EX LIBRIS JOHANNIS FLETCHER PER DUO ET VIGINTI ANNOS LINGUAE LATINAE IN COLLEGIO UNI VE RSI TAXIS PROFESSORIS: QUI MENSE JULIO A.D. MDCCCCXVII MORTUUS EST: LIBROS QUOS ILLE PENITUS AMAVERAT UXOR ET FILII EJUS COLLEGIO AMATO DO NAVE RUNT. DULCES EXUVIAE DUM FATA DEUS-QUE SINEBANT. Virg:Mn: IV. MACMILLAN'S LATIN COURSE THIRD PAKT MACMILLAN'S LATIN COUKSE THIRD PART EASY EXERCISES IN CONTINUOUS PROSE BY W. E. P. PANTIN, M.A. ASSISTANT MASTER AT ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL I ^ < ~_- - ILontion MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1901 PREFACE BEFORE using this book the student should at least have had some practice in putting into Latin easy sentences illustrating the use of the accusative and infinitive, gerund and gerundive, id and ne, cum, si, etc. Some of these subjects are treated afresh, but the sentences will be found too hard for the beginner, at any rate for the young beginner. An acquaintance with the earlier volumes of this Course is not necessary. My object has been to produce a set of easy exercises in continuous prose, to give practice in those words, constructions and idioms, which occur on every page of Cicero and Caesar, and so to enable the student to read these authors with some ease. When I had finished my continuous pieces, I found that there were certain difficulties which recurred in most of them. The principal difficulties were con- nected with the use of the participles, of the infinitive and subjunctive in Oratio obliqua, of some of the pronouns, of the gerund and gerundive, of the tenses vi LATIN COURSE iii subordinate clauses, of si, cum, and a few other conjunctions. Most of these subjects had been treated in a very elementary way in Part II. of this Course, but the student had not been carried far enough to enable him to deal with the continuous exercises. 1 therefore wrote some thirty exercises of detached sentences, which are intended to lead up to the con- tinuous exercises. These earlier exercises are more difficult, and at the same time, I hope, more interesting, than exercises of detached sentences generally are. I venture to suggest that it may be worth while to take a pupil through them two or three times, so that he may become quite familiar with the rules and able to apply them without any considerable effort. I hope that the book may prove useful not only for younger boys, but also for those elder boys and girls who begin Latin rather late and cannot give much time to the study of the language. For them the important thing is that they should acquire as rapidly as possible the power to read ordinary Latin prose without great difficulty. I think that something may be done to help them by excluding everything that is not quite common, and by giving plenty of practice in dealing with all those difficulties which are of frequent occurrence. It is waste of time to give them an exercise on Made mrtnte, for example, or the use of the infinitive in rhetorical questions in Oratio obliqua, for they will very likely never come across PREFACE vii an instance of either. What they need is such familiarity with common constructions as will make a sentence like the following easy and pleasant to read : Cuius sermone ita turn cupide fruebar, quasi iam divinarem, id quod evenit, illo exstincto fore, uncle discereni, neminem. I owe a great deal to the Latin Grammar of Gildersleeve and Lodge. For explaining grammatical subtleties in clear and forcible language this book is, it seems to me, unrivalled. I have found the numerous examples in Drager, and in Kiihner, useful. I have also used constantly Merguet's Lexicons, (1) to the Speeches, and (2) to the Philosophical Writings, of Cicero. I should like to express my gratitude to my colleague, Mr. A. M. Cook, who has kindly looked through my work from time to time and helped me by his encouragement and advice. CONTENTS SECTION PAGE 1-30. Miscellaneous ...... 1 31-32. The connecting relative . . .22 33-35. se and eum ...... 24 EXERCISE 1 . . . . .27 36-51. Pronouns and the adverbs connected with them . 29 (Qui, quis, cur, quando, etc., 36-40: quisquam and ullus, 41 ; quivis, 42 ; aliquis, quidam, quondam, 43, 44 ; quisquis, quicumque, 45 ; quisque, 46 ; ipse, 47 ; idem, 48) EXERCISE 2 . . . . . .38 52-58. The tenses ...... 41 (The tenses classified, 52 ; general rule for tenses in subordinate sentences, 53 : general rule applied to iterative sentences, 54 ; general rule applied to conditional sentences with the indicative, 55 ; general rule applied to cunt, sentences with the indicative, 56 ; iam dlio with the present, 58) EXERCISE 3 . . . . .49 59-64. Temporal sentences (ubi, simid ac, postquam, prius- quam, dum) . . . . .51 EXERCISE 4 . . . . .55 65-72. The conjunction cum ..... 57 EXERCISE 5 . . . . . .62 73-79. The participles (examples in 77; . . 65 EXERCISES 6-8 . " 73 LATIN COURSE SECTION 80-82. 83-89. 90 95. 100. 101-02. 103. 104. 105. 106-13. 114. 115-19. 120-23. 124-25. 126-28. 129-30. 131-52. The infinitive, gerund, and gerundive. (The English verbal substantive in -ing : ars scribendi, the art of writing) . . . . .79 EXERCISE 9 ... 83 The gerund and gerundive used as predicates (scri- bendum est, I must write) . . . .85 EXERCISES 10, 11 . . .90 The infinitive as subject (Predicative genitive) . 94 EXERCISE 12 . ' . . . . .98 The infinitive as subject (Impersonal verbs : decet, oportet, iiUerest, etc.) . . . .100 EXERCISE 13 . . . . . . 103 The infinitive as subject (Impersonal verbs with dative : licet, etc.) . . . .105 EXERCISE 14 . . . . . .107 The infinitive as object .... 109 Verbs with which the nominative and infinitive may be used (nolo ire solus] . . . .110 lubeo, veto, etc. . . . . .111 Some verbs which admit of various constructions (scio, wlo, timeo, dubito, constituo, disco) . 112 EXERCISE 15 . . . . . .115 The infinitive with verbs of saying and thinking . 117 The future infinitive active and passive . . 122 EXERCISE 16 . . . . . . 124 Conditional sentences . . . . .127 EXERCISE 17 . . . . . .130 The potential subjunctive (scire velim) . 132 EXERCISE 18 .... . 135 Commands and prohibitions . . . .137 Exhortations (eamus, let us go) . . .139 Wishes (Utinam venial) . . . 140 EXERCISE 19 . . . . . .142 Oratio obliqua ...... 144 EXERCISES 20-26 . . . .157 CONTENTS xi SECTION PAt;K 153-58. The subjunctive in relative clauses (Nihil cst cur doleas, Dignus est quern imiter is, etc.) . . 171 EXERCISE 27 . . . .174 159-62. Causal sentences Quod meaning "as to the fact that" . . . . . .176 EXERCISE 28 . . . .179 163-67. The Calendar . . 181 EXERCISE 29 ... . 184 168. Hints on the connection of sentences . . 185 EXERCISES IN CONTINUOUS PROSE . .186 ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY . . . 277 IRREGULAR VERBS ... . 304 NUMERALS 308 TO THE STUDENT FIRST look through Sections 1-30. Sections 1-13 contain information on some elementary matters, with which you will be more or less familiar. Sections 14-30 contain short notes on some of the subjects which are treated more fully later on in the book. These short notes will help you to find your way about the book. You will also find the Table of Contents useful. Then read carefully Sections 31-35, study the examples with a view to imitating them, and begin Exercise 1. The dictionary at the end of the book contains all the words which are really necessary. Try to think of the words for yourself: do not become dependent on the dictionary, or you will be helpless without it. A good deal is left to your intelligence, especially in the later exercises. For example, if you look up ' peril ' you will not find it, but if you think what it means, the words ' danger ' and ' periculum ' will occur to you. If you do not find ' accompanied by, ' you may supply its place by using the pre- position cum ; and so on. Do not be satisfied when you have found out the correct words and given them correct terminations. Consider whether the sentence sounds like a Latin sentence, and go through it again and again till you are satisfied that it does. The words may be right and the sen- tence intelligible, and yet it may be a sentence which no Latin writer could have written. Study the order of words, the connection of sentences, etc., in the exainples and in your reading. After the dictionary you will find a list of irregular verbs, and the numerals. Read the note on p. 276 on the marking of the quantities in the dictionary. The reference is always by sections (unless otherwise stated) : for instance, ' see 77 ' means see section 77, which is on p. 68. 1. WHEN ? WITHIN WHAT TIME ? FOR HOW LONG ? (a) The ablative answers the questions When ? On what day ? At what hour ? In what year or month ? Eodem die, The same day. superioribus diebus, in earlier days. quarta hora, at the fourth hour. illo anno, in that year. hac ipsa nocte, this very night. (b) The ablative answers the question Within what time ? Faucis diebus aderit, He will be here in a few days. Quattuor diebus capietur, It will be taken within four days. (c) The accusative answers the question For how long? Duo annos in careers erat, He was two years in prison. 2 LATIN COURSE 2. WHERE FROM ? WHERE TO ? WHERE ? Use a preposition with all common nouns and with the names of countries : ab urbe venio in agros ibo in templo est; e Gallia venio in Italian! ibo in Britannia est. Use no preposition with the name of a town or small island : Eoma venio Eomam ibo Eomae est; Ehodo (from Rhodes) Ehodum (to Rhodes) Ehodi (at Rhodes). The town at which is put in the ablative unless it is a singular word of the first or second declension, when it is put in the genitive : Corinthi, Athenis, Carthagine. Use no preposition with domus and rus. The name of a town is often used in apposition to urbs or oppidum : Ab urbe Eoma, from the city of Rome in oppidum Puteolos, to the town Puteoli in urbe Eoma, in the city of Rome. The Latin idiom differs from the English in such sentences as the following : He came to me in the city, Ad me in urbem (into the city) venit. He came to me at Rome, Ad me Eomam venit. Use quo for 'where ?' eo for 'there/ hue for 'here,' if motion to the place is meant : Quo vadis ? Where are you going ? Eo rediit, He returned there. Hue veni, Come here. MISCELLANEOUS 3. INTRANSITIVE VERBS HAVE IMPERSONAL PASSIVE A verb is used transitively when it governs an accusative of the direct object : vinco hostem, I conquer my enemy. A verb is used intransitively when the action does not go beyond the subject : dormio, I sleep. A verb used transitively in the active voice has a personal passive ; the object of the active verb is the subject of the passive : (a) active, vinco hostem : (b) passive, hostis vincitur : in (a) hostem is object, in (b) hostis is subject. A verb used intransitively in the active voice has an impersonal passive in Latin : dormio, I sleep ; dormitur, sleep is going on ; dormitum est, sleep is done. As we have no impersonal passive in English, we cannot translate dormitur, etc. literally : we cannot say ' it is being slept.' Many intransitive verbs govern a dative of the indirect object. Like other intransitive verbs they are used impersonally in the passive ; the dative remains unchanged : Parco tibi, / am lenient to you, / spare you. Parcitur tibi, Leniency is shown to you, You are spared. Many of these verbs are transitive in English : hence the very common mistake of supposing they are transitive in Latin. This is the more natural because the impersonal use of the passive is not found in English, and it requires a considerable effort to make 4 LATIN COURSE the mind familiar with it. A few more examples may help you to avoid blunders : Credit ur milii, / am believed. Ignoscetur tibi, You will be forgiven. Persuasum est rnihi, / have been persuaded, I am convinced. Note especially the use of the gerund : credendum est Caesari a nobis. The agent must be expressed by a, ab and the ablative ; for two datives would be ambiguous. (See 87.) 4. COPULATIVE VERBS The following verbs among others may be used with two nominatives, one of the subject, the other of the predicate : sum, I am ; videor, I seem ; nascor, I am born ; evado, I turn out ; creor, nominor, I am appointed ; putor, existimor, habeor, I am considered ; appellor, dicor, I am called ; flo, I am made. Cicero creatus est consul, Cicero was appointed consul. Ille putatur bonus vir, He is considered a good man. Imperator certior factus est, The general was informed. When the copulative verb is in the infinitive with possum, volo and similar verbs (see 103) the predicate remains in the nominative : Malet existimari bonus vir, He will prefer to be considered a good man. MISCELLANEOUS 5 Socrates parens philosophiae lure dici potest, Socrates may with justice be called the father of philosophy. Dionysius fortis esse didicerat, Dionysius had been taught to be courageous, or, had learned to be courageous. 5. QUESTIONS. I. Direct 1. Simple Questions with num, -ne, nonne : Num. fecisti ? Did you really do it ? [Surely you didn't ?~\. Nonne fecisti ? Didn't you do it ? [Surely you did .?] Fecistine ? Did you do it ? [Tell me : I want to know.] Num expects the answer 'No.' Nonne expects the answer 'Yes.' -ne is appended to the most emphatic word in a question asked for information ; the answer is not implied. The most emphatic word is generally placed first : Interfecisti-ne omnes ? Did you kill them all ? Omnes-ne interfecisti ? Did you kill them all ? 2. Double Questions: utrum and an: Utrum vicisti an victus es ? Utrum vicisti annon ? 3. Questions may also be introduced by such words as Quis ? Cur ? Unde ? See 37. LATIN COURSE The Mood in a Direct Question 4. Direct questions have the verb in the indicative if the expected answer would have the verb in the indicative, as is the case with all the above sentences. The subjunctive is used where the answer would be in the subjunctive or imperative : Si ad te venissem, quid fecisses ? Tecum profectus essem, If I had come to you, what would you have done ? I should have started with you. Quid faciam ? Eedi, What am I to do ? Go lack. Utrum hostibus resistamus an nos dedamus ? Resistamus, Must (Shall) we resist or surrender ? Let us resist. 6. QUESTIONS. II. Indirect The verb in an indirect question is in the subjunctive. In a simple indirect question ' whether ' may be trans- lated by num or -ne: num does not imply that the answer to the question must be 'No.' Scire velim num redierit, / should like to know whether he has come lack. Ex me quaesivit posset-ne fieri, He asked me whether (or, if) it was possible. Note. The word ' if ' introducing a question ( = ' whether ') must not be translated by si. Just as the future infinitive is made up of the future participle with esse, so the future subjunctive MISCELLANEOUS 7 in indirect questions is made up of the future participle with sim or essem : Quaesivi num moriturus esset, / asked ivliether he would die. Considerabimus quid fecerit, quid faciat, quid facturus sit, We will consider ivhat he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do (will do). In a double indirect question ' whether ' may be translated by utrum or -ne ; * or ' by an ; * or not ' by nec-ne : Scire velim utrum vicerit an victus sit (Scire velim vicerit-ne an victus sit), / should like to know whether he has won or lost. Nihil interest utrum rescribas necne, It doesn't matter whether you write hack or not. 7. HOW TO EXPRESS A CONSEQUENCE To express a result or consequence use ut, id . . . non, ut . . . nemo, ut . . . nihil, ut . . . numquam (not ne, nequis, nequid, nequando etc.). Tanta erat tempestas ut nemo posset solvere, The storm was so violent that no one could set sail. Tarn paucae erant naves ut redire non possent, There were so few ships that they could not return. Contrast the next example. 8 LATIN COURSE 8. HOW TO EXPRESS A PURPOSE To express a purpose use (1) ut, ne, nequis, etc. (not ut . . . non, ut nemo, ut nihil etc.). Ne in patriam redire possent, naves incendit, He burned the ships that they might not be able to return to their country. In final clauses (i.e. clauses expressing a purpose) ne-ve, not neque, is used for ' and not.' Id ut efficerent ne-ve desperarent, metum dissimu- lavit, that they might effect this and not lose hope, he concealed his fear. Ne = ' lest'; you can introduce ' lest ' in final clauses in English, but not in consequence-clauses. (2) The relative pronoun (qui) may also be used to express a purpose : qui is then equivalent to ut is. Misimus qui quaererent, We sent some men to find out ( We sent men who might find out). Use qui instead of ut when the sense allows (i.e. when ut is makes sense) ; for instance He sent two ships to protect the city, Duas naves misit quae (not ut) urbi praesidio essent. See 156 for further examples. (3) Quo (the ablative of qui) is used with compara- tives : Quo facilius intellegatis, epistulam legam, That you may understand the more easily, I will read the letter. Quo is equivalent to ut eo, ' in order that/ ' by this means.' MISCELLANEOUS 9 (4) A purpose is also sometimes expressed by the gerund or gerundive followed by causa (the abl. of causa, ' cause,' ' reason') : In Asiam venit negotiandi causa, He came to Asia in pursuit of his business (lit. for the sake of carrying on his business}. Navium reficiendarum causa, In order to repair his (5) The supine in -um is also sometimes used, but only with verbs of motion : Venerunt oratum regem ut sibi subveniret, They came to beg the king to help them. 9. THE RELATIVE EXPRESSING A TENDENCY OR EESULT Qui with the subjunctive may be equivalent to ut is or talis ut is : Nemo tarn sapiens est qui sciat omnia, No one is so wise as to know everything, or simply Nemo est qui sciat omnia, There is no one who knoivs (i.e. such that he knows) everything. This use of the relative is 'specially common after Sunt qui, Nemo est qui: Sunt qui dicant, Some people say (There are some who say). See further examples in 157-58. 10 LATIN COURSE 10. VERBS FOLLOWED BY UT The following verbs among others may be followed by ut. (a) ut final ; negative ne : in English we use the infinitive with the corresponding verbs : I urge (order, beg etc.) you to come, HOT tor (impero, oro) ut venias, I urge (order etc.) you not to come, Hortor (impero etc.) ne venias. peto a te persuadeo tibi oro te impero tibi hortor te praecipio tibi moneo te edico tibi suadeo tibi All these verbs mean to try to induce a man to do or to avoid doing so and so. Some of them may take other constructions with different meaning, for example : i. Moneo te ut audias, / advise you to listen. ii. Moneo te eum iam ad oceanum pervenisse, / warn you that he has already reached the ocean. In i. moneo takes ut because it means ' I try to make you listen/ in ii. it takes the accusative and infinitive because it means ' I inform you that he has reached the ocean.' In i. the ut clause expresses my purpose in speaking (my object is to make you listen). In ii. the accusative and infinitive reports what I say (I say iam ad oceanum pervenit}. MISCELLANEOUS 1 1 Note that where we use our infinitive with these verbs the Latin has ut (as in i.) : where we use ' that ' the Latin has the infinitive (as in ii.). (b) ut consecutive or explanatory : negative non. Accidit, it happens, it chances. fieri potest, factuni est etc., it is possible that, the result was that etc,. I happened to see him, Accidit ut eum viderein. 11. QUIN The following expressions among others are followed by quin. They are all negative statements or questions implying a negative answer : Nemo est. Non recuso. Quis est? Non obsto. Non dubito. Me retinere non possum. Quis est quin sciat ? Who is there 'who does not know ? Eecusare non possum quin venias, / cannot object to your coming. Non dubito quin venturus sit, / have no doubt that he will come. 12 LATIN COURSE 12. QUOMINUS Quominus follows impedio, deterreo and some other verbs of hindering : Eeges impediendi sunt quominus Parthis sub- veniant, The kings must be prevented from helping the Parthians. Quominus = quo minus : quo, l by which means ' is equivalent to ut eo, ' that by this means ' : minus, ' to a less extent, not at all.' Quid obstat quominus sit beatus, What prevents his being happy (what stands in the way so that in consequence thereof he should the less be happy ?). 13. SEQUENCE OF TENSES The rule of sequence is : Primary tenses of the subjunctive follow primary tenses of the indicative, historic tenses of the subjunctive follow historic tenses of the indicative. The Primary Tenses are in the Indicative in the Subjunctive Present. Present. Future and Future Perfect. Perfect. The Historic Tenses are in the Indicative in the Subjunctive Imperfect. Imperfect. Perfect. Pluperfect. Pluperfect. MISCELLANEOUS 13 Note that the historic tenses correspond to the Greek augmented tenses. The primary tenses have to do with the present and the future, the historic tenses with the past. Hence the imperative mood is, of course, primary. 14. Tense in subordinate clause 1. Latin is more exact than English in the use of the tenses in subordinate clauses : Si quid iussisti, efficimus, If you give (i.e. have given} any order, we carry it out. Si quid iusseras efficiebamus, If you gave (i.e. had given} any order, we used to carry it out. As a practical rule, if you can introduce the more exact expression (such as ' if you have given/ ' if you had given,' ' if you shall have given ') in the English without altering the sense, you must use one of the tenses of completion (perfect, pluperfect or future perfect) in the Latin. 2. If a subordinate clause refers to the future, a future tense must be used in Latin : Veniet, si valebit, He will come if lie is well (i.e. if he shall be well). Veniet si iussero, He will come if I bid him to (i.e. if I shall have bidden him). See 52-57. 14 LATIN COURSE 15. lam diu etc. with Present The present is used of an action commenced long ago and still continuing, especially with iam and iam diu. Iam diu exspecto litteras, / have long been expecting a letter (and am still expecting). See 58. 16. Postquam etc. with the Perfect Note the common use of the perfect tense (where in accordance with the rule given in 14 we should expect the pluperfect) with ubi, ut, postquam, priusquam, simul ac : Postquam a nobis discessit, interfectus est, After he (had) left us he was murdered. See 60. 17. Dum with the Present Indicative Dum takes the present indicative when it means ' during the time that/ ' in the course of the time that ' : Dum haec geruntur, (interea) nuntiatum est, While this was going on (In the course of these proceedings), a message was brought. See 62. MISCELLANEOUS 15 18. Dum, ' until,' with Subjunctive Dum, ' until/ takes the subjunctive if there is any reference to the future, or any sense of purpose or expectation. Hence very often with exspecto and similar verbs : Exspectandura est dum redeat, We must wait till he returns, or, for him to return. See 64. 19. The Conjunction Cum Cum, 'when/ takes the future or future perfect indicative. Cum, ' when/ takes the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive. Cum, meaning 'since/ 'as/ 'seeing that/ 'although/ takes the subjunctive. See 65-72. 20. The English Present Participle The present participle can only be used in Latin of an action contemporaneous with that of the leading verb. It is correct to write : Flens oravit auxilium for ' Shedding tears he legged for help,' for he was shedding tears while he was speaking. But it would not be correct to write : Surgens discessit for ' Rising up he went away' for he did not go while he was rising, but after he had risen. We should therefore write : Cum surrexisset discessit. 16 LATIN COURSE 21. We use our present participle in a causal sense : Being hungry (i.e. as he was hungry) he asked for food. The participle thus used should be translated into Latin by (1) cum with the subjunctive, Cum esuriret, As he was hungry, or (2) by the past participle of a deponent verb, Veritus, Being afraid. See 74, 78, 79. 22. The English Past Participle There is no past participle active in Latin. Its place is supplied (1) sometimes by the use of the passive participle, (2) sometimes by using cum with the subjunctive, sometimes in other ways. (1) a. Having conquered his enemy he departed. Hoste victo discessit (His enemy having been conquered). b. Having conquered his enemy he killed him. Hostem victum interfecit (He killed his conquered enemy}. Beware of writing the ablative absolute when, as in (b), the participle may be brought into the sentence in some other way. (2) a. Having conquered his enemy he departed, Cum hostem vicisset, discessit. b. Having arrived there he had dinner, Quo cum venisset cenavit. Beware of using victus for ' having conquered/ or ventus ( ' the wind ') for ' having come.' See 77 for examples of the use of the participles. MISCELLANEOUS 17 23. The Gerund and Gerundive I. The gerund and gerundive are used to translate our verbal substantive in -ing, in the accusative after a preposition, in the genitive, dative, and ablative. The gerund is used as the intransitive form, and as the transitive form when the object is a neuter adjective or pronoun; the gerund is not used to govern a substantive in the accusative : it is replaced by the gerundive, which attracts the substantive into its own case. ace. ad scribendum (multa, aliquid), With a view to writing. ad scribendam epistulam. gen. ars scribendi. ars scribendarum epistularum. dat. and abl. scribendo. scribendis epistulis. The nominative and the accusative without a pre- position are supplied by the infinitive : nom. scribere est molestum, Writing is troublesome. ace. nolo scribere, / dont want to write, I don't like writing. See 80-82. II. They are used as predicates to express obliga- tion or necessity or some similar idea. The nominative and accusative are the only possible cases : Moriendum est omnibus, We must all die. Exspectandae sunt naves (tibi), You must wait for the ships. Versus mihi dedit rescribendos, He gave me my verses to write out again. See 83-89. c 18 LATIN COURSE 24. The Infinitive with the Accusative The infinitive, or the accusative and infinitive, may be the subject to est and some other verbs : Manere est optimum, It is best to stay. Me manere est optimum, It is best that I should stay. Manere solum est optimum, It is best to stay alone. The words in italics form the subject to est. See 91-100. 25. The Infinitive with the Nominative The infinitive, or the nominative and infinitive, may be used with possum, debeo, volo, nolo, malo, cupio, statuo ( = ' I resolve '), coepi, desino, and soms other verbs : Cupit manere solus, He desires to remain alone. See 101-105. The nominative and infinitive may also be used with passive verbs of saying and thinking : Dicitur manere solus, It is said that he remains alone. See 110. 26. The Accusative with the Infinitive Tense of the Infinitive The accusative and infinitive are used with active verbs of saying and thinking ; to some extent also with passive verbs of the same class. See 106-14. MISCELLANEOUS 9 19 A common mistake is to put the wrong tense of the infinitive. Observe the tense in the following : They say he was king (i,e. They say Eex erat or fuit, He was king), Dicunt eum regem fuisse. They said he ivas king (i.e. They said Eex est, He is king), Dixerunt eum regem esse. They said he was king (i.e. They said Eex erat or fuit, He was king), Dixerunt eum regem fuisse. To avoid mistakes go back to the direct form, i.e. ask yourself what they did say : if the direct form has the present indicative, the indirect form will have the present infinitive ; if the direct form has the imperfect or perfect indicative, the indirect form will have the perfect infinitive. See 113. 27. ORATIO OBLIQUA The principal rules for Oratio Obliqua are : The indicative mood is not used. Statements are put in the accusative and infinitive. Questions and commands have the verb in the subjunctive. Subordinate clauses have the verb in the sub- junctive. With regard to the tenses, keep as close as possible to the Oratio Eecta and observe the rule of the sequence of tenses. See 131-52. 20 LATIN COURSE 28. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN ORATIO KECTA AND OBLIQUA See 115-19 on conditional sentences ; 131-52 on oratio obliqua, and especially 151. A. 1. Si loquatur, audiam, If he were to speak, I ivould listen. Dixi me eum, si loqueretur, auditurum esse. 2. Si locutus esset, audissem, If he had spoken, I should have listened (it is implied that he did not speak). Dixi me eum, si locutus esset, auditurum fuisse. 3. Si loqueretur audirem, If he were speaking, I should listen (it is implied that he is not speaking). Dixi me eum, si loqueretur, auditurum fuisse. B. 1. Si id dices, mentieris, If you (shall) say it, you will lie. Dixi ilium, si id diceret, mentiturum esse. 2. Si id dixero, me caedet, If I say it (shall have said it), he will flog me. Dixi eum me, si id dixissem, caesurum esse. 3. Si id dixisti, mentitus es, If you said it, you lied. Dixi eum, si id dixisset, mentitum esse. 4. Si quid dixeram, irascebatur, If I (had) said anything, he used to get angry. Dixi eum, si quid dixissem, iratum esse or irasci solitum esse. MISCELLANEOUS 21 5. Si quid dicit, mentitur, If he says anything, he Dixi eum, si quid diceret, mentiri. 6. Si timebat, mentiebatur, If he was frightened, he used to lie. Dixi eum, si timeret, mentitum esse or mentiri solitum esse. 29. THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE Scire velim, / should like to know. Dixerit quispiam, Some one may say. See 120-23. 30. COMMANDS, PROHIBITIONS, AND EXHORTATIONS In the second person the following are the common forms : Commands Singular. Veni. Fac venias. Cura ut venias. Plural. Venite. Prohibitions Singular. Noli putare. Cave (ne) putes. Plural. Nolite putare. In the first and third person the subjunctive is used : Faciamus, Let us do it. Ne quis dicat, Let no one say. See 124-28. II THE CONNECTING EELATIVE 31. The connection between one sentence and another is often more fully expressed in Latin than in English. The relative pronoun and its adverb quo are very largely used after full stops, colons and semicolons to bind one sentence to another: Quae cum audisset Eomam profectus est. Quam ad urbem cum pervenisset ad fratris domum properavit. Quern cum in Galliam iam profectum esse cognovisset Massiliam navigare statuit. Itaque ad-portum currit, or ad portum igitur currit. ' When he heard this (or, on hearing this), he started for Eome. And when he reached the city he hastened to his brother's house. Finding that he had already set off for Gaul he determined to sail to Marseilles. So he hurries off to the harbour.' 32. We cannot imitate this use of the relative in English. We cannot say 'which when he had heard' or ' to which city when he had come ' ; we change the relative into a demonstrative, and say ' when he had heard this,' ' when he had reached this city or PRONOUNS 23 the city.' Sometimes we put in an ' and ' or ' but ' or ' now ' to express the connection with the preceding sentence. This use of the relative is especially common with cum, ' when.' Observe the order of the words : the relative comes first ; only a preposition can precede it : Ex quo intellexi, From this I gathered. Quibus de rebus certiores facti putavimus, Now when we were informed of this we thought. [Compare the two examples just given: the relative tends to come first ; it precedes the preposition when it has a substantive in agreement with it.] Quo facto, This done. Quod si fecero, In that case ; more literally, If I do so. Qua re or Quare, Wherefore, Accordingly, For this reason. Quorum ad fines ut venit, When he reached their territory. Quorum uno interfecto, And when one of them was slain. Quo cum venissem, On my arrival, or Arrived there, When I got there (whither when I had come). 24 LATIN COURSE SE AND EUM 33. Se and suus refer to the subject of the sentence : Se interfecit, he killed himself (A killed A). Eum interfecit, he killed him (A killed IT). Eum refers to some person already mentioned other than the subject of the sentence. In simple sentences there is no difficulty : but in sentences which have a subordinate clause, it is not always easy to decide whether se or eum is to be used ; for in some subordinate clauses se refers to the subject of the subordinate clause; in others it refers to the subject of the principal verb. The general rule is this: se in a subordinate clause refers to the subject of the principal verb, when the subordinate clause expresses the thought or will of that subject: hence in such sentences as have the verb in the infinitive, in indirect questions and commands, and in sentences expressing a purpose : (a) Dixit se ei ignoscere, He said that he forgave him. (b) Oravit eum ut sibi parceret, He begged him to be lenient to him. (c) Imperavit eis ut se sequerentur, He ordered them to follow him. (d) Quaesiverunt num se proficisci vellet, They asked whether he wanted them to start. In all these sentences se refers to the subject of the principal verb, not to the subject of its own clause ; in all of them the subordinate clause expresses the , . PRONOUNS 25 thought or the will of the subject of the principal verb. The Latin is clearer than the English : in (6), (c) and (d) the words ' him ' and ' them ' translating se and sibi are ambiguous. 34. But in the following is is used in the subordinate clause to refer to the subject of the principal verb, because the subordinate clause does not express the thought or the will of that subject : (e) Tarn gratus erat militibus ut laeti eum seque- rentur (compare (c)), So popular was he with the soldiers that they gladly followed him. (/) Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant eius regni finitimi, proficisci voluit, Ambiorix wanted to march into the territory of the Aduatuci, who lived on the lorders of his kingdom. In (/) the relative clause does not express the thought of Ambiorix, but it is a note of the historian's. Ambiorix said to himself ' I will march into the country of the Aduatuci/ The Aduatuci, observes the historian, lived close to Ambiorix. See 155. 35. The following sentences * will make the matter clearer : Alexander moriens anulum suum dederat Perdiccae, Alexander when dying had given his ring to Perdiccas. Perdiccas acceperat eius anulum, Perdiccas had received his ring. 1 I borrow these from Gildersleeve and Lodge. 26 LATIN COURSE Quare Alexander declaraverat se regnum ei com- mendasse, Thereby [qua re, ' by this act/ namely the gift of the ring] Alexander had declared that he had committed the kingdom to him. Ex quo Perdiccas coniecerat eum regnum sibi com- mendasse, From this Perdiccas had gathered- that he had committed the kingdom to him. Ex quo omnes coniecerant eum regnum ei commen- dasse, From this all had gathered that he had committed the kingdom, to him. Perdiccas postulavit ut se regem haberent cum Alexander anulum sibi dedisset, Perdiccas de- manded that they should have him for king, as Alexander had given the ring to him. Amici postulaverunt ut omnes eum regem haberent cum Alexander anulum ei dedisset, His friends demanded that all should have him for king, as Alexander had given the ring to him. Ita se gesserat Perdiccas ut ei regnum ab Alexandro commendaretur, Perdiccas had so behaved him- self that the kingdom was intrusted to him by Alexander. PRONOUNS 27 EXERCISE 1 The connecting relative is to be used in the first eight sentences. 1. I am besieging a strongly fortified town : when I have taken it, I shall dismiss the army to winter-quarters. 2. I promise to poison him this very day : this done, you will be able to do all you wish. 3. Now when he was informed of this he thought it best to delay no longer. 4. So we set off for the villa of Bibulus. And when we reached his door, we were informed that he was so seriously ill that all the doctors were in despair. 5. He wrote that he would come to my aid. Touched by his zeal, I replied that I would never forget his kindness. 6. You see the villa here, built by my father. Being in weak health he preferred to live in the country. Here I was born. That is why I love this place. 7. And when they asked for peace he replied that he had not made war on them but they on him. 2. all you wish, i.e. all the things which you wish. The relative is often omitted in English, but must be expressed in Latin. 3. best to delay : use the gerund. See 89. 5. Touched, motus or commotus. 6. The villa here, haec villa. Being in weak health : look out ' health ' ; cum with the suhj. will often translate the English participle : see 70. That is why, 'For this reason.' 7. I make war on you, bellum infer o tibi. 28 LATIN COURSE 8. I see that all depends on you. Wherefore, that we may attain what we hope for, take care that you keep well. 9. She was so angry that she would not speak to him. 10. A king wants to know what his subjects think. 11. Metellus begged them to give Jugurtha up to him. He promised to give them such a large sum of money that they gave the prisoner up to him at once. 12. Quintus came to me at Aquinum on the following morning and told me that his wife would not speak to him. 13. Ennius expresses the opinion that the gods exist, but he holds that they do not care what the human race does. 14. When she saw him starting, she ordered them to follow him. 15. She is afraid that you will desert her. She begs you to write to her. 16. He was so fond of me, that I was generally supposed to be his son. 8. all depends on him, in eo sunt omnia. attain, consequor. 9. so, adeo. I speak to her, cum ea loquor. 10. subjects, cives. 11. give up : use trado. 12. at Aquinum. See 2. 13. to express an opinion, censere. exist, sum. I hold, oplnor (1). the human race, humanum genus. 16. I am so fond of him, sic diligo eum. generally, vulgo (abl. of vulgus, the people). I am supposed to be, habeor esse. Ill 36. KELATIVE WORDS With the relative pronoun Qui, quae, quod are connected the following adverbs : ubi, ' where/ ' when ' cum, or quom, ' when ' cur, ' for which reason/ ' why ' quo, ' to which place/ ' whither ' unde, ( whence/ ' from which ' ,. ,. (qualis, '(such) as ' and the adjectives \ * v , [quantus, ' (as great) as. 37. INTERROGATIVE WORDS Quis ? Quid ? ask the questions ' Who ? ' ' What ? ' Qui, quae, quod are the adjectival forms, that is to say, are the forms used in agreement with a substantive : Quis erat ? Quid diarit ? Quid periculi est 1 Qui miles erat ? Quae puella ? Quod helium gessisti ? Uter asks the question ' Which (of two) ? ' Note. Uter-que means 'each (of two)/ 'either/ ' both.' Quis-que means ' each of some larger number.' 30 LATIN COUKSE The following adverbs and adverbial expressions are connected with Quis? Quando ? ' when ? ' Ubi ? or Quo in loco ? ( where ? ' Cur ? ' for what reason ? ' ' why ? ' Quo ? ' whither ? ' ' where (to) ? ' Qua ? ' by what road ? ' Unde ? ' where from ? ' ' whence ? ' , , ,. . (Qualis? 'what sort of?' and the adjectives \^L , [ Quantus ? how great ? All these interrogative words are used in indirect as well as in direct questions : Quid ageres, ubi terrarum esses, ne suspicabar quidem, / hadn't even a suspicion what you were doing, or where on earth you were. Beware of using cum to ask the question ' when ? ' instead of quando, or qua for ' where ? ' instead of ubi. 38. Beware of confusing the relative with the indirect interrogative : Relative. I will do what you tell me, Id quod (or Ea quae) iusseris faciam (iusseris is fut. perf.). Interrogative. I dont know what you told us to do, Quid (or Quae) nos facere iusseris nescio (iusseris is perf. subj.). In a relative sentence you can change ' who ' into ' he who,' ' those who ' etc., ' what ' into ' that which.' You cannot do this in an interrogative sentence without changing or destroying the sense : / know luJw did it, Quis fecerit scio. / know the man who did it, Eum qui fecit novi. PRONOUNS 31 39. The indirect question may depend on a great variety of expressions ; here are a few examples : Scribe quid facturus sis utrum, Write and tell me what you are going to do. Quam paucis ille copiis prae-esset non eram ignarus,/ was not ignorant how small was the forceunder his command (lit.howfew troops he was commanding). Mir or qua de causa gaudeas, / wonder why you are joyful. Monendus est quo in loco flumen transiri possit, He mustbetold (warned) where the river can be crossed. Quid ego faciam noli laborare, As to what I am doing don't trouble yourself. Cur redieris intellego, / see why you have come lack. 40. INDEFINITE. c IF A MAN/ ' IF EVER/ ETC. ' Any/ 'any one/ 'a man/ and the like, are translated by quis, qua, quid (adjectival forms qui, quae or qua, quod) after ne, num, si, nisi, or a relative pronoun or adverb : Si quis id dicit, mentitur, If a man says that, he lies. Si quis me fefellit, ei non amplius credo, If a man has deceived me, I trust him no more. Quando is used in the same way for an unemphatic 'ever/ 'at any time': si quo is used for 'if . . . in any direction/ 'if . . . any where' 1 [i.e. to any place]. Si quando Romam alio-ve quo mitterent legates, If ever they sent envoys to Rome or any other place. Num quando redibit ? Will he ever return ? 1 If there is any sense of motion towards a place, use quo ('whither'), eo ('thither'): in modern English we have dropped 'whither' and ' thither ' and we use only ' where ' and ' there,' whether we mean ' to a nlace' or 'in a place.' 32 LATIN COURSE 41. ' ANY ' AND ' EVER ' IN A NEGATIVE SENTENCE : ' AND NO ONE ' = NEC QUISQUAM Quisquam is used for ' any one ' (substantival) and ullus for ' any ' (adjectival) in negative sentences : unquam (' at any time/ ' ever '), usquam ( at or to any place ') are used in the same way. The negative sense is often expressed by putting the sentence in an interrogative form : Quis dicit ( = Nemo dicit) quemquam nostrum fugisse ? Note the difference between the English and the Latin idiom in : aiid (or, but) no one came back, nee quisquam rediit, and there is no hope, neque ulla spes est, and I have never seen, neque unquam vidi. Do not write et nemo, et nullus, or et nunquam. 42. 'ANY ONE YOU LIKE' When ' any ' means ' any you please ' the Latin is quivis * (qui + vis, ' who you please/ the second person of volo) or quilibet (qui -f- libet, 'it pleases you'). Compare Quivis potest id intellegere, Any one can understand it, with Negat quemquam id intellegere posse, He denies that any one can understand it, i.e. He says that no one can understand it : Quidvis pati potius quam recedere, To endure any hardship (anything you please) rather than retire. 1 declined quivis quaevis quidvis (substantive) or quodvis (adjective) quilibet quaelibet quidlibet or quodlibet. PRONOUNS 33 43. ' SOME ONE,' ' SOME ' 1 (ALIQUIS, QUIDAM, QUONDAM) Aliquis means ' some one/ and is used chiefly in affirmative sentences : vicli aliquem, / saw somebody. Quispiam is less common : Dixerit quispiam, Some one may say. Quidam, ' a certain person/ ' one/ ' a ' : vidi quemdam, / saw a certain person. Compare aliquis witli quidam : aliquis means some one ' wholly indefinite to the speaker as well as to the hearer': as in * some one told me, but I can't remember who it was': quidam means a certain person 'definite or indefinite to the speaker but not definitely designated to the hearer ' : 2 as in ' a certain person told me ; perhaps I could give you his name.' 44. Hence the adverb quondam, ' on a certain occasion/ ' one day/ ' once/ ' once upon a time ' : id quod ego quondam dixi, as I said one day. Note the common use of quidam and quondam in beginning a story : for example, Colloquebar quondam cum quodam homine, I was talking to a man one day. Who the man was, and when the thing happened, are points which make no difference to the story, and so they are left indefinite : / hope to see you some day (aliquando). / was with him one day (quondam or quodam die). 1 It is often better to translate ' some ' by sunt qui or nonnulli sunt qui, e.g. However, some people trust him, Sunt tamen qui ei credant. See 157. 2 From Gildersleeve and Lodge. D 34 LATIN COURSE 45. ' WHOEVER/ ' WHEREVER/ ETC. Quisquis, quidquid (generally substantival), and quieumque, quaecumque, quodcumque (generally ad- jectival), correspond to the English relatives 'whoever/ ' whatever/ etc. Quocumque, Whithersoever, In whatever direction. / shall go wherever you go, Quocumque tu ibis, eo ( = thither) ego ibo. Beware of using quieumque for quivis. Compare Any risk whatever must le run, Quodvis periculum est adeundum with Quidquid periculi est (Quodcumque periculum est), est adeundum, Whatever risk there is we must run it. With quisquis or quieumque you must have a verb : quivis contains its verb in itself. 46. QUISQUE Quisque must be used with care. It corresponds to the English word ' each ' only in some of its meanings. It must never begin a sentence, but must come immediately after one of the following : 1. se or suus, 2. a superlative, 3. an ordinal number, PRONOUNS 35 4. a relative or interrogative word, such as those shown in 36 and 37. For instance : 1. se quisque amat, sua cuique res est carissima, 2. optimus quisque maxime gloria ducitur, the better a man is the more ambitious he is (the more he is led on ~by glory}, 3. tertio quoque anno, every third year, 4. causam quaerit cur quidque fiat, he tries to find out the reason (why each thing happens) of every occurrence. 47. IPSE Ipse is the emphasising pronoun : Ipse fed, I did it myself, with my own hands, It was I who did it, I did it for myself (i.e. I didn't send some one else to do it for me). Si scriberem ipse, longior epistula fuisset, sed dictavi, If I were writing with my own hand, the letter would have been longer, but I have dictated it. It may be used of any of the three persons : Ipse feci, / did it myself. Ipse fecisti, You did it yourself. Ipsi fecimus, We did it ourselves ; and so on. It may be used as an adjective : hac ipsa nocte, this very night. It is often used to contrast the leader with his followers, the general with his soldiers, etc. Legiones in hiberna dimisit : ipse Bomam pro- fectus est. 36 LATIN COURSE 48. IDEM Idem (is + clem) is a more emphatic is. It is used to connect two statements with one person or thing. Sometimes we can translate it by ' the same/ some- times by ' also/ ' at the same time ' : Qui fortis est, idem est fidens (The man who is brave, that man is confident), The man who is brave is also confident, or, is at the same time . . . Frustra id iussisset, nisi eadern docuisset quomodo esset faciendum, In vain would she have given the order, if she had not at the same time (or, also) shown how it was to be carried out. Hence eo-dem, to the same place. 49. ' ONE ANOTHER ' There is no reciprocal pronoun in Latin : ' one another' is translated inter nos, inter vus, inter se: We embrace one another, Inter nos complectimur. You ivere talking to one another, Inter vos loque- bamini. They love one another, Inter se amant 50. POSITION OF EELATIVE CLAUSE Note the position of the relative clause in the following examples, and arrange any similar sentences in the same way : Unde profectus erat, eodem rediit, He returned to the point from which he started (Latin : from whence he had started, to that same point he returned). PRONOUNS 37 Quern ipse capitis damnavit, eundem liberabit, He will set free the very man whom he has himself condemned. You will see that there is a tendency in Latin to put the relative clause first. In English the antecedent must come before the relative : we could not begin the last example ' whom he has himself condemned/ but we must at least put the antecedent ' the man ' ( = eum) before the relative. Even then the sentence will be a little awkward : ' the man whom he has himself condemned he will set free/ It is generally better to change the position of the two clauses, as in the examples above. There is one relative pronoun in English which may be used like the Latin relative without any antecedent, viz. ' what ' : with this word the English and Latin order may correspond : What they had foretold came true, Quae praedixerant evenerunt. 51. The usual English equivalent of the Latin (is) qui, eum qui, eos qui etc. is ' the man who/ ' the men who/ In translating into Latin do not write homo qui or vir qui. The antecedent is may generally be omitted if it would be in the same case as the relative. 38 LATIN COURSE EXERCISE 2 Many of the words required will be found in Sections 36-51, but not in the Dictionary. You should learn the examples nearly by heart before you begin to do the exercise. 1. There were in a certain city a king and a queen. 2. Why do they hate one another ? Anybody can see why they hate one another. 3. Each man ought to look after his own interests. 4. If you want me to go anywhere to-morrow, let me know to-day when I am to start. 5. Whatever is the issue of the war, both states will lose many citizens. Can it be doubtful to any one that the risk is great ? 6. Let us return to the point from which we made a digression : you say that whatever is honour- able is also useful. 7. The matter is very difficult to explain, and to me at the present time any reason for idleness seems good enough. 3. I look after my own interest, mihi consulo (3) (I consult for myself). 4. volo with ace. and inf. let me know, fac sciam (bring it about that I may know). I am to start : use the gerund ; see 83. 5. issue, eventus (4), the outcome or result, from e-venio. Whatever is the issue = Whatever shall be the issue. The future must be used in Latin : see 14. 6. I make a digression, digredior (3). The relative clause will come first ; see 60. 7. difficult to explain, difficilis ad explicandum. to be idle, cessare : a reason for being idle, causa cessandi. good enough, satis iustus. PRONOUNS 39 8. If a man is hateful to them, they murder him, and there is no one in .the whole state who dares bring them to trial. 9. As I wanted to make use of certain books from the library of Lucullus I went to his villa to get them out for myself. When I got there I saw Marcus Cato sitting in the library. What brings you here ? said he ; if I had known you were at your villa I would have corne to see you myself. 10. Whatever the people order we must do. 11. Is it not better to endure anything whatever than to yield to the Germans ? 12. You ask when he will return? Do you really think he will ever- return ? Yes, it is the custom to come back from India every fifth year. 8. who dares : subj., see 157. I bring (him) to trial, reum (euiii)facio (I make him the defendant). 9. As, cum with subj. library, bibliotheca. to get them out : say ' that I might take them (promo (3)) thence ' (inde). when I got there : see 32. What brings you here? say ' Why have you come hither?' Quid tu hue [venisti] ? I come to see you, ad te venio. The English word ' villa ' has acquired a very different meaning from that which the word bore in Latin and still bears in Italian. To a Roman the word meant a country-house, often of great size, together with all the land and buildings belonging to it. A palace like Hatfield House together with its park might be covered by the expression villa suburbana, 'a place near town.' 10. See 14. 11. it is better, satius est. 12. yes, etiam. custom : say 'they are accustomed.' from India, ab Indis. 40 LATIN COURSE 13. When we have found out how large is the force under his command, we shall be able to decide where to take refuge, and where to look for help. 14. As to the doings of the city I am looking for a letter from you : I should like to know what Arrius is saying and how he takes being left in the lurch, and who are going to be consuls, and whether there is any news. I wish you would write and tell me what day you think you will leave Rome, so that I may inform you where I shall be. 15. He told me to do it himself. 13. when we have found out : as to the tense, see 14. Say 'of how great forces he is in command.' where to take refuge etc. : say ' whither we must fly, whence we must look for help.' As to the gerund etc., see 89. 14. doings of the city, res urbanae (urbanus is the adjective of urbs}. how does he take being deceived ? quo animo ( = with what feelings) se deceptum fert ? Turn in the same way ' how he takes being left in the lurch' (to leave in the lurch, destttuere). I wish you would write and tell mp, velim ad me scribas ; see 122. TV THE TENSES 52. A verb represents (i.e. puts before the mind) an action or a state : currere, the act of running ; valere, the state of good health. For our present purpose the distinction between an action and a state is of no importance. We shall, there- fore, generally speak of verbs as representing actions, and leave the reader to understand thereby actions or states. By the use of different tenses a speaker represents an action, as (1) present at the time at which he speaks ; or (2) past at the time at which he speaks; or (3) future, i.e. about to happen at a time subsequent to the time at which he speaks. The tenses, then, represent an action as taking place at a time present, past, or future, relatively to the time of speaking: (1) scribo, I write (now) ; (2) scripsi, I wrote (at a time which to me now is past) ; (3) scribam, I shall write (at some time which to me now is future). Further, the tenses may show the stage of the action, i.e. the verb may represent the action either as in progress or as completed. The following tenses represent the action as in progress : they are called the tenses of continuance : In progress in the present, scribo t I am writing. - past, scribebam, I was writing. future, scribam, I shall be writing. 42 LATIN COURSE The following represent the action as completed ; they are called the tenses of completion : Completed in the present, seripsi, I have written. past, scripseram, I had written. future, scripsero t I shall have written. You will observe that the tenses of continuance begin with scrib-, and the tenses of completion begin with scrips-. The speaker may, however, speak of the action without reference to the stage reached ; he may simply state that the action takes, took, or will take place : Indefinite present, scribo, I write. past, seripsi, I wrote. future, scribam, I shall write. These are called the indefinite or aorist l tenses, because they do not define the stage of the action. The following table will make the matter clearer : The stage of the action not denned The action represented as in progress The action represented as completed Time present scribo, to the speaker I write scribo, I am writing seripsi, I have written Time past to the speaker seripsi, I wrote scribebam, I was writing scripseram, I had written Time future scribam, to the speaker I shall write scribam, I shall be writing I scripsero, shall have written 1 Aorist from the Greek dopitrros 'indefinite.' THE TENSES 43 53. The Latin idiom differs greatly from the English in the use of the tenses in subordinate clauses. The two principal points of difference are these. 1. If the subordinate clause represents an action as prior to (that is, completed before) the com- mencement of the action represented by the verb of the principal clause, then, in Latin, one of the tenses of completion is used in the subordinate clause. As we have seen above, the perfect is used of an act completed in the present ; the pluperfect of one completed in the past ; the future perfect of one completed in the future : Present. Quae praedicta sunt,ea non semper eveniunt, What is predicted, does not ahuays come true. Past. Qui id fecerant, expulsi sunt, Those who did it were banished. Future. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum, eius victoria erit, He who first draws the sword will be the victor. The English idiom sometimes shows by the tense used that the one act is completed before the other begins, but more often leaves this to be understood from the context. We may say if we like, ' Those who had done it were banished/ but in Latin the plu- perfect must necessarily be used. In case of difficulty try whether you can introduce the tense of completion in the English without altering the sense : if you can say ' what has been predicted,' for ' what is predicted/ the perfect will be required in Latin. In the same way in the third example, we do not alter the sense if we introduce the unidiomatic 'he who shall first have drawn the sword.' 44 LATIN COURSE 2. If the subordinate clause refers to the future a future tense is used in Latin : (a) the future simple to represent an action or state contempora- neous with the action of the principal verb, (b) the future perfect when the one action precedes the other. In English, on the other hand, it is not idiomatic to use a future tense in a subordinate clause. (a) Erunt omnia facilia, si valebis, Everything will be easy, if you are well. (b) Cum Romam venero, litteras ad te cotidie scribam, When I get to Home, I icill write you a letter every day. 54. The rules given in the preceding section apply to subordinate sentences in general. It is specially important to note their application to (1) iterative sentences, (2) conditional sentences, (3) sentences introduced by cum, ' when ' : (1) Iterative sentences are sentences which deal with the repetition of two acts in connection with one another an indefinite number of times ; for instance As often as A occurs, B occurs. Such sentences are introduced by 'if (ever),' si] 'when (ever),' cum ; ' as often as,' quotiens ; ' who (ever)/ qui- cumque; 'wherever' ( = whithersoever), quocumque; and similar expressions. If the two actions are contemporaneous, the tenses of continuance are used in both clauses : Present. Cum can tat, audimus, Whenever he sings, we listen. THE TENSES 45 Past. Cum cantabat, audiebamus, Whenever he sang, we used to listen. Future. Cum cantabit, audiemus, Whenever he sings, we shall (always) listen. But if the one action precedes the other, the tenses of completion are used in the subordinate clauses : Present. Cum cantavit, plaudimus, Whenever he sings, we clap. Past. Cum cantaverat, plaudebamus, Whenever he sang, we clapped. Future. Cum cantaverit, plaudemus, Whenever he sings, we shall clap. 55. (2) The rules given in Section 53 will guide you as to the use of the tenses in those conditional sentences which take the indicative. Unless you start at once there is no hope of escape, Nisi confestim profectus eris, nulla spes est effugiendi. If we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go wrong, Naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus. The old man used to get angry if I said anything at all rough, Stomachabatur senex si quid asperius 1 dixeram. You will notice that the first two examples come under the rule given in 53, 2, and the third is an iterative sentence like those shown in 54. These are 1 This is the comparative of asper. A comparative is often used in Latin where in English we might say 'rather rough,' 'a hit rough.' The meaning is 'rougher than one miy a highwayman. Ut equitatum suum pulsurn vidit, acie excessit, When he saw his cavalry driven back he left the field. 1 The adverbs post or posted ( = ' after the time '), prius or ante ( = ' before the time ') may be separated from the relative adverb quam ( = ' at which time ') : ISTeque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen Ehenum pervenerunt, And they did not stop running IP fore [the time (prius) at which time (quam)] they reached the Rhine. 61. Priusquam, etc., with Subjunctive In temporal sentences the mood is regularly the indic- ative, except in oratio obliqua. (See, however, as to cum.) If a purpose is implied in the temporal- clause the mood is the subjunctive ; this is not uncommon with antequam and priusquam : Caesar priusquam se hostes ex terrore reciperent in fines Suessiormm exercitum duxit, Before the enemy could recover from their panic Caesar led his army into the territory of the Suessiones. Here by using the subjunctive the writer tells us that it was Caesar's purpose to act before the enemy had re- covered. Contrast priusquam redii discessit, which states simply that his departure took place before my return. 1 acies means an army drawn up for or engaged in battle : so we may often translate it ' the fight/ ' the battle-field.' TEMPORAL SENTENCES 53 62. How to translate ' While' ' Until' and the like If 'while' means 'during the time that' (eV a>), it is translated by dum with the present indicative even in reference to past time : Dum haec aguntur (or geruntur) interea nuntius advenit, While this was going on a messenger arrived, or, In the course of these proceedings etc. In the principal sentence interea ( ( in the middle of it/ 'in the meantime') is often added. When translating into English it will generally be better not to attempt to render interea by any separate ex- pression, as its sense is sufficiently expressed by the word ' while ' or ' in the course of.' But in translating into Latin interea should as a rule be expressed with dum, meaning ' during the time that.' 63. If ' while ' means ' so long as/ ' all the time that ' (ea)?) it is translated by dum or (quamdiu) with the indicative : present, past, or future tenses are used according to the meaning. Tarn diu ( = ' for so long ') is often added with the principal verb. The same tense is generally used in both clauses : Fuit haec gens fortis dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, This nation was brave as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force. Tiberius enim Gracchus tarn diu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum manebit, For Tiberius Gracchus will be praised as long as the doings of Eome are remembered (lit. as long as the memory of Roman doings shall remain}. 54 LATIN COURSE 64. 'Till' or 'until' is generally translated by dum. 1 The verb will be in the subjunctive (present or imperfect) if there is any sense of purpose or expectation ; hence very commonly with exspecto : Exspectandum est dum redeat, We must ivait till he comes back, or, for him to return. Dum mini a te litterae veniant in Italia morabor, 1 shall stay in Italy till I get a letter from, you. But if there is no suggestion of purpose or expectation, the verb will be in the indicative : Mansit dum ego redii, He stayed there till I came back. This states simply that his stay lasted till the time of my arrival. Contrast Mansit dum redirem, He waited for my return. This implies that his purpose in staying was to see me. 1 Donee is quite uncommon in classical prose. TEMPORAL SENTENCES 55 EXERCISE 4 Quern ut vidi, quern ubi vidi, quern cum vidissem give, as nearly as possible, the same sense. When possible, do the sentences in more ways than one. Introduce the connecting relative whenever you can (see 31, 32). 1. After we had carried off the gold we embarked. 2. When this news was brought, Fabius was appointed dictator. 3. The moment that the enemy caught sight of our cavalry, they made a rush and quickly threw our men into confusion. 4. Some time before he died he gave all his property l to me. 5. As soon as the shouting was heard, the soldiers deserted their posts and fled to the citadel. 6. All the time that we were talking I was looking out for the messenger. 7. As soon as I looked at you, before you began to speak, I felt that you were angry. 8. In the course of our talk your letter was delivered to me. 3. I catch sight of, conspicio. I throw into confusion, perturbo (1). our men, nostri. Arrange the sentence thus : ' The enemy, the moment that they . . ., made a rush and ..." 'The enemy,' being the subject of the principal verb, must not be placed in a subordinate clause. You will often have to apply this rule. We say ' When Caesar had conquered the Gauls he returned.' What is the Latin order ? 4. Some time before, aliquanto ante (before by a considerable bit). 5. I desert my post, desero stationem ; statio (from stare), the place where I ought to stand. 7. I look at you, aspicio te. 1 Words printed in italics need not be translated. 56 LATIN COURSE 9. While the elephants were being taken across the river, Hannibal sent five hundred horsemen towards, the Pioman camp to observe the position and number of our forces. 10. Perhaps you are waiting for me to call on you. I will come when Atticus has left me. Till he came to me I did not know you had left Rome. 11. This being the state of affairs, he nevertheless refrained from action until envoys and letters reached him from Cneius Pompeius. 12. As long as you are rich you will have many friends. 13. He made up his mind to attack the city before Domitius could come to the aid of the citizens. Accordingly he did not wait for my return. 14. Before they reached Brundisium Pompeius set sail. 1 5. While the Eomans were making these preparations, Saguntum was already being attacked. 16. As long as Pompeius was in Italy I did not cease to hope. 1*7. We had to start before the enemy could get information as to our plan. 9. I take the elephants across the river, traicio (fyflumen elephantos. In the passive, elephanti flumen traiciuntur. five hundred : the numerals are on p. 308. I observe (i.e. I spy out, I reconnoitre), specular (1). For the various ways to express a purpose see 8. the position and number : say ' where and how great the forces were. ' 10. when Atticus has left : use cum. 11. This being the state of affairs, quae cum ita essent, I refrain from action, me teneo (I hold myself back). 17. We had to start : use the gerund. VI THE CONJUNCTION CUM 65. 1. If 'when' means 'whenever/ 'as often as,' cum is used, as we have seen, with the indicative : Gyges cum anulum converterat a nullo videbatur, When ( = If ever) Gyges turned his ring round he became invisible. See 53, 54 as to the tenses. 66. 2. If the clause introduced by ' when ' refers to the future, cum is used with the future or future perfect indicative : Veniam cum potero, / will come when I can. Cum Karthaginem deleveris, deligeris consul, When thou hast destroyed Carthage, thou wilt be chosen consul. Veniet cum ego iussero, He will come when I lid him. Compare 53. 67. 3. Cum meaning 'when' (not 'whenever') has the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive when the principal verb is in a historic tense. Care must be taken to use the right tense, as the English is often misleading : the imperfect is used to represent an action as contemporaneous with (i.e. going 58 LATIN COURSE on at the same time as) that of the principal verb ; the pluperfect represents an action as prior to (i.e. finished before) that of the leading verb : Cum in Africam venissem, Masinissam conveni, When I reached Africa, I went to see Masinissa. Cum ad me scriberet, negavit se aegrotare, When he wrote to me, he said he was not ill. ( I reached ' and ' he wrote ' are both the same tense in English ; but, as we have seen, the Latin tenses express more exactly than the English the relation of one action to another. It is clear that the arrival in Africa precedes the interview with Masinissa, while the writing of the letter is contemporaneous with the statement as to the writer's health. This difference must be expressed in Latin ; it may be expressed in English : we may say ' when I had arrived ' and ' when he was writing.' 68. Cum meaning ' since,' ' as,' c seeing that/ ' con- sidering that/ ' although ' has the subjunctive : Quae cum ita sint, proficiscendum est, Since this is the state of affairs (or, This being the case), we must start. Cum dubitaret, ex deo quaesivit, As he was in doubt (or, Being in doult}, he asked the god. Nihil me adiuvit, cum posset, He gave me no help although lie had the power to do so, or, at a time when Tie had the power to do so. 69. Cum with the subjunctive may often be best translated into English by the use of a participle, as in some of the examples above. THE CONJUNCTION CUM 59 A Latin verb has no past participle active : cum with the pluperfect subjunctive is often used to supply its place : Having arrived, Cum pervenisset. Having taken the city, Cum urbem cepisset, or Urbe capta. 70. Cum with the imperfect subjunctive often takes the place of our present participle. We use our present participle very freely in agreement with the subject of the sentence to represent the cause of the action represented by the principal verb: for instance, 'Feeling thirsty he asked for water/ 'Thinking I was mistaken I turned back.' These participles are represented by cum and the subjunctive in Latin : Cum sitiret aquam poposcit, Cum putarem me errare reverti. 71. Study the moods and tenses in the following examples : 1. Cum anulum convertit (perfect), a nullo videtur, Whenever he turns his ring he is seen by no one. 2.. Cum anulum converterit (fut. perf), a nullo videbitur, When he has turned his ring, he will be seen ~by no one. 3. Cum anulum convertisset, a nullo visus est, When he had turned his ring (or, Having turned his ring), he was seen by no one. 4. Cum anulum converterit (perf. subj.), eum videre non potes, As he has turned the ring you cannot see him. Cum anulum convertisset, tamen ab omnibus visus est, Though he had turned the ring, still he was seen by every one. 60 LATIN COURSE 72. If you look at the examples in 65, 66 you will see that cum with the indicative is a purely temporal conjunction, that is to say it is used to tell us only how one action is related to another with regard to the time of its occurrence. We might therefore represent the force of cum with the indicative by such formulae as As often as A occurs, so often does B occur, or, At the time at which A shall (have) happen(ed), at that time will B happen. Now if you look at the examples of cwm-sentences in 67, 68 you will see that when cum has the subjunctive it may be translated by 'when,' 'since,' 'as,' 'although.' One naturally asks, What is the meaning of cum with the subjunctive which lies at the bottom of all these different translations'? Cum with a subjunctive puts before us the circumstances in which the action represented by the principal verb takes place. For example, Quae cum facto, essent discessit does not mean ' At the time at which this had happened he went away,' but 'This having happened (This being the state of affairs), he went away.' The participle is often used in English in much the same way to put the circumstances before us, and therefore often provides, as we have seen, the nearest equivalent of a cwm-clause. Cum may be translated ' when,' ' since,' ' as,' ' although,' because the circum- stances may be regarded as simply the occasion of the action ('when'), or as its cause ('since,' 'as'), or even, but less commonly, as the cause which was insufficient to produce it ('although'); in this last-named, case tamen is often added to make the sense clearer : quae cum facta essent, tamen discessit, 1 This having happened, all the same he went away,' ' Although this had happened he went away. Hence these are all possible translations of the one sentence Cum rex mortuus esset fugit : (1) The king being dead, he ran away ; (2) On the death of the king, he ran away ; (3) When the king was dead, he ran away ; (4) Since (as) the king was dead, he ran away ; (5) Although the king was dead, he ran away. In (1) and (2) the English puts the circumstances before us THE CONJUNCTION CUM 61 without indicating how they are to be regarded ; (3), (4), (5) are more explicit. The more advanced student will do well to note that in the strictly temporal sense cum may be used with any tense of the indicative (not only in iterative sentences as shown in section 65 and not only in reference to the future as shown in section 66). For example Cicero writes ' Atque his libris adnumerandi sunt sex de re publica, quos turn scripsimus, cum gubernacula rei publicae tenebamus, 'And to these books (just mentioned) must be added the six books Concerning the State which I wrote at the time when I held the helm of the state.' When cum is so used it is often preceded by turn or some other word which directs the attention specially to the time of the occurrence. Cum with the indicative is used just like a relative 1 clause with the indicative : eo anno cum consul eram=-eo anno quo anno consul eram, 'in the year in which I was consul.' On the other hand when the subjunctive is used the meaning of the cum- clause is less definite : the temporal sense is often the most prominent but other meanings are not excluded. No instances of cum with the past tenses of the indicative except in the sense of ' as often as ' will be found in the exercises, but it must not be supposed that it is uncommon or incorrect. Contrast the following sentence with the examples given above : Turn fugit cum rex moriebatur, He ran away at the time when the king lay dying. 1 Of course cum or quom is connected with qui. 62 LATIN COURSE HINTS FOII EXERCISE 5 The connecting relative is very common with cum ; see 31, 32 ; Quo cum in loco manere slatuisset, As he had made up his mind to stay there. Remember that cum (' when ') and qua ('where ') are relative not interrogative ; see 37. Be careful to use the interrogative words in the indirect questions in this ex. : 'I don't know when he went away or where he is, ' Quando discesserit, ubi sit nescio. Quaero means 'to try to find' ; hence 'to look for,' 'search for' ; also ' to try to find out,' hence ' to ask.' Quaero librum, I am looking for my book ; Quaero ex te u,bi sit, I ask you where it is. Note that Quaero ex te, not JKogo te, is the usual Latin for 'I ask you (a question)' : the impersonal passive seems at first a little awkward, ex te guaeritur, ex te quaesitum est, cum ex te quaesitum esset (when you were asked, being asked). Remember to use the accusative in Latin when motion is implied : he came to me in the garden, ad me in Jwrtum venit. EXERCISE 5 Cum is to be used in every sentence, in some sentences more than once. 1. When you write to your father you will say that you are now getting better. Ask him when he is coming to see us. 2. Being uncertain where you were, I did not care to write a long letter lest our intimate conversa- tion might come into the hands of other people. 3. When he heard this, he saw that prompt measures were necessary. 1. dico is used for ' I say ' in writing, get better : see ' recover. ' 2. I did not care to : use nolo. intimate, familidris. alius = other ; alienus, belonging to others ; res alienae, the affairs of other people. 3. audio means I hear with my ears ; cognosce means I hear in the sense I get to know, I receive information, as in the sentence ' I heard that you were in town ' ; video means I see with my eyes ; intellego, I see with my mind, perceive. In this sentence intellego must obviously be used, and cognosce will give better sense than audio. prompt measures : say ' he saw that they must act promptly. ' THE CONJUNCTION CUM 63 4. Seeing that he is two days' march away, what reason is there why you should feel afraid ? 5. Though he might easily have escaped from prison, Socrates would not do so. 6. It was said that the shrine was not far from Antioch. When they were searching for it, they found a Greek statue of marvellous beauty. When they found this, they brought it to the Governor in the city. 7. Being asked why he had made a plot against the Governor, he would not answer. 8. As he would not answer he was thrown into prison. 9. When I get to my country-house, I do nothing and am absolutely idle. 10. As we have no soldiers we must carry on the struggle by craft. 11. Being out of health I decided to go to my country- house : when I got there I found that the weather was not good for fishing. So I amused myself with my books. 12. Being doubtful which had done it, he condemned them both to death. 1 3. When you have collected the soldiers in one place, you will be able to start. 4. to be two days' march away, bidui iter abesse (biduum, a period of two days). 6. it is not far distant from Antioch, non longe abest ab AntiocJiea. shrine, aedtcula, diminutive of aedes, temple, of marvellous beauty : abl. of quality. Governor, Praetor, -oris. 9. to be absolutely idle, plane cessare. 10. I struggle, carry on a struggle, contendo (3). craft, dolus (2). 11. 1 iish, pisces caplo (1). 64 LATIN COURSE 14. When you write to me write in Latin. I used to write in Latin when I wrote to my teacher when I was a boy. 15. Considering that she is more concerned about the safety of the state than about her own safety, it is not seemly that we should feel afraid. 16. He said this and then withdrew. 17. Being hungry I returned as quickly as I could. 14. I used to do it when I was a boy, (ego) puer faciebam. pucr is in apposition to the subject : I, a boy, used to do it. So, He did the same when consul, eadcm consul fecit. 15. 'she ' is emphatic and must be expressed, to be concerned, perturbari. 16. I withdraw, discedo (3). VII THE PARTICIPLES 73. It is not easy to use the participles correctly and idiomatically. It will save you trouble if you can get a clear notion as to what participles there are and what they mean. 1. Transitive Verb. Vinco (hostem), / conquer (my enemy). Active Voice. Present Participle. Vincens hostem, (While) con- quering my enemy. Perfect Participle. None. [' Having conquered the enemy ' must be translated by turning it round into the passive and saying, hoste victo, ' the enemy having been conquered/ or hostem victum or some other case as may be necessary to suit the rest of the sentence, or by a subordinate clause such as cum hostem mcisset. Beware of writing victus hostem.] Future Participle. Victurus hostem, Being about to conquer the enemy. 66 LATIN COURSE Passive Voice. Present Participle. None. [You will not feel the need of one : ' While being led in he asked ' will be easily turned by a subordinate clause : cum adduceretur quaesivit.] Perfect Participle. Victus, Having been conquered. Future Participle. None. 2. Intransitive Verb. Venio, / come. Active Voice. Present Participle. Veniens, (While) coming. Perfect Participle. None. [As an intransitive verb has no passive, except in the impersonal usage, ventum est, etc., we cannot imitate hoste victo : we must therefore use a subordinate clause to express the English 'having come/ cum venisset. Beware of writing ventus for ' having come.'] Deponent verbs, whether transitive like sequor, or intransitive like morior, have all three participles and are therefore the easiest to use : Present Participle. Sequens, (while) following. Past Participle. Secutus, having followed. Future Participle. Secuturus, about to follow. 74. The present participle in Latin represents an action as contemporaneous with the action of the principal verb : for instance the sentence flens oravit auxilium, ' shedding tears he begged for help/ tells us that the weeping and the begging for help went on at the same time. The English participle in -ing some- times represents, like the Latin present participle, contemporaneous action, sometimes prior action : we THE PARTICIPLES 67 say, for instance, ' Hearing this he went away ' meaning that he went away after he had heard it : in Latin audiens discessit would mean ' he went off listening.' Again, ' Being defeated he was put to death' evidently means 'he was defeated and then put to death,' Victus interfectus est. As a practical rule, do not use the present participle in Latin unless you can express the English with ' while.' 75. There are one or two verbs which form an apparent exception to this rule : it is quite correct to write Mihi quaerenti respondit, ' On my asking this he answered/ though obviously the asking precedes the answering, and one would expect Quod cum quaesivissem respondit. The reason appears to be that quaero does not correspond exactly to / ask but means rather / try to find out so that MM quaerenti respondit means ' When I was trying to find out he answered.' Peto, 1 1 ask for, I try to get,' is used in the same way. 76. The above hints may help you to answer the question, What participle, if any, ought I to use ? Present or past ? Active or passive ? We now pass on to another difficulty : What case is the participle to be put in ? The ablative absolute occurs so frequently that many students fall into the mistake of putting the ablative where some other case ought to be used. ' When I was walking in he stepped out ' must be Me ingrediente egressus est. With this ablative absolute contrast the five following sentences, and see if you understand why the ablative absolute would be impossible in any of them: note that the wording of the English will not help you. 68 LATIN COURSE Nom. When I was walking in I saw him, Ingrediens vidi eum. [Here the participle agrees with ego implied in vidiJ] Ace. When I was walking in he saw me, Ingredi- entem me vidit. [ Here the participle agrees with me which is the object of vidit. ~\ Gen. When he was walking in I caught sight of his head, Ingredientis vidi caput. Dat. When he was 'walking in I gave him the letter, Ingredienti epistulam dedi. Abl. (but not abl. abs.) He was seen fry his daughter as she came in, Ab ingrediente filia visus est. Only use the ablative absolute when you cannot work the participle into the construction of the sentence. The ablative absolute is a parenthesis, put into the sentence, never making a part of the con- struction : it may be shut off by commas : Ille, me ingrediente, egressus est. In the other five sentences it is impossible to put a comma anywhere. 77. The participle is used in Latin in many sentences in which it would not be correct, or at any rate not idiomatic, to use a participle in English. Some of the more common ways of rendering the Latin participle are collected here : (a) Sometimes, of course, we use a participle in English : The envoys sent ~by Antonius Iring word, Legati ab Antonio missi nuntiant. They approach him legging and imploring . . ., Adeunt orantes atque obsecrantes. THE PARTICIPLES 69 77 (continued) (b) Sometimes we add ' while ' or ' when ' or ' if to the English participle : While watching over the king he was also a protection to us, Regem tuens et nobis praesidio erat. When caught (or, If caught) he will not be dangerous to you, Captus periculo vobis non erit. (c) We often translate a Latin participle by a subordinate clause : 1. A relative clause. The envoys who had been sent by Pompeius brought word, Legati a Pompeio missi nuntiaverunt. / obey a voice which never urges me on, but often calls me back, Pareo divinae cuidam voci nunquam impellenti, saepe revocanti. 2. A clause introduced by ' when/ ' while/ ' now that/ ' after/ ' as ' ( = ' when ') etc. : When I was questioning him he made no answer, Quaerenti mini nihil respondit. Now that the ships are burned they cannot go back, Navibus incensis redire non possunt. Now the king is dead, Eege mortuo. When he was on his way lack I saw him, Eedeuntem vidi. The city was founded by Aeneas as he was flying from Troy, Urbs ab Aenea a Troia fugiente condita est. As I was returning he told me, Mihi redeunti nuntiavit. 70 LATIN" COURSE 77 (continued) 3. A clause introduced by ' as ' ( = ' because ' ) : As he IOOLS driven lack from Antioch he lost hope, Ab Antiochea reiectus desperavit. As I heard no voice I began to feel afraid, Nulla voce audita pertimescebam. 4. A clause introduced by ' though ' : Though she tried to speak she could not, Conata loqui non potuit. Though he was driven lack he did not lose hope, Keiectus non desperavit. 5. A clause introduced by 'if ' : If you are beaten you will not be allowed to enter the city, Victo in urbem redire non licebit. Many of these sentences might be expressed as well by subordinate sentences in Latin. We may say for instance Si victus eris in urbern tibi redire non licebit. This is very much like Victo in urbem redire non licebit. but, obviously, there is a difference. We cannot say which is the better way of translating the sentence into Latin without seeing the context from which it is taken. No rules can be given to guide you as to whether you should translate by a participle or a subordinate clause ; the participle is generally to be preferred, provided that it makes the meaning quite clear. (d) We often translate the participle by a co- ordinate clause : He took the city and burned it, Urbem captam incendit. THE PAETICIPLES 71 77 (continued) I tried but was not successful, Conatus nihil effeci. So they brought him the book and he read it, or, So the book was brought and lie read it, Itaque librum ad-latum legit. Here the English construction cannot be imitated in Latin : urbem cepit et incendit is not good Latin ; et is not used to connect verbs in this way. If a participle cannot be used in a sentence of this type you should turn it by a subordinate clause : He arrived there and ordered . . ., Quo cum venisset iinperavit . . . (e) An abstract substantive is often the best English equivalent : After the capture of the city he dismissed his men to their winter -quarters, Urbe capta milites in hiberna dimisit. The news of the victory reassured the citizens, Nuntiata victoria firmiores fecit civium animos. With the help of his mother, Adiuvante matre. Since the foundation of the city, Post conditam urbem. (/) Miscellaneous translations : With tears he begged for help, Flens oravit auxilium. They fled in terror, Perterriti fugerunt. In my sleep he appeared to me, Dormienti mihi visus est. Without success, or, Unsuccessful, Re infecta (the thing not being accomplished: from in, not and facio). 72 LATIN COURSE 78. We often use a present participle in English agreeing with the subject of the sentence to represent the cause of the action ; we say, for instance, ' Being unable to go out I sent a note/ ' Being doubtful who had done it he acquitted them all.' In sentences of this type the usual Latin equivalent of our present participle is cum with the subjunctive : Cum ipse exire non possem epistulam misi, Cum dubitaret quis fecisset alsolvit omnes. In the same way Seeing, cum vidisset (i.e. when he had seen with his eyes), or cum intellexisset (i.e. when he had understood). Thinking, cum putaret (i.e. because he was thinking). Contrast the following sentences in which the present participle is rightly used : notice that it does not represent the cause : Dixit ridens, He said with a smile. Per Graeciam iter faciens Athenas venit, While marching through Greece he came to Athens. 79. The perfect participles of many deponent verbs are used where we might expect the present : arbitratus, thinking (having come to the conclusion), veritus, fearing (having got into a fright), admiratus, wondering (having been startled). These are often used to represent the cause : Thinking it undesirable to linger he set off, Non morandum esse arbitratus profectus est. THE PARTICIPLES 73 EXERCISE 6 A participle is to be used in each sentence. 1. He had his dinner and went away to bed. 2. When I was asleep my mother appeared to me. 3. Terrified by the dream I fled. 4. We attacked the enemy and beat them. 5. With tears they begged me to protect them. 6. The news of the arrival of Pompeius will reassure every one. 7. So the prisoner was brought in and said that the enemy had no hope of victory. 8. When the letter was brought in no one could read it. 9. We delivered the letter and at once left the house. 10. He kissed his mother and begged her to give him some money : he had, he said, been away from home three months, but he had let no day pass without writing to her. 11. Touched by his prayers she ordered money to be brought. I. The verb ceno (1), 'I have dinner,' has a deponent participle, cenatus, ' having dined.' I go away to bed, cubltum discedo : cubitum is the supine of cubare, ' to lie down,' so the phrase means literally ' I go away in order to lie down. ' 5. to protect them : see note on se and eum (33-35). 7. to bring a man in, adducZre (to lead). 8. to bring a thing in, ad-ferre (to carry). 10. Omit 'he said,' which is implied in 'begged' : use the accusative and infinitive as you would if dixit were expressed. I let no day pass without thinking, nullum diem esse patior quin putem. II. Touched: say 'moved, prayers, preces (3). 74 LATIN COURSE 12. When the money was brought by the servant she gave it to the boy. 13. Since the expulsion of the kings, since the libera- tion of the state by Brutus, no one has been called king. 14. If he is beaten he will not be willing to return. 15. They said that he had been murdered and thrown into a cart. 16. In answer to my questions the servant said she was not at home. 17. Such was his influence that even in his absence we could not resist him. 18. When he reached Ehodes on his way back from Syria he heard that Clodius had been killed by Milo. 19. After killing the traveller he robbed him of his clothes. 20. Though acquitted of the capital offence he was kept five years in prison. 13. Use expello and libero (1). 15. cart, plaustrum. 17. influence, audoritas. 18. Rhodes, Jthddus, a small island ; see 2. Milo, Milo, -onis. THE PARTICIPLES 75 EXERCISE 7 A participle is to be used in each sentence. 1. When I warned you not to give him anything you did not believe me. 2. He would not listen to me when I was warning him that plots were being made against the king. 3. Being warned of these dangers I thought it best to go away as quickly as possible. 4. When the plot was disclosed they begged the king to pardon them : if he would spare them they would go away and never return. 5. Moved by fear of the danger hanging over him he summoned the leading men of the state to his presence. 6. I was warned by a traveller who was passing that my house was on fire. I do not know who set it on fire. 7. He advanced to the river and pitched his camp. Moneo te de periculo, I warn you of the danger. Moneo te eumfugisse, I warn you that he has fled. Moneo te ne eas, I warn you not to go. Moneo te quid sit faciendum, I warn you what to do. Insidias fado tibi, I make a plot against you. Pate-facio, I disclose (from patere, ' to lie open ' ; hence, ' I cause it to lie open, I make it clear '). to be on fire, flagrare. to set on fire, incend%re. to put in chains, vinclre. to flog, virgis caedZre (to beat with rods). 3. it is best to go : use the gerund. 4. if he would . . . : this is oratio obliqua depending on ' they said ' which is implied in ' they begged. ' See 27. and never : not et numquam ; see 41. 76 LATIN COURSE 8. In the month of November he finished the war and dismissed his army to their winter- quarters: he himself started for Italy without delay. 9. As we disembarked he came to meet us. 10. He concealed his hatred and pretended that he was friendly to us. 11. Considering that an inquiry is being held as to the murder of a fellow -creature it is not seemly to laugh. 12. What shall I say of Socrates, over whose death I am wont to shed tears as I read Plato ? 13. When I was at Tusculum, a boy sent from Kome by your sister handed me a letter which had been brought to her from you, and gave me a message that the courier would set off from Eome to you that very day. Hence I was compelled to write a very short letter. 14. If you go in you won't be allowed to come out. 15. Orders were given that he should be put in chains and flogged. 8. For the names of the months see 163. 11. I hold an inquiry as to, quaero de . . . fellow- creature, homo. 12. I shed tears over the death, tnorti illacrimor. 13. at Tusculum, in Tusculano (more literally, on my Tusculan estate). handed = ' gave. ' courier, tabellarius (letter-carrier). Hence : say 'Thus it resulted,' eofactum est. 14. Use ingredior and egredior, compounds of gradior (3), ' to step.' The English sentence contains eleven words : the Latin will have four. THE PARTICIPLES 77 EXERCISE 8 In this exercise use a participle whenever you can. Do not suppose that an English participle can always be represented by a Latin participle. For instance, if you want to translate ' Having reached his home he gave the message ' you may feel that a participle ought to be used to translate ' Having reached ' ; but as pervenire has no past participle you must write Cum domum pervenisset. 1. Rising from my bed I ran to the window. 2. When the theft was discovered we hurried to the city to inform the praetor. Arrived there we heard that the thief had already been arrested and flogged. 3. He replied with a smile that the king on receipt of this message had shut himself up in prison. 4. The next day having reached Paris we received your letter. 5. We seized the bridge and sent horsemen to look for the Britons. And they when they saw the number of our soldiers were panic-stricken and gave themselves up. 6. Why did you not listen to my advice ? When you were going out I told you some trouble was impending. thief, fur. theft, furtum. discover, cognosco (3). arrest, capio (3). I shut him up in, indudo (3) eum in (ace.). 5. look for, quaero. 6. Say ' why didn't you obey me when I gave you advice ? For when you were going out . . .' The connecting link enim (which is placed after the first word) is necessary in Latin. 78 LATIN COURSE 7. And so though he summoned them all to his presence, he could not find out how large the island was nor what kind of men inhabited it. 8. Wishing to provide for the safety of his wife and children he retired. The result was that the whole province revolted. 9. Having recovered from this illness he sailed to Italy. Arrived there he spent many days in visiting the most beautiful cities of that country. 10. Being unable to find out where he was lingering, I decided it was my duty to act without delay and not to wait for his return. 11. Caesar gave orders that he should encamp near Eavenna, repair his ships and follow him to Greece. 12. Finding they could do nothing they retired, and none of them could be persuaded to make a second attempt. 13. Thinking that it would be impossible to finish the war before the winter, he arranged terms of peace. 7. Arrange thus : ' neither how great was the size of the island, nor what kind of (quails) men inhabited it could he find out.' 9. Say ' in visiting (gerundive) the cities which that country has most beautiful.' 10. duty : express by the gerund ; see 89. 12. find : use intellego. do, efficio. be persuaded to : see 3 and 10. I make a second attempt,! try again, itemm experior (4). VIII THE INFINITIVE, GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 80. lucundum est legere, Reading is pleasant. Hie sedet legens, Here he sits reading. If you compare these two sentences you will see that the word ' reading ' is used in two different senses. In the first it is a substantive, meaning the act of reading ; in the second it is an adjective, meaning engaged in reading. It is not difficult to distinguish these two uses of the English words ending in -ing ; if you feel at all doubtful as to whether you have a verbal substantive or a participle before you, you should try whether you can put before the word ending in -ing such an expression as ' the act of/ ' the habit of,' ' the pursuit of ' : if any such expression can be added, without altering the sense, you have clearly the substantive not the adjective ; for example [' the pursuit of] learning is difficult,' [' the habit of] lying is disgraceful.' The words added in brackets clearly do not alter the meaning, so you may conclude that ' learning ' and ' lying ' are here used as substantives and translate discere est difficile, turpe est mentiri. If the word ending in -ing is a participle you cannot add such an expression as ' the act of ' without alter- ing or destroying the meaning ; for instance, ' He sits here [the act of] reading ' is clearly not sense. If you have understood the above you will see why the following argument is false : ' Riding is pleasant. I am riding. Therefore I am pleasant.' Of course this is ridi- culous, but do you see exactly where the argument fails? 80 LATIN COURSE 81. In Latin the infinitive is used as a substantive in the nominative or accusative case, but it cannot be used with prepositions : Nom. Discere est difficile, Learning is difficult. Ace. Cupimus discere, We desire to learn. With the latter sentence compare Cupiinus pecuniam, ' we desire money/ and observe that discere is the object of cupimus, just as pecuniam is. The infinitive though used as a substantive is still a verb and may govern a case : Aurum habere praeclarum mihi videtur, The pos- session of gold (the having gold) seems a fine thing to me. [Habere is the subject of the sentence.] Cupit habere auruin, He desires the possession of gold. [Habere is the object of cupit.] In both sentences aurum is the object of habere ; in both habere is used as a substantive, in the first in the nominative, in the second in the accusative case. The infinitive is used as a substantive only in the nominative and accusative cases ; the other cases are supplied by the gerund, and the gerund is used with prepositions ; we say ad discendum, ' with a view to learning/ not ad discere. We may, therefore, show the declension of the verbal substantive thus : Nom. Mentiri est inhonestum, Lying is dishonour - able. Ace. Cupit mentiri, He wants to lie. Propensus est ad mentiendum, He has pro- pensities towards lying, He has a tendency to tell lies. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 81 Gen. Cupidus est mentiendi, He is desirous of lying, He is longing to lie. Dat. Operam dat mentiendo, He gives his attention to lying, He takes trouble about it. Abl. Patrein mentiendo decipit, He deceives his father by lying. The dative is very uncommon. Ad with the accusative, in with the ablative, and causa with the genitive are very common. Some prepositions are not used with the gerund : you cannot say Sine rogando for ' without asking.' 82. The gerund may be used intransitively, i.e. without an accusative object, or it may have such an object, provided that it is a neuter pronoun or adjective : aliquid rescribendi causa, l for the sake of sending you some answer/ ad plum scribendum, ' with a view to writing more.' If the object is not a neuter adjective or pronoun, the gerundive generally * takes the place of the gerund and attracts the substantive or pronoun into agree- ment with it. So instead of epistulam scribendi causa write epistulae scribendae causa, with a view to writing a letter. The meaning is the same ; the gerund is the sub- stantival, the gerundive the adjectival form. Examples : Vincendi causa, For the sake of winning the victory. 1 After a preposition invariably G 82 LATIN COURSE Potestatem mihi facit adeundi ad filiam, He grants me permission to go to see my daughter (more literally, he gives me the power of going etc.). Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus, Every one of us burns with the longing for a happy life. Eeginae vinceudae causa, In order to conquer the queen. Occasio defendendae urbis, An opportunity of (or, for) defending the city. In agris vastandis decem dies consumpsit, He spent ten days in devastating the country. Ad se conservandam, With a view to securing her own safety. Sui conservandi causa, With a view to securing his (or, her) own safety} Only the direct (i.e. accusative) object of a verb can be attracted. We write navium parandarum causa, ' with a view to getting the vessels ready,' instead of naves parandi causa. But we could not imitate this attraction with such a verb as pareo, which has an indirect (i.e. dative) object ; we must write Deis parendi causa, 'with a view to obeying the gods.' In fact a verb used intransitively has no gerundive form? 1 Mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri were originally neuter forms, the genitives of meum, tuum etc. Hence the gerundive in agreement with them is always in the neuter singular. Therefore write Tui mdendi occasio, 'an opportunity of seeing you,' whether the person referred to as ' you ' be masculine or feminine, and nostri mdendi occasio, not nostri videndorum occasio, in spite of the plural meaning of nostri. 2 The more advanced student should note that there are a few exceptions to this rule : utor, fruor, fungor, potior, rescor, though they govern the ablative, have gerundives like transitive verbs ; for instance, Tenendus est voluptatis fruendae modus ; In span venerant potiundorum castrorum. But these gerundives are not used as predicates with the verb 'to be ' : utendum est delate, not utenda est aetas. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE EXERCISE 9 1 . Not the possession of gold, but the holding sway over those who possess gold, seems a fine thing to me. 2. Teaching is difficult, learning is easy. 3. "We learn by teaching. By teaching boys we ourselves learn. 4. We spent ten days in making the bridge. 5. To err is human, to forgive divine. 6. We were compelled to wait several days in order to repair the ships. 7. While I was in prison I was not granted per- mission to write a letter. 8. They hoped by the murder of Caesar to set their country free. 9. When I saw him setting off, I thought it was an excellent opportunity for escape. 10. When all preparations had been made for setting off the weather was not suitable for a voyage. 11. Do we not all long for a good and happy life ? 12. Everything is ready for an attack on the city. 13. I am longing to see you, my dear Tulliola. Many of the words for this exercise will be found in 80-82, but not in the dictionary. Use the gerund or gerundive when possible. 1. I hold sway over, impero (dative). 5. ' It is the way of men to err, of the gods to pardon those who have erred.' 6. wait, morari. several : ' not a few. ' in order to repair : ' for the sake (causa) of repairing.' 8. the murder of Caesar : use the verb interficio. You will often find that Latin uses the gerund or gerundive or past participle where we use a substantive. Bear this in mind in doing the following sentences. 13. I am longing : use cupidus sum with genitive my dear Tulliola, Tulliola mm. 84 LATIN COURSE 14. When he asked whether we had come to hear Antonius, we replied, " We have come with the object of hearing, not Antonius, but you." 15. Is not the mind of man nourished by learning and thought ? Is not the greatest pleasure got from learning ? 16. He seems to have a bent, not only for learning, but also for teaching. 17. On being asked why lie had learned nothing, he replied that he had had no opportunity for reading. 18. Does the art of living seem difficult to you? To kill one's self, what is it but to leave one's post without the orders of the General ? 19. If an opportunity were offered me for setting my country free, I would eagerly seize it. 14. with the object, causa or gratia. 15. thought, i.e. reflection: use cogito (I). I get the greatest pleasure from, capio summam voluptatem ex . . . 16. propensus ad, inclined towards, having a bent for, or prone to : participle from propendere. 17. for reading : genitive. 18. what is it but . . ., quid aliud est nisi . . . I leave my post . . ., cle statione decedo (3). 19. offer, dare. eagerly, avlde. seize, arripio (3). THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 85 THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE USED AS PREDICATES 83. We have seen that the gerund and gerundive are used in the accusative with prepositions, and in the genitive, dative, and ablative to supply those cases of the verbal substantive. We shall now see that the nominative case and the . accusative without a preposition are used in a different way. The nominative. The gerund and gerundive are used in the nominative with the verb ( to be ' to signify obligation, necessity, duty, and similar ideas. For instance (a) Proficiscendum est, A start must be made. (b) Epistula scribenda est, A letter should be written. 84. If the verb is used intransitively 1 the gerund is used as in (a) ; if the verb is used transitively (as scribo epistulam ; passive, epistula scribitur), the gerun- dive is used as in (b). Eemeinber that the same verb may be used either transitively or intransitively : for instance if I say scribo, ' I am writing/ I use scribo intransitively (just like morior, ( I am dying ') and so I should say scribendum est, ( I must write ' : but it would not be good Latin to say scribendicm est epistulas. It will save trouble if you realise that no intransi- tive verb has a gerundive (for our present purpose we may ignore the exceptions mentioned in the note on p. 82, n. 2), and that the gerundive belonging to a transi- tive verb can only be used when the verb is used in a transitive sense. 1 Compare 3. 86 LATIN COURSE Intransitive Verb Active. Ambulo, / am walking. Passive (impersonal). Ambulatur, A walk is going on. Gerund (impersonal). Ambulandum est (mihi), A walk is necessary (for me}. Transitive Verb Active. Scribo epistulam, / am writing a letter. Passive (personal). Epistula scribitur, A letter is being written. Gerundive (personal). Epistula scribenda est, A letter ought to be written. The same verb used intransitively Active. Scribo, / am writing. Gerund (impersonal). Scribendum est (mihi), Writing is necessary (for me), I must write. 85. The accusative. After a verb of saying or thinking the verb 'to be ' will, of course, be in the infinitive, and the gerund or gerundive in the accusative. Dixit proficiscendum esse, He said a start should be made. Putavit epistulam esse scribendain, He thought that a letter ought to be written. 86. In this kind of sentence the gerund and gerundive are used as predicates : in epistula scribenda est, for instance, epistula is the subject and scribenda est the predicate, i.e. that which is said about the subject. The gerundive is most commonly used as a pre- THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 87 dicate with the verb 'to be ' : it is also so used with some other verbs, such as dare, ' to give,' curare, ' to take care that . . .' Epistulam mihi legendam dedit, He gave me the letter to read (He gave me the letter : it was to be read). Epistulam mittendam curavit, He had the letter sent. Curo is of course connected with the substantive cura : compare the phrase Id mihi curae est, ' It is to me an object of care, I am anxious about it.' Curo may be followed by the gerundive or by ut. With the gerundive curare corresponds to the English * have,' in such a sentence as He had the dinner prepared (i.e. caused it to be prepared), Cenam parandam curavit. 87. With the gerund and gerundive the agent is generally put in the dative : Eundum est mihi, I must go. Eundum est tibi, You must go. Eundum est ei, He must go. Eundum est nobis, etc. Urbs mihi capienda est, / must take the city, Urbs tibi capienda est, You must take the city ; and so on. But if the verb is accompanied by another dative, the agent is expressed by a, db with the ablative in order to avoid ambiguity. You must not write Pecunia danda est tibi mihi, for it will not be clear whether you mean ' You ought to give the money to me ' or ' I ought to give the money to you.' Write, therefore, if you mean the latter, Pecunia tibi a me danda est. In the same way do not write Parcendum est ei nobis for ' We must spare him/ but Parcendum est ei a nobis. 88 LATIN COURSE 88. Beware of writing eundus sum for ' I ought to go/ or vincendus sum for ' I ought to conquer.' Eundum est mihi really means ' there's a journey for me ' ; hence conies the sense a journey is for me a necessity or a duty, but you will find it convenient to regard the form as a passive and to translate it to yourself as ' A journey ought to be made by me ' : by paraphrasing thus you will make it impossible to fall into the blunder eundus sum. The gerundive used as a predicate is passive, even from deponents : so, of course, ' I ought to conquer the Gauls ' must be rendered vincendi sunt Galli mihi, ' The Gauls ought to be con- quered by me ' (more exactly, ' For me the Gauls are meet to be conquered'). The mistake referred to is common because the gerund and gerundive, when used in the way shown in 80-82, are translated by the active in English : for instance, Causa eundi erat, ' The reason for going was . . . ' : Spes vincendi Caesaris, ' The hope of conquering Caesar.' 89. A few examples will make the matter clearer : note in what various ways the gerund and gerundive are rendered in English : ' I had better,' ' I ought,' ' it is my duty,' 'it is necessary,' etc. Redeundum esse putavi, / thought it my duty to return. Intellexi proficiscendum esse, / saw that I ought to start. Statui exspectandum esse, / decided that I had letter wait. Non diutius morandum esse arbitratus, Thinking it right to delay no longer. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 89 Hostium audaciam comprimendam esse dixit, He said that the audacity of the enemy must be crushed. Nihil temere agendum est, We must not act rashly. Non credendum est homini, The fellow is not to be trusted. 90 LATIN COURSE EXERCISE 10 1. We must either win or die. 2. If I forgive you, you must spare him. 3. When I heard this I decided that it was my duty to wait for Bibulus to arrive. In the mean- time I thought it right to send you this information. 4. I will have your books returned to you. Don't you think I am to be trusted ? 5. Each man should use his own judgment. 6. He teaches us that we should forget wrongs done to us. 7. He should be encouraged not to let the oppor- tunity slip away. 8. Do we not all think fame preferable to wealth ? 9. If he wins he will give the soldiers the city to plunder : do you really think that it is for us to help him ? 10. Have we not learned from our fathers that we must not act treacherously, that we must conquer our foes by valour not by wickedness ? 2. ' must ' is here future, ' you will have to spare. ' 3. send information, scribo. In this exercise use the gerund or gerundive whenever it is possible. Many of the sentences could, of course, be done in other ways. 5. Each man, quisque. Note the position of quisque in this sentence : Suum quisque noscat ingenium, Let each man know his own nature ; see 46. 6. say ' wrongs received ' (accipio). 7. I let ... slip away, dimitto. Mitto means 'to let go' as well as ' to send ' : hence the sense of amitto, to lose. 8. Use prae-pono for ' I prefer.' 10. treacherously: abl. of inxidiae, treachery. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 91 11. He gave up the dead body of Eumenes to his friends for burial. 12. To me, however, it seems that death is even to be longed for. Either I must die or I must live in a free state. 13. If the Gauls attempt to make war we shall have to summon C. Marius from the lower world to command our forces. 14. I will have a bridge made across the river, that you may come to me the more easily. 15. This done I handed over the army to my brother Quintus to take to their winter-quarters. 1 returned to Laodicea. 11. I give up (i.e. to hand over), trado. say ' the dead Eumenes. ' sepelire, to bury. 12. optare, to long for. 13. excltare, to summon. from the lower world, ab inferis (from the people down below), to command : use qui with subj. ; see 8. 14. pontem facio in flumine. 15. hand over, dare. I take : meaning ' I lead,' duco. I returned : ' I ' must be translated ; see 47. 92 LATIN COURSE EXERCISE 11 Do not use the dictionary more than you are obliged but try to think of the words for yourself. In this exercise, for example, do not look up ' departure ' but think what it means : of course, it will be translated by a verb. You probably know the Latin for to ' commence ' : if not, you must think of some other English word which has the same meaning and look that up. In the same way you will probably be able to get the word for to 'get better.' 1 . We must make all preparations for departure, even though we are doubtful in which direction we are to march. 2. Neither Pompeius nor Caesar is to be trusted : you must not act rashly, but you must wait till you know which is going to win. When you have discovered this, then but not before you must praise the one and blame the other. 3. Having at last made up his mind to start he had everything taken on board the ship. The following morning as he could not set sail, the wind being against him, he returned to Athens and spent three days in visiting the temples. 4. I have no doubt he has told you that Julia is out of health. That was the reason of our coming to Italy. We have been staying here now more than five months. The doctor says we must remain till she gets better. Meanwhile I have much to write. 1. even though : say 'even if.' in which direction: say 'whither.' 2. then but not before, turn vero (then of a truth). 4. I am out of health, infirma valetudine sum (I am in weak health). "We have been staying . . . : see 58. to write : use the relative ; see 157. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 93 5. When they heard this they all began to shout that the poor wretch should be spared. 6. I recommend you to say to yourself every day that a hot temper is to be resisted. 7. He burned his ships so that there might be no hope of returning home, and commenced his advance into the country of the Indians. 8. As he had gone out for a walk I could not see him. 9. We spent many days in making preparations for wintering on the island ; for there seemed now to be no hope of sailing till the summer returned. 6. say to yourself : use meditor (1). hot temper, iracundia. IX THE INFINITIVE USED AS A SUBSTANTIVE (continued) 90. We have seen that the infinitive is used as a substantive in the nominative or accusative case : 1. Nom. Vivere dulce est, Life is sweet, It is sweet to live (almost equivalent to Vita est dulcis). 2. Ace. Cupit mori, He desires to die (not very different from Cupit mortem}. It is evident that in (1) vivere is the subject of est, and that in (2) mori is the object of cupit. In some respects, then, the infinitive is like other substan- tives. But there is this important difference : with the infinitive a subject is implied, if not expressed. If, for example, we translate the sentence Timere est turpe, 'Fear is disgraceful,' we do not completely express the meaning of timere. If we say ' It is disgraceful that one should feel afraid ' or 'for a man to feel afraid ' we render by the words * one ' or ' a man ' the indefinite subject of timere. In other words the infinitive timere like the indicative tim.et makes a statement about a subject : it puts before the mind the union of two ideas subject, some one ; predicate, fear. But the statement is dependent, it cannot stand alone, just as the English 'that a man should feel afraid ' cannot stand alone. This is the essential difference between the infinitive and other substantives. NOM' compare the two sentences. Magnus timor hostium est turpis, Great fear of the enemy is disgraceful. Magnopere timere hostes est turpe, To greatly fear the enemy is disgraceful. You will notice that the infinitive, like the other parts of the verb, has an adverbial attribute (magnopere), whereas other THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT 95 substantives have adjectival attributes (magnus). The infinitive governs the same case as the rest of the verb (hostes, ace.), other substantives govern a genitive (hostium). Further, the infinitive may be active or passive : timere, ' the feeling afraid of,' timeri, 'the being feared by.' Compare with these two forms the expression timor hostium which may mean ' the fear one feels of the enemy ' ( = timere hostes), or ' the fear felt by the enemy ' ( = titneri ab hostibus). Lastly the infinitive has different tenses : Non tarn turpe fuit vinci quam contendisse decorum est, There was not so much disgrace in being beaten, as there is honour in having* struggled (It was not disgrace/ill to be suffer- ing defeat : it is an honour to have struggled). THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT 91. 1. The simple infinitive may be the subject of the sentence Manere optimum est, It is best to stay. Here manere is the subject to est. 2. The subject of the infinitive, if expressed, is in the accusative case : Me manere est optimum, It is best that I should stay. Here me is the subject to manere, and the clause me manere is the subject to est. 3. If the subject of the infinitive is not expressed it is understood in the accusative case : any word agreeing with the subject of the infinitive will, of course, be in the accusative : Manere solum est optimum, It is best to remain alone. Here the clause manere solum is the subject to est : the subject of manere is not expressed : solum is in the accusative because it is a predicate agreeing with the subject of manere, which is either quite indefinite or is supplied by the context. 96 LATIN COURSE 92. You will notice that when the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, the English and the Latin usually correspond very closely : Mentiri turpe est, 1 Lying is disgraceful ' or ' It is disgraceful to lie.' But if the subject of the infinitive is expressed we cannot imitate the Latin construction ; we cannot translate Turpe est te mentiri by ' It is disgraceful you to lie,' but we must render it in some such way as this (1) ' It is disgraceful that you should lie ' or (2) ' It is disgraceful for you to lie' or (3) 'Your lying is dis- graceful.' Beware of translating the word ' should ' in (1) by debere, the 'for you' in (2) by tibi, or 'your lying ' in (3) by tuum mentiri. 93. When the infinitive, or a clause of which the verb is an infinitive, is the subject of the sentence, the predicate will consist of (1) est, mdetur or some other copulative verb with (a) an adjective in the neuter singular nominative, as Turpe fuit vinci, Being beaten was a disgrace, or (b) a substantive in the nominative Sed iam tempus est abire, But now it is time to go away, or (c) a substantive or adjective in the genitive Sapientis est tempori cedere, It is wise to yield to circumstances. (2) A verb in the third person singular: Legere me delectat, Reading charms me. See 96-100. THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT 97 94. (1) (a) and (b) need no further comment. (c) We have nothing corresponding to this use of the genitive in English. We cannot say ' It is of a friend to do this.' We must therefore represent the sense in various ways ; here are a few examples : Amici est, It is friendly, It is the duty of a friend, It is for a friend to, Stulti est, It is the act of a fool. It is foolish, stupid. Boni viri est hoc facere, It is natural to a good man to do it, A good man will do it. Philosophi est, It shows a philosophic spirit, It is scientific. Parvi animi est, It shows a paltry spirit. 95. You can say Stultum est hoc facere or Stulti est. You can say Sapientis est hoc facere but not Sapiens est. You c