastic title of Taitaung,

TnHitTj: ik aR (A.D. 027-050). «- Despite his fratricide and the forced abdica- tion of his father, T'aitsung proved an able and far-sighted ruler, and deserved at the hands of annalists the name of Oreat. His military courage was tempered by compas- sion and gentleness. He restored peace and national unity, raised a standing army, and crushed the power of the Turcomans, but failed in his expeditions against Tibet and Korea. Embassies came from foreign countries and kingdoms to pay him tribute. He favoured literature, and was an ardent admirer of Confucius, of whom he said : "Confucius is for the Chinese what the water is for the fish." It was during his reign that ihe_N^9toaaJU soUled in Chijia, and the Mahomsdaau jenteved the wuutfy. T*ai- tsung died in A.D. 050, after a reign of 23 years, and left the throne to his ninth son, Kaot$ung,

lf«<twing X m (A. D. 050-084) engaged in several wars. A campaign against the Tibetans proved at first unsuccessful, but finally resulted in expelling them from the Empire. Korea was subdued, and divided into 5 provinces, over which Chinese officials were appointed. He took one of the widows of his father for bis consort, the famous Dowager Tfu R, who later on will ruin the State, and tarnish the ftdr name of the dynasty. This ambitious and unprincipled woman had the Empress dq>osed on a false accusation, and displayed the most barbarous cruelty towards all those she considered her enemies. Kaotsung died in 084, and left the throne to his son Chungisung 1(1 m, but the Dowager Wu confined him to prison, and ruled the country for 21 years.

Tte Dvwaser BBHUg— W» Hea R Jg (A. D. 084-705). — On the death of Kaotsung, the Dowager Wu usurped the sovereign authority, clad herself in the Imperial robes, offered the annual sacrifices to heaven, and erected a temple to her ancestors. She banished or killed the principal Princes of the House of T'ang. During her government, the Tibetans and K^itans were vanquis)ied. She was at last deposed, and ChssngUmmg ^ 41 (A. D. 705-710), the rightful heir, proclaimed Emperor, but he did not reign long, and perished poisoned by his wife. Several weak and unimpor- tant Emperors succeeded him on the throne, and the dynasty gradually declined.

During the reign of Saf— g Ht IK (A.D. 750-708), the struggle between N. and S. began anew, while a Hsinngnn invasion compelled Taitmmsg ft m (A. D. 703-780) to abandon his capital at Ch'angngan. 'WoUmhi^ ft 9)( (A. D. 8il-^7) persecuted Buddhism. At the close of the dynasty, several rebellions broke out, headed by ambitious Governors and Generals. Hmmsg |B jj^ (A. D. 800-874) had no palace, and all the great towns of Central China were in mins. Ghno Sttenli ft 1L It (A. D. 905-007), the last of the T'angs, abdicated and was soon after assassinated. The dynasty thus collapsed. It lasted for 287 years, and 20 Emperors sat on the throne.

CHAPTSft Til. BI8B AMD PROOAB88 OF THB CHINB8I BMFIRB. 457

Like the Han, the T'an^ dynasty is one of the most iUustrions of China. It asBored union and peace^ while agricultore and trade were wonderfully developed. Literature wot patrontMedf ^hA the most celebrated poets of China flonrished. The Western boundaries of the Empire were extended, and Korea became a Province governed by Chinese officials. Embassies were received from different States. Maho- medaniwn was introduced, and the famous Nettorian tablet erected at Ch^angngan (Singan Fu), by Imperial sanction A. D. 781.

At this period, the people of the South were incorporated with the Empire, and to mark the event, style themselves Tangjinjfl \ or menofT^ang.

9. Tlie FiTe OynaBtleS or Wntal 2 fC (Five Generations. A.D. 907-960). — After the T'ang came five ephemeral dynasties, called also the Ten States or Shihkwoh'f' H|. In 53 years, ihey had all disappeared, and the longest of them lasted only 16 years. These dynasties are the following :

The Fo^^lerlor Umw^ or Hea liai^ ft 9^ (A.D. 907-923) was established by ChuwSn it X, who took the Imperial title of T*aiUm ik M- He established his capital at Lohyang, in Hocan. The dynasty was overthrown by Li Ts^untsui ^D^JR*

Tlie PUMterior T*ang or Hen 'Fan^ ft fg (A.D. 923-936). — Li Ts'untsui on founding this dynasty, adopted the title of Ch^att^mtamg S ^. He was a great soldier, and gained several victories over the K*itans. During the reign of his successor, BlinSiaiinir 91 4^ (A.D. 926-934), it is said that|A^ art of printing fromwooden blocks

The mfllerlor Tsln or Hea Tain ft V (A.D. 936-947) was founded by Shih Kingt*ang ^ {ft ^) one of the Generals of the preceding dynasty. He formed an alliance with the K*it«ns, and reigned nnder their patronage.

The Aifller&or Han or Hen Has ft It (A.D. 947-951 >. — Established by Liu ChiyOen SI ^ X, it lasted but 4 years, and was suppressed by Kwohwei ft M) a General successful in his expedition against the K'itans.

The Aifllerter Chow or Hen Chow ft M (A.D. 961-960) was founded by Kwohwei. During his brief reign, confusion and trouble prevailed throughout the Empire. Finally, Chao Kw'angyin S B ill overcame all his rivals, and established a new dynasty, that of Sung 5{$.

Here ends this long period of disunion and weakness^ which began at the time of the Three Kingdoms A. D. 214, and lasted for about 750 years.

S. Tbe Snng $H dysasiy (A.D. 9601280), divided into the NoHhern or Peh-Sung :|; S{?, and the Southern or Nan-Sung M i^. The Northern Sung ruled from A.D. 960-1127 ; and the Southern, from A.D. 1 127-12^0.

The Noithern Sumg or Peh-Sung ^ ^ (A.D. 9601127). — The Sung dynasty was founded by Chao Kw*angyin S B JKt ^^o assumed the dynastic title of T*altoa jt ML (A.D. 960-976). He established his capital at K'aifung Fu Rj #t Jtf, in Honan. He was a resolute warrior, but of a oompikSsionate and kind disposition. His great aim was the consolidation of the Empire, but he had to struggle against sevc^ral rival Princes, and the R'itans, who were then established in the Liaotung B JR peninsula. He institnted a lioard of Punishments, and thereby curtailed much the power of the Provincial Governors. He left the throne to his brother Taitsung.

T'aiioun^ ik fj^ fA.D. 976-996) waged an unsuccessful war against the KHtans. During his reign, a rebellion was quelled in Szechw'an. He bestowed posthumous

458 8BCT10N y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIG MO&RAFHT.

honours on the descendants of Confucius, and exempted them from taxation. UMmff K ^ (A J). 998-1023), his successor, had nothing remarkable in his career.

JteUnuiS (^ 0^ (AJD. 10123-1064) patronized literature and education, and opened schools throughout the Empire. Some of China's greatest historians flourished in this reign, the most famous being 8gema Kwang ^ JK A (A JD. 1019-1086). At this time, the Tangut Kingdom of Hsia, in Kansu, rose to prominence, and threatened to en- croach on the Chinese territory. Peace was however secured, by China paying an annual tribute of gold, silver and silk. J6ntsuug was succeeded by X^a^lUnB^ K Hk (A.D. 10^-1068), who reigned but 4 years.

At this time, the Empire was divided in 26 Ltu ff or Circuitif a division adopted to facilitate the administration of the country. { Tlgflirtaum: jM> Us (A.D. 1068-1086).~I>uring this reign, a social reformer named

! Wang Nganshih £ ft :{i (AJ>. 1021-1086) attcAnpted to change the method$ of taxation and the tenure of land. According to him **the poor should not be taxed, and the Government should take all commerce, industry and agriculture, into its hands, and thus protect the poor against the rich." The Emperor favoured the new system of economy. The scheme however met with violent opposition, and finally impoverished and ruined the State.

In AJD. 1125, the Kin ^ Tartar$, better known under the name of the ^Qoldm Horde^'* defeated the E4tans, and founded a new kingdom ( A.D.1125),with Liaojrang S M at first, and then Peking 4b S( m capital. The rising power immediately advanced against the Sungs. At the approach of the army, HweiiMUiS ft Hi abandoned K'aif ung Fu, and fled to Nanking. His son capitulated, agreed to pay a large indemnity, and ceded Shansi and Chihli to the conquerors. Nothing however was paid, and a new invasion took place, in which the Emperor was carried off into captivity. All the Northern Provinces fell under the sway of the Kins, and thus closed the period of the Northern Sung (A.D. 1127). A long struggle, principally centred in Honan, now began between North and South for the maateiship of the Empire.

The SouUieni Sun^ or Nan Sung JH ^ (A.D. 1127-1280). During this period, the Chinese Empire was limited to the Provinces S. of the Tangtze.

Kaoteranc IS ^ (A.D. 1127-1168), brother of Hweitsnng, the captive Emperor, established a new capital at Nanking JH Sf, hence the dynasty was henceforth known as the Southern Sung. He was a weak and pusillanimous monarch, refused to cross the river and fight the Kins, but called in the Mongols against them. A struggle ensued. Mongols and Kins fought desperately, till in A.D. 1284, the Kina were finally eubduedt and their djmasty overthrown.

UUNmir 9 ni (A. D. 1225-1265), the Y^ Emperor of the Southern Sung, seeing his enemies defeated, determined to occupy the old capital of the dynasty at K^aifung Fu. The Mongols protested, and ordered him to retire. He refused, and war broke out. The conflict was carried on with much energy, and several cities were taken, among them Siangyang iR R| and Hanyang 8t Nl» in Hupeh;and SoochowWt^t in Kiang- Bu. Hereupon, the Court withdrew to Hangchow fK Mi in Chftkiang. This city was also soon afterwards taken, and the young Emperor, KungH H^ ffP*, carried away prisoner to Peking (A.D. 1276). The Emperor's brother fled to Foochow, in Fokien, and after to Kwangtung, where he died of exhaustion. Pingti ^ ffP* was now placed on the throne. The Mongols pursued him, and defeated him to the West of Macao, where on seeing himself abandoned, he sprang into the sea and perished. Thus ended the Sung dynasty. It lasted 320 years, and had 18 monarchs.

GHAPTI^a Til. RJ8B AND PftOaaSBS OF THB GHINBtB BMPIEB. 459

is another of the great dyna$U^ of China. Daring its sway of power, the Empire was consolidated, the authority of the Oovemors restricted, and peace developed. Literature and the arts were cultivated, and many eminent writers flooriihed. Its philosophical tendency was rather materialistic, and its economic scheme a failure. It lacked the military prowess and energy necessary to hold back the Tartars and Mongols, while its alliance with the latter proved fatal, and sealed the doom of the dynasty, which fell glorioasly fighting to the last.

4. Tke TiieB it ^jnmmij (A. D. 1280-1368). - The Mongols were summoned to assist the Sung djmasty against the Kin$. When these latter had been defeated, the Mongols gradually conquered the whole of China, despite the heroic resistance of the last supporters of the Sungs. Kublai Khan or Sitehen^ after subduing China, established the Yiien X dynasty, took the title of Shitsu ft JH, and fixed his eapiUU at Kambalu (city of the Khan) or Peking. His court was magnificent, and he divided the country into 10 Shing f or Province:

Skllsa "B: JH (A.D. 1280-1295), on ascending the throne, assumed a conciliatory attitude towards the Chinese, adopted their customs, and patronized their literature. Id regard to religion, except to Taoism, he exhibited the widest toleration. In his reign, trade and industry developed. He reeons^'r^^ <fc^ Ttnfu»t^ni n»m»ni («^ p ^^y and extendeditto T^ienttin^ in order to carry tribute to the Capital and supply the Imperial granaries. His expedition against Japan was a failure, though he was a little moro successful against Cambodia and Burma. It was at this time that Marco Poloj the great Venitian traveller, visited China (A. D. 1271), and resided there for 17 years. Kublai died in 1295, and was succeeded by his grandson Temur, who took the dynastic title of Ch*ingt$ung.

Obf^t^imwag Jit ^ (A. C. 129&-1308). — During this reign^oodBjtnd.faiiiine. deaolated the country, and rendered the people discontented, and inclined to rebellion and brigandage.

Under the Emperor JOiKiiBg fl ^ (A. C. 1312-1321), the Hanlin Academy was rostored, and the highest offices conferred on the best scholars of the Empire. He ignored however the rites, and sent a eunuch to sacrifice to Confucius.

Daring the latter period of the Tiien dynasty, rebellions wero frequent, and secret societies numerous, among them that of the White Lily or Pehlien Kiao dj^tk* Pirates ravaged the Southern coasts. nJniYAftn^l^tf^^ ^^ ^^^l^^^y>,^f*\^i^9^ became notorious. A native of Nganhwei, he was at first a Buddhist monk^ but throw off the oowl to roscue the coantry from the Mongols.

SkMia M # (A.D. 1338-1368) was the last of the Tiien Emperors. He was a weak monaroh, and gave himself up to pleasuro and debauchery. He taxed heavily the people, and this increased the general discontent. During the latter part of his reign, Cbu Yiienchang seized Nanking (A.D. 1356), and was soon everywhere victorious. Peking was afterwards taken^ and the Mongols driven beyond the Great WaU. The Yiien dynasty thus came to an end, and the popular ex-monk set up a new dynasty, known as the Ming.

The Monsol* were hospitable to foreigners, but never popular urith the Chinese^ who considered them as barbarians. Some good will was at first displayed, but preju- dice, and a spirit of veiled rebellion rankled throughout the country. Unsuccessful expeditions, heavy taxation, official extortion and misgovernment, increased the latent discontent, and finally caused the downfall of the dynasty. In the last straggle, they

460 8Bcnaif ▼. mlitical and tcaNomc esoeBAMT.

displayed little murtial vigour. The TUens were devout Buddhists. The dyoMty Usted 88 yeftrg, and reckoned 10 sovereigns.

y. The Modem DgnoMiies. ( A.D. 1906 to the preMot timec).

Two dynasties are found in this last period : one Chime$e, called the IHbC 91 (A.D. 136R-1GU); the other of Manehu origin^ and known as the IV'fal^ j/f.

1. The Mlns m dynasty (AJ>. lS88-164i') was founded hy Cku r««Jt. cAaft^.hetter known under his style of reign as Hmi^wn |K JK (AJ>. 1388-1999). He

established ^ankinjf his principal, and K*aifnng Fu his secondary eofital. He was an able general and a wise ruler, and throughout his reign, displayed prudenoe, economy and moderation. He encouraged literature and education, opened schools and lihrariea in the cities and large towns, and eodifisd the law9, Mongol raids in the North were suppressed, and at the close of his reign, peace was established throughout the whole Empire. He appointed his grandson Kienwin to suooeed him.

KiesivriBi M % (A. D. 13901403) was 16 years of age when he awsended the throne. His uncle, the Prince of Yin (Y6n Wang [B 3E), rebelled against him, and proclaimed himself Bmperor, under the title of Yunglok, Klenwto iled to SsechwHm, and entering a Buddhist monastery, led a secluded life there tor forty years.

YiMSloli j|t M (A. D. 1408-1425). — During this reign, Tongking was anneaied Of a Chinete Province, but became tribute-bearing again under the next SmpeitM- (A J>. 1426). In the year 1416, he resolved to transport the capital to Peking, but the final transfer was not effected till 1421. Tungloh encouraged literature, and ordered the best scholars to compile a vast encyclopedia (^gli Tikts*Uen t£ 9 jfc £) of 23,000 volumes. His 2 successors ruled but 11 yeara. ^— -^_— — ^

Cliteri*n«ff £ It (A. D. 1436-1450). - During this reign the eouH eunmchB completely controlled the Imperial will. The Mongols invaded the Empire and defeated the Chinese army. The Bmperor was taken prisoner, but allowed afterwards to return. His brother Kfais«'nl fl^ t# (A.D. 1450-1458) was now pUced on the throne, but happening to die soon after, Cli^i84*ang still ruled for another 8 3rears. Daring the reign of Oh<4B^wa M it (A. D. 1165-1488), territorial grants were made to the members of the reigning family, who contributed to its elevation. This discontented much the people, and finally led to the downfall of the dynasty. Important public works were also completed. The canal between Peking and the Peh-ho was deepened. and the Great Wall repaired (A.D.'II70).^Hami, an important trading centre, was captured from the Tartars (A.D. 1477). Ch*Snghwa was succeeded by his son ■■i^elil 5K Hi (A.D. 1488-1.M)6\ who put down an insurrection in Hainan.

Ohte^teli £ tl (A.D. 1506-1522). — In this reign the PoHuguete reached Canton (A. D. 1516). Acts of piracy having been committed, they were afterwards massacred in large numbers at Ningpo (A.D. 1545). Those who escaped, fled to Ts'iienchow A M in Fokien, and subsequently to Macao, where they w^re allowed to Rettle (A.D. 1557), on payment of an annual rental of 500 Taels.

Klatflinff X Iff (A. D. 15.'2.1567) anoended the throne at the age of 14, and was rather a poet than a competent administrator. His reign was tronbled by the repeated incurnionn of thr Mongoh in the N., and of the Japanese on the coast. Those latter captured Ninfirpo, Hangi^bow, Sungkiaug, Soochow and Shanghai (A.D. 1554). From this date, the dynasty began to decline.

GHArna tik rise and proarksb ob mi chinbsb bmpirk. 461

WaalUi X ■ (A.D. 1578ie20) ascended the throne at the age of 6 yearo, and was the only great Emperor at the close of the dynasty. During his reign, the Japanese invaded Korea^ and were allowed to settle at Fasan (Fushan H UJ). Intercourse was opened with the Spanmrds^ and the first Jesuit^ Wiutum/iritftt entgred China^ Valignani and Ruggien fn TS7(^ ahd'Kteet in 1588 {see p. 355).

In 1618, the Manchus under Nurhach^ih (9} |E fl^ #)* invaded Liaotung S( J|[, defeated the Chinese army and captured Liaoyang. In 1625, the conquerors established their eopt/a^ a^ Mukden^ and in 16*29 advanced against China, but failed to capture Peking. The danger was but temporarily averted.

Cli'anffobdii^ jH M (A.D. 1628-16i4) was the last Emperor of the Bling djmasty. During his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides. Among them, the most fatal was that led by Li TseeWing if! j^ JK, who after devastating Shensi and Ho- nan, attacked and took Peking (A.D. 1644), and was for a short time the virtual master of China. The Emperor, seeing that all was lost, ended his days by committing suicide. The Chinese General, Wu Sankwei ft H tt* summoned the Manchus against the usurper. These acquiesced promptly, entered Peking in triumph, and suppressed the rebellion. They then refused to leave, and set up a new dynasty, called the TsHng fff, of which Shunehi M jtf was the first Emperor. Thus ended the Ming dynasty, . amidst rebellion and bloodshed, and China wa? for the second time ruled by the I Northern Tartars.

The Ming dynasty encouraged literature and codified the laws of the state. The territorial granting of land to scions of the reigning house was a mistake, discontented the people, and revived the feudal system. The tyrannical power of the eunuchs, the unsuccessful wars waged with Japan, the extravagance and improvidence of the last Emperors, and the growing discontent of the people, caused the downfall of the dynasty.

Under the Mings, the Empire was divided into 15 ShSng ^ or Provinces. In the folloufing dynasty^ this number vrhB extended to 18. Three of the old Provinces were divided into 2, Shensi constituting the new Provinces of Shensi and Kansu Kiangnan, the Provinces of Kiangsu and Nganhwei ; and Hukwang, those of Hunan and Hupeh.

S. The TAto^llIK iC fH dysmity (A.D. I644 to the present day). ~ The Manchus on reaching the throne spared no efforts to conciliate the Chinese, and only imposed upon them to shave their heads in recognition of Tartar authority. This is the origin of the queue or plait, which is worn down to the present day.

fSBwchi M ftl (164M6U2) was the first Emperor of the Manchn dynasty. Wu Sankwei ft H 41, who called in the Manchus, received the title of "P'ingsi Wang" Y Bf X, or Prince Pacifier of the West, and was requested to continue in the service of the new dynasty. Numerous uprisings took place in the N., but were soon suppressed. At Nanking, an attempt was made to maintain the Mings. Chu Yiusung He fb Hkt grandson of Wanli, was proclaimed Emperor, but the choice was unfortanate, and he lacked wisdom and energy. The Manchus took Yangchow H M, in Kiangsu, and put to death 8hih K^ofah jfc IT tt* the defender of the place. They then advanced on .Nanking. The Emperor fled to Wuhu, and was treacherously drowned in the Yangtze. Nanking was taken, and henceforth called Kiangning Fu itHi fff^ (Peace restored to Kiangsu). Sooohow,Hangohow,Ningpoand Canton were subsequently subdued, and peace estab- lished in the South. A great part of this reign was occupied by these wars. A pirate chief

i62 ticndif ▼. political amo bcomoiiic MoaiAnr.

devoted to the cause of the Mings, and called Koxinga (Kwohnngy^ M MiM), harassed the coast of Fokien and entered the Yangtze, bat failed to take Nanking. Another rebellion was suppressed in Szeohw'an. Shunehi died in 1668, at the age of SB, and appointed his third son K^anghti to be his saocessor.

K*aiisiwf tk K (1662-1728) ascended the throne at the age of 8 yean. Daring his minority, a regency administered the State, and showed great hoatUity to the Catholic religion. In 1667, having come of age, he assumed control of the Government, and allowed ihs Mititmariet to return to their ehurelu$y and minister to their converts. Daring his reign, eunuchi were forbidden to hold official positions in the State, while the Chinete were given equal repretentiUion with Manchus in all officiai afqpolDtiiients. Two embassies came to Peking, one from Bussta, and the other from Holland. In 1674, Wu Sankwei, the then Governor of Kwangtung and Yttnnan, raised the standard (rf revolt against the dynasty. Ssechw'an, Fokien, Kiangsi and Hunan soon rallied to the cause of Wu, but he died in 1678, and thus brought the rebellion to a olooe. KHmghsi went to Mukden to thank his ancestor^- for the delivery of the dynasty. In 1683, Formo9a, held by Coxinga, was 9ubdued^ and annexed to the Empire. In 16^, the trea/ty of Nerehimk was signed with Russia, while in 1696, the BletUhM, a Kalmnoh tribe of ni, were defeated. In 1790, Russia sent a second embassy to Peking, but little good oame of it.

K*anghn firmly established the Manchu dynasty in China. To prevent revolts, Manehu garriuma were ttoHoned in the principal cities of the Empire, and it was enacted that no official could hold office in his native Province, or govern for more than 8 years. K'anghsi was a wise, courgeous, and magnanimous ruler, and a grsat patron of literature. During his reign, a standard dictionary, known 9MjK^wnghm?9 dieHanam. was compiled by a commission of scholars. A laige encyclop«dia of 5,000 volames was also published, while he himself wrote the 16 famous moral fiuummt, afterwards annotated by his son Yungohftng, and oaUed the Sacred Bdiot. K'anghsi died In 172S. He reigned 61 years, and appointed his fourth son TungchSng as his snooessor.

Tonrciiii^ M X (1723-1796) was 44 years of age when he ascended the throne. He buniahed the Jesuits to Macao, except a few kept in his service as astrono- mers. Over 300 ch urches were destroyed, and 900,000 christians left without their pastors. In 1727, Russia opened a school at Peking for the study of Chinese, and the Portoguese sent an embassy to the court. While a rebellion broke out in Mongolia, the Bmperor suddenly died. TungchSng had but a short reign of 13 years. He loved literature, cared little for military glory, persecuted religion, and was a bitter hattnr nf ffimlffntn

K'lenlung: IS tt (17961796) succeeded his father at the age of 25. During his reign, a rebellion was suppressed in Kwangsi and Honan, as well as an uprising which broke out in Mongolia. In 1768, he compelled Burma to pay a triennial tribute. In 1775, he reduced the Miaoige tribes of Szechw'an, put to death their leaders, and banished others to Hi. In 1790, war was declared against the Chirkhas of Nepanl, whor bad invaded Tibet. In 1798, Lord Macartney*s emhasay reached China. The ambassador was received and treated as a trihute-hearer. He saw the Bmperor twice at Jehol, and obtained to trade at Canton, but subject to official caprice and exactions. K'ienlung made frequent journeys to ascertain the state of the countij. _He ^ftigT*^ 60 years. Finding it un filial to surpass his grandfather K*anghsi^ he iMioated in 1796, but lived tiU 1799.

K*ienlung was a ruler of far-seeing policy, and enjoyed a long and glorious reign. He had a lust for conquest, and wanted peace on the frontiers, hence his wars. like

'■m

CHAPm Til. RI8B AMD PE0MB8S OF Tm CHIiq|pi IMPIRB. 463

his father, he feared the influence of the Jesuit Missionaries, and being surrounded by hostile advisers, he put restrictions on their work. In 1746, a terrible persecution broke out, and lasted to the dose of his reign.

Klakin^ S ft (1796-1821) saw the commencement of his i«ign troubled by ' the rebellion of the White Lily Society^ or Pehlien Kiao 6 X ft- Caused by official exaction and discontent, ifc extended to Hupeh, Honan, Shensi, Kansu and Szechw'an, and was finally put down at the cost of an immense number of lives, and a large sum of money. The Emperor's life was frequently imperilled. Pirates infested the coast of Kwangtung, Fokien and Ch^kiang, and the Portuguese were requested to check their depredations. In 1805, a RuMian emhcusy refused to perform the k^owVow Vp M (ceremony of prostration and knocking the forehead on the ground), and was turned back at the frontier. In the same year, the propagation of the christian reUgion^ either by word or writing, was anew prohibited. It was also forbidden to enter the church, or read any books on the foreign religion. Furthermore in 1814, all missionaries, both foreign and Chinese, were to be killed, and converts who refused to recant, wei« condemned to exile. In 1816, Lord Amherat's embassy reached Peking. The Vowt^ow was required and refused, as it marked vassalage and subjection. The ambassador was treated with the utmost incivility, and dismissed without an interview.

KiakHng was a weak and voluptuous monarch, who delighted in actors and ' theatrical amusements. During his reign, the dynasty declined much, and insurrec- tions and disorder abounded. He ignored the status and power of foreign countries, and assumed China's universal sovereignty as an undisputed fact, to which all nations should bow. Kiak*ing reigned 35 years, and died at Jehol at the age of 61.

Tnokwan^ Ht % (1821>I850) began his reign by dismissing the court actors of his father. Many local insurrections and disasters took place, among which was the first war with Oreat Britain (1840-1843]. It was caused by the contempt with which tbO euibasslm uf Lurds Macartney and Amherst were treated, the assumption of China's universal sovereignty, the refusal to treat foreign nations on terms of equality, and grant liberty of commerce, while the confiscation and destruction of the opium (20,282 chests), were the last straw which broke British patience. It resulted in China being worsted, and 5 ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) opened to foreign trade. The Treaty of Nanking stipulated besides, the cession of Hongkong to Great Britain, and the pasrment of an indemnity of $ 21 ,000,000 (12 for the war, 8 for debts due, and 6 for the opium destroyed). IXkllSMx^Praneeand the United States signed also treaUes with China. The Catholic religion began to be tolerated, and churches could be built in the 5 open ports. After the Treaty of Nanking, various attempts were made to evade obligations, but they proved unsuccessful. In 1849, the Ngaofei % g rebellion broke out, and merged subsequently into the T'aip'ing rebellion. In 1850, "tfieTelldw river abandoned its Southern course, and flowed henceforth into the Oulf

Chihli.

■^ jfaokwang was a more energetic and just ruler than his predecessor. He w<u opposed to the opium trade morally, and especially commercially, as it drained the oountiy of silver, but as much cannot he said of his Ministers, who failed to carry out his purpose. Had the opium incident not existed, war would have taken place on the principle of universal sovereignty, diplomatic equality, and liberty of commerce, upon each of which China was unyielding. Taokwang hated foreigners, and styled them "outer barbarians" ( Wei-i ^ fQ, to whom China had shown great condescension. He reigned 80 years, and left -the throne to his fourth son Hsienfung.

464 •BCnW ▼• POLITICAL AND BGONOMIG ABOaiUPHT.

[ S (1850-1861) ascended the throne at the age of 19. In his reign the TaipHng :k V rebellion broke out, and lasted till lS6i. It originated in K'wangsi^ where its chief, Hung IltUU^Hen fjk ft ^t 9k discontented Hakka peasant, assumed ihvi title of Heavenly King {T^ien Wang ^ J£), and aimed at the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty. He was (or some time an inquirer of the Baptist Mission (Pro- testant) in Canton, read the Bible, and fired with enthusiasm, intended also to destroy idolatry. His followers abandoned the practice of shaving their heads, and hence were called Ch^angmao J| % (long-haired rebels). The rebellion soon extended to the Yangtze valley. Nanking was taken in 1858, made the capital, and held till 18G4. Several other cities fell also into their hands : Hangyang, Wuch'ang, Ngank*ing, Kiu- kiang, Wuhu, Soocbow and Hangchow. In 1854, a column advanced on Peking, but failed to capture it. The Imperial troops offered throughout but weak resistance to the progress of the rebels, and even at times went over to their ranks.

Other important events, which took place in the South, brought on a eeeond war with Cheat Britain (1856-1860). The causes were the continual outrages on British subjects (Canton factories burned), the refusal to open Canton as stipulated in the treaty of Nanking (1843, art. 2), and the seizure of the ** Arrow", a Isroha flying the British flag. Tbe French joined to seek reparation for the murder of a Missionary in Kwangsi. Canton was taken (1857), and tbe Chinese fleet destroyed. The allied Forces then proceeded North, took Taku, and occupied Tienttin. Here a treaty was signed, June 26, 1858, and its ratification postponed for one year. When the Foreign Ministers returned in 1859, they were treacherously fired upon at Taku, The allied fleets returned to Shanghai, and in 1860, left for the North to continue the war. Taku, Tienttin and Peking were taken in turn. The Emperor fled in haste to Jehol, and left Prince Kung^ his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. The war was brought to a dose by the Convention of Peking, signed in the Capital, October 24, 1860. A Minister was henceforth to reside in Peking, Tientsin to be opened, Kowloon^oeded to Great f Britain, and an indemnity of 8 million taels paid to the Allies. France obtained on ' her side important rights for the Catholics : the christian religion was to be tolerated and christian converts protected; missionaries could live in the interior, erect ohurches and open schools, rent and purchase property, while religious establishments confis- cated in former times were to be restored.

In 1861, the Waiwn Pu ^ Jj^ ff, or Chinese Foreign Office {see p. 298), was instituted, with Prince Kung as Piresident. Hsienfung refused to return to Peking, and died at Jehol in 1861, at thVuf;! of 30. He reigned but 11 years, and beheld to his great regret the country further opened to Western nations. He left the throne to his son T^ungchi.

T'un^elil H Hi (1861-1875). — After the death of Hsienfung, the Court re- turned to the Capital. The Princes who favoured the Emperor's dissolute life hoped to govern after his death, as his only son was but a child of 4 years. The mother of this boy was Tg*ehsi |S jH, secondary wife of Hsienfung (to day tbe Empress-Dowager), and i.ot the reigning Empress. Prince Kung V, the late Emperor's brother, oame to an srrangement with the two Empresses-Dowager, and by a coup-d'Stai, arrested and put to death Prince Tsai, and tbe other leaders of the anti-foreign policy. Kung and the Empresses-Dowager, especially Tt^^diksi, formed a regency and ruled henceforih the Empire.

The TaipHng jfc ^ rebellion, commenced under the previous reign, continued its ravages throughout the country. Li Hungchang ^B M 4^* *t that time Appointed

CHAPm Til. Rin AND PROMB88 OF THB GBIIfltl BMPIIB. 465

Oovemor of Kiangsn Provinoei engaged 2 AmeriouiB, Ward and Btirgwine^ to organise a force of Foreigners and Manilamen called the "J^oer Victoriout Armyt** to fight the rebels. ^Ward achieved some sncoess, bat was defeated at Ts'ingp'n If JS, and sub- sequently killed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of ChAkiang 9f tC- Li Hungchang had monuments erected to his memory at Ningpo f| it and Sungkiang :£ {£ {see p. 159). Burgevine was dismissed the service for misconduct, and went over to the rebels. Major Gordon^ an Englishman, was then entrusted (1863) with the command of the "Ever Victorious Army". Through his efforts Sooehoto S A was soon recovered^ but the rebel leaders were put to death by order of Li Hungchang, despite a promise to the contrary. Hereupon Gordon resigned (though a gift of 10,000 taels was offered him), and the "Ever Victorious Army" was disbanded. In 1864, Nanking Hi % was retwered by the Imperial troops, and the Heavenly King ended his life by taking poison. The Tai- pHng rebellion wa$ thus tuhdued. It lasted 14 years (1850-1864), extended to 12 Pxt>- I vinces, ruined 600 cities, and reduced the population of Kiangsu and Nganbwei Pro- vinces by 20,000,000.

During the T*aip*ing rebellion, the Shanghai custom house was deserted by the Chinese. The Foreign Consuls took charge of collecting the revenue, and this sytem being extended to the other open ports, gave rise to the Institution known as the Imperial Maritime Customa (tee p. 325). Jf' H.N. Lay was appointed its/tvt IntpeetoT' General (1855), and it depended on the Tsungli YamAn till 1906, when it was trans* ferred to the Board of Bevenue. Prince Kung commissioned Lay to purchase 8 gun- boats for the service of the Government. When they reached Shanghai, under Captain Osborne, Li Hungchang wanted to control them exclusively. To avoid oompll- oations, the British Minister sent the vessels back. Captain Osborne was indemnified, and Lay dismissed by the Chinese Government.

In 1861, a Mahomedan rebellion broke out in Kamu, and rapidly extended to ni and Kashgaria. In 1871 * BtiMia, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, occupied Ili, and held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. This Northern rebellion lasted 17 years, and was finally crushed in 1878. In 1872, another Motlem rebellion was quelled in TUnnan {see p. 368).— In 1967, China sent the Burlinghame minion to Western countries, to induce them to believe that she intended to reform, and entertain kindlier feelings towards Foreigners. Mean'while anti-foreign riots broke out at Yangohow |§ M (1868) in Kiangsu, and displayed the hoUowness and insincerity of the mission.

The T*ient9in ^ ||t massa^sre, which occurred June 21, 1870, confirmed the worst apprehensions. It was caused by anonymoue pamphleie, scattered broadcast by the anti-foreign party in Peking, against the catholic religion, and by Hories that the aisten of Charity kidnapped children for the purpose of extracting their eyes and hearts, to make telescopic lenses, medicine, and change lead into silver (sic). The pro- verbial credulity of the Chinese took all this for granted, and an attempt was made to examine the premises of the Orphanage. The French Consul refused, perhaps a little too rudely, whereupon an attack was made on the Consulate, the Catholic Cathedral and the Orphanage. Twenty-one Foreignere^ and several native christiane were mtu- sacreii, while the Officials though appealed to, did nothing to quell the mob. The Foreign Ministers demanded punishment. An Imperial Edict, dated June 80, exonerated the Missionaries from all the calumnies above mentioned, and added that everything written in former times against the Catholic Church was henceforth suppressed. After long ' negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 250,000 taels (£ 80,000), as compensation money; an official was sent to Franee to apologise for the crime, and the Prefect and district Magistrate of T*ientain were banished.

80

?

466 SECTION T. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC MOIfrRAPHT.

In 1871, the Chinese Government made a proposed to modify article 13 of the French treaty signed at T'ientsin, 1858, concerning the Catholic religion. The '* Memorandum**, as it was called, is remarkable as exhibiting the final goal towards which the Chinese Government tends in regard to the Catholic Church. Ko Mission- ary Sisters, and no orphanages are wanted. Chinese women most not go to Church. The Foreign Missionaries must not condemn the teaching of Confucius. They cannot purchase property or build thereon without consulting the local Official, who will judge whether and to what extent, it may interfere with the unseen influences (native geomancy or FtingMhui tL 4^) of the locality. They must not protect in an3r^ae the native christians, and must hand to the local Officials the list of all applicants and baptized members of the Church. If these conditions obtain, peace will be secured between converts and non-converts throughout the Empire, for China cherishes both equally. These proposals were rejected, and this holds down to the present day. In the British Treaty signed at Shanghai, September 5, 1902, China obtained from Ghreat Bri- tain a promise to join in an international commission, should China and the Treaty Powers so agree, to investigate the Missionary Question, and if possible, secure the above mentioned and ever desirable peace between converts and non-converts (article 18).

In 1872, the Emperor was married ^ and having assumed the reins of Government and dispensed with the Regency of the Empress-Mother, the Foreign Ministers demanded an audience. It was reluctantly granted, and to show China's real atti- tude towards Foreign powers, took place June 29, 1873, in the HaMfor receiving tribu- I tary nations. . The last years of T'ungchi were filled with trouble, and disorder existed throughout the country. A famine prevailed in Shensi and Kansu, and the Yellow River, "China's sorrow", overflowed its banks. On September 10, 187^» Prince Kung was degraded by the Emperor for using unbecoming language to His Majesty, but on the following day (September 11), another decree appeared from the two Em- presses reinstating him in his former rank and dignity. The young Emperor thought he was independent, but the two ex-Regents reasserted their power. Two months after. His Majesty became seriously ill, and died January 12, 1875, at the early age of 19. He left no issue, and the young Empress foUowed him a few days afterwards to the tomb.

KwanSiA "j/t tf (1875, and still gloriously reigning). ~ On the death of

T*ungchi, a four-year old son of Prince Shun (Shun Wang 0 3£» youngest brother of Hsienfung), was proclaimed Emperor under the title of KwangsA (Brilliant succession). Tsl^ehsi, T'ungchi's mother, was aunt to the new Emperor, and thus by placing her nephew on the throne, she could continue to govern the Empire. Prince Kung was soon after deposed^ and Li Hungchang appointed as chief adviser to the Oovemmcnt.

In 1875, the first year of Kwangsti's reign, M' Margary, of the British Consular Service, was treacherously murdered by Chinese soldiers at Manw3me, inTttnnan. Margary acted as interpreter to the Commission from the Indian Government for opening trade with Ytinnan, to which China gave her consent. For some time, war was imminent, as the official inquiry seemed to be a farce. The matter was however settled on the following terms : China to send an embassy to London to apologize for the crime; an indemnity of 200,000 taels to be paid; frontier trade to be allowed between Burma and Yiinnan; 4 new ports (Ich'ang, Wuhu, Pakhoi, and Wdnchow) to be opened to foreign trade, and guarantees given for the better protection of foreign life in future. — During the years 1877-78, a terrible famine desolated the Provinoes of

CHAPTBR Til. RI8B AND PRO0aBSS OF THB CMIHBSB UPIRB. 467

HonftD, Shand, Shantung and Chihli, and caused the death of 8,000,000 of the population. — In 1881, China concluded with Russia the treaty of S* Petenburgh, and recovered IK, occupied since 1871 {see p. 862). — From 1882-1885, Japanese interference and inroads in Korea compelled China to intervene and protect her vassal. Both sides sent troops to uphold their rights, but finally agreed to withdraw. To avoid complications and maintain peace, neither was to occupy the country permanently, or send troops without notifying the other. This convention lasted till 1894. — At the close of the Korean trouble, a conflict broke out loith France on the Southern frontier. In 1864, France took Annam, and subsequently proceeded to annex Tongking (1884). Both countries had been for centuries vassals of China, and now appealed to her for protection. By the Foumier Convention (May, 1884), China consented to withdraw her troops from Tong- king, and allow France to occupy the town of Langaan. France, in return for this cession of territory, consented to respect China's Southern frontier. The Chinese Qovem- ment delayed however to evacuate Langson, and on the advance of the French troops, repulsed them with great loss. Hereupon war was decla/red. Admiral Courbet captured the arsenal and fleet of Foochow. He afterwards proceeded to Formosa, took Kelung, and blockaded the coast. A treaty of pea.ee was signed June 9, 1885. China agreed to pay an indemnity of 10,000,000 taels, and gave up all claim to Tongking.

Seven! reforms followed the war with France, the principal being the /orma^ion of a powerful fleet. Prince Shun, the Emperor's father, was placed at the head of the Board of Admiralty, and Port Arthur and Weihaiwei were completed as naval bases for the Northern squadron. Captain Lang, of the British navy, was loaned to the Chi- nese Government. In a few years, he organized the Northern squadron, and retired in 1890, leaving all to Admiral Ting, the future hero of Weihaiwei.

In 1887, the Emperor came of age^ and married in 1889 (February 26). At the same time, the Empress Dowager retired from the regency. In March, 1891, tlie Emperor gave his flrst audience to the Foreign Ministers. The interview proved most unsatisfactory, as it took place in the Hall of tribute-bearing nations, and showed that China held obstinately to her fiction of universal sovereignty. — During the same year, riots broke out in the Yangtze Valley. They were caused by the Kolao Hwei (society of old comrades), and the scurrilous writings of Ohou Han, one of the rabid literati of Honan. Several christian churches, residences of European missionaries, hospitals and schools were wrecked at Yangohow, Wuhu, Wusih, Tanyang, Chdn- kiang, Kiangyin, Ich'ang and Kiukiang. The Government claimed it was powerless to punish the real onlprits, but granted monetary compensation for the destruction that had been wrought, and exhorted the Viceroys to protect foreign life and property.

In 1894, war broke out with Japan, the bone of contention, being Korea, and lasted till February, 1895. The causes were, on the side of China : Korea was her vassal and applied for protection. On the Japanese side : V the frequent attacks on her legations in Korea, and the murder of her protegee, Kim Okkiun, killed at Shang- hai, March 28, 1894, at the instigation of China ; 2'' the desire to control the govern- ment of Korea; 8* to avoid a civil revolution threatening at home, through the restless activity of the military class. To these reasons must be added the rising of the Tnng- haks (Tungkiaos Jf, fjc Eastern religionists and conservatives), against the King of Korea, and the reforms of his Government. The King appealed to China, his Suzerain, for protection. Two thousand soldiers were sent to help in restoring order, and Japan warned when they had arrived. Japan dissatisfied with this act, and suspecting the sinoerity of China, dispatched on her side ten thousand men.

468 SECTION ▼.. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eiOeBAPHT.

Negotiations were commenced to withdraw the troops of both countries. Meanwhile the Kowhnng, a British steamer, chartered to convey Chinese troops to Chemulpo, was sunk by the Japanese cruiur Naniwa (July 25). Hereupon wmr was formally declared, China lost the IxUile of PHngyang (September 15), and the naval battle of the Tdlu (September 17)t in which 5 vessels were sunk, and the rest put to flight. Soon afterwards, the Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port Arthur taken (November 21) by the Japanese. Weihmwei^ China's last naval stronghold, was next attacked, and the forts and fleet captured (Febuary 12, 1895). Japan now proposed to advance on Peking, but peace overtures were made, and the war brought to a close by the 8himono»eki treaty, signed April 17, 1F95. The principal clauses of the treaty were : 1* the indepen- dence of Korea ; 2^ the Liaotung peninsula, Formosa and the Pescadores Islands to be ceded to Japan; S* an indemnity of 200,000,000 K*up*ing taels; 4" the opening to foreign trade of Shashi (in Hupeh), Ch*ungk*ing (in Szechw'an), Soochow (in Kiangsu) and Hangchow (in Chftkiang). 'When the day for the ratification of the treaty arrived (November 8, 1895), Busna, Oermany and France protested against the oeeupaHon of South-Bast Manchuria, and compelled Japan to restore it to China, on payment of an additional sum of 80,000,000 taels. In return for their services, Russia obtained from China the right to carry her Siberian railway through North Manchuria to Vladivostock, with branch lines to Mukden and Port Arthur ; France could continue her Tongking railway to Nanning Fn, in Kwangsi, while (Germany obtained special mining and railway privileges in Shantung.

The war with Japan revealed China's weakness, and a period of eneroaehments on the part of the Western Powers set in. Oermany seized Kiaochoto (November 14, 1897)i in reparation for the murder of two Oerman Missionaries. To counteract German influence, and secure an ice-free port in Manchuria, Russia demanded Port Arthur (March 27, 1898), and obtaind it on lease (May 1898), while Weihaiwei was leased to Oreat Britain (July 1, 1898), who could not see Oermany and Russia advancing without protecting her own interests. Kwangchow-wan t^9^f^ (Kwangtung) was also leased to France, April 22, 1898. During the year 1898, the policy of spheres of interest culmin- ating eventually in partition, and the international rivalry for railway concessions and mining, greatly alarmed China, and signs of a national uprising took place in Shan- tung. At the same time, a series of reform edicts were issued by the Emperor (i^orga* nization of the Government, of the army and of education, the right to memorialize the throne directly, numerous useless offices to be suppressed). The Empress Dowager and the Conservatives found these edicts too radical, and determined that they should be frustrated. The plot being matured, Kwangsa was seized, September 22, 1898, and compelled to abdicate on the following day. The Empress Dowager, Tg*ehsi, resumed the regency, abandoned since March 4, 1889. The reformers were arrested, 6 of them put to death, and the recent reform decrees cancelled. Chinese being distrusted, Manchu Officials were put in all important positions. In 1900 (January 24), P*utsun K(Kf son of Prince Twan, and grandson to Taokwang, was chosen Emperor, in succession to KwangsU. This choice met however with violent opposition both from Chinese and Foreigners, and P'utsun was declared to be only heir-apparent to the throne. Subsequently he was degraded (November 90, 1901), and sent back to his father's home. As the reform movement was being crushed out, the uprising started in Shantung since the close of 1898, assumed great importance, under the name of the Boxers (KSkenfei fl B, Boxer rebels, called also Ihwok*tten i( fD fl» Patriotic fists). These fanatics were opposed to the weak policy of the dynasty, and resolved to rid the country of Foreigners. Countenanced by the Throne and several high Officials,

CHAPTRR VII. RI8B AMD PROORBSS OF THB CHINB8B BMPIRB. 469

they began their work in Shantung by attacking the native christians, whom they considered as sold to Foreigners, and hence deserving death. They then passed over to Chihli, destroyed the railway from Paoting Fu to Peking, and finally snrronnded the Capital. The Legations alarmed, summoned extra guards, and on June 5, 1900, were out off from all communication with the outside world, the Boxers having destroyed the telegraph and railway lines to T'ientsin. On June 21, the tiege of the Legations, and of the Peht^ang or Catholic Cathedral, was commenced. Boxers and Imperial troops poured in shot and shell, during 2 months, upon the beleagured Foreigners and thousands of christians, but failed to annihi- late them. TTie Chancellor of tJie Japanese Legation, and the Oerman Ambassador were murdered in broad daylight, and a secret edict was issued by the Empress Dowager ordering the extermination of all Foreigners. A relief expedition, under the conduct of Admiral Seymour, ot the British fleet, attempted to reach Teking,hni failed through fierce and constant attacks from the Boxers. In the meantime, Taku and Tientsin were taken by the allied army of the Treaty Powers, and an advance made to deliver Peking. The Legations were relieved August 14, and the Capital occupied by the allied Powers of Great Britain, the United States, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy and Japan. The Court had fled to Singan Fu, in Shensi, and remained there till peace was established. The Boxers subdued in Peking, continued their anti-foreign crusade in Shansi, where 45 Missionaries, Catholic and Protestant, were killed by order of the Governor Yii Hsien, and their churches, schools and hospitals destroyed. In Manchuria also a great persecution broke out, and several Foreign Missionaries, and hundreds of converts fell victims to the hatred of their enemies. Including both Catholics and Protestants, over 800 Missionaries were put to death, and the Christian converts, who were massacred, numbered several thousands.

On the part of China, a great political blunder had been committed, and the Powers were compelled to exact full satisfaction for such a crime. Negotiations were opened with Prince K'ing and Li Hungchang, representing China, and the Peace Com- missioners delegated by their respective countries. The principal conditions imposed, and accepted by China were the following : 1° China to erect a monument to the memory of the German Ambassador, on the spot where he was murdered, and send an Imperial Prince to apologize to Germany ; 2* two Princes guilty of having ordered the attack on the Legations, and several high Officials to be put to death, others to be exiled to Turkestan ; 3^ the suspension of the official examinations during 5 years, in all towns where Foreigners were murdered ; 4** an expiatory monument to be erected by China in each of the foreign cemeteries (English, French and Russian) desecrated ; 5* an indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,500,000), to be paid in 40 instalmenU to the Powers, corporations and individuals, who had suffered from the disturbance. The tael to be calculated in the gold currency of each country (3 s. for Great Britain; 0.74 for the gold dollar of the United States, and 8 75 for the French franc), and China to be allowed to raise the tariff on maritime imports to an effective 5 % ; 6* the Legation quarters to be exclusively reserved for Foreigners, policed by them, and put in a state of defence ; 7^ the Taku forts to be razed, and certain points to be occupied by Foreign troops, in order to maintain free communication between the Capital and the sea; 8® the Tsungli Yam^n (Chinese Foreign Office) to be transformed into a Ministry of Foreign Affairs, styled the Waiwu Pu, and to rank before the other Ministries of State; 9® the representatives of Foreign Powers to be henceforth received in the Palace Hall styled K'ients'ing Kung, to proceed thereto in a sedan chair, to enter the Palaoe through the central or principal gateway, and to have yellow trappings and tasaels

470 8BCTI0N ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOIIIC MOamAFHT.

to their sedan, when presenting their oredentials, or a communication of their respeo- tive sovereigns to the Throne ; credentials to be handed directly to the Bmperor, and the representatives to be treated by China on a footing of perfect equality, without assumption of supremacy on either side.

These terms though severe were far better than China expected. Above all, the integrity of the country was preserved^ and no further demands made for portions of her territory. The audience question was also satisfactorily settled, and the assum- ption of universal sovereignty set at last at rest. These results were principally due to the skilful diplomacy of Li Hungchang. As the great statesman completed his work, he died November 7, 1901, at the age of 79. Peace being now established, the Emperor and Empress Dowager left Shenai (October 6, 1901) and re-entered Peking January 7, 1902, having being absent 1 year and 4 1 months.— Shortly after their zetum, an Anglo-Japanese Convention guaranteed the integrity of China and Koiva, while Russia, who had occupied Manchuria during the Boxer crisis, promised she would evacuate in 18 months. — In the course of 1902, the situation improved, Tientein was restored (August 15), and the troops of the Allies withdrawn from the North, with the exception of 2,000 men, who acted as a permanent guard to the legations in the Capital. On October 9, Southern Manchuria was restored to China by Bustia. — Subsequent negotiations resulted in 3 commercial treaties being signed, one with Great Britain (September 5, 1902), and two others successively with the United States (October 8. 1903) and with Japan (October 9, 1903). In these treaties, China agreed to suppress "likin** and internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 } % surtax to the e£Fective 5 % allowed by the protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 (100 p. 828). She also agreed to adopt a uniform national currency (see p. 320), uniform standaid weights and measures, to protect trade^marks, patents and educational copyright, to reform her judicial system and her mining regulations, to set apart in Peking a place for international residence and trade, and to open the following ports, under the British treaty : Ch'angsha in Hunan, Wan hsien in Szechw'an, Ngank*ing in Nganhwei, Hwei- chow and Kongmoon in Kwangtung; under the American and Japanese treaties : Mukden and Antung or Tatungk*ow, in Manchuria (see p. 827).

In 1904, Russia having delayed to evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with China, Japan declared war with her (February 8). Port Arthur was attacked and invested, and finally compelled to capitulate (January 1, 1905). The Baltic fleet was soon afterwards annihilated in the Tsushima channel (May 27 and 28), and Russian arms being equally unsuccessful on land, pea^e was concluded and signed at Ports- mouth (United States) September 5, 1905. Both countries stipulated to restore Man- churia to China, and to evacuate it completely and simultaneously within a period of 18 months, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liaotung peninsula (art 3); moreover, neither was to seek there any exclusive concession in impairment of Chinese sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity for the development of the commerce and industry of other nations. Russia also agreed to transfer to Japan, with the consent of China, the railway between Ch*aingeh*un and Port Arthu/r, together with all rights, privileges and properties attached thereto, as well as all coal-mines in the said region, belonging to or worked for the benefit of the railway (art 6). Finally Bussia transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien (Dalny, now Tairen) and adjacent territory with all rights and concessions connected ^with said lease. Subsequently a treaty and additional agreement were entered into between Japan and China, and the Chinese Government consented to all the above transfers and assignments made by Russia to Japan in Manchuria.

GHAPTBR YII. WOBEl&H HBLATIONB. 471

The year 1905 was closed by an important edict abolishing the old style of literary examinations (September 2). In 1906, a special Commission -was sent to Japan and to Western countries^ to study their political constitutions and report thereon. On its return, t?ie Throne promised (September 1) to grant to the country in the near future a Constitution and a representative form of Government based on Western principles. A short time after, China dealt with the suppression of ths opium habit {see p. 396), and directed that the growth, sale and consumption of opium cease within 10 years. Some Viceroys have already taken measures to carry out the desire of the government. Great Britain and the other Powers have been also requested to co-operate, and if China is earnest, it is hoped she will realize ere long this beneficent and much needed reform.

We have thus briefly traced the rise and progress of the Chinese nation from its cradle in Shensi, and the valley of the Hwang-ho {see p. 45), down to the present day. Besides the ancient and legendary Emperors : Yao, Shun and Yii, 22 dynasties have succeeded one another, some with a glorious record of justice, fame and national prosperity, the Chow, the Han, the T^ang and the Sung ; others with deeds of crime, bloodshed, cruelty and disorder. The present dynasty had to cope with a novel difi- culty : the growing intercourse with the West, strenuously resisted on one side, and as strenuously insisted upon by the other, through political, racial and economic reasons. China's assumption of universal sovereignty, her overbearing attitude in treating with outsiders, her ignorance of the status and strength of foreign nations, and her obstinate exclusivism have but resulted in crushing defeats, and a series of national blunders / and misfortunes, for which she can blame only herself. The lesson, it seems, has been at last taken to heart, and an era of reorganization has now commenced : a new Cons- titution is promised; administrative, judicial and educational reforms are inaugurated; mints are turning out coins of copper and silver; the army and navy are being remodelled after the Western fashion ; railway and mining enterprise, native trade and industry are being developed ; the opium habit is to be suppressed, and when all these reforms are effected, and we sincerely wish they will, "New China" will surpass the glory of the past, and take a place among the foremost nations of the East.

ModlllcatloiMi in the nimiber and names of tlie Pnyrlnces of CXilna. ^

Under the present dynasty, the number of the 18 Provinces was changed during 3 months (Jan.-April, 1905) into 19 {see p. 164). Formosa was detached from Fokien and Chdkiang (Minchd), after the Chinor^apan war, and ceded to Japan.

Let us also mention here that China was successively divided into Chows flU (under the Chow dynasty B. C. 1122-249), into Kiilns JRK (under the Ts'in dynasty B.C. 249-206, and the beginning of the Han dynasty B.C. 206 — A.D. 25), into Taos H (imder the T'ang dynasty A.D. 620-907), and into Lus g^ (under the Sung dynasty A.D. 960-1280). The present division into ShSngs if or Provinces, dates back only to the Mongol or YUen dynasty A.D. 1^80-1368.

2^. Fcmgn Relations.

From early times China must have held relations with the adjoining countries, especially with those from which its first settlers came._The earliest trustworthy proofs of its intercourse with Europe date back to the first century of the Christian

472 SBGTION ▼• POLITICAL AMD BGONOMIC MOeBAPHT.

- ff era. At *^^* r^ri*^, ^*^ffTf T^imrlir^ °m^» "^p *p^ fa" ^ ^^^ BonuMi Empire, and

7f > 'v.'(' ^ ^'"'^ trade was carried on between the two nations. Two roates were followed,

r"t\^eoverlaQ^Sipa"e'^^'*'^^^ ^'=^«^m Tlir^'*"*^"r^"'^ *i> JS — nfcf ^^y Hhfi Bftti

Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Strait of Malacca). Persians, Arabians and Turks

took each an active share in the trade between China and the West.

Several travellers, Western and Chinese, have also left us the records of their peregrinations, bat many others have very likely made similar or more important voyages. The following ig,JL .||j|^#C thP m— t JamoqiL Umyllerg to or from China: ^ """ ^

In A. D. ttj^an Envoy was sent by the Emperor of China to inqoire as to what was Ta<f'm (Syria according to Hirth).

In 226, a Tatsln trader reached the Conrt of the Kingdom of Wn, which then extended from Honan down to the Yangtze river, and had for its Capital Nanking (100 p. 458).

In 899, the Buddhist monk Fah Hsien travelled to Western Turkestan, crossing over the Pamirs, visiting India, and returning along the coast of Java. He reentered China in^ilJkAnd brought back a collection of Sutras offfeddh^|| if|f ra.i|i«>

In 029 Hi&en Chwang^ another BuddhisTmonk, visited also India, and returned to China after an absence of 17 years. He brought back 657 volumes, all relating to Buddhism.

In the VIP^ century, I Tnng (648-718), a Buddhist monk, travelled to Sumatra and the Malayan Islands, and returned to Henan vii Canton.

In theXm*^ nnntnrn ltoicg..Pgifl»^he celebrated Venetian traveller, visited China ■Qj71-I29^). He went to^dhina by the overland route, and returned by theCbfaa Sea and the Indian Ocean. During 8 years of his stay in China, he held high dvil office in Chdkiang Province^ and was also sent on a mission to the King of Annam.

In the same century, John of Piano Oarpini, a Franciscan monk, visited China (1845-1247). ^ - "" "

In the year 1854, Carpini was followed by William ofBubruqui$^ a monk of the same Order.

In 1277-1280, Pope Innocent IV sent an embassy tQ China, composed likewise of several Franciscan monks.

In 1807, John of Monieeorvino founded an archbishopric at Peking, and died there in 1330.

In the XIV*'^ century, Andrew of Perouse was Bishop of Zaitun in Fokien (see p. 228), while Odorie ofPordenone (Friar Odoric 1286-1381) travelled through China, Tibet and Cabul, and died a missioDary in Peking.

In the same century, John of MarignoU was appointed by the Pope legate to Pe- king (1842-18I6S while Nichola9 Bonnet succeeded John of Montecorvino as arch- bishop of the same city (1342).

In 1871, the founder of the Ming dynasty sent an embassy to Eurojgg,

Several oCher travellers might also be mentioned, most of whom were traders. These went to China to purchase silk, gold brocade, musk, and rhubarb. Others visited the country for religious purposes. According to the oral traditions of ikfiJmfy a colony entered the country in the first century of the christian era^ni^r the Han dynasty [iee p. 363), and possibly Calholic miuionariea at tl^e samep^o^ The Singan Fu V iC JRP monument, in Shensi H W, erected A.D. 781, shows that the christian religion was authorixed in China by Imperial edict as early as A. D. 686 (S00P.854).

CHAPTBR VII. FOBBIGN RBLATI0N8. 473

Despite these travels, voyages and commercial interoourse^Jyhina remained practically isolated, and almost onknow" <^» ^fap *TBt nf thff w^rM It was only in the XV l'" fi^niUf y lliaV closer relations were developed. Diplomatic intercourse however did not begin till 1842, when the treaty of Nanking was signed between China and Great Britain.

Inierconrse of Western Powera wtili China

from the XTI"" eentary to 1842.

The ^ortg^y^aD came to China for the first time in 1514. In 1516, a certain Raphael Perestrello proceeded in a junk as far as Canton. In 1521. Pirfes^ Ambassador of Portugal, arrived at Peking. Colonies of Portuguese then settled "in various parts of China : at Ningpo 1R ft in Ch6kiang, whence they were ex- peilecT in' R4^ 'on account of their arrogance, ill conduct and piratical deeds; at T8*iienchow Pn JR ffi JBP in Pokien, whence the same reasons caused their expulsion in 1549. They established at this period factories at Sancian (Shangchw'an) and Lampa, in Kwangtung M B?, %nd jtettled at Macao^ between 1558 and 1657. A second Portuguese embassy proceeded to Peking in 1667, and secured the Emperor K'anghsi's tk M protection over Macao. Two other embassies were subsequently dispatched to Peking, one in 1727, and the other in 1753. Although established at Macao, the Portuguese were not in absolute possession of the place. China maintained its sovereign domain over it, opened a custom house, and received annually from /"

the Colony a rental of 500 taels. "When the English landed for the first time at Macao J^/r L* «> C

17 /

in 1802, they were opposed by the Chinese Officials, and again in 1808, when they attempted to proceed to Canton. In 1849, after the murder of Oovemor Ferreira do Amaral, at the instigation of the Viceroy of Canton, the Portuguese forcibly drove out the Chinese custom house, and refused henceforth to pay the rental. The sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was officially recognized by China in 1887 (««e j». ggg).

Tlie Spaniards were Ithe first,' iffter the Portuguese, to hold intercourse with China. Towards the close _gLtha^ ^71*** centug, Spanish Dominicans settled in ^ddeu^ The Spm lards h«ld during laog^eitfg t})9JQifinp|»oly of foreign ^»de at Amoy. In the XYTTT*** ^^"*^"*Ti their ships alone were authorized to trade between China and Macao.

The Dutch, after unattCCfiaflfuHy attempting to seize Maoao (1622-1624)* settled at first in the Pescadores Islands, and afterwards at Formosa. They were expelled in 1661, from both places, by the followers of the Ming 91 dynasty who came from Fokien, and fled before the Manchn army. The Dutch sent several embassies to Pe- king (1653; 1656-57; 1666; 1795). The last, under the direction of Isaac Titsingh, has been described by Van Bra4im. Since that time, the Outchj.who even in the XYIII*^ jpentury enjoyed but little influence in China, ceased almost all further intercourse with the country.

The relations of Prance with China began only in the XVII^ Century. In 1660, a Ohiaese Company "Compagnie de la Chine" was formed, but subsequently changed its name into "Compagnie Jourdan, la Coulange et C*»" (1697-1698). This new com- pany o^egedaFrench factory at Canton. In 1719, trade had wonderfully developed, and in 1776. a FrencF GonBuIat€rwas established at Canton. — It is espepially through itsJKUggisnaries that France entered into relations with China. From theXVIII^i^ century and down to the preieni'day, F^rencb Missionaries have formed the greater part

474 SBGTIOll ▼. POLITICAL AMD BGOMOMIG MOSIAFHT.

of the pioneers of the Gospel. They are foond in almost every Province, and throngfa their zeal and devotedness have brought thousands of converts into the Ghnroh.

Deoomrk, Auairla, Swedes, and PnuKla, had also interooorse with China in the y YTith a^r^A YYJjJth centuries, but these relations never attained any great importance.

The United Slalea of America sent ^^-'t flrnt ^-■"■"^rmift^ expedition to China in 1784, and from that time relations with the country have constantly developed.

The British flag appeared for the first time in Chinese waters at the commen- cement of the XyiI*jDaatary. Ji 1684, Captain Weddel reached Macao, and explored the Canton river. Two other attempts were made in 1661 and 1672, to establish a

IoomBieiuist Intercourse with Canton. Again in the years 1742, 1754, 1762, 1778 and I 1784, every effort was tried to get an opening for commerce, but all proved fruitiest, i mainly through Portuguese jealousy, misrepresentations and intrigues. Acting upon tlie advice of Lord Melville, the Bnglish Government then decided to send an embassy to Peking. A first was lost at sea. The second, that of Lord Macartney (to which were attached G. Staunton and J. Barrow), reached Peking in 1793. The ambassador was re- ceived and treated as a tribute-hearer. He saw the Bmperor twice at Jehol {tee p. 462), but obtained none of the advantages he expected for the furtherance of British trade. The embassy of LordArnherH. in 1816« fared no better {9ee p. 468). In 1888, Xont Napier was sentlo Canton, as the first representative of the British Grown. Upon his airivid the High Officials refused to have dealings with him, as they were unwilling to enter into any diplomatic relations with foreign nations. He therefore withdrew to Macao, and \ died there October 11, 1834. In 1836, Captain Elliot was commissioned to take up the Work of Lord Napier, but the stoppage of trade, and the seizure and destruction of 80,282 Ichests of opium provoked a war with Great Britain, 1840-1848 {eee p. 468). The Canton piver was blockaded (June 28, 1840). Hostilities were then carried North, and Amoy |[Hsiam6n K H)* Tinghai % fl^ (in the Chusan Islands), Ningpo Hf it and Shanghai .h ft taken in quick succession. The British fleet proceeded up the Yangtse |§ rhf bombarded Ch^nkiang 9I tC* &i^d advanced on Nanking Hi ]9tt where the expedition arrived August 9, 1842. The TreaUf^ofJS^mkmg was then signed between China and Great Britain, August 29, 1^77, and ratified in Hongkong, June 26, 1848. Its principal provisions were : 1** Five ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) to be opened to foreign trade; 2* Hongkong ceded to Great Britain; 3^ payment of an indemnity of $ 21,000,000 ; 4® official correspondence to be carried on on equal terms ; 5^ several places to be held till the indemnity was paid. Sincfi, this txaaty waa.. con- cluded, British influence and trade have constantly expanded in China.

At the close of the XVII^ century, BoMia sent several embassies to China, that of Daniel Artchisk in 1670, of Ivan Portchennikof in 1674, and Nicholas Spatar Milescu in 1675. The death however of Stepanof, massacred by the Chinese together with 270 Bussians, and the treaty of Nerchinsk signed August 27, 1689, ruined Russian influence on the North Manohurian frontier. The>umerous embassies dispatcKeT'SuHng* the end of the XY II^i> and XVIII*^ centuries, and at the commencement of the XIX^^^, were unable to recover the influence of former times. It was secured at last by the tfeaiy of Kuldja, signed July 25, 1851. Hereby, settlement areas were granted at 111 (Kuldja) and Tarbagatal, and trade allowed at those two places. Duties were not to be levied on either side, caravans were to be protected, minor offences to be amicably settled, but no dealings were to take place on credit. T^ treaty ofAigun, signed May 16, 1858» extended the advantages already obtained at Kuldja. Muravieff negotiated the treaty

CHAPTER Til. FOaSim aBLATIONB. 475

for BoBsia, and Yihshan for the Empire of China. It fixed the boundaries along the coarse of the Amur, and allowed trading facilities to the subjects of both Empires on the banks of the Usuri, Amur and Sungari. The establishment of the Russians in Siberia, and the extension of the Trans-Siberian railroad, through Chinese territory and to Vladivostock, have furthermore consolidated Russian influence, and developed the intercourse and trade of the two nations.

•r China Willi

Fl^wem firWBl 18tt (Treaty of Nanking).

In the preceding pages several events relating to Foreign countries have been treated in their historical sequence. We will therefore here give but a summary of them, keeping principally in view their international aspect.

Regular diplomatic relations between China and Foreign Powers commenced at the Treaiy of Nanking, 1842. From that time, the principal noteworthy occurr- ences are the following :

The treaty of Nanking was followed by several other treatiee concluded with the Powers : the treaty of Whampoa (September 24, 1844) with France ; the treaty of Wanghsia (July 3, 1844) with the United States; the Engagement with Belgium, signed at Canton (July 25, 1845) ; the treaty of peace, amity and commerce with Sweden and Norway, concluded also at Canton (March 20, 1847). At this time, OontuUUes were established in the recently opened ports.

1^1856 (Feb. 29), Fr Chapdelaine, a French Missionary, was murdered in Kwang- si, and the ^'Anrow", a lorcha flying the British flag, seized by Chinese oflicials, and 12 of the crew arrested. This high-handed action provoked a war with Great Britain, in which France joined. Canton was taken (1857), and the city occupied during 3 years. The allied fleet then proceeded to the North, and took Taku ^ {gj^ and Tientsin Ji ^ (1858). At this latter place, China signed treaties with England and France, and both countries were to have the right to appoint a resident Minister at the Court of Peking, When the treaties were to be ratified in 1850, the Foreign Ministers were treacherously fired upon at Taku. A formidable expedition was equipped both by Great Britain and France to avenge this insult, and in 1860, the war was continued. Tinghai £ f^f Ohefoo Jt ^ and Talienwan ;fc X 9 (South Manchuria) were taken in turn. The Plenipotentiaries reached T*ientsin, August 25. The allied army then advanced on Peking, gaining on the way the battles of Ohangkiawan S X V (September 18) and Pahlik'iao A M tt (September 21). The Emperor fled in baste to Jehol, and left Prince Kung, his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. It being reported that the Chinese troops rallied at the Imperial Summer Palace, or Yttenmingyiien B 19 H* to the N.-W. of Peking, the place was occupied and sacked (October 7-8), and sub- sequently destroyed (October 18). Peking capitulated (October 18), and a Convention was signed there, October 24, 1860. A Bfinister was henceforth to reside in the Capital, T'ientsin to be opened to foreign trade, Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, and an indemnity of 8,000,000 taels paid to the Allies. France obtained important privileges for the Catholics : the christian religion was tolerated, and religious establishments, oonflsoated in former times, were to be restored.

The !raip*ing :i; ^ (1850-1864) rebellion broke out about this time and aimed at the overthrow of the reigning dynasty. The rebels make Nanking their Capital, and held it from 1853-1864. Peace being established in the North, the foreign troops

476 8BCTI0N ▼. rOLITICAL AMD BCOMOIflC eBOMAFHT.

rendezvouKd at Shanghai, and China appealed to them to help in wmppnamg the rebellion. Ward and Burgevine^ both American!, organized at first % fane ol Foreigners and Manilamen, called the ** Ever VicUmout Army*\ to fight the rebek. Ward achieved some success, bnt was defeated at Tk'ingp*n ftf Ki and sobaeqncntlj killed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of Ch^kiang. Bugevine was ^i«»wii— w^ the service for miscoudact, and went over to the rebels. Captain HoUand and liijer Gordon^ both British officers, succeeded Ward. Through the efforts of Gordon, Soo- chow H M was recovered, December 1, 1863. The British and French Aiimirmif (Hope and Protet) agreed also to clear the country of rebels within a 30 mile radios arooiid Shanghai. Admiral Protet was killed in an attack upon Nank*iao MS (▼^ilgo Nif^dmo), to the South of Shanghai, May 17, 1862. In the meantime the French troops, under the command of Lieutenant Giquel, assisted in reducing the rebel forces in ChAkfang. Oon- mander Tardif ds Moidrey succeeded Giquel, and was killed at Shaohsing Fafl| f| V« March 18, 1863. Lieutenant d^Aiguebelle now led the troops, and recovered Hang- chow Fu IS M JflF (March 31, 1864) and Huchow Fu fi M Jjf, both in ChAkiaDg. In the same year, Nanking Hi M was recovered by the Imperial troops (July 19), and this brought the T'aip'ing rebellion to an end {wee p. 465).

In 1865, the Foreign troops evacuated Taku and ShangfaaL

Several treaties were also signed at this period with Russia, the United States, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Holland, Belgium, Italy and Austria.

li^2^l:S^ China sent the Burlinghame miuion to Western Countries. The embassy proceeded first to the United States, and thenoe to Great Britain, Franee, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Russia. The Mission came to an ontimely end by the death of M' Burlinghame, who expired at & Petersbuigh, Fefaruaiy, 1870. The Rmperor of China gave 6,000 taels to defray the expenses of the funeral (see p. 465).

In 1870 (June 21), the THentein mauaere took place. Twenty-one Foreigncn and several native Christians were massacred. The Foreign Ministers demanded punishment. After long negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 280,000 taels as compensation money, an official was sent to France to apologise for the crime, and the Prefect and district Magistrate of Tientsin were banished {iee p. 466).

In 1874, a war was near breaking out with Japan. It was oauaed by the Chinese putting to death some liak'iu {K ifi sailors, who had been shipwrecked on the coast of Formosa. At first, compensation was refused for this act of vicdence, on the plea that the Liuk'iu Islands were the vassals of China, but after the Japaneae had landed troops in Formosa and threatened hostilities. Great Britain intervened, and an arrangement was entered into, China agreeing to pay an indemnity of SOOflOO taels.

A Commission from the British Government of India having been attacked in 1875, on the frontier of Yiinnan, the Chefoo 3^ >^ agreement was signed between Sir Thomas Wade, Her British Majesty^s Minister Plenipotentiary, and Li Hnngchang (September 13, 1876). China apologized for the crime, paid an indemnity of 200,000 taels, allowed frontier trade to be carried on between Burma and Yiinnan, and opened 4 new ports (Ich'ang, Wnhu, Pakhoi and Wdnchow) to foreign trade. A separate article authorized a mission of exploration to Tibet, starting either from Peking or from India. It was also notified that China intended to establish Missions and Consuiaies abroad. {see p. 466).

Since 1851, Russia had succeeded in opening trading establishments in Ili (Kuldja). In 1871, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, she occupied Ili (Kuldja). In 1879, the tretUy ofLivadia was signed. Hereby Russia restored to China only a portion of the occupied territory, but kept the richer part, the city of Yarkand, and all the

CHAPTER VII. FORBION RILATIOMS. 477

strong passes in the T*ien-8han ^ Uj range. This agreement was repudiated by China. Marquis Ts^ng negotiated a new treaty, which was signed at S* Petersburgk, February 12, 1881. Bussia hereby restored to China the territory of Hi with the exception of a Western strip, destined as a place of establishment for those who had abandoned the lands they possessed there during the time of the occupation. China paid to Bassia 9,000,000 roubles to cover all expenses borne since the occupation of 1871.

The Tongking war and hostilities being over, a treaty was signed in T'ientsin, April 25, 1886. It agreed to the appointment of a commission for delimitating the boundary between Tongking and China. The cities of Lungchow K M in Kwangsi, and M^ngtze ff S in Tiinnan, were also to be opened to foreign trade. An additional convention was signed at Peking, June 20, 1895, and opened to trade the towns of Hok*ow ff n and Szemao JS Jf», on the same conditions as Lungchow and M^ngtze.

In 1891, war broke out between China and Japan, on account of the claims which both set forth to interfere in the affairs of Korea (see pp. 467-<>68).

Two German Missionaries having been murdered in Shantung, Germany seized Kiaoehow B ^ bay, November 14, 1897. An agreement relative to this occupation was signed, March 6, 1898, and leased to Germany for a period of 99 years, the bay, its islands, and the North and South tongues of land at the mouth of the harbour {tee p. 258).

A similar agreement was concluded with Bussia, relative to Port Arthur and Talienwan :Ac 31 W* March 27, 1898. Port Arthur was to be a closed port for the sole use of Bussian and Chinese men-of-war, while part of Talien was to be open to the merchant vessels of all countries (art. 6). The duration of the lease was to be for 25 years, but could be extended by mutual agreement (art. 3).

Weihaiwei jfi fl^ fR, a port also in Shantung, was leased to Great Britain, July 1,1898 {see p. 257), and Kwangchow-wan A W JV (Kwangtung) to France, April 22, 1898 {see p. 289-290).

Great Britain secured moreover an important extension of the Kowloon {% H Kiulung) territory, on the mainland opposite Hongkong {tee p. 285).

In 1898, a series of reform edicts issued by the Emperor of China, compelled the Empress Dowager to resume tlie regency abandoned since March 4, 1889 {see p. 468).

In 1900, the Boxer, or K^Uenfei (|p K) rebellion, broke out in the North. The rebels committed various deeds of incendiarism and plunder, massacred numerous Foreigners and native Christians, and finally entered Peking. The gravity of the situa- tion being realized, the allied Powers of Great Britain, of the United States, France, Bus- sia, Germany, Austria, Italy and Japan, dispatched troops to put down the rebellion, and protect the lives and property of their respective subjects. The allied army captured successively Taku and Tientsin, and delivered Peking (August 14, 1900). The city was taken the following day. After long negotiations, a peace protocol was signed in the Capital, September 7, 1901. Hereby China agreed to inflict the death penalty upon several princes and officials who instigated the revolt, to pay to the Powers an indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,500,000), to raze to the ground the Taku forts, and to allow certain points to be occupied by foreign troops, in order to maintain free com- munication between Peking and the sea {see p. 469).

. In 1902 and 1903^ three commercial ^ffq,fi^ ,^fiye concluded with Great Britain, the United^ ^^^j^^^ and Japan. In these treaties, China agreed to suppress *Hikin ~(iie0p. 322), and all internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 i % surtax to the effective 5 % allowed by the Protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 {see p. 470).

A treaty was also signed with Portugal in 1904, but has not yet been ratified.

478

BBCnOlf V. POLITICAL AND BCOMOMIC nonAFHT.

3^. Emigratim.

The number of Foreigners who have settled in China is very limited {$ee p. 316 and 285) ; on the other hand, the proportion of Chinese who go abroad is oonsiderable. Emigration has in fact assumed great importance, and would increase were it not for the restrictions placed upon it by certain Powers. It is especially in Mongolia and Msnchuria that large numbers of Chinese emigrants are found, from 10 to 15 millions and perhaps more. According to the last official investigatiops, abroad (exclusive of studentB)Ts approximately as follows : 314,890

the number of Chinese

Hongkong „

Macao „

Formosa „

Philippine Islands „

French Indo-China „

Annam „

Siam „

Burma „ Straits Settlements and Singapore „

Dutch East Indies, Java „

Russian Asia (Siberia) „

Korea „

Japan „

Sandwich Islands or Hawaii „

Australia and New Zealand „ Society, Fiji and other Islands of the Paoiflo „

Canada „

United States „

Mexico „

Cuba, Jamaica and Porto Rico „ Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, British Guiana „

Peru „

Chile „

Brazil „

Mauritius „

South Africa „

Transvaal „

74,500

2,258,660

tu mm (o' whom about ^»"*' 40,000 in Manila).

1,028,500

197,300

1,500,000

184,000

1,300,000

l,8S»,700

37,000

11,200

17,700

^»"^ 109,000 inhabitanta). 85,400

20,000

12,000

150,000

3,000 90,000 10,000 45,000

7,000 20,000

8,150

5,000

8,200

1 7AA (<>' whom 800 in

^'^^ Great Britain).

Europe „

Tulftl

These emigrants come, for the greater part, from the maritime Provinces of Fo- kien and Kwangtnng. Several return to their native homes, or provide before dying that their coffins be brought back to China.

We here append the statistics of Chinese passengers to and from the 5 chief ports of emigration, during the year 190$,:

Out. In.

112,661 92,704

84,190 38,801

21,994 18,743

1,381 1,401

1,500 1,913

Swatow (Shant'eu) ft R Amoy (Hsiam^n) flt R Hoihow (Haik*ow) 4| n Pakhoi (Pehhai) 4; fl^ Fooohow Fu tkfH Ht

GHAPTBH VII. RI8B AND PRO&RB88 OF THB CHINB8B BMPIRB. 479

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P^ris, 1896. Oordier H. — Histoire des Relations de

la Chine avec les Puissances Occidentales.

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Occidentales, traduits du Sanscrit en

Chinois par Hiouen-Thsang. Paris, 1857. JalleD. — Histoire de la Vie de Hiouen-

Thsang et de ses Voyages dans Tlnde.

Paris, 1853. De Romy L. — Les Peuples Orientftux

connus des anciens Chinois. Paris, 1886. De^^ria G. — Origine de I'lslamisme en

Chine. Paris, 1895. Schefer. — Notice sur les Relations des

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Paris. 1878. PelliOt P.— Deux Itin6raires de Chine en

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Paris, 1877.

31

482

SBGTIOlf V. POLITIGAL AMD ICOMOIIIC MOaRAPHT.

T B. — Une Ambassade Ohinoise en Birmanie, en 1406. Paris, 1904.

Bfadiolle. — Les premiers voyages Fran- ^ais k la Chine.

▼an Bimam. — Voyage de I'ambassade Hollandaise en Chine. Philadelphie, 1797.

SooBemi M. — Voyages anx Indes Orien- tales et H la Chine, 1774-1781. Paris, 1782.

Relations de divers Voyages Curienz. 2 Vol. Paris, 1668. (Bztrait dn Voyage des Hollandais envoy6s en 16.56-1657 vers TEmperenr des Tartares. Vol. 1. 12 pp. — Relation de la Coor du Mongol par le Capitaine Hawkins. Vol. I. 12 pp. — M^moires de Thomas Rhoe, Ambassadenr da Roi d*Angleterre anpr^s du Mongol. Vol. I. 80 pp. — Voyage de Terri au Mongol 1615. Vol. I. 28 pp. — Relations du Royaome de Siam par Joost Schnten 1686. Vol. I. 9 pp. — Voyage des Ambas- sadeors de la Compagnie Hollandaise vers le Grand Khan de Tartarie, k P6kin en 1656. Vol. II. 75 pp. - Voyage k la Chine des PP. Grueber et d'Orville. Vol. n. 28 pp.).

De GtAgnem. — Reflexions g6n6rales sur les liaisons et le commerce des Remains avec les Tartares et les Chinois. (Acade- mic des Inscrip. Tome XXXII).

De Bias S. — La Chine et les Puissances ohr6tiennes. 2 Vol. Paris, 1861.

Jean le Oarpentier. — Ambassade des Provinces- Unies en Chine. Leyde, 1665.

KiniPflniiill T. W. — The Intercourse of China with Central and Western Asia in the 2nd century B.C. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1879. p. 1-30).

■ffidm J. ^ What did the Ancient Chi- nese know of the Greeks and Romans ? (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1883. art. 1. p. 1-24).

Playlair G. — The Mystery of Ta-ts*in. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1885. art. 3. p. 69-79).

AlleD H. J. — Where was Ta-ts'in ? (N. C.B.R.A.S00. 1886. art. 6. p. 89-97. — Reply by Hirth. ibidem. Also 1887. art. 12. p. 209-214).

Speer W. — Notices of the Ancient In- tercourse with China through Central Asik. Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 485-503).

Biid^maD E. O. —Early Nations who visited China. Chinese Repository. (Vol. I. p. 364).

Travels of Fahsien in India. — Chinese

Repository. (Vol. IX. p. 334-366).

h^ge J. — Fa-hien*8 Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. Oxford, 1886. v^

Blorrtaon J. R. •» Early Foreign Inter- ^^ course with China. Chinese Repository. (Vol. III. p. 107-115).

Intercourse of China with Foreign Nations. -^ Chinese Repository. (Vol. I. p. 964- 370).

Chinese Intercourse with Western Asia during the 15*i* Century. — China Re- view. (Vol. IV and V).

PtaUlpe 6. — The Seaports of India and Ceylon described by Chineae Voyagers of the Ib^ Century. (N. 0. B. R. A. Soo. 1885. art. 10. p. 209-226. — ibid. 1886. art 3. p. 80-42).

BraiMel T. — Ancient Trade in the Bast. (16*^ and 17**> Centuries). The China and Japan Repository. Vol. III. p. 67-72.

Tale B. — Cathay and the Way Thttlur (Medieval notices of China). 2 Vol. Lon- don, 1866. Odoric of Pordenone. p. 1-162. ^ Letters and Reports of Mitaionary Friars, p. 165-250. — Pergolotti't Notices of the land route to Cathay in the 14*^ Century. — John of Marignolli and his Recollections of Eastern Travel. — Ibn Batuta's travels in China. — Journey of Benedict Gods to Cathay).

BreUKMneider E. - Mediasval Resear- ches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. 2. VoL London, 1888. (Chinese Mediaeval Tra- vellers. — The Uigurs. — The Mahom- medans. — Mongol Expeditions to the West. — Invasion of Poland and Hun- gary. — Chinese Interoourse with the Countries of Central and Wsstem Asia, during the 15*»' and 16* Centuries. — - European nations mentioned in the Ming dynasty).

Chinese Explorations of the Indian Ocean during the 15»»> Century.— China Review. (Vol. Ill and IV).

Tule H. — The Book of Maroo Polo, the Venetian, concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. 2 Vol. London, 1875.

Tale H. — The Book of Ser Maroo Polo. London. "3^ Edit. 1908.

The History of Foreigners in China. — China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 189-194).

Parker E. H. — China's Interoourse with Europe, (.ondon, 1890.

GHAPTIR Til. FORIISN HBLATIOMS.

483

Japanese Invasion of Korea 1592. — China Review. (Vol. XXIII. p. 215-219; 239- 254).

Chinese Relations with Tartar Tribes. — China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 281-285. Vol. XV. p. 2S-29 ; 339-845).

Mancha Relations with Russia. — China Review. (Vol. XVI. p. 41-46).

The Russians and Manchuria. — China Review. (Vol. XXIII. p. 143-153).

The Dutch Occupation of Formosa. — China Review. (Vol. X. p. 123-128. Vol. Xni. p. 161-207).

HdImhmb H. E. — Fort Zelandia and the Dutch Occupation of Formosa. (N.C.B. R.A. Soc. 1876. art. 1. p. 83-40).

Embassies to China. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. V. p. 518-524).

Aolier P. — British and Foreign Embas- sies to China. London, 1884.

WHliawMi — Foreign Intercourse with China. (The Middle Kingdom. New York, 1871. Vol. II. Ch. XXI. p. 417-467).

Embassies to Peking (from the Chinese).^ Chinese Repository. (Vol. XIV. p. 153- 156).

Audiences granted by the Emperors of China to Western Envoys. — China Re- view. Vol. in. p. 67-83).

Ckmdry R. S. — China Pk«sent and Past. London, 1895. (Early Diplomaitio Inter- course. — The Right of Audience. Ch. I. and n. p. 1-51).

Bocklilll W. W. — > Diplomatic Missions to China. ^ The Kotow. — (Reprinted from the American Historical Review.

PP W).

Dyer BaLL — Things Chinese. Shanghai, 1903. (The Audience Question, p. 68- 72).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Arrival of Europeans. Ch. V. p. 82-115).

DoaclJie Sir R. — Society in China. London, 1895. (Foreign Relations. Ch. XV. p. 264-281. — The Audience Ques- tion. Ch. XVII. p. 290-302).

Jeml^an T. R.— China's Business Meth- ods. Shanghai, 1904. (Western Nations in China, p. 301-322. — Chinese Policy and Western Powers, p. 323-348).

Early Portuguese Intercourse with China. - China Review. (Vol. XXIII. p. 318- 321).

Origin of the Colony of Macao. — China

Review. (Vol. XXIV. p. 137-142). Macao in the Early Days. — China Review.

(Vol. XXV. p. 193-188). Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Review.

(Vol. XXI. p. 146-159). Murray's Oblna.— Edinburgh, 1843. Ar- rival of the Portuguese in China. (Vol.

I. Ch. VI. p. 182). The Portuguese in China. — Chinese Re- pository. (Vol. III. p. 289-303). Historical Sketch of Macao. — Chinese

Repository. (Vol. I. p. 398-408, and 425-

446). Montallo do Jeaus. — Historic Macao.

Hongkong, 1902. Philipa G. — Early Portuguese Trade in

Fokien. China Review. (Vol. XIX. p. 42-

51). Philipa 6. — Early Spanish Trade with

Changchow Fu (Fokien). — China Re- view. (Vol. XIX. p. 243-255. — Vol. XX.

p. 25-28). BrldtfnuuB E. O. — Spanish Relations with

China. Chinese Repository. (Vol. II. p.

350-355). Brtd^Baaii E. O. — Relations of Great

Britain with China. Chinese Repository.

(Vol. V. p. 128-131). Morray'a Gtalaa. — Edinburgh, 1843.

Early Dutch Embassies. (Vol. I. Ch. VU.

p. 183-256. — Recent Dutch Embassies.

(Van Braam's). ibid. Ch. X. p. 335-356). NewhofPs Embassy to Peking, 1654. —

Chinese Repository. (Vol. XIII. p. 398-

407). Imliaali-Haavt C—Le voyage de I'Am-

bassade HoUandaise* de 1656, k travers la

Province de Canton. (N.C.B.R.A.Soc.

1896. New Series. Vol. XXX. p. 1-73). Relations of France with China, 1685-1834.

— Chinese Repository. (Vol. V. p. l:}2-

137). Dmariatfir S.~ A Journal of the 1** French

Embassy to China 1698-1700. London,

1859. Davia Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,

1844. Early Ehiropean Intercourse with

China. (Vol. I. Ch. I. p. 1-30).— English

Intercourse with China, ibid. Ch. II.

m. IV. p. 3M33). Lea'renworlh O. S. —The History of the

Loochoo Islands. (N.C.B.R.A.Soc. 1906.

p. 1081 19).

484

SBCnON V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC ftBOemAPBT.

Mamy's CMm. — EdiDbnigb, 1843. British Embftssies to CliiDa. (Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 278-834).

Historical Aooonnt of British Interooarse with China. (Vol. II. ibid. Ch. V. p. 825- 414).

ntel E. J. — British Trade with China A. D. 1825.1834. China Review. (Vol. XX. p. 178-201).

■Mel B. J. ^ The History of Hong- kong. China Beview. (Vol. XX and XXI. passim).

■Uel E. J. — Supplementary Notes on the History of Hongkong, showing Popu- lation, Income, Expenditure, Shipping, from 1882-1890. China Review. (Vol. XXII. passim).

Notices of Hongkong. — Chinese Reposi- tory. (Vol. XIV. p. 291-298).

IkHM^Imm Sir R. — British Commercial Relations with China. Ch. XIII. p. 228- 241. — The War of 1860. Ch. XIV. p. 282- 268).

StanMt— Sir 6. — Authentic Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to the Emperor of China. 2 Vol. London, 1779.

WMertotlMiiii. — Narrative of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China. (View of China. London, 1795. Appendix).

Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China 1798. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. II. p. 387-350. Vol. VI. p. 17-27).

Aodennn A. — A Narrative of the Em- bassy to China. London, 1795.

Barl of Macartney. ~ Selections from unpublished Writings. London, 1807.

Aober P. — British and Foreign Em- bassies to China. London, 1834. (British Intercourse with China. Ch. IV. p. 128-169. — Lord Macartney's Embassy and its Results. Ch. VI. p. 198-253. — Embassy of Lord Amherst. Ch. VII. p. 251-406).

Ellis H. — Journal of Lord Amherst's Embassy to China. London, 1817.

Olark A. — Narrative of Lord Amherst's Embassy to China. London, 181 S.

Relations between the United States and China 1785-ia34. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. V. p. 218-231).

Wllllanui S. W. — Narrative of the American Embassy to Peking. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1859. art 6. p. 315-349).

Parker B. H. — Russia and China. (Asiat- ic Quarterly Review. Jan. 1905).

Murray's CMaa. — Edinburgh, 1843. Russian Embassies to China. (Vol. I. Ch. XI. p. 357-368).

KrauMe A. — The Far East, its History and its (^estion. London, 1903. (Ti«aty of Nerchinsk. Appendix B. — Treaty of Peking signed between Russia and China, Nov. 14, 1860. Annuls the Treaties con- cluded at Nerchinsk 1689, and at Kiakta 1727. ibid. p. d0O-.H01. SUtutes of the Chinese Eastern Railway, ibid. p. 334- 348).

Kraaaae A. » Russia in Asia. A Record and a Study, 1558-1899. London, 1900.

KrauflBe A. ^ The Far East. London, 1903. The Dawn of Western Influenoe. — Early Travellers. — English Trade with China. ^ Lords Macartney's and Amherst's Mission. (Ch. U. p. 15-34). — The Opening up of China. (Ch. III. p. 85-57).

The Story of Russia and the Far East, with a table of Chronology and a Map. — Shanghai Mercury Office, 1^.

DiNislas Sir R. — Society in China. London, 1895. (The China-Japan War in Korea. Ch. XXVII. p. 416484).

Leroy-Beaalleo P. — The Awakening of the East. London, 190O. (Foreigners in China. — The Attitude of the Chinese towards Western Civilisation.—The Posi- tion and Work of Foreigners in China. (Part III. Ch. VI. and VII. p. 228-283).

Plnon R. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris, 1900.

La Chine : Expansion des Grandes Puis- sances, 1895-98. Paris, 1899.

Gampadi J. Von. — The Burlinghame Mission to Western Countries. Shang- hai, 1872.

Medharfll W. H. — The Foreigner in Far Cathay. London, 1872.

Jemiffan T. R. ^ China in Law and Commerce. New York, 19(M$. (Bxtra-ter- ritoriaUty. Ch. VIII. p. 193-204).

Jemi^an T. R. ^China's Business Meth- ods. Shanghai, 1901. (Extra-territorial- ity. p. 219-229. ^ Strategical Positions, p. 230-239. — Consuls and the Consular System, p. 240-253).

Fergn— on — Juridiction et Exterrito- rialisation en Chine. Bmxelles, 1890.

CHAPTBR VII. UliaiUTION.

485

DoD^las Sir R. — Europe and the Far East (Hiatorical Series). Cambridge, 1904.

VigoU F. T. — Exterritoriality : The Law relating to Consular Jurisdiction and to Residence in Oriental Countries. London, 1892.

M« Oarlhy. ^ The Coming Power: A contemporary History of the Far East, 1898-1905. London, 1900.

Balfoar F. H. — Waifs and Strays from the Far East. London, 1876.

Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. (Studies in British, French, Spanish and Portuguese Colonies, China, Japan and Korea). London, 1895.

Ouraon Sir G. — Problems of the Far East. London, 1896. (China and the Pow- ers. Ch. IX. p. 260-810. — Great Britain in the Far East. Ch. XIV. p. 413-428).

Temple Sir R.~Progres8 of India, Japan

and China in the Century. London, 1902. (State of China in 1800, and in 1899).

Oolqohoan A. — China in Transforma- tion. London, 1898.

Oolqohoan A. * The Problem in China and British Policy. London, 1900.

Putnam Weale. — The Re-shaping of the Far East. London, 1905.

Potonm Weale. — The Truce in the East and its Aftermath. London, 1907.

Blue Books on China (from 1862-1906).

Hertolel Sir E.— Trade Treaties between Great Britain and China. London, 1877.

Heriolei Sir E.— Treaties between Great Britain and China ; and between China and Foreign Powers. — Orders in Coun- cil, Decrees etc. 2 vol. London, 1896.

Mayers W. F. — Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers. 5^ Edition. Shanghai 1906.

EMIGRATION.

Bevue Francaise d'Exploration, 1903. (pp. 709 et seq).

Djrer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 1903. (Chinese Abroad, p. 14M57).

BOOK II.

OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTER I.

MANCHURIA OR THE MANCHU MffH COUNTRY.

Note. — Owing to the Russo-Jftpan war (1904-1905), Manchuria was till recently nn^er military occupation. By the Portsmonth Treaty, signed Septembers, 1905, BuBsia and Japan stipulated to withdraw their troops from the country completely and simultaneously within a period of 18 months, except the territory a|fecte4by the lease of the Liaotung Peninsula. Moreover, neither was to seek there any excluaive concession in impairment of China's sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity for the development of the commerce and industry of other nations. The evacuation has now been faithfully carried out, and the country restored to China. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree abolished the Tartar- QeneraUhipf and appointed a Viceroy^ who is also Imperial High Commissioner, and three Gover- nors^ to rule henceforward over the country, and administer it on the same basis as the 18 Provinces of the Empire.

Av«a. — The area of Manchuria is 363,700 square miles.

Population. — 8,500,000, or 23 to the square mile.

Name. — Manchuria is so called from the Manchus (Man^ chows #1 ^), or people who actually inhabit it, and have given to China the present reigning dynasty. The country is more properly designated by the name of Tuna^anrSMnQ ]|[ H 4t« or the Three EaHem JPravinees. It is also known as Zia9imm0 jgg ^, or region Easi of the lAate Biwrf as JPieMs^i A||« country

CHAPTIR I. MAMCHUBIA. 487

of the 8 BamntrSf on account of its military division ; and as Shanhalkwanrwai Manehow SoMMng llj^||^MIMH4tf that Is ihe 8 Memchurian Frav^nees ftayiid ahanhalkwanf as in fact they are so situated in regard to the 18 Provinces. It is also sometimes styled KuHtnMwng H ]|[, or country BbuH of the Barrier*

Bomidftiiefl. — Manchuria is bounded on the

N. — By Siberia (the Amur and Transbaikal Provinces), W. — By Siberia (the Transbaikal Province), Mongolia

and the Province of Chihli gg[ ^, S. — By the Poh-hai JSft ^ or Oulf of Liaotung, and

the Hwang-hai )| ^ or Yellow Sea, E. — By Korea and the Maritime Province of Siberia (Primorsk).

OApitel. — MUK1}BN, also called JPkangt'ien Fk* J^JiJff, or SMnghIng J|| X(i in the Southern Province.

Provtnoes and PreAetana JMvtatouu — Manchuria is divided into 3 Provinces :

\\ Tlie Pravtnoe #f ShtegUng jj lj(, to the South.

This Province has S Frefechires w FUs Jff :

V FangtHen Fu 91 3>^ Mf or Mufcdm, a° Kinchow Fn M M JIF, aoCh'angt'uFuBHMf, 4<»HailimgFuftj||W, 5» Sininin YnlHtkMy ep T'aonan Fu flk HI ifT. And 2 THngm j||| :

^ Hsingkiiig T'ing lllR ■, a" Frmghwang T'ing M K ■.

W. Tftie ProTlnoe tf KIHn (Kihiin) ^ 1^, in the Centre. This Province has 2 Frt/etiMreB / rZirinFu^**, a" Ch'angch'im Fu J| # Iff.

And 4 THtHf /

l«Wuch*angT*ing5«?«,

a^Tdnkihriiigiiwa,

3<»SmflftnT'ingtt9B, 4'^PiiichowT'ingCAB.

488 BOOK II. outer][dbpbndbngib8.

8^ Tlie ProTlnoe of Hehluns-ktans IK H 2l (Black Dragon River or Amur) to the North. This Province has 2 Prefectures :

loHulanFuPFH ifiP,

2»SiiihwaFufi{fc«. And 3 Things :

l<>HailimT'iiig»«ia,

2° Hehshui T^ng Sk^Mj

2P Talai T'ing icHU. The Viceroy of Manchuria resides at Mukden, but is also to have a permanent Yam^n in each of the 3 Provinces, and will sojourn there at stated times, in order to better supervise the organization and development of the country. A tFapanese Xitt- perUU Besident will likewise reside at Mukden, and control all important relations concerning his nationals.

Aftpe<^ and Ctaaraeieristtcs. — Manchuriu is naturally divided into two distinct reunions : the Northern, -which slopes towards the Amur River, and is watered by the Sungari and its tributary the Honni ; the Southern, which inclines towards the g%at of lAaotung ^ ^, and is irrigated by the JAao-ho ^ ff and its upper branch the Shara Muren. The former region is much the larger and better wooded ; the latter is more fertile and more thickly inhabited. Both are almost entirely fnountainous^ though each has a beautiful and rich plain: the Liao'ho pUtinp in the Southern Province, 30 miles wide by 900 in length; and the central Sungari plain in the Northern Province. In the Souths Manchuria has some good ports. The Amur river, which skirts it on the North, is navigable, as well as several other large streams. Manchuria possesses an exceptionally rich soil, and abounds in minerals and extensive forests. These constitute its real wealth. The railway, which now runs through it, will afford it means of developing this wealth.

Geological consUtution. —The greater part of Manchuria is composed of azoic and primary strata (gneiss, granite and schist), overlapped here and ther« by sandstone, conglomerate and limestone rocks. These rocks are often interspersed with eruptive layers. Extinct volcanoes, immense sheets of lava, especially in the Eastern and Northern regions, indicate the great volcanic activity which prevailed there in former times. Specimens of alluvial soil are found in the two great plains of the Liao-ho fjt Vft and of the Sungari.

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 489

Orogrmpliy. — TufO greiU mauniain ranges enclose Man- churia an the Weei and Baei, both taking the same direction

S.W.-N.E.

The Western range is the prolongation of the JShingisn or Hingngan-ttng A $ 'Kt* ^"^ slopes gradually to the W., while to the E., it falls more rapidly to the level of the plain. The average elevation of this range is 4,200 feet, but some peaks reach 4,500 and 5,500 feet. Its highest summits and its valleys are covered with forests.

The Eastern range or Ch'ttngpeh'shan ^ j^ [Ij (long while mounlain), also called ShanrAUn, runs from the Southern extre- mity of Liaotung, to the angle formed by the Ussuri and the Amur rivers. Its highest peak is the Peh-shan j^ [Ij, which attains an elevation of 8,500 feet.

Between these two mountain masses^ a rather confused range extends to the North, and is sometimes called the Lesser KM- ngan. It rises to an inconsiderable hight, slopes abruptly on the North-East towards the Amur, and on the West towards the Nonni. To the South, a small chain of hills skirts the right bank of the Liao-ho ^ ^, and is called Uto Kwangntng-shas^

Ollmate. ~ The climate of Manchuria varies exoeedingly from one extremity of the country to the other. In the Northern portion^ the winter is very severe, the ther- mometer then falling as far as 40° Fahrenheit below zero, while the rivers are frozen over from the end of October to the beginning of May. In the Southern portion, the climate is milder, the thermometer however falls to 13** F. below zero in Winter, and rises in Summer to 90*^ and 95*^ in the shade (during the month of July). The daily variation is at times considerable, ranging for instance from 2^ to 55°.

Part of the sea* coast is covered with ice during several months of the Winter, except in the Eastern portion of Liaotung.

Hjrdrogrmpbjr. — Manchuria is well watered. Some of its rivers flow into the Amur, others into the Foh-hai fgj ^, and the Hwang^hai )| ^.

The North is irrigated by the Amiur and its tributaries, the principal of which is in this region the SufHiari or MUky Biver.

The Amur or HeMung'htang ^%fL (black'dragon river; in Manchu, Sakhalin^ula; in Mongol, Kara^Muren), is a large and

490 BOOK II. DBPBlfMMeiBt.

beautiful river, with a plentiful flow of water. It is formed by the junction of two streams : the 8h4ika or Shihk'ink'oh-ho :Q H ^ ^ coming from Siberia, and the Arttun or NgaikUXn-ho f| 3f[ M^ coming from DaUd-Nmr, a lake which itself receives the waters of the Kerulun, a river of Mongolia. The Argun and the Amur rivers, form for a long distance on the North, the boundary-limit of Manchuria up to the junction of the Ussuri.

The Amur is navigable for 450 miles of its course, for stea- mers drawing 12 feet of water, and for 1,500 miles, for boats drawing 4 feet. It has a total length of 2,500 miles, and flows into the gulf of Tartary at Nicolaievsk. It owes its name of *' Black river'' to the colour of its waters, which are of a darkish hoe.

The Smttgari (Sunghwa-kiang jR ^ {c) or Jfilfeir riMr, rises in the Fieh-ahan j^ ^| mountains. Its copious waters present a somewhat milky appearance, hence its name. In the flood- season, it has more water than the Amur, and is navigable up to Kirin. Its tributary, the NrnmU or Nuen^kiang JH j^, can be navigated for a still greater distance. It drains the Eastern slope of the Great Khingan. It abounds with fish, and is navi- gable during the whole year as far as Tsitsihar, and even further up in the flood-season. It receives at Sansing ^ j|(, the JEhiriMi (Mutan-ho ft ^ ji^) or IVMiy riMr.

The VsmMH (WusulUkiang j^ jK fl 2C)« another tributary of the Amur, rises in the vicinity of Vladivostock, traverses take Sihanka or HMnghai ^ jH, and runs Northwards, forming the boundary-line between Manchuria and Siberia. It is 350 miles long.

The two rivers, which water the South €fM€ttu^uHa, are the LiaO'ho jjg ^, which flows into the Poh-hai fgj ^, and the ToJ^ tuh-kkma HH^ {t, which flows into the Yellow Sea or Hwang- hai )| ^. — On account of the hills being denuded of their forests, the rivers of the South overflow at times their banks ; they then inundate the country, ruin villages and destroy the crops.

CHAPTIR I. MAMCHUBIA. 491

The lAofO^hf^ ^ }(if rises to the North-East of Dolo-Nor, in the Great Khingan, where it is known by the name of Sharm' Muren or lAaoMrho JK H f9> ^h&^ ^b the West Liao River. It runs at first from W. to E., and forms the boundary-limit between Ghihli and Mongolia. A little after entering Manchuria, it makes a bend and afterwards flows Southward. The Liao-ho is navigable in the flood-season throughout its whole course in Manchuria.

In its lower part, its channel is fairly deep, and it can be approached by steamers as far as Newchwang 4^ ^. In the flood-season, numerous junks sail on its waters up to Sinmin

The YiMhkih'hUMng f| H^ 2l ^^^^^ '^^ ^^le Long White Moun- tain, and comes from Korea. It is a large and beautiful river, and utilized to convey timber, cut on its upper slopes and on the White Mountain, to the coast. It marks part of the boundary- limit between Korea and Manchuria. It is navigable in its lower course, and flows into the Yellow Sea.

Another river, the T^wmin N P^, is less important than the preceding ones. It comes also from Korea, and forms the boundary-line on the N. E., between Korea and Manchuria, for a distance of 60 miles. It then proceeds to Siberia (Province of Primorsk), and empties its waters into the Sea of Japan.

tMu — Manchuria possesses several beautiful and large lakes. The principal are, on the North-West : the Jhdoi^ycr^ also called Hul/on or Kulion take, and Bulr^Nmr or JPir take; on the East, take Khanka and iake JPiUm, to the South-West of Ninguta.

€oMt liae. — The coast-line of Manchuria is straight and low along the Gulf of Liaotung jj^ J|[. The Liaotung peninsula is, on the contrary, largely indented and mountainous, and possesses several deep bays and numerous islands.

The pHneipai ba^s are : Kinchow ^ ^ bay, the bay of Port-Arthur or Liishun-k'ow JK |g n« and Dalny bay or Ta- lienwan :A; H ||.

492 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDENCIBS.

The €M/^99Hs are Ifewehwang ^^, or more exactly Ying- k'ov? ^ Df at the mouth of the Liaoho jg^ ^. It is an impor- tant port, but is ice-bound for several months of the year. It carries on a vast trade with Northern and Central China.

F^m^Arih^tr or LUshun-k^ow JK |g D, leased in 1898 to Russia, and subsequently transferred to Japan, 1905.

JkOnw or oaaienwan :kiAM^ (called in Japanese, Tatren), a commercial port, leased also to Russia in 1898 for 25 years, and lately transferred to Japan.

The two last ports being free from ice during the Winter, are the best in Manchuria.

NfftnUung (Antung) $ A, a small port at the mouth of the Yahluh-kiang (| |fc flC* opened to foreign trade under the American and Japanese treaties of 1903. {Bee p. 327, and 470).

Fauna and Flora. — Manchuria, despite its rigorous climate, has quite a rich fauna and flora. The country is well irrigated and abounds in forests, especially on the slopes of the Northern mountains, which are covered with trees up to their sum- mits, the principal being the pine, spruce, oak, birch, elm, walnut and willow-trees.

Wild animals are very numerous, especially in the N., where are found the bear wolf, tiger, panther, wild-boar, fox, deer, stag, antelope, sable, marten and marmot.

The rivers teem with fish, excellent salmon being caught especially in the Sungari.

Ai^culinral Wealili. — A great part of Manchuria is uncultivated. In the plain watered by the central Sungari and by the Liao-ho ^ j^, the soil is excenent,|and produces com, sorghum (kaoliang ^ m), millet, maize, tobacco, pulse^ peas, potatoes, indigo, flax, sesamum, hemp and the opium-poppy. In the South, rice and cotton are also cultivated. — When oil has been extracted from the beans, the residuum is used in making beancake, which is extensively exported to the S. of China and to Japan, and employed for feeding cattle and manuring the ground.

Gineeng thrives well in the country. It is a medicinal plant much sought after, and fetches a high price in the market.

Wild silk is produced in the South, by worms that feed on the leaves of the oak. The produce is known as ''Tu88ah'\ and is much used in the silk industry of Lyons.

In the rich pasture-lands of the plains, horses, mules, oxen«

CHAFTim I. MANCHURIA. 493

sheep and goats are extensively reared. — The pig, as in China, is found everywhere throughout the country.

In the N., are found immense pasture-lands, the grass of which attains a height of 6 feet, compelling travellers to cut a way through it with the sickle. Forests occupy immense tracts in the North, but so far they have not been worked. Orchards of pear-trees, apple and plum-trees are met with almost everywhere. Vineyards are also found in the 8.

Every year, in April, thousands of labourers come from Chihli and Shantung Provinces, and help in tilling and cultiva- ting the fields. They return home in September.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Manchuria consists in coal-fields, iron, silver, gold, copper and lead. Coal is extracted in several places, but is of a rather poor quality. Gold is relatively abundant, and is found in a few dozen places, the 3 principal centres being : the Russian frontier, the sands and basin of the Sungari, and the Peh-shan g (i] mountains.

Popolalion. «- The population of Manchuria is almost exolusively confined to the plains and valleys, especially the valley of the Liao*ho and of the Sungari. The Southern Province, or Shftngking, is the most densely peopled, the inhabitants being principally of Chinese stock. The Manchus form at most -j^^^ of the total population of Manchuria, while the Chinese number about 4 millions. The other races are the Tunguses, Daours, Solons, Koreans, Duars, Buriats, Goldi (Fish-skin Tartars), Mongols and Russians. — The greater portion of the population is a cross between all these races. The unsubdued tribes and nomads are scattered over the steppes and wooded regions of the North, while the Chinese occupy especially the towns and villages.

The terrible Runghutte ISL^^ (Red>beards) brigands occupy the forest-clad tracts of the North. They are the descendants of Chinese adventurers, who migrated during the course of the last century to the country, in the hope of discovering gold- fields. The speculation having proved a failure, the adventurers became brigands, and live by terrorizing and plundering the peaceable inhabitants of the plains.

The Manchu9 were formerly a tribe of the Tungusic Tartars, and like them led at first a nomadic life. They gathered near the upper course of the Sungari, lived prin- cipally by hunting, and engaged occasionally in agriculture and cattle-rearing. At present, nearly all have become fixed to the soil, and live by farming. They are a more robust and sturdier race than the inhabitants of Central China, but differ little in features and character from those of the North, save that their eyes are horizontally set and shaped. They are perhaps also more sprightly and more enterprising than the *'Sons of Han", but less intellectual and less skilful in conducting business affairs. The Manchu peasant is industrious and frugal, and the family large. The women's feet are unbound, and they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed cross-wise on the top of the bead.

494 BOOK II. ounm dipindbngibs.

I«any na^e. — In Manohoria, Chinese is the most widely spoken lanf/tuige of the country. The ManchuSy when speftking among themselves, employ their own dialeet, which is very different from the Chinese and Mongol languages. All candidates for the Metropolitan Offices are bound to know it. It is of Tungusio origin, sonorous and easily learned. It is composed of dissyllabic roots, the meaning of which is modified (especially in verbs) by agglutinative suffixes. The alphabet is syllabic, and of Syro- Uigur origin. The latest form has been borrowed, in the XVI*^ oentury, from the Mongols. There are 6 to 8 vowels, 18 consonants, and 10 diacritical marks. Like the Chinese, it is written in vertical columns, but from left to right. The Manchu language has no indigenous literature.

SPECIMEN OP MANCHU WRITING.

^ Si

?

^ 4 Bahanara q Nikan 4-^ ^ Wubaliyambuw

4 Balte fi

Niyalma

y Bi

Kai

(To become a Manehu translator, you, Chinese student...).

BeliflriOD. — Nearly all the inhabitants of Manchuria are Buddhist-Lanute, a phase of religion introduced from the Mongols.

Mahomedanism is widely diffused throughout Manchuria, Chinese Mussulmans forming at times \^ of the population.

The nomad tribes practice Shamanism, as also the Tunguses, generally speaking. Many worship the heavens, their ancestors, and the spirits of the mountains and rivers. Evil spirits (Posinko) are considered to be the source of all misfortunes. Ancestor worship is an almost daily practice among the Tartars.

Towns and Prinelpttl CentoMi i

In the Fravinee of H^Mm^kiang |R II 2L '•

Aigun or HehlungMang Ch^hfkg M 111 2L jift- — A town built on the banks of the Amur, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants. Its houses stretch along the banks of the river to a distance of 6 miles, and extend as far as /SWUtoilfi^ a village lying opposite the large Russian city of .

CHAPm I. MANCHURIA. 495

Mergen (Meheulken M if tt) ^^ ^^^ Nonni river, has a population of from 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.

TsUsUutr {Ts'its'ihaheul ^^f^W)'^^ Hehiungkiang. — An important commercial town, situated on a river of the same name. On market days, in September and October, the MangcU bring their cattle there. The population then rises ito from 30,000 to 70,000 inhabitants.

Tsitsihar comprises two cities, one interior, where the officials reside, and in which are found the barracks and some Tartar families; the other exterior, inhabited by Chinese. It is in this latter that trade is carried on.

Hulan P^ Hf. — An important military station situated on the Sungari, at the confines of the two Provinces. The popula- tion reaches from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. It has 50 oil factories, and a large number of spirit {''vodka'^') distilleries.

MaUar or KhaUarm — A town situated between Dalat- Nor and the Great-Khingan. It is 250 miles distant from Tsitsihar. Some^ years ago, only a few MomgM lente were found there ; it is now a Russian city, supplied with provisions, hotels and hospitals. Its population is about 2,000 inhabitants. A distance of 90 miles further on, a great fair is held every year, in August.

Bayan 9umu — A town situated 9 miles North from the Sungari. It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and pos- sesses 18 spirit distilleries, and 60 oil-factories.

In the Ftavinee «/ Kirin t

Kirin or KiUn FW^ ^i }ff. — Capital city oi the central of the 3 Manchurian Provinces. It has a population of 100,000 inhabitants, and is a great industrial and commercial town. The principal eoeports are lotocoo, cultivated in the neighbourhood and firtrwarded to Chinas timber and Atrs also abound. It is the head of steam navigation on the Sungari, and is a great inland ship-building centre; The town has also an arsenal and a powder factory, while earthenware is manufactured some 30 miles to the North.

496 BOOK II. ounm dbpbmdbcibs.

HarMn {Haheulpin B|^ Hf )|). — On the right hank of the Sungari, and in the midst of a rich wheat-growing country. It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and has much developed of late by railv^ay enterprise. Here the trunk line branches into two, one proceeding Eastward to Vladivostock, the other running South to Port Arthur. It has several steam flour-mills, and numerous small steamboats convey the flour to the Amur portSi

The town comprises three parts : old HarMn^ new Hdrtk^ and the F&rL Oid Harbin is a village of mud-built hovels clustered round the ancient distillery. New Harbin is situated upon an elevated plateau, and has already over 300 stone-buUt houses. An iniemoHonai eetUemeni has been recently opened by China outside the walls of the city, and is to have a Russian Municipality and Council controlled by the Railway C^. The Port is the administrative centre of the North Manchurian railv^ay, and contains numerous workshops, machine-sheds and stotehous- es. It abuts on the Sungari, which is here i a.mile wide, and . covered with steamers and junks.

San&Ing 2 tt* — ^ town situated at the confluence of thp Mutan-kiang or Peony river, and of the Sungari. It has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. The town has 2 distilleiriestt 10 oil factories and 3 dye-works. It is an important barter and . trading centre.

Fehma [Pehtunei fg |K M), also called Sineh^h^ if j^. — A town built on the banks of the Sungari, at a short distance from its junction with the Nonni. It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, manufactures cotton piece-goods and ropes, and exports furs and oil.

Kwani^^tng Chow. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. It is the centre of a great tobacco-growing region, and has also 8 distilleries and 40 oil factories.

NingvMa {Ningkut'ah ^ -^ j^^). — Population, 30,000 inhabitants. It is built on the Mutan-kiang or Peony river, in a very advantageous position for trade with Japan. It is the home of the fish-skin Tartars, and its houses are nearly all mud- built hovels. The railway passes 10 miles to the South.

CHAPTBR I. llANGHUaiA. 497

Jn the Br&vinee cf JSMngkhtg H iff, :

MtikOen^ called in Chinese Fkmaifien F^ J^ J^ Jff or

SMngking H 7^ (abundant Capital). — Population, 180,000 inhabitants. Mukden is the metropolis of Manchuria, the ances- tral home and the sacred city of the reigning dynasty. It is built on the Hun-ho ^ fp^, a tributary of the Liao-ho jj^ |if , and lies in the midst of a rich but treeless plain. The town is surrounded by a mud-built wall 10 miles in circuit. An inner wall, made of bricks, separates the Emperor's residence from the town. This part of the city is about 3 miles in circumference. The imperial palace and buildings, the Government ofBces and courts are arranged on the same plan as those of Peking. Trade is carried on in the Outer City. The streets are clean and lined with large shops, where piece-goods, manufactured articles and furs are sold. The output of the mint, for the year 1906, was 35,036,000* 10-cash pieces (copper coins). Mukden has a Foreign Settlementj and is now open to Foreign trade. The Resident-General of Japan, and a Consul-General for Great Pritain, will reside there. A railway connects Mukden with ttnmint^un flf Jg ifi on the West, while another of small gauge JTuns Eastward to Ngantung ^ % (Antung 175 miles). This latter will be converted to the standard gauge in 2 years.

To the West, is a Buddhist temple, which receives the Emperor's efBgy every ten years, since the time that His Majesty ceased to visit in person the ancestral city. Kiak^ng ^ JH (1796- 1821) was the last Emperor who visited Mukden, in the year 1804.

2%€ iatnbs, or Fuhling fl| B^i c/ the Ma$iehu Sovereigns lie 3 miles to the N. E. of the walls. Six miles to the N. W., are the Pehling 4;Ki ^^ ancestral tombs of the present reigning dynasty. Ai HsitMgking ^ ?f(| a town 50 miles to the East, is the family residence of the Manchu Monarchs, and also the burial-ground of some of their ancestors.

lAaayatkg Chow JK A M* — ^ large Russian town before the war of 1904-05, expanding beside the old city of the same name. — Liaoyang was taken by the Japanese after a continuous

498 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNCIBS.

and severe fight, in which the Russians were defeated, Septem- ber 4, 1904.

NeHHaUoa9W 4^ M (cattle depot). — Population, 74,000 inha- bitants. An important treaty port situated at the mouth of the Ltao-/io JK M« ^ ^^^ miles from the old town of Newchwang, now some distance inland, though it was formerly on the sea- coast. It has a poor harbour, and as the river is silting up, the port has been shifted 10 miles further down to T4ngk^aw THng ^ D jRi which can be reached by ships displacing 2,000 tons. Here are found the Settlements, the Foreign residences and the custom house. The control of the town returned to the Chinese government, December 6, 1906, having been 6^ years in alien occupation. The Japanese have established at New- chwang "i/ie Liao river sailing ship Company^\ which carries goods between points on the river with the terminus at New- chwang. During the year 1906, the trade of the port was much hampered, owing : 1® to its exports and imports being taxed, while those entering through Dalny and Vladivostock were free ; 2* to railway discrimination, the rate per ton per mile from Newchwang being double that from Talien ^ j|t, so that when Kw^anch^^ngtze (Ch^angch^un g^) was reached, the cost from Talien was 2^ yen (5 s.) less than from Newchwang. These two causes have now been removed by the establishment of a custom house at Dalny, and a unified railway fare from M6ng- kiat^un H |^ 1& (Northern terminus of the South Manchurian railway) to the sea-coast, both to take effect from July 1, 1907. The place will however have to struggle against competition, and against the drawback of being an ice-bound port.

The prineipfU imports of Newchwang are plain and striped cotton goods (American, English and Japanese), cotton yarn (Bnglish, Indian and Japanese), kerosene oil (American, Russian and Sumatra), sugar from Hongkong, foreign flour, coal and matches. The eaoporis are beancake (1,715,058 piculs in 1905, and 3,662,824 in 1906), bean-oil, medicines, goat and dog skins, rugs, mats, wild and refuse silk, ginseng, deer horns, dried and salt fish, ^^samshu" (sanshao H jH^ thrice fired. A general

GHAPTBR I. MANCHURIA.

499

name for all Chinese fermented and alcoholic liquors), and indigo. The total gross and net values of the port from 1901- 1906, were as follows :

Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906.

Year.

Gross Values.

Net Values.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1901

42,865,680

42,262,209

1902

42,870,569

42,692,135

1903

47,961,251

47,632,059

1604

41,600,696

41,517^78

1905

61,966,054

61,752,905

1906

44,861,087

44,482,001

The market being overstocked in 1905, foreign imports fell from Tls. 31,003,143 in 1905, to Tls. 18,720,743 in 1906.

JVrl AHhmr or LULshun-k^cfw IR JS O* — Population, 14,000 inhabitants. A port of great importance as the terminus of the Tran^-aiberian ra/Owmy. In 1880^ C/itna began to fortify it as a naval base for her Northern squadron. In 1894, it had 13 forts and SSO large guns. It was however badly protected on the land-side. In July, 1894, war broke out between China and Japan. The Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port Arthur taken (November 21). When the treaty was to be ratified . November 8, 1895, Russia, Germany and France protested, and thus compelled Japan to restore it to Ohina. In 1898, it was leased to Russia by China for 25 years, but the lease could be extended by mutual agreement (art 3). The port was for the sole use of Russian and Chinese men-of-war, and was to be unopened to the naval and mercantile vessels of other na- tions (art 6). Russia could erect forts and defences within the leased territory, as she thought fit (art 7). It was in fact im- mediately fortified, and put in a state of defence awaiting the final struggle with Japan. It thus became a place of con- siderable importance. In 1904, Russia having delayed to

500 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPIMDBNCII8.

evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with China, Japan began hostilities (February 8). On Feb. '9, Japanese torpedo-boats made a midnight attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. On Feb. 10, war was declared by the Tsar, and on Feb. 12, by the Mikado. On March 21, the first bombardment of the port took place. On August 3, it was completely invested, and finally compelled to capitulate, January 1, 1905. Peace being concluded at Ports- mouth (United States), September 5, 1905, Russia transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien and adjacent territory, with all rights and concessions connected with said lease (art. 5). A subsequent treaty and an additional agreement were entered into by China and Japan, and the Chinese Government consented to the above transfers and assignments made by Russia to Japan.

Holny or TaUen'Wan :fc S I9i called by the Japanese TaUFmu — Population, 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 10,000 are Japanese. A port well situated for commerce, and opening on a wide bay, sufficiently protected from the sea. During the Russian occupation, 1898-1904, only part of the port was open to the merchant vessels of other countries (art. 6). The town was divided into three parts : a special department for the civil administration, and 2 commercial quarters ; one for Foreigners, and the other for Chinese. In the late Russo- Japan war (1904-1905), Dalny was abandoned by Russia, March 27, 1904, and occupied by the Japanese troops. May 30. At the conclusion of the war, Russia ceded Dalny to Japan on the same conditions as Port Arthur (Portsmouth Treaty, art. 5). It was thrown open to foreign trade by Japan, September 1 ,

1906, as a free port^ no duties being levied on goods entering or leaving. This measure of Japan greatly injured the trade of Newchwang, which was a dutiable port, and China to remedy the evil has decided to open a custom house at Dalny, July 1,

1907. The agreement signed at Peking, May 30, 1907, between M' Hayashi, Minister for Japan, and Sir Robert Hart, contains the following regulations : 1^ the Commissioner and Staff of the Customs Office at Taircn are to be of Japanese nationality; 2* sea- borne goods will pay no import duty, but this will be levied

CHAPTBH I. MANGHUniA. 501

according to existing treaties, if or when the goods pass the frontier of the leased territory ; 3* merchandise brought from the interior of China into the leased territory, and shipped at Tairen, will pay export duty according to existing treaties. Produce raised in, or imported by sea into the leased territory, and when manufactured may be shipped, shall pay no export duty; 4* Chinese merchandise, or products from the treaty ports to Tairen, shall pay no duty so long as they remain in the leased territory, but if they pass the frontier into the interior of China, they shall pay according to existing treaties ; 5® the custom house can issue inland steam-navigation papers, and grant transit passes for merchandise going into the interior of China, or coming therefrom to Tairen; 6* the transmission of Chinese closed mails between Tairen and inland ports shall be free of charge ; V the Customs tariff in vigour in Chinese treaty ports shall be applied likewise by the Maritime Customs Office at Tai- ren. A similar agreement will be also concluded with Russia, and Chinese Custom Offices established at the frontier. — The South Manchurian Railway Company carries on a steam service between Dalny, Shanghai, and Hongkong. Coal is the principal export article.

Industry and Commerce. — Manchuria has displayed up to the present but little industrial activity. There are however a considerable number of sorghum distilleries and bean-oil factories. Gold mines and collieries are also somewhat actively worked.

Commerce occupies an important place. The prindpai eaoporis are beancake, beans, bean-oil, furs, skins and wild silk. The imparts are cotton piece-goods and yarn, kerosene oil, sugar, coal and matches.

Hlgliways of Gommnnleallon* — Besides the great waterways (the Atnur, 9t€figari, Nanni and L4ao-hoJ, Manchuria has several important land routes. The principal is that which starts from Peking 4|^ ]J(, and proceeds to Siberia, via Kinchow JPU H jHi i^i Mukflen, Kirin, Petumt, Tsitsihar and Mergen (these two last in the Province of Hehlungkiang).

502

BOOK II. ODTIR DIPBNDIMCIB8.

RAILWAY SYSTEM OP MANCHURIA.

CHAPTBH I. lUlfCHnRIA. 508

Hailwajoi in MMtelnarim. — Manchuria has 2 pHneipai raUwaif tines : the Chinese Eastern railway, and the Shanhai- kwan-Mukden railway,

1^. l^e CMnese Beuiem raUuHMiy has been financed and constructed by the Russo-Chinese bank. It traverses Manchuria from E. to S.E., then from N. to S., from the Siberian frontier in Hehlungkiang to Port Arthur, at the Southern extremity of Regent's Sword. Entering from Transbaikalia, on the N.W<, the line passes vik Hailar, Tsitsihar and Harbin. Here it bran- ches S., passing via Ch'angch'un g ^ and Muftden^ and finally ending at Port Arthur, The total length of this line is 1,200 miles. From Harbin, a branch runs Eastwards to Vladivostock, a distance of 300 miles within Chinese territory, and 100 in the Russian province of Primorsk. By the treaty of Portsmouth, signed Sept. 5, 1905, Russia agreed to transfer to Japan, with the consent of China, the railway line between Ch^angch'un (Kw'anch'^ngtze) and Port Arthur (465 miles), and this transfer was effectively carried out July 31, 1906. The Japanese section is henceforth styled the South Manchurian Railv^ay, From Port Arthur, a short branch runs to Dalny in the bay of Talien. Another line (15 miles) runs Westward from Tashihk'iao ;Xc ^ ijgi junction to Yingk'ov; (Newchwang). A short distance N. of Liaoyang, a third line runs E., to the Yint'ai mines, from which the railway derives its coal supply. A light military rail-- way, constructed by Japan, joins Mukden with Ngantung ^ J|[ (Antung), at the mouth of the Yalu river (175 miles). It will be restored to China, and converted to the standard gauge in 2 years.

2^. OChe ShanhcMwanrMukden raOway Hue. — This is the extra-mural extension of the Imperial North-China railway, or the Peking-T*ientsin line. At the Keupangtze HI iff ^ junction, a branch line runs to Newchwang (Peking to Newchwang, 170 miles). The main line continues Northward to Sinmint'un ^ Jl 1^. The section between Sinmint'un and Mukden (36 miles) was built by Japan during the Russo- Japan, and has been res- tored to China, June 1, 1907, on payment off 1,660,000. It has

504 BOOK. II. OUTER DIPBNDIMGII8.

the Japanese gauge of 3 ft. 6 in., And yvill he reconstructed jointly by China and Japan, the latter supplying half the capital, which will be borrowed from the South Manchurian Railway C^, and redeemed in 18 years.

The Fiedimtde or Liuch'€ng ;^ jff^ (willow barrier). -« A palisade, or barrier of stakes, formerly separated Mongolia from Manchuria. It was constructed to protect the Liao valley, on the W., from the Mongols; and on the E., from the Koreans and outlaws of the Long White Mountain. It extended from the N. of Kirin city to Shanghaikv^an, with a spur running out into Liaotung peninsula. It is traceable to-day only in a few tottering gate-ways across the main roads, and still upheld for purposes of toll-collecting.

AdBiliilBtnUton. — Previous to 1876, Afanc/iurta was controlled directly by the various Boards at Peking, It was then decreed that each of the 3 Provinces should have a civil Governor or Siinfu jS |||. The Southern Province, or Sh6ng- king j( iJH, was to have a Viceroy called ShSngking Tsungtuh tf iSC tt llF* ^^ Mukden, there was to be a Tartar-General or Tsiangkiin Kf SRi with the title of Mayor or Fuyin Jff ^ of Mukden. In addition to the functionaries of the Provincial Government enumerated above, Mukden was furthermore to have a Provincial Literary Chancellor or Hsioht^ai ffi )[, and 6 Boards, on a reduced scale, corresponding to those at Peking. The Southern Province was also to have 3 Taot'ais ^ ||, stationed respectively at Mukden, Yingk'ow ^ p (Newchwang), and Fung- hwang Ch*6ng j|t jK, ji|. Kirin was to have a Military Gover- nor or Tsiangkiin, and a Taot'ai.

The military organization was composed of the Army of the 8 Banners or Pahk*i A jKi ^ yellow, 2 white, 2 red and 2 blue. The nationalities composing the Banner force were Manchus, Mongols, and descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchu troops at the time of the conquest A.D. 1644. Each of these formed a special division, three to each Banner, thus constituting 24 Banners in all.

The above system of administration was applied during

GBArvm I. MAMCHimiA. 505

the last 30 years. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree abolished the Tariar^Generalship, and appointed a Viceroy and 3 Governors to rule henceforth over the country, and administer it on the same basis as the 18 Provinces of the Empire. The Viceroy bears the title of Tungsansh^ng Tsungtuh JKH ^TttH (Viceroy of the 3 Eastern Provinces), and is to reside at Mukden. He is to fulfil all the duties of the extinct Tartar-Oeneralship, and is to have a permanent Yam^n in each of the 3 Provinces. These he will visit at stated times, in order to supervise the re- organization and development of the country. He is also /m- pertal High Commissioner, this title giving him the right to call to his assistance troops from other Provinces outside his Vioeroy- alty, and to hold control over them while within his jurisdic- tion. The 3 Governors of FungtMen, Kirin and Hehlungkiang have the addta'ona( title of Majors-General, thus enabling them to control Manchus and Mongols within their respective juris- dictions. The Viceroy and Governors are allowed to come to Peking by rail, for Imperial audiences, in matters concerning foreign intercourse, or other important business relating to the administration of the country.

A special military Commander is to control the troops of the Viceroy in the 3 Province^. These troops may not exceed 6 divisions, or 72,000 men (aee p. 332). Schools for military education are also to be established in each Province, and the Viceroy will exercise full control over them

The territory leased to Japan has a military Governor-Gen- eral. He is under the direction of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and controls the civil and military administration of the terri- tory, the courts, and the administration of the South-Manchurian Railway Company.

Open Porta. — Manchuria has 5 ports open to foreign trade : Netiehwang ^ ^*, Ngttntung ^ ^ (Antung), JkUmg (Taircn), Mukden or FungtMen Fu j|^ ^ ^, and HcirMit. In the treaty and additional agreement relating to Manchuria, entered into between China and Japan, 1905, it has been provided to open several other towns as places of international

506 BOOK IK OUTER DBPBIIDBMCIBS.

residence and trade: Liaoyang, Sinmin Fu, Funghwang Ch^^ng, Tiehling, Tungkiangtze, and Fakum^n in Sh^ngking Province ; Kirin, Ch'angch*un, Ninguta, Hunch^un and Sansing in the Kirin Province; and Tsitsihar, Hailar, Aigun, and Manchuli in Hehlungkiang Province.

Htalorlcal aketebu — It was about the middle of the XIV^^ century that the Manchus began to play a conspicuous part among the other Tungusic tribes of the same stock. Their original home was in the neighbourhood of the Long White Mountain. The founder of their power was T'ienming ^ {jfj or T^aitsu Kao Hwangti :;k tt V S ^ (great ancestor and lofty Emperor, 1616-1627), who organized the Manchu Kingdom, grouped his warriors into bands of 300 men, and transferred his capital to Mukden. His son and successor T^ients'ung 3Pc 4[|, or T'aitsung W^n Hwangti :ic ^ jSC £ ^ (great forefather and literary Emperor, 1627-1644), extended his sway over Liao- tung jj^ }|[ and Korea, and seized Peking ifj^ ]J(. The Chinese General, Wu Sankv;ei j^ H 4ii summoned him to the assistance of the Ming f^ dynasty, against the usurper Li Tzech'ing ^ gf jA (gee p. 461). He acquiesced promptly, entered Peking at the head of 60,000 men, suppressed the rebellion and pursued the usurper into Shensi. Ch'ungcMng ^ j||^ the last Emperor of the Ming dynasty, strangled himself during the siege, and left no successor. T4ents^ung refused to leave, but having died in the midst of his triumph, his infant son of 6 years was brought to Peking, and proclaimed Emperor under the title of Shunchi Ig jg, or Shitsu Chang Hwangti -£ jjB JfC Si $ (ancestor and accomplished Emperor, 1644-1662). He was the first Monarch of the Manchu or Tats'ing ;Xc fff dynasty, which rules over China down to the present day.

References :

Labb6P.— Les Russes en Extreme-Orient.

Paris, 1904. Venioakor. — Les Pays f rontidres de la

Rassie Asiatiqne. (In Russian).

VervollMiL — Notes snr la Mandohoarie.

(Revne d'Orient, 1844). ReoIiMi E. — Nouvello Q^ographie Uni-

verseUe. Paris, 1882. (Vol. VII. L'Aaie

orientale. p. 222-248).

CHAPTia I. MAKCHOBU.

507

VeBAolt. — Voyftge dans les Provinces de Mftndchoarie. 1851.

De Laiwye. — Le Fleave Amonr. (Tour da Monde, 1860).

PofldnfileT. — Lft Mandchonrie, 1897. (In Rassian).

Madrolle. — Chine da Nord. 1904. (p. 57-70).

De Wme. — Rapport sar le Ghexnin de fer RuBse et de Mandohoorie. (Bulletin du Comity de TAsie Fran^aise. Paris, 1903. Mai).

Etaflelme H. — A travere la Mandchourie. Paris, 1903.

Barrd P. — La Mandchourie. (Revue Fran^aise d*Exploration. Mars, 1904. p. 155-166. — ibid. Dte., 1900 : La Mand- chourie, grenier de TAmour. — Mars, 1905 : les Khoungouzes. p. 168-171).

Laanay A. — Ms' VerroUes et la Mission de Mandchourie. Paris, 1895.

OrloT. — Les Cosaques de Transbaikalie en Mandchourie, en 1900.

Description de la Mandchourie. '- (Minis- t^re Russe des Finances).

H. I. M. K'ieiilaiiff. — Eloge de la Yille de Monkden. (traduction par Amyot. Paris, 1770).

La Mandchourie. •» Annales de la Soci6t4 des Mi8sions-£trang6res. ( Mai-Juin ; Juillet-AoOt, 1904).

De la Salle G.— En Mandchourie. (Revue de Paris. 15 Avril, 1905).

PlailL — Geschichte der Mandchurei.

De Calx R. — La Mandchourie et les Puissances. (Bulletin du Comit6 de TAsie Fran^aise. Juillet, 1903. p. 278-290).

La Guerre Russo- Japonaise.— (Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Fran^aise. 1905. passim).

Les Japonais en Mandchourie. — (Bulletin du Comity de TAsie Fran^se. 1906. p. 259. — Les Japonais et le Commerce stranger en Mandchourie. ibid. p. 286. — Les Japonais et la Porte ouverte en Mandchourie. ibid. p. 319. — Chemins de fer Japonais en Mandchourie. ibid. p. 320.--Ohemins de fer de la Mandchourie M6ridionale. ibid. p. 899. — Les afiEaires de Mandchourie. ibid. Avril, 1907. p. 144- 146).

GoMair O. — China opened. London, 1888. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Ch. YI. p. 169- 201).

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China and Chinese Tartary. London, 1738.

Grofller.— Description of China. London, 1795. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Book II. Ch. L p. 123-142).

WlnlerlioUiaiii. — View of the Chinese Empire. London, 1795. (Manchuria, p. 12M82).

WUHanm — The Middle Kingdom. New York, 1861. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Ch. IV. p. 151-163).

WlHianifl. — Notices of the Saghalien River. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XIX. p. 289-300).

Topography of Manchuria. — Chinese Re- pository. (Vol. XX. p. 57-61).

J. — The Manchus, their Rise and Progress. Paisley, 1880.

J. — Notes on Manchuria. Chinese Recorder. (Vol. VI. p. 214-221).

J. — Some Notes on Liaotung. Chi- nese Recorder. (Vol. VII. p. 99-106).

Parker E. H. — The Progenitors of the Manchus. Chinese Recorder. (Vol. XXIV. p. 501-518).

Parker E. H. — A Thousand Years of the Tartars. Shanghai and Hongkong, 1895.

Parker B. H. — Chinese relations with Tartar tribes. China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 281-286. — Vol. XV. p. 23-29).

Parker E. H. — The Manchus in China. China Review. (Vol. XY. p. 263-270).

Williamfloii A. —Journeys in N. China. London, 1870. (Central Manchuria. Vol. II. Ch. 3-4. — S.E. Manchuria. Ch. 9. — N. Manchuria. Ch. 11-13).

James H. E.— The Long White Mountain or a Journey in Manchuria, with some account of its History, People, Adminis- tration and Religion. London, 1888.

Wylle A. — Journey through Central Manchuria. (Oeogr. Journal. London, 1893. Vol. II. n« 5. p. 443451).

Torley R. T. — Notes of a Tour in "no man's land" (Manchuria). Geogr. Journal London, 1894. (n« 6. p. 534-556). — A visit to the Yalu region and S. Manchu- ria, idem. Geog. Journal, 1904. (n* 4. p. 473-481.) — Some Notes on the upper Liao. idem. Geogr. Journal, 1905. (n* 3. p. 297-300).

Wta^ate A. W. — Some further notes concerning the Liao-ho. (Geogr. Journal. 1905. n« 4. p. 421-428).

508

BOOK II. OUTBR DIPINDINCII8.

Roflael O. — A Journey from Peking to Tsitsibar. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1901. n* 5. p. 613-623).

A^aaals A. R. — Our commercial rela- tions with Chinese Manchuria. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1891. n* 6. p. 534-550).

Allen H. — Commercial Report: Man- churia. London, 1879.

Bjmer J. — The Province of Sh(^ngking. Shanghai, 1880.

Youn^lioiiiaiid F. E. — The Heart of a Continent, (travels in Manchuria, the Gobi desert and the Pamirs). Loudon, 1904.

Fleming G.— Travels in Manchu Tartary. London, 1863.

Oolqntioun A. — Tho Overland to China. London, 19C0. (Manchuria. Ch. X-XII. p. 188-251).

HhunaM 6. W. — Manchuria, the coveted Land. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904. Vol. in. p 208 217).

Voy de Voya. — Notes of a Voyage across Bf anchuria. (East of Asia Maga- zine, 1901. Vol. IIL p. 32C-330. Vol. IV. p. .57-69).

Edtvards E. H. — Through Siberia to China. (East of Asia Magazine, 1905. Vol. IV. p. 175-182).

Browne Colonel. (British Military Atta- ch^). . Notes on Manchuria. (China Blue Book. N* 1. London, 1899).

Hoslo A. — Manchuria : its People, Be- sourccs, and recent History. London, I9a5.

LiUIe A. — The Far East Oxford, 1905 The Dependencies : Manchuria. Ch. X p. 155-170.

■anon. — Port Arthur. (East of Asia Ma gazine, 1902. Vol. I. p. 61-72).

Putnam Wenle. — Manchu and Musco- vite. London, 1904.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang hai, 1903. (Manchus. p. 410-113).

Lynch 6. -^ Corea, China and Manchuria London, 1905.

Wl^hnm. — Manchuria and Corea. Lon- don, 1904.

Mayero W. F. — The Chinese Govern mont. Shan^rhai, 1886. (The Three Man chnrian Provinces. — The Manchu mi litary organization).

The Russians in Manchuria. — China Re-

view. (Vol. XXIII. p. 143-153).

Atkinson T. W. — Travels in the region of the Upper and Lower Amur. London. 1860.

RaTenctein E. O.— The Russians on the Amur : its Discovery, Conquest and Col- onisation. London, 1861.

The Story of Russia in the Far East. Shang- hai, 1899.

Beverld^e A. — The Russian Advance. London, 1903.

Krauooe A. — The Far East : its History and its Question. London, 19.3. (Origin of the Siberian railway. »- The Liaotong peninsula. — Cession of Port Arthur. Ch. VII. p. 147-119.- RussU and Ja- pan. Ch. VII. p. 147-149.- Russian Aims. Ch. XII, p. 252-250).

Offawn. — The Geology of Liaotong. Tokio, 1905.

Tnrley R. T. — Map of Central and Southern Manchuria. ]x>ndon, 1901.

Ml* -Me A.— The Siberian Overland, from Peking to S^ Petersburg. London, 1864.

Kiiropntkin General. — The Great Si- berian Railway. (Geogr. Journal. London, J905. n»2. p. 146154).

Leroy-Deaulleu P. — The Awakening of tbe East. London, 1900. (The railway through Manchuria. Part I. Ch. X. p. 71-75>.

LeoTenworth O. — The Great Siberian Thoroughfare. Shanghai, 1902.

Amyol. — Dictionnaire Tartare Manchon- F.-an^ais (14,000 words). Paris, 1787.

Knulen. ~ Linguae Mandshoricae Insti- tutiones. Ratisbon, 1850.

Von MMlendorf P. G. - A Manchu Grammar. 1802.

De la Gabelenls.— Elements de la Gram- maire Mandchoue. Altenbourg, 1832.

Adam L. — Grammaire de la Langue Mandchoue, Paris, 1873.

Wylle A. — A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Language. Shanghai, 18^5.

History of the Manchu Language. — Chi- nese Recorder. (Vol. XXII. p. 100-113 149157).

Dyer BallJ. — Things Chinese. Shang hai, \*M\. (The Blanchu Language, p. 413-415).

China : Imperial Maritime Customs. De cennial Reports, 1892-1901 (Ncwchwang)

CHAPTER 11.

MONGOLIA OR THE MONGKU W * COUNTRY.

ThA vast plaieAU which lies to the North of China Proper, and 8<*parat(>s it from Siberia, is called Mongolia. The surface of this plateau is far from being equally level throughout, but is composed in reality of a basin formed by the depression of the Gobi desert. The latter is bounded on the N. W. by a still higher region; on the N. E., E. and S.£. by the Khingan fHsiugngan H $) and Yin-shan K| llj mountains; on the S., by the Ordos country, and on theS. W., by the Alashan (Holan-shan KM UJ) rang.-^. For clearness' sake, we shall give, besides some notions on the country in general, a few details upon each of these regions.

Area. — 1,367,953 square miles.

Pepnlmilon* — 2,580,000, or nearly 2 to the square mile.

HaBie. — Besides its name of Mongolia, derived from the word Mongku ^ i£f , it is sometimes called Gobi (Kwopih :^ ^) or the Desert, also Shamo fj^ ^, that is Sandy Waste. The Chinese call it Han-hai ^ f^ (rainless sea), but this Inst denomination is applied more particulary to the central part.

Itonndarles* — Mongolia is bounded on the

N. — By Siberia (Provinces of Transbaikalia, Irkutsk,

Yenesei and Tomsk), W. — By Siberia (Province of Semipalatinsk), and the

New Dominion or Sinkiang gf 9(« S. — By China (Kansu fl- jf, Shensi |P^ f|, and Chihli

«», E. — By Manchuria (Manchow fM iW)-

510 BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDENCII8.

Aspeei and Chaimeierlatlcs. — Considered from the Chihli plain, the table-land of Mongolia appears like a serrated chain of high mountains. Ascending one of these summits, an immense plateau, ranging from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in height, discloses itself to the view. To the North and South extends a verdant zone, pasture^lands prevailing more to the North, and cultivated fields to the South, An immense mountain chain, the Great Khingan (Hsingngan H ^), rises boldly to the East. Its vast mass is covered with forests, while it slopes gently towards the Gobi desert, but more abruptly towards the low plains of Manchuria. A considerable mountain mass extends throughout the whole North-West. Its peaks afford pasturage, when uncovered with snow, and numerous streams issue from its sides. At high altitudes, some fine expanses of salt water are still found, remnants of those vast inland seas, which must have formerly existed there. To the S. W., are mountains and table-lands higher than the Gobi, and like it covered with sand. There are few important towns in this immense tract, and the population is largely nomad. The Chinese farmers constantly advancing from the S., their hand on the plough, and the numerotis sedentary Lamas who live by thousands in the monasteries upon the plateau, are however an exception. This country is on the whole rather poor, and inha- bited by cattle-breeders, continually shifting their tents. This however was not always so. The numerous ruins found in the desert attest that it was formerly cultivated, and dotted over with towns,

Geolo^cal coofltiiatloa. — The Mongolian plateau is the extension of the T'ien-shan ^ |l|t or heavenly mountains. It seems to be composed of metamorphic and igneous strata : gneiss, granite, cr>*stalline and slaty schist. It was formerly bel- ieved that it had formed the bed of a dried-up sea during the primary and secondary periods, but no traces of rock belonging to these periods have been found op the pla- teau. The name Han-hai J|L i$ (rainless sea) should not therefore be interpreted in this sense.

On the elevated plains which border the plateau, and on the slope outside Mon- golia, lie extensive beds of basaltic and other volcanic upheavals, as well as limestone and carboniferous rocks.

Ked and brown conglomerate, sandstone and clay are found everywhere through- out the Gobi, but the fossil remains which they contain, attest that these rocks have been formed at the bottom of fresh-water, and not of salt-water lakes or inland seas.

CHAPTBR II. MOMeOLU. 511

Owofprmphy and BydrogrmpUy ofT ilie Tariens regtons of Mensolte.

l"". The region N. W. of Kobdo tmd Urga» — This region forms a high plateau surrounded by four ranges of mountains : the 8auan (Saiansk) and Busekm AUai to the N. and N.W., the Ekiagh AUai or Canfrol AUai to the S.W., the Ariaa-Bogdo and Keniai to the S. E., the Khamar'jDoban and the Btgik^lkmgitk to the N. E. — This plateau, which is about 110,000 square miles in extent, never falls below a level of 2,300 feet (at the Ubsa-Nor lake), and this only over a limited space. All the rest, even at the bottom of the valleys and in the lowlands, has an elevation ranging from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. Several moun- tain chains rise much higher. A good many peaks of the Southern Altai exceed 10,000 feet, and one of them, the Tasagtu- Bogdo, seems to attain an elevation of 14,000 feet. Peaks, reaching 10,000 feet and more, encircle the horizon, except to the S. E., between the Kentai and Artsa-Bogdo ranges.

The passes, whereby the plateau is approached, are also exceedingly steep. In the Southern Altai, they are not lower than 9,000, and rise as high as 10,000 feet. One of the principal of this South Altai range is the Olen-Darha pass, which is 9,240 feet high.

Numerous rivers water this region, and several flow into salt-lakes with no outlets. The principal are the KeMo river or KobdOffoif which flows into the KiMrauseurNar, a lake situa- ted at an altitude of 3,800 feet; the Tes river, running into the Ubea^Nar, a lake 2,230 feet above sea-level; the Tenieet^ formed by the ITIuJkam, the Beikem and the Kemehik; the Seieitga with its tributary the OrJkJkm, itself receiving the Toia or Urga river. These two latter rivers (the Yenisei and the Selenga), together with their tributaries, water the whole Northern parts of this vast table-land.

From the outer sides of this mountain-mass only a few small and short lived streams flow towards the Gobi and Sungaria, and are soon lost in the sands. The principal of these is the Urungu^ which waters the depression situated between the

512 BOOK II. OUTER DIPBNDINCIM.

Central Altai and Sungaria, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,000 feet.

Besides the lakes already mentioned, numerous others occupy here and there the depressions of the plateau. The principal is lake Kom>g^ which is over 60 miles in length. It is the only one whose waters escape by a river, called the Egingmi, and flowing into the Selenga. It is situated at an elevation of 5,300 feet, and lies at the foot of the snow-capped peak, known by the name of MmOcu'Sftrdwk. -^These lakes vary in dimension with the years and seasons, and are at times gradu- ally dried up.

The 8. E., and R. W. parts are covered with gravel, and are destitute of trees. The wide valleys of the table land are all in a similar condition. The elevated parts, especially the slopes towards the N., are covered with larch, pine, cedar and birch-trees. Wherever the forest disappears, as when the 8. is approached, excellent pasture-land is found throughout nearly the whole region. On the N., the two slopes of the Smpmn mountains are covered with woods. Further Southwards, trees are found only on the slopes facing the North. The Altai range is completely destitute of trees.

2®. Beaiati o/ Hie Mongolian Deaert or Oo^ — This is the lowest part of the Great Mongolian table-land, and is some- what funnel-shaped. It has its sand^rivers called ska^ho ^ fpf^ and is almost everywhere a stony and sandy waste, in the midst of which arise, like islands, rocky masses constantly eroded by sand storms. The Gobi is not, however, entirely a sandless v^aste. Beyond the sand-rivers, there is good land which yields shrubs, and a scanty but nutritious kind of grass. Agriculture is encroaching more and more on the Southern plateau, where the land is nearly everywhere fertile, and yields splendid crops, without manure, for years.

Here the climate is too dry, and the sands too permeable by water, to allow of rivers being formed. The only water available is drawn from cisterns, fed by the summer storm- showers.

CBArm II. MONeoLiA. 513

The Gobi Desert has an altitude of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet, and is slightly undulated, its surface being broken by a series of hills rising from 100 to 1,100 feet above the plateau.

High grass covers in Spring its South-Eastern part, and imparts to it the aspect of a 6ea of verdure. This is the origin of the name given to it by the Chinese, "Land of high grass."

3\ BegUm of the Greai Khimgan (Hsingngan ^ ^).— The Khingan is a long chain of mountains, running in a S.W.-N.B. direction. It comes from Manchuria, and extends to the N. of Shansi il| |f , through the YinrslMtn |K (Ij range. It is formed by a series of two or three parallel chains, ranging in all from 75 to 100 miles wide. The Ortai Khingan itself rises on a base of from 3,000 to 3,200 feet in height, and attains finally an elevation of from 4,500 to 6,000 feet.

To the N., between the Great Khingan and the Kentai, extends a high undulated tahle^land, covered with low and flat hills, well wooded and irrigated, and marshy in some placNNl. Two important rivers drain this region : the Keruiem, which runs into the Dalai^Nor lake in Manchuria, and the On^n river, which flows into the Shilka, in Siberia.

The Tii^ehan is but a prolongation of the Khingah, and rises to an elevation of 5,800 feet.

Maei of the Great Khingant the low plain, which extends into Manchuria, is from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the sea-level. It possesses fine pasture-lands, and is watered by rivers which rise in the Great Khingan. The principal of these are the JioHni with its affluents, and the Skftrarmuren^ which is known further on as the Liao-ho jj^ jp}, and forms the boundary line on the N., between Ghihli ]t H and Mongolia.

4*. The Ordoe pkUeam. called the Ho-t'ao jij If or Ngoh- eultusze 9|l M 4 )K« ^^ hemmed in on the N., by a bend of the Hwang-ho H }ij- It slopes gently down from the 8., where its elevation is over 5,000 feet, to the N., where it falls to 3,200. It is almost entirely covered with sand, especially in the N. and W., and has rather large depressions called "tsaidams," which are the bottoms of dried-up lakes. Several small expanses

.is

514 BOOK II. OUTBR DBFKNDBNGIB8.

of water are scattered over its surface, and short a£fluent8 of the Hwang-ho drain its Eastern part. The ArbmMfta mountains, which are a continuation of the Alashan (Holan-shan )( |0 ll|) range, rise to an elevation of 3,000 feet above the plateau.

2V> the Nm €/ the Orioe etnnUrp, on the opposite side of the Hwang-ho, extends a fairly fertile and populous plain, walled in on the N. by several chains of mountains. It is called the "Urat country.''

5®. The Alashan Begian (Holan-shan )( g| ilj). — This com- prises two partfi, one mountainous and the other a plateau, both situated between the Ordos country, and the New Dominion or Sinkiang ff 9.

l%e mountains rise at a short distance beyond the Hwang- ho H jBf, and run in a S.W.-N.E. direction. They extend to a distance of 150 miles, and have a mean width of 15 miles. Their peaks tise to from 5,000 to 6,500 feet beyond the plateau, itself in this place from 3,300 to 5,000 feet above sea-level. They do not, however, reach the line of perpetual snow. These peaks are very rocky and of barren aspect.

The piateau is broken up with hills. The altitude of its lowest parts reaches 4,000 feet, but falls 'to 3,500 towards the Etsingol, and to 3,300 at lake Sogok. The hills rise to about 1 ,000 feet beyond the plateau. The principal river found there is the BMn^ol, which empties itself into 8oaok^N&r. Two other rivers, coming likewise from the Kansu •g" jfl mountains, are partly dried up before reaching the lakes towards which they flow.

Ollmate. — The climate of Mongolia is ver>' dr>-, and offers great variations of teTnpcrature, not only from one season to another, but even within the same day. The countr>- is swept constantly by sand-storms, and seems to be ever covered with a clond of yellow dnst.

The N. W. region ia especially cold on account of its elevation. At Urga, the in<'an annual temperature is 4'.^ Fahrenheit. The thermometer descends to zero in January, and rises to 79° F. in July. The dry, cold winds, which bloi^' from the N. W., render the Winters even still more severe.

In the (Tobi desert and the Alashan region, the climate becomes still drier and more rigorous. In Winter, the thermometer falls at times to— 29" F.,aud rises in July to lOO®. Occasionally, it has reached as high as 113** F.

CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA. 515

At Siwantze fS Vfi^iin the extreme S. E. of the Gobi desert, the annual mean toraperature is 37" F., that of January — 1®, and that of July 93* F.

In the N. of the Ordos country, snow begins to fall in October, and does not melt until April. A temperature of — 22" F. is not uncommon, and the thermometer registers sometimes during whole weeks even lower readings.

The daily variation is often considerable, ranging in March, from — 18** F. at daybreak, to 68" in the shade, during the afternoon.

The dryness of the country arises from the encircling mountains which arrest the rain-clouds. During Summer, no rain falls in Mongolia save during heat-storms. At Urga, the mean rainfall is 8 inches. At Siwantze, better exposed to the S. £. monsoon, it is 18 inches.

Fauna and Flora. — The flora of Mongolia varies according to the regions. In the N.f are found forests, rich in rinPi fJTt ^*^'^^i ftPPf^li ^^^^ ^nd cedar-trees. In the S., in the Yin-shan mountains, there are also large forests, in which are found the aspen, birch^willow. alder, dwarf oak-trees and thuyas. In the N. and S.E., there are tine pasture-lands. In the Gobi deaertt there are scarcely any trees or shrubs except a few dwarf -elm 8, fragrant artemiaMa^ and willows, and here and there some patches of stunted grass.

The fauna of the country is richer, without however being copious. The prin- ^al wildjauigals ^pund, ^re the wplf a^"^ ^^-^ i^^^^ numerous), the antelope, argali, wild horse, onager {dziggetai in Mongol), numlu^tiger (near the borders of Manchuria), )iSU» ^^^ ^^^^ boar, while t^fl birds are Ihfi eagle, kite and crow. In WiataCr'uuQerous ^patio birds fre(]|uent tJbjB. swamps and lakes. Lizards and reptiles abound in the Gobi desert. Several of the latter are very dangt^rous, especially the bothropa serpent.

Agricultural Wealth. -^ The agricullural wealth of Mon- golia consists chiefly in pasture- lands, and the flocks reared thereon : sheep, goats, horses, camels and yaks.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of the country is up to present little explored, and seems to consist principally of salt, coal, marble, granite and graphite.

Populalloo. •— The population of Mongolia is scanty. It is especially centred in the N., the S., and the S. E. The Central region, and that oi the S. are almost unin- habited.

Mongolia is peopled by three principal races : the Mongols j the Turkis and the Chinese. The Turkis occupy the W., the Chinese are confined chiefly to the S., where they are engaged in opening up the country, while the Mongols inhabit the remaining parts of the country.

The Mongols are divided into numerous tribes. The principal are : in the N., the Ealk?ias (the Great Conqueror, Oenghis-khan 1164-1227, belonged to this gi'oup) ; in the IT., the Kalmucks (divided into Buriats, Turguts and Eleuths), the majority of whom have crossed over to Tibet, Sungaria and Siberia; in the E.y the Chakhars. —The name Tartar sometimes given to the Mongols applies only to the Northern group, but even this must be taken with restriction, the proper appellation being Tatars.

The Mongols are a well-built and sturdy race. They are often of great width across the shoulders. The chest is, generally speaking, arched; the neck thick-set; the face large and flat ; the cheek-bones prominent ; the eyelids less oblique than those of

516 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDBKCII8.

the Chinese ; the nose broad and flat ; the beard black, short, and scanty ; the voice deep and sonorous, the features tanned by the smoke of the ^^yourt'' or tent, and exposure to the sun's rays, while the hands and feet are relatively small. Men and women are full of vigour and strength. Their character is frank and open, though rather rude. They are warm-hearted and hospitable, but improvident, lazy, filthy and much addicted to drunkenness. They are jovial, and fond of physical exercise and athletic sports. They are splendid horsemen, and as many as 4,000 may be seen at times contesting for the prize of daring and speed. On foot, they are awkward and walk heavily. Accustomed to live either in the "yoiirt" (tent) or in the open air, they have become inured to pri- vations of all kinds.

The majority of the men embrace a life of celibacy, in the Lama monasteries, and thus thin the population, which is fast advancing towards extinction.

The KirghiSf who inhabit the W., are of Turkish origin. Their cheek-bones are high like those of the Mongols, but in a lesser degree ; their limbs are strong and well shaped, their eye is quick, but the nose is convex, the beard black and fairly abundant, while their bearing is proud and haughty. Their reputation of highway- men is well deserved. They are, however, hospitable and open-hearted, and like the Mongols, pass the greater part of their life on horseback.

Reliffloii.— Nearly all the Mongols are Buddhists. Indian Buddhism^ however, after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamaism. Lamas are Buddhist monks who observe the forms of Tibetan Buddhism, and lead generally a conventual life. Two principal sects are distinguished, from the colour of their dress and their head- covering : the red Lamas and the yellow Lamas (Bed Caps and Yellow Caps). The latter predominate in Mongolia. Of the three High Dignitaries of Lamaism, or Living Buddhas, 2 reside in Tibet, and 1 at Urga,m Mongolia. This latter bears the name of HuVukht^u Vf IB % H ( a Mongolian word meaning one who returns again, or an Avatar). He holds authority over 25,000 Lamas, and maintains 150,000 slaves, who tend his flocks. Previous to 1664, he resided at Kweihwa Ch*(^ng RE ifc i$E, in Shansi ^J 0 Province. Nearly all Lama monasteries have now their Avatars, or Living Buddhas. These Lamasaries are very numerous, and reckon some, as many as 20,000 Lamas or more. According to recent statistics, the Lamas form the g of the male population of Mongolia. They wield great power, and enjoy wealth, owing to the numerous donations which they receive.

The Lama form of Buddhism is much adulterated in Mongolia with Shamanism and Idolatry.

hanguAge. — The most widely diffused type of the Mongol language, spoken throughout the country, belongs to the Ural-Altaic family, as the Turkish and Manohn dialects. It abounds in dissyllabic roots, and is rich in words and forms. The alphabet is syllabic, and of Syro-Uigur origin. It has 7 vowels, 17 consonants and 5 diphthongs. Gutturals and aspirates are largely used. The writing has undergone various trans- formations. Its latest form, which resembles knotted cords, dates from the XIII*** century. Mongol is written in vertical columns, from top to bottom, but unlike Chinese, the lines proceed from left to right.

The Mongol language has its conjugations and declinations. Sentences consist of a number of participial clauses, with the principal verb at the end, and this gives them at times an indefinite length. In the spoken language, the letter r is frequent, but the consonant f is non-existent.

The liturgical books, which the Lamas are bound to learn by heart, wiChout

CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 517

uuderstandiDg their meaning, are written in Tibetan. For this reason, and also because the book style differs much from the colloquial, there is very little literature to be found in the Mongolian language.

SPECIMEN OF MONGOL WRITING.

(Ordos Dialect).

12 8 4 5 6 7

Enguguet satsha Borh'ano oronn tor torog^o boloyo. (After his demise^ he toill be reihnhodied in the realm of Buddha).

Towns and Principal Oentres. — MongcUa has but few

important towns. This is due to the manner of life of the inhabitants, who are largely nomads. The principal towns are:

Vrga or K'urun f^ ^. — Population, 13,000 Lama monks, and 25,000 Chinese and Mongols. It is the Sacred City of the Mangdsf the Qreat Olig (D&kuren), the Holy City (Bogdokuren). The name Urga, given to it by the Russians, comes from "Orgo" (palace of a high official). It is situated on the Selbi, a tribut- ary^ of the Tola, (T*ohla-ho fg ft Jij), from which it is distant 2 miles. It is built on a hill, opposite the sacred mountain, an extinct crater 5,200 feet high, and upon which Oenghis-khttn (the Greatest khan) is said to have been born. At the present day, it is composed of three parts : 1* the kuren or monastery. This contains the principal sanctuaries, and the residence of the living Buddha. The Dalai Lama of Tibet withdrew there before Ihe British expedition entered Lhassa, August 3, 1904 ; 2® the Lama city, in which are several monasteries and Lama habita- tions ; 3® Maimai Ch'§ng X j| JA* '^^^^ ^^ ^^^ commercial city, where important dealings (in cattle, camels, horses, sheep, piece-goods, milk etc), are carried on between Russians, Mongols and Chinese.

China has her Imperiai^jlgent or Ambon (Manchu term for high officer) at Urga. He is styled K'ulunpanshi Tach*6n ^ 1& UJ ♦ ^ E (K^^^run Imperial Agent), and is associated with

518 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNCIBS.

a high Mongolian Official (Panshi Tach'^n §/tltt:h&* Imperial Agent). Both are charged with the superintendence of commerce between Russia, and the frontier city of Ki&khta (K'iahk'oht^u

K^bdo 1^ >(S %' — A small town situated on the Bayantu, at the opening of a low plain. It has a fortress, where the Governor of the city resides, and a small commercial quarter, occupied principally by Chinese with some Mongols. It is an important commercial centre for the cattle-breeders of the region.

Uluasui'iU i^ £ lEI K -^. — A town situated to the Bast of Kobdo, and similar to it in many respects. It is the seat of the military Governor of the Kalkhas region.

Industry and CTommeroe. — Industry is little developed, and limited almost entirely to the manufacture of felt tents.

Commerce is important: 25,000 horses, 10,000 horned cattle, 250|000 sheep, 330,000 hides, and a considerable quantity of furs are exported annually from Eastern Mongolia. From North- western Mongolia, the annual export is still more considerable, and comprises : 70,000 horses, 30,000 camels, and from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 sheep. Mongolia exports also salt, timber and deer-horns.

The imports firani China are tea, cotton, Chinaware, cutlery, tobacco and paper. The imports from Busskt are less considerable, but are however constantly increasing.

The transport of goods occupies a large number of Mongols. As many as 100,000 camels are employed in conveying tea from Kalgan (Chihli fg[^) to Siberia. Another 1,200,000 camels and 300,000 bullock-waggons are employed in the inland caravan trade.

Hlffliways ef Oommunieatten. — The most frequented thoroughfare is that which leads irom Kalgan to Kiakhta^ via Urga.

Another road branches off at Sair-Usu, and proceeds to Uliasut^ai and Kobdo.

During Winter, transport is effected by camels; in Summer, by bullock- waggons.

CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA. 519

A reauiarpasial service ^^OTgankized by Russia" connects Kiakhta and Kalgan, passing via Urga. There are 4 depar- tures per month in each direction, 3 for the light mail, and 1 for the heavier parcels. The light mail is carried by two horses mounted by Mongol riders, who travel at full speed. Relays are established every 20 miles. The light mail takes 8 days in Summer to make the trip, and 9 ^ in Winter. For the heavier parcels, from 20 to 25 days are required.

Admlntolimtleii. — Mongolia is under the control of the Lifan Yuen H ^ Ri or Mongolian Superintendency, whose head-quarters are at Peking.

A part of the country is now attached to Shansi \ji\ ff and Chihli gl^. The rest is divided into Inner and Outer Mongolia.

Inner MmigoUa^ or Nei Mongku Pi ft 7^, comprises the whole country lying between the Gobi desert, China Proper and Manchuria. It is also called Mongolia of the 49 Banners, from the military organization adopted there. It is arrayed in hvo sections, termed the right and left wings, the left occupying the Eastern, and the right the Western half of the country. These two sections are divided into 6 chogolgan or Leagues (M^ng 9 i^ Chinese), which embrace the whole of the 24 tribes or Pu ||( (in Mongol, Aimaks f| Ijf J^), under which they are distributed. Each tribe comprises 1 or several banners, that of the Ordos, for instance, having 7. Each League is ruled by a petty Prince called the Captain-General (Mingchang 9 ^) ^^ the chogolgan. He is selected from among the leading chieftains of the tribes, and approved by the Emperor of China, on the recommendation of the Mongolian . Superintendency. — Two Bfilitary Governors-General, one residing at Jehol, and the other at Kalgan (Changkia-k'ow S jjt D 1 the gate-town on the line of the Great Wall), are appointed for the control of Inner Mon- golia. In civil matters, they depend on the Viceroy of Chihli. The Commissaries of this latter reside at Kalgan and Jehol, and administer the civil affairs of the Chinese population inhabiting Inner Mongolia.

Oiiler MenffoUOf or Wat Mongku ^ jH l&i comprises all

520

BOOK II. OUTBH DinNDBNCIBS.

the rest of the country. The Mongols who 'inhabit it, especially the Kalkhas tit W ^^ have maintained their independence longer than the other tribes, and even now, their allegiance is rather nominal than real. They constitute 4 great tribes or aimaks, 3 of whom are still governed by hereditary rulers, bearing the title of Khan (in Chinese, Han }f ). The number of banners, distributed among the 4 tribes, is 83. By the addition of 2 banners of Eleuths, and 1 of Khoits, the number of the ban- ners of the Kalkhas reaches 86 in all. The Khans of the Kal* khas testify their allegiance to the Sovereign of China by an annual presentation of 9 white animals (Kiupah ^ g), consist- ing of eight horses and a camel, all pure white in colour.

Next in importance to the Kalkhas are the Kalmuks or Western Mongols. They are divided into 6 tribes : Eleuths, Turbets, Turguts, Khoshoits, Khoits and Ch^oros. They inhatnl the region of Kuku-Nor, and the Northern borders of Tibet (ancient Tangut).

A Chinese Imperial Agent resides at Urga, and maintains his authority over the Kalkhas chiefs. The Western Kalkhas are under the rule of the military Governor of Uliasut'ai.

Army. «* The Mongol tribes have to serve in the ranks of the army, but in fact onl}' Inner Mongolia supplies soldiers. The Mongol army has but cavalry. There are . 1,325 camps numbering 198,000 men, of whom ,\ is armed with rifles. Evry 3 or -I yearn, a general review is held at Kalgan.

Beferences :

Recliw E. — Nonvelle G^ographie, 1882.

(Vol. VII. p. 176-222). De Leadaln. — £n Mongolie. Paris, 1903. De Bala.— La Mongolie. (Tour du Monde,

1901). De Goianes J. — Histoire Ginerale des

Huns, Turcs, Mogols. 4 Vol. Paris, 1756-58. lATiMie et RamlMiiiil. - Histoire Gto«-

rale. (Tome II. Cb. 16, et Tome III. Ch.

19). Onhun. — Introduction k I'Histoire de

I'Asie. Paris, 1896. (Turcs et Mongols,

des origincs a 1605). D'Ohwwn C. — Histoire des Mongols. 4

Vol. Amsterdam, 1854.

Hoc et Gabet.^ Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet. Paris, 1850.

So«II6. — Les Tribus Mongols : lear 8i> tuation actuelle, politique et gtographi- que. (Kcho de Chine. 19 Mai, 1904).

Kevue illustr^e des Missions en Chine et au Congo. (Missions Beiges), paadm, v.g. 1889, p. 97 sq., aperyu du Vioariat de la Mongolie Centrale. — 1891, p. 488 aq., MongoUe S.E. — 1892, p. 1 sq. Etai, ffc- mille, religion des Mongols etc.

Le Pays des Ortous. — (Missions Catholi- ques, 1875).

CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA.

521

WoUr. ^ Gk)8ohichte der Mongolen. Bres- Ian, 1872.

De ObmvmMtaem. — Conqu^te en Asie par les Mogols et lea Tartares bous Gengis- Khan et Tamerlan. Tours, 1876.

Feer Is. — La Poissanoe et la Civilisation Mongoles an XIII* si^e. Paris, 1887.

Gaabll. ^ Histoire de Qengis-Khan, et de toute la Dynastie des Mongous, ses sac- oessetm. Paris, 1739.

R^moflAt. — Mdmoire sur les relations politiques des Princes ohrdtiens avec les Emperenrs Mongols. Paris, 1827.

HiBvld. — Voyage en Mougolie. (Bulletin dela Soc. G6ogr. Paris, 1875. p. 5-45; 181176).

Plan-Oi^rpiii- — Relations des Mongols ou Tatars. Paris, 1838.

DoaSlas Sir R. — The Life of Jinghiz Khan, from Chinese Sources. London, 1878.

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire of China. London, 1738. (Geogr. Obser- vations on Tartary. Vol. II. p. 285-265. — Travels of Verbiest and Gerbillon into Tartary. ibid. Vol. II. p. 270-369).

CiiOMJor — Description of China. London, 1795. (Mongolia. Vol. I. Ch. III. p. 166- 190).

IVlnterlioUiaiii. — View of the Chinese Empire. London, 1795. (Mongolia, p. 132- 144).

DatIs Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London, 1844. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. V. p. 158. — Kalkhas, Ortous, Calmucs or Eleuths. Ch. VI. p. 187-189).

'WUllanui. — The Middle Kingdom. New York, 1861. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. IV. p. 163-170).

Keane A. H. — Asia. London, 1886. (Mon- golia, p. 581-532; 539-544).

WiUlaiBMHi A. — Journeys in N. China. London, 1870. (Prom Peking to Kalgan. Vol. II. Ch. V. p. 92-105).

Gntmlair C — China opened. London, 1838. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. VII. p. 202- 288).

l|itifci«Mi J. — A Visit to the agricultural Mongols. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1865. p. 99- 112).

PMjevtalAy. ^MongoUa and the Coun- try of the Tanguts. 2 Vol. St Petersburg, lg75. — Third and Fourth Journey. 1885.

Obmclieir. — Central Asia, Northern

China and the Nan-shan. 1900-1901. PyevUntt. — Sketch of a Journey to

Mongolia. 1883. ^Mdneeir. — Towns of North MongoUa.

1880. — MongoUa and the Mongols. 1896-

1899. Kvopotkin. ^ Mongolia. (Encyolopiedia

Britannica. 1901). Kasloff P. K. — Mongolia and Tibet.

(Geogr. Journal. 1906 Vol. XXVIII.). Potanlii. — Sketches of N. W. MongoUa.

1881-1888. — The Tangut-Tibet Border

of China and Central Mongolia. 1893. De Wiitftl -> From Peking to Calais by

land. London, 1889. (MongoUa. Ch. 2-7). Parker B. H. — A month in MongoUa.

(The Phoenix, 1870-71. passim). MongoUa. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. I.

p. 117-121; 170-172). Topography of Mongolia. — Chinese Repo- sitory. (Vol. XX. p. 62-67). The Chinese in MongoUa. — Chinese Re- corder. (Vol. Vm. p. 273-295). Gilmoar J. — Among the Mongols, 1883.

— More about the Mongols, 1898. AtkiiMKNi T. W. — Oriental and Western

Siberia. London, 1858. (MongoUa. Ch.

24-29). Atkliwon T. W.— Travels in the Regions

of the Upper and Lower Amur. London,

1860. BDrradalle A. — Notes of a Journey in

Northern MongoUa. (Geogr. Journal,

1895. Vol. V. p. 562-572). Freenum-Mltford. — The Attach^ at

Peking. London, 1900. (Mongolia.— Our

Mongol hosts. ^ Lama-miao. p. 246-

329). Ho^VForttl H. H.— History of the Mongols,

from the 9**» to the 19*** century. London,

1876. Rockliill. — Diary of a Journey through

MongoUa and Tibet in 1891-92. Washing- ton, 1894. Gnnipbell O. M.<— Journeys in MongoUa.

(Geogr. Journal. London, 1908. Vol.

XXII. p. 485-521). YouQghn Aand Sir F. — The Heart of

a Continent. London, 1904. (Travels in

Manchuria, the Gobi Desert and the

Pamirs). Winsote A. W. — Nine years survey

work in N. China and Mongolia. London,

1906.

522

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Mtohie A.— The Siberian Overland Route,

from Peking to S^ Petersburg. Loudon,

1864. (Mongolia. Ch. (»-14). Oolquboiin A. —The Overland to China.

London, 1900. (Eastern Mongolia. Ch.

XIII-XIV. p. 255-308). Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang- hai, 190;{. (Mongols, p. 44C-449). Mayers F. W. — The Cliinese Govem-

nient. Shanghai, 1886. (Mongolia and

Turkestan. Part XI. p. 80-96). UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

(The Dependencies : Mongolia. Ch. XI.

).. 171-185). lle<lley J. — On Tramp among the Mon-

g(.ls. Shanghai, 1900. Bowra E. O. — On the words Mongol,

Mogul, Tatar and Tartar. (Notes and

Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I.

p. 57-59).

KoTaievflU. — Diotionnaire llongol- Busse-Fran^ais. 1814-49.

Soali6. — Elements du Dialecie Mongol. (Ordos). Paris, 1903.

Vllaie et de Sercey. — Grammairo et Vocabulaire de la Langne Mougole. (Kal- khas). Pd-kin, 1897.

HSmutUkt. — Kecherches sur les Langues Tartares. Paris, 1820.

IMkiiMi J. — Mongol and European com- mon words. (PhoBnix Vol. II. p. 149...)-

Dyer Bali J. ^ Things Chiuese. Shang- hai, 1908. (Mongol Language, p. 449-451).

Tole. — Primer in the Mongol Language. London, 1837.

Denny* N. B. — A short Vocabulary of the Mongolian Language. (Notcrs and Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I. p. 132).

CHAPTER III.

CHINESE TURKESTAN OR THE

NEW DOMINION

ALSO CALLED SINKIANG frii.

Sinkiaug forms, as it were, the 19**» Province of China. Thus considered, we miglit have described it immediately after the 18 ProvinceH. The region, the climate, the language, the administration, are however, widely different. Sinkiang itself, is cotuposcd of such hetorogeneous parts, that we deem it necessary for the sake of clear- ness, quite in exhibiting a general view of the whole, to give also some details upon each of its principal divisions.

Area. — 550,579 square miles.

PopolaUon* — 1,200,000 inhabitants, or 2 per square mile. As in Mongolia, a great part of the country, viz. the desert and the mountains, is uninhabited. The population is grouped in isolated oases, or in some of the well irrigated valleys.

name. — The name ShtkUmg fgj; H has been given to it from the fact of its being recently organized, in 1878, after the victory gained over the Mussulman insurrection in the North- West {see p. 363). It is also sometimes called Basiem Twr- kestan, from the name of its larger portion ; also Chinese Tht- ketian, in opposition to Russian or Western Turkestan ; finally KaehgaHa from Kashgar, the name of its principal town.

w — Sinkiang is bounded on the N. — By Siberia,

W. — By Russian or Western Turkestan, and by Hin- dustan, 8. — By Tibet, E. — By Kansu "H* ]f ^^^ Mongolia.

524 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNGIB8.

Br^eetural and other JDIvMotitf. — Sinkiang has H JPtefe^ tures or Fkis Jff^ 9 Chaws ff[ and 8 THnga ||.

The ^refechtres are :

1° Tih-hwa Pu jftft * or Urumt9i,

2» Y6nk*i Pu J» • KT or Karaahar,

3° Shuleh Fu flt Ik Mf (Kaskgar or Shuf u hsien fltlWt depeuds ou it),

4° S0Ch*6 PU » » *f or Far^and,

5» Wdnsuh Pu a » * or ^faiM,

e» lu Fu r V ifr.

The ChiOWB are :

1° K'uch*6 Chow » * « or -Ki/rAa,

2» Hwotien Chow 3W IB ^ or iCAo^ew.

Tito Things are :

1« Tingldhshaeal T'ing X $ i^ M ■ or Yujigi-Huaar,

2P WUBhih T'ing ft fr ■ or UchTur/an,

d» K'uenlk'ohlah Wtuto T'ing flLffmHI AlEB or jci/rikara-t/iiu, 4» Chfinsi T'lng A B ■ or ^arAu/,

6» Hahmih T*mg »»& ft ■ or ifawt (Khamil),

&" T^ulnfan T^ing i|t V 3 ■ or Turfauy T Tsingho T^ing M MT ■,

8» T*ahch*6llg T4ng 9 JA ■ or Tarbagatai.

Amj^eel and CliaraclerlBiiek •*— Sinkiang is an immense

desert, surrounded by lofty mountains, and except for a few cases, sandy and barren throughout. The melting snows give rise to few rivers, and hence it well deserves the name of "Chinese Siberia". The Southern part is a closed in basin, communicating with the outside only through a few passes. For the sake of clearness, we shall call all this part Bkutem Tutkeelanp or T'ienshan Nanlu ^ \U 1^ K (^^^ 9^^^^ ^^^^ South of the T^ien- shan range). — Its North-Eastem part is a series of mountains, valleys and plateaux. We shall style it likewise by the name of Sunaaria or T'ienshan Pehlu 3^ llj 4fc 0$ (^^^ great North road of the T'ienshan). — The Eastern T'ienshan 5f (Ij range separates these two regions from one another. — Sinkiang being largely a piace of passage, is inhabited by a great variety of races Though impoverished and distressed in general, the country seems to have been formerly well populated, and the sand'^ buried ruins discovered there, attest that in days gone bj/, it

CHAFTBR III. CHINB8B TURKBSTAN. 525

enjoyed a certain prosperity. The inroads of the sands, however, seem to threaten with ruin, and hinder the development of all the new towns which are rising there.

Geological eonolitotkio.— Sinkiang is a series of gravelly and sandy basius, surronnded by high mouutains of igoeous and primary formation, where granite, schist and crystalline rocks predominate. It ma> possibly be that the sea filled these basins during the secondary and tertiary period, but there is, however, no proof of this. What seems certain is that vast inland lakes formerly covered part, if not all, of these basins. Some of these lakes remain, even to the present day, especially in Sungaria.

Orograplijr. — Eastern Turkestan forms a basin closed on all sides, and varying in altitude from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level. It is bounded by a circle of mountains, the height of which diminishes only towards the Bast, as they approach Kansu 'y']!!^. These mountains incline abruptly in narrow terraces to the South. They slope also in a series of chains, but less rapidly, to the West and North. These mountains are the following :

l"". In the South, the Ntm'shtm jff llj and AUyn-Tagh mountains, both branches of the K*ueniun % ij^ range. They reach an altitude of from 21,300 to 25,500 feet, and are capped with perpetual snow above the line of 18,000 feet.

2®. In the West, the Kardkaraim mountains, the massive block of the FanUrs, and the n'ons-AUai. Their highest peaks attain an elevation of 26,000 feet.

3«. In the North, the T'leti-shoii % jlj. This mountain- range stretches out into a series of parallel chains which slope to the South. Its base sometimes attains 180 miles in width. All the summits of the TMen-shan are covered with large gla- ciers. The most famous peak is that oiKhan-Tengri, the altitude of which is 22,300 feet. The TMen-shan continues Eastward by the Bo^d^olOy and more to the South, by the Feh^ahan jg ill (white mountain), a low range 4,500 feet high, and intersected by parallel ridges rising to the height of 7,200 feet.

Further to the North lies the tabie^iand of Sungaria^ rising from 1,600 to 6,000 feet, and the Ili valley which is encircled by steep mountains.

526 BOOK II. OOTBR DRPnCDmCIM.

JDepresMona. — In certain parts of Sinkiang If Jg, the surface of the land sinks considerably. At the South-Eastem foot of the Western T*ien-shan ^ ilj, there is a large depres- sion of the soil, 50 miles wide by 100 in length, situated at an elevation of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Further to the North-East, between the Eastern T'ien-shan J^ [Ij and the Shol-iagh, another but much deeper depression is found. To the West of Hami, it is but 120 feet in altitude, while to the West of Turfan, it even seems to be below the sea-level. The depression between the Eastern T^ien-shan and the Shol-tagh is called the Luk-shun depression^ from the place where it is deepest. It is very fertile, and appears to have been formerly well inha- bited.

Fiasaes. — Few passes allow Sinkiang to hold relations with the neighbouring countries. The following are the principal :

1®. In the K^uenlun J£ J^ range, the Tash-Davan pass (to the 8. of the ancient Lob-Nor), at an altitude of 13,000 feet above sea-level ;

2*. In the Karakoram range, the Karakoram pass, at an altitude of 18,500 feet. The road over this pass is much fre- quented, and leads from Yarkand to Leh (Ladak in Kashmir) ;

3". In the Pamirs, the Shishiklik pass, at an altitude of 14,200 feet;

4". In the Trans-Altai, the Kyzil-Art pass;

5®. In the Western T^ien-shan range^ there are 2 passes : the MuZ'Art which is the principal one, and the Terek-Davan^ at an altitude of 12,500 feet:

6®. In the Eastern T'ienshan, one of the passes is situated at an elevation of 5,300 feet, all the others are at an altitude of 7,000, and reach at times even an elevation of 13,500 feet. The principal of these passes is that of l]rumtsi\

7". To the N. of the Hi valley, in the Boro-koro range, is the Talki pass, which reaches an altitude of 4,500 feet above the lli valley.

Ollmaie. — Althougb the climate of Sinkiang,' varies exceodiiigly from ono extre- mity (»f thf country ti> tbe other, it may be Bai<l in general that it i8 vtry drj* and

CHAPTER III. CHINB8B TUHKB8TAN. 527

severe. It rains or snows scarcely 20 or 25 days in the year. In January, the ther- mometer falls to 13* Fahrenheit below freezing point, and rises in Summer to 86° and 97° F. The nights are often calm, but in the middle of the day, especially in Spring, terrible sand-storms sweep over the country. The air ever laden with sand, even when it appears rather clear, forms one of the characteristic features of this region. The sand penetrates everywhere, and saturates even a person's clothes, without there being any means of protecting oneself from it.

Mj&rotprmphy. — )n Winter, the rivers and lakes are frozen. In Spring and Summer, when the snows melt, numerous rivers are formed at the feet of the mountains, but as they continue their course, they soon disappear in the sands. Only one large river, the Tarim, irrigates this region. The principal towns of Sinkiang are built along its banks, and upon those of its tribu- taries.

The Tarim (T'ahlimuh-ho ^M/fC^PT) rises in the Karakoram glaciers. It is at first a foaming torrent, ever increasing in volume till it leaves the mountains, a short distance to the S. W. of Yarkand, its bed falling 13,000 feet in 200 miles. After reach- ing the plain, its current becomes less impetuous, and its bed falls only 13,000 feet in 300 miles, till the place where it recei- ves the Khoten-Daria. From this point till its great southward bend, its bed falls 300 feet, but further on, the incline is only 100 till it finally reaches the Kara-feos/ium lake. The Tarim is about 1,250 miles in length, and receives numerous affluents. its bed is sometimes from 12 to 20 feet deep. It is then navi- gable, but being utilized by the peasantry who divert its waters, and absorbed by the sand and the dryness of the air, its volume quickly diminishes, and it is but a mere stream, when it ends in the Kara-koshum lake. This latter has taken the place of Lob'Nor^ formerly an immense expanse of water, but now a marsh.

At the end of its course, the Tarim continually changes its positions along with the lakes, into which its waters flow. These variations are due to the low level of the region, and to the drifting sands which are heaped up by the East wind.

A series of lakes, bordered by sand-hills, from 60 to 320 feet high, extends along the course of the Tarim.

The chief affluents of the Tarim are on the right, the

528 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDIMCIIS.

Kholen-Daria and C/ierc/ien-Darta ; and on the left, th^ KashgaV" Daria and the Tur/an-Daria.

In the E. of Sinkiang 3gf H, in the Peh-shan & |I|, two small rivers, swollen by the melting of the snow, water the border-land adjoining Kansu -^ jfl.

In the N., only a few short rivers flow into lakes without issue. The principal of these lakes are the Bagrac/i-KuZ or Tenghiz, in the Eastern T*ien-shan region ; lakes Aiar-Nor, Ehi'Nor, and Sairam-Nor, in Sungaria. This last lake lies at an altitude of nearly 6,500 feet above sea-level.

An important river, called the Hi ^ ^, rises in the Hi valley, and flows into lake Balkash, in Russian Turkestan.

FAmia and Flora. — The fanna and flora of SinkiaDg are very meagre, whether we consider them either in regard to variety of speoies, or to the number of individnal specimens. -^

The principal wild animals are tho camel, onager, wolf, tiger, yak or baah-tail ox, gazelle, deer, fox, eagle and serpent.

On the vast sandy deserts, there are but a few tamarisks and reeds. In the verdant belt encircling Eastern Turkestan, at the foot of the mountains, is a vast forest, from 50 to 60 miles wide, and containing principally dwarf-poplars or tograks. A little further to the N., is a belt 6 miles wide, covered with reeds and tamarisks. StiU higher up, after a sandy tract some 25 to 30 miles wide, are pasture-lands.

In Sungaria, the principal shrubs are the artemina fnigrant^ which reaohcs - from 6 to 10 feet in height, and grows in clumps ; also a species of wormwood, which ' flffows to a height of 10 or 12 feet, and is utilized as food for camels.

The slopes of the T'ien-shan range, better flavoured, are partially dad with . forests, and have a greater variety of trees : the birch, pine, and especially the fir.

Affrlcnltaral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Sin:.. kiang consists of wheat, barley, oats, millet, rice, cotton, lucerne and chiefly fruit (grapes, peaches and apples...).

Horses, camels, oxen, asses, sheep and goats are also raised.

Wherever irrigation is possible (and this is always very skilfully carried out), the soil, which is excellent, produces good crops.

Mineral Wealila. — The minerals of Turkestan are little worked, but they are nevertheless not wanting: sulphur, saltpetre and alum, are found extensively in the environs of Uch'Turfan and Yarkand; jade-stone and gold in the K'uenlun ^ ^ range;

CHAPTIK III. CHmMI TUlUUIBVAll. 529

lead, naphtha, coal and copper to the West of K^shgar; coal at Kurla and Turfan; rock-salt to the East of Ak6u, and to the North of Turfan.

Eastern Turkestan is famous throughout China for Ho jade- stone^ which is much prised all over the 18 Provinces; hence the name ^^Yuhm6n^ 2 ff^ (|adtf^9tone gate) given to the town nearest the Great Wall.

Tbe IHfferent Baglons awd tlietr fTbtef Towns.

\\ The reffian of Hami or T^h'shan jg Ul. — This Is the country first reached when coming from Kansu fl' Hf. A part of it (Ngansi and Yuhm^n) is at present even attached to the Pro- vince. It is composed of a plateau 4,000 feet high, connecting the Eastern T^ien-shan 55 ill with the Nan-shan ff| il| range. This plateau is intersected by a series of parallel mountain- ranges, with an altitude of from 5,500 to 7,300 feet, and between which lie wide lengthy valleys, covered with gravel and red deposits. Two roada cross it, leading from Kansu '^ ffl to Sungaria, via Yuhm§n^ Ngansi and Hami. It is an arid and stony region, especially between Ngansi and Hami.

The towns have little importance, except as post-stages for officials, soldiers and traders. The principal are :

Tvhmen 3i P^. — A charming little town surrounded by fine raipparts.

^ Ng€iHH ^f|. — A wretched place, more and more invaded tiy^the sands.

JXnmi or Hamil (Hamih T'ing B{^ jf|( J(|). — A verdant oasis, lost in the immensity of a sandy waste. The oasis is about 12 miles wide, and owing to its fertility, produces in abundance : iM^rley^ oats, wheat, millet, and especially excellent melons famed throughout the whole of China. Every year, a large quantity of them is dispatched to the Emperor and to the Court.

2*. The Great Gebi Deaert (Takwopih ^ :JilD, also called Shamo f^ ^, that is ''candy waste." — The Gobi Desert occupies the greater part of Eastern Turkestan, and is divided into two parts by the lower course of the Tarim River. The first,

34

580 BOOK II. oumi raPBUDBiicm.

iitualed to the East, is styled the Hachuri'^obi or Ilkhuma; the second, to the West, is called Takla^makan,

The Hachun or Gashun-Gobi is composed of 2 regions : the Northern, a dry and rocky waste, 4,000 feet ahove sea-level; the Southern, a little lower, is covered with clay and sand, and falls to an elevation of 2,500 feet near Kara-Nor.

The Takla-mahan desert is larger, and no less arid than the Hachun-Oobi. Its surface is broken up, and covered over with clay^ sand and gravel. It attains its highest elevation, 4,600 feet, to the N.E. of Khoten. Its centre stands at a height of 4,000 feet, and its lowest part at an elevation of 3,300 feet above sea- level. It is destitute of water and vegetation, and is an utterly barren waste. Its rolling sand-dunes are even a danger for the explorer.

3*. Thm regime e/<lba TmrkeeHan mm*. — This region forms a belt around the Great Gobi desert. It is verdant, fresh and well irrigated, especially in Spring and Summer. Large towns have sprung up there, the principal of which are :

mboton or Hvfotien Chow ^ QQ jHi) called also Ilchi. — Population, 26,000 inhabitants. The town, which is over a mile long, extends in a W. E. direction, and comprises three parts : the old town, the new town, and a group of houses connecting both. It possesses rich bazars, and carries on an extensive trade in carpets, linen^ cotton-cloth and jade ornaments.

Tttrkand or SochS Fu ^ ^ fff. — Population, 60,000 inhabitants. This town is situated in the largest and most fertile oasis of Eastern Turkestan. It is a fortified place, and is surrounded by walls and moats. Its industry and commerce are also brisk. It has rich palaces, vast bazaars, mosques and schools. It manufactures carpets and silk fabrics, cotton and woollen goods. The houses of the town and the small streets exhibit, however, a rather neglected appearance. The surroun- ding country is exceedingly fertile, but the climate is unhealthy.

Kiuhifar or Shufu hsien jj% |{^ j||. — Population, from 60,000 to 70,000 inhabitants. — A large commercial town, but whereas Yarhand trades almost exclusively with India, Kashgar

CHAPTBB III. GHINB8B T0RKB8TAN. 531

carries on business principally with Russian Turkestan. Long rows of camels, conveying brick-tea from China, impart to it a certain animation. Its bazaars, streets and shops are clean, and indicate genuine prosperity. The surrounding country, verdant and fertile, produces fruit in abundance.

To the N. of the Great Gobi lie several other towns of less importance than the preceding, but well known however. The principal ones are : Uch-Turfa/n or Wushih T'ing ,%i\^^, Akau or W^nsuh Fu ^ f^ J^, and Kucha or K'uch^ Chov^ ^]|[^.

Khoten, Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, Uch-Turfan, and Yangi^ hissar or Yingkihshaeul T'ing 51 "§ i^ W JB» this latter to the 8. of Kashgar, form what is called the hexapolis. A 7^^^ town is often added to them, Kargalyh, to the 8. E. of Yarkand, thus constituting a group of 7 towns, or heptapolis.

4*. The TSurfan regUnu — This region lies, as we have seen, in a vast depression, the bottom of a former lake, which is partly covered over with loess, and would be fertile, were it better irrigated. The principal towns found there arc the fol- lowing :

Turfan or T'ulufan THng Pt # # j||* — Population, from 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, in its two towns, one of which is Chinese, and the other Turkis.

Karashar or K'ohlahshaeul [^ (Hf ^ ^. — To the 8.W. of Turfan^ a short distance from lake Bagrach.

5*. SmHHi^ia, — Sungaria is a vast basin, partly dotted over with lakes. Its altitude above the sea-level varies considerably, thus it reaches 1,700 feet at Kuchen, 3,000 at Urumtsi, and 5,000 at Barkul. It is walled in on all sides, except on the East, where it communicates with Mongolia. It is generally of barren aspect, and the surface slightly undulated, except in the W. and N. The N. and E. are in a state of chronic poverty ; the soil is stony, the wells afford but brakish water, and the country is destitute of trees. The centre is not much better favoured. The 8., formed by the Northern slope of the T'ien^ shan 5^ ill range, has immense pasture-lands, and game is found there in abundance.

532 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBKDBNCIBS.

The West is the most beautiful and the richest part. The soil is fertile in several places, and numerous rivers irrigate the country. The principal towns of Sungaria are :

UtunUsi or Wulumuhts'i J% # tK 5Vi ^^^^ called Tih-hwa •*** ^ fli iff — Population, 50,000 inhabitants. Urumtsi, or the town of the 7 gates, was the ancient Capital of Sungaria. It lies at the bottom of a valley, and is inhabited by Turkis, Chinese, Manchus and a few Mongols ; the Turkis alone form i of the population. The place has an important garrison, and the Oovernor, or Fut'ai |k S ^^ Sinkiang, resides there in a splendid palace. It is a very busy town, and carries on a large trade especially in skins and furs.

Kueh^Sng IJT jift or K'it'ai hsien ^ '^ fgf>. — An important commercial town, holding constant communication with the whole North-East of the Empire, but especially with Kalgan and the Blue City (Kuku-Khoto, in Shansi (Jj f|). The caravans bring from China: sugar, tea, porcelain, silks and other fabrics. They return with skins, raisins, jade and other precious stones. An important business is also carried on in selling cattle.

6^. The Hi regUnu — The 111 region wedged in between high mountains^ is less accessible from China, except through the Talki'Pass. — Besides, it is rather impoverished since the late Mussulman insurrection (1861-1878), and reckons only about 125,000 inhabitants. The summits of its mountains are covered with snow and glaciers^ but further down on their slopes, there are splendid forests, excellent pasture-lands and a great number of fruit-trees. The valley is irrigated by the Hi River. Its cbief town is KuMja or Hi Fu ^%fl^, which lies at an elevation of 2,000 feet above sea-level. Old Kuldja is deserted since 1870, when the Tungani slew all the Chinese of the place. The hou- ses are but wretched hovels, inhabited principally by Turkis. Trade is entirely carried on outside the walls, in a suburb inhabited by Chinese and Turkis. The population, including that of the suburb, is about 10,000 inhabitants.

There is connexion at Kuldja with the Russian postal and telegraph service. A line 3,000 miles long runs across the

CHAPTBR 111. CHINB8B TURJLBSTAN. 533

Gobi desert. The road from here proceeds to Jarkent, over an easy pass, into the Russian Province of Semireckinsk, whence it continues to Kokand, Samarkand, Bokhara and Persia.

Occupied by Russia in 1871, Hi was subsequently restored to China in 1881, but Russia witheld a part of it in her posses- sion {see p. 474 and 477).

'^^^

PopalaUoo. ^ Sinkiang has an extreme- ly mixed population, oomposed ol Turkia^ Mon-

goUj Chinese^ Manchus, Sarta and Hindoos. .

Sedentary agriculturists, to whom different na- ^ "5 rts

mes have been given, make up the largest part, ^^^ ^rj ^

as well as the most ancient stock of the popula- ^ *^ ^

tion. Features, customs and dress ai'e widely *^^ \2 'v

.n

divergent. In general, the men are of high sta- ^ 3

ture, their skin is tanned, and their beard thick, 8 i^ - ^

its colour being either black or chestnut. Two ;5 ^h \1 §

main elements seem to have contributed towards ^ ^ -^ s

the formation of the present race of Ohinese ;§ a ^ -» •^,

Turkestan : a Turco- Mongol and an Indo-EurO' J ^J^ — ^* §> §

pean element. T -^^ g »«

Beii^ion. * Mahomedani3m is the pre- ^ «^ ^ '1^ ^

vailing religion, even among the Ohinese who g ^^ ^?) B §

have settled in the country. 1:2 7\ i\ S*

La^ff aase. — Turkia is the dialect the ^ ._ O ^^ J

most commonly spoken in Sinkiang. Several ua \^ ^ g

others : Ohineae^ Mongol and Tibetan, are also M \J I g

employed, but to lesser extent. 5 * ^ :! •§

Admlnlirtmioii. — Sinkiang, o ^ ^ I

or the New Dominion, depends on § "^ J

the Viceroy of Kanou -^ ]§ and | *^ |

Shenei ^ ||, who resides at Lan- ^ •^ Z

chow Fu H jMI ifipi in Kansu. He "" -^' g

deputes a Govormor (Fut^ai j|| H), •;> |

who resides at Urumtsi. A Grand tv "^

Treaeurer resides at Tih-hwa Fu ^ |

M ft ^« ^^^ TiKfHmrs^ewerai are .^ I; stationed, one in Hi, and the other

at Tarbagatai, while TaotaiB ^ j| administer 4 circuits : Urumtsi, Ningyuen hsien ff 3t H 0^ Hi), Kashgar or Shufu hsien SK ■# H* and Aksu or W^nfiuh Fu Jft ^g ;jj. The most important of these is Kashgar with a population of 700,000 or

534 BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDDfCIBS.

800,000 inhabitants. At Urumtsi, the Provincial High Judge, or Nieht'ai j|t ^^ performs the functions of Taot'ai,

Indastry and Commeree. — Each oasis has its peculiar

mode of life, and its industries. Khoten manufactures silk- stufTs, carpets and felt ; silkworms are raised at Hami and Turfan; this latter city manufactures also cotton-cloth; Kashgar has cotton d yei ng- works ; Kucha has leather-works; Aksu turns out copper and articles of metal, while Karashar is chiefly engaged in saddle-making.

Commerce is important. The chief imporiB from Russia are cotton, leather, sugar, matches, cloths and silk articles ; from China : tea, silver, porcelain and opium ; from India : brocades, dyes, tea and drugs. The chief eooporU to Russia are silver, cotton, raw silk and carpets; to China : grapes and cotton.

A considerable number of horses are imported from Mong<h Ha, the pasture-lands of Chinese Turkestan being insufficient to rear them.

BfgliwayB of Commnnleatloii* — Sinkiang is crossed by three main roads : the Northern, the Southern, and a road leading from Kansu H* Hf Province to Turfan.

The rotMd from Kansu to Turfan. — This road starts from 8u Chow Hf ;fj|, in N.W. Kansu, and passes vi& Yuhmto 3E P^ (jade-stone gate), Ngansi Chow ^ |f ^^ and Hami Pl^ j|f. Here, it bifurcates, one branch running N. to Barkul, Ouchen and Urumtsi; tlie other, skirting the S. of the Bogdo-ola, leads to Turfan.

Tfts Northern road. — This road already described as far as Urumtsi, continues North- Westward, and passes vi& Manas, • Shilko. Jinkho, and tlnally reaches Kuldja or Hi.

The Southern roa-d^ starting from Turfan, proceeds South- West^vard on the fringe of tht^ desert, through Karashar, Kurla, Kucha, Aksu, Chilyan, Maralbachi, and terminates at Kashgar, at the foot of the^Pamirs. — Prom Kashgar, a caravan route goes N.W. to Russian territory, over the Terek pass (12^500 feet high). This was the common land-route which formerly -con-

CBAFffBR ni. CHUIIHB

rAM.

us

nected China with the West, and whereby trade was carried on with Persia, Syria and the Roman Empire.

A much less important road starts Eastward from Kashgar^ skirts the S. of the Takla^makan desert, and passes viA Yangi- hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, Keria (from this place the desert may be explored, several sand-buried cities being in the vicinity)^ Gherchen^ Lob-Nor, Sha Chow, and returns to Ngansi Ohow. It was this route which the Buddhist monks^ Fa Hsien and HsiXen Chv?ang, followed when proceeding to India, the former in A. D. 399 and the laUer in 629. It was through it also that the celebrated Venitian traveller, Marco Polo, came to Ohina A.D. 1271 (Me p. 472).

The track, which crosses the Grand Gobi following the lower Tarim, is little frequented. The inhabitants of the region are, moreover, but semi-civilized, and live exclusively on fish, which they eat fresh in Summer, and dried in Winter.

L Note. — Conquered and lost several times by China, Sinkiang was subdued once more in 1789 by the Emperor K'ienlung $t K (1736-1796). A great number of Mongol, Manchu and Chinese immigrants, from the Provinces of Kansn ft Wl and Shensi KB, settled there at that time. * The revolt of Yakub-Beg (1862*1863) detached this region for some twenty years from the Imperial sway. It was finally reconquered in 1878, by the army of Tso Tsungt*ang 4^ JJ^ JK, and in 1881 erected into a Province. — Sungaria, its Northern part, was for long years a great and mighty kingdom, which extended far beyond the limits which it occupies at the pretent day.

References :

Doireull de Wrina ei Grenard. — Mis- sion scientifique de la Haute Asie. Paris, 1898. (surtout Vol. II: le Turkestan Chi- nois et ses habitants).

SoeflS. — Surface de la Terre. 1897-1903.

Goelay. —Description de la Chine Occi- dentaJe par un Voyageur. 1887.

r. — Irrigation dans PAsie Centrale. t. — A travers le Thibet inconnu. Paris, 1892. (Tour dn Monde, 1891).

P. H. d'Orl6aiML — De Paris au Tonkin.

De Decken. — A travers I'Asie. 1894. (Missions Beiges, 1891-92).

Beclofl. — Nouvelle Geographic Univer- selle. Vol. VU. Ch. III.

>— A travers les glaces et les sables de I'Asie Centrale. (Tour du Mon- de, 1898).

Spedit.— Etude sur I'Asie Centrale d'aprte les Historiens Chinois. (Journal Asiati- que. Oct. D60. 1888).

ImliAali-Haari.— Becueil de Documents sur I'Asie Centrale, d'apris les docu- ments Chinois. Paris, 1831.

SdiMiri. — Un nouveau champ d'explora- tion aroh^ologique-: le Turkestan Chi- nois. (G6ographie. 15 D60. 1905).

Peiiiot P. — Sur les Civilisations Hin- . done et Chinoise anciennes au Tnrkestui Chinois. (Bulletin de OomitA de I'Aiie Fran9aise. Dte. 1905. p. 480 iq.).

53&

BOOK II. OOTBA DIPBMDINCIBS.

Prinoe Kropodkln. — TarkoBtan. (Enoy-

dopsdia Britannioa, 1901). Obrodieflr. — Central Asia, North-China

and Nan-Bhan. 1899-1901. Koslotr. — The BaBsian-Tibet Bxpedi-

tion. 18991901. ■cJoT. — Becaeil da Turkestan. 1878-

1888. Pulaate. — Joomey of 1884-85. BoborOvsky. — Expedition to Central

Asia, in 1893-95. Vyiklrj. — Expedition dans I'Asie Cen-

trale, 1878-1880. Kuropatkla.— Kashgaria. Calcutta, 1882. FoUerer. — Durch Asian. 1901. WoelkeflT. — Klimate der Erde. 2 Vol.

1887. WllitaBMi. — The Middle Kingdom. New

York, 1861. (Province of Koko-Nor, Ili,

Sungaria, Cities in the Southern Circuit.

Vol. I. Ch. IV. p. 170-188). GutelalT ^ China opened. London, 1838.

(Government of Ili. Vol. I. Ch. VIII.

p. 244-261). WlnterbOttiaBi. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. (Country of Hami.

p. 191-195). Grofller. ^Description of China. London,

1795. (The Country of Hami. Vol. I.

Book ni. Ch. VI. p. 329-336). Imliaiilt-Haari. — Le Pays de Hami or

Khamil. Paris, 1892. Amyot. ^ Notices du Royaume de Hami.

(M^moires concernant les Chinois. Vol.

I. p. 399-400). UStntamat. — Histoire de la ville de Kho-

tan. Paris, 1820. Waiben V7. H.— Memoir on the Uzbeck

State of Khokend (ancient Ferghana) in

Central Asia. (Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal.

Vol. III. 1834). Waiben W. H. — Notices of Chinese

Tartary and Khoten. (Chinese Beposit^

ory. Vol. XII. p. 226-235). Raverty H. G. — Notes on Khokand,

Kasiigar, Yarkhand and other places in

Central Asia. (Journal A. Soc. Bengal.

Vol. XXVI. 1857). Jobnaoa W. H. — > Report on a Journey to

Cchi, the Capital of Khoten. (J.B.A.

Soc. Vol. XXXVII. p. 1-7). Hayward 6. W. — Journey from LeH to

Yarkaud and Kashgar. (J.B. Geog. Soc.

Vol. XL. p. 33-160).

Sbaw R. — Visits to Higb Tartary, Tar- kand and Kashgar, and return Jonmey over the Karokoram Pass. London, 187L

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DrataetaBeMer B. — Notices of the Med-

isval Geography and History of Cen- tral and Western Asia. London, 1876. Prajeralaky V. — From Kuldja aoroa

the T'ienshan to Lob-Nor. London, 1875. Prtja^alaky N. ^ Auz sources du

Hoang-ho. 1879-1880. —Fourth Journey.

1^86. littledale G. R. — A Journey across

Central Asia. (Kashgar, Koko-nor, Ning<

hsia and to Hongkong. — Geogr. Journal.

London, 1^94. Vol. XXIH. p. 445-475). Bower H.^A Trip to Turkestan. (Geogr.

Journal. 1895. Vol. XXV. p. 240-257). ■untkiBUNi B. — The Mountains of Tur

kestan. (Geogr. Journal, 1905. Vol. XXV.

p. 22-40; 139158). Oroii»y O. — Turkestan and a comer of

Tibet. (Geogr. Journal, 1904. Vol. XXUI

p. 705-722). Sehayler B. — Turkistan : Notes of a

Journey in Khokand, Bukhara and Kul- dja. 2 Vol. London, 1876. DoalB^r D. — Central Asian Questions.

(China and Central Asia). London, 1885. BoalB^r D. — England and Russia in

Central Asia. 2 Vol. London, 1879. BoolBer D. ^ The Life of Yakoob Beg,

Amir of Kashgar. London, 1878. 6v«D Hedin. — A Journey through the

Takla-makan desert. (Geogr. Journal.

Loudon, 1896. Vol. VIII. p. 264-278; 856-

372). 6vien Bedtaa— Three Years' Expedition in

Central Asia: Turkestan, Kashgar, Tibet.

(Geogr. Journal. London, 1903. Vol. XXI.

p. 221-260). Stein M. A -- A. Journey of Geographical

Expedition in Chinese Turkestan. (Geogr.

Journal. London, 1902. Vol. XX. p. 576-

610). Stein M. A. — Sand-buried Ruins of Kho-

tan. London, 1908. Barrett Hamilton 6. — Mammals ob- tained by Captain Deasy in S. Chinese

Turkestan and W. Tibet. (Proceedingi

of th6 2ool6gical Soc. Londonj 190(^.

CHAPTIR III. CH1NB8B TURKB8TAN.

537

Deasy H. — In Tibet and Chinese Tur- kestan. London, 1901.

Toun^husband Sir F. — The Heart of a Continent. (Travels in Manchuria, the Gobi Desert and the Pamirs). London, 1904.

UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 190^. (The Dependencies : Turkestan. Ch. XII. p. 186-202).

Parker E. H. ^ China : her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901. (Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 57-81).

Hlayeni F. W. — The Chinese Govern- ment. (Mongolia and Turkestan. Shang- hai, 1886. Part XI. p. 80-96).

DOrlnff H. — Journey in Chinese Ql^irkes- tan. Shanghai, 1907.

CHAPTER IV.

TIBET OR SITSANG If «

By Tibet is meant the whole gcof^raphical region bearing this name, and not only the Southern and Western portions, which alone form the Khigdcm of Tibet, We shall therefore treat also in this chapter of Kiikii-Nor and Tsaidam^ although they are under special administration, and their population differs racially from that of Tibet.

— 463,320 square milee. The greatest length of the country is about 1,240 miles, and its greatest breadth 740 miles.

— 6,430,000 inhabitants, or 14 to the square mile. But the greater part of the country is desert and the only places inhabited are the valleys of the South and East. (The population given above seems to be far superior to what it is in reality, 2 or 3 millions at most, according to those who are best acquainted with the country).

BTaaie. — The name Tibet is apparently unknown to the Tibetans. It is however found in a Chinese author, who writes it T'upehVeh B| fjgf 4f. The Chinese call it Sitsang ff j|i, from the name of its largest Province. In Tibet, the inhabitants call their country Bodgul or the Land of Bod.

BonndArles. — Tibet is bounded on the

N. — By Kansu "tf Jj" and Chinese Turkestan or Sin-

kiang ^ a, W. — By Hindustan,

S. — By Hindustan, Nepal, Sikhim and Bhutan, B. — By Yiinnan § |$f , Bzechw'an Q }l\ and Kansu

CHAPfn IT. TIBIT. 589

Aspeet. — Tibet forms a vast mountain-mass, the largest and the highest in the world. On the N. and N. W.j are immense table-lands with lakes and rivers having no outlet. Its S. and E. are traversed by deep and well irrigated valleys, where vegeta- tion is luxuriant, and the people relatively well-to-do. Difficult of access, covered with snow and ice almost throughout the whole year, jealously protected by the Lamas, the country remains, in spite of all the expeditions undertaken of late years (in Atxgust 1904^ an English expeditionary force entered Lhasa), one of the most solitary, isolated and unknown regions of the worlds Tibet is not lacking in wealth especially mineral, but has also agricultural products. All the great rivers of India, Indo-China and China, rise in this country, Tibet is an almost insuperable bulwark which protects China on the S. W. far better than the strongest defence works would do.

Cto^losleal cooflltlirtloii. — The geologioal constitation of Tibet is known up to present only to little extent. Strata of the primary period seem to predominate in the N. In the S., there are sedimentary rocks of more recent formation. Strata of the secondary period especially are highly developed. The Himalayas themselves seem to be composed of gneiss and mi^-schist, while the summits are granitic. Towards the Centre, volcanic action must have been rather powerful. As remnants thereof, hot springs are still found at an elevation of 17,300 feet, and afford in Winter the extraor- dinary spectacle of frozen geysers. Many of the numerous lake-beds of the country owe very likely their origin to an upheaval of now extinct volcanoes.

— Tibet forms in general an immense moun- tain-mass, which attains an elevation varying from 13,000 to 16,500 feet in height. This mass is divided into two parts. To the W. and N. lies the region of the table-lands and lakes; to the S. and E., that of deep valleys and torrents.

l^". l%e tabie-^and regUnu — This is bounded on the N. by the JKSMfilim % ij^ mountains, a gigantic chain covered with snow, and rising to an elevation of 20,000 feet in Northern Tibet, while it falls abruptly in terraces towards Chinese Tur- kestan. In the West and Centre of Tibet, it is called the AUynr- Tagh range. As it approaches Kansu "H" JR", it takes the name of Nm^shan ^ lU towards the N., and is broken up into almost parallel chains, the best known of which are the Tsmidam,

540

BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDBMGIBB.

P4

:3

9

CHAPTBR lY. TIBET. 541

Prefevaisky and Baian-karu ranges. With the exception of the peaks of the AUgn-'Tagh and of the Nawahan, these nume- rous mountain chains rise but a few thousand feet above the surrounding region. They run in a W.E. direction, diverging more and more as they stretch away in the distance from the Dapsang Peak (28,240 feet high), the principal elevation of the Karokaram range* Several of these peaks have their summits covered with immense glaciers, chiefly on the N. The line of perpetual snow begins at an altitude of from 17,000 to 18,000 feet on the Northern slope, and at 19,500 feet on the Southern. Between these chains extend in general wide valleys, and at times, immense swamps and lakes. The vege- tation of these regions is very scanty, and consists of patches of stunted grass, while here and there are scarcely found a few clusters of shrubs.

2"*. The region of the vaUege and torrents. — This lies to the S. and E. of the preceding tract. On the E., it is compo- sed of mountain crests, separated by the great rivers of China and Tongking. These rivers, at first unimportant, shallow and of little incline, run in deeper beds as they advance to the E. or S., cutting up and dividing the country into peaks, crests, gorges and plateaux, which afford to the eye a most beautilul spectacle. On the S., the country is less broken up, the valleys less steep, and the rivers less rapid. The valleys attain seldom there a height of 11,000 feet above sea-level. On the Southern / frontier, rises the lofty and powerful HimaiiMpa (Himala-shan It 91 tfit ill) chain, which attains in Southern Tibet its highest elevation of 29,000 feet in M^ Everest (Ngohfahliehshit^eh-shan JE JS ?!l dr 4# lU)' The Himalaya mountains form a convex arc towards the 8. between the Indus and the Brahmaputra, with but few and difficult passes between Hindustan and Tibet.

OUmate. — In this immense region of such broken surface and of varions altitudes, the climate differs so widely that it is difficult to give a general idea of it. In the S. and E., the influence of the S. W. monsoon is experienced. In iho W., this influence is little felt. In the W. and N., the climate is very dry, and llttlo snow falls there. During the most severe cold, in December, the thermometer n'Ristcrs on tlic average 19** F. in the morning, while during the greatest heat, in June, tho average

542

BOOK II. OUTER DSPDIDSIICIBS.

recorded at 1 p. in. is 71* F. The Central region of the lakes has also a very dry climate in Antumn, in Winter and in Spring, but in Summer rain falls abundantly. In the S., the country is deluged with rain, hail or snow, thti whole year round. In the N., there are extremes of heat and cold in Summer and Winter. In March, the snow lies still very deep in the Tsaidam passes. — The large watercourses are never frozen over, but the minor streams are covered in Winter with a thin layer of ice.

The climate of Tibet, though rigorous, is nevertheless healthy. The danger arises from the variations, which are considerable.

Hjrdrogimphjr. — The mountain-system of Tibet shapes

its watercourses. Upon the vast table-lands of the N., N.-W. and Centre, nothing but lakes are found, and not a single im- portant river. In the Eastern and Southern regions, the country has numerous torrents and rivers, and also a few lakes.

SKETCH-MAP OP SOUTHERN TIBET.

CHAPTER IT. TIBBT. 543

The principal lakes of the table-lands are the Iki-Namur and the Pang-hung, both in the N.W. The latter is especially important, and very large. It lies at an elevation of 14,000 feet above sea-level.

The Dangra, Zilling-tso and Tengri-Nor, all of much vaster extent, are situated in the Central region. The TengrirNor lies at an elevation of 15,190 feet. It is 50 miles long, from 15 to 20 miles wide, and has an area of about 700 square miles.

The greater number of these lakes are salt or brackish.

As the water escapes with difficulty throughout all this region, the soil is entirely saturated with it, and frozen over during 8 months of the year, while it is muddy and almost a quagmire in Summer. The few and meagre rivers which rise there, flow into the lakes, and even these seem to diminish constantly both in volume and depth.

The principal lakes of the Eastern and Southern region are:

On the N. E., the Kuku^JSier or Ts'inghai ^ % (azure sea).

On the South, UOce JPaM^ also called Yamdoh-'iso, or Yum- tso.

The TtHng^hai lies at an elevation of 9,970 feet, and is 65 miles long by 40 wide. Its waters are brackish, and it is frozen from November till the end of March. Its depth diminishes from E. to W. , where the sands invade it. Its greatest depth in the Southern portion does not seem to exceed 60 feet. It contains five islets, upon one of which is erected a pagoda. The inha- bitants living near its banks neither fish in its waters, nor possess there any boats. Its waters, shallow throughout the general run of the year, are still more reduced in volume and depth in Summer. However, at this season, several rivers flow into it. The most important of these is the Buchain-gol, which enters it on the West. It is encircled by lofty mountains, covered in part with pasture-lands. Throughout the whole region, eagles, antilopes and onagers or wild asses abound.

BalUf or Yamdok lake, is 14,900 feet above sea-level. It is situated to the S. W. of Lhasa, and its waters are connected

544 BOOK II. OOTBR DKPniDBMCIIS.

with the Brahmaputra or Tsang-po, the great river of Tibet. The lake is about 160 miles in circumference.

The principal rivers of the South are the Indus (Yintu-ho PP A M) ^"^ i^B tributary the Sutlej (8ehlich4-ho {!. 9 ^ fif) in Ngari.

The TmnQ-po or Brahmaputra (son of Brahma), also called Yarutsangbo (Yalutsangpu-kiang jRI # Jtfc >lt tC)- — The Brah- maputra rises in the N. of the Himalaya mountains, and is the great river of Tibet. It traverses from W.-E. the whole Southern region, and receives numerous affluents. Previous to its receiving the Kyi or Lhasa river, it has already attained considerable proportions, is of large volume, and more than 400 yards wide. Further down, it becomes navigable for a distance of 100 miles, and flows through a region which becomes more and more wooded. This tract is inhabited by a race of savage cannibals, of whom but little is known up to present.

The principal rivers of the East are, proceeding from North to South : the Hwang-ho )( ^ or Machu ; the Guiakio or Fa- lung-kiang i!fi H jH ; the KinehorMang ^ 1^^ ft or Upper Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fL; the Mekong or Lants'ang^kiang ff^ jff f£ ; and the IrrawadOg or Lutze^kiang JH -^ {t*

All these streams are still but little known in the upper portion of their courses, but become further down mighty rivers. When the snow melts, they appear in Tibet as rushing torrents with falls and rapids.

Faona and Flora.— Throughout the lake and table-land regions, the fauna and flora are extremely meagre, there being only here and there some pasture-lands covered with scraggy grass, but buried under snow during a large portion of the year. Travel- ling to the S. or advancing to the E. or S.£., juniper- trees, tamarisks, willows, pines, flrs, cedars and elms appear gradually. Then the forests grow denser, and the varieties become more numerous. The beds of the valleys and their lower slopes yield wheat, barley, rice, rhubarb, peas, grapes, apricots, jujubes and pomegranites. The animals increase also in number and are more diversified. Perhaps in no other country of the world are wild animals so numerous. The principal are the yak, onager (locally called ghur or khur)^ antelope, gazelle, musk-deer, bear, monkey, tiger, leopard, lynx, wolf, fox, eagle...

Agrleiiltiiral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Tibet is abundant, especially in the South, and consists chiefly in

CHAPTBR lY. TIBET. 545*

cattle (tame yaks, asses, horses, goats, sheep) and forests, but these latter are little worked. Fruit and vegetables are not lacking, but cereals are insufficient to feed the people, and so rice has to be imported from India. Furs, skins, musk and yak-tails are the chief riches of the country.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Tibet is little known, but seems considerable, and consists principally in gold, which is found in almost all the river-beds of the country. Rock-crystal, iron, borax, mercury and salt are also found.

CtoTentment and admlnlstratlTe dlvlalonB. — For

administrative purposes, Tibet is divided into two principal parts. 1^ the Mngdatn of Tibet, comprising the greater portion of the country ; 2^ the KuhurNer region, comprising the basin of the TsMnghai ^ :^, Tsaidam ^ ^^, the basins of the Upper Hwang- ho jH ^ and of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ JQ. Both are ruled directly by China, of which they are considered as dependencies. The former is administered by the Viceroy of Szechw'an Q j||, while the latter is governed by a special District Governor residing at Sining Fu |f ^ ^, in Kansu -^ Jfl,

l"". Tlie Kingdom of Tibet. — Tibet is divided into four parts or Pu flj : 1* Eastern or Anterior Tibet (Ts'ientsang ||}]|K)f known also as K'ang ^ or Chamdo |^7|C $) ^nd written by some Geographers Xham (Portuguese transliteration); 2* Central Tibet (Chungtsang rp ^, called also Wei |j|, being the native sound of U corrupted by the Chinese; 3® Ulterior Tibet (Heutsang H SBOf properly called Tsang if^ or Dang; 4** Western Tibet or Ngari pjf £.

The King, or Giaibo (in Chinese Tsanp'u fif ^), is always a Lama, chosen alternately in the three great Buddhist monas- teries of Lhasa (Depung, Sera and Galdan), He has beside him two High ConMniseianere, one called K*inch*ai ^ H or Ambon (a Manchu word meaning high officer), and another called luring ^ ^ (Secretary for Foreign Affairs). The king is under the control of the first High Commissioner, also styled Imperial Resident, or Jh'et JLmban (Ngangpai ^jlf ), who ratifies

36

y

546 BOOK II.

or rejects Us election, approves the appointement of his ICiiii»- ters, of the high Officials and Superiors of the large monasteries, and invests them with the imperial approbation necessary for the discharge of their office. The. Imperial Resident is also charged with the defence of the frontiers, the inspection of the garrisons and the superintendence of the finances. He alone can conduct all relations with Foreign Powers.

Several principalities are governed by chieftains, who pay tribute to China. Others depend directly upon the Hfmn&im^ for FlMFeian Affaiktn or listing. The Ambon and 8eei'eim*9f are both subject to the control of the Ficeroy «/ 8aeeh9t^an Q j||, who indorses and adds his own observations to their official correspondence. The DakU^Lanui^ or Living Buddha of Lhasa, occupies nominally a position superior to that of the Gialbo or King, but in reality, although enjoying paramount moral and religious influence, he is subject to him.

The King is assisted in the civil administration of the country by 4 Kaians (Kablons, called in Tibetan Shapeh, i.e. lotus-feet), or CouneUiora ef 8iaMe^ three of whom are laymen and one a Lama. The Council is advised by two or three members chosen from each of the 16 or 17 colleges of the Capital and environs.

Like China, Tibet is divided into Provinces, Prefectures and Districts (Sub-prefectures). All officials, who are charged with administrative, judicial, financial and even military func- tions, are under the control of the Imperial Residents. In the more serious conjunctures (as when the British Expedition approached Lhasa in 1904), a national Assembly composed of laymen and Lamas is convoked. It informs the Councillors of State or K&lons, of its views and resolutions.

Theoretically speaking, authority lies with the Peking Government acting through the medium of native Officials, who are under the jurisdiction of China's Imperial Residents. — Consequent on the British expedition to Lhasa, the Chinese Government decided to send to Tibet, besides an Imperial Com- missioner, a Tartar-General with 5 battalions of infantry, 4 regiments of cavalry, and 2 batteries of artillery.

547

2*. Kiilnr*H«vw — The whole region of Jgtifcti-Jfar is divided into 29 Banners or tribes, 19 of which are in the basin of the lake, 5 in the Upper Hwang-ho ^fpjf region, and 5 in the Tsaidam. Those of the Hwang-ho ^ ^ depend on the Gk>vemor of Sining ^^ W % Jff^ ^" Kansu. The others, divided into two groups of 12, are ruled by princes who have become vassals of China,

PopulatUMi. — The population is composed for the greater part of Tibetans, M08O8 and Chinese (officials and traders). In the S.E. dwell tribes more or less nncivi- lized : the LieuSy Lutaee, Lamajen, and MicheftUa. In the N.E., are found Sifane, Sleuths or KalmukSf and Tanguts. In the W. and S.W., there is a rather considerable number of Nepalese (traders and mechanics), Bhutanese and Kashmiris. The Nepalese are nnmerous and influential at Lhasa. — The number of Mongols in Tibet scarcely attains a thousand.

The Tibetans belong to the Mongolian race. The head is round, the forehead narrow, the ears large, the nose prominent, the eyes slightly oblique, the cheek-bones large and protruding, and the beard scanty, while the complexion is of a light brown inclining to a ruddy tinge. Those inhabiting the N., are largely nomads and generally known as the Hot (Horpa) tribes. Those of the S. and S.W., are sedentary, and consider themselves as the genuine Bod race. The Tibetans are weak and cowardly in presence of superior force, but display an overbearing and cruel attitude when they have to deal with those feebler than themselves. They are little given to habits of industry, are deceitful, profoundly ignorant, and highly superstitious. They bear with great endurance the extremes of cold, fatigue, hunger and thirst, and are of a cheerful disposition. They are also polite, and every traveller, who has been compelled to quit the country on their demand, can testify to their civility. The Tibetans are sometimes divided into 4 classes : the aristocracy, the Kubilhans or the reembodied gentry (Avatars), the clergy and the peasants.

The M08O8, who occupied a large portion of Tibet {see p. 845) before it was subdued by China, are deceitful and cunning. The proverb says : it takes 3 Chinese to deceive a Tibetan, but 3 Tibetans are required to cheat a Moso. Their condition is but semi-civilized.

The TangutSj like the Eleuths or Kalmuks, resemble much the Mongol type. They are partly sedentary and partly nomads.

Religion. — Buddhism is the prevailing religion of the Tibetans, and was introduced into the country A.D. 640, through intermarriage with a Chinese princess. Indian Buddhism, however, after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamnism. Lamaism adds to pure Buddhism the theory of the successive incarnations of Buddha. Two principal sects : the red Lamas and the yellow Lamas, are distinguished from the colour of their dross and their head-covering. The official sect, which is that of the yellow Lamas or Oeluk-pa (victorious Order which Bnatohed tho temporal power from the red Caps), has the most numerous followers in Tibet. All others belong to the red Lamas, sAbo called Karma-pa (Order following the Karma doctrine), Sah/a-pa (followers of Sakya-Muni) and Nyingmapa (iinrHformed redcaps founded by Padma-Sambhava, a deified wizard monk known as the "I-otns-bom Ono").

Both sects admit tho succoBsive incarnations of Buddha in the lody of certain disciples, and render to these Avatars the same honours which they pay to Buddha

548 BOOK II. OUTER DmiflMniCIBS.

' himself. Originally, only one living Buddha was recognized, but at present each lamasery has its own living Bnddha, and sometimes several of them. The principal one, officially recognized by the Emperor of China, is the living Buddha of Lhasa, called the Dalai'Lama (Vast as the Ocean). He is always chosen from the Gelnk-pa sect. All State matters of importance are transacted in his name. Of late years, China generally murdered (in official parlance, exiled) all Dalai-Lamas, when they reached the age of eighteen or twenty, so that her Regent might be all-powerful over the country. Any who escaped were required to maintain as King or Gialbo the Regent who admin- istered the country during their minority. The present Dalai-Lama has been rescued from the tragic fate of his predecessors, by the national party, incensed at the continual interference of China in the government of the country. When the British expedition approached Lhasa, in 1904, the Dalai-Lama fled to Vrga (in Mongolia), and is actually (July 1907) at Sining Fu H tR MT* in N.W. Kansu. The Emperor of China appointed the Tcuihi or Pamhen-Lamaj who resides at Tashilumbo, to succeed him. In Deo. 1905, the Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales. The Dalai-Lama's residence is at the Potala monastery, a short distance to the W. of Lhasa.

Both sects hold also in common the doctrine of the tranamigraUon oftouU,

With the exception of these two tenets, Lamaiam po$8e$8e8 no unity. Bach sect and each monastery is completely independent in its doctrine, mode of government and ritual. The Dalai-Lama has but merely an authority and prestige surpassing that of the other Lamas.

The BonbOf a quite distinct sect, recognizes as its principal divinity KuniuMongbo, that is **the Excellent" or "Supreme Good One." It is a pre-Buddhist indigenous religion, which propitiates man-eating devils with offerings of blood, spirits, poisons and tobacco. Its priests are the indigenous Black-Capt, who are professional wizards, soothsayers and devil-worshippers.

The Lamas are very numerous, and are reckoned by some as reaching over 800,000. Lhasa is said to contain 10,000 of them in one of its monasteries, and 7,000 in another. Several monasteries have 3,(X)0, and those having 800 and 400 are common. They wield considerable influence, as they are immensely rich, engage in trade, resort to usury, and carry on banking transactions. With a few exceptions, they are pro- foundly ignorant, corrapt, and exhibit all the signs of a degrading sensual life.

The religion of the Mosoa, as well as that of the other savage or semi-civilized tribes, i^fetichism. Mahomedaniem reckons also a few followers.

Lan^oase. — Tibetan is the most widely diffused language of the country, and is understood everywhere. It is monosyllabic, but employs numerous suf&xes which help to form nouns. In the VII*** century, a Sanscrit alphabet was introduced from India. It is composed of 80 letters, which fulfil at the same time the functions of vowels and consonants. Tibetan is written from left to right, and has various forms. There are but slight modifications in the pronunciation from one extremity of the country to the other.f^ Tibetan literature is mainly religious.

SPECIMEN OP TIBETAN WRITING

Om !'raa-ni pafl-mo Hung.

(Hail t Jewel [Grand Lama\ in the Lotm-flowcr).

Buddhist' invocation.

CHAPTBH IT. TIBRT. 549

The Moaos, and the other trihes, speak their own dialects which differ widely from one another. The Mosos have no written language properly so-called, but make use of hieroglyphic symbols for their superstitious rites. Their language, which differs from both Chinese and Tibetan, is very difficult to learn.

TaxaUoo, tribate and currency. — An annual poll-tax is imposed upon each freeholder.

E very 3 years, tlie Dslai-Lama has to send tribute to the Emperor of China. This consists of presents in kind, amounting in value to 5,000 taels. The tribute is borne to Peking on the backs of 300 camels, escorted and protected by 300 horsemen.

Coins bear on one side the superscription of the reigning Emperor of China, and on the reverse, the characters \S JH Szechw'an.

Army. — The Tibetan army consists nominally of 6,000 regulars with a militia and levies amounting theoretically to 60,000 infantry and 14,000 cavalry. Of the regu- lars, 1,000 are stationed at each of the 3 large towns, Lhasa, Shigatse and Gyantse, and the remainder in fewer numbers at the small forts throughout the country, and along the frontiers. A strong garrison is maintained at Tengri-Nor to stop foreigners advancing to the Capital from the N.

Towns and Piinelpal Centres. — A great part of Tibet, and nearly the whole region of the table-lands and lakes, is uninhabited. Even in other places, the towns are of little importance, and the population very scattered. Many of the habitations are isolated from one another. In the central portion, between the fertile valleys and the snow-clad table-lands, is found a nomad population constantly shifting its tents, in accordance with the needs of the season and the promptings of personal caprice.

The principal Untms of Tibei are t

l^ In Ngari or Western Tibei : Rudok and Gartok.

Budok or Lotoh'oh ch'6ng ff $ j£ jft- — A small town picturesquely situated on the slopes of a hill isolated in the midst of a plain, and on the highway from Lhasa to Kashmir. Its elevation is 13,120 feet. It monopolizes the whole trade of Tibet with Leh or Ladak (Laht*ahk'oh fj H 3E)i » town of Kashmir. On the summit of the hill are a vast palace and several monasteries.

etariok (Kotah'oh). — A hamlet with about a dozen miserable hovels, and situated at an elevation of 15,200 feet. By the Pe- king Convention, signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened as a trading mart. In Winter, little business is done, but in the Summer season a brisk trade is carried on with India.

550 BOOK II. OUTER OBPBMDBlfGIEB.

2''. In Tmmg ^ or nang, also called UUerior IXbei:

SiUgaime. — Population, 9,000 inhabitants, not reckoning the monks. The town is one of the most important of Tibet. It is situated at an altitude of 12,000 feet above sea-level, and near the junction of the Nyang-ctiu and Tsangpo (Brahmaputra). To the 8.W., is the famous monastery of l}asiMudnifO {fj ^ a "(b) or the ^'moujiUin of blessings". This monastery, sur- rounded by a wall one mile in circumference, contains several richly adorned shrines, it possesses also great treasures, and shelters 3,300 monks, it is the seat of the Fianhhen |BE H JLama (from the Indian Pandita, "Precious Teacher''), one of the joint Pontiffs of Tibet, a personage held in still more veneration than the Dalai-Lama, as being less contaminated by worldly cares and influences. It is he who succeeded to the dignities of the Dalai-Lama, when the latter fled to Urga (in Mongolia), August, 1904, at the approach of the British Expedition to Lhasa. A fortress, under the control of a Brigadier-General or Depdn, and garrisoned by 1,000 Chinese regulars and 400 Tibetan soldiers, defends the place. Between the town and the monastery extends the great market-place. — The soil in the plain adjoining Shigatze is rich and fertile.

CSfyonfM. — A flourishing town situated to the 8.E. of Shigatse, and as large as it. It lies at an elevation of 13,200 feet, and is built on the Nyang^chu. It is 145 miles from Lhasa, 125 from the Chumbi valley, and 95 from Phari. It has several famous shrines, and a fortified Lamasery, inhabited by 600 red-capped monks. Its fortress built on a rock, 500 feet above the river, is garrisoned by 50 Chinese regulars, under a Lieuten- ant, and 500 Tibetan soldiers, under 2 Majors. Oyantse is the great distributing trade-centre with Bhutan, its market being the third largest in Tibet, coming next after Lhasa and Shigatse. It is famous for its manufactures, especially woollen goods, carpets, saddle-rugs and its tiny mule-bells. By the Peking Convention signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened to foreign trade on the same conditions as Gartok.

5M

Jmtaiaiae. — A small town situated to the 8.W. of Shi- gatse, and on the road from Lhasa to Rudok. It lies at an elevation of 13,600 feet, and possesses a fortress and monastery.

KhawAarJwng. — Population, 1,000 inhabitants. A hamlet situated to the 8. W. of GyBnX&e, It lies at an elevation of 13,800 feet, and is the Tibetan military station nearest to India. A road connects it with Gyantse, but no care is taken to keep it in good repair.

To the 8.B. o( Khamba-Jong lies the rich fwBsir n/dbtmiM^ at an elevation of 9,800 feet. It is watered by the Ghumbi River, which attains here a width of 1,400 yards, and teems with fish. The valley produces in abundance, com, barley and fruit, and possesses excellent pasture-lands. It is perhaps the most fertile portion of Tibet.

Phari or Fhatn*<Fana. — Population, 2,000 inhabitants. This is the principal town of the Chumbi valley. It is situated on a table-land, at an elevation of 14,570 feet, and dominates the great trade route to Darjeeling. The place and inhabitants are filthy in the extreme. It is defended by a strong fortress erected on a hillock 60 feet high. Phari is connected with Gyantse, by a road which leads through the Tangla pass, 14,950 feet high. Another road connects it on the 8. with Darjeeling, from which it is distant 110 miles. A little beyond Yatung, this road traverses the Jelep pass at an altitude of 14,390 feet.

Tiiiung or Nadang. — This is but a hamlet situated at the Southern entrance to the Ghumbi valley. It was opened to foreign trade in 1897, but owing to Chinese obstruotiveness, did not realize the anticipations entertained as to its success.

S"". Mn WH ffi or OnUtNa TUbH i

LHASA tt m. — The Capital of Tibet. It is situated at an elevation of 12,300 feet, and is surrounded by snow-capped mountain chains. Near by, runs the Kyi River (Kyi-chu), a large tributary of the Tsangpo, or Upper Brahmaputra, watering a well cultivated and wooded plain. Embankments and canals protect the town from inundations. The permanent population is about

J

552 BdOK II. OUTER DBPBNDBMCIBB.

20,000, exclusive of the 3 monasteries of Depung, Sera and Oaldan. Of this population, 7,000 are Tibetans, 2,000 Chinese, 800 Nepalese, 50 Mongols and 50 Bhutanese. The floating popu- lation (pilgrims and traders) numbers from 1,000 to 2,000. Lhasa is an important commercial to-wn, as well as the home and centre of Lamaism, The houses are built of stone, to two and three storeys high, whitewashed and with flat roofs. The streets are narrow, unpaved and filthy. A large road (lingkor) encircles the town, and is thronged all day with strings of pilgrims whirling prayer-wheels and counting their beads. A mile to the W. of the town stands the Dalai-Lama's palace, or Boidia >tS ^ ^^ called also the Red Palace. It is an imposing mass of lofty buildings, solidly constructed, and combining at the same time a monastery, palace, fortress and shrine. The Dalai- Lama resides there in a four-storied building, 320 feet high, culminating in a dome entirely covered with plates of gold. It is said to contain immense treasures, and has accomodation for no less than 10,000 monks. The Lamas who reside there, and in the large monasteries of the suburbs, number about 20,000. After the Potala, the most famous of these monasteries is the Depung, which has a monastic university and contains more than 7,000 students.

Friar Odoric visited Lhasa about A.D. 1330, and the Jesuit Grueber in 1656. The Capuchin Friars, Joseph de Asculi and Francico de Tour, erected a Church there in 1706. The Jesuits Desideri and Freyre entered it in 1716, the former sojourning there 13 years. The Capuchins were expelled in 1790, under K*ienlung |g g|. In 1846, the Lazarist priests. Hue and Gabet, visited it, and tarried there a month. Henceforth a policy of exclusion was adopted by the Dalai-Lama, the Amban and the Viceroy of Szechw*an, and lasted till the English Expedition entered the town, August 4, 1904.

4''. Jn Kham ^ or Anterior JMei:

Chamdo 1$^ ;4c $. — Population, 7,000 inhabitants, of whom 2,000 are Lamas. Nearly all the inhabitants are Tibetans, 500 only being Chinese. The town is governed by a Lama Who

GHAPTBR IT. TIBET. 553

is in the pay of Peking. The Chinese Government maintains there also a civil functionary and a military official. The trade of Chamdo reaches £ 80,000 sterling per annum. Silk fabrics, cotton piece-goods, and household articles are brought there, and exchanged for deer horns, musk, gold and silver.

The N.EL region of Tibet has no important town.

Indnstry and Commeroe. — The industry of Tibet is little developed, and consists chiefly in woollen-cloths, shawls, earthernware, iron articles, copper utensils and Buddhist sta- tues. The best workmen are the Nepalese, renowned as gold- smiths and skilful dyers.

TrtMde is carried on with Kashmir, through Rudok ; with y y India, through the Chumbi valley; with Szec/iw'an B JUi through Tatsienlu 4T ^ tt* *^^ ^**^ Kansu -^ )|f, through Sining Fu W HI ifiP- The imparts are cotton piece-goods, silks, woollen goods, tea, rice, grain, horses, firearms, coral and porcelain. The eaoports are musk, wool, living animals, furs, rhubarb, salt, yak-tails, drugs and articles of Buddhist worship. The Indian trade with Tibet in 1905-06 was about £ 290,000.

BOfl^liwayB of Oommiiiiicatloii. — In Tibet, the roads are few and generally bad. There are no bridges to cross the rivers and torrents. There being no other means available, ropes are used for this purpose, as well as light ferry-boats made of yak-skins. The principal high-ways are :

1®. The road eiartina A'Ofn Sining JBU fS % J^, in Kansu -^ Jfl. This road passes vi& Donkyr, runs S. of Kuku-Nor, crosses the Tsaidam, the Shuga and Odontala plateaux, the Tangla pass, and nfter reaching Napchu, debouches at Lhasa. The journey may be performed in 50 or 54 days.

2®. The roctd etariing/ram TatHeniu ^ |f JK, in Western Szechw'an Q )\\. This is the most important and the most frequented highway leading from China to Tibet. It passes \ik Chamdo S ?k ^/ Lit*ang Jf^ ^, and Batang or Pat*ang ^ jf.

3®. ITie ro(Md siarHng from IJikiang Fkt]glf£j^^ in Yunnan. This road was formerly much more frequented than it is at the present day.

J

554 BOOK II. OOIBR DBPBWDBMCIBS.

4^ The road from Darfteling to Lhamju The distance between these 2 places is 330 miles (aee p. 551).

5®. The road frmn Leh or Ladak in Kashmir.

Transport is almost wholly effected by caravans of yaks. Travellers ride on horseback.

Fosial eotnmunicaHon is rapid. Couriers cover a distance of 75 miles in a day. They travel night and day, changing their horses at the Chinese post-stations.

Open Tittde-nuurte* — Tibet has 3 marts open to foreign trade : ToMung^ QyantBe and Oariok^

Hlfllorioal Note. — Tibet was conqnered by China, between A. D. 1698 and 1708, and was then divided into regions. The tracts bordering on Yiinnan S m and 8eechw*an Q Jl|, were attached to these Provinces. This explains how there are found in these two Provinces small Principalities still administered by Tibetan chief- tains although under the control of the Chinese Viceroys.

Several countries lying to the S. of Tibet were formerly subject to China, thus Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

Nepal was conquered by the Gurkhas in 1767, and paid tribute to China from 1792 to 1866. At this latter date, it came under the sphere of influence of British India. It has a population of about 3,000,000 inhabitants, 500,000 of whom are Buddhists. The Tibetans who have settled in the country are few. Nepal is governed by a Maharaja who is a Sisodiya Rajput (Hindoo). A British political Agent resides at Katmandu, the Capital.

At the same time, Sikkim, a small state situated between Nepal and Bhutan, severed its connection with China, to which it had been tributary, and acknowledged in 1890 the British protectorate. It has a population of 12,000 inhabitants, 2,000 of whom are Tibetans.

Bhutan is Tibetan in race, language and religion. It was organized 300 years ago by Tibet. Since 186.5, it has been annexed to India. It has a population of 400,000 inhabitants, the majority of whom are Tilx^tauB. The Government is dual in form vnXh a spiritual chief, the DarmaRaja; and a temporal chief, the Deb Raja. There is no British resident.

Britiflh Expeditton to Lhasa (1903-11)04). — Under the Anglo-Chinese Sikkim conventio7i of 1890, a trade-mart was opiiuud at Yatung beyond the Sikkim frontier. Another commercial convention was signed in 180S. Owing to the failure of the Tibetans to observe these Conventions, and the continual obstructiveness placed in the way of trade between Tibet and Hindustan, Great Britain decided to send a political mission with a military escort to Lhasa. The political mission was entrusted to Sir Francis Younghusband, who left Kamba-Jong in July, 1003. The military escort consisted of 2,800 soldiers (Sikh pioneers and Gurkhas with one company of mounted infantry, and 2 companies of Bengal and Madras Sappers), and was under the control of General Macdonald. He set out December, 1903, and passed the Jelep pass into the Chumbi valley. After a very arduous march, and sharp fights at Twna (here 300 Tibetans were killed) and Gyantse, Lhasa was reached August 3, 1904. Before their arrival at the Capital, the Dalai-Lama had fled to Urga in Mongolia, and having left his seal with the Regent, appointed him to take his place. A new OonvetMon was*

CHAfm IT. TIBBT.

555

signed^ September 7, with the Regent and bis Council, in the Palace of Potala. The end of the mission having being thus attained, it left Lhasa, September 23, and returned to India. The Convention provided for the erection of boundary pillars between Sik- kini and Tibet (art 1) ; for the establishment of trade-marts at Gyantse and Oartoky as wtll as at Yatung, and for unrestricted traffic by existing routes according to a tariff to be agreed upon (art 2); for the appointment of British and Tibetan Agents at the trade- marts (art 5) ; and for payment of an indemnity of £ 500,000 (reduced to £ 167,000), pending which the Chumbi valley would be occupied (art. 6 and 7). The Tibetans pledged themselves not to alienate any territory, or grant concessions to or permit the intervention of any foreign power without the consent of Great Britain (art. 9). By the Convention of Peking, signed April 27, 1906, China agreed to the terms of the Con- ventions of 1890 and 1904, sanctioned telegraph lines to the trade-marts, and declared that no foreign State should interfere in Tibet, while England also undertook not to interfere in the administration of Tibet, or annex territory. — The Ohinese Elmperor appointed the Taahi or Panshen Lama to succeed the Dalai-Lama. In Dec. 1905, the Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales.

Beferences :

I et Grenard. — Mission scien-

tifiqne dans la Haute Asie. Paris, 1S88.

(especially Vol. II). Prejevalaky. — Aux Sources da Hoang-

ho. (Tour da Monde, 1887). De D^dkiea. — A travers I'Asie. (Missions

Beiges, 1891-92). DeagodhMi O. H. — La Mission da Thibet

de 1855-1870. Verdon, 1872. DeagodhMi O. H. — Le Thibet d'aprte la

correspondanoe dee Missionaires. 2* ^t.

Paris, 1885. lAonay A.— La Mission du Thibet. Paris,

1903. Hoc. — Voyage dans la Tartarie et le

Thibet. Paris, 1860. MoHak. — Les Anglais an Thibet. (Be-

vue Fran^ise, 1904). Karaoimof — Trois voyages k Lhassa,] 898-

1901. (Tour du Monde, 1904. p. 217-240). DeiMert. — Notes sur le Thibet, 1716.

(Lettres Bdifiantes. Vol. XV. 1722). Pavie T. — Le Thibet et les Etudes Thi-

bitaines. (Bevue desDeux Mondes. N. S.

XIX. 1847). GraoArd. — Le Thibet. Paris, 1904. ItBtwrt O. — Le dernier myst^re des Con- tinents habits. (Lectures poor Tons.

Mars, 1906). Ifoarej C^La question du Thibet. (Bul- letin de la Soci6t6 de I'Asie Fran^ise.

1904. p. 7-16). La Constitniion politiqne da Thibet. —

(Bulletin de la Soci6t4 de I'Asie Fran^- se, 1904. p. 289-292.-Sir F.Younghasband au Thibet, ibid. 1905. p. 117-119. — Af- faires Thib^taines. ibid. 1906.p.l8-20.— In- fluence Anglaise auThibet . ibid, p.260-263. — L'Angleterre, le Thibet et la Chine, ibid. p. 310-811).

G. — Across Tibet. London, 1891. O. R. — Mission of George Bogel to Tibet, and of the Joomey of Th. Manning to Lhasa. London, 1876.

OonniiiylMMn.^ Notes on Tibet. (Joomal Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1848).

Ounpbell A. — Notes on Eastern Tibet. (Phoenix. Vol. I. p. 83).

Gntslairo. — Description of Tibet from native sources. (Ohinese Bepository. Vol. IX. p. 26-46).

De Koeroe« O. — Geographical notice of Tibet. (Chinese Repository. VoL XIII. p. 505-512).

Blorrifloii R. — The System of Govern- ment of Tibet. (Chinese Repository. Vol. VI. p. 494-496).

Topography of Tibet. — (Chinese Reposi- tory. Vol. XX. p. 68-77).

Prinaep H. T. — Tibet, Tartary and Mongolia. London, 1852.

Tomer 8. — Embassy to the Court of the Tashi Lama in Tibet. London, 1806.

Siradiey H. — Physioal Description of Western Tibet. (Joornal R. A. Soc. Vol.

xxni).

556

BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBMDBMCIBS.

Gotslair O. — China opened. London, 183«. (Tibet. Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 262-285).

Groflier.— Description of China. London. 1795. (Tibet. Vol. I. Book III. Ch. V. p. 313-329).

Wlnterbothain. — View of the Chinese Empire. London, 1795. (Tibet, p. 1S2-191).

Wlllianui. — The Middle Kingdom. New York, 1861. (Tibet. Vol. I. Ch. IV. p. 188- 205).

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire of China. London, 1738. (Geographical and historical observations on Tibet. Vol. II. p. 384).

Bo^rer H. — Diary of a Journey across Tibet. London, 1894.

Bookhlll W. W. — A Journey in Mon- golia and in Tibet. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1894. Vol. III. p. 857-388).

Rc>ckliill W. W. — The Land of the La- mas. New York, 1891.

Dumnore. — The Pamirs. 2 Vol. London, 1893.

Pratt A. E. — To the Snows of Tibet through China. 2 Vol. London, 1892.

Boalser D. — Central Asian Questions. London,1885.(Tibet and the Way Thither. Ch. XVIII. p. 330-347).

Wellby M. S.— Through unknown Tibet. London, 1898.

Ooniray Sir W. — Climbing and Explo- ration in the Karakoram Himalayas. London, 1894.

Sarat Cbanclra Dao.— Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. London, 1902.

Savage Landor A. H.— In the Forbidden Land. 2. Vol. London, 1898.

Wllflon A. — The Abode of Snow : Jour- ney from Tibet to the Indian Caucasus. London, 1875.

LIttledale G. R. ^ A Journey across Ti- bet from N. to S., and W. to Ladak. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1896. Vol. XVII. p. 453-4831.

Crosby O. T. — Turkestan and a corner of Tibet. (Geogr. Journal, 1904. Vol. XXIII. p. 705-722).

OnMby O. T. — Tibet and Turkestan. London, 1905.

Deasy H. — In Tibet and Chinese Tur- kestan, (a Record of three years explora- tion). London, 1901.

nynbart S. O. — With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple. New York, 1901.

Carey W.— Adventures in Tibet. Boston,

1901. Sandbergr G. — The Exploration of Tibet

1623-1904. Calcutta, 1904. Sandber^ G. — Tibet and the Tibetans.

London, 1906. Rawlln^ O. G.— Exploration of Western

Tibet and Rudok. (Geogr. Journal, 1905.

Vol. XXV. p. 414-428). Rawlln^ O. G. — The Great Plateau.

London, 1905. Poini Carlo. ~ II Tibet. Roma, 1904.

(Geografia, storia, religione, costomi,

secundo la relazione del P. Ippolito Desi-

deri). Holdlch and Bookhlll. — Tibet. (Bnoy-

clopsdia Britannica. X^ Edit. London,

1902). Holdlch.— Tibet the Mysterious. London,

1905. Sven Hedin. —Through Asia. London,

1898. Sven Hodln. — Adventures in Tibet.

London, 1904. The Scientific results of Sven Hedin's last

Journey, 1899-1902. — (Geogr. Journal.

1904. Vol. XXIV. p. 524-645). Doocao J. E. — A Summer Bide through

Western Tibet. London, 1906. Ryder O. H. — Exploration and Survey

with the Tibet frontier Commission, and

from Gyantse to Simla vi& Gartok. (G^eogr.

Journal. 1905. Vol. XXVI. p. 869-394). Kozloir. —The Bussian Tibet Expedition,

1899-1901. InveenEmma.^In Eastern Tibet. (East

of Asia Magazine, 1904. Vol. III. p. 106-

119). UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

(The Dependencies : Tibet. Oh. XIII. p.

203-218). Brace O.D. — Overland from Kashmir

to Peking. (N.C. Herald. August 3, 1906). LandOD P. — Tibet and Nepaul. London,

1905. LandOD P.^Lhasa : The Tibet Expedition,

1903-1904. London, 1905. Oandler E. — The Unveiling of Lhasa.

London, 1905. Waddell L. A. — The Buddhism of Tibet

or Lamaism. London, 1895. Waddell L.A.— Lhasa and its Mysteries,

with a record of the Expedition of 1903>

1904. London, 1905.

CHAPna IT. TIBIT.

557

YowmghHUtoaad Sir F. * The Geogra- phical Besolts of the Tibet Mission. (Geogr. Journal. 1905. Vol. XXV. p. 22V- 246; 481-498).

Paper? relating to Tibet (presented to both Houses of Parliament). London, 1904.

Further Papers relating to Tibet. London, 1904.

The Tibetan Treaty, signed at Peking, April, 27, 1906, to which is annexed the Convention between the United King- dom and Tibet signed at Lhasa, Septem- ber 7,1904.— (North-Chlna Herald. Sep. 14, 1906).

British War with Nepaul. — Chinese Re- pository. (Vol. VI. p. 486-494).

Pemberton B. — Report on Bhutan. Cal- cutta, 1839.

Hemaley. — The Flora of Tibet. London, 1902.

J. L. —On a Collection of Mamals brought home by the Tibet Frontier Commission. Loudon, 1906.

Desgodtaifl. — Essai de Grammaire Thi- bdtaine. Hong-kong, 1899.

Demgodkm. — Dictionnaire Thibdtain- Latin-Fran^ais. Hongkong, 1899.

Vtoncamc P. B. — Grammaire de la Langue Thib^taine. Paris, 1858.

De Koeroe« O. — A Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Calcutta, 1834.

Schroeder O. G. — A Dictionary of the Bhutan Language. Serampore, 1826.

JAflchke H. A. — A Tibetan-English Dic- tionary. London, 1881.

Hodgson M. — Essays on the Language, Literature and Religions of Nepal and Tibet. London, 1874.

Hemumn. — Glossary of Tibetan Geogra- phical Terms. (Journal R. A. Soc. 1863. p. 67-98.

LIST

of the Prefectures and Snb-prefectnres (Departments

and Districts) in tlie 18 Provinces.

INDICATIONS.

F. — Fu m or Prefecture.

G. — Chow M or Department (independent), c. — Chow ^ ,, (dependent). T. — T4ng ■ (independent).

t. — Ting ■ (dependent), h. — Hsien f^ or District.

I. — CHEKIANe m ZC C*Ohe") * ,

I^JH Hangchow F

011 Ts'ienVang h. ^^ J^nhwo 2b'CT h.

jt^JK Haining c,

flrit Fuyang h, 11^;^ Yuhang |FWh.

IS^ Linngan h.

jj^l^ Yiits'ien h.

^S Sinch'^ng h.

gflj Ch*anghwa h.

^9i Kiahsing F.

j^^ Kiahsing h.

^TK Siushui h.

j^ll Kiashan h.

%§[ Haiy6n h.

;5R Shihm^n h,

Z^mH P'inghu h. ^HP T'unghsiang h,

SUM Huchow F.

^ig Wuch*6ng h.

f^^ Kweingan h. ^9 Ch'anghsing h.

^^ Tehts^ng h.

ICR Wuk'ang h.

^S Ngankih h.

^^ Hsiaofung h.

^ffi Ningpo F.

ISM Shihp^u t.

IP Kin h.

MKl Tz'ek'i h.

0^ Funghwa h.

iSiItt Ohtohai h.

^lll Siangshan h.

1k» Tinghai T.

IBH Sbaohsing F.

lil^ Shanyin h. Ir^ Hwei{kwei)ki h.

^'{ii Siaoshan h.

^)£ Chuki h.

^M Yuyao h.

J:iE Shangyu h.

I» Sh6ng h.

i^g Sinch'ang h.

• Abbreviation adopted by the Imperial Post Uttice, anci the Imperial Telegraph Administration in China, 1907.

■§H1 T*aichow

F. 9iHI E'flchow

F.

^« Yungkia

h

fi^ Linhai

h.

9$ Singan

h.

iQ^ Shuingan

h

^Jl HwangyAn

h.

H^ Lungyeu

h.

mm Lohts'ing

h

35^ T'ient'ai

h.

i£]ij Kiangshan

h.

^1^ P'ingyang

h

tlO^ Sienku

h.

ff^ll] Gh'angshan

h.

^m T'aishun

h

nm Ninghai

h.

f^it K'aihwa

h.

*2p T'aip'ing

h.

AM Ch'nchow

F.

SSifm Ydnchow

F.

K* Lishui

h.

^H Kinhwa

F

ji|g Kienteh

h.

T^EB Ts'ingt'ien

h

^^ Kinhwa

h.

^-^ Shunngan

h.

flu Tsinyiin

h.

H^ Lank'i

h.

mm T'unglu

h.

feBr Sungyang

h.

%K| Tungyang

h.

^^ Suingan

h.

MIg Suich'ang

h.

liJi Iwu

h.

^g Showch'ang #;!K FAnshui

h.

tt^ Lungts'uen

h.

*;ft Yungk'ang

h.

h.

JI5C K'ingyuen

h.

««Wui

h.

||%l Yunhwo

h.

IfiL P'ukiang

h.

SM Wtachow

F.

^^ SiienpMng

h.

H^ T'angk'i

h.

538 Yuhkwan

t.

Jtir Kingning

h.

Territorial IiHeiiilaucteg or OlrouiUi administered by a Taoi'al H ](.

Ch6kiang has 5 Territorial IntendancieB or Taot'aiships :

r WAocliow F. SI ^ Jtp. — Civil and Military jnrisdiotion over Wdnohow Pu and Ch'aohow Fu £ ^ Jfif , and in charge of custom dues collected along the waterways.

2*" K'ttchow F. B ^ ;ff. — Civil jurisdiction over Kinhwa F. ^ 4i JNP, K'tt- chow F., Y^nchow F. JB ^ J(f; and in charge of custom dues collected along the waterways.

3^ Nin^po 'P- m HL Jtf— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ningpo F., Sbao- hsing F. S A /HP and T'aichow F. ifi ^ Mf> in charge of custom dues collected along the waterways; keeps watch over the coast-line.

4° Kiahfliii^ P. SUM. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hangchow F. tt ^ i(f» Kiahsiug F. and Huchow F. fR ^ !Rp; and in charge of the coasl-line.

5*^ Han^choir F. igl M fft- — ^^ charge of the Provincial rice revenue, and the transport of the rice-tribute to Peking.

n — CHIHU It H C'Ohi").

m^ Shuntien FI#M

(PEKING ft *)(1) !i^

^m Tahsing h. I^Jpl

^^ Yuenp'ing h..^ift HIS Lianghsiang h.ff f^ B^ Kungan h. gZp

jJcSI Yungt8'ing h.mM J|[^ Tungngan h.il^S

Hsiangho T'ung . Sanho WutsMng

h. c. h. h.

«* Hwaijeu

m Ghoh

JJlIj Fangshan

m Pa

h c h c

Paoch'i Ningho Ch'angp'ing Shuni

h. h. c. h.

^5Ef Wftnngan :k^ Tach'6ng fX5£ Paoting Jlf Ki

h h h c

Mihyun

h.

2p# P'ingkuh

h

(1) Peking 4k 1^ ^^ HhunVien Fu Jlf^ ^ fff (city obedient to heaven), being the metropolitan Pref^ture, ban a particular organisation, with a Governor or Fuyin

560

CHIHLI (cOMTINnBD).

Hfl: Ts^unhwa C 5H Yuht*ien h. Fungjun h.

ff S Paoting (2) UliS Ts*ingyuen jJUJlK Manch^^ng ^M Ngansuh ^ft Tinghsing adA 8inch*6ng ^ T'ang if 1^ Pohy6 His Wangtu ^j^ Yungch*6ng

Hwan

Li

Hsiung

K'i

Shuhluh

Ngan iff Hi Kaoyang

A I c.

|j)lS)fC Laishui h.

jjjl g Kwangch'ang h.

j|(« Ch'dngteb F.

^^ Weich*ang t.

^ip Lwanp'ing h.

2p^ P'ingts*uen c.

|g|^ Lunghwa h.

Jg^ Fungning h.

^.^ Ch^hfung h.

l^lii Ch*aoyang F. ^g Kiench'ang h. J^^ Kaosin h.

||tZ|i KienpMng h.

tJc^ Tungp*ing F.

jiffi Lulung h.

3S^ T8*ienngan h.

UltK Funing h.

IIR Ch*angli h.

\M Lwan c.

^^ Loht'ing h.

[^^ Linyii h.

fiimi Hokien F.

fi^^ Hokien h.

fHsien h.

M Feuch'^ng h.

Jfli^ Suhning h.

ftflS J6nk*iu h.

^fSf Kiaoho h.

fS^ Ningtsin h.

^ King c.

^i^ WukMao h.

-tiC^ Kuch'^ng h.

yg^% Tungkwang h.

^» Tientsin F.

55j^ T*ientsin h.

l^r Ts'ing h.

{^}fi^ Tsinghai h.

it Ts*ang c.

#J^ Nanp*i h.

glllj Y^nshan h.

JIS K^ingyun h.

JE& Chfingting F.

jES Ch^ngting h.

§|J|£ Hwohluh h.

^@ Tsinghsing h.

fxJS

mm

«

mm mm

Feup*ing

Lwanch'Ang

Hsingt'ang

Lingshow

P^ingshan

Yuenshi

Tsanhwang

Tsin

Wukih

Kaoch^^ng

Sinloh

Ki

Nankung

Sinho

Tsaok'iang

Wuyih

H^ngshui

Cbao

Sianghsiang

Lungp4ng

Kaoyih

Linch'^ng

Ningtsin

Shdn

Wuk'iang

Jaoyang

Nganp^ng

h. h. h. h. h.

h. c. h. h. h.

C.

h. h. h. h. h.

C.

h. h. h. h. h.

C.

h. h. h.

mm

Ting C.

K*uyang h.

Sh^ntseh h.

Sbunteh F.

Hsingt'ai h.

J(f ^f who ranks above ordinary Prefects He is assisted by a Governor Adjoint (Kienyin ^ ^) and a Vice-Governor (Fuch'^ng j(|p 2B)- He is also independent of the Viceroy of Chihli, and is directly subordinate to the Emperor. His jnrisdiction extends over 21 Districts (Hsien K)* ^ independent Chow (Chihli Chow KH^), and 5 dependent ones (San Chow tfc ^). The Prefect of Mukden (ancestral home of the reigning dynasty), or Fungt'ien ^ ^ Jfft holds power and rank similar to those of the Governor of Peking.

(2) Provincial Capital of Chihli. The Viceroy resides there during part of the year, and during the remainder at T'ientsin ^ f^.

CHIHLI (gONTIMUBD).

561

j^ffif Shaho h.

^%l Nanhwo h.

^fg^ P'inghsiang h. M^ Kwangtsung h. ^^ Kiiluh h.

JSllj T*ang8han h. p^flj Neik*iu h.

ft J6n h.

M^ Kwangp'ing F.

^ip Yungnien h.

^^ K*uhchow h,

flE^ Feihsiang h.

11^ Kitseh h.

J(^ Kwangp'ing h.

4K"# Hantan h.

j^^ Ch*6ngngan h.

JSft Wei h.

jJljPf TsMngho h.

1^ Tz^e c.

±^ Taming P.

^^ Taming h.

TCjft Yiiench'ftig h,

^m Nanloh h.

SlJg Ts^ingfung h.

3^^ Tungming h.

^ _ K*ai c,

^Jto Ch'angyiien h.

^ft Saenhwa F.

^ft Siienhwa h.

^,J| Ch'ihch*6ng h.

11^ Wants* lien h.

ttP^ LungmSn

h

fi|J$£ Hwailai M Wei

h

c

Wllr Sining

h

y|$ Hwaingan

b

m» Y«nk'ing

c

^$ Paongan

c

mma Cbangkia-

k'ow(Kalgan)T.

m^O Tubshib- k*ow T.

i^iSlVSm Tolunnob- eul (Dolonor) T.

Chihli has 10 Intendaocles, each administered by a Taot'ai M tt :

I* T'anfl: Ohow JS ^. — Kcports directly to the Throne. Civil and Blili- tary control over the Imperial or Grand Canal (Yiin-ho B H") at T*ung Chow. Superin- tendent of apiculture, controls the rice-tribute f?oing to the Capital and the water\\'aj'R of Yungp'ing F. jjc ^ W, T^ung Chow, Ki Chow H M and Taunhwa Chow Mlt^-

T Jehol Jft M or Ch'dngpteh F. ;|c KDfip. — Civil and Military control over the territory beyond Kupeh-k'ow "JT ^ tl and over tb«' town of Jehol, where he has his residence.

3" €»i'an;Kp'iii9 Chow g ^ ^. — Residence in this town. Intendant of grain and of agricultiin-, controls the Government postal service and the rice-tribute going to Peking. Civil jurisdiction over Pa Chow jPt ^ and Ch*angp*ing Chow.

V Paotin^ F. ft ^ jfip. — Controls the Tats'ing River (Tats'ing-ho :A: fflf fl" ). Civil jurjsfliction over Paoting P., and OhAngting P. IE % flp.

5* T'ientmn F. 3"^ fl^ ifr. — Reports directly to the Throne. Superintendent of Customs ; controls the mint for new-model coins.

6° T'ientsio F. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'ientsin F., Hokien F. PT Bfl ^ etc., and controls their rivers.

7^ T*lentsiD F. — Intendant of the salt revenue for the Ch*anglu J| K circuit.

8* * tteiihwa F. g ft Ifip (to the S. of Kalgan). — Civil and Military jurisdic- tion over Suenhw a P., and the 3 T'ings ■ of Changkia-k'ow JK tfC 11 (Kalgan)*, Tuh- ahih-k'ow I& ^ P, and Dolonor |^ fd fS W- He does not reside permanently at Siienhwa F., but to the N. of Kalgan.

y Taming F. "^K ^ Hf- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Taming F., Shnnteh F. iH 16 ;ff, Kwangp'ing P. JR ^ W and their rivers ; also in charge of wat«*r communications.

10* Kungrao h. @ 4^ K- — Intendant of the Yungting i|c & "ver.

3»)

562

FOKIBM.

m. — FOEiEN m m cfu").

■M loochow

F.

It^ Yfinp'ing

F.

9M Changchow

F

m Min

h.

|(i^ Nanp'ing

h.

«f| Lungk'i

h

gl-g Heukwan

h.

lull Teiangloh

h.

{|tjj| Changp'u

h

^ffl Kul'ien

h.

1^ Sha

h.

]|[j§ Nantsing

h

mm P'ingnan

h.

am Yiuk'i

h.

£^ Gh'angt'ai

h

eiDft Mintsing

h.

JUg Shuncb'aog

h.

^%1 PMnghwo

h

:g||| Ch'angloh

h.

^^ Yungngan

h.

|B$ Chaongan

h

^^ Lienkiang Jlig Loyuen

h.

JIHIS Haich'Ang

h

h.

?r« T'ingchow

F.

^m YiMigfuh

h.

^rT Oh'angt'ing

h.

IBtK Fuhning

F

JHJK Fuhts'ing

h.

^(t Ninghwa

h.'SIJI Hsiap'u

h

±igi Shanghang

h iilif Fuhting

h

^M Tsaenchow F.

f^/p Wup'ing

h. «« Fuhngan

h

fPjI. Tsinkiang

h.

Sfjt Ts'ingliu

h. MU Ningteh

h.

^$ Nanngan

h. ^;^ Liench'^ng

h- ftit i^heuning

h

j^^ Hweingan

^- fSilt Kweih-wa

h.'

«f^ Ngank'i

h

^j£ Yungting

hi#:3^ Tungch'iin

c.

^^ T'ungngan

h.

,||iflj Tehhwa

h.

ftfl: Hsinghwa

F :;fcEB Tat'ien

h.

jJitS Kienning

F.

I^EH P'ut'ien

h.

j|^'$ Kienngan

h.

IdliU;^ Sienyiu

h.ttHLungydii

c.

||# Ngeuning

h.

|$4> Ohangp'ing

h.

^1^ Kienyang

h.

^^ Shaowtt

F. W?1f Ningyang

h.

^^ Ch'ungngan

h.

:^0f. Shaowu

h.

^j^ Puch'6ng

h.

j^^ Kwangtseh

h

^^ Ch6nghwo

h.

^% T'aining

h.

^^ Sungk'i

h.

Jitl Kienning

h.

Fokien has 5 Intendaneles, oarh administered by a Ta<ii'al If |Q[ :

r Ydap'in^ i'- ii -T^ )fiP — Civil jurisdi«!tioii over Y^np'ing F., Kienning F. Hr * W and Shaowu F. fflS g( ^jf

•J" Chan^cho^' ^iStJ^Hf — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Changchow F., T'in;r(lH)\v F. jfj M Iff, and Lun^'y^n Chow M K ^ ^ ^l^o Maritime Intendant.

:<** Amoy or llidamdn B P^. — Military, Postal and Coast Intendant over Tlsin^'hwa F H ft |ff, Ts'iionnhow F. Jft ^ W and Yungch'un Chow ijt # #| ; also PaymaHter to thi- troops and General Maritime Intendant.

A" Fooclio'Vi^ V.Jl^Mfff'- — Intendant of the Rait revenue and of the Foochow naval-yard

5" Voacho'w F. — Provincial Grain Intendant, Civil iurisdiotion over Poochow au(i FuhninK F jfi |R H^ ; also in charge of the Government postal Hervioc and of wattT communication8.

HONAN.

563

IV. — HONAN W in rHo").

Hitraifung F.

jl^ Siangfu h.

Ui^ Ch'^nliu h.

* K*i h.

^11): T'unghsii h.

J^ft Weishi h.

p^)\\ Weichw'an h.

mi^ Yfinling h.

4ii^ Chungmeu h.

im Lani h.

4 Yu c.

Sg Mih h.

^JrUP 8inch6ng h.

INS Chdng C.

^J9 Yungtseh h.

Sifil Yungyang h.

jg^ Szeshui h.

K^ Ch'Anchow F.

f^H Hwaining h.

ISpJC Shangshui h.

f|l|t Sihwa h. J^H Hsiangch'^ng h.

j^0 Shenk^iu h.

±ak T'aik^ang h.

^lil Fukeu h.

ft" Hsfl C

KIR Linying h.

J|jy( Siangch^^ng h.

Bljrit Y^nch'Sng h.

^M Ch'angkoh h.

em Kweiteb F.

^£R Shangk'iu h.

HR Ningling h.

j0[g Luhyih h.

J|g Hsiayih h.

^Jl Yungch'^ng h.

$^j^ Yiich'^ng h.

m 8ui c.

^JlX K'aoch'^ng h.

IBillll Ch^ch'^Dg h.

3|^l8i Cbangteh F.

^Hf Nganyang h.

jftl^ T'angyin h.

J^^ Linchang h.

44^ Lin h.

^H Neihwang h.

15$ Wungan h.

^ Sheh h.

^IK Weihui F.

JK Kih h.

^^ Sinhsiang h.

Hjft Hwohkia h.

i^ KM h.

]i| Hui h.

^Ht Y^ntsin h.

jg Sun h.

^ Hwah h.

^Jjg Fungk*iu h.

««Hwaik4ng F.

^pj Honei h.

mm Tsiyiien h.

ig|^ Yiienwu h.

^g^ Siuwu h.

^J$ Wuchih h

J£ M6ng h

fi W6n h

^^ Yangwu h

Ml^ Honan F.

»!» Lohyang h.

{110 Y^nshi h.

^ Kung h,

jt,^ M^ngtsin h.

SRI lyang h.

S^ Tfingfung h.

:^^ Yungning h.

ffi^ Sinngan h.

?lift Mingch'i h.

^ Sung h.

mm

mm

SLR

Sben C

Lingpao h.

W^nhsiang h.

Lufihi h.

its

At

^»

mn\ m

JEM

Nanyang

Nanyang

Nanchao

Ch^np'ing

T^ang

Piyang

rungpeh

T^ng

Neihsiang

Sinyd

Is w

Hill «lU

Juning

Juyang

Chdngyang

Shangts'ai

Sints'ai

Sipping

Suip'ing

K'iohshan

Sinyang

Loshan

F

h.

h-

h.

h.

h.

h

c.

h.

h.

Sihcbw'an T.

Yu c.

Wuyang h.

Sheh h.

F. h. h.

h. h. h. h. h. c. h.

Kwang C

Kwangshan h. Kushi h.

Sih h.

Shangch*6ngh.

ik

Ju

Lushan Kiah Paofung lyang

C. h.

h. h.

h.

564

HONAN (cONTINUBD). — HUNAN.

has 5 InlendaMcies, each administered by a Taot'al jK X •

1* K'aifimjp F. M ^ JMf-— ProviDcial Intcndant of the salt revenue, of the rioo- tribute and of water communications, in the region S. of the Yellow River. Civil juris- diction over K'aifung F., Kweiteh F. || tt MP* Ch'Cuchow F. it ^ j^p and ]Isii Chow

2* K'alfun^ F. — Adjoint Civil and Military Intendaut for the region S. of the Yellow River ; jurisdiction over K*aifung F., Kweiteh F., ChAng Chow ff ^ and Hsii Chow ; also in charge of the rivers.

S" Wucliili b. jR IP K- — Military jurisdiction over Changteh F. ^ H Jff Weihui F. ^ IR jHp and Uwaik'ing F. K K jRf, in the region N. of the Yellow Rivec In charge of the tribute, of lawsuits, of works on the Northern bank of the Yellow River and of waterways.

•i^ Sinyanff CXww fg JH ^. ^ Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanyang F. M S /ff, Juning F. jft fR Mf and Kwang Chow it iHi in charge of water com- munications, of the tribute and of lawsuits.

5® ShenOtiow K ^. — Adjoint CivU Intendant over Honan F. W M MP> Shen C, and Ju C. tfc ^ ; in charge of the Government postal service, of water conimunications and of the mint ; controls lawsuits.

V. — HUNAH JH m ("Hun").

J^tP Ch'angsba F.

tfp Gh'angsha h.

{{2 Shanhwa h.

flflS Siangt'an h.

ffgP^ Siangyin h.

^IQS Ninghsiang h.

Sll^ Liuyang h.

tBM Lining h,

SRI Yihyang h.

|tB|g{ Sianghsiang h.

«C Yiu h,

^it Nganhwa h.

j(i^ Ch'aling c.

^ji{ Yobchow F

BR Paling h,

glJiB Linsiang h.

IH^ Flwayung h.

2pf£ P'ingkiang h.

m Li G.

;Bf^ Shihm^n h.

ftIK Nganhsiang h.

Jglfl T«'eli h.

$IB Nganruh ^3fe Yungting

Paok'ing

Shaoyang

Sinhwa j^-^ Gh'^ngpu

H^i^ Wukang c.

»W Sinning h.

9jHi Hdngcbow F.

Ilrit H^ngyang h.

j^^ Ts'ingts^iien h.

l^lJj H^ngshan h.

^JfjL Leiyang h.

1^% Ch*angning h.

^t >^ganj^n h.

(5 Ling h.

ft^ Kweiyang C.

[£g^ Linwu h.

£ll] Lanshan h

^^ Kiahwo h.

'^tm Ch'angteh F.

HCR Wuling h.

ttiS T*aoyuen h.

ffifflr Lungyang h.

i^iL Yiienkiang h.

M!H1 Cb'Ancbow F.

2^g|J Yuenling h.

\MM Luk4 h.

m^ Ch'6nk*i h.

mi Sup'u h.

^H Fungbwan£ T.

^Igt Yungsui T.

^M Kiencbow T.

^ji{ HwangcbowT.

^jHi Yflencbow F.

'SOL Ohikiang h.

1^1^ K'ienyang h.

iftlt Mayang h.

HONAM (COMTINOBd).

HDPBH.

565

4(M Yungchow

F.

«f Tsing

C

;|i]K Kweilung

h.

^g| Linglingr

h.

H^ Hweit'ung

h.

urn K'iyang

h.

jij^ T'ungtao

h.

^li Tongshun

F.

«55f Tungngan

h.

ttUr Suining

h.

^IPI Yuiigshun

h.

jt Tao

c.

l^llj Lungshan

h.

"M^ Ningyiien

h.

^tiS Ch'An

c.

^fft Pnotsing

h.

^^ Yungming

h.

^^ Yunghsing

h.

$U Sangchih

h.

^ijl Kianghwa

h.

^jjt Ichang

h.

frS Sint'ien

h.

$(li Hsingning ^m Kweiyang

h h.

^M Ranchow

T.

Uanao has 5 ItitendMncles, each administered by a Tool'ul '^ fJE :

1° Fiin^h'wao^ T. |^ iH N- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'^ii- chow F. Jg ^ Ifip, Yuenchow P. bc ^ #, Yungshun F. * JB J(if,T8iiigChow tfi W» Funghwang T., Yungsiii T. ^ A ■ c^Q^ K'ienohow T. {l£ ^ N-

2*" lA Ohow vlfl M' — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yohchow F. £ W )fip, Ch'angteh F. ^ It ^ and Li Chow; also in charge of the Government postal service at Paling h. Q K K-

3' Ch'an^ha F. -^ ^ Jtf- — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue; civil jurisdiction over Ch'angsha F., and Faok'ing F. miH^; in charge of water com- munications.

4° Ch'an^iAia F. — Provincial Intendant of the grain tribute.

5^ lldn^ehow P- tt? ^ fff- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over HAngchuw F., Yungchow F. 5^ ^ jfiP, Ch*ftn Chow ^ ^ and Kweiyang Chow « l» W ; also in charge of the Government postal service at Hdng Chow.

VI. — HUPEH M ft C'Hup").

"War

mm

HH

m mm mn\

Wucb*ang Kianghsia Wuch*ang Kiayii

Hsienning Gh^ungyang h T*ungch*^ng h Hsingkwoh c Tay6 h

T'ungshan h

Hanyang

Hanyang

Hanchw^an

Hfiiaokan

Hwangpei

Mienyang

;$p Nganluh F.

fljj^ Ohungsiang h.

7i(|Ij Kingfihan h.

WiL TsMenkiang h.

?cn T*ienm6n h.

mfi Kingmto C

i»l» Tangyang h.

g^ Yiienngan h.

XRft Siangyang F.

jHH Siangyang h.

±iffi Ich»6ng h.

ffffl^ Nanchang h.

^^ Tsaoyang h.

il«Kuhch*6ng h.

3tffc Kwanghwa h.

^ Kiin c.

mm

m

m

1tiU

Km

HftJA

Yttenyang

Yiien

Fang

Chuhshan

Chuhk'i

Paok^ang

Yiienei

Tebngan

Nganluh

Yiinm^ng

Yingch*6ng

Sui

Yingshan

F. h.

h. h. h. h. b.

F.

h. h. h. c. h.

Hwangcbow Ii'- Hwangkang h. Hwangngan h.

5G0

HUPBH (cONTINUBd). — KANSU.

^HC K'ishui

h.

!M« Kienli

h.

^^ Ch'angloh

h

j{^^ Lot'ion

h-'^felSG^ Sungtze

h.

mi^ Mach'6ng

hitt&lOhikiang

h.

Mf6 Shinan

F

m K'i

dSlfltu

'i- JBM Ngenshi

h

Jfllft KwangtHi

h.

lg,gl Siienngen

h

1^^ Hwangmei

h. £g Ich'ang

F.j*S. Laifung

h

]t(M Tunghu

h. iftJH Hsienfung

h

#iM Kingchow

F. §$ Kwei

c. flJH Lichw'an

h

ill^ Kiangling

h. ^B Ch'angyaiig

h.\»i^ Kienshi

h

^$ Kungngan

h.

#llj Haingshan

h.l

;g^ Shihshcu

h.

e,J|[ Patung

h.

^M Hohfnng

T

llopeh hns <> liHeiidaiicles, each adiiiiniHtert d )>y a Tnal'al IS ^:

l*" Hohfiui^ T'lns St ^ M. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Shinan F. jtt n Jff »"tl Hohfnng T'ing.

2** ShaBhl ^ ifi. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in Upper Kingnan, over the Pn fcctures of Kinj^rliow F. ^ ^ Mf <^ud Ich'ang F. J][ B ifip*. also in charge of water cofnmunicatioiiH.

3' Sian^ynnff F. H N^ lAP. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ngaiilnh F. $ PS IfiP, Sian^'yjiiig F.. Yiienyang F. W fl^ fff •""! Kingm^^n C. JH n f^ ; also in chai*ge of water coniniunicationH.

4" Hank'ow fli H. — Civil jurisdiction over Hanyang F. if ^ fff^ Hwang- cliow F. H ^ ^ and Tehngan F. ft % ^; also in charge of water communications.

5" Wuch'an^ F- 1^ B Jff- — Intendant of the »ealt revenue for the I'rovince of Uupt'h ; civil jurisdictioti ov«t Wiich'ang F.

6° IVuoh'anfl: F. |^ g JKP. — Grain Intendant for the Province of Hupeh.

VII.

- KARSU -H- It (

,"Kan").

m¥^ Lanchow

F it^}\\ Hwap'ing

PR Kiai

c.

Mgg Kaolan

h.

chw'an

T.

5 W6n

h.

^ Kin

h.

Ift Ch'6ng

h.

y^^ Tihtao

c.

M King

c.

mm Weiyuen

h.

^iS Ch'ungsin

h.

m Ts'in

C.

jgjgf Tsingyiien

h.

MkW. Chfinyiien

h.

11$ Ts'inngan

h.

sr no

c.

SC Lingt'ai

h.

8|:>K Ts'ingshui

m. Li

h.

h.

^/^, P*ingliang

F.

j|:g Enngch'ang

F.

m Hwei

h.

^j§l, P'ingliang

1).

ntil Lungsi

h.

pj'^ Liangtang

h.

$^ Hwat'ing

h.

!Sc3fe Nganting

h.

m^ Tsingning

c.

fl% Hweining

h.

Hit K'ingyang

F.

gllgi Lungteh

h.

jin'i T'ungwei

h.

$(k Nganhwa

h.

m^ Ningyuen

h.

^^ Hohshui

b.

m^. Kayaen

c

t^H FuhkMang

h.

^ flwan

h.

^jjj P'ingyiien

h.

•Wfo Sihwo

h.

jEtl Chfingning

h.

mi^ Haich'^ng

h.

«K Min ^iHi T'aochow

c. 1.

if Ning

0.

KANSn (CONTINnBD).

KIANOSI.

567

Hr;g Ninghsia

F.

:k)^ Tat'ung

h- ■fl'W Kanchow

F

l^'g Ninghsia

h.

mS Changyih

h

«f^ Ningshoh

h.

i^JH Liangchow

F'illj^ Shan tan

h

^JB P'inglo

h.

ICflJt Wuwei

h.i

il Ling

c.

^# Chenfan

hilt Suh

C

tf«|||^ Ghungwei

h.

;^g Yungch'ang %^ Kulang

h ]KS Kaot'ai h.

h

eW Sitting

F.

£|^^ P^ingfan

hi $11 Ngansi

C

HW Sining

h.

i^jIS Tunhwang

h

mi^ Chanpeh

h.

'iP^ Yuhmfin

h

Kansu has 7 Ifitondancles, each ad ministered by a TiioCai JH ^ :

l°T«'liichow H^ ^. — Civil jurisdiction over Kunfrch'ang F. 5K ^ K^P^ Tfi'in Chow, Kiai Chow PB ^ etc.. lutendant of the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture lands (horse-roarinp) and of ajrriculture.

2P Nin^tlflia F. ^ X 'fiP- — '""ivil and Military jurisdiction over Xinj^hsia; in charge of water communicatioiiR on the E. and W. banks of the Hwang-ho; controls the revenue of the brine wells and the salt trade.

3" Pln^lian^ F. -'p Jjt Hf— Intendant of th.> salt revenue. Civil and Military jurisdiction over P'inf(lia»if,' F , K'inpyanp F R S| ^, King Chow g ^, ICuyiiin ChowH JR ^ w«i Hwap'ingrhw'an T ffc ^ jl| B

4° LfincbO'vr F. SR ^ Iff. — Civil jurisdiction over lianchow F. Intendant of the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture lands and of agriculture.

5*^ Stnlagr F. f? % f(f. — Civil and Military juriwdiction over SininpF. Intenrlant of the Board of Pacification.

6* SahOliD'ir JH' ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ngansi Chow3c??^» Suh Chow etc.. Intendant of agriculture and of the Board of Pacificaticm for border tribes.

7^ Lian^oho'w^ F. 7g ^ K^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kanchow F. "ff jHI KP and Liangchow F. Intendant of the Board of Reorganization for P'ingliang F. ap ijr ;flP, Yungch'ang h. ^ B B, ChAnfan h. S| # R and Fuhk'iang h. -R ^ R.

YIII. — KIAN6SI a: If ( Ki")

mg Nanch^ang llfg Nanch'ang ||^|§ Sinkien Jfjd Fungch'^ng HH Tsinhsien ** Pungsin tifi Tsingngan RH Waning nil Ining

F teW Jaochow h. IBKI P'oyang h. |{^=f Yukan h. ^^ Lohp'ing h. ^SS Feuliang h. llll Tehhsing hv. fft Nganj^n h. K^ Wannien

F.

h. h. h. h. h.

3ElD

h. ^

Kwangsin

Shangjao

Yiihshan

Yihyang

Kweik*i

KMenshan

Kwangfung

Hsingngan

568

^Jt Nank*ang g^^ Singtze ^g Tuch'ang jj^g Kiench^ang $4t Ngani

JLiL Kiukiang 11^ Tehhwa leift Tehngan ]y|g Shuich'ang jj^D Huk'ow ^^ P'ungtseh

KIANOSI (CONTINUID). — KIANeSU.

f [M^ Tunghsiang h

hJ

h.

h. h. h.

Linkiang F

Ts'ingkiang h.

Sinkan h.

Sinyii h.

Hsiahkiang h.

Shuichow F

Kaongan h.

Sinch'ang h.

Shangkao h.

j^g Kiench'ang F.

^jdt Nanch'^ng h.

^j^ Sinch^^ng h.

^9 Nanfung h. J(g Kwangch^angh.

ftiH LukM h.

HlHl Fuchow F.

gljlj Linchw^an h.

^f^ Kink^i h.

jjlt Ch*ungj6n h.

J[)| Ihwang h.

^^ Lohngan h.

#W Yflenchow F.

j£# Ich'un h.

^J[ F^ni h.

^IgS P'inghsiang h.

lilfi Wantsai h.

#$ Kihngan F.

jg|;^ Lienhwa t.

JtiJ^ Luling h.

^^ T^aihwo h.

$;4C Kihshui h.

Ikfi Yungfung h,

^jjg Nganfuh h.

m^ Lungts'iien h.

H^ Wanngan h.

|<*f Yungsin h.

^iS Yungning h.

$g(jH Kanchow F.

jH Kan h.

Has Yutu h.

jia Sinfung h.

90 Hsingkwoh h.

'^g Hweich^ang h.

$)S Nganyiien h.

^m Ch*angning h.

m* Lungnan h.

^^ Tingnan t.

mm Ningtu C.

^^ Shuikin h.

;gi^ Shihch'^ng h.

^« Nanngan F.

:kM Tayii h.

^j^ Nank^ang h.

J:|8 Shangyiu h.

^m Ch*ung.i h.

^p^ K'iennan t.

Klan^fli has 4 Inleiidaiicies, each administered by a TaoCai jt, tk •

r Kanchow F. H ^ /HP. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kihngan F. "» £ ff » Nanngan F. |9| fSc #t Kanchow F., and Ningtu Chow |R 9 ^ ; also in charge of the Govemraent postal service and of water communications.

2^ Kiaklan^ F- A tl ^- — Oivil and Military jurisdiction over Kwangsin F. II IS ^» Jaochow F. M ^ MFi Kiukiang F., and Nank'ang F. |9| jK # : also in charge of water communications. Customs Superintendent for the port of Kiukiang.

3** Nanch'anip P. |9| g ^. — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for Kiangsi. Civil jurisdiction over Shuichow F. 41 ^ /ff, Yiienchow P- ft ^ ^ and Linkiang F. tt tC ff-

4° Naneh'an^ F. |9| H ;Rp. — Provincial Grain Intendant. Civil jurisdiction over Nanch'ang F., Fuchow F. fl| ^ j|^ and Kiench'aug F. ]£ B MP ^ a^^o iii charge of water communications.

IX. — KIAN6SU fL m (**Ku' ).

1L% KiangningF.(l)!fl:W Kiangning h.

(NANKING Iff 3{() |^$ Kuyung h.

JlX: Shangyiien h.lj^pfc Lihshui h.

f£^ Kiangp'u Z;^ Luhhoh Tli^ Kaoahun

h. h. h.

(1) Capital of Kiangnan (Kiangsu and Nganhwei).

KIANftSU (CONTINUBD).

569

mM Soochow F.

(<)

nm Ch'angchow F.

^fVi Yangchow

F

*JJB T'aihu

t.

^ji Wutsin

h.

ft^ Kiangtu

h

^ Wu

h.

I^JM Yanghu

h.

■jt;^ Kants'uen

h

^jfH Gh'angchow

' h.

M» Wusih

h.

mm Ich^ng

h

5cft Yiienhwo

h.

^2 Kinkwei

h.

iU^ Kaoyiu

c

J^lJj K'uenshan

h.

ttl^ Kiangyin

h.

^ft Hsinghwa

h

frU Sinyang

h.

"^^ Ihsing

h.

MM Paoying

h

-^^ Gh'angshuh

h.

mm Kingk'i

h.

^ T'ai

c.

Bai ChaowSn

h.

jgj^l Tsingkiang

h

XIE Tungt'ai

h

^a Wukiang

h.

H^ Ch^ntseh

h.

MiL Chenkiang fi^ Tant'u

F. h.

Mf^ Haimfin

T

■kUt T'aits'ang

c

nm Tanyang

h.

m T'ung

C.

HJ^ Ch6nyang

h.

^« Kint'an

h.

ia^ Jukao

h.

^(fi Ch'ungming

h.

\tM Lihyang

h.

^^ T'aihsing

h

^^ Kiating

h.

^li] Paoshan

h.

fH* Hwaingan

F.

^^ Sachow

F

lljl^ Shanyang

h.

iHllj T'ungshan

h.

^iL Sungkiang

F.

J^iS Feuning

h.

M Siao

h.

)\\^ Chw^ansha

t.

gllog Y«nch'6ng

h.

l^lU T'angshan

h

^^ Hwat'ing

h.

PfiJTs'ingho

h.

g Fung

h

J|&|f Funghsien

h.

^■jt Ngantung

h.

m P'ei

h.

* Leu

h.

;|^jg T'aoyuen

h.

^ P'i

c.

^llj Kinshan

h.

:^jl Suhts'ien

h.

±fft Shanghai

h.

« Hai

c.

Btit Suining

h.

^If Nanhwei

h.

tt«l Kanyu

h.

Wit TB'ingp'u

h.

\^m Shuhyang

h.

Klan^au has 7 Intendandes, each administered by a Taot'al Jt ^ '

1® Mlchow F. 4Ji ^ flf- — Civil and Militar>' jurisdiction over P'i Chow S5 ^» Suhts'ien h. ^ S K, T'ungshan h. M Ul IK> F"nK h. g U andT'aoyiien h. ^ jg H ; also in charge of waterways.

2' Hwaingan F- S 3c ff • — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hwaingan F., Yangchow F. IK ^ /flP a-i^d Hai Chow ^ ^; in charge of waterways; controls the transport of the Imperial rice tribute; salt and maritime Intendant.

3"* Oh'angshah h. K IRt ft. — Grain Intendant for Soochow F. JK ^ J^P, Sung- kiang F. « tt J(p, Gh'angchow F. flj ^ flf , Cht'^nkiang F.^U Hf and T'aits'ang Chow jk A* /H- Civil jurisdiction over Soochow F.; controls water communications.

4* Kian^nin^ I''- tl YR Kf (Nanking). — Grain Intendant over the 10 Prefec- tures of Kiangning F., Ngank'ing F. $ R jflp, Hweichow F.ft M ftfj Ningkwoh F. « B ^. Ch'ichow F. yft^ iff, T'aip'ing F. * ^ jfiP, Luchow F. K^ jfif, Fungyang F. J» |» jfiP, Hwaingan F. fi 3c * and Yangchow F. Jft ^ Jff .

5^ Kiangning F. (Nanking). — Intendant and Reorganizator of the salt reve- nue for the Kiangnan (RiangBU and Nganhwei) circuit. Civil jurisdiction over Kiang- ning F. (Nanking) ; controls water communications.

(1) Provincial Capital of Kiangsu.

570

KIAN&8U (CONTimJID). — KWANQSI.

i}° 9lhang%mi h. |: H^ fSi. —Civil and Military jurinflirUon otit Soochow F.H ^ JKP, Suuf^kiang F. ft tt MP &"<! Taits'ang Ohow jk M ^ Snperintendent of Customfi.

7° Ohdnkiaiig F.Jt^ it ftf— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'angchow F. * ^ W, ChAnkianff F , T'ling Chow S ^. Haim/^n T'in^ M^ H Mete; Mntrols rivers and waten^ays.

I -

- KWAieSI m K ("

8i").

4i^ KweiUn

F. l-fi Pehseh

T.

* Kwei

h

eg;|i Linkwei

h.

-Wtt Ngenlung

h.

f^S Wusiien

h

^$ Hsingngan

h.

JBIft^ Ngenyang

1

JBJH Lingchw'an

h.

f«n

c iifll Manning

F

|tl9] Yangshoh

h.

Sft Suenhwa

h

*1B Yungning

c.

mU Siech'tog

F.

ffW Sinning

c

^ff Yungfuh

h.

Elfl Lingyiin

h.

IS4F Lungngan

h

mfS Ining

h.

H# Silin

h.

iK Hung

c

^ Ts'iien

c.

Hft Silung

c.

:^jg Yungahun

h

f$ff^ Kwanyang

h.

mU Kweiteh

c.

^m P'ingloh

F.

Hft Kwohwa

c,

^M Liuchow

F.

qifH P'ingloh

h.

J^ Chung

c

JHzp Map'ing

h.

^M Kungch'Sng

h.

fl^*^ Lohyung

h.

^jfll Fuchw'an

h.

*5p T*aip*ing

F

I^JH Loch'«ng

h.

« Ho

h.

IliHl Lungohow

t

i^AI Liuch'^ng

h.

UM Lip'u

h.

^Ijf Ch'ungshan

h

ttfS Hwaiyiien *f| Laipin

h

nil Siuj«n

h.

«« Yangli

c

h.

H3^ Chaop'ing

h.

« Teo

c

m Yung

h.

^^ Yungngan

c.

:i}c|f Yungk'ang

c

1^ Siang

c.

:@^ Wuchow

F.

±SS. Shangsze

T

MjS. K'mgyllen

F.

K^ Ts'angwu

h.

mVk Loyang

h

5IC1I1 Ishan

h.

m T'fing

h.

ISifi Wanch'Ang

c

3^13 TMenho

h.

Jfit Yung

h.

UK Sseling

c

MUb Hoch'i

c.

}^^ Ch'ink'i

h.

191^ Nlngming HH Pingsiang

c

J^JB Szengen

h.

#[^ HwaitBih

h.

c

HCM Tunglan

c.

;k^ T'alpHng

c

•tirjlll Hsinch'«ng

h.

## Tohlin

C

^^ Nganp'Ing

c.

f&^ Nantan

c.

If 6 Pohpeh

h.

^S Mingying

c

^fft Na (no) ti

c.l*ft Pehliu

h.

|$« Kiehngan

c

|^)|| Luhchw'an

h.

f^H Kihiun

c

SS.9 Szengen

F. mm Hsingyeh

h.

fill Lungying

c

g,m Wuyiien

h.

ntt Tukleh

c

K Pin

c.i^jHI Sflnchow

F.

aC Kiang

c

^tL Ts'ienkiang

h.i^i^ Kweip'ing

h.1

jg; Sze

•e.

±^i Sbanglin

h.

£pl|f P'ingnan

h.

±T{k Shanghsia*

tung

KWAN&8I (CONTINTJId). RWANOTUNa.

S$|g Kweishun C ^j§ Gh^npien h.

H* Chfinngan ^ftt T*icnpao "Pl^ Hflialei

F.|4^g| Fungi hi |n||^ Hsiangwu cl^HTuk'ang

571

c.

K^vrnngwk has 4 Inleiidabclea, each administered by a Taoi'iii jt 9 '

1* hnngch^'w F. K ^ ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'aiping F. :k -^ jfip, ahangSEe T'inpr fc ffi. ■, Kweishun Chow ■ JK ^ and Cb*nn(<an F. 9| «*.

2° liartio'vr P. (IP ^ Jff — Civil and Military jurisdiction over the Profecturoa of Liuchow P., K*ingy\ien ¥. tt SL fff^ Szenpen P. S Bl ^< Pehseh T'infr W fe iS. Szech'feng F- fH Jtj( ^Rf, and the Departments of Pin Chow Jf ^ and Silung Chow

mmm.

3" Naimin^ I'*- A ffi ff ■ — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nauning F., Siiiichow F. jf ^ Iff, Yiihlin Chow B ;|k Jfip and Shangsze T'ing ± jgL ■.

4° K^vv-ellin F. 4$ ;Hl ^. — Civil jurisdiction over Kweilin F., P'ingloli F. ^ ^ )ff and Wuchow F. fS ^ Af- Provincial lutendant of the salt revenue for Kwangsi.

XI.-

- KWANGTUNG M « (-Tung-).

JUjHi Kwangchow P.

t^llj Hohshan

h.

iTid Hanhsiung

C

(Canton).

mm Tehk'ing

c.

jl&ft Shihsing

h

J^m Nanhai

h.

^)\\ Fungchw'ar

1 h.

#1% P^anyii

h.

PRjt K'aikien

h.

Mf^ Hweichow

F

JgH 3hunteh

h.

1$^ Kweishan

h

3*^ Tungkwan

h.

a^Loting

c.

mm pohio

^m Ch'angning

h

^flj Ts*unghwa

h.

]ft^ Tungngan

h.

h

fllP^ Lungmfin

h.

ISHr Sining

h.

jj£^ Yungngan

h

^m Sinning

h.

f(|9 Haifung

h

i§l^ Tsengch'fing

rh.

^m Fuhkang

T

1^9 Luhfung

h

:g^|l| Hsiangshan

h.

ffijH Lungchw«ai

) h

i^# Sinhwei

h.

#g5 Chihk'i

T.

M^ Lienp'ing

c

— .;jC Shanshui

h.

JPTiK Hoyiien

h.

Jl^ T8*ingyuen

h.

M Lien

c.

fti^ Hwop'ing

h

10i^ Sinngan

h.

Ullj Yangshan

h.

« Hwa

h.

)||^ Ch'aochow

F

fSifii Lienshan

T.

ft$VI^ Haiyang

h

Vtm Chaoking 19(11 Kaoyao

F.

>BJg Fungshun

h

h.

|g^ Shaochow

F

mm Ch'aoyang

h.

B# Szehwei

h.

ftiL K'uhklang

h.

^H^ Kiehyang

h

ftll Sinhsing

h.

^g Lohch'ang

h.

Slip Jaop'ing

h.

Hi^ Yangch*un l|q^ Kaoming

h.

tlft J^nhwa

h.

Jg^JH Hweilai

h.

h.

9l2i Juyuen

h.

*ffiTapu

h.

JB^ Ngcnp'ing

h.

^^ Wungyuen

h.

llfll Oh'^nghai

b.

** Kwangning

h.

||{i( Yingteh

h.

^ P'uning

b.

11^ K'aip'ing

b.

572

KWANGTUNa (CONTINUED). KWBIGHOW.

S!i Kiaying ^^ Ch'angloh H% Hsingning /[^^ P'ingyiien ^zp Oh6np*ing

flIW Lienchow >^m Hohp'u (ill Lingshan

B)^J!* Fangch*eng ^:Hi Kaochow

j5Jjg Meuming

C.|1t& Tienpeh

h.

h

h

ffc Hwa ^/|| Wuchw*an :gj!lt Shihch'dng

F. S'Hi Leichow h.lfH^ Haik^ang h.m^ Suik'i

I eg fa suw^n

h. I^a Yangkiang T.

h. h. c. h. h.

F.

h. h, h.

||4H Kiungchow F. ]^l|[] K'iungshan h.

f^jg Ch*^ngmai h.

5£5Sc Tingngan h.

35t^ W^nch^ang h.

%|6) Hweit*ung h.

^"^t Lohhwei h.

l^jK Linkao h.

if Tan c.

M Tai C

iRJB Kanngen h.

gffc Ch*anghwa h.

g|7K Lingshui h.

£ Wan h.

Kiivan^iing }ias 0 InleiKianclea, each administered by a Taoi'ai jt jf^

1^ Otinok'ing F. t^ ft ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the region VV. of the hi^'h ridges, over the Prefectures of Chaok'iiig F., and Loting Chow St ^ f^*

2*^ ll^veichow P. ]|[ *H1 )R. —Civil and Military jurisdiction over HweichowF., Ch'aochow F.^ m fff" and Kiaying Chow X tf ^•

8 Kwangrdiow F. jR ^ ^ (OaoCoii)- — Provincial Grain Intendant for Kwangtung ; in charge of taxes on land cultivated by the people and by soldiers ; con- trols water communications.

4** Shaocboiv F. M ^ MP-— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanhsiung Chow M M ^, Shaochow F., and Lien Chow §S ^ ; controls water communications.

5® K^ian^dio^v F. 41 /H #.— Civil and military jurisdiction over K'iungchow F., and Yai Chow Ml ^.

G*^ Kaoeboiv F. K ^ Iff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kaochow F.i Lienchow F. fll ^ Jff, Leichow F. ^ ^ flf and Kin Chow 0: ^.

III. — KWEICHOW jl ^ (**Kwei")

J|:li Kweiyang F.

-^^ Kweichuh h.

IIM Lungli h.

jll^ Kweiting h.

m^ Siuwfin h.

11 K'ai c.

^# Tingfan c.

;KJI|| Kwangshun c.

S^ Szechow F.

5^ Yuhp'ing h.

Ifa Ts^ingk'i h.

EPtt

mm

Szenan F.

Nganhwa h.

Wuchw'an h,

Yinkiang h.

Chdnyflen F.

ChSnyiien h.

Shiping h.

T'ienchu h. Hwangp'ing c.

«fcT'ungjto IBtT'ungj^n

P.

h.

i&m Sungt'ao T.

m^ Lip'ing F. IS^ Kait'ai h.

f^^ Kinp'ing

hsiang. ^^ Yungts'ung h.

KWBICHOW (CONTINUBd). NOANHWBI.

573

"SM Nganshun

F.

m^ Tuyfln

F.

:k^ Tating

F

:f ^ P'uting

h.

All Pahchai

t.

jJCJSlI Shuich'fing

t

HW Chinning

c.

^^ Tuyun

h.

^jS F'ingyiien

c

tKIB Yungning ||gt TB*ingch6n

c.

Jftn^ Mahoh

c.

l^fl K'ienBi

c

h.

mill Tuhshan

c.

JAW Weining

c

^ip. Nganp'ing

h.

ip}^ Ts'ingp'ing

h.

HDi Pihtsieh

h

HJtif Langtai

t.

IS%Lipo

h.

iSH Tsuni

F

AH Hsing-i

F.

^M P'ingyueh

c.

fUm Tsuni

b

mm Hsing-i

h.

g^ Meit'an

h.

^1$ T'ungtze

h

^$ P'ungan

h.

2^ Wungngan

h.

^m Suiyang

h

^lif Ngannan

h.

4^« Yiik'ing

h.

jE^ Chd'ngngan

c

jH^ Ch^ngfung

c.

SPf Shihts'ien

F

flfll Jdnhwai

h

tifft P'ungan

T.

ft^ Lungts'iien

h.

t:ft Jdnhwai

T

Kiveicliow has 3 Intendancie*, each administered by a Taol'al JH $ :

1° Lip'ln^ F. 3R 2|i ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the Kastem portion of Kweichow, over the Prefectures of Lip'ing F., Tiiyiin F.^ffi^ J/f^ (JhAnyuen F. 0| a jfiP, Szechow F. JB ^ #, T'ungjAn P. Jg t: * and Sungt'ao T'ing ^ ilk^t.

2* K'welyaDff F« JR A ^' — Intt ndant of rice tribute for Chinest* soMiers. Military jurisdiction over Kweiyang P., P'ingyueh Chow ^ tK ^t Shihts'ien F. S" Pf ^ and Jdnhwai T'iug <1 flj ■.

3** Plhlsleh hflieii 4^ ff M- — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the Western portion of Kwoichow, over Kweiyang F. jR M ^, Nganshun F. jc )® flf, Szeuan F. JB IB fl¥^, Tating F. iz&^, Tsuni P. iff ft W, Hsing-i F. H ft W. Whining Chow j£ 1R ^ and P'ungan Ting # % ■.

XIII. — MGANHWEI ^ « (-An ^

$a Nganking F.

fill Hwaining h.

jfj^^ T*ungch*6ng h.

j^lll Ts'ienshan h.

±fgi T^aihu h.

|gj^ Suhsung h.

MiL Wangkiang h.

mfVi Hweichow F.

IK Hih h.

fIcW Hsiuning h.

fl^ Wuyiien h.

fRf^ K'im6n

h.

fUm Ch'ichow

F

Wi I

h.

Hflli Kwoich'i

h

j^fl TsihkM

h.

^(^ Ts'ingyang

h

l^il T'ungling.

li

iRiSI Hingkwoh

F.

5Jb!t Shihl'ai

h

^Mt Siiench'6ng

h.

j^^ Kientch

ii

WH Ningkwoh

h.

y^tfi Tungliu

h

ffi King

h.

i;^ T'aip'ing

h.

i:^ T'aip'ing

F

ji^ Tsingteh

h.

^^ Tangt'u

h

r||@^ Nanling

h.

mm Wuhu 9(g Panch'ang

h

h

574

NftAMHWBI (COMTINaBD). — SHA.NSI.

m)V[ Lachow

r.

SM Tingchow

F.

ft Hwo

c

>g.JC Hohfei

h.

#1* Feuyang

h.

'^llj Hanshan

h.

ttiL Liikiang

h.

^J: Yingshang

h.

^JA Shuch'«ng

h.

SfK Hwohk'iu

h.

7^$ Luhngan

c.

^Si Wuwei

c.

% Poh

c.

^ll] Yingshan

h

M ^^'^°

h.

(llsil* Koyang i:*I Taihwo

h. h.

^\}i Hwohshan

b

MJ% Fungyang

P. MiA M«ngch'6ng

h.

m Sze

c

El^ Fungyang

hJ

gf iir Hsu-i

h

ttiS Hwaiyu<;n

hi IK Kwangteh

c.

H^ T'iench'ang

h

'S.UL Tingyiien

h.lj^^ Kienp'ing

h.

S.m Wuho

h

% Sheu

c.j

%,m Fungl'ai

h.

n Chn

C

« Suh

c.

|^;||l Ts'uentfliao

h.

^H Lingpih

h.

j(i^ Laingan

h.

N^anh'wei hap 3 Intendaneiea, each a-lminiRt<*Terl by a T.iOl*al )■ ( :

1** Fun^yan^ A 1% ^.~ Civil and Military jurisdiction over Fnnf?yaiig P. and Yinff'^how F. £ ^ ^, extended also to Luhngan Chow ::^; 4c ^ ^nd Sze Cbow

2** NipanVinff F. 3? JK ff —Civil jurisdiction ovit Npauk'inp F , Liichow F. K ^ ;^,Ch'u(^how||| ^ and Hwo Chow #0 ^.

3° Wuhu holen 3K M 0- — Civil and Militar>' jurisdiction over Hweichow F. m m *,NingkwohF. tR ■ V. Ch'ichow F. m M J(f. T'aip*ing F. * ^ jfr and Kwanp^teh Chow jR || ^- Superintendent of Customs.

XIV. — SHANSI Oj W ("Sha").

±M T'aiyflen 16

F.

Yangk'iih h.

T^aiyiien h.

Yulz'e h.

T^aikuh h.

K*i h.

^^ Biikeu h.

^jffi Kiaoch'^ng h.

jJCtJC Wenshui h.

^£ K'olan c.

Mi ^^" ^'

^ Hsing h.

¥3fe P'ingting C

S Yu h.

^1^ Sheuyang h.

1$

mm

Hsin

Tingsiang Tsingloh

Tai

Wufal Kwoh Fanchi

Paoteh Hok'iih

F'ingyang Linfdn Hungtung Feushan

c.

h. h.

c.

h. h. h.

C.

h.

F. h.

h. h.

mn Aft

Hsiangning

Yohyang

K'iihwoh

Yihch*6ng

T*aip'ing

Siangling

F6n8i

Kih

ig Hwoh

jgi^ Ghaoch'^ng 41 ;5 Lingshih

filHl P uchow

tJcW Yungtsi Qjl^ Lintsin

h. h. h. h. h. h. h. c.

c.

h. h.

F.

h. h.

SHAN8I (CONTINUBd).

575

tmS Yiihsiang h.

f^ Yungho h.

Mik Wants ^iien h.

«ft Ishi h.

M Hsiai C.

4St^ Nganyih h.

3 Hsia h.

^Bl P*ingluh h.

^j)fi Juich'^ng h.

n Kiang C.

H^ Yuenk'uh h.

SlF W^nhsi h.

H Kiang h.

iftllj Tsihshan h.

i^H^ Hotsin h.

m sih c.

:kn Taning h.

« P'u h.

^fO Yunghwo h.

m9 Lungan F.

^ffy Ch'angchi h.

^4F Ch*^ftngtze h.

lg^ T'unliu h.

0jg Siangyiien h.

jlljil Luch'«ng h.

^^ Hukwan h.

IgjA Lich'^Dg h.

26 ii

mm

mm

mm

All:

«t III It

FAnchow

F^nyang

Hsiao-i

P*ingyao

Kiaihsiu

Shihleu

Lin

Yungning

Ninghsiang

Tsin

TsMnyiien Wuhsiang

Tsehchow

Fungt'ai

Kaop'ing

Yangch*6ng

Lingchw^an

Ts'inshui

Liao Hwoshun

Yush6

Tatung

Tat*ung

Hwaij^n

Hwunyiien

Ying

Shanyin

Rllft Yangkao h.

55H T4ench6n h.

IK Kwangling h.

S0 LingkMu h.

WS Ningwu p.

%^ Ningwu h.

ttiBR P'icnkwan h.

Ifftb Shench'i h.

Hii Wuseh h.

M^ Shohp ing F.

^3E Yiuyiih h.

jfy Shoh c.

4^ Tsoyun h.

/j^H P'ingiu h.

Stit Kweihwa T. ft«*Ji HwoUn-

koheul T.

litit^ Sahlahtsi T. 9iiiim Tsingshui-

ho T

JEJKft T'ohk'oh

t'oh %fti Ningyflen H^ Hsinghwo m^ T'aolin ICJII Wuchw'an at« Wuyflen

8hanal has 4 bitendandes, each administered by a Tftot'ni jS K '

1® Flalyiten ch'dii^ i^SM (ft town snbonlinate to Sbohp'ing P. JflTj(p).— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kweihwa ch'^ng B| ffc iJj and Suiyuen ch'Anj^. Military Superintendent controlling the affairs of Chinese Bannermen and of Mongols; in charge of the Government postal service.

2** Tal OliDW f^ ^. — Military jurisdiction over Tat'ung F. ;A: H flf , Shoh- p*ing F. JBfl 2|l fl^, Ningwu F. Hf R W, Hsin Chow W fH. Tai Chow ft ^ and Paoteh Chow file tt ^ ; in charge of water communications.

Keeps watch over 3 important passes : YAnm^nkwan H I*] M (wild-goose gate- barrier), Lungcb'i-k'ow IE ilfh P (dragon-pool pass), and Shahhu-k'ow JlSf jft P (tigcr- alaying pass).

3* T'^iytten F. ^k S #• — Civil jurisdiction over Taijmen F., FAnchow F. nM Hf. Lungan F. flj tIc W, Tsehebow F. 19 M /HP, Liao Chow ig ^, Ts'in Chow f^ ^ and P*ingting Chow ^ JS£, f^; in charge of water communications. Controls also the Government postal service and the tribute.

576 SHANSI (continued). SHANTUNG.

4° Ytin ch'Ang: 2 Jl^. ~ Military jurindiction, iu the rof^ion K. of the Yellow River, over P'ingyang F. 2p P| ^, P'uchow F. JBf ^ *. Hniai Chow (I ^, Kiang Chow M^ ^,HwohChow|K fH and Sih Chow fiR^; in charge of the Qovfniment postal Hervice and of water communicatioiiR. Inteiidaiit of the salt revenue for the Provinces of Shansi, Shensi and Honan.

IV. — SHANTUNG lU 3|C ("Sung").

HF^ Tsinan

F.

if^ Ts'ingch'^ng h

AJ« Lihch'6ng

h.

fSi^ Shangho

h

4^ Changk'iu

h.

1(5% Cheup'ing

h.

^M Tdnchow

F

i^jH Tzechw'an

h.

mt Tzeyang

h

^lU Gh'angshan

h.

^^ K'uhfeu

h

«ij« Sinch'6ng

h.

Wl* Ningyang

h

IRfpf Ts'iho

h.

1^ Cheu (Tseu)

h

^yg, Ts'itung

h.

JB;!K Szeshui

h

Wlif Tsiyang

h.

m T'6ng

h

H Teh

c.

m Yih

h

;{g2p Tehp'ing

h.

^tR Yangkuh

h

^Jlft Yuch'6ng

h.

^'JH Sheuchang

h

($g Linyih

h.

gt_t Wfinshang

h

^IK P'ingyiien

h.

K Ling

h.

Sin Tsining

c

^^ Ch'angts'lngh.

^IgS Kinhsiang

h

^^ Kiasiang

h

^^ T'aingan

P

«l* Yiit'ai

ii

^^ T'aingan

h.

j^i^ Tungp-ing

h.

i»f« Ichow

F

HCM Tungho

h.

iSllj Lanshan

h

^1^ P'ingyin

h.

$1^** T'anch'eng

h

*?* Sint'ai

h.

« P'i

h

MM Laiwu

h.

ft Ku

c

fl»^ Feich'eng

h.

W* Ishui

h

^1^ Mengyin

h

m. Wuting

F.

Q Bg Jihchao

h

^K Hweimin

h.

Rg^ Yangsin

h.

WW Ts'aochow

F

flIS Haifung

h.

#)S Hotseh

h

^m Lohling

h. 1|f Ts-ao

h

d[ I'in

c.jj^ Puh

c

^^ Litsin

h.,|£ Fan

h

glflj Chanhwa

h!ili£ Kwanch'6ng

h

^S P'ut'ai

h.

igilJt Ghaoch'^ng

h

PJI* Yiinch'fing h.

J|l Shan h.

JMIIC Ch'fingwu h.

^|l)g Tingl'ao h.

^ff Kuy6 h.

Xg Tungch'ang

F

9PjA Liaoch'Ang

h

^a T'angyih

h

tlj^ Pohp'ing

h

^^ Ship'ing

h

Jil^P Ts'ingp'ing

h

^ Sin

h

S Kwan

h

ItpH Kwant'ao

h

JB Ngen

h

}S5^ Kaot*ang

c

E&^ Lints'ing

c.

St** Wuch'Cng

h

Sft Hsiatsin

h

jrR K'iu

h

WW

#5t

Tsingchow

Yihtu

Pohshan

Lintze

Pohhsing

Kaoyuen

Lohngan

Sheukwang

Ch'angloh

Linkii

Ngank*iu

Chuch*^ng

BHANTnNO (continued). SHBNSI.

577

S^ Tdngchow

P.

Hfffl Ninghai

c.

zp.^ P'ingtu

c.

ai^ P'6nglai

h.

is WfinMng

h.

m Wei

b.

% Hwang

h.

^^ Yungch'^ng

h.

gg, Ch'angyih

h.

H^ Fuhshan

h.

ft$^ Haiyang

h.

^^ Sihsia

h.

m Kiao

c

^jg Chaoyiien

b.

M^ Laichow

F.

KKijj^ Kaomih

h.

^^ Laiyang

h.

m Yih

h.

IPH Tsihmeh

h.

Shanluns has 4 lotendaiiclMi, each administered by a Taot'al jt S '

1° Lalebo'W' F ^ ^ j^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over TAngohow F. g ^ jff, Laichow F., Ts'ingcliow F. ft #1 ^ and Kiao Chow S ^Hi ; in charge of water communications, controls the Maritime Heorganizatiou Board.

2" Tiiinan F. Sf fff #. — Civil jurisdiction over Tsinan F., Tungch'ang F. K g Kf, T'aingan F. <fc 3J fl^p, Wuting F. gt ife # and Lints'ing F. ffi ff Jjf ; in char- ge of the Government postal service and of water communications within his circuit. Controls also the affairs of Kaot'ang Chow ^^ jjf ^, Puh Chow )R ^ and Tungp*ing Chow JR^#|.

3^ Teh Oboiv H ^. — Grain Intendant, Overseer of the granaries, controls the payment of the tribute in the Department of Teh Chow and the districts of Ch*ang- ts'ing h. II if B, Linyih h. ES S K and Ts'ingp'ing h. jf ^p ||[.

4* Ydncho^w F. jgj #1 iff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yenchow F. 55 #1 Iff , Ichow F. iJt ^ #, Ts'aochow P. W ^ Jflp and Tsining Chow S Hf #| ; in charge of water communications, of the Government postal service and of the con- servancy of the Yellow River etc.

XVI.

— SHENSI 19! H ("She").

WH Singan

F.

IS Shang

c.

n K'ien

C

^H Hsiao-f

t.

11$ Chdnngan

h.

fClJf Wukung

h

^1^ Ningshen

t.

^flf Lohnan

h.

^% Yungsheu

h

^$ Ch'angngan

h.

lljl^ Shanyang

h.

jgli Hsienning

h.

ffi^ Bhangnan

h.

m Pin

C

J^l^ Hsienyang

h.

H?K Sanshui

h.

$^2p. Hsingp'ing

h.

liW T'ungchow

F.

fgfl: Shunhwa

h

eg^ Lint'ung

h.

:kM Tali

h.

^^ Ch'angwu

h

ll^m Kaoling

h.

'MM T'ungkwan

t.

m Hu

h.

^g Ohaoyih

h.

MM Fungsiang

F

;Kffl Lant'ien

h.

g|5|^ Hohyang

h.

HISH Fungsiang

h

ffifil Kingyang

h.

@JS^Ch'6ngoh'6ngh.

l^lll K'ishan

h.

HJK Sanyiien

h.

^j^ Hanch'«ng

h.

)m Paoki

h

IKM Chcuchih

h.

I^tK Pehshui

h.

^M, Fufung

h.

!iit Weinan

h.

m Hwa

c.

f|! Mei

h.

"S ^ Fup'ing

h.

1^1^ Hwayin

h.

f^^ Linyiu

h.

MM Lits'iien

h.

Bli P*uch'6ng

h.

{fflU K'ienyang

h.

IgJ'g' T'ungkwan

h.

Rg Lung

c.

9 Yaochow

0.

87

578

8HBNSI (cOirrilfUBD). — BZBCHW^AN.

i)|(t> Hanchung

flfc^f FuhpMng ^^ Tingyiien 9JS Liupa $)|P Nanch^ng ilk^ Paoch'6ng ilB Ch*6ngku » Yang Hip Sihsiang JK Fung H^ NingkMang )^ Mien iqpH^ Liobyang

^$ Hsingngan ^1^ Hanyin $ji Ngank^ang

F.

mm P'ingli

h.

m fd

c

t.

illi Siinyang

h.

f^)\\ LohchWan

h.

t.

6M Pehho

h.

i^lJS Ohangpu

h.

t.

«|» Tzeyang

h.

ft;e Ikiin

h.

h.

;6Si Shihts'uen

h.

h.

»«Saiteh

c.

h.

«* Tfiiing9n

P.

b.

h.

ftm pushi

h.

iHiH Ts'ingkien

h.

h.

$2 Nganseh

h.

^^ Wupao

b.

h.

-f jg Kants'iien

h.

c.

^^ Paongan

h.

mvumi

F.

b

iijj^ Nganling

h.

Mk'^ Yiilin

h.

h.

^;ii Ivhw'an

h.

|^:iC Shenmuh

h.

fg^ Y6nch'ang

h.

fffi^ Fukah

h.

f.

&;i| Y6nchw'an

h.

it Kiai

c.

t.

2ft Tingpien

h.

{|% Hwaiyfien

h.

h.

ISH Tsingpien

h.

I has 5 iBteadaiicIeK, each ftdministered by a TaOi'ai jt ( :

l** Sing^n F. fS it flf- — Intf^ndant of the rice tribute, with civil jorisdiotion overSingaii F., K'ien Chow fg ^, Fu Chow K ^, T*nngchow F. H ^ MP etc. ; also in charge of water commmiications.

2° T^un^kwan T'in^ 'tt HI M. — Civil and Military jnrisdiction over T*iuig- kwan T., and Shang Chow JSi ^•

3** FuD^fllaii^ F. A m f^p.— Intendant of the salt revenue, with civil jorisdio- tion over Fungsiang F., and Pin Chow j^ ^; also in charge of water commnnioatioiiB.

4*^ Yttlln F. itl^^ — Oivil and Military jurisdiction over Y^nngan F.f^^ iAp, Yiilin F., Huiteh Chow tf H ^ etc. Intendant of the salt and tea revenues.

5*^ HanclMiii^ F. SI 4> iA"- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hanohang F. and Hsingngan F. 9k 9 ^ '" ^^^^ ^^ charge of water communications.

XVII

. -

- SZECHW'AN 0 Jil

("Sze").

0,iS[i Ch'fingtu

F- mW Sintsin h.

mt Tzet'ong

h

^^ Ch'^nglu

h.

g| Han c.

fifL Lokiang

h

4E|§ Hwayang

h.

fr^li Shihfang h.

SE$E Shwangliu

h.

M Men

C

flit Wfinkiang

h.

Hf Tze C.

iSC)l\ W«nchWan

h

jg|g Sinfan

h.

t;# Jfinsheu h. m Tseyang h.

%# Lifan

t

■^^ Kint'ang

h.

«r« Sintu

h.

## TsingyAn h.

Wa Ningyflen

F

m P'i

h.

n2C Neikiang h.

6g Sich'ang

h

^ Kwan

h.

WIS Mienning 9f 3^ Ydnyuen

b

J^ P'Ang

h.

m Mien C. m Tehyang h.

h

^fS Ch'ungning

h.

t^l Hweili

c.

fV Kien

c.

* Ngan h.

^H Yuehtsuen

t.

^H Ch'ungkMng

c.

Iltjr Mienohuh h.

ssbchw'an (continobo).

579

fl^Hr Paoning F

Ijijif* Langchung h,

liH Ts'angk'l h,

f6t5 Nanpu h.

g^jC Kwangyiien h.

VRit Ghaohwa h.

G Pa c.

MiL T*ungkiang h.

if it Nankiang h,

il Kien c,

m» Shanking P.

1^% Nanch'ung h.

iS% Sich'ung h.

M P'^ng c.

SlU Yingshan h.

UK Hung h,

)J|$ Kwangngan c.

ff^Hi Linshui h.

#^ Yohch^ h.

^m SOchow F.

J^Hf Mapien t.

±^ Ipin h,

jK^ K'ingfu h.

tSf^ Fushun h.

^€1 NankM h.

-j^li Ch'angning h.

JK Kao h.

jft^ Yiinlien h.

m Kung h,

lljSC Hsingw^n h.

Big Lungch'ang h.

^lll P'ingBhan h.

ftTjc Sflyung T.

^It Yungning h.

Sift Leipo t.

mat Ch^ungking F.

ii::|t Kiangpeh t.

G Pa h.

f£^ Kiangtsin h.

^H Ch'angsheu h.

j^)l\ Yungchw'an h.

§g Yungch'ang h.

tt K*ikiang h.

^jll Nanchw^an h.

^ Hoh c.

tS Feu c.

IBIR T'ungliang h.

:fcJE Tatsuh h.

HlJj Pihshan h.

5£S Tingyuen h.

Wn Tiuyang C

Hill Siushan h.

if JC K*ienkiang h.

^:i|lC P'^ngshui h.

^ Chung C.

P^ Fungtu h.

SIJQ Tiehkiang h.

1)6 [Ij Liangshan h.

^ji\ Kw^eichow F.

j^ljf Fungtsieh h.

Sill Wushan h.

#19^ Yiinyang h.

H Wan h.

A K'ai h.

:k1l[ Taning h.

^ft Shihchu T.

tt^ Suiting p.

ji Tah h.

SUP Tunghsiang h.

jgflj Sinning h.

1 K*u h.

;*:t1r Tachuh h.

ic^ T*aip*ing h.

^U Oh^6ngk*ow t.

H^ Lungngan F.

2pgti PMngwu h.

il^ Kiangyiu h.

5^ Shihts^uen h.

ij^^ Changoiing h.

fe» Sungp'an T.

?lJI|T*ungchw*anF.

HS S^nt'fti h.

1^^ Sh^hung h.

il^ Y^ntMng h.

i^JiL Chungkiang h.

^Hf Suining h.

^^ P'^ngk^i h.

IJSS Lohchi h.

^•& Nganyoh h.

m Mei C.

^^t Tanleng h.

jf^lll P*6ng8han h.

ifijtif Ts'ingshen h.

*J£ Eating

F.

ttjft Ngopien

t.

mili Yohshan

h.

lit>€ Ngomei

h.

#t|| Hungya

h.

^tt Kiahkiang

h.

fji;Q Kienwei

h.

^ Yung

h.

MUt Weiyuen

h.

^ Kiong :*:& Tayih JBtC P'ukiang

c.

h. h.

!i Lu G. Aitti"^ Kiusing

T*usze

#j5g| NahkM h.

>(^fl. Hohkiang h,

tC$ Kiangngan h.

%W Tachow F.

ti:$ Yangan h.

%^ T*ient8*uen c.

^lU Mingshan h.

^<ffi Yungking h.

3[lU Lushan h.

g|8| Ts'ingk^i h.

trffStt Tatsienlu T. JtSBR Tsingsi-

kwan t.

580

SZBCHW'AN (continued). tBnNAN.

Saechiv'aii has 6 InteBdanoies, each administered by a Taot'al M M '

VVn OtaO'w ( ^. — Civil jurisdiction, in S. Szeohw^an, over Siiohow P. iK M Jtt, I'U Chow, part of Tze Chow K #| and Suyung T'ing ft ^ ■•

2*" Oh'imffk*li^ P. S K ^- ~ ^ charge of the Government postal servioa, in Eastern Szechw'an, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch*ungk*ing F., Kw*el- chow F. fl #1 fff, Suiting F. ft ft #1, Chung Chow A ¥^, Yinyang Chow fl M M and Shihchu T'ing ^ tt ■•

8** Paonin^ P. 'ft tR ^.— Civil and Military jurisdiction, in N. Szech*wan, over PaoningF., partof T'ungchw'an F. S )\\ jfip and Shunk*ing F. M$k M*

4" Taohow P. fft ¥\ ^. — In charge of the Government postal service in the extreme S., with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yachow F., Ningyiken F. tHKff ' KiatiDg F. X S ;AP, Mei Chow jg ¥\ and K'inng Chow ^ ^.

5^ Oh'dn^iu P. A 49 W- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch*6ngfca F. Mien Chow M #1, T'ungchw^an F. ^ }\\ fff, Lungngan F. M % ff i Men Chow S fH, part of Tze Chow J( #1 and Sungp'an T'ing Ift 9 Ml ftlso in charge of water communications.

6"" Oh'dn^u P. — Provincial Intendant of the salt and tea revenues of SzeohVan; aleo in charge of the Government postal service.

XVlll.

— YUNNAN 9 ffir ("Yun").

miH Tflnnan

F.

im^ 0ml (Ami) c.

*

ftHC Kingtung

T.

HBQ K'uenming

h.

W Ning 0. a^ T'unghai h.

^|S Fumin

h.

Hit Kwangnan

r.

h.

WW H08i h. If tt Sihngo h.

WW Paoning

h.

jlJBQ Sungming

c.

#^ Tsinning

c.

iH^ Mdngtze h.

HW Kvangsi

c.

gJt Ch'«ngkung

h.

mfH Shitsung

h.

^W Nganning

c.

mak Ch'uhsiung F.

flJit K'lupeh

h.

m^ Lotz'e

jpH Luhfung

h.

^M Ch'uhsiung h.

«8« Mileh

h.

h.

^2| Tingyiien h.

jm K'uenyang

c.

i^H Shihkao h.

mis Shunning

F.

Jin Imdn

h.

j^Sl# Hehy^nlsing

MH Shunning

h.

m Yao c.

i Yiin

c.

*9TaU

F.

&9# Pehyfintsing

:^fb T'aihwo

h.

^ $ Nanngan c.

ibm K'fihtsing

F.

m Chao ^'tf YOnnan

0.

li^ Ch^nnan c.

^iH Nanning

h.

h.

JUi Kwangt'ung h.

^g Chanyih

c.

! ;' I Tfingohw'an

c.

*« Tayao h.

^J*^ Luhliang

c.

, ■'•';■■ 1. >:i*k'lung

h.

J|i?n LopMng

c.

'i'i'':l l*P' .liv'fin

0.

atit Ch'togkiang F.

.^jJl Malung

c.

-Jy'l Vii-i'M.'u'

c.

Wli Hoyang h.

fjilU Siinticn

c.

itiH Kiangohw'anh.

'T'# P'ing-i

h.

r'i tc Linnsaii

F

',T?tl. Sinhsing c.

3i[ljg Siienwei

c.

^ 4C Kicnsluii

h.

Sft !( Lnnan c.

;j5^ Shihp'ing

c.

tCnnan (continued).

581

g* Wuting xH Yiienraeu Luhk'iien

MiL Likiang MfL Likiang tin Hohk^ing jUJII Kienchw'an

TClL YQenkiang gr^ Sinp'ing

HW Ningeul J^^ Szemao

c.

h. h.

F.

h. c. c.

c.

h.

F.

h. t.

lijcfi

T'alang t.

Weiyiien t.

M{t HAnghwa T.

7kg

Tungch'ang F. Paoshan h.

Yungp*ing h, T*6ngyueh t.

^* Tungpeh T.

^{t K'aihwa ^lil Wtoshan

yH}\\ Tungchw'an F. ^^ Hweitseh h. X^JK K'iaokia t.

miK Chftnyflen T.

Ugji Chaofung F.

JS.it Ngenngan h.

^H Yungshan h.

^|{| Gh^nhsiung c.

mmm$^ Chdnplen- fu-i T.

I has 6 Intendiiiieiea, each administered by a Taai*al jt M -

V Tall F. ;Ac S ^. — Military iDtendant of the Government post stations in W. Tiinnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Tali F., Ch*uhsiung F. JK tt ^* Yungch'angP. j|c B fl^. Likiang F. ■ tL flf , Mfinghwa T*ing tHitU and Ynng- peh T4ng j)c 4: ■•

2" 'VoBan F. S TR ff • — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for the pay of Chinese soldiers.

3° StlnUen OMw 9 4^-— Military Intendant of the Government post sta- stions in K. Yunnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over K'iihtsing F. ft ^ ^, Tungchw'an P. JR ;ii Jflp, Chaofung P. K g !fr, Ch*6ngkiang F. fgi U ^ and Kwaugsi Chow JK S ^.

4" Pineal F. ^ 29 fl?p.- Civil and Military jurisdiction in the S., over P*ueul F., Gh^nyiien T*ing ft }jc My Yiienkiang Chow yttL ^^ Kingtung T*ing Jt H M* Shun- ning F. H W ^ and Ch^npienfu-i T'ing ft )1 tk # ■*

5* M^DStoe bfllea S 3 R- -- Civil jurisdiction over Linngan F. HE ^ Hft K'aihwa F. K It ^ and Kwangnan F. jR lH Jj^. Superintendent of Customs.

6** Yttmaii F. S IS ^- -~ Provincial Grain Intendant for Yiinnan. Military Intendant of the Government post stations, with Civil jurisdiction over Yiinnan F., and Wuting Chow ^ £ #|*; also in charge of agriculture and water communications.

LIST

of the

Prefectures and Sub- prefectures

of Manchuria ("Man").

I. — SHENGKIWG jft » ("King").

i$^ Fungt'ien

p.

M^S! Kwangning

h.

^Jg Liaoyiien

c

^t: Hsingj6n

h.

mm I

c.

^^ Ch'i^ngteh

h.

JIA Funghvang T.

jgfil Liaoyang

c.

UB Hailung

F.

WlJR SiuyAn

c.

^D Yingk'ow

t.

:^2p Tungp'ing

h.

^j|[ Ngantung

h

(Newchwang).

|gg Sifung

h.

(Antung).

mat Haich'6ng

h.

g^ Singan

h.

%tSi} Kw'antien

b

g^ Kaip'ing

h.

^fif Liuho

h.

tS F"h

0.

^^ Hsingking

T.

§#| Kinchow

t.

frK Sinming

F.

',f(jfl: T'unghwa

h.

ffiJS K'aiyuen

h.

1^^ Ch^nngan

h.

^t. Hwaij6n

h.

ii^ T'iehling

h.

!^5^ Changwu

h.

g^a: Lingkiang 1^^ Tsihngan

h. h

1^^ Kinchow

F.

^H Ch'angt'u

F.

n Kin

h.

fK« Hwaiteh

h.

MUr T'aonan

F.

WjS Ningyiien j^i^ Suichung

c.

^ft Funghwa

h.

Jg^ Tsingngan

h.

h.

Jg|2p K'angp'ing

h.

mii K'ait'ung

h.

Slidn^kui^ ))a8 .'{ Intendancies, each adminiBterod by a Tao(*ai M H-

V* Fun^i'ien P. $ ^ 1^ (Mukden).— Civil jurisdiction over Mukden; inchar^^e of the Government postal service in the Central and Northern portions of Sh(^ngkiDg Province.

2^ Pim^h^veaii^ Ch'^ag A HL M- — ^i^i^ <^nd Military jurisdiction oyer the Eastern portion of Shengking Province.

3*^ Tln^k'o^nr T'in^ '^ P ■ (Ne'vrchwanir). —Military jurisdiotion over Mukden, Kinchow F. M 4i Ij^ and Shanhaikwan UJ 51 II (this latter within Chihli Province), etc. Superintendent of Customs.

MANCHimiA : Knot. — BIHI.UNOKIAMS.

583

n. — HWH tf # ('•Kir").

l$>Nc Kirin f.

J(|| Oh'angsheu

h.

HM Pinchow

T

§t% It'ung c.

j|jlftShwangoh'«Dgt.

«tt Smch*«llg

P.

ttMnan

F

TllSf Wuch'ang t.

(Petuna).

^ii Tat«ung

h

^^ Tunhwa h.

«« Yushu

h.

Hjg rangyiien

h

SW Y6nkih t.

fgf£ Linkiang

0

Ig^lgi Suif^n t.

g# Ch'angch'an

F.

I

HSl^ P'anshih h.

J|$ Nungngan

h.

1

Klrlnhas 1 laieiidaiioy administered by a Taot'al (t ft who has jnrisdic- tion over Kirin F., Ch*angch'an F. J| # jflp, Wuch'anp: T'ing 3i Kf^ Mt Y6nkihT4ng ffi S ■, Suiffen T'ing «( 33^ ■ and Pinchow T*ing 9 ^ ■•

III. — HEHLUN6KIANG (AMUR) m n iL (^^Hei ').

flilftt*! Hehlung-

mit Suihwa

F

;f:ir Muhlan h

kiang ch'tag

#« Yuk'ing

h.

(Aigan).

MHt Hailun T

m:^ Hehshui t.

If W Halan

P.

#ia| Ts'ingkang h

*« Talai t.

Bit Pay«n •H Lansi

c.

h.

HeMan^kiaiiff has 2 Intendancles, each administfred by a Taot'oi \£ ^ :

1® Sailiwa F. K ft 1^. — Military jurisdiction over Hulan F. If (Jl Pfip, Sui- hwa F., and Hailun T'ing jl| Ij^ ■•

2** TslUAlMir V |if •ft' •• — Civil jurisdiction over Tsitsihar, Talai TMng iz 9 M and Hehshui T'ing ^ ^ JB ; fulftls the office of Provincial High Judge.

584

BlNKIAMa.

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures

of Chinese Turkestan

or Sinkiang ("Sin").

mm

mit Tih-hwa

(Urumtsi). j^'ft Tihhwa ■j^-^ K'it'ai g^ Gh'angkih ^$t Peuk'ang ^^ Peuyuen igt^ Suilai

mis Tdnk'i

(Karashar). Jf^ Sinp'ing i^^ Shikwang

S^ Lunt'ai 9 Shanshan

mi& Shuleh

mm shufuh

(Kashgar). ^t$ K'iashi e,56 Pach'u

F. ]^4[ Soch'd F (Yarkand).

H^ Yehch'6ng h.

jKiIj P'ishan h.

b.

h. h. h. h.

h.

F.

h. h. h.

h.

F.

h.

h. c.

ait

Wfinsuh r

(Aksu).

W^nsuh h.

P*aich*6ng h.

K'uch'fi

(Kucha). Shaya

Hwotien

(Khoten).

Yiitien

Lohp^u

5£*i^W Yingkih- shaeul T.

(Yangi-Hissar).

afr Wushih T.

(Uch-Turfan).

ilW Chfinsi T.

R^g^ Hohmih T.

(Hami).

iy:## T'ulufan T. (Turfan).

eulk'ohlah WusuT. (Kurkara-Usu).

^m lu F.

jft^ Suiting h.

%^ Ningyiien h.

^ip! Tsingho T.

jffjifi T'ahch'fing T. (Tarbagatai).

sinkiang has 4 Inlendaiiclea, each adminlBterod by a Taoi^ai jt, ft :

1*^ Wdnsuh F. fi, 8 ^ (Aksu or Oksu). — Military jurisdiotion over Aksu ; in charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits. lutendaut of the Board of Pacification for Mongol tribes ; checks the invasions of the liourouths ^ tt tt (a vagrant Mahomedan tribe bordering on Kashgar). Inspector of Customs.

2* Shufu h. $k 1^ n (Kashgar). -- Military jurisdiction over Kashgar ; in charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits ; political and commercial Agent oontzx)lliDg foreign trade ; admiuisters the Bourouth territory ; Inspector of Customs.

BDOUANa (comtinubd). 585

3* lfk|^y€e« h. tK S S- ~ Military jurisdiction over III F. |^ {( ff i^d T'ahch'^Dg T'ing 41 ]jt B (Tkrbmgatai); in charge of waterways, agricnltnre, tribate and law8ait« ; political and commercial Agent controlling foreign trade ; Inspector of Customs.

4* TIMiwaP. itH^ (Vrumtsi). — Reorganizator of Palik*uen B £ ^> Grain Intendant ; fulfils the office of Prorincial High Judge. Blilitary jurisdiction over Ch^nsi T'ing ft 9 ■, Tih-hwa F., Hami T. 1^ tt ■, Turfan T. |fc ft S Bt Kurkara-Usu T. CamiHASBand Muhlei->ing ;|c A ••

Alphabetical List

of

the Cities and Towns of China.

DIBECnONS On the maimer of using and finding a name in this Alphabetical Lift

First Case, — The reader knows the name of the city or town but wants fuller details, thus ''Shanghai. On referring to the ''Alphabetical List/* he will find in the first column the rank of the town, a hsien (h) or district town; in the second column the equivalent Chinese characters for the same place ; in the third column the Province in which it is situated, and in the fourth or last column the Prefecture to which the town is subordinate, Sungkiang F.

Second Case. — The reader is acquainted with the Chinese characters or ideographs, but wants to find in the list the names which correspond to them, thus J: ji|* Each Chinese character contains a certain number of strokes, and these must be first counted, thus J: ^^^ 3, and then on referring to the character list of 3 strokes, its pronunciation "Shang'* may be easily found, and so on for all the other ideographs. This method entails a great deal of drudgery and loss of time, but the Chinese language having no alphabet, it is the system generally adopted throughout the Empire.

Many cities and towns have, besides their ordinary names, literary and archaic appellations ; in this list, we shall give only the ordinary names.

STLLABAftT OA EST.

587

containing the first character of Chinese towns with their corresponding phonetic equivalents. The classification is based on the number of strokes in each character.

II strokes

iE Chtog

«Ming

IttShuh

^ Kin

■t Kan

«Ngan

ItTih

]ft King

*,Kiu

^ K«iao

S Peh

«fK'o

A Pah

6 Peh

HSi

W Tsih

BKu

*Peh

JBSze

&\ Ts'in

J£ K'uen

III strokes

* P'i

1^ T'ung

fit W6n

fr Kwan

2f. P'ing

qt T'u

*Wu

«Kwo

)\\ OhVan

:6 Shih

^ Ts'uen

«Wu

* Lai

-f Hsia

fl Sien

9 Yin

a Wu

m Liang

= San llj Shan

fl-Ta ifcT'a

VU strokes

IfcYiu S Yiu

tt Lin ae M«ng

J: Shang

^Tai

JjC Yuen

«Min

* Ta

^ T'ai

# Oh'ih

HO (A)

-tYih

ft T'ing

;g Oh>«n

VIII strokes

«P'el

^ Yu

S T80

Jl«l Oh'6ng

K^Pi

*f Yiu

S Oh'«ng

K Ch'ang

^ Shao

lY strokes

* Yung

I^Fang

g Gh'ang

*&8hi

S Yuh

»P«n

4B Ohao

!$ Shuh

4* Ohung

*JePu

» Gh'Ang

MSiu

4 F6n

YI strokes

ftPuh

Sow

¥i Sung

{k Hwa

^Han

ttOhi

feTing

B Jeh

JA Oh'6ng

^ Hsiao

fl Chow

W Ts'ing

^ Kiai

flftCh'i

^ff Hsin

ift Chung

* Tung

^ Kung

1t Chuh

JUS Hsing

Jl Fang

liYAn

y^ Luh

ft Fuh

^ Hwan

JCPei

IS Yoh

ft Nel

^ Hoh

WI

^Feu

SYii

4iNiu

1^ Hsiang

IRKih

* Fung

m^Yii

(New)

# Hsing

«KM

«Fu

^ Yiien

BPa

^ Hsiu

ttK'i

tt; Hang

'fl- Shih

#1

^ Kiah

WHO

IZ strokes

*8hul

ft Jfin

ftlK'ia

Rf Hsu

*T»ai

«rJ"

m Kiun

^Hu

JBObao

#^Tan

fcJu

SHLi

:t6Hwa

IBOh«

5R T'len

^K'ao

ft Liang

^ Hwo

JK Ch6ng

# TBing

«Klh

ffMien

«I

lie Oh«ng

Id T»un

iL Kiang

iiNa

«I

M Oh'*ng

3SCW«n

*Kiao

«Peh

*Ju

H Oh'ung flFan

5 Wu

3|S K'iung

»P'ei

^Jui

*Yiu

di) K'uh

JW wpg

^K'i

»Fung

5c Yuen

* Kwang

2^ Sha

IK K'i

ftHeu

*Lei

{111 Shan

liKih

R^ Hoh

Y strokes

*Mi

{t Shen

SK«iu

^Hoh

588

STLLABART OR EST.

# Hsiang

BlE Hsiah m Hsiah

9 Chang

!fy Suh

iSKwoh

ji Hsien

4t Chang

ftliT'an

iLan

ik Hung

^ Hwang

•$ Ch'ang M Gh'ao

^ T'ang

ftKien

HH Kao

MF Taiang

ft Lung

l^ K'ien

*Kao

m Ch'6n

Ii Tsing

iS Mei

gKu

*|King

Ik Ch'6n

« Ts'ing

illMei

S^Kung

S King

Oc Choh

tK Ts'ung

llNing

^ Kwan

*K'u

jlCh'u

a T'ung

1^ P'tog

*P^'"

J* Kung

JK Ch'ung

ttTze tSTze

# P*ing

ft Loh

^iKwei

Hf Feu

11 Poh

gMei

m Lang

llFHsu

a Wang

#P'u

# Shan

SMeu

JiB Lang

« Hwai

#Wei

m Nan

HI Li

»!

l&Wu

ft Shan

gPai

MLien

a K'ang

^ Yai

IBShao

ffiPao

ULing

tK K«i

ft Y«n «Yih

i»8ha

Sp«>i

3 Liu

fi; K'ien

»8hu i(f$)Shan

B Ping

UMa

SKii

AYu

ff Shi

#Ming

a K'uen iKung

#Yu

Jll Shun

JlShi

nNei

ft Stang

^ Sin

JRNgen

|$Kwoh

Xn strokes

M Siang

a Sing

ttNgo

^Lai

9 S&n

m Siu

$ Poh

S Leu

IS Chao

ft T'ang S I'^ng

§ Sii

0t Sang

31 Li

8S Chao

g Siien

HtShfe

m Liang

M Cb'ao

ft Tsao f Ts'ao

ifil Suen

{$ Sheh

i« Liang

« Pel (P'O

» T<ao

I4f Shen

VPLiao

m Heh

ft Tsin

jiTih

1^ Shen

RLing

«Ho

ftTu

gp Tsih

fli Shi

tt Lioh iLuh

]f Hsiang

UtTun

^ Ts'uen

^ Shoh

M Hsiung Ihu

ft Tse

It Wei

»Su

«Luh

ft1'2« SWan

flftWei

$ T'ai

JdcMa

H Hwa

#Yang

jH T'ang

UMien

jl Hwang

IB Wei

^Yao

jftT'ao

^ Mih

KHwei

■ Wei

^Yfin

9 Tsin

i^Ngo

M Hwun

ft W«n

« Ying

H Ts'in

ft Pih

HK'ai

«Wu

« Yii

« T'ung

^ P'i

Pt Kiai

ftWu

ig Yiien

«Wung

m P'ien H Shang

H Kiang

II Ya

jig Y6n

H Kieh

ft Yang

Z strokes

^ Yih

jgH Shen

A Kieh

ft Yang

JR Yiien

acOa)Shun

«CK'in

K Y«n

^Ch'a

It Yuen

JUfSih

JRKing

ftYfin

j^Chi

«Yung

)B^ Siang

^Ko

ft Yiieh

^ Feu

M Sin

ll&Ko

ft Yun

»Hai

XI strokes

$So

IK'ii

SPpYiin

j Hsia

«8ii

*Kwei

8TLLABABY OR KBT.

589

XIU strokes

HYeh

«Tze

«T8ih

H Chung

(Sheh)

jgTz'e

fg Ts'ien

Ht Pan

15 Cheu

«Yii

BS W«n

It T'ung

g| Hsia

m Ch'oh

|r Yii

HWu

#Wei

JS Hwan

% Ch'u

IS Yii

llYin

M Wei

m Hwei

i^Oh'u

m Yuen

®Yin

JSJYfin

91 Hwoh

« Pu

^ Yuen

^ Yiien

«|Yoh

Hi Ki

m H8i«i

H Yung

BSLin

UK Hsiang

ZIY strokes

^ Yung

XVI strokes

iiMi

JtHwah

jBIPoh

•t Hwei

1^ Chang

XV strokes

^ Chan

HSih

«I

{j|^ Chang

IKChu

m Siang

4t Jui

jfiChao 9k Chao

IK Chan

|&H6ng

W ^''*<>

*Ka.i

tfl Chao

iC Hsih

« Siun

l[Kiai

aiJPu

S Ch«n $ Ch«ng

II Hsing

m Tsi

gKien

JH Fuh

«f Hung

ilt Tsih

|& K'ien

SLFung

it Ch'fing

ll Hwoh

«|Wei

ffiKu

«Han

f&L Ch6ng

JiKi

JlYih

tC Kw'an

iPHu

«Fu

!^ KMen

« Ying

# Kwei

X Kai

HPu

ft Kin

» Ying

ULei

*K'i

m Hui

»Li

« Yung

i«Li

*Kia

«I

WLu

JtLlen

£Kien

JUKiao

JLu iS Lung

XVIII

^ Ling

«Kuh

iHKien

strokes

ffLu

SLih

m K'ing

ffi Ming

IS Ma

i|Loh W Luh

H K'ioh JKung

S Pih

«Ch6n

WNing

9 P'ing

S Pung

9k Nung

ill Man

M Kwang

KSui

7$ I

# P'an

M M6ng BH Min

f^ Lang

^ Tseh

^ Kao

M Sheh

IS Li

Si Ts'ien

• Ki

(Yeh)

«Tin

alLien

JS Ts'ien

ff Kien

Ml 8h6ng

V l»'o

IKLoh

ttTsih

19 Kwei

«Sin

«rP'u

# Lu

m Tain

£ Lan

«8uh

ffi Shao

m Lun

Wf Tsing

II Li

liSui

% Sheu

Id Mien

^ Tsun

M Liu

»8ui

(Show)

RNgeu

IS Tuh

aisah

HSui

ISSih

fPao

^W6n

Jl fihwang

JH Sung

iftSii

Ji P'6ng

il Wu

is Yih

J&T'ah

STah

i|i Shan

XIX strokes

§Tang

Si T'ang

;#8un

IfeYii

STao

UTieh

a Tan

KYung

JS Hwai

% Tien

Hf Ts'ang

aiTch

Wi K'iung

it Ts'ang

#Ts'i

f$ T'6ng

XVll strokes

KLi

m Tsing

ild Tsing

mi T'6ng

«Lo

ff Tze

m T'ung

41 Tsdng

^Cheu

JlLii

590

STLLABAar <M K>T.

■ Lung:

XSu

flP*

m Lwan

XXVI strokes

■ T'6ng

m T'ftng

m T««ng 1 T'ieh

■ Y«n

9 Tean

«Y«>

CK'ii a! Lwan

il Y6n

XXIV strokes

XX strokes

XZI strokes

XXII strokes

ff Kan

xxm

lit Hsien

mu

9 Ling

strokes

l«Hoh

H Jao

JLXUl

XXV strokes

xxvin

8 Ling

«Ki

strokes

strokes

ILu

JiKwan

KKwan

«Pao

«Lan

• Lin

IT Yiih

Alphabetical List

of

the Cities, Towns and open Ports

of China (*).

INDICATIONS.

P.

— Fu ti or Prtfeehire.

0.

0.

— Chow )H „ (dependent)

T.

— T*ing ■ (independent).

t.

— Ting ■ (dependent).

h.

— Hsien M or DitMei.

oh.

— Ghdn ft Market town.

h8.

^ nuBngm yiOage.

t8.

-Tring ^BHneweU.

Namk, Boxanibxd.

Nave, Chinsbe.

PROVINCB.

Subordinate to.

Aksu Bee WAn-

A

»uh P.

M.

1

Sinkiang

Ami {Bee Omi c).

m

Yunnan

Linngan

F.

Amoy (Bee Hsia-

mto).

m

n

Fokien

Ts'iienchow

F.

Antung(see Ngan-

tuiig).

«

M

Sh^ngking

Funghwang

T.

(*) This list is made out prinoipally from the " fliWFgi ■ —i f ■! »ed lli<k " or TnruhSn Luh )f|$ JUi April, 1907, and also from the Tatting Hweitien (collected Inttitatet of the Tat8*ing or present reigning dynasty), approved by the Bmperor

592

GITIB8, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

Namk, R0MANI8ED.

Name, Chinehe.

Province.

SUROIIDINATE TO.

Canton (see

c

KwangchowF.)

m

m

Kwangtung

Ch*aling

c.

ei

Hunan

Cli^angsha

P.

Chanhwa

h.

fS

ft

Shantung

Wuting

P.

Chanpeh

h.

m

fa

Kansu

Sining

P.

Ghanyih

c.

fS

s

Yunnan

K'uhtsing

P.

Changyih

h.

w

m

Kansu

Kanchow

P.

Changchow

F.

»

m

Fokien

Changkla-k*owT.

mma

Chihli

(Kalgan).

Changk*iu

h.

m

SB

Shantung

Tsinan

P.

Changming

h.

1

m

Szechw^an

Lungngan

P.

Changp'ing

h.

^

Fokien

Lungy^n

C.

Changp*u

h.

»

m

Fokien

Ghangchow

P.

Changteh

F.

f^

m

Honan

Changwu

h.

f^

«

Sh^ngking

Sinmin

P.

Ch'angchow

F.

%

m

Kiangsu

Ch'angchow

h.

^

m

Kiangsu

Soochow

P.

Gh'angchi

h.

^

m

Shansi

Lungan

P.

Ch'angch'un

F.

%

m

Kirin

Ch'anghsing

h.

m

Ch^kiang .

Huchow

P.

Oh*anghwa

h.

g

ft

Ch^kiang

Hangchow

P.

Ch'anghwa

h.

s

ft

Kwangtung

Yai

0.

Ch'angkih

h.

g

$

Sinkiang

Tih-hwa

P.

Ch'angkoh

h.

«

M

Honan

Hsu

C.

Oh*angli

h.

s

^

Chihli

YungpMng

P.

Oh'angloh

h.

m

m

Shantung

Ts*ingchow

P.

Ch'angloh

h.

^

m

Kwangtung

Kiaying

C.

Ch*angloh

h.

^

m

Fokien

Foochow

P.

Ch^angloh

h.

^

m

Hupeh

Ich^ang

P.

Ch'angngan

h.

^

*

Shensi

Singan

P.

Ch'angning

h.

t

m

Hunan

Hangchow

P.

Ch'angning

h.

%

m

Kiangsi

Kanchow

P.

Ch'angning

h.

m

Szechw*an

Siichow

P.

Ch*angning

h.

s

m

Kwangtung

Hweichow

P.

Ch'angp*ing

c.

g

¥

Chihli

Shunt^ien

F.

Ch'angsha

F.

^

nf

Hunan

Oh'angsha

h.

*.

ip

Hunan

Ch^angsha

P.

Ch'angshan

h.

%

lU

Ch^kiang

K'iichow

P.

Gh^angshan

h.

s

lU

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Gh^angsheu

h.

ft

»

Szechw'an

Gh'ungk'ing

P.

CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPBN POHTS OF CHINA.

593

NaHZi KOMAiflgXI?.

MaMK, ClttSfEBE.

PfiOVtKCE.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Gh'angsheu

h.

^

#

Kirin

Kirin

F.

Ch*angshuh

h.

n

it

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Ch*angt*ai

h-;

g

m

Fokien

Change how

P.

Ch'angteh

F,

n

m

Hunan

Oh'angt'ing

h.

&

n

Fokien

T*ingchow

P.

Ch'angtB^ing

h.

^

m

Shantung

Teinan

P.

Ch*angt*a

P,

m

m

Shengking

Oh'anglze

h.

g

^

Shanaj

Lungan

f»a

Ch^angwu

h.

M

^

8hensi

Pin

0.

Ch'aBgyang

h.

u

m

Hupeh

Ich'ang

P.

Ch'angyih

h.

g

g,

Shantung

Laichow

F.

Ch*angyueii

h.

&

M

Ghihll

Taming

F.

Chao

0.

m

Ghihli

Chap

c.

Yiinnan

Tali

F,

Chaoch'^ng

h.

m

m

Shan si

Hwoh

0,

Chaoch'^ng

h.

m

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

P.

Chaohwa

h.

m

ft

Szechw'an

Paoning

F.

Ghaok'ing

F.

m

»

Kwangtung

Chaongan

h.

m

«

Fokien

Changchow

P.

ChaopSng

h.

m

*

Kwangsi

P^ngloh

F.

Chaot'ung

F.

m

m

Yunnan

ChaowSn

h.

m

%

Kiangsu

Soochow

P.

Chaoyih

h.

m

g

8hensi

T'ungchow

F.

Ghaoyiien

h.

«

it

Shantung

Tfingohow

P,

Ch'ao

h.

M

Nganhwei

Liichow

F.

Ch^'aochow

F,

m

n

Kwangtung

Ch*aoyang

h.

m

^

Kwangtung

Gh*aochow

F.

Ch'aoyaDg

F.

m

m

Ghihli

' Chefoo (Ghifu)

2

^

Shantung

T^ngchow

P.

Chfich*fing

h.

m

M

Honan

Kwejteh

PJ

Chdnfan

h.

m

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CITIIS, TOWm AMD OPBM PORTS OW CBIMA.

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CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

601

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h.

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Nganhwei

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p.

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CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORT8 OW CHINA..

Namx, Romaniskd.

Name, Chinese.

Pkovince.

Subordinate to.

Hwohluh

h.

§

m

Chihli

Ch^ngting

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Hwohshan

h.

111 1

Nganhwei

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m

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I

c.

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I

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I

h.

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CiniS, TOWNS AMD OPEN POaTS OP CHINA.

603

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Namb, Chinese

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t:

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CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPKN PORTS OF CHINA..

Nahk, Boxamiskd. 1

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li

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crriBS, TOWNS and opbn pohtb or china..

605

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Namx, Crinisb.

Pbovihcb.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

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m

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m

%

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h

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Capital of the two Kiangs.

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g

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CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTS Of CHINA.

Namk, Bomaniheo.

Namk, Chinkse.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Kiench'ang

h.

m

g

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h.

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607

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Kingman

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h.

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Kingthan

h.

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Mongolia

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Western Tibet

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Sinkiang

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608

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS Of CHINA.

NilHK, RuJtANItiKD.

NuiE.C

nvHhm.

THOVlNtK.

SttAUimiXAtK TO.

Kuluh

h.

&

m

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m

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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN POUTS OK CHINA.

609

Naxe, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Kwangsi

C.

m

w

Yiinnan

Kwangsin

P.

m

m

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it

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Kwangsi

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c.

&

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m

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Lan

h.

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Shansi

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F.

Lanchow

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m

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Kansu

610

CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPEN POin« Ot CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Lan-i

h.

m

m

Hon an

K'aifung

F,

Lank4

h.

m

m

Ch^Skiang

Kinhwa

F.

Lanshan

h.

m

iii

Shantung

Ichow

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h.

m

lU

Hunan

Kwejyang

0.

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h.

m

IS

Hehlungkiang

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h.

m

m

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h.

jd

n

Yunnan

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t.

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F.

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^MP

Hupeh

Siangyang

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Lappa (Kungpeh)

m

«

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Macao

Leichow

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n

ffl

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t.

m

ift

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h.

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m

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h.

m

Kiangau

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h.

M

Kansu

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h.

m

m

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m

«

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s

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h.

it

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h.

m

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p.

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h.

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im

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p.

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h.

n

m

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F.

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h.

M

yK

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h.

m

m

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h.

m

s

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h.

m

m

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h.

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h.

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m

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m

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h.

n

m

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m

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h.

m

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m

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m

Kwangtung

CITIBS, TOWNS AMB OTSN P0BT8 Ot CHINA.

6H

Nabee, Romaniked.

Nake, Chinese.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Liench'Sng

h.

m

«

Pokien

T'ingchow

F.

Lienchow

P.

m

m

Kwangtung

Lienhwa

t.

m

«

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h.

m

tt

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Foochow

F.

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c.

m

^

Kwangtung

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F.

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m

Ul

Kwangtung

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h.

^

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h.

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h.

m

»

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li.

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h.

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jii

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h.

^

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h.

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m

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h.

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Hsingking

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h.

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m

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h.

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m

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F.

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h.

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h.

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h.

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m

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h.

m

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p.

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h.

m

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0.

612

CITIB8, T0WM8 AND OPEN P0HT8 Ot CHINA.

Name, Romas ihki>.

XAME.CmNESK.

PROVINCE*

SUDi^RDINATF, TO.

LingshuJ

h.

m

*

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F.

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h.

m

s

Kansu

King

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m

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m

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m

m

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m

m

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h.

m

m

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F.

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h.

m

^

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h.

m

iL

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0.

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c.

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m

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h.

m

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m

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m

d

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P.

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h.

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h.

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h.

m

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m

m

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m

m

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m

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m

n

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CITIB8, rOWm AMD OPEN POSTS OP CHINA.

613

Name, Romanised.

Namk, Chinese.

Pbovince.

Subordinate to.

Luhfung

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

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P.

Luhfung

h.

m

m

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Yunnan

P.

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h.

^

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h.

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m

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it

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C.

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h.

m

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m

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h.

m.

tL

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P.

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h.

j»

^

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P.

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h.

M

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Sinkiang

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P.

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c.

m

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P.

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h.

m

a

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P.

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t.

m

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h.

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Kwangtung

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P.

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h.

m

m

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h.

m

M

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Kweiyang

P.

bungling

t.

01

m

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h.

fli

PI

Kwangtung

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h.

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f]

Chihli

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P.

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h.

ffi

«

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P.

11

«

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h.

m

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h.

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h.

%

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h.

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h.

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P.

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h.

s

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P.

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h.

m

M>

Kweichow

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P.

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h.

fit

M

Ch6kiang

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h.

m

m

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%

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CltlBS, tOWNB AND OPEN l>0Rt8 Of CHIllA.

Name, Roxanihed.

Namk, Chikebe.

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PROVINCE*

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616

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Name, Romanihed.

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cinn, Towm amd opim posts or camk.

617

NA^ri!:, Eo^dANiHKii,

NAMS^CwiNJiSK.

Provincb.

SUBORDINATI: TO,

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n

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618

CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

PBO\nNCE.

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h.

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GitlBS, TOWNS AND OPSN PORTS O^ CHtMA.

619

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SUBOBDINATE TO.

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Yiihlin

0.

Pohp'ing

h.

¥

Shantung

Tungch*ang

P.

Pohshan

h.

19

Oj

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

P,

Pohy6

h.

t«

»

Chihii

Paoting

P.

P*oyang

h.

n^

m

Kiangsi

Jaochow

P.

Pu

h.

^

Shansi

Sih

0.

P'uch*6ng

h.

m

^

Shensi

T*ungchow

p.

P'uch'^ng

h.

m

m

Fokien

Kienning

p.

P'uchow

P.

m

*H

Shansi

P^ueul

F.

#

?5

Yiinnan

P'uk4

h.

m

m

Hupeh

Wuch*ang

p.

P'ukiang

h.

m

iL

Szechw'an

K'iung

c.

P^ukiang

h.

m

iL

Ch^kiang

Kinhwa

p.

P*ungan

T.

^

*

Kweichow

P^ungan

h.

«

Kweichow

Hsing-i

p.

Pruning

h.

^

W

Kwangtung

Ch*aochow

p.

P^ut^ai

h.

^

^

Shantung

Wuting

p.

P*ut*icn

h.

m

m

Fokien

Hsinghwa

p.

Pouting

h.

#

%

Kweichow Shansi

Nganshun

p.

Sahlahts'i

T.

mm

Sanho

h.

m

Chihii

ShuntWen

p.

Sanshui

h.

^

*

Shensi

Pin

c.

Sanshui

h.

z^

*

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

p.

(Samshui)

CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS Of CHINA.

621

Name, Romanised.

Name, Ciunese.

Province.

Subordinate T(

Sant'ai h.

—

m

Szechw*an

T*ungchw*an

F.

Santuao

Inm

Fokien

Fuhning

F.

(Santungao)

Sanyiicn h.

^^

m

Shcnsi

Singan

F.

Sangchih h.

^

m

Hunan

Yungshun

F.

Sha h.

fp

Fokien

Ydnp»ing

F.

Shaho h.

Hf

M

Chihli

Shunteh

F.

Shasi (Shashi)

tp

Iff

Hupch

Kingcliow

F.

Shaya h.

fp

m

Sinkiang

K*uch*6

C.

Shan h.

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

F.

Shanhaikwan

III funs

Chihli

Shanhwa h.

#

$

Hunan

Ch*ansha

F.

Shanshan h.

Sinkiang

Y^nk^i

F.

Shantan h.

Oj

n

Kansu

Kanchow

F.

Shant'eu(8walow)

iili

m

Kwangtung Shensi

Ch'aochow Shang

F. C.

Shanyang h.

Shanyang h.

111

m

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Shanyin h.

111

m

Shansi

Tat*ung

F.

Shanyin h.

lU

m

Ch6kiang

Shaohsing

F.

Shang C.

IS

Shensi

Shangch*6ng h.

IS

m

Honan

Kwang

' C.

Shanghai h.

±

m

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

Shanghang h.

±

«i

Fokien

Ts*ingchow

F.

Shangho h.

m

m

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Shanghsiatung c.

±-fm

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Shangjao h.

±

m

Kiangsi

Kwangsin

F.

Shangkao h.

±

«

Kiangsi

Shuichow

F.

Shangk'iu h.

IS

fi^

Honan

Kweiteh

F.

Shanglin h.

.h

*lc

Kwangsi

Szengen

F.

Shangnan h.

m

«

Shensi

Shang

0.

Shangshui h.

18!

*

Honan

Ch*6nchow

F.

Shangsze T.

±

Kwangsi

Shangts^ai h.

±

w

Honan

Juning

F.

Shangyiu h.

±

m

Kiangsi

Nanngan

F.

Shangyii h.

±

m

Ch^kiang

Shaohsing

F.

Shangyiien h.

±

7C

Kiangsu

Kiangning

F.

Shaochow F.

m

W

Kwangtung

Shaohsing F.

m

A

Ch6kiang

Shaowu F.

^

Fokien

Shaowu h.

fC

Fokien

Shaowu

F.

Shaoyang h.

T^

»

Hunan

Paok*ing

F.

Sheh h.

{$

Honan

Changteh

F.

Sheh h.

m

Honan

Sihchw*an

T.

622

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Komanihed.

Naice, Chinehe.

Province.

SUBOBOIMATE TO.

Shfihung

h.

»

m

Szechw^an

T^ungchw'an

P-

Shen

C.

m

Honan

Shen

0.

m

Chihli

Shench'i

h.

m

fH

Shansi

Ningwu

P.

Shenk'iu

h.

i*

j$

Honan

Ch'^nchow

P.

Shenmuh

h.

m

:^

Shensi

Yulin

P.

Shentseh

h.

m

m

Chihli

Ting

0.

Shdng

h.

m

Ch^kiang

Shaohsing

P.

Shea (Show)

c.

m

Nganhwei

Fungyang

P.

Sheuchang

h.

m

s

Shantung

Y^nchow

P.

Sheuch'ang

h.

m

g

Gh^kiang

Y^nchow

P.

Sheukwang

h.

m

5fc

Kwangtung

Ts'ingchow

P.

Sheuning

h.

#

n

Fokien

Fuhning

P.

Sheuyang

h.

«

m

Shensi

P'ingting

c.

Shihsing

h.

Jd

m

Shantung

Nanhsiung

0.

Shigatse

Ulterior Tibet

Shinan

F.

m

«

Hupeh

Shiping

h.

m

m

Kweichow

Ch^nyiien

p.

Ship'ing

h.

«

^

Shantung

Tungeh'ang

p.

Shitsung

h.

m

^

Yiinnan

Kwangsi

0.

Shihch'^ng

h.

^

m

Kiangsi

Ningtu

c.

Shihch'fing

h.

5

m

Kwangtung

Kaochow

p.

Shihchu

T.

s

tt

Szechw'an

Shihfang

h.

ff

u

Szechw*an

Ch*Angtu

p.

Shihkao

h.

«

«

Yunnan

Ch^uhsiung

p.

Shihieu

h.

IS

m

Shansi

F^nchow

p.

Shihmfin

h.

^

P!

Hunan

Li

c.

Shihmfin

h.

15

PI

Ch^kiang

Kiahsing

F.

Shihp'ing

c.

«

m

Yunnan

Linngan

P.

Shihp'u

t.

15

m

Ch6kiang

Ningpo

p.

Shihsheu

h.

^

#

Hupeh

Kingchow

P.

Shihtai

h.

^

J*

Nganhwei

Ch*ichow

P.

Shihts'ien

h.

S

n

Kweichow

Shihts'uen

h.

:s

M

Shensi

Hsingngan

P.

Shihts'uen

h.

^

M

Szechw'an

Lungngan

P.

Shoh

c.

m

Shansi

Shohp'ing

F.

Shohp'ing

P.

m

^

Shansi

Shuch'6ng

h.

1?

»

Nganhwei

Liichow

P.

Shufu(Ka8hgar)h.

m

It

Sinkiang

Shuleh

P.

Shuleh

F.

m

»

Sinkiang

Shuhluh

h.

^

m

Chihli

Paoting

P.

Shuhyang

h.

?*

li

Kiangsu

Hai

0.

Sboich'aDg

h.

m

a

Kiangsi

Kiukiang

F-

CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.

623

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDDJATE TO.

Shuich'6ng

t.

*

»

Kweichow

Tating

P.

Shuichow

P.

m

m

Kiangsi

Shuikin

h.

«

^

Kiangsi

Ningtu

G.

Shuingan

h.

m

n

Ch^kiang

W6nchow

F.

Shonch'ang

h.

m

3

Fokien

Y^np'ing

F.

Shunhwa

h.

It

Shensi

Pin

G.

Shun-i

h.

M

m

Ghihli

8hunt*ien

F.

Shunk'ing

P.

M

m

Szechw'an

Shunngan

h.

m

^

Gh^kiang

Y^nchow

F.

Shunning

P.

m

n

Yunnan

Shunning

h.

s

w

Yunnan

Shunning

F.

Shunteh

h.

m

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Shunteh

F.

m

m

Chihli

Shunt'ien

P.

m

35

Ghihli

(Peking)

Capital of China

Shwangch'«ng t.

n

M

Kirin

Kirin

F.

Shwangliu

h.

»

fk

Szechw'an

Gh*6ngtu

F.

Sich'ang

h.

w

s

Szechw^an

Ningyuen

F.

Sich'ung

h.

s

1

Szechw^an

Shunk'ing

F.

Sifung

h.

w

M

Sh^ngking

Hailung

F.

Sihsia

h.

m

m

Shantung

T^ngchow

F.

Sihsiang

h.

n

m

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Sihwa

h.

w

m

Honan

Gh*6nchow

F.

Sihwo

h.

H

%

Kansu

Kungch*ang

F.

Silin

h.

H

#

Kwangsi

Szech*6ng

F.

Silung

c.

w

it

Kwangsi

Szech*6ng .

F.

Singan

P.

w

«

Shensi

Singan

h.

w

^

Gh^kiang

K'uchow

F.

Singan

h.

w

«

Sh^ngking

Hailung

F.

Sining

P.

w

w

Kansu

Sining

h.

w

ff

Kansu

Sining

F.

Sining

h.

w

nr

Kwangtung

Loting

G.

Sining

h.

w

ff

Ghihli

Suenhwa

F.

Sip'ing

h.

H

^

Honan

Juning

F.

Sih

h.

S

Honan

Kwang

C.

Sih

0.

m

Shansi

Sihchw'an

T.

m

jii

Honan

Sihngo

h.

m

m

Yunnan

Linngan

P.

Siang

c.

Kwangsi

Liuchow

F.

Siangch'^ng

h.

m

M

Honan

Hsii

G.

Siangfu

h.

n

«=

Honan

K*aifung

F.

Sianghsiang

h.

M

m

Hunan

Gh^angsha

F.

SiangUng

b.

m

»

Shansi

P*ingyang

F.

624

CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

Name, Komaniskd.

Name, Chinehe.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Siangshan

h.

m

m

Ch^kiang

Ningpo

F.

Siangt'an

h.

m

»

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Siangyang

F.

m

m

Hupch

Siangyang

h.

M

m

Hupeh

Siangyang

F.

Siangyin

h.

ffg

^

Hunan

Ch*angsha

P,

Siangyiien

h.

IS

m.

Shansi

Lungan

F.

Siao

h.

m

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

Siaoshan

h.

m

lij

Ch^kiang

Shaohsing*

F.

Sienku

h.

111!

Ch^kiang

T'aichow

F.

Sienyiu

h.

llU

j&

Fbkien

Hsinghwa .

F.

Sin

h.

^

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Sinch'ang

h.

m

0

Ch^kianej

Shaohsing

P.

Sinch'ang

h.

m

g

Kiangsi

Jaochow

P.

8inch6ng

h.

m

%

Honan

K^aifung

F.

Sinch*6ng

F.

!i

M

Kirin

(Pehtuna)

Sinch*6ng

^ h.

' Sf

«

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

8inch*6ng

h.

^

M

Kiangsi

Kiench'ang

F.

Sinch'eng

h.

if

m

Ch^kiang

Hangchow

F.

Sinch*6ng

h.

^

ilk

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Sinfan

h.

m

I

Szechw*an

Ch*6ngtu

P.

Sinfung

h.

flr

Kiangsi

Kanchow

F.

Sinho

h.

m

M

Chihli

Ki

C.

Sinhsiang

h.

m

m

Honan

Weihui

F-

Sinhsing

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Chaok^ng

P.

Sinhsing

c.

ISi

m

Yiinnan

Ch*^ngkiang

P.

Sinhwa

h.

m

it

Hunan

Paok*ing

P.

Sinhwei

h.

m

#

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

P.

Sin-i

Lh.

it

-Pi

Kwangtung

Kaochow

F.

Sinkan

h.

m

!i

Kiangsi

Linkiang

P.

Sinkien

h.

n

m

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

F.

Sinloh

h.

m

m

Chihli

Ch^ngting

P.

Sinmin

F.

m

R

Sh^ngking

Sinngan

^h.

m

f

Honan

Honan

P.

Sinngan

h.

iSi

«

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

P.

Sinning

h.

fSi

n

Hunan

Paok*ing

P.

Sinning

h.

m

n

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

P.

Sinning

h.

«

m

Szechw'an

Suiting

F.

Sinning

c.

m

n

Kwangsi

Nanning

P.

Sinp*ing

h.

m

¥

. Sinkiang

Y6nk*i

P.

Sinp'ing

h.

m

¥

Yunnan

YCienkiang

C.

Sint'ai

h.

m

m

Shantung

T*aingan

P.

Sint*ien

h.

m

m

Hunan

Yungchow

P.

CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPBM PORTS OP CHINA.

62S

NaNF., HuM.tNte£D.

N'amt,, ChinksKk

PuiiVINCE.

SUUORPINATE TO.

Smti'ai

h.

»

m

Hon an

Juning

P.

Sintsin

h.

m

» 1

Szechw*an

Ch^^ngtu

P.

Sintu

h.

n

n

Szechw^an

Ch'dngtu

F,

Sjnyang

h.

m

m

Kiangsu

Soochow

F-

Sinyang

c.

m

m

Hon an

Juning

F,

Sinyfi

h.

if

m

Honan

Nanyang

P.

Sinyii

h.

«f

%

Kiangsi

LinkJang

P.

Singtze

h.

M

^

Kiatigsi

Nank'ang

F.

Siuj^^n

h.'

tt

t

Kwangsi

P*ingloh

P.

Siushan

h.

n

Oj

8zechw*an

Yeuyang

a.

Siushui

h.

m

*

Ch6kiang

Kiahsing

F.

Siuw^n

h.

Mt

*

Kweichow

Kweiyang

p.

Siuwu

h.

m

m

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F,

Siuyfin

c.

t

Shfingking

Funghwang

T.

Soch*^

F.

^

Sinkiang

(Yarkand)

Soochow

P.

m

m

KJangEU

(Suchow)

Sah

C.

M

Kaneu

Suh

c.

!&

Nganhwel

Fungyang

F.

Suhning

h.

«r

«

Gbihli

Hoklen

F.

Suhsung

h.

m

^

Nganhwet

Ngank*ing

F,

Suhts'sen

h.

^

m

Kiangsu

Suchow

F,

Sflchow

F.

#

M

Kiangsu

Suchow (Suifu) F;

p.

m

Szechw*an

Siikeu

h.

m

Shansi

T'aiyucn

F.

Siip'u

h.

Wt

m

Hunan

Ch* fin chow

F.

Siiwfin

h,

0

m

Kwangtung

Lei chow

F.

Siiyung

T,

m

*

Sstechw^an

Sflench^feiig

h.

'^

m

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

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F.

s

ft

Chihli

Siienhwa

h.

M

ft

Chih!J

Siienhwa

F.

Suenhwa

h.

■M

ft

Kwangai

Nanning

F.

Siienngen

h.

"M

m

Hupeh

Shi nan

PJ

Suenp*ing

h.

¥

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Ch'uchow

F.

Siienwei

c.

a

j«

Yiifinan

K^uhlsing

F.

Sui

c.

m

Honan

Kweileh

F*

Sui

c.

m

Hupeh

Tehngan

F.

Suich^ang

h.

M

B

Ch^kiang

Ch^uchow

F.

Suichung

h.

i0^

+

Shfingking

Kinchow

F.

Suiren

t.

m

^

Kirin

Kirin

F,

Suifu (Suchow F.)

«t

W

Szechw'an

Suihwa

F.

^

ft

Hehlungkjang

40

626

CITIES, TOWNS AMD OPBN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanibed.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

SUBOBDINATE TO. 1

Suik'i

h.

M

^

Kwangtung

Leiohow

F.

Suilai

h.

*

Sinkiahg

Tih-hwa

F.

Suingan

h.

*

Ch^kiang

Y6nchow

F.

Suining

h.

m

ff

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

Suining

h.

«

I

Hunan

Tsing

0.

Suining

h.

M

W

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

F.

Suip'ing

h.

^

^

Honan

Juning

F.

Suiteh

C.

fS^

m

Shensi

Suiting

P.

m

%

Szechw^an

Suiting

h.

9c

%

Sinkiang

Hi

F.

Suiyang

h.

ISc

i»

Kweichow

Tsun-i

P.

Suiyiien

t.

ISi

it

Shansi

Shohp^ng

F.

Sfln

h.

|S

Honan

Weihui

P.

Sunchow

F.

w

m

Kwangsi

Siintien

c.

m

n

Yunnan

K'iihtsing

P.

Siinyang

h.

!§

i»

Shensi

Hsingngan

P.

Sung

h.

M

Honan

Honan

P.

Sungk'i

h.

1&

m

Fokien

Kienning

P.

Sungkiang

F.

&

iL

Kiangsu

Sungming

c.

M

m

Yunnan

Yunnan

P.

Sungp^an

T.

^

»

Szechw'an

Sungt'ao

T.

i&

'uu

Kweichow

Sungyang

h.

&

HI

Gh^kiang

Ch'uchow

P.

Sungtze

h.

&

m

Hupeh

Kingchow

P-

Swatow(Shant

*eu) C.

m

m

Kwangtung Nganhwei

Ch'aochow

P.

Sze

Sze

c.

B

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Szech*6ng

F.

m

M

Kwangsi

Szechow

F.

&

m

Kweichow

Szehwei

h.

IS

#

Kwangtung

Chaok'ing

P.

Szeling

c.

J&

^

.Kwangsi

Shansze

T.

Szemao

I.

J&

^

Yunnan

P*ueul

P.

Szenan

F.

!>

m

Kweichow

Szengen

P.

&

>ei

Kwangsi

Szengen

h.

&

«

Kwangsi

KMngyiien

P.

Szeshui

h.

fe,

*

Honan

Ch'6ng

0.

Szeshui

h.

m

*

Shantung

Y6nchow

P.

Tach'^ng

h.

:k

»

T Chihii

Shunt'ien

P.

Tachuh

h.

■k

n-

Szechw*an

Suiting

P.

Tahsing

h.

:k

n

Chihii

Shunt'ien

P.

Taku

:k

«

Chihii J

T'ientsin

P.

eints, Towm and onti voaan or chima.

627

IttMX, BOMASISZD.

NAl>K,CaiMI81!.

PBOvmci,

StTBOEDlKATm TO.

Takwan

t.

:*:

m

Yunnan

Ohaot'ing

P.

TaUi

t.

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m

m

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(Wushlh T'

ing)

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it

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if

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m

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634

CITItS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Wangtu

h.

e

n

Ohihli

Paoting

P.

Wei

h.

M

Chihij

Kwangp4ng

P.

Wei

h.

m

Shantung

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c.

n

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%

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h.

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)\\

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s^m^

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Weihui

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m

n

Honan

Weinan

h.

m

«

Shensi

Singan

P.

Weining

c.

)iL

%

Kweichow

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P.

Weishi

h.

»

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Honan

K'aifung

P.

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h.

^

%

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h.

ifi

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F.

fi

«

Ch^kiang

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^

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C.

(see Minchw

an)

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h.

19

«

Shansi

Kiang

C.

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h.

V^

m

Honan

Shen

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h.

fi

tt

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h.

«

*

Shansi

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s

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Sinkiang

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h.

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s

Shantung

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h.

«

«

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^

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h.

^

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h.

jEL

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«

S

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%

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%

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f§

«

Kwangsi

CITIBS, TOWNS AMD <»BM tOKCB OT CHIMA.

635

Name, BoiuNigBD.

NaMS, 0aiNK8B.

PaOVINCE.

SUBOBDINATE TO

F.

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h.

^

;ii

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h.

HI

}\\

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F.

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i

}\\

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m

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n

m

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ii

m

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m

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c.

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m

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m

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m

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^

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p.

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m

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m

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ft

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ft

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h.

ft

m

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t.

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c.

m

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h.

»

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h.

ft

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h.

m

%

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a£

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m

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h.

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636

CITIBB, TOWNS AMD OPBM POKTS OT CBIIU.

I

KAMif Romanise*.

NaKK^ CRINKflK.

PnOVIMCE.

StIBoaDlliATK TO.

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m

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h.

m

M

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ft

ffl

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h.

n

^

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m

m

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h.

m

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m

a

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m^ipm

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h.

m

itti

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h.

^

m

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c.

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m

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m 1

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m

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F,

CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPBM POBTS OF CHINA.

637

Name, Komanibed.

Namb, Chinesb.

Pbovince.

Subordinate

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Yih

h.

s

Shantung

Laichow

F.

Yih

h.

Shantung

Y6nchow

F.

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h.

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h.

s

m

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h.

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m

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h.

s

m

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h.

s

tf.

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c.

m

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h.

m

m

Hupeh

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m

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t.

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a

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h.

^

lU

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h.

m

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h.

n

lU

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Yingshang

h.

s@

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h.

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m

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F.

Tm

h.

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F.

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h.

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m

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m

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m

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h.

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m

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£

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CITIBB, lOVnm AMD OPBM PORTS Of CBIMA.

1

Namk, Bohamibed.

Name, Chinese.

P»0>1NCE.

SUBORDDIATB TO.

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h.

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n

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YutsMen

h.

n

m

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P.

Yutu

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m.

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m

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h.

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h.

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n

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h.

m

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Kweichow

Lip4ng

P.

Yungyang

h.

9i

»

Honan

Ch6ng

C.

APPENDIX I.

Signification of the principal Chinese (Geographical Terms.

H- Cha, a palisade, a fence. PI Chah, a flood-gate. ^ Ch'a, the tea-plant. g^ Ch'a, a place where the road forks.

SI Chat, a stockade for def- ( ence, a fortress, a pass.

fjl^ Chang, a freshet.

j^ Ch'ang, an area of level ground.

^ Ch'ao, the tide.

lit Ch6n, a market-town.

E Ch'6n, a minister^ a court- ier.

g Ch'in, a Chinese hour.

:|||t Ch'ing, a citadel, a walled place.

JfH Cheu(Chovo), an islet, a con- tinent.

^ C/ieti, a boat, a vessel.

fj^ C/ii, to govern, to rule.

^ Chi, a small islet.

Kb Ch'i, a pool, a pond.

/5 C/i'i7i, a Chinese foot (14 inches).

^ Chov^, a territorial division.

^ Chu, an islet.

tjr C/iu/i, the bamboo-plant.

^ Ch'u, a place, a spot.

rf> Chung, the middle.

cfi H C/iungi^wo/i, the Middle Kingdom (China).

ff^ Chung, the end.

^ Chung, a mound, a tumulus.

j|| C/iw'an, a stream.

j|^ C/iw'an, a ship.

$ C/iw'an, to string together.

]|^ Chwang, a farmstead.

n Eul, two.

ife Fa/i, a law, a rule.

j^ H Fahkwoh, France.

$ Fan, aborigines, barbarians.

^ Fan, boundary, frontier.

I^X Fan,an embankment, a dyke.

ifi Fan, a field.

jljji Fan, a hillside^ a terrace.

•^ Fang, a hamlet, a ward.

^ Fang, a dyke.

^ Fangf, a house.

^ F^n, a part, a division.

^ F§n, a mom^d, a grave.

j^ Feu, a port, a mart.

J|l Feu, a mound.

}ff Fu, a prefecture.

1^ Fuh, a return flow.

JB, Fung, the wind.

0^ Fung, the summit.

f|( Hai, the sea.

^ //an, dry.

i^ Han, embankment.

If Hang, a store, a mercantile

establishment, j^ Hao, city moat. JR //e/i, black.

Jgp //eu, a ruler, a sovereign. ^ Ho, a river.

APPENDIX I.

641

'j: Hsia, below, underneath. 0 Hstangr^the country, a village. f^ Hsien, a district (a territorial

division). Hg Hsien, limit, boundary. ^ HsiXeh, a cave. p Hu, a door, a houshold. ^ Hu, a lake. ^ Hu, a slope to the water

side. ^ Hu/i, a measure, half a picul. 1^ Hung, crosswise, athwart. s|| Hwa, flowery, elegant. 1^ Hv;a, a flower, ornamented. ^ Hwang, a dry moat. Jg Hwang, wild, barren. ^ Hwang, high, supreme, the

Emperor. ^ Hwan(;, yellow. Jl Hwo^ goods, merchandise. ^ Hwoh, lofty. 1^ /, barbarian. g Je/i ^Jih^, the sun, a day. ^ J^n, iEi man, the human race. >U J€n, an office, a duty. JH Jwan^ vacant space near a

city wall. |g Kan, dry. j^ Kan, a pit, a hole. 1^ Kang, a summit. ^ K'ang, the neck. Jjj[ X'angf, a stove^bed. ]^ Kao, high.

j^ K'^ng, a ditch, a trench. ^ Xeu, a water-course. p K'eu, the mouth. ^ Kt^ season, period. ill Ki, shallows, an eddy. jjl^ K% a banner. 1^^ KH, to diverge, a fork in a

road. ^ KH, a mountain streamlet. JK Kta^ a family. -^ Kta, a guard-house at a pass. '^ Kiah, a mountain-pass. ^ Xtat, a street. ^ Kiai, a boundary.

JQ Kiang, a large river. i|g Kiang, the frontier, fg Kiang, a port.

Kiao, waste-land.

Ktao, a sedan-chair. 12 Ktao, ridge, watershed of a

high peak. ij^ K'iao, a bridge, jg Kieh, blue clay. JBB Kien, a stream. ^ Kien, documents, official pa- pers. -^ Kin, metal, gold. J^ Kin, a Chinese pound or catty (l^lbs. avoirdupois). j£ Kin, near. j|^ King, classical works, gjf King, the capital or metro- polis, jp King, the neck, an isthmus, m Kto/i, a foot. ^ Kiu, nine. ^ K'iu, a hillock. ]^ K'lu, a tumulus. 1^ Ku/i, grain, cereals. Jff^ K'u, the treasury, revenue, jg K'u, a cave, a hut. j^ Ku, an embankment. ^ K'lih, crooked, tortuous, ^g KiXen, a brook, g- Kiln, a prince, a sovereign. ^ Kiln, a principality, a pre- fecture. j^ Kung, work, skill. ;^ Kung, a duke, a term of res- pect, g Kung, a mansion, a palace, jjp K'uen, the earth. g% Kwa, divining marks. ^ Kwan, an official. |g Kwan, a custom-house, fg Kwan, an Inn. ^ Kwan, a crest, a summit. ^ Kwan, large. Jl Kwangf, broad. ^ K'wangr, vacant, waste. jj^ Kwei, ihc cassia-tree.

41

642

APPENDIX I.

g Kwoh, a kingdom. ijfH Lan, a railing. Jft LsLug, a wave. ^ L&o, great rain, a stream. ^ Let^ a rampart. J[ Li, a Chinese mile (1,800 ft. or J of an Eng. mile). ^ Li^ a deputy-officer. ^ Li, the nephelium-tree (its

fruit is the lichi). J^ Liang, to measure. jH Liang, grain, provisions. H^ Lian{7, a foot-bridge. f^ Liang, two.

5II Lien, the lotus, the Water-lily ^9|c Lin, a forest. ^ Lin^, a fraction. 1^ Ling, imperial mausolea. 1^ Ling, ice.

^ Ltngr^ a pass on a mountain- ridge. jhP^ Liu, water flowing. ^ Liu, a fountain. ^ Liu, lapis-lazuli. dju Lu, the water-rush. ig^ Lu, a road, a circuit (a territ- orial division). M Lu, a stove, a fireplace. J- Lu/i, six. ^ Lung, a dragon. 1^ Lung, a dyke. ^ Lunj;, a mound. ^ Mai, to buy. 0 Afai, to sell. H^ Man, barbarous, fierce. ^ Mao, hair, pelage. ^ Mao, high grass, thatch. ;^ Mei, a prune, pq Men, a gate, an outer door. '^ Meu (Mow), a Chinese land measure (6 equal to an English acre). ^ Mi, hulled rice, "jgf Miao, sprouts. J^ Miao, a pagoda. ^ Mien, soft, cottony, floss. ig Mien, the face, the surface.

J5 ^in, the people.

^ Mingf, a name.

^ Mo, a sandy plain.

'f^ Mu, a mother.

TJC Muh, wood, timber.

^ Nan, the south.

^ Nei, within, inside.

J^ Ngan, the shore, the beach.

^ Ngan, a monastery.

jll Ngao^ a high shore.

ffj^ Ni, mud, slush.

^ Nien, a year.

4^ Niu, a cow, an ox.

^ iVil, a woman.

jII Nung, to cultivate the soil.

]fg Pa, an embankment.

/\ Pah, eight. jJI P'ai, a tablet.

^ Pan, half, to divide.

^ Pan, to revolt, to rebel.

^ Pang, a country, a region.

^ P'angJheslde,bythe8ideof.

^ Pao, a fortified outpost, a ward.

1^ Peh, white.

•gf Peh, a hundred.

;^ Peh, the cypress-tree.

4t Pc/i, the north.

^ Pei, a pillar, a grave-stone.

^ Pei, a cowrie shell.

^ Pei, a generation.

1^* Pei, an embankment, a dam.

^ P§n, the root, the origin.

^ Pih, a Chinese writing-brush.

^ P'iao, a ticket, a bank-bill.

JSH Pieh, to separate.

^ Pien, border, side.

iS P'in, rank, order.

^ Ping, a soldier.

f7)c Pingf, ice.

2p P'ing, level, equable.

j^ P'ing, a flat, level plain.

^ Po, a wave.

^ P'o, a slope, a declivity.

% Pu, cotton-cloth.

^ Pu, a step, a pace (62 \ inches Eng).

APPENDIX I.

643

1$

m

i

111

W

m m

m

It

ft

SI

A

Pu, a port, a mart. Pu, to divine. P'u, the bank of a river. P^u, the cat-tail rush. P'u, vast, extensive. P'u, a shop. San, three.

Sang, the mulberry-tree. Sha, sand. Shan^ a mountain. SMng, a province. S/ii/i, a picul (1 33 ^ lbs avoir- Si, the west. [dupois). Siao, small. SU, a little. Sien, first, before. Sin, the heart. Sin, new, fresh. Sin, a guard-house. Sing, a clan or family name. Siu, a cavernous cliff, a

ravine. Six, an islet. Su, a place, a spot. Suh, a halting place. Sile/i, snow.

Sil?i, to examine, to patrol. SiXen, a whirlwind. Sut, a year of one's age. Sung, to dwell. Sung, the pine-tree. Sze a township. TsL, great.

T'ah, a pagoda tower. Tai, a generation. T'ai, excessive. T'ai, a terrace, an altar. Tan, a load of 2 piculs. T'an, a sandbank. T'an, a high terrace for

worship. T'an, a plain.

T'an, a deep pool in a river. T'an, charcoal, embers. T^ang, a hall, a church. T'ang, a dyke, a reservoir. Tao, an island out at sea.

^ Tao, a way, a road, a circuit (territorial division).

jg T'ao, a torrent.

^ T'ao, bend of a river.

^ Tseh, a marsh, a pool.

ij* Teu, a bushel, the tenth of a shih or picul.

^ T'eu, the head.

Jg Ti, the base, the foot of.

^ Ti, a sovereign.

^ Ti, the earth.

J^ TiTi, Northern barbarians.

In T'ieh, iron.

^ Tien, a shop, an inn.

fg Tien, to till the ground.

Jg Tien, a palace.

5f T'ien, the sky, heaven.

0 T'len, a field.

IJ ring^ a piece of waste-land.

"J* Tingf, a nail, a full-grown person.

Ig Ting, a peak, a summit.

jjl T'ing, a court, a territorial division.

j^ To, a crenelated battlement.

^ Ta'ang, a government gran- ary.

if 78 'ao, a canal.

ff ^ rs'ao-mi, tribute rice.

^ Ts'ao, herbs, plants.

42 Ts^ih, seven.

■=f' rs'ien, a thousand.

fjf Ts'ien, before.

^ TsHen, a copper, a cash.

^ Tfi'ten, a ford.

^ Tsin, a ford, a ferry.

^ Tsing, a well, a deep pit.

^ Ts'ing, dark-green, azure.

i^ Ts'iu, the autumn.

^ Tso, the left hand.

2$& Tsu/i, lictors, soldiers.

]g| Tnuh, a clan, a tribe.

JE Tsi£/i, the leg, the foot.

n$ Tsui, a headland.

ifi[ Ts'un, a village, a hamlet.

•^ Ts'un, a Chinese inch (^ of the Chinese foot).

644

APPENDIX I.

.-t

m m

m

m

w w

m

A

Ts'ilen, a fountain, a spring.

Tu, a ferry-boat.

T'M, a plan, a map.

T'w, the soil.

Tui, a heap, a pile.

Tun, a hillock.

T'un, military colonials.

Tung, the east.

Tung, the winter.

Tung, a cave.

Tung, copper.

Tze, a Chinese written sym- bol or pictograph, a name.

Wa, a hollow, a puddle.

Wan, a winding bank, a bay.

Wan, ten thousand.

Wang, a king, a ruler.

Wang, a deep and wide ex- panse of water.

VVei^a military station(under the present dynasty).

Wo, the country of dwarfs (Japan).

Wu, five.

Wu, military.

Wuh, a house, a room.

Ya, a tribunal, a court.

P^ Yamen, a Chinese official establishment, a public court.

Yai, the sheer side of a hill.

Yang, the middle.

1^ Yang, the superior of the dual powers, the sun.

f^ Yang, the ocean.

Jjf Yi, a waste, wild.

"^ Yi, night, darkness.

^ Y^n, steep mountains.

^ Y^n, salt.

IjS F^n, an embankment.

g yih, a city, a principality.

^ yiTi, a government post-sta- tion.

— Yih, one.

1^ Yin, dark, obscure, the in- ferior of the dual pow- ers, the moon.

%, Yin, silver.

51 Ying, flourishing, brave.

^ H Yingkv^oh, England.

^ Ying, an entrenched camp.

;g yfu, the right hand.

•g- Fo/i, a lofty summit.

J5|^ Yii, in, at.

,ffi Fii, a fish.

pi Y\L, rain.

tf Fu, a bank, a dyke.

^ Ftt/i, a gem.

^ yue/i, the moon, a month.

7C Fiien, the first.

^ yiien, a source.

il^, Fucn, a fountain, a spring.

^ yiien, a garden.

jg Fuen, distant, far off.

^ Fuen, a hall, a college.

g Fan, clouds.

APPENDIX II.

China's Foreign Trade in 1906*.

We are indebted for all statistics on the Foreign Trade of China to ths reports of the Imperial Maritime Customs published by order of the Inspector General of Customs, and kindly placed at our disposal by the Statistical Secretary, M"" H.B. Morse. The value of the Haikwan Tael for the year 1900 was 3 s. o ^ d.

Annual Valne of the Foreign Trade of China, 1905-1806.

Year.

Net Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1905 1900

Hk. Tls. 447,100,791 410,270,082

Hk. Tls. 227,888,197 23C,4o6,7;l9

Hk. Tls. 674,988,988 640,720,821

There was a decrease of Hk. Tls. 2S,202,1C7, or i per Ci nt from the value in 190"», the loss falling especially on the imports.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1903.

Country.

1905

1906

Total, Hk. Taels.

Total, Hk. Taels.

Great Britain.

104,536,613

92,0:«;,607

Hongkong.

229,523,841

227,677,384

British India.

37,518,977

34.068,752

Singapore and Straits.

7,804,569

7,398,502

Australia and New Zealand.

l,C10,67o

1,014,409

South Africa (including Mauritius).

68,775

58,136

Canada.

Total with Brilish CouniHes.

2,794,049

5,192,127

888,917,i£9

867,416,027

• See for previous years : Commerce, pp. 407-424.

646 APPENDIX II.

Annual Valne of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1906 (continued).

Country.

1905

1900

Total, Hk. Taels.

Total, Hk. Taela.

United States of America.

103,947,610

70,107,037

Philippine Islands.

Total with United Stntes.

966,977

2,586,704

10*,914,687

72,eM,8M

Mexico and Central America.

47,168

54,142

South America.

13,0S4

27,909

German}'.

20,223,724

23,105,154

France.

22,683,867

29,640,638

Belgium.

11,821,020

15,396,712

Italy.

8,595,098

8,722,941

Austria and Hungary.

1,828,622

3,605,481

Netherlands.

1,961,331

1,947,096

Norway, Sweden, Denmark.

147,261

102,849

Spain and Portugal.

Total {Continental Trade.

70,688

48,628

07,881,611

72,509,100

Macao.

7,745,616

10,894,983

Russia, European Ports.

5,501,041

5,757,036

Russia and Siberia (by land frontier).

2,923,478

2,565,904

Russia, Pacific Ports.

Total with Russin.

3,024,607

11,018,087

11,4^,129

19,841,027

Korea.

3,939,628

1,811,037

Japan and Formosa.

96,780,211

94,357,287

French Indo-China.

3,978,264

5,554,719

Siam.

1,506,637

1,981,820

Dutch Indies.

5,036,850

5,919,293

Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden.

2,145,294

2,537,205

Principal Net Imports from Foreig^i Countries, 1905-1906.

Description of Goods.

1908

1906

Opium.

Cotton Goods (Shirtings, Drills, T. Cloths.)

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.

Woollen Goods.

Value : Hk. Tls.

34,070,021

181,452,053

1,193,434

4,240,751

Value : Hk. Tls.

32,285,377

152,727,845

2,269,812

4,332,958

APPENDIX II.

China's Foreign Trade in 1806*.

We are indebted for all statistics on the Foreign Trade of China to the reports of the Imperial Maritime Customs published by order of the Inspector General of Customs, and kindly placed at our disposal by the Statistical Secretary, M"" H.B. Morse. The value of the Haikwan Tael for the year 1906 was 3 s. 3 .j d.

Annual Value of the Foreign Trade of China, 1905-1806.

Year.

Net Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1905 1900

Hk. Tls. 447,100,791 410,270,082

Hk. Tls. 227,888,197 230,456,739

Hk. Tls. 674,988,988 646,726,821

There was a decrease of Hk. Tls. 2S,262,1C7, or 4 per ccut from the value in 1905, the loss falling especially on the imports.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1903.

Country.

1905

1906

Total, Hk. Taels.

Total, Hk. Taels.

Great Britain.

101,536,613

92,036,607

Hongkong.

229,523,841

227,677,384

British India.

37,518,977

34,068,752

Singapore and Straits.

7,864,569

7,398,502

Australia and New Zealand.

1,010,075

1,014,409

South Africa (including Mauritius).

68,775

58,136

Canada.

Total with BHliAli CouniHes.

2,794,049

5,192,127

888,917,^89

867,«6,0S7

• See for previous years : Commerce, pp. 407-424.

648

^

,*^-

APPENDIX If.

Principal Exports to Foreign Countries, 1905-1006.

Description of Goods.

1905

1906

Value : Hk. Tls.

Value : Ak. Tls.

. Silk.

70,833,833

71,295,625

Tea.

25,445,652

26,629,630

Kaw Cotton.

12,029,326

11,631,638

Skins (Furs), Skin Clothing, Rugs.

9,684,286

8,207,100

Beans

6,931,876

3,158,394

Beancake.

6,188,317

7,064,108

Straw Braid.

6,210,688

8,650,861

Sheep's Wool.

6,070,157

4,847,015

Hides, Cow and Buffalo.

4,995,749

5,491,908

OUs (Bean), Groundnut, Tea, Wood, Aniseed,

Cassia).

4,095,085

5,627.821

Paper.

3,551,634

3,259,435

Tin, in slabs.

3,441,.'>47

8,478,834

Mats and Matting.

3,129,330

4,078,721

Cattle (Sheep, Pigs, Goats).

3,210,100

8,357,924

Bristles.

2,555,610

2,756,262

Fire-crackers and Fireworks.

2,972,256

3,585,733

Hemp.

2,352,007

2.964,289

Medicines.

2,111,616

2,480,322

Sugar.

2,194,490

1,010,939

Eggs.

2,021,589

2,956,400

Provisions and Vegetables.

2,474,703

2,701,027

Sesamura Seed.

2,319,746

4,512,602

Tobacco, Leaf and Prepared.

. 2,312,718

2,216,918

Chinaware.

1,721,474

1,579,204

Fruits of all kinds.

1,671,992

1,903,978

Grasscloth.

1,259,586

1,079,131

Fish and Fishery Products.

1,164,337

964,719

Timber nud Wood of all kinds.

1,185,246

982,510

Vermicelli and Macaroni.

1,377,962

1,378,400

On the whole, the exports show little development. There was a falling-ofif in raw cotton, beans, skins, sheep^s wool, sugar, fish and fishery products, timber and wood. A slight increase took place in silk (which contributed 30 per cent of the total export), tea, beancake, straw-braid, oils, mats and matting, fire- crackers, eggs and sesamnm seed.

Al»PBNDIX II.

649

Principal Be-exports, 19

Description of Goods.

m

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Cotton Goods.

5,020,064

4,665,251

Formosa Tea.

2,554,(509

2,277,365

Metals.

889,233

3,541,029

Coal.

611,625

736,654

Household Stores.

516,867

796,868

Kerosene Oil.

512,809

399,137

Ginseng.

435,684

345,336

Opium.

219,620

292,890

Flour.

232,118

03,816

Condensed Milk.

184,539

81,112

Woollen Goods.

173,962

401,957

Bags of all kinds.

168,485

68,301

Sugar.

122,410

198,214

Ceylon Tea.

82,795

6,048

Spirits.

225,277

150,195

Beer^and Porter.

142,713

80,856

Wines.

106,587

229,768

The total value of foreign products re-exported in 1905 was Hk. Tls. 14,093,741, and in 1906 Hk. Tls. 18,020,205, of which cotton manufactures, Formosa tea, and metals contributed one half.

Importatioii of Cotton Piece Goods and Tarn, 1905-1906.

Description of Goods.

1905

19C6

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.

65,887,593

45,734,293

Drills, Jeans, T. Cloths.

21,525,988

19,697,708

Fancy Cottons (Italians, Lastings, Spanish

Stripes).

27,330,425

22,420,790

Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls and Spools.

67,208,997

65,110,467

Importation of Cotton Tarn, 1905-19C6.

Description.

1905

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Indian.

47,556,392

46,109,724

Japanese.

17,791,368

16,649,172

English.

815,430

1,005,013

Hongkong.

77,727

148,443

^>-

650

APPENDIX II.

Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1906.

Description.

1908

19M

1905

1906

Benares.

Malwa.

Patna.

Other kinds (Persian).

Total Value.

Hk. Tls.

8,139,066 17,024,215 16,384,857

2,282,764

Hk. Tls.

6,161,982 16,097,055 13,160,719

1,674,416

Hk. Tls.

6,537,092

12,899 986

13,743,796

889,147

Hk. Tls. 7,481,899 9,329,927 15,005,645 467,906

«8,880,892

87,094,172

84,070,021

82,286,877

In regard to quantity, the consumption of Benares and Fatna opiam increased from 34,195 piouls in 1905, to 38,953 piculs in 1906; while Malwa and Persian fell from 17,725 piculs in 1905, to 15,164 piculs in 1906, the cause being the low price of the Bengal drug and the still lower one of native opium. In June, 1906, a uniform tax of Tls. 155 per picul was imposed on the drug throughout the 18 Provinces. At the end of the year, upon the issue of the anti-opium regulations, prices fell all round about 5 per cent for Malwa and 8 per cent for Bengal.

Opium ' Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1904-1906.

Potts.

1904

1905

1906

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs,

Shanghai.

15,203

14,811

15,937

Canton.

9,453

10,209

11,146

Swatow.

4,865

1,129

4,381

Foochow.

3,851

3,301

3,362

Araoy.

3,422

3,299

3,645

Chr*nkiang.

8,462

2,351

2,497

Hangchow.

2,487

•J,099

1,603

Ningpo.

2,209

1,814

1,408

Lappa.

1,276

1,783

1,650

Kiukiang.

2,418

1,715

1,4.59

Wuhu.

2,360

1,625

1,633

K'iungchow.

450

1,075

1,051

The total net import of opium into all the ports amounted in 1900 to 49,279 piculs; in 1901 to 49,484; in 1902 to 50,764; in 1908 to 58,457; in 1904 to 51,725; in 1905 to 51,920, and in 1906 to 54,117 piculs. Except in the Provinces of Kiangsi and Ch(^- kiang, there has been in 1906 a general increase in the consumption of foreign opium, the total quantity having been exceeded in only two of the last 10 years, viz : in 1899 when the amount reached 59,161 piculs; and in 1903, when it attained 58,457 piculs.

APPENDIX II.

651

Special Exports : Silk, Tea.

The total net value of all exports, during the year 190{;, was Hk. Tls. 236,456,739, \Aich gives Hk. Tls. 8,568,542, or 3.6 per cent more than in 1905, but 3 million taela less than in 1904.

The principal exports are silk and tea.

Sorts of Silk exported, 1905-1006.

Description.

1906

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Silk, Raw, White.

13,524,010

16,485,481

„ Yellow.

3,866,402

3,214,873

„ Wild.

8,639,062

6,372,970

„ Steam Filature.

27,895,999

29,614,449

Cocoons.

1,344,286

1,089,872

Waste Sak.

4,288,525

3,208,162

Cocoons, Refuse.

555,818

450,254

Piece Goods.

8,897,627

8,474,750

Shantung Pongees.

1,041,123

1,279,104

Ihroducts, Unclassed.

840,981

1,105,610

Silk and its products contributed to the total export trade of 1906 a sum of Hk. Tls. 71,295,525 (a million more than iu 1905), being 30 % of all exports. Yellow silk gained 10 %, wild silk was unaltered, and waste silk lost 15 %.

In the export of all kinds of silk and its products, China compares with Japan as follows :

1904

1905

1906

China. Japan.

Hk. Tls. 78,255,412 95,300,000

Hk. Tls. 70,393,833 77,180,000

Hk. Tls. 71,295,525 98,722,000

Sorts of Tea exported, 1904-1906.

Description.

190*

1905

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Tea, Black.

16,567,796

12,721,213

12,252,518

„ Green.

9,469,737

8,292,474

7,645,421

,, Brick, Black.

3,576,846

3,366,26S

4,392,064

„ „ Green.

406,910

586,750

2,083,641

„ Tablet.

115,388

123,980

254,958

„ Dust.

65,287

54,967

1,028

Total Value.

80,201,96ft

25,4ft6,652

26,689,680

652 APPENDIX II.

Tea : Exportation Direct to Foreign Conntries, 1906.

Destiuaiion.

Black.

Green.

Brick.

Tablet.

Dust.

Grand. ToUl.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Great Britain.

57,966

29,304

87,270

Hongkong.

89,009

2,360

3

1

91.373

Other British Colonies.

16,177

10,417

8

12

26,014

United States of America.

70,315

81,307

407

152,029

Russia (European Ports).

122,6-12

57,937

77,354

1,098

..

259,031

Russia and Siberia (by land

frontier).

53,037

166,711

108

2l9,a56

Russia (Pacific Ports).

109,850

2,035

340,320

8,089

...

460,294

Continental Europe (Russia

excepted).

55,-200

..

...

55,296

Turkey, Persia, Egypt.

272

272

During the year 1906, tea shipments increased in value over a million taels to Hk. Tls 20,629,630. The export of leaf, 808,094 piculs, was less than in 1905 by 37,847 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 1,169,687 in value ; brick and Ublet, 596,aM piculs, were more by 72,677 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 2,853,665 in value. Hence it may be remarked that the exports of leaf for the consumption of Western peoples are less in quantity year by year, while supplies of brick tea, for the consumption of Russia and Central Asia, steadily increase in quantity and to a still greater degree in value.

Shipments of leaf originating in Hank'ow were less than in 1905 by 30,701 piculs, and those originating in Kinkiang were Ifss by 9,956 piculs, both crops being reduced by the cold wet Spring. Green teas shipped at Shanghai (and coming from Ningpo and Hangchow) were less by 31,103 piculs, and the demands for America considerably decreased. Teas from Foochow were more by 23,172 piculs than in 1905.

The proportion supplied by China of the consumption in Great Britain and the United States is as follows : •—

190i

1905

1906

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Great Britain :

From all sources.

1,924,950

1,943,165

2,025,750

From China.

82,800

49,942

42,533

Per cent.

4.3

2.5

2.1

T United States:

From all sources.

800,931

735,843

070,781

From China.

315,572

291,106

247,162

Per cent.

43.1

40.1

37.0

APPENDIX II. 653

Shipping : Vesselfl entered and cleared, 1905-1906.

Flaff.

1905

1906

19C5

19C6

No.

No.

Tons.

Tons.

British.

80,442

28,192

35,095,658

33,150,560

Japanese.

25,850

25,188

6,23.S,018

11,3715,430

Germ.in.

7,337

0,315

8,187,871

7,477,518

French.

0,181

5.51 i

1,699,121

3,125,749

Norwegian.

3,240

1,978

2,922,826

1,010,460

American.

689

582

1,293,416

1,351,200

Rusi^ian.

36

153

82,155

289,405

Portuguese.

920

970

140,290

183,908

Danish.

08

108

72,337

172,P26

Swedish.

17=5

75

150,400

05,092

Dutch.

119

168

227,500

329,477

Austrian.

52

44

195,705

170,104

Korean.

0

23

l,29G

22,310

Italian.

65

2

19,9'G

1,108

Spanish.

6

?

8,730

?

Chinese Shipping, 1905-1906.

1905

1906

1905

19C6

Vessels

of the Foreign Type. Junks.

No.

35,070 113,679

No.

45,847 93,457

Tons.

11,349,911 5,0:7,441

Tons.

12,?12,373 3,974,378

All these Vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the Chinese flag, and are entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.

Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906. Share taken by each Nationality.

FhM?.

Clearances and Entries at Treaty Ports.

Total Tonnage Outwards and Inwards.

1905

1906

1905

1906

British.

21,768

20,237

25,369,319

24,005.271

Chinese.

88,584

80,318

12,751,408

12,738,365

Japanese.

25,222

22,202

5,747,393

7,977,608

German.

5,299

4,531

5,543,198

4,995,252

Norwegian.

1,476

943

1,277,978

708,679

French.

2,807

4,482

393,808

1,7J*8,675

American.

172

2.S0

100,0'»8

1^8,115

654

APPENDIX II.

Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906. Share taken by each Nationality (continued).

Flag.

Clearances and Entries at Treaty Ports.

Total Tonnage outwards and Inwards.

1905

1906

1905

1906

Swedish.

lOG

36

94,201

32,212

Dutch.

33

3i

50,142

55,078

Portuguese.

274

367

46,222

82,415

Danish.

43

57

80,264

47,646

Russian.

7

32

11,747

41,299

Italian.

36

9

11,034

J

Austrian.

2

?

6,642

»

Korean.

2

3

240

2,414

Percentages of Trade, Commercial Honses and Foreign commercial population of China, 1905-1906.

Nationality.

Percentages of Trade. 1906 1906

Commercial Houses. lOoT 1906

Persons. 1906 1906

British.

50,78

47,55

434

492

8,493

9,256

Chinese.

24,98

24,83

...

...

... •

...

German.

9,92

9,19

197

199

1,850

1,939

Norwegian.

5,24

2,86

10

9

166

185

Japanese.

4,12

9,73

729

739

16,910

15,548

French.

2,06

3,24

77

94

2,148

2,189

American.

1,82

1,50

105

112

3,.TR0

3,447

Austrian.

0.25

0,33

17

19

250

236

Dutch.

0,18

0,32

9

19

181

225

Swedish.

0,37

0,12

1

1

137

135

Italian.

0,01

0,00

22

21

412

786

Russian.

0,19

0,50

19

20

082

273

DaniBh.

0,07

0,23

13

14

201

209

Belgian.

V

V

8

6

273

297

Portuguese.

0,01

0,09

44

51

2,463

3,184

Spanish.

0,01

»

7

40?

249

889

Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Port or Open Kart,

1905-1906.

Port or Mart.

1905

1906

Estimated Native Population.

Amoy (Hsiam«*n).

Canton.

Ch'angsha.

Hk. Tls.

18,654,610

92,243,650

5,895,880

Ilk. Tls. 17,368,562 94,108,690 5,291,809

114,000 900,000 500,000

APPENDIX II.

655

Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Fort or Open Mart, 1905-1906 (continued).

Port or 3Iart.

1908

19C6

Estimated Native Population.

Hk. TIr.

Hk. Tls.

Chefoo.

39,131,381

34,740,267

100,000

Chr-nkianp.

3.3,344,208

35,825,857

170,000

Ch*ungk*ing.

27,731,627

28,996,200

702,000

Pooohow.

17,724,198

16,790,480

624,000

Hangchow.

17,496,980

16,299,185

350,000

Hank*ow

111,048,046

97,142,377

870,000

Ich'ang.

3,203,670

4,741,747

50,000

Kiaochow.

22,322,680

30,512,381

120,000

Kiukiaufr.

23,228,044

22,731,011

36,000

K'iungchow.

6,876,804

6,787,000

38,000

Kongmoon (Kiangm^n).

3,461,444

8,732,207

55,000

Kowloon (Kiiilung).

42,946,800

41,971,859

see Hongkong

Lappa (Kungpeh).

16,858,581

15,388,943

Lungchow.

230,452

186,274

12,000

M^ngtze.

9,592,945

10,824,864

15,000

Nanking.

10,573,545

9,668,934

300,000

Newchwang.

61,752,905

44,482,001

74,000

Ningpo.

19,163,630

19,142,434

260,000

Pakhoi (Peh-hai).

2,830,938

2,478,862

20,000

Samshol ISauftliui).

3,883^9

3,378,940

5,000

SanCuao (t^aiititngao).

2,220,032

2,290,183

8,000

ShaughaJ

176,979,193

168,736,329

840,000

Sba«ii (Sb»»hi).

1,817,544

1,497,134

85,000

Soochow.

4,240,013

5,729,980

500,000

Swatow (Shant'ou).

4^,005,306

43,198,688

65,000

Szemao.

246,848

226,082

1.5,000

Tengj'uch.

1,079,999

1,397,877

12,000

Tientsin.

93,565,672

112,86-1 ,.555

750,000

T8*iuwangtao.

21,851,079

8,470,788

5,000

W^nchow.

2,257,021

2,384,569

80,000

Wuchow.

11,185,513

10,554,816

65,000

Wnhu.

30,623,>'00

21,998,201

137,000

Yochow (Yohchow).

490,058

717,088

20,000

Grand Total.

821,089,469

784,856,057

7,897,000

Value of Expoi-ts abroad.

227,888,197

236,4.56,739

Value of Home Trade.

184,800,777

133,715,257

656

APPENDIX II.

* These tables show that Newchwang has suffered in the competition with Talien and the preferential rates on the South Manchurian railway. The year was prosperous for Tientsin. The 2 Shantung ports : Chefoo and Kiaochow, show a tendency to chauge positions, the total trade of the former having fallen Hk. Tls. 4,301,117 (imports being less), and the latter having gained Hk. Tls. 8,189,701 (the most marked increase being in foreign imports). Both share at present in the whole trade of Shantung in the following proportions : Chefoo 53 % and Kiaochow 47 %. In the West, Ch'ungk'ing improved as well as Ich'ang and Shasi (Shashi). The Hank'ow trade fell both in imports and exports, net foreign imports being less by 11 million taels, and the total trade less by 14 million. The imports of Wuhu were little altered but exports were less in value by 40 %, reducing the value of the whole trade of the port from 30 ^ to 22 million taels. The imports to Nanking were less than in 1005, but those of Chftnkiang increased by 10 %. Shanghai closed the year 1005 with large stocks unsold. Imports fell from Hk. Tls. 02,207,173 in 1005, to 74,072,150, a decrease of over 17 million toels. Exports of Chinese produce recovered lost ground from 72 million in 1005 to 79 million in 190G. The Chf'kiang ports : Ningpo, Haugchow, \V6nchow, have maintained th^iir values almost unaltered. Foochow, Amoy and Swatow have fallen slightly. Canton has advanced (the increase being in exports) by almost 2 million taels. Of tho Soatbem frontier marts, M^ngtze alone shows an increase in its trade, 4,012 piculs of native opium liAving been exported to Tongking.

Customs Revenne, 1900-1906.

Year.

Foreign Trade.

Home Trade.

Total.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1000

18,182,815

4,6i»l,17l

22,873,980

1001

10,800,000

5,670,074

25,537,574

1902

24,180,574

5,820,470

30,007,044

1003

24,054,785

0,475,903

30,530,688

1004

24,788,038

0,704,518

31,403,156

1005

27,544,205

7,506,700

35,111,004

lOOG

20,272,481

0,700,114

30,068,505

ts^^jOr^-^X^-

APPENDIX III.

Statifltics of Frot68tant Missions in China for the year ending^, 1005.

By Bet. Nelson Bitton. L. M. 8.

At pp. 359-361 of this work, we ^ve the statistics of Protestant Missionary work in China down to the close of 1902, having at that time no more recent ones at hand. We have since applied for later statistics, and the Rev. N. Bitton, of the London Missionary Society, has kindly famished ns with the following official totals for the year ending, 1905. We supplement them by the comparative table of China Missions from Broomhall's **Chine$e Empire^ a Oeneral and MUrionary 8urvey*\ published in Tx>ndon, 1907.

Foreign Missionaries.

Baptized Christians. •

178,251

Men (Clerical and lay).

1.443

78,528

Wives of Missionaries.

1,038

Native contributions for

Single women.

964

Church work. $ (Mex.) 301,263

TMal Foreign Skiff.

M«

Schools (Day or Primary).

2,196

Chinese Workers. Ordained Pastors.

345

Pupils in same.

Higher Institutions (Intermpdiate

and Collegiate). Students in same.

42,546 389

Unordained Helpers.

5,722

15,137

School Teachers.

2,583

Hospital Assistants.

867

Medical SUfiF.

Bible-women (Colportenrs).

897

Men.

207

Total Native Staff.

9,9li

Women.

94

Total Medical StalT.

801

Missionary Residences (with residing

Hospitals.

166

Foreign MisRionary).

632

Dispensaries.

241

Missionary Out-stations.

4,470

In-patients during year reported.

35,301

Tdtal Number of Stations. 5,101

Out-patients. * ]

1,044,948

* BroomhcUl states the number of communicants to bo 154,142, but adds that with the Methodist Episcopal Mission, communicants include probationers or adherent?. Moreover, the Quakers or Friends, who admit no baptismal rite, cannot reckon but adherents, of whom there are 809. (W. N. Bitton. Recorder, June, 1907).

42

658

APPENDIX III

Comparatiye Table of China Missions

Showing progress of Missions as reported at Conferences of

1877, 1890 and 1907.*

1877

1880

190T

ProteRtant Missionaries.

473

1,296

3,719

Chinese HelfRTS.

750

1.657

9,998

Ck>mmanicants.

13,035

37,287

154,142

SUtions.

91

?

706

Oat-Btationa.

511

?

8,793

Organised Churches.

312

522

?

Hospitals.

16

61

1 366

Dispensaries.

24

44

Contributions of Native Church.

SlMex.) 9,271

$(Mex.) 36,884

?

Day Schools.

15

?

2.139

Pupils in do.

280

42,738

Boarding and Higher Schools.

7

Total Pupils 16,P36

255

Students in do.

290

10,227

• From Broomhall's "Chinese Empire^ a General and Missionary Survey." p. 40.

tmo^t

APPENDIX IV.

The Woosung Bar, Hwangp'u Consenrancy Work and Approaches to Shanghai.

HEIGHT OF WATBR.

on the Outer ftnd Inner Wooflan^ Bars ftt low water of the fTsygies.

(Corrected up to-d€Ue by W, A. OarUon, Harbour Master^ Shanghai).

1903-1906.

18 f c.

IG ft.

^

"^

14 ft.

r^

-^

V

/

12 ft.

M

\

X

A

A

\

\

1

f\

A

/I

J\

1/

JO ft.

/

J

1

. J

V

f ^

V

V

V

\y

V

8 ft.

...

6'"

4-

1902

1903

1904

190n

1906

The X^wfv tracing Qi^ibits the changes on the Inner B»r; the upprr traeivg those on the bnter Bar, which has improred s^hce 10D3.

660

APraifDIX IT.

The HwangpSi ConBenrancy Work.

In the XI«» Article of the flniJ Protocol siRned ftt Peking September 7,

1901, it was provided to establish a Ooiuervancy Board tot the purpoM of

controlling, straightening and im- proving the course of the Hwang-

p^Q river, by which access is

gained to Shanghai. In 1905, an

agreement was made between the

Powers and China, whereby she

undertook herself to carry ont the

work, and supply the funds required

for the purpose. These amount to

Tls. 400,000 per annum, during 20

years, and are derived from a tax

on the native opium of Szeohw'an,

and of SUohow Fu in ELiangsu Pro- vince. The limits, within which

work is to be controlled, extend

from the Government Arsenal, a

little above Shanghai, to the mouth

of the Hwangp'u (the red buoy

in the Yangtze). In the early part

of 1906, M' J. de Bijke, a Dutch

Engineer, arrived at Shanghai, and

started work in Feb. 1907, under

the Directors, the Taot*ai of Shang- hai and the Ck>nmii88ioner of the

Imperial Maritime Customs. The

mmn fetUurea of M' de Rijke's

plan are :

1* to close the ship-channel stream, on the Northern or Footimg side of Oough Island, and divert it to the junk-channel, on the Southern or Shanghai side, thereby avoiding the right-angle turn over the Inner Bar into ship-channel, so much com- plained of by navigators.

2* to construct a large training jetty at Woosung, nearly a mile in length, from Prince's Pier to the Spit Buoy on the Outer Bar.

3* to establish other training works where needed, and especially near Gough Island ; to bring the river to an easy curve and normal width from above the Chinese City to Woosung, and cut away Pheasant Point and other places where widening is necessary.

The training works are now proceeding, and extend from Kaok'iao Creek to the Inner Bar. A dyke has been completed from end to end of Gough Island. Large layers of brushwood and reeds (called nnkstuka), and bamboo cylinders (gahhioni) are lowered into ship-channel. It will thus be gradually shoaled up, while junk-channel will become tJie main channel. *

SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'u Biver.

• Imp. Marit. Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. Vol. III. (Whangpoo River Conservancy, by the Commissioner of Customs.)

APPBNDIZ IT. APPBOAOflBS TO SHANGHAI. •

661

The Bftr of the Tangise is gradually growing larger. Important changes are taking place in the South Channel, the main waterway to Shanghai. An immense flat extends from the Fairy Wreck Buoy to the Fairway Bell Buoy, a distance of about 17 miles. A new channel, named the Tung$ha Channel (between Tungsha Bank and the S. E. Spit), began in 1904. It has now cut through the S. E. Spit, is steadily improving, and may finally become the main channel.

* Imp. Marit Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. VoL HI. (Notes on Navigation during 1906).

APPENDIX V.

Work and ProgresB of the Imperial Post Office in 1006. ^

The development of the Imperial Post Office (I. P. O.), in China was particularly accentuated in 1906. To the 1,626 localities open to postal business at the end of 1905, #70 have been added, making a total for the year ending, 1906, of 8,096 Postal Est- ablishments. Articles dealt with rose from 76 to 113 millions. Parcels, which were a little over 1 million in 1905, reached 1,883,000, being 351,000 in excess of the previous year. Money-order transactions (issued within the domestic area only) rose from a total sum of Tls. 821,000 to Tls. 1,540,000. The number of letters in "dubbed" mails, carried for native postal agencies, has fallen by a million, this being due to the cess- ation of business on the part of the Canton native letter agencies, who refused during 3 months (Jnly-Sept.) to pay the increased tax of 4 cents (1 d) per | oz., instead of the former 2 cents (} d), on all "dubbed" mails to and from Hongkong.

The annexed table will exhibit the whole work and progress for the yearf 1905-1906. I

Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled, 1005.100a \

1905

xso. ^

Head and Sub-Offices.

41

38

Branch Offices.

396

484

Agencies.

1,189

1,574

Artides dealt with.

76,000,000

113,000,000

Parcels : Number.

1,032,000

1.383,000

Weight (KUos).

3,262,000

4,310,000

Letters in native "dubbed" maUs.

8,896,000

7,892,000

* Report on the Working of the Post-Office, 1906, by T. Piry, Postal Secretary.

662 A9PBNDIZ T.

During the year, a Postal Oommissioner was stationed at Hank'ow, the Emporium of Central China; Foreign Inspectors at Mukden (Manchuria), Kweiyang (Kweichow Province) and Yunnan Fu (Tiinnan Province) respectively, and a Deputy Postmaster at Lanchow Fn, the Capital of Kansu. At Foochow (Fokien Province), postal adminis- tration has been separated from the Customs, and placed under the direct supervision of a Postmaster. Means of transport have been further increased and speed accelerated, especially in the environs of Peking and of Shanghai, in the Southern Provinces and in Manchuria. The general public accept more and more the regulations. Native agencies are losing ground, but still hold out and are opposed to the new system especially in Hupeh and Szechw'an. Henceforth, all private agencies at the Treaty ports and inland must rogister at the 1. P. O. *'Clubbcd" mails are also to pay half the full tariff on gross weight. A penal law has been enacted to check fraud in stamps and punish the suppression of mail matter. A great drawback is still experienced in getting reliable men for the money-order branches; the transfer and keeping of the funds are also attended with special difficulties and risks. The Chinese staff of the Post Office counted at the close of 190C, 360 linguist Clerks, of whom 34 do inspecting duties exclusively; 725 non-lioguists and about 1,600 Agents.

Two special features call for particular mention : 1* A new Ministry of Posts and Communications (Tiuchw'an Pu K f| K) was established at Peking, Nov. 6, 1906, but so far, has not interiered with the postal organisation under the auspices of the Customs. The Ministry, however, resents much the presence and increase of foreign post-offices (in 1906, Hongkong opened an agency at T'ientsin, and Japan at Canton. All these agencies now number 59) within the Empire, as this deprives the (Govern- ment of a large revenue, and facilitates cheaper rates for home correspondence (all Briti&h post-offices at Treaty ports have instituted the penny postage, and the American agency at Shanghai the 2 gold-cents rate for home correspondence). 2* Although not in the Union, China was represented at the Universal Postal Congress, which opened at Rome, April 7, 1906. The Delegate expressed the desire that his Govern- ment would adhere to the Union at the next Postal Congress.

In the early part of 1907, the Administration issued a conventional system of romanisation for Chinese names of places. This list fixed the foreign spelling of some 2,000 postal localities, and will be subsequently made authoritative in the Customs, Posts and Tel* ^rraphs. A Postal Atlas is now published (Oct. 1907), and has been kindly forwarded to us by M^ H. B. Morse, Statistical Secretary. It includes 21 maps (21 X 12 i inches), one for each Province. The 2,000 places, already open to postal business, are in black, while places not yet exploited are in red. The results of all this work augur prosperity to the Young Service, and bespeak amply its increasing value and progress (see for previous years pp. 435-438).

I

INDEX, n

Abeel £)., 387.

Aboriginal Races of China, 4, 313,

342-345, 371, 373, 448. Academy, Imperial, 299-300. Adam L., 508. Addis C. S., 337, 391. Administration of China Proper :

,, Central, 295-301.

,, Provincial, 301-816.

Administration of Manchuria, 488, 504-505.

, , of Mongolia, 510-520.

,, of Chinese Turkestan

533-534. of Tibet, 545-547. Admiralty Charts, 294. Agassiz A. R., 215, 508. Agriculture, 393-401.

,, of each Province (see

Ch^kiang, Chihli, etc.) Agricultural Products, 304-307. Aiar-Nor Lake, 528. Aiffuebelle (d'), 476. Aigun (Hehlungkiang ch*6ng), 494. Aksu, 524, 531. Alabaster, Sir C. 335. Alashan Mts. (Holan-shnn), II, 25,

35, 514. Alceste I. (Haila-tao), 255. Alcock, Sir Rutherford, 102. Alexander G., 380. Algui J., 293. Allan C. W., 138. Allen H. J., 482, 508. Allen F. R., 375. Allom, 400.

Alluvial Formations, 22-23, Alps, Szechw*an, 94, 95, 98. Altai Mts., 511. Altyn-Tagh Mts., 525, 539, 541.

Am ban or K'inch*ai, 517, 545-546. Ambassadors, Chinese, to Foreign

Courts, 298. Ambassadors' Route, 145, 203. Amherst, Lord, 145, 403, 474. Ami (Omi) Chow, 183. Amnemachin Mts., 25. Amoy or Hsiam^n, 221, 223-224, 226,

270, 280, 420, 654. Amphitrite or Tunghai I., 290. Amur River or Hehlung-kiang, 475,

480-400. Amyot, 379, 479, 508, 536. Ancestor Worship, 353, 378-379. Anderson A., 484. Anderson F., 337. Anderson W., 406. Andr4-Marie R. P., 386. Andrew of Perouse, 472. Anhui or Anhwei, («ee Nganhwei). Animals of China, Wild, Domestic,

17, 308 (see each Province). Annales de la SociM des Missions-

iStrangeres, 193, 213. Annam, 202, 467. Anthouard, (d'J, 481. Anthracite coal, 135. Antnine et Mitral, 404. Antonini P., 378, 399, 405. Antung (Ngantung), 492, 505. Anunghoy or Yanianghsiai, 286. Anz W., 89. Apple, 18, 398.

Approaches to Ccoiton (sketch-map \ 171. ,, to Peking (sketch-map).

68. Apricot, 18, 398, 544. Arabs at Canton, 287. Arbutus-tree, 398.

(*) The names of Authors and the Titles of books arc priated in italica. The figures which follow the nAmes refer to the pages of the work. Fifnires in heavy type indicate the places where the subject is principally treated.

The following contractions are used : — B. (Bay), C. (Cape), Ch. (Channel), O. (Gulf), /. (Island), Is. (Islands), L. (Lake), Mt. (Mountain), Mts. (Mountains), R, (River), Str. (Strait).

664

INDEX.

Arbuz-ola Mts., 514.

Area of the Chinese Empire, 5.

,, of China Proper, 8. Argun R. or NgaikOn-ho, 490. Armstrong. 88. Army. 328-335, 338.

Manchu, 328; Provincial, 330. ,, Mongol, 520; Tibetan, 549.

Reorganisation of, 331-333. Arrow War, 464, 475. Arsenals and Docks, 53, 334, 404. Artchisck, Daniel. 474. Artsa-Bogdo Mts., 511. Asculi (Joseph de), 552. Ashmore W., 376. Atkinson T. W.. 508, 522. At^ntze, 182, 183. Aubazac, 376.

Auber P.. 215, 423, 483, 484. Aubry, 102. Audience, to Foreign Ministers, 466.

,, question settled, 470.

Audaley G. A., 406. Augustinians, Spanish, 356. Aurora University (Sicawei), 369. Austria, Relations with China, 474.

Baber E. C, 118, 192, 372.

Backer (de), 481.

Bagrach-Kul or Tenghiz L., 528, 531.

Baiankara Mts., 94, 541.

Bailiff or rural Constable, 309-310.

Balfour, Captain, 266.

Balfour F. H., 380, 381 , 385, 389, 391 , 400, 485.

Ball (Dyer), see Dyer.

Bailer F. W., 375, 376.

Bamboo, its various uses, 18, 395, 308.

Banana, 18, 393, 398.

Bankers, Shansi, 42, 408.

,, Influence on Currency, 320.

Banners, The Eight, 329.

Bannister S.. 483.

Bars on the Coast of China :

Canton, 286-287 ; Foochow, 278 : Ningpo, 275; T'aichow, 274; Taku, 252; Woosung, 264-205, 270, 659.

Barclay Parsons W., 138.

Bard E., 335, 371, 399, 405, 422.

Barkul, 29, 524. 531.

Barley, found in the Northern Pro- vinces, 394.

Barrd P., 507.

Barrett Hamilton G., 530.

Barrow J., 474.

Barton J. L., 390.

Bat'ang or Pat'ang, 94, 107, 112, 116.

Batz (de), 520.

Bayan Susu iHelungkiang), 495. Bayantu River, 518. Bays and Harbours of the China Coast : Amoy or Hsiam^n Bay, 276, 277. Bullock Harbour, 274. Chefoo Bay, 254 (with sketch- map), 256. Dalny Bay or Talienwan, 491,

500. Hait'an Bay, 276. Hangchow Bay, 98, 272. Heut'eu or Tiger's Head Bay,

277. Hongkong Harbour, 281 (with

sketch-map), 284. Hsinghwa Bay, 281. Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281. Kiaochow Bay, 254 (with sketch- map), 259. Kinchow Bay, 491. Kwangchow Bay, 281 (with ske- tch-map), 290. Laoshan Bay, 254. Lappa (Kungpeh) Bay, 281. Min-kiang, Estuary of the, 276. Mirs Bay or Tap'^nghai, 281. Nankwan Bay, 276. Nimrod Bay ^Siangshan-kiang),

274. Port-Arthur or LQshun-k*ow

Bay, 491. Samsa (Sansha) Bay (with ske- tch-map), 276-277. Sangkeu-k*ow Bay, 274. Sanm^n Bay, 274. Ship'u Roadstead, 274. Shihtaok*ow Bay, 254. Shuhahan Bay, 254. Swatow (Shant*eu) Bay, 281. T'aichow Bay, 274. Ts'iienchow Bay, 277. T*ungshan Bay, 277. Weihaiwei Bay (with sketch- map i, 254, 257. W^nchow Bay, 274. Yungch'^ng Bay, 254. Bazin M. A., 375. Beacons on the China Coast, 246. Beal S., 382.

Beancake, principal export from Man- churia, 408. 412. 501, 648. Beans, 394, 501. Beauvais, 191, 213. Beecher H. M., 87. Behme und Krieger, 88. Behring Strait, 239-240. Bergholz P.. 293.

INDBZ.

665

Bernard \V. D., 293.

Betts G. E., 372.

Beveridge A., 508.

Bezaure (de), 102.

Bhamo (Burma, Trade with Tali F.,

181. Bianconi, 20. Bickmore A. S., 405. Bills of Kxchange, 320. Biot E., 335, 390.

Birds of China, 17 (see each Province). Bishop, xMrs J., 102, 118. Bizeul S.. 387. Black-Caps, 548. Black River, 179. Blackburn China Mission. 119, 192,

193, 213, 215, 335, 442. Blagovestchensk (Siberia^, 494. Blenheim Channel, 286. Blodget H., 380, 390. Blue Books on China, 485. Blue City (Kweihwa ch'^ng, Shansi),

53. Blue River (Hwang-ho), 94. Boards or Ministries, 74, 820.

the 10 Boards (formerly 6^ 220. Bock, 237. Bod or Tibet, 547. Boehmeria nivea (Ramie fibre), 395. Bogdo-ola Mts., 525. Bogue or Bocca Tigris, 204, 280. Bohea Hills (Fokien), 225. Bohea tea, 225. Bonacosi A., 378, 399, 405. Bonbo (Indigenous religion of Tibet),

548. Bondservants, Manchu, 329. Bone C. 215.

Bonham Island (Pehtsieh-shan), 273. Bonin, 191.

Bonnet, Nicholas (Bishop), 354, 472. Bona d'Anty, 89, 191, 372, 423. Bonvalot G., 535, 555. Bonze or Buddhist monk, 352. Boone W. J., 390. Borradaile A., 521. Borax (found in Tibet), 545. Boro-koro Mts., 526. Botany, (see Flora). Boucher H.. 375. Boulger D. C, 6, 335, 338, 383. Bourne F. S., 88, 103, 192, 193, 213. BouvetJ., 479. Bower H., 536. Bowra E., 480, 556. Box E., 388.

Boxers and the Boxer uprising in China, 43, 75, 252, 355, 468-460,

477.

Braam (Van ), Story of the Dutch

Embassy to Peking, 473, 482. Braddel T., 423.

Brahmaputra River (Tsangpo), 544. Braves, Chinese, 331. Bray {de). 422.

Breaker Point or Shihpeishan, 283. Bret8chneider F., 20, 86, 385, 482, 536. Brick-tea (exported to Russia), 416,

531, 652. Brickmore A. S., 213, 214. Bridges in China, 425. Bridgman E. C, 372, 374, 384, 388,

400, 480, 483. Brine-wells (Szechw'an), 114. British Expedition to Lhasa, 539,

546, 548, 550, 554-555. British Flag in China, first appear- ance of, 474. Broomhall M., 390, 657, 658. Broullion R. P., 165, 386. Broion, 387. Browne. Colonel, 508. Bruce C. D., 556. Bruce-Mitford, 294. Buckwheat, 18, 70, 394. Buddha, Statues of, 61, 451.

Living, 516, 548. Buddhism 352-353, 381, 582.

,, officially introduced into

China, 452. ,, practised by the Emperor

Wuti, 455. ,, persecuted by the Empe-

ror Wutsung, 456. ,, Tibetan or Lamaism, 516,

547-548. Buddhist Sutras brought from India, 352, 452. ,, Monks visit India, 472. ,, Invocation, 548.

Pilgrimages, 109, 117, 237, 552. Buir-Nor or Pir Lake, 491. Bullock T. /.., 192, 383, 480. Bullock Harbour, 274. Buoys and Beacons, 246. Burden J. S.. 389. Bureau et Franchet, 20. Burgevine, 465, 475. Burials, 493.

Burlinghame Mission, 465, 476. Burma or Mientien, 112, 174, 181-183,

459, 462, 466. Burmese **wild men" or Kachyns,

112. Burning of the Books, 451. Bushell S. W., 405, 406, 479. Byron Brenan, 424.

666

INDEX.

Cabinet, Inner or Ncikoh, 297. Cactus, 180. Cahun. 479, 520. Caix R. de. 507.

Calendar, Chinese, 301, 355, 444-445. Calendrier-Annuaire (published by the Jesuit Fathers of the Sicawei Observatory), 293, 441. Callery J. M., 374. Callery and Ivan, 480. Cambodia, 459. Camel, 17. 54, 55, 70. 77, 83. 101, 164,

398, 518, 528. 531. Campbell A.. 555. Campbell C. A/., 521. Camphor-troo, 397. ^

Canals in China^,jia?c4^. Canal, Imperial or Yun-ho. 29, 59, r>9, 78, 82, 102, 154, 15(i, 227, 230, 428-430, 459. Candareen or F^n, 316. Candidates for Literary Decrees, 3(»5. Candler E., 556. Canton, 115, 129, 145, 181, 807-209

with sketch-map), 212. 287, 460. Canton-Hank'ow Railway, 433. Cantonese race and language, 207,

343, 344, 348. Caoutchouc, 180.

Capes and Headlands on the ("hina Coast : ('ape Adk ins or Ch'angshan, 254. Breaker Point or Shihpeishan,

283. Cape Cami or Kwankiaowei,

283. Chefoo Cape, 254. Flat Rocky Point. 255. Good Hope or Piaokioh, 283. Jaeschke, Cape, 255. X.E. and S.E. Capes 'Shantung;,

254. P'ootung Point, 261, 273. Yangtze Cape, 261, 273. Yiunishan Headland. 255. Capitals of the Provinces, List of,

304-305. Capuchin Friars in Tibet, 552. Carexf F. W.. 192, 372, 556. Carles \V. B.. 103, 138, 4'il. Carli, Dr Mario, 237. Carolus Dollar, 319. Caron P., 379. Carpentier, Jean le, 482. Cfirpini, John of TMano. 472. Carrez, 88.

CarstairS'Douglas. 377. Carton C, 385. Casartelli L. (Bishop), .387.

Cash or Li (native coin, vulgo Ts*ien),

3I0-.3I7, 404. Castaing. 194.

Cathay (name given to China), 7. Catholicism (T'ienchu-kiao) in Chi- na, 353-358. Catholic Missions in China, 355-358,

384. Cavalerie. 193, 372. Celestial Mts., or T'ien-shan, 33. Censorate or Court of Censors (Tu-

ch'ah Yuen), 300. Censuses of the Population, 346. Cent or F^n (division of the Mexican

Dollar^ 320. Chakhars, 515.

Chalmers J.. 370, 374, 376, 379, 380. Chaloner Alabaster, 380. Chamdo (Anterior Tibet, 552-553. Chang Chitung ( Viceroy of Hu-

kwang;, 333. 391. Changchow Fu. 224. Changkia-k'ow or Kalgan, 67, 77. Changkiavvan, Battle of, 475. Changming hsien. 110, 113. Changshui River, 142. Changteh Fu, 56, 63. Channels at the mouth of the Yang-

tze-kiang, 2(>2, 661. Changti, Emperor 'Han , 452. Cij'aj^n or Court Underlings, 311-

312. Ch'ang River (Kiangsi), 144. Ch'angchow Fu, 153. Ch*angch'un Fu, 470, 487, 498. Ch'ang-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 94. Ch'angmao Rebels, 464. Ch'angngan (Singan Fu . 447, 451,

456, 457. Ch'angngan-sze, 197. Ch'angpeh-shan or Long White Mt.,

489. Ch'angsha Fu, 131. 133, 135,137, 470. Ch'angshan 1., 254. Ch'ang.shan hsien, 84. Ch'angteh Fu, 130, 131, 133, 136. Ch'angt'u Fu, 487. Chao Chow, 67. Chao Kw'angyin ( Founder of the

N. Sung dynasty), 457. Chao Liehti, 453.

Chao Suenti, Kmperor /r'ang),456. Chaok4ng Fu, 170, 202, 204, 207,

200, 212, 354. Chaoti, Emperor (Han), 452. Chaot'ung Fu, 175, 181, 183. Chaoyang Lake, 82. Ch'aochow Fu, 202, 212. Ch'aohu Lake, 91, 142.

INDEX.

667

Chapdelaine Fr., Massacre of, 475. Chapel Island or Tungting, 278. Chap*u or Tsop'u, 272. Characteristics of the Chinese race : ,, physical, 340.

moral, 341-348, 370, 371. Chavannes. 404, 479, 481. Chavannes {de), 370, 399, 479, 521. Chefoo or Yent^ai, 8, 80, 84,87, 256,

260, 420, 655, 656. Chefoo Agreement, 476. Chehling Pass, 12, 137, 212. Ch^kiang Province, 8, 217, 219, 237- 237. ,, Area and Population, 227.

,, Aspect and Characteris-

tics, 228 ; Climate, 229. (ieology, 228. ,, Orography, 228.

Hydrography, 229-231. ,, Industry and Commerce,

235. ,, Fauna and Flora, 231.

Agricultural Wealth, 231. Mineral Wealth, 231. ,, People and Language, 231-

232. Cities and Principal Cen- tres, 232-234. ,, Highways of Communi-

cation, 235. ,, Open Ports, 235.

,, Coast-line of, 272-275.

Chemulpo, .468.

Ch*dn Dynasty (short-lived), 454. Ch^nchow Fu, 56, 62. Ch^nhai hsien, 275. Ch^nkiang Fu, 91, 153, 160, 163,

164, 420, 655. Ch^nngan Fu, 195. Cht^npienfu-i T'ing, 177. Ch^nsi Ting or Bfirkul, 524. Ch^ntsung, Emperor (N. Sung], 458. Ch^nyQen Fu, 184, 186, 189. Ch^nyuen T'ing, 177. Ch^nchow Fu, 56. Ch'^n Pasien, 455. Ch^ng Chow, 56, 63. Cheng Kitung, 371. Chengteh, Emperor (Ming), 460. Ch^ngting Fu (Chihli;, 54, 55, 66. Ch4ngt*ung, Emperor (Ming), 460. Ch^ngyang-kwan, 151. Ch*^ng Wang or Shi Hwangti, 450. Ch*6ng Chow, 131, 137, 212. Ch**ngkiang Fu (Ytinnan), 175. Ch'^ngteh Fu or Jehol, 66, 77, 78. Ch'^ngtsung, Emperor (YOen), 459.

Ch'^ngtu Fu, 105, 112, 117. Ch*engtu Plain, 107, 109, 113. Ch**ng Wang, Emperor (Chow), 449. Ch'^nghwa, Emperor (Ming), 460. Cherchen-Daria, 528. Chestnut, 398. Cheukia-k'ow, 59, 62. Cheuts'un, 84, 87. Chevalier S.. 20, 102, 293. Chihli Province, 8, 05-78.

,, Area and Population, 8, 66.

Aspect and Characteristics, 67. ,, Climate, 69; Geology, 67. ,, Orography, 67-68. ,, Hydrography, 69-70. ,, Fauna and Flora, 70. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 70. ,, Industry and Commerce, 78. ,, Cities and Principal Centres,

71-78. ,, Highways of Communication, 78. Open Ports, 78. ,, Coast-line of, 251-252. China, Aboriginal Races of, 4, 342- 345. ,, First Settlers, 4. ,, In the different geological

periods, 3. ,, Area and Population, 5. ,, Distribution of Inhabitants, 5. ,, Divisions, 5. ,, Names applied to the country and people, 7, 339. Foreign Relations, 471-473, 475, 478. ,, F)migration ^Chinese abroad-, 478. China Proper :

,, Boundaries, .\rea and Popu- lation, 7-8. ,, Present Divisions, 3 Regions or Basins, 19. Geological Constitution, 10. ,, Orography or Mountain Sys- tems, 11-13. Plains, 13. ,, Rivers and Lakes 15-16. Coast-line, 16, 238-294. Fauna and Flora, 17-18. ,, Government and Administra- tion, 295-316. ,, Revenue and Expenditure, 316- 324, 327, 656. Imperial Maritime Customs, 325-328. ,, Army and Navy, 328-334. ,, Various Races, 339-345.

668

INDBZ.

,, Languages, 347-350. ,, Religions, 350-3<>5.

Educational System. 364-370. ., Agriculture, 302-3(m.

Mining and Industn*. 402-404. Foreign Trade. 407-422; 645- 656. ,, Means of Communication, 425-

431. ,, Railways (completed, pro- jected,, 431-434. Imperial Post Office, 435-437, 661-662. ,, Telegraphic Lines and Com- panies, 437-439. ., Steamship Lines and Com- panies to and from, 439-440. Chinese Imperial Dynasties. Synopsis

of, 446-447. Chinese Empire, Historical Sketch

of, 443-47 L Chinese character-writing. 349-350. Chinese Race, Antiquity of, '<iSQ. Chinese Foreign Office or Waiwu

Pu, 298, 4()4, 4<)9. Ckine»e Repository ^passim). Chinagrass plant (Ramie fibre), 111,

20(). 395. China Revieir (passim . Ch'ichow Fu. 146, 152. Ch'ihshui (Shensi), 44. Chihshui R., 96, 110. Ch'ihk'i T'ing, 203. ("hisholni (i., 442. Chou Han. 'i67. Choxizxi Myr . \\)2. 213. ChowDynMsty, 87, W\, 449. Chow Kingdom, Rise of, 'i55. Chow Kun^, 4 v.). Chows or Provinces, '453. Chowsin, Emperor (Yin , 448, 449. Ch'oro.s tribes Kalmuks), 520. Christianity in China :

Catholicism, 353-358. Protestantism, 358-361. Chu-kiang or IVarl river, 202, 204,

209, 280. Chu Yiusung, Emperor ^Ming), 461. Chu Yuenchang(Founderof the Ming

dynasty), 459-460. Ch'u Kingdom, 340. Ch'u Chow, 146, 151. Ch'uchow Fu, 227, 230, 231. Chuhsi (Commentator of Confucius),

145, 351. Ch'uhsiung Fu, 177. Chungkias (a cross with Aboriginal

tribes), 188. Chung-kwoh or Middle Kingdom

(China), 7. 57. Chungpa, 110, 113. Chungchow I. 'near Foochow), 222,

223. Chungt*iao-shan (Mt.\ 51. Chungt*ien, 95.

Chungtsung, Emperor iT*ang), 456. Chungwei hsien, 38. Ch^ungchdng, Emperor iMing*, 355.

461, 506. Ch'ung-kiang, (R.), 105, 109, 114. Ch'ungk'ing Fu, 91, 96, 100, 106, 110,

114, 115, 117, 420, 655. Ch'ungnoing I., 157, 262, 271. Ch'ungming Point, 263. Ch'ungngan hsien, 225, 226. Churches and Chapels in China : ,, Catholic. 357. ,, Protestant, 359. Chusan (Cheushan) Archipelago, 228,

229, 234, 249, 272. 273. Cinnamon, 200, 394. Circuits or Lus (old divisions^, 458. Circuits or Intendancies (modern

divisions), 306-307. Clark A., 484. Clark G. \\\, 193, 372. Clark S. R.. 193, 372. Classics, Chinese, 350, 364, 365, 374. ,, destruction of, 450. ,, restored, 451. Clavery E., 422, 423. Clement V. (Pope), 354. Climate of China, 14-15. ,, of Manchuria, 489.

of Mongolia, 515-516. ,, of Turkestan, 526-527. of Tibet, 541-542. Cloud F. D , 237.

Clubbed letter mails, 535, 661, 662. Coal-fields and mines, 52, 53, 54, 70, 83. 86. 91, 107, 112, 115, 120, 134- 135, 141. 143. 206, 402, 408. 493, 529. Coast-line of China. 238-250. Ch^kiang, 272-275. Chihli, 251-252. Fokien, 276-280. Kiangsu, 261-271. Kwangtung, 281-292. Shantung, 252-260. Coast Winds and Monsoons, 243-

246. Cobbold R. H., 371. Colleges and Schools in China : ,, (Government, 367-^^69. ,, Prirate, 369. \;:olUhgu^oDd C, 215, 293. Covins t'. D., 400.

INBU.

669

Colowan I., 288.

Colquhoun A. R., 103, 173, 192, 213-

215, 293, 325, 336, 372-373, 391,

423, 441, 481, 485, 508, 522. Commerce and Trade, 407-424. Commerce of the Open Ports, 420-

421, 654-656. Commercial Treaties with China

(1902-1903), 470, 477. Communications in China, 425-440. Compte P. L. Le, 371, 374, 441. Confucius or K*ung Futze, 65, 80,

87, 351, 352, 444, 449, 456, 458. Confucianism, 350-351, 379-380. Conservancy Board (Hwangp'u), 270,

660. Constitution promised by the Throne,

471. Consulates, Establishment of, 475. Consuls, Court of, 267. Conveyance, Modes of, 427. Conway Sir W., 556. Copper, 83, 84, 112, 135, 136, 149, 180,

182, 187, 207, 402, 493, 529, 534,

553. Cordes, 441. Cordier H. E., 165, 214, 237, 338,

384, 385. 441, 480. Comaby W- A., 138, 378, 380, 381,

389. Cothonay R. P., 235. Cotton plant, 394, 395, 397. Cotton Piece-goods and yam (im- ported), 413-414,649. Cotton-spinning and weaving mills,

404. Council, Grand, 74, 297. Coup d'Etat (of Prince Kung), 464. Courant M., 20, 371, 390, 422. Courbet, Admiral, 467. Courcy (dt), 370, 374, 378, 391, 399,

405, 422. Court of Censors, 74, 300.

,, of Consuls, 267.

,, of Sacrificial Worship, 301.

,, of State Ceremonial, 301. Court, Mixed (Shanghai), 267.

Underiings, 311. Courtelltmonty 191. Couvreur F. S., 375. Coxinga. 462. CrabouiUet. 371. Crops (see Agriculture), 18, 60, 393-

394. Crosby O. T., 536. 556. Culbertson M. S., 378. Cumfrey (Ti-hwang), 61. Cummings C. F., 236, 237, 291, 293. Cunningham, 338, 555.

Currency, Chinese, 316.

,, Necessity of uniformity in,

320-321.

Currents on the China Coast, 240,

249, 255, 263, 273, 276, 279, 283,

291.

Curzon, Sir G. N., 294, 379, 389,

401, 442. Customs, Imperial Maritime, 325- 328. ,, Revenue collected by, 327,

656. Customs, Native, 323. Cyclic Period, Origin of, 444. Cyclones (SQenfung), 245.

Dabry, 338.

Dabry de Thiersant, 382, 383, 401,

481. Dahlman R. P., 382. Dalai Lama, The, 517, 546, 548, 554,

555. Dalai-Nor, Lake, 491. Dalny or Talienwan, 492, 500-501,

505. Daours, (in Manchuria), 493. Darjeeling, 451. Darwenl C. E., 166, 442. Daryl P., 378, 390, 399, 405. Dautremer, 191. Da Old, Pkre Armand, 20, 46, 64,

137, 235, 521. David et Oustalet 20. Davis, Sir J. F., 88, 103, 214, 215,

237, 243, 380, 381, 399, 405, 441,

479, 483, 521. Darwin Prince G. //.. 293. Day H., 401. Dean VV.. 387. Deasy, Captain H., 556. Debesse, Pere A., 375. Deblenne, 371.

Dechevrens, Pere >/.. 166, 293. Decken (de), 555. Deep Bay, 284.

Deer, Grotto of the White, 145. Deer horns, 113, 498, 553. Degrees, Literary, 365, 455.

in the New System, 368. Delamarre, 479. Delaroche-Vernet. 88. Delta, Si-kiang or Canton, 202, 203,

205, 206, 211. Denby Cli.. 389. Denham J. E., 237. Denmark, Relations with China, 474. Dennis J. S., 387. Dennis N. B., 342, 522, 376. Depung Monastery (Lhasa), 552.

670

INDBZ.

Deschampn. 165. Desert, Gobi, 529, 535.

Takla-makan, 530, 535. Desgodins C. H., 555. Deshaines, 385. Dev^ria G.. 382. 481. Dialects, Multiplicity of. 347, 348. Dictionaries for the study of the

Chinese Language and Dialects,

347-377. Dikes (see Embankments). Diospyrus-kaki or Persimmon, 398. Divisions of China, Regional, 19.

Provincial, 5, 8.304-305,471. ,, Territorial, 306-310. Djaghing-gol, River, 25. Doberck W.. 293.

Docks and Dockyards, 223, 334, 404. Dodd or Pehting Island, 278. Dog in China, 17,398. Dokerla. The Three Peaks of, 13, 182. Dollars, Spanish or Carolus, 319. Mexican, 320. ,, Canton, Hupeh, Hongkong, 320. Dolon-Nor, 70, 77, 491. Domestic Animals of China, 17, 398. Doolittle J., 336, 371, 375, 379, 388,

391. Double Island or MasQ, 281. 284. Douglas Sir R., 335, :^7, 370-371,

374, 378-379, 384, :«9, 391, 399,

442, 479, 4^3-485, 521. Dowager Wu, Empress, 456. Duck. Mandarin, 206. Duclos, 404. Dudgeon J., 400. Duffus W.. 376. Dufourny. 292. Dujardin-Daumetz. 422. Duke, Hereditarv title of, 315.

of Ts'in, 449. Durand, 386. Dust-storms in North-China, 23, 59,

69. Dutch in China, 473.

,, settle in Formosa. 473.

,, Embassies to Peking. 473. Dyer Ball J.. 3,35-:H38, 370-373, 376-

377, 379, 380-383, 386-388, 391, 401,

423, 4'i2, 479. 483-485. 508, 522. Dynasties, Synopsis of the Chinese

Imperial. 446. Dvnastv. I'he Chow, 449; Han, 451- "^453 : Hsia. 448 : Ming, 460 : Shang

or Yin, 448 ; Sung, 454-457 ; 'l''ang,

456; Tats'ing or Manchu, 461-4"?!;

Tsin, 453-454: Ts'in. 450; YQen

or Mongol, 459.

Earthquakes, 51, 154. East-India Company trades with Canton, 287. ,, Its monopoly ceases, 287. Eastern China Sea or Tung-hai, 241. Eastern Chinese Railway, 432, 503. Eastern Turkestan {see Chinese Tur- kestan-, 523-537. Ebi-Nor I^ke, 528. Eden G. H.. 374, 378. Fxiible birds' ne.sts, 268. Fxiict, the Sacred. 'i62.

,, abolishing opium, 396-397. ,, regulating the Educational

System, 367, 471. ,, promising a Constitution and a represent! ve Form of Gov- ernment, 471. Fdkins J., 88, 103, 336, 372, 378, 381,

386, 388, 400, 405, 482, 521-522. Edkins Mr* J., 371. Education, 364-370 ; 390-392.

,, Old system of, its draw-

backs, 364-365. ,, Modem system of, 367-

368. ,, in Government Schools

exclusivelv Confucian, 369. ,, in Mission Schools, 369.

Students sent abroad for modem, 369. ,, Praiseworthy efforts to

promote, 'S69. ,, Obstacles to success in,

:^9. Edwards E. J^.. 390, 508. F^gs, Large export of, to Japan, 150, 160, 412, 648. Preser\ed, 136,234. Egingol River, 512. Egmont Hake H., 480. Eitel E. J.. 215, 373, 376, 380-382,

388, 391, 423, 484. Ektagh Altai or Central Altai Mts.,

511. Elders, Village, 309-310.

,. chosen from the local Gentry,

309. ,, their functions, 310. Eleuths, 462, 515, 520. Elliot, Captain, 474. ^Uis H., 484. Embankments, to restrain the

Hwang-ho, 27,2^,61. ,, on the Coast of Kicing-

sii, i55, 27l. ,, at tlie motith of thf

Yangtze Ft., 26i.

INDIZ.

671

,, along the Grand Canal

(Kiangsu\ 155, 228, 429. Embassies to China, from the Popes, 472 ; the Portuguese, 473 ; the Dutch, 473; Great Britain (Lord Macartney), 462, (Lord Amherst), 463, 474. Russia, 474. Emigration, Statistical tables of, 478. Emperor of China, Names given to, 295-296 ; resides in Peking, 74 ; has private hunting grounds near Peking, 74 ; country-seat at Jehol, 77, 4()4 ; his position in the Government, 295 ; chooses Successor to the Throne, 296 ; Censors may animadvert on his

conduct, 300 ; receives directly credentials of Foreign Ambassadors, 470. Empress of China, Names given to,

296. Empress-Dowager Wu Heu, 456. Km press-Dowager Tz *eh si .

forms with Prince Rung a Re- gency during minority of the Emperor T*ungchi, 464 : becomes again Regent during

minority of Kwangsu, 466; withdraws from Regency after

marriage of KwangsQ, 467 ; resumes for the thini time the Regency to stay hastv reforms, 468; during the Boxer crisis, orders extermination of all Forei- gners, 469 ; flees to Singan Fu till peace res- tored, 469 : returns and re-enters Peking, 470; begins Era of reorganization, 471. Encyclopaedia, Chinese :

compiled under the Mings, 460. under Kanghsi, 462. English, appear for the first time in China, 474. , , Portuguese jealousy of, 474 .

send embassies to Peking (considered as tribute- bearers), 462, 463, 474. ,, Trade stopped at Canton,

474. Wars with China, 463, 464,

469, 474. Trade with China, 269, 409, 411, 413, 414, iil7, 420, 422, 645,649, 650, 652, 653, 654.

,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654. ,, Share in China's Commerce,

418, 654. Shipping and Tonnage, 418, 654. ,, Steamship Lines to and

from China, 43*)-440. ,, Population at Shanghai,

267. ,, Railwav enterprise in Chi-

na, 430-433. ,, Treaties with China, 463,

464, 474, 475, 477, 555. Enselme H. 507. Envoys, Chinese, to Foreign Courts,

298 (see Ambassadors). Ergik-Tangak Mts., 511. Ess^yric, 102. Etsingol River, 36, 514. Estuary of the Min-kiang (Min R.), 276, 278. ofthe Yung-kiang, 274-275. of the Yangtze, 261, 263. ofthe Han-kiang, 281, 284. ^tat-major de Vlndo-Chine, 191,213,

214. Eulfu or Assistant Magistrate, 311. Eulhai Lake (YQnnan), 180, 345. Eunuchs, 459, 460, 461. Eurasia, 2. Europeans, Early Relations with

China, 471-472, Ever-victorious Army, 465, 476. Examinations, Literary, 365-367.

Military, 370. Exner A. H., 337. Expenditure of the Chinese Empire,

324. Exports from China, Value of, 409, 412, 415,416, 417, 645, 648, 651-652. Ezra E. J., 383.

Faber E., 375, 378, 380, 381, 479. Factories at Canton, 209, 473 :

burned by the Chinese, 464 ;

established at Sancian and Lam- pa by the Portuguese, 473. Fagg J. J., :^9.

Fah Hsien, Buddhist Monk, 472. Fakum^n, 506. Famine, Depopulation caused by,

21, 467. Fan, Dike of Duke, 15^. Fanch*^ng (Hupeh), 12?. Fang Family (tea-merchants), 408. Fans, Manufacture and Export of, 115, 144, 158, 209, 232, 233, 234,408. Fan-palm, 180.

672

INDB2^.

Fan-tze or Tanguts, 38.

Fati (Hwangti), 209.

Fatshan or Fohshan, 204, 210, 211,

212. Fauna of China, Generalities, 16-17.

,, Chekiang, 231 ; Chihli, 70. Fokien, 221 ; Honan, 60.

,, Hunan, 134; Hupeh, 124.

,, Kansu, 36; Kiangsi, 142.

,, Kiangsu, 156-157; Kwang- tung, 206.

,, Kwangsi, 11)8; Kweichow,187.

,, Manchuria, 492; Mongolia, 515.

,, Nganhwei, 149; Shansi, 52. Shantung, 83 ; Shensi, 42.

,, Sinkiang, 528; Szechw'an,lll.

,, Tibet, 544; YQnnan, 180. Fauvel A.. 88, 165, 236, 292, 386,

400, 441. Favier (Mgn, 87, 386. Feer L., 521. Fei-ho R., 148. F^nchow Fu, 48, 53. F^nfu or Deputy Magistrate, 311. F^n-ho R., 26, 41, 45, 48, 51, 55. Ferguson J. C, 391. Fergu88on, 484. Ferreira do Amaral, 288, 473. Ferry-boats, 27, 429. Feu Chow, 115, 186. Feu-kiang, 110, 113. Fielde A. A/., 376. Filature silk establishments, 268,

404. Finances of China, 321, 324, 431. Fink C, 166, 385. Finn J., 383. Fire-crackers, 412, 648. Firewood, Scarcity of in China, 393. Fish, Various kinds in China, 17.

,, extensively reared and eaten, 163, 222, 398.

,, scarce in Chihli, 70. Fish-skin Tartars or Goldi, 493, 496. Fisher C. B., 480. Five Sovereigns, Period of, 444. Flag, British, appears for the first ; time in China, 474. i

,, Chinese, 418, 653. |

Flat Rocky Point, "litis" wrecked

at, 252. Fleet, Chinese, 333-334. |

,, destroyed at Canton, 464. ,

,, at Foochow, 467.

,, at W'eihaivvei, 468. '

Fleming (i., 508. nora of China, 16, 18.

,, of each Province (see Fauna).

Flour, American, 411, 413, 647,649. Fogs on the China Coast, 246.

,, in YQnnan, 175, 178. Fohshan or Fatshan, 204, 210, 211,

212. Fokien Province, 8, 121, 202, 207, 217-226, 276-280. Area and Population, 218. Aspect and Characteristics.

219; Climate, 219. Geology, 219 ; Orography,

219. Hydrography, 220-221. Fauna and Flora, 221. Agricultural and Mineral

AVealth, 221-222. People and Language, 222. Cities and Principal Centres,

222-225. Industry and Commerce,225. Highways of Communica- tion, 225-226. Coast-line and Ports, 276-280. Fomien or Fohweik'Q, 198. Foochow, 217, 218, 219, 222-223, 226. ,, Sketch-map of and app-

roaches to, 220, 278. ,, Description of, 222-223.

Dialect, 348.

Foreign trade of, 223, 420, 656; Arsenal, 223. ,, Fleet captured by Admiral

Courbet, 467. Food of the Chinese, in the North, 18, 71, 394. Centre and South, 18, 394, Forbes R. B., 423. Forbes F. E.. 293, 380, 391, 399, 480. Forbes and Hamsley. 20. Force P., 400. Foreign Concessrons, 16.

,, Relations with China, 471-

477. ,, Trade of China, 407-424 ;

645-656. ,, Ports open to Trade, 326, 463, 654. Foreign Debt of China, 324. Foreigners in China :

,, opposition to their entering

the country, 358. ,, hatred of by Chinese, 462,

463, 465. ,, refusal to treat them on

terms of equality, 463. ,, assieged in Peking, 469. ,, massacred, 465, 466, 469, 475, 476.

INOBX.

673

Foreign Population in China, 325, 346, 357, 359, 420, 422, 654, 657. „ at Hank*ow, 128. ,, in Hongkong, 285. „ at Shanghai, 267. „ at T8*ingtao, 258, 422. Forests, scanty in China Proper, 157, 198, 393. ,, abundant in Manchuria, 492, 493, 494; in Mongolia, 515; in Turkestan, 528; in Tibet, 544. Forke A., 375, 376. Formosa or T*aiwan, 217, 223, 224, 410, 413, 646, 649. „ Dutch in, 473. ,, occupied by Cozinga, 462. , , annexed by China, 462, 471 . „ blockaded by the French,

467. ,, ceded to Japan, 468, 471. Formosa Channel, 218, 240, 241, 243,

245, 249, 276. Forts, Taku, 252, 464, 469. Fortune H., 166, 236, 237, 293, 400. Foster Mr* A., 376. Foumier Convention, 467. Fowler, 237.

France, Relations with China, 473- 474. joins England against China,

464, 475. negotiates Treaties with Chi- na, 463, 467, 475. obtains important rights for Catholic Religion, 464, 475. expels T'aip*ing rebels from

Ch^kiang, 476. K'ungt'ung 1. ceded to, 256. in Annam and Tongking, 467. conflict with China, 467. leases Kwangchow-wan, 213,

290, 291, 408, 477. protests against occupation of Manchuria by Japan, 468. occupies Peking with Allies,

469, 477. Trade with China, 410, 418,

646. exports wine to China, 411 ;

imports silk, 415-416. Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654. Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

420, 653-654. Steamship Lines to and from China, 439-440. Franchet, 20.

Francis Xavier, St., 282, 354. Franciscan Friars visit China, 472. ,, labour in the China Mission, 354, 355, 356. FrangoiSj 214. Frandon, 422. Franke O., 88, 373. Freeman-Mitford A. B., 216, 294,

336, 521. French Missionaries to China, 355, 356, 357, 473-474, 475. ,, Consul massacred at Tien- tsin, 465. ,, Cemeteries desecrated by

Boxers, 469. ,, Concession (Shanghai), 266,

267. ,, Population at Shanghai, 267. ,, Railway enterprise in China,

431, 433. ,, Telegraphic connection with

China, 438. ,, Postal Establishments in China, 435, 437. Frey, G4n4ral 338, 481. Froc, Pere L., (Sicawei Observatory),

20, 293. Fruit-trees of China, 18, 36, 37, 53,

60, 83, 187, 198, 231, 394, 398. Fu or Prefecture (territorial divis- ion including chief- town), 306-307. I Fuchow Fu (Kiangsi), 140. I Fuhk'ai, 196.

I Fuhling or Imperial Mausolea (near I Mukden), 497.

Fuhning Fu, 218, 225. I Fuhsi, Founder of the Chinese Em- ' pire, 63, 443, 444. I Funghwang ch'^ng, 487, 504, 506. Funghwang-shan (one of the Hills near Sungkiang Fu), 159. I Fungning hsien, 78. I Fungshui (native Geomancy), 466. I Fungsiang Fu. 39, 44.

Fungt'ien or Mukden, 487, 488,497. I Fungyang Fu (Nganhwei), 63, 146, , 150-151.

' Funiu-shari Mt.j, 57, 59, 00. 92, 122. Furs, 44, 53, 54, 75, 78, 114, 150, 182, 199, 412, 495, 496, 501. 532, 545, 648. Fusan (Fushan), 461. Fu-yin or Governor of Peking, 74.

Gabelentz, G, (Von derj, 380, 381,

508. Gabet M. (Lazarist) visits Lhasa, 552. Gadoffre, 165. Gaide, 372.

43

674

INDBX.

Gaillard, Pert L., 1(55.

GaineU 378, 379, 390, 399, 422.

Galdan Monastery (Lhasa), 552.

Gall, Pert S. U. 379.

Gall-nuts, 187.

Gallois L,, 20.

Gambir, false, 200.

Gandar, Pere D., 165, 441.

Gap Rock or Maweichow, 283.

Garaix J.. 294.

Gardner C. T., 389.

Garrisons, Manchu, 329.

Gartok (Kotak'oh), 549, 554, 555.

Gauhil, Pere A., 479, 521.

Gauthier, 338.

Gauzes, Soochow, in little demand

by Foreigners, 404. Gaztelu, 375. Gee N. G., 392. Genaehr J., 389. Genghis-Khan (the Greatest Khan),

origin of, 515, 517. Gennevoise F., 378, 379. Geographical Terms, Signification

of, 640^44. Geology of China, Generalities : China In the different Geological Periods, 3: Geological Consti- tution of the soil, 10 ; Predom- inant rocks of the Chinese soil, 3 ; Present Geological action, 3 ; Geological Map of North China, 9 ; Geological Sketch-map of the Chinese Provinces bordering on Tongking, 169 ; Valleys of the Peh-ho and of the Hwang-ho, 22-23; Valleys of the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 91-92 ; Si- kiang valley, 168. Geology of each Province : „ Ch^kiang,228,231; Chihli,67, 70. „ Fokien, 219, 222; Honan, 67, 60. „ Hunan, 132, 135; Hupeh, 122, 125. ,, Kansu, 31,33; Kiangsi, 141, 143. ,, Kiangsu, 154, 157; Kwangsi, 196. ,, Kwangtung, 203, 206, 207. ,, Kweichow, 185, 187; Nganhwei,

147, 149. ,, Shansi, 50, 55: Shantung, 80

(with Geological Map), 83. ,, Shensi, 31, 40, 42. ,, .Szechw'an, 106-107, 111-112. ,, Yunnan. 177, 180. Geology of the Dependencies ; ,, Manchuria, 488, 493. ,, Mongolia, 510, 515; Sinkiang, 525; Tibet, 539. Geological Works on China, 6. Geomancy or Fungshui, 466.

German Missionaries killed in Shan- tung, 477. ,, Ambassador massacred in Pe- king, 469; China erects monument in expiation, 469. ,, Population at Shanghai, 267; at Hank*ow, 128 ; at Ts'ing- tao, 422. ,, Railway enterprise in China,

432, 434. , , Postal Establishments in China, 435. Germany, Relations with China, 474. ,, protests against occupation of

Manchuria by Japan, 468. „ Kiaochow leased to, 85, 87, 258-

260, 468, 477. ,, obtains mining and railway privileges in Shantung, 468. ,, occupies Peking with Allies,

469, 477, ,, Imperial Prince sent by China

to apologise to, 469. „ Trade with China, 410, 646. ,, exports dyes and colours, 411;

cotton goods, 413. ,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654. ,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

653-654. ,, Steamship Lines to and from China, 439, 440. Gervay Mission, 191. Gialbo or King (Tibet), 545. Giants, believed to exist in the first

Ages, 443. Giles H. A.. 0, 370, 374,376,381,

382, 406, 479. Gill W., 103, 118, 138, 192. Gilman F. G., 372. Gilmour J., 521. Ginger, 206, 221.

Ginseng, 114, 234,411,413,492,498. Giquel, 470.

Gobi Desert, of Mongolia, 509, 512- 513. of Turkestan, 529-530. Godard, 377.

Godown or ^Varehouse, 160. Gcedertz, 88.

Gold in China, 42, 54, 83, 112, 114, 125, 135, 149, 198, 222. ,, in Manchuria, 493, 501. ,, in Turkestan, 528. ,, in Tibet, 545, 553. Golden Horde or Kin Tartars, 71. Goldi or Fish-skin Tartars, 493. Goodrich G., 376. Gordon, General, 465, 476.

IffDBZ^

675

Government and Administration : ,, Central, 296-301. *,, Provincial, 301-316.

of Manchuria, 488, 504-505. ,, of Mongolia, 519-520. ,, of Chinese Turkestan, 533- 534. of Tibet, 545-547. Governors of Provinces, 301, 302, 303, 305 ; duties of, 303. ,, responsible to Central Gov- ernment, 303. Gough, Sir Hugh, takes Shanghai, 266. Gough Island, 264, f>60. Grain cultivated in China, 18, 36, 42, 60.70,71,83,111,124,134,142,149, 157, 180, 187, 1118, 206, 221, 231,394. Grain Intendant, 303, 306. Grain Tax and Revenue, 321, 322. Grain Transport Administration, 303,

330. Grammars for Chinese Language,375. ,, for Manchu, 508. ,, for Mongol, 522. for Tibetan, 557. Grand Council, 74, 297.

,, Court of Revision, 300. ,, Secretariat, 74, 297. Grand Canal {see Canal). Grandidier, 404. Grandprey (de), 338. Grapes, 52, 77,83,493, 544. Graphite (found in Mongolia), 515. Grasscloth plant, 111, 206. 395, 412,

648. Graves H. H., 372. Gravikre J. (de la), 292. Great Britain in China (see English). Great Khingan or Hsingngan), 513. Great Wall, 28-29, 33, 39, 69.

,, construction and length of, 29,

450. ,. erected against Huns and

Funguses, 29, 451. ,, repaired under the Mings, 450,

460. ., of little value to-day, 29. ,, Passes through it, 29, 55. „ Region within and without, 29. Grten G. H., 399. Grten J., 237. Green Standard Army, 330. Grenard, 46, 63, 555. Grealon A., 479. Grillikres, 191. Groot (de), J. M.J., 378, 379. Groaier, 6. 64, 88, 118, 138, 165, 191, 193. 213. 214, 236, 237, 371, 391, d99, 405, 422, 507. 521.

Groajean, 404.

Grotto of the White Deer, 145.

Groundnut, 158, 160, 198, 200, 206,

210, 233, 394, 395, 412, 648. Grueber Fr. (Jesuit), visits Lhasa, 552. Guam, Telegraphic line to, 439. Guava, 198. Gueluyy 535.

(ruia Lighthouse (Macao), 249, 283. Guiakio or Yalung River, 544. Guignes (de), 374, 482, 520; Guinness M., 388. Guiot L., 386. Gulfs {see Bays). Gum, 44, 187, 397. Gumpach J. (Von), 484. Gunboats, Chinese, 334. Gtindry G., 293. Gundry R, S., 30, 166, 214, 237, 293,

337, '338, 379, 382, 387, 391, 405,

423, 441, 483. Guppy H. n., 103. Gurkhas invade Tibet, 462. ,, conquer Nepal, 554. ,, enter Tibet with British Expedition, 555. Gutzlaff G., 88, 89, 118, 137, 138, 165,

166, 192-193, 213-216, 236, 237.

293, 374, 377, 379, 388, 399, 405,

423, 479, 480, 507, 521, 536. Gutzlaff 1. or TachMh, 263, 273. ,, Tides at, 263. ,. Telegraph station at. 438. Gyantse (Tibet). 550, 554. Gymnastics in modern Chinese

schools. 368. Gypsum, 86, 231.

Hachun-Gobi Desert, 530. Hackmann H., 382. Hager J., 374. Hai Chow, 154, 261. Haikwan or Customs Tael. 318, 408, 410. ,, weight of. 318. ., par value of, 318. .. fluctuation through fall in

silver, 318. ,, Gold equivalent of (1870-1906), 319. Hailar or Khailar. 495. HailQ-tao or Alceste 1., 255. Hailun T*ing. 488. Hailung Fu, 487.

Haim^n (in Kiangsu, near mouth of Yangtze R.), 97, 154, 157, 261, 262, 263, 271. ,. its inhabitants, 157, 158, 271. ,. language spoken, 158.

676

INMX.

„ communications by steam- boat with Shanghai, 271. Hainan I., 203, 282.

Capital of, 202, 212, 282. ,, Area and population, 282. ,, Geological formation, 203.

Fauna and Flora, 206. „ Aboriginal tribes of, 207,282, 343, 344-345. dialect spoken, 207, 348. „ exports, 211, 291. „ Lighthouses of, 283-284. Haiphong, 290-291. Haitian Bay (Fokien), 276. Haitian !.. 278. Haitian Pass, 276. Hakkas or K'ohkias (aliens, sqnat- ters\ 198, 199, 207, 343. ,, original home of, 207, 344. ,, actual race, 199; character of,

343, 344. „ principal habitat of, 199, 343. ,, furnish many emigrants, 207. „ part transported to Kwangsi

and Hainan 1.. 344. „ dialect of, 207, 343. „ books for learning, 377. Halde (du), 88, 118. 137, 165, 192, 193, 213, 214, 236, 271, 378, 381, 385, 441, 479, 507, 521. Hall W. /f.. 480. Halloran A, L„ 293. Hami or Hahmih T*ing, 363. 460,

524, 526, 529. 534. Hamilton A. B., 236. Hampden du Bone h. C, 166, 378. Han Dynasty, 446, 451-453.

its Founder, Liupang. 451. Former or Western, 451. Emperors of, 451. waged war against Huns, 45i. ,, Later or Kastem. i52. ,, introduced Buddhism. 452. held intercourse with Roman Empire, 452. ,, last Emperors of. 452. ,, general character of, 452. Han Dynasty. Posterior, 457. Han J^n or **Men of Han** .'name

taken bv the Chinese , 7. 452. Han River, 120, 122, 123. 124.

„ Valley, 124, 125. HanchnngFu Shensi. 39, 44, 123. Han-hai or rainless sea Gobi Desert',

509-510. Hankow. 93, 97, 122, 125-127, 130, 326, 421, 655. Sketch-map of, 126. ,, distance from sea-ooast, 98.

from Shanghai, 100-101. ,, flow of Yangtze at, 99. ,, Population of, 125; Foreign trading Houses at, 128. Shipping and Trade. 127-128, 421, 655. ., exports brick>tea to Russia, 417, 652; Railway to Peking, 102, 431. Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 299-

300, 459. Hansa, 508. iianyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124, 125.

126, 127-128, 458. Hangchow Fn, 159, 227, 229, 230, 232, 235, 458. ,, terminus of Grand Canal, 230,

235. , , Bay of, 272, 273; Bore or eagre,

230, 272. ,, Capital of the Empire under the Southern Sungs, 235, 458. famous for its beautiful site,

159, 232. devastated by the T'aip'ings, 282. „ Trade of, 232, 421, 655.

Steamship communication with Shanghai, 271. Hao or Ch'angngan hsien, 447, 449. Happer A.P.. 370,385. Harbin, 96, 503, 505. HarUz C. (de\ 372, 377, 379. Hart. Sir Robert, 320. ,321. 325. 337,

42,3.435,481, 500. Hart V.C, 118.380. Hart E.. 401. Hassenstein. 88. Havrtt Pert H., 46, 165, 383. Hawks-Pott F. L.. 377. 479. 481. Uayashi, Baron, 500. Hay ward G. W., 536. Heaven together with the Earth, object of Imperial wor- ship, 353. 378-379. Dowager Empress Wu Heu offers the .\nnual sacri- fices to, 456. alone great. 444 : Yao imit- ated it, 444. sends calamities and misfor- tunes. 295. punishes unworthv Rulers.

448. withdraws mandate from

Princes. 295. Emperor is its Vicegerent ;T'ientze\ 295.

INDIX.

677

,, Temple of, in Peking, 73,74. Hedde J., 399. Hedley J., 88, 336, 522. Heh-ho or Hei-ho (R.), 35. Hehlung-kiang or Amur R., 475, 489-

490. Hehlungkiang cbdng or Aigun, 494. Hehshui T'ing, 488. Heir to the Throne : ,, under the Hsia dynasty, 448. ,, actually chosen by the reigning Emperor, 296. Hemp, 42, 83, 111, 158, 187, 207, 223,

231, 412, 492, 648. Hemsleyf 557.

H^ngchow Fu, 131, 132, 135-136. H^ng-shan (Hunan), 13, 132. Henrion, 384. Henry A., 20, 372. Hertslet, Sir E., 485. Heude. Pert P., 20, 166. Heu Chow or Posterior Chow, 457. Heuchu, last Emperor of the Minor

Han, 453, 455. Heu Han or Posterior Han, 457. Heuki I. and Lighthouse (Miaotao

Islands), 254. Heu Liang or Posterior Liang, 457. Heu T'ang or Posterior T'ang, 457. Heu Ts'in or Posterior Ts*in, 457. Hexapolis or six Towns (Chinese

Turkestan), 531. Hides, Export of, 412, 648. High Commissioners (Tibet), 545. High Justices, Three, 301. High Ministers of State or Hwei-i

Tach'^n, 297. Highways of Communication :

Ch^kiang, 235 ; Chihii, 78. ,, Fokien, 225-226 ; Honan, 62-63. Hunan, 137; Hupeh, 129-

130. Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 145. Kiangsu, 163-164. ,, Kwangsi, 200; Kwang- tung, 211-212. Kweichow, 190. ,, Nganhwei, 151-152; Shan- si, 54-55. ,, Shantung, 86; Shensi, 45. Szechw*an, 117-118. Yannan, 182-183. ,, Manchuria, 501.

Mongolia, 518-519. ,, Sinkiang or Chinese Tur- kestan, 534-535. Tibet, 553-554. HiUiard Atteridge A., 387.

Hills, The (near Sungkiang Fu), 159.

,, the hundred thousand, 196. Himalaya Mts., 539, 541, 544. Hindoo race, 112, 533. Hindustan, 523, 538, 554. Hinnam G. W., 508. Hippisley, 405. Hirth f\ 405, 472. Historians in the Sung Dynasty,

458. Historical Works or Shi, 350. History of the Chinese Empire, 443- 471. ,, of the Three States or San Kwoh, 453. Hoang P., 335, 336, 338, 371. Hobson H. E., 483. Hodgson M., 406, 557. Hoh Chow, 50, 110. Hohfei hsien, 150. Hoh-kiang R. or Ch*ih-shui,96, 110;

186. Hoh-shan (Mt.), 50, 147, 149. Hoihow or Haik'ow (Hainan L) : „ Harbour of, 283. „ Trade of, 211, 212, 291. ,, Communications with Hong- kong, Pakhoi, Swatow, 291. ,, its time-zone, 292 ; great typ- honic centre, 291. Hokien Fu, 66, 78. Hoklos or Foklos (people from Fo- kien), 207, 344. Hok'ow, 183, 477. Holan-shan or Alashan Mts., 11,25,

35, 514. Holcomb, 371. Holdich and Rockhill, 556. Holland, Relations with China, 473. ,, sends embassies to Peking, 462, 473. Trade with China, 410, 646. ,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654. ,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418, 653-654 {see Dutch, Dutch Indies). Holland, Capt., 476. Home Trade of China, .328, 407-408. ,, most important, but impos- sible to estimate, 407. ,, largely a retail trade, 407. ,, wholesale trade monopolised

by Guilds, 408. ,, duties levied on at Open Ports, 328. Honan Province, 8, 46, 48, 51, 52, 56- 64. ,, Area and Population, 8, 56.

678

TNDBX.

Aspect and Characteristics, I

56-57. !

Climate, 59; Geology, 57. '

Orography , with Sketch-map: \

Section of Mts. in \V. Ho- :

nan^, 57. 58. Hydrography, 51M)0. Fauna and Klora, (\0. Agricultnml and Mineral

Wealth, IW. ., People and Ijingnage, tiO.

Cities and Principal Centres,

Industry and Commerce, 62. High wavs of Communication,

62-H3.' Railway Lines, i,12. Historical notcrs on. 63, 44 V, 447. 448, 449- 451. i53. 454, 455,458, 48*\ Honan Fu. 56, SI. HoQgkew or Hunsk'ow Shanghai ,

160. 266. Hongkong or Hsian^kian?. 181.203, 211,213,281.284.186, with Sketch-m'ip', 42T. oeded to Great Britain. 285,

463, 474. Arex^ and popaUtion. 2^. Kowioon added. 4^4. 475. Trade of, 2^-286. 4«S, 411. 414. 417, 422. 64S, 649. 652. Indmstnes. 286: GoTemmeiit,

2S«. eTpH.-k<ed to trphonic disasters. 285 Hoackoa^ Bay. 2Sl. ♦/f '»tjt.>-<jp C'tr>^ici< aad Dirrct&ry, '

214, iH- Hv^pe ».rA-.t. Vdrsin^L. 475. 476. //.>cA;t5 /-- C - 3'*5. H.>r - HcrpvA tnS^ T^He: . >47.

H->n. V Ape, rtb*

H.^-T^ C- S ^>8.

H.^i^ A Sc- tlS^ 19rr 193,337.372.

423. 442. >>< Hv^t'AO r^ t.Vrio* Pijt**ivi. 513. Hv>ti. Fnr^r-, r Ljkier Haa . 452. Uoti. F:30«erjr r>*t . 454.

Hocse Isi^xi :*" Hw:iB«skau S52.

2!a. Hfx-^t^ H H . 521. Hssa Dm-^stT R C, 22^:^ . 443. 44S. 446, seat X F>-«p:r^ it Hsi*! CWw,

55. *t YA:ii'*sc*. 4-*"*. ssca Wr o* SoTvfifi^fms^ 444. 44S.

Hsia or Tangut Kingdom (Kansn^ rise of, 458. China pays tribute to it, 458. Hsia-ho, 156. Hsia-kwan, 158. Hsiai Chow. 50, 51, 55. Hsiamen or .\moy (see Amoy). Hsienfung. Fmperor ;Tats'ing), 464. events of his reign, 464. Hsienti, last Emperor of the Later

Han, 452. Hsientsung or Ch'^nghwa, Emperor

(Ming . 29. 460. Hsienyang :Shensi\ 43, 450. Hsin Chow Shansi^^. 50. Hsinghwa Bay Pokien\ 276. Hsinghwa Fu, 218. Hsing-i Fu, 172.

Hsingking Manchuria-, fomilj re- sidence of the Manchas, 487, 497. Hsini^ngan Mts.. 309, 489, 533. Hsingngan Fu Shensi , 123. Hsiogp'ing hsien Shensi-, 41. Hsiungnu .«ee Huns . Hsu Chow Honan , 56. 63. Hsuchow Fu Kiangsu-. ^tee Suchow

Fu. Hsuchow Fu Szechw*an . jce Sft-

chow Fu ^r Suifu. Hsuen Chwang. Bnddkist 34oBk:

visits India, returning bT CaBtcNt,

472, 335. Hsdjung-ho see Sayung-te'. Hs&Tung "Ping aee'saroMg T*mgL Hmbrr E., 4«2. Hue M. Laiarrst . ». 384. 399, 555.

visits Liiasa. 552. Huchow Fu. 227. Hxtds<^n B . 237.

Hui-ho R . 14^

Huili Chow. •»

Huk-ow Ciaii j:!i2-ct> P' 3»r^!ig

Like with Yaaftj* R .142- Huk'ow hs>ea P^in jf Ca.*, Kiia^

SI . 145. Hikw^n^ Hoa^n i»i H«9e^ . 1M,

X^. »^. v^l- HuUa Miac^ari^ . 485$. 4S5. H^ikva .»- KjlIos L-ike. 4S^t ii%ym^*M^ if . 3r3- Holts. A soaijki CeflLtriL^~As:Ax trib* : sacestars <rf tie «>c%c«f&.

Mcotir:^ A»d rxrks^ 451. ie^i*t kic-ti. 451 ; wcrs*»i< W

W^iti. 451 «-«K la cWc^L fy Mtiictt. V\? T^ec^^-^eii t%> t^ C^sa^kr^ Vr Hoc:. 45L

INDEX.

679

,, claim Throne under Hweiti

(Tsin), 453. ,, take Lohyang (A. D. 310), and occupy N. China under Hwaiti, 454. ,, establish the Wei Kingdom

(Honan;, 454, 455. ,, defeat ^Vuti (Liang) 455, and

Taitsung ('r*ang), 45G. », cause struggle between N. and S., 456. Hunan Province, 8, 120, 121, 131-138. ,, Area and Population, 131. ,, Aspect and Characteristics, 132 ; Climate, 132. Geology, 132: Orography, 132. ,, Hydrography, 132-133. ,, Fauna and Flora, 134. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 134-135. ,, People and Language, 135. ,, Cities and Principal Centres,

135-136. ,, Industry and Commerce, 136. ,, Highways of Communication, 137. Open Ports, 137. Hunch* un, 506.

Hundred Families or Pehsing, 339. Hungchi, Emperor (Ming), 460. Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281. Hung Hsdts'Oen (T'aip*ing Chief),

464. Hung-kiang (R.), 110, Hunglan or Waglan Island, 283. Hung-shan (Mt.), 67. Hungshui or Red River, 170, 172,

186, 196. Hungtington E., 536. Hungtseh Lake, 59, 91, 148, 156. Hung Wu, Founder of the Ming

Dynasty, 150-151, 184, 201, 460. Hupeh Province, 8, 120, 121-130. Area and Population, 121. Aspect and Characteristics,

121-122: Climate, 123. Geology, 122; Orography, 123. Hydrography, 123. Fauna and Flora, 124. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 124-125. People and Language, 125. Cities and Principal Centres,

125-129. Industry and Commerce, 129. Highways of Communication,

129. Railway Lines, 431. Open Ports, 130.

Hurka or Peony River, 490. Hurley R. C, 442. HushanorTigerL (near Ningpo), 273. Hut'eu or Tiger Head Bay (Fokien),

277. Hut'o-ho (R.), 70. Hut'ukht'u or Avatar, 516. Hwa hsien (Kwangtung\ 206-207. Hwa-kiang (R.), 186. Hwap'ingchw'an T'ing, 32. Hwa-shan one of the Five Sacred

mountains , 26, 44, 51, 57. Hwaying-miao famous for its straw

shoes , 44. Hwai-ho, 23, 57, 59, 146, 148, 156. Hwaiking Fu, 51, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63. Hwailung-shan (Mt.), 57, 122. Hwaingan Fu (salt manufacturing

centre), 153, 154, 163. Hwaiti, Emperor (Tsin), 453. Hwaiyang-shan (Mt.), 57, 92, 122,

123, 147. Hwaiyuen hsien, 151. Hwang ch'eng or Imperial City (Pe- king), 71, 72. Hwangchow Fu, 121,125, 128, 130. Hwangchow T'ing, 132. Hwang-hai or Yellow Sea, 240, 241. Hwang-ho or Yellow River, 23, 24, 28, 41, 55, 60,69,82,84. 154,163, 251,452. ,, sources of (with Sketch- map}, 24. length of, 24 ; flow of, 29. ,, various names given to, 28. ,, embankments of, 27, 28, 61, 82. Inundations of, 28, 37, 61,

82. Upper Course of, 24-25. Middle Course of, 25-26. ,, Lower Course of, 26-27. ,, variations in its Course,

27-28, 154. ,, high level of its bed in

i Shantung, 82.

navigable, 38, 41 . 55, 60, 82. ; Hwangp'oo or Shanghai River, 98, 155, 160, 261, 266, 268, 269, 271. I ,. inundations of. 155.

., volume diminishing. 16'!.

' ,, Bar at its mouth, 264, 270.

,, Conservancy Work of,(>60. ' Hwangsha or House Island. 262, 26.'^. ' Hwang-shan Mt.), 147. Hwangti, Founder of thi* Km pi re, 339, 444. , Hwangyang-shan (Mt.), 67.

680

INDBX.

Hweichow Ku (Kwangtung), 202,470. |

Hweichow Fu (Nffanhwei), 146, 150. i

Hweiti, Kmperor (Former Han), 451. \

Hweiti, Emperor (Tain), 453. !

Hweitsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458. j

,, fled before the Kin Tar- '

tars, 458. ;

Hwohluh hsien, 75. |

Hwotien Fu or Khoten, 524, 530. *

Hydrography of China Proper, 15, I

16. !

,, Valleys of the Feh-ho and i

oftheHwang-ho, 23-28. |

,, Valleys of the Yangtze and

of the Hwai-ho, 93-100. ,

Valley of the Si-kiang, 170- !

173. ;

Hydrography of each Province : I

Chdkiang, 229-231 ; Chihli, 1

69-70; Fokien, 220-221. j Honan, 59-60; Hunan, 132-

134; Hupeh, 123-124. ' Kansu, 35-36; Kiangsi, 141- |

142. Kiangsu, 155-156. Kwangsi, 196-198; Kwang-

tung, 204-206; Kwei-

chow, 186-187. ,. xNgunhwei, 148-149; Shan- si, 51 ; Shantung, 82. Shensi, 41-42; Szechw'an,

109-111. Yunnan, I78-Ti80. Hydrography of the Dependencies : of Manchuria, 489-41M. of Mongolia, 511-512. ., of Chinese Turkestan, 527-

528. of Tibet, 542-54/«.

I (Barbarian) formerly applied to Foreigners, now officially forbid- den, 343.

1 Chow (Chihli), 67.

I-ho (R.), 82.

I Tsing, Buddhist Monk visits Su- matra, 472.

Ice on the coast of Chihli, 251. ,, of Shantung, 255.

Ich'ang Fa (Hupeh), 95, 96, 99, 117, 121, 128, 130.

Ich'ang hsien, 137, 212.

Ichih(Shang;, 448.

Ichow Fu Shantung;, 79, S3.

Idolatry, 516.

Igneous rocks, 2.

Ikias 1. Aborigines of the S. and S.AV.; a pre-chinese race), 188, 198, 199, 207, 339, 343.

,, inhabit Kweichow,188;Kwaiig> si, 198-199 ; Kwangtung, 207. Hi, 362, 462, 465, 524, 532-533. ,, occupied, by Russia (1871), 476. „ restored (1881), 467, 476, 533. Hi Fu (see Kuldja) „ River, 528, 532. „ Valley, 525, 526. litis, German gunboat, loss of, 255. Imbauit-Huart, 535, 536. Imperial City or Hwang ch*dng (Pe- king), 71, 72, (with plan). ,, Clan Court and Household,

301. ,, Tombs at Mukden, 497. ,, Academy or Hanlin, 299. „ Army, 328-329. ., Board of Astronomy, 901. ,, Canal {see Canal). ., Maritime Customs, 325-328. Post Office, 435-437; 661-662. ,, Telegraph Company, 438. ,, Agent or Amban (Urga\ 517. „ Resident (Tibet), 545-546. ,, Japanese Resident(Mukden}, 488. Imports into China, Value of, 409-

411, 646-650. Incense sticks. 44.

Indemnities, to Great Britain, 463, 464, 466, 474. to France, 465, 467. ,, to Russia, 477.

to Japan, 324, 468, 476. Boxer, 324, 325, 46§, 477. India, British, 523, 535, 538, 548, 549. 558, 554. ,, trade with China, 409, 414, 439, 645, 646, 649. ,, with Tibet, 553. Indian ink, 91, 150, 151, 403. ,, opium, 411, 414, 650. ,, tea, 395. ., yarn, 414, 649. ,, Population at Shanghai, 267. Indies, Dutch, trade of, 410, 646. Indigo, 114, ll«), 187, 190, 200, 207.

211, 234, 'j92. Indo-China, French, 291, 467, 477. trade with China, 410, 646. ., exports principally rice, 411. Indus, River, 541, 544. Industrial Schools, 369. Industry of China, 91, 163, 403-404, 408. ., of each Province :

Chekiang, 235 ; Chihli, 78. Fokien, 225; Honan, 62. Hunan, 136; Hupeh, 129.

INDBX,

681

Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 144. Kiangsu, 168: Kwangsi,200. ,, Kwangtung,211; Kweichow,

190. ,, Nganhwoi, 151 ; Shansi, 54.

Shantung, 86; Shensi, 44. ,, Szechw'an,116; Y0nnan,182. Industry of the Dependencies : ,, of Manchuria, 501. ,, of Mongolia, 518. ,", of Turkestan, 534. ,, of Tibet, 553. Inglis R., 423.

Inner Cabinet or Neikoh, 297. Inner Mongolia, Extent of, 519.

,, Administration of, 519.

Innocent IV (Pope), 472. Insignia of Civil and Military Bank,

314, 444. Inspector-General of Customs, 246,

325. Instruction in Chinese Schools, 364-

367. Intendancies or Circuits, 306, 312, 559, 561, 562, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 577, 578, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584- 585. Intendant or Taot*ai, 303, 307. Intercalary month inserted by the

Emperor Yao, 445. Intercourse of Western Powers with

China, 473-475. Inneen E., 237, 556. Irawaddy River, 179, 544. frisson M., 399, 405. Irkutsk, 509. Iron-ore in China, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62,

78, 125, 151, 157, 211, 402, 493. Irrigation of the Ch'^ngtu Plain, 113.. Islands, 242,^46, 251, 253-254, 255, 261-262, 263, 264, 272, 273, 275, 277-278, 281-283, 289, 290. Italy, Relations with China, 477. ,, Trade with China, 41 0,41 6,646. ,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 646. ,, Population at Shanghai, 267. Itsung, Emperor ^T*ang), 456. lyin. Prime Minister (Shang dyna- sty), 448.

Jacquet, 213.

Jade or YQh, 408, 528, 529, 530, 532. Jade-stone Gate or YOhmdn, 529. James H. F., 381, 507. Jametel. 88.

Jamieson G.. 335, 336, 338, 399, 424, 442.

Jamieson J. W ., 335, 336, 337, 405. Janglalse (Western Tibet), 551. Jaochow Fu, 140, 144. Japan, 223, 240, 269, 270, 461,651. ,, Emperor Shitsu (YQen) fails in

expedition against, 459. ,, invades Korea and settles at

Fusan (Fushan), 461. ,, receives Buddhism from China,

352. ,, wars with China, 467, 468,

476, 477. ,, Formosa ceded to, 468. ,, war with Russia, 470. ,, Port Arthur and Dalny(Tairen)

transferred to, 470, 492. ,, leases territory in S. Manchu-

na, 470, 500. ,, Customs Agreement (Dalny)

with China, 500-501.

,, Trade with China, 223, 410,

411, 413, 414, 646, 649, 651.

,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 128,346,420,654.

,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

653, 654. ,, Steamship Lines to and from

China, 439-440. ,, Railway enterprise in China,

431, 432, 434, 503-504. ,, Telegraph Lines to China, 224,

438. ,, Treaties with China, 470, 477. ,, Chinese students in, 369. ,, Catholics iii, 358. Japanese incursions on the coast of China, 460. pirates attack Shanghai, 266,

466. Settlements in China, 75,127,

159, 223, 224. Population at Shanghai, 267;

at Hank'ow, 128. Post Offices in China, 435. Chancellor of Legation mur- dered at Peking, 469. troops occupy Peking, 469,

477. Imperial Resident at Muk- den, 488. at Newchwang, 498, 500. Jarkent (Chinese Turkestan), 533. Jarme R.. 400.

Jehol or Ch'^ngteh Fu, 66, 69, 70, 77-78. ,, Lord Macartney at, 462. ,, Kiaking dies at, 463. ,, Hsienfung Hees to, 464. Jdnhwai T'ing, 185, 186.

44

682

INDEX.

Jenkt J. W.. 320.

Jennings W.. 375.

J^ntsang, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.

J^ntsung. Emperor Yflen), 459.

„ restored the Hanlin Acad- j

emy, 459. i

ignored the rites, 459. i

Jeremiassen C. C. 373. Jemigan T. R., 166, 336, 337, 370,

387. 391, 405, 423, 442, 483, 484. Jesuits first enter China (under Wanlih), 354, 355, 461. , . secure by their science esteem

of the learned class, 355. ,. reform the Imperial Calendar,

355. ., their relations with K*ang-

hsi, 355, 462. ,. their influence feared by

KMenlung, 463. ,, labour in the China Mission,

356. ,, have Observatory at Sicawei (near Shanghai,, 355. Jenus de Montalto. 216, 385, 483. Jews (Judaism) in China, 60, 363,

383, 472. Jinricksha, 102, 162, 427. John of Marignoli, 472.

,, Montecorvino, 354, 472.

Piano Carpini, 354, 472. Johnson W. H., 536. Jones A. G.. 371. Joss-paper, 233, 275. Ju Chow, 56, 60, 61, 63. Judge, Provincial or Xieht'ai, 306. Jujube, 37, 83, 398, 544. JuHen S.. 381, 400, 405, 481. Junk, origin of the word, 226. Junk-trade. Chinese, 116, 144. 18<>,

289, 323. 418, 653. Juning Fu (Honan), 5t>, 59. Justice, speedy form of village. 310- 311. paternal, 310-311. Jutze Ying, Emperor ^Former Han), 452.

Kachyns or Burmese "wild men",

112. K'aifung Fu (Honan), 26, 56, 60-61, 63, 426, 444, 457, 458, 460. Jews at, 363. Kaihwa Fu {YOnnan , 175, 183. K'aip'ing coal-mines, 70, 402, 430. Kalgan or Cbangkia-k*ow. 67, 77,

78, 518, 519. Kalgan Pass, 29, 78. Kalkhas (Mongol tribe . 515, 518,520.

Kalmucks (Mongol tribe), 462. 515,

520. Kalons or Shapeh (Tibetan Council- lors of State), 546. Kambalu ;Khanbalig) or Peking, 71,

354. 459. Kan-kiang or Kan R.. 97, 140, 141-

142, 145. Kanchow Fu (Ransu), 32, 37, 38. Kanchow Fu Riangsi). 140. 142. Kanchuh (Kwangtung), 212. K*ang or Stove-bed, 23, 91. K*ang or Chamdo (Eastern Tibet),

545. K*anghsi, Emperor ^Tats^ing;,' 120, 164. 355. 462. ,, events of his reign. 462. ,, relations with the Jesuits,

355, 462. ,. Dictionary of, 349, 350, 462. Kannengeiser A., 386. Kansu Province. 8, 11, 22, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31-38, 104, 105, 465, 523, 525, 529, 434, 553. ,, Area and Population, 32. ,, Aspect and Characteristics, 33. ,, Climate, 35; Geology, 33. „ Orography, 33-34. „ Hydrography, 35-36. ,. Fauna and Flora, 36. ,, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 36. People and language, 36. Cities and Principal Centres, 37-38, ,. Industrv* and Commerce, 38. ,, Highways of Communication, 38. Kaoliang or Sorghum, 83, 142, 149,

492. Kaolin ;Kaoling , 70, 143. Kaoti. Emperor (Former Han), 451. ,, first sacrificed to Con^cius,

451. ,, defeated by the Huns, 451. Kaoti, Emperor (Ts*i), 454. Kaotsu, Emperor (T*ang), 456. Kaotsung, Emperor {T*ang), 456. Kaotsung, Emperor (S. Sung), 458. his character, 458. summoned the Mongols against the Kin Tar- tars, 458. Kaoyiu I^ke (Kiangsu), 156. Karakoram Mts., 525, 526, 527, 541.

Pass to Ladak), 526. Kara-koshum Lake, 527. Kara-muren R. vHwang-ho), 28. Amur R.), 489.

INDEX.

683

Kara-Nor Lake), 530. Karashar or Y^nk'i Fu, 524, 531 , 534. Karaussu-Nor (Lake . 511. Kargalyk (Chinese Turkestan), 531. Kashgar or Shufu hsien, 362. 363,

523, 524, 530-531, 533, 534. Kashgar Daria, 528. Kashgaria or Chinese Turkestan, 523-537. ., Mahomednn revolt in,

362-363, 465. Kauffman K. E., 236. Kaulen, 508. Keane A. //,, 521. Kelung( Formosa) bombarded by the

French, 467. Kemchik River, 511. Rental Mts., 511, 513. Kerosene oil, found in Szechw'an, 403. ,, imported into China,

411, 413, 647. Kerulen River, 490, 513. Kerval 64. Kesson^ 387. Ketels M ., 422.

Keupangtze Junction { Shanhai- kwan-Newchwang Line , 431, 503. Khailar or Hailar, 495, 503. Khamar-Doban Mts., 511. Khamba-Jong (Tibet), 651, 554. Khamil (see Hami). Khanka or Hsinghai R., 490.

Lake. 491. Khan-Tengri Peak, 525. Khchara or Charing Nor (Lake), 25. Khingnan (see Hsingngan). Khnora or Oring Nor (Lake \ 25. Khoits (Kalmuck tribe), 520. Khoja Dynasty (Kashgar), 362. Khoshoits (Kalmucks), 520. Khoten or Hwotien, 37, 363, 524, 530. Khoten Daria, 527, 528. Ki or Epochs (divisions of early

Chinese history), 444. Kihngan Fu, 140, 142. K'i hsien iShansi), 54. Kiahsing Fu, 227, 233. Kiak'ing. Emperor (Tats*ing), 463. refuses to receive Russian

Ambassador, 463. reception of I .ord Am herst, 463; K'owt'ow refused, 463. prohibits propagation of Catholic religion, 463. ,, character of, 463.

Kiakhta or Maimai ch'dng, 517, 518, 519.

Kialing-kiang iR.), 35, 96, 105, 109-

110. Kialu-ho (R., 59. Kiating Fu. 106, 109, 112, 114. Kiatsing, Emperor (Ming), 460.

,, character of. 460. Kiatze or Cyclic characters, 4Vi. Kiaving Chow, 203. Kiayu Pass (Great Wall!. 29. Kiai Chow, 32. Kiang Chow, 50, 54. Kiangm^n {see Koiigmoon). Kiangnan, 140, 305, 461.

,, Viceroyalty of, 305.

Kiangning Fu or Nanking, 153, 158.

,, origin of name, 461.

Kiangpeh or N. Kiangsu, 23, 56, 60,

101, 162. Kiangsi Province, 8, 16, 93, 121, 131, 135,139-145,146,175,218. 226, 227, 234, 235. ,, Area and Population, 140. ,, Aspect and Characteristics,

141; Climate, 141. ,, Geology, 141 ; Orography, 141. Hydrography, 141-142. ,. Fauna and Flora, 142.

Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 142-143. People and Language, 143. Cities and Principal Centres, 143-144. ,, Industry and Commerce, 144. Highways of Communic- ation, 145. Open Ports, 145. Kiangsu Province, 8, 9, 13, 16, 79, 86, 91, 93, 99, 139. 140, 146, 153-166, 227. ,, Area and Population, 153. ,, Aspect and Characteristics,

154 ; Climate, 155. ,, Geology, 154; Orographv. 154-

155. ,, Hydrography, 155-156. ,, Fauna and Flora, 156. ,. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 157. ,, People and Language, 157-

158. ,. Cities and Principal Centres,

158-163. ,, Industry and Commerce, 163. ,, Highways of Communication,

163-164. ,, Open Ports, 164. ,, Coast-line of, 261-271. ,, Great Plain of, 13, 147, 154.

68 i

INDSX.

Kiaochow, 80, 85, 87, 258-MO, 422,

468, 477 {see Ts'ingtao^. Kiaochow Bay, 80, 85, 254, 255, 256,

258-259 with-sketch^map ), 421,

477. Kieh or Kiehkwei, last Kmperor of the Hsia Dynasty, 448. ,, character of, 449. Kiench'ang \*«llfy, inhabited by

Mantze or Lolos, 112. K.iench*ang Ku (Kiangsi), 140. K*ien Chow (ShensiK MK Kien Chow iSzt»chw*an'<. 101>. Kienchow T'ing (Hunan;, 1.'42. Kienk i R., 220, 221. K'ienliing, Kmprror v'lHt.s'ing) : ,. reduces the Miaotze tribt»», 4^2. wtirs with Burma; with the (iurkhas, 4(>2. ,, subdues Kashgaria, 535. ., n»ceives Lord Macartnev,

402. ,, his policv towards Catholics,

403. ,, his literary works, 350, 507. ,, abdicates through filinl

piety, 402. ., his policy and cha meter, 402-403. Kieiining Ku, 21ft. 220, 225. K'icnts'ing Kuiig or I'alace Hall : Ministers of Foreign l*owerstob«* received there. 409. Kieiiwen, Kmperor (Ming , 4<iO.

dethroned by his uncle,

400. enters Buddhist monas- tery, 4r)(). Kilborn, 390.

Kin Tartars or fiolden Horde. 71.458. ,, defeat the K'itaiis, 458. ,, occupy Chihli and .Shansi under

Hweitsung ^N. Sung , 458. ,, defeat the N. Sungs, 458. ,, were subdued in turn by the ,. Mongols, 71, 458. K'in Chow Kwanglung , 203, 206,

212. Kinchow Biiy Liaolung , 491. Kinchow Ku (Shengkingy, 487,501. Kinhwa Ku. 227, 229, 234. Kinm(^n I. {see Quemoy;. Kinniu-tao or Road of the (jolden

(ix, 45, 117. Kinsha-kiang or Golden-sand R.

(Yangtze;, 15, 93, 178, 541. King Chow (Kansu), 32. Kingchow Ku (Hupeh), 121. 122, 128.

King-fu or Governor of Peking. 74. King-ho (R.), 38, 42, 44. Kingman Chow Hupeh^ 121. Kingamill T. W.. 17.3,214.372.405,

442, 479, 482. Kingti. Kmperor ^Korroer Han , 451.

vl^iang), 455. Kingt^ai, Kmperor (Ming), 460. Kingteh chen Kiangsi . famous for

its porcelain, 144. Kingtung T'ing :YQnnan . 177. Kingtze-kwan, 59. K*ingyang Ku, 32, 37. K'ingyuen Ku. 195. Kioh (Shanghai vernacular koh or ten-cent piece .Mexican currency), 320. A'ion^ Pere S.. 371. Kircher A.. 385. Kirghis tribes, origin of, 516.

,. habitat and character of, 510. Kirin Province ^Central Manchuria),

487, 495-496, 504, 505. Kirin Ku. '187, 495, 504, 500. K^itans or Eiistern 'i'artars : ,, Tungusic origin of, 451. ,, cause downfall of Sui dyn- asty, 'i55. ,, defeated under Kmpress VVu Hfu ( r*ang), 450: under Chwangtsung ( Posterior T'ang), 457: under Kwoh- wfi (Posterior Han,., 457. .. successful under T'aitsu (N. .Sung-, 457: under T*ai- tsung i.N. Sung), 457. settle in Liaotung, 457-458. ,, finally vanquished by the Kin Tartars, 458. Kitao or Ningpo Point, 273. Kittysols or Paper umbrellas, 2.34. Kiukiang Ku (Kiangsi i, 101, 140, 143, 145. 414, 421 , 407, 050, 655. ,, distance from Shanghai, 101. ,, trade of. 143, 414, 421, 050, 655. Kiuling (Kiangsi '.Sanatorium of, 144. Kiulung or Min-shan ^Mts.;, 11. 40-

41, 107. Kiun or Provinces, 453.

,, or Keudal Principalities, 'i53. K'iung Chow \Szechw'an), 100. K*iungchow Ku (Hainan), 202, 207, 211, 212, 282, 421, 655. trade of, 421,655. ,, dialect spoken, 207.

{see Hainan and Hoihowj. KiOnki Ch'u or Grand Council, 296- 297.

INDEX.

685

Kiut'iao-shan (Mt.), 107, 122.

KnolJys H., 480.

Kobdo River or Kobdo-gol, 511.

Kobdo I'own, 518.

Koeroes (de) C 557.

K*ohkias [see Hakkns).

Ko-ho (R.), 148.

Kolao Hwei or Old Fellows' Society,

467. Kohlao or Cabinet Kiders, 297. Kongmoon or Kiangm^n, 212, 327,

421, 655. Korea, compelled to pay tribute to China, '<55. ,, subdued and divided into 5 Provinces ('I'ang dynastv), 'i50. ,, Chinese oflicials appointed to

govern, 'i2<). ,, Japanese invade it under Wanlih, and settle at V\i- san (Fushan), 4<)1. ,, China-Japan war for supre-

nnacy over, 467-468, 477. ,, independence of, demanded

by Japan, 4<)8. ,, Anglo-Japanese Convention guarantees integrity of, 470. ,, Catholic Church in, 358. ,, Chinese in, 478. ,, Trade of, 410, 646. ,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418, 653-654. Koreans, I'ungusic origin of, 451,4*J8. Kosogol, Lake, 511. Kovalevski, 522.

Kovvhsing, British transport, incid- ent of, 468. Kowloon (Kiulung) extension acquir- ed, 285, 464, 477. ,, added to Hongkong, 213. ,, administration of, 286. trade of, 421, 655. K'owt'ow ceremony, refused by Russia, 463; by Lord Amherst, 463. ,, finally suppressed, 469-470. K'ow-wai or Region beyond the Great

Wall, 29. Kozloff P. A'.. 521, 536, 556. Krariz P., 380. J\rau8se A., 338, 371, 423, 442, 481,

484, 508. Kreitner ( Von^, 46. Kropotkin, Priyice, 6, 521. Kubilhans or reem bodied gentry

(Tibet), 547. Kublai-Khan or Sitchen (Shitsu) : ,, founds the Yflen dynasty, 459.

,, fixes Capital at Peking, 459. ,, extends Imperial Canal to

T'ientsin, 459. ,, fails in expedition against

Japan, 459. ,, intolerant towards 'Taoism, 459. Kucha or K'uch'e Chow (Chinese

Turkestan), 524, 531, 534. Kuch'dng or K'it'ai hsien, 531, 532. Kuchow T'ing (Kweichow), 189. K'uchow Fu (Ch^kiang), 227, 229,

234-235. K'ufeu hsien (Shantung) birth-place

of Confucius, 87. K'u-ho (R.), 110.

KQjen or M. A. graduate, 355, 368. Kuku-Khoto or Kweihwa ch'eng

(Shansi), 52, 53, 532. Kuku-Nor or 'Ts'inghai, 25, 543.

,, Region of, 520, 538, 543.

Kulangsu Island (Fokien), 224, 279. Kuldja or Hi Fu, 474, 52'i, 532, 534. ,. Treaty of, 474.

,, Russiim postal-station at, 532. Kulon or Hulon Lake, 491. Kulu-shan (Mt.), 67. K'uenfei or Boxers, 468.

,, also called Ihwok'uen (Pat- riotic Fists I, 468. K'uenlun Mts., 11, 33, 40, 57, 80, 92,

107, 525, 528, 539-541. Kumbum Lamasery (Kansu), 38. Kung. Prince, brother t(» Hsienfung : ,. negotiates with England and

France, 464, 475. ,, President of the Waiwu Pu or Foreign Office, 4T>4, 4T>5. ,, helps Km presses- Regent, 464. ,, degraded and restored, 46(). ,, finally deposed, 466. Kungch'ang Fu, 32, 38, 41. Kungpeh (.see I^ppa). Kungshui or Kan R., 142. Kungsu or Residence of Chinese

Official not holding seal, 313. Kungt'an, 111.

Kungti, Kmperor (S. Sung), 458. ,, carried prisoner to Peking by the Mongols. 458. Kungti, last Emperor of the Tsin

dynasty, 454. K'ungt'ung Island (near Chefoo), 246, 255, 256. ,, first lighthouse erected

on, 246, 255. ,, ceded to France, 256.

Kupei-k'ow Pass, 78.

686

INDEX.

Kupfer C. F., 237, 382.

Kuren or Monastery (Ilrga), 517.

Kurile Islands. 240.

Kurkara-usu, 524.

Kurla, 529, 534.

Kuropatkin, General. 508, 536.

Kurosiwo Current (on the coast of

Japan). 240. K'urun or Trga {see I'rga). Kuyuen Chow (Kansu). 32. Kwanch'eng Chow, 4*.M3. Kwan-nei f within Great Wall), 29. Kw'anch'engtze. 432, 498, 503.

(see Ch'angchun Fu). Kwangchow Fu or Canton [see

Canton). Kw^angchow-wan or Kwangchow Bay, 211. 213, 281, 289-290, 468. 477. leased to France, 213, 290,

468, 477. description of (with sketch- map), 290-291. ,, administration of, 291. Kwangnan (old Empire of Annam),

202. Kwangnan Fu, 175, 197. Kwangning-shan (Mt.), 489. Kwangp'ing Fu (Chihli). 67. Kwangsi Province, 8, 9, 12, 17, 18, 19, 131, 135, 137. 168, 170, 172, 184, 190, 194-201, 203, 206,348,475. ,, Area and Population, 195. ,, Aspect and Characteristics,

196 ; Climate, 196. , , Geology , 1 96 ; Orogra phy , 1 96 . Hydrography, 196-198. Fauna and Flora, 198. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 198. ,, People and Language, 198-

199. ,, Cities and Principal Centres,

199-200. ,, Industry and Commerce, 200. ,, Highways of Communication, 200. Open Ports, 200-201. Kwangsi Chow (Yunnan), 177.- Kwangsin Fu (Kiangsi), 140. Kwangsu, Kmperor (Tats'ing) glor- iously reigning, 396, 466- 471. ,, meaning of name, 4()6. ,, Rmpress- Dowager Tz'ehsi, Regent during minority of, 467. ,, conflict with France, 467.

,, w^ar with Japan, 467-468. ,, marriage of, 467.

first audience granted to Foreign Ministers, 467. ,, reform period, 468. ., compelled to abdicate, 468. ,, Empress-Dowager resumes regency, 468. Boxer uprising, 4118-409. ,, period of reorganisation (administrative, military, judicial, educational), 471 . old style examinations ab- olished, 471. Opium Edict. 471. ,, Constitutional Government promised, 461. Kwangteh Chow, 146. Kwangtung Province, 8, 10, 19, 80, 131,133,135,137,140,168, 170,186,194, 195, 202-S16, 218,2lJ9,222, 223, 281-292, 302, 303, 304,329,340,343, 402, 408, 417, 457, 473. ,, Area and Population, 202. ,, Aspect and Characteristics, 203 ; Climate, 204. Geology, 203; Orography,

203-204. Hydrography, 204-206. Fauna and Flora, 206. ,, Agricultural and Mineral I Wealth, 206.

I ,, People and Language, 207.

I ,, Cities and Principal Cen-

tres, 207-211. Plan of Canton, 208. Industry and Commerce, 211. ,, Highways of Communica- tion, 211-212. Railway Lines, 212, 432, 433. ,, Open Ports, 212, 213. Coast-line of, 281-292. Kwang W'uti, first Emperor of Later Han, 452. character of, 452. Kwangyuen hsien, 110. I Kwei hsien (Kwangsi), 197. I Kweichow Province, 8, 12, 17, 18, 19, 99, 110, 111, ia3, 136, 168, 170, 174, 175, 182, I 184-103, 195, 196, 200, 345.

,, Area and Population, 184. Aspect and Characteristics, 185; Climate, 186. ,, Geology, 185 : Orography, 185.

INDBZ.

687

Hydrography, 186-187. Fauna and Flora, 187. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 187. People and Language, 188. Cities and Principal Cen- tres, 188-189. Industry and Commerce,

190. Highways of Communica- tion, 190. Historical Note. 191. Rw'eichow Fu or Kw'ei Fu < Sze-

chw'an), 95, 116. Kweihwa ch'eng or the Blue City,

52, 53, 55, 516 (see Kuku Khoto). Kwei-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 195, 197,

200. Kweilin Fu (Kwangsi), 195, 199. Kweiling Pass, 12. Kweishun Chow, 195. Kweiteh Fu (Honan), 50, (iS. Kweiting hsien, 190. Kweiyang Fu (Kweichow), 184, 187,

188, 189, 190. Kwohwei, Founder of the Posterior

Chow dynasty, 457. Kwolos (monkey-nosed savages) or

Lolos {see Lolos, Mantze). Kyi or Lhasa River, 544, 551. Kyzil Art (Pass). 526.

Lahb^ P., 506.

Lacquer ware, 209.

Ladak, 526, 549, 554.

Ladrone Islands or Laowanshan

(S.W. of Lantao), 282. I^giobo Pass, 34.

Laichow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84, 80.

Lakes of China Proper, 1«, 36, 59,

70, 82, 97, 98, 124, 133-134,

142, 148-149, 159, 179-180,

231 {see Hydrography).

of Manchuria, 491.

,, of Mongolia, 511, 512, 513,

514. ,, of Turkestan, 527-528. ,, of Tibet, 543. Lama or Tibetan Buddhist Monk, 53, 112, 116, 516, 517, 539. ,, numerous at Lhasa, 548. ,, divided into Red and Yellow Caps, 519, 547. Lama, Dalai, of Tibet, 517,548,552. ,, resides at the Potala Monas- tery (Lhasa), 548, 552. ,, flees to Urga (Mongolia) at ap- proach of British Expedition to Lhasa, 548, 554.

Lama, Panshen or Tashi, 548, 550. ,, resides at the Tashilumbo Mon- astery (Shigatze), 548, 550. ,, visits India, 548. ,, appointed by Peking to succeed the Dalai Lama, 555. Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism, 516,

547-548, 552. Lama-miao or Dolon-Xor, 77. Lamaseries, 52, 53, 516, 550-551. Lamairesse, 381.

Lamko or Linkao Lighthouse, 284. Lamma Archipelago or Nanya, 282. Lamocks or Tungp'^ng-tao, 283. l^mpa (Kwangtung), 473. Lamprey, 405. Lanchow Fu (Kansu), 32, 33, 36, 37,

533. iMixdon P., 556. Lank'i hsien, 229. 2S4. Lanoye (de-, 507. Lantao I. or Tasushan, 282. Lants'ang-kiang or Mekong. 94. 179. Landstorms, Continental, in the

North of the China seas, 245. r^nd-tax, in grain, 308, 321-322.

in silver, 308, 321. iMne-Pool S.. 481. Lang. Captain, organiz€»d Chinese

navy, 467. Lang" If.. 166.

Langson, French repulse at, 467. Langt'ai T*ing, 190. Language, Chinese, :i47-350. ,, pictorial origin of, 349. ,, structure of, 349. ,, characteristics and peculia- rities of. 349. ,, written, various forms of, 347. spoken, divided into nu- merous dialects, 347,348, 360. ,, Kwanhwa or Mandarin dialect, 347-348. Books for learning, 373-377. Laoho-kow (Hupeh), 123, 124, 128-

129. Laokai, 10, 183. [^o-ling, Mt. (Kansu), 34. Lao-shan Mt. (Shantung), 80. Laoshan Bay, 254. Laos States, 181.

J^otze, Founder of Taoism , 352, 449. I^jppa I. or Kungpeh, 211.213, 281,

289. Lapparent fde . 6. Laughans, 20. Launay A., 173, 213, 352,386,507.

688

INDEX.

I^xiur, 481.

Lavisse et Rambault. 520. Laws of China, codified by Hungwu, >l«0, 4t)l. ,, Will of the Emperor is hiw,

2\i\. ,, Ministry of Justice recently

establised, 2ini. ,, Ministry of Justice, Censorate and Grand Court of Revi- sion, exercise general super- vision over the adminis- tration of Criminal I.aw,;iOO- ;ioi. ,, X'iceroys and Governors con- trol administration of in the Provinces, 303. ,, Sub-prefect or District Magis- trate administers the laws within his jurisdiction, 308. ,, Put'ing or Police Sub-prefect tries all cases brought before his bench, 311. ,, paternal and domestic, 310,311. Lay G. T., 371, 373. Lay H. N., first Inspector-General of

Customs, 326» 465. Lazarists or Vincentian Missionaries

in China, 355, 856, 552. Lead, 60, 83, 149, 180, 187,207,222,

493, 529. Leaman C, 374. l^avenworth C. S.. 480, 483, 508. Lehoucq, 87, 371, 405. LecVere, 6, 169, 171, 191, 404. Le Compte, /... 371, 374, 385, '441. Lee S. A'.. 392. Legations, Siege of the, in Peking,

469. Legendary Historv, 442. 444-445. Legendre Dr A . F.. 103, 118, 271, 399. Legge Dr J., 375, 379, 384, 390, 482. Leh, Capital of Ladak, 526, 549,

554. Lei-ho (R.), 133, 136, 137, 212. Lcichow Fu, 202. 212. Leitsu taught to rear silkworms, 444. Leiyang hsien, 132, 136. Leprince-Ringuet. <i. 46, 63, 404. Leroy, Pere H.. 87, 38(). Leroy-Beaulieu P.. 20. 336. .370, V'i2,

484, 508. Lesdain ^de). 520. Lesserteur. 193. Lewis B. /:.. 392.

Lhasa. Capital of Tibet, 517. 539. 5'i3, 54^1, 5'»6, 548, 5/i9, 550, 551-552. 553. 554. ,, description of, 551-552.

residence of Dalai Lama, 548, 552. ., monasteries of, 548, 552.

,, British P'.xpedition to, 546,

552, 554. Dalai Lama withdraws to Crga (Mongolia), 548, 550, 554, 555. ,, Anglo-Tibetan convention

of, 555. ,, visited by Friar Odoric; the

Jesuits (irueber, Desideri and Freyre ; the Lazarists Hue and Gabet, 552. Li or Chinese mile, 642. rJ, the j^ part of a tael, 316. Li, Si or Sai tribe (Hainan), 207, .144,

345. Li Fongpao, 165. Li-ho (R.), 135.

Li Hungchang, 150, 464-406, 460, 470, 476. ,, appointed Governor of

Kiangsu, 465. ,, dismisses Burgevine; enga- ges General Gordon, 465. ,, executes T'aip*ing chiefs, despite promise to the contrary, 465. ,, erects monument to mem- ory of Ward, 465. ,, chief adviser to the Regen- cy under Kwangsu, 466. ,, signs the Chefoo Agree- ment, 476. negotiates with the Powers after the Boxer uprising, 469. death of, 470, Li Matow (Chinese name of the Jesuit Missionary, Matthew Ricci), 354. Lichi or Persimmon(Diospyruskaki),

18, 198, 221, 393, 398. Lifan YQen or Board for the Admin- istration of Vassal countries, 298. Likiang Fu (Yunnan), 177. Likin or inland transit dues, 115. 322, 323, 470. ,, serious hindrance to trade, 323. China agrees to suppress it on compensation of 1 i surtax to the 5;/ import duty. 323, 470. Liling hsien, 145. Limin or Black-haired race ( name

of the Chinese ), 3,38. Lip'ing Fu iKweichow), 184. Lipo hsien, 187.

INDEX.

G8y

I.i Pu or Board of Civil Appoint- ments, 21111. or Board of Rites, 299. Lishimin, General, 456 (.see T'ai-

tsung, Kmperor). Li-shui (R.\ 133. Lisu tribe or Lisus (Yunnan), 181,

345. Li T'aipeh; famous Poet of the 'I''ang

dynasty, 117. Lit'ang Szechwan), 110, 117. Litsung, Emperor (S. Sung), 458. Li Tzech'cng rebel), captures Pe- king I Ming), 461, 506.

,, virtual ruler of China, 461.

,, causes downfall of Ming dyn- asty. 461. his overthrow, 461, 506. Liyuen or Kaotsu Emperor, T'ang

dynasty], 455,456. Liang or Tael \ see Tael ;. Liangchow Fu Kansu), 32, 37, 38. Liang dynasty (short-lived), 455.

,, Posterior or Heu-Liang, 457. Lianghu .two-lake region : Hunan

and Hupeh), 120. Liang-kiang or two Kiangs ; Kiangsi,

Kiangnan}, 139, 153. 158,302,305. Liang-k wang or two Kwangs(K wang-

si, Kwangtung), 194, 302, :^5. Liang-'l'ao or Provincial Grain Inten-

dant, 303, 30(). Liao Chow (Shansi), 50. Liao-ho or Liao R., 251, 488, 4tt0- 4»l, 497, 4»8, 501. ,. Plain. 488. Liao Kingdom 'Capital first at Liao- yang, afterwards at Peking :

,, founded bv the Kin Tartars. 458.

,, defeats the N. Sungs. 458.

.see Kin or (lolden Horde.. Liausi-ho West-Liao R. or Shara-

muren. 491. Liaotung Peninsula, 468, 470, 486,

489. Liaovung Chow, 458,461, 407-i08,506. Liebert, 213. lAetard. 372. Lien Chow, 202. 205. Lienchovv Fu, 202, 20r,. Lienchow-kiang (R.;, 212. Lien-kiang (R.;. 198, 200. Lienkiang hsien, 225. Lienshan 'l'*ing, 203. Liu ChiyQen, Founder of the Posterior

Han dynasty. 457. Liuchow Fu. 195, 190-200. Liu-kiang(R.;, 172, 173, 186, 189,197.

Liuk'iu Islands, 240, 2'il. Liukung 1. : Weihaiwei , 257, Liupang. Founder of the Former

Han, 451 .see Kaoti . Liusung dynasty (see Sung \ Liuyu, Founder of the Liusung dvn-

asty, 454. Lighthouses on the Coast of China, 246-249, 251, 254, 255-256, 258, 263, 273, 275, 278, 28:). Urn, 376.

Lindesay Urine. 480. Linkao or Lamko Lighthouse, 284. Linkiang Fu, 140, 141. Linngan Fu, 175, 183. Lints'ing, 429. Lints^ing Chow. 80, 84. Lingwang, Emperor iChow), 87. Literary Chancellors or Provincial

Examiners. 303, 367, 504. Literary Doctor, institution of. 455. Literati. 145, 351. 355, 450. ,, doctrine of, 351.

rigid attachment to antiquitv.

450. oppose reforms of Shi Hwang- ti, 450. ,, attend funeral of Ricci, 355. Literature of the Chinese, 350, 36 'i. 368, 450, 451, 456, 459, 4()0. 461, 462. ,, divisions of. 350.

its character, 347, 349. Little A., 64, 88. 89. 103. 119, 165. 166, 192, 214, 236, 237, 405, 423, 442, 508, 522, 537, 556. Littledale G. B., 536, 556. Li«o?i. 118. Living Buddha s or Avatars, 38, 516,

546, 547, 548. LJungstedt. Sir A.. 386. Lob-Nor Lake, 527, 535. Lobscheid \V.. 37(i. Lobsters, not found in China. 17. Loch (L 6'.. 480. Loddmrt W.. 372, 390. Lockman J., 385.

Locks Chah ; on the Grand Canal, 129,

Loess lands or Hwangfu ; Yellow

earth), 10, 22, 26, 28^31, 33.

34, 40, 41-42, 47, 49, 50, 51.

67, 69, 80, 91, 147, 151, 535.

,, found especially in the X.

region, 91. ,, formation of, 22, 69. ,, extent of, 31, 50. ,, depth of in Shansi. 50.

sketch-map of loess plateau (Shansi], 49.

45

690

INDBX.

r.ngan Jock /?., 118. 1U2. Loh-ho R.l, 27. U. 43. 59.

., Valley. r»0. (il. M. I.ohkiashan UghthouiM' (^ht'kiang .

273. Lohping hsiiMi 'Kiangsi . 143. r^ohyang Honnn , 447, 44^1, 'i5J. 452.

453, 455. Lolos or Kwolos aboriginal tribes , 10(), IIS, iir>. 181, 183. 188.

313, 340, 34s-t4:i, :mya.

.\rvan origin of. 342. ,, habitat of. 10«>. lir>, 181. 188. Szechw'an Lolos called Man- tzc. 342. ,, language of, 342-343. ,. joined in the Panthay rebel- lion, 363. despised by the Chinese, 342.

l.ong-haired rebels Ch'angmao or T'aip'ings, 404 {nee T'aip'ings).

Longjumeau (Andrew of . 354.

I.ong White Mountain or Ch'ang- peh-shan, 489, 491, 506.

Loquat or Medlar, 35, 398.

,, Cantonese origin of word, 398. ,, called in Chinese p'ip'a (Shang- hai dialect, bibo\ 398.

Losingt^ah or Pagoda Anchorage, 223.

Loting Chow, 203.

Lotus-born One 'I'ibet . 5'47.

l.ouvet, 38(>.

Lovett. 388,

Lu Chow. 10(i. 10«l, 110. 114.

Lu-kiang or Salwern R.. 10. 179.

I.ungan Fii Shnnsi , 48.

Lu Pikin familv dealers in rico- spint , 408.

Lu-shan Mt. . l'»3.

Lushan hsien. 00, 03.

Luts'ufi (salt lake , 52.

Luhk'i-kow (Hupeh-. 130.

Luhngan Chow. 140. 149.

Luhying or Army of the (ireen Stan- dard, 330.

LQchow p'u Nganhwei;. 140, 148. 151.

LQ Shih. Queen-Regent during mino- rity of Hweiti Later Han). 451.

LOshuh-kow or Port Arthur. V,)l. 499-500.

Lukshun depression (Chinese Tur- kestan . 520.

Lungchow T'ing Kwangsi . 173. 1*18. 199, 200. 477.

Lung-kiang R. . 221.

Lungkin (Hupeh . 129.

Lungm(>n defile (Honan), Til.

Lungngan Fu. 105. 113.

Lungtan Szechwan;. ill. Lungtan-shan Dragon-gall Mt.;, 229. Lungv^n Chow^ Fokien . 218. Lwan-ho R. , 09, 70. I.yall L. A.. 237. Lynch (,.. 508. Lyon \V.. 392. Lyiiter 7'.. 'i80.

Macao or Ngaonien. 204. 211, 213, 249, 287-289, with sketch- map 460, 402. 473. first settlement of, 288. 460,

473. Area and population of, 288. salubrious climate, 289. Trade with China, 289, 410, 646. ,, final sovereignty of Portugal over, 288, 473*. Macartney. Lord, Embassy of, 145, 462, 474. tn*ated as tribute-bearer, 462. 474. Mac Clatchie T., 375, 380. Mac Donald. Sir €.. 481. Mac Gillivray, 376. Macgowan j\ 237, 372, 377, 400. 479. Mac Intosh G., 377. Mac Iver D.. 377. Mackenzie K. S., 480. Macklin W. K., 391. Maclay B. iL, 374. Maclay and Baldwin, 377. Macleilan J. W.. 25>4. Mac Mahon A. B.. 373. Mace or 'Ts'ien -^{7 of 'Tael , 310. Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25. Madrolle. 482, 507. Magaillans (i.. 479. Magpie, 17.

Mahomedans in China, 31, 174, 181, 188. 189, 322, 362-363, 362- 383, 456-457, 465. f(mnd in N. W.. and S. \V.

Provinces, 362. aggregate of. 362. traded with China, 3(i2. introduced Western arts and

.science into China. 362. rebellions of, in Kansu. 31. 37, 362, 405: in Kashgaria. 362-363, 405; in YQnnan, 174, 181. 183. 188. 189,363, 405. Mahomedanism or Hweihwei-kiao, 362, 494. 533. China tolerant towards, ^^62. ,. principal Mosques, 362.

INDEX.

691

Maidel E., 294. MaiUa dej A. M., 479. Maimni ch'eng, 517 [see IJrga . Maize or Indian corn, 18, 42. 198, 492. Mamoy Arsenal Foochow), 223. Manchii or 'I'ats'ing dynasty. Km- perors of. 4t)l-471. ,, Army. 328-330.

Language, 494, 508. Manchuria. 5. 75. 251.270.327,486- 508. various names given to. ■\%^\-

487. Area, population and divisions

of. 486-488. Administration of, 486, 488.

504-505. Aspect .'ind Characteristics. 488 ., Climate. 't89: (Jeology. '188. Orography. 489: Hvdrographv,

'i89-V.Hr r,akes.'^491. Fauna and Flora, 492. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth. 'i92-493. People and Language. 49'i-V9 4. Cities and Principal Centres.

49'«-500 Industry and Commerce. ,501. Highways of Communication,

501. Raihvays, 431-4,32. 503-504

with sketch-map!. Coast-line, 49J-492. Open Ports, 505-50(i. ,, Catholics in, 35().

Immigration to, 478. Historical Note, 500. Manchus. 7J, 297, 300, 30J>. 461,493. Tungusic origin of. 451, 493. invade Liaotung fA.D. 1618 ,

'»01. establish Capital at Mukden

A.D. 1025), 401. attempt to soi/.e Peking (A.I).

1029), 401. called to expel usurper Li Tzech'eng, 40 L ,, refuse to leave, 401.

establish Ts'ing dynasty. 461- 471. Mandarin Language, 347-348, 375- 370. ,, Varieties of. 348.

Books for learning, 375-376. Mandarins or Officials, 313. Mango-tree, 198, 398. Manhao (Yunnan), 179, 182, 183. Manifold C. C. 103, 108, 192.

Ma ntze or Szechw'an Lolos. 112,339,

342 see Lolos . Manwvne or Manwein (Yunnan;,

466." Maple-tree, 221. Maralbashi (Turkestan), 534. Marble. Marble quarries, 42, 84, 86,

157, 187, 209, 515. Marcillac del, 441. Marco Polo, his Travels to China. 71.

223, 459, 472, 536. Margarv. murdered at Man\vyne,182,

466, 470. .X/arguerye ;de) /?.. 404. Marignoli. John of. Papal Legate to

Peking, 472. Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-

328. Markham J., 89, Markka m (\ R., 555. Marshall T. W., 384. Marsham J.. 374. Martw A.. 30. :^5. Martin Dr E., 401. Martin H. M.. 335. Martin W., 378. 379. 381. 383, 389.

391. 480, 481. Marti7is /?. /•'.. 371. Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326-

327, 5,54. ,\fas de S.. 482. Masfi or Double Island. 281. Matches. 182, 190. 200. 209, 223, 41 1,

501. 647. Mateer C. VV.. 375. 391. Mats and Matting. 200. 209, 210, 223. 2;^^. 234, 235. 412, 498, 648.

,, export of, 412, 648. Mayers F. W., 215, ,3,35, 338. 485,

508. 522, 537. Meadows 7'.. 214. 374. Mears \\\ P.. 381. Mecca, 362.

Medicines. 61, 113. 114, 158, 182, 232, 233, 234, 412, 648. export of. 412, 648. Medhurst \V. //.. 38(>. 390, 400, 442.

484. Me jo v. 536. Mekong R. or Lants'ang-kiang, 16.

94, 179, 180, 182, 183. 544. Melons. 30, 37, 529. M^moires concernant ies Chinois. 6,

338, 373, .375, 379. Memorandum o?i the Missionary

Question. 466. Mencius or M(>ngtze, Writings of,

65, 444, 449. Mergen, 495, 501.

690

INDEX.

Logan Jack B.. 118, 192. Loh-ho fR.), 27, 41, 43, 59.

,, Valley. 50, 01, «3. F.ohkiashan Lighthouse (Chekiang ,

273. Lohp*ing hsien (Kiangsi), 143. Lohyang Honan;, 447,449,451,452,

453, 455. Lolos or Kwolos aboriginal tribes., 100, IIS, 110, 181, 183, 188, 313, 340, 342-143, 303.

,, Aryan origin of, 342.

„ habitat of, 100, 110, 181, 188.

,, Szechw'an Lolos called Man- tze, 342.

,, language of, 342-343.

,. joined in the Panthay rebel- lion, 303.

,, despised by the Chinese, 342. Long-haired rebels (Ch'angmao) or

T'aip*ings, 404 {see T'aip'ings). Longjumeau (Andrew of), 354. Long White Mountain or Ch'ang-

peh-shan, 489, 491, 506. Loquat or Medlar, 35, 398.

,, Cantonese origin of word, 398.

,, called in Chinese p'ip*a (Shang- hai dialect, bibo), 398. Losingt'ah or Pagoda Anchorage,

223. Loting Chow, 203. Lotus-born One Tibet), 547. Louvet, 380. Lovett, 388.

Lu Chow, 100, 109, 110. 114. Lu-kiang or Salweon R.. 10. 179. Lungan Fu (Shansi> 48. Lu Pikin family dealers in rico-

spirit;, 408. Lu-shan (Mt.), 143. Lushan hsien. 00, 03. Luts'un (salt lake). 52. Luhk'i-kow (Hupeh^ 130. Luhngan Chow, 140. 149. Luhying or Army of the Green Stan- dard, 330. Luchow Fu Xganhwei), 140. 148, 151. LO Shih, Queen-Regent during mino- rity of Hweiti Later Han), 451. Lushuh-k'ow or Port Arthur, 491.

499-500. Lukshun Depression (Chinese Tur- kestan), 520. LungchowT'ing ;Kvvangsi , 173. 198,

199, 200. 477. Lung-kiang R.;. 221. Lungkin (Hupeh). 129. Lungm^n defile (Honan), 01. Lungngan Fu, 105, 113.

Lungfan (Szechw'an), 111. Lungtan-shan (Dragon-gall Mt.), 229. Lungy^n Chow (Fokienl, 218. Lwan-ho R.), 09, 70. !.yall L. A.. 237. Lynch G., 508. Lyon W.. 392. Lyster 7'.. 480.

Macao or Ngaomen. 204, 211, 213, 249, 287-289, (with sketch- map) 460, 402. 473. first settlement of, 288, 460,

473. Area and population of. 288. ,, .salubrious climate, 289.

Trade with China, 289, 410, 646. ,, final sovereignty of Portugal over, 288, 473. Macartney, Lord, Embassy of, 145, 462, 474. ,, treated as tribute-bearer. 462. 474. Mac Clatchie T.. 375, 380. Mac Donald, Sir C. 481. Mac Gillivray, 376. Macgowan J., 237, 372, 377, 400, 479. Mac Intosh G., 377. Mac Iver D., 377. Mackenzie K. S., 480. Macklin W. E., 391. Maclay R. //., 374. Maclay and Baldwin, 377. Macleilan J. W.. 294. Mac Mahon A. H., 373. Mace or Ts'ien i-~ of Tael , 316. Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25. Madrolle, 482, 507. y/agaillans G., 479. Magpie. 17.

Mahomedans in China. 31, 174, 181, 188, 189, 322, 362-363, 382- 383, 456-457, 405. found in N. W., and S. \V.

Provinces, 362.

aggregate of. 302.

,, traded with China, 302.

introduced Western arts and

science into China, 362. rebellions of. in Kansu, 31. 37, 362, 405; in Kashgaria. 362-363, 405: in YOnnan. 174, 181. 183. 188, 189,363, 405. Mnhomedanism or Hweihwei-kiao, 362, 494. 533. China tolerant towards, 302. ,, principal Mosques, 302.

INDBX.

691

Maidel E., 294. MaiUa fde) A. A/.. 479. Maimai ch'^ng, 517 [see L'rga . Maize or Indian corn. 18, 42. 198. 492. Mamoy Arsenal Foochow], 22H. Manchu or TatsMng dynasty, Km- perors of, 401-'*71. „ Army, 328-330.

Language. 494. 508. Manchuria, 5, 75. 251.270,327.486- 508. various names given to. \Si\-

487. Area, population and divi.siims

of, 486-488. Administration of, 486, 488,

504-505. Aspect and Characteristics.

488. Climate, 489: Geology, 488. Orography. 489: Hvdrographv,

489-491:* l.akes.'491. Fauna and Flora. 'i92. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 492-493. People and Language. 49:^ 'i94. Cities and Principal Centres.

494-500 Industry and Commerce. 50L Highways ofConiinunication.

501. Railways, 431-432. 503-504

with sketch-map'. Coast-line. 49I-4U2. Open Ports, 505-5(M». „ Catholics in, 35r». ,, Immigration to, 478. Historical Note. r>Or>. Manchus. 71. 297, 300, .3()r.. 461,493. Tungusic origin of. 451, 493. invade Liaotung '.\.D. H>18 ,

461. establish Capital at Mukden A.D. 1025). 401. ,, attempt to seize Peking i A.I). 1029.. 40 L called to expel usurper Li Tzech'eng, 4r»L ,, refuse to leave. 4*»L

establish l\*ing dynasty. 461- 47L Mandarin I^inguage. 347-348. 375- 370. Varieties of. .348. Books for learning. 375-376. Mandarins or Officials. 313. Mango-tree, 198. 39K. Manhao ; YQnnan . 179. 182, 183. Manifold C. C\. 103, 108. 192.

MantzeorSzechw'an Lolos. 112.339.

342 .see Lolos . Manwyne or Manwein .Yunnan ,

460.' Maple-tree. 221. Maralbashi Turkestan;, 534. Marble. Marble quarries, 42. 84, 86,

157, 187, 209. 515. Marcillac de , 441. Marco Polo, his Travels to China. 71 .

223, 459, 472. 535. .Margnrv, murdered at .Manwvne,l82

466, 47r>. Marguerye de' /?.. 404. Marignoli. ,Iohn of. Papal Legate to

Peking. 472. Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-

328. Mark ham ,/.. 89, yiarh'hani (\ /?.. 555. Marshall T. \V.. .384. Marsha m ,/.. 374. Martin A., 30. .385. Martin J)r H.. 401. ,\rartin H. M.. :«5. Martin W'.. 378. 370. .381. 3S3. ,3S',».

391, 480, 481. Martins /?. /•'.. 371. Marts open to Foreign Trade . 326-

327, 554. Mas de S., 482. Masii or Double Island. 2SI Matches. 182. P»0. 200. 20»». 223. 4n.

501. 647. Mateer C. W'.. .375. 3'.il. .Mats and .Mattinj-. 200. 20*>. 210. 22,^. 2^3. 23',. 235, 412. ;*.»S. 648. export (»f, 412. 648. Mayers /•'. \A'.. 215. :U5. ^t^S. >>>.

508. 522. 537. Meadows T.. 214. 37 1. Mears \V. P., :<8L Mecca, :^i2.

Medicines. 61. 1 13. 11"., i:»^. IS2. 232. 233. 234. 412. 648. export ot. 412. 648. Medhurst W . li.. :i8«l. :^.K». ivH*. \\1.

484. Mejov. 530. Mrkung K. or I^ints*anK-ki,tn^. l'>-

*»4. I7«l. 180. 182. 183. 54;. .Melons. :Vi. 37. 529. M^tnoires concernant U^ Chinois, 6.

.^38. 373. 375. .379. I Memorandum on the Miasionarj^

Question. 4»W. Mencius or Mengtze. Writings of,

65. 444, 449. Mergen. 495, 501.

694

INPSZ.

Nan-hai or South-China Sea, 241. Nanhaitze or Imperial hunting

ground, 74. Nanhsiung Chow, 202, 205, 211. Nan Hwaijen (Chinese name of F.

Verbiest), 355. Xank'ang Fu, 140, 144. Nank'ishan Is.. 275. Nank'iao (vulgo Neghiao), 47«). Nanking or Kiangning Fu, 101, 139, 151, 153, 154. iol, 158.163, 1G4. 302, 305. 324, 32(>, 329, :J33, 334. 354, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 4(i3. 464. 474, 475, r)55. ,, Capital of China under the

Ming dynasty, 158, 460. ,, residence of the TJangkiang

Viceroy. 139, 153, 302. ,, description of, 158.

taken bv the f'aip'ings. 158, 464. „ Treaty of, 463, 474, 475. Trade of. 158. 421, 655. Railway toShanghai,324,432- 433. Nankishan Is., 275. Nank'ow Pass. 433. Nankwan Itey 'Fokien . 276. Nanling or Nan-shan Mts.). 92, 168. Nanngan Fu, 140, 142. 212. Nanngao 1. see .Xaniao). Nanning Fu, 172, 195, 197. 199,200.

434, 468. Nan-shan. Hnnge Kaiisu , 33, 525.

529, 539. Nant'ai I. Fokien , 222. 223. .Nanwang. '»29, Nanya or Laninia Is., 282. Nanyang Fu, .56, 59. 60, 62, 63. Napier, Lord, appointed Superinten- dent of Trade, 474. ,, China refuses to receive him,47'i. ,, dies at Macao. 474. Xarzimtwf, 555. Naval Schools, 334, 339. Navigation on the Yangtse. 99-100.

on other large rivers, 427. Navy, Chinese, .333-334. Nei-ch'eng or Tartar City Peking),

71-72 ^with plan . Neikoh or Imperial Chancery, 297. Nei Mongku or Inner Mongolia, 519, Nepal (Nepaul;, 4(»2, 553, 554. Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 462, 474. Nestorian Missionaries enter China. 43, ,354, 456, 457. ,, Tablet at Si ngan Fu A.D.781), 354, 457.

Xeviufi J. L.. 378, 379, 382, 388. New China, Forecast of, 471. Newchwang or Yingk'ow, 326, 421, 491, 492, 498, 499, 500, 503, 504, 505. Trade of, 421, 492, 498-499.

655, 656. Railways to, 431, 432, 503. Xey Elias. 30, 441. Ngaikiun-ho or Argun R., 490. Nganhai (Fokien;, 223. Nganhwa hsien, 134. Nganhwei F»rovince, 8, 16, 19, 90, 91, 93, 99, 121, 139, 140, 146- 152, 153, 156, 234, 459. ,, Area and Population, 146. ., Aspect and Characteristics,

146-147 : Climate, 147. ., (ieology, 1'47 : Orography, 147.

Hydrography, 148-149.* ., Fauna and Flora, 149. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

VVealth, 149. ,, People and Language, 149-150. ,, Cities and Principal Centres,

150-151. ,. Industry and Commerce, 151. Highways of Communication,

151-152. Open Ports, 152. Ngank'ing Fu. 101, 146, 150. 151,

152 252. Nganluh Fu, 121. 124, 1.30. Nganpien, J 10. Nganshun Fu, 184, 189, 190. Ngansi Chow (Kansu), 32, 529. NgantungfAntung;, 327,470,492,505. Ngaofei rebellion. 463. Ngaomen [see Macao;. Ngari or Western Tibet, 545, 549.

,, principal towns of. 549. Ngeu-kiang or VVu-kiang R.. 230,

234. 235. Ngomei or Omei-shan (Mt.i, 109,

117-118. Nickel (found in Shensi), 42. Nicolaievsk, 490. Nienhao or Reign 'Title. 296. Nimrod l^iy or Siangshan-kiang, 274. Ninghsia Fu. 25, 32. 33, 36, 37, 38. Ninghwak-i R., 220. Ningkwoh Fu, 146. Ningpo Fu, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 235,271,275,326,421. 460, 655; dialect of, 232. ,, Portuguese at, 460.

Trade of, 233, 275. 421, 655. Ningpo Point or Kitao, 273. Ningtu Chow, 140.

INDBX.

695

Ninguta (Kirin;, 491, 496, 50r,. Ningwu Fu, 48. NingyOen Fu, 100. 116. Xiulan-ho (R.), 178. Niushan-tau or Turnabout Light- house, 278. Niut'u-shan (Mt.), 34. Nivet Point, 290.

Nonni or \uen-l<iang H., 488, 490, - 496.

\orman F. M.. 214, 29;^. Xorman H.. 166, 193, 215, 216, 293,

336, 338, 485. North-China Herald. 380, 383, 422. Norway, Treaty with China, 475,

,, Trade with China, 410, 646.

,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418, 653.

,, Traders and Trading Houses, 420, 654. Nuns, Buddhist, 353. Nurhach'ih, settles in Liaotung, 461.

,, captures Mukden, 461.

,, defeats the Chinese Army, 461. Nyang-chu River, 550.

Oak-tree, leaves of, eaten by wild silk- worm, 83, 397, 492.

Oases (in Turkestan), 529, 534.

Obruchtff, 521, 536.

Ob.servatory, Hongkong, 285. ,, Sicawci, 162, 355.

Ockseu or Taokweisu Lighthouse, 278.

Odontius L.. 380.

Odoric, Friar, 472, 552.

Officials, nine degrees of established, 444. ,, insignia of, 314.

Ogawa, 508.

Ohsson (d'J C, 520.

Oil, native, how obtained. 395.

Okhotsk, Sea of, 240.

Oksu or Aksu, 524, 531.

Oldenberg, 381.

Olen-Darba Pass (S. Altai), 511.

Oliphant L.. 480.

OUphant X., 481.

Omei Mt. or Ngomei-shan, 109, 117- 118.

Onager or VVild-ass, 17, 515, 544.

Onon River, 513.

Opium, Cultivation of native, 36, 37, 38, 42, 44, 52, 60. 62, 83, 1 1 1, 113, 114, 115, 149, 182, 187, 189, 190, 198, 221, 225, 231. 323-324, 395, 396, 492. i

,, estimated amount produced, ' 234. i

,. number smoking, 396.

,, Revenue derived from, 321.

,. Foreign Trade in, 410, 411, 414, 646, 650.

., Various kinds imported, 'il4. 650.

,. Importation into the principal Ports, 414, 650.

,. VA'iL'X suppressing. 396-397, '471. Oranges, 18, 111, 134, 234. 235, 398. Ordos Country, 26, 509, 514.

,, Plateau, 25, 26, 40, 513. 514. Orgo {see Trgai. Origin of the Chinese people, 4, 338.

Books on, 370-371. Oring-nor Lake, 25. Orkhon River, 511. OrUans (d'J. Prince Henri, 191, 192,

535. OUone (d'}, 338, 378, 382, 383, 391. Orlov. 507.

Orphanage (T'ientsin} destroyed, 465. Osborne, Captain, 465. Ouchterlony, Sir J., 480. Ouigurs, (Huns), 450. Oustalet, 20. Oioen G.. 378. Oxen ham, 20. Oysters, 83, 231.

Pacific Ocean, or T'aip'ing-yang, 239, 241.

Pagoda Anchorage or Losingt'ah, 221, 223, 226, 279. ,, Island, 279.

Pahk'i or Country of the Fight Ban- ners Manchuria), 486-487.

Pahlik'iao, Battle of, 475.

Pahshdng or Council of the Gentry (Ch'ungk'ing), 112.

Pahtah-ho (R.), 170, 172, 179.

P'aiwei or Ancestral tablet, 353.

Pakhoi or Peh-hai, 198, 210-211,212. 291-292, 421, 655. Trade of,21 0, 291-292, 421 , 655.

Pakngai or Pohai, 172-173. 197.

Palaces at Peking, 74, 329.

Palatre. PereG.. 165,386.

PalMogue, 404.

Palisade, 'The, or Liucheng. 504.

Palladius, 384.

Palm-tree, 18, 180, 187, 198, 20(». 393. 397.

Palmer. 293.

Palmer. G. H.. 337.

Palti Lake or Yamdok-tso, Yum-tso. 543. 544.

Pamirs, 472, 525,

P'ank^ng, Kmperor (Yin . 448.

694

Nan-hai or S..- Nanhaitri' ground. Xonhsiui- Nan Hv

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Nanl' Xnn

i/-/'

jv""* ^, • ■rJ-

-'■■-■■-.>-.. ' '■-* •■'■

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-' 7 ' -; iki. iS«», iS'i, :»n7.

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K-.»\*- .*■*• Kwoilmfj. 12.

!•>. - M *

N.nix.nu I u. »•;». Slijiiijuhai-

sun,«n*. K huw , I-'-

> »^txiii.n '"». lilS; ^ iiliiiy. IM. |\,^H, s t»» ilir ».ii-.«l NN all. 'J«». |\i^Hi H in I Ml K.'.l.m ."•*.?<• r.»l .»n«; •' H. it .till-. s,-r It.d'aii;; . r.itiiii.il N(Uh«<nl\ .III.

/\ .. M \ If*

/«. »■. . . (. 1.1 .». '1, .".Ts. ;usi. :<s;i.

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\\ «, ii I.'. I N I. 1:1/. i.n;. M«f<. :vM.

r> il. Mi>M. I.. in. •'s,^

W w I', u II. . |M .ll..;». MH.;V.KS,.l93.

I-I III I ... \ Ikh IMII '.'(.I

r. Ill ■■ w . I ni«i I M'.' NN .-si i(. .

I'. .Ill' hi HI. I nl' ili.i^ Ivan. L»8l!.

I'. Il li.> h III t hilih . IS I'.). '2'A, .M.

Ill, .1 iS \'2\K 250.

• .1 • ■ '

'I • I. Il liiii|i mI I ii\\ i-l , 'JitO.

h.ii .ii iiMKiiii ••!, '.':>'J

^f iflHonan;, 59, 124. ' •'*'', „r rolioquial rantoncse.

tS'l^--^'^ **■ *<wuiigtunK s 172. 173.

'/>». 2iW. 204-205, 210, 211. 212. ;vr.*>^'<" Is., 275. -V.r :en-k'iao or White Lily Sociciv.

fVaiiii hsien, 198.

tVhluh-tung or (Iroiio of tht? While

Deer, 145. IVhmatung Kweichow , 187. Pehmeh Lake, 82.

I*ehp*ing-yang or Arctic Ocean. 23ti. Pchsch Ting. 172, 195. 197. 200. Heh-shan Mt., 189. 'j 90, 525. 529. Peh-shui Yangtze R. , 9.'^, 119. Fehtaiho Chihii;, 77. I'eht'ang, Port of, 252. Peht'ang Cathedral Peking), '!'^. 469. Pehting or Dodd I., 278. Pehtseng Kweichow , 180. Pehtsienshaii or l^)nham L. 27M. Peh Wang or White Prince. Hi5. Pehvashan Lighthou.se, 249, 275. Pei-('hihli Peh-Chihli . Oli. Pei-liii «»»• Forest of .Slah^ Singaii

I'll . 'iM. /Vi.Nso» Z .. .'<81.

Peking or Shunl'ien Fu. Oli, {\t^. TI- TS. 77, 7H. 80, 129. 20H. ',V1\K

w'M). AM, :<5'i, :<)5. '^\\'^. m\o.

Mr,. MWK 458-459, 4r,0. 461. 402. \i\\\. 464. 'Hi8, 469, 'i72. 'i7:^. 'i7'i. 'i75. '177. 506, 5i9.

550, 555. :>.v.»-.^r.n.

Approaches to sketch-map .

Dcsiiiption and Plan ot. 71-75. Minisiries and l^oards. "^4,279-

301. KailwaN In Hanknw . i(»2. 431. .. assiemd hv Hoxers. 469.

l*cllint /».. iSi. :).T». /\'nihvrtnn Ji.. 557. IN-nal Cciilf. mitinaled bv Wenti.

i.M. iiiinpl. ted under the Han

d\ nasty. 452 : the Ming

d\ nasty. 'iiiU. /N/ic Sicj'vrt. :r(i. Pi'»»n\ K. II r Hurka .sec Hurka . i\-ri'iral. h«2. PinslrilUi. Raphael. 'i7:H. Persia. Prrsian. i72. 414-650. Persimruori ur Lichi, 18, 198, 221,

'A\K\, 398. Piscadons Islands. 2i5, 468.

INDBX.

697

P^tillon. Pere C. 377. PetunaorSinch't^ng(Kirin Province),

496, 501. Pfister, Pere I... 38(). Phari or Phari-jimg Tibet", 551. Pheasant, 17. Philip. 42'k Philip /?.. 387.

Philips (r.. 23ti, /j23. /i82, 483. Phonetic, 350. Physical Characteristics of the

Chinese, 340-341.' Piaokioh or Cape nood Hope Light- house, 283. Pichon, PJl. Picui or Shih, 234, 414, 415, 416, 417,

643, 650, 652. Piece-goods, Import of, 410, 413,

647, 649. Pieper, 88. Pierre, Pere A.. 165. Pigott F. T.. 485. Pihtsieh hsien, 189, 190. Pila, 88.

PilcherL. W., 391. Pilten Lake, 491. Pine-apple, 6, 198, 206, 398. Ping Chow, 39, 44. P'inghsiang hsien (Hunan), 135. P*ingliang Fu, 32, 45. Pingloh Fu, 195.

P'ingshan hsien, 94, 95, 100, 113. P'ingsi Wang (title given to Wu

Sankwei;, 461. Pingti, last Emperor of S. Sung, 458. P'ingting Chow, 50, 54. P'ingyang Fu, (Shansi), 48, 51, 53,

55i 444. P'ingyang hsien (Chekiang), 231. P'ingyao hsien, 54. P'ingyueh Chow. 185. Pinon R.. 20, 165, 214, 422, 441, 448. Piolet. Pere J. B.. 386. P'ip'a or Biwa (vulgo bibo , 35, 398

[see Loquat . Pir or Huir Lake, 491. Piracy, Pirates on Coast of China,

266, 459, 460, 461-462, 463. Piry A. 7'., 375, 442. 661. Pisani. 386, 387. Pisciculture in China, 17, 398. PiUm C. 215, 373, 387. Plains of China, 13-14, 25, 113. Plan-Carpin, 521. Plants of China see Flora).

,, cultivated for food, 394-395.

,, utilized in industry, 395-397. Plateaux or Tablelands of China, 11-12, 13, 21,40,41,49,50,

92, 98, 174, 178, 181, 185, 186, 190, 196. ,, of the Dependencies, 509, 511, 512, 513, 514,525, 539-541. PlatH. 507.

Play fair G. M., 335, 372, 482. Plum-tree, Plums, 18, 36, 83, 187,

198, 398, 493. Poh (Honan , 447, 448. Poh Chow, 151.

Poh-hai, 239, 241, 251, 253, 489. Pohseh [see Pehseh T'ing). Pohshan hsien (Shantung), 83, 84,86. Poletti P., 376. Police, 299, 311, 312. Pol Korigan. 371, 405. Pollard .S., 192. Pongee or wild-silk tissue, 83, 190,

415, 651. Ponies, Kweichow, 187, 398. ,, Mongolian, 77, 518, 534. ,, Szechw'an, 111,398. Pontevks (de), 481. P'ook*ow (P^uk'ow), 151. P'ootung (East of the Hwangp'oo), 266, 271. ,, Point, 97, 261, 263. Poppy-plant or Opium poppv, '^^\, 37, 42, 60, 83, 113, 149, 187*^, 189, 198, 221, 231, 395, 396-397, 492, [see Opium). Population of China, Statistics of, 5, 8, 345-346. [see each Pro- vince), of the Open Ports, 420-421, 646-647. Porcelain, manufacture of, 43, 91, 141, 144, 209. 210, 404. export of, 412, 532, 648. Port, Establishment of, 249. Port Arthur or Lushun-k'ow, 467,

468, 470, 477. 492, 499-500, 503. Ports of Call, 130, 152, 212. Ports, Treaty or Open, List of, 326-

327, 420-421, 654-655. Portugal, relations with China, 460, 473, 475. ,. Macao ceded to, 213, 287-289.

(.see Macao). ,, Population at Shanghai, 267. ,. Trade with China, 410, 646. "Post-Office. Imperial Chinese, 325, 435-437, 661-552. ,, Statistics of Establishments and Work, 435, 437, 661. Pdstal Highways or Government

Courier Roads, 426-427. Postal Service via Kalgan .Russian), • 519.

46

^98

iNMk.

Potala or Dalai Lama^s Palace (Lha- sa), 652. Potanin, 46, 512, 536. Pouriaa, Mgr., 191, 386. P*oyang Lake (Kiangsi), 16, 91, 97,

141, 142, 143, 145. Pozdneef, 521. Pratt A. E.. 507, 556. Prandi, 385.

Praya-Grande (Macao), 289. Pre-HThinese Races, 339, 340, 342-345. Prefect, Authority and Duties of, 307. Prefectures or Fus, 306-309.

List of, 558-639. Prejevalski N., 46, 521, 536, 555. Prejevalski Mts., 541. Priniare (de). Fere J. >/.. 385. Preston T. J., 138. Primorsk, Province of, 487. Prinsep H. T., 555. Printing from blocks invented under

Mingtsung (A. D. 932.), 457. Protestant Missions to China, 358- 361. ,, Statistics of, 359, 360-361 , 657- 658. Protet. Admiral, 476. Provinces of China, Names of, 8, 904. ,, Territorial divisions of, 306- 309. Provincial Government, 301-303, 305- 313. Army or Luhying, 330-331, 333. ,, Examiners or Hsiohch^ng, 367. Pryer W. B., 166. P'uchow Fu, fShansi), 48, 55. P'ueul Fu (YQnnan), 177, 183.

Tea, 180, 395. Puini, Carlo, 556. Pumpelly R., 6, 9, 405. P'ungan T^ing (Kweichow), 185. Putting or Police Sub-prefect, 311. Putnam Weale, 423, 485, 508. P*ulsun, Prince, chosen as Heir- apparent, 468: degraded, 468. P*utu-ho (R.), 180. Pyevtaoff, 521.

Quemoy or Kinm6n Island, 278. Queue, origin of, 461. Quicksilver, 187, 190, 403, 545.

Rabot C 555. Rabouin, Pere P.. 377. Race, Chinese, origin of, 3i^9. Races, Aboriginal, inhabiting China, 313, 339-340, 342-345, 371-373. |

Radicals or Key-^ords in the Chiiifese

Ift^guage, 350. Railways in China, 29, 55, 61, ^, 63, 70, 73, 75, 84, 86, 117, 127, 15^, 179, 183, 212, 430^435.

,, completed, projected, 431»4M.

,, in Manchuria(with pHiin), 1102* 504. Raisins, 52, 83, 532. Raja, Darma, (Bhutan , 554.

,, Deb, 554. Ramie fibre (Boehmeria nivea), 111,

206, 395. Rank, Insignia of Official, 314. Rapids, Han-ho, 41, 123.

,, Hwang4io,24;Kan-kiang,142. Peh-kiang, 205; Si-kiaftg, 197. Tze-kiang, 138; Wu-kianfj, 111.

,, Yangtze, 95, 96, 99, 100, 117, 128.

,, Yuh-kiang, 197; YQen*ki»ng, 186. Raquez. 165, 193, 214. RathouU, Pere C, 400. Ratzel, 20. Raulin, 20.

Ravenstein E. G., 508. Rai^rty H. G., 536. Rowling C. G., 556. Riau, 423.

Reclus E., 20, 506, 520, 535. Recorder. Chine9€, 370, 879, 380, 381,

388, 390, 392, and passim. Red Basin, 106, 107, 109. Re-exports, 412-413, 649. Reform Edicts, 466, 477. Regent's Sword or Laotieh-shan, 253. Reid G., 481. Reid J. iV/., 388. Religions in China, 350-363.

,. Books on, 377-390. Remusat, 375, 536. Rennie D. F., 480. Repository, Chinese, 371, and passim. Reptiles found in China, 17, 142, 188,

206, 515. Retail Trade of China, 407. Revenue of China, Extent of, 321.

,, Sources of, 321-324. Review, China, 2ib, 216, 380, 383,

385, and passim. R^ville A., 377. Revolt, T'aip'ing [see T'aip'ing).

Mahomedan, 362-363. Revue Frangaise d'Exploration. 192. Rey, 377.

Reynaud, Mgr., 385. Rhinoceros, 198.

INQll.

•99

Rhins fde) et Grenard, 555. Rho, Fr. James, 355. FUiododendron, 111, 231. Rhubarb, 36, III, 113,394,544,553. Rhys Davids T. W., 382. Riault, 404.

Ricci, Fr. Matthew, enters China, :^4: settles in Peking, 355. ,, wins by science favour of the

Learned, 355. ,, converts Su Kwangk'i. 355. Rice, 37, 42, 52, 75, 78, 83, 125, 127, 141, 149, 150, 100, 198, 20«>, 210, 221, 223, 231, 233, 393, 394-395. Import of, 411, ^47. Rice-spirit or Samshu, 233, 408, 498. Richard T., 359, 38?, 389, 390. Rickthoftn, i),9, 40, 49, 64, 81,88, 118,

138, 165, 405. Rigaudi^re .La) or Nanchow 1., 290. Rijnhart S. C, 556. Rise and Progress of the Chinese Empire, 443«^78. „ Qpoks on, 479-485. Rit#s, Board of, or Li Pu, 299. Rivers of China {see Hydrography). Road of the Qolden Ox, 45, 117. Roads, Character of Chinese, 425, 427.

,, Government Postal. 426-427. Robertson B. B„ 400. Roberovski, 536. Rochecho%iart (de), 88. Rochsr L., 138, 191, 235, 375. Hock-crystal, 126, 545. Rockhill W. W., 46, 63, 483, 521, 556. Rock-salt, 529. Rohrbi^cher, 384, 386. Roman Catholic Missions, Statistics

of, 356^357, a94.387. Roman Empire, Trade of China

with, 472. Rondot iV., 432. Rasny (de) L., 381, 481. Ross J., 507. Rostkom (von), 400. Rouen (de), R. P. Victor Bernardin,

386. Rouffart. 30.

Round I. or Weichow, 282. Rousset, 46, 63, 137, 216, 235. Rouvier, 191. Roux, 191. Roy J. J.. 386. Royal Asiatic Society, North-China

Branch, 213, 214, and passim. Rubruquis, William of, 354. Rudock or Lotok'ph (W. Tibet;, 549. Rugged Is. or Ycun^^an, 273.

Ruggieri P>., enters China, 461. Russel C. 508.

Russia, Relations with China, 462, 403, 405, 474-475, 476-477. ,, occupies andretrocedes Hi, 465,

476, 477, 533. ,, protests against occupation of Manchuria by Japan. 408, 499. ,, carries Siberian railway through N. Manchuria. 468. ! ,, leases Port Arthur, 468,477,499. ' ,, occupies Manchuria during I Boxer crisis, 470.

I ,, war with Japan. 470,486,500. 1 ,, transfers Port Arthur and ad- I joining territory to Japan,

470. I ,, Trade with China, 410, 646. I ,, Consumption of tea, 417,652. I ,, Trading Houses and Traders in i China, 420, 654.

I ,, Population at Shanghai, 260. I ,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,653. I ,. Postal Service via Kiakhta, 519. I Ryder C. H.. 192, 550.

Sacred Edict of Yungcheng, 402.

,, Mountains, 13. Sacrifice at the tomb of Confucius,

451. Sacrificial Court or T'aich'ang Sze

(Peking), 301. Saddle Is. or Mangan-tao, 273. Sai, Si or Li tribe, 344-345. Sainte Foi {de) C. 385. Sairam-Nor Lake, 528. Sair-Usu (Mongolia), 518. Sakhalin-ula or Amur R., 489.

,, Village, 494. Sakya-Muni, 547. Salle (de la) G., 507. Salmon, excellent caught in Sungari

R.. 492.

Salt, 42, 62, 75, 91, 111, 112, 1 14, 115,

157, 163, 180, 207, 222, 231, 322,

403, 515, 518, 545, 553.

,, Mines, 180; Wells, 112, 114,115.

,, extracted from sea -water, 157,

163, 207, 222, 231. ,, Comptroller, 303, 306. ,, Government monopoly of, 75,

163, 322. ,, Tax, 321, 322. Salt Lake or Luts'un, 52. Salween R. or Lu-kiang, 10, 179. Samsa (Sansha) Bav with plan), 27^, 277. „ Islands, 277-278,

GOO

INDEX.

Lngan Jarh /?.. 118. Iil2. f/»h-ho R ,. 27. 'il. 43. 5».

Viillry. <K), ♦•,!. ||9. Lohkianhan Ijghtlioii*M' Chrkiang .

273. f^hp'ing hniiMi ^Kiangni . 143. f^ohyarig Honan . 447. 44il, 'i51. 452.

4r>3, 4&5. I,oloH or KwoloH aboriginal tribes , \m, fia, 110, 181, 183. 188. 313, 340. 342-14:1, 'MVA. ,, .\ryan origin of. 342. ,, habitat of, 100, 110, 181. 188. S/.rchw*an Lolos called Man- tze, 342. ,. language of, 342-343. ,. joined in the I'anthay rebel- lion, 303. ,, deHpi.ned by the (*hinese, 342. Long-haired rebeU ;(*h'angmao or

'f'aip'ingH, 404 (nee T'aip'ings). I.ongjumeau (Andrew of). 354. Long White Mountain or Ch'ang-

peh-Hhan, 489, 491, 506. Loquat or Medlar, 35, 31)8.

,, ('antone.se origin of word, 3U8. ,, called in Chinese p*ip*a (Shang- hai dialect, bibo\ 398. f.osingt'ah or Pagoda Anchorage.

Loling rhow. 203.

l.otuH-horn One Tibet, 5'i7.

LoHvti, 38(».

Lovttt. 388.

I.u Chow. 100, 100, no. 114.

I.u kiang or Salween R.. 10. 179.

I.ungan V\\ Shansi , 'i8.

I.u Pikin family dealers in rice- npirit . 408.

I.u-!*han Mt. . I »3.

l.ushan hsion, r>0, 0,'<.

l.utH'un salt lake . 52.

I.uhk i Wow Hupeh , 130.

l.uhngan Chow. 140, 149.

l.uhving or Army of the Cmvn Stan- da iti, 330.

I .Uchow Ku .N^anhw ei . I »0, 1 18. 1 51 .

1 .0 Shih, (^>uiM»n-Re»:ent during mino- rity of Hxveiti l.alor Han . \51.

I.Ushu^ kow .».* Port Arthur. VM. 499<^00.

l.ukshun IVpre^sion Chinese Tur- kestan . yjlti

I un»;vhv^>\ r inj; K\v.»nj;si . 173. P.»8. 199. 2iH>. 47?;

I unjt kt<u\4i R .^21

I uuj^km Hupeh . I2^»

I uivjcwi^n defile Honan » »»l

I uuj^niCxtu Ku. h^. 113.

I.ungt'an Szechwan,. 111. Lungtan-shan Dragon-gall Mt. , . 229. Lungv^n Chow Fokien . 218. Lwan-ho R. , 09. 70. Lyall L. A., 237. f,ynch G.. 508. I. yon W.. 392. l.'yHter 7\. 480.

Macao or Ngacmien. 204. 211, 213, 249, 287-289, iwith sketch- map: 460, 462. 473. first settlement of, 288, 460,

473. Area and population of, 288. ., salubrious climate, 289.

Trade with China,289, 410, 646. ,, final sovereignty of Portugal over, 288, 473. Macartney, Lord, Embassy of, 145, 462, 474. ,, treated as tribute- bearer, 462, 474. Mac Clatchie 7\, 375, 380. Mac Donald, Sir C, 481. Mac GiUivray. 376. Macgowan J., 237, 372, 377, 400, 479. Mac Jntosh C. 377. Mac Iver D.. 377. Mackenzie K. S.. 480. Macklin W. K.. 391. Maclay R. if., 374. Ma clay and Baldwin, 377. Macleilan J. VV., 294. Mac Mahou A. /?.. 373. Mace or 'Ts'ien -j;;- of Tael , 310. Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25. MadroUe, 482. 507. ^fagaillans G.. 479. Magpie. 17.

Mahomedans in China, 31. 174. 181, 188. 189. 322. 362>363. 382- 383. 456-457, 465. found in N. W.. and S. W*.

Provinces, 362. aggregate of. 362. tradixi with China, ;^2. introduced Western arts and

science into China. 3^2. rt»bellions of. in Kansu. HI. 37, 362. U*5: in Kashgaria. 362-363. *Oo; in Yunnan. ITh. ISI, 18;^ |8<i. I8r*. 163.

MahomtNlanism >r Hweih^ei-kiao. 362. VV*;. :v«. China tolerant towards. :^2. principal Mosques. ;*i2.

INDEX.

691

yfaidel E.. 294. MaiUa <dej A, .U.. 479. Maimni ch'eng, 517 (see L'rga . Maize or Indian corn, 18, 42, 198, 492. Mamoy Arsenal (Foochow), 228. Manchii or 'I'ats'ing dynasty, Km- perors of, 40 1-471. Army, 328-.330. Language, 494, 508. Manchuria. 5, 75. 251,270,327,486- 508. various names given to, 48«>-

487. Area, population and divisions

of, 486-488. Administration of. 486, 488,

504-505. Aspect and Characteristics,

488. Climate. '#89; Geology, 'i88. ^>rographv, 489: Hydrography,

489- V.U:' r,akes,"491. Fauna and Flora, 492. Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth. 'i92-493. People and I^» nguage. 493-49 'i. Cities and Principal Ontres.

494-500 Industry and Commerce. 501, Highways ofCommunicatlon.

501. Railways, 431-432. 503-504 with sketch-map\ ., Coast-line, 491-492.

Open Ports, 505-500. ,, Catholics in, 35r».

Immigration to, 478. Historical Note, 50r». Manchus, 71, 297, ,300, 300,461,493. ,. Tungusic origin of, 451, 493. invade I^iaotung f A. D. 1018;, 401. ,, establish Capital at Mukden

A.D. 1025), 401. ,, attempt to seize Peking (A.I).

1029), 401. ,, called to expel usurper Li

Tzech'eng, 401. ,, refuse to leave, 4<il.

establish Ts'ing dynasty, 461- 471. Mandarin l^mguage. 347-348, 375- 370. ,, Varieties of, 348. ,, Books for learning, 375-376. Mandarins or Officials. 313. Mango-tree, 198, 398. Manhao (YQnnan), 179, 182, 183. Manifold C. C, 103, 108. 192.

Mantze or Szech w'an Lolos, 1 1 2, 339.

342 [see Lolos . Manw^yne or Manwein (Yunnan ,

400.' Maple-tree. 221. Maralbashi (Turkestan), 534. Marble, Marble quarries, 42, 84, 86,

157, 187, 209, 515. Marcillac 'de), 441. Marco Polo, his Travels to China, 71,

223, 459, 472, 535. Margarv. murdered at .Man^vyne,182.

466, 47(i. yiarguerye 'de) R.. 404. Marignoli. John of. Papal Legate to

Peking, 472. Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-

328. Markham J.. 89, yfarkham (\ /?., 555. Marshall T. W.. .384. Marsha ^)^ J.. 374. MaHin A.. 30. .385. Martin I)r E.. 401. Martin H. M.. 335. Martin W.. 378. 379. 381, 383, 389.

,391. 480. 481. Martins H. F.. 371. Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326-

327, 554. Mas dei S., 482. Masu or Double Island. 281. Matches. 182. 190. 200. 209, 223. 411,

501. 647. Mateer C. W.. 375. 391. Mats and Matting, 200, 209. 210. 223. 233, 234, 235. 412, 498, 648. export of, 412, 648. Mayers F. W.. 215. 335. 338, 485.

508.522.5.37. Meadows 7'.. 214. 374. Mears VV. P.. 381. Mecca. .302.

Medicines, 61, 113, ll'i, 158, 182. 232, 233. 234. 412, 648. export of, 412, 648. Medhurst VV. //.. 380, .390, 400. 442,

484. MeJoi\ 530. Mekong H. or Lants'ang-kiang. 10,

94, 179. 180, 182, 183. 544. Melons. 30. 37, 529. M^moires concernant les Chinois, V>,

338, 373, 375, 379. Memora7idum on the Missionary

Question, 400. Mcncius or M^ngtze, Writings of,

05, 444, 449. Mergen, 495, 501.

702

noiBx.

Siakas (Sak*ias) or Sak^ohs, 222. Siam, trade with China, 419, 646.

,, Chinese in. 478. Siang-kiang (R.l, 97, 120, IHl, 132-

133, 135, 197. Siangshan-kiang or Nimrod Bav,

274<-275. Siangt'an hsien, 133, 134, 135, 136,

137. Siangyang Fii Hupeh), 59, 121, 123,

124, 129» 130, 455, 458. Siangyin hsien, 133. 136. Siaokweishan or Steep I., 273. Siaosin, Emperor Yin), 448. Siao Taoch'eng or Kaoti, 454. Siaots'ing-ho vR.). 82. Siaowut'ai-shan, 07. Siaoyen or VVuti :Kmperor), 454-455. Siberia, 187, 490. Siberian Railway, 468. Sicawei College, Industrial School, 369. Observatory, 162, 243, 246, 355. Sifans (Aboriginal tribes , 100, 112,

339, 345. Sih Chow (Shansi), 50. Sihsiang hsien (Shensii, 44. Sihu or West Lake, 232. Si-kiang or West R., 15, 170, 196-

197, 204-205, 209. Siking-shan (Mt.), 34, 35, 92. Singan Fu, 34, 39 43, 44, 45, 01, 451, 456, 469. Monument, 43, 354, 457, 472, Sining Fu (Kansu), 32, 37, 38, 547,

548. Sining-ho (R.), 25. 35. Sip4ng hsien, 63. Siwantze, 515.

Silk, where found. 42, 43, 54. 60, 62, 83, 84, 91, HI, 114, 116, 127, 129, 141, 144, 151, 158, 159, 162, 163, 189, 190, 208, 210, 222, 223, 225, 397-398, 498, 530, 534. ,, Export of, 127, 160, 209, 415-416, 651 ; Filatures, 404. Silkworm, 18, 159, 180, 206, 207, 394, 397, 416, 444, 534 {see Mulberry i. SiJsby J. A.. 377. Silver, 36, 60, 83, 111, 135, 136, 149,

180, 198, 206, 222, 303, 493. Sinhsiang hsien, 63, Sinkiang or Chinese Turkestan {see

Turkestan). Sinrain Fu (Shengking), 487, 491. Sint'an or Sinlungt'an, 96. Sinyang Chow, 59, 62, 63, 122, 148.

Sirr H, C 371, 373, 377, 385, 390,

400. Sis or Sais (Hainan). 207. Sites M. L., 391. Siuwu hsien, 59.

Skins, 44,53, 54, 75,78, 113,114,498, 501, 532, 545.

.. Export of, 412, 648. Smith A. //., 371, 390,391,399,481. Smith G., 3a3, .387. Smith S. P.. XMi. Smith W. L.. 441. Soap Factory, 144, 163. Soapstone, 84. Sodium Carbonate, 53. Songkoi or Red R., 1»8, 179. Sonnerat M.. 482. Soochow Creek or Woosung R.. 98,

266. Soochow Fu I Kiangsu), 153, 156, 159, 164, 271, 458, 465. Trade of, 421, 655. Soothill W. E.. 376. Sorghum or Kaoliang, (U), 71, 83, 149, 492.

,, Distilleries of, 495, 49Ci, 5Q1. Soulii. 520, 522.

Spain, Relations with China, 461, 473, 476.

,, Trade with Amoy, 473.

,, Population at Shanghai, 267.

,, Trade with China, 41 0» 649*

,, Traders and Trading Houses in China, 346, 4)0, ^54,

,, Shipping and Tonnage, 41 9tS&^ Spanish Dollar or Carolus, 310. Specht, 535. Speer W., 482. Spence Hardy R.. 382. Spheres of Interest, Policy of, 469* Spirits, AVorship of, 353» 494. Star-aniseed, 198, 200, 210. Staunton, Sir G. T., 335, 484, 536. Staunton 1. or Sushan-tao, 1}55. Steamship Companies trading on the Yangtze, 100-101, 440i. I ,, Sailing to or from China, 439- 1 440.

I Steel-works, 91, 127, 404. Steep I. or Siaokweishan, 273. Stein M. A., 536. Stent G.. 376.

Stepanof, massacre of, 474. Stewart-Lockhart. 373. Stock E., 'ASS.

Stoneware, 75, 209, 495, 553. Stooke G, E.. 103. Stove-beds or K'angs, 23, 91, Strachey H., 555.

INDBX.

693

Missions. Illustrated ('athnlic F.on-

don \ :^87. Moerman 7'.. 'lOO. Moges de . 'i80. Mohkan-shan, Sanatorium of (Chr-

kiang), 23,S. Moidrey (de' Pere J.. KWi, 21K<. Moidrcy (de) Tardif, 'iTO. Mokwt'i or Kvil Spirits. Worship of,

353, MoUendorf ; Von P. (i., 88, 37'i, 508. Momein or T'engvQeh (Yunnan',

183. Mongolia or the Mongku Country. 5, 7, 11, 14, 2IJ. 30, 31, 32,35, 3(>. 39, 48, 53. (>«, 487, 41K>. 491, 509-S22, 523, 531, 548. Area and Population. 509. Administration, 519. Aspect and Characteristics,

510. Climate, 514-515: Geology, 510. ,, Orography and Hydrography.

511-514* ,, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 515. People and I.anguage, 515- 51(i. ., Cities and Principal Centres, 517-518. Industry and Commerce. 518. Highways of Communication, 518-319; Army, 520. Mongols, 42, 52, 71, 7^i, 77, 451, 458, 459-460, V.)3, 495, 515-516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 532. ,, descend from Huns, 451. various Iribi^s of, 515-516. defeat the Kin Tartars, 'i58. ., refuse to withdraw from X. China, 458. '^, establish the Yuen dynasty, 459. ,. dethroned by Chu Yuenchang

(Ming , 459. ,, character of. 459-4r.O. ,, language of, 42, 516-517. ,, religion, 5H>. Mnnier Williams Sir. 382. Monkeys in China, 17, 111. I'i9, 187,

198, 20<>, 231, 515, 544. Mpnnier. 20, 88, 102, 481. Mnnod, 404.

Monsoons, 15, 82, 243-245. Montercorvino, John of, 354, 472. Montgomery /*.. 377. Montgomery Martin li.. .378, 389,

399, 400. ' Montigny (de) M. C 422.

Moral Characteristics of the Chinese,

341-342. Moriak, 555. .\/orrwon «.. 3.58. 373. 37**., ,377, 387,

V82, 555. Morse //. li.. 33<1, <>45, r,iJ2. Morsely W.. 387. Morser. 535.

Moslem. Moslems see Mahomedan). Mosos or Musus i branch of the Miao-

tze tribe), 181, 345. Moule A.E., 237, 380, 387. Mountain, Long \Vhite or Ch'ang-

peh-shan, 489, 504, 506. Mountains of China ..s^e Orography •. Mourey C. 555. Muhliiig Mt., 122. Muirhead W.. 387. Mukden or Fungt'ien Fu, 461, 402, 470, 487, 488, 497, 501, 503, 504, 505. home of the Manchu or Ta- ts'ing dynasty, 461, 497.

,, description of, 497.

,, Imperial tombs at, 497. Mulberry-tree, 18, 42, 157, 394, 395.

397. Municipal Councils at Treaty Ports.

266-267. Muravieff, negotiated treaty of Algun,

47'i-475. Mnret M.. 42'i. Murray A.. 480. .Murra'if's China. 04. 88. 1 18, 138, l<i5,

192, 193. 213.214. 21<»,23r.,237. 3.35.

37'«. 378. 38r,. 405, '«22, 'i83, '»84. Murui-usu Yangtze R. , 93. Mushrooms found in Hupeh), 125. Music, invi'nted by Hwangti, 'i44. .Musk, 38, 1 14, 127*, 182, 408. 5'ir), 553. Mussels, 83. Mussulman Hevolts, 31, 183, 362-

363, 523, 532. Mussulmans, 302-303 sec Mahome-

dansi. Mutan-ho nr Peony R., 'i9(K Muz- Art Pass (T'ien-shan > 52i>. Mythological Period, 4V2-44'i.

Nahk'i hsien, 110. Xamao or .Nanngao I., 281. Names given to China, 7, 57, 3.39. .Namti N'alley ;Yiinnan'. 183. Nan-Chihli or Southern Chihli, <»(>

^see Kiangnan . Nanch'ang Fu, 140. ri2, 143, 43'*. Nanch'ao (Nganhwei . V'»8. Nanchow 1., 290. Nanchow T'ing, 132.

704

IN0KZ.

,, Trade of, 421, 655. Szenan Fu (Kweichow), 184, 186. Szengen Fu (Kwangsi), 195. Szeshui hsien (Honan), liO. Sze-Tao or P'our High (Officials, 306.

Tablelands {see Plateaux). Tablet, Xestoriari, 43, 354. Tach'ih or Gutzlaff 1., 263. Tael or Chinese ounce-weight, 316.

,, Various kinds of, 317-318.

,, Gold equivalent of Haikvyan (1870-11>06), 319. T'ahch^^ng T'ing or Tarbagatai, 524. T'ai Chow (Shansi), 50. T'aichow Bay, 274. T'aichow Fu (Ch^kiang), 227, 230,

275. T*aihang-shdn (Mt.), 57. T'aihu or Great Lake, 91, 97, 98, 155,

156, 159, 231. T'aihu hsien, 151. T*aingan Fu (Shantung), 79, 86. Taipa Island, 288. ^ T*aip'ing Canal (connecting P'oyang

Lake with Yangtze-kiang), 134. T'aip*ing Fu (Kwangsi), 195.

,, (Nganhwei), 146, 150. T*aip*iiig Rebellion, 30, 47, 84, 139,

143, 144, 149, 158, 159, 217, 228,

231 , 232, 322, 345, 404, 408, 404-405,

475-470. T'aip'ing-yan^ jor Pacific Ocean, 239. Tairen QrDalny, 47)0, 492,500-501,505. T'ai-shan (Shantung), 13, 79,80, 87. T'aitan I. (F'okien), 278. T*aits'ang Chow, 154. T*aits'ing-chen or Pedro Blanco, 282. T'aitsu, Emperor (Posterior Liang),

457. T'aitsu, Kao Hwangti or T'ienniing

(Liao Tartars], 506, T'aitsu, \Ven Hwangti or T'ientsung

(Liao Tartars:, r»0«. T'aitsung, Kmperor (T'ang), 456.

,, crushed Turcomans, 456.

,, failed againstTibet, Korea, 456.

,, admired Confucius, 450.

,, Nestoriansseltle in China, 450- 457.

,, Mahomedaiis enter China, 456- 457. Taitsuug, Kmperor ( 'F'ang). 456. T'aitsung, Kmperor (N. Sung), 457-

458; unsuccessful aganst K'itans,

'i57: honoured descendants of Con- fucius, 458. 'I'aiwan or Formosa, ceded to Japan,

468.

Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 52-53, Issionaries massacred at, 409; Railway to, 433. Ta-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 93. Takioht'eu ( Takiohtau), 286. Takla-makan Desert, 530. Taku, Taku Forts, 78, 252, 404, 409,

477. Talai T'ing (Manchuria), 488. Talien, Ta lien wan, 470, 477, 491,500-

501 (.see Dalny, Tairen). Tali Fu (YQnnan), 177, 179, 181, 183,

345, 303; Massacre of 308. Talki Pass (Hi), 520. Tallow-tree or Kuentze-shu, 18, 111,

187, 231, 394, 397. Taming Fu (Chihli), 67. T'ang dynasty, 344, 354, 455, 450-457. ,, founded by LiyOen, 455. ,, Emperors of, 456. ,, general character of, 457. T*ang-j6n(MenofT'ang=Caiitonese),

457. T^ang Johwang (Chinese name of

Fr. Adam Schall), 355. Tangut, Tanguts or Fantze (N. E. Tibet), 30, 458, 520, 547 (see Hsia Kingdom). T*an-kiang (H.)» 59, 124, 129. T*ang-ho (R.), 59, 02, 124. Tangla Pass, 551.

T'angku (at mouth of Peh-ho), 431. Tanyang hsien, 467. Tao or Province (T'ang dynasty),

450, 471. Tao divisions or Circuits, 300. Taot'ai, 307. T'ao-ho (R.), 25, 35. Taoism (doctrine of the Right Way),

350, 351, 352, 459. Taok'ow chdn, 59, 03, 432. Taokwang, Emperor (Tats'ing), 403. ,, hated Foreigners, 463. ,, first war with England, 463. ., character of, 463. T'aonan Fu (Shengking), 487. I Tapa-shan or K'iut'iao-shan (Mt.),

95, 106, 107, 122. I Tapeh-shan Mt.), 40. I Tap'^nghai or Mirs Bay, 281,284. I Tap'ingtu Kweichow), 110, 186. Tarbagatai or T'ahch'^*ng T'ing, 474,

524. Tarchendo (see Tatsienlu). Tarim River, .'iX?, 528, 529. ' Tartar, Tartars, 450, 451, 453, 454, I 459, 461, 515.

I „ Fish-skin, 493, 496. I ,, Kin, 71, 458,

^

705

-•*. .,451,455,456,4? ^,

'oba ( Wei Kingdon 453, 454, 455. ,, Northern Mongols so called, 515. Tartar City (Peking), 71. Tartar-General or Tsiangkan, 329, 504, 505, 533. ,, abolished in Manchuria, 486,

505. ,, Garrisons, 329, 330. Tasagtu-Bogdo (S. Altai), 511. Tasha or Grand sand-bank at mouth

of Yangtze R.), 262. Tash-Davan Pass (K'uenlun), 526. Tashik'iao Junction, 503. Tashi Lama {see Lama). Tashilumbo Monastery, 550. Tasmania, 239. Tasashan or Lantao L, 282. Tating Fu, 184, 190. Tatsienlu or Tarchendo, 107, 113-114,

117. Tats'in (Syria), 472. TatsMng or Manchu dynasty, 355, 461-471, 506. ,, Events and^^ulers of, 461-471. Tatsung Lake (Kiangsu), 156. Tatu-ho iR.) 109. Tat'ung (Nganhwei), 152. Tat'ung Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 53. Tat'ung-ho, 25, 34, 35. Tat'ung Mountains, 34, 35. Taw^n-ho (R.), 82, 429. Tax, Taxes, various kinds of, 321- 324. ., Inland on Foreign imports or Likin, 470 (sec Likin). Taxation, attempts to change method

of, 458. Taylor G ., 373.

TayQ-ling (Mts . 92, 219, 228, 232. Tchang (Chang), Pere M.. 479. Tchang Tche-tong (Chang Chitung, Viceroy of Hukwang), 390, 391. cultivation of, 91, ill, 113. 120. '*127, 132, 134, 141, 143, 144, 14r>. 149, 180, 182, 187, 206,

,, general kHMCl?m|(e of Chinese.

395. ,, Various kinds of, 396,416,651. ,, chief export places, 395, 417. ,, Value of export, 412, 416, 648,

651. ,, Quantity of export, 416, 417,

652. Tea-merchants (Fang family), 408.

r '' Chow (Shantun 86. Tehrhow or Sugar-lo«i ' Lighthouse,

283. Tehk*ing Chow (Kwangtung), 212. Tehngan Fu (Hupeh), 121. Telegraphs, Imperial, of China, 437- 438.

,, other Lines and Companies, 438-439. Temple of Heaven, 73, 74.

,, of Ancestors or Tz*et'ang, 353.

,, of Agriculture, 73, 74. Temple. Sir R., 423, 485. Temur or Ch'^njftsung, Bmperor,

(Yaen), 459. i T I T^ngchow Fu (Shfen)[ung), ^9, 83, 84,

86, 87, 255, 256*. / Tenghiz Lake or Btfgrach-Kul, 528. Tengri-nor Lake, 543. T*^ngyaeh T'ing or Momein, 182;

183: Trade of, 421, 655. Tenney C. 2)., 391. Terek-Davan (Pass), 526, 534. Terrien de Lacouperie, 336, ,370, 479. Territorial divisions of China, Statis- tics of, 312. Tes River (Mongolia), 511. Tewchews (Hoklos so, called in the

Straits), 344. Textile Plants, 395. ' Thelwall A. S., 401. Thomas St., 354. Thomson J., 399, 400. Thomson and Johnson. 388. Thornton 7'., 479.

Tibet, Bodgul or Sitsang, 93, 104, 105, 182, 117, 456, 462, 523, 538-55'7. a

,, Area and Population, 538.

,, General Aspect, 539; (^limate^ 541-542; Geology, 539^ .

,, Orography, 539-541 (with sketch-plan'.

., Hydrography, 542-544 (with sk^ch-map); Lakes, 543.

,. Faurfa and Flora, 54V

.. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 544-545.

,. People and Races, 547. ^-w,, ^;>wns and Principal Centres, .?f ^40,553.

,, Industry and Commerce, 553. Higlywavs of Communication, 55ft-55>4.

,, Open Trade-marts, 554.

,, Government and Administra* . tive divisions, 545-547. *

,. ,, Kingdom of Tibet, 5'ir)-5'ir>.

,, '., Kuku-Nor, 547. *

/

47

706

iNDn.

Roman ^atholic

,, Religion, 547-548; Language,

548-549. ,, Taxation, tribute, currency, 549. ,, Army, 549; British Expedition

to Lhasa, 539, 554-555. ,, Anglo-Tibetan Convention, 555. Tibetan, Tibetans, lOG, 112, 182,456,

547, 548, 550, 551, 552. Tibetan Plateau, 94. Tides or Haich'ao (sea-flow), 249, 252, 255, 263-264, 272, 273, 278-280, 283, 291. ,, importance of for navigation, 249. where highest, 249. peculiarities of on coast of

Tongking, 249. at Taku Bar, 252. at Staunton I. (Shantung), 255. at mouth of Yangtze and at

Shanghai, 263-264. in Hangchow Bay, 272. on coast of Ch^kiang, 273. at Foochow (Pagoda Anchor- age), 278-280. on coast of Kwangtung, 283. at K.wangchow-wan, 291. Tiehling (Manchuria), 506 T*ienchu-kiao or

Religion, 353-354, Tienhu Lake (Ytinnan), 179-180. T'ienming or T*aitsu Kao Hwangti

(Liao Tartars), 506. T*ienmuh-shan (Heaven's Eve Mt.),

229. T*iensha-ling Pass, 45. T'ien-shan or Celestial Mts., 33, 477, 510, 524-525, 526, 528, 531. ,, Nanlu or Circuit S. of the

T'ien-shan, 521. ,, PehluorCircuitN.of theT'ien- shun, 524. T4ent*ai-shan (Mt.), 228. Tientsin Fu, 02, 60, 69, 70, 75, 76, 78, 86, 252, 260, 4#l,465, 469, 475, 477. ,, Description and sketch-map

of, 75-76. ,, Massacre of, 465, 476, ,, Treaties of, 464, 466. ,, Railway to Peking, 430-431; Shanhaikwan, 431 ; Ch^n- kiang, 434. ,, Trade of, 421, 655. T'ientsung or T'aitsung W^dn

Hwangti (Liao Tartars), 506. Tiei<sen, 6, 20.

Tiger L or Hushan (Ningpo), 273. ,, (at mouth of Pearl R.), 286.

Tiger Head Bay or Hut'eu, 277.- Titsingh, Isaac, 473. Tih-hwa Fu or ITrumtsi, 524. Ti-hwang or cumfrey (Honan-, 61. Tillot M., 336, 405, 422. Timber, 111, 129, 134, 150, 182, 189,

190, 200, 223, 225, 234, 235, 491,

518. Time-zones of the China Coast, 292. Tin, 60, 180, 182, 207, 211, 233, 403,

412, 648. Tin-ware, 44, 233. Ting, Admiral, 467. Ting Chow (Chihli), 67. T'ingchow Fu (Fokien), 218. Tinghai T'ing (Chusan Is.), 228, 234,

273, 474. Tipao (Chinese Bailiflf or Rural Cons- table), 309.

,, character and duties of, 310. Title of Reign or Nienhao, 296. Titles of Honour for Merit or Fung-

ts^ng, 315. T*oba Tartars, 454 (see W^'ei King- dom). Tobacco, cultivation of, 37, 38, 42, 52, 86, 113, 1 14, 1 1 6, 127, 1 34, 144, 180, 182, 1 87, 206, 209, 223, 394, 492, 495, 496.

,, Export of, 412, 648. Tobar, Pere J.. 64, 383, ,390. Tola or Urga River, 511, 817. Toleration, Edict of, 463, 464, 475. Tomsk, Province of, 509. Tonga or Friendly Is., 240. Tongking, 172, 174, 181, 460, 407.

,, Vassal of China (Ming), 460.

,, annexed by France, 467, 477.

,, boundarv delimited. 477. Tongking, Guif of, 16, 249. Tour (de), Francisco, 552. Tower Hill, Beacon of, 255. Townships or Sze, 309. Trade of China, domestic, 407-408. {see Industry and Commerce for each Province;.

,, Foreign, 408-422, 645-656.

,, Statistical Tables of Exports and lmports,41 0-41 7,646-652.

,, Books and Publications on, 422-424. Trade-routes to Western countries,

534-535. Trans-Alta! Mts., 525. Transbaikal Province, Transbaikalia,

487, 509. Transit Dues [see Likin). Transmigration of Souls, 353. Trappists in China, 357.

INDXt.

707

Travellers. Famous, to and from

China, 472. Treasurer, Provincial or Fant'ai,306. Treaties with China, 463, 404, 468, 470, 474, 475, 476.

,, Algun, 474; Kuldja, 460, 474.

,, Livadia and St. Petersburgh, 467, 476-477 ; Nerchinsk, 474.

, , Nanking, 359, 463, 464, 474, 475.

,, T'icntsin, 464, 466.

,, Shimonoseki, 468, 499.

,, Commercial with G. Britain, the U. States and Japan, 470, 477; with Portugal, 477-478. Treaty or Open Ports, List of, 326-

327. Trees of China, 18, 397-398 (see Flora), 'i'ribes (.see Aboriginal Races).

,, Manchu, 493.

., Mongol, 519-520.

,, Tibetan, 547. Tribute (.see Tax, Taxation',

,, Fleet, 430.

,, Rice, 330 ; Taot'ai, 430.

,, from Tibet, 549. Tsaidam, 513, 538, 542, 553. Tsangpo or Brahmaputra R., 544. Ts'angwu Wang, Emperor (Liu- sung), 454. Ts'aochow Fu Shantung), 79. Ts'aofeitien or Shalutien I., 251. Ts'aoyun Tsungtuh or Director- General of Grain Transport, 430. Tschepe, Pere A.. 89, 165, 479. Tsehchow Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 54, 55. Tseng Kwohfan, subdues Mussulman

revolt, 363. Ts^ng, Marquis, 477. Ts(>ng-shui or Peh-kiang (R.), 205. Ts'i dynasty (short-lived), 454. Ts'i, Feudal State, conquered by

Ts'in, 450. Tsitsihar, 495.

Tsiao-kiang or T'aichow R., 230. Ts'ien ^Mace^ or ^, ofTael, 316 {see

Cash). Ts'ienkieng hsien (Rwangsi), 197. Ts'ient'ang-kiang or Hangchow R.,

170,227, 229-230,232, 234, 235, 272. Ts'in Chow (Kansu;, 32. 38. Ts'in Chow Shansi), 50. 'I's'in dynasty (B. C. 249-206), 339,

344, 450-451. Tsin dynasty (A.D. 265-420), 463-454. Ts'in-ho (R.), 27, 51, 59. Ts^inlin Mts, 26, 40, 41, 42, 45, 92. Ts'in State (Feudal), 117, 450.

., Name given to China, 7. ,

Tsinshi or L. L. D. Graduate, 365.

Ts'in Shi Hwangti, 340, 450,461.

Ts'inwang-tao, 78, 252. ,, Trade of, 421, 666.

Ts'ingchow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84.

Ts'inghai or Kuku-Nor Lake, 25, 543.

Ts'ingho hsien, 162-163.

Tsingho T'ing (Sinkiang), 524.

Ts'inghwa ch^n (Honan), 61.

Ts'ingkiangp*oo, 162, 164,428,429.

Ts'ingk'ow, Port of, 261.

Ts'ingp'u hsien, 465.

Ts'ingshui (R.), 133.

i's'ingshui Lake, 82.

Ts'ingsu Island, 279.

Ts'ingftao (Green 1), 85 (with sketch- plan ofPort),86, 87, 258-260 (with plan of Kiao Chow Bay), 421-422, 468, 477 {see Kiao Chow).

Ts'ingyuen-ho (R.), 70.

Tso-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 197,198.

Tsop'oo (Tsop'u) or Chap'u, 272.

Tso Tsungt'ang, 31, 45, 363, 535.

Ts'Cienchow Fu (Fokien), 218, 223, 226, 460, 473. ,, Bay of, 277.

Tsungli Yam^n, 296, 298, 469.

Ts'ungming (Ch'ungming) I., 97, 157-158, 262, 263, 271.

Tsunhwa Chow (Chihli), 67.

Tsuni Ru (Kweichow), 184, 189,190.

Tsushima Channel, 470.

T'uhai-ho (R.), 82.

T'um^n River, 491.

Tungan, Tungani revolt, 362-363.

Tungch*ang Fu (Shantung), 79.

T'ungch'^ng hsien, 151.

T'ungchi, Emperor fTats*ing), 464- 466.

T'ung Chow (Chihli), 69, 74, 78.

T'ung Chow (Kiangsu), 154, 162.

T'ungchow Fu (Shensi), 39, 43, 55.

Tungchow Kiun, abdication of, 450.

T*ungchw*an Fu (Szechw'an), 106, 110, 116.

Tungchw'an Fu (Yunnan), 175, 181, 183.

Tunghaks or Tungkiaos, 467.

Tung-hai or Eastern China Sea, 241.

Tunghai or Amphitrite L, 290.

Tunghw^ui-ho (R.), 71.

Tungkas or Tungkias : boat-popul- ation. Canton), 207, 222.

Tungkadoo (Sul3urb of native city, Shanghai), 760.

Tung-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 204, 205- 206.

Tungkiangtze (Sh^ngking), 506.

T*ungkiohtze or Ten-cash piece, 320.

Tiingku, 78, 252.

708

INDEX.

Tungk^uenshan or Middle Dog Light- house, 278. T'ungkwan hsien, 43, 45, 55.

,, Pass, 26, 27, 39. T'ungngan hsien. 224. Tungsan Sheng or the Three Eastern

Provinces (Manchuria, 480. Tungshi or Village Elder, 309. ,, Duties of, 310. . Tungting or Chapel 1., 278. Tungt'ing Lake, 91, 'J4, 97,121,131,

133-134. Tunguses :Tartars),451 , 493,494, 506. ,, Ancestorsof theManchus. 451, 493, 506. Tungyung L and Lighthouse, 278. Turbets (Mongol tribe), 520. Turcomans, 450. Turfan, 524, 531, 534. Turfan-Daria or Turfan R., 528. Turguts (Mongol tribe), 515, 520. Turkestan, Chinese, or the New Dominion (Sinkiang), 4, 5, 32, 38, 338, 362, 465, 472, 474, 509, 523-537. ,, Various names given to, 522. ,, Area and Population, 5, 523. ,, Administration of, 533-534. ,, Aspect and Characteristics,

524-525. ,, Climate, 520-527; Geology,525. ,, Orography, 525; Depressions,

Passes, 520. ,, Hydrography, 527-528. ,, Fauna and Flora, 528. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 528-529. ,, Regions and Chief Towns, 529-

533. ,, Industry and Commerce, 534. ,, Highways of Communication,

534-535. ., People and Races, 533. ,, Religion, 533; Language (with

specimen of writing), 533. ., Historical Note, 535. Turkis, 30, 515. Turks, Hunnish origin of, 451. Turley B. T.. 507, 508. Turnabout or Niushan-tao Light- house, 278. Turner J. A., 210, ,389. Turner F. S.. 400. Turner S., 555.

Tuscarora Depression (East of Ja- pan), 239-240. Tussah or wild silk, 492. Tuyun Fu (Kweichow), 184, 190. Typhoons (Paofung), 245-246,285, 291.

,, Hongkong often visited by, 285. Tze Chow (Szechw'an), 100. Tze-ho (R.), 70. Tze-kiang (R.), 133. Tzekin ch'eng or Red Forbidden

City (Peking), 71. . Tzeliu-tsing (salt-well), 112, 114. Tz'ehsi, Empress-Dowager, 464,466,

468 [sec T*ungchi, KwangsO).

rbsa-Nor Lake, 511.

Uch-Turfan or Wushih T'ing, 524,

528, 531. rian-Muren or Tat'ung-ho, 25, 35. Uliasut'ai (Mongolia), 518. Ulukem River, 511. Umbrellas, Paper, or Kittysols, 158.

223, 234. United-States, Relations with China, 470, 474, 477.

,, Trade with China. 409, 411, 646; Kerosene, 411, 047.

,, Tea, 417, 052.

,, Trading Houses and Traders in China, 420, 646.

,, Shipping and Tonnage, 41 8,653.

,, Population at Shanghai, 267. University, Aurora (Sicawei), 369.

„ Peking, 367, 369.

,, conducted by Protestants, 369. Ural-Altai language, 516. Urat country, 514. Urga or K*urun (Mongolia), 53, 78, 514, 515, 510, 517, 548, 550, 554.

,, River or Tola, 511. Urumtsi or Tih-hwa Fu, 303, 524.

526, 531, 532, 533, 534. Ussuri River, 475, 489, 490. Uyfalvy, 530.

Vale J., 118.

N'alignani, Fr. A., enters China, 401. ValUe-Poussin (de la), 381. Valley, Chumbi, 551.

,, Han-ho, 104, 125; Hwai-ho, 90.

,, Kan-kiang, 140, 145; Lei-ho, 137, Namti, 183.

,, Songkoi, 98: Yangtze, 57, 90- 92, 99. Van Braam, 473. Vannutelli, 237. VarUt^s Sinologiques, 335, 338. Varnish, varnish -tree (T'ungtzeshu),

45, 111, 187, 190, 231, 394, 397. Vaulserre (de), 102, 191. Vay de Vaya, 508. yenault, 507. Venioukov, 500.

INDBX.

709

Verbiest Fr. or Nan Hwaij^n (Jesuit |

Astronomer at Peking), 355. Verrolles. 50G. Vial Pere, 191.

Viceroys in China, 301, 303, 305. Vigneron, 118, 386. Village or hsiang, 641.

„ Elder, 309-310 {see Tungshi). Villard (de) A., 102. Vincentians {see Lazarists). Vine-tree or P*ut'ao-shu, 398. Vineyards, 493. Vitale et de Sercey, 522. Vladimir, 481. Vladivostock, 468, 475, 490. *' Vodka" or millet-spirit, 495, 496.

{see Sorghum). Voisin M., 399. Volcanic action, 3, 53, 154. Volcano I. or SQshan (Ch^kiang),

273. Voyron, General, 481.

Waddel L. A., 382, 556. Wade, Sir T.. 375, 476. Waglan or Hunglan I., 283. Waiwu Pu or Ministry of Foreign

Affairs, 298, 464, 469. Wai-ch'^ng or Chinese City (Peking),

72. Wall, Great, 28-29, 55, 69, 450, 459,

460. Walnut, 18, 36, 398, 492. Wan hsien (Szechw*an),95, 115,435,

470. Wanlih, Emperor (Ming), 461. Wang Chungyu, 390. Wang Mang (Usurper at close of

Later Han), 452. Wang Nganshih (Social reformer),

458. Wanghsin , Treaty of (United States) ,

475. Wanshow-k'iao (Bridge of ten thou- sand years, Foochow), 222. War, Wars, first with England, 463.

, , second with England, 464, 476- 476.

,, with France, 467, 477.

,, with Japan, 467-468, 477. Ward, military leader, 159, 465, 476. Ware J., 380. Wameck G., 387. Water-buffalo, 17, 111, 114, 167, 198, I

394, 398. !

Water-lily, 232. Waterways, 427-430 {see Hydrogra- I

phy). i

Wathen W. H., 536.

Watter,s T.. 380.

Wax-insect, wax-tree. vegetable-wax,

45, 111, 114, 116, 182, 187. Weale, Putnam, 423, 485, 508. Webster J., 390. Weddel, Capitain. 474. W^eihaiwei, 86, 87, 257-268 (with plan), 468, 477.

,. leased to Great Britain, 87, 468, 477. description of, 257-258. Wei-ho (Shensi). 26, 35, 39, 41-42, 44. (Honan), 59,61. 62,63,69,82. Wei hsien (Shantung), 83, 86-86,87. W^eihwui Fu (Honan), 56. 59, 63. W'ei-i or Outer Barbarians (Forei- gners thus called by Emperor

Taokwang), 463. Wei Kingdom (T'oba Tartars), 453,

454. "Weinan hsien (Shensi), 44. Wei-shan (Mt.), 68-69.

,, Lake (Shantung), 82. Welhy M. S., 566. Wells, Salt {see Salt). Wenchang or Literary Essay, 365. Wen Ching, 389.

Wenchow Fu (Chdkiang), 225, 227, 230, 232, 234, 235, 275, 476.

,, Trade of, 234,421, 655.

, , Dialect, books for learning, 232, 348, 377. Wenchow Bay, 274. W^n-ho (R.), 429. Wensuh Fu or Aksu, 524. W^nti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.

,, Emperor (Liusung), 454.

,, Emperor (Sui), 455. Wen Wang (Chow), 449. Werner, 387. West River or Si-kiang, 15, 186-187,

196-197, 204-205, 206. Weurles,He G., 292, 404, 481. W'hangpoa or Hwampu (Hwangpu), 209, 212, 213, 287.

., Treaty of, with France, 475. W^heat, 37, 180, 187, 206, 221, 231,

394, 528, 529, 544. Wheelbarrow for travelling. 102, 527. White Dog 1., 278. White Lily Society or Pehlien-kiao,

459, 463. Wholesale Trade of China, carried

on by Guilds, 407-408. Wieger. Pcre L., 6, 479. Wigham. 508. Wilcox M. C. 23(). \V'i7/tVi»i.s, Wells, 6, r,4. 88, 118, 138,

165, 173, and passim.

710

IKDBX.

Williamson A., 30, 03, 88, 'lOb, 441,

507, 521. WilHon A., 481, 556. ^\''ine, 395, 445 : its use forbidden

in early times, 445. Windt (del 521. Wingate A. W., 138, 507, 521. Winterbothaw. 88, 118,138,165,192

213, 236, and passim. Wolff, 521. Wolseley <}. J., 480. Wood, Lieutenant, 389. Woodbridge S. /.. 138. Wood-oil, 187, 268. Wool, sheep, 38, 75, 78, 113, 114, 268, 412, 648.

,, camel, 75, 78. Woollen Goods, 54, 136, 158, 182, 190,

200, 209, 210, 222, 223, 268, 285-286,

287, 410, 413, 530, 550,553, 646. Woosung Railway, 430, 432.

„ Bars, 264-265, 270, 659-660. Worship of Ancestors, 353, 494.

,, of Heaven and Earth, 353, 378, 379.

,, of Evil spirits, 353, 548.

,, of Mountains and Rivers, 353, 494. Wuch*ang Fu (Hupeh), 120, 121, 125

(with sketch-plan). Wuch*ang T*ing Manchuria), 487. Wxichow Fu (Kwangsi), 172, 195,197, 200, 327.

„ Trade of, 421, 655. Wuchw*an hsien (Kweichow), 187. WuhsCeh (Hupeh), 130. Wuhu hsien (Nganhwei), 91, 101, 150, 151, 151, 461.

„ Trade of, 150, 421, 655,656. Wu-kiang (Crow River), 186, 191. Wu Kingdom, 159, 340, 453. Wu Sankwei called in Manchus),

461, 462, 506. Wushih T'ing {see I'ch-Tiirfan). W^usih hsien (Kiangsu), 159, 467. Wutai or the Five Ephemeral Dy- nasties, 457. Wut'ai-shan Ml.), 50, 52. Wutang-shan (Mt.;, 122. W'uti. Emperor ^Former Hanj, 451.

,, defeats Huns, 451.

,, added Fokirn,Kwa ngtung,Sze- chw'an and Liaotung to Crown, 451. Wuti, Emperor ( Tsin), 453.

,, defi'als Wu Kingdom, 453.

,, his end, 453. Wuti, Emperor iT.iusung , 'ib\. Wuti, Emperor (Liang), 455.

,, defeated at Siangyang, 455. ,, enters Buddhist monastery, 455.

Wuti, Emperor (Ch'^n), 455.

Wuting Chow (Yunnan), 177. ,, Fu (Shantung\ 79.

Wuting Pass, 41, 45, 107.

Wutsung, Emperor (T*ang), 354,456. ,, persecuted Buddhism, 456. ,, banished Nestorians, 354.

Wu Wang, Founder of Chow dy- nasty, 448, 449.

M^ylie A., 383, 388, 507.

Xavier, St. Francis, dies at Sancian, 282, 354.

YachowFu(Szechw'an), 105,109,1 14. Ya-ho (R.), 109. Yahluh-kiang(YaluR.), 490,491,503.

,, Naval battle of, 468. Yalung-kiang (R.), 95, 105, 109, 178. Yak or grunting ox of Tibet, 17,

111, 114, 528, 544, 553, 554. Yakub Beg, 535. Yamdok Tso or Yumtso (Lake Palti),

543. Yam^n, 75, 313. Yangch^ng-shan, 57. Yangchow Fu (Kiangsu), 94, 153,

155, 163, 455. Yangi-hissar or YingkihshaeulT*ing,

524, 531. Yangkiang T*ing, 203. Yangkien, Founder of the Sui

dynasty, 455. Yang Kingdom, 94. Yangkingpang Creek (Shanghai),266. Yangti, Emperor (Sui), 455. Yangtze-kiang, 15, 92, 93-100, 101- 103,120,123,154,155,262-263. rise and course of, 15, 93-99. various names of, 93-94. rapids, 05. 96, 99, 100, 128. drainage area of, 99. channels at mouth of, 262-263. Na^ngation of, 99-100. Steamboat Companies trading on, 110, 440. Yangtze Cape, 261.

,, Sand-bank or Tasha, 262. ,, Valley, 57, 90, 93, 99, 101. Yang Yuhk'o (General), 363. Yanianghsiai or Anunghoy, 286. Yao, Emperor, 53, 55, 339, 444-445,

448. Yao tribe or Yaohus (Jackals), 135,

207, 232, 344. Yap (Caroline Is.), 439.

INDSX.

711

Yarkand or Soch*6 Fu, 362, 476, 524,

527, 528, 530, 531, 535. Yarn, Foreign, import of, 413, 444,

649. Yatung or Nadong (Tibet), 551. Yellow Caps (Tibet), 547.

,, earth {see Loes lands).

,, River or Hwang-ho (sec Hwang- ho); Race, 341.

,, Sea or Hwang-hai, 240, 241. Yench'^ng hsien, 63. Yenchow Fu, 79, 86, 87. Yenesei R., 511. Yen-ho (Yungting-ho, Sangkan-ho)

River, 70. Y^nki Fu [see Karashar). Yanking or Peking, 71. Yenmdn Kwan or Pass, 29, 55. Y^nngan Fu (Shensi), 39. Yent*ai or Chefoo, 84, 85, 256. Y^nt'ai mines (Sh^ngking), 503. Y^nti, one of the Five Sovereigns,

444. Yen W. W., 392. Y^n Wang or Prince of Y^n (see

Yungloh). Yin dynasty, 448. Ying Chow Fu, 146, 149, 151. Yingkihshaeul T'ing [see Yangi-

hissar). Yingk'ow T'ing [see Newchwang). Yin-shan (Mt.), 509, 513, Yingtsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458. Yiuyang Chow, 106. Yohchow Fu (Hunan), 131, 132, 136,

137 : Trade of, 421, 655. Young, 387.

Young China, Education of, 370. Younghusband, Sir F., 508, 537, 557. YQ, Emperor, the Great, 445. Yu-ho (R.), 59. YQh or Pearl Island, 261. Yu-Hsien, 469. YOh-kiang (R.), 170-172, 197. Yuhlin Chow (Kwangsi), 195, 198. YQlin Fu (Shensi), 39, 44. YCihm^n or Jadestone Gate, 529. Yu Wang, Emperor (Chow), 449. Yueh Kingdom, 340. YOenchow Fu, 131, 135, 137. Yuen-kiang (R.), 97, 111, 133. Yuenming-yOen or Summer Palace,

74, 475. Yaen or Mongol dynasty, 428, 459- 460 ; Emperors of, 459.

,. general character of. 459-460.

YQen Shik'ai, 333. Yaenyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124. Yule, 522. Yule H.. 384, 482. Yan-ho [see Grand Canal). YQnkwei ( YQnnan, Kweichow), Vice- royalty of, 1 74, 303. YOnnan Province, 4, 8,9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 98, 99, 101, 105, 174-183, 184, 190, 195, 200, 313, 340, 345, 362-363, 465. ,, Arefe and Population, 175. , ,, Aspect and Characteristics, 177. ,, Climate, 178; Geology, 177. ,, Orography, 178 (with sketch- plan); Hydrography, 178-179. Lakes, 179-180. ,, Fauna and Flora, 180. ,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 180. ,, Cities and Principal Centres,

181-182. ,, Industry and Commerce, 182. ,, Highways of Communication,

182-183 : Open Marts, 183. ,, Historical Note, 183. YQnnan Fu, 175, 181. Yungch*ang Fu, 177, 183. Yungch*^ng, Emperor (TatsMng), 462. ,, hostile to Christianity, 462. ,, hated Foreigners, 462. Yungch'^ng Bay (Shantung), 254. Yungchow Fu (Hunan), 131. Yungch*un Chow (Fokien), 218. Yung-kiang or Ningpo R., 198, 230. Yungloh, Emperor (Ming), 71, 460. Yungpeh T'ing, 95, 177. Yungp'ing Fu, 66, 70, 77, 78. Yungshun Fu, 131. Yungsui T'ing, 132. Yungting-ho (R.), 70. Yungtseh hsien, 63.

Zaitun, 223, 472 {see Ts'uenchow Fu,

Fokien). Zebu or humped ox, 17, 143, 157. Zi (Sa), Pere E.. 390. Zikas or SQkias (savage tribe of Ch^-

kiang), 232. Zikawei {see Sicawei). Zilling-tso Lake, 543. Zinc, 125, 135, 180, 187, 403. Zoology {see Fauna). Zosai (Sh^-shan), 160. ZottoU, Pere A., 375.

CORRIGENDA.

age 4

line 14

for way i

read away.

? « * '

,, 22

,, inhabitants of China

,, Chinese[Settlers.

t » » »

,, 28

,, the first Chinese in-

,, Aboriginal races

habitants

of China.

^ 8

,, 20

,, 25,317,820

,, 25,316,820.

9

.. 11

,, alluvion

,, alluvium.

,, 10

„ 7

,, whith

,, with.

,, 13

,. 27

,, ihe

,, the

„ 17

,, 15

,, bear

,, boar

» » , ,

,, 21

, , gerboa

, , jerboa

,, 30

,, 10

, , pit-coat

,, pit-coal.

„ 3U

,, 20

,, 1830

,, 1850

,, 32

„ 20

,, Lean gc how

,, Liangchow.

,, , ,

„ 27

,, PMngleang

,, P*ingliang.

,, 36

„ 3

,, Estingol

,, Etsingol.

,. 38

,, 33

,, Minchow

,, Min Chow.

,, 39

„ 32

, , Soeiteh

,, Suiteh.

„ 45

„ 26

, , Chang Chow

,, Shang Chow.

,, 62

„ 19

,, ChenchowFu

,, Ch'^nchow Fu

„ 63

,, 19

, , Shenchow Fu

,, Shen Chow

,, 71

.. 17

,, Leao dynasty

,, Liao Tartars or K4tans

» » 1 >

,, 23

,, 1341

,, 1368.

,. 27

, . removed

, , resolved to remove

,, H'A

,. 22

,, Pushan

,, Pohshan

,, 91

,, 20

,, Hsiichow

• ,, Siichow.

,, 95

,, 26

,, K'weichow Fu

,, Kw*eichow Fu

,, 100

,, 9

,, Timere quired

,, Time required

,, 124

,, 23

,, Aseries

,, A series.

,, 157

,, 36

,, 500

,, 3,500

,, 172

,, 30

,, Hingi Fu

,, Hsing-i Fu

,, 182

,, 14

, , tabacco

,, tobacco.

,, 183

,, 19

, , Tengyuch

,, T^engyueh.

, , ^ ,

,, 24

,. Musulman

,, Mussulman.

,, 186

,, 21

,, N. E..

,, N. W.

,, 189

., 1

,, Kweicohw

, , Kweichow

,, 204

,, 17

,, N. W.

,, N. E.

,, 222

,, 21

,, Hvvahsing

,, Hsinghwa

,, 241

,, 30

,, Leaotvmg

, , Liaotung

,, 251

,, 15

,, Leao-ho

,, Liao-ho.

,, 264

„ 31

,, E

,, w.

,, 275

„ 21

,, entranc

,, entrance.

>.%••