l!:J,^:^!.^^^«i«»«^^:n.O/,n/lM'^^^ A^Wi^'WSA' ^^^-Nt^M^iJjJ;^' .^-5?«(*- aC\ ^/vv^^i TrnTrCunv' >Mri ^^^'^,/^^(^^^^Aftf^'^^ ^li,,,.Afls^^, 'imm' ^^^^Ar^c^;;.^^' ■*^&? »^^^,^^^^^'^^^^^^^ ^.' ■ •»^""«M> ^^. mmm' MflHi^A^^aM' •«..- «c («nnnnf v!/^ r-o. Z15, p 5Z'0.^,^?^-JH2.^' ir;o -^Gl THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, AKD JOURNAL or ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MINEHAIiOGY, GEOLOGY, AND METEOROLOGY. CONDUCTED By J. C. LOUDON, F.L., G., & Z.S. MEMBER OF VARIOUS NATURAL HISTORY SOCIET LONDON PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, REES, ORME, PATERNOSTER-ROW. 1830. CONTINENT. D GREEN, r ^ loNDON: KiJlted by A. & R. Spottiswood^, New-Street-Square. PREFACE. In glancing over the Table of Contents of this Third Volume of the Magazine of Natural History, the reader cannot fail to ob- serve the great increase in the number of its contributors. As nine tenths of these are personally strangers to the Conductor, and write for the promotion of science or for their own instruction, he cannot but consider this circumstance a proof of the increas- ing interest of the work, and of the gradual advancement of a taste for Natural History in this country. It would argue a want of generous feeling on his part, were he not to acknowledge how much he is gratified at having projected a work which seems to have supplied the wants of the times, in the department of which it treats. Periodical works may be divided into two classes : those which are supported by the voluntary contributions of their readers ; and those which are forced into circulation by the hired communi- cations of eminent writers. In our opinion, the first class alone answers the legitimate object of a Journal of Science. A forced periodical of any kind is like an exotic plant, which requires to be continually nursed in a hot-house : a self-supported journal, or one naturally arising from the wants of the times, is like an indi- genous plant, or a plant that has been naturalised, and which will thrive with ordinary care and culture in the open air. A self-sup- ported Magazine of Natural History may be considered as repre- senting the wants and wishes of the lovers of Natural History of the time and country in which it appears: a forced journal of any kind can only be considered as representing the personal wants and wishes of the parties concerned in its production. The latter description of periodical may for a time be more conducive to the fame and profit of its authors and owners : the former will naturally at first be defective in these objects; but in both of them it may be reasonably expected to increase as it proceeds. Such is the theory which we have deduced from our experience in the conducting of periodicals ; and it is partly in conformity with that theory, and partly to comply with the request of a A 2 1 IV PREFACE. number of our readers, that we have in this Third Volume brought to a conclusion most of our Introductions to the different branches of Natural History, originally intended to be continued through several volumes. In every other respect we have adhered to our prospectus ; and we hope to go on in the same course for many years to come, gathering strength as we proceed ; and so rooting this periodical into the literature of the country, as that there must always in future be in these islands a Magazine of Natural History. With the present Volume is given a Glossarial Index to the technical terms made use of from the commencement of the work up to the present time, with references to the pages where will be found their explanations at length, and their application to the different departments of natural science. As the first step to- wards the knowledge of the nature of things, and to the commu- nication of that knowledge to others, is to know their names ; so we would earnestly recommend to our young readers, or generally to all those who feel that they are not yet beyond the age of acquiring new ideas, to study this Glossary word by word. We would recommend them to turn to every page referred to, so as not only completely to understand the word and its application, but to impress on the understanding and the memory the subject in the discussion of which the application is made. This will be to master a part of every branch of Natural History, and to make the Magazine, as far as it has hitherto proceeded, the reader's own. The ideas communicated to the world in this Magazine proceed from the minds of some hundreds of individuals, all directed to the same subject; they are, therefore, much more worthy of being fixed in the memory than those of any one individual ; for example, in a single treatise. This is a proposition which will bear discussion at length ; but we must leave it for the present, and conclude by hinting that those who peruse a scientific magazine, as they would glance over a merely literary periodical, are spending their time to very little purpose. J. C. L. Bayswatevy Oct. 18. 1830. CONTENTS, Pari I. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. GENERAL SUBJECT. Some Account of the Life, Genius, and Personal Habits of the late Thomas Bewick, the cele- brated Artist and Engraver on Wood. By his Friend John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - Page 1. 97 A Visit to the MantelUan Museum at Lewes. By Robert Bakewell, Esq. - - 9 Sketch of a Natural Calendar of Coincidence, with Preliminary Remarks. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A 17 Some Details respecting the Garden of Plants and the National Museum at Paris. By Mrs. R. Lee (late Mrs. Bowdich) - - 22 On the Geography, Geology, and Vegetation of Sicily. By John Hogg, Esq. M.A. F.L.S. F.C.P.S. - . . - 105 On the Falls of Niagara, and on the Physical Structure of the adjacent Country. By Mr. Robert Bakewell, Jun. - -117 An Address delivered at the sixth and last An- niversary Meeting of the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society of London, on the 29th of November, 1829. By N. A. Vigors, Esq. A.M. F.R.S. . : ... 201 Further Notice of the late Mr. George Caley. By WilliamWithering, Esq. L.L.D. F.LS. 226 Remarks on some of the Advantages and Dis- advantages of Periodical Works on Natural Histonr. By a Purchaser of Periodicals 297 On the Luminousness of the Sea. Read before the Plinian Society. By W. Baird, Esq., Member of that Society » - 308 Account of an Ornithological Visit to the Is- lands of Shetland and Orkney, in the Sum- mer of 1828. By Richard Drosier, Esq. 321 Remarks on the Natural History of the Parish of Slapton, near Dartmouth, Devonshire. By H. V. D. . . ' . .393 Original Letters, descriptive of a Natural His- tory Tour in North America. By T. W. 489 Notes on the Pyrenees. By William Ainsworth, Esq , Member of the Royal College of Sur- geons of Edinburgh, &c. - - 496 Certain Effects attending the Blowing up of Stob's Powder Mill in Peebleshire, and other Matters. By Agronome - . 507 ZOOLOGY. Observations on the Preternatural Growth of the Incisor Teeth, occasionally observed in certain of the Mammalia rod^ntia. By W. Farrar, Esq. M.D. - - - 27 Supplement to the " Descriptive and Historical Notice of British Snipes," in the Seventh Number of the Magazine of Natural His- tory. (Vol.11, p. 143.) In a Letter to the Conductor. By S. T. P. - - 27 On the Caprim61gus europae"*us, or Fern Owl. By Bartholomew Dillon, Esq. - - 30 On the Autumnal Migration and Habits of some of the Genus Sylvia in England. By J. D. Hoy, Esq. . - - 34 On the wanton Destruction of Swallows. By Philochelidon - . - 35 An Introduction to the Natural History of Mol- luscous Animals. In a Scries of Letters. By G. J. . .. . 39. 249. 335. 525 Observations relative to Dr. Carus's Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood in Insects. By William Spence, Esq. F.LS. - . 48 On the extraordinary Instincts peculiar to some of the Insect Tribe. By T. H. - Page 50 Dates of the first and last Appearances of the irir6ndines in the Neighbourhood of AUesley Rectory, for the Year 1829, with Remarks. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A. - - 130 Some Account of the British Pearl Fishery now existing on the Conway. By D. C. - 132 On the Habits of the Chameleon. By Henry Slight, Esq. M.R.C.S., Honorary Librarian to the Portsmouth Institution - - 232 Trait in the Habits of the Weasel, with Notes on the Water Shrew and the Thrush. By W. L, Selkirkshire - - - 234 Notice of a Discovery respecting the Food of the Bearded Titmouse (Parus biknaicus Lin.). By W. H. Dikes, Esq. - - - 239 Notice of the Plumage of the Bearded Titmouse when a young Bird. By the Rev. J. Lakes 239 Notice of Stones found in the Stomachs of Pike. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A, - - 241 On Pontia ChariclSa and M^tra, the large and small Cabbage Butterflies. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A. - - - 242 On the Gooseberry Grub. By E S. - 245 On the Periodical Appearance of certain Insects. By J. H. Davies, Esq., Lieut. R. M., late Cu- rator of the Museum of the Portsmouth Phi- losophical Society - _ - 247 An Account of the Mode in which the common Frog takes its Food. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, A.M. - - - 326 Observations on the Habits and Nidification of the Bearded Titmouse (farus biarmicus L.). By J. D. Hoy, Esq. - - - 328 Some Account of the Stickleback Fish (Gaster- tSsteus aculeatus). By O. - - 329 Notice of the Capture of Vanessa H6ntera, for the first time in Britain, with a Catalogue of rare Insects captured. By J. C. Dale, Esq. 332 On the Hfdra, or Fresh-water Polypus. By Samuel Woodward, Esq. - - 348 Supposed Parasite Habits of the Night-jar (Caprimilgus europae'^us), and Nests of the Cuckoo. By J. Rennie, Esq. - - 397 On a remarkable Formation of the Bill observed in several Species of Birds. By John Black- wall, Esq. - - - - 402 Remarkable Visitation of the Phalae^na typi- coides. By E. S. - - - 404 The Cuvierian, or Natural, System of Zoology. By B. Essay 4. On Mammiferous Animals; their Division into Orders, and distinctive Characters of each. Comparison between the Cuvierian and Linnean Systems - - 510 Description of the Great Bustard of India, with Notices of some other Indian Bustards. By A Subscriber - - - 515 Some Observations on the British Willow Wrens. By T. F. - - - 518 Additions to the British Fauna ; Class, Fishes. By William Yarrell, Esq. F.LS. Z.S. &c. 521 On the Metamorphosis of a Species of Cassida. By T. H. . - - .523 BOTANY. An Introductory View of the Linnean System of Plants. By Miss Kent, Authoress of Flbra Domestica, Sylvan Sketches, &c. 53. 134. 350 On the Specific Identity of the Primrose, Oxlip, '■^'Cowslip, and Polyanthus. By the Rev. John VI CONTENTS. Stevens Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge - - Page 406 Farther Illustration of Observations on Vessels made of the Papyrus. By John Hogg, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. &c. - - - 535 On the Specific Identity of '.^nagallis arvensis and cffiriMea. By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of Cam. bridge - - - - 537 GEOLOGY. Introduction to Geology - - 62 Illustrations of Antediluvian Zoology 'and Bo- tany. By R. C. Taylor, Esq. F.G.S. 262. 361 Remarks on M. Adolphe Brongniart's Opinion as to the Vegetation which covered the Sur- face of the Earth at the different Epochs of the Formation of its Crust. By Nat. John Winch, Esq. A.L.S. &c. - - Page 373 Remarks on the Relations subsisting between Geological Strata and the Plants most fre- quently found growing on their superincum- bent Soils. By William Thomson, Esq. A.M. 410 METEOROLOGY. Notes on the Weather at Florence during the past Winter. By W. Spence, Esq. - 374 Some Remarks upon the late Winter of 1829-30, and upon the general Character of the Wea- ther which preceded and followed it. By the Rev. Leonard Jen yns, M, A. F.L.S. -538 Notice of a singular Appearance of the Rain- bow. By E.G. - . .644 Part II. REVIEWS. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published, with some Notice of those con- sidered the most interesting to British Natu- ralists - - - 80.426.560 Flbra Devoni^nsis : or a descriptive Catalogue of Plants growing wild in the County of De- von, arranged both according to the Linnean and Natural Systems, with an Account of their Geographical Distribution, &c. By the Rev. J. P. Jones and J. F. Kingston - 288 Deliciae Sylvkrum ; or Grand and Romantic Fo- rest Scenery in England and Scotland. Drawn from Nature and etched by Jacob George Strutt, Author of the Sylva Britannica. Lon- don. Fol. Nos. I. and II. - - 378 Life of Sir Humphry Davy. By Dr. Paris 389 Cours de I'Histoire Naturelle des Mammif feres. Par M. GeofFroy Saint Hilaire - - 420 A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, de- scribing the Strata and Fossils occurring be- tween the Humber and the Tees, from the German Ocean to the Plain of York. By the Rev. George Young, A.M., assisted by John Bird, Artist, Members of several Local Philo- sophical Societies. Second Edition - - 423 Sylva Britannica; or Portraits of Forest Trees distinguished for their Antiquity, Magnitude, or Beauty. Drawn from Nature by Jacob George Strutt - . - - 546 Literary Notices . - 81.289.565 The General Subject Zoology Part III. COLLECTANEA. . 143 j Botany - 144 I Geology 150 152 Part IV. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. Natural History in Foreign Countries : France - - - - 290 Germany . . . - 428 Italy - . . - 291 Switzerland - . - 428 Africa - . - - 429 North America ... 429 South America - - - 430 Natural History in London - - 153. 292. 431 Natural History in the English Counties Middlesex Surrey Kent Bedfordshire Huntingdonshire Cambridgeshire Suffolk Norfolk Gloucestershire Worcestershire - 434 - 153. 434 - 154. 435 - 436 - 154. 436 - 154 - 154 . 155. 436 - 155 . 159 Glossarial Index Index to Books reviewed and noticed General Index Herefordshire - - - 436 Warwickshire _ . - 162 Leicestershire ... 167 Yorkshire - - - 168.437 Northumberland and Durham - - 169 Lancashire ... 169 Cumberland - . - 171. 438 Hampshire ... 439 Somersetshire ... 174 Devonshire _ . - 175 Cornwall - . 175 Natural History in Wales . - 439 Natural History in Scotland - - 440 Calendar of Nature 82. 178. 295. 391. 440. 566 Description and Use of the Botanic Microscope, 184 Hints for Improvements - - - 185 Instructions for the Collection of Geological Specimens . _ . . 442 Retrospective Criticism . 84. 186. 296. 445 Queries and Answers - - 92. 191. 468. 568 569 571 572 LISTS OF ENGRAVINGS AND CONTRIBUTORS. VU LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. BIRDS. No. 2, 3. Sc61opax grisea, and S. Sabini - S 5. Fern owl . - - - 41. Young bearded titmouse 125. Bill of the bustard 126. Willpw wrens . . . FISHES. 84. Gaster6steus aculektus 85. Gaster6steu8 pungitius 127. Sticklebacks REPTILES. 32. Filkria forficula 114. FUJlria INSECTS. 9. P6ntia Jr^ssicse, caterpillar, cocoons, &c. - _ . ^ 30. Leptiira mlcans . . - 31. Ants and aphides - . . 39. A curious bee's nest 43. The gooseberry grub 128. A species of Cassida Page 8,29 31 517 519 MOLLUSCA. 6. Edible bivalves - - - 43 7. Edible univalves - - - 45 8. Hfelixpomktia - - - 46 44 to 47. Molluscous Animals - 249 to 258 81 to 83. Microscopic luminous animals 312, 313. 315 86. Amultivalve - - - 335 87. Aspergillum 88. Cypr^V 12a TheSfepia 130. The Clio - - - - 529 131. Lymnse"® - - - 531 132. The Pyrosbmje - - - 534 344 ZOOPHYTES. 3. I^dra. TREES AND SHRUBS. 28. The maple 100. Oak as a vignette 136.. The Gospel oak 135. The Bull oak LANDSCAPES. 22, 23. Falls of Niagara 101, 102. Forest scenery 105. Bride stones 124. Scenery on the Hudson River HERBACEOUS PLANTS. 12. iZumex 13. >41isma Plantago - - 26. Willow herb 349 140 - 554 - 552 118. 124 384.385 - 61 No. 33. T^pha latifblia ."m 90. S'axifraga grariulata . 351 91. Glechbma Aederkcea - 354 118. Variety of Plantago mkjor - 482 CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 115. Shining moss - 463 119. Carrageen, or Irish moss 120. Duck's.foot Conferva - 483 . 483 FOSSILS. 1. Teeth of iguana - 14 20. Fossils of CucAUus simplex - . 95 34. Star-stone on flint - 152 35. Fossil shells from Foxcote - 159 40. Owl's-head fossil shell - 199 48 to 52. Vegetable fossils - - 263 to 266 53 to 66. Fossil zoophytes 67 to 72. Fossil ^stlrias 268 to 274 275 to 279 95 184 137 73, 74. Fossil shellfish - - 281. 284 75 to 79. Fossil Crustacea . - 286, 287 92 to 94. Fossil Amphibia - - 365, 366 95 to 99. {Fossil teeth of mammiferous quadrupeds . - 369 to 372 121. Fossil trilobite - - - 483 IMPLEMENT. 21. Whip for gathering ladanum INSTRUMENT. 38. Botanical microscope DIAGRAMS, &c. 4. Snipe's bill - - - 29 10. Involucrum - . ~ 53 11. Spatha - - - - 53 12. Tubercle of JSamex - - -61 14. Primary district of Cornwall - 65 15, 16, 17. Geological illustrations 67, 68, 69 18. Meteorological diagram - - 82 19. Nidus on a reed - - - 94 24. Map of country round Niagara - 128 27. Perfoliate plant - - - 138 29. Peltate leaf - - - 141 36, 37. 107. Diagrams for the Calendar of Nature 42. Stone from a pike's stomach 103. Calendar of Nature 104. Map of Slapton Lea 106. Journal of the atmosphere 108. 112. Geological illustrations 113. Nidus of a spider 116. Double shadow 117. Curious substance drawn up at sea 122. Explanation of mirage - - 48i> 123. Awn of the oat - - - 486 133, 134. Singular appearance of the rain- bow - . .544,545 182, 183. 441 - 241 - 391 - 396 - 430 - 443 - 458 - 468 . 481 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. Aaron, J., MiR.C.S. - - 192 A Constant Header - - 147. 451 A Constant Subscriber - - - 460 A Friend to fair Criticism - - 89 A. G. - - 84. 158. 183. 296. 392. 442. 568 Agronome - . . 507 Ainsworth, W., Mem. of the Royal Col. of Sur- geons of Edinburgh - - 496 A. L. A. - . - 458. 477. 488 Alpha - - . .153 An Admirer of Nature - - 185 An old Angler - - .479 An old Bengally Anser A Purchaser of Periodicals A. R. Y. A Subscriber A. Z. A Zoological Student B. Babington, Charles C. B., Coventry Baird, W. Bakewell, Robert . - 470 - 472 - 297 - 389.560 - 190. 446. 48& 515 - 93 - 470 - 510 - 154 - 90 . 308 - 9 vui LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. Bakewell, Robert, Sen. and Jun. - 117 Blackwall,John,F.L.S. - -402,457 Bloxam, the Rev. Andrew - 160. 168 Bowman, I., F.L.S. - - - 463 B., Paris - - 289 Bree, the Rev. W. T., M. A. 17. 90. 92, 93. 130. 147. 151. 163. 241, 242. 326. 450 Brown, John, F.L.& - - 94. 199 Carr.J. - - - 197 C, Birmingham - - - 162 C, Carlisle - - - 174 Clarke, W.B. - • 152.200 C. N. - - - 198 Corylus - - . - 476 Confidential - - - 434 Couch, Jonathan, F.L.S. - - 175. 481 Curtis,.!. - - - 478 Dale, J. C. - - - 332 Davies, J. H. - - 187, 188. 247 D., Brentford - - - 435 D. C. - - - 132 D. D. - - . - 483 Dikes, W. H. - - - 239 Dillon, Bartholomew - - - 30 Dovaston, John F. M., M.A. - 1. 97. 191 Drosier, Richard - - - 321 R G. - - . 544 Electricus - - - 152 Elle8,J. - - - 149 E. S., F.L.S. - - 148. 245. 404 Evans, John . - - 484 Farmer, J. C. - . . 477 Farrar, W., M.D. - . 27. 147 F. C. L., Guernsey . 148 F. H., St Alban's . 473 F. R. S. _ 95 F. Z. S. - 185 .294 Gilbertson, Wm. _ 170 G.J. * - 39. 249. 335. 525 G. M. - 469 G. M., Lynn Regis - ^. Gorrie, Archibald, F.H.S. &c. , - 95 191 Gorrie, W. . 440 H. . . -465.469 Hanrey,J. A. - - .437 Hawkins, Thomas - . - 94 Hayward, J. . - . 449, 450 H. C. W. . . . 171 H. D., Richmond - . 16a 197. 484 Henslow, the Rev. John Stevens, Professor of Botany - . . . -406.537 H., Gray's Inn . - - - 93 H., Great Missenden . - - 476 Hogg. John, M.A. F.L.S. &c. - 105.535 Hoy.J. D. . . 34.328.436 H. S., Portsmouth - - 439 Hunter, Percival - 192. 447. 449. 470 Hurst, James C. . - 435 Hutton, W. - - 464 H. V. D. - . . 393 Hypercrito - - . 144. 146 J. B. . . 193 J. D. C. S. . . 199. 332. 349 J. E L. . .438. 482 Jennings, James - - 446. 449 Jenyns, the Rev. L, M.A. F.L.S. . 538 J. F. B. . . 93 J. F. M. - 457 J. L, Liskeard Vicarage - 145.146 J. H. N. . - - 474 J. M. - 433. 563 Johnston, George,'M.D, . 461.462 - 472 j°c?'w. ■ - 456 J. P. T., Cork - 481 J.R. . 146 J. S. H. - 155 J. T., Cork . 478 K. .187 Kent, Miss - 52. 134 350 L. . 472 Lakes, the Rev. J. . - 92.175.239 Lambe, C. - - - 149 L. D. C, Oxford - - 440 Lee, Mrs. R. . - - 22. 291 Lees, Edwin - - 161, 162. 190. 198, 199 L. E. O. - - - 168 L. F. - - - 200 L. H. - . .390 M. . . 188,189.200 Main, J., A.L.S. . - 488 Marshall, James Drummond - 470. 473 Masters, W. . - 154. 192. 289 Matthews, A. - . - 431 Maund, B.'F.LS., &c. - . 92. 149 M. F. . - .95 Milne, John . . . 440 Morgan, Thomas - - 474, 477 Muphatamet ... 468 Murray, J., F.LS. A.S. H.S. &c. 146. 189. 439. 447.450,451.458,459. N. . . .423 O. . . .329 Philagros . . 439 PhilocheUdon ... - 35 P. in B. . - - 95 R. B. . . - 190 R. C. T. . . 160. 171. 199 Renme,J.,M.A.A.LS. - - 296.397 R. G. - . . 434 Robertson, John, F.H.S. . - 145 Rose, W, B. . . - 159 Slight, H., M.R.C.S. - - 232 Saul, M. . - .146 S. M. - •. - 474 Smith, H. S. . . - 194 Spence, W., F.LS. - .48.374 Springe, C. . - 474 Stanley, J., M.D. . - 172 Stock, Daniel - .155 Stowe, Wm. . - - 195 S. T. P. . . 27.92.241.475 S. W. . . . 188 Sweet, R., F.LS. - .434.448.461 T. . - - 426 Tatem, James G. - .96 Taylor, R. C, F.G.S. . - 262. 361 T. E, Cambridge - - 92. 175 T. E, Southwark . . - ^ T. F. . . . 518 T. G., Clithero - . 147. 568 T. H. . - .50.523 Thompson, E P. . . 185. 193 Thompson, Thomas - 147,148.187.195 Thomson, W., A.M. . - 410 Thurgarton, J. S. - - . 145 T.J. . - .198 T. M. - . . 190 T. W. - - .489 T**** R d. - - - 473 Vigors, N. A., F.RS. G.S. &c. 1. . 201 W. . - - 481 W. A. . . . 185 Watson, Hewett Cottrell . - 174 W. B. B. W. - . .458 W. C. T. . 151, 152. 461. 471. 476. 478 Westwood, J. O., F.LS. &c. 452, 453. 456. 476. 565 White, W. H. - 154. 193, 194. 436 W. H., R. N. . . 174. 195 Wilson, W. . . 451. 461 Winch, Nat. John, A.L.S. - - 373 Withering, W., LLD. F.LS. . . 226 W. L, Selkirkshire . . 234 Woodward, Samuel . - 348 W. S., Florence - - 292.428 W. W., Liverpool . . 472 X. . - - 150 X. Y. . - - 160.197 Y. . . .192.200 Yarrell, W., F.LS. Z.S. &c. 1 - . 521 Y. L . - - 92 Z. Z.,Ayr . . - 194.473 B5» ... 170.289 THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. JANUARY, 1830. Art. L Some Account of the Life, Genius, and Personal Habits of the late Thomas Bewick, the celebrated Artist and Engraver on Wood. By his Friend John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury. {Continued from Vol. IL p. 435.) ** A semely man our hoste was with alle. For to han ben a marshal in an halle. A large man he was with eyen stepe, A fairer burgeis is ther non in Chepe : Bold of his speche, and wise, and wel ytaught, And of manhed him lacked righte nought. Eke therto was he righte a mery man, And after souper playen he began. And spake of mirthe amonges other thinges," &c Chaucer, his Hoste, Sir, I PASS on to another personal interview, which took place on my return from a very long and laborious tour through the Hebrides, Highlands, and the greater part of Scotland, in company with the same friend and fellow-traveller, John E. Bowman, Esq., F.L.S., in the summer of 1825. It was mid- night when we arrived in Newcastle on Tyne, from Berwick on Tweed ; and we lay at our old quarters, the Queen's Head Hotel, in Pilgrim Street By eight in the morning we were at his house, and it was his birthday ( 1 2th of August), on which he attained 72. The family had broke fast; and had sat up for us the two last nights, in consequence of a letter I had written him from Perth of our intention of returning to England through Northumberland, provided he were at home ; to which I at Edinburgh got a most kind answer, offering us a Highland welcome to his open house, hand, and heart. They were all in high spirits at again seeing us ; and during our V0L.IIL — No. IL B 2 J^ifi-i Genius, and Personal Habits of Bewick, breakfast the conversation was hurried and hearty. As my friend, the banker, could remain but one day, he left me be- hind, where I fondly lingered till 18th of August, " Another day, another day. And yet another pass'd away." When the tide and effusion of heart at meeting had some- what subsided, we settled down into calmer delight. They showed me almost exhaustless drawers of blocks he had cut for his past and his future writings ; and as he sat at work, I en- joyed his more deliberate and sound conversation, accompanied by strains of his most extraordinary powers of whistling. His ear (as a musical feeling is called) was so delicately acute, and his inflexorial powers so nice and rapid, that he could run, in any direction or modulation, the diatonic or chromatic scale, and even split the quarter notes of the enharmonic ; neither of which, however, did he understand scientifically, though sa consummately elegant his execution : and his musical memory was so tenacious^ that he could whistle through the melodies of whole overtures ; and these, he said, he could obtain having once heard from the orchestra of a playhouse, or a holiday band, in both of which he took extreme delight. In proof of this I tried him to some extent, by flinging on his piano-forte several wild airs I had taken down from pipers in the Hebrides and Highlands, of difficult and intricate evolution, which he completely repeated the first time. Lest he might have heard these before, I farther sprinkled at him (without information of their originality), several private imitations, I had myself composed, of various national melodies, which he not only instantly and spiritedly whistled, but remembered long after ; as I found when sauntering with him amid the mountains of Derbyshire. I have always thought music one of the greatest and surest tests of talent ; and this, with numberless instances, corroborates my confirmation. I, moreover, confidently be- lieve, that the universally quoted and remarkably bold passage of that wholly delicious scene in The MetxJiant of Venice, has intensely much more illustration of moral and physical truth, than millions are capable of imagining, or willing to admit. The aroma of music has nothing to do with the ear ; it exists in every atom of the nervous temperament, connected inti- mately with exquisitely fine understanding : all can hear it, though having no more music in themselves than has a post, most likely nothing near so much, though all vow they love it prodigiously. But I am not scribbling a tractate on music : indulge me, gentle reader; I know thou wilt, if musical : if Ziife,^ Genius, and Pet'sonal Habits ofBewicJc, 3 not, ungentle reader, think thyself wise, look foolish, and cry baa ! His table I found, as usual, familiarly frequented by gentle- men of learning, wit, and worth; abundance of whose con- versation I could readily record, were it not extraneous to my limited purpose. Mr. Billington, however, I cannot omit, as he forms one of the hourly instances that verify the libe- rality of him I am slightly delineating. This gentleman, the author of a very useful and well-written book on planting, was persecuted by some state vermin, because he would not con- nive at their depredations on the country, and turned out of his office, with a heavy family. He was instantly encouraged by the generous Bewick to persist in his integrity ; for " truth, " he said, '* would ultimately come down like a sledge hammer." It did so, indeed ; their roguery was detected, and the poor gentleman, after fighting eight hard years with pen and penury, not only triumphed over his opponents, but was selected for promotion to a higher and more lucrative situation. This, he has often since told me, he should never have had patience or courage to have achieved, but for his hourly thoughts of honest Bewick's " sledge hammer." I found that the good people of Newcastle had erected a magnificent edifice of great elegance, for the purposes of philosophy, collections, and a library, in which they intended the first piece of statuary to be a figure of their honoured townsman, then under sculpture by Baily, at a subscription of only IZ. each, so as to admit the greater number. To this list I was permitted to add my name, with those of several of my Salopian friends, who have since repaid me with cordial satis- faction. Frequently, as I walked with him along the streets, it was gratifying to witness how much and how generally his character and talents were respected ; particularly when many who bowed to him differed totally from him in opinions, on a subject that ought to conciliate, but far too often sets little minds at inveterate hostility with great ones. An amiable touch of character showed itself in th^ mahy ragged children who followed him for halfpence, and would not leave him till he had imparted the customary largess. He turned to them several times, while he was talking to me, saying, "Get awa', bairns, get awa' ; I hae none for ye the day." As they still kept dogging him, and pulling at his coat, he turned into a shop, and throwing down a tester, said, in his broad dialect (which he neither affected to conceal, nor pretended to affect), " Gie me sax penn'orth o' bawbees; " and throwing the copper among the children, said kindly, and with a merry flourish of his cudgel, " There, chields, fit yoursels wi' ballats, and gae B 2 4- Lifi-i Genius^ and Personal Habits of Bewick, hame singing to your mammies." He was particularly fond of playing with little children, who, notwithstanding his bulky appearance, and extreniely rough face, suffered themselves to come unto him ; and among the num^erous and ill-sorted contents of his capacious pockets, he generally (like the all- hearted Dandy Dinmont) had an apple, a whistle, or a bit of gingerbread, together with pencil ends, torn proofs, scraps of sketches, highly tinted with the yellow ooze of huge pigtail quids, in divers stages of mastication. Yet gentle, generous, and playful as he was, his personal strength and courage was prodigious : and notwithstanding his ardent feelings of humanity towards all animals, particu- larly dogs, horses, and birds, in defending many whereof he had drawn himself into scrapes ; yet, when his own safety was at stake, he could repel an attack with a vigorous heart and arm : for he told me, as how going into a tanyard, a great surly mastiff sprang upon him, and how he caught said mastiff by the hind legs, and " fetched him, wi' his cudgel, such a hell o' a thwacker owre the lumbar vertebrae, that sent him howling into a hovel." My pleasantest time was at nights, when, without strangers, I enjoyed the full flow of talk while smoking with my noble- hearted friend, and his son, Robert Elliot Bewick, a modest ingenious youth, remarkable for his surprising skill in playing on the Northumbrian pipes ; and whose elegant taste and talent for drawing I cannot better praise than by calling him " a chip of the old hlochr The two younger daughters were interesting by their unobtrusive attention and courtesy, show- ing manners that give ease and grace to society, and kindness that cannot be mistaken. Of his eldest daughter, Jane, whom he called his " right hand," I feel it difficult to speak in print, lest even the gentlest truth offend her unaffected modesty ; so resort to The Poet, touching his Desdemona : — A maiden never bold ; Of spirit so still and quiet, that her motion Blush' d at herself: a maid That paragons description, and wild fame ; One that excels the quips of blazoning pens,' And in the essential vesture of creation Does bear all excellency." She was mistress of her father*s house, which she conducted with silent and quiet management, so that every thing seemed done by enchantment, without bustle or disturbance, and all without hurry or care. She corrected the press for his works, and saw to the getting them up ; wrote his letters of business, and kept his house and workshops in order. Her greatest Liife.) Genius^ and Personal Habits of Berwick. 5 delight was in his fame, and she looked on him almost with adoration, as he did on her. The formation of her person and deportment was particularly graceful and fascinating ; her features lovely, and brilliantly animated with intelligence ; and her gentle spirit gave a glow to all her excellencies. Her conversation was frank and unreserved, yet with modest de- meanour, speaking her mind without regard to the opinions of others, yet giving offence to none. Her manners and countenance were so bewitching, that she might say what she pleased, " in sweet sounds, that give delight, and hurt not." Mere dates and dry facts are laborious to record, and almost loathsome to read ; yet as they occur, I enter upon them as a duty, with something like the determination of a traveller, who, after loitering through the labyrinths of a woody and cooly-watered country, interspersed with peering rocks, ivied bridges, and romantic dingles, comes at once upon a common just enclosed, with an interminable tape of dusty road stretch- ing straight before him, without a tree for shade, or object for contemplation, save a milestone on one hand, and a finger- post on the other; that reminding his suddenly slackened spirit of the distance Jrom, and this the direction to, his des- tined period of repose. Yet even roads like these are not without their lichens and mosses, their insects, and their fossil fragments, the remnants of an earlier age. These remarks lead me to a work but little known, yet having much con- nection with my main object. I found, on strolling into the shop of Mr. Emerson Charnley, that in the year 1820 that gentleman had published a volume of Fables, as a vehicle for impressions of the earlier blocks, both of head-pieces and vignettes, engraved by Bewick, in his very young and inex- perienced labours. These cuts were all executed previous to the year 1785, many of them for Mr. Thomas Saint, an ex- tensive printer in Newcastle, to adorn his very various publi- cations ; and were afterwards purchased by Hall and Elliot, printers; and after remaining with them several years, were bought by Messrs. Wilson of York, who long kept them un- employed, with other blocks from the same quarter. This collection, amounting to upwards of twelve hundred, was obtained by Mr. Charnley in 1818, who, quite aware that Mr. Bewick wished it fully to be understood, that he had not any desire to " feed the whimseys of bibliomanists," has very pro- perly published a volume of them, preserving from destruction and oblivion, as a few curious morsels to collectors, these very early specimens of the revival of that exquisitely valuable and admirable art. It is incumbent to mention that this book contains several tail-pieces worked by Mr. Isaac Nicholson, a B 3 6 Life^ Genius, and Personal Habits of Bewick. pupil of Bewick, which may be readily discriminated by their apparent excellence. The Old Exchange in the title was cut by Bewick in 1719. This volume, valuable in many views, contains an impression of the celebrated " Old Hound," which obtained his first public prize in 1775, when only twenty-two. It also contains five portraits, on wood (copies), at different and distant periods, of the broad open features of my benevolent friend : that facing the title, from a painting of James Ramsay, is the nearest likeness during the years I knew him. It also contains a catalogue of his (congregated) works up to the year 1820. The editor very honestly and openly disavows his intention for one moment of putting these pieces in competition with the later productions ; but of showing the early powers, the gradual progress, and vigorous march of this great master. And I contemplate them with the same kind of curious pleasure, as I should the boyish rhymes of some great poef s first sonnet to Delia's shoe-tie, elaborated aneath a green weeping birch, when his years scarce equalled the number of verses whereunto he was limited by the gagging-bill of Petrarch. It may not be amiss to instance a few ; as The Dog and Shadow, Bear and Bees, Wanton Calf, Trout and Gudgeon (angler's attitude). Horses' Petition, &c. In these and others the infant Bewick is very visible, particularly in the motion. Some insects, too, as tail- pieces, are so accurate, as at once to be specific to an ento- mologist ; as the Papilio Megar«, Libellula variegata, Pontia ^rassicae. And the vignettes partake of his determinate pro- pensity to morality, tenderness, and humour ; each (as ever) telling articulately its own tale : as (to cite but one or two) that of Parson Fatpate, his fat wife, with fat pug-dog, wad- dling to a fat dinner, after a fat sermon, at Fatsty church, on a fat-melting Sunday; the reverend personage's motion and legs are peculiarly clerical. The beautiful story of Abdallah and the Magic Candelabrum is told at a glance. Another very admirable hit is at a dignified priest, creeping to duty under the shade of a parasol, evidently (by his index-finger and closed hand) giving his blessing, but no bawhee, to a ragged wooden-legged soldier, holding out his hat, while behind him his cocked-legged cur is stroaning against the parson's gown. In the distance is seen the church, and a yeoman sweating under a heavy load. This is just a swatch of Bewick's way. The middle-aged gentleman on the garden- screen is on a visit to the husband of his early love ; while tkey are walking from him down the avenue, wishing him in — heaven, or at home. A less fertile mind than his of Ab- bqtsford might imagine a romance of terror by a glimpse at L\fe^ Genius, and Per'sonal Habits of BewicJc, 7 that dead knight in moonht armour, cold, and recumbent on a sepulchral monument under the Gothic window of a ruined monastic cemetery — I just heard the sullen toll of the spectral curfew. Methinks no mean amusement might be elicited by extemporaneous little novelets, taking the colour of the occa- sion, invented for the nonce, from Bewick's tail-pieces, to minds utterly awearied and disgusted with the cards and cant of a fashionable drawlingroom. But I must on. We enjoyed our evenings as may well be conceived, with such a host at our head; often till broad morning began to spread her bright drapery along the east ; and even the admonishing sun- beams to keek through the shutters, laughing out the candles. Be up as early as I could, I always, were the morning fine, found him walking briskly in his garden, for exercise. His ornithic ear was quick and discriminative; he one morning told me he had then first caught the robin's autumnal melody, and said we should have a premature fall of the leaf; we had so, after the excessively hot summer of 1 825. I had heard this robin as I lay in bed, feeble and infrequent ; and as we walked in the garden, a passerine warbler, Sylvia hortensis (whom, from his profusion of hurried and gurgled notes in May, I call the Buckler), just gave a touch of his late song, which the fine ear of Bewick instantly caught, though in loud and laughing conversation. At meals he ate very heartily, and, after a plentiful supply, often said he could have eaten more. In early, and indeed late in, life he had been a hardish drinker-; but was at this time advised by his medical friends to be more abstemious, which he abode by as resolutely as he could, though not without now and then what he called a marlock. It has been said that Linnaeus did more in a given time than ever did any one man. If the surprising number of blocks of every description, for his own and others' works, cut by Bewick, be considered, though perhaps he may not rival our beloved naturalist, he may be counted among the indefa tigably industrious. And amid all this he found ample timf^ for reading and conviviality. I have seen him picking, chip- ping, and finishing a block, talking, whistling, and sometimes singing, while his friends have been drinking wine at his profusely hospitable table. At nights, after a hard day's work, he generally relieved his powerful mind in the bosom of his very amiable family ; either by hearing Scotch songs (of which he was passionately fond) sung to the piano-forte ; or his son Robert dii'l hornpipes, jigs, strathspeys, and reels, which failed not to put life and mettle in the heels of the females and younger friends, to his glorious delight. Occa- sionally his fondling Jane would read Shakspeare to him, or" B 4 8 J^ifiy Genius^ and Personal Habits of Bewick. the delightsome Romances of Shakspeare's Congener (not to speak profanely), Sir Walter Scott. It has been supposed by- many, and publicly asserted by a few, that Bewick never wrote his own works, but was wholly and solely employed on the designs ; to this I have his positive contradiction, which would be enough ; but that in addition to his own Memoir, which I have read in his own MS., I have seen him compose, extract, and translate passages for each bird he has engraved while I was in his house. If his works have any great defect, 'tis the defect of omission; every one laments he has given so little of the history of each bird. I have often offered him to rewrite the whole of the birds wherewith from early and lasting habits I was well acquainted, their characters and manners, interspersed with anecdotes and poetry, particularly from good old Chaucer, the bard of birds, and passages of every bearing brought together, flinging over the whole what may be called the poetic bloom of nature, in which none have so sweetly succeeded as honest White of Selborne. But this he always resolutely refused ; alleging that his descriptions, whether original, copied, or compared, were unimpeachably accurate ; and that was enough. And not only did he write his own language, but I often thought his talent in that depart- ment not surpassed even by the other effusions of his genius ; witness his unparalleled Preface to his Fables, and his other Introductions. He said, even to the last, he felt no deficiency of his imaginative powers, in throwing-off subjects for his ^aZ^-pieces (as I named them), which were always his favourite exercise ; the bird or figure he did as a task, but was relieved by working the scenery and back-ground ; and after each figure he flew to the tail-piece with avidity, for in the in- ventive faculty his imagination revelled. Lingering, and loth to depart, I had now to enter on a long, dreary, and restless travel of three days and nights; through a country the very diametrically reverse of my be- loved Scotland, in every thing physical, moral, and intellectual; alone; and immediately leaving the warm precincts of such cheerful and bright society ; and deprived of the solace and conversation of my kind and intelligent friend. Bowman, with whom I had just been journeying (I may truly say) some thousands of miles. I felt depressed with a cloud of melan- choly to which my merry spirit is unused ; yet not unimbued with a sort of soothing glow, that Ossian beautifully calls " the joy of grief." My venerable friend having fondly re- quested a few verses of mine in his Memoir^ I feebly broke off (as I do now), leaving, a foil to the gems of far brighter pages, the following " Fourteener : " — Mantellian Museum at Lewes. 9 Xylographer I name thee, Bewick, taught By thy wood-art, that from rock, flood, and tree, Home to our hearths, all lively, light, and free. In suited scene, each living thing has brought As life elastic, animate with thought. Well hast thou Fabled too, would man but see Each masqued lure. And oh ! what cordial glee To con thy fancies shrewd, and sharply wrought ! Age-honour'd friend, of open heart and mind. Like Nature's fields, all bounteous, broad, and bright With freedom, love, sublimity, and mirth ; Thy praise in thy own page fair Truth has shrined Gladsome ; for each declares, in lines of light. How heaven's high choral-songs preach to dull ears of earth. John F, M. Dovaston. Westfelton, near Shrewsbury, Nov. 8. 1829. {To be concluded in our next.^ Art. II. A Visit to the Mantellian Museum at Lewes. By Robert Bakewell, Esq. Sir, Having recently passed part of three days with much sa- tisfaction in examining the various interesting objects in the museum of Gideon Mantell, Esq,, of Lewes, F. R. S., I trust I shall render an acceptable service to many of your readers by giving them an outline of its contents. The collection consists principally of fossil organic remains, illustrative of the geology of Sussex. They are in admirable preservation and are very tastefully and judiciously arranged. Many of the specimens in this collection are unrivalled and unique ; indeed, we are entirely indebted to the scientific investigations of Mr, Mantell, for the first knowledge of their existence, as well as for the complete proof of the true geological character of the strata below the chalk and green sand which occupy the district called the Wealds, in the counties of Kent and Sussex. When Mr. Mantell first commenced his researches in the vicinity of Lewes, no fossil organic remains had been collected there, nor had the quarry men noticed them in the beds they were daily working, but in the course of a few years, Mr. Mantell, succeeded in obtaining the finest collection of chalk fossils in the kingdom : many of them are described in a splendid work which he published in 1822, entitled Fossils of the South Downs, or Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex with Fort^" two Plates, engraved by Mrs. Mantell. The most important 1 0 Mantellian Museum at Lewes, discoveries of Mr. Mantell were made in the beds of Weald-clay, sand, and sandstone below the chalk and green sand formation. He observed, that though the latter strata, as is well known, contain exclusively the remains of marine animals, such as Nau- tilites, Ammonites, and Belemnites, with other shells of marine genera, the strata of the former contain almost exclusively the remains of terrestrial plants, and shells analogous to fresh- water shells, or the bones of vertebrated animals, some of which were of enormous magnitude, and were evidently formed for walking on solid ground. The strata in which these remains are found must have been deposited in a fresh-water lake or estuary, or in the bed of a mighty river, on the sides of which lived and flourished plants and animals analogous to those of tropical climates ; these strata compose a great fresh-water formation below the chalk.* The labours of Mr. Mantell did not in the first instance re- ceive the attention that they justly merited. There is a certain prejudice more or less prevalent among the members of scientific societies in large cities, such as London or Paris, which makes them unwilling to believe that persons residing in provincial towns or in the country {les esprits campagnai-ds, as they are called) can do any thing important for science; and it is strangely imagined, that a city geologist, who 'runs over a district in a few days, can make greater discoveries than any one residing in it, who is in the habit of daily and repeated observation. It is true, indeed, that the local geologist may sometimes be liable to draw erroneous in- ferences which more extended researches might have cor- rected ; but his record of facts, if faithfully given, will always possess the highest value, and contribute to remove geology from the dominion of theory to the empire of truth and to place it on a solid basis. It was fortunate that the ardent and intelligent mind of Mr. Mantell, enlightened by anatomical and physiological science connected with his professional pursuits, perceived the true value of his discoveries; but,to make them properly appreciated by his own countrymen, the testimony of Baron Cuvier was ^vanting. This illustrious anatomist pronounced the Iguanodon, discovered by Mr. Mantell, to be a reptile more extraordinary than all those which have been hitherto known {encore plus * Some geologists would restrict the term fresh-water formations to beds deposited in lakes, but this appears taking a hypothesis for a fact ; we know too little of the ancient surface of the earth, to decide whether what are called fresh-water basins were originally lakes, or estuaries, or the beds of immense rivers. From the occasional occurrence of oyster shells in the Sussex-beds, it is highly probable they were deposited in an estuary. Mantellian Museum at Lets^es, 1 1 extraordinaire que tons ceux dont nous avons connoissance) , It is indeed extraordinary not only from being the largest amphibious or terrestrial animal hitherto known, but from its peculiar structure as an herbivorous masticating reptile. These preliminary observations are chiefly made, to prove to your country readers, how much may be done for the promotion of science, even in situations not favourable to its pursuit, at a distance from public museums, and removed from the excite- ment produced by associating with others engaged in kindred studies. I now proceed to describe the museum. The room in which the objects are placed has been recently erected by Mr. Mantell for the purpose, and is well lighted from above ; the larger specimens are arranged in glass cases, and the smaller ones in drawers below. It has already been stated that the collection of chalk fossils is the finest in the kingdom; it will not be necessary to particularise them, except those which are extremely rare, but it may be observed, that the matrix in which the most delicate animal remains are embedded has been partly removed with a degree of science and care that I have noticed in no other museum, and they are dis- played to the greatest advantage. The beautiful series of fishes allied to the Sens or doree, from the chalk pits near Lewes, are particularly interesting : one of them is a matchless specimen, the mouth being open and entire, and the tongue exposed ; but the most remarkable circumstance is the un- compressed and perfect form of the bodies, which was doubt- less chiefly owing to the preservation of the air bladder, for it appears unbroken in many of these specimens. This is an important fact, as it proves that the bodies were completely incased in the chalk, before the putrefactive process had com- menced, and adds probability to an opinion I advanced in a former edition of my Introduction to Geology ; that the form- ation of many beds in the secondary strata was effected by sub- marine eruptions of hot water, saturated with earthy matter, which destroyed the animals previously existing, and formed around them a siliceous or calcareous' incrustation, that pro- tected their remains from destruction. * In some of the fossil fishes, the dorsal fins, gills, and teeth are preserved, as well as the air bladder and tongue ; the scales are also very distinct. There are many fine specimens of Ventriculites, first described by Mr. Mantell in the 11th * M. Alex. Brongniart to whom I sent a copy of that work has recently adopted a similar theory to what I had advanced in 1815, that some of the siliceous strata in the Paris basin were deposited by thermal waters holding siliceous earth in solution. 12 Mantellian Museum at Lewes, volume of the Linnean Transactions, and of which an account is given in 'Vol. II. p. 332. of your Magazine. Vegetable re- mains in chalk are extremely rare ; there are, however, in this collection fine specimens of wood in chalk, and in the centre of flints, and also various remains of marine plants in chalk. An Ammonite of large size, or rather the cast of one, is truly remarkable ; all vestige of the shell or animal matter appears to be destroyed, except the siphunculus which is entire, and surrounds the disk like a horny tube, the size of a goosequill. In the Nautilus, as is well known, the siphunculus passes through the centre of the chambers, but in Ammonites the siphunculus is on the outer border, it is, therefore, exceed- ingly difficult to conceive how it could have been preserved so entire in the above specimen. Perhaps it may be interest- ing to some of your readers to state, en passant, that it is now nearly ascertained, that the shells of A^autili, and other multilocular-chambered shells, were not the habitation of the animal, as was generally believed; but the shell, whether straight or spiral, was placed within the animal, and performed the function of an air bladder. The animals being enabled by the siphunculus, or tube, which passes through the chambers, to exhaust them or fill them with water, they could thus rise from vast depths or descend at pleasure. The most in- teresting objects in Mr. MantelFs museum are the fossils from the Sussex-beds beneath the chalk formation, which are altogether of a different character from those in the chalk and green sand. The Sussex-beds, comprising what has been called the Hastings-sand, and sandstone, and the Weald- clay, with the strata of iron-stone, and limestone, abound in vegetable impressions and lignite or wood coal. Many of the vegetables appear allied to the ferns and palms, &c., of tro- pical climates, and prove the existence of dry land at or before the period when the strata that contain them were de- posited. Of these vegetable remains there are numerous fine specimens in this collection, comprising all the fossil species that have hitherto been discovered in Sussex. The shells in these beds are, with some exceptions, con- sidered to belong to animals living in fresh water; none of the chambered shells, which are so numerous in the strata above or below the Sussex-beds, have been discovered in them : but the most convincing proof that the Sussex-beds were deposited in fresh water is the abundant remains of ter- restrial plants which they contain, and also the remains of large animals, evidently formed for walking on land : these remains render the museum of Mr. Mantell unique. In the strata of Tilgate Forest, near Cuckfield, the remains of four Mantellian Museum at Lewes. 1$ enormous reptiles have been identified, and there are also bones and teeth of other animals, not yet determined. The large reptiles at present ascertained are the Crocodile, the Plesiosaurus, the Megalosaurus, and the Iguanodon. The remains of the crocodile in this museum consist of teeth, verte- .brse, ribs, &c., belonging to two or more large species of these animals; one of which Mr. Mantell conjectures was about 25 ft. in length. Some of the teeth present all the essential characters of the teeth of the recent crocodile. The Plesio- saurus was first discovered in the lias near Lyme in Dorset- shire, and has been well described by Mr. Coneybeare ; some bones of this animal have been found in Tilgate Forest, and are in this collection, but nothing approaching to an entire skeleton. The remains of a gigantic animal of the lizard genus were discovered at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire, and described by Dr. Buckland ; to this animal he has given the name of the Megalosaurus. Bones apparently belonging to the same species, particularly the thigh bone, ribs, teeth, and vertebrae, were found at Tilgate, and are placed in this col- lection. This animal bears the nearest afhnity to the monitor, there is a stuffed specimen of the latter in the museum. The Iguanodon is so named from its resemblance, in many respects, to the living iguana. The discovery of the remains of this animal is regarded by Mr. Mantell as the most gratifying result of his labours. The teeth were first discovered by Mrs. Mantell in the coarse conglomerate stone of Tilgate Forest in the year 1822, since which time Mr. Mantell has collected a most interesting series of them, displaying every gradation of form, from the perfect tooth in the young animal, to the last stage, that of a mere bony stump worn away by mastication. These teeth are comparatively rare, and the only locality in which they have hitherto been no- ticed is in the immediate vicinity of Tilgate Forest. Their external form is so remarkable, and bears so striking a re- semblance to the grinders of the herbivorous Mammalia, that Mr. Mantell was, at first, doubtful respecting the order of animals to which they belonged, but subsequent discoveries proved that they were the teeth of a nondescript herbivorous reptile. Baron Cuvier, to whom they were shown, regards them as belonging to an animal hitherto entirely unlcnown, but they bear the greatest resemblance to the teeth of the iguana, particularly in having the edges serrated. The iguana is an herbivorous, but not a masticating, reptile. The figures of the teeth which are here given {^g. 1.) are of the natural size; but it should be recollected that the teeth of crocodiles and other lacertian animals are very numerous and small, com- 14 Mantellian Museum at Lewes. pared with the relative size of the teeth of the MammglUa. To form some notion of the immense magnitude of the animal, it may be useful to mention that I measured the circumference of the condyle, or joint, of a thigh bone in the museum, and found it to be 35 inches ! and the thigh bone of a larger animal, at a distance from the condyle, measured 25 in. in circumference. Mr. Mantell justly observes, in his interest- ing work on the fossils of Tilgate Forest, " Were this thigh clothed with muscles and integuments of suitable proportions, where is the living animal with a limb that could rival this extremity of a lizard of the primitive ages of the world ? " In the teeth which have been little worn the summit is pointed, as otjig. 1. a, which represents the front view of the perfect tooth of a young animal ; but as the animal increases in size and age, the point becomes worn down, as repre- sented at b, which is the front view of a full-grown tooth of the natural size. The anterior surface of the tooth b is divided longitudinally into slightly concave furrows, by obtuse ridges, the most prominent of which is generally on one side. In the young tooth (a) seldom more than one ridge occurs, dividing the surface into two unequal parts. As the animal advances in age, the furrows become obliterated by use and the front worn down, as represented at c. With a further advance of age, the tooth is more and more worn down, till it becomes a mere bony plate. Tliis wearing away of the crown of the tooth may be traced in every stage of its progress, among the specimens in Mr. Mantell's museum. Baron Cuvier observes that the process by which these changes have been Mantellian Museum at Lewes, iS effected is clearly that of mastication. * The recent iguanas alone have teeth resembling those of the Iguanodon, particu- larly in the angular form of the crown, and the serrated edges, as may be seen at d, which represents one of these teeth greatly magnified. The metacarpal bones, or those of the feet and toes of the Iguanodon, are of enormous size, one of the tarsal bones measuring 1 3 in. in circumference ; the un- guial bone is also in the museum, only one claw has hitherto been discovered. It appears, also, that this remarkable animal had a horn (^), which nearly resembles in size and form that of the rhinoceros ; it has a bony structure, but it was not united to the skull like the horns of Mammalia. It is to Mr. Pentland, an eminent naturalist who has studied several years under Cuvier, that we are indebted for information respecting the nature of this extraordinary fossil ; when a cast of it was first shown to him, he suggested that it belonged to a saurian animal. A species of living iguana, a native of St. Domingo, has between the eyes an osseous conical horn or process, covered by a single scale; hence this animal is called the Horned Iguana, or Iguana cornuta. This fact, Mr. Mantell observes, establishes another remarkable analogy between the Iguanodon and the animal from which its name is derived. " We have seen," says Mr. Mantell, " that the teeth are at least twenty times larger than those of the iguana of 3 or 4 ft. in length, that the thigh bone is of equally enormous proportions, and were we to calculate the probable magnitude of the original, from the data which the metatarsal bone affords, we might well exclaim, that the realities of geology exceed the fictions of romance." There is the highest probability, from the resemblance of the teeth and large bones found in Tilgate Forest to those of the iguana, that both the teeth and bones belonged to one species of unknown animal ; but, as no portion of the jaw has hitherto been found, we have not at present obtained an abso- lute certainty respecting this fact. Cuvier, in the last edition of his Regne Animal recently published, says that the cha- racter of the Geosaurus f of Soemmering, the Megalosaurus of Buckland, and the Iguanodon of Mantell, are not yet so com- pletely ascertained as to enable us to class them with certainty. Should it be eventually proved that the large bones and the teeth, found in Tilgate Forest, belonged to different animals, * Mr. Mantell conjectures that the food of the Iguanodon consisted chiefly of plants furnished with rough thick stems, as indicated by these remains ; hence a peculiar structure of the tooth was required. f Geo saurusy earth lizard. Megalo saurus, great lizard. 16 MantelUan Museum at Lewes, it would rather increase the value of the original discovery, as we should have two new species of enormous reptiles mstead of one. Among the other bones, in this museum, from Tilgate Forest, there are some of one or more species of birds; it ought, however, to be remarked that, as the supposed bones of birds found in the lias have been discovered to belong to a species of flying lizard, it may, therefore, be doubtful whether these bones may not belong to a similar species of reptile. Mr. Mantell, whose authority as a physiologist ought to have great weight, is, however, inclined to refer these bones from Tilgate Forest to birds. There are the remains of three species of turtles in the Sussex-beds, two of which are supposed to have been fresh- water species : the remains of fishes are also numerous ; they consist chiefly of detached bones, teeth, and scales, no entire skeleton has yet been found. The fresh-water formation of Sussex and part of Kent may properly be named the Sussex-beds ; some of them can be traced as far as Dorsetshire westward, but no distinct portion of them has hitherto been discovered in the midland counties. Having recently traversed these beds in various directions, I intended to have ofl^ered some observations upon them in the present paper, but it has already exceeded the length I proposed. A very satisfactory description of the strata of Tilgate Forest is given in the second volume of Mr. MantelPs Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex, a work which ought to be in every public library, where natural history is culti- vated : the forty-two plates in the first volume, it has already been mentioned, were engraved by Mrs. Mantell, without whose able cooperation it would have been impossible for Mr. Mantell, occupied as he is in the arduous labours of an extensive medical practice, to have eff*ected so much for the advancement of science. Besides the collection of Sussex fossils, this museum con- tains many interesting organic remains from various parts of the world. Mr. Mantell, with much liberality, allows the museum to be seen by the public on the first and third Tuesdays of every month, from one till three, application having been previously made by letter. I am. Sir, yours, &c. Hampstead, Sept. 29. 1829. Ro. Bakewell. P. S. The horn of the Iguanodon (e) is half the na- tural size; and can only be regarded as a wart, when compared with the size of the animal. The Cypris faba, Natural Caleiidar of Coincidence. .1 7 which occurs in the Weald-clay, and is frequendy referred to by Dr. Fitton and others as a proof of the fresh-water origin of the Sussex-beds, is a minute crustaceous animal, with an oval arched case, or shell, not much larger than a grain of millet. The living species which resemble it the closest are aquatic Monoculi, swimming in fresh water, and depositing their eggs on the leaves of aquatic plants, or in the mud. The shells of Cypris faba are found in great abundance in the fresh-water limestone, at the foot of Mount Gergovia, in Auvergne. Art. III. Sketch of a Natural Calendar of Coincidence, with Preliminary Remarks. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A. Sir, Our forefathers, I am inclined to think, paid more atten- tion to the periodical occurrences of nature, as guides for direction in their domestic and rural occupations, than per- haps we of the present day are accustomed to do. They seem to have referred to the book of nature more frequently and regularly than to the almanack. Whether it were, that the one, being always open before them, was ready for refer- ence, and not the other, certain it is that they attended to the sig7is of the seasons, and appear to have regarded certain natural occurrences as indicating and reminding them of the proper season for commencing a variety of affairs in common life. The time was, perhaps it is not yet gone by, when no good housewife would think of brewing when the beans were in blossom. The bursting of the alder buds, it was believed, announced the period at which eels begin to stir out of their winter quarters, and therefore marked the season for the miller or fisherman to put down his leaps, to catch them at the wears and floodgates. The angler considered the season at which tench bite most freely to be indicated by the bloom- ing of the wheat ; and when the mulberry tree came into leaf, the most cautious gardener judged that he might safely commit his tender exotics to the open air, without apprehen- sion of injury from frosts and cold. Then there was a variety of old sayings or proverbs in vogue, of a corresponding cha- racter, such as, " When the sloe tree is white as a sheet, Sow your barley, whether it be dry or wet." " When elder is white, brew and bake a peck. When elder is black, brew and bake a sack." " You must look for grass on the top of the oak tree," Sec. Vol. III. — No. 11. c. 1 8 'Natural Calendar of Coincidence. People talked of " the cuckoo having picked up the dirt," alluding to the clean state of the country at the time of the arrival of the cuckoo ; and of " blackthorn winds," meaning the bleak north-east winds, so commonly prevalent in the spring, about the time of the blowing of the blackthorn. Vir- gil, in the recipe he gives in the fourth Georgic for the produc- tion of a stock of bees, states that the process is commenced " Ante novis rubeant quam prata coloribus, ante Gari-ula quam tignis nidum suspendat hirundo;" * and Shakspeare, in his Winter'' s Tale^ speaks of "Daffodils, That come before the swallow dares, and take The winds of March with beauty." I seldom read a Number of your Magazine without meeting with some hint or other, which serves to suggest something else to my mind : and this, I may remark by the way, is no in- considerable advantage of a miscellany like yours ; the notices and observations of one naturalist serving to draw forth those of another, which, but for this circumstance (if they had not soon been forgotten even by the observer himself), at least might never have been recorded, and thus many an interesting thought might have been suffered to " pass in smother." I have been led into these general remarks, however foreign they may be deemed from the subject I have in view, by some observations of your correspondents. In an interesting paper on British Snipes (Vol. II. p. 143.), H. V. D. says, " I am con- vinced, from the observation of several years, that their (the snipes') return is much regulated by the state of the atmo- spheric temperature, inasmuch as that return is consistent with the flowering of certain wild plants, which is retarded or forwarded precisely as the spring happens to be cold or warm. For instance, in the latter parts of the month of February the little Z)raba verna is seen opening its flowers on old walls and banks with a southern exposure ; at that time I have invari- ably observed that a few snipes (the advanced guard of the main body) are to be found in our marshes. When I notice (about the second week in March) the i^anunculus Ficaria and the Fiola odorata in blossom, I am then confident of finding diversion in the pursuit of snipe-shooting. By attend- ing to these coincidences, a Norfolk sportsman will rarely be disappointed in his expectation of amusement at this time of the year, if (as 1 before observed) a west or south-west wind should prevail." f Prior in order of publication, and more * " Before the meadows blush with recent flowers, And prattling swallows hang their nests on high." Trapp's Trans. t See also some interesting remarks from Mr. Templeton, Vol. II. p. 307. Natural Calendar of Coincidence. 19 immediately connected with my present purpose, are some remarks by Mr. Lees (Vol. I. p. 200.), who suggests the idea of forming " a calendar by which the flowering of a plant should acquaint us with the appearance of a bird, and the ap- pearance of an insect tell us the flowering of a plant." The plan proposed by Mr. Lees, strikes me as one full of interest to a lover of nature. Something of the kind, some aflinity, connection, or coincidence, between the several occurrences in one department of natural history and those in another, must almost unavoidably have presented itself to the mind of the most transient observer. I wish you, or some one of your correspondents, would take the hint, and construct such a calendar. In the mean time, till some one better qualified for the task presents himself, I beg to offer to your notice the follow- ing sketch, by way of specimen. Of course a calendar of this kind may be filled up and enlarged to almost any extent. The following is proposed as a mere outline, I am aware a very imperfect one, of the sort of thing intended, and contains only a few of the different occurrences in nature, which happen to have more particularly and forcibly struck my own mind as coinciding with each other. When I speak of such natural occurrences coinciding^ it is not meant that they fall exactly on the same day of the month ; it is quite enough for our purpose, if they take place about the same time, if the things placed parallel to each other in the two columns are usually in season toge- ther. The arrival and departure of birds, the appearance of insects, and the flowering of plants, will in each year depend, in some degree, on the weather ; and a variation of at least a fortnight or more may fairly be calculated upon, according to the forwardness or backwardness of the season. No greater precision of date, therefore, is attempted, than such as may be attained by noting the beginning, the middle, and the end of the month. The Linnean names of insects are for the most part employed below, which being generally understood^ and perhaps more popular, seem better adapted to the present purpose, than the improvements of modern nomenclature. I am, Sir, yours, &c. Allesley Rectory, Sept. 25. W. T. Bree. In the following Calendar, beg. mid. end, stand for the beginning, the middle, and the end of the month ; ap. appears ; fl. flowers. January. ^. , ( Earthworms lie out - - ^elleborus niger fl. ' \ Phalae'na primaria - - Galanthus nivalis fl. p , ( Titmouse sings _ - . Hazel catkins open. *^"'*'t^>ismellificaap. - - - J^. hyemalis (Eranthis h.) fl. C 2 . 20 'Natural Calendar of Coincidence, February. Beg. Chaffinch sings Lambs born Rooks begin to build ' Papilio rhamni — 2 Cardamine pratensis fl. * Wasps seem to delight in frequenting hawthorn hedges in the spring, as soon as the early foliage comes out. What is it that attracts them to these haunts ? Perhaps they come in search of the larvae of other insects which feed on the hawthorn. That wasps, whose ordinary food seems to be fruit, are yet occasionally insectivorous, there can be no doubt, as even in sum- mer and autumn they may often be seen to attack and devour the flies in the windows. When they make their first appearance in spring, there is no fruit to serve them for food ; probably, therefore, they may at that season feed principally on insects, and for this purpose may resort to hawthorn hedges, which abound with the larvae of various lepidopterous insects. t Swallows and other summer birds come to us, as it were, in the room of our winter visitants, the woodcocks, fieldfares, and redwings. When the former come, the latter depart, and vice versa. I remember an old sports- man who used to say that " the same wind which brought the swallows took the woodcocks away ; " and I have heard an intelligent countryman remark, alluding to the fieldfares and redwings in the spring, that " there would be no warm weather till those birds had done chattering." \ The song of the cuckoo and the flight of Papilio cardamines (or orange- tip butterfly), it has often struck me, appear to be as nearly as possible con- temporaneous. At the end of April the bird is occasionally heard, and the iSfatural Calendar of Coincidence, 21 May. Beg, Mid. End. Beg. Mid. End. Beg. June. Swifts ap. - - - C jS'carabae'us ikfelolontha ap, < Phalae'na crataegata ap. - ( Papilio rubi ap. ^ Papilio Euphrosyne ap, \ iScarabae^us auratus ap. 5 ^ycarabaehis horticola ap. \ Pyrochroa coccinea ap. /Sjphinx stellatamm ( Cuckoo silent I Papilio cardamines disappears July. 'Papilio Janim ap, Phalae^a pronuba ap. Papilio Paphia ap. Aglaifl! ap. Adippe ap. { jScilla niitans fl. \ Galeobdolon liiteum fl. " \ Hawthorn fl. - Cistus Helianthemum fl. - ) A'juga reptans fl. - 3 T^alictrum flavum fl. Iro Rosa canina fl. i)elphimum Consolida fl. Jasminum officinale fl. " > Rosa arvensis fl. " i Haymaking Phalae^na Grossularia ap. Vauaria ap. Caja ap. Papilio Atalant« ap. eardui ap. - commences. - ") i2ubus corylifolius fl. - > Cnicus arvensis fl. - ) Cnicus lanceolatus fl. - > Oooseberriesand currants ripen. Feratrum nigrum fl. _ ( Thistle down floats. ' / Oats cut. Beg. Swifts depart Starlings congregate Phalae^na libatrix ap. August. - > Wheat harvest commences. September. Beg. Mid. S Phalae'na antiqua ap. (J Phalae^na meticulosa (last brood) ap. October. C Fieldfares ap. < Redwings ap. - - - 1 ( Woodcocks come Beg. Phalae*na brumaria * ap. November. December. Colchicum autumnale fl. Wall fiiiit ripens. Nuts ripen, Swallows depart. Late-flowering asters fl. butterfly makes its appearance, or, more usually, both early in May. It is a common remark that the cuckoo is rarely heard in July ; and I have seldom seen Papilio cardamines so late as that month. Unlike many others of the same tribe, it does not linger on with us long after what may be called its proper season, but disappears at once, and is not often seen in a very faded state. * This modestly attired little moth is found abundantly throughout the greater part of the months of November and December. Its delicate tex- c 3 22 Garden of Plants and Art. IV. Some Details respecting the Garden of Plants and the National Museum at Paris, By Mrs. R. Lee (late Mrs. Bowdich). Sir, I HAVE much pleasure in obeying your request, and sending you a few details concerning the Jardin du Roi in Paris, of which I have been an inmate during the last month. I was much concerned to find that the hons, panthers, &c., with some of which I had long been acquainted, were all dead ; and it is said that the classical-looking building they inhabited was unfavourable to their nature. Animals of this kind require not only warmth and shelter, but society ; but in these dens a constant current of air rushes through, and the animals are totally excluded from the sight of each other. Still, however, there are some very fine bears of different species ; some hyae- nas, one of which is very gentle, and holds his head close to the bars to be caressed ; and some wolves. Among the latter is one whose hair is perfectly black, and shines like floss silk. He was brought when very young (I could almost have said a puppy), and presented to Baron Cuvier's daughter-in-law, who finding him so tame, desired he might have a dog for a companion, and be fed entirely on broth and cooked meat. Her orders have been obeyed, and the animal retains all his gentleness and docility ; he never sees her but he stretches his paws through the bars to be shaken, and when she lets him loose he lies down before her, licks her feet, and shows every mark of joy and affection. In a small room, not open to public view, is a curious collection of squirrels, racoons, mar- tens, ichneumons, and some dogs, whose monstrous birth gives them a place there, in order to aid the researches of M. Geof- froy St. Hilaire. But the great attraction — the queen of the garden — is the ture and weakly form would seem to mark it as an insect ill calculated to endure the inclement season appointed as its proper period of existence. But Nature knows her own business best : and accordingly these slender crea- tures brave the tempestuous weather they are doomed to encounter, totally regardless of the cold, the wet, the winds, and the fogs of November and December ; " Ingentes animos angusto in pectore versant." " These little bodies mighty souls inform ! " Trapp's Translation. Let it blow,- or rain, or shine, there they are, sporting and dancing away under the sheltered side of banks and hedges with a resolute hardiliood and perseverance that are truly admirable, apparently enjoying themselves as much as the butterfly in the sultry sunbeams of July. National Museum at Paris, 23 giraffe, to whom I paid frequent visits. She is the only sur- vivor of the three which left Africa much about the same time, and inhabits the large round building in the centre of the me- nagery, called the Rotonde. Great care is taken to shelter her from the cold, and in the winter she has a kind of hood and cape, which reach the length of her neck, and a body cloth, all made of woollen materials. She is only suffered to walk in her little park when the sun shines upon it, and if care and attention can compensate for the loss of liberty, she ought to be the happiest of her kind. She stands about 1 2 J ft. high, and her skin, with its light brown spots, shines like satin ; but I confess I was disappointed with regard to her beauty. She looks best when lying down, or standing perfectly upright, in which posture she is very dignified ; but the moment she moves she becomes awkward, in consequence of the disproportion of the hinder parts of her body, and the immense length of her neck, which, instead of being arched, forms an angle with her shoulders. When she gallops, her hind feet advance beyond those in front, and the peculiarity of gait caused by moving the hind and fore feet on the same side, at the same time, is very striking. She has great difficulty in reaching the ground with her mouth, and was obliged to make two efforts to separate her fore legs before she could reach a cistern placed on the pave- ment. Her head is of remarkable beauty, and the expression of her full black eyes is mild and affectionate; her tongue is long, black, and pointed. She is extremely gentle, yet full of frolic and animation, and when walking in the menagery, her keeper is obliged to hold her head to prevent her biting off the young branches of the trees. Her great delight, however, is to eat rose leaves, and she devours them with the greatest avidity. The African cows, with humps on their shoulders, who sup- plied her with milk during her passage to Europe, are as gentle as their nursling, and when feeding her they come and softly push your elbows to have their share. Turning from the giraffe one day, and proceeding a yard or two in order to satisfy them, I suddenly felt something overshadow me, and this was no less than the giraffe, who, without quitting her place, bent her head over mine, and helped herself to the carrots in my hand. Her keeper, named Ati, and from Dar- fdr, is a tall well-proportioned black, and at his own request a little gallery has been erected for him in the stable of his charge, where he sleeps and keeps all his property. When in attendance he dresses in the turban, vest, and full trowsers of his country, but when he walks into Paris he assumes the European costume, for in his native garb all the children in the streets recognise him, and calling out, " Ati ! Ati ! comment c 4- 24 Garden of Plants and va la giraffe ? " hurt his consequence. He is to be found every Sunday evening at one of the Guinguettes in the neighbour- hood, dancing with all his might, and during the week he devotes his leisure to the acquirement of reading and writing. The two elephants are much grown, and with the Asiatic they do not seem to make much progress; but the African is become very interesting ; she performs various salutations and manoeuvres, obeys the voice of her keeper, kneels down to take him on her back, and seldom requires any other chastise- ment than a pull of one of her ears, which are very much larger than those of her Indian brother. Two very beautiful aviaries have been completed since my last visit to the Jardin. The one is appropriated to birds of prey, and contains some noble specimens of owls, eagles, and vultures: among the latter is the great condor of the Andes (Fultur Gryphus), which requires double the space allotted to any of the others. The second aviary contains many rare species of pheasants and other birds, and both of them have not only covered places for shelter, and stoves for heating them, but a large space covered with iron network, in which the thousands who weekly crowd to see them can watch their movements without the least difficulty. Near these are the parks appropriated to peacocks, domestic fowls, &c., and in which the crown and Numidian cranes, and the secretary bird, stalk about and dance at sunset, as if under their native skies. The various kinds of deer, the chamois, and other goats, are in high health ; the beavers are thriving, as well as all the known species of lama. I was astonished at the fuiy with which these mild-looking animals fight; and on one occasion having caused them to be separated, I was much amused at the rage with which they pushed their noses through the railings, till they touched, though their attempts to bite were fruitless. Without actual study, it would be difficult to ascertain the additions made of late years to the collection of comparative anatomy. Several rooms have been added since my first acquaintance with it, in 1819, and it is yearly receiving new treasures from travellers, or the effi^rts of Baron Cuvier, who may be said to have created this part of the establishment. The upper portion, containing the preparations in spirits, &c., separated bones, skulls, teeth, and the skeletons of the smaller animals, seems to be crowded ; and the skeletons of the whales below, among the larger objects, excited my astonishment, that the whole Parisian world should have run mad after la ha- leine des Pays Bas, when those of the Jardin du Roi are nearly as large, and much more interesting, from the whale- National Museum at Paris. 25 bone having been preserved, and from the correct manner in which the parts have been put together. The collection of stuffed animals, at the first coup deceit, more completely conveys an idea of its immense riches than any other portion of the establishment. To see thousands of animals in their living attitudes, so happily prepared as to appear in actual movement, and then to pause and find all still and immovable, gives an idea of enchantment which it is diffi- cult to shake off', till increasing admiration at every step super- sedes all other feelings, and till we finally turn from it lost in wonder at the magnificence of creation, and adore the mighty Hand which has formed these endless varieties, and yet bound the whole together in one common link. The division allotted to the stuffed deer, &c., has received several curious additions of the antelope kind ; and there are two tufts of hair, said to belong to the tails of the grunting cow of the East, which is such an object of curiosity to naturalists, and which tufts are all that has yet been brought to Europe to prove its existence. The giraffes, camels, and oxen still stand together in this room, and the enormous basking shark has been hoisted to the ceiling. But we feel impatient to get to the birds, the arrangement of which, from their size, is more complete than can be admitted among the quadrupeds. The first cases con- tain the diurnal birds of prey ; where the gypaetos of the Alps seems in the act of pouncing on its victim, the secretary bird appears to have walked in from the menagery, and the falcon ready to soar from the wrist of the huntsman. The owls of all countries succeed these ; and passing by the splendid par- rots, parroquets, toucans, &c., we stop for a long time before the Passeres. In this order every idea of exquisite form, grace, delicacy, brilliancy, and harmony of colouring seems verified. The lyretails (Maenura), the parasol birds (Cephalopterus), the lovely birds of paradise, the sugar birds, the gems of hum- ming-birds blazing in the light, seem each to demand a whole day's admiration : and then come the Gallinaceae, with the red-breasted pigeon, looking as if an arrow had just pierced her heart ; the horned and argus pheasants, &c. The ostrich, the rose-coloured flamingo, the sacred and the scarlet ibis; the kamichi, said to bleed his sick companions with the spur upon his wing, all take their place among the Grallae : and next to these are the Palmipedes, from the far-famed albatross, the awkward-looking penguin, the frigate bird, the stupid boo- bies, to the common duck. The two end rooms are still full of bats, quadrupeds, and monkeys. The centre of the rooms is filled with cases of Mollusca of the rarest and most beautiful species, both fossil 26 Garden of Plants and National Museum at Paris. and recent; the animals preserved in spirits occupy some of the lower shelves; the rest are filled with corallines and sponges ; the cases above are lined with insects. Descending the staircase, we pass through those mighty ruins of former ages, the fossils, chiefly collected by Baron Cu- vier; after which come the rocks and minerals. The reptiles, which cover the sides and ceilings of the next apartment, have lately been much extended; and the former library having been appropriated to ichthyology, the books have been moved to the rooms of a deceased professor, and their place is now wholly occupied by fishes. Below these are three entirely new rooms, formed by turning the porter of the gate in the Rue du Jardin du Roi out of his habitation, and converting that and some lecture rooms into a gallery for the heavier quadrupeds, such as elephants, hippopotami, &c., on the ground floor. The galleries of botany are scarcely big enough to contain the piles of dried plants brought home by the naturalists of the expeditions of discovery ; and the collection of woods and dried seeds bids fair very soon to exceed the limits assigned to it. The School of Botany, so beautifully arranged accord- ing to the natural system, is three times as large as it was six years back. The wet summer has much injured the parterres ; still, however, the daturas have been placed outside the green- houses ; the salvias, amounting to large shrubs, were still in blossom ; and the flower-garden, the garden of naturalisation, and the medicinal parterres, were all blooming. In short, with the exception of living Carnivora, every department of this wonderful establishment has made the most astonishing progress, even within the last few years, and is now so perfect that we almost wish the treasures of nature exhausted, for fear the least alteration for the reception of additions should be detrimental to its beauty. I cannot suppose it possible for an English amateur of natural history to turn from this little world of science and wonder without a sigh of regret — without dwelling on the causes, whatever they may be, which keep his own country in such deep arrears in this respect. That England, which per- fects not only her own undertakings, but the undertakings of other nations, with a hundred fold the opportunity in her commercial connections, which preclude even the necessity of sending out travellers on purpose — that England should be thus outdone by her less enterprising neighbour, is a fact at which I cannot help grieving, but which I do not presume to investigate. I am, Sir, &c. 27. Burton Street, Nov. 19. . S. Lee. Supplemeritm-^y Notice of British Snipes. 27 Art. V. Observations on the Preternatural Growth of the Incisor Teethf occasionally observed in certain of the Mammalia rodentia. By W. Farrar, Esq. M.D. Sir, There is at present deposited in the museum of the Barnsley Literary and Philosophical Society, a stuffed wild rabbit which is a fine example of this circumstance. As it differs from all of those described by Mr. Jenyns, perhaps the following notice of it may not be superfluous. The lower incisors and the left upper one (supposing the rabbit facing you) are precisely of the same length, and mea- sure If in.; the right upper one is only half the length of the others, but appears to have been broken. The lower incisors begin to divide about an inch from the gums, and are separated at their summits one fourth of an inch ; the upper ones di- verge considerably more ; the longest follows the direction of the lips, and after completing three parts of an exact circle reenters the gum. The broken one extends beyond the mouth; the posterior incisors are also much elongated, measuring three fourths of an inch. This specimen seems to corroborate Mr. Jenyns's argument, that the disease may originate from other causes, as well as from the injury or loss of any single incisor. In this instance, I think it must be attributed to some derangement of the jaws, by which the incisors have been thrown out of contact, as the morbid growth evidently commenced in all the teeth at the same time. I am. Sir, &c. Barnsley, June 2, IS29. W. Farrar. Art. VI. Supplement to the " Descriptive and Historical Notice of British Snipes" in the Seventh Number of the Magazine of Natural History. (Vol. II. p. 143.) In a Letter to the Conductor. ByS. T. P. Sir, Every admirer of natural history will agree with your cor- respondent H. V. D. on the value of complete histories of families of animals, and I venture to accept his invitation to naturalists and sportsmen, being myself a little of both, to communicate, through the medium of your excellent Magazine, a short notice of two snipes, which, from their extreme rarity, have not probably come under that gentleman's observation, and which will, as far as I am acquainted, complete the enu- meration of the British species of the genus ^Scolopax, as at present constituted. 28 Suppltmentai-y Notice of British Snipes. The first of these two, in order of dates, is the /Scolopax grisea of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary. (Jig. 2.) A specimen of this bird was killed in Devon- shire in the month of October, 1801 : the length of the bill 2^ inches; whole length of the bird 1 1 inches ; weight S\ oz. The head, neck, breast, and wing coverts, are ash-coloured brown, without spots, with a streak of the same colour from the base of the beak to the eye ; above the eyes, the throat, belly, and thighs, pure white ; the flanks white, varied with light brown ; back and scapulars light brown, each feather having a darker brown edge ; rump, upper and under tail coverts, white, marked across with black bars ; tail feathers also crossed with narrow black and white bars alternately. This specimen is now in the British Museum, and a good representation of the bird, in this its winter plumage, will be found in Montagu's Supplement to his Ornithological Dictionary. In its summer plumage this snipe bears considerable resem- blance to the knot (Tringa Canutus) at the same season of the year. The top of the head, nape of the neck, back, and scapulars, are then irregularly varied with black, reddish brown, and yellow ; the space round the eye bright red ; front of the neck and breast chestnut brown ; wing coverts ash- coloured, and edged with white ; the belly, rump, and tail, the same as in winter. An excellent representation of this bird, in its summer plumage, will be found in the seventh volume of Wilson's Ornithology of America, under the name of ^Scolopax novebo- racensis (pi. 58. fig. I.), with a description at p. 45. The bird appears to be common in that country, while with us it is so rare that M. Temminck, in the second edition of his Manual of Ornithology (vol. ii. p. 682.), says that he is only acquainted with two instances of this species having been killed in Europe; once in England, and once in Sweden. To these I am able to add a notice of one other instance ; a very fine specimen, in summer plumage, having been lately shot near Yarmouth, for Supplementary Notice of British Snipes. 29 which, I understood, two guineas were immediately given by a collector in the neighbourhood. The next species is the *Sc61opax Sabinz of Mr. Vigors, the secretary to the Zoological Society {Jig, 3.) ; the first record of which bird appeared in the ^S^ ^ x*^ 3 fourteenth vo- lume of the Transactions of the Linnean So- ciety, with a figure nearly, if not quite, of the natural size. The length of the bill in this species is 2-^-^ inches ; the whole length of this bird 9t% inches. The general colour of the plumage is dark brown, spotted and barred with lighter chestnut brown. The first example of this species, which appears not to have been previously known to ornithologists, was shot in August, 1822, in the Queen's County, in Ireland. This specimen is in the Museum of the Zoological Society, in Bruton Street. A second example was shot on the banks of the Medway, near Rochester, in October, 1824, and is now in the collection of Mr. Dunning of Maidstone. A third speci- men has been lately mounted by a London bird-preserver; and during the last winter, a fourth example of this species was shot by a nobleman upon his own estate in Hampshire. There is a peculiarity in the beak of all the species of the genus ^Scolopax which deserves notice. If the upper mandible be macerated in water for a few days, the skin or cuticle may be readily peeled off, and the bones thus laid bare ex- ^4^^^^^ hibit an ap- ^^^^g^g^^§^ pearance of which ^g, 4". is a magnified representation from the upper mandible of the common snipe (iScolopax Gallinago). The surface presents numerous elon- gated hexagonal cells, which afford at the same time protection and space for the expansion of minute portions of nerves supplied to them by two branches of the fifth pair, and the end of the bill becomes, in consequence of this provision, a delicate organ of touch to assist these birds when boring for their food in soft ground; this enlarged extremity of the beak, which it will be recollected is a generic distinction, pos- •^Pipl^^Si so Caprimulgtis europce\is, or Fern Owl. sessing such a degree of sensibility as to enable these birds to detect their prey the instant it comes in contact with it, although placed beyond the reach of sight. Allow me to add, also, an explanation of that particular portion of the intestine of the woodcock called the appendix, and marked letter b in your Seventh Number (Vol. II. p. 146. fig. 33.), and also shown as appertaining to the same parts in the snipes, but not referred to ; the nature and use of which, though probably well known to your correspondent H. V. D. and his medical friend, may not be equally understood by many of your numerous readers. Some of the processes by which the human foetus, as well as that of the Mammalia in general, is formed, exhibit pecu- harities similar to those employed in the bird, but in others there are essential differences. In the first named instances, one source supplies both nou- rishment and aeration : in the egg of a bird the embryo receives nourishment from one source, aeration from another. During the last fifteen days of incubation in the common fowl, the yelk, mixed with a small portion of albumen, gradually passes into the body of the chick by a canal, of which this appendix has formed a part. On the twentieth day, the whole of the remains of the yelk and its investing membrane will be found within the abdomen of the chick ; and the membranous tube connecting the capsule of the yelk with the intestinal canal of the young bird, having performed its destined office, becomes obliterated and almost entirely absorbed, leaving only the appendix marked 6 as a rudiment pointing out the precise point of termination in the intestine. This canal is the ductus vitello intestinalis of authors, and its rudiment varies in size in different species : it is large in the woodcock, snipe, and curlew, but small generally in the rapacious, passerine, and gallinaceous birds. I am. Sir, &c. S. T. P. Art. VII. On the Caprimulgus europm^us^ or Fern Owl, (fig. 5.) By Bartholomew Dillon, Esq. Sir, I AM convinced there is no circumstance connected with the exposition of the history of any animal that you will con- sider unimportant ; and, since the time of Mr. White of Sel- borne, there has not been, that I am aware of, any new fact, except one, added to his history of the fern owl. His account, certainly an interesting one, is that which all of our subsequent Captimtilgus europce\is, or Fern Owl. 31 naturalists have, perhaps too lazily, adopted ; and, seemingly without any further investigation, as if the subject were already exhausted, have so fully contented themselves with its acceptation, that they have not even at- tempted to perfect the suppositive part of his narration. It is in favour of Mr. Selby I would make the exemplary ex- ception adverted to; for, as far as I know, he was the first to announce that " the bristles lining the edge of the upper mandible are capable of diverging or contracting, by means of muscles attached to their roots." The peculiar haunts and habits of the bird must not, however, be forgotten, as they are such as render fair opportunities of close observation very infrequent. The points to which I am, at present, desirous of drawing attention, are the length of the tarsus, the structure of the foot, and the use of the middle claw — the serrated one. The tarsus is short, comparatively, veri/ short; in this cir- cumstance closely resembling, but shorter than, the cuckoo's. The toes are four in number ; three anterior, and one usu- ally denominated the hind toe, but which really is not so, being situated laterally, or as a man's thumb. It is very well known that the bird is not, strictly speaking, a percher ; that he never sits across a twig; but whenever observed in a tree is always seen resting longways of a branch, and with his head lowermost, as I conceive, the better to destroy his insect prey, while on the alert. In Mr. Bewick's otherwise accurate figure, the bird is shown in a perching attitude, and thus at variance with his own description ; he has also drawn the foot with a hind toe, rather than a lateral one : and precisely the same things may be said of the figure and description in Graves's Ornithology; but the foot of his bird is very ill repre- sented. The artists, probably, conceived it necessary to exer- cise, what they considered, in these cases, a harmless liberty of sacrificing truth to effect ; just as the elephant is always drawn, and even by Bishop Heber himself, who was yet aware of the fact, that the animal's motion is very different from that of the horse, as the elephant moves both feet on the same sid^ at once. ( See his Journal, 4to edition, p. 29., and plate, 32 Qaprimulgus europcE\is, or Fern Owl. " Travellers and Peasantry in the Kingdom of Oude," facing p. 341. vol. i.) It will now appear sufficiently obvious, that the particular posture of the bird has reference to his immediate convenience, and, in fact, that it is the natural and only comfortable one in which the bird could remain in such a situation, by reason of the foot being so adapted by an express provision in its structure. Of the three anterior toes, the middle one is the longest, and, in comparison with the others, ve7y long, say dispropor- tionately so. The middle toe is also provided with a claw differing from all the rest ; it is somewhat flat, slightly curvi- linear outwards, and serrated on the concave edge, something like a sickle placed flatways with its point outwards. In the introduction to Bewick's British Birds, edit. 6. p. xxxvii., there is a figure of the right foot, which is quite correct in every particular, except the serrated claw, and that is repre- sented as bending downwards like the other claws. Here the lateral toe is very intelligibly shown. I consider the foregoing remarks in a great degree neces- sary to enable us to conduct the remaining enquiry with clear- ness and advantage. And now, what is the use of the middle claw? - Mr. White says, there is no bird whose manners he had studied more, than those of the Caprimulgus ; and on the 12th of July, 1771, he had a fair opportunity of contemplating the motions of one as it was playing (or, as I suspect, hawking) round a large oak that swarmed with ^Scarabag^i solstitiales, or fern chafers. He continues : " The powers of its wing were wonderful, exceeding, if possible, the various evolutions and quick turns of the swallow genus." But the circumstance that pleased him most was, that he saw it distinctly, more than once, put out its short leg while on the wing, and, by a bend of the head, deliver somewhat into its mouth. " If it take any part of its prey with its foot," says he, " as I have now the greatest reason to suppose it does these chafers, I no longer wonder at the use of its middle toe, which is curiously fur- nished with a serrated claw." Then the leg, foot, and claw, Mr. White supposes, were designedly constructed to assist the bird in the capture of its insect food. But it is worthy of remark, he only supposes this; he did not observe the act. It is the more important to bear this distinction along with us, as he was a most acute observer, and faithful narrator of facts ; and, indeed, never more so than in the present instance. His description of the particular action of the bird is incontro- vertibly true ; the putting out of the leg is always accompanied Capjim^gus europa\s, o)- Fern Owl. S3 by a simultaneous bend of the head, but I never could dis- cover the " delivery of somewhat into its mouth." Besides, i occurs to me, if such were the fact, a two-fold action of the leg would become necessary ; one when it is first struck out to seize the insect, and another to convey it into the mouth ; and in such case, there would be one such motion of the leg un- accompanied by the bend of the head : but we shall always find that, whenever the leg is so put out, the head is at the same instant bent towards it; they move together, and the manoeuvre is quickly performed. Very different from this is the purpose wherein I consider its chief use consists, which is simply to comb or dress out the vibrissse {vibro, to shake or move nimbly; bristles). For this employment (and, in my opinion, it is no mean one in the economy of this bird) the entire mechanism of the leg, foot, toe, and claw, is adapted with a wonderful precision ; but, for the other purpose, there does not appear the least suitability whatever. Even the direction in which the claw is bent peculiarly unfits it for an instrument to seize with ; while it expressly is the very thing that fits it for a comb: and that the bird needs such an instrument, will scarcely be disputed ; for it is easy to imagine how, in various ways, the vibrissae may get bent, or clotted together at their points, so as to interfere with the regular muscular action at their bases. Moreover, these vibrissae form no very unessential part of the apparatus which is unquestionably formed for the express purpose of capturing food, the mouth : the bird is seen to exercise it for that purpose, he hawks about with its spacious cavity wide exposed, and can with much more ease extend it in any required direction farther than his leg would reach to. Examine the bird, and you will instantly pronounce the mouth complete for this end ; the bird needs no additional help, he cannot have a better, and least of all does his foot supply it. Lest it might be thought of me that I am presuming too far, because in this matter it is very difficult to decide from ob- servation, as the motions of the bird are so quick, and the light unfavourable by reason of the hour of the evening, and the shade of the trees generally, I think I have seen the bird several times use his foot as I have described ; I am almost sure my eyes cannot have deceived me. I begin to perceive that I shall be trespassing upon your limits, but, I hope, neither in an uninstructive nor unentertam- ing manner, and will reserve my further observations for some future occasion, if I am not considered a troublesome and unprofitable correspondent. I am. Sir, &c. Wrexham, Nov, 17. 1828. Barthol. Dillon, Vol.111. — No. 11. d . 34? Migration and Habits of the Genus Sylvia, Art. VIII. On the Autumnal Migration and Habits of some of the Genus Salvia in England, By J. D. Hoy, Esq. Sir, Considering that any facts which might tend in any way to elucidate the natural history of our island, might not be unac- ceptable to you, I send you a few observations I have made on the autumnal migration and habits of some of the genus Sylvia. The arrival of this elegant and interesting tribe of birds in the spring is immediately made known to us by the variety and sweetness of their notes, which enliven our groves and fields, and by which they at once appear filled with a new creation ; but after the great work of rearing their young has been accomplished, and the warmer season is drawing to a close, they imperceptibly steal away from us. The nightin- gale (Sylvia .Luscinia) remains with us in small numbers, frequenting gardens, bean fields, and thick hedge-rows, some- times until the end of September ; a great number leave us in the end of August or beginning of September. They may be known, when you approach them, by their shrill call-note and croaking note of alarm ; I have, on several occasions, heard them sing a few notes in a low suppressed tone. The redstart (S. Phoenicurus) appears to quit in considerable numbers in the end of August, particularly the old birds, last seen about the 20th of September. The wood wren (S. sibilatrix) leaves in the beginning of September, as do the greater number of the willow wrens (S. Trochilus); a few of the latter remain to the middle of the month. The willow wren will sing a little on fine warm days, but the lesser willow wren, or chiff-chafF (S. hip- polais), pours forth its singular and cheering notes, frequently for hours together, many days before it take its departure. This hardy little bird lingers with us not unfrequently to the middle of October, or later, frequenting gardens and fir plant- ations, where you will find it in company with the titmice, or crested wrens. The common and lesser whitethroats (S. cine- rea and S. Sylviella) I have not seen later than the 24th of September; those that remain with us to that time frequenting hedges where blackberries abound, of which they are very fond ; the great flight appear to leave in the beginning of the month. I have seen the grasshopper warbler (S.Locustella) as late as the 5th of September; the last time of hearing its sibilous note the 23d of August. If you approach this bird suddenly, it has a curious jerking of the tail as it retreats from you, most frequently running on the ground. The reed and sedge warblers (S. «rundinacea and S. salicaria) have mostly left their breeding places by the end of August; and about the Oil the wanton Destruction of Swallo^dos, 35 middle of September, when they have left our district, you will find many of them congregated in large reedlings near the coast. The blackcap and greater petty chaps (S. Atricapilla and S. hortensis) leave from the end of August to the 8th or 10th of September ; a few blackcaps remain until the end of the month. I have heard the blackcap singing in low inward notes about the middle of September. The whin-chat (S. Rubetra) has been said to winter with us, only shifting its situation. I have never seen this bird in autumn after the beginning of October, and the greater number have retired much before that time ; nor earlier in spring than the middle of April, in the forwardest seasons. The wheatear (S. 6Enanthe) I have seen later in autumn, and much earlier in spring, than S. Rubetra. And lastly, that diminutive fairy little bird, the golden-crested wren, although indigenous with us, changes its situation oc- casionally ; and in autumn, in some seasons, I believe, many arrive on our coast from the north ; they are often caught on board vessels many miles from land, flying to the lights. In small copses and fir plantations near the coast, where, perhaps, the day before scarcely a bird was to be seen, you will some- times meet with this bird in great numbers ; which, with the fact of their often being caught at sea, argues strongly in favour of a partial emigration. I am, Sir, &c. J. D. Hoy. Stoke Nayland, Nov, 27. Art. IX. On the wanton Destruction of Swallows, By Philochelidon. Sir, One of your correspondents (Vol. I. p. 288.) suggests the idea of the legislature interfering to prevent bird-catchers from exercising their art within twenty miles of the metropolis. I am not going to discuss the merits or the practicability of such a measure, but I do wish that a penalty, and no very light one, were enacted against a much worse practice, viz. the wanton destruction of those harmless* and useful creatures, the swallows. Hear, upon this subject, the sentiments of a modern writer*, whose kind feelings do credit to him as a man. " The sportsman's essaying his skill on the swallow race, that * skim the dimpled pool,' or harmless glide along the flowery mead, when, if successful, he consigns whole nests of infant broods to famine and to death, is pitiable * See Journal of a Naturalist, p. 226., first edition. D 2 ■' 36 On the wanton Destmction of Swallows. indeed ! No injury, no meditated crime, was ever im- puted to these birds ; they free our dwellings from multitudes of insects ; their unsuspicious confidence and familiarity with men merit protection, not punishment, from him. The suffer- ings of their broods, when the parents are destroyed, should excite humanity, and demand forbearance. I supplicate from the youthful sportsman his consideration for these most inno- cent creatures." I have frequently heard the remark made of late years, ** How few swallows we have this season ! " May not the de- ficiency be owing in some measure to the detestable practice here alluded to ? The followers of this unmanly sport will, perhaps, take up their defence, and say that they pursue it with a view to practise and improve their skill as marksmen: but I have known those who, after slaughtering the inoffen- sive swallows and swifts in great numbers, could yet give but a poor account of the partridges on the 1st of September; and the reason is, that a far greater degree of coolness and self-possession, prime requisites in the formation of what is called a good shot, is exercised in the one case, than in the other. The young sportsman levels his tube with deUberate composure at the passing swallow or the swift, while he is apt to be hurried and unnerved by the rush and bustle of the ris- ing covey. The shooting of swallows, therefore, for practice, does not advance the sportsman's skill so much as at first sight might be supposed : but, if it did, the positive good these creatures do, the beneficial services they perform for us by clearing the air of innumerable insects, ought to render them sacred, and secure them from our molestation. With- out their friendly aid, the atmosphere we live in would scarcely be habitable by man. They feed entirely on insects, which, if not kept under by their means, would swarm and torment US like another Egyptian plague. The immense quantity of flies destroyed in a short space of time by one individual bird, is scarcely to be credited by those who have not had actual experience of the fact. I was once present when a swift was shot, — I may as well confess the truth, — I was myself (then a thoughtless youth) the perpetrator of the deed: I acknow- ledge the fault in contrition, and will never be guilty of the like again. It was in the breeding season, when the young were hatched; at which time the parent birds, it is well known, are in the habit of making little excursions into the country to a considerable distance from their breeding places, for the purpose of collecting flies, which they bring home to their infant progeny. On picking up my hapless and ill- gotten prey, I observed a number of flies, some mutilated, On the *wanton Destruction of Swallows. 37 others scarcely injured, crawling out of the bird^s mouth ; the throat and pouch seemed absolutely stuffed with them, and an incredible number was at length disgorged. I am sure I speak within compass when I state that there was a mass of flies, just caught by this single swift, larger than, when pressed close, could conveniently be contained in the bowl of an ordi- nary table-spoon ! Thus was a whole brood of young birds deprived of one of their nursing parents, by an act of the most wanton cruelty ! In common with the excellent author above quoted, I would entreat those who follow the manly sports of the field to spare these guiltless creatures, if it were only from motives of self-interest. The blackbird and the throstle, the blackcap, whitethroat, and a variety of other birds, are of service in destroying insects, and they charm us with their melody and amusing habits ; but, in return for all this, we are obliged to '^pai/ the piper" As a compensation for their song, they take great liberties with our fruit and vegetables, and we are content to submit to their committing considerable depredations on our gardens ; but the swallows, the inoffensive swallows, what mischief do they do ? They rank among our best friends ; " ?zo injury^ no meditated crime ^ ivas eve?^ imputed to these birds ;" they do us good, and, unlike many others of the feathered race, good only, good unmixed with evil. During their sojourn in this country, they are (with the exception of one species, the sand marten) always about our dwellings, and appear, as it were, to court our ac- quaintance. 'It has been somewhere observed, I think, by White, that " they are hardly to be scared by a gun,'j'so un- suspicious are they of receiving injury from man, whom they seem to look upon as their natural protector. The arrival of the first swallow is regarded with some degree of interest by most people; and, as he skims along with graceful flight, or twitters on our chimney tops, is hailed even by the unculti- vated plebeian as the constant and uniform attendant on spring. The scream of the swifts, when they collect in packs, and " Dash round the steeple, unsubdued of wing," harsh and discordant as it may be, is yet a most joyous and delightful sound, and is associated with all the charms of sum- mer days and serene weather. And as to those industrious little masons, the martens, I love to have them build in my windows ; I consider they pay me a compliment by making a selection of my premises for the purpose of nidification, and would on no account have them injured or disturbed, not- withstanding their occasional dirt and litter. If our great poet D 3 ^ S8 On the nsoaiitoii Destructio7i of Swallows. is to be believed, and, being " Nature's child," he was no inaccurate observer of her ways, the occurrence of this bird at any place in more than ordinary numbers is a symptom of the fineness and salubrity of the air : — " This guest of summer, The temple-haunting martlet, does approve. By his loved mansionry, that heaven's breath Smells wooingly here. No jutty, frieze, Buttress, nor coigne of vantage, but this bird Hath made his pendent bed and procreant cradle. Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed The air is delicate." Macbeth. From the quotations already made in defence and recom- mendation of our British i^iriindines, you will perceive, Mr. Editor, that I am, as Sir Henry Wotton says, " but a gatherer of other men's stuff, at my best value." Availing myself, therefore, of my privilege, I trust I shall have your pardon, if not your thanks, for concluding my remarks with another extract from a modern writer, which, for its truth, beauty, and vivacity, cannot easily be surpassed or equalled. " I delight in this living landscape ! The swallow is one of my favourite birds, and a rival of the nightmgale ; for he glads my sense of seeing, as much as the other does my sense of hearing. He is the joyous prophet of the year, the harbinger of the best season ; he lives a life of enjoyment amongst the loveliest fornis of nature ; winter is unknown to him, and he leaves the green meadows of England in autumn, for the myrtle and orange groves of Italy, and for the palms of Africa : he has always objects of pursuit, and his success is secure. Even the beings selected for his prey are poetical, beautiful, and transient. The ephemerae are saved by his means from a slow and lingering death in the evening, and killed in a moment, when they have known nothing of life but pleasure. He is the constant destroyer of insects, the friend of man i and, with the stork and the ibis, may he regarded as a sacred bird. His instinct, which gives him his appointed sea- sons, and which teaches him always when and where to move, may be regarded as flowing from a Divine Source ; and he belongs to the oracles of nature, which speak the awful and intelligible language of a present Deity."* After this glowing and inimitable passage, any further re- marks from me would be worse than superfluous ; I beg, therefore, to subscribe myself. Yours, &c. Nov, 23. ] 829. Philochelidon. * Salmonia, p. 79. Natur^al History of Molluscous Animals, 39 Art. X. All Introdtictio7i to the Natural History of Molluscous Animals. In a Series of Letters. By G. J. Letter 3. Indirect and Direct Benefits, Sir, In my last letter I illustrated, at some length, one grand use of the Mollusca in the economy of nature : that, viz., of furnishing sustenance to many animals. But you will observe that a vast number of the class are themselves carnivorous, and become thus a means, in the hand of Providence, of keep- ing in check the multiplication of the tribes on vrhich they prey, and of preserving between them that due proportion and " balance of power" which is as necessary in the animal, as in the political, world. Others, again, are gifted with the remark- able property of boring through stone and wood, and thus reduce to dust the rock over which the waves might have broken in vain, and remove those forests which the torrents and tornadoes of tropical climes annually float to the feea. In this sense, even the " fell Teredo" ministers to good. " The seaman," to adopt the rather pompous language of a very ex- cellent author, "as he beholds the ruin before him, vents his spleen against the little tribes that have produced it, and denounces them as the most mischievous vermin in the ocean. But a tornado arises, the strength of the whirlwind is abroad, the clouds pour down a deluge over the mountains, and whole forests fall prostrate before its fury. Down rolls the gathering wreck towards the deep, and blocks up the mouth of that very creek the seaman has entered, and where he now finds himself in a state of captivity. How shall he extricate himself from his imprisonment ? an imprisonment as rigid as that of the Baltic in the winter season. But the hosts of the Teredo are in motion : thousands of little augers are applied to the floating barrier, and attack it in every direction. It is perforated, it is lightened, it becomes weak ; it is dispersed, or precipitated to the bottom ; and what man could not effect, is the work of a worm. Thus it is that nothing is made in vain ; and that, in physics, as well as in morals, although evil is intermingled with good, the good ever maintains a predomi- nancy." * The conversion, through their agency, of other materials into lime, seems, however, to be the great purport of the cre- ation of molluscous animals. Shells consist of carbonate of lime with a greater or less proportion of animal matter, and the animals form these shells from their food, which contains . * Good's Book of Nature, vol. i. p. ^65. D 4? 40 Natural Histoiy of Molluscous A?iimals : — a very little lime, or perhaps none at all. If you ask me how this can be, I can only answer that it is one of the wonderful and inexplicable effects of a living principle. But the fact being as I have stated, you will readily grant that such a gift was not likely to be bestowed for a minor purpose ; and though we cannot unfold all the uses of this metamorphosis of matter, yet we know enough to prove its vast importance. " Chalk, marl, and limestone,'^ says BufFon, " consist entirely of the dust or fragments of shells," * This, at first, may seem an extravagant doctrine, and Imagination herself startles when she attempts to sum up the millions and tens of millions which must have gone to the formation of such deep and extensive strata. It is nevertheless, in a great measure, true f ; and, as a proof of it, I will have pleasure in showing you, when next you visit me, strata of limestone, some miles in extent, and many feet deep, composed almost wholly of shells, thousands of which are so well preserved, that you may give them a " local habitation and a name " in the systems of naturalists. Cast a glance at your marble chimney-piece, and you will, in all probabiHty, trace therein the figures of shells that have been, not the sportive freaks of the formative powers of nature, as philosophers once believed, but the true remains of living creatures which " have put off flesh and blood, and are be- come immutable." Hence it is that the study of shells, so long ridiculed by the wits of the age, as an abuse of time and waste of money, becomes so important, or rather necessary, to all those who make the structure of the earth, and the various changes which it has undergone, an object of attention, " For shells are found in abundance in a great variety of rocks and positions : they constitute the medals of the ancient world ; and, from an accurate acquaintance with their different spe- cies, and with the nature of the animals that inhabited them, many curious and important deductions respecting the form- ation and changes of the crust of the earth may be drawn." f It is from their composition that even recent shells become useful as a manure, a purpose to which they are occasionally applied in this and other countries ; and it has been ascer- tained by comparative experiments, that, on turf lands in par- * Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 214. j also vol. u. p. 221., &c. The word shell is, however, used here in a very extensive sense, so as to include corals, madre- pores, Echlniy &c. ; still it does not materially affect the text. f " If Saussure," says Dr. Clarke, " had not discovered limestone lying beneath rocks of the most ancient formation, the French would long ago have established a theory that all the strata of carbonated lime, upon the sur- face of the globe, have resulted from the decomposition of animal matter deposited during a series of ages." See his Travels, vol. i. p. 624 — 26. 4to. X Thomson's Hist, of the Royal Society, p. 83. Indirect and Direct Benefits. 41 ticular, they act more beneficially than quicklime. * And in China, India, Ceylon, and Africa, where there is no stone fitted for burning into lime, and where shells are abundant, these are resorted to, and the lime procured from them is said to be peculiarly white and pure f : so much so, that the people, and even the ladies in India, to increase the pungency, mix it with their betel leaf and areka nut, which they chew as our sailors do tobacco. J I now proceed to illustrate the modes in which molluscous animals contribute more directly to our w^ants and luxuries ; and I shall occupy the remainder of this letter with an account of such of them as man has added to his long dietetical list, for liberally has he availed himself of the license, " every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you." The princi- pal of these is the oyster, " the food that feeds, the living luxury," as it is described by a living poet of celebrity, though there are some who, like the great Mr. Boyle, abhor the eat- ing of them raw, and, with another poet, are ready to exclaim, " That man had sure a palate cover'd o'er With brass or steel, that, on the rocky shore. First broke the oozy oyster's pearly coat. And risk'd the living morsel down his throat ! " But, be that as it may, oysters are in general much esteemed, and have, for many centuries, held an eminent place amongst the delicacies of the table. The Romans, when luxury had ousted the temperance of their earlier days, preferred them to all others. " Nee potest videri satisdictum esse de his, cum palma mensarum divitum attribuatur illis," are the words of Pliny. § They sometimes brought them so far as from Bri- tain ; but those most celebrated for their sweetness and tender- ness were from Cyzicus, a town of Mysia, situate in a cogno- minal island of the Propontis. You will also remember that those which came from theLucrine Lake and from Brundusium had no vulgar fame, being occasionally adverted to by their poets and satirists. It was even a grave matter of dispute to which of these the preference was due ; and to settle the point, or with a view, perhaps, of combining the good qualities of both, oysters were wont to be carried from Brundusium, and fed for a time in the Lucrine Lake. * Thomson's Hist, of the Royal Society, p. Q6. ^ " At Columbo, in Ceylon, the Dutch had the walls of their houses all plastered over and whitewashed with a very fine bright lime, made of burnt shells. The colour is heauttfully whiter and may contribute to the coolness of the houses, but throws an unsupportable glare in the eyes of the passenger, along the streets." {PerdvaVs Ceylon^ p. 126.) X See the Travels of Staunton, Buchanan, and Barrow. § Hist. Nat., lib. xxxii. cap 6. . 42 "Natural History of Molluscous Animals : — Oysters abound on various parts of the British coast, and are consumed, under one form or another, in such numbers, as to have become a valuable article of commerce. To give you some idea of its extent, and of the number of hands to which it gives employment, it may be sufficient to mention the oyster-fisheries of Essex alone. In the rivers of this county, more particularly in the Crouch, the Blackwater, and Colne, a great variety of excellent oysters are bred. The boats employed in dredging them are from 14 to 30 or 40 tons ; the fitting out one of 20 tons will require 1 50/. Of these vessels there are upwards of 200 now employed, and above 500 men and boys. The quantity of oysters taken in a season is supposed to be above 20,000 bushels, which are chiefly disposed of in Lon- don ; but they are also sent to Hamburgh, Bremen, Holland, France, and Flanders. * So important, indeed, are the oyster- fisheries of Britain, that they have long been an object of attention to the legislature ; and they are regulated by a Court of Admiralty. In the month of May, the fishermen are al- lowed to take the oysters, in order to separate the spawn from the cultch f, the latter of which is thrown back, to preserve the bed for the future. After this month it is felony to carry away the cultch, and punishable to take any oyster, unless, when closed, a shilling will rattle between its valves. The spawn is then deposited in beds or layers formed for the purpose, and furnished with sluices, through which, at the springtides, the water is suffered to flow. This water, being stagnant, soon becomes green in warm weather; and, in a short time, the oysters acquire the same tinge, which renders them of greater value in the market. Three years, at least, are required to bring them to a marketable state ; and the longer they remain, the more fat and delicate they become. J Those artificial beds, as Pliny informs us, were invented by one Sergius Arata, and first established on the Lucrine Lake, a. u. 660 ; and, from some circumstances mentioned by the naturalist, we may infer that the said Sergius was no loser by the specula- tion. In Scotland we have none of them, but eat our oysters just as they are brought from their native rocks ; and though * Edin. Encyclopaedia,, art. Essex. f By this term are meant the stones, gravel, old shells, &c., to which the spawn adheres ; and the reason for punishing its destruction is, that, when taken away, the ooze increases, and muscles and cockles breed on the bed, and destroy the oysters, gradually occupying all the places on which the spawn should be cast. X See Pennant's Brit. Zoology, vol. iv. p. 227., &c. ; Bingley's Animal Biography," art. Oyster; and Thomson's Annals of Philosophy for January, 1818, p. 70. Indirect and Direct Benefits. 43 certainly inferior to the genuine " Pyefleet," yet they are no despicable dainties. The oyster is a bivalve shell, and there are many others of this kind which are edible. Indeed, none of them, so far as we know, are positively hurtful ; though some, as the ^pon- dyli, are harsh and disagreeable, others occasionally act as poison at particular seasons or to peculiar constitutions, and many are so small or so rare as never to have been used. The Pecten maximus, for example, is a much esteemed species; and the clam (Pecten opercularis) is very commonly eaten in Scotland. The Anomia undulata, at Bourdeaux, is considered a delicacy ; while, on some parts of the shores of the Mediter- ranean, the rocks are broken with large hammers, in order to procure the Pholas dactylus, which abounds there, and is admired even at the tables of the luxurious. The razor-fish (ASolen sUiqua), common on our sandy shores, is an article of food in many places ; and when they go to its capture, the Irish are said to have a song appropriate to the occasion, whence we may infer that it is a favourite with them. On a dish made of the animal of the Mya truncata, and named smurslin, the natives of Orkney and Zetland delight to sup ; and you know that, from many parts of the coast of merry England, great numbers of cockles (Cardium edible) {Jig, 6, a) are gathered, particularly in spring; and, in autumn, an equal number of muscles (My- tilus edulis) (b), which are eaten roasted or pickled, or by entering into the composition of sauces, add to the gout of more substantial viands. This catalogue, were it necessary, might easily be extended ; but it may be sufficient, in addition, to remark that almost every shore has some species peculiar to it, or more plentiful than elsewhere, which the natives make subservient to the table. Thus, in India, the favourite food bacassan is prepared from 44 ISfatural History of Molluscous Anmials : — the Tellina Gari Lin. ; and in South America they use a large muscle, 8 in. long and of excellent flavour, but the name of which is unknown to me. " They are often salted and dried ; after which, they are strung on slender rushes, and, in this manner, large quantities are exported." * This practice re- minds me of a somewhat similar one adopted by the Africans in the neighbourhood of the river Zaire or Congo. They take large quantities of a species of Mya from out the mud round Kam- penzey Island, and, as in a raw state the animals are without flavour, they stick them on wooden skewers, as the French do frogs, and half dry them. They pass thus into a state of semi- putrefaction, become entirely to the taste of the negroes, and form an important object of traffic, f The natives of New Hol- land and New Zealand did, at the time of their discovery, use the Chama gigas (Jig. 6. c), a very large shell, a pair of the valves of which were presented, as natural curiosities, to Francis I. by the Venetians; and which Louis XV., more zealous, as he has himself taken care to let us know, for the glory of God, destined to hold holy water in the magnificent church of St. Sulpice in Paris, where they to this day ac- tually serve the purpose of baptismal fonts. | Captain Cook tells us that it sometimes attains a size so great that two men are required to carry it ; and containing full 20 lbs. of good meat, it often fiirnished him and his fellow-adventurers an esteemed repast. Bruce mentions the same species as being found in the Red Sea, but in this respect he is probably mistaken. The fish of his shell, however, are very whole- some, and have a. peppery taste, a circumstance so much the more convenient, that they carry that ingredient of spice along with them for sauce, with which travellers seldom bur- then themselves. § Of the univalved shells I have not much to say. You may have noticed the periwinkle (Turbo littoreus) (Jig. 7. a) and common whelk (^uccinum lapillus' Lin.) exposed for sale, in large quantities, in the fish-shops of the metropolis |1 ; and they frequently furnish to the poorer classes of our sea-coast towns and villages a repast, perhaps sufficiently wholesome, and certainly not destitute of relish. But, even to them, these may be regarded merely in the light of luxuries : it is far * Stevenson's Narrative of Twenty Years' Residence in South America, vol. i. p. 123. f Tuckey's Narrative, &c., p. 55. X Smith's Tour on the Continent, vol. i. p. 82. ^ Bruce's Travels, &c., vol. ii. p. 112. II They do riot appear to have been so common in the days of Samuel Johnson. In his Journey to the Western Islands he says, " Here I saw what I had never seen before, limpets and muscles in their natural state."^(p. 295.) Indirect and Direct Benefits. 45 otherwise with the still poorer inhabitants of several of the Western Isles of Scotland. Periwinkles and limpets (Patella vulgata) (6), which so profusely stud the rocks of their shores, are their daily fare, and on which they are sometimes reduced to the necessity of altogether subsisting. In the Isle of Skye, for example, we are told that there is almost annually a degree of famine, when the poor are left to Providence's care, and prowl, like other animals, along the shores, to pick up limpets and other shellfish : " the casual repast," adds Mr. Pennant, from whom I have borrowed this melancholy account, " of hundreds, during part of the year, in these unhappy islands." * Shellfish, then, you observe, are not mere luxuries : here they become almost essential to man's existence ; and, from the particulars related by Captain Cook, we cannot hesitate to admit that the natives of Australia also derive their principal subsistence from them. Wherever marks of fire were ob- served, there the shells of oysters, cockles, muscles, and various other bivalves, robbed of their contents, were strewed around, and sometimes in numbers scarcely credible. They apparently eat none of them in a raw state, nor do they always go on shore to dress them, for they have frequently fires in their canoes for that purpose. To the people of Terra del Fuego, shellfish are every thing. Captain Cook saw no appearance of their having any other food ; " for, though seals were fre- quently seen near the shore, they seemed to have no imple- ments for taking them. The shellfish are collected by the women, whose business it seems to be to attend, at low water, with a basket in one hand, a stick pointed and barbed in the other, and a satchel at their backs : they loosen the limpets and other fish, that adhere to the rocks, with the stick, and put them into the basket, which, when full, they empty into the satchel." Of the naked Mollusca, the cuttle-fish (iSepia officinalis, or rather Oct5pus vulgaris) only has been used. This singular * See his Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides, 1772. 46 Natural History of Molluscous Ariimals : — animal was esteemed a delicacy by the ancients, more especially when it was in a pregnant condition ; and, from the high en- comiums bestowed by Captain Cook on a soup he made from it, the fish would seem to merit the attention of even modern epicures. It is eaten at the present day by the Italians, and by the modern Greeks during Lent. * The list of the tetTestrial species is equally short, for I re- member only one, the Helix pomatiaf {^fig. 8.), which has been employed as food; but it is one of some celebrity, and of which a good deal has been said. The Romans took great pains in rearing these snails. They kept them in sties called cochledf^ia, which were generally constructed under rocks or emi- nences moistened by a passing stream. If, however, the sty was not sufficiently humid, a water-pipe, bored full of holes, like a watering-pot, was introduced, by which means it was continually sprinkled and kept in a favourable state. | Here the snails required little attendance or food, supplying them- selves as they crawled about the sides or floor of their prison ; but, when it was wished to fatten them, they were fed with bran and sodden wine ; and, on this generous fare, they grew occasionally to such a size that, according to Varro, the shell would hold full ten quarts ! § You need no longer hold up to imitation the temperance of the younger Pliny, whose sup- per consisted of onli/ three snails, two eggs, a barley cake, a lettuce, sweet wine, and snow ; but, alas ! participating in that degeneracy which is said to characterise the human race of the present day, our snails never attain the twentieth part of * Pennant's Brit. Zool., vol. iv. p. 119.; and the Travels of Pallas and Clarke. f I presume the " vine snails," which Pallas repeatedly mentions as a common food to the modern Greeks, are identical with this. He speaks of their using nine or ten other sorts, but the species are not distinguished. t The cochlearia were invented by Fulvius Hirpinus, a little before the civil war with Pompey the Great. (Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. ix. cap. 82.) § " Ut cochleae quoque altUes ganeam implerent : cujus artis gloria in eam magnitudinem perducta sit, ut octoginta quadrantes caperent singularum cahces. Auctor est M. Varro." (Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. ix. cap. 82.) The thing is quite incredible ; but, at the same time, we may remark that a dif- ferent and larger species than the H. pomatia might be alluded to, for the Romans brought land-shells, for their stews, from different countries, and seem to have used several species. Indirect and Direct Benefits. 47 the bulk of Varro's. They are still eaten in great numbers on the continent of Europe, particularly during Lent. In Switzer- land, where there are gardens in which they are fed in many thousands together, a considerable trade is carried on in them about that season ; and at Vienna, a few years ago, seven of them were charged at an inn the same as a plate of veal or beef. The usual modes of preparing them for the table are, either boiling, frying them in butter, or sometimes stuffing them with farce-meat ; but in what manner soever they are dressed, it is said, their sliminess always, in a great measure, remains. Those edible snails were introduced into England, about the middle of the sixteenth century, by Charles Howard, of the Arundel family, and afterwards by the eccentric Sir Kenelm Digby, either as being a favourite foreign delicacy, or in order to cure his beautiful wife of a consumptive disease. * The fashion seems to have taken, for the great master-cook, Robert May, has left several receipts for dressing snails among the secrets of his fifty years' experience f ; but, like other fa- shions, it soon passed away, for the English have no relish of such "liquorish viands." In proof of this, and as a pleasant con- clusion to a long letter^ allow me to transcribe for you a story from the pen of Sir Walter Scott : — " The chemical philosophers Dr. Black and Dr. Hutton were particular friends, though there was something extremely opposite in their external appearance and manner. Dr. Black spoke with the English pronunciation, with punctilious ac- curacy of expression, both in point of matter and manner. The geologist was the very reverse of this : his conversation was conducted in broad phrases, expressed with a broad Scotch accent, which often heightened the humour of what he said. " It chanced that the two doctors had held some discourse together upon the folly of abstaining from feeding on the tes- taceous creatures of the land, while those of the sea were con- sidered as delicacies. Wherefore not eat snails ? They are well known to be nutritious and wholesome, even sanative in some cases. The epicures of olden times enumerated, among the richest and raciest delicacies, the snails which were fed in the marble quarries of Lucca : the Italians still hold them in esteem. In short, it was determined that a gastronomic experi- ment should be made at the expense of the snails. The snails were procured, dieted for a time, then stewed for the benefit of * Some years ago they were introduced into Scotland by Pat. Neill, Esq., and placed in his curious and most interesting garden at Cannonmills ; but, we believe, they have not prospered, and are gradually disappearing. t The above particulars are from the works of Pennant, Bingley, &c. ; and from Southey's Omniana, vol. ii. p. 81. 48 Observations on I>i\ Carus's Discovery the two philosophers ; who had either invited no guest to their banquet, or found none who relished in prospect the piece de resistance, A huge dish of snails was placed before them: but philosophers are but men, after all ; and the stomachs of both the doctors began to revolt against the proposed experi- ment. Nevertheless, if they looked with disgust on the snails, they retained their awe for each other : so that each, conceiv- ing the symptoms of internal revolt peculiar to himself, began, with infinite exertion, to swallow, in very small quantities, the mess which he internally loathed. Dr. Black, at length, ' showed the white feather,' but in a very delicate manner, as if to sound the opinion of his messmate. ' Doctor,* he said, in his precise and quiet manner, * Doctor, — do you not think that they taste a little — a very little, green ?' ' D — d green, d — d green, indeed, — tak' them awa', tak' them awa',' voci- ferated Dr. Hutton, starting up from table, and giving full vent to his feelings of abhorrence. And so ended all hopes of introducing snails into the modern cuisine: and thus philoso- phy can no more cure a nausea than honour can set a broken limb." ( Quart, Review, xxxvi. 197.) I am, Sir, &c. G. J. Art. XI. Observations relative to Dr. Caruss Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood in Insects. By William Spence, Esq. F.L.S. Sir, One of the obscurest points of the physiology of insects has always been that of the circulation of their blood. The most superficial observer of many of the large thin-skinned larvae could scarcely fail to observe the evident regular pulsa^ tion of a fluid in a vessel running along the back, and it was naturally considered that this fluid is analogous to the blood of larger animals : but as even the microscopic observations of Swammerdam and Lyonet had never detected any thing like blood-vessels in other parts of the body of insects, a circu- lating system has been generally denied to this class, which in this circumstance has been thought to differ from some of the classes immediately connected with it. It was reserved for that eminent physiologist, Dr. Cams of Dresden, physician to the King of Saxony, to remove this obscurity by the interesting and important discovery which he made and published a few years ago (and the substance of which is given in an appendix to Mr. Gore's translation of his Introduction to the Comparative of the Circulation of the Blood i?i Insects. 49 Anatomy of Animals, 1827), of a distinct circulation of the blood in insects; and having had the advantage, within these few days, of witnessing some of the most striking facts upon which his discovery rests, which he had the goodness himself to show and explain to me, I am anxious that your entomolo- gical readers should partake of the high gratification which this interesting sight imparted to me; which any one might enjoy, who will examine some very common insects with a good compound microscope. The first insect to which Dr. Cams directed my attention was the larva of Ephemera vulgata (or an allied species), in which, near to the branchiae and parallel with each side of the body, was very distinctly visible a constant current, towards the tail, of oblong globules swimming in a transparent fluid, propelled with a regular pulsating motion ; and on cutting the body of the larva across near the tail, these globules were most plainly seen pushed out of the divided vessels in a distinct mass, which increased at each pulsation. I cannot express the plea- sure which it gave me to see thus clearly this ocular demon- stration of one of the most important physiological discoveries of modern times; and my gratification was heightened by the next object which Dr. Carus placed before his microscope, viz. a specimen of Semblis viridis, in which precisely the same phe- nomena, but if possible more clearly, were §eenin the nervures of the wings and in the antennae, in both which the constant current of globules was most apparent; and in the former, the sudden turning of these glpbules at the apex of the wing, out of the. exterior nervure into a central one, with which it joins and fprjEns an acute angle, was equally curious and striking. On cij,ttirjg off the end of the antennae, precisely the same emission of globules (which soon assume a greenish tint) took place as in the former case, forming a mass which was increased with a sudden gush at each pulsation. Dr. Carus has observed the same phenomena in the wings of Semblis bilineata, and in the elytra of iampyrisnoctiluca and L. italica, .as well as in the fin-like appendages at the tail of the larva of A^grion puella, in which he first made the discovery, and in which the circulation is remarkably distinct. The only point of manipulation in examining the specimens which it is necessary to notice is, that Dr. Carus places them on the slip of glass, not in mere water, but in a drop of pretty thick gum water, which confines their too agile movements without injuring the transparency of the medium. I mugt not omit observing, that when Dr. Carus was in Italy last year, he made some new and curious observations relative to the connection which exists between the circulation Vol. III. — No. 11. e 50 Extraordinary Instincts peculiar of the blood in the Italian flying glowworm (iampyris italica) and the luminous substance which occupies great part of the under side of the abdomen. When he first noticed this in- sect, which is so distinguished an ornament of an Italian evening, 'he was much surprised to.find, what, strange to say, no previous observer has described, that the light kept every instant varying in intensity, being alternately much brighter than ordinary; as the flame of a candle behind a shade of horn would appear, if the seeds of Lycopodium were from time to time thrown into it : and, after a series of experiments, he ascertained that this phenomenon entirely depends on the circulation of the blood; the greater intensity of light cor- responding precisely with each pulsation of that fluid ; taking place from forty-four to fifty-four times a minute, and at re- gular intervals, when the insect was not disturbed, but more rapidly and irregularly when it was alarmed on being first caught.* The above discoveries of Dr. Cams suggest many topics of investigation highly interesting to the entomological and general physiologist, but into these I cannot attempt to enter ; the only object of this hasty notice, written on the eve of a long journey, being to draw the attention of British entomo- logists to a field of enquiry equally extensive and important, and in which, even if they detect nothing new, they cannot fail to be highly gratified with observing what Dr. Cams has already described. For a full account of the discoveries of this celebrated physiologist I must refer your readers to the forthcoming new edition of his Entdeckung eines Einfacheny Vom Herzen aus beschleunigten Bhithreislaufes in den Larven netzflilgeliclier Insekten, which first appeared in 1827. I am. Sir, &c. W. Seence. Dresden^ Aug. 28. 1829. Art. XII. On the extraordinary Instincts peculiar to some of the Insect Tribe. By T. H. Sir, Although the subject I have the pleasure to offer to your notice is not new to naturalists, still you may, I think, consider worthy of a place in the pages of your very amusing and instruc- tive Magazine, a detail of facts which afford exemplifications * Analecten zur Naturwissenschaft und Heilkunde, gesammelt auf einer Reise durch Italien, im Jahre 1828 (Dresden, 1829, 8vo), p. 169—179. to some of the Insect Tribe. 51 to illustrate the extraordinary instincts peculiar to some of the insect tribes, and also afford an interesting subject to the practical entomologist. My present communication is to give you a brief detail of observations regarding the reproduction, or rather the propa- gation, of a very small species of ichneumon fly (/chneumon ovulorum of Linn., Platygaster ovulorum of the fam. Procto- trupidae of Latreille). On the 28th of last month (June) I put twenty caterpillars of the large cabbage butterfly (Pontia 6rassicae) into a wire cage : they were mostly full-sized larvae, and continued to feed on cabbage leaves placed in the cage with them. On the fol- lowing day, June 29., five or six of the largest left the leaves, and crawled about on the sides of the cage during the rest of the day. The next morning, June 30., I found them resting on large clusters of minute cocoons of an ovate form [Jig, 9. i), the largest not exceeding two lines in length, and about the thick- ness of a caraway seed. Each was enveloped with a fine yellow silk, resembling that of the common silkworm (the pupa of Pha- lae^na moYi). On these clusters the caterpillars remained the whole day without moving. Fresh leaves were given to the rest ; but in the course of this day they all left off feeding, crawled about the cage, but underwent no other change. Early the next day, July 1., I found they had, with the exception of two or three, all ejected the parasitical progeny they had been impregnated with, and, like the preceding caterpillars, continued resting on the clusters they had formed : the remaining three followed the example of the others, and the last operation of these devoted caterpillars was to envelope each cluster in a veil, formed of the most delicate web. Some of them executed the task ; but the greater part were too feeble to complete it ; and in the course of three days more, July 4., they became motionless, and gradually, one after another, fell, shrivelled and exhausted, to the bottom of the cage. The clusters of cocoons varied in their numbers ; some con- tained upwards of a hundred, others not more than sixty or seventy. I watched during the day to witness the change from the larva to the pupa state, but in vain; the operation was performed during the night, and it was only in the last two or three caterpillars, in an enfeebled state, that I observed the larvae of the ichneumon fly emerging from the lower side of the caterpillar; but the few which came forth remained in- active during the rest of the day. On July 12., the first-formed clusters of cocoons evinced a state of maturity, and in the course of the day numbers of the perfect insects came forth. Their exclusion was effected by E 2 52 Introductory View of the forcing open a small circular lid at one end of the cocoon {Ji), The insects, as soon as they came forth, were active and ready for flight. It is of diminutive size, the females not exceeding two lines in length, the males some- thing less; the antennae fili- form, longer than the body, black; the legs rufous, some have the thighs of the hinder pair marked with a black spot; the head, thorax, and body, of a deep black, except in the females, which are marked with white on the anterior part of the abdomen beneath ; the abdomen is ovate and subses- sile; the wings are a little longer than the body, rounded at their ends, and the anterior pair marked on their exterior margin, near the posterior angle, with a black spot. I send for your examination some of the parcels of cocoons, and many of the insects ; and I hope you will indulge your readers with a magnified figure of this interesting little British insect, and of the cocoons in their collective form, as well as in magnified detail. [Jig, 9.) I am, Sir, &c. Clapham, July 18. 1829. T. H, a. Larva of the natural size ; b, magnified, c. Imago of the natural size ; d, magnified. e. Perfect insect natural size ; /, magnified, g. Cocoon natural size ; h, magnified. Art. XIII. An Introductory View of the Linnean System of Plants. By Miss Kent, Authoress of Flora Domestica, Sylvan Sketches, &c. (Continued from Vol. II. p. 164.) Before I proceed to speak of the beautiful class Hexan- dria^ it may be well to say a few words of the different species of calyx. Linnaeus enumerated seven ; of which, by far the most common is the perianth, which grows immediately be- neath the flower; the other six are the spatha (a slice, Gr.) involiicrum (a wrapper, Lat,), amentum (a bond, Gr.), gluma (a husk,.L«^.), volva (volvere, to wrap, Lat.), and [calyptra (a cover, Crr.). The volva and calyptra belong exclusively to plants of the twenty-fourth class, of which we shall speak in Linnean System of Plants. 53 its place ; the glume is the calyx of the grasses. The other three have been disputed by many botanists, as not properly calyces. It was a rule with Linnaeus, to characterise the genera of plants by the parts of fructification, and it has been said of him that he sometimes misapplied terms, and made nature bend under the yoke of system. In most cases, his love of nature, stronger than his self-love, preserved him from this error, as many passages in his works amply testify ; but there appears to be some foundation for the assertion that he some- times improperly bestowed the name of calyx on parts which he found necessary to the distinction of genera. I spoke of the involucrum^ in my last letter, as a name given by some bo- tanists (I should have said by Linnaeus) to the leaves (now called bracteas) at the base of the umbels, in umbelliferous plants. It is not wholly confined to those plants commonly so designated, but extends to several others which have a similar mode of inflorescence, as the Primula, &c. {Jig* 10.) In addition to other objections to the term calyx as applied to these leaves, it has been observed that where they are present there is commonly a calyx also, as in the example here given, where every flower has its own calyx («), as well as the 2/zwZwcrwm, which is styled the common calyx {li). To give the name of calyx to the amentum is like calling a whole village a cottage. The amentum is the mode of inflorescence; it is composed of a number of flowers affixed to a thread-shaped receptacle termed the racliis (back-bone, GV\), and the true calyx is a hollow scale, which protects the stamens and pistils. Why the spatha should be considered as inappropriately named a calyx, I cannot understand; it is the office of the calyx to protect the flower until it has strength sufficient to protect itself; some flowers never lose the protection of the caljrx, others require it only while in bud. The spatha does enclose the bud ; by the swelling of which it is opened on 11 one side, and gives egress to the flower. In some plants, the flower is still contained within it, like a statue in its niche ; as in the arum, commonly called by village children, "lords and ladies'* (Jig. II.), or that elegant plant the Calla sethiopica, commonly called the arum. A young student will, probably, be surprised to learn that the beautiful white, frosted, leathery vase, which he took for the corolla of that flower, is the calyx ; but he must not suffer himself to be misled by colour. The colour of flowers is often materially influenced by soil and situation; some flowers. have been known to E 3 54 Introductory View of the change from blue to white, and again to resume their blue, by being transplanted, and restored to their original sta- tion ; and though green is usually the colour of the calyx, it not unfrequently happens that a flower of gayer habits is seen to assume a cloak of yellow, rose-colour, or crimson; while some grave and quaker-minded plants wear a corolla scarcely distinguishable, by colour, from the leaves. Observe the calyx of many species of the ranunculus, confounded under the familiar name — buttercup, and you will find them yellow ; in some, the colour is as bright a yellow as the corolla itself: the calyx and corolla of the magnificent trum- pet-flower (Bign6n2« radicans) are of the same colour. Fuchs/« coccinea has a deep purple corolla, within a calyx of bright scarlet. The willow-herb (Epilobium), of which many species are well known, has a calyx of deep crimson. Z)aphne Mezereon has a bright rose-coloured calyx, with no corolla ; the buckthorn, lady's mantle, pellitory of the wall, &c., have the corolla and the calyx of the same green colour. There are some flowers in which, one of the two being deficient, botanists are themselves undecided whether the one which remains be properly the calyx, or corolla; but the best rule that can be given to a young botanist is, that, in general, the stamens are alternate with the petals or segments of the co- rolla, and opposite to the leaves or divisions of the calyx. The class Hexdndria is chiefly composed of what are termed liliaceous plants ; by which are meant plants that, by their simi- larity of structure, are nearly connected with the lily. Some few of these are in the third class, Tridndria ; but the greater number are Hexandrous, and many of them furnished with the spatha. The great majority of the plants of this class are in the order Monogynia, which contains some of the most delicate and some of the most splendid flowers that our gar- dens exhibit. It will be necessary to remind the young stu- dent, that he has more to consider than the number of the stamens, and the presence of the pistil, before he determines a flower to belong to this class. The stamens are either all of equal length, or each three are equal ; ii four of them exceed their brethren in length, he will probably find that the corolla is four-petaled, and may seek it in the fifteenth class. The liliaceous plants are six-petaled, or six-cleft ; the style is tri- angular, and the capsule has three cells. Of the nineteen genera of this class and order, which grace the British Flora, several are remarkable for their delicate beauty; the more splendid and useful plants of this class are chiefly foreign. Who is there that is not acquainted with the little drooping pearl that blooms beneath the snow, and seems^ as if it had Linnean System of Plants. 55 fallen with it from the clouds? Who does not hail the pretty snowdrop ? The name of this flower is happily ex- pressive of its whiteness, lightness, and pendent grace, and of the season of its birth. The botanical appellation is not quite so comprehensive, Galanthus (milk-flower) nivalis (snowy). To the passing eye the snowdrop appears wholly white, because its three outer petals, being longer than the three inner, close over them, and conceal a stamp of green on their outer side and many fine lines of green within. We generally find that the whitest flowers are more or less tinged with a pale green, which seems rather to increase than to detract from their whiteness. We may observe this in the snowflake, or summer snowdrop, ieucojum (leukos, white, ion, violet) aestivalis (of the summer). Notwithstanding that "snow in har- vest" is proverbially unwelcome, this is a general favourite, and not unfrequently confounded with the true snowdrop of spring : there are, however, obvious distinctions between them; the snowdrop is a solitary flower, the snowflake has three or four blossoms in a cluster; the latter has all its petals of equal length, and each tipped with a stamp of green, visible on both sides. The specific name is scarcely correct, for the plant blooms in the month of May. Another elegant little white flower appears in the interval between the death of the early snowdrop and the birth of the latter, in English termed the Star of Bethlehem, but botanically named, like the others, with reference to its whiteness, Ornithogalum (bird's-milk) umbellatum (from its mode of inflorescence). The petals spread open in the form of a star, each having on the under side a keel of pale green. This plant was so common, from the earliest times, in Bethlehem, and all Palestine, that the bulbs were an article of food; apparently of the cheapest kind, since, in the 2d book of Kings, we find the high price charged for a measure of them coupled with the dear rate of an ass's head, to show the extent of a famine in Syria : they are still eaten there. In this country the plant is rare, though less so than the " Lone flower, hemm'd in with snows, and white as they." The Mircissus [narke, stupor ; effect of smell ; Encycl. of Plants], which derives its name and birth from the youth who pined with self-love, while he thought he loved another, is also a native of this country. Though many have fallen into the same mistake, he is the only acknowledged victim to it, of whom Fame has preserved the memory. We are told that ** Narcissus, drooping on his rUl, Keeps his odorous beauty still ; " E 4 56 Introductmy View of the yet the fact is, that the particular species honoured, as more peculiarly the descendant of the beautiful youth, with the title of Poetic Narcissus (N, poeticus), blooms in the open fields, in elevated situations and a sandy soil. The poets tell us also that Narcissus was changed into a yellow flower ; yet this has white petals. The cup which it fills with tears is yellow, with a border of white divided from the yellow by a circle of deep crimson. Are we to believe that the flower, aware of the fate of its ancestor, has learned to shun the watery mirror that proved so fatal to him, and in conse- quence has lost its jaundiced hue ? or are we to suppose that the Poetic Narcissus usurps a title more justly due to that spe- cies called Daffodils, That come before the swallow dares. And take the winds of March with beauty." Certain it is, that the daffodil is furnished with a spacious lachrymatory. The reader is, doubtless, acquainted with the wild daffodils found in moist woods, or thickets, in the month of March, and will remember the large cup in the cen- tre, which is crimped like a lady's frill; the young student may be puzzled to know what name to give to this cup. It is not the corolla ; that is formed of six petals, affixed to the cup. Let him open the flower, and he will find that the base of the cup is, more or less, elongated into a tube ; within which is collected the honied treasure that awaits the bee. This part is termed the nectary, a name given by Linnagus to the part containing the collected honey, whatever be its form ; and, in variety, it vies with the corolla itself. In many flowers, the corolla performs the office of the nectary ; in others it is distinct, as in that of which I am now speaking; and when- ever the young student meets with any part of a flower, that he is puzzled to find a name for, he will do well to consider if it may not be the nectary. In many cases, he will be apt to overlook it altogether, unless it be pointed out to him. The fritillary, Fritillaria {fritillus^ a chess-board), is a hand- some, but rare plant, bearing a flower about the size of an egg-cup, broad at its base, and pendulous ; the colour a red purple, checkered with paler purple or white ; whence it has been called the chess-board flower, checkered daffodil, &c. If the student inspect this flower narrowly, he will perceive within each petal, near the base, a little black line, which he will discover to be a cavity secreting honey ; and will imme- diately decide upon its name and office. Hence he will learn that flowers have sometimes several nectaries ; this has Linriean System of Plants. 57 one to every petal, and the flower has six petals. That ele- gant flower called the crown imperial is a foreign species of this genus. We have one British tulip ; the common yel- low tulip is the only species native of this country. When double, it has somewhat the appearance of a large yellow rose, and is very magnificent. The splendid tulips usually cultivated in gardens are importations from the East, deriv- ing their name from the Turkish turban (called tvlipan) which they are supposed to resemble. From the East, too, we have the hyacinth : one, called the starch hyacinth, is the produce of this country ; its flowers smell like wet starch, and are considered very oppressive. The harebell (formerly called the English hyacinth, but latterly removed to the genus S'cllla) contains a great quantity of starch in the juices of its roots. Asparagus is a native plant, growing on the sea-coast ; but the wild and the cultivated asparagus would scarcely be recognised as the same species, culture having increased it to six or eight times its original magnitude. The sprouting shoots of this plant, when grown in a garden, grace the most luxurious tables; but the same part of the wild plant would not be worth the gathering. Some foreign species of asparagus are armed with thorns or prickles : the Cape asparagus, Thun- berg informs us, is called by the inhabitants of the country, *waht en beetje (wait a bit), because its crooked thorns catch their clothes, and check them in passing ; hence also the word asparagus itself, from a Greek word signifying to lacerate. The lily of the valley, now so seldom met with, but always admired — " Shading, like detected light. Its little green-tipt lamps of white," — is one of four British species of Convallaria (a barbarous compound of Greek and Latin, equivalent to our English name) : the others bear the name of Solomon's seal ; it is said, because a transverse section of the roots exhibits cha- racters resembling the impression of a seal. All the species are rare. Gerarde recommends the fresh root, bruised, for the cure of any " bruse, black or blue spots, gotten by fals, or women's wilfulness in stumbling upon their hasty husbands' fists." Sweet flag ( J['corus Calamus) is another rare plant, growing in watery places, and chiefly about the rivers in the county of Norfolk. It has been a custom from time immemorial, to strew it in the cathedral and some of the streets of Norwich, on the mayor's day, for the sake of the fragrance which it gives out when trodden upon. Of late years, being less plentiful, iJ8 Introductory View of the its place has been partly supplied by the water flag, and other plants. The roots, dried and powdered, are used by the peasants of Norfolk as a cure for the ague. Of the rush (Juncus) we have three and twenty species, indigenous of Britain ; among which are the common [J. con- glomeratus) and the soft rush (J. effusus), so well known by the various domestic purposes to which they are applied. For mats and the seats of chairs they are now superseded by the bullrush (^cirpus lacustris) ; and their chief use at present is in the making of rushlights. Before the introduction of car- pets and mats, they were used for strewing floors, even at court, a custom mentioned by Shakspeare and other poets. The barberry shrub has been much slandered as being an enemy to the ripening of corn, which is perhaps the reason that we so seldom see it. If the filaments of its flowers be touched on the inner side, near the base, they will immediately contract, and throw the pollen upon the stigma. Various causes have been assigned for this ; Sir J. E. Smith says they contract by irritation, like the muscles of animals. The fruit is acid, and is preserved in the form of jelly, pickle, or comfits. Among the exotic plants of this order are many flowers of exquisite beauty, of which a great portion belong to the family of lilies, styled by Linnaeus the nobles of the vegetable king- dom. We are not to suppose that every flower familiarly called a lily, is of the genus Zilium, though that genus con- tains many very handsome and very dissimilar flowers ; the purple martagon {L.Mdrtagon), the scarlet martagon (Z/.chal- cedonicum), the bulb-bearing lily (L. bulbiferum), and the magnificent white lily, are all of this genus, and all worthy of admiration. The scarlet martagon is interesting from the circumstance of its being believed by many persons to be the true hyacinth of the ancients ; the bulb-bearing lily is remark- able for the little black bulbs which it bears in the axils of its leaves ; these bulbs, though but little larger than a pea, increase in size, when planted, until they are large enough to produce new plants. The white lily is too well known, too highly and deservedly admired, to need either eulogy or description ; but I cannot refrain from noticing the extreme fineness of the extremity of the slender filament which supports the large anther attached to it by the back ; so slender is the juncture, that we can scarcely believe but that some magnetic attraction lurks within. This, like the tulip, and many other liliaceous flowers, is without a. calyx ; the corolla is sufiiciently stout to protect the beauty that lodges within it ; but being itself unguarded, the pure whiteness of its delicate petals is often injured by rain or Linnean System of Plants. 59 other enemies, like a beauty, who, placed in a rank of life which subjects her to the necessity of facing the elements, loses the dazzling fairness of her complexion, while her health and strength remain unimpaired. Among the finest lilies not in- cluded in this genus are the African lily ( Agapanthus, delight- ful flower, umbellatus, from its mode of inflorescence) and the whole genus Amaryllis (one of Virgil's nymphs), more especially the Atamdsco, Belladonna, Jacobae^^, and Guernsey lilies. To describe, or even to enumerate, all the fine flowers of this order would be a work of time, and would demand more space than can be afforded here. I will only observe in passing, that the Tuberose, Gioriosa, and Chandelier, are of the number : the first of these is well known; the name of the second speaks for itself; and, indeed, so we may say of the last, which is named from the position and brilliancy of its fine scarlet flowers, which shed their cheering light over the wastes of Africa. The African genus, Cyanella (blue, Gr.), is remarkable for the form and position of its stamens, which resemble the human thumb and fingers. The asphodel partakes the lot of angels, in flourishing both in Tartarus and Eden. According to old traditions, the dead are nourished with its seeds, — a circum- stance which accounts for its being placed in such different climates. Though we have several British species of Allium*, the genus is best known among us by foreign species, cultivated in this country for domestic use; as the leek (A. Porrum), shallot (^.ascalonicum), onion (^.Cepa), garlick (v4. sativum), &c. Among the more useful plants we may reckon the aloe, of which several of the species are of incalculable importance to their countrymen ; one in particular, a native of Mexico : its trunk and leaves supply the place of beams and tiles for the roofs of houses ; furnish needles, thread, paper, cordage, shoes, stockings, and other articles of clothing ; and the juice affords wine, honey, sugar, and vinegar. The American aloe (Agave, admirable), also, serves many useful purposes, exclusive of its reputed power of keeping off" apparitions and evil spirits, for which it is so highly respected by the Egyptians. In speaking of useful plants, I must not omit to mention, that not only the rattan (Calamus, kalam, Arab.; verus, true), and other canes; but the bamboo also (Bambusa, the Indian name ; «rundin^cea, ay-undo, a reed, from aru, a Celtic wocd signifying water) is in- cluded in this order. Among the many important uses of the latter plant, is one which I wish I could speak of as more * This word, derived from the Celtic, is expressive of th pungent, biting flavour of the plants. 60 Introductm^ View of' the general. The Chinese merchants, when they go out to sea, provide themselves with four bamboos, which being placed crosswise, so as to leave a square space in the middle, are slipped over the head, and made fast to the waist with a cord ; and by this simple apparatus they insure their safety in case of wreck. We will conclude our sketch of this valuable order with two genera of peculiar interest. That which many consider as the finest-flavoured of all known fruits, the beautiful, fra- grant, and delicious pine-apple, is one of a large genus, Bromelm (from Bromel, a Swedish botanist), of which some of the species yield a pure water, more grateful, perhaps, under certain circumstances, than the pine-apple (Bromelm Ananas) itself. Of the Corypha (from a Greek word signifying the summit, in reference to its frondescence) there is but one species, the fan-palm (C. umbraculifera), an East Indian tree, with a tall straight stem, bearing at the top ten or a dozen leaves, upwards of 1 8 ft. in length, and 1 2 in breadth. One leaf will shelter twenty persons : when dry, they fold like a fan ; and it is not unusual for persons who are travelling, to carry one divi- sion of a leaf by way of parasol. Cottages are roofed, and tents made with them. They supply the place of writing paper ; and, in times of scarcity, the pith within the trunk of the tree is made into bread. The second order of this class is at once rich and poor ; poor in number, but rich in quality : it contains but one genus of very considerable importance, but that one is a host in itself. I speak of rice (Oryza sativa), an Ethiopian plant, upon the seed of which many of the inhabitants of the East almost entirely subsist. Its growth is very similar to that of the grasses, differing only in the number of stamens. In cultiva- tion, like most dry plants, it requires a large portion of water ; it is threshed, beaten, or scalded, to clean it from the husk, before it is brought into this country. It has been observed that, in a scarcity of corn, rice may be in part substituted for it in the making of bread ; but the scarcity must be very great, to make that an economical expedient in this country, where the rice sells so high. It is said to have been successfully cultivated in Scotland; and could it be naturalised to this country, so as to be raised in the fenny lands, which cannot be made to produce corn, it might, perhaps, be cheap enough to become a real blessing to the labouring classes, for it is undoubtedly very nutritious ; but, at present, it is rather an article of luxury than of economy for them. In the East, a strong intoxicating spirit is obtained from this grain, there called paddy ; whence Linnean System of Plants. 61 the name of paddy-bird given to a beautiful little Javanese bird that feeds upon it. England produces but one plant of the second order, and that formerly belonged to (and by some botanists is still ranged in) the genus J?iimex, of the third order. This genus contains the docks and sorrels ; but the mountain sorrel being deficient in the number of pistils, and in some other respects differing with the other species, has been placed apart, by the name of Oxyria reniformis. We have ten British species of i^umex, of which the common and the sheep sorrel will be likely to puzzle the young botanist, if he be not aware that they deviate from the rest of the genus, in having their stamens and pistils on separate plants. This circumstance would probably rank them in another class, but that they so entirely agree with the rest of the genus in other respects, that it is thought better to keep them together, and warn the young student of the variation, than to part plants which Nature has so closely allied. These irregularities will sometimes occur, and the young botanist will find them noted under each class and order to which they belong. The whole genus i2umex may appear strange at first sight, on account of a tubercle (Jig, 1 2. a) (in some species pretty large) which destroys the outline of the flower. Some of these tubercles appear like little rubies, and add much to the beauty of the flowers. A curious peculiarity in this genus is a joint near the base of each flower-stalk. If a person attempt to pluck one flower from the cluster (in any of the species), he will find a small part left on the common stalk ; if he continue this round an entire whorl, it will become more conspicuous, every flower leav- ing the part of the stalk below the joint (b). The common sorrel {R. Acetosa) is much used in Lapland for curdling milk, which the natives of that country seem to seek every possible mode of doing. The few other British plants of this order are rare; the best known is the common meadow- saffron (Colchicum autumnale), remarkable for the slow ripening and deep lodging of its seeds. The flower breaks forth in the autumn, in appearance very similar to the crocus, from which it differs chiefly in the number of the stamens and pistils. Its tube is remarkably long, proceeding directly from the bulb, in which the germs are embedded, and remain under the earth during the winter. In March or April the fruit ripens and shoots forth from the ground, upon a fruit stalk, the leaves appearing at the same time. The flowers, like several others which are not accompanied by leaves, are 63 Introduction to Geology. frequently "called " naked ladies." This small order produces nothing of extraordinary importance. The fourth order, Hexagynia, is little better than nominal; the fifth order, Polygynia, contains the water-plantain (^lisma, from alis^ wa- ter, C^Z^.), of which several species are natives of this country; one, A, Plantago {Jig. 13.), is very common, and might borrow from the heart's ease the familiar appellation of Herb Trinity. The calyx has three leaves, the corolla three petals ; the cap- sules, of which there are six, are ranged in a triangular form : the flower-stalk is three feet high, and the upper part clothed with flowers, set in whorls infinitely compounded, six in each whorl, three twice the size and length of the alternate three. Where this plant is luxuriant, the subdivisions of the whorls are innumerable. Wherever a pond is to be found, the water-plantain is to be found by the sides of it. It blossoms in the month of July, and is seen to most advantage at about two or three o'clock in the afternoon ; after that time its thin and some- what crumpled petals begin to droop. (To be continued.^ Art. XIV. Introduction to Geology. (Continued from Vol. I. p. 453.) ' GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF ARRANGEMENT. It has been seen in our introductory article on the pro- gress of geology, that the researches of geologists, conunencing with Werner, Saussure, Mitchell, and Smith, led to the dis- covery of certain laws relative to the origin and succession of rocks. Various terms have been employed in their classifica- tion. It was long considered sufiicient to divide them into two great classes : the Primary, consisting of rocks whose structure is chemical only, and possess no traces of or- ganic beings ; and the Secondary., consisting of rocks whose structure is chiefly mechanical, and which contain numerous substances of obvious vegetable and animal origin. This ar- rangement was recommended by its simplicity, and the facility it affords of referring the different rocks to one or more of these great divisions. In order to distinguish the more recent portions of the class before named Secondary, a further division was suggested, and the term Tei'tiary has been adopted by most geologists, as designating the strata which were deposited successively over Introduction to Geology* 63 the chalk. The utility of this distinction has become more apparent since the discoveries which the last few years have produced ; and the arrangement is further authorised by the peculiar character of those numerous tribes which people these beds, and which were called into existence subsequently to the chalk. It was afterwards perceived that the Secondary class re- quired division in that part of the series which approached nearest to the Primary, or earliest-formed rocks ; because there appeared an intermediate class, which, notwithstanding they contained organic remains, possessed a structure that allied them to the Primitive. On these the name of Tr^ansi^ tion, or Intermediate, was conferred. There were thus founded four principal divisions of rocks, Primary, Transition, Secondary, and Tertiary. M. Al. de Humboldt adheres to this order in his Table of Geological Formations, which enriches the work of Baron Cuvier ; and most Continental and English geologists pursue the same system. Werner, the celebrated mineralogist of Germany, divided the formations into Primaiy and Floetz only, which latter in- cludes the Transition and Secondary. Mr. Weaver and Dr. Macculloch have adopted a similar arrangement in their clas- sification of rocks. Mr. Coneybeare, in his admirable Introduction to the Geo^ ^^Sy 9f England and Wales, makes use of another system, founded on the position of the strata and rocks, under five heads : 1 . Superior order ; 2. Supermedial order ; 3. Medial order ; 4. Sub-medial order ; 5. Inferior order. This arrange- ment has the single recommendation of being divested of all theory. The first is the Tertiary class above mentioned, or that which Werner named the Newest Floetz class ; the second is the Se- condary class, the Floetz of Werner, and the Sedimentary of others ; the third and fourth comprise the Transition, or inter- mediate class ; and the fifth the Primitive, or Primary Rocks. From its apparent want of perspicuity, this mode of classi- fication will not, probably, be so often used as the four divi- sions before adopted. Notwithstanding it is allowed that no such distinctions as primary, secondary, and tertiary absolutely exist in nature, and that there is no imperative necessity for applying such terms, it is maintained that the system is ex- tremely convenient and intelligible, and that it ought to be continued ; at all events, that we are justified in using it until some one can contrive a better. Without entering into a disquisition on the comparative 64 Introduction to Geology* merits of these systems, it appears most convenient, in the present instance, to adhere to terms long used and well under- stood ; and, in so doing, we hope to avoid perpetuating that confusion which the frequent changes of nomenclature and classification in physical science necessarily produce. We propose, therefore, in our brief sketch, as far as is consistent with the present state of geological knowledge, to conform to an arrangement hitherto generally adopted. Our enumeration of the principal classes will naturally proceed according to the order of creation or deposition. Hereafter, when we come to detail the formations, we shall probably find it advantageous to reverse that order ; and, commencing with the highest in geo- logical position, descend to the lowest of the series. ORDER OF CREATION. Primary. Primary^ or Primitive^ Rocks, as their name imports, were the first in the series of creation, the lowest in the order of position. They are conceived to have originated prior to the formation of any thing endued with life, because no traces of any organic substances, animal or vegetable, have ever been discovered in them. Their structure is crystalline, and, "in constituent principles, they appear to have remained exactly in the same situation as when they first acquired solidity." They occupy, probably, not more than a sixth part of the absolute surface of our conti- nents, but appear to form the foundation upon which all the other rocks repose. They consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, and mica slate, with horneblende, serpentine, sienite, &c., and numerous modifications of each. They contain the metallic ores, and primary limestone or statuary marble, and supply the hardest materials for roads, and the most imperishable of all stones for buildings, bridges, and other works requiring great strength and durability. In England the primitive rocks are comparatively of insig- nificant elevation, and are mostly covered with slate and other rocks of later formation. In other parts of the world they attain to vast elevations, and their height is further increased by volcanic products. Gigantic masses, like the volcanoes of Teneriffe, of the Azores, of Orozaba, and Caraccas, " insulated in the vast extent of the seas, or placed on the coasts of continents, serve as mighty sea-marks for the pilot, when he is unable to determine the position of his vessel by observation of the stars." The Peak of Teneriffe, for instance, " furnishes a direction to the ma- i^iner in a circuit of more than 260 leagues, and the eye takes Introductioii to Geology. 65 in, in calm weather, from the summit of the Piton, a surface of the globe of 5700 square leagues, equal to one fourth of the surface of Spain." Our section {Jig. 14.), on the authority of Messrs. Coney- beare and Phillips, represents part of the primary district of Cornwall. PyfVgeneous Forinations, Basaltic Rocks, Trap, and Porphyritic Rocks, of supposed igneous origin, and of various degrees of antiquity, are asso- ciated alike with the transition and primary, and often mate- rially influence the position of the most recent deposits. They are unconformable and unstratified, appearing sometimes in the form of outlying masses, sometimes as dykes, traversing and intersecting numerous rocks, and occasionally forming beds or masses, which alternate with other formations. They often cap the summits of the primitive mountains ; and, on the Andes, vast masses of porphyry and basalt are described by Hum- boldt as " arranged in the form of regular and immense columns, which strike the eye of the traveller, like the ruins of enormous castles lifted into the air." No organic remains have been decidedly found in these rocks. Basaltic dikes impede the progress of the miner, dis- turb the position of the coal measures, alter the nature and structure of the adjacent rocks, and penetrate sometimes into higher formations, even through the chalk. Columnar basalt has long excited the wonder even of those for whom natural science has few charms. The magnificent specimens in the north of Ire- land and in the Western Islands of Scotland are of this class. The beds of toadstone and whinstone of Derbyshire, and the whinsill of Northumberland, are evidently rocks of the basaltic series. Under this head the accumulations of volcanic matter, of all ages, seem to be properly referable. Transition. Transition, or Intermediate, is that order of rocks which approximates, both in geological position and in mineralogical character, to the primary. They all bear traces of organic remains ; some sparingly, others, particularly the limestones. Vol. III. — No. 11. f 66 Introduction to Geology. very abundantly. Some of them are of mechanical origin, or are composed of fragments which previously existed in a dif- ferent state. They are more widely extended than the pri- mitive rocks, and are " the repositories of the most useful treasures of the mineral kingdom." They are stratified ; their beds are commonly highly inclined, dipping in all directions, and abounding in singular contortions. Geologists differ as to the number of rocks which, with propriety, belong to this section. It is agreed to admit roofing slate, slate clay, or shale, transition limestone, and greywacke. Mr. Bakewell adds the old red sandstone, as belonging to the greywacke series : he also includes the mountain limestone, as an upper portion of the transition limestone. The first two are included in Mr. Coneybeare's carboniferous order. Nearly the whole of Wales is composed of this series, and, in Caernarvonshire, it attains an elevation of more than 3500 ft. Secondary, The Secondary Rocks comprise a very numerous order, abounding in extraneous fossils. These remains are, strictly speaking, lapidified, and are generally penetrated with the stony matter of their matrix ; often, however, in a finer form, so as to admit a crystalline arrangement of its particles. This observation is derived from Mr. Coneybeare, in drawing a distinction between the tertiary or superior order, where, in England at least, this change has not been so effected. Rocks of this order " supply mankind with those important neces- saries of life, coal, iron, lead, rock-salt, &c. ; besides the less valuable articles, marble, freestone, lime, gypsum, plumbago." Secondary rocks are distinctly stratified. On the Continent these formations attain a much greater elevation than in Britain. They occupy the summits of the Pyrenees, and form the upper part of the northern chain of the Alps, where they rise to the height of 7000 or 8000 feet. In the present imperfect state of our acquaintance with the geology of the globe, it is not practicable to ascertain the exact comparative areas occupied by the great divisions of rocks, but it is computed that the secondary and tertiary beds cover two thirds of the land. In consequence of some peculiar characters in the lower members of this order, and for the purpose of more convenient classification, most geologists have subdivided the series. The Lower Series comprises the coal measures, millstone, grit, and shale, the mountain limestone, and the old red sand- stone. These formations are often highly inclined, and abound in contortions, curvatures, and faults, denoting the influence Introduction to Geology. 67 of som^ disturbing force which was not extended into the upper series. The products of the lower section are by far the most vahiable in the entire system of rocks. There appears considerable difficulty in admitting the sepa- ration of the transition and secondary orders at the point assigned by some writers ; that is, between the mountain lime- stone and the coal measures. The former conforms so com- pletely to the disposition of the beds of the latter, that it really seems impossible to view them but as parts of one great clas^. Neither is the argument founded on the " truly remarkable difference in the nature of the organic remains," in the coal and limestone formations, wholly free from objection ; because the genus Producta is common to the mountain limestone, the shale, and the argillaceous iron ore between the coal seams, in frequent cases, particularly in the great South Wales basin. The parallelism, inclination, and curvature of the beds of old red sandstone, are so conformable, also, to those of most coal fields, that it seems equally difficult to separate them there. (See figs. 107. 114. and 1 1 7. Vol. I.) On the other hand, it is urged that the mountain limestone is allied to, if not identical with, the acknowledged transition limestone, and that the " old red sandstone possesses all the mineral characters of greywacke except the colour ; " and Mr. Coneybeare admits that, in many instances, " the limits between this series and that of transition rocks, can only be arbitrarily assigned ; " and fur- ther, that " at least ten characters will be found in common between them, for one which would lead to an opposite ar- rangement." So many circumstances, geographical as well as geological, concur to associate these formations, that it appears desirable so to treat them ; and it then remains to be determined whe- ther such associated formations should be transferred to the transition class, or remain the lowest section of the secondary. In the unsettled state of the controversy, we incline to the latter ; and conceive that we should more effectually extricate ourselves from theory, by adopting the alternative offered in Mr. Coneybeare's arrangement, under the characteristic appel- lation of the carhoniferous order. F 2 68 Introduction to Geology. The preceding sketch {figAB.) from Dr. Buckland, from Section B. of the formations near Appleby, exhibits this series partly resting upon vertical beds of greywacke. The Uppe7^ Series consists of all the formations between the coal and the chalk, as will be hereafter detailed. These rocks seldom incline considerably in this country, like the precedmg class. The directions, or lines of bearing, of the English strata stretch in an irregularly parallel direction across the island, from the south-west to the north-east. As these beds rise to the north-west, their uplifted edges are often abrupt, forming escarpments. The oolite limestone and the chalk furnish the boldest examples of these outcrops, while the clays and soft strata form intermediate valleys and low plains. See the sec- tion {fig. 16.) of the principal secondary formations in the midland counties. 16 Tertia7y. Tertiary Class. — After the consolidation of the chalk, it is apparent that its surface was subjected to the violent oper- ations of mighty waters, which occasioned the partial removal or destruction of that formation ; and there are indications of a long interval of time between the deposition of the chalk and the succeeding strata. Their organic remains are very different, and the other characters of this series are also dis- similar. All these circumstances, announcing an important geological epoch, are sufficiently remarkable to suggest an arrangement of the beds above the chalk, under the separate class of Tertiary Fm^mations. It is well observed by Professor Sedgewick, that " the Eng- lish formations which rest immediately upon the chalk belong to a distinct epoch in the natural history of the earth ; for they are not coextensive with, nor always conformable to, the beds by which they are supported, but rather resemble materials which have been mechanically drifted into the deep depressions or water-worn denudations of the older rocks. They are, therefore, generally limited to the extent of certain preexist- ing inequalities in the surface of the globe. Introduction to Geology, 69 " Deposits originating in the way we have described must necessarily be of variable thickness, and liable to every possible modification from the action of mere local causes. Any useful classification of their component beds would, perhaps, never have been effected, had not the organic remains, preserved in them, exhibited an extraordinary uniformity of character and arrangement. An accurate examination of these spoils has, therefore, supplied us with the means of establishing analogies between phenomena which otherwise must have appeared en- tirely unconnected." These deposits seldom appear consolidated in the form of rocks, but generally consist of varieties of clay, marl, and sand, with occasional concretionary masses. In this section also occur two or three alternations of fresh-water or lacustrine beds; that is, of deposits, which, from the numerous shells they contain, resembling the Testacea of lakes and rivers, are judged to have originated in fresh water. In Bavaria they are stated to contain perfect beds of coal and iron-stone. In France this class seems to have been carried somewhat higher than in the English series. The latter comprises the plastic clay and its accompanying sands, the London clay, the upper marine or mixed formation of the Isle of Wight interposed between the fresh-water strata, the shelly crag of Suffolk and Norfolk ; and, above all these, particularly in the south-east and eastern counties, appears a vast irregular accumulation of debris, or water-worn and transported fragments of all the preceding formations, known by the name of diluvium. Dr. Buckland noticed the remarkable occurrence of insu- lated portions of tertiary strata on the summits of the Savoy Alps, at elevations of more than 10,000 ft. above the level of the sea ; and the observations of geologists have now fully de- termined the fact, that tertiary formations exist in every quarter of the globe, and differ in few essential respects from those in this country. 17 HIgli Down. Horizontal Strata. fertfcaJ Strata of Alum Bay, Isle of fiiglit. We have selected an illustrative section of the western ex- tremity of the Isle of Wight (Ji^, 17.)j where the entire series F 3 70 Introduction to Geology. of tertiary strata are developed under tlie most interesting circumstances. The present is not the time or place for ad- verting more particularly to the extraordinary local disturbance by which so many of the superior formations have acquired a vertical position. General Observations on the Strata "which contain Organic Remains, The word Formation is understood to apply to certain groups of strata which have been associated together for the sake of ready and simple classification, and of avoiding the perplexity otherwise arising from their numerous subordinate beds. But for this comprehensive arrangement, it would be difficult to distinguish, with sufficient precision, the separate members of the secondary strata. As each formation is, in general, made up of several members, so also the latter are composed of an infinite number of beds ; and those beds, again, of innumerable finer lamina : but the whole series being found to possess some common character, some obvious relations, or some general similarity in organic accompaniments or circumstances of po- sition, they are appropriately classed under one common deno- mination. In this country these names are chiefly derived from some predominant quality or structure; as the green or chloritic sand, ferruginous sands, red sandstone, magnesian or dolomitic limestone, gault, clunch, and oolites. To some of these de- scriptive titles others have been superadded, which are derived from certain localities where these formations are best de- veloped; such as the Folkstone marl. Weald clay, Oxford clay, Hastings sands, Woburn sands, and Shanklin sands. Others are wholly derived from localities ; as the London clay, Kimmeridge clay, Portland limestone, Petworth marble. Forest marble, &c. As the formations comprehend many inferior beds, it must often occur that they contain some whose mineralogical cha- racters differ materially from those imported by their names. For this reason a nomenclature derived from characters not universal must be considered defective. Of this class is what is termed the plastic clay formation, which chiefly consists of sand. The Weald clay contains thick beds of sand, with lime- stone and fresh-water marbles. We may add also the clays and limestones of the ferruginous sands, the Kelloways rock, the Oxford clay, &c. The practical geologist is often led to perceive frequent transitions and modifications in the structure of the same beds ; the clays often changing to indurated argillaceous rocks, shales, Introduction to Geology, 71 and schists, or to beds of sand ; while the sandstones, losing their cohesion, become siliceous clays, or friable sands; the sands pass into chert, and the gravel into breccia, or conglo- merates. Of this changeful property the red marl, or red sandstone formation, is an instance. The lias, the cornbrash, and the ferruginous sands, afford numerous examples of a similar tendency. It must not be inferred that these deposits, to which we shall hereafter more specifically advert, present an absolute uni- formity of character in every part of the world, or even that they can be at all times satisfactorily identified at remote points. Modifications of those characters by which they are best distinguished within the limited area of our island, enor- mous expansions in some cases, the introduction or the absence of certain beds or members in others, increase the difficulty of the investigation. At such times the observer has recourse to the organic remains, as a frequent means of removing his doubts when most other circumstances are equivocal. Such is the diversity observable in the composition and external features of the secondary formations, that the study of this division is infinitely more attractive, and in its results more singular than that of the primary order, and its mineral products. " The knowledge of these substances, which is the ultimate object of the mere mineralogist, is to the geologist only a subordinate acquisition, and forms but the alphabet by which he endeavours to decipher the chapter of nature which he studies. Hence the rarer varieties which, in the estimation of the mineralogist, possess the highest interest, will, in the eyes of the geologist, attract the least regard." There is little doubt that the advances which have been made in the developement of the secondary strata have been mainly owing to the high interest which their extraneous fossils have excited. A powerful stimulus has also been derived from the writings of the celebrated French naturalist. Baron Cuvier, whose discoveries have thrown a charm over this branch of science, and strewed the path of all succeeding geologists with flowers. "This study is rendered interesting," he observes, "by the variety of productions of parti^-lor general revolutions which it affords, and by the abundance of the different species which alternately offer themselves to view ; it neither has that dull monotony which attaches to the study of the primitive formations, nor does it force us, like the latter, almost neces- sarily into hypotheses. The facts with which it is conversant are so })rominent, so curious, and so obvious, that they may suffice to occupy the most ardent imagination ; and the con- F 4 72 Introduction to Geology. elusions which they afford from time to time, even to the most cautious observer, have nothing vague or arbitrary in their nature. Finally, by the careful investigation of these events, which approach, as it were, to the history of our own race, we may hope to be able to discover some traces of more ancient events and their causes; if, after so many abortive attempts already made on the same subject, we may yet flatter ourselves with that hope." From the commencement of his investigation, the observer is struck with the numerous proofs of the altered state of our globe, and with the extensive distribution of the fossil remains. Not in one particular spot, not in one region, not in one quarter of the globe alone: but wherever the strata have been explored; in the greatest subterranean depths, in the bowels of moun- tains, in situations far remote from the sea, and on heights vastly above its level, these wonderful relics are deposited. In almost every part of the world, the same phenomena are exhibited, constituting durable monuments to mark the revolu- tions upon our planet. As the enquiry proceeds, it is perceived that the species of fossil animals, and even many genera, differ totally from the animals that now inhabit the earth. In the order of fossil Testacea, appertaining to the English form- ations, more than 1300 species have been named and described by Messrs. Sowerby and other naturalists ; but it is probable that at least nine tenths differ materially from the recent species. On the Continent, M. Lamarck has produced a list, and specified the distinguishing characters of about 720 spe- cies of fossil shells. Messrs. Cuvier and Brongniart enumerate more than 600 species of marine shells in the calcaire grossier of the environs of Paris, by far the greater number of which are unknown in a recent state. By means of the fossils in this order of rocks, we are fur- nished with unanswerable evidence of the antiquity of our globe, and we can form some vague notions of the vast series of years which must have elapsed during the formation of such a multitude of deposits, and even of the subordinate parts of any one formation ; for instance, those of the London clay, or calcaire grossier. These were evidently deposited slowly, and in a tranquil sea, since the fossils are found in regular beds, and in perfect preservation. It also appears that, after some species were deposited, they wholly disappeared, and gave place to others. All these facts indicate a long series of generations of marine animals. Now, in comparing these phenomena with what takes place in our seas, it does not appear that any similar depositions, to any material amount, are proceeding. Introduction to Geology, 73 " Solid beds," observe Messrs. Cuvier and Brongniart, " are no longer formed, in any magnitude, in our present seas, and the species of shells are always the same in the same parts of the sea. For example, since they fished for oysters upon the coast of Cancale, for pearls in the Gulf of Persia, &c., it is not seen that these sliells have disappeared, to be replaced by other species. From researches, made by one of us, it appears that, during near 2000 years, the bottom of those seas has not been changed ; that it has not been covered with any new bed ; and that the species of shells, which were fished then, live and are fished even at the present day." It has been stated, that one of the most useful discoveries resulting from the investigation of the secondary strata is that universally prevailing rule, that similar strata contain similar extraneous fossils. However curious these remains might be before considered, as memorials of extinct tribes and of mighty changes, they became more valuable to the geologist when he had ascertained that certain organic remains were peculiar to certain formations, and that these bodies furnished him with data by which to trace and to determine the identity of such formations in remote parts of the world. Experience has fully proved that these characteristics are infinitely more to be re- lied on than any with which we are acquainted. Chemical or mineralogical distinctions are far from universal : they are often modified, and sometimes wholly changed, even in limited areas ; their practical application for geological tests has been repeatedly found delusive. Not so the extraneous fossils : the same genera of vegetables and Testacea, for instance, which characterise the carboniferous limestones and shales of the English coal fields, may be observed in similar formations at Spitzbergen, in numerous parts of the European continent, in North America and Van Dieman's Land. The Trilobite of our transition limestone occurs in France, in North America, and other remote localities ; and the fossils of the transition slate of Wales are repeated in Germany, in France, Colom- bia, New York, Pennsylvania, and near Lake Oneida. All the observations of scientific travellers tend to confirm this important law. By its aid we are enabled to construct geological maps with perfect precision. Those which have been compiled by Messrs. Smith, Greenough, Farey, Buck- land, Webster, Weaver, and other geologists of well-known reputation, owe their accuracy mainly to the observance of this principle. Geological surveys have now been made nearly over the whole of our island. District' surveys have frequently delineated the superficial boundaries of the formations, with as much precision as the direction of our roads and rivers. Some J4 Introduction to Geology, of the geological county maps and sections of Mr. Wm. Smith, published since his great map, are particularly elaborate, and are locally useful in unravelling the intricacies of the more complicated districts. All these of which we have spoken have appeared within the last sixteen years, and attest the rapid progress of this department of art in our own country. In Ireland, it is understood, geological surveys are proceeding simultaneously with the trigonometrical admeasurement of that country, conducted under the direction of the Board of Ordnance. An attentive consideration of the circumstances displayed in the secondary deposits seems to lead us to the natural infer- ence that the earth has been subjected to more frequent revo- lutions, since the creation of organic beings than previously to that era. We are chiefly conducted to this conclusion by the immense variety of strata, by the peculiarities of their position, and by the remarkable fact of the extinction of certain genera and species of animals, the succession of new races in more recent beds, and the alternation of strata containing marine, terrestrial, and fresh-water or lacustrine productions, all indi- cating a vast series of geological epochs. To this fact various other concurrent phenomena bear testimony. Among them may be included the oft-recurring instances both of partial and general disruption, in this division of rocks. Sometimes a single formation, or a series of formations, appear to have been sub- jected to the disturbing force, of which the incumbent strata exhibit no traces. This is remarkably exhibited in the Isle of Wight, where the horizontal beds of Headon Hill abut upon the vertical strata, and demonstrate that the convulsion which placed the latter in that position, took place before the formation of the superior beds. (See^^. 17.) For further instances, we refer the reader to our First Volume, figures 107. 109. and 114., which were introduced in illustration of unconformable strata. The lias and new red sandstone formations furnish abundant examples of ho- rizontal beds reposing upon highly inclined strata, all indi- cating that, at the time those strata were so displaced, the higher formations had not been deposited. Sometimes the strata appear to have sunk down ; others have been lifted to considerable elevations, and fragments have lodged on the summits of distant mountains. We have seen elsewhere, in the instance of the Weald of Kent, that enormous excavations have been made, that some of the superior formations have been wholly removed from that area, and the interior beds denuded, (figs. 127. to ISO.) We have also seen (figs. 108, 109. 117.) that certain isolated portions form outliers, capping the sum- Introduction to Geology\ US mits of hills, and remain solitary remnants of strata once con- tinuous, and interesting memorials of past revolutions. Among other proofs of the recurrence of such revolutions, in an earlier state of the globe, maybe classed those breccious rocks and conglomerates which are composed of the fragments that originally occupied, or yet partially occupy, remote situ- ations. The effects of a destructive power, as exhibited in the abruption of escarpments and the excavation of defiles, are also manifested by the reproduction of new rocks from the debris ; and it has been further remarked, that these conglo- merate rocks bear marks of a similar destructive agency, occurring at some period subsequent to their consolidation. The tertiary formations also exhibit proofs of similar cata- strophes, in the alternation of marine and fresh-water strata, and in the mingled accumulations of animal and vegetable remains derived both from the sea and the land. " Life, therefore," observes M. Cuvier, " has been often disturbed on this earth by terrible events : calamities which, at their com- mencement, have, perhaps, moved and overturned, to a great depth, the entire outer crust of the globe ; but which, since these first commotions, have uniformly acted at a less depth, and less generally. Numberless living beings have been the victims of these catastrophes; some have been destroyed by sudden inundations, others have been laid dry in consequence of the bottom of the seas being instantaneously elevated. Their races even have become extinct, and have left no me- morial of them, except some small fragments which the natu- ralist can scarcely recognise. Such are the conclusions which necessarily result from the objects that we meet with at every step of our enquiry, and which we can always verify from examples drawn from almost every country. Every part of the globe bears the impress of these great and terrible events so distinctly, that they must be visible to all who are qualified to read their history in the remains which they have left behind." JDiluvium, Over a large portion of the surface of our island, particu- larly towards the south and east, is spread a covering com- posed of the fragments of rocks, clay, sandstones, and chalk ; which debris, or broken portions, were evidently brought thither, and were irregularly accumulated, by means of pro- digious currents which swept over the face of the earth. These appearances are confirmatory of the Mosaic account of the deluge, and by such an agency alone can these phenomena be adequately accounted for. The catastrophe appears to have 76 Introduction to Geology, destroyed many races of animals, particularly the larger car- nivorous quadrupeds, that then inhabited the land, and even some inhabitants of the waters, if we judge from the extinct species which we trace in this debacle. It has been stated, that there appears ample evidence of the frequent occurrence of similar catastrophes, the consequence of inundations more or less extensive. That to which we now refer was, therefore, the last of these revolutions, and modi- fied the form of the land as we now view it. Geologists are agreed in designating the mass of transported materials, re- sulting from that event, by the term diluvial. Few deposits are so interesting to the naturalist. It contains not only the remains of those organic beings which then peopled the earth, and acquaints us with the zoology of that remote period, but it comprises portions derived from many older formations, and, on tracing these fragments to their original sites, enables us even to perceive the direction of this diluvial current. Remains of mammiferous animals have been discovered in most of the great diluvial valleys in England ; nor are they confined to these low sites, but have often been found em- bedded in the gravel of our hills. How far all deposits of this character may be affirmed to be absolutely contemporaneous must remain unsettled for a time. It can only be decided ultimately by the physical evi- dence that can be brought to bear upon the question. In the present state of our knowledge, there seems no reason to reject the distinction originally made by Dr. Buckland, between the detritus formed by the Mosaic deluge, and those deposits which accumulate from causes now in action. With respect to the thickness of diluvial matter, its greatest accumulation is probably on the coast of Norfolk where it is more than 250 ft. in thickness. Our sections (figs. 123. and 124.) represent portions of the cliffs of that county. Mr. De la Beche observed in Jamaica, that the diluvial gravel was from 200 to 300 ft. thick. In some parts of Switzerland, it is stated to he more than 600 ft. in depth . An investigation of these deposits will contribute much to our knowledge of the force and direction of diluvial currents. Mr. Farey long ago remarked, that no true theory of the earth or system of geology will ever be produced, which does not embrace a knowledge of diluvial ground equally or more intimate than that of " all the primitive and transition coun- tries in the world; because, diluvium being vastly inore spread indicates later operations on our planet, and is more within the reach of our investigations than the formation of mountains." Litroductio7i to Geology, 77 Alluvium, Alluvium is understood to designate those accumulations of earth, gravel, sand, and other loose materials which result from causes in daily operation. These materials are derived partly from diluvium, partly from the decomposition of rocks }3y the action of the elements, the wearing away of strata by torrents, the deposition of decayed vegetable matter, peat, and ooze ; from shifting sand-banks at sea, and blown sand on shore, and even from the operations of man. Of this class are the deltas which are produced by sedimentary subsidence ; and of the same character is that formed at the mouth of the Mississippi, on the most gigantic scale that our globe exhibits, from the forests of timber which have floated, during the lapse of ages, down that mighty stream. In short, it defines all deposits formed since the deluge, as distinguished from those accumulated through diluvial agency. Except under certain circumstances, such as the formation of low tracts of land at tlie mouths of great rivers, and on flat shores, the effects of alluvial operations upon the earth, as compared with the diluvial, are inconsiderable, and have pro- duced slight alteration from the remotest period. Some of these depositions contain traces of the work of man, such as rude implements, canoes, &c., and skeletons of some animals, which, in the lapse of ages, as population and cultiva- tion extended, gradually disappeared, and are now strangers to the soil of which they formerly were the principal occupants. At the same time, these animals, for the most part, belonged to a different class from those which are traced in the diluvial de- posits, and the subterranean caverns. The first class, in almost all cases, is strictly identical with existing species, under similar climates, and includes the human race. The other ani- mals either approach in resemblance to those which exist only in tropical climates, or are entirely unknown in a recent state, and are wholly unmixed with traces of man and his operations. The essential difference in these two deposits, therefore, is this : — tlnit wliilst alluvium is of comparatively modern origin, whilst it contains the remains of existing beings, among which the fossils of more ancient times are sometimes fortuitously introduced, the genuine undisturbed diluvium contains no such admixture, but the latter only. Hence the relative ages of these accumulations of detritus are fully and clearly ascer- tainable. In a recent controversy, conducted in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal^ Dr. Fleming has opposed this hypo- thesis of Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland, and refers the ex- tinction of these early quadrupeds, not to a deluge, but " to the destructive influence of the chase." 78 Introduction to Geology, Professor Sedgewick's papers in the Annals of Philosophy, on the alluvium and diluvium of the great fen district, con- tain some valuable practical information on this part of the series ; so, also, do the articles by Mr. Warburton and Mr. Lyell, on the recent fresh-water limestone in Scotland, and shell-marl in England, in the Transactions of the Geological Society; and Dr. Buckland's paper on the alluvial products in the basins of London and Hampshire. The influence of the wind in accumulating sand, has been treated on in some articles in the Philosophical Magazine for 1827. On the mar- gins of our coasts, this process is not without its uses, and long ranges of sand-hills, elevated by this means, protect the coun- try from the encroachments of the sea. Occasionally, however, it threatens to encroach upon the land. Mr. Hawkins men- tions, in vol. iii. of the Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, that many thousand acres have been covered with sea-sand on the northern coast of Cornwall. " The particles of this sand have been wafted thither by the north-westerly winds, which blow with such force on that side of the county ; and this deluge of sand is said to be progressively extend:|.ig. The medium of its transportation is supposed to be the salt spray, which, in stormy weather, is known to be wafted to a great distance. The sand consists chiefly of very finely com- minuted shells, which, when once deposited by these natural air-balloons on the higher grounds, are continually drifted to leeward." We have thus taken a rapid survey of the principal divi- sions into which the rocks, strata, and deposits, from the earliest to the latest, are usually arranged. They comprehend by far the greatest part of all that are known on the globe. On looking at the small space which our island occupies, and comparing the enormous expansion of these formations on our continents, we cannot but regard it as a circumstance of singular geological interest, that England should thus pre- sent, within so limited an area, such an epitome of the globe. In some points, the whole series of the strata, from the chalk to the coal formation, may be crossed within the space of twenty miles ; and the distance from the chalk hills of Dorset- shire, and the granitic range of Dartmoor, is scarcely fifty miles. Certainly, few countries in the world offer so many facilities for studying the science of geology as our own. 7sr PART 11. REVIEWS. Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Natural History f lately published, with some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British Naturalists. Britain. Transactions of the Plinian Society. Session 1828-9. Edin. 8vo, pp. 40. We have already (Vol. I. p. 291.) given some account of the origin and intention of this Society ; and having from time to time been favoured with papers read before it, we have only to express our satisfaction at the evidence of prosperity afforded by the present publication. None of the papers read before the Society are printed at length in their Transactions ; but abstracts are always given, in the very judicious and useful manner adopted by the Geological Society of London. Rhind, William, Member of the Royal Medical and Royal Physical Societies of Edinburgh : Studies in Natural History ; exhibiting a Popular View of the most striking and interesting Objects of the Material World. Ulus- . trated by ten engravings. Edinburgh. Small 8vo. 6*. This work is got up, no doubt, with the best intentions ; it might perhaps have passed for something thirty years ago, but it is far from coming up to the taste and science of the present day. Fourteen sections treat of nature generally, reproductive powers, geology, the atmosphere, rain, &c., an autumn day, vegetables, birds, the ocean, insects, bees and ants, winter, man, and the city and country. The first section commences with the fol- lowing sentence. " If we could suppose a human being in the full posses- sion of all his faculties, and in the maturity of his judgment, led to an eminence, and for the first time made to behold the earth and the sky, the waving trees, sparkling waters, green meadows, and the happy sporting of birds and animals, what would be his expressions of wonder, delight, and admiration ! " Would it be too much to say that this is most un- scientific ? What would be the value or the extent of the man's wonder or admiration, who saw for the first time things with the nature of which he was unacquainted ? It is only by a knowledge of nature intimately and in detail, that we can admire rationally ; the " expressions of wonder," of ignorance, afford but a momentary gratification, because they cannot reach further than the senses. In the concluding section, on the City and the Country, it is said, " Compare the mild, peaceful, rosy-faced rustic, sitting by his door after the summer day's labour is over, fondling his little ones on his knee, to the pallid, fierce-looking, and turbulent frequenter of the city gin-shop, or the ragged and demoralised inhabitants of the close and crowded alley." It is too late in the day for this sort of sentimentalism ; the comparison would not be fair, unless it were made between persons of equal education and equal command of the necessaries of life, in which case, we can assert from observation, that ^he inhabitant of the " closte and 80 Lih^ary of Entertaining Knotscledge, crowded alley," who spends a part of two or three evenings a week with his equals or friends, reading the newspapers and talking over the news of the day, in the " city gin-shop," or ale-house, will be as superior a being to the " peaceful, rosy-faced rustic, with his little ones on his knee," as a gen- tleman of fashion will be to a fox-hunting country squire who never comes to town and who belongs to no club. At page 180., mention is made, on the authority of Mr. Bell, of an insect called leather-coat-jack, which will bear heavy carriage wheels to drive over it without sustaining injury. We should like to have some particulars of this insect ; we suspect the author is confounding a story told by Mr. Bell in his Anatomy of Expression^ respecting a human being of extraordinary muscular powers, with some other story which he has heard respecting insects. We are sorry to seem to be severe on the production of a writer who evi- dently means well ; but it is because we wish to put him in the way of doing better. The British Naturalist. London. 12mo. This is a clever, eloquent, and in several respects an original work. We have sent it to a reviewer who will do it justice in an early Number. The lAhrary of Entertaining Knowledge, published under the Superintend- ence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London. 12mo. Parts, 2s. each. We have formerly (Vol. II. p. 188.) spoken favourably of the commence- ment of this work, and have now before us five additional parts completing the third volume. Vol. i. part ii. is the continuation of the menageries, equally deserving of commendation with parti. Vol.ii. parti, treats of vegetable substances used in the arts and in domestic economy, commencing with timber trees. This, as it could not well otherwise be, is a compilation chiefly from Miller's Dictionary ; it is on the whole tolerably accurate, though not without a few errors and omissions. For instance, at p. 11 1 ., the True Service is said to be a native of the south of Europe, generally cultivated here as a shrub ; and at the same time we are told that the people of Kamtschatka use the fruit as food, and that in some parts of the north a spirit is distilled from it. This error proceeds from confounding the Mountain Ash with the True Service. Vol. ii. part ii. treats of fruits. The author, or rather the compiler, obviously knows little about the sub- ject practically, otherwise he would never have admitted such a passage as the following : — " To the facility of multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension of the sorts of apple, probably from one common stock. The varieties at present known are considerably more than a thousand." From the last sentence we gather, that by extension of the sorts the compiler means increase of sorts, which has nothing whatever to do with grafting, but is effected by raising from seed. Next comes the fol- lowing very inaccurate sentence : — " Of late years these varieties have been increased in a remarkable manner, by the application of the pollen of one sort to the blossom of another." Vol. iii. part i. is on the Pursuit of Knowledge under Dif&culties ,• and part vi., marked, by mistake we sup- pose, vol. iii. part i., is on Insect Architecture. The last two parts are decidedly the best ; that on insect architecture is singularly interesting and entertaining, and will unquestionably have a powerful influence in spreading a taste for- this kind of reading, and for actual observation. It is attributed to our^ correspondent Mr. Rennie, who has enriched it with many original observations marked with his initials. When part ii. appears we shall re- view it at length, and further remarks on " Fruits " and " Timber trees " will be found in No. xxiv. Gard. Mag. Utet'ary Notices. 81 The Young Lady's Book: a Manual of el^ant Recreations, Exercises, and Pursuits, London. 12mo. We notice this work because it contains some well-written and beautifully illustrated introductions to mineralogy, conchology, entomology, botany, and ornithology. From such introductions in such a book, we anticipate a powerful stimulus to the study of natural history among that sex and class for whom such studies ai'e in a particular manner adapted. It is not in our line to notice the other parts of the work, farther than to state that they appear equally well executed, and that the engravings are most exquisite, both in design and in execution. If we were to find any fault, it would be with the fanciful initial letters to the chapters, which are not at all so clear and obvious as they ought to be. The silk binding and lace pap» are beyond our praise. Every mother who has young daughters, and can spare a guinea, will not be sony for having exchanged it for a copy of The Young Lady's Book. The Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society delineated ; being Descriptions and Figures in Illustration of the Natural History of the living Animals in the Society's Collection. In Monthly Parts, 2^. Qd. each. Nos. I. to III. have appeared. " At the request of the Council of the Zoological Society, the secretary, N. A. Vigors, Esq., has in the kindest manner consented to charge himself with the task of superintending the execution of every department of the work. The descriptions and anecdotes in illustration of the natural history of the animals represented will be furnished by E. T. Bennett, Esq., the vice-secretary. The whole of the drawings will be made by Mr. William Harvey, who has already given so many proofs of his talent in this depart- ment of his art ; and the engravers, Messrs. Branston and Wright, will exert their utmost skill to do justice to the efforts of his pencil. The num- ber of animals figured in each will vary in some degree with the interest of the subjects, and the extent of the letter-press required for their illustration ; the average however will be about twelve. In addition to these cuts, most of the articles will be followed by appropriate vignettes, which will in many instances be devoted to the scenery of the gardens ; but will more fre- quently be drawn from the taste and imagination of the artist." From the above extract our readers will infer that this work is of the highest authority, and we can assure them that the engravings have never been surpassed in beauty ; if they have ever been equalled, it is in the Tower Menagerie (Vol. II. p. 50.), and in the The Young Lady's Book. The compositions presented as vignettes are exquisite in their kind, and even the letter-press is very superior. Art. II. Literary Notices, On the 21st of January will be published, dedicated, by permission, to the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company, the first num- ber, in folio, with ten coloured plates, of Illustrations of Indian Zoology y consisting of coloured figures of Indian animals, unknown or not yet pub- lished; from the collection of Major-General Hardwicke, F.R.S. and L.S. M.R.A.S. M.R.LA. &c., selected and arranged by S. E. Gray, Esq. F.G.S. F.R.S.L. A Life of our great Naturalist Ray is in preparation, by Mr, G. W. John- son, of Great Totham, Essex. Vol. vi. of Curtis' s^n^A Entomology will be ready in the course of the month. Vol. III. —No.il. ~ g 82 PART III. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. Art. I, Calendar of Nature. Scotland. Diagram, showing the Motion of the Mercury in the Barometer and Ther- mometer, and the Dew Point, or the Mean of each, for every Ten Days in October and November ; also the Depth of Rain in the Pluviometer, and the Quantity of Moisture evaporated in the Evaporating Gauge, for the same Period ; as extracted from the Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perth- shire, N. lat. 56°23^', above the level of the sea 172 ft., and 15 miles from the coast, being the mean of daily observations at 10 o'clock morn- ing and 10 o'clock evening. 18 1 I 1 Rain Gauge and Index of Thermometer and 2 rt Barometer. o. 1 2 o M a ^ z 2& — ■ r — ^ ^1 : \ — i ■?> " 1 J — Sn j 29 ! ' — •; ooo o i o 6 ,? o i , o 40 n : - 2Sj o , 8 d >oo- ■ o O O o Ot)( n nnrin n 3o. .. 1 27 S < S« '' ^0 3i 10 ZO 30 2 i > o 0< ;t October. '■ November. Nc r. Calendar ofKahirf, 83 To avoid repetition in describing the lines on the preceding diagram, we must refer to Vol. II. p* 478* The mean temperature in October this year was 46" ; and in November, 39'8°. In turning back to p. 94. Vol. II., it will be observed that the temperature in October last year was 4*5°, and in No- vember 4'3°, higher than in the corresponding month this season. The depth of rain in October this year amounted to 2*25 in., and in November to 2'5 in., being nearly half an inch less than fell during the same period last season ; and this difference of temperature has been accompanied with cor- responding effects on the progress of vegetation. The last day of October was the coldest : mean temperature of that day 39° ; extreme cold 35° ; wind N. The warmest day in that month was the 1 1th : mean temperature of that day 34'5" ; extreme heat 59° ; wind W. The coldest day in November was the 18th: mean temperature of that day 33*5°; extreme cold 28° ; wind N. The warmest day in that month was on the 3d : mean temperature of that day 48*5° ; extreme heat 52° : wind W. The mercury in the barometer was highest on the 28th of October, being 29*85 in. ; and lowest on the 21st, being 28*72 in. In November the mercury in the baro- meter was highest on the 19th : height 29*78 in. ; and lowest on the 4th, being 28*70 in. The wind is invariably in the east or north-east when the mer- curial column rises highest ; and frequently in the west and south-west when it is most depressed. In October there were only 3 days of brilliant, and 12 days of partial, sunshine ; 16 days were cloudy. Rain fell on 9 days, and 22 days were fair. In November there were 9 days of brilliant sunshine, and 3 partial sunshine ; 18 were cloudy ; and on 10 of these days rain fell. There were loud gales of wind on the 5th, 6th, 8th, 10th, Uth, and 14th of October ; and brisk gales on the 13th and 25th of November. Th& rains in the early months of autumn produced a continued evapo- ration, which cooled the earth's surface to that degree, that it prevented wheat from giving a braird in the same • time, under the same temperature m the air, as last year. On the 7th of October the Grampian Hills were covered with a slight fleece of snow, and a few flocks of wild geese were seen arriving from the northern coasts to the Low Carse. Wheat that was sown on the 1st appeared above ground on the 18th : mean temperature of that period 47*3°. It will be seen at Vol. II. p. 96., that wheat gave a braird in 13 days in October last year, under a mean temperatm'e of 52°. Flocks of fieldfares appeared in the Carse of Gowrie on the 26th. The flowers of the yi''rbutus t/'nedo began to open on the 1 2th, and the plants were in full blow by the 28th. The harvest last season " was secured on the highest grounds, which form the north bank of the Carse of Gowrie, by the 22d of September." (Vol. II. p. 96.) It was the 6th day of October this year that the fields were clear on the same grounds, 15 days later. At the beginning of November, forest trees exhibited the " sear and yellow leaf," but few had parted from the tree. The frequent loud winds to which they had been exposed throughout the autumn months, had partly strength- ened that part which attaches the leaf to the shoot ; and the low tempera- ture retarded the ripening of the young wood : about a third part fell on the forenoon of the 9th, after a severe hoar frost on the morning of that day ; on the 18th and 19th, a keen frost completed the work of denudation on beech, birch, ash, maple, &c. ; but young oaks, and many varieties of apple and plum trees on standards, still retain about a fourth part of their foliage, an unfa- voura,ble symptom for the crop of fruit or acorns next year. On the 18th georginas, Indian shot, love-apples, &c., were destroyed by a temperature of 28°. The Chinese primrose withstood the early shock in the open border, and also the early red Indian chrysanthemum, both of which are now in flower in the open air. Below or at 40° mean temperature, vegetation makes very slow and imperceptible progress. Wheat which was sown this year on the 24th of October, only gave a braird on the 22d of November, a period of 29 davs ; mean temperature of that period 41*2'' : and wheat that G 2 ^4 Retrospective Criticism. was sown on the 29th of October, on the same day, and on a contiguous field, as reported from last year, where a braird was obtained in 19 days, under a temperature of 44° (Vol. II. p. 97.), has not yet appeared above ground, although 1 1 days more have elapsed ; the mean temperature of the period being 39*8°. Such is the variable climate of Scotland, and such are the effects of four degrees of diminished temperature on vegetation, when it ap- proaches that point at which vegetation stands still. — A. G. A^ov. 30. Art. II. Retrospective Criticism. The Journal of a Naturalist has already been reviewed in the pages of your Magazine ; it would be superfluous, there- fore, to submit it to a fresh analysis. As the first impression, however, seems to have met with an unusually ready and rapid sale, I may be allowed, perhaps, briefly to notice the second edition, which the public has had the good taste thus early to call for. It is no wonder the work has found so favourable a reception, for a more pleasing little volume, re- lating to what may be termed the popular study of natural history^ has seldom issued from the press. It is calculated to afford pleasure to the most experienced observer, by pre- senting to his mind, in an agreeable form, objects with which, perhaps, he may be already familiar, and to lure the inex- perienced to the like pursuits, and enlist them among the lovers of nature. If our author wants the merit of originality justly due to Gilbert White, his volume, nevertheless, is not unworthy of occupying a permanent place on the same shelf with that of the historian of Selborne. There is withal such an admirable tone of good feeling pervading every page of the book, from beginning to end, that it was not without sur- prise, not without something like indignation, that I read the severe and unmerited censure passed upon the writer by the reviewer. Vol. II. p. 1 8 1 . of your Magazine. There are some critics, however, who seem to think that they do not well fulfil the functions of their office, unless they inflict a certain degree of chastisement on every unlucky author who comes under their clutches. Accordingly, the reviewer falls foul of our author, who, if he be not an errant hypocrite, must be an amiable and kind-hearted man, and accuses him — of what? why, of " utter insensibility to the misery he descrihes^^ viz. of the poor ; and, moreover, attributes this want of feeling to " a habit of enjoying his own ease, without thinking of others ; and. of looking upon the poor (^perhaps unconsciously to himself) as an inferior race of beings.^' On referring to the original passage of the Journal, I confess, I really can see nothing in it to call forth such seve- rity : and the author himself too (who, in all probability, must have seen this piece of criticism), we may conclude, is of the Retrospective Criticism. 85 same opinion ; for he has had the hardihood to reprint the passage, word for word, in his second edition, (p. 15, 16.) I rejoice that he has done so, as it aiFords a fair presumption that, on mature consideration, he is not conscious that the charge is just. The case appears to be this: he is giving us a plain state- ment of the employment and occupations of the poor in his dis- trict; and after mentioning the demand for labour arising from the limekilns, the cultivation of the potato, the teasel, and the harvest in general, he concludes with the breaking of the limestone for the roads. " Then comes our employment for this dark season of the year (winter), the breaking of the lime- stone for the use of the roads, of which we afford a large supply to less favoured districts. This material is not to be sought for in distant places, or of difficult attainment, but to be found almost at the very doors of the cottages, &c., and there is a constant demand for the article." At this work, he tells us, " a man, his wife, and two tolerably sized children, can obtain from 2^. Sd. to Ss. per day, the greater part of the winter." Now it appears to me that he is here describing the employment and earnings of the poor at the worst of times, and under the least favourable circumstances ; and if his ac- count be correct (and we have no reason to doubt it), it is clear the poor in this district, though not, of course, exempt from many of the ordinary and unavoidable evils of poverty, are yet better off, having more regular employment and a greater cer- tainty of the means of subsistence, than the poor in many other parts of the kingdom. From the general picture pre- sented to us, they appear to be healthy, contented, and com- fortable in their stations. " Our labourers," he says, " their children, and cottages, I think, present a testimony of their well doing, by the orderly, decent conduct of the former, and the comforts of the latter." Who can wonder that this ami- able man should express some satisfaction at such a state of things ? The accusation of the reviewer strikes me as so ut- terly uncalled for and unwarrantable, that I cannot resist the inclination I feel to raise my humble voice in protestation against it. Judging of the author from a perusal of his book only, every one, I should suppose, must think well of him as a naturalist and as a man. Beyond this, I, for my part, have no knowledge of him whatever, nor am I certain even of his name ; having heard the work attributed to more than one person, with all of whom I am totally unacquainted. I have, therefore, no private or interested motiye for standing forth in his defence, but give my testimony simply from honest con- viction of the truth, quite unbiassed and unprejudiced. Besides visiting the author with unjust censure, and accus- G S 86 Retrospective Criticism. ing him of insensibility to the misery of the poor, the reviewer indulges in a strain of pert flippancy, which I cannot help thinking evinces, to say the least of it, a very bad taste. Take, for example, the very first sentence of the critique : " You have, no doubt, met with a gf^ass-green volume, of very suf- Jicing 'plumpness^ and JiourisJmig appearances^ lately produced under the title of The Journal of a Naturalist" The " grass- green" cover of cloth or canvass must be allowed to be, in point both of neatness and durability, a vast improvement on the ordinary binding in boards, as it is called. Of what exact dimensions the reviewer would have had the book, we are not informed ; in its present state, however, it is in bulk and sta- ture a very well proportioned volume. And as to its flourish- ing appearance, no author's name is displayed in the titlepage with a long train of F. L. R. A. G. H. S. &c. &c., in order, as it w^ere, to stamp the work with an " Imprimatur," and give it currency : there is no pompous, fawning dedication to some noble patron, to puff it into notice, screen its imperfections, and crave for it that support which it does not in reality de- serve ; but orphan-like, and unprotected even by the sanction of a name, the book is sent into the world to make its own way, to stand or fall by its own merits ; and it would be dif- ficult to conceive a more modest, unpretending performance. I would strongly recommend this reviewer to peruse an excel- lent little pamphlet, written in a high strain of irony, entitled, Advice to a young Reviewer ; the tract was published at Ox- ford in 1807, and is attributed (I believe justly) to Dr. Cople- ston, the present Bishop of Llandaff. I will promise him, if not some improvement in his art, at least some entertainment, from the perusal, and, I think, both. But it is time to quit the reviewer, and turn to the se- cond edition of the work itself. Instead of the bad aquatinta print of the Shellard's Lane Oak, fronting the titlepage of the first edition, we are presented, in the second^ with a neat little wood-engraving of the tree, by that excellent xylographer, Mr. Williams. This is a great improvement. The vignette, however, is not in Mr. Williams's best style ; and the reason is plain ; it is evidently copied, and copied too servilely, from the larger print, which always struck me as the worst thing in the book, wanting, as it does entirely, the characteristic features of the species, and of which the most that can be said is, that it is, perhaps, almost as much like an oak tree as any other, and almost as much like any other as an oak. The tree itself appears to be worthy of the pencil of Mr. Strutt; and had he fortunately been employed to make the sketch, and Mr. Williams afterwards to engrave the block from it, the cut would have borne somewhat more of a family like* Retrospective Criticism. 87 ness to those exquisite specimens, the joint production of these two artists, which adorn some of the early Numbers of your Magazine, and are so justly and universally admired. I have no wish, however, to find fault with subordinate parts, where there is so much reason to be satisfied with the whole. The substitution of the wooden vignette in the room of the aquatinta engraving is an exchange greatly for the better, like that effected of old, x?^^^°'' %aXx£/«;v — gold in lieu of brass. There is also one additional plate in the same style as those in the first edition, representing a new or little known species of agaric, and likewise four or five other wood-engravings. Among the latter, that which shows the singular diversity of forms in the small scales (commonly called meal or dust) which cover the wings of lepidopterous insects, opens to us a wide field of interesting enquiry. How infinite is the variety which Nature displays even in her smallest works, and where, to the eye of a common observer, the objects seem uniform and alike ! And how much closer an inspection will they bear, than the fairest works of art ! And here I would just throw out a hint for the use of the practical entomologist, and suggest, whether the examination of these minute parts under a high power of the microscope, might not possibly, in some intricate cases, be of service to- wards distinguishing species from mere varieties. Where but slight discriminating marks appear obvious between two in- sects, if it should turn out, on microscopic inspection, that the scales of the two taken from corresponding portions of the wings, are of dissimilar forms in each, the stoutest advocate for the non-multiplication of species could hardly resist such evidence of the two insects being really distinct. Besides the additional plates, there is, in the second edition, a considerable portion of fresh matter in the letter-press. Of the value of such new matter, the reader may judge by the following interesting extract, which is the only one I will make, having already extended my remarks to a much greater length than I at first anticipated. " Rural sounds," observes the author, " the voices, the lan- guage of the wild creatures, as heard by the naturalist, belong to, and are in concord with, the country only* Our sight, our smell, may, perhaps, be deceived for an interval by con- servatories, horticultural arts, and bowers of sweets ; but our hearing can in no way be beguiled by any semblance of what is heard in the grove or the field. The hum, the murmur, the medley of the mead, is peculiarly its own, admits of no imitation; and the voices of our birds convey particular intima^ tion, and distinctly notify the various periods of the year, with G 4 88 Retrospective Criticism. an accuracy as certain as they are detailed in our calendars. The season of spring is always announced as approaching by the notes of the rookery, by the jangle or wooing accents of the dark frequenters of its trees ; and that time having passed away, these contentions and cadences are no longer heard. The cuckoo then comes, and informs us that spring has arrived ; that he has journeyed to us, borne by gentle gales in sunny days ; that fragrant flowers are in the copse and the mead, and all things telling of gratulation and of joy : the children mark this well-known sound, spring out, and cuckoo 1 cuckoo ! as they gambol down the lane ; the very ploughboy bids him welcome in the early morn. It is hardly spring without the cuckoo's song ; and having told his tale, he has voice for no more — is silent or away. Then comes the dark, swift-winged marten*, glancing through the air, that seems afraid to visit our uncertain clime ; he comes, though late, and hurries through his business here, eager again to depart; all day long in agitation and precipitate flight. The bland zephyrs of the spring have no charms with them ; but bask- ing and careering in the sultry gleams of June and July, they associate in throngs, and, screaming, dash round the steeple or the ruined tower, to serenade their nesting mates ; and glare and heat are in their train. When the fervour of sum- mer ceases, this bird of the sun will depart. The evening robin, from the summit of some leafless bough, or projecting point, tells us that autumn is come, and brings matured fruits, chilly airs, and sober hours ; and he, the lonely minstrel now that sings, is understood by all. These four birds thus indi- cate a separate season, have no interference with the intelli- gence of the other, nor could they be transposed without the loss of all the meaning they convey, which no contrivance of art could supply ; and by long association they have become identified with the period, and in peculiar accordance with the time." (p. 266.) This passage is both just and beautiful, and in unison vrith the rest of the pages. The author, indeed, in treating of the most ordinary occurrences of nature, paints the scene with that descriptive faithfulness, feeling, and vivacity, which never fail to rouse our recollections, and set the objects before us in a manner that is at once striking and delightful. We almost fancy that we hear the melody of the birds, and behold the beauty and splendour of the plants and insects. * The swift, i^irundo ^'pus. The unobservant reader may perhaps be misled by this passage, to suppose that the swift does not arrive in our cli- mate till the month of June j whereas it is well known that the bird makes its appearance in May, and sometimes by the end of April. The author, however, very justly represents the season of June and July as being par- ticularly marked by its joyous scream. Retrospective Criticism. 89 In conclusion, I would strongly recommend this pleasing volume to every lover of nature, and particularly to all young persons, whose taste for searching into the wonders of creation and the works of their Creator, may possibly be in a great degree farmed by the early perusal of such books. I also sincerely congratulate the public and the author on the speedy demand for a second edition ; — the author, on the success of his well-executed performance — the public, on their due estimation of it, which affords a demonstrative proof that the taste for natural history is on the increase. No one, I will venture to say, who possesses the former edition, will regret having become a purchaser of the new one. — A Friend to fair Criticism. The Vignette for the Titlepage, — Sir, In oflPering some remarks (not of a complimentary kind) on the new engraved titlepage for the First and Second Volumes of your Magazine, which, in the last Number, you have had the liberality to present to your purchasers without making (as the manner of some is *) any additional charge for such articles, I fear I may be performing a rather ungracious office, and transgressing the spirit of that excellent old proverb, which tells us that " we ought not to look a gift horse in the mouth." It is one feature, however, of your Magazine, that you not only allow " contributors to criticise one another," but to criticise yourself too; and, as on former occasions (see Vol. I. p. 96. and 303.) you took in such good part the criticisms of yoiu* correspondents on the ornamental vignette on the cover, I make bold to say a word or two on the one now presented to us in the new titlepage. My remarks are not made in a bad spirit ; so far from it, that I beg to assure you, if I derived less pleasure from the perusal of your Numbers than I do, or felt no interest in the success of your undertaking, I should not think it worth while to say a single word on the subject. In the first place, then, the head of the lion is almost unintelligible ; until the third examination of the print I could not, for the life of me, make out the physiognomy of the noble beast. What I now suppose to represent the animal's ear, at first view looks like his eye, and his eye like his nose ; and in this manner, I find, others, besides myself, have construed his features. Thus much for the lion's heady against which my chief objection lies ; but I am not quite satis- fied with his tally which, though plainly enough the lion's property, is yet so injudiciously arranged relatively to the giraffe, that, at the first glimpse^ it strikes the eye of the beholder as belonging to the latter animal, flourishing his posterior appendage in a frolicsome mood. Nearly the same remark applies also, and applies stUl more strongly, to the taU of the serpent. By the way, I know not what right you have to set the lion and the serpent together so by the ears ; but, for this, perhaps, you have sufficient authority, and may know better than myself. But to proceed (for I have not yet done finding fault) ; the fish in the foreground is very imperfectly por- trayed, and the head of the vulture is almost as unintelligible as that of the lion. In the lower corner of the print on the left, immediately under the vulture's tail, there is something like a fir tree, which is very awkwardly in- troduced, and not well represented ; and near it are two pair of small, round, * The dirty practice of making the purchasers of works which appear in periodical numbers pay extra, and dearly too, for the mere ordinary titlepage and index to each volume, is become too common with some, otherwise respectable, editors. On this subject I may, perhaps, take some future opportunity to make a few observations. . ... 90 Retrospective Criticism, white objects, of which I cannot guess the meaning. And lastly, though not least in importance, the portrait of Linnaeus is wholly unlike the man, save and except his tie wig. Much stress, perhaps, ought not to be laid on a mere fancy composition, like the one in question ; at the same time, its general correctness and excellence of execution are not altogether unimportant. The titlepage is to the volume something like what the vestibule is to the building ; and it is, at least, ill-judged to raise an unfavourable impression in limine. I admire your Magazine, Mr. Editor, but not so the engraved title- page, which, I must say, strikes me as unworthy of the book to which it is prefixed. The artist has not, neither the designer [IVIr. Harvey] nor en- graver [Mr. Branston], affixed his name, and has acted wisely by the omission, as the cut does him no credit; indeed, I infinitely prefer the vignette on the cover. I have again to apologise for the freedom of my re- marks, and the more so as the subject of them is a/ree and voliinta>y gift on your part, and one on which your purchasers had, of course, no right to calculate. But where things are good in the main, we are apt to wish them to be free from blemishes in the subordinate parts ; and you must be aware that reproof is most profitably administered, that is, with the best chance of success, not to those who have the most faults to correct, but to those who are most disposed to correct them. Should you think well, Mr. Editor, to print these remarks, as you have done similar ones on a former occasion, the sooner you take the opportunity of doing so, the better ; retrospective criticism being a dish that should be eaten hot, or it loses half its flavour. Yours, &c. — B, Coventry , Nov. 20. The same objections having been made by " An Original Subscriber," and others, we shall try what can be done for a title to Vol. III. — Cond. The Water Shrew (Vol. II. p. 399.), I am inclined to think, is not so rare an animal in this country as has, been supposed ; I occasionally see it on the small brooks in this parish, rapidly swimming along the surface of the water, and, when alarmed, diving with great agility. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, Sept. 8. 1829. Dr. lire's Geology. — Sir, I trouble you with a few remarks upon a letter in your last Number, containing strictures on Dr. Ure's Geology, perceiving you set apart in your miscellany a chapter for communications of the nature alluded to. I certainly am much surprised at the decided tone which the author assumes throughout, and the mode in which he lays down the law concerning right and wrong ; having anticipated rather the contrary from the professions he repeatedly makes in the outset, It surely becomes one, who is " not even a tyro in geology," rather to ask a question concerning any point he may not perfectly agree with, than pe- remptorily to pronounce that " all this is palpably wrong." To take Mr. H.'s arguments in order j I may remark, in the first place, that, in my opi- nion, he has been a little hasty in calling the mistake in the Table of Equiva- lents " an important error." An unprejudiced reader cannot, surely, view it in any other light than as a mere printer's mistake, one which may at any time occur in a work of any extent ; and the utmost that can be said of it is, that it is rather a gross oversight in the correction of the press. For, although Dr. Ure may not be a geologist, practically speaking, every one will give him credit for knowing the place of the lias in the geological series. Neither can I conceive this error likely to be at all injurious to the science, even with the youngest student ; for in the table immediately preceding the one mentioned by H., that bed is in its proper place, and all the doubt which such a contradiction could cause the reader might at once be re- moved by turning to the chapter specially appropriated to the subject. Secondly, with regard to the account of the fossils of the iron-sand, I must again differ as to the importance of the error therein supposed ; nay, I will say, I think there is no error at all. Dr. Ure undoubtedly has not given us all the information he might have done, concerning those fossils, at least, he has not put it in the proper place , in this respect his arrangement is much Metrospective Criticism, ^1 inferior to Mr. Bakewell's ; but, when he tells us that the formation has been but imperfectly explored, and quotes, verbatim, the passage in Conev^ beare and Phillips, I would, on my part, respectfully submit that he is not only not " palpably wrong," but actually right. Mr. H. is very likely a Kent or Sussex man, and, not being " even a tyro in geology," perchance thinks that the few square miles of Tilgate Forest compose the formation called " the Hastings' sand." He, I say, is perhaps not aware of its extent in Beds, Cambridge, and other midland counties, and can it be there said to be perfectly explored, or even at all adequately examined : to this time, indeed, taking the formation generally, it may, I think, strictly be said, that the fossils " are not numerous ; " Mr. Mantell has, indeed, shown us what we may expect on further examination, but, alas ! observers like him are not every where to be met with ; if we had many such, content to pass their leisure hours in thoroughly investigating the country immediately around them, room would not be left for compilers of books on geology to be even suspected of errors of this nature. Of the few lines next in order in H.'s letter, being merely hints, I shall say nothing, and pass on at once to the consideration of the " shameful in- correctness " of the plates. It must be confessed that H. is particularly unhappy in his first example ; he states that Scaphites aequalis is *' peculiar to the lower chalk ; " for such an assertion one would suppose he had some authority which he could state ; what it is, however, I am quite at a loss to discover, unless he happens to possess Coneybeare and Phillips's book, and understands the passage concerning Scaphites (p. 73.) to refer to the strata in general, instead of merely the, two beds of the chalk ; as every one else, I believe, would. I thus give him credit for having some authority for his assertions however distorted ; though I can hardly suppose him to possess Coneybeare's book, or he would have seen that Scaphites aequalis is there absolutely mentioned as a lias fossil. The next instance in H.'s letter is equally unfortunate, Mya intermedia is mentioned by Mr. Coneybeare as a fossil of the inferior oolite, and in this case I cannot even guess at H.'s authority for calling it " of the London clay^'' as if therein only to be found. Turrilites costata, moreover, is a green-sand fossil, and therefore rightly placed in a plate which I always considered as intended to contain, not merely the fossils of the oolite limestone beds, but to join on to the one succeeding it J that, as it contains fossils from the crag to the chalk, so this includes the beds from the chalk-marl to the cornbrash. The same will also apply to Hamites gibbosus, and Vermicularia umbonata. Of Protellaria ma- croptera I cannot speak, not knowing the name, but I suppose Rostellaria macroptera is the shell alluded to ; however, of it and Turritella conoidea nothing positive can be brought forward : to say the most, it is very doubtful whether Dr. Ure has committed any mistake in assigning them their present situations. With regard to H.'s concluding remarks, I must again confess myself unable to conceive the ill effects that mistakes like these, supposing them to be such, can have on the science ; they would, at most, create a little confusion to the reader, which might be cleared away by referring to the work on the subject next at hand ; and I must say, 1 think it would have been more becoming in Mr. H. to have done so before he parted with his letter. In general, indeed, I think we should be careful how we magnify molehills into mountains, and, for a few inaccuracies and marks of inattention, throw discredit on a book which, like Dr. Ure's, contains so many pages of sound induction and philosophic reasoning ; and although most people will be inclined to differ, more or less, from his theory, or the arguments adduced in its support, yet, as geologists still seem inclined to adhere to one of the three hypotheses mentioned by Mr. Coneybeare in his Introduction, a book written in support of one of them by such a man as Ure may not be without its use ; perhaps, indeed, we might all be much benefited, and our ideas enlarged, if men qualified for such speculation were to illustrate the other two, in connection with a good practical account of 92 Queries atid Answers, the present state of the science. I fear, Sir, I have already encroached on the space allotted for others, and will therefore conclude by subscribing my- self, Yours, &c. — T. E. Cambridge, Iiov.2l. Art. III. Queries and Answers. Bewick*s Relics. — Sir, Shortly after the death of Bewick, a paragraph appeared in several of the London and provincial papers, copied, I believe, originally from the Ti/?ie Mercury, which stated that " Mr. Bewick had left unfinished a history of fishes, and a memoir of his own life, with portraits of his friends, and a large cut of an old hunter, which was the last work he employed himself upon only a few days before his death." Being a great admirer of the works of this justly celebrated artist (painter, I may call him), I should be glad to know whether the above statement is correct, and still more, whether there is any chance of the relics alluded to being published. Not one of the efforts of his wonderful genius should be lost to the world. Perhaps Mr. Dovaston may be able to give the information required ; and, by doing so, he would much oblige. Yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rec- tory, Nov. m. 1829. P.S. Since writing the above, I have examined a copy of Bewick's Birds y published in 1826, and I there find some species figured and described at the end of the volumes, under the title of " Addenda," over and above those which were published in the Supplement in 1821. The last edition of the Quadrupeds also contains many cuts and vignettes which do not occur in the early ones. Would it not be almost an act of justice to publish these ad- denda in a separate volume, so as to enable the purchasers of the early edi- tions to enjoy the benefit of them ? They might all be appended to what, I hope, will, ere long, be given to the public under some such title as Bewick^ s Remains; viz., a volume containing all the works the artist left unpublished at the time of his death, including also such of the birds and quadrupeds, and vignettes, as do not occur in the earlier editions of his works. There is no doubt such a volume would sell ; and, I trust, his heirs or executors will lose no time in taking it in hand. — W. T. B. Anatomical Preparations, it is said by some, are not kept in rectified spirits of wine. Perhaps some of your readers will inform me whether any other liquid be preferable on account of quality or price. — B. Maund, Bromsgrove, Oct. 24. 1829. To preserve reptiles, three parts of distilled water may be added to one part of alcohol ; or equal parts of rectified spirit of wine and distilled water are preferable ; these proportions will be found sufficiently strong to pre- serve reptiles or fishes, and have the additional advantage of not destroying colours. I believe either of these mixtures will preserve anatomical pre- parations.— Y.L. Nov. 2. 1829. The Black-headed Bmiting (in answer to T. G. Clithero, Vol. II. p. 289.)— This I have always considered to be the reed bunting (Emberiza ASchceni- clus, Beivick, vol. i. p. 176. edit. 6. 1826) found in the fens and marshes. It may, probably, migrate into some other part of the kingdom, as I do not recollect to have ever seen one in the winter. Another bird, called the blackcap, is ikfotacOla Atricapilla, which is certainly a summer visitor. — J. Lakes. Liskeard Vicarage, Cornwall, Aug.15. 1829. W/iat Bird is Muscicapa luctuosa (Vol. II. p. 274.) ? I can find none such in Bewick. The only species known here is M. Grisola. — Id. Muscicapa luctuosa of Temminck is the Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa Atri- capilla of Linn. Gmel. and Latham. For an excellent figure see Bewick, British Birds, vol. i. p. 207. I perceive you have already given a figure, Vol. I. p. 331. — ^. r P. Nov. 2. 1829. Queries and Answers. 93 To softcji ike Skins of Birds (in answer to J. A. H., Vol. II. p. 484.) — Wrap the feet of the bu'd in a damp cloth, and put a piece of linen dipped in water, with the water wrung out, in the body of the bird, and moistened cotton in the eyes. — A. Z. Nov. 5. 1829. Softening the Skins of Birds. — For the information of your correspondent J. A. H. (Vol.11, p. 484.), I beg to inform you that a friend of mine, who is in the habit of occasionally receiving the skins of birds in a dry state from South America, always puts them into a cellar for a few days previously to stuffing them, to render the skin soft. I am. Sir, &C.—H. Gray's Inn, Nov. 23. 1829. A small Bird reputed to be a Humming-Bird. — The small bird met with in the western parts of Devonshii'e, and reputed, from its diminutive size, to be a humming-bird (Vol. II. p. 402.), I should have little doubt must be the golden-crested wren, which is the smallest of our British birds, and answers the remainder of the description by frequently making its " pendent bed and procreant cradle" on the extreme branches of some fir or other tree. — W. T. Bree. Rectory, Allesley, Sept. 8. 1829. Winter Quarters of Frogs (Vol. II. p. 103. 289.).— Sir, The following fact relative to this subject may, perhaps, be acceptable. In draining a bog or springy piece of ground in the winter 1813-14 (during the frost), I discovered a large quantity, some hundreds I suppose, embedded about three feet below the sur- face, in the head or source of a more than usually strong spring. Upon being uncovered they appeared very inactive, but not torpid or niotionless, and attempted to bury themselves again in the sand, which, from the flowing of the water, was so easily separated as to admit a pole of considerable length to be run down it with a slight pressure. The cavity in which they were, and which apparently was formed by them, was so placed that the water of the spring flowed through it, and prevented their feeling the effects of the frost. In cleaning ditches or stagnant ponds during the winter, I have never seen any but at the bottom of ponds, in which, I am told, they are common. Are we not to infer from this that they instinctively seek springs, as the water is less liable to freeze ; and, as they were in the instance men- tioned capable of moving, that they do not hybernate or become torpid dur- ing the winter, but that they respire in water, or in their hiding places ? I have never observed them in (htches or pools until near their spawning time, viz. after a few warm days in February or March, when their " croak- ing is considered the precursor of spring and provocative of sport" to boys ; after which the embryo frogs appear as black spots in a large mass of gela- tinous matter. I am. Sir, &C.—J. F. B. Aug. 29. 1829. Skate Spawn. — What are these gelatinous masses so prevalent On our coasts, and called by the vulgar, skate spawn ? It is impossible for any one to walk along this part of the coast, and not to be struck with the great abundance of these large, transparent, jelly-like masses, the exuviae of every tide. A few days ago I had an opportunity of seeing one of these in its natural element, left by the ebb, in a shallow tank of clear water, and exhibit- ing a degree of sensific and motific power far beyond what I should have expected to have found in such an assemblage of negative organisation. The masses vary in bulk, and may weigh from four ounces to two pounds. On the beach they are a solid and quivering lump, having one side convex and perfectly smooth, the other cupped in its centre ; the cup of the largest is about two inches in diameter, hard and cartilaginous at the bottom, with the appearance of four quadrangular tentacula nearly even with the siu^face. It was the first time I had ever seen one of these in water, and I was at- tracted by its well defined outline and graceful movements ; it was lying at the bottom upon its convex side, and the cup, which on the beach is about one fifth of its whole diameter, and would hold not more than an ounce of water, was now expanded to its entire diameter, and would contain at least a pint. The movements perceptible were in the margin of the cup, and 94 Queries cmd A?is^ers» consisted of undulating oscillations, introrsum et extrorsum, and rendored more evident by the margin of the cup being furnished with fine waving fimbriae. The animal gradually thickens from the margin down to the cen- tre, and the movements are effected by gentle contractions and dilatations, which, when swimming, are alternately stronger on either side as the direc- tion of the animal requires, the contractions having rather a spiral inclina- tion. The whole is perfectly transparent, at least interrupted only by distant tendinous-looking lines rising vertically from its centre. On bringing it to the surface it commenced a retreat to the margin of the tank, swimming slowly, with its concavity inclining forwards, and then settling at the bottom ; on raising it again, and turning up its convex side, it righted itself and sank ; on touching it, when at the bottom, it shrank from the touch, and moved forward a few inches. Any information on this subject in your interesting Magazine will oblige. Yours, &c. — John Brown^ F.L.S. Boston L.y Aug. 22. Whether a Fish called the Samlet ever becomes a Salmon or not, is a ques- tion not yet satisfactorily answered. I think I could give circumstantial, if not positive, proof that it does. William V. Ellis, Esq., of Minster- worth, near Gloucester, who has a very extensive fishery on the river Severn, is of opinion, from information received from fishermen under his direction, that the samlet does ultimately become a salmon, in confirma- tion of which, he says, one of the fishermen thrust a wire through the tail of a samlet, and in process of time (notwithstanding the corrosion and action of the fresh and sea-water on the wire) the same was again taken with the wire in its tail after that it had become a salmon. — Thomas Hawkins. The Haw near Gloucester, Oct. 21. 1829. Whether the Botcher, the Gillion, and the Salmon are merely varieties or the same fish, or (as the fishermen here thin/c) distinct species, is a ques- tion I should wish solved. I do not know whether these distinctive names are local or general, but, by whatever name they are called, I think they will be understood as distinct. My own opinion is, that they are the same fish at a distant period or stage of growth, or varieties only, and that the renovating influence of the sea-water is the only difference ; but if I am wrong, I should wish to be better informed. — Id. A Nidus attached to a Reed. — Sir, I shall be obliged by your giving me the name of the wonderful architect whose work is represented by the follow- ing sketch, {fig. 19.) It was found attached to a reed, in the inside of the roof of a barn at Crimplesham, in Norfolk. The sketch is of the natural size 19 and colour [grey]. Besides the two coats seen in it, there is a third in the centre, but not so deep as either of the others ; and within that six or seven hexagonal cells, like those of the honey bee (v4 pis mellifica), but not, I think, quite so large. The material of which" this curious nidus is formed, ap- Qiieries and Answers, 95 pears to be masticated wood or straw, mixed up with some glutinous fluid, and having altogether an appearance not unlike the grey bibulous paper in which slate pencils are enveloped, but not so thick by half. — G. M. Lynn Regis, Sept. 3. 1829. CucuUus simplex. — Sir, The following is a drawing (j%. 20.) of two fossil shells in my possession, which appear to be the Cucullus simplex of Rumphius (tabula 59. litera B). They are firmly united together ; but whether the connection was of a tenderer nature at first, than it is at present, I must leave to the learned to determine. Yours, &c. — F. R. S. Oct. 1829. Ladanum was procured in the time of Dioscorides by goats, as your cor- respondent. Professor Thomson, observes (Vol. II. p. 408.) ; but Tournefort informs us that it is now gathered by means of a sort of whip, made of leather thongs, fastened in two rows to a long handle, of which he gives an engraving, {fig' 21.) When Tournefort was in Crete he went to visit the district where the ledon, or C'istus creticus, grows, and saw a set of peasants, in the hottest time of the day, busily employed in flogging the shrubs with these whips, till they were covered with the ladanum, and they then scraped off the gum and prepared it in lumps for sale. — P. in B. August. 1829. Fall of the Leaf in Evergreens. — Do fir trees, laurels, box, holly, and other ever- greens, shed and renew their leaves annually; and, if they do, how and when does the pro- cess take place, as they never appear devoid of leaves ? — M. F. Oct. 1829. Mr. Tatem^s Method of making Meteoro- logical Observations. — Sir, Allow me to beg a space in your valuable pages, to reply to the remarks of your intelligent correspondent, Mr. Gorrie of Annat Gardens, Perthshire, on my meteorological observations for last year. 96 Queries arid Arisivers. That I have always considered uniformity in the manner in which observ- ations should be made by meteorologists, not only with respect to time, but as regards instruments of similar construction, of the greatest importance, I need only refer to a letter written by me, in February, 1823 (see Monthly/ Magazine, vol. Iv. p. 207.), recommending the establishment of a Meteorolo- gical Society in the metropolis ; and I should be most happy, at any time, to assist in the arrangement of some plan by which that desirable object could be obtained. I will now proceed, without further preface, to state the method practised by me in making my observations. The thermometer and barometer are examined every day at 8 a. m., 3 p. m. (esteemed the hottest period of the day), and 10 p. m., and the extreme of cold is ascertained by a self-register- ing thermometer; thus giving four observations of that instrument, all of which are duly registered, and the monthly mean is found by dividing the sum of all these by the number of observations, which, of course, varies with the number of days in each month. The rain and evaporation are measured every morning at 8 o'clock, and the wind reported, if the prevailing wind of the day. From this statement, Mr. Gorrie will see that " I refer to the daily extremes^ The annual mean results from the division of the sum of the monthly means by 12, or is the mean of means. If the averages of the monthly extremes had been alone attended to, the annual mean for the last year would have been lower than even that recorded in my report, being only 47-6041. I subjoin the annual temperature for the last seven years, by which the similitude between the years 1826 and 1828, noticed by Mr. Gorrie, very evidently appears. It would be extremely gratifying to me, and, no doubt, equally to your other meteorological readers, if Mr. Gorrie would favour us with the course pursued by him, in making his observations, and it might prove conducive to the adoption of some regular plan of observation among meteorologists, at any rate among those who correspond with the Magazine of Natural History. Annual mean for 1822 46-51° 1823 44-26 1824 46-11 1825 46-81 1826 47-37 1827 46-25 1828 47-75 I remain. Sir, &c. — James G. Tatem. Wycombe, May 21. 1829. Vision over the Sea. — Sir, It is stated (Vol. II. p. 470.) that a person, under favourable circumstances, could see over the surface of the ocean to the extent of 150 miles. I would ask under what circumstances an object on the surface of the earth or sea would be visible at that distance ; as, from the convex form of the earth, it would require an elevation of nearly three miles to bring it to a level with the horizon, or within the line of vision^ setting aside the aid of refraction. Perhaps the limit of vision is unknown, the distance at which a body may be seen appearing to depend upon its size, the intensity of its light, and the state of the medium through which the rays pass from it to the eye ; as the planets, though too remote for their figure to be discerned by the unassisted eye, are yet conspicuous from the light which they reflect ; whereas the fixed stars, from their immense distance, would be totally invisible to us, if, like the planets, they shone only by re- flected light. Perhaps some correspondent may furnish some useful inform- ation on the subject, and oblige, among others, yoiu- obedient servant, — T. E. Southwark, Dec. 4. 1829. THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. MARCH, 1830. Art. I. Some Account of the Life, Genius, and Personal Habits of the late Thomas Bewick, the celebrated Artist and Engraver on Wood, By his Friend John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. KM.,, of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury. (Concluded from p. 9.) ** Swote hys tyngue as the throstle's note, Quycke ynn daunce as thoughte canne bee, Defte hys taboure, codgelle stote, Oh ! hee lyes bie the wyllowe tree : Mie love ys dedde, Gone to hys deathe^bedde, Alle vnderre the wyllow^ tree." Chatterton. Sir, Before I conclude this familiar account of my friend Be- wick, you must, in justice, allow me to inform the public, that it was commenced, and (after its first portion) very consider- ably lengthened, at your request. Yet still, under the con- tinual fear of dilation, I reluctantly omit innumerable incidents that are sparkling about the twilight of my memory, and hurry on to my last interview with my esteemed friend. Early in June, 1827, he wrote to me from Buxton, that, for the gout in his stomach, he was hurried there by his medical friends, accompanied by his daughters Jane and Isabella. At sunrise I mounted the high-pacing Rosalind, and entered that naked but neat little town early the second morning ; alighting at the Eagle — fit sign to a visitor of the king of bird-engravers. In my haste to find his lodging, I passed it ; but stumping behind, with his great cudgel, he seized me ardently by the arm before I was aware, exclaiming, " I seed ye from tha w^indow, and kenned yer back and gait, my kind friend." I found him in very good lodgings facing the fountain-corner Vol. III. — No. 12. h 98 Lifr'i Genius, and Personal Habits of Bewick. of the superb Crescent, nearly opposite the Old Hall ; and, after the fervid ra}:)tures of again meeting, we settled down into our usual chit-chat. There were three windows in the front room, the ledges and shutters whereof he had pen- cilled all over with funny characters, as he saw them pass to and fro, visiting the well. These people were the source of great amusement : the probable histories of whom, and how they came by their ailings, he would humorously narrate, and sketch their figures and features in one instant of time. I have seen him draw a striking likeness on his thumb-nail, in one moment ; wipe it off with his tongue, and instantly draw another. He told me that, at watering-places, if his name were known, he was pestered with people staring at him, and in- flicting foolish questions ; and he cautioned me always in public to call him the " old gentleman." We dined occasionally at the public table ; and one day, over the wine, a dispute arose between two gentlemen about a bird ; but was soon terminated by the one affirming he had compared it with the figure and description of Bewick, to which the other replied that Bewick was next to Nature. Here the old gentleman seized me by the thigh with his very hand-vice of a grasp ; and I contrived to keep up the shuttlecock of conversation playfully to his high- est satisfaction, though they who praised him so ardently, little imagined whose ears imbibed all their honest incense. On evenings we often smoked in the open windows of his pleasant lodgings, and chatted in all the luxury of intellectual leisure. A cocky wren ran, like a mouse, along the ledge of the win- dow. " Now," says he, " when that little fellow sings, he sings heartily ! " Upon which the merry little creature, as if conscious of our conviviality, and of who heard him, perched on a post, and trilled his shrilly treble with thrilling might and main. Of nights we had music, the young ladies sang, or we read marvellous or merry ballads, or again relapsed into our pleasantries; fully agreeing with the piquant and pithy Venusian poet, that fun is no foe to philosophy, to mix short sallies with our serious discourse, and nothing so sweet as to play the fool when fitting. " Misce stultitiam consiliis brevem : Dulce est desipere in loco." Of mornings he walked out before the gnats and butterflies (as he called the company) began to frisk : for his most satiri- cal arrows, though always pointed, were never envenomed; mere birdbolts, that he playfully and smartly squandered, not for prey but pastime. There was a neat, clean, pretty damsel that waited on the lodgers, to whom he gave little history JLife^ Genius^ and Personal Habits of Benoick. 99 books and prints of animals, joking her about her sweetheart ; and as he always rose very early to " waak oot^^ one morning, on the stairs, I asked Sally if the old gentleman had walked out. " Yes, sir ; " said the good-humoured girl, " and a very nice old gentleman he is." I walked after him, and found him in a place they call the grove (a long, thin, narrow belt of stunted larches), playing with a group of curly rosy children, for whom he was drawing funny figures on a painted bench, and telling them the names of birds, insects, and plants. Many of his opinions, though dropped at different times and places, I may as well group together ; and omit, in some de- gree, his peculiar dialect, as difficult to express on paper, and awkward to those who knew him not ; though, to my oar, it always seemed to give point, potency, and a sort of Doric beauty to his aphoristic truths. On my remarking that the pig-parsnep (JEZeracleMW*Sphondylium),orhogweed, had always been a great favourite with me, as being by far the best foliage for painters* foreground, he not only concurred, but ingeniously explained the reason. The hemlock and parsley-leaved plants, he said, were too minutely cut and divaricated ; and the but- ter-bur and docks too round and heavy : now, the pig-parsnep uniting the lightness of the one with the strength of the other, became instantly pleasing to the eye of taste. He said, of all birds he thought the dove tribe most beautiful. Their outline presents every possible variety of the line of beauty ; their colours are brilliant and varied ; their notes amorous and sooth- ing ; their manners gentle and affectionate ; their flight both rapid and graceful ; and, in all times and nations, they have been emblems of peace, love, and fidelity. They have, more- over, many qualities and habits exclusively peculiar to their tribe; they drink differently (by immersion), and have no gall. Of Lord Byron's poetry he spoke with great disgust, saying, it teemed with less imagination, and more trash, in any quan- tity, than that of any other great poet ; that power was the prominent feature of his mind, which he prostituted ; and the great failing of his heart was depravity, which he adorned. He thought the romances of Sir Walter Scott breathed very large and frequent aspirations of the genuine essence of poetry ; that his landscapes and figures were spirited and highly coloured painting, and his real characters the finest specimens of his- torical portraits. Paradise, he said, was of every man's own making ; all evil caused by the abuse of freewill ; happiness equally distributed, and in every one's reach. " Oh ! " said he, " this is a bonny world as God made it ; but man makes a packhorse of Providence." He held that innumerable things might be converted to our use that we ignorantly neglect ; H 2 100 l^ifit Genius, and Personal Habits of Bemck. and quoted, with great ardour, the whole of Friar Laurence's speech in Romeo and Jidiet, to that effect. In corroboration of this, one day, at the mouth of Poole's Hole, which, on account of the chilly damp and dripping of the cavern, he declined to enter with me and the young ladies ; while we were exploring the strange and fantastic formations of calcareous tufa therein, the Flitch of Bacon, the Saddle, and Mary Stuarfs Pillar (which, it is said, she went quite round when a prisoner at Chatsworth), I found, on our emerging, he had collected his handkerchief full of nettle-tops, which, when boiled, he ate in his soup, methought with very keen relish. It was on our walk back, for some joke I cracked, they promised me a collection of all his engravings on India paper, which, at the time, I thought a joke too ; yet, valuable and expensive as was the promise, I, in due time, found it faithfully and affectionately performed. One night he expressed a busy desire to see that tremendous and far-famed cavern, about ten miles from Buxton, called The Devil's Arse i' tN Peak; for his healthy mind was disgusted with the ridiculous, squeamy, and mawkish affectation of call- ing it " Peak's Hole," without, in the least, diluting the slight indelicacy of the ancient name, for which the witty combin- ation amply compounds. In the morning, I readily engaged a vehicle and driver, wherein we comfortably sat, two and two, face to face ; and were soon a-gig, by the pretty village of Fairfield, jaunting merrily o'er the l3are and smooth, but sunny mountains of Derbyshire. This excursion alone would afford my pen more anecdotes than all I have recorded, had I room to relate ; but I (somewhat reluctantly) confine myself to such as illustrate the versatile mind of my imaginative and n:erry companion, which I deem far more finely and firmly delineated by these trifles, than by church-tables of benefac- tions in golden capitals, or glaring lapidary epitaphs of his virtues in cold dull marble. For his mind, like the sun in his annual and diurnal rounds, was continually, and, as it were, cunningly catching unthought of objects, and piercing nooks and corners unnoticed ; steeping for a moment, with its mel- low rays, interior walls and chilly pillars ; edges of forest glens, and trees in deep groves ; marbling a chamber panel through a waving willow ; or glowing on some ancient post in the gloomy recess of an old hall : thus not only calling the eye to what it would otherwise miss, but shedding on the most common" objects, for the time, a soothing and a celestial gleam. As we rumbled along by the curious "Dove-holes" of that river on one side, and the " Shivering Rock^' of Mam Tor on the other, I observed him silent for a short time, with Life^ Genius^ and Personal Habits of Bewick. 101 his keen and comic eye fixed on the fern and licheny stones of the mountain side, that slept in the warm and broad noon sun- shine. " I ha* bin glowring a' the while," said he, " for a ring ouzel (Zurdus torquatus) : this is the vara sort o' habitat for him. Did ya ever see him alive ? " " Yes, Sir, at Llangollen in Wales, and on the rugged heights of the Breidden moun- tains, near my residence at Westfelton." " Pretty chiel," continued he, turning his prodigious quid, " I wish I could once see him." On arriving at Castleton, we ordered dinner to be carried up to the ruins of PeveriPs Castle, at a consider- able altitude immediately over the mouth or entrance of the immense cavern, towards which we leisurely walked; and having passed a ladies' boarding-school (" teachers of inutili- ties, to say no worse," as he called them) very near it, his merry mind elicited a broad joke. " What a place," cries he (as their advertisements actually now word it), " for a lady to open her seminary for the reception of pupils ! " He then roared such a hearty' cachinnation, that the DeviPs Cavern re- verberated from its windy intestines. It would be superfluous here, and indeed onerous, to attempt any description of either the exterior or interior of this dismal, extensive, and wonder- ful cavern ; after the examination of which, we all clambered up to the castle of the renowned Peveril of the Peak, amid the weedy ruins of whose deserted halls, on the smooth green sward, we picked our mutton bones, and quaffed our foaming porter, with sweeter appetite, zest, and happiness, than is often enjoyed at the banquet boards of those miscalled the great. After dinner, the ladies collected fossil specimens in their little baskets, or gathered bluebells, cranesbills, pansies, and yellow violets ; twining flowers in their hair or summer-hats, while the jolly old bawcock and I blew a delicious pipe of Virginia. In a moment, with their lunular breasts, two ring- ouzels alit among the gillyflowers on the wall ; and, the same moment, Bewick silently grasped my arm, at once to suppress motion and speech. After a minute's perking, preening, and turning, they flew away ; on which, in ecstasy of delight, he three times tenderly exclaimed, " Pretty darlings ! pretty dar- lings ! pretty darlings ! " About this time he was dading through the press the sixth edition of his Birds; and, though a little anecdote connected therewith tells plaguily against me, I feel it a duty to record it. He put into my hand a proof- sheet and copy, for correction, as I had some hand in the contents. But, independent of typographic errors, finding several alterations, additions, and omissions, I became pettish ; and, on his gently remonstrating, I furiously tore both proof and copy to very tatters, trampled them on the floor, cursed H 3 102 Lifr-i Genius, a?id Personal Habits of Bewick. them, and called the reviser a fool. All this while he walked deliberately to and fro ; but, on seeing this magnanimous exploit of my folly, he paused, and slowly (oh ! the devil take his assumed slowness ! ) said, " Measter Dovaston, ye ha* ca'd him a feool ye dinna ken ; I only ax, if he were here, what might he ca' you ? " He did, indeed, ax me, and with an edge ; for his just and gentle reproof was darted from one of those significant smiles, more severe than the bitterest anger. The young ladies were picking up the disjecta membra of these unfortunate papers, and arranging them on the table, like the pieces of a child's dissected map. " Na, na," said he, blow- ing them off at one fell puff, like Boreas in a snow storm ; " na, na ; as the daft callant thinks himseP sae clever, let him e'en compose fresh copy ; " throwing a quire on the table, and an old stumpie of a pen he had been using as a pipe-cleaner : to which task I doggedly sat down, with the subdued feelings of a chid schoolboy, having occasional recourse to the accursed scraps ; while, through the window, I saw the glorious old gentleman walking lustily down to the well, flourishing his cudgel, in all the vigour of victory. My fair Northumbrian friends (alas ! so many hundred miles remote from the hand now writing it) will readily, on perusal, acknowledge the minute truth with which I have let off this little miff; and will, I trust, bear testimony to the accuracy of all my anec- dotes ; which, so far from needing any colour, or even sharp- ening, I am conscious appear best in their own native simpli- city, when least adorned. Every body loved Bewick. All animals loved him ; and frequently, o' mornings, I found him in the inn-yard, among the dogs, ducks, or pigs, throwing them pieces of biscuit, and talking to them, or to the boors beside them, waiters, c^«j/-boys, or boots. He would pat Rosalind on the neck, ask her how she liked her crazy master, and bid the ostler bring her a bucket of water. " She has had enough, Sir," said he. " Then bring her more," said Bewick. He did so, and she drank part of it. " There," says he, " she will na drink mair than her need, like you, or me, or my daft friend here." Persons enamoured of Nature, though one of her volumi- nous treasures may for a while be the favourite, seldom con- fine their observance or admiration to that one exclusively ; but, in their eager pursuit after the main object of their enthu- siasm, glance oft aside on others of equal excitement or beauty, that, in time and turn, come to an equal share of regard and rapture. This was quite the case with Bewick, who, from infancy, had contemplated, with adoration, whateyer the sun illumined ; whether he lit up in serene splendour the ponder- Life^ Genius.^ and Personal Habits of Bewick, 103 ous planets of heaven, or emblazoned, in golden emeralds, the panoply of the smallest insects of earth. He fully felt that organised orbs or atoms tell equally of their ineffable Archi- tect : and this it was his incessant desire to impress on the minds of all. Having exhausted the quadrupeds and British birds as vehicles to his art, instruction, and amusements, he, late in life, took up a fervent resolution to engrave all the Bri- tish FisheSi and write their histories. To this his mind was well trained, having been ever a lover of the fountains and rills, the still pools and broad waters, the majestic rivers and the mighty ocean. Here he felt the seeds of his talent stirring all a-life, where he should have to display the beauties of the finny tribe, and treat of the wonders of the great deep. When I was last in Northumberland, they showed me thirty fishes he had cut by way of trial, with the spirit and execution whereof himself was well satisfied, and his judicious friends enraptured ; together with more than a hundred tail-pieces, conceived and cut, '' ay, every inch," with all his usual ima- ginative appropriation and power. His mind and conversa- tion now dwelt forcibly and fondly upon this work, which it was his extreme wish to see complete, and then placidly to resign his soul to his Creator, the short and nearing approach to whom he contemplated with even cheerful contentedness. His art here got entirely into a new element ; for, as he was forced to show the fishes out of water, he was deprived of his favourite excellence, motion; yet such motion as a fish new- landed has, he has given with elasticity and life : brilliance to the scaly, and lubricity to the smooth ; so as to remind the naturalist of excellent old Chaucer's touches of nature, where " They swommin full of smale fishes lighte, With finnis rede, and scalis silver brighte." A single impression of his John Doree sold lately in London for ten guineas. And when they do come out, though every admirer will lament he was, long ere completion, called to his blessed account, their sorrow will be softened at beholding with what effect and spirit his animated graver has been caught up by his son. We love to talk over sweet or bitter adven- tures ; for the ruminating mind, chewing the cud of past life, extracts a cordial from the one, and a salubrity from the other, which we are ever desirous of im})arting : so that I feel as heavy at taking leave of my narrative of these pleasures, as I was of the bright and alluring friends by whom they were enkindled. But "good times, bad times, and all times get over ; " and morning after morning was named for my retrac- ing my long and lonely journey. I had never parted from him H 4 10 h J-'ifri Genius, and Personal Habits of Bemick. without our reciprocally thinking it would be the last ; but this time we both thought otherwise, for his health was very much ameliorated. Black Monday at length came; and though the sun shone broad on every thing around, they walked slowly, and methought strangely silent, with me (I leading Rosalind, heavy as a nightmare), about two miles on the road, where, after saluting the young ladies, and shaking the good old Bewick's hand, though I hope to enjoy their friendship yet many years, it was on that mountain side that with him I parted for ever ; and looking back, till the road turned the corner of a rock, dimly saw them kindly gazing after me : and this was the last time I ever beheld the portly person of my benevolent and beloved friend. We continued, however, to correspond frequently ; not only on natural his- tory, but (as the Irish scholar said) " de omnibus rebus, et quibusdam aliis^^ on the manners of both feathered and unfea- thered bipeds. The next summer, he visited London about his works : and thence he wrote me several very humorous letters on the utterly artificial life of the cockneys ; with the mass of whom, since he was among them half a century before, he thought the march of intellect had not equalled the march of impudence. He was, however, very honourably received by many learned societies and individuals, of whom, and of whose collections, he wrote in raptures. On his return, the London and provincial papers had many paragraphs respecting this visit, his reception, and his life ; to amend the errors of which statements, T must have been writing one at the very hour of his death ; for I had not time to stop its insertion in one of the Shrewsbury papers, when I received a short, but most affec- tionate and affecting letter from his son, informing me, " as his father's most valued friend," that he expired, in full possession of his fine and powerful mental faculties, in quiet and cheer- ful resignation, on the 8th of November, 1828. On the morn- ing of his death, he had the satisfaction of seeing the first proof-impression of a series of large wood-engravings he had undertaken, in a superior style, for the walls of farm-houses, inns, and cottages, with a view to abate cruelty, mitigate pain, and imbue the mind and heart with tenderness and humanity ; and this he called his last legacy to suffering and insulted Nature. I strongly feel that some apology is due to the public for the freedom, haste, and familiarity with which I have thrown off these pages ; and I cannot better express it than by a stanza from fine old Spenser, and which my intrepid and in- genious friend frequently applied to his own works : — Geography^ Geology <, and Vegetation of Sicily. 105 " Let none then blame me, if in discipline B Of vertue and of civil uses lore, I do not form them to the common line Of present dayes, which are corrupted sore. But to the antique use, which was of yore. When good was onlie for itself desired. And all men sought their own, and none no more ; When Justice was not for most meed out-hired. But simple Truth did reign, and was of all admired." Fairie Queen, book iv. st. 3. (Prologue.) And thus, Sir, I conclude my scanty and scattered selections from a multitude of reminiscences of this truly great and good man ; which are fixed as points in my mind, whereon to spread the vividly coloured tissue of reflection ; stepping-stones in the sunny, broad, and brilliant reach of life's varying current, as it passes through scenery that stirs delicious impulses through- out the delighted spirit ; and, as memory hereafter sets her light foot on either of them, a kindred spirit will depict to the mind's eye the gleaming vision, and awaken the music of past harmonies in the mind's ear, creating in the bosom a reflec- tion of all the luxuriant amenities of fairy-land. I am, Sir, &c. Westfelton, near Shrewsbury, John F. M. Dovaston. Dec, 30. 1 829. Art. II. On the Geography^ Geology^ and Vegetation of Sicily. By John Hogg, Esq. M.A. F.L.S. F.C.P.S. Sir, On making a tour in Sicily in the spring of 1826, I formed a catalogue of all the plants I met with, which are either indi- genous, or which have now become naturalised in the island. Supposing that it might not be altogether unacceptable to the botanist, since no Flora Sicula had at that time been published. But the object of my imperfect list has now been superseded by two Sicilian Floras* that have been given to the world within the last two years. The following pages, chiefly compiled from accurate and authentic sources, wHl only attempt to give some account of * Presl, Carol. B. — Flora Sicula, exhibens Plantas Vasculosas in Sicilia aut sponte crescentes, aut frequentissime cultas, secundum Systema Naturale digestas. Pragae. 1826. — The first volume has only been published. Gussone loanne. — Florae Siculae Prodromus, sive Plantarum in Sicilia Ulteriori nascentium Enumeratio, secundum Sj^tema Linnaeanum. Napless. 2 vols. 1827-8. — This work cannot yet be obtained in England. 106 Geograjpky^ Geology,, Sicily with respect to its geography, mineralogy, geology, and vegetation. Sicily, as its ancient names Trinacria and Triquetra signify, is in the form of a triangle having unequal sides, extending from 12° 2' to 15^ 42' longitude east of Greenwich, and from 36° 39' to 38^ 18' north latitude. The north side of the island is the largest, being 215 Italian miles in length; the least is the east side, which is 145 miles; and the third, or south, is 1 90 miles in length. Hence, the whole circuit of it contains 550 Italian miles, or about 600, if the space occupied by the promontories and bays be included, according to Pro- fessor Farrara's estimation ; but Dr. Presl computes it at 624- Italian, or 1 56 geographical miles, and the whole surface 58 7i square miles. The population of the island is estimated at 1,645,000 nearly ( Smyth ) . The number of inhabitants of the four principal cities are : first, of Palermo, 167,505, according to the census taken January 1. 1826; second, of Catania, 80,000 ; third, of Messina, 30,000 ; and fourth, of Syracuse, 20,000. The situation of Sicily between Spain, Africa, and Greece, is very advantageous towards possessing a delightful climate. Cape Granitola, or as it is also named Punto di Sorello, not far from the ruins of Selinunte, is only 80 miles distant from Cape Bon in Africa. From Cape Passaro, formerly the Promon- tory of Pachinus, to La Valetta in Malta, 6Q miles. Syracuse is distant from Santa Maura 176 miles, from Corfu 256, and from Zante 255 miles. From Taormina to Cape Matapan in the Morea, 2)6^. Capo di Faro, the ancient Promontory of Pelorus, is 2 J Italian miles to the coast of Calabria. The lighthouse of Milazzo to the Island of Lipari, 1 7 ; and to Stromboli, 32 nautic miles. From Cape St. Vito to Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia, are 182 nautic miles. According to Captain Smyth, the medium height of the thermometer of Fahrenheit is 62*5°; in the hottest weather it rises to 92% but seldom is lower than 36°, even in the depth of winter. The barometer has for its mean height 29*800 English inches ; and the pluviometer 26 in. Professor Scina observes, in his Topogrqfia di Palermo, 1818, that the mean annual height of the thermometer of Reaumur, in that city (Palermo), was 14<*4°. The mean temperature, in January and February zz 8*9° R., in July and August^ 19*8°. In the severest cold during twenty years, the thermometer never exceeded + 0.2° R., and was never less than 3*3°. The extreme heat not more than 33*3° R., and not less than 24°. The mean height of the pluviometer, for the same number of years, 22*149 Eng- lish inches. The medium height of the barometer in one year and Vegetation of Sicily. 107 =1 29*808 English inches. It should be mentioned that the observatory in Palermo is situated 38® 6' 44^' north lat, and 1 S'' 20' J 5" long, east of Greenwich. ( Smyth. ) Sicily abounds in lofty mountains and extensive plains. On the north side rises the chain of the Nebrodes, now called Monti di Madonia ; the highest of them reach the altitude of 610 toises (Ferrara), which equal 3660 Eng. ft., and extend nearly parallel along that coast ; they are joined on the side next Italy by the Neptunian Range, or ancient Pelorias, which continue down the eastern coast, towards the lofty rocks of Taormina ; rather to the north of the middle of this side of the island rises Mount Etna, the base of which occupies an immense tract of country. The summit of this mountain is in 37° 43'3r'N. lat. and 15° E. long. (Smyth.) From this, in a direction further south towards Syracuse, continues the chain of the Hyblsean mountains. In the more central parts, and on the south, are the Monti Enna (now Castro- Giovanni), Artesino, S. Vennera, Lauro, the two Cal- vari, M. delle Rose, Rocca di Entella, Rifesio, Calatrasi, lato, Busamara, Macalubba, S. Calogero at Sciacca, &c. ; on the west coast is Monte S. Giuliano, the former Eryx ; the head- land at Cape S. Vito is considerable, and sweeps round towards Palermo ; the mountains likewise behind, and on the sides of the plain of Palermo, are very lofty. The most extensive plains are those of Milazzo, Catania, Lentini, Augusta, Cala- tagirone and Terra Nuova. There are numerous small rivers and torrents, which, in the summer, are quite dry. The river Giarretta, the ancient Simoethus, is the largest ; and next to it are the Fiumi Salso and Grande, known in former times by the names of the Southern and Northern Himerae. There are many cold and warm mineral springs containing salt, magnesia, alum, iron, sulphur, bitumen, &c. Some small fresh-water lakes occur ; but one near Palagonia, called Lago Naftia, produces much petroleum. The north side has, from its very irregular form, many capes, gulfs, and bays ; as the Gulfs of Castel? a mare, of Palermo, of Patti; the Bays of Olivieri, Milazzo, &c. : the south and south-west, very few. but on the east there is the large Gulf of Catania. The whole island used to be divided into three parts, named val- leys : Val di Noto, Val di Mazzara, and Val Demona ; now the divisions are seven^ viz. Valli di Palermo, Trapani, Girgenti, Calta nisetta, Syracusa, Catania, and Messina. The aspect of Sicily is of course much varied ; where there are many mountains, there are parts grand and romantic, particularly along the coast ; but, in some of the more south- ern parts, the country is bare and uninteresting, wild and 108 Geography, Geology, uninhabited ; the plains are generally luxuriant, and covered with vegetation and cattle. Marsh land abounds in places, and there the deadly malaria is found during the hot weather. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the situation, and cultivation of the land about Messina, Catania, Syracuse, Palermo, &c., where nature displays, in exuberance, the fruit of the vine, the olive, the lemon, the orange, and other trees. The most ex- tensive forests or woods are at Etna, Biscari, Caronia, Cor- leone, Gibelmanna, Noto, and Traina. Respecting the geology of Sicily, I will add the following outline from Professor Ferrara * : — The mountains of Pelorus have for their base granite and other primitive rocks. About these there extends an argilla- ceous schistose seam (clay slate), which succeeds to the granite, to the gneiss, and to the micaceous schistus (mica slate). In some places the argillaceous schisti are bituminous. It is in this formation that the metallic mines of Sicily are situated, and their seams extend themselves sometimes even among the gneiss : they are very rich in silver, lead, and copper. These soils are covered by, and placed in the middle of, the rocks which contain fragments of them : they form many species of aggregate rocks, which have for their cement a substance either argillaceo-ferruginous, or siliceous, or calcareous ; these are evidently of a posterior formation. An immense calcareous deposition covers the whole island. The soils of the first form- ation, from the Faro of Messina to seventy miles towards the central places, disappear ; and, except these, the whole surface of Sicily consists of the intermediate formation, or of the transi- tion of Werner, and of others posterior to it. The aggregate rocks constitute heights, and great tracts of country ; but all are subordinate to the calcareous formation. Few seams of primitive limestone occur amongst the gneiss, and there are some with pieces of mica. This calcareous rock is of a fine grain, grey, or bluish, phosphoric, containing alum and mag- nesia, and has a few remains of marine animals ; the interme- diate (transition) limestone finally covers it, and forms the greatest altitudes and long tracts of country. Upon and often by the side of this limestone we may observe that of a much finer grain, white, of a flinty fracture, and full of large pebbles, a little shining, with a great quantity of ancient marine ani- mals. This secondary formation is more covered with a ter- tiary one, forming a somewhat calcareous tuff composed of the remains of marine animals, united by a weak cement, which is itself formed of minute pieces of the same. This shell lime- * See Guida dei Viaggiatori in Sicilia (Paleraio, 1822), p. 13 — 18. and Vegetation of- Sicily. 109 stone is easily worked, but it soon decays, and it may even be said to rot; and it renders the buildings in that calcareous- country by no means durable. The earthy calcareous form- ation, which may also be called argillaceous marl, since it is mixed with siliceous earth and with clay, forms the small hills and extensive plains of Sicily: it is in this that deposits of shells of the ancient sea are discovered, masses of sulphuret of iron, and the mines of salt and of sulphur in which this island is so extremely rich. It is in this formation that the lavas of the ancient volcanoes are found buried around Etna, and in volcanic Sicily, which extends from Etna to Gape Passaro, where, in fact, besides the lavas buried in the earthy calcareous formation, or marl, there appear traces of the ancient fires of this part of the isle mixed with the shell limestone, and the beds alternate with it for a surprising number of times. Where- ever these formations prevail, we find throughout Sicily masses of gypsum ; they are observed in the intervals between the mountains of Pelorus, in the volcanic limestone of the south of Sicily, in the interior behind Alimena, where they consti- tute some miles of heights and of low lands, as well as in the west of the island. In the calcareous formations posterior to the primitive are found quartzose and siliceous pebbles, agates, jaspers, coloured stones, in which the island is extremely rich, and bituminous rocks, from which, most probably, naphtha exudes, and petroleum issues in many places. Pieces of amber and of asphaltum are found among the argillaceous beds. Beautiful crystallisations of sulphur, of sulphate of barytes, and of sulphate of strontian, are discovered in the clefts, and in the cavities in the sulphur mines. The limestone of all the formations, whenever it is sufficiently compact to receive a polish, affords the immense variety of marbles of different colours, for which Sicily is so very famous. The perfect resemblance * of the two opposite countries of Sicily and of Italy, and the continued direction of the range of Apennines, prove their ancient union, and compel us to con- sider the straits of Messina as a valley formed by the two ranges of mountains which extend parallel to each other, and into the interior of the two countries. The forces of nature acting in an ordinary manner could not produce this separa- tion ; it therefore, very probably, took place in the last cata- strophe which modified the surface of our globe, and esta- blished the present system. * Dr. Daubeny observes on the gneiss of Messina, " This is the form- ation which probably extends on the Italian side of the straits, if I may judge from the specimens I brought from the celebrated rock of Scylla." 1 1 0 Geography^ Geology^ In order to elucidate more clearly the above account of the different formations, and of their position and extent, I will give this short description, taken from the excellent Sketch of the Geology of Sicily^ by Dr. Daubeny. * The geology of Sicily may conveniently be divided into three parts, corresponding nearly with the three sides of the triangle which represents the figure of the island. It contains rocks of the primitive, transition, secondary or floetz, and tertiary classes. T\ie first division will comprehend the rocks from Messina (or rather from Taormina) to Trapani. These are primitive, transition, and secondary. The first are only found at the north-east corner near Messina, where the prevailing rock appears to be gneiss. The transition constitute a chain of hills, extending obliquely from Melazzo, on the north coast, to Taormina on the east. They consist chiefly of mica slate and clay slate, quartz rock, grey wacke, sandstone, and lime- stone. The secondary rocks are found principally in a line parallel with the north coast. They consist, first, of red sand- stone, with beds of shale extending from Cape Orlando to Cape Cefalu ; secondly, of a compact limestone, with beds of chert, jasper, and agate, which constitutes the Madonia moun- tains, and extends from Cefalu to Palermo, and from thence to Trapani. It perhaps corresponds with the magnesian lime- stone of England. The second division embraces the rocks that occur near the western coast, from Trapani to Cape Passaro, the most southern point of the island, and consist chiefly of a series of formations which Dr. Daubeny is inclined to refer to the most recent epoch in the history of our planet, namely, that poste- rior to the formation of the chalk. These tertiary rocks con- sist, first, either of beds of blue clay and marl, containing much gypsum and selenite, sulphur, sulphate of strontian, alum, and common salt ; secondly, of a calcareo-arenaceous breccia, replete with shells of a recent date, which is seen ex- tensively on the western coast, at the level of the sea, and, as we trace it south, is found to rest on the blue clay ; thirdly, of beds of shelly limestone, which occupy all the south of the island, and alternate repeatedly with beds of volcanic matter. The third, division, which takes in the line of coast on the east, from Cape Passaro to Taormina, exhibits indications of volca- nic action, occurring at very different epochs, from the lavas which flowed during the period at which the tertiary beds were being" deposite^d, to the comparatively recent eruptions that have taken place from Mount Etna. But the hill, on which * See Jameson's Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. 13. 1825. and Vegetation of Sicily. Ill are the ruins of Taormina, consists of a compact limestone resting on the mica slate, which stretches far into the interior, and constitutes a sort of boundary between the volcanic and Neptunian districts, a barrier beyond which the lavas of Etna have never yet penetrated. We will now briefly describe the several formations of these three parts or divisions. The granitic rocks of the Pelorian chain contain also em- bedded masses of a mixture of quartz and hornblende. They extend uninterruptedly as far as Melazzo. The peninsula on which the castle and town have been built is composed of well-marked gneiss, upon which there rests a compact greyish limestone containing fossil remains. This Dr. Daubeny con- jectures to be of a recent origin. At Cape Minjivio (Mons Jovis), the mica slate alternates with a bluish crystalline lime- stone without shells, a granular rock, consisting principally of quartz and mica, which the author names quartzy rock, and a sandstone made up of minute fragments of the above two in- gredients. The red sandstone which succeeds the slate form- ation is not micaceous, but contains red iron-shot grains of sand. This continues to Cefalu, except in places where it is interrupted by a bed or two of compact greyish limestone without petrifactions. The bold promontory of Cefalu consists of a bluish fetid limestone (called a Lumachella marble), and possessing organic remains. This formation, which rests upon the sandstone, extends to Trapani, including the Nebro- densian and Palermitan mountains. It contains magnesia. But the valleys and coast between Cefalu and Termini, about Palermo and Castell* a mare, are covered with a coarse pudding-stone, containing fragments of quartz, and of the magnesian limestone on which it rests, or of a calcareous breccia, in which sand is also present, and many fossils. The line of demarcation between this, and the older calcareous formation, is very distinctly marked by the character of vege- tation. The compact limestone like that of the Apennines, or of Nismes * is chiefly adapted for the olive, and affords but a scanty pasturage, vegetation being obstructed by the frag- ments of chert; whereas the breccia affords the finest crops * To compare the geological structure of Sicily with that of the island of Sardinia, see Memoire Geologique sur VIsle de Sardaigne par M. de la Marmoroy in the 11 th volume of Memoires du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Where it appears that the east side, comprehending nearly one half of the island, is of primitive and transition rocks, consisting of granite, porphyry, and mica slate ; the west side is composed of calcareous strata of the tertiary class, where volcanic rocks principally occur ; and there is seen in some places a secondary limestone, which probably corresponds with that of the Palermitan and Madonian mountains. 112 Geography, Geology. of corn, and is distinguished, even where uncultivated, by the luxuriance of the plants that grow upon it. This formation, though sometimes having a more arenaceous character, occurs along the western coast from Trapani to Sciacca; and a breccia of the same kind replete with shells, not far, if at all, removed from existing species, seems to fill up the hollows in most of the older rocks of Sicily. It exists at Messina, at Syracuse, from whence it proceeds along the shore in the di- rection of Catania, near Castro-Giovanni, and Girgenti, &c. Dr. Daubeny does not decide whether the breccia found on the hills in the interior of the island, is the same as that on the coast between Trapani and Selinunte, but the character of the rock as well as its embedded fossils appear to coincide. The stratum on which this reposes is by far the most con- siderable in Sicily. Indeed, nearly half the surface of the island is constituted of this and the subordinate beds ; as it extends from the neighbourhood of Palermo and Termini on the north, to Terra Nuova on the south, occupies nearly the whole of the centre, and proceeds on the east to the skirts of Etna. The predominating rock in this formation is a bluish plastic clay, with which are associated beds of gypsum, and masses of selenite, of blue limestone, of a dark brown slaty marl, of a white argillaceous limestone, frequently alternating with marl, and of a brecciated calcareous rock, with oval frag- ments of a white compact limestone. The blue clay rarely contains shells ; it possesses crystals of sulphate of lime, of sulphate of strontian, and of native sulphur, rock-salt, alum, sulphate of barytes, copper pyrites, and iron. The hill Macalubba near Girgenti is of blue clay, it is called the mud or air volcano, because at times it emits a quantity of gas, and throws up muddy water to a considerable height. A similar chemical action takes place in the Monte di S. Calogero behind Sciacca, where at its summit hot vapours * continually issue from numerous crevices and clefts. At its base are hot sulphureous baths, situated in the blue clay, but the mountain itself is a white saccharoid limestone of a compact nature, con- taining flint and shells. The blue clay formation the professor believes to be of a very recent date, belonging probably to the tertiary epoch, and is not related to the new red or muria- tiferous sandstone of the north of Europe. A series of tertiary rocks occupy the southern portion of the island, extending from Cape Passaro to the Lake Lentini, where they are interrupted by a diluvial tract, called the plam * It is also singular that the same phenomena occur in the mountains of Pantellaria, whiph is about seventy Italian miles distant to the south-west of Sciacca. That island is, according to Ferrara, altogether volcanic. and Vegetation of Sicily. 1 13 of Catania, but are seen again north of that district, near Catania and a few other places, where the rock has escaped the lavas of Etna. These beds may be traced uninterruptedly from Terra Nuova to Cape Passaro ; they consist either of a soft earthy limestone, generally of a straw colour, which in some of its varieties resembles the beds occurring in the oolite of England, or of a breccia, in which nodules of a more compact limestone are embedded in the earthy basis before described. At Cape Passaro the fundamental rock is a volcanic tuffj covered towards the summit of the cliff by a bed of a more crystalline and compact limestone, containing numerous or- ganic remains. Two or three alternations of the volcanic and calcareous strata occur within a few miles of the Cape. From hence for thirty miles northwards, the limestone rocks continue without interruption; but the most numerous alternations are seen between Monte Vennera and Lentini. On Mount Etna itself, it will be unnecessary to make any observations, therefore I will conclude with the opinion of Professor Daubeny, that " the volcanic rocks of Sicily are of two epochs at least, namely, antediluvian^ which alternate with calcareous rocks, and postdiluvian, which comprise the greater part of the lavas that have flowed, at different times, from Mount Etna. It is probable that this mountain was burning at a period antecedent to the time of Homer ; and there are volcanic rocks at its foot, which seem to have been produced before the commencement of the present order of things." The following extract from the accurate Memoir of Sicily, by Capt. W. H. Smyth, R. N., will point out the localities of the principal Sicilian minerals : — " Masses of Pozzalana occur at Lentini, Vizzini, Palazzuolo, and Palica ; and various sub- stances, that have also evidently undergone the action of fire, are observable in several parts of the interior, where the super- incumbent strata have been riven by torrents. The central divisions of the island contain large tracts of bitumen ; and, though sulphur is rather a cause than a product of volcanoes, it may be noticed that it is found in immense quantities at Mussumeli, Cattolica, Girgenti, Naro, Mazzarino, and Alicata. In the neighbourhood of Regalmuto, Fiume di Nisi, Caccamo, Savoca, and San-Giuseppe, are found silver, lead, copper, cinnabar, marcasite, emery, and antimony. Auriferous pyrites, lapis lazuli, mercury, alum, and coal similar to that from Bovey in Devonshire, abound in the hills and valleys of Nicosia, Ali, Tortorici, and Messina. " Rock-salt, bitumen, and gypsum, particularly the latter, abound at Castro-Giovanni, Mistretta, Caltanisetta, Ragusa, Vol. III. — No. 12. i tl4f Geog?^aphi/, Geology, and other places; while marbles, agates, chalcedonies, arid jaspers of great variety, occur at Palermo, Gagliano, Busac- chino, Cappizzi, Naso, Taormina, and many other parts, intermixed with asbestos, asphaltum, a saponaceous stone con- sisting principally of argil, possessing strong detergent quali- ties, and alabaster; and specimens of Ostracites, Echinites, Cardites, and various other organic, dendritic, and amorphous remains are frequently found embedded in the calcareous strata. Petroleum and naphtha are found on the surface of several springs at Palagonia, Petralia, Girgenti, Leonforte, Bivona, Caltanisetta, and Segesta. Amber is found in small quantities, washed up by the sea, at the mouth of the river Giarretta. Around Ragusa in the county of Modica, there abounds, more- over, a bituminous * rock used for building stone, that produces a great proportion of hydrogen gas, far better for ignition than that extracted from coal. Mineral waters, both hot and cold,. abound in every part of Sicily, and have for ages been cele- brated for their efficacy in relieving various chronic, paralytic, and cutaneous disorders, of these the sulphureous are to be met with at Ali, Cefalu, Sciacca, Termini, Segesta, and Mazza- rino; the ferruginous at S. Vito, Noto, Messina, Sclapani, and Mazzara ; and the vitriolic at Palermo, Corleone, Gianissileri, Petralia, Gratteri, and Bissuna." Those who are desirous of becoming better acquainted with the geology and mineralogy of Sicily may consult, probably with advantage, the following works, which I have not as yet had an opportunity of meeting with : — Borch. Mineralogia Siciliana. 1780, — Descrizione fisica e Mineralogica della Sicilia e delle Isole che le sono intorno, del Sign. Prof. Abate Francesco Ferrara, Messina. 181 0. — And, by the same author, Mineralogia della Sicilia. Catania,, 1813. — Descrizione dell' Etna, con la storia della Eruzione, ed il Catalogo dei Prodotti. Palermo, 1818. — Also, by Sign. Agat. Recupero. Storia Naturale e Generale deli' Etna. Vol. 2. 1814. Con rami. Of all the European islands, Sicily produces the most favoured and lovely Flora. It possesses plants which are com- mon to Italy, Illyria, Dalmatia, the south of France, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, Spain, Portugal, Madeira, the north of Africa, Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Tartarian Caucasus,. Greece, the islands of the Archipelago, and the Ionian Isles ; many, also, that are natives of Britain, and some of the still more northern countries of Europe. * According to Dr. Daubeny, this limestone contains near 14 per cent, of bituminous matter. mid Vegetation of Sicily. lL5 To those who wish to learn the geographical localities of many species about the coasts of the Mediterranean, I would recommend the perusal of a very interesting paper in the Memoir es du Museum d' Histoire Naturelle^ torn. 14. 1827, entitled, " Enumeratio Plantarum quas in Insulis Balearibus collegit (anno 1824) I. Cambessedes, earumque circa mare Mediterraneum distributio Geographica.'* Dr. Presl, who has lately published the first volume of his able Flora Sicula, arranged according to the natural orders^ divides the vegetation of Sicily into the seven following re- gions : — 1. The Subtropical Region, having an altitude from 0 — 100 Parisian feet, includes the cultivated exotics from the Brazils, Cape of Good Hope, &c., as Erythrina Corallodendron, Phoe^nix dactylifera; some Mesembryanthema, Cactij Mi- mosae, ^caciae, &c. 2* The Hilh/ Region^ which commences also with the former, and extends as high as 2000 ft. 3. The Lower Woody Region^ or Region of the Oak and Chestnut, with an elevation from 2000 to 4000 ft. 4. The Higher Woody Region, or Region of tile Beech and Pine, having a height from 4000 to 6000 ft. 5. The Suhalpine Region, extending in altitude from 6000 to 7,500fu 6* The Alpine Region is elevated from 7,500 to 9000 ft. 7. The Region of Lichens, extends from 9000 to 9,200 ft., or as hiffh as the Casa Inorlese. The thy^ee last divisions are only to be found on Mount Etna. , It may not be improper to give the heights of some of the Sicilian mountains above the sea, according to Capt. Smyth, most of them being celebrated localities for plants : — Feet Feet Summit of Mount Etna - 10,874 Mount Vennerata, near Taor- t^ootoftheCone - 9,760 mina - - 2925 Gasa Inglese - - 9,592 Mount Rosso, near Buscemi 2791 Philosopher's Tower '- 9,467 TorettaPeak,Vale of Palermo 2748 Highest part of the Woody Mount GriiFone, near Palermo 2679 Region - - 6,279 Mount Calogero, neai* Termini 2671 The Goat's Cave - 5,362 Castellaccio, a ruin above Mon- Convent of St. Niccolo deir reale - - ^ 2481 Arena - - 2,449 Monte Lauro, near Buccheri 2404 Lingua Grossa - - 1,725 Mount Bonifacio, near Alcamo 2213 Meraglia Peak, near Palermo 2145 Caltabellata, highest Peak of Mount St. Julian, the former the Range - 3690 Eryx - - 2184 Monte Cuccio, near Palermo 3229 Mount St. Severo, near Ca- Mount Scuderi, Neptunian ronia - - 2071 Range - - 3190. Mount Pellegrino, Telegraph 1955 Dinnamare over Messina 3112 Capo di Gallo, near Palermo 1692 I 2 116 Geography^ Geology^ and Vegetation of Sicily. Feet Feet St. Martino, Convent - 1659 Citadel of Cocalus at Glrgenti 1240 Mola Village, above Taormina 1585 Parco monastery - 1115 Highest of the Gibel manna Mount Calogero at Sciacca 1035 hills - - 1519 Ancient Theatre at Taormina 847 Moorish Castle at Taormina 1305 Bocca di Falco, near Palermo 430 The principal vegetable exports from Sicily are Almonds Cork Limes Oil Squills Barilla Cotton Linseed Olives Sumach Brandy Figs Linseed oil Oranges Timber Canary seed Flax Liquorice Pistachio nuts Tobacco Capers Fruit Lupines Pulse Wheat Caroub pods Hemp Maccaroni Raisins Wines Chestnuts Lemons Madder roots Rice Citrons Lemon juice Manna Soda The soil of Sicily is for the most part remarkably rich and fertile, and consists of a great variety of earths, and is often of great depth : but agriculture is unfortunately in a very pri- mitive state, and, therefore, it is difficult to conjecture what the produce might be, if a good system were enforced. At present, "the usual process," as Capt. Smyth observes (p. !!> 12.), "after clearing away the stones from the ground, is, to commence with sowing wheat, of which the best kinds are the Farro (Triticum Spelta), and the Majorca (Triticum hyber* num). The crop of wheat is succeeded by hemp, maize, lentils, or other pulse ; and, in the ensuing seasons, generally by barley and beans, followed by mixed esculents and a fallow. The harvest begins in the latter end of June *, and continues through July and August; nor are there two suc- cessive crops of any one thing in the year, except what are forced in such grounds as are artificially irrigated, called Ortaggi. Indeed, in many parts, from the scarcity of manure, the peasants are reduced to the necessity of leaving their fields fallow every other season. It is customary to sow a salm of wheat (20Eng. bushels) on a salm of land (5^ Eng. acres), but the quantity of seed is lessened in proportion as the soil is more fertile. The usual produce is from 10 to 16 salms, and, in the most favourable years, 28 for 1 ; but no part of Sicily can pretend to the once boasted hundred fold, which I am in- clined to receive as a poetical metaphor." I am. Sir, yours, &c. John Hogg. * J. H. arrived in Catania, May 25. 1826 ; some wheat had then been cut, and most of it was ripe : but when he had reached Palermo, June 10., the whole of the corn harvest was nearly finished. The Falls of Niagara. 1 1 7 Art. III. On the Falls of Niagara, and on the Physical Structure of the adjacent Country, By Mr, Robert Bakewell, Jun. Sir, During a visit of six days which my son made to the Falls of Niagara, the last summer, among other sketches of the scenery, he drew a few pictorial maps, chiefly with the intent of explaining to me the structure of the adjacent coun- try, and the stations he had visited. These maps, with the annexed description, gave me a much more definite idea of this extraordinary place than any accounts I had previously perused ; and I recommended him to transmit them for inser- tion in the Magazine of Natural History. The subject pos- sesses peculiar interest at the present time, from its connection with the enquiry actively going on in this country, respecting the extent of atmospheric agency, and that of rivers and tor- rents, in modifying the surface of the globe. It may be proper to remark, that a strict regard to proportions has been dis- pensed with in the pictorial maps, in order to present all the leading features of each place in one view. In a note sub- joined at the end, I have given a brief account of the rock specimens my son brought from Niagara. I am, Sir, yours, &c. Robert Bakewell, Sen, Hampsteady Jan, 4. 1830. t On arriving at Buffalo, a small town near the northern extremity of Lake Erie, I was informed, by several travellers from Niagara, that the best station for remaining a few days, and viewing the Falls, was on the Canada side of the river. I therefore took the first conveyance which presented itself^ and, in company with an American gentleman who had tra- velled with me from New Orleans, set off in joyous expect- ation of seeing, in a few hours, one of the most sublime scenes known on this side the world. About five miles from Buf- falo, we came to the ferry at the Black Rock, and crossed over the river Niagara, which connects Lake Erie with Lake On- tario. Here we saw a number of Indians fishing, with con- siderable success, with the rod and line. The breadth of the river is about a quarter of a mile, and the stream very rapid. The boat was worked across by a horse, walking on a circular inclined plane, which turned two wheels fixed on each side of the boat. A coach was in readiness at Waterloo to take us to the Falls : the distance is about 1 5 miles. The surface of the country was flat and uninteresting, and gave little indication of the scene we were fast approaching. We watched, with I 3 118 The Falls of Niagara, 22 a7id Physical Structure of the adjacent Country. 119 the most intense curiosity, every turn and opening in the road (which continues close to the river side all the way), to catch a glimpse of any thing which might serve to convince us "of our drawing near to the object of our journey. As we ad- vanced, the river became broader, and is divided by islands, one of which is six miles in length. When within eight miles of the Falls, a mist was observed to be rising from the river, and a deep dead sound was faintly heard ; but still the face of the country appeared unchanged. No rocks rose in the dis- tance, to mark the rude convulsions of Nature, which the ima- gination had conjured up as forming portals to the cataracts of Niagara. The noise, on approaching, gradually increased ; the mist rose in dense volumes, and formed clouds in the air. Through the openings in the wood, we soon came in sight of the rapids, and the verge of the precipice over which the waters rush. It will be seen, by a reference to the map, that the road from Waterloo runs by the Canada side of the river, and is nearly on a level with Lake Erie : it brings you to the back of the FalJs, and, therefore, not a glimpse of them is any where visible until you reach the cataract itself. Immediately after our arrival at the hotel {Jig> La), we proceeded to what is called the Table Rock, over which the mighty flood pours down. From the inn there is a gradual descent to a very steep bank of red alluvial sand, about 140 feet high, which caps the limestone rock. This bank {h) is thickly and beautifully wooded with oaks, sycamores, pines, and other forest trees. Having descended it, we walked over planks laid down on the marshy ground, to the extent of 200 yards, which brought us to the brink of a precipice (c), where the whole scene bursts at once on the sight. We were here on a level with the river, immediately before it rushes down the dreadful abyss. The loud, solemn, all-pervading roar of the waters is indescribably awful. The great commotion of waters at the base is concealed by thick clouds of mist, which, on ascending to a certain height, are borne away by the winds. The water, from violent agitation, is perfectly white for some distance below the Falls, and tilts up and down like a little sea, producing a thick cream-coloured foam, which is seen floating down the stream in large beds. The sublimity of the scene cannot be exceeded. We find ourselves suddenly in the presence of a superior power, and feel an impressive con- sciousness of our own nothingness. This Fall (from its con- cave form called the Horse-shoe Fall) is 600 yards wide, and 158 feet perpendicular. The descent of the rapids imme^ diately above the Falls (J) is 58 feet, making the whole SI 6 feet. I 4 120 The Falls of Niagara, Goats' Island (e), which divides the American and Canada Falls, presents a bare face of perpendicular rock (h), which •extends about 500 yards north and south. The American •Falls are about 200 yards in width, and 164 feet in height. At a short distance from the Table Rock, a wooden spiral staircase is erected, of which the top is represented at^ The staircase we descended, and approached as near as we could to the bottom of the Fall, without getting wet through. The noise here was sublime, but not so loud as I had ex- pected. Owing to the rising spray, only a part of the cataract was visible : huge fragments of rocks, which had been torn asunder from their native bed by the torrent, lay as ' monu- ments to record the mischief it has done,' and formed, with the overhanging precipice, a bold and savage foreground to chaos beyond. As my companion was returning to Buffalo for New York that afternoon, we hastened back to the hotel (called the Pa- vilion), which is a spacious building of wood, situated on a rising ground very near to the Falls : it is kept by Mr. For- syth. His son has another hotel not far off. In consequence of the coldness of the season, there were very few visitors ; about twenty sat down to dinner. Mr. For- syth, the landlord, was at the head of the table, and related the wonders of the place. He had lived there forty years, and was the first settler in that part of the country, during which time, he informed us, that the Falls had receded from 40 to 50 yards. Not many months ago, an immense portion of rock fell down, which caused a considerable change in the appear- ance of the Falls, and gave quite a new and beautiful feature to the scene. On the falling in of this rock, the water imme- diately above met with an obstruction, and, instead of shoot- ing over in a curved line, from the top to the bottom, appears to boil out in globes, enlarging as they descend, and may be compared to a sudden burst of steam, perfectly white, which contrasts finely with the transparent, delicate, green colouring of the body of water that rushes by its side. The torrent, seen en profile, as it rushes over the precipice, is here esti- mated to be about 12 or 15 feet thick. I make use of this term, to distinguish it from breadth and depth. It does not preserve the same thickness in every part, but varies considerably in this respect. The only perceptible variation observed during the year, in the quantity of water which flows down the Falls, is when • a strong south-west wind sweeps over the wide ex- panse of Lake Erie, driving its waters into the mouth of the river. It was my intention to have taken a series of views, anti- and Physical Structure of the adjacent Country, 121 cipating much pleasure from looking at them when some thousand miles distant, but, for the first day or two, I felt so dispirited with the magnitude and grandeur of the subject, that I had nearly given up the attempt. As my mind became more familiar with the objects around me, I gained courage, and rambled about in search of situations from which the best general view of the scene might be taken. The grandest point of view is, perhaps, at the foot of the limestone rock on the Canada side, about 100 yards from the bottom of the staircase, the top of which is seen {Jig.^2.f)i but the subject is too vast for the pencil. The wind, the state of the atmosphere, the time of the day, &c., produce most won- derful changes on the scene, and on the mind; the transi- tions of sunshine and shade are the most remarkable. One afternoon, whilst standing on the Table Rock (c), contem- plating the scene before me, never shall I forget the effect of the sun's rays, darting from beneath a dark cloud, when within 15° of the western horizon. This sudden burst of golden light flashing on the picture, spread an ethereal charm that was quite enchanting. I could scarcely believe that I was gazing on the same objects. How exquisitely beautiful was the iris * which, in an instant, started into being, and encircled this sublime scene with its loveliness and splendour ! The varied but subdued tints of vegetation, the evanescent and floating appearance of the grey-tinted rocks on the opposite side, as seen through the thin veil of mist, the deep long- drawn shadows from the setting s^un, and the hollow sound of that mysterious voice that thundered from the gulf, gave a spirituality to the whole which it is impossible to describe. Early one morning, I went with the guide to pass under the water of the Canada Fall : we took off" our clothes at a hut built at the bottom of the staircase, and equipped our- selves with strong shoes, large loose cloaks, and strong, broad-brimmed, white painted hats. We had not proceeded far over the loose slippery stones, before the guide stopped to wash his head at a sulphur spring, which came down in big drops : what its virtues were I did not enquire. On turning a sharp angle of the rock, a sudden gust of wind met us, com- ing from the hollow between the Falls and the rock, which drove the spray directly in our faces, with such force that, in an instant, we were wet through. When in the midst of this shower-bath, the shock took away my breath ; I turned back, and scrambled over the loose stones, to escape the conflict. The guide soon followed, and told me that I had passed the * It was not a segment of prismatic colours, like a rainbow, but an entire circle. 122 The Falls of Niagara, worst part. With that assurance, I made a second attempt ; but so wild and disordered was my imagination with the novelty of my situation, that, when I had reached half way, I could bear it no longer, and hurried out much faster than I entered, having taken but a hasty glance of the great sheet of water over my head. From the base of the rock to the falling water, there is a space of about one hundred feet. The ferry (g) is rather more than a quarter of a mile from the Falls, in a straight line. Following the serpentine direction along the verge of the cliff (^), the walk is very in- teresting, from the views, seen through the openings of the trees, of what are called the American Falls, and of the per- pendicular rock (h) which forms one of the sides of this deep natural channel. The small town of Manchester (z), situated about half a mile from the Falls, and several large mills, give a cheerful appearance to this part of the picture. A broad steep path conducts from the edge of the precipice to the ferry. Such is the comparative tranquillity of the water in this part of the stream, that I was taken across by a boy, to the landing-place on the other side (k), immediately below the American Falls. The waters which expand to form the Ame- rican and Canada Falls, after uniting, are here contracted into a stream not more than 160 yards broad. The river is con- fined between perpendicular rOcks ; and the quantity of water that falls is estimated to be 100,000,000 tons in an hour: hence, it might be thought that the current, for miles, would be impassable for a small boat in this narrow channel. It seems almost incredible, were not the fact decisively proved, that, immediately below such an immense rush of waters, the surface should be sufficiently tranquil to allow a boat to pass across the stream with so much ease ; but, v/hat is still more extraordinary, there is a current of back water on the Ame- rican side of the river, running towards the main fall. The explanation given by persons residing on the spot is, that the depth of the river exceeds 1 70 feet, and that the water from the Falls sinks beneath, and forms an under-current, which, in its progress, dashing against the rocks at the bottom, causes the water to rise, in different parts, in circular heaps to the sur- face, and forms the back current. Having crossed the river several times, I feel convinced that this explanation is correct : indeed, so comparatively tranquil is the creamy surface, that Doats often advance to the very base of the Falls. On ascending a zigzag staircase up the rocks, I arrived at the ferryman's hut, and followed the path to the rapids above the American Falls, over which there is a wooden bridge, of curious construction, supported by the projecting and Physical Struckcre of the adjacent Country. 123; rocks. These rapids, alone, would be visited by thousands in any other situation. The descent is about 60 feet in half a mile. On crossing the bridge, for which I paid 25 c, I came to the Enchanted Island, commonly called Goats' Island (^). Se- veral females were gathering wild raspberries, of which there was great abundance. As I was rambling through this de- lightful spot, I observed, at a short distance, a tall figure, in a long dark-coloured cloak, with an old broad-brimmed hat, a iblio book under his arm, and a staff or wand in his hand, walking majestically towards me. I felt a kind of awe on approaching this singular-looking character, who appeared the Genius of the place, the Prospero of the island. When I came up with him, he gave me a mysterious look, and passed. To follow up the fiction of the Enchanted Island, a Mira?ida was not wanting, for I had seen her gathering fruit ; and, as for Caliban, he was, no doubt, growling mischief under the Falls. Following the course of the stream, from the bridge to the Falls, I came to a very retired nook or spot of ground (I), where not more than two or three persons could safely stand without the fear of being elbowed down the cataract. Seated on the root of a tree, under a natural arbour which overhung the abyss, I surveyed, with mingled feelings of admiration and awe, the beauty and grandeur of the scene beneath me. It was a most lovely day : sunshine and cloud, by turns, swept over the face of Nature ; the effect was heightened by the magical appearance of the inconstant rainbow. This was the segment of a circle, and not a circular iris like that before mentioned. A ledge of rock (o) divides the water mto two unequal falls. These Falls are higher than the Horse-shoe Falls, and, being much narrower, they appear still more so. The breadth of the island is about 500 yards from this point to the Canada Falls, on approachhig v/hich, I came unex- pectedly upon an open piece of ground that commands a fine view of the rapids (d), whose turbulent career commences half a mile from the Fall. The distant horizon to the south is bounded by forests. On the opposite woody banks were seen the two hotels, and, to the north, the beautiful avenue of rocks, clothed wdth vegetation, through which the river escapes. A railed platform (w^) has been constructed on the rocks, extending over the water from the island, to the commence- ment of the curve which forms the concave central part of the Horse-shoe. The whole Canada Fall may be said to form three curves : the two sides are small, being slightly convex ; the centre concave, with the edge much broken. The station 124 The Falls ofNiagara, 23 mm i&M||| iHiiii 'k ■ -. / iiihilliil »i Hill J1^ illilil . ill ;■ 3'hi [' and Physical Structure of the adjacent Country, 125 at the end of the platform is inconceivably grand, suspended, as it were, over the yawning gulf; distance is concealed by thick volumes of mist, and the imagination is left to fathom the deep descent. I felt an indescribable sensation stealing over me, which made it dangerous to indulge any longer in hanging over this irresistible tide. It is curious to watch the vapour as it sometimes hangs suspended : when it arrives at a certain height in the atmo- sphere, many of its curves will break, assume a ragged hanging appearance, and then dissipate into air. On my return through the island, I again saw the myste- rious visiter, seated at the foot of a tree, with his folio laid open on his knees : he did not deign to look at me on passing, so intent appeared he at his studies. The only history I could hear of him was, that he had lived several years at Manches- ter, that he was insane, but harmless, and spent a great por- tion of his time on the island. I lingered until evening in this beautiful seclusion, and returned to the hotel, having passed one of the most delightful days of my life. During a week's residence at the Falls, I was greatly sur- prised, on returning to the hotel, after each day's ramble, to find so few of the visiters, from different parts of the world, that I had left in the morning : numbers would come and go the same day, others would spend one or two days, but sel- dom any stayed over the third ; yet they all came for the ex- press purpose of seeing the Falls of Niagara. Proceeding northward from the Falls of Niagara, the road continues for seven miles on the same table land, which is nearly on a level with Lake Erie (see,y%. 23.), when the country suddenly sinks down to a plain, spreading to the shores of Lake Ontario. Descending to this plain, I came to the small village of Queenstown, situated near the banks of the river, where I was agreeably surprised on seeing the ab- rupt termination of the opening or channel through which the river flows, after its descent at Niagara, as represented in th^ birdseye view. (j%. 23.) It is very remarkable that the river does not enlarge on escaping its narrow bounds, being only 160 yards wide, and continuing so, with little variation, until it is lost in Lake Ontario. The current is very rapid, compared with what it is immediately below the Falls. The ferryman, in crossing with his boat, was obliged to ascend a considerable distance by the bank side, and then glide down the current towards the opposite side of the river. The waters of the Lakes Su- perior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie all pass through this channel, which gives a peculiar interest to the place, when 126 The Falls of Niagara, taken in connection with the appearance of the chasm from whence the waters issue. The height of the chasm {fg. 23. cc) in the sohd rock, independent of the receding diluvial soil, is about 200 feet to the plain ; its width at the opening {d d) is, perhaps, 400 yards. On viewing this highly interesting scene, the mind is irresistibly carried back to the time when a mighty flood poured over the owc^-united precipice at d. .This fact, I think, cannot be doubted by any one who sees its present appearance, and who duly reflects on what a falling body of water, so immense, so rapid, and so resistless in its .course as the river of Niagara, is capable of accomplishing in a series of ages. Taking it for granted that the Falls have once been at c, it is a curious question to enquire, When were they there ? An approximate solution to this enquiry will be ^iven, if Mr. Forsyth's statement be allowed of the Falls having receded nearly 50 yards in the last 40 years, and if it be granted ;that this has been the constant ratio of their recession. The distance from the opening (c) to the Falls is 7 miles, equal to 12,520 yards, which gives 9856 years for the period in .which they have been retrograding to where they now are. It appears evident, from circumstances to be hereafter stated, that the waters were formerly more abundant than they are at present ; nor can we be certain that the rocks were equally hard in every part of their extent, in which case, the process of disintegration would be much quicker, and the period of recession shorter. The drawing (Jig, 23.) is intended to represent a birdseye view or map of the country, from an imaginary point above the chasm at Queenstown, and to comprise a view of the river as far as Lake Erie {I T). The distance, as I have before mentioned, from Lake Erie to the Falls is 25 miles, and from the Falls to the opening (c) 7 miles. The waving lines (ff) mark the alluvial or diluvial sand cliffs above the limestone precipices (d). This diluvium covers a great part of the table land. The lines ^^mark the separation between the limestone and the lower shale (hh). It may be proper to observe, that these lines are more distinctly represented than what are seen in nature, the rocks (h) having banks thickly wooded up their sides, and the edges of the precipice are here and there broken. It is evident, from the curved and water-worn appearance of the diluvial banks {ff), in which large boulders are em- bedded, that the waters must once have flowed nearly on a level with these banks. This important consideration again carries us back to the period of time when the chasm (c) did not exist, when the parts d d and h h formed but one and the and Physical Structure of the adjacent Country. 127 same rock, and when the extensive waste of waters poured over the precipice at Queenstown, before they had worn out the channel (c) in the sohd rock. Before adverting to the causes which have combined to effect the excavation of the chasm (c), 7 miles in length and 200 feet in depth, it may be proper to say something of the strata which form the table land, and in which the excavation is made. The diluvial sand varies in thickness from 10 to 1 40 feet ; under this is a bed of hard limestone, containing a few imperfect organic remains : this stratum is about 90 feet in thickness, it extends nearly in a horizontal direction over the country, and forms the bed of the river above the Falls. This limestone rests on a bed of loose shale rock (^), nearly of the same thickness : it is exceedingly fragile, and crumbles into small pieces on being removed from its native bed ; the shale, also, contains some pieces of dark argillaceous limestone. Had all the strata been solid limestone, there is great reason to believe that the erosive action of the water would have been very slow, and many generations might have passed away without any sensible change taking place ; but the vast mass of waters, breaking, with inconceivable force, on the softer shale which forms the base of the hard rock, the foundation is thus undermined, and the harder rock breaks down, in consi- derable masses, for want of support. It is highly probable that the Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie were once united, and formed one vast in- land sea, which poured its waters down the Missouri and Mis- sissippi into the ocean ; even at present, some of the branches of the former river (in high floods) interlock with the rivers that run into Lake Superior. The abrupt termination of the table land at Queenstown (see ^^. 23. and Jig, 24.) woul^i indicate a subsidence of the country round what is now Lake Ontario : such a subsidence, if admitted, would very naturally explain the circumstances at present existing. The waters of the great lakes to the west would, at first, rush over the whole precipice at Queenstown, and take a northern direction by the river St. Lawrence. As the waters gradually became lower, they would be confined between the diluvial banks {,//), and finally begin to furrow the passage or chasm in the solid rock which we at present observe. The immense force of the water, as before stated, acting on the loose shale, it would be carried away in the state of mud, and the overhanging lime- stone, being left without support, would fall down in large masses, which would be broken by the fall, and would be worn and carried away by the violence of the current. This pro- 128 The Falls of Niagara^ cess, being constantly in operation, the Falls have, crab-like, travelled to their present situation. A cursory glance at what is now taking place at the Falls, leaves not a doubt that the great cause of the comparatively quick retrograde movement of the Falls is, the loose and soft material on which the limestone rock rests, and the destruc- tive action of the water upon it. The water, also, penetrating the crevices between the strata of solid limestone, detaches them from each other, and disposes them to fall. At present, the limestone rock projects considerably over the shale at the Falls, and it is this projection which makes it practicable to pass between the water and the rock, nearly half way under the Horse-shoe Fall. A few months before I was at Niagara, a very extensive portion of rock, as before mentioned, fell down at the Horse- and Physical Stnictnre of the adjacent Country. 129 shoe Fall. The shock was felt at a considerable distance : the noise was like a distant clap of thunder. The disintegration of the rocks must continue until the Falls reach Lake Erie, provided the present causes continue to operate. Goats' . Island, which now separates the Falls, will, perhaps, as the waters recede on each side of it, remain in the midst of the fallen flood, a high, perpendicular, inac- cessible rock : a lasting monument of the destructive power of that element which now thunders at its base. It may, perhaps, be said that this deep chasm or chan- nel, through which the river runs on its descent, was a rent made by an earthquake. This supposition would avail if the strata were deranged, but the reverse is the fact. The strata on each side are parallel and on the same level, and bear evi- dent marks of the action of some powerful instrument having cut through them in a perpendicular direction : that instru- ment was water. The wall-like appearance of the rocks on each side of the river is precisely the same at the Falls, as at the commencement of the chasm at Queenstown. By the lockages on the Erie and Oswego canals, lately constructed, it appears that the elevation of Lake Erie above Lake Ontario is 290 feet ; and that the elevation of the former lake above the river Hudson, at Albany, is 575 feet. The river at Albany is 1 50 miles distant from the sea. Since it is a well established fact that the Falls have re- ceded considerably within the memory of man, and are, by slow but progressive steps, cutting their way backwards to Lake Erie, the mind is led to anticipate the period when the present chasm will extend to that lake, and the consequences which must result from such an event. My father, in a former edition of his Introduction to Geo- logy, published in 1815, offered some observations upon this subject, the justice of which seems confirmed, in a remarkable manner, by the recent interesting researches of Mr. Lyell, on the fresh-wa;ter formations in the lakes of Scotland : — " Since the banks of the Cataract of Niagara were inhabited by Eu- ropeans, the distance has been progressively shortening be- tween the Falls and Lake Erie. When it has worn down the intervening calcareous rocks, and effected a junction, the upper lake will become dry land, and form an extensive plain, surrounded by rising ground, and watered by a river or smaller lake, which will occupy the lowest part. In this plain, future geologists may trace successive strata of fresh- water formation, covering the subjacent crystalline limestone. The gradual deposition of minute earthy particles, or the more rapid subsidence of mud from sudden inundations, will Vol. III. — No. 12. k 130 First and last Appearances of form different distinct beds, in which will be found remains of fresh-water fish, of vegetables, and of quadrupeds. Large animals are frequently borne along by the rapidity of the cur- rent, and precipitated down the cataracts : their broken bones, mixed with the calcareous sediment, may form rocks of cal- careous tufa, where the waters first subside after their de- scent.'* It may be proper to remark, that the partial drainage of Lake Erie will also effect a corresponding drainage of the other lakes connected with it, and add many thousand square miles of productive soil to the continent of North America. * Art. IV. Dates of the first and last Appearances of the Hirun" dines in the Neighbourhood of Allesley Rectory, for the Year 1829, with Remarks, By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M. A. Sir, Your correspondent, L. E. O. of Bradford (Vol. II. p. 458.), communicates the interesting fact of his having observed the common swallows (he does not state the number of them), on the 15th of November, at Richmond in Yorkshire. This is certainly late in the season for these birds to be seen; later, indeed, than I have ever observed them, except in one in- stance, which was on November 20th, as appears by referring to the table of arrivals and departures (Vol. II. p. 19.) under the year 1806 ; and in this instance it was only a single bird that was seen. Your correspondent is pleased to say that " it was his in- tention to have communicated this previously to the present time, in the form of an essay on the arrival and departure of the jHTirundines, along with some other observations and facts * The few rock specimens my son brought from the vicinity of Niagara are: — 1. A hard subcrystalline grey limestone. 2. A dark very close-grained limestone. Both the specimens closely resemble some of the lower beds of English mountain or transition lime- stone. 3. The same dark limestone, with an indistinct vestige of chain coral, in which the organic part is chert. In this specimen there is a small string of yellow blende (sulphuret of zinc). The above three specimens are from the hard limestone (dd) in fig. 23. 4. A dark argillaceous limestone, from the shale h h. Though there are few organic remains in the limestone at the Falls, the mineral characters indicate that it belongs to the transition class of rocks. — n, i?., Seiu the Hir/mdmes at Alleslei/ Rectory m 1829. 131 wliich he has collated [collected ?], but that I have antici- pated him." As these facts, &c., collected by an accurate observer, can- not be without interest, and may in all probability throw some additional light on a subject by no means fully cleared up, I sincerely hope L. E. O. may still be induced to communi- cate them, together with his remarks, through the medium of your Magazine. " Two heads are," proverbially, "better than one ; " and " Natural History ought to be studied as a col- lection of facts, not as the history of our guesses or opi- nions." * I take this opportunity of mentioning the date of the first and last appearances of our ^irundines for the present year (1829), in order that such of your readers as think it worth while, may be able to fill up the blank space unavoidably left in the table above alluded to, which was printed m March last. First seen. Last seen. Swallow - - April 17. - - - October 14. Marten - - April 23. - - - October 14. Sand Marten - April 29. Swift - - May 3. - - - August 3- The swifts were mostly gone in this neighbourhood by the end of July ; perhaps the wet ungenial season hastened their departure. The swallows too, and martens, i. e. the main body of them, retired early. Having paid more than usual attention to the departure of these interesting birds this autumn, I may, perhaps, be pardoned for stating the par- ,ticulars more in detail. The swallows and martens, then, had become scarce with us by the end of September : I ob- served a few of both species, October 3d ; and a few swallows only, on the 4th and 6th ; both species again on the 8th ; and on the 9th we had a large assemblage of swallows soar- ing and sporting in the middle of the day about the church and over the village, apparently enjoying themselves as in the height of summer ; but I cannot positively say that there were any martens among them, though I suspect there might have been. This flight, I have little doubt, consisted of the later- hatched broods ; and the young swallows, before their tail feathers are fully developed, when flying high in the air, are not always readily to be distinguished from their congeners. Not one individual could I see on the 10th, though a much warmer day than the preceding. Many appeared again on * See note, by Forster, in JCalni's Travels, vol. ii. p. 9., second edition, ■^here the reader will find some curious statements in proof of the position, that swallows, in northern countries at least, retire under water for the winter, and have actually been found in such situations in a torpid state J ' K 2 1 32 British Pearl Fishery the 1 1th, when the day was also warm, and three swallows on the 1 2th. The 1 ^th was very wet and stormy, but cleared up towards the evening, when I observed four or five swallows and two martens. From this day they retired to terra incog- nita, and I could see them no more. I have to apologise for being thus tediously minute. If the above remarks do not serve in any degree to clear up the difficulties in which the subject is involved, they show at least how these amusing little creatures baffle our researches and enquiries ; for it is difficult to account for the fact of swallows being to be seen here in plenty on the 9th and 11th of October, while not one was to be observed on the 10th, though the weather was fine and warm. What had become of them on this intermediate day, the 10th? Perhaps L. E. O. may be able to elucidate the point. At all events, he will oblige a brother swallow- fancier, by communicating any observations he may have to make on the subject. Yours, &c. Allesley Bectory, Nov. 23. 1829. W, T. Bree. P. S. — Since writing the above, I have been informed by a friend, on whose accuracy I can fully depend, that a single swallow (H. rustica) was observed flying about the mansion at Packington, six or seven miles hence, on the 6th of No- vember. Art. V. Some Account of the British Pearl Fishery tww existing on the Conway, By D. C. Sir, As it may not be generally known that a pearl fishery exists at the present time in any part of Great Britain, I am in- duced to send you the following particulars for the gratification of your numerous readers : — The pearl muscle (-My a margaritifera) is found in abun- dance in the River Conway, in North Wales, and is collected by many of the natives, who obtain their livelihood entirely by their industry in procuring the pearls. When the tide is out, they go in several boats to the bar at the mouth of the river, with their sacks, and gather as many shells as they can before the return of tide. The muscles are then put in a large kettle over a fire to be opened ; and the fish taken out singly from the shells with the fingers, and put into a tub, into which one of the fishers goes bare-footed, and stamps upon them, until they are reduced into a sort of pulp. They next pour in water to separate the fishy substance, which they call solach, from the more heavy parts consisting of sand, on the Comx}ay» 133 small pebbles, and the pearls, which settle in the bottom. After numerous washings, until the fishy part is entirely removed, the sediment, if I may so term it, is put out to dry, and each pearl separated on a large wooden platter, one at a time, with a feather ; and when a sufficient quantity is obtained, they are taken to the overseer, who pays the fisher so much per ounce for them. The price varies from I5. 6^. to 45. ; there are a number of persons who live by this alone ; and where there is a small family to gather the shells and pick out the fish, it is preferable to any other daily labour. The pearls are generally a dirty white, sometimes blue, but never, I be- lieve, green or reddish. I have sent you a few specimens 25 (^^'25.), and I leave you to describe them. ^<^ I cannot with accuracy say how many ounces ^^ ^ are taken to the overseer each week, though I might say that there are some scores. But what makes this fishery the more singular is the mystery which hangs over it. At present it is a per- fect monopoly, and there is but the one who buys them up that knows what becomes of them afterwards. It has been carried on in this manner for many years ; and as such a thing, if made public, might prove more beneficial to the neighbouring poor, by causing a higher price to be given for the pearls, through competition, it would be very desirable if any of your numerous correspondents could throw some light on this interesting subject. There have been some curious and fanciful surmises, which may not be thought worth men- tioning. Some suppose that the pearls are sent abroad to be manufactured into seed pearls : others, more gravely^ that they are exported to India to be dissolved in the sherbet of the Nabobs ! ! However, at present it is a mystery ; and not- withstanding the pains taken and the expense incurred by some liberal gentlemen in endeavouring to find out the secret, it is as great a mystery as ever. The huts which have been erected for the convenience of boiling the fish, are on the ex- tremity of the marsh, about a mile north of the town of Conway. The pearls are seldom found here much larger than the en- closed specimens, though about twelve miles up the river, they have been found occasionally as large as a moderate-sized pea, and have been sold for a guinea the couple, but they are very rarely met with. When I say that the price vai'ies from \s. 6d. to 45., I do not mean to say that they are valued according to their size, for the large and small pearls are all sold together ; but some years ago they were as high as 4%' now they are only 2s. per ounce. Yours, &c^ Nov. 27. 1829. D, C, K 3 IS* Introductory View of the The sample of pearls that accompanied this letter contained three black ones ; the rest, hardly worthy of the name of pearls, have no lustre, and are duller than those found in the common English oyster, and very irregular in form. They may be as good to dissolve in sherbet as any, but must be totally unfit for ornaments. Fine pearls have, however, often been found in the Mya (U^nio) margaritifera, and sold for jewellery, and such must be what the overseer purchases. — Co?id, Art. VI. An Introductory Vieiv of the Linnean System of Plants. By Miss Kent, Authoress of Flora Domestica, Sylvan Sketches, &c. (^Continued from p. 62.) The class Heptandria (distinguished by seven stamens) is the smallest and the least important of the four-and -twenty, and contains only one British species ; a plant called chick- weed winter-green (Trientalis europae'a), but seldom met with, and possessing little interest but for the botanist, though by no means deficient in beauty. The seed is clothed in a tunic of lace, and the leaves are elegantly veined. That magnificent and stately tree, the horsechestnut (^s- culus Hippocastanum), is a visitor from Asia, too well known to need description ; yet two persons would be likely to describe it in very opposite terms : for there are few plants, great or small, about which people differ so -widely; one calls it handsome and stately, another heavy and clumsy. It is certainly ornamental when in leaf, and yet more so in the bravery of its blooming thyrses ; but, in its winter naked- ness, it is like a clumsy living faggot, wholly destitute of grace or apparent beauty. I say apparent, for it has hidden beauties ; to which, perhaps, may be attributed some portion of its clumsiness. The buds, which, at a distance, appear like so many inobby ends of a bundle of thick sticks, will amply repay a careful examination : they are of two kinds, the smaller, leaf-buds ; and the larger, flower-buds, A cele- brated German naturalist detached from this tree, in the winter season, a flower-bud not larger than a pea, in which he could reckon more than sixty flowers. The external covering was composed of seventeen scales, cemented together by a gummy substance, and protecting from moisture the down which formed the internal covering of the bud. Having carefully removed both the scales and down, he discovered four branch leaves surrounding a spike of flowers, and the Linnean System of Plants. 135 latter so clearly visible, that, with the aid of a microscope, he not only counted sixty-eight flowers, but could discern the pollen of the stamens, and perceive that some was opaque, and some transparent. It would be more advisable for the young student to gather one of these buds in the early spring, when the sun is just beginning to melt away the gum with which the scales are sealed together. If his surprise at the fact here related have touched upon incredulity, he will then believe and admire ; as he becomes more familiar with such objects, his doubt and wonder will probably be diminished, but his interest and love of nature will be proportionally increased. The examination of buds, bulbs, and seeds will afford an endless source of entertainment and admiration to the young botanist : he will be surprised to learn by how many miniature plants he has been unconsciously surrounded in the depth of winter. There are comparatively few seeds in which he may not see something of the future plant : he may witness the early promises of spring while luxuriating upon the ripe fruits of autumn. Even in imported fruits he may behold life as it were waiting to start into action : let him split an almond, and between the two sides, which are termed the cotyledons (cavity, from the Greek), and which are the storehouses from which the young plant draws its nourishment, he will perceive two small leaves, regularly formed and veined, and wanting only light to give them colour. Of the bulbous flowers, one of the most obvious in this embryo state is the tulip, on account of its size. Care- fully stripping off" the coats of the bulb one by one, the minia- ture plant may be discovered snugly cradled in the centre. We cannot hkve a better specimen of the early formation of plants in the bud, than in that of the horsechestnut. This tree was brought into England in the year 1 550, and is now so common that we do not generally consider it as a foreigner : or, if we do ever think of it in that light, it is as sijlower from Brobdignag: a fine Brobdignagian lupine; not as a stout tree stretching out its umbrageous arms over us, like a father with protecting tenderness laying his hand upon the head of his child. The deer, however, account it a noble fruit tree : they feed eagerly upon the nuts, which, either in a raw state, or made into a paste after maceration in lime-water, are fre- quently given to sheep to fatten them. The Turks grind them, and mingle the meal with other provender, for their horses. Both soap and starch have been obtained from these nuts, and there has been just enough done to show that there is much more to do, and that industry and ingenuity might turn them to account in various ways. They afford an excellent K 4- 136 Introdtictory Vieso of the size for paper-hangers and book-binders, and a cephalic snufF; and the husks are employed in the tanning of leather. The wood is not particularly valuable, but the bark is sometimes used in cases of fever. It is extraordinary that the many uses which experiment has shown may be made of this tree, its easy cul- tivation, and remarkably quick growth, should not have excited more attention in this speculating age, and that there should not have been a Joint-stock Allite7-ative Company for the manu- facture of starch, soap, size, snuff, and shoes. The tree attains its full growth in about fifteen years from the first vegetation of the nut; its operations are, indeed, remark- ably active for so bulky a tree : naked, clumsy, and heavy as it looks during the winter, no sooner does the sun melt away the cement by which the scales are bound together than the tree starts immediately into leaf; and it is understood that the spring shoots complete their growth in the space of three weeks. I have spoken at some length of this tree, my dear reader ; for the class to which it belongs is so small, that were I not to linger a little over the plants which I mention, you might be likely to forget that I had spoken of the class at all. Let me observe, by the way, that there are three numbers with which botany is by no means familiar; seven, nine, and eleven. Another well known plant of this class and order is the Calla aethiopica, commonly called the arum. The fine white flower of this plant, so generally admired, is, as I have before observed, without the corolla ; what is commonly taken for such being the calyx ; that species of calyx botanically termed a spatha. The column rising in the midst of it is styled a spadix, a name given to the receptacle of the flowers of palms, and extending to very few others. - The genus Septas, of the order Heptagynia^ is a remark- able instance of the prevalence of the number seven, in which, as Rousseau observes, " nature seems to take no delight." It has seven stamens, seven pistils, a calyx of seven segments, a corolla of seven petals, and seven capsules. The eighth class, Octdndria, comprises many genera, very different in their general aspect : in some plants you may detect the class to which they belong at a glance ; but in the octandrous plants the young botanist must have recourse to the Linnean characters before he can have any notion of their place in the artificial system, several natural families being here united. The student would not be led, by their external appearance, to suppose that the heath, the nasturtium, and the maple tree were included in the same class and order ; Linnean System of Plants. 137 yet all are octandrous, and all monogynous. Of this first order we have nine British genera, of which eight are well known, and the greater number handsome. Of the 6Bnothera we have but one species CE, biennis {bis, twice, annus, a year), the evening primrose ; and some botanists doubt whether that is really a native. Sir J. E. Smith observes that, though undoubtedly wild on the coast of Lancashire, it may have been brought by natural means from the other side of the Atlantic. It has been found in some places less suspidous, but still, it may be supposed to have escaped from gardens ; being a plant in general cultivation. It has no resemblance to the primrose but in colour ; its fine fragrant petals expand in the evening, and make a conspicuous figure in a bouquet, for which the flower is the better adapted as it is fragrant without being oppressive. Several foreign species are seen in gardens, some yet handsomer than this native or naturalised species. The willow-herb is a large and beautiful genus, of which we have nine native species : it derives its English name from the form of its leaves, and the watery situations in which it is found. The botanical appellation, Epilobium, signifies a violet on a pod * ; but it must be acknowledged that the flower has very little resemblance to a violet, either in form or colour ; neither is its pericarp properly termed a pod : — it 26 is inferior, quadrangular, 1, 2, or 3 in. long, according to the species, and more or less tinged with red ; it is composed of four pieces called valves which form the sides, and is divided into four cells by as many partitions extending from thence to the angles of the quadrangular re- ceptacle, as seen magnified in^^. 26. a, (This receptacle is not to be considered as one of the seven parts of fructification ; it is the receptacle, not of the flower, but of the seeds.) If the seed-vessel be carefully opened on one side, when ripe, a sort of silky feather will imme- diately spring out, as if weary of confinement in so narrow a lodging (&). Each seed is winged with these silken feathers (c), in which they lie embedded, until the valves make away for them to take flight, and by their means the plant is * Some persons believe the word violet to have reference to the colour only ; but one small objection to this interpretation is, that the colour is no more like that of the violet than the form : others suppose the word to be used in a complimentary sense, as we use the word pink. In France and Italy the name of violet is extended to many other flowers, more espe- cially the stocks, wallflowers, and others of the fifteenth class. 138 Introductory View of the disseminated over various parts of the country. The seed- vessel is crowned by the calyx, which is red, of one leaf, tubular at the base, with the upper part (botanically termed the limb) divided into four segments, between which are inserted the four petals, which are of a paler red. The stamens, four of which are longer than the alternate four, are affixed to the throat of the calyx (the top of the tube) between the petals ; the stigma is, in some species, divided into four segments curv- ing downwards at the extremity, and forming a cross {d)\ in others, it is obtuse and undivided. The two handsomest of our native species are E. angustif51ium (narrow-leaved), and E. hirsutum (hairy) ; the latter, as commonly as the former is rarely, to be found in a wild state ; the one a frequent inhabit- ant in shady lanes, the other generally cultivated in flower- gardens, where it spreads but too quickly; are rivals in elegance and beauty. The other species are smaller, but none are deficient in beauty. Among the yellow flowers, many of which are seen upon every bank, and which are usually passed by as the least interesting and handsome, is one which the most accurate description could scarcely distinguish from the commonest ; but which stands among them as a queen of beauty among ordinary mortals, Chlora (green) per- forata (through the leaf). The species of plants are usually determined by characters not included in the fructi- fication: this is distinguished by its leaf, which has the appearance of two egg-shaped leaves cut straight ofl" and united at the base, allowing the stem to pass through the middle ; hence the plant is termed perfoliate. {,fig' 27. «) The stem is a foot or more in height, bearing a panicle of star-shaped flowers, of a clear bright yellow, with scarlet stigmas ; harmonising admirably with the glaucous hue of the leaves. Of the Faccinium, an extensive, and chiefly an American genus, we have four native species, well known by the young peasantry, who strip them of their berries ; which they eat either with milk and sugar, or in puddings, jellies, &c. The bilberry (F. Myrtillus) is a delicate little shrub with red flowers ; this and the bleaberry (F. uliginosum) are deciduous (shedding their leaves in winter ; from the Latin, decidere^ to fall), the other British species are evergreen. The cow-berry ( V, Fitis Idae^a) has a bitter fruit, which, after a few hours' Linnean System of Plants, 139 immersion iil water, is made into a jelly, used in Sweden as we use currant jelly. The cranberry (V. Oxy coccus) has a peculiar flavour, very generally known, and to most persons agreeable. That it is used in Sweden for no other purpose than cleaning silver plate is to be attributed to the many fine berries with which that country is supplied. Large quanti- ties of cranberries are annually imported from America ; not because they are superior to our own, for, though larger, they are not so sweet as our English cranberry ; but either because we have not enough to supply the demand, or that they are too easily obtained to be considered as worth having. Whortleberry is a name common to all the species, whether foreign or English. The V, formosum (handsome) is held sacred in China, and placed in the temples, at the commence- ment of the new year, as an offering to the gods. Menzies/iZ is a small genus, very nearly allied to the heaths : of the two species admitted into the English Flora, the first, M. cserulea is a native of Scotland ; the other, M. ^olifolia, of Ireland. Another near relative of the heath, and formerly included in that genus, is the ling, Calluna (to cleanse or adorn). It was removed on account of certain peculiarities in the calyx and capsule; and may be readily distinguished from its former companions, by what appears at first sight to be a double flower. It is a very common plant on dry barren land, and no person who ever snatches a glimpse of the coun- tryin the summer months, need be at a loss for a specimen of it. When we first gather it, we believe that we see the corolla between the four green leaves of the calyx, but we deceive ourselves; it is an inner calyx, coloured: the corolla is shallower, paler, and wholly concealed within it ; like a deli- cate little woman who loves finery, and suffers herself to be eclipsed by the splendour of her dress. The heath, jErica (from the Greek, ereiko, to break ; why so applied is uncertain), though a very extensive genus, is not so widely disseminated as might be supposed ; the vast con- tinent of America does not produce a single species, while the Cape of Good Hope has more than three hundred. We pos- sess but three native heaths, and of these three one is confined to the county of Cornwall. The foreign heaths are so ten- derly bred in this country, and so carefully preserved from the roughness of the elements, and vicissitudes of the season, that we see them always, as it were, in full dress : did we see them in their native land, as we do our own heaths, we should not, perhaps, treat the latter with such comparative contempt. The cross-leaved heath (jB. Jetralix) is a remark- lr#i Introdmtory View of the ably elegant plant, with its flowers collected together into crowded heads : they have a smooth and wax-like appear- ance, very similar to the blossom of the ^^rbutus. The fine- leaved heath (^. cinerea) is very common on dry sandy grounds, and is often cut, together with ling, for making brooms, and for fuel. Ling is employed in Scotland in building and thatching cabins, and for rustic beds ; in the Isle of Islay it is mingled with malt in brewing beer. We are told by the poets that Daphne, the fair fugitive who eluded the pursuit of the god of day, was changed into a laurel, with which Apollo crowned his brows, in honour to her memory. The genus that now bears the name, some- what resembles that noble laurel, chiefly in the leaves. We have two British species. One of them, Z). Mezereum^ more commonly known by the name of mezereon, bears its blos- soms in March, before the leaves appear ; they have no corolla ; but a rose-coloured calyx, which is sometimes mis- taken for one, amply supplies the deficiency in point of beauty, and is exquisitely fragrant. This hardly little shrub is seldom found wild. The scarlet berries are. greedily eaten by the hawfinch, greenfinch, and others of that genus. The I). Laureola, commonly called the spurge laurel, is a little evergreen shrub, with drooping leaves and green flowers; the latter oppressively sweet-scented in the evening, but having little or no scent during the day: its berry is black. Both these plants have medicinal properties, valuable in the hands of skilful practitioners, but dangerous when adminis- tered by mock-doctors, however willingly they may assume the title. Every part is acrid, and produces a fierce burning in the mouth and throat. Of the genus ^'cer (sharp, in reference to the juice) we have two species; the maple, A. campestre (champaign), and the sycamore. A, Pseudo-pl^tanus (false-plane tree). The maple is common in hedges and thickets, and well known by the peculiar form of the leaf, which is five- lobed, cut into five segments. (Jig. 28.) The wood, which is still used for many light articles, was formerly in great request for cups; and the knots, which were thought to resemble various animals, were prized by the Romans at a most extravagant rate, chiefly for making tables. The expression " to turn the tables upon a person,'' has been supposed to owe its origin to this taste; which afforded the Roman ladies an opportunity of retaliation, when their husbands remonstrated against the cost- Linnean System of Plants. Ul liness of their dress and jewels. The sycamore is one of the few trees that thrive best by the sea-side, and being large and leafy, may be employed to defend weaker plants from the winds and salt spray. It is a fine tree when its robes are new ; but late in the season is commonly clothed in rags ; the fragrance of the leaves attracting various insects, which perforate them in every part, until they have reduced them to the most jagged condition. This tree, like others of its genus, affords a quan- tity of saccharine juice, which, by evaporation, may be reduced to sugar, but is more commonly converted into wine. The species termed the sugar maple (A, saccharinum) is a North American species, from which many of the inhabitants of that country manufacture their own sugar. Each tree produces from twenty to thirty gallons of juice, pleasantly flavoured, and sometimes drunk fresh as a remedy for the scurvy. In speaking of foreign productions of this class we may say that the number of heaths alone exceeds that of all the species of the other genera united ; and though there is a general and strong family likeness among them, there is also great variety. The nasturtium, Tropae'olum (the diminutive of tropaunt^ atrophy), is a Peruvian genus, of which some of the species are as well known in this country as if they were natives ; the greater nasturtium more especially. The seed-vessels are pungent, and much esteemed for pickling ; and the flowers are among the most splendid to be seen in our gar- dens ; they look like blossoms of fire, and it seems quite in cha- racter that they should emit sparks in the evening, as they were ob- served to do by the daughter of Linnaeus. This plant affords a familiar example oiihe peltate \e2ii (target-shaped, hompelta, a target), a leaf which has its foot-stalk inserted in or near the centre, {fig, 29.) The genus .4myris is known by some minor articles of commerce which it produces : though of one of them, the Balsam, or Balm, of Gilead, which is the dried juice obtained from the bark of one of the species, it is believed, that it is too scarce to be frequently exported genuine from its native country. From the earUest periods of antiquity till the present day, this balm has been held in great estimation in Syria and 142 Linnean System of Plants, Egypt, as a medicine possessing the most extraordinary virtues. It is mentioned in the Old Testament^ and by Josephus, as an article of great price. The rose-wood of Jamaica is obtained from a species of y^myris. The Lawsonza inermis (unarmed Lawsonia) is the henna of the Arabians, with the pulverised leaves of which the ladies dye their nails red. The order Digynia is small, and of little note. In the third order is the genus Polygonum {polys, many, gonu, a joint), familiarly called persicaria, or knot-grass. It is a large genus, producing a profusion of small, triangular, black seeds, which, in some of the species, are very nutritive. P. Fagopyrum {fagus, a beech, pyros, corn ; its grain like the mast of beech), commonly called buck-wheat, is chiefly used in this country for feeding poultry, or sometimes for making crumpets ; but in the United States it is cultivated largely for the use of man. P. aviculare (seeds grateful to small birds) may be called bird's-wheat ; its seeds are a great resource to many small birds. P. Convolvulus (climbing buck-wheat), also, is a wholesome grain, left to the birds to gather. We have ten British species, most of them common in barren ground, where they spread very fast ; the flowers are small, and have no corolla, yet some of them are remarkably beauti- ful under a microscope ; the calyx being coloured, and, in many instances, variegated. Several foreign species are cul- tivated in our gardens. The most remarkable production of the fourth order, Te- tragynia, is that rare British plant true-love, Paris {par, equal ; regularity of parts) quadrifolia (four-leaved) : the flowers are green, as they should be, for youth is the season of love. The leaves are commonly crossed ; for, as Shakspeare says, " The course of true love never did run smooth." The fruit is reputed dangerous ! There are two other British genera of this order, and about as many more of foreign growth, but they are plants of little note. {To he concluded in our next.^ 143 PART II. COLLECTANEA. Art. I. The General Svhject. Universal Language of Natural History. — If the scientific Latin and Greek names of plants, animals, and minerals were adopted, without alter.- ation, in the languages of all nations, this would, to a certain extent, be a universal language. It would be a considerable point of union between two strangers to call a considerable number of the things with which they were surrounded by the same names ; and, in very remote and distant lands, this would operate like a kind of free-masonry. Each would be convinced that the other was, to a certain extent, initiated like himself in the mysteries of Nature. Let none, therefore, despise the mere acquirement of systematic names ; and let them always be adopted, in general language, without alter- ing their terminations. — Cond. Mischiefs arising from Changes in Nomenclature. — An affected and un- reasonable contempt for the Linnean arrangement has for some time pre- vailed amongst naturalists of a certain reforming description ; finding it necessary, as they must, in order to pave the way for their own improved system, to inspire readers with this feeling. The Linnean system certainly has many and great defects ; and no one was more sensible of these, nor would have been more eager to remove them when means and occasion should serve, than the father of classification himself. He had, in fact, pointed out the plan by which his arrangement might be altered or im- proved ; but, in the mean time, he was obliged to rest satisfied with what had been done, and leave to futurity the business of adapting it to the pro- gress of discovery. But, suppose the despised standard of the illustrious Swede were too old and ragged to be any longer fought under, would it have disparaged the importance of any author on natural history to have enrolled himself under the banners of such a man as Cuvier, who appeared at the moment when he was wanted, and who combines so much of the artificial and natural modes of arrangement as is required for prosecuting successfully, for a time at least, the study of natural history ? Here was a naturalist par excellence et par occupatioji, a man placed by acclamation at the head of European naturalists, and entitled to give the law. Was his sovereignty insupportable, or would science have retrograded by submitting to his sway ? One would make every allowance for ambition or egotism, and refrain from passing any harsh sentence on the numerous aspirants in this department ; but they, one and all, seem to forget that they are but amateurs. Most of them have never made of it a profession ; they have not devoted their lives to the subject ; they have merely fancied it, and made it a pastime. What entitles them to originate systems ? Yet do they not scruple to seat themselves in the chair of authority, and frame classes, orders, genera and subgenera, divisions and subdivisions, by the score. To such an extent does this propensity rage, that, if one wish to identify a specimen, it will be necessary to have at hand a number of works for the 1 4f4f Zoology, sake of reference to sjnohymes ; and even then It will be difficult to say which ought to be preferred. Is science forwarded or retarded by such a procedure ? " Speak ye who best can tell." Universality of language is^ in the first instance, the main desideratum, and is worth almost any sacrifice. One name is as good as another, if every one understands what is meant by it ; and it should be made to serve as long as possible, till observation and information shall have enabled some select and indisputable authority to institute a perfect system of classification and nomenclature. As an example of the evil effects of those embarrassing fluctuations in classification, I may mention that Temminck's Ornithology had experienced a very favourable reception. He is a practical ornithologist, who had prosecuted the study for years, had been educated in museums, visiting every cabinet in every capital of Europe ; thus establishing a reputation which entitled him to respect. His work was beginning to be generally adopted as a manual, text, or class-book, for Eu- ropean ornithology ; it has been rigidly adhered to by Mr. Sabine in his account of the zoological productions of the arctic regions, and by Mr. Selby in the letter-press of his illustrated work on British birds. Last year out comes Dr. Fleming's History of British Animals^ and, so far as concerns British ornithology, away goes Temminck ; and thus are incessantly issuing from the press new nomenclatures and classifications, most of which, from peculiar circumstances, never will, and never can, be accepted by the scientific world. But of these I shall, with your permission, enter into a more particular analysis in my next. I am, Sir, &c. — Hypercrito. June 6. 1829. Art. II. Zoology. The Puruh Sheep of Ladusk. — Sir, Having lately met, in the Transactions ffthe Royal Asiatic Society y vol. i., an interesting paper, by Mr. Moorecraft, •on the Tartar population, and productions of the Himalaya Mountains, amongst which he particularly notices a singular breed of sheep, that, he is of opinion, would prove a most valuable acquisition to these countries, if introduced amongst us : to effect which, it appears, he had even taken some steps, though I fear ineffectually, as we have since heard no more about them. As the subject is of some importance, and in unison with the object of your Magazine, I beg leave to send you some extracts from Mr. Moorecraft' s paper, in the hope that their publication, through a medium so widely circulated, may excite an enquiry how far his patriotic and benevo- lent intentions have been carried into effect, or induce an endeavour to fulfil them : now more than ever called for, at a period when our small farmers are every day sinking in the scale of society ; and the British cottager, with narrowing means of support, is suffering distress and privation to which he has heretofore been a stranger. " The Puruk Sheep of Ladusk, when at full growth, is scarcely as large as a South Down lamb, six months old ; yet, in fineness and weight of fleece, and flavour of mutton, added to its peculiarities of feeding and con- stitution, it yields not in merit to any race hitherto described. It gives two lambs in twelve months, and is twice shorn within that space: the clip may afford, in the annual aggregate, 3 lbs. ; and the first yield is fine enough for tolerably good shawls. The British flockmaster would be delighted with the fineness of the bone, the spread of the carcass, the hardiness of its con- stitution," and its aptness to fatten. The Puruk sheep, if permitted, thrusts its head into the cooking-pot, picks up crumbs, is eager to drink the remains of a cup of salted and buttered tea, or broth, and examine the hand of its master for barley, flour, or for a cleanly picked bone, which it disdains not Zoology, ^ 14^5 to nibble; a leaf of lettuce, a peeling of turnip, the skin of the apricot, give a luxury : and the Industry is indefatigable with which this animal detects and appropriates substances so minute and uninviting, as would be unseen and neglected by ordinary sheep : perhaps the dog of the cottager is not so completely domesticated as it is. I have been minutely tedious upon their acquired habits of feeding, as introductory to the conclusion that there exists not a cottager in Britain who might not keep three of these sheep with more ease than he now keeps a cur dog ; nor a little farmer, who might not maintain a flock of fifteen or twenty without appropriating half an acre exclusively to their use : they would derive support from that produce which now either totally runs to waste, or goes to the dunghill. I have procured some of the sheep, and mean to increase the stock to two hundred, leaving them under the care of a respectable lama for two years, at the end of which period my journey will have been completed. Should I fall, an event by no means impossible, government will receive them as a legacy, without expense, under the hope that some of the individuals will be sent to Bri- tain ; and in the sure expectation that the progeny will be distributed to cottagers and small farmers in poor and dry countries." I leave you to estimate the national advantages derivable from two or three millions of extra animals, supported upon produce now really waste ; provided their present frugal habits of feeding be maintained, and their pre- sent constitution not injured by delicate treatment. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — John Robertson. Kilkenny y November ^ 1829. A Stoat pursuing a Water Rat through a Pond. — A singular circumstance was observed, a few days since, by a friend of mine. A stoat was in hot pursuit of a water rat, which latter took to the water, where he, doubtless, expected to be safe : the stoat, however, followed his prey across the nar- row pond ; but lost it, at last, from the rat getting into a hole. — J. L. Lis- keard Vicarage, Cornwall, Aug. 15. 1829. The Songs of Birds innate or acquired ? — Some naturalists have not scrupled to declare that the song of birds is not innate, but acquired. Mr. Bingley has adopted this theory in his Animal Biography; and I am the more sorry for it, because I conceive that he has made an erroneous statement, which can never appear so much misplaced as in an elementary and popular work. I am led to this notice,by the recorded attempt of Sir John Sinclair to establish a colony of nightin- gales, through the fostering care of redbreasts. It is evident that the worthy baronet is not an advocate for the doctrine of acquirement ; and I must place myself on his side, notwithstanding the assurance of Mr. Bingley that it is a doctrine verified by accurate observations, and founded on numerous experiments. It is contrary to my limited experience, and I think at variance with analogy and reason. Every quadruped, as far as we know, has some call or cry peculiar to its species : but I never heard it asserted that that call or cry was any thing more or less than a particular assignment of nature; and why should it be deemed incredible that the notes of the feathered tribe should be a similar endowment ? It seems to me that it must be so ; it does not appear that the opportunity of acquirement is afforded them. The male bird confines his song chiefly to the period of incubation. During that period he, like a true lover, cheers his patient and sedentary mate, by the greatest exertion of his vocal powers ; butj when the callow infants have burst from bondage, he suspends his melody, and, like a good father, assiduously unites in nurturing his family. But, admitting that I err, and that young birds have the privi- lege of listening to their parents' voice, how comes it to pass that each species, when the air is resounding with the varied melody of Nature's whole choir, is able to select its own appropriate song, and adhere to that and that alone ? Here a discriminatingpower is allotted to the feathered race, in my estimation, even more miraculous than a natural impression, and thus in avoiding Scylla, we fall into Charybdis. The language of man, according to some, is not innate. What man would be in a detached and solitary condition, I am not anjuous to know ; but sure I am, th^t the great Creator, when he made him a social animal, completed his work by providing him with a language ; and I feel a strong conviction that the song of birds is an appropriation from the same beneficent source. Man can vary and enlarge his language as circumstances and situa- tion may require. He can even acquire new languages ; and here is nothing unnatural, but only what we might expect. Some birds possess an imitative faculty which enables them to adopt new calls or notes : but this is altogether unnatural; it occurs only when they are domiciliated and taught by man. In the wildness of nature it is never so. According to my observation in that state, the most imitative species are " true to their t^ong." Were it otherwise, we might hear strange anomalies. The chattering stare might entrance us with Philomela's strains, or the hoary-headed daw might, in midwinter, surprise us with " the welcome voice " of the harbinger of spring. If these observations are erroneous, perhaps Mr. Sweet, or you. Sir, will give me better information. " Si quid novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti j si non, his utere mecum." J. S. Thurgarton, Norfolk, April 17. 1829. _ Use of the spurious Wing. — Griffith, in his Animal Kingdom, vol. vi. p. 104., mentions, that the use of the small stiff feathers, called the spurious wing (ala spuria), is not apparent. A young gentleman has suggested to Vol. III.— No. 12. l 146 Zoology. me, that the probable use is to protect the insertions of the large quUl fea- thers in the carpus from injury. — Anon, July^ 1829. Ducks and Hens defending themselves against Rats. — I have now a fine duck, which was hatched under a hen in the spring of 1828, there being seven young ones produced at the time. When these ducks were about ten days old, five of them were taken away from beneath the hen, by the rats, during the night-time, the rats sucking them to death, and leaving the body perfect. My duck, which escaped this danger, now alarms all the other ducks and fowls in a most extraordinary manner, as soon as the rats appear in the building in which they are confined, whether it be in the night or the morning. I was awoke by this duck last spring, about midnight "; and, as I apprehended that the rats were making an attack, I got up immediately, went to the building, and found the ducks uninjured. I then returned to bed again, supposing the rats to have retreated. To my surprise, next morning, I found that ten young ducks had been taken from beneath a hen, and sucked to death, at a very short distance from where the duck was sit- ting. On this account, I procured a young rat-dog, and kept it in the build- ing ; and, when the rats approach, the duck will actually rouse the dog from sleep, and, as soon as the dog starts up, the duck becomes settled again. — M. Said. Oct. 3. 1829. Food of the Wild Peacock. — Mr. Ranking informs us that peacocks, in a wild state, feed on pepper pods : a fact which he ascertained in a shooting excursion on the banks of the Luckia, in Bengal, when he flushed a flock of twenty in a grass field. One which he shot had in his crop more than a hundred pods of Chile pepper, the smallest and hottest sort known. — J.R. Cock Pheasants. — I do not think it is generally known that cock phea- sants (Phasianus Gallus) crow in concert during a thunder storm. Yet this is certainly the fact ; and their shout may be heard, " awakening the echoes,'* at a distance of two miles. — J. Murray. The Nightingale. — This " poet bird," ilfbtacilla iusclnia, sometimes displays an eccentric and novel taste in the materials of her nest. One in- teresting specimen of this kind was wholly constructed of skeleton leaves. — 7rf. The Carrion Crow and Hooded Crow. — I was not a little surprised to meet with the following question in Dr.Fleming's late work: — Whether the carrion crow (Corvus Corbne) is different from the hooded crow (Curvus C6rnix). If they are identical, they must undergo changes of plumage to which I hare all my life been an utter stranger. Both are found in England : the hooded crow, I believe, chiefly in the course of the winter ; but, except an accidental and rare visitant, none save the hooded crow is ever seen in Zetland. The change of plumage from the black to the grey, or vice versa, must take place in those who reside, if they do reside, all the year in England, or in more southerly climates ; for a feather is not changed in Zetland. I decidedly question the iden- tity ; and this the more, that T was always struck with the difference of bulk : and, on comparing the weight, characters, and dimensions, given by Dr. Fleming, the want of correspondence is still more strongly marked. They are as follows : — Carrion Crow : Length, 19| in. ; breadth, 26 in. ; weight, 10 oz. ; bill and legs, black ; irides, hazel ; tail, slightly rounded. Hooded Crow : Length, 20 in. ; breadth, 39 in. ; weight, 22 oz. ; bill, smooth, black, with tip pale; Irides, greyish brown; female wanting the grey ; youn^, like the female. Here, then, is a difference of 13 in. in breadth, and 12 oz., nearly a pound, in weight. The two statements of the female wanting the grey, and the young being like the mother only, I dare venture to set down as a complete mistake ; which I marvel the more that Dr. Fleming should make, since he did himself reside, I believe, several years in the Zetland Islands. But here my personal knowledge enables me to speak with a posi- tiveness which I otherwise should not ; for 1 have taken and tamed the young from the nest : I can, therefore, eonfidently aver that there is no difference of plumage between the sexes, and that the young are like their parents. — Hypercrito. June 6. 1829. A White Blackbird. April 30. — In a blackbird's nest at St. Austell, Corn- wall, in which were two young birds, one of them was perfectly white ; and the nest was robbed by a boy, who, in a scuifle with the owner of the gar- den, killed the bird. It was, however, preserved, and is now in the collec- tion of Mr. Jackson of Looe. — ./. L. Liskeard Vicarage^ Cornwall, Aug. 15. 1829. ■ Pied Flycatcher and Grasshopper Warbler. — I have met with both these birds in this vicinity. The former has been observed for the last three or four years, but I have not yet seen the nest or eggs. Having slightly winged a male specimen, I was anxious to keep it alive ; but, being at some distance from home, I was compelled to carry it in the crown part of my hat for several hours, and it unluckily died the morning following. The latter is not at all uncommon ; but as it frequents the thickest underwood, is seldom seen, and is difficult to obtain in good feather. The singular, long-continued, sibilous note of this bird may be heard in the evening ; in the daytime Zoology. 1 47 its note is much shorter, quite distinct from that which it makes in the evening. One morning, when on the look-out for these birds, I shot the pipit lark of Bewick, imitating the note of the grasshopper warbler, and exactly in the attitude described by him, " gaping and shivering with its wings on the top of a branch." — J^. Farrar, M.D. Aug. 5. 1829. A Species of Alcedo, or Kinajisher. — There is another bird in this country which has often excited ray surprise and curiosity, and which, 1 believe, is peculiar to this place. Every day are to be seen numerous flocks of birds, not quite so large as pigeons, with dark backs and white bellies, passing upand down the Bosphorus with great rapidity. When they arrive either at the Black Sea, or the Sea of Marmora, ihey again wheel about, and return up the channel ; and this course they continue, without a moment's intermission, the whole of the day. They are never seen to alight, either on land or water; they never, for a moment, deviate from their course, or slack their speed ; they are never known to search for or take any food ; and no visible cause can be assigned for the extraordinary and restless instinct by which they are haunted. The French call them les antes damnees ; and certainly, if being allowed no cessation or repose be included in the idea, it is not misapplied. They fly very near the surface of the water ; and, if a boat meets a flock of them transversely, they rise a few feet over it ; if directly, it divides them like a wedge. Their flight is remarkably silent; and though so numerous and so close, the whirr of their wings is scarcely ever heard. They are so abundant in this particular spot, that I have reckoned fifteen large flocks in my passage from Pera to Therapia. I have often wished to shoot one, to examine it; but the Turks have such a tender and conscientious regard for the life of every animal but man, that no person is permitted to kill any bird upon the Bosphorus, w ithout incurring their displea- sure. The only work in which I have seen it mentioned is, Andreossis sur le Bosphore. He calls it Alcyon voyageur, to distinguish it from the Halcyon of the ancients, which was supposed to build its nest upon the waters. {Walsh's Journey from Constantinople to England.) The Throstle. — I agree with Mr. Jennings, that the throstle (Turdus musicus) does not Hne its nest with mud, but generally with some compost of which cow dung forms a part, although I have found them lined entirely with rotten wood. It is a fact also that it invariably lays the first egg whilst the lining is wet. — T. G. Clithero, April 17. 1829. Distinction of Sex in the Woodcock. — Having been taught by an old sportsman the following ready method of distinguishing the sexes of wood- cocks by the plumage, I offer it to your notice, in the hope that some one who may have better opportunities for observation than my self may be able to decide whether it is to be depended upon as a sure criterion of the sex : — The front or outer edge of the first quill feather of the cock bird is marked alternately with dark and light spots, of a somewhat triangular shape ; while in the hen the corresponding feather is without spots, and in lieu of them presents a uniform light-coloured stripe, extending the whole length of the feather The difference will be immediately apparent on examining the accompany- ing specimens, which are the first quill feathers, plucked respectively from two different birds shot at the same time; the two birds, it may be remarked, in other respects varied sufficiently in plumage to warrant the supposition of their being of different sexes. — W. T. Bree. Voice of Fishes. — I have often heard it remarked that fish have no voices. Some tench, which I caught in ponds, made a croaking like a frog for a full half hour whilst in the basket at my shoulder. — John Thompson. Hull, July 20. 1829. Extraordinary Growth of a Pike. — If you think the following account of extraordinary growth in a pike worthy of being inserted in your entertaining and instructive Magazine, you may depend upon the authenticity of it from an eye-witness : — Four years and a half ago, some jack were turned into a pond belonging to W. R. Cartwright, Esq., in Northamptonshire, the biggest of which weighed 2\ lbs. In October last the pond was let offj and one jack of 19^ lbs. was taken out, together with five more, from 11 to 15 lbs. each, the largest having grown not quite 4 lbs. every year since its being in. The pond is about two acres and a half, with a small rill running through it, and there was a good stock of carp in it at the time of its being let off.- — A Constant Reader. Nov. 5. 1829. Remarkable Flight qfSjnders. — On the 19th of July a number of aeronautic spiders (at any rate small black spiders capable of flight) by some means found their way into St. John's church, and, though not a proper place for observations on natural history, there were so many, that, without shutting my eyes, I could not fail noticing them. The tops of ladies' bon- nets were generally the places whence they commenced their flight, and in it they seemed not to be confined to any particular direction : some flew upwards at a slight angle, some north, some south, some east, some west ; L 2 148 ZQology, and in so doing several passed so near to each otiier, that I cannot con- ceive, as they passed in opposite directions, that any current of air conveyed them, as two opposite currents could scarce exist so often close to each other. I observed that those which passed near enough to distinguish their forms, all flew with their backs downwards. I do not know if these facts will at all bear on the controversy between Mr. Blackwall and Mr. Murray. Such as they are you have them. — JoJm Thompson. HuII^Ju1j/2Q. 1829. Winter Quarters of Lepthra mwans. — The most trivial facts connected with natural history may tend to illustrate the science, and tend possibly to other discoveries. I shall, therefore, make no apology for communicating the following :— On examining some stems of the ^rundo Phragmltes, wnich I had drawn up by the roots from the side of a pool, the bottom of which was thick mud, 1 observed the portion of the plant immediately in con- tact with the root rather thickly studded with certain egg-shaped transparent brown cocoons {fig. 30. a), which I concluded to be the winter covering of some aquatic insect in its larva state. On examining these water-proof cases, which were about half an inch long, I found each to be the winter quarters of the Leptura micans (A). On extracting the insect, it appeared to be in a semi- torpid state, but j)erfectly well fed, and in good condition. We know that many of the Cole6ptera retire to peculiar haunts for the purpose of hybernation ; but I am not aware that there are many facts on record proving that in the perfect state insects of this order construct habitations suited to the occasion : and it is still more extraordinary, that the imago of this species, which invariably dwells above the surface, and is capable of active flight, as must be known to every naturalist, who in the summer season, during the heat of the day, has watched the reedy boundaries of a marsh or pond, should descend some feet into the water, and there construct a dwelling impervious to water, in which, so far from its being their natural element, they are soon drowned. On the whole, I am more inclined to suspect that the old ones, at the close of summer, lay their eggs, which hatch in due time, and that the larva is the architect of these cocoons, in which, after a speedy change, the perfect insect is developed, and remains cradled in its tomb till the genial suns of the next season call it forth. It should be remarked, • however, that on exposing these cocoons to water heated to about 85'^, they evinced no symp- toms of increased activity. By what extraordinary process, moreover, do these submarine sleepers continue to construct a case from which water must have been excluded during the whole operation ? — E.S.,F.L.S. Ants and Aphides. — Sir, The ants and their interesting habits have something so much bor- dering upon the marvellous, that many persons have been induced to discredit much which has been published upon the subject ; but, singular as their history appears, every day's observation proves that much more might be written on their instinctive carefulness and extraordinary saga- city. The annexed sketch {fig. 31.), may furnish additional interest to their history, as well as pleasure to your readers. A goose- qi berry tree in my neighbourhood "^■^ was observed to be infested by aphides, on which a number of black ants were seen actively em- ployed upon the leaves and fruit. On a closer examination, they were discovered to be constructing mud roofs, or archways from the stem of the plant to some of the fruit, leaving a part of the same un^ covered. Within this dome, of archway, a small flock of aphides were studiously retained by the ants. Thus sheltered from the rain, which has so abundantly fallen this summer, they nourished them-,, selves, and afforded their sagacious shepherds that honey dew which it is well known they seek with so much assiduity. Over some of these archways they had carefully glued a leaf of the tree, so disposed that the rain might easily glide off, and thus the mud roof was rendere* impervious to the wet. As a fur- ther instance of instinct, the fruits thus erected upon had been chosen, or first ascertained to be firmly fixed between two of the spines, as in the sketch, or confined by the leaves and branches of the tree. Linnaeus truly called the aphides the cows of the ants.— JF. C. L. Guem- sey,Sept.2\. 1829. The Water Beetle. — I observe that one of your correspondents no- tices the probability of ponds in elevated situations being stocked with fish through the agency of the water beetle. If this active and voracious little creature were really useful that way, it might in some measure atone for its other mischievous propensities ; for I do not know a more destruc- tive little insect to fish themselves, besides devouring the spawn. A neigh- bour of mine lost several hundred of the fry of the gold and silver fish by this little pest ; and, to leave no doubt about the matter, he caught one, and placed it in a large basin of v/ater, to which he shortly after added a Zoology^ 149 little fish. The beetle immediately made a dead set at the fish, which com- pletely paralysed the poor little animal ; for it was soon after seized near the tail by the beetle, without making any effort to escape, and never left till it was a perfect skeleton similar to numbers that he had previously found. — J. Elles. Feb. 1829. Tenacity of Life in the Weevil Tribe. — About a year ago, in the month of May, I captured, near Windsor, in the young sprouts of the willows, which grow in profusion in some places on the banks of the river, six weevils most resembling the CurcCilio /apathi of Marsham. Having conveyed them home, I put them into spirits of wine for upwards of half an hour, a time which is sufficient to kill by far the greatest portion of insects ; and afterwards having taken them out, I transfixed them with pins. In about ten minutes they were all alive, and writhing on the pins in a manner horrible to look at I therefore put them a second time into spirits of wine for a longer time than the first. But having taken them out, very few minutes elapsed before two of them were again kicking about their legs ; so, to try what they would do, I took out the pins, and put them under a cocoa-nut shell, in the top of which there was a hole. The one truly died, as well it might, but the other in a very short time crawled out at the hole in the top, and was soon as vigorous as it was previously to its being captured, and I then gave it its liberty. The pins with which they were transfixed were of a large size. I also one day observed a weevil on a stalk of grass, which taking up and examining, I perceived a hole in the elytra, by which all the intestines, and even the very wings, and every thing except the shell had been extracted. There was an indi- vidual of the Carabus ciipreus species on the same bit of grass, by whom I suspect it had been done. I found another weevil in a spider's web served in the same manner. Both were appa- rently as active as they 'ever were. — C. Lambe. May 6. 1829. Fildria forficulS'enecio, and Cymbalaria," &c. Botany. 151 lidus. Some years since I introduced this plant from Oxford into my garden, whence, by means of its volatile seeds, it has made its escape, and has now, for a long time, voluntarily and firmly established itself on the walls and waste banks of this village. Sir J. Smith observes, in English Botany, that iS'enecio squalidus " grows abundantly on almost every wall in and about Oxford, and, though long since noticed there by Sir Joseph Banks, it has not found its way into the Flora Oxoniensis." Sir J. Smith was probably not aware of the doubtful origin of the plant, nor that the " Senecionis species," mentioned in Dr. Sibthorp's preface, alluded to Si squalidus. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, Sept. 8. 1829. Typka latifolia. — Sir, Having lately examined many specimens of Tjpha latifolia, and finding in them a character not noticed in several botanical works which I have consulted, I take the liberty of sending you the accompanying sketch and description {fig. 33.), thinking it may interest some of your readers. Before the plant comes into flower the whole of the spike is enveloped in a sheath with mem-^ branous edges, which rises from the base of the female catkin, and terminates in a leaf, which, with the sheath, is about twice the whole length of the spike. This leaf first falls as the flower swells, previously to the male catkin coming into blossom. At the base of the male catkin, and with its membra- nous base sheathing the whole of it, arises another leai, which is alto- gether about twice the length of that part of the spike : above this are several other alternate mem- branous leaves or bracteae (4 to 8") diminishing in size as they approacn the top of the catkin, which they all re^ch, and the lower ones some- times extend a little beyond it.. Several of the upper ones are very small and linear. I am. Sir, &c. — W. C. T. Wallington, July 31. 1829. '' A monstrous Cowslip. — Sir, I reside in a country abounding with the beauties of Flora ; and, ere long, it is probable that I may be able to present you with a somewhat particular account of them. Among other flowers, we have abundance of that beautiful and useful orna-^ ment to our meadows, the cowslip (Primula veris). There is something remarkable in the arbitrary choice of situation (if I may use the expression), which this plant evinces. I find it diffusely, and pretty regularly scattered over our downs ; abounding in such profusion, as to throw over our meadows, in some particular spots, an almost unmterrupted tint of golden yellow ; while in other situations, and those not remote from the last mentioned, not a single cowslip is to be seen. In the year 1824, I brought home a good root, with about seven or eight blossom buds on. it, and planted it in my front court. The soil was composed chiefly of calcareous sand and vege, table earth, blackish, and perfectly light. In 1825 the cowhlip, as far as I can recollect, came into flower again, but without exhibiting any striking appearances. In 1826, I noticed that the ad- vancing umbel, while yet buried in the centre of thi leaves, exhibited a vast and bulk> mass. I watched its progress, and at length it threw up, and fully expanded, the flower which 1 now send you. The peduncle, or flower-stalk, did not retain its usual cylindrical form, but was grooved and channeled, as if two or three stalks had become laterally united. We counted fifty-three blossom* L 4 fl, A leaf arising at the base of the female catkin, sheathing the whole of the spike. b, A leaf arising at the base of the male catkin, and enveloping that part of the flower. c. The base of the leaf a, at the commencement of the sheath. d, A membranous leaf on the male catkin, above the leaf 6. e. Small linear membranous leaves, or bracteae, near the top of the male catkin. 1^1^ Geology, when the flower was cut, with a view to dry and preserve it. It was so preserved, and in drying two of the flowers were detached ; the whole have acquired a greenish tint, except near the mouth, where the natural tint of orange is tolerably well retained. Close by the side of this enormous cowslip grew a little one, which I had recently brought from the summit of a chalk down. This cowslip flowered also : it might possibly be from 2 to 3 in in height, while the large one lifted its expanded umbel to the altitude of at least 9 in., — a giant by the side of a pygmy. Both flowered at the same time; both within 6 in. of each other; the one produced fifty-three large flowers, the other three of only a moderate size. As this communication has no other ob- ject than the introduction of a curiosity, I shall bring it to a close, by remarking that the large plant died after performing this feat ; it perished in its greatness, and in the follov/ing spring not a trace of it remained. I am, &c. — Electricus. Grove House, April 24. 1829. A singularly brilliant golden green Light. — When making a tour in Corn- wall in the year 1815 I was struck by a " singularly brilliant golden green light," similar to that described in your Magazine (Vol. II. p. 406.) On looking into a small cavern by the roadside, near Penryn, I observed in its recesses a small moss (apparently minute plants of Dicranum ^axifolium), which, when seen in some particular positions, appeared of a most beautiful emerald-green colour with a phosphorescent brilliancy. In De Luc's Geological Travels^ vol. iii. p. 131., is the following account of a similar phenomenon : " Passing by Botter Rock, Mr. Hill led me to a part of the foot of that Tor, where there are hollows like small caverns ; and in these he showed me a vegetable phenomenon, which I had never seen but in the granitic mountains sepai'ating the country of Bayreuth from Bohemia. The innermost part of these cavities is lined with a very pretty moss, which reflects the light in the same manner as the eyes of a cat. So little light reaches these remote recesses, that, on looking in from without, they appear quite dark ; but, when viewed from a particular point, the part of the rock which is covered with this moss is suddenly seen to shine with a fine emerald- green." — W. C. T. September, 1829. Art. IV. Geology, A Star-stone on Flint. — I send the enclosed full- size sketch {fig. 34.) of an impression of a star-stone on flint, not because I think it rare, but in hopes that some of your correspondents may be able to say whether star-stones in general have or have not been thus radiated, and thereby throw some light on the origin of these elegant fossUs. — F. December ^ 1829. Conia porosa. — Sir, It has been asserted that no fossil species of Coniae have been found. I had, however, the pleasure of gathering, last year, from the crag pit in Tattingstone Park, Suflblk, a very perfect specimen of " Conia porosa " attached to an ancient fragment of a Pecten. I beg to add, that a gentleman who was studying the crag formation at Waltham, in Essex, showed me, about a month since, a very beautiful, though extremely minute, Echinus, with one of its spines uninjured, which was taken from the Naze Cliff. I believe these are new discoveries ; at any rate they are an addition to the list of unpublished crag fossils given by S. V. W. in your Magazine (Vol. II. p. 246.), although some of the shells in that list had been pre- viously published, and by Mr. Taylor himself, in the Magazine of Natural History (see Vol. II. p. 26.), as may be seen on comparing the lists. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — W. B. Clmhe. East Bergholt, Suffolk, September 3. PART III. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. Art. I. Natural History in London. The Zoological Society/. — In a letter to Lord Lansdowne, the president of this Society, published in the TimeSy Jan. 22., the writer entreats the president to take warning by the fate of the Horticultural Society ; " the same influence which guided and fostered the expense at the gardens at Chiswick, mainly directing the expenditure in the gardens in the Regent's Park, and, what is of still more consequence, of the farm at Richmond.'* The advice, we trust, wUl not be lost. We chiefly notice this letter for the following remarks : — " I should regret to see the Zoological prematurely sink, as the other society has done : it will, if well conducted, and if the suggestions of the scientific members be properly listened to, afford great assistance in the advancement of natural history ; and all must agree that it is the means of much rational amusement to the inhabitants of London. I cannot help adding a further benefit which has arisen from this society. The conduct in England of what is termed the public, in public gardens, &c., has hitherto been proverbially bad, — cutting, tearing, and destroying every thing they could lay hands on j and the contrary behaviour of the French has always been taunt- ingly referred to. Now, I am one of those who considered that much of this conduct of our countrymen arose from the mode in which they were treated. The dealing with a man as if he were a thief is the surest way to make him one : the very extended admission allowed to the public has, for the first time, created a sort of interest which never existed before in what may be considered in some measure as public property ; and I know I am correct in saying that, not- withstanding the immense numbers admitted to the gardens in the Regent's Park, there has been no one instance of misconduct : so that, independently of the advancement of science which will result from the Society, I think its menageries may be made the means of working considerable good in the character of the people, and at the same time afford them a rational and cheap amuse- ment." — . Philo-B. ( Titnes, Jan. 22. 1830.) We have repeatedly adverted to this subject in both our Magazines. The observation of the productions of nature is the first step in the progress of rational education ; and the study of na» tural history, which is nothing more than the improved or cultivated observation of nature, is not only best calculated for calling forth and strengthening the reasoning powers, and for re- sisting the natural tendency of man in a state of ignorance to superstition and fanaticism, but also for softening and ameliorating the heart and the manners. If Kensington Gardens were sprinkled with groups of the finest flowers, and ornamented with copies of the noblest statues of antiquity, there is no one who entered these gardens who would not learn to respect them ; and in a short time acquire a taste for them, and delight in looking at them. This is the case at Paris, Rouen {Gard. Mag., vol, v. p. 498.), strikingly so at Frankfort {Ibid., p. 209.), and more or less so at most of the great cities on the Continent. As the London populace is at least as well instructed as that of Paris, and certainly better fed, there is nothing to hinder us from concluding that the same causes would produce the same effects here ; unless, indeed, it be the climate, and something in the character of our variety of the species. But man, in every climate and of every variety, is an animal that may be trained to any thing; and it will be the fault of government if the British people of every rank become not in all respects what they ought to be. — Cond. Art. II. Natural History in the English Counties, Surrey. L/L/t7MMartagon. — I have the pleasure to add to the British Flora illium Mdrtagoiiy which I have seen in great abundance in a wood at Woodman- stone, near Epsom, Surrey. I was first made acquainted with it in the summer of 1826, by an inhabitant of the place, who informs me he observed it alaout 45 years ago. Should any botanist desire some of these presumed indigenous specimens, or the Messrs. Sowerby for the English Botany, I shall be most happy to supply them next season. — Alpha. Oct. 14. 1829. 154f Natural History in the English Counties, Kent. The Canterbury Philosophical and Literary Institution. — It is particularly gratifying to me to remark that the Institution, and more especially the Museum, are very flourishing, scarcely a week elapsing without some new additions. This week we have received a present of fifty birds, shot in the mountains near Madras, and presented by the governor, S. R. Lushington, Esq. Among them the wild fowl, cock and hen, the probable origin of our domestic breeds, are very beautiful. — W. Masters. St. Peter's Streety Can- terbury, Jan. 3. 1830. Bedfordshire. Citculus canorus. — The cuckoo arrived here on the 21st of April, and continued to charm us with his twofold note till the 28th of July. The last bird I saw of the species was on the 4th of August, — W. H. White. Bed- ford^ Nov. 25. 1829. Hirundines. — The i/irundo rustica, or chimney swallow, arrived here this year on the 26th of April ; but the nights about that time being very frosty, and a strong breeze blowing from the N.W., they entirely disappeared, and did not appear again till the 3d of May. The house marten (Mrundo ur- bica) arrived on the 6th of May, and the swift (Cypselus ^'pus) on the 8th of May. I have not seen a single sand marten (H. riparia), probably owing to this neighbourhood lying very low, and there not being convenient places for them to build in. The house marten and the swift took their departure on October 27. ; but the chimney swallow was flitting about, in " many an airy ring," on the 4th of November ; on the 5th, not one was to be seen. — Id. Meteors.— On the evening of Monday, the 16th of November, several small brilliant meteors appeared in the east, emitting beautiful white and bluish lights. These were succeeded, about 10 o'clock, by one of a deep red colour : it was apparently about 3 in. in diameter, and at the height of from 25° to 30°. It descended in a south-easterly direction, leaving behind it a train of sparks 5° or 6° in length. The weather was mild, and the wind blowing gently from the west. — Id- Huntingdonshire. A new Locality for some less common Insects. — Sir, Supposing that it might be acceptable to ?our entomological readers to be informed of a new locality for some of our less common insects, forward to you the following list (some of which, I believe, are considered rare) of those taken by myself dunng the last week of June and first of July, this present year, at Monk's Wood and the fen lands in the neighbourhood of Sawtry, near Huntingdon. I should not have troubled you with this, but that the locality was discovered within the last two years, and is, therefore, not generally known to entomologists. This list would have been much larger, had it not been for the number of insects which I took, with the names of which, being a young entomologist, I am unacquainted. I am. Sir, &c. — Charles C. Babington. Ckimbridge, Oct. 20. 1829. Papilio Machaore. Tno statices. Rhynchitespub^scens.ffiquktus, Leucophasirt «in^pis. Deilophila Elpfenor. fidtulse, and p6puli. Pieris cratae^gi. Cossus ligniperda. Apod^rus avellanze. Melitae^a A'rtemis. Gastropacha ^uercif blia. Pogon6cerus nebulbsus. Argynnis Aglaia and P&phifl. Hyperc6mpa dominula. Saperda populnea, cardui, and Cynthifl cardui. Euthembnia russula. cylindrica. Apatura IVis. Nemophila /^lantdginis. Chrysomfela p6puli, and tre- Hipp&rchia GalathSa. Callimorphajacobae"'^. mulae. Thecla prtini. * Pliisia Ibta. Cryptocephalus Moxce^'i. Lycaj^no dispar. Adfela De Geexilla. Anaspis frontalis and rufic61li8. Th^mele alveolus. Campylis dispar. . , Cambridge. Desiderata to the Collection of British Birds in the Museum of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society : — Circus cinerarius. Ash-coloured Harrier. Plcus villbsus. Hairy "Woodpecker. Salvia suecica. Blue-throated Warbler. CoKimba Zivia, Rock Dove. A'niYius Richirdi, Richard's Pipit. Phasianus torqu^tus. Ring-necked Pheasant. Plsctrophanes, lappunica, Lapland Bunting. ^'rdea purpurea, Purple Heron. .^laiLida rubra, Red Lark. Egretta, Great White Heron. Loxia Pityopsittacus, Parrot Crossbill. a;quinoctialis. Little White Heron. • Of Curt. Entom. 6. 264. ; and Ste. Sys. Cat 5862. ; not. of Ste. Ill, H. 1. 77. but. 2. 69. note. Of this insect no native locality was known, till it was discovered by me, as above : it had been found by a dealer, last year, who would not give the habitat. Natural History in the English Counties. 1 "^ |., ralloldes, Squacco Heron. OidSmia nigra, Scoter Duck, lentiginbsa. Freckled Heron. f6sca, Velvet Duck. Platalca Leucorbdia, Common Spoonbill. 4eucocephala, White-headed Duck. Cicbnia alba, White Stork. perspicillata. Black Duck. nigra, Black Stork. Podiceps aurltus, Eared Grebe. Scolopax SaWnz, Sabine's Snipe. rubric611is. Red-necked Grebe (adult). grisea, Brown Snipe. Colymbus glaciklis, Northern Diver. Tringa ruf^scens, Bufflbreasted Sandpiper. ^rcticus. Black-throated Diver. Lobipes hyperb6reus, lied Phalarope. septentrionalis. Red-throated Diver. Gallinula pusilla, Little Gallinule. ^'Ica imp^nnis, Great Auk. Cursbrius IsabelDnMS, Cream-coloured Courser. Carbo cristatus, Crested Shag. Plectroptcrus gambensis. Spur-winged Goose. Sterna DougalUi, Roseate Tern, ^'nser fferus, Wild Goose. anglica, Gull-billed Tern. B4rnicla rufic611is, Red-breasted Goose. iarus glaucus, Glaucous Gull (adult). . Tad6rna rutila, Ruddy Goose. islandicus, Iceland Gull. ..^''nas strepera, Gadwall (female). capistratus Towm. Querqueduia glocitans, Bimaculated Duck. Atricilla Temm. Clangula histriunica. Harlequin Duck. minutus, Little Gull. Fuligula ruflna, Red-crested Pochard. Lestris Pomartnus, Pomarine Gull. Marlla, Scaup Duck. Procellaria glaciklis, Fulmar. ' Somateria moUissima, Eider Duck. Puffiniis Anglbrum, Shearwater. Mr. Leadbeater, No. 19. Brewer Street, Golden Square, is employed by the Society for stuffing their birds, and will prepare any of the above for them, if sent to him. At the same time, notice of any bird presented should be addressed to the secretary of the Society at Cambridge. — J. S. H. Oct, 16. 1829. Exchanges of Specimens. — There are a catalogue of the Botanical Mu- seum and Library, another of the collection of British- birds purchased by the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and lists of the plants collected during the herborisations of Professor Henslow and his pupils. These catalogues and lists will be useful to other societies and collectors, in the way of lead- ing to exchanges of duplicates. — Cond, Suffolk. Or chidecB found in the Neighbourhood of Bungay. O'rchis pyramidalis. O'rchis latif blia. Cphrys wzuscifera. mbrio (with white, pink, maculata. rtpifera. purple, and purple and Gymnad^nia viridia. Neottia spiralis. white flowers.) ^ bifblia. Listfera ovata. mdscula. Some of the more uncommon Plants growing in the Vicinity of Bungay. Veronica montana. Pkris quadrif blia. iVasttirtium sylvestre. i'^iis foetidissima, Dianthus Armaria. Geranium phse"*um. Primula elatior. C6marum pal6stre. " 3/alva mosch^ta. v4nag&ilis ten^lla, Aquilfegia vulgaris. iathyrus y/ phaca. Pariiassia palustris. jRanunculus Lingua. Nissbl/a. Ornithugalum IQteum. Orobinche major. f/ieracium umbellatum. Epilbbium angustifblium. minor. Hippocrfepis combsa. Chlbra perfolikta. rambsa. B"idenscernua(fl6ribusradiitis). Daphne Laurfeola. Cardamine am^ra. tripartita. I had, this summer, the pleasure of gathering, on Royden Fen, near Diss, Norfolk, besides other plants, Malaxis Lceselw, .Epipactis palustris, and Cladium ikfariscus. Epilobium angustifolium, , mentioned above, I dis- covered in a wood at Hedenham, about three miles from Bungay, during the last summer ; and it appears that, till that time, no one was aware of its growing in this part of the country. Paris quadrifolia grows abundantly in the same wood. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Daniel Stock. Bungay y Suffolk^ Oct. 18. 1826. Norfolk. Natural History of the Neighbourhood of Cromer. — Sir, Perhaps, in your county intelligence, you may like to insert the following observations, chiefly relating to the past year, and made in the neighbourhood of Cromer, Norfolk : — Through the whole of the year 1829, the weather was uncommonly stormy : the fishermen scarcely remember such a succession of gales, and so long a continuance of north-east winds. Vegetation was, consequently, much injured ; the sycamores, beeches, and other early trees, suffered ex- tremely from the gale towards the end of May, and in many places did 156 Natural Uistoiy in the English Counties. not fiiUy recover their foliage. The ash trees came out so late, that they, in some degree, escaped. I find, on reference to an account kept in Barring- ton's ruled journal, that, in exposed situations, the ashes were scarcely in full leaf on the 12th of June, and the same trees were again despoiled of their leaves by the 20th of October. I do not know whether it be worth noticing, that, in this part of the country, there were scarcely any cones on the spruce fir, which generally produces an abundance, and they were unusually plentiful on the silver fir. The hard frost which set in about the middle of January brought num- bers of ducks to our coast, especially upon the Salthouse and Blakeney marshes j amongst these, the lapmark, or tufted duck, and the golden eye were unusually frequent. An eagle was also seen about this time, not a very rare occurrence : one was seen lately, and several, in former years, have been shot at Gunton and Felbrigg. The Royston or Kentish crows (Corvus Cornix) were observed during the Easter week (April 19th to 26th), congregated on the cliiFs for their departure; the last was seen on the 26th of April, and they were with us again by the 6th of October. Woodcocks lingered till about the 7th of May, and some had returned to us by the 8th of October ; and, owing to the north-east winds, they have been very unusually plentiful this winter. The short-eared or wood- cock owl was noticed about the middle of October. The swallow appeared on the 11th of April, and I saw one as late as the 30th of October. A wry- neck was shot on the 18th of April ; the cuckoo was heard on the 17th of April ; and, about this time, a crossbill's nest was found. The goatsucker was heard on the 17th of May, and continued whirring till the end of July; they hatch on the low fern hills of this neighbourhood. Flocks of larks were observed at sea, coming over, during the third week in October ; and also flocks of hen chaffinches. Small hawks were very numerous last sum- mer ; but of the rough-legged falcon (Falco Zagopus), of which five or six specimens are often killed in a season, I only saw one last autumn. As the year advanced, the harbingers of rough weather increased : a snow bunt- ing was seen on the 26th of October ; the stormy petrel was frequently observed near the shore ; and the water-birds returned early to the marshes. Large flocks of wild swans arrived; in one flock, 21 swans were counted. I should mention that on these marshes are to be found smews, oyster- catchers, and avosets, with the usual variety of knots, stints, and others of the smaller Charadrii and Tringae, which make their nests there towards the end of April. We have given some attention to the gulls ; and we believe that the young of most kinds are spotted. One which we had young, in the autumn of 1823, and which proved to be the large black-backed gull, did not acquire his full plumage till the summer of 1827 ; his bill turned from black to yellow, but the scarlet spot was not perfect till July, 1828 : the next spring he died. These large gulls are more easily tamed than the smaller ones, and are intelligent birds. We never allow of the cruel and dis- figuring practice of pinioning birds ; and we merely cut the quill feathers on One side : so that, after moulting, such birds as have been brought to us unmaimed regain the use of their wings. One of our gulls, a spotted wagel, which would become a black-backed, thus, after a few months' domestica- tion, took flight about the end of July ; he returned to us during the gale of the 28th of August, very hungry. After this, he continued to sail back- wards and forwards, between our house and the sea, and would sometimes leave us for a week or a fortnight, but he always recognised us on his return, and ran up to the windows to be fed. He, however, began to domi- neer over his less fortunate companions, and beat the other gulls and shell- ducks without mercy ; he has now been absent many weeks, and we fear he may have been shot. We tried, this winter, to tame a gannet, but without success ; he was a savage bird, scarcely to be propitiated by sprats and her- rings, and he died when we had kept him a fortnight, probably of some unseen wound. Natural liisiory in the E?igt?sh Counties. 15i The only rare insects I saw last year were a couple of mole-crickets ; and some young friends of ours, who are entomologists, tell us that butterflies were particularly scarce, doubtless from the coldness of the weather. The; Cynthi« cardui (or painted lady butterfly), however, appeared last year. I got a walking toad (iZana jRubeta) in the summer, which, I believe, is not common here. We have not many reptiles ; more vipers than snakes. I wish I could give you a satisfactory account of the productions of our sea, but, I believe, they have been very imperfectly explored. Our fisheries are nearly restricted to those of the herring and mackerel, with crab and lobster catching. There is a little line-fishing, but we seldom find any thing, taken but skate, codlings, and a few codfish. I am convinced more might: be done ; and, last summer, we did make the discovery that our soles were abundant and excellent, though rather small. The tides run very strong on this coast; and this, with the sudden changes of the weather, presents an obstacle to the setting of nets; but I hope improvements may be made in the construction of nets, which may extend the captures. A nice kind of salmon-trout is sometimes taken in our mackerel nets, and we now and then get a red gurnard or a red mullet. Of fishes which are not eaten, we frequently meet with the sea-bream and the lump-fish ; we occasionally see a pocket-fish (Lophius), and some large species of the shark race. We heard of a shark, last April, which was called a bottle-nosed shark, nearly 8 ft. long, which ran upon the rocks at Cromer, with a porpoise in its mouth; and, in the summer, we saw an angel-fish (*S'qualus iS'quatina). We have very few shells, but some beautiful star-fish and Medus<2?. I have seen the cuttle-fish from the length of an inch to its full size; and, after the gale of last November, the beach was strewed with living sea-i mice (Aphrodita aculeata), and with skates' eggs. These last I had before supposed to be a vegetable production ; but, in each that I opened, I now found a living long-tailed skate. They are of a dark colour, and have four pointed corners, they are sometimes called fairy-purses. Seals are occasionally, but rarely, taken asleep under the cliffs. In the autumn of 1828, we had one for some weeks, and he became rather tame; but he could not bear the frost, and evidently pined for his own element. When- ever he could get loose, he made off straight for the sea, which is at the distance of nearly a mile ; and to the sea, at length, to his great delight, we restored him. He was inclined to be sociable whilst with us ; for, when left alone, he would creep into the kitchen for company r'^and he had a good appetite ; for one night, after a hearty supper, he got out of his tub, and stole and swallowed twenty-six large herrings. Whales are not unknown on our coast. A small one got entangled on the rocks at Runton, on the 23d of November, and was killed. I saw it when cut in ()ieces, and, therefore, I cannot give so complete an account as I could desire ; but I understood it was 24 ft. long. The whalebone fringe which lined the jaws was nearly white ; . the jaws 2 ft. 7. in. long ; the extreme width of the tail, 3 ft. 11 in. I think it was the Balaenoptera ^oops described in p. 233. of the British Naturalist. Its nose was pointed, and it had the spout-holes in the middle of the head. Its colour was nearly black on the back, and below it was white, and in folds ; the blubber was about l^in. in thickness, and produced very fine oil. A steak of the flesh was cooked, and tasted like tender beef. In March, 1822, a much larger whale, also of the ^alae'na kind, was killed at Overstrand. You may like to have the dimensions : — Length, 57 ft. ; breadth of tail, 13 ft.; pectoral fin, 6 ft. 6 in. ; tongue in length, 9 ft. ; in breadth, 4 ft. Another whale was observed spouting off Cromer in the autumn of that year. Having referred to the British Naturalist, I must advert to the just regret of the author of that entertaining little work, at the extinction of the Urogal- lus, or cock of the wood, in Britain ; and I would take this opportunity of mentioning, that, five years ago, a gentleman of this neighbourhood imported^ a pair of these birds from Sweden. They did well in confinement ; and"" 158 Natural History in the Efiglish Counties. hatched seven young ones, which grew to the size of pheasants ; but then they and their mother died, it was supposed, from exposure to the sun. The cock was turned out, and lived two years in the fir plantations ; he was then killed accidentally. The gentleman who made the attempt intends to renew it, and has much expectation of final success. I shall be glad if these facts be considered worthy of a place in your interesting Magazine. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — A. G. Jan. 5. 1830. Norfolk and Norwich Museum. — The Fifth Annual Meeting of this Institution was held in the Society's Rooms, in Norwich, on Nov. 25., Dawson Turner, Esq., having taken the chair, addres.«ed the subscribers to the following effect : — "As this is the first opportunity which has been allowed nae of meeting you, I trust that, before we proceed to the business of the day, I shall be permitted, for a few moments, to trespass upon your time, chiefly for the purpose of returning you my thanks for the honour you have done me in electing me to this chair. 1 do assure you that I very deeply feel, and very sensibly appreciate, the distinction thus bestowed upon me; for it is virtually nothing less than nominating me to be the head of the naturalists of this opulent, enlightened, and scientific county : and, when I speak of Norfolk as a county distinguished for the love and the pursuit of science, I am by no means using words of course, or wishing to flatter the self-love of you or my fellow-countrymen at the expense of truth. I do, indeed, feel that Norfolk is deserving of such an epithet. 1 remember, about thirty years ago, being in company with one of the most distinguished naturalists of Europe, and at the same time with a botanist from a distant part of England, who had been upon a visit in Norfolk. The former, congratulating the other upon what he had seen and gathered, observed that there must of necessity be some singular advantage in the soil, the climate, or the position of Norfolk, which made it so celebrated as abounding in the rarer productions of nature; and was not a little astonished when told that, on the contrary, Norfolk was one of the districts of England the least favoured in those respects, and that any preeminence she might enjoy was altogether owing to the industry and talents with wtiich her resources had been investigated and developed. Such an assertion is certainly startling at first ; but when I call to mind that, in the short space of my own life, I have known and associated with such men as Sir James Smith, Mr. Crowe, Mr. Woodward, Dr. Rigby, Mr. Whitear, Mr. Burrell, Mr. Bryant, Mr.Wegg, Dr. Hooker, Professor Lindley, and very many others whose names have at this moment escaped me, all of them natives of, or residents in, Norfolk, its probability will be easily admitted and its truth acknowledged. With regard to the value and importance of museums in general, I feel that it would be entirely out of place to attempt to enlarge upon a point so universally admitted and so fully appreciated by every gentleman present. As a centre of union for men of taste and science ; as a receptacle for objects which would otherwise be neglected or dispersed or lost, or, if neither lost, dispersed, nor neglected, would be hidden in the obscurity of private houses; as the means of forming the minds of the young to pursuits the most worthy, by exciting their curio-^ity, and teaching them the value and the pleasure of mental cultivation ; and as a most delightful source of information to men of every age, who hence acquire more exalted ideas of their Creator, and learn, more and more, to look through Nature up to Nature's God : in all these, and in many other respects, the value and the importance of museums are neither to be denied ncr doubted. With respect to our own museum, in particular, I feel there is the strongest room for our self-congratulation. It is, indeed, an infant m years, but, in growth, it has attained a degree of maturity which is really surprising. When I look about me, and see the various objects of art and of nature with which I am surrounded, I cannot but be impressed with the greatest thankfulness, first to the extended patronage of the public ; then to the numerous gentlemen who have favoured us with donations ; and the last, not least, to the labour of the committee who have directed this establishment. In speaking of the exertions of this committee, it is not necessary for my expressions of gratitude to be checked by any false delicacy ; for I cannot be supposed to be arrogating any merit to myself: I joined them only at the twelfth hour ; in time, indeed, to see and to appreciate the value of their labours, but not to take a part in them. Indeed, during the last year or two, it might at first view be supposed that their labours had been, in a great degree, relaxed ; for the committee had felt it their duty to abstain from making any purchases, or even from taking steps to display a considerable portion of what we possess, feeling it a paramount duty to apply themselves mainly to the extinction of the debt which, but two years ago, hung over us as an incubus, and threatened our destruction. This debt is now happily reduced from 400/. to little more than 50/. ; and, in the course of two years, will, without any extraordinary effort, be altogether annihilated. The rather have I cause to con- gratulate you upon the present state of the Institution, which no one of us could have expected at its outset to have seen in the present flourishing condition ; and of which I must be allowed to say, as the poet of the Jerusalem Delivered of his favourite hero, but " L'eta precorse e la speranza e i fiori Presti furean, quando n' usciro i fioretti." Again to advert to myself, I am the more flattered by the situation in which I am placed, inas- much as I am the successor to one who was confessedly the first-rate naturalist, not only of Nor- folk but of England, and not only of England but of Europe. With Sir James Smith I had the happiness oF maintaining an uninterrupted friendship for thirty years ; I esteemed and I loved him whilst alive; and, so long as I myself shall live, I never shall cease to dwell with affectionate regard ujwn his memory. Whether in public or in private life. Sir James Smith was a man who was highly estimated. His talents and his time were always devoted to the public, and always to doing good. By his works he has erected to himself an imperishable monument ; and upon every occasion, in these works, he has uniformly studied to promote the happiness of mankind and the glory of Gpd. As possessor of the Linnean Herbarium, his conduct was at all times eminently liberal, opening its treasures, without reserve, to men of every rank and station, and of every clime. As founder and president of the Society which equally bears the name of the great LiH- naeus, his amiable and condescending affab lity won him the regard of every member of that body, whilst that establishment gave a character and a permanency, and an importance to the study of natural history in England, which it could not otherwise have attained. While proud to be his successor, I feel how much. I must suffer in comparison with such a man ; but I will not pay you so ill a compliment as to dwell on my unworthiness to occupy his chair. It is sufficient for me that you have thought fit to elect me to it ; and my endeavour shall not be wanting to discharge Natural History m the English CountieSs 159 its duties. If, from want of talents or of leisure, or from the distance of my residence, 1 should be found inadequate to the satisfactory performance of what is imposed by the office, I shall con- fidently rely upon your indulgence, and upon the assistance of the committee, or shall resign into your hands the trust you have confided in me, with the same cheerfulness and thankfulness with which I, in the first instance, accepted it." The accounts of the Society were read, and the committee for the year appointed. (Norfolk CAronic/*?, Nov. 28. 1829.) Gloucestershire. Natural History Society. — A Society has been established at Gloucester, the enquiries of which are to be dedicated to subjects of natural history. Dr. Barron has accepted the office of president. {Hereford Journal., July 29.) Fossil Remains from Foxcote. — In 1827, my employer had a well sunk on one of his farms, for the use of his cattle, upon those beautiful hills near Foxcote. It is 70 ft. in depth, and these stones {fig. 35.) came out of it, save one that was given me by a friend from Newland, and which was taken out of a gravel pit in that parish, near Shipston on Stour, Worcestershire. If you should find them useful, they are much at your service ; and I remain. Sir, yours, &c. — W.B. Rose, Gardener. Foxcote, Sept. 6. 1829. The fossils with which we have been favoured by Mr. W. B. Rose, have been submitted to the examination of Mr. J. D. C. Sowerby, who has com- municated the following catalogue : — o, Ammonl/es hawskeriensis Young and Bird. b, Pholadomya producta Min. Con. c, Vhnus ? A cast found also at Pickeridge Hill. d, Amphid^sma pholadiformis Phillips, York- shire. PuUastra Murchison, Geol. Trans. e, Pi^cten sequivalvis Min. Con. f, Terebratula orbicularis (new species). g, Terebr&tula ovo'ides? Min.Con. h, Terebratula bidens (new species). ?, Terebratula m^dia Min. Con. k, Terebratula tetraMra Min. Con. The unfigured specimens are fragments of two species of Ammon)/es ; an impression, pro- bably, of Am. planic6sta, apparently from the lias ; a fragment of a species of P^cten ; S^r- pula (imperfect), Z?clemnites, and Pentacrinus ; fragments of Gryph£e\ ? O'strea ? and .ffelem- nites ? Without being able to point out the precise locality whence these fossils were collected by our correspondent, we have little hesitation in assigning them to the inferior oolite ; and are probably correct in referring them to the brown, ferruginous, and micaceous sandstone which is situated near the lower part of the series, towards the lias, and in which the large Pecten aequivalvis is the most distinguishing shell. This bed appears to be the same as that described by Messrs. Coneybeare and Phillips, under the term " marly sandstone." Most of the fossils in the foregoing list will be found in that furnished by the authors of the Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales. Fine sections of this portion of the oolitic series occur in the western escarpment of the Coteswold Hills of Gloucestershire, and upon the 160 Natural History in the English Counties. detached or outlying hills which arise within the vales of Gloucester and Evesham. A sketch of this escarpment, sufficiently exhibiting the subdivi- sions of the strata, may be consulted at p. 252. of the work to which we have referred. The inspection of these fossils recalled to our memory an extraordinary assemblage of similar shells, evidently derived from the same matrix, in a quarry on one of those outlying masses of oolite to which we before alluded, in the same county. We revert to the circumstance, as inte- resting to ourselves, from early associations. It was the first occasion which attracted our attention to these singular depositories of organic remains, and excited an admiration which the experience of 23 years has only served to strengthen, at these wonderful records of a former world. The specimen of bone which Mr. Rose states was discovered near Shipston on Stour is a portion, probably about one third, of a large molar tooth of an elephant, comprising eight plates, forming the centre or middle part of the tooth. It occurred, as we are informed, in a bed of gravel about 10 ft. in depth. This is another instance of the extensive diffusion of the bones of elephants in the diluvium of our island. We thank Mr. Rose for this contribution, because it enables us to compare, to name, and to figure the specimens for the satisfaction of himself, and to the advantage of our geological readers. We are particularly desirous of encouraging similar communications from our country friends. — JR. C. T. Jan. 1830. WORCESTERSHIRJE. The Cuckoo. — The best place for observing the habits of this bird, in England, is on the range of the Malvern Hills, where they abound, in the season, in extraordinary numbers, making the whole circuit of them resound continually with their note, in a most striking manner ; and flying about, from tree to tree, in a way which would much delight a person fond of natural history. The workmen of the neighbourhood say a bird comes with them, which they call the cuckoo's maid, but I never saw it. — X Y. Dec. 23. 1829. Plants on the Malvern Hills. — Sir, The Malvern Hills being so well known, fi-om the beautiful prospects they afford, and being the resort of many persons in the summer season, incited, probably, as much by the salubrity of the air as the purity of the waters, perhaps the following list of plants grow- ing on them, or in their vicinity (all gathered or observed by myself, in various excursions), may not be unacceptable. Several I have noted this present season, during a short residence in the neighbourhood for the benefit of my health. Plants growing on, or in the immediate vicinity.of, the primitive, granitic, and sienitic chain of the Malvern Hills, stretching nine miles in length from nerth to south, from Leigh Sinton in Wor- cestershire, to Bromsberrow in Gloucestershire ; bounded on the east by the red marl plain of "Worcestershire, and on the north and along the west by the transition limestone of Worcester- shire and Herefordshire* : — Enchanter's nightshade (rircje''a luteti&na); blunt-fingered speedwell (Ferdnica triphyllus), at the northern extremity of the Link Common at the foot of the hills ; butterwort (Pinguicula vul- gJlris), in a bog on the western side of the Worcestershire Beacon, but on no other part of the hills ; gipsywort (Lycopus europse^us), in the neighbouring ditches ; cotton-grass (£ri6phorum polystachion), in a bog on the western side of the hills ; mat-grass (tardus stricta), on the com- mons : silver hair-grass (^ira carophyllea) ; tall fescue grass {Festuca gigant^a) ; reed-fescue (jF. calamaria), the last two in woods on the limestone hills north of Malvern ; water blinks (Montia fontana), in plashy rills on the hill ; small teasel (Dipsacuspilbsus) ; woodroof (Asp^rula odorata) ; lady's mantle {Alchemilla vulgaris) ; holly (/'lex ^quifblium), almost covering one of the hills in the southern part of the chain ; tufted water scorpion grass (il/yosbtis caBspitbsa) ; gromwell (Lithospf^rmum officinale); green-leaved hound's-tongue (Cynogl6ssumsylvaticum), in the woody glen at the foot of Warren Hill, near Little Malvern ; bog pimpernel (^nagallis ten611a), mossy bog at the base of the Worcestershire Beacon ; great mullein (Ferbascum TTiipsus), in abund- ance ; moth mullein {V. Blattaria), side of the road to Worcester; thorn apple (Datura Stramo- nium), on waste ground near the church ; henbane (ffyosc^amus niger), in abundance at the base of the hills near the wells ; lesser periwinkle (Finca minor), in a wood on the summit of a limestone hill near Cradley; lesser dodder {Ciiscuta JBpithymum), on the north hill; autumnal * Perhaps, at a future time, I may say more on the geology of this district, if not anticipated by an abler correspondent. Natural History in the English Counties. 161 gentian (Gentinna Amar^Ua), on limestone, in a rocky wood near the Wytch, plentifully ; creeping water.parsnep (Slum ripens), in marshy ground on the western side of the Worcestershire Bea- con ; mealy Guelder rose (Fiburnum Lantana), in the woods, on limestone, near Ledbury; flax (Linum usitatissimum), near Little Malvern ; sundew (Drosera rotundifblia), bog on western side of the Beacon'; snowdrop (Gah'inthus nivJilis), in great abundance in a mossy glen at the north- western base of the Herefordshire Beacon, and in the adjoining wood ; daffodil (A'arcissus Psetido- narcissus), in profusion in a wood near Little Malvern church, and some full-flowered varieties in other parts; wild tulip (Tidipa sylvc'stris), this was found among the limestone quarries by Jas. T. Goodman ; golden dock (^iimex pali'istris), marsh by the chalybeate spring ; arrow grass (Triglb- chin palustre), in boggy places ; meadow saflron (Colchicura autumnale), abundant in the moist meadows on the western side of the hills ; yellow-wort (Chl5raperfoliata), near the limestone quar- ries ; bilberry* (Faccinium Myrtillus), on the rocks of the Worcestershire Beacon ; Ling (Calluna vulgaris), no other kind of heath grows throughout the whole range ; great bistort (/'olygonum Bisturta), in moist copsy meadows to the north of the hills; alpine bistort (P. viviparum) ; herb paris (Paris quadrifblia), in the thick woods at the western bases of the two beacons ; golden saxi- frage (Chrysosplt;niura oppositifblium), abundant in the shallow plashy rills ; Deptford pink (Di- &nthus Armaria) ; bog stitchwort (Stellaria uliginbsa) ; purple sandwort (Arenaria rQbra), abun- dant on the rocks ; navelwort (Cotyledon umbilicus), numerous in the fissures of the rocks ; Stdum TeR'phiMTw, S. acre, and S. album, all abundant on the rocks of the north hill, but the album rarely flowering; smooth awl-shaped spurrey (Sp<5rgula saginoldes), in a marshy spot on the western side of the Worcestershire Beacon, about midway down the hill ; also in another springy spot near the Wytch ; wild service (P^rus torminaiis), in the woods; mountain ash (P. aucuparia), numerous at the base of the north hill; SpiriE"*a *alicifblia, in an old, overgrown, half dried-up watercourse near Welland Common, at the base of the hills ; but, perhaps, naturalised there, as a garden was not far from the spot ; Rb&a villbsa ; R. tomentosa ; R. rubiginbsa, in some plenty on the limestone hills ; R. micrantha, on the thickety side of the Warren Hill; R. Borrhri and R. Forstfer«, in the woods ; Potentilla argentea, plentiful on the rocks ; P. verna, on the rock above the cave on the •Herefordshire Beacon ; small-leaved lime (Pilia parvifolia), woods at the north end of the range ; Cistus Heli&nthemum ; columbine ( Aquilegia vulgaris) ; ^anftnculus parviflbrus ; JVepeta Cataria ; spearmint (Mt^ntha viridis), by the side of a stream near Newland; peppermint (M. piperita), plentiful by the rills on the chase; calamint ('Phymus Calamintha), abundant; toothwort (La- thras^a squamaria), at the base of the north hill, on the roots of holly, and in a thick wood on a conglomerate rock near the Tame, on the roots of maple; foxglove (Digitalis purpiirea), in all parts of the range, profusely ; Geranium Idcidum ; PumJlria clavicul&.ta ; Jnth^llis Vulneraria'; ricia sylvatica, in the wood below the Worcestershire Beacon ; Ornithopus perpusillus ; saintfoin (//edysarum Onobr^chis), on the limestone rocks; sulphur-coloured trefoil (Prifdlium ochroleis- cum, on the Link Common ; tutsan (Hypericum ^ndros3e'>mum), in a wood near Little Malvern priory ; upright St. John's wort (//. pfilchrum), abundant on the heathy ground at the north base of the End Hill ; wall hawkweed (//ierkcium murbrum), on the rocks; Carline thistle (Carlmrt vulgaris) ; golden rod (Solidago Virganrea), on the rocks ; chamomile (J'nthemis nobilis), abun . dant on the wet commons near the hills; butterfly orchis (0. bifblia), in the woods; pyramidal orchis (0. pyramidklis), on the limestone banks, varying with milk-white flowers ; frog orchis {0. viridis), in pastures at the base of the north hill ; aromatic orchis (0. conupsea), covering whole meadows at the foot of the northern limestone eminences ; bee orchis (0. apifera), on the lime- stone rocks at Leigh Sinton ; ladies' traces (Neottia spiralis), on the wet commons ; juniper (Juni- perus commiinis), on the limestone rocks ; yew {Taxus baccata), abundant in the adjacent woods on limestone, various old and curiously grotesque individuals. ; Having thus enumerated so many flowering plants, I must defer men- tioning any of the Cryptogamia at present. I am, Sir, &c. — Edwin Lees, Htrnter's Hall, near Little Malvern, Sept, 18. 1829. Plants varying in the Colour of their Flowers, S;c., growing wild principally near Worcester. — Red valerian (Faletiana rubra), on the walls of the Priory gate at Crickhowell, with white flowers, but plants with red flowers growing intermixed with the white ones. Spring crocus (Crbcus vernus), with white flowers, in a low field on the south side of Worcester ; soil alluvial, on red marl. Cow- slip (Primula veris), with deep red flowers, in a gravelly field, on the west side of Worcester, Meadow saff'ron (Colchicum autumnale), with white flowers, in a meadow on the banks of the Severn, growing in company with purple ones. Common ling (Calluna vulgaris), with white flowers, in a boggy place on the western side of the Malvern Hills. Soapwort (Saponaria offici- nalis), with double flowers, in a hedge on the road to Cotheridge. Wild plum tree (T'ranus do- mestica), with double flowers, in a hedge near Cruckbarrow Hill. Meadow-sweet (Spirae'^a Ulmk- ria), a most beautiful variety, with full flowers, resembling small white roses, in a marshy place at Battenhall, on the road to Cruckbarrow Hill. Burnet rose (flbsa spinosissima), the cream- coloured petals marked with red, Battenhall Lane, Worcester. White-clustered bramble (TJiibus leucostachys), with double white flowers, in a hedge on the north side of Worcester. 7iubus glandulbsus, with red flowers, and the calyces in six segments, terminating in leafy points on Bromsgrove Licky. Dwarf cistus (Cistus Helianlhemum), with red flowers, in Lord Somers's l)ark at Eastnor Castle ; a straggling seedling, probably from the neighbouring limestone emi- ■nences, where the common yellow flowers flourish abundantly. Ground ivy (Glechoma hederh- cea), with deep purple flowers, on red marl, in Battenhall Lane. Wood betony (Petonica offici- nalis), with white flowers, in a copse on the Helbury Hill, west side of Worcester, towards the ■boundaries ofthe red marl and lias marl. Self-heal {Prunella vulgaris), with white flowers, west side of Worcester, on gravel. Red bartsia (Barts/a Odontites), with white flowers, on limestone near Ledbury ; eight or ten specimens with white flowers, growing within a yard's distance of numerous plants with red ones. Dwarf red rattle (Pedicul&ris sylvatica), with white flowers, in a boggy meadow near Mudwall Mill, Worcester; a number of "plants growing together, all with white flowers. Great snapdragon (Antirrhinum mkjus), with cream-coloured flowers, on an old wall * I mention the bilberry here, to correct an error of Dr. Walker's of Huddersfield, who, in a paper recently published in the Midland Medical and Surgical Reporter, states that no bog or alpine plants are found on, the Malvern Hills, *' not even ilieyaccmiu7n." Of course, it did not fall under Dr. Walker's observation ; but he omitted to examine the rocks of the Worcestershire Beacon, where the Taccinium Myrtillus grows plentifully ; and the bog on the west side of the Beacon also escaped his notice. Vol. III. — No. 12. m 16:2 Natural History in the English Counties, near the Commandery, Worcester. Foxglore (Digitalis purpurea), with white flowers, on the north hill at Malvern ; an old inhabitant informed me that this white variety was many years ago almost as common on the hills as the purple one, but curious visitors having repeatedly rooted it up year after year wherever it appeared, it is now quite rare to find a white-flowered plant. Small-flowered cranesbill (GerJinium pusillum), with white flowers, Henwick hill, on sandy ground. Musk mallow (A/alva moschata), with white flowers, as a weed in a garden on Henwick Hill ; a straggler from the wild ones with pink flowers, growing by the road-side. Milkwort {Po- l^gala vulg&ris), with white flowers, on limestone, to the north of Malvern. Wood vetch (nda sylv&tica), with flowers entirely cream-coloured, on limestone, in the middle of the Lime-kiln Woods, near Wellington, Shropshire ; some other plants, not far off, had their flowers of the usual variegationof blue.'white, and grey. Musk Thistle (Carduusniitans), with white flowers, on Mal- vern Hills. Pyramidal orchis (0. pyramid^lis), with white flowers,'on transition limestone, at the north-west base of the Malvern Hills. I am, Sir,' &c. —Edwin Lees. Hunter's Hall, near Little Malvern, Sept. 17. 1829. Warwickshire. Weaver's Museum in Birmingham. — Richard Weaver, a working shoe- maker, being in bad health, was advised to walk frequently into the coun- try, and on these occasions amused himself with collecting various species of insects and especially the Lepidoptera, in their different stages. By making up small cases of butterflies for sale, he obtained a sufficient sum to purchase a cabinet, and is at length become possessed of one of the most complete collections out of the metropolis. At the suggestion of some friends, he is endeavouring to establish, a museum here *, which at present he wishes to confine to the natural history of the British islands. He has a few British birds, but his means of obtaining a greater variety of specimens are extremely limited. Weaver has some subscribers of 1/. 1*. per annum, but still too few to defray the expenses of obtaining a larger collection ; and, to aid his funds for this purpose, he will gladly make up small cases of British insects to order, either for sale, or in exchange for birds and other objects of natural history. The character of Richard Weaver will be highly interesting to any of your readers, lovers of natural history, from the ardour he exhibits in the pursuit of his objects, apart from the consideration of pecuniary profit, be- yond the most moderate maintenance of himself and his wife. He evinces great gratitude for any assistance afforded him either by instruction, speci- mens, or donations. It should be added, that Weaver has learned to set his butterflies with skill and effect. — C. Birmingham, Nov. 17. 1829. Rarer Plants found in Warwickshire. — Sir, In making out, according to my promise, a list of the rarer plants of Warwickshire, the chief difficulty I have met with is that of selection ; I mean, of determining, in many cases, what plants are of sufficient rarity to justify their insertion in the sort of list intended. And here I cannot help remarking, that in several instances the lists of rare plants and insects, furnished by some of your correspondents, from various parts of the country, consist principally of articles which have no pretensions to be so distinguished ; and the publication of such lists in your Magazine, has accordingly drawn forth some severe, yet just, remarks from others, under the head of Retrospective Criticism. From the very nature of the case much difference of opinion, I am aware, must unavoidably exist on the subject. The occurrence of a plant in any particular district depends much on the nature of the soil, the presence or absence of a suit- able habitat, or place of growth, of wood, mountain, heath, bog, water, waste ground, &c., and a variety of other circumstances. Some plants, too, though distributed very generally over a wide extent of country, are scarcely any where found in much abundance ; while others are extremely local, yet where they do occur, sometimes occur in great profusion. As an instance of the former kind may be mentioned iSamolus Valerandi, and, of the latter, irithospermum purpureo-caeruleum, a plant which I never happened to have met with except in the neighbourhood of Chedder in Somersetshire, where the woods abounded with it to a great extent. The common Foxglove * No. 38. New Street, Bu-mingham. Natural History in the English Counties* 163 (Digitalis purpurea), I have understood, would hardly find a place in the Flora of some English counties. In the immediate neighbourhood of this place I should in vain seek for a wild specimen of such common plants as J5^'chiura vulgare, Cichorium /''ntybus, ^nthyllis Vulneraria, jEuph6rbi« amygdaloides, »S'alvia Ferbenaca, Artemisia Absinthium, and several others equally common, while the beautiful Campanula patula*, generally, and with reason, considered one of our rarer natives, occurs plentifully in this and many other parishes in the neighbourhood. No two botanists, therefore, it is probable, would exactly agree in then* selection of the species proper to find a place in a list of the rarities of one and the same district. No doubt I have enumerated below some plants which others would have omitted, and excluded some which others would have been disposed to insert. In either case, the apology I have to plead is the difficulty of drawing the line. " Non omnes eadem mirantur amantque. Quid dem ? quid non dem ? Renuis quod tu, jubet alter." f It is proper to state, that the following does not profess to be a complete list of all the rare plants which the county may afford j such only are men- tioned as I have observed myself, or for which I have the authority of some personal friend ; and, in the latter case, the authority for the insertion is always given. Yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. Alledey Rectory y Aug. 24. 1829. Name. Place of Growth, Veronica scutellata - - Coleshill Heath. montana - - Woods at Beausal, near Wedgnock Park. < T^. , , , V . ( Bog near Chemsley Wood, and Bannerley Pmgulculavulgans - | fool, Coleshill. Eriophorum vaginatum - Bog below Coleshill Pool. polystachion - - Packington, Countess of Aylesford. Ax\xw(k> epigejos - - Allesley. T., ., V ( Banks of the Blithe, Coleshill ; Bourne -Dipsacus pilosus - - ^ Brooke, Shustoke. Sagina erecta - - Coleshill Heath. Hottonk palustris - - Between Coleshill and Tamworth. Xysimachia vulgaris - Banks of the Blithe, Coleshill. -^nagallis caeridea - - Corn fields, Bidford. tenella - - Bogs, Coleshill Heath, Sutton Park, &c. Campanula patula - - Allesley, Meriden, Coleshill, &c. latifolia - - Allesley. hjbrida - - Bidford. riola hirta - - Bidford, Birdingbury. palustris - - Coleshill Heath, &c. Ferbascum nigrum - - Stoneley. jSamolus Valerandi - Itchington. jRhamnus catharticus - Coleshill, Bidford, &c. Finca minor - - Allesley, Fillongley. Cuscuta europae^a - - Allesley. ^upleiirum rotundifolium - Bidford, Wootton near Warwick. * I have been told that, some years ago, a noble lady, resident in this county, informed the celebrated Mr. Curtis that Campanula patula was common in Warwickshire. As Her Ladyship was at that time only com- mencing the study of botany, Mr. Curtis seemed unwilling to credit the statement, and concluded that some other more common species had been mistaken for the one in question, assuring her, at the same time, that Cam- panula patula was one of our rarest English plants. f " All do not admire and like the same things. . . . What should I supply ? what reject ? The same which you refuse, another orders." M 2 16* Natural History in the English Comttes, ^candix odorata Pimpinella magna * iSambucus ^'bulus Parnassia palustris Drosera rotundifolia Myosiirus minimus Galanthus nivalis ieucojum ajstivum Tulipa sylvestris Ornithogalum umbellatum - Narthecium ossifragum Convallaria majalis Triglochin palustre EpUobium angustifoliimi Chlora perfoliata Faccinium Oxycoccos Daphne Laureola Polygonum Bistorta Paris quadrifolia Pyrola media Chrysosplenium alternifolium Cotyledon umbilicus »S!edum Tel&^hiuvi Cratae^gus torminalis jSpirae^a Filipendula i26sa tomentosa t - - jyowaidna micrantha sepium ? J - Potentilla argentea « Balsal Temple. Allesley, Meriden, &c. Grafton, Mr. Purton. Bogs, Coleshill, Warwick, &c. Coleshill Heath. Coleshill. Packington, Countess of Aylesford. Near the Avon, Stratford, ^Ir. Purton. Allesley. Meadows near the Avon, Warwick. Bog below Coleshill Pool. 5 Woods, Allesley and Corley ; Bentley I Park, Hay Wood. Bogs, Coleshill. Ryton Wood. Between Stratford and Alcester. 5 Pool in Chemsley Wood, Bog below I Coleshill Pool, &c. Warwick, Itchington, &c. Allesley, &c. Bannerley Rough, Coleshill, Fillongley, &c. Woods, Meriden. Balsal Temple. Ruins of Maxstoke Priory. Woods, Allesley. Claverdon. Between Marton and Southam. Allesley, &c. Allesley, Claverdon. Allesley, Bidford, &c. Near Bidford Grange. Coleshill Heath. * Judging from its frequent and abundant occurrence on banks and mar- gins of fields in this neighbourhood, I should hardly have thought of intro- ducing this plant into the above list. I find it, however, classed among our rarer species in Turner and Dillwyn's Botanisfs Guide, and have here- tofore been applied to by a botanist to forward roots to him from this neighbourhood into Yorkshire. f Common enough in this county ; I include it in the above list, not on account of its rarity, but because it is often overlooked or taken for a variety of Posa canina. % This rose, which I discovered some years since in a rough pasture near Bidford Grange (see Purton's Midland Florae vol. iii. p. 41.), and forwarded to the Horticultural Society, has, I understand, much perplexed the bota- nists connected with that establishment. If I might venture an opinion in a case where far better judges than myself entertain doubts, I should be dis- posed to consider this rose as merely a strong variety of Posa canina. The difficulty, however, of determining the species of this genus is become almost proverbial : " Fungum et Rosam," says Scopoli, " quisque noscit, species vero genuinas utriusque generis ne botanici quidem consummati." (" Every one can tell a Fungus and a Rose; but to distinguish the true species of each is scarcely within the power of even a first-rate botanist.") I have been told of a justly celebrated botanist, and an able writer too on this very genus, who, being asked how many true species of rose he be- lieved there were, replied somewhat dryly, " I really cannot say, bu,t I am quite sure there is owe." Naiufdl Hktory iii the English Counties, 165 Geum rivale Papaver Argemone Aquilegia vulgaris i^anunculus parviflorus ^Telleborus viridis ilfientha Pulegium - *■ Galeopsis versicolor Scutellaria minor ilfelampyrum arvense Antirrhinum spurium Limosella aqudtica *• * Orobanche elatior Teesdale'a nudicaulis - Cardamine amara Turritis glabra Pelargonium sylvaticum pyrenaicum Oenista anglica iathyrus A'phaca Nissoba sylvestris J^fcia sylvatica Astragalus glycyphyllos jHypericum elodes Xactuca virosa * jSieracium umbellatum Cnicus eriophorus pratensis Bidens cernua Tussilago hybrida Solidago Virgaurea Zonula Heihxxium O'rchis pyramidalis Oymnadenia conopsea Habenaria viridis Listera nidus avis Neottia spiralis -Epipactis latifolia palustris ensifolia Littorella lacustris ikfyriophyllum verticillatum ' Quercus sessilifidra * Arley Wood, &c, Claverdon. Woods, Allesley. Bickenhill. ( Dadley's Wood, Allesley; banks of Bourne \ Brook, Shustoke, Allesley. Coleshill. Coleshill. Packington, Countess of Aylesford. Bidford. Coleshill Pool, Countess of Aylesford. Coleshill, Bickenhill, Allesley. C Between Packington and Coleshill ; h&- } tween Coleshill and Lichfield, by the ( turnpike road. Allesley, Coleshill, Balsal Temple, Allesley. Oversley Wood, Mr. Purton, Allesley, Coleshill, Coleshill Heath. Alne Hills, Mr, Purton. Coughton; Great Alne, Mr, Purton, J Bubbenhall, near the bridge leading from \ Baginton, Bentley Park, Bidford. Bog below Coleshill Pool, &c C Stone bridge, between the Coleshill and \ Birmingham roads, Coleshill Heath. Allesley, &c Bog below Coleshill Pool. Packington, Banks of the Avon, at Bidford Grange, Kenilworth, Lower Whitacre. Ragley Park and Grafton, Mr, Purton* Bogs, Coleshill. Oversley Hill, Mr. Purton, Kingsbury Wood,Mr.Boultbee,Bushy Wood. Bidford and Snitterfield, Mr. Purton, Allesley, Coleshill, Wootton near Warwick, Bogs, Coleshill, &c. Oversley Wood, Mr, Purton j Ragley. Coleshill Pool. Packington, Countess of Aylesford, Woods, Allesley; Hay Wood, &c. * This species has no claim to be considered rare in this, or perhaps in any other, part of the country; but except by the eye of a botanist it is sel* dom distinguished from the Quercus ^obur, A writer in the Quarterly Re- mew (No. Ixxvii. p. 22.) states that Quercus sessilifidra " is supposed to have been introduced, some two or three ages ago, from the Continent ; " an opi- nion, which, I cannot help thinking, is ill-founded. That the acorns may have been imported from the Continent, as the reviewer states, and the plants raised from them extensively cultivated, is extremely probable. The species itself^ however, I cannot but believe to be an original native of our island, M 3 166 Natural History in the English Counties. jS'tilix pentandra - - Binley. Osmundfl! regalis - - Coleshill Heath. Botrychium Lunaria - Oversley Hill, Mr. Purton, Lycopodium clavatum - Coleshill Heath. mundatum - - Shores of Coleshill Pool. (Selago - - Bog below Coleshill Pool. Aspldium lobatum * - Allesley, Meriden, &c. Oreopteris - - Coleshill Heath, &c. TTielypteris - - In a boggy pit, Allesley. Pilularia globulifera - Coleshill Pool. Tetraphis pelliicida - - Allesley. Trichostomum fontinaloides In the Avon at Warwick and Bidford. Neckera heteromalla - Allesley. jHypnum loreum - - Woods, Allesley. dendroides - - Allesley, &c. fflopecurum - - Allesley, &c. j^ryum bfcolor - - Walls of Warwick Castle. aureum - - Shores of Coleshill Pool. Peziza epidendra - - Allesley, Coleshill. punicea - - Coleshill Heath. Nidularia striata - - Allesley. laeVis - - Coleshill. Reticularia Lycoperdon - Allesley, Coleshill. for the following reasons : — In some districts (e. g. in some parts of North Wales, and in the neighbourhood of the lakes in the north of England) it is the most prevailing kind, constituting, as it were, the staple growth of the country, almost to the exclusion of the other species, Q. ^obur. In these situations we should hardly suspect that the trees had been planted by the hand of man, nor have they that appearance ; but, on the contrary, seem to be the spontaneous produce of the soil in which they grow. I have also observed, in various places, trees of the sessile-flowered oak, which, I should conclude, must be of some hundred years' growth. In this county, which formed a part of the woody and extensive district, anciently called the Forest of Arden, the oak in question is chiefly to be met with in woods, some of which almost entirely consist of this species, and exhibit evident marks of great antiquity, as well in other respects, as in the large hollow stools of oak which frequently occur in them. It is by no means an im- probable supposition, that our Warwickshire woods may, at least in some mstances, be portions of the original unreclaimed land, existing now in nearly the same state as before the country was cleared to its present extent for agricultural purposes. The reviewer, above referred to, very justly re- probates the practice of cultivating Quercus sessiliflora as a tree, on account of the comparative worthlessness of its timber. Where woods, however, are periodically cut, and chiefly employed as copse, and the oak poles (with the exception of such samplers as are left for timber) felled at about twenty years' growth for the use of the coal pits, the sessile-flowered oak, as being of quicker and cleaner growth, answers the purpose well, and is perhaps pre- ferable to the other. So at least our woodmen would argue, who have a common saying among them, that " a quick ninepence is better than a slow shilling." I will only add, that this spurious species will attain to a very large size, and is extremely handsome in its foliage. As a timber tree, how- ever, its culture cannot be recommended ; and more especially ought the " impostor " to be extirpated from the royal forests and other woods which are to supply our navy. * Very common in this county, but generally confounded with the nearly allied species, A. aculeatum, from which, however, it is quite distinct. Ray's St/nopsls may be usefully consulted on this fern. Natural History in the English Counties, 167 Lycoperdon stellatum SphaeVia mammosa Trichia rubiformis Hydnum membranaceuin Allesley, Coleshill, Warwick, Allesley. Allesley, Meriden. On an old moist bank, Coleshill. Leicestershire. Plants in Charnwood Forest and its neighbourhood ; the soil sienite and slate. Grooby Pool (40 acres in ex- tent), and its adjoining inarshy and rocky banks. Veronica ^inagallis. scutell&.ta. Lycbpus europas^us. l^ris Pseudacorus. Erii'iphorum poIystJichion, 4*pus Caprimulgus europse^us Muscicapa Atricapilla Grisola Saxicola ffinanthe Rubfetra Sylvia Phoenictirus May 23 April 9 27 — — .'j 27 May 12 April 17 27 May 12 April 12 May 3 April'l? - m 18 Currilca Locustella . . - ialickria - - _ --_ 28 hortensis . - - . May 9 sibiiatrix ... - —^ Q Atricapilla - - . April 25 Salvia . . - . — — 29 TZ^gulus Truchilus - - ]5 Motacilla flava - - - 17 vi'nthus triviklis - - - — — 18 Cuculus canbrus - _ - gs Yi'inx Torqu;iIa - - - 18 Ortygomfetra Crex - . , -___ jg Stdrna /iirundo - . - May 6 Quail. This bird may be considered scarce in the neighbourhood of Carlisle, and we believe is generally so throughout the county. It is, however, much more plentiful some years than others. This was the case last year, having heard it repeatedly in various situations; yet during the pre- sent summer we have not been able to detect its singular note either before or since the 23d of May. One or two are almost annually killed in the autumnal rnonths, and a few have been known to remain over the winter. Swallow. The appearance of the swallow this year was remarkably early, particularly so, considering the severe weather that prevailed at the time of its arrival, and is, we have reason to believe, the earliest notice of its having been seen in this neighbourhood. We first observed it between two and three p. m. coursing the river Eden in a sheltered situation near Etterby, in company with eight or ten sand-martens; affid on our return the following day, it was still in the same situation. Although daily upon the look-out, we could not see another until the 21st, on which day several were seen. Pied Flycatcher. All the writers upon British ornithology who have stated that this species is indigenous .to Britain, appear to have done so more from conjecture than from any conclusive evidence, as we cannot find a single well authenticated fact of its having been met with in this country during the winter season ; indeed, all the testimony upon which any reliance can be * First published in the Philosophical Magazine, and here republished at the request of th author, with some corrections and additions. — Cond, Natural Histofyin the E?tglish Counties. 17S placed is decidedly against the supposition that it is indigenous, and tends strongly to prove that It is only a summer bird of passage. For instance, Mr. Bolton, in his Harmonia Ruralis, says that it visits the west riding of Yorkshire, and departs with its young in September. The Rev. Mr. Dalton, of Copgrove (also in the west riding of Yorkshire), states that he has frequently seen ic about his house in the summer, but does not recollect ever to have noticed it in the winter.* Dr. Heysliam, in his Catalogue of Cumberland Animals, observes that the pied flycatcher appears about the same time as the spotted, but is not so common ; and for the last three years we have noticed it regularly during the spring and summer in Cumberland, but as yet have never been able to see, hear of, or procure a single specimen in the winter, notwithstanding we have repeat- edly searched for it in all the winter months during the above period ; nor can we find, from the enquiries we have made, that it has ever been seen at this season of the year in those parts of Westmoreland where it constantly resorts to in great numbers. The migration of this species appears to be principally confined to the northern counties, as it is seldom observed beyond Yorkshire, and rarely seen in the south of England, although it has occasionally been met with in Norfolk, Suffolk, Middlesex, Surrey, Dorsetshire ; and Mr. Greaves, in his British Ornithology, states, that in the summer of 1812 he found a nest of this bird with young at Peckham, in Surrey. In some parts of Westmoreland it is very plentiful, especially io the beautiful and extensive woods surrounding Lowther Castle, the magnificent and princely residence of the Earl of Lonsdale, where we have seen it in very great numbers, and where it has bred unmolested and almost unknown for years. On the contrary, we have reason to think it has not resorted to the vicinity of Carlisle more than five or six years, and, as far as we have yet been able to ascertain, only to one locality, where it is evidently upon the increase. In this situation the males generally arrive about the middle of April, the females not until ten or fifteen days afterwards : they commence nidification early in May, and the young are excluded about the first or second week in June. We have hitherto invariably found their nests in the hole of a tree, sometimes at a considerable height, occasionally near the surface of the ground, and, for two successive years, in the stump of a felled tree. In texture and formation the nest is • very similar to those of the greater pettychaps, blackcap, and whitethroat, being only slightly put together, composed almost entirely of small fibrous roots and dried grass, always lined with a little hair, and generally a few decayed leaves on the outer side, but entirely without moss. Their eggs vary in number : we have found their nests with five, six, and now and then with seven ; their colour a pale green, and so greatly resemble the eggs of the redstart, that it is fre- quently very difficult to distinguish them, unless contrasted together : they are, however, far from being so elegantly made, of a rounder form, and rather less, weighing from 23 to 30 grains. The males, soon after their arrival, should the weather be at all favourable, will frequently sit for a considerable time on the decayed branch of a tree, constantly repeating their short, little varied, although far from unpleasing, song, every now and then interrupted by the pursuit and capture of some passing insect. Their alarm note is not very unlike the word chuck, which they commonly repeat two or three times when approached, and which readily leads to their detection. The manners and habits of the pied flycatcher have considerable affinity to those of the redstart j they arrive about the same time, associate together, and often build in the same holes, for which they will sometimes contend. On one occasion we found a dead female redstart in the nest of a pied flycatcher containing two eggs ; and at another time, when both these species had nests within a few inches of each other, upon the redstart's being removed, the female redstart took forcible possession of the flycatcher's nest, incubated the eggs, and brought up the young. We have now (August 26th) two young pied flycatchers, taken from the nest on the 21st of last June ; and should we succeed in our attempts to domesticate them, we may, in all probability, on some future occasion, make a remark or two upon the change of their plumage from youth to maturity. Wheatear. We were not able to see the wheatear before the 12th of April, and then only a solitary male, notwithstanding we had repeatedly traversed the coast for several miles in the latter end of March and the beginning of April ; and it was not until the 17th that we observed them in the more immediate vicinity of Carlisle. Grasshopper Warbler. The grasshopper warbler has been more abundant with us this year than usual ; so much so, that we have been able to procure four specimens, and could have obtained more without much diffi(!ulty. These consisted of three males and one female : the plumage of the former nearly coincided with each other, but the female was entirely destitute of the brown spots on the breast, and all the under parts were of a uniform pale brown or buff colour. We have been induced to notice this circumstance, as it is stated that no material differ- ence exists in the plumage of the sexes. Should this not be an accidental occurrence, it is possible the females do not acquire these marks until the second or third year. The stomachs of the whole were entirely filled with the elytra and remains of small coleop- terous insects, principally belonging to the family Curculionldae of Leach ; and we could not dis- cover the least vestige of any orthopterous insect, upon which they are supposed almost entirely to subsist, and which they are said to decoy by their remarkable note. Dotterel [Charadrius Morinellus). At one time we had considerable hopes that we should hare been able to have noticed the arrival of the dotterel in this neighbourhood with some degree of accuracy, having lately ascertained that it had regularly for some years past resorted to some open ground contiguous to Scugh Dyke, situate upon Broad Field, about nine miles south-west from Carlisle. At this place they usually remained about ten days or a fortnight, when they in all probability took up their residence on Skiddaw and the adjoining mountains, where they annually breed. Early in May, 18-28, they were seen in the above situation in considerable num- bers, and from fifteen to twenty were killed about the 9th of that month. It is perhaps not very generally known that some parts of the plumage of the dotterel are in very great request by the manufacturers of artificial flies for fishing, which accounts for their being pursued and killed in such numbers ; and it is probably owing to this circumstance that they are every year becoming more and more scarce in the vicinity of Keswick. We regret to add that not a single bird has been seen there this summer, which may partly be attributed to the numbers killed last year, and has, in ail likelihood, caused them to resort to some mor.e sequestered place. The eggs of the dotterel, we believe, still remain undescribed, which is somewhat extraordinary, considering that they constantly breed in the mountainous districts of Yorkshire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and some parts of Scotland. Dr. Latham, it is true, in the last edition of his General History of * See the Supplement to Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary. 1 74 Natural History in the English Counties* Birds, has given some account of the nest of this species, the time and period of their incubation, and the numbers of their eggs, but does not describe them. Under these circumstances, we trust the following description, although now written upwards of forty-four years ago, will not be altogether uninteresting to our ornithological readers : — " Some time last summer a nest of the dottrel was found on Skiddaw ; the old one was killed, and the eggs brought away, which were three or four in number, I saw three of them j they are somewhat larger than a magpie's egg, the ground is a dirty clay colour marked with large irregular black spots. February 14, 1785." * Common Tern. This species does not visit Solway Frith in any great numiiers, and for some years past has been much less numerous than usual. It is there called by the fishermen and others jerky, pickmaw, &c. The lesser tern (S. minuta) rarely visits the Frith, and Allonby is the nearest place we have lately received it from. The spring of the present year was one of- the most backward that has occurred in this neigh- bourhood for very many years. During the whole of April and the beginning of May the thermometer was frequently below the freezing point, the surrounding mountains more or less covered with snow, and the weather in general gloomy, wet, and extremely cold. It was not until the 6th of May that the whitethorn (Crataegus Oxyacintha) in the hedges began to exhibit any very evident symptoms of verdure, and the woods were almost entirely desti- tute of their foliage for some time after ; in short, the winter might be said to have been protracted, with little or no exaggeration, until nearly the middle of May. We have been led to make these remarks from its being generally admitted that the early or late appearance of the summer birds of passage depends entirely upon the state and temperature of the weather, &c. ; yet it will be perceived that the swallow and grasshopper warbler arriveel unusually early, and, with the exception of the goatsucker, whinchat, and wood wren, all the others about tlie time they have arrived for the last two years. + A violent storm from the north- east, which commenced on the 28th of April, and which continued, although somewhat abated, for several successive days, will account in some measure for the delay in the appearance of these three species, it having begun aliout the time they commonly made their appearance in this vicinity. Much might be said upon this very interesting subject, and it is probable we may recur to it at some future opportunity. — C. Carlisle, October 26. 1829. Ichthyoloi!y. — Doree {Zeus Fader Lin.). Two small specimens of this species were taken in Solway Frith during the late summer ; the first on the 19th of May, the second on the 12lh of June. The former weighed only eighteen ounces, and was 14^ in. long; the latter exceeded 17 in. in length, and was upwards of thirty-two ounces in weight. I have been induced to notice this occurrence, as I am not aware that the doree has been met with so far north before, —/rf. Pj/rola secunda. — Withering gives one English locality for this plant, in Yorkshire; Smith only mentions Scottish habitats. It is found thickly, though limited to the space of two or three yards, close by a waterfall some distance up a hill on the right-hand side of the road leading from Ambleside to Keswick, and opposite that end of Leatheswater nearer to the latter. — Hewett Cottrell WaUon. Edinburgh, Oct. 1829. Somersetshire. Rare Plants found in the Neighbourhood of Yeovil. — Sir, Next to a spread of vital religion, there is nothing better fitted to enlighten the mind or enlarge the heai't than the study of the works of creation. It is therefore with much pleasure I have to inform you that your Magazine has kindled a taste for natural history amongst us, which I trust will increase more and more ; and I am commissioned by the botanists of this place to send you a list of the rarer plants found in our neighbourhood ; desiring you, at the same time, to erase from it the names of those you may consider too common for insertion. We have taken Smith for our guide; and where he has not recorded the plant as of frequent occurrence, we have ventured to give it a place in the catalogue. I am. Sir, &c. — W. H.y R. N. Yeovil^ Jan. 13. 1830. Festuca Zoliacea. (761chicum autumnMe. Jb^ris amara. sylvatica. Chlbra perfolia.ta. .,4'rctium ZAppa. y Triticum caninum. Polygonum Bist6rta. Hypericum ^ndrosae^raum. ..^nchusa sempervlrens. .Kanftnculus arvensis. Ex\geron hcris. Primula elktior. Z/iimium inclsum. Cnicus acaulis. Campanula iZaptinculus. amplexicaule. Sen^cio sylvaticus. Ery thr£B^a pulch^Ua. ^bsa arvensis. J'nula Heihnium ; a large bed, riolahirta. Thymus Calamintha. 20ft square ; certainly wild. Finca m&jor. Galeobdolon liiteum. Centaur^a Calcitrapa. Gal&nthus nivalis. Erbdium moschatum. O'rchis bifblia. Allium vineJile. Pelargbnium lucidum. pyramidalis, 5e'r6em vulgaris ; perhaps not olumbinum. O'phrys apifera. wild. Zathyrus sylv^stris. Phallus impudlcus W/Mm«^. * Dr. Heysham's MSS. t See the Magazine of Natural History, vol. i. p. 290. ; and the Philosophical Magazine, vol. v. p. 196. Natural History in the English Counties, 1 75 Dev.onshire. Large Birch Tree. — Sir, When in the west of England a short time ago, I observed in the woods of Berry Pomeroy Castle, near Totnes, the largest birch tree, as far as I recollect, in England j and not having seen it men- tioned in any publication, I am inclined to send you this notice. By my measurement (not very accurate, I must confess, on account of the pecu- liarity of its situation) it was rather more than 15 ft. in circumference above the roots. The height I could scarcely judge of, from the density of the surrounding foliage, but I should think it was little less than 90 ft. It struck me as being decidedly the noblest in its proportions of any that I had seen. In its neighbourhood grows another of larger girth, but not so fine a tree. I am not certain of the species, but should imagine it to be jBetula nigra. — T. E. Cambridge ^ November^ 1829. Cornwall. Hare or uncommon Birds observed in Cornwall^ particularly in the southern parts of the county, by Mr. C. Jackson; Jonathan Couch, F.L.S.; and the Rev. J. Lakes, Liskeard Vicarage, Oct, 5. 1829. The names are those in Bewick. Falco cyaneus. Hen Harrier ; seen occasionally on our wild moors. — F. ^^salon. Merlin ; seen in winter j rare. — F. fulvus ; shot at Lonsallos. — F. peregrinus. There is great reason for beUeving that this species bred annually a few years since in the cliffs near Charlestown, as a kind of hawk, called, on account of its fierceness and activity, the Wicked Hawk, fre- quented that neighbourhood ; and from part of a stuffed specimen which I found nailed to a barn-door, I think it must have been F. peregrinus. The species, however, whatever it was, has left the coast. L. — F. ili'ilvus ; rare. iS'trix O'tus, Long-eared Owl j rare. — S. brachyotus. Short-horn Owl ; in winter only, and then scarce. — >S'. Aluco has been shot at mid-day. C. Lanius Collurio, Red-backed Shrike, makes its appearance here about 5th May, J. ; is rather common. — L. excubitor j a specimen shot near St. Columb, 1828. L. Corvus Cornix, Hooded Crow ,• very scarce. — C. 6^raculus, Cornish Chough. Their numbers are of late much diminished ; and in many places where they were formerly common, none are now to be found. Coracias garrula. Roller ; one shot near Falmouth, Oct. 4. 1822. Oriolus Galbula, Golden Oriole. This bird seems to be not uncommon, but is noticed only in the act of immigration. A male was killed near St. Austle, in March, 1824 ; and a female was taken by a fisherman of Polpeno, May, 1828. I have been informed of several instances, in different years, of their having alighted on vessels and fishing-boats near the shore, and again departing. C. Cuculus canorus. In 1823 these birds abounded in an extraordinary degree ; so that when riding along the roads, one might be heard in almost every field. In the following year they were as remarkably scarce. C. Funx Torquilla, Wryneck ; very rare. Picus major. Great spotted Woodpecker j rare. iSitta europae'a. Nuthatch ; scarce. yllcedo I'spida, Kingfisher. In May, 1817, a kingfisher was watched to its nest in a hole on the margin of the sea, a quarter of a mile distant from a rivulet ; and the nest was thus secured and brought to me. It was com- posed of dried grass, and lined with hairs and a few feathers. The eggs, three in number, were a little larger than a sparrow's, and of a faint bluish colour, and remarkably transparent. C. 176 Natural History in the English Counties, ilferops Apiaster, Bee-eater. In the parish of Madern, in 1807, four of these birds were discovered, and two of them shot. DreiVy Hist. Cornwall. — t/^upa J5J'pops, Hoopoe ; rare. Three specimens, which came under my notice, were killed in April. J. A pair shot in Lansallos parish. C. One shot at Mewbilly : having been oliiy slightly wounded, it was put in a cage, where it lived a few days. ^'mpelis garrulus, Waxen Chatterer. A specimen shot at Restonnel, January, 1829. Loxia curvirostra. Crossbill; scarce. I kept one of these birds for a considerable time in a cage, where its manners were very amusing, and resembled those of a parrot : its song was pretty, but uttered only when the bird was alone. Three of these birds were brought from the Continent in a cage made of fir, which they almost tore to pieces ; probably from their eagerness to get at the turpentine, for they did not meddle with an oaken cage. C. — L. Coccothraustes, Hawfinch. A male was killed near Looe, Nov. 1828; another escaped. — L. Pyrrhula, Bullfinch; abundant in gardens in spring; in the winter seldom seen, but in low marshy places. Emberiza Cirhis ; not uncommon. I have seen this bird erect a crest. C. i^ringilla Montifringilla ; in the winter, but rare. ^lauda campestris. Rock Lark ; common on all our cliffs and beaches. — A. minor. Tree Lark; in summer. ilibtacilla Boarula, Grey Wagtail ; in winter it is never seen with the mark on the breast. — M. flava. Yellow Wagtail ; not seen in summer, but common in spring and autumn. — M. modularis. Hedge Sparrow. I have frequently observed large excrescences on the bill and legs, J. — M. pro- vincialis, Dartford Warbler ; rather scarce, but seen both in summer and winter. — M. CEnknthe, Wheatear ; common ; sometimes met with in winter, when it changes colour entirely, except the rump, which always remains white ; the rest of the body is light brown ; the quills and tail edged with brown; visits us about middle of March, crossing the channel so early as to show that it must have taken wing before daybreak. None ai'rive after midday. — 31. Phoenicurus, Redstart ; very rare. I believe I have seen two or three in winter. C. The only one I ever saw here was caught in a house at Falmouth, October, 1822. J. I saw one near St. German's, May, 1829. L. Turdus torquatus. Ring Ouzel ; scarce. — T. roseus. Rose-coloured Thrush. One shot in his garden at Lostwithiel, some years since, by P. Pomery, Esq., and now in his possession. L. i/irundo riparia. Sand Marten ; not common. Columba Purtur, Turtledove ; scarce. I have only met with it in spring and autumn. J. Tetrao Tetrix, Black Game; killed at Wadebridge, in the winter of 1821. — T. Coturnix, Quail; not very common; sometimes remains throvigh the winter. Rallus Porzdna^ Spotted Rail; rare. iSturnus vulgaris. Starling; seen in winter only. — S. Cinclus, Water - Ouzel. Tringa pugnax. Ruff. A specimen of the Reeve was killed near Truro in March, 1829; the only one I have seen in the coimty. J. — T. nigricans. Purple Sandpiper. — T. interpres, Turnstone. — T. Sqiiatarola, Grey Plover. — T. islandica. Red Sandpiper. Two were purchased in Falmouth market, in April, 1822. ,/. — T. ochropus. Green Sandpiper. One killed at Hy- thian, and another at Paramoor, 1824. — T. pygmae'us. Pygmy Curlew ; not uncommon at Swanpool, near Falmouth, where I have known several killed. J. — T. pusilla. Little Stint. I have several times shot this species at Swan- pool, singly ; but once saw a flock often or twelve there. The bill and legs of this species sufficiently distinguish it from T. minuta, being much stouter. Natural History in the English Counties, 177 and of a dusky black, J. — T. minuta, Least Sandpiper. I shot a specimen of this scarce species at Swanpool, in September, 1822, and have seen one shot there since. These are the only specimens I have ever met with. .7. — T. lobata. Grey Phalarope ; not uncommon on the coast in winter, but their habits make them seem so rare. They never perch on rocks or the sands ; but alight on the water with ease, and are capable of swimming against a rapid tide. Not shy. Charadrius Hiaticula, Ring Plover ; seen in the depth of winter. — C. Ca- lidris, Sanderling; scarce. I have seen two matured specimens shot at Swanpool, and once found a small flock of young ones there. Recurvirostra Avosetta^ Avoret. I have seen this bird at Swanpool j and there is a specimen, in the museum at Truro, that was shot there. Haematopus ostralegus. Oyster-catcher ; rather rare. i^ulica aterrima. Greater Coot. Of several specimens which I have ex- amined, not one had the white spot under the eye, as in F. atra. This induces me to consider it as a separate species from the latter bird. C. ^colopax Phaeopus, Whimbrel. Arrives in flocks, in May, and is called the May-bird. Tantalm Falcinellus, Bay Ibis. Two specimens of this bird (now regarded as the same with T. igneus, the Glossy Ibis) were killed near Helston, in June, 1825 ; and two others, at the same time, near Penzance : one of them is now in the Truro museum. J'rdea G^rus, Crane. A specimen killed in 1828, in the collection of Mr, Drew, Devonport — A. Garzetta^ Egret. Two specimens were shot near Penzance, in April, 1824 \ one of which is now in possession of Mr. John. J, — A. purpurea, Purple Heron. In May, 1822, this bird flew on board a fishing-boat of Polpeno, and was taken. Colymbus glacialis. Northern Diver. A specimen was taken in May, 1823, by one of the Polpeno fishermen, as it lay asleep on the water. It lived for at least a month in confinement, being cai-ried to the water every day. — C. urinator; common on the coast in winter. I believe this to be the Crested Grebe, in its winter plumage. — C. auritus. Eared Grebe. A male specimen, in fine plumage, was taken near Truro, in April, 1829, and is now in the museum there. — C. rubricollis Latham, Red-necked Grebe ; rare. A specimen killed in Falmouth harbour, and another at Looe. — C, Tmmcr, Imber ; common in winter. Two of these birds remained near Looe the whole summer of 1828. J. Pelecanus Ccirbo, Corvorant; rather uncommon. The white spot on the thigh easily distinguishes this, even when flying from the shag, and is thus dis- tinguished by the fishermen as having a watch under his wing, — P. G^ra- culus. Shag. Wherever these birds go to fish for the day, they return to theu- home about sunset, proceeding in a straight line nearly level with the sea, if the weather be fine ; but at a good height if the weather be rough, or likely to be so. ilfergus Castor, Dun Diver ^ rare. — M. albellus. Smew ; rare only in severe winters. Sterna cantlcea. Sandwich Tern. I shot a specimen at Looe, out of a flock, in March, 1828, the only time I have seen them. J. iarus Rissa, Kittiwake. The young birds, with the dark spot behind the ear, not uncommon in summer. — L. crepidatus. Black-toed Gull. Caught near Falmouth, in 1824. — Z/, parasiticus, Arctic Gull; common on the coast during the pilchard fishery. — L. minutus. Little Gull. A specimen in fine preservation, shot in Falmouth harbour, in October, 1824, is now in my collection at Looe. J, yl'nas nigra. Scoter ; common on the coast in winter. — A. clypeata. Sho- veller. One shot in Swanpool, in the winter of 1826. J, — A. Querquedula, Gai'ganey ; scarce, as are most of the duck tribe. ^'Ica A'lle ; scarce. Two specimens killed in Falmouth harbour. Vol. IIL — No. 12. n 178 Calendar of Nature. Art. III. Calendar of Nature. ENGLAND. Calendar of Nature in the Neighbourhood of Bungay ^ in Sujhlk, for 1829. January. Snow and rain until the 16th, when it froze, and continued freezing with slight intermissions to the end of the month. Primrose, stinking hellebore, and common gromwell were in flower in a sheltered situ- ation on the 11th, on which day I saw some male flowers of the hazel expanded ; and the winter aconite flowered on the 28th. February. This month commenced with frost, which lasted for a few days ; it rained on the 4th ; and, with one or two exceptions, it continued mild for the season until the 23d, when the frost commenced again ; it lasted to the end, and was rather severe. Hepatica in flower on the 6th ; snowdrop, 7th ; purple dead-nettle, 14th ; marsh marigold, and female flowers of the hazel, 22d ; and the barren strawberry, 28th. Thrush heard on the 8th ; missel thrush, 14th; skylark, 15th j rooks building, 22d; lady- bird (C. 7-punct.) seen, 19th. March. This month, upon the whole, was fine : we had rain or snow ten days, and then but little. Alternate golden saxifrage in flower on the 6th; common whitlow grass and pilewort, 14th; chickweed, 15th; meze- reon, 16th; daifodil, 20th; sweet violet and dandelion, 22d; lesser peri- winkle, 24th ; dog's violet, 29th ; and polyanthus, 30th. Frogs croaking on the 20th ; bees on wing, 10th ; humble bees, 22d ; small tortoiseshell butterfly, 22d ; ants in motion, 25th ; nuthatch heard, 22d ; black and white wagtail seen, 29th. April. A cold wet month : it rained on twenty days ; thunder on the 17th; again on the 19th, with hail; and on the 28th. Wall-flower in blossom on the 3d ; oxlip, 4th ; grape hyacinth, 8th ; wood sorrel, 13th ; crown imperial and cowslip, 18th; fritillary, 23d; blackthorn and great saxifrage on the 25th. Swallow appeared on the 15th; wryneck, 16th; house-marten, 23d ; nightingale, 26th ; cuckoo, 27th ; redstart, 29th ; brim- stone butterfly and great tortoiseshell butterfly, 17th; slow-worm, 17th. May. This month, although not so warm as it is generally expected, was fine: it rained only on six days, viz. the 1st, 3d, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 24th ; and on two of those the wet was but trifling. The field hyacinth, wild cherry, and male orchis in flower on the 3d ; germander speedwell, 6th ; barrenwort, 11th; sweet vernal grass, 12th; oats, 17th; lilac and fly orchis, 17th; Solomon's seal, 20th ; horsechestnut, 21st; herb Robert, 22d ; haw- thorn, laburnum, guelder rose, and columbine, 23d ; lily of the valley, 25th ; cinnamon rose and bistort, 28th ; butterfly orchis, 29th ; and thrift, 30th. Swift appeared on the 1st; tiger beetle, 3d ; peacock butterfly, 3d ; cabbage and argus butterfly, 10th ; wall butterfly, 24th ; orange tip, 29th ; snake, 10th ; viper, 17th. June. The first part of this month was very cool ; indeed, it was not until the 20th that the weather could be termed hot, and then, perhaps, only comparatively. It rained more or less on fifteen days, and we had some thunder on the 14th. Corn poppy in flower on the 4th ; foxglove and woodroof, llth; elder, spiked speedwell, and yellow flag, 12th; sweet- william, 14th; common wild pink, 15th; wheat and bee orchis, 21st; lark- spur, 25th ; evening primrose, 27th. Admiral butterfly on the 25th. July. A very unpromising month. We had rain on eighteen days ; thunder on the 12th and 20th. The 21st, 22d, 23d, and 24th were the only days which could be termed fine. White lily in flower on the 8th ; house-leek, 13th ; hollyhock, 16th ; sunflower, 26th ; and stramonium, 27th j Glow-worm seen on the 5th. August. Rain ! rain ! It rained on seventeen days. On the 4th thun- der with haih The 7th) 8th, and 9th were hot days. Orpine in flower on Calendar of Nature, 179 the 8th; China-aster, 14th; tiger lily, 15th; and meadow saffron 30th. Wheat cut in several places on the 1st, and some carted on the 11th. Swift disappeared on the 15th. (Saw one on the 23d.) Sej)tember. Notwithstanding we had rain on thirteen days, and the marshes in the neighbourhood were flooded on the 14th, September may be considered as having been, upon the whole, a tolerably fine month. Ladies' traces in flower on the 13th. October. In this month it also rained on thirteen days ; snow on the 8th and 31st : upon the whole, very cold and unpleasant. Ivy in flower on the I2th; Laurustinus, 15th. I did not notice the departure of the martens and swallows, nor did they congregate in the usual place. November. The beginning of the month cold with frost ; a few fine but cold days from the 5th to the 9th, and then cold and wet weather to the end. Rain on nine days ; snow on the 25th. December. With the exception of a day or two in the first and second weeks, a cold frosty month. Snow on the 10th, 17th, 20th, 25th, 26th, and 27th. Frost commenced regularly on the 21st, and continued to the end of the month. Sweet coltsfoot in flower on the 6th ; and, in sheltered situations, on the same day, I saw the primrose, meadow saxifrage, acrid crowfoot, and white nettle in blossom. — Daniel Stock. Bungay ^ Jan. 1 1. 1830. Journal of the Weather kept at High Wi/combe, Bucks^ Lat- 51° 37' 44^'" North, Long. 34' 45" West, during the Year 1829, with Monthly Ob- servations. By James G. Tatem, Esq., Member of the London Meteo- rological Society. Table of the Thermometer and Barometer, Month. Thermometer. Barometer. Mean. Greatest Greatest Greatest Mean. Greatest Greatest Lowest variation. Heat. Cold. variation. Height. extreme. January - 30-26209 21-51209 43 8.75 29-5215 0-7715 30-07 28-75 February - 37-08928 24 08928 48-5 13 29-78714 0-86714 30-3 28-82 March - 37.65927 19-34073 57 19-5 29-58494 0-62494 30-08 28-96 April 41-60208 15.60208 57-5 26 29-28477 0-60477 29 86 28-68 May 51-17338 20-82662 72 34 29-7801 0-4401 30-18 29-34 June 54-91875 20-41875 74-5 34-5 29-77044 0-62044 S014 29-15 July 55-91532 16-91532 72 39 29 54881 0-52881 29-94 29-(-2 August - 54-39314 19 60686 74 38 29-62236 0-62236 29-98 29- September 49-78541 15-78541 62-5 34 29-49855 0-60855 29 99 28-89 October - 44-88709 19-88709 60-5 25 29-78366 ()-59366 30-16 29-19 November 37-2625 17-2625 53 75 20 29-715 0-4S5 3016 29-25 December 30-3387 16-8387 45 5 \S-5 29-8472 0-4972 30-33 29-35 For the Year 43-77391 74-50 875 29-64537 30-33 28.68 Table of Rain, Snow, Fair Days , and Wind. 1 . .-L i . ^ Rain. Winds. umbe of irdaj umbe of inyda 3 O Month. In. Del. W ■s m ^ 3 ^ ■a ^ i^ -^^i^ = 2 1 ^ w c/i eg to ^ ^ ^2; January - 16 9 6 1-08125 11 1 1 1 1 2 6 8- February - 18 W 1-41875 4 7 1 1 4 ■3 6 2 March 26 5 0-575 12 5 2 1 1 1 1 8 April 6 23 1 4-45625 4 2 4 10 4 4 2 May 27 4 0-50625 5 6 2 2 3 4 9 June 18 12 36 7 3 9. 7 1 7 3 July 10 21 4-7625 3 3 3 13 3 4 2 August - 13 18 4-68125 4 3 Q 5 8 2 September 11 19 4-48125 2 3 4 4 7 8 2 October . 17 13 1 2-0375 1 9. 3 9 10 6 November 20 9 1 1-55 1 1 3 5 5 11 4 December 24 1 ■■ 6 0-33125 6 6 6 25 24 1 60 1 44 4 73 7 ■ 55 For the Year 206 144 15 29-48125 52 32 N 2 180 Calendar of Nature, January. The month was colder than in 1827 or 1828, and the quantity of rain and melted snow considerably less than in January, 1827, and not a fourth part of that in 1828. The mean of the barometer lower than for the last 7 years. Snow fell on six different days, the whole quantity about 1*75 in. in depth. A beautiful lunar halo observed on the 17th, about 11 P.M. The evaporation 0*08125 of an inch. February. The temperature of the month was below those of the last 2 years, according to the mean^ but the extreme of cold was not so great as in 1827, though 10*25° below that of last year. The barometer higher than since February, 1825. The quantity of rain nearly the same as in the cor- responding month last year. The weather generally dull and bleak, with the wind mostly from the northward and eastward. The evaporation 0*00625 of an inch. March. Less rain fell (only on five days) than even in March last year, which was distinguished by extreme dryness. The mean temperature lower than since 1823, and the extreme cold greater than any, observed by the journalist, in the same month, during the last 12 years. The barometer below the mean of last year, though above that of 1827. Very few bril- liant days occurred, and the weather was generally dull, cold, and bleak. A lunar halo, with misty area, seen on the night of the 16th. The evapo- ration 0*2 of an inch. April. The month commenced with snow ; about 1*5 in. fell on the night of the 1st, and the whole month was extremely cold; the mean tempe- rature being below any one in April since 1823, and more than 3° lower than the average of the last 12 years. Rain, with the snow on the 1st, fell on 24 different days, the whole quantity remarkably great, exceeding that of last year by nearly an inch. The mean of the barometer lower than for many years, although the range was not very great. Very heavy gales of wind at the latter end of the month, particularly on the 28th, which were similar to those frequently experienced at the equinoxes. Thunder heard on the 10th about 2 P.M. The evaporation 0*08125 of an inch. May. During the whole month the barometer was remarkably high, ^nd the mean much above any one in the last 13 years. The quantity of rain less than in 1818. Nearly 1*5 in. more fell in May, 1828. The weather generally fine, yet the mean temperature did not reach either of those of the last 2 years. An indistinct lunar halo' seen on the 10th, about 10 P.M. A heavy gale of wind from the northward on the night of the 25th. The evaporation 0*60625 of an inch. June. In the early part of the month there was much threatening wea- ther, yet but little rain fell until the latter end, when there were frequent heavy showers, vipwards of 1 in. fell on the 27th, and nearly as much on the following day ; the whole quantity more than since 1824. The tem- perature much below June last year, the range of the thermometer 40°, and the minimum only 2*5° above the freezing point. The mean and extremes of the barometer rather above those of June last year, and the average of the month. On the 25th a slight thunder storm, with some little lightning between 2 and 3 P.M. An indistinct lunar halo, with misty area, observed on the night of the 9th. The evaporation 0*45 of an inch. July. More rain fell in the month than in any July since 1823, the weather of which month, in that year, it very much resembled ; the mean temperature was very nearly the same ; the maximum of heat lower than usual, and the minimum about the average. The barometer higher than last year, although lower than ordinarily in July, and nearly approximating to the mean of 1823. Thunder heard on the 2d, 8th, 18th, and 24th. Slight storms were experienced on the two last of these days, and tlie lightning on the 24th (about 12 P.M.) was very general, but not extremely vivid, and for some little time the rain fell with extraordinary rapidity. On Calendar of Nature, 181 the 9th what appeared a heavy storm passed over to the north-east, but no thunder was heard here. The evaporation 0*2 of an inch. August. The same similarity to the weather of 1823, noticed last month, occurred again in this ; the minimum of the thermometer the same, and the range only F greater than at that time ; the mean, however, was less than any one in the last 13 years ; the month was consequently cold, and the quantity of rain was unusually great, being only exceeded by the quan- tity which fell in last August. From the 22d to the 28th were continual gales of wind from the west and north-west, and nearly half the rain fell in that time. Thunder heard about midnight of the 27th. The evaporation 0-39375 of an inch. Se2^tember. On 19 days rain fell, and the total quantity was greater than in the last 3 years ; the mean temperature below any one in September since 1820, and the maximum lower than ever noticed, by the journalist, in the same month. A corresponding depression was observed in the baro- meter, the mean being lower than for 13 years. Thunder heard on the 12th and 15th. The evaporation 0*3125 of an inch. October. The month was distinguished by a remarkably early fall of Snow, the earliest that has occurred during the journalist's observations. The 6th was a fine autumnal day ; on the next morning rain fell for some little time, when snow followed for some hours but did not lie ; the quan- tity of rain and melted snow on that day was nearly half an inch. The mean temperature of the month lower than since 1823, another instance of the similarity of the weather in the two years. The barometer lower than last year, but above the average of the month ; the whole quantity of rain and melted snow less than usual j the wind between north and west during the greater part of the month. A lunar halo, with misty area, seen on the 15th from 7 to 10 P.M. The evaporation 0*15 of an inch. The last very early fall of snow was on the 21st of October, 1819. November. The mean temperature of the month below any one in the same month during the last 7 years, although the maximum was above that of 1826, and the extreme of cold not equal to that of last year ; the quantity of rain less than for many years, with the exception of what fell in last year. So small a range in the barometer has not occurred during the last 12 years ; the mean above the general average of the month, but not so high as in 1827. About 6 in. of snow fell on the 24th, but was all melted in 2 days. Lunar halos, with misty areas, seen on the nights of the 8th and 9th. The evaporation 0*075 of an inch. December. The barometer during the month was very high, the mean much above any one in the last 7 years, and the maximum higher than since December, 1827, the range only 0*98 of an inch. The month was also extremely cold, the mean being upwards of 10° below those of the last 3 years. Snow fell on the 18th, 19th, 21st, 23d, 24th, and 27th ; the whole quantity little more than 3 in. The rain and melted snow only 0*33125 of an inch, a quantity little more than one eighth of what fell m last December, which was much less than usual. The evaporation 0*03125 of an inch, SCOTLAND. Diagram. (Jig. 36.) , showing the Motion of the Mercury in the Barometer and Thermometer, and the Dew Point, or the Mean of each, for every Ten Days in December, 1829, and January, 1830; also the Depth of Rain in the Pluviometer, and the Quantity of Moisture evaporated in the Evaporating Gauge, for the same Period ; as extracted from the Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perthshire, N. lat. 56° 23^', above the level of the sea . 172 ft., and 15 miles from the coast, being the mean of daily observations at 10 o'clock morning and 10 o'clock evening. N 3 1B9 Calendar of Nature, 36 11 3 Kain Gauge and Index of Thermometer ^ and Barometer. II 12. S -•jo""!" 1 ■ ! i ^ I V ■ i Jl 1'' ■ 50 a. 2-7 - -■ ' •'•. /,o '1 p- .o% ••. o •. , °c •-. 1 On\ 4- d'"' .•"•. p \ -t .•••' o '- 1 ■J oW.^ 'oo o o oo Ogd _ °1 s 1 ZQl J j 1 r: ^0 20 3/ iO ^0 3^ g ?5 JTs o D ec. Dec emb er, 1 B29. Ja nuar y,i8' 50. 1 Jan. 1 The coldest day in December was the 26th : mean temperature of that day 29" ; wind N. ; extreme cold 25°. The warmest day was the 5th : mean temperature of that day 51°; extreme heat 54°; wind S.W. There were only 2 days of brilliant, and 6 days of partial, sunshine ; 23 days were cloudy. Rain and snow fell on 5 days, 26 days were fair. Depth of rain and melted snow 0*9 of an inch. The wind blew from the east and north-east on 12 days, from the north 7 days, and from the west and north-west on 12 days. There were loud gales of wind on the 11th, 12th, and 13th. The annual mean temperature for the year 1829 was 46°, which is 1-7° below the ordinary average. Annual depth of rain 28*22 in. Or- dinary or average fall is 26*38 in. 1830. The coldest day in January was the 28th : mean temperature of that day 31*5°; wind N. ; extreme cold 27°. The warmest day was the 26th : mean temperature of that day 39*5° ; extreme heat 44° ; wind S.W. There were 8 days of brilliant, and 5 of partial, sunshine; 18 were cloudy. The wind blew from the east and north-east on 12 days, from the north on 5 days, and from the west and north-west on 14 days. There were loud gales of wind from the north-west on the 6th and 7th, from the north on the 9th, and from the east on the 13th. Slight showers of sleet and snow fell on 8 days. Mean temperature for the month 35° ; depth of rain and melted snow 1*4 in. After 5 weeks of a temperature averaging between 39° and 40° in No- vember, a south-west wind on the 5th and 6th of December was accom- panied with a temperature elevated to 51°. Charmed by the appearance Calendar of Nature, U^ of spring, blackbirds began to sing on the 6th, and partridges chimed their love-notes, and began to pair. The deception was of short continuance : hoar frost, followed by slight sprinklings of snow, gave the vale of the Carse of Gowrie a mantle, which, though only 3 in. deep, lay undissolved for 3 weeks. Although the mercury in the thermometer never fell below 25°, yet the storm continued throughout the whole of December, and the greater part of January. The mercury in the barometer ranged unusually high for the season, as will be seen from th© diagram, and while we heard of the Seine and the Thames being frozen over, such was the mild and lingering nature of the storm in this quarter, that ice 2 in. thick could not be easily obtained for preserving. Vegetation for the two past months has been stationary above ground wheat sown on the 29th of October gave a braird on the 9th of December, a period of 41 days. Mean temperature of that period 40*4°. Wheat sown on the 26th of November has not yet appeared. The winter aconite is just beginning to break the surface ; it was in flower last season by the 23d of January. The berries of the J'rbutus Unedo (winter strawberry) only begin to colour, and a great part are still green. During these 18 past years the berries on the same plants were ripe by the end of January. The low temperature in October and November has retarded the ripening process. The following Table (^fig. 37.) will show, at one view, the mean temperature (t) for every 10 days in 1829, and the dark line (« m t) the annual mean tem- perature. {Enc. Gard., 2350.) — A, G, Annat Gardens, Feb. 1, 1830. 37 isf 4- 184 Botanic Microscope, Art. IV. Description and Use of the Botanic Microscope, Description and Use of the Botanic Microscope. — Several readers hav- ing expressed a wish that we should describe the use of a cheap microscope, we give the following as the most suitable for general purposes : — a b (^fig. 38.) is a pillar, which screws into the top of the box, containing the whole of the apparatus. s the stage for laying the objects on; it slides up and down the pillar, to adjust the object which is to be laid upon the stage, to the focus of the' mag- nifier c, three of which belong to this micro- scope. The knife g, needle f and scissors /z, ai'e used in dissecting or separating the parts of flowers, &c. e is a pair of tongs for taking up any small object, or turning it about on the stage. There is an ivory plate fitted to the stage, black on one side and white on the other ; dark- coloured objects should be laid on the white side, and vice versa. To use the Microscope. — When taken out of the box, slip on the stage ; and having screwed the pillar into the top of the box, it is ready for use. Lay the object on the stage, and slide it up and down till it appears per- fectly distinct : as most persons' eyes differ, every one should adjust the object to his own. The three magnifiers are of different foci, and may be used separately, or either two of them together, or all three, by screwing them one on the other, making, in this way, seven different powers. The smallest magnifier has the largest aperture. When more than one is used, the least magnifier, or that with the largest aperture, should be next the object. Let as much light as possible fall on the object while under exa- mination, particularly when the greater magnifying powers are used ; and be attentive not to shade it with the hat, or other part of the di-ess. If this precaution is not attended to, the objects will appear obscure ; this will also be the case if the magnifiers are not quite clean. Wash-leather is the best thing to wipe the glasses with, and a piece is put into the box for that purpose. This microscope is not confined to the examination of bota- nical subjects, but may be used for any kind of objects that can be laid on the stage, such as speciiuens of minerals, seeds, shells, insects, &c. ; and, as a contrast to these, artificial objects, as medals, coins, intaglios, cameos, fine writing, printing, miniature-painting, and engraving ; silks, fine lace, linen, watch-work; in short, any of the finest works of art. Price \2s. There are a variety of other microscopes, at various prices, up to 7 and even 10 guineas, and we have seen one in the workshop of a celebrated manufacturer at Munich, the price of which was 150 guineas. There are also various magnifying glasses in use by naturalists, and especially by mine- ralogists, at various prices, from 1^. Qd. upwards. A good plan for an in- tending purchaser is to state his wants to a respectable tradesman, and be ^ded in a great measure by his advice, — Cond. Hints for Improvements, 185 Art. V. Hints for Improvements. The Zoological Society and Garden. — After what has taken place at the Medico-Botanical Society {Gard Mag., vol. vi. p. 104.), and at the Hor- ticultural Society (Ibid., p. 104.), would it not be wise in the council of the Zoological Society to pass a by-law to the effect that every year a regular professional accountant should be employed to draw up a complete state- ment of the accounts of the Society ; I mean such a one as would give one merchant a complete idea of the circumstances of another merchant ,• and that copies of these annual statements should be sent to all the members of the Society ? The treasurer of this Society being the honorary secretary of the Horticultural Society is rather ominous ; but I hope he will have good sense enough to resign. — F. Z. S. Feb. 10. 1830. A Depot fo}- the Exchange of Natural History Articles. — Sir, The naturalist, whom profes- sional or other duties confine to a strictly local dwelling, often experiences great difficulty in procuring specimens of plants and animals from other quarters, when desirous of studying some- thing of Nature's productions beyond those of his own immediate vicinity ; and, if not fortunate in distant or locomotive scientific friends, it becomes almost an impossibility to him, by reason of the local habitats of so many of our animal and vegetable productions. To remedy this incon- venience, felt more or less by all naturalists, and to afford facility for the exchange of specimens, it would be very desirable for those interested in natural history, and forming museums or col- lections, to have some fixed place where their supernumerary specimens might be sent, and from Avhich they could receive others wanted, either in exchange for their own, or by payment of & certain price for each specimen. I am strongly persuaded that if some competent individual in town would allot a room and portion of his time to this scheme, it might be made to answer as a pecuniary speculation, and be of great general utility to naturalists. He might obtain remune . ration for his services either by stipulated charges on all exchanges effected, or by yearly subscrip- tions or «itrance fees from all persons placing specimens in his hands. As personal attendance in town would be inconvenient to many who would be most likely to support and be benefited by such an establishment, some plan must be adopted to facilitate the exchange or sale of specimens. Suppose appointed individuals take Smith's English Flora, Stephens's Catalogue of British Insects, Sec, and, running over the species, mark each one with a number corresponding to its rarity, or other circumstance enhancing its value; these numbers being so arranged, that one species marked 12 shall be worth four specimens of those numbered 3 ; one of No. 60 be equal in value to five of No. 12, and to twenty of No. 3. These numbers might be regarded as stamping a com- mercial value, and would thereby enable the naturalist, who might have none to give in return, or not wish to receive any, to sell or buy, which would still further increase the facilities of obtaining desired species. The numbering or pricing could easily be arranged, by estimating all mineralo- gical, botanical, entomological, and conchological species as No. 3 (or od. each), unless otherwise stated ; those regarded as more valuable having an appropriate number attached to them. Ver- tebrate animals, dead, prepared, or alive, should, in like manner, have a minimum price for each state, and an increasing scale. An establishment of this nature might be limited to the pro- ductions of the British Isles, or include exotic natural history. A general catalogue of species, with the numbers affixed, might be published as a guide to those sending or requiring specimens. By inserting these hints in your Magazine, the attention of naturalists may be directed to the utility of the plan here proposed ; and if thev can elicit any advice from yourself on the subject, it will much gratify. Yours, — //. C. W. Edinburgh, Oct. 1829. A Society of Naturalists. — Sir, I am much pleased to_find the suggestions of your correspond- ent K. (p. 286.) followed up by those of J. R. in the last Number of jour Magazine (p. 395.), relative to the formation of a society for the encouragement of natural history, as there can be little doubt that, with some trouble and attention, one might be formed on such a plan as would meet with very general supjiort ; for although we have the Linnean, Medico-Botanical, Geolo- gical, and Zoological Societies, yet, I think, if one were formed in the more comprehensive nature of a Society of Naturalists, many might be induced, and would be very glad, to join it, who would not like the expense of subscribing, or ever think of belonging, to four or five separate societies ; and I beg to suggest that the society should be of a more sociable description than most of the present scientific societies ; that is, I mean to say that the meetings should be more fre- quent, so as to bring the members more in contact and better acquainted vath each other, and afford opportunities of imparting their knowledge and observations. If any thing of the kind alluded to by your correspondents should be seriously entertained, and a meeting for the purpose proposed, I hope you will give notice of it in your Magazine, as myself and many of my friends would be glad to join and support it as far as in our power. I am. Sir, &c. — JV. A. Sept. 1829. The Idea of a Botanical Society, with a garden in the Regent's Park, like that of the Zoological Society, for the purpose of introducing and improving new species of ornamental plants, is suggested by — An Admirer of Nature. October 3. 1829. Rarer Birds, when and where shot. — I venture to propose to you the propriety of devoting a small space in your Magazine to the mention of the rarer British birds, when and where shot. I conceive the information would be valuable to numerous persons now forming cabinets of th< British birds. I have myself received three species within these few days, which I have nevci* seen or heard of in this neighbourhood, and have anxiously looked for; namely, the Grey Pha» larope (Phalaropus lob'Mus), Black-throated Diver (Colymbus arcticus), and Stone Falcon (Falct.r- Uiihoi'dXco).^ Edward P. Thompson. Dover, Dec. 8. 1829. 186 Retrospective Criticism, Art. VI. Retrospective Criticism. Reply to the Strictures of " A Friend to Fair Criticism.''* (p. 84.)— Sir, Had I seen Fair Criticism in company with him who professes to be his friend, I should not have requested your permission to occupy some space of your Magazine in replying to his observations upon me j but as he appears to have introduced Unfair Criticism by that name, I must beg leave a little to put aside the mask worn on the occasion, and to convince your readers that this personage appears " under the suspicious denomination of an alias." But I fear I am flippant again. I must contract my brow, and resume my dignity. This gentleman (whom, to spare space, I will designate by two of his initials, A. F.) has pretty broadly hinted that the review of the Journal of a Naturalist, in a former Number of your Magazine, was not fair criticism. Let me ask him, where is the unfairness of that criticism which, quoting word for word the passages which call forth its animadver- sions, leaves the reader full powers to form his own opinion, and, should he think the censure unmerited, to return that censure upon the writer ? Had your " indignant" correspondent quoted as fairly as I have done, he would not have given his readers to understand that the poor stone-breakers were represented as earning 2*. Sd. or 3^. a day, by the united exertions of four persons, " in the worst of times, and under the least favourable circum- stances ; " but, under the most favour-able circumstances of the winter season, the weather being good, and the whole family in health. In the few lines which the writer has actually quoted from this part of the journal (inde- pendently of his own observations upon them), there is, it is true, little to call forth the remarks which have excited his indignation. That I admit ; but why is this? Because this ''^friend to fair criticism'''' has cited from those remarks a few sentences, of which the import is materially changed by their separation from the context, and has, at the same time, omitted the passages to which they refer. " The reviewer," says A. F., " falls foul of the author (who, if he be not an errant hypocrite, must be an amiable and kind-hearted man), and accuses him — of what ? — why, * of utter insensibility/ to the misery he describes^ viz. of the poor ; and, moreover, attributes this want of feeling to * a habit of enjoying his own ease, without thinking of others; and of looking upon the poor (perhaps iincoiudously to himself^ as an inferior race of beings.* " He does not add, that I speak of the naturalist, in the same page, as " appa- rently an amiable arid kind-hearted man** I believe him to be such ; but I also believe (and this is by no means incompatible) that he is one of the many who, living, day after day, a life of ease, accustomed to the sight of the poor, and taking it for granted that they are tolerably comfortable too, remain insensible to the misery around them j not from heartlessness, but from want of due reflection. One says, " If the poor cannot get bread, why don't they eat cakes ? " Another observes that they have a " little bread," and plenty of potatoes ; and calls this well-doing. Which of us would think it well-doing, if we ourselves were reduced to a diet of potatoes, with " the aid of a little bread ? " Not one. How, then, can we think it good living for the poor (the appetite sharpened, too, by hard labour), unless we con- sider them as an inferior race ? Cats and dogs are to be fed with meat ; horses, upon hay and corn j ourselves, upon all the dainties of land and sea ; pigs and the labouring poor upon potatoes ! Had the author of this pleasant little work been less accustomed to wit- ness the wretched condition of the poor labourers, I am persuaded he would have spoken of them in a very different manner. Instead of boasting of their well-doing, he would probably have been shocked to think that, to obtain the mere necessaries of a comfortless existence, many a poor mother (to the utter neglect of all maternal duties) should be compelled Retrospective Criticism, 187 daily to work with her husband in the fields and highways, and to behold her children labouring by her side, until, stunted in growth and cramped in mind, they are sent forth into the world to seek other employment for the support of a life which, having always been a burden to them, they will the less hesitate to forfeit to the laws, by the infringement of those rights of which they never have known the value. It was not until some time after the review was written and printed, that I knew, or ever had heard, the name of the author of the Journal. I then learned that he was the friend of a respected and highly esteemed friend of my own ; yet my opinion remains unchanged. Though amiable and kind- hearted, I yet think that he falls short of perfection, and that some pas- sages in his work are calculated to increase an evil already of sufficient extent ; and thus to become an instrument of mischief which he never contemplated. Let me request of the reader, when he lays aside the second review of the volume, to take up the first, and to judge for himself whether or not there be any thing in it like a malicious intention, or a design to wound the feelings of the author. I must, however, plead guilty to having said that the volume was grass- green, of sufficing plumpness, &c., and to not having said " of what exact dimensions " I " would have the book." But let me plead in extenuation, that I was totally ignorant of any censure conveyed in these very severe expressions, the rather as I designed none; but particularly liked the appearance of the volume in every respect, and (as I said) thought " both the name and aspect inviting." Still, as it is considered by many persons that every member of the fraternity of critics should wear his crown of plurality, and walk in stilts whenever he appears in public, it was doubtless a misdemeanor to condescend to be pleased, and to express my pleasure in a natural and uncritical manner : I should rather have said, " We approve of the sober yet verdant hue of this unpretending little volume, since, however unimportant in 02ir eyes," &c. The reader may conceive the regret which I must feel in acknowledging to my kind adviser that there is no hope of my improvement from the source he proposes, as Dr. Coplestone's pamphlet, entitled Hints to a Young Revieiver^ was familiar to me years before I became one. Entertainment, indeed, I might yet derive from the perusal, though it should be the tenth. I believe it is now out of print ; and if A. F. will confer so great a benefit upon reviewers and authors, writers and readers, as to persuade some one to republish it (and this, as a Friend to Fair Criticism, he is surely bound to do), I will promise him to lose no time in reviewing it, and will endeavour to please him better. — K. January 14. 1830. A Term misapplied. — Since you so good-naturedly submit to be criticised by your correspond, ents, let me ask how you will justify the terms of one of the titles which appears in the last Number of Vol. II., " Inferior dexterity of the left hand." Dexterity is derived from dexter, the right hand: how, then, can the left hand have the term applied to it? Surely " activity," or some such term, would have been more suitable, though not so amusing. —John Thompson. Hull, Jan. U. 1830. The Jussieuean, or Natural, System of Plants. — Being acquainted with the Linnean system, but almost entirely ignorant of that of Jussieu, I anticipated much information from the papers on that subject to be given in the Numbers of your Magazine. The first was excellent ; but the second, as far as furnishing that precise knowledge which the student requires, decidedly a failure, for want of definitions and engravings. — J. H. Davies. Portsmouth, Aug. 1. 1828. We found that the definitions would occupy too much space, and being scattered through differ, ent volumes, would lose much of their utility ; we therefore considered it best to drop the con- tinuation of this article. Our readers may find the whole of it at the end of the Encyclopedia of Plants, and also in the Hdrtus Britdnnicus ; and tiiose who wish to study the system fundamen. tally, may consult Clinton's translation of liichard's New Elements of Botany (8vo, 14s.), or wait till Mr. Lindley's work appears. — Cond. Translation, Sfc, of technical Terms. — I cannot but agree with A. (Vol. I. p. 200.), that the introduction of the derivations, &c., into the text rather distracts the reader, and might " with advantage occupy, as a glossary, the last page of the Numbers;" or perhaps, what would be better, might be inserted as notes at the bottom of the page in which they occur : but, at all events, they should not be omitted, as they are a very excellent feature of the work ; indeed, 1 trust you will continue to follow up that plan, by giving the plainest explanation of every technical term ; and, if any inconvenience should arise by an alteration of the present mode, I would rather tliey should remain as they are given, than that one should be omitted. — J. H, Davies, 188 lletrospective Criticism, Museum, Royal Naval Hospital, Ilasler. (Vol. T. p. 191.) —The rooms should rather be said to be appropriated than erected, as the small building dividing the left wing, now adopted for this purpose, is part of the original edifice. — J. II. Davies. Portsmouth Philosophical Society.— Yo\. 1. p. 190., line 18., for " Branden" read " Brander: Gustavus Brander published, in 1768, a small volume, with figures and descriptions in Latin, of the fossils of the Hordwell Cliffs. These cliffs extend along the sea-shore from Lymington to Christchurch, Hants, and are divided by two chasms, called Beacon and Chewton Bunny's, into three portions, named Hordwell, Barton, and High Cliffs. It was from the second of these, abounding in fossils of the London clay formation, that Brander collected his specimens, which, by the titlepage, he api>ears to have deposited in the British Museum. The work is now scarce, but the fidelity of the figures renders it valuable. He appears to have made an accurate research at this locality, as subsequent observers have added but few to his list. He followed the Linnoan classification, but was singularly unhappy in discriminating his genera : thus many of his A/iirices are Volutse ; and his H^lix mutabilis, a very characteristic shell of this formation, is an umbili- cated JVerita, and very nearly approaching to the N. glauclna of our shores. The work is entitled FossUia Ilantoniensia, and the figures of the shells have certainly never been surpassed. Mr. Webster has since given a very accurate and interesting description of the cliffs alluded to, in the Geological Transactions, 2d series, vol. i. part i. p. 90. ; in which he has identified in the Hordwell Cliff a fresh- water formation, analogous to those existing on the opposite shores of the Isle of Wight. — /.?. Mermaids. — A few years back a mermaid was shown in London, very like that figured by Con- chilla (Vol.1, p 106.), except that it had arms, and was not quite so large: it is, I believe, now travelling the country. This specimen also was said to come from Japan. I can aver that it came from the East Indies ; for, being at St. Helena in 1813, I saw it on board the ship which was bringing it to England. The impression on my mind was, that it was an artificial compound of the upper part of a small ape with the lower half of a fish ; and being allowed to examine it as closely as I pleased externally, my attention was directed, by the aid of a powerful glass, to ascer- tain the point of union between the two parts. I confess I was somewhat staggered to find that this was so neatly effected, that the precise line of junction was not satisfactorily apparent. I speak of it in its best state of preservation : perhaps now the imposture can be more easily detected. A short time back the skeleton of a mermaid, as it was called, was brought to Ports- mouth, which had been shot in the vicinity of the Island of Mombass. Ihis was allowed to be submitted to the members of the Philosophical Society, when it proved to be the Dugong. The anatomy and natural history was illustrated by some of the members present, and briefly noticed in the Anntial Report for 1826-7, p. 21. To tho.se who came to the examination with precon- ceived notions of the fabulous mermaid, it certainly presented, as it lay on the lecture-table, a singular appearance. It was, if I recollect right, about 6 ft. long : the lower dorsal vertebrae, with the broad caudal extremity, suggested the idea of a powerful fish-like termination ; w hilst the fore legs, from the scapula to the extremities of the phalanges, presented to the unskilful eye an exact resemblance to the bones of a small female arm. The cranium, however, had such an outre brutal form, that even the most sportive imagination could never have supposed it to have borne the lineaments of the " human face divine." It is now, I believe, in London. — Id. The Chameleon. — This animal does not take hours to effect its change of colour, as stated by S. R. A. (Vol. I. p. 192.) : its changes are often instantaneous, and frequently repeated, according as the animal is situated. I have a live one at this present time : it is the favourite pet of my youngsters, delighting to crawl about their persons, and take its food from their hands ; and, if desirable, I will draw you up a notice of its habits for a future Number. — Id. We shall be happy to receive such a communication, and take this opportunity of expressing our regret at having so long neglected to insert our valued correspondent's remarks. — Cond. A Water Shreiv^ similar to the one described in your Magazine, was seen lately at noon in a pond near Somerton, in the county of Somerset, and appears not to be at all uncommon here. — M. January , 1830. The Goatsucker, and Mr. Harvey^ s Camelopdrdalis. — Sir, Mr. Dillon's theory as to the use of the goatsucker's serrated claw is so ingenious, that I think it worth noticing. Among numerous reasons which could be brought against it, I shall merely inform him that there is an American group of this family, which have no bristles round the bill, and yet have serrated claws ; and another group in Australia having bristles, and yet with the claw smooth and simple. The Heron tribe, in like manner, have the rictus smooth, but have the claw serrated : finally, the bristles round the bills of all the purely insectivorous birds I have seen (and they are not a few) are capable of being diverged and contracted. The philosopher of Selbourne, I suspect, is right in his conjecture. Your scientific readers must be anxiously expecting a description of the new species of Camelopardalis figured in your frontispiece, distinguished from that already described, by having, like the camel, a lump upon its shoulders. Mr. Harvey is an artist of much promise : he is young, I believe ; so much the better. Let him study nature more, and effect less, and his career will be successful. — *S'. W. Jan. 12. 1830. The Biscacho and Coquimbo Owl. — In Vol. I. p. 285. of your Magazine is an extract from the entertaining travels of Captain Head. With the rough notes of this galloping adventurer in my hand, I am led to suppose that some mistake must have been made by the copyist. The Biscacho and Retrospective Criticism, 189 Coquimbo owl, being two very different animals, are, in the heading, stated to be one and the same thing. The passage quoted relates to the Biscacho, an animal described by Captain Heatl as resembling a rabbit, but which, in the passage I allude to, is called " a bird." The description runs through- out of the Biscacho, but the drawing is that of the owl. — M. January y 1830. The Aerial Spider. — Sir, My devotedness to experimental electricity, for the last fifteen years, should certainly, at any rate, have gained for me the requisite qualification for investigations like these, and I therefore cannot cede to an assertion evidence gained through the medium of experiments diligently and carefully conducted. Atmospherical electricity has been with me a favourite study, and I trust it is one in which I find myself in some degree at home ; and the employment of Coulemb's Balance of Tarsim, with Breguet's Thermometre metalliqiie, has been of essential service to me. Professor Brande has justly concluded that the divergence of the threads in the fasciculi represented by Mr. Bowman's diagram can scarcely be otherwise explained ; and a very slight excess of electricity in the excited substance employed as a test for the electric condition of the thread, every electrician knows, would defeat the end proposed. Is Mr. Blackwall aware of this, and have his experiments been thus secured ? A spider's thread, darted through the air, must necessarily acquire electricity from the friction occasioned by its impulse through that medium j and, if propelled counter to a current, the amount of excitement will be greater ; a thread of glass is excited under such circumstances. Is Mr. Blackwall ignorant that a cuiTent of air is an excitant of electricity ? a fact long ago proved by Bennet and other electricians. The air issuing from the nozzle of a pair of common bel- lows, and directed on the cap of the electroscope, will occasion a divergence of its pendent leaves. Now, Mr. Blackwall should have known all this : and, permit me to ask, what connection is there between heated currents emanating from the earth and an impulse of air, even on INIr. Blackwall's own showing V I am not disposed to yield to Mr. Blackwall in electrical experiment ; and those who have witnessed my illustrations of this branch of science will rea- dily, if I mistake not, give me credit for successful and delicate manipulation. I am in possession of attestations, from other sources than my own, in veri- fication of the asserted fact of the short-lived term of existence, in the case of the darh-broimi glossy gossamer sjnder, when imprisoned within narrow precincts, as a small chip box, or tube of glass ; and I would just say to others (certainly not Mr. Blackwall) exjyerimentum fiat, I have found the result, in nearly twenty cases, with this variety, and have not made the experiment with any other. The " shy retu'ing truth," however, gleams in his own account of the matter ; though " He that's convinced against his will. Is of the same opinion still." If my antagonist can satisfactorily confute the facts and phenomena recorded in the volume referred to, he is a more profound wit than I have hitherto given him credit for. This notice, however, is final on my part. Mr. Blackwall may continue his appeals to the Council of the Lin- nean Society, or to the individual authority of Humboldt : I protest, how- ever, against being esteemed accessary to any opinion that would suppose me to think by proxy. I am. Sir, &c, — J. Murray. Nov. 19. 1829. Mr. Palmer of ChigweWs Lists of Plants. — Sir, In reading your last Number of the Magazine of Natural Hi. The incubation was watched, and a stranger of larger dimensions than the progeny of the hedge-sparrow was hatched with her own offspring. In a short time the intruder grew so fast that it occupied the whole nest itself, having previously ejected the young of the rightful owner. When the bird was fledged, and nearly ready to take wing, it was placed in a cage, supposing it to be a young cuckoo ; but, as the plumage became perfected, it proved itself a night-jar. I am not aware that a similar circumstance of this bird has been recorded. — W. Masters, Curator of the Canterbury Museum. Jan. 3. 1830. Softening the Skins of Birds (in answer to J. A. H.). — The skin should be thrown into a vessel of sufficient capacity to admit it without bending, and Queries and Answers. 193" be covered with water free from any brackish properties : to effect which, it must be sunk by weights attached to the bill and feet. It must be suffered to remain until perfectly saturated and softened, which may be considered to be accomplished when the toes can be straightened, and the bill opened with gentle force. I have found 18 hours to be sufficient for the largest birds, and 3 or 4 for the smallest. The skin must then be hung up by the beak for a short time, to allow the water to drain off, and must afterwards be com- pletely buried, for at least 12 hours, in plaster of Paris. This will come off in large flakes or cakes on being touched, and any small remaining particles are easily brushed off with a feather. I have invariably found the skin to be much benefited by this process, and to have every appearance of being fresh taken from the body. The plaster of Paris, at least the crusted parts, cannot be used a second time. I strongly recommend the use of plaster of Paris in skinning birds : it keeps the skin clean, by absorbing the blood and grease, which might otherwise come in contact with the feathers. — Edward P. Thompson, Dec. 8. 1829. The Cuckoo. — To what country does the cuckoo migrate during our autumn and winter, and does she lay her single egg in her new abode, as she does here ? — W. H. White. Bedford, Nov. 25. 1829. The Missel Thrush. — Sir, I should be glad to enquire, through the medium of your valuable Magazine, if any of your correspondents has ever taken the trouble to ascertain whether the missel-thrush (Turdus visctvorus) is to be classed among the number of our songsters. I believe it to be the generally received opinion that it is nofy and a very close observer of nature (the author of The Journal of a Naturalist) remarks that " it seems to have no song, no voice, but a harsh predictive note ; " as if he alluded merely to that harsh grating cry which they often utter, and especially when collected together in numbers during the autumn. I have also spoken to several persons on the subject, who have given their attention to the notes of birds, and have scarcely met with one who does not consider the bird in question to be totally, devoid of song, and to be no more a contributor to the music of the woods than the jay or magpie. Now, in spite of all this united evidence against me, I am bold enough to maintain that it has a perfect song, and shall be extremely gratified to find any one who will bear me out in this assertion. I have never been able to approach the bird while in the act of singing, since from its always selecting the summit of a tree for that pur- pose, and being of a very shy disposition, it has always flown off before I. could get near enough to inspect it ; but from its peculiar darting mdde of flying, I am convinced in my own mind that it was the missel-thrush. The note resembles that of the blackbird more than the common thrush, and is, I believe, generally mistaken for the former ; but it is much louder and less mellow, and free from that warbling nature so peculiar to the blackbird. Its song seems to consist of only three or four notes, which it continues to repeat over and over again, for, perhaps, half an hour together, with scarcely any variation, pausing for a second between every stave, till the ear is almost wearied with its monotony : on which account it gives one more the idea of being a young blackbird which has not yet acquired its perfect song. It also begins to sing much earlier in the year than either the thrush or blackbird, and generally in very wild cold weather. I remember once, in particular, hearing it in the week after Christmas-day in the year 1827, when the trees were loaded with one of the heaviest hoar-frosts I ever witnessed, singing as merrily as if it had mistaken the snowy covering for the more grateful shape of the summer foliage. There also appeared to be another in the dis- tance, which continued to answer it for some time. It generally discon- tinued its song at the end of May, but I have heard it this year as late as the end of June. I am. Sir, &c. — ./. B. Aug. 4. 1829. Turdus musicus. — I have often been surprised on finding a quantity of snail-shells, broken into small bits, chiefly the Helix nemoralis, on a bank Vol. III. — No. 12. n 194! Queries and Answers. ta my garden, lying about a stone ; and it was not till vefy lately that I was able to account for the manner of their coming there. I then saw a throstle ( Turdus musicus) in the act of breaking a shell against a stone, in order to obtain the snail. From this circumstance, I should conceive the snail to afford a plentiful supply of food for this species of bird during the winter season ; or during a scarcity of worms or insects, on which I have always considered tliem to subsist. Some of your able correspondents will, pro- bably, be able to give some further information on the food of this species of bird. — W. H. White, Bedford Nov. 25. 1829. Facts and Queries as to Birds in the West of Scotland. — Loxia curvirostra. In winter 1828-9, the crossbill was seen in small flocks in the larch woods in this neighbourhood. I obtained two specimens, male and female : the male of a rose colour; the female, yellowish green. (Bewick's British Birds, 1809, vol. i. p. 154.) It has been said that the crossbill followed the apple into England. Has this species of bird followed the larch into Scotland ? Emberiza nivalis. During the same winter, I got specimens, male and female, of the snowflake, shot in this ne%hbourhood. M£7^gus albelliis. — Also a fine specimen of the male bird smew, or white nun, killed on the beach near Prestwick church. The hen bird was also shot, and is preserved in the neighbourhood. Afmpelis gdrruliis .^ There were also killed in this county, last winter, several birds which were called Bohemian chatterers. I did not see any of them, but they were described as being remarkably beautiful. Is this the chatterer of Bewick ( J'mpelis garrulus) ? P^nas Cj/gmisferus. Within this last fortnight, several flocks of swans (the wild, I presume) have been observed, from which the country people prognosticate a severe winter ; and already a decided frost seems to have set in. Columbus. I saw a bird which was shot the other day on this coast, and which I had not seen before : it appears to be a guillemot. Not having an opportunity of comparing it with Bewick's description, I cannot say whe- ther it be his guillemot, lesser guillemot, or spotted guillemot. The bill appeared to me to be black, and the legs reddish ; the wings were black. Can I be informed, through the medium of your interesting Periodical, whether there is any more modern work that now comes in place of Be- wick's British Birds, and what is the latest edition of Bewick. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Z. Z. Ayr, Dec. 19. 1829. Hiinmdincs. — Do the swallows migrate to the south of Europe, or do they cross the Mediterranean into Africa ? Do they propagate their species there as well as here ? —W. II. White. Bedford, Nov. 25. 1829. A remarkable Vanessa. Vo. — Sir, I have in my possession a specimen of the Vanessa To, which I took in 1827, that is entirely destitute of the eyes on the inferior wings, as well as of the dark ground they are placed on, and the light-coloured circle that surrounds them. That they were not rubbed off in taking, I am sure, as the specimen is in most capital preservation. Having made numerous enquiries in this neighbourhood, I cannot meet with any one who has either taken or seen a similar insect before. I shall, therefore, be glad to hear further information of it from some of your nume- rous correspondents. I am. Sir, &c. — H. S. Smith. Leeds, October, 1829. The Nidus attached to a Reed (p. 94.) is evidently the production of a species of wasp ; I am inclined to think, the Fespa holsatica, mentioned in Kirby and Spence's Entomology, vol. i. p. 504. I should have felt quite certain of this, if the inner coat of the one in question had not been shorter than the middle one, which is not quite accordant with the description given by those authors ; yet I am inclined to consider this an accidental variance, possibly owing to the nidus not being fully completed ; for, possibly, if anothec tier of cells had been added, the inner covering might then have been extended : or perhaps the nature of the shelter in which the nidus was Queries and Ansxsoers. 195 placed may have rendered the extension of the inner covering unnecessary ; for, though there is great uniformity in the nidus built by each individual of each distinct species of insect, yet, under varying circumstances, they will at times vary their plan of operation, as Huber proved by his experiments on bees. — John Thompson, Hull^ Jan. 11. 1830. l^idus attached to a Heed.— Sir, In answer to your correspondent G. M. (p 94.), I should sup- pose the " nidus attached to a reed" to be the nest of the solitary wasp (T^spa campanaria), of which an account is given in that interesting work the Journal of a Naturalist, p. 333., as well as a plate at the end of the book. 1 am, Sir, &c. — W. H., Jl.N. Yeovil, Jan. 13. 1830. A curious Ball containing Bees. — One of your correspondents in the Magazine of Natural History (Vol. II. p. 404.) requests information resjiecting " a curious ball containing bees," which he found suspended from the roof of a hen-house ; and, as I see no reply to his enquiry in the November Num. ber, from a more able hand, I venture to send you the following account, accompanied with a sketch ifig. 39.) of a similar ne.st, which will, perhaps, satisfy his curiosity. About three years ago, I found a deserted habitation, of very delicate structure, and of a greyish colour, adhering to the ceiling of a ^Q ^^=^^^^^^^S^^^^^~. verandah, which was overgrown with the purple -f>^^^'^^3^Ssip;»=^-'£: Cl(5matis. The texture was very like that of thin ' -^^^==^^^^^^^^^§^ unsized (blotting) paper ; and I was quite at a loss .-:z=:=::^:^g^^^r:z^:^ to guess by what insect it had been constructed, till """~^^^S^^^^^': 1 met with an account of it in Rees's Cyclopcedia ^,<^^^^^^S^~' (article F^spa), in which, on the authority of M. A^^^^^^^^B^^k^ Latreille, it is attributed to the workmanship of _^^^^^^^X^^^H^>^ the F(5spa holsatica of Fabricius. Since that time I ^,g^^^^^^^^^^^g^^^g^^ have seen a more accurate description of it in the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BBBi|^^ Journal of a Naturalist. The intelligent, though ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^SB^^ unknown [L. Knapp, Esq., F.L.S.], author, speak- j^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^MBjtp^ ing of the variety and delicate construction of the ^^^^^^i^I^^^^^^^SSSBB^ nests of insects, says: — " Among those with which ^^^^^^^^^^^^^SSmtJ^^KBS^ I am acquainted, none pleases me more than that [^g^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HL of a solitary wasp ( F^spa campanaria] which occa- wS^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m sionally visits us here. It is not a common insect ; C^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HHB but I have met with their nests : one was fixed be- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^' ' neath a piece of oak bark placed in a pile; another ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^ • was pendent in the hollow of a bank of earth. The ^^^^^^^^^^^BHHRr materials which composed these abodes seemed to be ^^^^^^^^^^^^^W particles scraped or torn from the dry parts of the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ willow, sallow, or some such soft wood, and cemented ^^^^^^^^P^ again by animal glue, very similar in texture to that ^^^^pP^^ provided by the common wasp, which makes great use of the half-decayed wood of the ash, and will penetrate through crevices in the bark, to abrade away the dry wood beneath. They seem to have but small families, ten or twelve cells only being provided. These are situated at the bottom of an egg-shaped cup, contracted at the lower end, where an orifice is left for the entrance. This, again, is covered in the part where the cells are placed, by a loose hood or shed, extending about half way down the inner one. The pendent situation of the whole, and this external hood, round which the air has a free circulation, are admirably contrived for securing the cells from injury by water. The nest, when hanging in its proper situation, is like the commencement of some paper- work flower, and can never be observed but with admir- ation of the elegance of its structure; and the unusu.il appearance of the whole must excite the attention of the most incurious observer of such things." If you consider these particulars worthy a place in the Magazine, they are quite at your service; and I beg to remain. Sir, yours, &c. — Wm. Stowe. Buckingham, Dec. 4. 18'29. Curious Property of a Fly's Eye. — Goldsmith, in his Animated Naturcy mentions the fact of an experiment made upon a fly's eye, placed in such a position that objects might be seen through it, by means of a micro- scope ; when it was discovered, that the power it possessed of multiplying and diminishing objects was incalculable ; so that a single soldier, when viev/ed through it, appeared a whole army of pygmies. Is it likely that the fly itself sees in this manner, or can the powers of the human eye itself have any thing to do with this extraordinary appearance ? — M. Jan. 1830. Skate Spawn. — In answer to the query of Mr. Brown of Boston (p. 93), I should say there can be no doubt that the transparent jelly-like masses, which he describes as so frequently cast on the shore near Boston, are a species of the Mediisa ; most likely Medusa aurita, I should conceive, from' his description, or probably Medusa capitata, though I should think the for- mer. As Mr. Brown seems to be an inhabitant of the sea coast, I am" sur- prised at his not having seen these animals in motion more than once ; for I, who only very seldom see the sea, have noticed hundreds of the Medusa aurita moving in the manner he describes off the coast of Scarborough. The Greenland captains here inform us that a very minute species of this animal, and a kind of small shrimp, which are found in myriads hi the Greenland seas, form the principal food of the whale. — John Thompson. Hull, Jan. 11. 1830. " o 2 196 Queries a?id Ansxioers. The Satnlet, Botcher, and GUlion, (p. 94.) — Sir, I oflffer a few remarks, in reply to Mr. Haw- kins's enquiry, whetiier the samlet ever becomes a salmon. The ready answer is, that the samlet is a perfectly distinct species of fish, propagating its kind like all other species ; having a regular course of existence proper to itself, and being connected with the salmon no otherwise than their being generally found together in the same rivers : and yet your correspondent is fully justified in putting the question, for a great deal of mystery and misconception have prevailed as to the origin and ultimate destiny of the fish in question ; and jjurporting to remove these, in the pre- sent remarks, it will require going pretty freely into the natural history of the case. The Samlet is a small fish, from 6 to 8 in. in length, and 3 or 4oz. in weight, distinguishable from a fresh-water trout of the same size, chiefly by a row of light blue blotches down each side. Its natural element is the sea, but, like most of the salmon genus, it annually ascends our rivers, almost to their sources, and for the same purpose in all ; that of depositing their spawn in the gravelly bedsof tlie streams, far from the many marine enemies which would entirely devour the whole, if lodged in the gravel and sands of the shores. It ascends the rivers in autumn, and dis- appears from them in winter ; and very probably that appearance and disappearance have been the source of the many strange and absurd opinions entertained at different periods concerning it, as well as the numerous local names given to it. In this neighbourhood it is called a Wrack- rider, from its appearing in autumn when the streams are full of wrack, and frequently rising to the angler's fly from those vegetable beds. In Cumberland it is called a Brandling ; in the higher course of the Severn a Laspring ; and in Wales, and many other parts of England and Scotland, it has other local names; and these, again, have tended to increase the confusion accompanying its natural history. The circumstance, too, of its beeing found in most of the rivers frequented by the salmon, has originated many of the wild notions connecting it with that fish. It was long be- lieved to be a spurious brood of the salmon, incapable of propagation, by the whole race being of one sex ; a monstrous anomaly, unworthy of the meanest naturalist, by admitting that the many millions which annually enter our rivers were the constant blundering productions of a power so undeviatingly correct in all its other infinity of progeny. It is universally true, that all anomalous productions in organic nature are limited to indivi- duals, and never extend into a general and continuous succession. That absurd notion was fol- lowed by one equally groundless, that samlets were the young fry of salmon, and ultimately grew up into that fish. The case is easily refuted. Samlets abound in our rivers only in autumn, when the salmon are mostly ascending to deposit their spawn many weeks subsequently ; and that spawn is not animated into a fisli of the size of a samlet until the following March and April, when the rivers swarm with them, and when no trace of the samlet remains. To the practised angler, the young salmon and samlet are as distinctly known from each other as the chicken and duckling. The fisherman's account, mentioned by Mr. Hawkins, of having wired the tail of a samlet, and afterwards found it a salmon, is utterly unworthy of the least credit. In all cases of mysteries, the delusion is kept up by similar idle stories. The tail of fish is the sole instrument of propul- sion, and in so small a one as the samlet, a very moderate piece of wire would soon exhaust and destroy it. The number of salmon entering the Severn is probably less than as one to five hun- dred of the samlets, and the same little fish of two or three ounces, returning a dozen pounds in weight, into the handsof the same individual, and at the same local situation, holds out such a chain of improbabilities, as to furnish another striking instance of the easy credence which ab- surdities obtain in the absence of understanding. In former times, when ghosts were in fashion, every parish had its particular histories of the nightly wanderings of someof its former residents ; and "these midnight itinerants, like the fisherman's samlet, never showed themselves to more than a single witness at a time. These fooleries have passed away ; but, stranger yet, natural history .still abounds with its spectral phantoms of upas trees, serpent fascinations, innate instincts, and numerous others. In Mr. Hawkins's other query, as to whether the Botcher, the GilUon, andthe Salmon are merely varieties or the same fish, a direct answer cannot be given ; the first two names being strictly local, and affording no means of knowing what sorts of fish are really intended. A short notice, however, of the natural habitudes of the salmon, will be quite sufficient to solve the case. The natural ele- ment of the salmon, as observed before, is the sea. There only is to be found in abundance that natural and nutritious food which promotes his early and rapid growth, and restores his wasted frame from the extreme exhaustion, generally amounting to half its original weight, in which it always returns from fresh into salt water. The safe propagation of the species requires that the spawn should be deposited and covered up in beds of gravel, at the bottom of running water ; and were than done in the shores of the ocean, the whole would be soon rooted up and devoured by crabs, flounders, sand eels, shell. fish, and many other hungry depredators, always in search of food in such situations. In the streams of rivers there are no such enemies ; and hence it is, and solely on that account, that the old fish annually quit the element, so healthy and congenial to their nature, for one wherein, from entering it, they experience so much of privation and waste. In that situation the spawn safely progresses into life, and the young attain a size and activity enabling them to pass down into their natural element with powers of escape from their many marine pursuers. The spawn is deposited in the last three months of the year, and in March and April the young are several inches in length, rhe same young fish return back into the rivers in August, September, and October, and are then called Gilses, and so wonderfully rapid has their growth been, that the same fish, which in March weighed two or three ounces, weigh as gilse, from six to eight or ten pounds ; an increase, in so short a period, of fifty times the origi- nal weight. The gilse, on their second visit into fresh water, are deemed salmon. Such is the simple history of this noble fish, and it brushes away all the silly anomalous blunderings of mixing it up and mystifying it with other species. A very singular instance of the kind occurs in a quarter the least to be expected of all others. The late lamented and highly gifted President of the Royal Society, in his Salmonia, intimates that the sea-trout, here called a Bull-trout, is probably derived from the fresh-water trout. The probability is wholly groundless ; for no two species can be more distinctly separate. The sea, or bull, trout, very abundant in this country, passes through a routine of existence precisely similar to that of the salmon, and even matches it in size, sometimes attaining a weight of more than twenty ])ounds, but it is very inferior for the table. A third distinct species, of the same genus and habitudes, but much less in size, weighing only from two to three pounds, also abounds here, called a Whitling, and having many otiier local names in other places. It is an excellent fish for the table, and one of the most nimble and amusing on the angle line, running with great force, and often leaping 3 or 4 ft. above the water. All these marine emigrants are rapidly decreasing ftrora the great dcstniction of them in fresh water. A salmon is only fit for the table m the first Queries and AnsUDers. 197 two or three weeks after quitting the sea; and, after spawning, it is not only unwholesome, but actually poisonous, and yet during the whole of its sojourn in the rivers it is destroyed unlimitedly by poachers and others, I am. Sir, &c. — J. Carr. Jan. 1830. Crabs abound i7i the eastern Parts of Jamaica at all Seasons, but are best in the months which have an K in their names, as April, &c, They are most abundant in May, when they deposit their eggs, or run, as the Negroes call it. At this season it is impossible to keep them even out of the bedrooms, where, at one time scratching with their large claws, at another rattling across the floor, they make a noise which might alarm or startle a stranger. For a few weeks in this season they may be gathered in any number. Even the hogs catch them, though not always with impunity, as a crab sometimes lays hold of one of them by the snout, from which he is not easily disengaged, and the terrified animal runs about squeaking in great distress. Atother seasons, and when more valuable, they are caught by torch-light at night, and put into covered baskets. Crowds of Ne- groes pass my house every evening, with torches and baskets, going to a crab- wood on the other side, and return before midnight fully laden. Their baskets contain about forty crabs, and the regular price is a five-penny piece, our smallest coin, equal to about S^d. sterling, for five or six crabs. A hundred plantains, generally sold for 5s., will purchase sixty or seventy crabs. Two of these eaten with plantains, or yams make an excellent meal. I have seen upwards of a hundred Negroes pass my house on an evening, and return with their baskets not only full, but with quantities of crabs fastened by the claws on the top of the baskets; they must have had at least 3000 crabs. Almost every Negro family has an old flour-barrel, pierced with holes, in which the crabs are kept. They are fed with plantain skins, &c., and taken out as wanted. There is a great variety of crabs in Jamaica, but only two are eaten. The black is the best, and is one of the greatest West Indian delicacies, hardly less so than the turtle. They live in moun- tain forests, in strong ground, and feed on the fallen dry leaves of the trees. The white crab, as it is called (though rather purple than white), principally used by the Negroes, but also by the Whites, is larger, and resembles the lobster in taste. These are amphibious, and are found in the low lands, principally in the woods, where, as I have already said, they are caught at night with torches. They are numerous also in cultivated fields, and in some of the low-lying estates do con- siderable injury at times to the planters in dry weather, when vegetation is slow, by nipping off the blade of the young canes and corn as it shoots through the ground. In such situations the Negroes catch them in a singular manner. They know from the appearance of a crab-hole, if there is a crab in it, and dig down till they come to the water, say 18 in. or 2 ft. and then close the hole firmly with a handful of dry grass; in this manner one Negro will stop two dozen holes in a morning. About four hours after he returns, and his prisoners being by this time drunkened (half-drowned), they tumbled out along with the plug of grass and are caught. In 1811 there was a very extraordinary production of black crabs in the eastern part of Ja- maica. In June or July the whole district of Mauchioneal was covered with countless millions, swarming from the sea to the mountains. Of this I was an eye-witness. On ascending Oua Hill, from the vale of Plantain Garden River, the road appeared of a reddish colour, as if strewed with brick-dust. It was owing to myriads of young black crabs, about the size of the nail of a man's iinger, moving at a pretty quick pace direct for the mountains. I rode along the coast a distance of about fifteen miles, and found it nearly the same the whole way ; only in some places they were more numerous, in others less so. Returning the following day, I found the road still covered with them, the same as the day before. How have they been produced, and where do they come from ? were questions every body asked, and nobody could answer. It is well known that crabs deposit their eggs once a year, in May ; but, except on this occasion, though living on the coast, I had never seen above a dozen young crabs together, and hero were millions. No unusual num- ber of old crabs had been observed in that season ; and it is observable that they were moving from a rock-bound coast of inaccessible cliffs, the abode of sea birds, and exposed to the constant influence of the trade winds. No person, as far as I know, ever saw the like except on that occa- sion ; and I have understood that, since 1811, black crabs have been abundant farther in the inte- rior of the island than they were ever known before. {Jamaica Royal Gazette, March, 1829.) — Can you or any of your readers tell how many of the above crabs are described ? — X Y. June. 1829. Night-smelling Plants. — Can any of your correspondents inform me why the flowers of the night-smelling plants, such as Cheiranthus tristis. Pelar- gonium filipendulifolium, P. gibbosum, &c. &c., are all of dark or dingy colours ? — Anon. July 1829. Senecio lividus aiid sylvaticus. — Sir, Can you or any of your numerous correspondents inform me of the true specific distinction between iSenecio lividus, and «S'enecio sylvaticus ; since, though I have frequently examined the plants so called for that purpose, I have never been able to discover any satisfactory difference between them. The various situations in which I have gathered them preclude the possibility of their specific characters, if such really exist, from being unobserved. I have specimens from the sea coast, from the Hambledon Hills, where I gathered it in great abundance •this summer, in a field of oats, growing with Ehinanthus major, and nearly obliterating the crop ; also in some woods in this neighbourhood. The dif- ferent authors whom I have consulted on the subject give, as the specific difference, the green tips of the calyx scales in ♦Senecio lividus. Now, in all my specimens, the tips, on their first coming out of the flowers are green, but in their advanced state are perfectly discoloured. I should be obliged if any of your correspondents would give me their opinions on the subject, since I feel almost convinced that they are the same species. — //. D, Rich- mond, Yorkshire, Nov. 24. 1829. 198 Queries and Answers. Marine Vegetables as Articles of Food. (Vol. II. p. 106.) — Mr. Charles Greaves having called upon botanists to direct their attention to marine vege- tables as articles of food, it may be advantageous to point out the amount of our present knowledge upon this subject. The kinds as yet generally known to be resorted to as articles of diet are but few, viz. f7''lva umbilicata, jFlicus cscu- lentus, edulis, and saccharinus, and a species found on the coast of some of the islands in the Indian Ocean. Besides these, a second species of t/^lva, re- sembling a small brown lettuce, and jFucus vesiculosus are converted into an inferior kind of food by the poor people on the souther:, coast of Ireland, while those on the western extract a superior and more nutritive kind of sustenance from the fronds of the jF'iicus crispus. The wretched people, who are necessitated to have recourse to such coarse and nauseous food as the pounded substance of the i^iicus vesiculosus and saccharinus, are neither to be envied nor imitated ; but the jelly obtained by boiling the Javanese plant, and the jPucus crispus, when properly saved and prepared, are not to be despised,' nor the mess procured by stewing and chopping the i/'lva umbi- licata, and known by the name of stoke or laver. — T. J. Preserviiig A'lgcSy and collecting Viici. — I shall be glad if some of youi* readers will instruct me as to the best method of preserving the yi'lgae, and making them retain their colour. I should also be glad to learn what is the best month for collecting the different specimens of British jPiici, and any other information relative to this pleasing pursuit. Is there any work upon the subject, with coloured plates, less expensive than the recent splen- did production of Mr. Dawson Turner ? — C. N. Jan. 14. 1830. Limestone Quarries at Ledbury. — Sir, Having received much gratification from the perusal of your able correspondent Mr. Jukes's remarks on the trilobites at Barr and Dudley, and perceiv- ing that he expresses (Vol. II. p.l233.) a wish for some information relative to the limestone at Ledbury in Herefordshire, I took the opportunity of a few days' residence in the neighbourhood to examine the quarries, and beg to enclose the specimens I then obtained, trusting they may prove in some degree useful. I find that there are two strata of limestone quarried at Ledbury : an upper ferruginous stratum, abounding with shells and alcyonia ; and an under, darker, and more compact stratum, of a crys- talline nature. It is in the upper limestone bed that the trilobites are principalis/ found, though a few have been, and still are, occasionally discovered in the lower stratum ; but the principal workman there assured me that it was more than two years ago since any perfect ones had been found there. I could neither hear nor see any thing of the large trilobite, except the indefinite statement, that larger ones than ordinary were very rarely found. I have sent with this letter a few specimens of the imperfect trilobites I obtained, with a perfect one of a different species, which I trust will be sufficient for the purposes of identification. Whether the four specimens which I send are the tail part of the A'saphus caud^tus or not, I leave you to say; they are cer- tainly much broader in proportion to their length than the figure given Vol. II. p. 43., and some are so much so as to give them the appearance of a butterfly, the name by which they are popu- larly known among the workmen. At any rate, this is the trilobite, the lower portions of which are found abundantly here, but the upper parts are quite scarce, and I was unable to obtain even one. They were formerly more abundant, a workman of the upper stratum informed me, but as they are now deeper in the bed, they rarely find them. The small trilobite, in transition limestone, which I send herewith, and which, I understand, is scarce in the Ledbury quarries, I trust, will prove worthy your attention, as it is nearly, if not quite, perfect, and it is extremely simple in its form. This, I believe, is from the imder stratum ; and I could not hear that any other trilobites were to be found here. I likewise send you a large shell from the upper stratum. The geology of this part of the country seems at present to be but little understood, though it well deserves attention. At the distance of four miles the primitive chain of the Malvern Hills lift their numerous heads like mountain waves terminating a verdant ocean, and a beautiful vale in- tervenes between them and the limestone eminences, which for a considerable distance run paral- lel with them. At the north end of the Malvern chain the limestone hills lie'grouped apparently in much confusion, a chain, however, extending to the nsrth, towards, the Abberley Hills ; but the romantic valley of the Teme intervenes ; and at Knightsford the river rushes swiftly along at the base of an immense and nearly perpendicular conglomerate rock, upwards of 200 ft. high. I ittle research has been made into the Kubterraneous treasures of this district, but a shaft is now being sunk at Cradley, about two miles from Great Malvern, which may probably throw some light upon the subject. — Edwin Lees. Hunter's Hall, near Little Malvern, Sept. 15. 1829 T/te Lime-Works at Colwall. — Since writing the above I have visited the lime- works at Cohvall, close to the base of the Malvern range, on the western side, and about a quarter of a mile from a road cut through the hills, called the Wych. The transition limestone here abuts against the range, and various limestone eminences appear, .stretching in a confused manner northwards to Cradley, where, as 1 before observed, a shaft is now being sunk, in the expectation of finding coal. The stratum of limestone at Colwall dips to the west, and is evidently a different bed from that at Ledbury, which is four miles to the south-west, the fossils here being different from those at Ledbury. I noticed many cprallites, with some fine specimens of chain coral, lying about near the quarry, and the stone in the upper part of the bed is in many places abundantly covered with minute zoophytes, in the manner of the Dudley specimens, but unattended by trilobites ; however, in a stone from the lower part of the stratum, I observed a small specimen of the Dudley trilobite (Calymene Blumcnbach/j), but I neither saw nor heard of the trilobite popularly known among he men as the butterfly (A'saphus caudatus). In a hole of a neglected part of the quarry, I Queries and Answers. 199 Saw a large orthoceratUe ; which, though not perfect, appeared to me to resemble the Orthoccras striata, as figiir-ed in Vol. II. p. 2,32. tig. 68. The Carboniferous Limestone near the IVrekin. — I take this opportunity of sending a remarkable fossil shell, from the ^«<5fjr5SJ^r>^ /ifl carboniferous lime- ^-<«s^^^Smm>>^ 4?vJ stone in the vici- nity of the Wrekin, near Wellington, in Shropshire ; it is known among the workmen by the name Owl's- head {fig. 40.), theprotu. l)erances and curve of the shell, when held up, giving a rude representation of the head, eyes, and beak of that bird.— M The posterior segments of trilobites, of which there are three specimens, certainly belong to A'saphus caudatus ; the fourth specimen, which is said to be a complete animal, is only the cen- tral lobe of the anterior segment of the same species of animal, that is, the portion between the eyes. The large shell, if it is a shell, is new to me ; it may possibly be the surface of a coral. The small shell is, I think, Nerlta spir^ta, Min. Conch., 4()3. The Owl's head is the cast of the interior of a Producta, nearly like Froducta personata of Mineral Conchology. — J. D. C. S. Our correspondent may find some accurate details of the Malvern district, illustratetl by maps, • in the Transactions of the Geological Society, where he will observe that the highly interesting l)eculiarities displayed in this quarter have by no means escaped the accurate investigation of men of science. In Coneybeare and Phillips's Geology, a work which cannot be too highly commended to the perusal of geological students, are some notes relative to the same district. 'I"he great and the reduced geological maps of England and Wales also exhibit the boundaries of the formations to which the notice of our correspondent has reference We fear the trial for coal at Cradley will be ineffectual ; at all events, the details of the strata through which the shaft passes will be in- teresting if it can be communicated to us. The specimens of organic remains, furnished by Mr. Lees, are scarcely perfect or characteristic enough to answer the purpose of engraving. Should such be met with, and they be sent to us, they shall be figured. As references to most of these fossils should in due time be found in this Magazine, it is desirable that the figures should be taken, when practicable, from specimens that are not mutilated. —R. C. T. A Mass of fused Green Porphyry has been received from Mr. John Brown of Castle Hill, Colchester. To produce complete fusion, the mass was broken to the size of small peas. A large fragment, subjected to the same degree of heat as the small fragments, was merely vitrified on the surface. Mr. Brown is desirous of knowing whether experiments of this kind have been frequently made before. — John Brown. Castle Hilly Colchester^ Dec. 8. 1829. t A very unusual Ajypearance in the Sky. — Dear Sir, I was travelling on the evening of the 10th of July, along the high road between ^uatre Bras and Namur, when a very unusual appearance i n the sky attracted the notice of myself and of fourteen or fifteen other persons, fellow -passengers in the diligence. As I have never met with the mention of a similar phenomenon, I have thought fit to trouble you with a mem.orandum of it, in the hope that some of your scientific cor- respondents may be induced to explain it in a more satisfactory way than I have attempted below. The day had been, till two hours after noon, extremely wet, and rain had fallen previously to that time, for twenty-three hours ; the whole country, in fact, had been deluged with rain for many weeks ; consequently, the exhalations were continual and excessive, and the air filled with vapour. The evening of the 10th was, however, full of promise of some coming change ; and the clouds began to move ofF about three o'clock, P.M., before a strong breeze from the S.E. At six we had got beyond the line of those gentle acclivities in the neighbourhood of Ligny and Som- breffe (celebrated in the battles of June, 1815), and had obtained a prospect over the extensive open country beyond the little valley of the Orneau. It is at Mazy where the range of hills at the back of the Meuse first bound the horizon ; and it was at Mazy that we first saw the appearance in question. The sun was nearly behind us; but, in the direction of the Meuse, from which we were distantnearly Sj Brabant leagues (say 11 English miles), we distinctlysaw rays of light, as of the sim, issuing from a low bank of clouds, which seemed to be stationary and to hang over the valley of the river, and piercing the intermediate clouds (as openings occurred in the course of their sepa- ration from each other), in long diverging lines stretching towards the meridian, so as to give the idea of a rising sun, and in the same manner as I have seen him rising in a cloudy morning over the same country. So strong was the resemblance to that of the sunbeams, that one might easily have imagined we were travelling directly contrary to our route. It occurred to me, that it might be the reflection of the actual sunbeams from the surface of the Meuse, refracted by a body of vapour, which again reflected them in a line nearly parallel with that of their incidence. The rays were broad and well defined, of a whitish light, and diverging from a centre which seemed luminous, and had such an appearance as the sun would have if behind a cloud, such, indeed, as the sun actually had at the time, in the opposite quarter of the heavens. If the Meuse be sup- posed too far for us to have seen a reflection from it, even in that bold and open country where the eye ranges over an uninterrupted sweep of woodland and meadows, might not the phenomenon I allude to have been caused by the simple reflection of the sun from a cloud ? but as the clouds were not quite stationary, that supposition is not likely to be the correct one. These mock sunbeams lasted nearly half an hour, when they disappeared instantaneously. The following day was beautifully clear, and the air so calm and warm, that a party of ladies, whom I joined at Namur, preferred floating down the Meuse to Liege in a boat, to a land journey on the excellent road which runs along the banks of the river; but the following days were wet and 200 Queries and Answers. Btormy, the general character of the month of July this year, wherever, in the course of a long journey, I happened to be. I merely mention this casually as a note on the weather. I am. Sir, &c. — W. B. Clarke. East Berfrholt, Oct. 5. J 829. The Cause of Mirage. — I offer the following supposition as to the cause of the appearance called the mirage, with great humility, if new : — 1. The great heat of the sun draws up the moisture in vapour from the depths of the earth. 2. The same heat so rarefies the atmosphere, as to make it too light to bear the vapour, and consequently it remains hanging on the sur- face, being still kept in vapour by the great heat reflected by the hot sands. — r. Dec. 1829. Blectricity. — Can you, through your excellent work, afford your readers some information on the subject of electricity^ which (I speak from know- ledge) would be highly gratifying to some of the junior branches of the families who take it in. Why are flannels and silks more apt to emit sparks this frosty weather than any other substances ? An explanation from any of your correspondents of these and other electrical appearances of the same nature would oblige. Yours, &c. — M. Jan. 1830. Effects of Heat and Cold relatively to Vision. — Sir, It has appeared to me, from various cases mentioned by writers, that cold, while it (by condensing substance) diminishes actual size, and Tciagn\l\e& apparent space; and that heat, while it enlarges actual size, diminishes apparent size or space. Take the following from among many : — 1. As to cold, Captain Parry says, '' We had fre- quent occasion to remark, in our walks, the deception which takes place in estimating the distance and size of objects, when viewed over an unvaried surface of snow. It was not uncommon for us to direct our steps towards what appeared a large piece of stone, at about a mile's distance, but which we could take in our hand after about a minute's walk ; nor did we find the deception less on account of its frequency." {Northern Voyages.) In this case I think that it was not the uniform surface of the snow which caused the appearance ; for, had it been, I think, custom would have got used to it, and that it would not any longer deceive them : but, I am inclined to think, it proceeded from the condensed state of the air by cold, at least in part. I do not think that the surface bein-T uniform in general would produce so great an effect, without some other helping cause. The reason why the distance, as well as the object, is evident, for the same cause would affect both, apparent space only being magnified ; and that the same, whether full or empty, occupied or un- occupied, only in the first case our senses cannot perceive it. — 2. As to heat : " Every one who has resided in a southern climate, knows how much the purity of the atmosphere tends to dimi- nish apparent distance. I never saw it produce this effect in so extraordinary a degree as at Mexico (the city). The whole valley is surrounded with mountains, most of which are at least 15 miles from the capital ; yet, on looking down any of the principal streets, it appears directly terminated by a mass of rocks." ( Ward's Travels in Mexico.) How is it that the apparent distance was diminished ? I should think that the apparent size of the mountains was also diminished. This appears to me to be implied by speaking of the mountains as looking like a mass of rocks. Query, Is this the effect of the cold causing the atmosphere to act as a concave mirror (by condensation), and heat causing it to act as a convex mirror (by expansion). — Y Dec. 1829. Singular Phenomenon. — Sir, I observed a singular effect this morning, when looking at the snow in my garden, from the drawing-room window. The external cold had condensed, in a slight degree, the vapour on the the windows, but not sufficiently to be frozen. On looking through one of the panes, I remarked a beautiful rose-coloured tinge on all the trees and objects that were covered with snow, although the glass itself was perfectly transparent and colourless, and did not exhibit the same appearance in that part on which the vapour from the warmth of the room had not rested. The other panes, although equally obscured by the vapour, did not produce the same effect, the objects seen through them being of their natural colour. In a quarter of an hour later, on looking again through the same pane of glass, I observed a change in the colour, the objects that were covered with snow having assumed a greenish tinge, while the branches of the trees re- tained the same roseate, or now rather red-brown, hue, all the other parts of the window remaining as before. There was no sun, nor any apparent change in the state of the external atmosphere, the day being gloomy and rather foggy. This phenomenon was distinctly seen by others of the family, to whom I mentioned it, therefore could not proceed from any illusion in my own vision. I should much like to have it accounted for, if any of your correspondents can, from this imperfect description of so singular an appear- ance, ascertain its cause. I am, Sir, &c. — L. F. Rue de Chaillot, Paris, Bee. 22. 1829. THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. MAY, 1830. Art. I. An Address delivered at the sixth and last Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society of Lon- don, on the ^9th of November, 1829. By N. A. Vigors, Esq. A.M. F.R.S. &c. There are few among the friends whom I now see around Ine, who have not at some time experienced the bitterness of feeling that accompanies a last farewell. Even although the " accustomed spot," from which it may be our lot to be sepa- rated, may not recall to our recollection the most favourable associations, still the idea of never returning to it will elicit from us " a lingering look " as we part from it for ever. How much more deep must be the regret, at this moment, with which I take my leave of a Society endeared to me by every tie of friendship and kind feeling ! Six years have this day elapsed since our club first existed as a scientific body; and when I look back upon the many hours during that length of period which I have passed in conjunction with it, I do not recog- nise one upon which I can dwell with aught but the liveliest pleasure. Much of friendly and intellectual intercourse, — much of valuable instruction, — much of that high sense of enjoyment which attends the pursuit of kindred studies in con- cert with kindred spirits, — is exhibited in that retrospect. A more than ordinary interest indeed unites me with this club. As a friend to the science it cultivates, I took an active part in its original formation ; as your secretary for some "^ears, I ■contributed an humble but a zealous share to its support; and as your chairman this year, I find the duty devolve upon me of pronouncing its requiem. Identified as I thus consider myself with your body, I trust, gentlemen, I shall receive credit from you for sincerity, when I again declare the heartfelt regret with which I announce, that, when this night Vol. III. — No. 13. p 202 Address delivered at the sixth and last I shall have ceased to address you, our club will have ceased to exist. These, however, are but the natural feelings to which we cannot avoid giving utterance, when submitting to any sacri- fice which our better judgment pronounces to be expedient. The present sacrifice is on our part voluntary. We submit to it, or rather I should say we embrace it, because we con- ceive that we have attained the great object of our institution ; and, that object once attained, there remains no further neces- sity for keeping in force the means which have achieved it. I need scarcely remind the friends who surround me, that this club was established at a period when zoology still languished under the unmerited neglect to which it had almost at all times been exposed in this country, and when a few disinte- rested votaries only of the science were found chivalrous enough to devote themselves to an unpopular and an unpro- fitable pursuit. The period, however, was auspicious in promise. A new impulse had begun to operate in every department of science. Whether it owed its origin to the change of events which allowed the minds of our countrymen to subside from the bustle of war and politics into the calmer arts of peace, — ■ or whether to the increased intercourse with our Continental neighbours, and the consequent example set us by a people who at no time suffered even the more gene- rally engrossing avocations of the field or the cabinet to supersede the interests of science, — whatever, in short, may have been the cause, certain it is that a spirit of enquiry had gone forth, which required only encouragement and proper direction to be rendered eminently beneficial in its effects. With a view to these signs of the times, the few leading zoolo- gists of whom we could at that time boast, united themselves into this club ; hoping by this union to impart a wider in- fluence to their own exertions, to stimulate others to partici- pate in their labours, and, above all, to direct a portion of that energetic spirit of enquiry, which they every where saw around them, into the cultivation of their own favourite science. How far they have succeeded in their object, the history of zoology in this country, during the last six years, will fully evince. Even within their own limited circle, and with their contracted means, they effected much, as I shall have occa- sion to point out hereafter. But it was in the impulse origi- nally given by their exertions to the propagation of the science, more particularly by laying the foundation of the Zoological Society, that powerful association, which, with un- limited resources, carried their principles and their objects into execution, that their' agency is to be traced. Under Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club. ^03 such an impulse, a few years have achieved the work of centuries. You, gentlemen, have witnessed and triumphed in this result. You have seen zoology emerging from the seclusion of the closet, where, like a thing of mystery, it lay Jiid under the monopolising patronage of a few ; you have seen it gradually passing into light, and winning its way by its own native attractions ; until, attaining its legitimate station in public estimation, it has become the popular and univer- sally acknowledged favourite of the day. The great end of our institution being thus fully accom- plished, it remains only for us to lay aside the instrument which has produced this good, and for whose further agency there appears no need. The present time has been considered by the managers of your body as the most favourable for this purpose. They have chosen the moment of triumph for the moment of dissolution ; and have determined, in the mode prescribed of old to the parent of the Olympic victors, to " die this day." We can hope, in fact, to merit or attain no further wreath by our own exertions. The activity of those members who first promoted, and subsequently contributed to the sup- port of, this club has been called into a wider and more useful sphere : and to keep up the name and pretensions of a scien- tific body, with diminished resources, — but, above all, to retain the character of representing the zoology of this country, where a more efficient and legitimate representative of the science, springing from ourselves, has left us little claim to the dignity, — would only serve to institute a striking contrast, of benefit to neither party. We have, in fact, completed our work, and it is time we should retire. The arch is rounded, and the keystone fitted in, and it is expedient that the humble scaffolding should be removed from all incongruous juxtapo- sition with the noble edifice which it was mainly instrumental in erecting. Of the general benefits conferred on zoology by this insti- tution since it commenced its career, I shall have occasion to speak before I sit down : but, following the example of my esteemed predecessors in this chair, who have respectively detailed to you the progress of the science during the succes- sive years of their presidency, I shall previously enumerate the various accessions to zoological information which have occurred since the last anniversary. Much information has been acquired in the class of Mam- malia during the past year. The addition of new species has been considerable, and the elucidation of species already known by name, but insufficiently described, has been of equal extent and importance. Among the former are several contributions p 2 204? Address delivered at the sixth and last * to the Fauna of South Africa, by Dr. Andrew Smith, a zealous' corresponding member of the Zoological Society. In a paper published in the sixteenth number of the Zoological Jourmal, that gentleman describes five new species of the family of Fespertilionidae respectively belonging to the genera Pteropus, Rhinolophus, A^ycteris, and the Fespertilio of modern authors. He has also added a new species to the interesting form of Chrysochloris, of which only one had hitherto been known ; two to the Mangusta of Olivier ; a new species to each of the genera iVfyoxus, iSciurus, iepus, and Bathyergus, among the Glires ; and one to Phocae^na among the Cetacea. In addi- tion to these species belonging to well known groups, he has characterised two new animals, which he looks upon as exhi- biting such modifications of form as to demand separate places in our systems. The first of these, which is nearly allied to iSoreXjhe describes under the generic title of Macroscelides * ; the second, which he conjectures to follow immediately after ikfus, under that of Dendromus. To Mr. Douglas, whose social intercourse with us for the last few months has added so much interest to our meetings, and who has just left us, under the most favourable auspices, to retrace his steps over the western part of North America, we are indebted for the description of a new species of Cervus, C. leucurus, discovered by him in the Rocky Mountains. He has also given, in the Zoological Journal, a more accurate de- scription than we have hitherto possessed of that interesting animal mentioned so frequently by the American writers, the OVis montana of the same country. It were much to be wished that the example set by this enterprising naturalist would be more generally followed by scientific travellers, of giving their own descriptions of the animals they discover. In * M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire has since described this interesting genus with more detail in a paper in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for October last. Specimens recently obtained from the Cape of Good Hope have enabled that promising naturalist to detect in it the «S'6rex ^raneus maximus capensis of Petiver, the figure of which had previously been regarded by modern writers as a mere caricature, so little did it resemble any animal with which they were acquainted. M. Isidore Geoffroy justly regards the acquisition of this new form among the Insectivora as of con- siderable importance, inasmuch as it furnishes the first example discovered of the fifth type in this group, and enables the zoologist to complete the exposition of the analogies existing between the Rodentia, the Marsupialia, and the Insectivora. These analogies may be exhibited in a tabular view, as follows.: — Dasyurus. *S'6rex. Phascolomys. Talpa. Chironectes. ikfygale. Petaurus. Tupdia. Kdngarus. Macroscelides. Marcheurs. Rat. Fouisseurs. Pore-epic. Nageurs. Castor. Grimpeurs. Ecureuil. Sauteurs. Gerboise. Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club, 205 the absence of information coming to us with double authen- ticity as well as interest from the original observer, it generally falls to the lot of some home compiler to appropriate to him- self, by the mere imposition of a name, the credit which is solely due to the labours and enterprise of the traveller. This imputation of neglecting the objects which he observed does not attach to our scientific countryman. Dr. Richardson. His portion of the work entitled Fauna Boredli-Americdna, has been among the most prominent productions of the past year ; and will remain a standard volume to be referred to, not only as a source of original information, but as a faithful repository of all that had been previously known respecting the Mammalia of North America. In addition to the several novelties which he had some time before described in the Zoological Journal, and which have been already noticed by .my immediate predecessor, he has given us in his late valu- ™able publication the following new animals : — ^'rctomys Dou- glas.zV and A, Beechey/, Geomys Douglasz?, G. umbrinus, and JDiplostoma bolbivorum. Mr. Geo. Tradescant Lay, who accompanied Capt. Beechey in his late expedition in the Blossom, has afforded us an in- teresting account of the habits and economy of the Pteropus pselaphon, a new species of the group, which he observed in the Island of Bonin. We trust that the reputation he has attained by this his first essay in zoology will encourage him to pursue a study in which he appears by his name to have an hereditary interest. We owe to the industry and acumen of Mr. Ogilby, the knowledge of a new species of the very limited group of Pa- radoxurus, his Par. leucopus. We have also some remarks of his on the Linnean genus J5J quus, which will shortly appear in our Zoological Journal. This gentleman is one of the late recruits to our science, and has already given us sufficient earnest that he will not long remain in the subordinate ranks. , Mr. Woods, an active and well known member of the Lin- pean and Zoological Societies, has increased the catalogue of the interesting group of the Antelopes by the account of a new species, the Ant. personata. A more detailed description than that already published of the animal, together with a plate, have been prepared, and will shortly appear in the forthcoming number of the Zoological Journal. From this gentleman, also, who has honoured our London societies by transferring to them the talents which he exerted with great credit to him- self in the support of a provincial institution, we may expect 206 Address delivered at the sixth and last much elucidation on the affinities of the Mammalia. This sub- ject he has deeply studied, and with considerable success. Dr. Horsfield and myself have, during the same period, added to the number of our feline animals, by an account of a strongly marked species, the jFelis nepalensis. A figure of this animal has been engraved for the supplementary plates of the Zoological Journal. We have subjoined the details of another animal of the same group in the collection of the Zoological Society, which, however, we conjecture to be one of the numerous alleged varieties of the Pelis rufa Guld. Next to the interest conferred by the introduction of new species is that afforded by the more accurate description of those which have been previously, but imperfectly, known. In information of this nature the past year has been unusually fertile. At the head of the publications devoted to this sub- ject, I must place the paper of our friend and colleague, Mr. William S. Macleay, on the Hutias of Cuba, the group cha- racterised by M. Desmarest under the name of Capromys. In this paper four species of the group are accurately character- ised from living specimens, and identified with the descriptions of some of the earlier voyagers, more particularly with those of Oviedo, who published his remarks on the natural history of the New World within five and thirty years after its discovery. In this essay our distinguished friend has exhibited additional proof of that extreme tact, which we ever remarked in him while among us, of selecting all that is valuable, and rejecting all that is irrelevant, in the works of his predecessors. I have already referred to the valuable work of Dr. Richard- son, published within this year, on the Mammalia of North America, in which he has exhibited as much to elucidate the remarks of antecedent naturalists as originality on his own part. Among the animals whose history he has cleared up in that work I should particularise a few, were it not difficult to make a selection where all are of interest. I must notice, however, with especial commendation, his remarks on the Sewellel, whose characters and station in nature he had pre- viously pointed out for the first time, with his usual accuracy, in the Zoologicaljournal. To our colleague, Mr. Jenyns, we stand indebted for some interesting observations on the common Bat of this country, generally described as the Fespertilio Twurinus of Linnaeus. These observations are followed up by some remarks on the Fespertilionidse in general. It is a subject of congratulation to the friends of science, that this gentleman thus actively con- tinues to communicate the results of his acute and diligent researches into the British Fauna* I have here to add that a Anniversary 'Meeting of the Zoological Club, 207 review of the genera of the same group of Fespertilionidae, by Mr. John Edward Gray, has appeared in the volume of the Philosophical Magazi?ie pubhshed within the past year. * Among the subjects of zoology lately elucidated, the history of our own species has not been neglected. In a late number of the Zoological Journal we have some extremely interesting observations, by Dr. Scouler, on the artificial deformities pro- duced on the bodies of the aborigines of the American conti- nent and islands, and more particularly on the skulls of the North American Indians. But, as far as regards the elucidation of imperfectly known species, the exertions of our learned friend and secretary, Mr. Bennett, during the last year, are above all praise. I shall not be deterred by any false delicacy from stating, even in his presence, the vast debt of gratitude which we owe him. If the establishment of the Zoological Club had produced no other advantage than that of having secured his co- operation in the cause of science, its work would havQ been done. I need only mention to you his two produc- tions, the Tower Menagerie, and Gardens of the Zoological Society delineated, of which three parts have appeared within this year, as a proof of my assertion. It is one of the promi- nent features of the present times, that naturalists aim at ^ happy union of true science with popular attraction. The * I am here reluctantly compelled to make one remark upon an observ- ation contained in the above-mentioned paper, where the writer speaks of his having named a certain species when " engaged in arranging the Mammalia and Reptiles in the Museum of the Zoological Society." Having had the honour of holding the office of Secretary to that Society since its establish- ment, and having superintended in the course of my official duties the arrangement of the subjects in the Museum, and the published Catalogues, I am enabled to disclaim all assistance on the part of that gentleman, how- ever valuable his services might have been had the Council or Officers found it necessary to have solicited them. In justice to those confidential friends of the Institution who have lent their aid to the scientific arrange- ment of the different collections, under the authority of the Council, I shall here mention their names, and the departments they have superintended. In arranging and cataloguing the Mammalia I have had the valuable coope- ration of Mr. Bennett and Mr.Yarrell ; the Birds have been chiefly attended to by myself; the Reptiles and Amphibia have been exclusively under the surveillance of Mr. Bell ; the Fishes under that of Mr. Bennett and Mr. Yarrell. The Mollusca have been consigned to the care of Mr. Broderip and Mr. G. B. Sowerby. The Annulosa have not as yet been set in com- plete order ; the Insects only having been partially arranged by myself, with the occasional advice of Mr. Kirby and Dr. Horsfield. We look, however, to Mr. Broderip and Mr. Stokes for assistance in the Crustacea among this latter great division, as well as in the succeeding divisions of Radiata and A'crita. The department of Comparative Anatomy has chiefly devolved upon Mr. Yarrell, who has had much assistance from Mr. Holberton, as well as fi-om our active friend and colleague, Mr. Morgan of Guy's Hospital. . ' P 4 208 Address delivered at the sixth and last extraordinary success of these works has proved the good effect of this judicious union. The principle of " gratior pulchro veniens in corpore viiius " * was never more strongly exemplified than in those popular publications. From among the various species touched upon in these works I shall select two, which, although long since named in science, have assumed under his hand an original form. The first is the Mus Barbarus of Linnaeus, a species hitherto almost doubtful, but now assuming a certain and legitimate rank among the true ikf ures ; the second the Chinchilla f , an animal familiar to us by reputation, but a personal stranger, until introduced by his accurate delineations. To Mr. Bennett, also, we are indebted for the valuable analysis of works on zoology which have appeared in the Zoological JournaL A sense of justice compels me to add, that the credit which may belong to the general superintendence of that work should attach to him. My name, by the kind partiality of my friends, stands at the head of the publication ; — the merit is solely his. While referring to the additional information on the subject of the Mammalia, supplied within the last year, I must name another of our colleagues, Mr. Yarrell, whose researches into the comparative anatomy and physiology of animals have already secured for him the highest rank in science. Here, again, the beneficial agency of our Zoological Club is strongly conspicuous. To its influence we are mainly indebted for the public services of Mr. Yarrell. His knowledge and his acUmen are his own : but we are proud in the reflection that it was the incitement ^d example afforded by this club that first induced him to exert these qualities in public. You may judge of the value of this influence by the fruits it has produced. I refer to the reports of our former chairmen for his labours in for- mer years. Within the year of my presidency he has given us a continued series of erudite observations on the osteology and internal structure of the animals which have died in the menagerie of the Zoological Socfety. If in all of these there should be no new contribution to science, there is ample con- firmation and beautiful illustration of the knowledge already possessed. 1 cannot here pass over without praise the share which another able recruit to zoology has taken in these inves- tigations. From Mr. Holberton, who has for the most part cooperated with Mr. Yarrell in his examination of the before- mentioned subjects, much valuable instruction has already been derived, and much more may confidently be expected. * " Worth more pleasing in a lovely form." f The anrnial is chatacterised by Mr. Bennett under the name of Chin* chilla lanlgera. k Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club, 209 Before I conclude my references to the Mammalia, I must mention the recent acquisition of two living animals of con- siderable interest, by the Zoological Society. The first is a specimen of the animal referred to by my predecessor at our last anniversary, as recently described and figured by Dr» Horsfield, under the name of Mustela HardwickzV. The description was made from a preserved skin which had been one of the numerous results of the indefatigable labours of our friend and colleague, General Hardwicke *, in India. The animal had been previously but imperfectly noticed by Pen- nant. The acquisition of the present beautiful specimen in its living state fully establishes the species, f The second animal belongs to the rare species described by M. Desmarest as Cynocephalus niger. We are enabled by the specimen in our possession to restore the species to its proper station; which is in that division of the genus Macdcus Lacep., that includes the Magots. It accords with this latter group, and essentially differs from the Cynocephali, by the facial angle and the shape of the nostrils, as observed by our secretary, Mr. Bennett. The tail, the existence of which seems to have been a matter of doubt among the French zoologists, is reduced, as in the Macdcus Sylvanu5, to a mere tubercle. In turning to our acquisitions in Ornithology, I hope I shall be excused if I dwell with some particularity on a favourite department. The number of birds added to our Catalogues in the past year has been extensive ; although not equal to that added to our collections. It is almost impos- sible, in fact, to keep pace in our descriptions with the over- powering influx of new subjects. The Transactions of our parent society may be in the first place quoted, as presenting some valuable new species to our notice. Mr. Douglas has not confined his observations to the Mammalia of North- tvestern America, but has added to the list of the birds of that country four species of grouse ; viz. the Tetraones Uro- phasianellus, Sabin/, Franklin?/, and Richardson//; and two species of the genus O'rtyx, the Ort. picta and Douglas// ; the latter bird having been previously named by myself in * I am happy to observe that, since the delivery of this Address, a number of General Hardwicke's Illustrations of Indian Zoology^ has been published ; a work which will prove the extent of his zeal and ability in the promotion of our science. t From a comparison of the animal now living in Bruton Street with the description given by Pennant of his white-cheeked marten, they have been ascertained to be identical : and thus another species, rejected by modern writers as doubtful, has been restored to science. Dr. Horsfield's name, ikfustela Hardwlckw, sinks consequently into a synonyme of the -Mustela flavigula Bodd'dert. . . : ^10' Address delivered at the sixth and last honour of the first observer. The two last-mentioned birds are closely allied to a species which had been some time pre- viously made known to science by Mr. Menzies's researches in California, the T^erdix californianus of Dr. Latham, and form an interesting addition to a group which represents in Ame- rica the Quails of tlie Old World. It may not be here out of place to mention that specimens of two species of the group, the O'rt. californianus and Douglasn*, are at present living in the gardens of the Zoological Society. The same gentle- man has added considerably to the information which we had already possessed of the habits and economy of some of the scarcer Gallinaceous Birds of North America ; more particu- larly of the 7 etrao Urophasianus, which we may well remem- ber to have seen first exhibited and described in this room by our distinguished friend and correspondent, the Prince of Musignano. Mr. Douglas has also published in the Zoologi" cal Journal some interesting details respecting the economy of the Fultur californianus. We are all well aware of the rare ornithological treasures contained in the collection of Mr. Leadbeater. We have to congratulate ourselves that many of these are becoming known to science through the exertions of their owner. His liberality hitherto to naturalists, in opening his collections for their use, is well known ; his ability in making use of them himself for the advantage of science is now equally conspicuous. In the last number of the Linnean Transactions he added some species to the rare genera Phytotoma, Indicator, and Curso- rius ; a beautiful species to the Tyrannulus of M. Vieillot ; and an African species to the group of Pardalotus, which had previously been supposed to be confined in its range to Aus- tralia. The same volume affords a treat to the lovers of the more splendid productions of nature, in the description by the same hand, and accompanying representation, of a magnificent pheasant, the Phasianus Amherst/<^. From the same collec- tion we had an opportunity of seeing at our last meeting some additional novelties, which will shortly be described by their owner, more particularly two interesting species of the Psitta- cidae, belonging to the Australian groups Trichoglossus and Platycercus, The commanders of our scientific expeditions, for the last few years, have not neglected the opportunities afforded to them of contributing to our stores of zoology. The valuable ornithological collections which were obtained by Captain Beechey, in his late voyage in the Blossom, more particularly on the north-west coast of America, were sent to me, within the last year, for examination. Twelve species, apparently Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club* 2 1 1 new to science, were shortly afterwards noticed by me in the Zoological Journal: and a detailed description of the whole col- lection, accompanied with some anatomical and physiological notices by the naturalists of the expedition, together with figures of the new or rarer species, is in preparation. And here I cannot pass over a fact which affords an auspicious omen to the well-wishers of zoology. The work which will include the natural history of this expedition is coming out under the immediate patronage of our government, who have advanced a liberal sum for defraying the .expense of the illus- trative plates. The same liberality has been evinced in the case of the work lately published by Dr. Richardson, to which I have already drawn your attention. These are tidings which cannot fail to interest us. The expense of suitable engravings for such works is well known to be so great as to deter any author or publisher from venturing on what must prove to him a decided sacrifice ; and it is only by its being met by the liberality of government, or of some great institution, that an object so essential to the interests of zoology, as faithful re- presentations of the subjects described, can be attained. The same munificence of spirit may be noticed in the Directors of the East India Company. This patronage alone has enabled the scientific world to profit by such works as Dr. Horsfield has produced on the zoology of Java. I have here also to announce the arrival, in this country, of a very valuable collection of birds, formed in the neighbour- hood of the Straits of Magellan, by our gallant and accom- plished friend Captain Phillip Parker King. I have had the pleasure of exhibiting to you, at some of our former meetings, the very interesting collection which he sent to this country, as the results of his first voyage to those Straits, and which was described in the Zoological Journal, by extracts from his letters. The present collection, which was obligingly en^ trusted to me by the Admiralty for description, contains many fine specimens of the rarer species described in those extracts, together with many additional novelties. I wait only for the return of Captain King to bring out an account of this truly valuable collection. This event, we have every reason to hope, will not be far distant ; and the intervening delay will be fully compensated by the additional value conferred on his acquisitions by the observations which he will be enabled to supply in person. From others of the foreign collections which have been for- warded to this country, much important information has been acquired. The noble Sumatran collection, left by Sir Stam- ford Raffles as a monument of his scientific zeal and acumen, SI 2" Address delivered at the sixth and last still continues to afford us many striking novelties. Two spe- cies of the family of Tetraonidae, belonging to the singular group of Cryptonyx, in which the nail of the hinder toe is wanting, have been lately exhibited in this room, and subse- quently described in the Zoological Journal under the names of Crypt, niger and ferrugineus. Some other Gallinaceous species, together with a few Raptorial and Insessorial birds, still remain to be characterised from that collection. This pleasing task is now in progress ; and a detailed catalogue of the whole of the collection, which is no less interesting from the materials of which it is composed, than from the circum- stances under which it was formed, is in the hands of the offi- cers and other confidential members of the Society where it is deposited. I have also to notice the arrival of some birds from Dr. Heineken of Madeira, which had been previously described by that gentleman in Dr. Brewster's Edinburgh Jmir^ not. The specimens were accompanied by some additional ob- servations, which will shortly appear in the Zoological Journal^ and which, with the previous descriptions, will tend to clear up many doubtful points respecting the birds of Madeira. In particular, we have an opportunity of ascertaining, from these specimens, what was the true jPringilla canaria of Linnaeus. Some living specimens of that species, from which all our nume- rous domesticated varieties have proceeded, are to be seen, with their true and native characters, in the aviaries of the Zoolo- gical Society. To Dr. Bancroft, also, of Jamaica, a valuable corresponding member of the same Society, we are indebted for some subjects of ornithology from the island where he resides, which will shortly be given to the public. One of the most prominent objects in the institution of our parent Society was the elucidation of the British Fauna. This, of course, has been an equally important object with ourselves ; and how far we have contributed to this end, may be inferred from the fact that, in the department of birds ialone, above twenty species * have been added to our catalogue * It may not be uninteresting to mention the names of the species thus added to our Fauna. They are as follows : — jStrix Tengmalmi Linn., Sylvia suecica Lath.^ Sylvia Tithys »S'cop., ^'nthus Richardi VieilL, Accentor alpinus Bechst., Emberiza hortulana Linn.y Plectrophanes lapponica Meyer^ Loxia Pytiopslttaca Bechst.y (Scolopax Sabini V., Trlnga rufescens Vieill.y Tringa Temmlnckij Leisler, Gallinula Baillonii VieilL, Cygnus Bewickw Yarr., " J'nser gambensis Briss.y ^^nas rufina Pall.y ^'nas casarka Linn., Sterna arctica Temni., iarus glaucus Brunn.^ iarus eburneus Linn., Lestris pomarinus Temm. To these species, entirely new to Britain, may be added two more, which had previously been indicated as British, but not sufficiently authenticated until lately ; viz. Chatadrius cantianus Lath., ^'nas glocitans Pall. Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club. "^l3 since the date of the institution of our club, chiefly by the exertions of its members. The past year has not been barren in such acquisitions. A female specimen of a species of the family of warblers, the Sylvia Tithys of Linnaeus, shot near London, was exhibited at our last meeting. We are indebted to Mr. Gould of the Zoological Society, for the discovery of this addition to our British Fauna. The bird had been sent to him as a common Redstart (Sylvia Phcenicurus), to which it bears a close affinity ; and probably would have passed un- noticed as a specimen of that species, more particularly in consequence of its sex, in which the colours are less strongly marked than in the male, had not the critical knowledge of this rising naturalist detected the distinguishing characters. At the same meeting, Mr. Yarrell exhibited specimens of the trachea of a swan, differing materially from that of the well known Cygnus ferus, more especially by entering the sternum to a greater distance, and forming, at the end of it, a horizon- tal instead of a vertical fold. One of these specimens belonged to a bird now preserved in the collection of the Philosophical Society of Cambridge, and which Mr. Yarrell had an oppor- tunity of examining in a recent state. The result of this examination, as well as of that of one or two other similar specimens, confirmed him in the opinion that the bird differed equally in external and internal characters from all the other known species of the group. He expressed his intention of laying before the next meeting of our parent Society a detailed description *, accompanied by plates, of this new and well distinguished British species. To Mr, Yarrell, also, we are indebted for an accurate description and delineation of the structure of the beak and its muscles, in our Crossbill, the Loxia curvirostra. I cannot, in this place, omit the expression of our thanks to Mr. Blackwall of Manchester, for several valuable ornithological observations which he has at various times communicated to the Zoological Journal. His notes on the natural history of the Cuckoo, on the nidification of birds, and on the habits and economy of several British species, which came under his immediate inspection, are replete with interest and information. The advantage which science derives from the publication of works illustrative of the subjects of nature, has at all times been acknowledged with gratitude. At no period have a greater number or a more valuable assemblage appeared than at the present. The splendid work of Mr. Selby on the in- * This description has been since read, in which the bird is characterised under the name of Cygnus Bewickii. 214? Address delivered at the sixth and last digenous birds of this country progresses, and has, indeed, nearly been brought to a close. Two numbers of the Water Birds have been published since our last anniversary. The Illustrations of Ornithology^ which he has commenced in con- junction with Sir William Jardine, and in cooperation with the leading zoologists of London and Edinburgh, have been increased during the past year by two valuable numbers, con- taining thirty plates. Mr. Wilson's very important work, the Illustrations of Zoology, has also received the addition of two numbers during the same period. In the latter of these is a representation of the Tetrao Urophasianus, to which I have before alluded as having been exhibited and described in this club by the Prince of Musignano, and afterwards commented on by Mr. Douglas. The magnificent undertaking of Mr. Audubon advances in extent and reputation. Twelve num- bers of his work have already appeared, 9ontaining sixty plates of the birds of the United States, a large proportion of which are new to science. I cannot here omit to mention the appearance of the 2d and 3d numbers of the Prince of Musi- gnano's American Ornithology^ although the merit of the pub- lication of that work is due to another country. The prince is so identified with this country, by union with its scientific institutions, and friendship with its men of science, that we can scarcely avoid considering the fruits of his labours as belong- ing to ourselves. The lovers of nature have been gratified, during the last year, by the appearance of a second series of Mr. Swainson's Zoological Illustrations. If accuracy of de- lineation and critical acumen can recommend a work to public favour, the Illustrations of that gentleman must secure for him a lasting reputation. During the same period, also, some numbers of Mr. Griffith's translation of the Baron Cuvier's Regne Animal have been published, in which several new species have been figured. On turning to the next succeeding branches of the Verte- brated Animals, I have to regret that the works which have appeared on the Reptilia and Amphibia during the year of my presidency, although valuable, have been few in number. To Mr. Bell we chiefly look for information on these sub- jects ; but, of late, our friend and colleague has not affiDrded his wonted answer to our call. His silence, however, is not that of neglect or disinclination. In the deep study of the Chelonian reptiles, to which he has latterly devoted an unre- mitting attention, he has considered it better (and I cannot but admit that he has judged wisely) to delay the appearance of the results of his labours, until he can invest them with a more perfect form than could be given them in our ephemeral Amiversaty Meeting of the Zoological Club, 215 productions. These results, we have reason to hope, will not long be withheld from us ; and my knowledge of the progress already made authorises me to add, that the accuracy and elaborate finish with which they are worked out will amply compensate for the present delay. From a few other quarters, some valuable additions to our knowledge of the Reptilia have appeared. I shall particularise Mr. Guthrie's Observa- tions on the Structure of the Heart in Testudo indica, which he founded on the examination of a specimen in the collection of the Zoological Society ; and Mr. Holberton's Notes taken during the Examination of a Specimen of Testudo tabuldta, which had lately died in the menagerie of the same society. Both these anatomical treatises are replete with new and interesting information on a subject hitherto little understood. To Dr. Smith, also, whom I have already quoted as elucidating the Fauna of South Africa, we are indebted for the characters of two new forms of Ophidian reptiles, peculiar to that country, which he names Bucephalus and A'nodon. Of the former group he describes four species, new to science ; of the latter, one. A strong impulse has been latterly given to the study of Ichthyology, both in this country and on the Continent; and the spirit has extended itself even to our colonies. Dr. Ban- croft has taken advantage of the opportunities afforded him of examining the fishes of the West India seas, and has sent us some valuable observations on the subject, together with specimens of several of the species. His remarks have been published at large in the 1 6th and 1 7th numbers of the Zoological Journal, where the lovers of this department of nature will find ample gratification in his copious and accurate details. I have here again to refer to our African correspondent. Dr. Smith, as having contributed to this branch of science, by the descrip- tion of a new form among the family of Sharks, which he found on the south coast of Africa, and which he characterised under the name of Rhincodon. Our zealous friend, also. Gen. Hardwicke, has enriched our Zoological Journal by some va- luable remarks on the Goramy of China (Osphromenus olfax Commerson), founded on his personal observation of the spe- cies, while he was some months resident in the Isle of France. His remarks are at this moment of peculiar interest, as this fish, which had been imported into that island from China, and more recently into some of the French West Indian Islands, and naturalised in both places with such success as to afford the inhabitants a copious supply of wholesome and palatable food, is one of the species which it is in contempla- tion to introduce into this country, under the auspices of the 216 Address delivered at the sixth and last ' Zoological Society. Some numbers of the splendid work on the Fishes of Ceylon, by Mr. J. W. Bennett, the commence- ment of which was announced at our last anniversary, have also appeared within the past year. At home our ichthyologists have not been idle. Our secre- tary has favoured us with some notes on the West Indian fishes, to which I have already called your attention, as hav- ing been sent to this country, and commented on, by Dr. Bancroft. It is needless to add, that he has contributed much to the determination of the species, and the general interest of the subject. Mr. Bennett is also at this moment busily em- ployed in arranging the ichthyological department of the museum of the Zoological Society ; and has already charac- terised that part of it which includes the Sumatran collec- tion, in a catalogue which will appear in the forthcoming Memoirs of Sir Stamford Raffles. Mr. Yarrell, also, whose exertions in ichthyology have been so frequently brought before you by my predecessors in this chair, besides adding to our knowledge within the past year respecting several species of the British fishes, has enriched our Fauna by two species hitherto unknown to it, the /Solea pegusa of Lacepede, and Cottus .Subalis of Euphrasen. I now beg to direct your attention in turn to the Inverte- brated Animals. But on looking to the list of the late works on this subject, which it has been my duty to prepare to lay before you this day, and feeling how long I have already tres- passed upon your time and your patience, I must pass over these subjects more rapidly than I feel to be consistent with the merits of the authors or their works. The most important communication which has appeared, during last year, on the Mollusca, is the joint production of our colleagues Mr. Broderip and Mr. Sowerby, on some subjects collected by Captain Belcher, during the late expe- dition under Captain Beechey to the north-west coast of America. Sixty new species have been described by these gentlemen in the fourth volume of the Zoological Joutmal ; and nine species, chiefly from the same collection, have been sub- sequently added in the succeeding volume. Among these, two striking modifications of form have been characterised : one, belonging to the family of Turbinidse, under the name of Trichotropis ; the second in the group of Tunicata, under that of Cheliosoma. From the accurate pen of the former of these gentlemen, our native Fauna has received the addition of two new species of iJuccinum, the B. acuminatum and fusiforme ; the former from the coast of Devonshire, the latter from the south coast Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Cluh. 217 of Ireland. Captain Brown, also, of Edinburgh, has enriched our native catalogues with some species of MoUusca, collected in Scotland; and Dr. Johnston of Berwick has continued, during the same period, his Continhidions to British zoology, in which are included many new and interesting additions to the same group. During the year, some observations have been forwarded to the Zoological Journal^ by our valued correspondent the Rev. Mr. Lansdown Guilding of St. Vincent, on the groups of the Chitonidae. These form the continuation of that gen- tleman's remarks on the zoology of the Caribbean Seas, the reading and illustrations of which have afforded so much in- terest to our meetings in former years. In the same journal, some valuable anatomical papers on the Moll us ca have ap- peared within the year, particularly A Description of the Ana- tomical Structure of Cyclostoma elegans^ by the Rev. M. G. Berkeley of Cambridge ; and Description of the Animal to which belongs the Shell called, by the Baron de Ferusac, Helico- Umax Lamrnxkii, by the Rev. R. T. Lowe. In no department of zoology has the reputation of this country been more fully supported than in the Annulosa. Even when every other branch of our science was languish- ing under neglect, this department produced some able re- presentatives, and none more able than the author of the Monogrdphia A^pum A^?iglice. Happy am I to add, that time has not dimmed the faculties of our revered friend, nor abated his ardour. With the true enthusiasm of science, he has occasionally left the quiet of his closet, during the past year, to animate our meetings, and enlighten our discussions. Dur- ing that period, he has brought to a close his great work, the Introduction to Entomology ; and he has likewise found leisure to animadvert on some minor groups of his favourite class, in communications intended for the Zoological Journal. Long may he continue to enliven our circles by his presence and example ! Second in point of time, but second to no man in merit or reputation, is our friend the author of the Hm^ce Entomologicce. Although distant from us, he has not forgotten our common cause. Besides some observations which he was called upon to bring forward in vindication of some of his previously published opinions — observations which, although bearing upon particular points, are yet replete with those sound philosophical views which pervade every production of his pen — he has favoured us with a paper on the Ceratitis citriperda, an insect destructive to ora7iges. We may remember the success with which Mr. MacLeay, at a former period, called in the aid of science to the VoL.lIL—- No. 13, Q 218 Address delivered at the sixth and last restoration of our native timber, when exposed to the ravages of a destructive insect. In the present notice he has been equally successful in detecting the cause of disease, and sug- gesting the remedy for it, in a fruit that forms a considerable branch of commerce. It comes not within the province of your chairman, when reverting to the labours of past years, to allude to the promises of the future. But I cannot avoid anticipating a little on this occasion, by stating what, I know, will be heard with the greatest interest by my friends around me, that I have already received, from our colleague at the Havana, the commencement of a series of entomolo- gical papers, intended as a sequel to the invaluable Horce E7itomol6gicce. It is one of the great merits of the friend of whom I have just spoken, that he has opened to others the path which he has himself so successfully trodden. Dr. Horsfield, following his footsteps, has not failed to imbibe a portion of his spirit. In his work on the Lepidopterous insects of Java, of which a second part has appeared within this year, our valued col- league has given us the opportunity of remarking a union of characters seldom found in an individual, — and which he, shares in common, perhaps, only with the individual just alluded to, — a comprehensiveness of views, accompanied by a minuteness and finished accuracy of detail. We are indebted, likewise, to Dr. Horsfield for a description, in the Zoological Journal, of some new species of Oriental Lepidoptera, which did not form part of the collection at the India House, and consequently did not come regularly into his greater work. Our colleague, Mr. Westwood, whom it is the boast of this club to have enlisted into science, and to rank among its most able recruits, has, during the last year, exhibited to our meetings, and commented upon, several new and interesting Coleopterous insects belonging to the families of Cicindelidae, Notoxidae, and iampyridae. His observations will appear in the forthcoming number of the Zoological Journal, Dr. Heine- ken of Madeira has, during the same period, favoured us with many interesting observations on various Annulose animals, particularly on the habits of some species of the ^rachnida. Mr. Thomson, likewise, has continued his Zoological Illustra- tions, in which he has given descriptions of some of the lumi- nous animals among the Crustacea; and has, at the same time, added to the information previously communicated by him, respecting the metamorphosis of that group. And Dr. Johnston of Berwick, in his Co7itrihutions to the British Fauna, has also, with much ability, observed upon some Crustaceous species. Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club. 219 I have already adverted to the important accessions w^hich British zoology has gained within the last few years. In the Annulose animals, the accession has been most striking. Many years have not elapsed since it was recorded, as a subject of triumph, that three thousand species of insects had been ascer- tained to exist in the British Islands. The past year has pro- duced Mr. Stephens's Systematic Catalogue of British Insects^ in which ten thousand species are registered. A few of these species are doubtful, having been introduced into our cata- logues by the earlier collectors, who were not always scrupu- lous respecting the authority on which they pronounced an insect to be British. But the number of these is more than counterbalanced by the additions which have been supplied even since the publication of Mr. Stephens's work ; and we may now announce, with certainty, that above ten thousand authenticated species of our native insects are to be referred to in that gentleman's cabinet, or in the other chief collections of the metropolis. Our active colleague has been equally assi- duous, during the same period, in the publication of his Illus- trations of British Entomology^ the thirtieth number of which has lately appeared. Mr. Curtis' s work, also, on British En- tomology, has maintained, without intermission, its regular monthly appearance ; the last year producing twelve numbers. Six volumes of the work are now almost completed, in which figures of nearly three hundred genera are delineated, and about two thousand species are either indicated or described. I need not refer in this Society, all the members of which are familiar with the merits of the work in question, to the general excellence and scientific value of the plates which accompany it. It continues to be a subject of regret that the study of the animals belonging to the remaining groups of Radiata and A^critahas been so partially attended to in the country. The last year has produced little to compensate for the previous neglect. Still we have no reason to despair. The general impulse given to the study of zoology, which has already caused the more prominent and apparently important grounds to be occupied, will ultimately force our naturalists into the remoter and less cultivated fields. The names of some * can- didates have indeed already appeared, as claiming possession of t]iese departments. And from the sample, limited as it has * I must here mention the names of Dr. Grant and Dr. Fleming, as having been conspicuous in former years in these departments. Much is expected from them. I wish I could add our friend Mr. Stokes to the number of those who are likely to have leisure to elucidate the present groups. No naturalist could do more ample justice to the subject, 8 2 2^0 Address delivered at the sixth and last been, of their zeal and ability, we have cause to anticipate a successful result. Having now taken a rapid retrospective view of the contri- butions made to zoology, during the year of my presidency, I beg to refer, in an equally rapid sketch, to the general pro- gress of the science since the first institution of our club. In this progress it is our boast to assert that we have held, di- rectly or indirectly, an adequate share. I shall not here revert in detail to the various publications in which we have cooper- ated during that period, and which have already been laid before you from this chair, at your preceding anniversaries. But I cannot avoid pointing out, with some degree, 1 trust, of well founded exultation, the immediate influence we have exerted in the labours of our parent Society. Since the sepa- ration, or rather, I should say, the branching off, of that learned body from the Royal Society, a step which the principle of the division of labour in so wide a field as that of science ren- dered expedient and necessary, the Linnean Transactions have continued to be the repository of the natural science of this country. Now, if we look to the zoological papers published in those Transactions during the last few years, we shall recognise them as emanating, with one or two exceptions, immediately from ourselves. Nor is the number of such zoological contributions disproportioned to that which it might reasonably be expected to be, in comparison with those supplied from the two other kingdoms of nature. On the contrary, we have reason to rejoice in the comparison. The papers in the last number of the Linnean Transactions are exclusively zoological. To the pages also of the Zoolo- gical Journal, a periodical work, established as subsidiary to the Transactions, for the purpose of bringing out such papers as did not bear the high finish or importance adapted to the parent work, and such likewise as required a more speedy publication than the latter could promise, this club has been a zealous contributor. That work, in fact, has been supported exclusively by the members of this body, or by their friends who have written for it under their influence. It is not, however, to the number of the works contributed to zoology during the last few years, that I appeal as a test of the advance of the science, but to the general spirit in which they have been conceived and executed. The philosophic enquirer, who traces out the progressive march of this delight- ful branch of knowledge, will at once perceive that the days of compilers have gone by, and the days of original thinkers have risen in their place. He will see, that even in the first neces- sary steps of our science, in the recording of facts and the Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club. 221 registering of species, a strictness and a clearness of expression have taken place among naturalists which almost assumes the merit of originality. No materials are presumed to be genuine, no species allowed to pass current, which have not undergone the ordeal of accurate examination. Striking is the contrast here exhibited with the catalogues of earlier days, where spe- cies fabricated from the hearsay of travellers, from mutilated fragments of specimens, or from rude and unauthenticated representations, were handed down with " all their imperfec- tions on their heads " from one generation of compilers to another. Nor is it sufficient, in the present state of science, to look alone to the superficies of the object described. No character is neglected in the examination, internal or external. Comparative anatomy and physiology lend their aid to the true discrimination of species. And it is only by a strict observ- ation of every part of its structure, added to an acquaintance with its economy and geographical distribution, that a modern zoologist considers any species which he undertakes to de- scribe, as entitled to rank among the legitimate accessions to science. The same scientific accuracy which attends the description of the naturalist extends equally to the representations of the artist : and no stronger proof can be adduced of the advance- ment of our science, than the contrast exhibited between the illustrative plates of former days and those of the present. It is but justice to our Continental neighbours, to acknowledge that they first led the way to this improvement, and have ably maintained the perfection which they introduced. But those naturalists of our own country who have happily blended the character of the artist with that of the man of science, need not shrink from the comparison of their own labours with the proudest of the foreign productions. I cite, as proofs of my assertion, the plates of Mr. Selby, Sir William Jardine, and Mr. Audubon, in ornithology ; of Mr. Swainson, in various de- partments of animal life ; of the Messrs. Curtis, in entomology ; and the Messrs. Sowerby, in shells. So faithful, so truly repre- sentative of nature, are the products of their pencils, that the student may apply to them for scientific instruction with almost equal reliance as to the subjects from which they are copied. I have mentioned the names of professed natural- ists. But, even among the votaries of the art who have not made natural history their exclusive study, we find indivi- duals emulating the strictness of science. It is sufficient to mention the name of the Landseers, to convey to you the idea of all that is faithful as well as striking in the representation of nature. Bewick is recently lost to us, — Bewick, whose S3 • 222 Address delivered at the sixth and last original genius opened to the lovers of nature a new field of instruction and delight ; — but his spirit, his talent, and his fidelity of expression are preserved to the rising generation in the compositions of his friend and pupil, Mr. William Harvey. The beneficial results of this accurate mode of supplying us with the groundwork of our science do not terminate in the superior excellence of the description itself. The modern naturalist, finding a firm foundation for his speculations in the authenticity of the materials thus brought within his reach, and encouraged by the number of the subjects with which the increasing spirit of research has supplied him, is enabled to turn from the mechanical details of his art to the contempla- tion of its sublimer beauties. He has surmounted the first necessary steps of his ascent, — all the petty technicalities of nomenclature, — all the minute particulars that attend the determination of species ; — and standing on the high vantage- ground of true philosophy, he can now give way to the investi- gation of general truths. It is not the mere characters of the isolated individual that he searches out, but the relation which it bears to every other, and the part which it sustains, singly, or in combination with all, in the great scheme of the crea- tion. Under the guidance of such enlarged views, the mind is led forward to conclusions of the highest import, attaining, by degrees, an occasional glance of the system of Nature her- self. Whatever may be the process by which her laws are sought out, whatever the artificial mode by which the know- ledge of observed facts is communicated, they all unite in iaiming at the discovery and elucidation of that true and only system. The comprehensiveness of the views, which thus forms the distinguishing feature of our present school of zoology, has not passed without reproach ; and many sneers, it must be confessed, have been cast, more particularly by some of the minor critics of the French schools, upon our British theo- rists. These cavillers have forgotten that they have themselves had to boast of a BufFon and a Cuvier ; and that the philoso- phising spirit of enquiry of which I speak, although followed up in this countiy with a zeal far exceeding their own, to their credit be it spoken, originated with themselves. But we do not shrink from the imputation. We rather appropriate to ourselves the title of theorists with gladness. I know, in fact, no undertaking of excellence, that has not owed its existence to some great and preconceived theory. It was the glimpse of some great truth, that first tempted the enthusiast into the thorny paths of enquiry, that supported his zeal and enlight- Anniversary Meeting of the Zoological Club, 223 ened his progress through the difficulties of his way, and finally rewarded his hopes and his labours by the radiance which it shed around them. Such theories, it is true, have not always had an equally stable foundation, nor have been pursued with equal success ; but they have ever led, even in error, to splendid results. These "lights" may " lead astray," — but they are " lights from Heaven." In the pursuance of such enlarged speculations, the modern zoologist has met a powerful ally in the sister science of geo- logy. Where his own succession of affinities appears inter- rupted, and a chasm occurs in the otherwise complete series by which the recent animals that come immediately within his province are united into one body, apparently organised upon one great and comprehensive plan, the geologist brings in the remains of a former world to supply the deficiencies of the present. The accessions accruing from this source to our science, within the last few years, present a theme of exhaust- less interest and extent. I could expatiate upon it with delight; and with still greater personal gratification could I dwell upon the ardour, the ability, and the disinterested services by which bur friends of the Geological Society have laboured in this great vocation. But my time is nearly exhausted : I could do little justice to the ample subject in the short space that remains ; and I must waive the claims of science and friendship, to conclude the immediate business of the day. Another striking feature in modern zoology is one to which I have already had occasion to allude : the publication of popular treatises on the subject. The extent to which some of the more valuable of these productions have been lately circulated, — I shall instance more particularly the Mena- geries and the volumes on hisect Aixhitecture^ published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, — not only proves the popularity of the science, but points out one of the powerful causes that con- tribute to the cultivation of it. When I mention to you that copies of these publications have been disseminated by tens of thousands, you may calculate not merely how many readers participate in the delights of the study, but how many of them may be induced from the perusal to become observers of nature, if not active cooperators in the science. We may almost, in fact, compare the effects of this copious dissemina- tion of cheap and popular information, to those produced by the invention of the art of printing itself. It was of little avail to the great proportion of mankind that the art existed, if its beneficial effects were to extend only to the opulent and the learned. The fount of knowledge is now open to aU : 224 . Address delivered at the sixth and last and that it will not be poisoned by rank or unprofitable infusions, we have an assurance in the cordial superintendence of those individuals who are most interested in preserving its purity. It is one of the most auspicious signs of the times in which we live, that men of science, without neglecting those more recondite and technical performances in which it is necessary to concentrate their knowledge, unite in arraying it in that attractive exterior which recommends it to the good offices of every man. The impulse imparted to the propagation of our science throughout this country, from these and similar causes, has been already pointed out to you from this chair. You have heard that in almost every town of any note in the united kingdoms, societies have been established, in which the study of zoology forms a prominent object. I may add, that even in these Institutions which have hitherto been most backward in acknowledging the natural sciences as a part of their system of education, a door is now opened to the admission of them. Cambridge has led the way. Her Literary and Philo- sophical Society has formed the nucleus of a museum, that promises most auspiciously to zoology. In Oxford the same success has attended our cause ; and the spirit of Ashmole and Tradescant has revived in those brother naturalists, who, united in taste and liberality as in blood, have claimed for the name of Duncan the gratitude, not merely of their own Alma Mater, but of the world of science at large. While it has been reserved for this age and this metropolis to wipe away the opprobrium so long attached to England, that she possessed no chair of zoology. And to the liberal and highly gifted managers of the London University it is to be attributed, that a professorship in that science has been instituted, and ably filled, during the past year. Nor has the impulse been limited to the parent country ; but seems to have pervaded to the remotest of her settlements. I have to record, among the events of the past year, the esta- blishment of a scientific association among the British resi- dents at Canton, for the purpose of investigating all that is of scientific value in that quarter of the globe. In Demerara, and the neighbouring dependencies of British Guiana, a similar institution has been formed, with similar objects, under the patronage of the present enlightened governor. Sir Benjamin d' Urban. The same spirit is diffusing itself in many of the West India Islands^ And in Quebec a society has been lately embodied, the beneficial effects of which have already appeared in the publication of a volume of Transac- tions. • Some of the papers in that work, devoted to natural Anniversary Meeting of the %oological Club, 225 science, will not suffer by a comparison with the best of the productions of the old world. One more topic of congratulation remains to be noticed. I referred to it when I began to address you ; and I return to it with heartfelt interest in my closing words. I allude to the establishment of the Zoological Society. On the eve of the dissolution of this club, it is a theme not merely of conso- lation but of triumph, that we have been the embryo of that higher body which has now sprung into the perfect form. The individuals who are now about to separate will carry in their recollection, to their latest day, the share which they have had in this great consummation. The occurrences of those evenings will ever be vivid in their memory, when, in con- junction with the illustrious founder and first president of that Society, they suggested the auspiciousness of the times for such an undertaking, and the probability, I should say, the certainty, of success. With what delight have we dwelt upon the words of that great man, when, with an intelligence that in a less enlightened age might have passed for a spirit of prophecy, he portrayed, even to the minutest details, the plans and the hopes which we have since seen realised. Time presses, and already I have engrossed too much of your atten- tion, or I should indulge myself in dwelling upon the qualifi- cations that pointed out Sir Stamford Raffles, as the individual most fitted to organise and preside over such a national un- dertaking. I should speak of that comprehensiveness of mind which embraced, as if by intuition, the entire of every subject to which it applied itself, — that promptness of spirit, which executed as soon as it conceived, — that total prostration of all selfish feelings, which acknowledged no interests but those of the great cause he espoused. Transcendent as were his other qualities, this last, perhaps, is that to which we may refer with the deepest satisfaction. Beautiful, indeed, it is to contemplate the enthusiasm with which he devoted himself to the cause, — while more cautious calculators were coldly watching the tide of events, prepared to retreat in misfortune, but ready in case of success to " swell the triumph and par- take the gale," — that entire devotedness, I^^repeat, with which, listening not to such timid suggestions, but making " one great offering " of his time, his talents, and his energetic ex- ertions, he laid them, with all-confiding homage, before the shrine of the science he worshipped. Nor was the confidence misplaced, or the sacrifice abortive. He is gone, — but his spirit and energy survived ; and the results appear in the great work before you. On these I need not dwell : you have yourselves witnessed the gradual pro- S26 Notice of the late Mr. George Caley, gress of the undertaking ; and its eulogy would proceed with better grace from any other individual than myself, whose pride it is to have been so confidentially associated in the task. I shall merely mention how nobly the exertions of the managers of the institution have been seconded by the feelings of the country. In the short space of three years, six- teen hundred individuals have united themselves to the Society. Within the same period, a magnificent preserved collection in every branch of zoology has been formed by the liberality of its supporters ; while upwards of three hundred and fifty Species of animals, including examples of almost every larger group in zoology, have been exhibited in a living state in our gardens and museum, for the greater portion of which the Society is indebted to the same liberality. When I add, that, during the same period, some hundreds of thousands of indi- viduals have visited the repositories where these animals have been preserved in all the vigour of life, and in the display, as far as possible, of their native dispositions and economy, you may judge how much has been efiected, not merely for the recreation of so many individuals, but for the direction of their minds to the cultivation of the great truths of our science. • I now, gentlemen, take my leave. I commenced my address to you with feelings of regret ; I conclude it with sentiments of triumph. The recapitulation, which it has been my duty to lay before you, of the events connected with our science during the last few years, have served to effect this change of feeling; for it has confirmed me in the conviction that we have not lived in vain. Our part has been amply performed, and we may now retire with honour from the scene. We have merged into a higher body, which bears with it our feel- ings, our principles, and our predilections. Above all, our friendship will, I trust, ever continue equally active — the delight and the pride of our future intercourse, as it has been of our past, — although the body in which it was first cemented is now dissolved. Art. II. Further Notice of the late Mr, George Caley. By William Withering, Esq. L.L.D. F.L.S. Sir, Though the interesting article in your Obituary (Vol. II. p. 310.), respecting Mr. George Caley, was obviously contri- buted by a writer well acquainted with the sterling integrity and extraordinary zeal of that almost self-taught naturalist, I Notice of the late Mr, George Caley^ 82^ jsome few additional well authenticated facts may not, perhaps, prove unacceptable, especially as they tend to elucidate cer- tain circumstances affecting his earlier career, which have been suffered to remain in obscurity. That this communica- tion was not made immediately consecutive to the original memoir may be regretted ; but the delay was occasioned by your correspondent's time and attention having been exclu- sively engrossed by the completion of the recently published new edition of an elaborate iDotanical work. The late Dr. Withering, whose protracted suffering from ill health was so remarkably alleviated by botanical researches *, was never more agreeably engaged than in fostering rising genius ; and especially in promoting the views of the tyro diligently seeking after scientific knowledge, to whom he was ever accessible, either by correspondence or personal appli- cation. Among very many who thus benefited by his advice and instructions was Mr. George Caley ; who, impelled by an ardour sufficient to overcome obstacles and discouragements from which a mind of ordinary temperament would have re- coiled, at length resolved to state the peculiarity of his situ- ation to the author of the Arrangement of British Plants^ who soon became so warmly interested in the welfare of this ge- nuine child of nature as to continue a correspondence with him during several years, and eventually to assist in advancing his favourite project of exploring the most remote regions of the earth. Singularly unpropitious as it may appear, Caley was no other than the son of a horse-dealer in the north of England, and early initiated into the stables for regular training to his father's business. In the eighth year of his age, he had, however, been placed at the free grammar school in Manchester, in what was termed the lower Bible class ; and, in the course of about four years, was advanced to the Latin Testament. The learned languages being, in his father's opinion, little better than useless acquisitions to the embryo jockey, he was, for a short time, withdrawn from such studies ; but quickly reentered the same venerable establishment, in the hope of obtaining some knowledge of arithmetic. Brief, however, was the term of his reprieve ; for, in his twelfth year, we find him altogether condemned to the drudgery of the stable. At this critical period occurred one of those singular coin- cidences which, though apparently fortuitous, often materially * Vide Memoirs and Tracts of William Withering, M.D. F.R.S., 2 vols. 8vo. Longman. 228 Notice of the late Mr, George Caleij, affect the future destiny. But the then irksome predicament, and the determined spirit with which Caley pursued his fa- vourite object, will be best described in his own artless narra- tive, as addressed to his newly acquired friend : — " Dealers in horses," observes Caley, " have an opportunity of seeing the natural and accidental deformities that these ani- mals are subject to ; and their horses, through high keep and little exercise, are liable to many diseases, for which there is often call for the farrier. As every blacksmith pretended to be a farrier, I, having a good opportunity of hearing them discourse, saw that they did not understand the structure of a horse, and might as well style themselves physicians and sur- geons. There happened to be in the house an odd volume of Gibson's Farrieiy, in which were some anatomical figures, and receipts for the curing of diseases. This old book stimu- lated me to search into the errors of farriers, or, at least, had liked to have done so. In his prescriptions were a number of herbs : I began to search after them ; but had no sooner done that than I wanted to know more about plants. In the course of time, I got some petty herbals ; but these not satisfying my mind, only tended to perplex me, or rather excited me the more. At length I got Johnson's Gerard, thinking, then, I should go on boldly ; but, alas ! I was overwhelmed again. Then I heard of your Botanical Arrangement. It was not long before I got a copy of the second edition : I was now at a greater loss than ever, for I really could not tell what to make of them. However, I concluded that it would be non- sense to let the books lie idle. Winter was then approaching, and no plants to be seen : I resolved to learn the Introduction, and soon gained a tolerable idea of it. I then wished for to see some flowers ; but still a dreary winter was before me. I was obliged to put up with the inconvenience, so that Ilearned the Introduction over and over before the spring. When the plants began to flower, I began to try my strength in the science ; but knowing a good many plants before, I used to cover the names, in order that I might not favour one charac- ter more than another. Sometimes I was right, sometimes wrong ; but, by this method, I gained a good knowledge of investigation. By this, and the practice during winter, I have thought oftentimes to equal those who have been under the tuition of botanical lecturers. Now I began to find out bota- nical companions (for, before, I had laboured by myself) ; but thiey, following some manufacturing branch, my employment would not permit me to spend the time that they did. Here- upon I determined / nsoould, learn to "weave. I had no sooner gained a fair idea of that business than there was a stagnation I Notice of the late Mr, George Caletj, 229 in trade : then I returned to the stable again. There being many foreign plants to be found in gardens, which I knew nothing of, caused me to purchase the Genera Plantdrum and Systema Vegetahiliimi, Then I was at a loss about the Latin terms, for I had forgot most of what I had learned at school ; but they being technical, and chiefly nouns, I soon recovered that loss. Now, the idea of visiting foreign parts began to enter my mind : I thought of going to sea ; but not having had a nautical education, and could not confine my mind to it, I considered it would be rashness. It was not long before it entered my head to write to Sir Joseph Banks. At length he sent me an answer : the result was, that he knew of no other method than to be employed in a good botanic garden ; and, if I made a proper progress, he would give me farther assist- ance. I did not much like the thoughts of working in a garden, for that would be out of my element ; and being tied to regular hours was not like working piece-work, knowing what I had to do, and then giving over. However, I stood it as well as might be expected, till I went to Kew ; which place, I do sincerely acknowledge, I could not weather : not through the hardship of work, but from being debarred of cultivating my mind according to its natural inclination. Having a little idea of manufacturing goods is of great utility to me, for it will cause me to pay attention to plants that are worthy of being applied to such purposes. Those persons who have been sent into foreign parts to collect plants, have not favoured agriculture, commerce, and the materia medica, so much as an inquisitive mind would expect ; for they are chiefly such as have worked in some botanic garden. " If I was to mention all the difficulties and fatigues that I laboured under in pursuing my natural inclination, I should never expect to be credited ; but I will drop this subject, for I am afraid I shall weary your patience. As to learning to draw, I assure you that I have not a good opportunity at the present; but, on shipboard, I intend to try at it. With regard to Latin, I may very easily improve in that ; for, at the present, I understand the declensions of nouns as well as I did when I went to school ; and pretty well of the conjuga- tion of verbs ; and also of the agreements of concords, parti- cularly that between the substantive and adjective ; or, to speak in short, in what the Getiera Plantdrum chiefly requires. I think it is not very difficult to learn to read the French, but difficult to pronounce. Whatever elementary books you would favour me with, I could wish to be directed to Strange- ways, near Manchester. I am, with the highest regard and esteem, your truly obedient and humble servant, ^' June 15, 1798. George Caley." 230 Notice of the late Mr, George Caley^ With hearty goodwill did the present writer surrender his elementary works, both in the Latin and French languages, for the benefit of the youthful adventurer, and they were quickly forwarded according to his instructions. But, alas ! the ardent imagination of our aspirant had well- nigh outstripped all reasonable expectation ; and a series of remonstrances with the President of the Royal Society, some- what injudiciously, not to say intemperately, urged, for a sea- son blasted his high-flown hopes. He, whose delight was " To wander as free as the wind on the mountains," could ill brook, even for a limited period, the confinement of stated hours, or the restraint of garden walls. After having vainly endeavoured to convince Sir Joseph that he needed no such initiatory course, and that he was already qualified for the projected expedition, he withdrew in disgust, again to ruminate on his wayward fate amid the wilds of Lancashire. Now, that talent of every kind is likely to be forced and fostered, perhaps, as some may apprehend, to an extreme degree, let those whose warm temperaments glow with the laudable desire to excel, beware of yielding to that seductive self-sufficiency which is but too apt to resist the wiser counsels of experience, and thus, in innumerable instances, to make wreck of the brightest expectations. And such disappointment would, probably, have prema- turely terminated the career of Caley's usefulness, but that he was so fortunate as to have engaged the attention of a patron not less habituated to detect merit, even through a rough exterior, than to exercise thereon a characteristic generosity and benevolence. After an alienation, happily of no long continuance, Caley once more thought proper to address Sir Joseph, in terms which drew forth the reply here inserted, and which, I am confident, will be considered as a notable instance of amiable condescension, of honest and well timed rebuke : — " Soho Square^ July 16. 1798. " Mr. Caley, — Whoever told you that I said I was angry with you has been mistaken. I am sure I never said so, be- cause I never felt myself angry with you. " I told you, when I first wrote to you, that unless you would gain your livelihood as a gardener, while you made yourself acquainted with the plants cultivated in the gardens here, I did not mean to get employment for you as a botanical traveller. By so doing, I put you in the same situation as Alton, Lee, Dickson, and Mason were in, when they were of Notice of the late Mr, George Caley, 231 your age ; all of whom, at that period, gained their liveHhood in the gardens without complaining. " No person has been appointed to go to Botany Bay in your stead. The man who is going, by my recommendation, is the son of a market-gardener, and knows nothing of botany : he has no appointment or salary ; and means to settle there, with a wife, as a farmer and market-gardener. " How you can be useful to your employers as a botanical traveller, to send home seeds and plants from thence, till you have made yourself acquainted with those already in England, I do not know. We have now several hundreds of such : and to send them asjain would be idle and useless. You might discover some drug valuable in dyeing or medicine, for your own advantage ; but, unless you are able to benefit your em- ployers as well as yourself, how can you expect employment ? " You are certainly, however, eminently capable of search- ing the woods with diligence and advantage for dyeing drugs,, and other matters likely to be advantageous to manufacturers and trade : and that many such things remain unknown in the unexplored wilds of a country larger than all Europe, is a matter of infinite probability. If the gentlemen of Man- chester will make a subscription to maintain you in that em- ployment, on such terms as shall be agreed upon between you and them, I will readily become a subscriber, and use my best influence with Government to send you out at the public expense, in which I have no doubt of being successful. I, am. Sir, your very humble servant, — Jos. Banks." The humble individual on whom the Right Hon. Baronet had thus bestowed the best advice soon found his situation, even among his quondam associates, little less mortifying than when the fancied prisoner of a royal garden. The plan of sending him out by subscription met with no success : and even the indomitable spirit of Caley was compelled, in a degree, to succumb to the more ordinary course of events. Not less dark and drear than the season in which the good tidings arrived was the state of Caley's mind, when, in the midst of doubts and perplexities, towards the end of Novem- ber, 1798, his true friend. Sir Joseph, hastily summoned him to London, in expectation of immediately despatching him to the terra incognita he had so ardently longed to explore. During this expedition, it was agreed that he should have a sufficient maintenance ; that his primary duties were to be the collecting of specimens of plants for his worthy patron, and seeds for the garden at Kew, with the use of duplicates for his own advantage. Caley was quickly on his passage over the trackless ocean : 692 Habits of the Chameleon. and rarely has the tedium of a protracted voyage been more effectually or advantageously dispelled than by the varied studies which he, during the whole progress, unweariedly pursued. • We have seen the lone wanderer irresistibly impelled, by the contemplation of Nature in her grandest yet most savage form, to penetrate the parched deserts of Africa ; and, in search of all- captivating novelty, discarding the primary in- stinct of the mind, to approach even the ruthless tiger's lair, as though unconscious of danger : but our Caley was destined to less hazardous shores ; it was his fate to be wafted to more temperate climes ; and, while exploring the flowery prairies surrounding Botany Bay, instead of encountering the Mauri- tanian lion, he felt no fear but that of scaring away the timid kangaroo. Thus did this extraordinary man attain the summit of his ambition : yet what could have been more adverse than such a birth, than such a parentage, and, we might almost add, than such an education ! But true genius, if accompanied with discretion, surmounts all impediments. How satisfactorily Mr. Caley justified the confidence placed in him is well known. Indeed, it appears by his letters from Paramatta, Sydney, and other stations in the colony of New South Wales, that, as the illimitable field of Nature expanded before his enraptured gaze, proportionally did his powers of observation become enlarged. No branch of natural history seems to have been neglected : and the extensive collection of quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, in 1818 purchased by the Linnean Society, and still constituting the most splendid por- tion of that museum, will remain a lasting monument of his successful efforts. But having already, in some degree, fulfilled the intention proposed, and being reluctant further to trespass on your valuable pages, I conclude by subscribing myself. Sir, yours, very respectfully, William Withering. Wick House, Feb. 10. 1830. Art. III. On the Habits of the Chameleon. By Henry Slight, Esq. M.R.C.S., Honorary Librarian to the Portsmouth Philo- sophical Institution. Sir, In your last Number (p. 188.), your ingenious correspond- ent J. H. Davies gives a short description of the chameleon. Now, the animal thus spoken of was sent with a smaller one J ffahiis of the ChameUoit, 2'3'5 ii'om Malaga, as a present to me, by Colonel Craig : they arrived by the Duke of York steam-packet, on the return of the staff of the troops from Portugal, and were kept in my drawingroom for months. The larger one was of a lightish sap-green colour ; the smaller one, much darker. They were kept on a wicker basket in the bow-window, not confined ; and slept many hours in the day, lying on a projecting ridge of the wickerwork. During the sunshine, the animals rendered themselves flat, with a view to expose themselves as much as possible to the influence of the warmth ; and they were at these times often of a greenish stone colour, and pale. If, however, disturbed, they contracted the abdomen, expanding the ribs, and often became instantaneously of a dark green or even indigo green colour. Sometimes only one side changed colour. The larger one was apparently vigorous, and in health : when awake, its eye (of a dark colour, and very lus- trous) was constantly directed in every possible direction, the motions being by a kind of jerk, and very rapid, as if in search of food ; of which, however, it partook sparingly. I was accustomed to put the common cockroach, in number about six or seven, in a shallow tin vessel, and to place the chame- leon on the edge, its head projecting over the brim, to which its forceps were generally so firmly attached that it was often difficult to remove them. After making a circuit round some portion of the circle, the animal would distend the pouch be- neath the jaws, expanding them two or three times in a trifling degree ; and, stretching forward its body on the fore legs, it would suddenly dart out its tongue with such force as to make a very sensible ring or noise on the opposite side of the tin ; would catch the beetle or roach on the trumpet-shaped extre- mity of the tongue, which was retracted as quick as lightning, and mastication and deglutition followed. In this manner it would take three or four of the insects from the vessel ; but I could never induce it to take them from my hand, nor would it eat them when the mouth was opened, and the roach intro- duced with the fingers : a mode I was obliged to have recourse to with a view to feed the smaller one, which appeared lan- guid, and died about two months after its arrival. It would, however, swallow the large flesh fly, if introduced into its mouth, although there was some difficulty in evening the jaws contrary to the will of the animal. They slept generally oh the top of the basket, the heads projecting over the edge, and the tails curled round one of the small divisions of wicker- work ; and it was curious to observe the firm attachment they had by this means. On going into the room with a candle, the creatures always appeared of a pale ashy stone^ colour, o; Vol, in. — No. 13. r ». ^ai. iO iijo J 2a4? Trait m the Habits of the Weasel, a spectral blue, precisely similar in hue to the colour pro- duced on the hand when held before a blue glass, as seen in the windows of chemists. Their motions were exceedingly slow, and they always firmly attached one leg to whatever substance they could reach, before they let go with the other. The creatures did not feed more than once in three or four days ; and they would never catch any of the beetles with a hard covering, many species of which I collected in my walks, and exposed to them in the tin vessel. Several times I lost them, and was afraid to step about the room, lest, from their variety of colour, I should tread on them ; but I generally found them in the folds of the curtains, always on the blue lining, and not on the chintz pattern. During the long time I kept them, they had alvine secretions, of a pale yellow colour, and in rounded conjoined lumps, not more than four times. I have often seen one side of the creatures, more especially the larger one, nearly stone colour, and the other a black green ; and the changes of hue were always very rapid, and accompanied with either elevation or depression of the ribs. The skin of the creatures I should resemble to an infinite num- ber of facets of a certain determinate figure ; and I think the changes of colour depended on the power of the animals to elevate, alter, and depress the faces or angles of these facets (I am not much of a philosopher, and 1 scarcely know if I have rendered myself intelligible in this last sentence), and the consequent difference of angle at which the light was received. At the request of Lieut. Davies I gave them to him, with a view to his continuing observations on their habits and eco- nomy; and, therefore, it is probable that that gentleman, in whose possession they were for several weeks, will favour you with his remarks. Soon after Lieut. Davies's departure for Ireland, the ani- mals died from the effect of cold, and are now in the museum .of the Institution here. I am, Sir, &c. IIO* High Street, Portsmouth, Henry Slight. March 18. 1830. Art. IV. Trait in the Habits of the Weasel, with Notes on the Water Shrew and the Thrush, By W. L., Selkirkshire. ; Sir, The following story is told in Selkirkshire : — "A group of haymakers, while busy at their work on Chapelhope mea- dow, at the upper end of St. Mary's Loch (or rather of the Loch of the Lowes, which is separated from it by a narrow mth Nof^s on the Water Shrew and Thrush, 235 neck of land), saw an eagle rising above the steep mountains that enclose the narrow valley. The eagle himself was, in- deed, no unusual sight ; but there is something so imposing and majestic in the flight of this noble bird, while he soars upwards in spiral circles, that it fascinates the attention of most people.* But the spectators were soon aware of some- thing peculiar in the flight of the bird they were observing. He used his wings violently; and the strokes were often re- peated, as if he had been alarmed and hurried by unusual agitation ; and they noticed, at the same time, that he wheeled in circles that seemed constantly decreasing, while his ascent was proportionally rapid. The now idle haymakers drew together in close consultation on the singular case, and conti- nued to keep their eyes on the seemingly distressed eagle, until he was nearly out of sight, rising still higher and higher into the air. In a short while, however, they were all con- vinced that he was again seeking the earth, evidently not as he ascended, in spiral curves ; it was like something falling, and with great rapidity. But, as he approached the ground, they clearly saw he was tumbling in his fall like a shot bird ; the convulsive fluttering of his powerful wings stopping the descent but very little, until he fell at a small distance from the men and boys of the party, who had naturally run for- ward, highly excited by the strange occurrence. A large black- tailed weasel or stoat ran from the body as they came near, turned with the usual nonchalance and impudence of the tribe, stood up upon its hind legs, crossed its fore paws over its nose, and surveyed its enemies a moment or two (as they often do when no dog is near), and bounded into a saugh bush. The king of the air was dead ; and, what was more surprising, he was covered with his own blood; and, upon further examination, they found his throat cut, and the stoat has been suspected as the regicide unto this day." This singular story I always looked upon as too good to be true, until lately a friend mentioned the following fact that came under his own observation : — A light snow covered the ground ; and he, having walked out to an adjoining hill to meet with one of his shepherds, fell in with the track of one of these weasels, which is easily to be distinguished from that of the smaller species, by the larger footprint and length of the spring, among the snow. He followed the track for some time, for his amusement, along the side of the hill, until he came to the marks where a pair of grouse had been sitting, • In general, the motion of his wings is hardly perceptible : an impetus is given, but the stroke is far between, and he seems impelled by some invi- sible power. . ^ R 2 236 Note on the Water Shrew. when he lost all traces of the weasel, and could follow it n6 farther. As there was no appearance of a hole, he was much surprised ; and paying close attention to the track of the ani- mal, he came to be convinced that it had sprung upon one of the birds, which had flown away with it. As he is a person of uncommonly acute observation, sound judgment, and strong sense, I have the utmost confidence in the correctness of his judgment regarding this curious circumstance. The conclu- sion is, that the stoat knew quite well what it was about, and would keep its hold until it came to the ground again, under similar circumstances with the eagle. The matchless agility and comparative strength of this bold little creature would enable it to save itself during the fall ; before which took place, it had probably, as in the former strange instance, destroyed the life of its more harmless prey. The Water Shrew. — In Vol. II. p. 2 1 9., Mr. Dovaston gives a very delightful and fascinating account of his discovering somewhat of the manners and habits of the water-shrew (»S6- rex fodiens), and seems to think that this elegant little animal had become nearly extinct in the island : rare it assuredly is. My eyes have been searching after such sorts of objects, in a cursory way, for these thirty years and more, and I only have seen two of them. The first time was about six years ago : I noticed it swimming across a clear rill that descends from high ground near Abbotsford. A gentleman present knew the creature by the English name : and after much tender care about its capture, and examining it as minutely as its impa- tience and our fear of hurting it would permit, we set it at liberty. It was, as nearly as I could judge, one third larger than the common shrew, of the colour of the mole, or fully as near black, if my recollection is correct. In fact, I thought, when I first saw it, that it was some rare and undescribed species of mole. The belly was singularly flat, and only re- moved from a pure white by a touch of silver grey. The small stream where it was swimming runs through a deep chasm covered with old oaks and brushwood, and runs gene- rally on a rocky bottom. The other I saw early last spring : it was dead ; newly killed by a cat, as I thought (which kills, but does not eat, the common shrew). The head of this was destroyed. I found it in a pond surrounded by a young wood, at Whitehope on Barrow. I could only compare the two from recollection ; but I think the last, whose habitat was very dissimilar, was considerably less : the colour had more of a shade of brown. Some time afterwards my daughters found another, likewise dead. I was then from home ; and so had, at neither" time, the luck to procure a specimen ; the Habits of the Thrush. -2^7 more to be regretted, as I can hardly conceive any person having the firmness to kill one of these rare and beautiful little creatures on purpose. Habits of the Thrush (Turdus musictts). — In the course of last August, travelling on the coach to Edinburgh, I met, as a fellow-passenger, a very sensible man, whom I discovered to be a master millwright from Fife. After much desultory con- versation, we came to remark the great increase of thrushes and blackbirds all over the country, and their cruel depreda- tions on gardens. Having noticed the singular tameness o. the thrush, particularly in the odd places it sometimes chooses for constructing its nest, my companion asked if I had ever observed any of them make their nest within a house ; and added that he once saw such an instance, and came to be greatly interested by it. He had been making a threshing- machine for a farmer in the neighbourhood of Pitlessie, in Fife, and had three of his men along with him. They wrought in a cart-shed, which they had used for some time as their workshop ; and one morning they observed a mavis enter the wide door of the shed, over their heads, and fly out again after a short while ; and this she did two or three times, until their curiosity was excited to watch the motions of the birds more narrowly ; for they began to suspect that the male and female were both implicated in this ish and entry. Upon the joists of the shed were placed, along with some timber for agricul- tural purposes and old implements, two small harrows used for grass seeds, laid one above the other; and they were soon aware that their new companions were employed, with all the diligence of their kind, in making their nest in this singular situation. They had built it, he said, between one of the bulls of the harrow and the adjoining tooth ; and by that time, about seven o'clock, and an hour after he and his lads had com- menced their work, the birds had made such progress, that they must have begun by the screich of day. Of course, he did not fail to remark the future proceedings of his new friends. Their activity was incessant ; and he noticed that they began to carry mortar (he said), which he and his companions well knew was for plastering the inside. Late in the same after-? noon, and at six o'clock next morning, when the lads and he entered the shed, the first thing they did was to look at the mavis's nest, which they were surprised to find occupied by one of the birds, while the other plied its unwearied toil. At last the sitting bird, or hen as they now called her, left the nest likewise ; and he ordered one of the 'prentices to climb the baulks^ who called out that she had laid an egg] and this she had been compelled to do some time before the nest was finished ; R 3 238 Habits of the Thrush, only plastering the bottom, which could not have been done sd well afterwards. When all was finished, the cock took his share in the hatching; but he did not sit so long as the hen, and he often fed her while she was upon the nest. In thirteen days the young birds were out of the shells, which the old ones always carried off. At first they could not be quite certain what food was brought for the young ; but this, in time, be- came an object of peculiar interest, and he and his companions noticed that the birds brought " a grit hantle o' stripit buck- les " * (Helix nemoralis, hortensis, and arbustorum) ; that she did not try to pick the snails from the buckles, but lifted each above her head, gave it a sharp lick on a tooth of the harrow, and broke it all to pieces, and then caught the snail : she never let one fall, f She never brought any common snails (without shells), and not many worms. Sometimes she brought butterflies ; and she brought a hantle d muffies (large moths). She generally carried away the dung of the young birds. As the young grew, and demanded greater supplies, the entrance and retreat of the parents through the door of the shed was often so rapid that it could not be seen, but was only known from the swooff] or sound, as they darted over the heads of the men. One Monday morning, when the millwrights came to work at the usual hour, and expected the daily pleasure of seeing the mavises alert and busy, the nest was gone. A boy, prowling about on the Sunday, had found the little " family of love." " The parents," my friend said, " mourned about for twa days : maistly the hen." He himself, he said, could not well settle to his work for an hour or twa, and was " neither to ha'd nor to bind, he was sae mad at the illdeedy laddie." I am, Sir, &c, Selkirkshire, Dec. 1829. W. L. * I could, with some trouble, have given this curious relation still more interest by using the graphic and naive terms and language of the eye-wit- ness; but being in the broadest jpa^z* of the " kingdom of Fife " (which, by the by, he did not much use in ordinary discourse, or talking of the details of his business), it would not have been generally understood by your readers. f In the Edinburgh Journal of Natural and Geographical Science, No. i. p. 66., it is mentioned that Mr. M'Gillavray had, in one of the Western Islands, observed a thrush (Turdus musicus) breaking whelks (Turbo litto- reus) on the shore. Being once on the western shore of Harris, in the month of June, I was greatly surprised to hear the song of the thrush resounding on all sides from the heathy and rocky banks of the sea ; but I have always suspected it to be another species, darker and less. I Tood of the Bearded Titmouse, 23^ Art. V. Notice of a Discovery respecting the Food of the Beards Titmouse {Pdrus bidrmicus Lin.). By W. H. Dikes, Esq. Sir, Considering it to be incumbent on the cultivators of natural history to make public any observation which may tend to the correction of prevailing errors, I take the liberty of communicating, through the medium of your useful pub- lication a discovery, of a trivial nature indeed, but one which appears to have escaped the notice of ornithological writers. I allude to the food of the Bearded Titmouse (Parus biarmi- cus Lin.). This is stated, in all the descriptions which I have consulted, to be the seeds of aquatic plants. Having, how-* ever, lately had an opportunity of examining three specimens, I find that this account is erroneous ; the crop did not contain a single seed, but, on the contrary, was completely filled with the Succinea amphibia in a perfect state, the shell being un- broken. These shells were singularly closely packed together, the crop of one, which was not larger than a hazel nut, con- taining twenty, and some of them of a good size ; it contained also four of the Pupa muscorum. Of all these Mollusca the shell was quite uninjured ; which, when the fragile nature of that of the Succinea is considered, is somewhat extraordinary. The shell appears to be passed into the stomach in the same perfect state, as I discovered one which I presume had been recently swallowed, quite entire. They are not, however, voided in this state, for I found the stomach to be full of small fragments of shell, in a greater or less degree of decom- position. This work of destruction is accomplished by the action of the stomach, aided by the trituration of numerous sharp angular fragments of quartz, which had been instinct- ively swallowed, and by which the minute division of the shells is most completely effected. Wishing you much success in your useful undertaking, I remain. Sir, &c. Hull, Jan. 7. 1830. W. H. Dikes. Art.^VI. Notice of the Plumage of the Bearded Titmouse when a young Bird. By the Rev. J. Lakes. Sir, The interesting remarks on the Bearded Titmouse (Parus bidrmicus) in Vol. IL p. 222. induce me to mention, that, during a visit about three or four years since at Yarmouth in Norfolk, I had an opportunity of seeing the male, female, nest, and young bird in its first year's plumage, of the Bearded Tit- R 4 ^ - 24 Q Plumage of the Bearded Titmouse' "when young. mouse, which had been found and preserved by an excelleirt bird-stufFer in that town. Thinking the three birds very beautiful, I made an accurate coloured drawing of them of the size of life. The pretty sketch and pleasing account of this species, already alluded to, induced me to turn to my own drawing, and observing the remarkable difference in the plumage of the young and old bird, I thought it might be acceptable to your Magazine, and have therefore copied, as accurately as possible, the original. Never having seen this species in their live state, I am unable to give the character, but as far as regards colour, my drawing will, I believe, be found perfectly correct. I am. Sir, &c. J. Lakes. TAskeard Vicarage^ Cornwall^ Aug, 15. 1829. Description, taken from the drawing sent. {Jg. 41.) — In the young bird of the year the bill is orange yel- low ; the irides bright yellow ; from the beak to the eye a black streak, but no pendent tuft of loose black fea- thers, forming a beard, as in the adult male ; head, neck, breast, and under parts yellowish brown; chin somewhat lighter ; back black ; scapulars varied with brown, black, and white ; wing, prima- ries black edged with white, secondaries dark brown; wing coverts barred brown and black ; carpus and their coverts black, edged bastard wing white ; orange brown; outer centre tail-feathers and tail-feathers graduated. with white; legs and toes black. The nest of the Bearded Titmouse (Parus biarmicus) is thus described in the Zoological Jcmrnal, vol. iii. p. 85, 86. : — "It was placed near the ground, being sustained only an inch or two above the surface by the strength of the stems of the coarse grass upon which it was fixed : it was composed entirclv of dried bents, the finer ones I Stones found in the Stomachs of Pike. 241 forming the lining, and others increasing in substance made up the interior. The eggs were four in number, rather smaller than those of the Great Titmouse (Parus major) and less pointed, white, and sparingly marked with pale red irre- gular lines or scratches." JVw. 26. 1829. S. T. P. A RT. VII. Notice of Stones found iii the Stomachs of Pike, By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M. A. Sir, ' ■ I HAVE now in my possession, and herewith forward to you, a stone (fg. 42.) weighing 4f oz., taken out of the stomach of a pike, which was caught by a friend of mine, while trolling in the Earl of Craven's water at Coomb Abbey. The fish weighed about 3 J lbs., and being in good condition, did not appear to be incommoded by this internal in- cumbrance. The stone, I should observe, is not a concretion formed by acci- dent or disease, such as is sometimes found in the stomachs of cows, &c., but an ordinary pebble, of a somewhat flat rounded shape, and bearing the appearance of having been broken at some remote period on two of its sides. Since its fracture, however, the pebble has been well bouldered, so that it now presents no sharp projecting edges, nor any very considerable irregularity of surface. I recollect having formerly seen, at Packington Hall, the seat of the Earl of Aylesford, another pebble considerably larger (if my memory serves me) than the present one, which had also been found in the stomach of a pike caught near that residence. I have conversed on this subject with an in- telligent friend and a great fisherman, who assures me that several instances of the same kind have come under his own knowledge : one stone in particular, which he took himself out of the stomach of a pike, he kept as a curiosity for several years, and he describes it as having been full half as large as his fist or more. The fact, in short, of the existence of peb- 242 Pontia Charicleo. and Metra, bles in such situations is unquestionable, and from the above instances appears not to be of very unusual occurrence. There can be as little doubt that these pebbles have entered the stomach of the fish through the mouth. But the question is, how comes the pike to swallow such indigestible matter? It has been suggested to me in answer, that the fish, in seizing its prey, might along with it have accidentally picked up the stone from the bottom, and swallowed both together. But is not the pike too good a marksman to take up so large a sub- stance accidentally with his food ? and may not some more probable way of accounting for the fact be devised ? The voracity of the pike — the river shark, or tiger of the fresh- water, as he may be called — is almost proverbial. It is well known that this fish, when in the humour for taking its prey, will strike almost without discrimination at whatever object it sees moving in the water. It is not improbable, therefore, that the stones in question having been thrown into the water by some person passing by, may have been seized by the pike while in the act of sinking to the bottom, and at once gorged for more digestible food. Perhaps, however, you may be able to suggest some better solution of the problem. I am, Sir, &c. Allesley Uectory^ Jan, 5. 1830. W. T. Bree. Art. VIII. On Pontic Charicle^i and Meira, the large and small Cabbage Butterflies. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A. Sir, It has long since been remarked by collectors of insects, that most of the first specimens of Pontic brassicae (Vol. II. p. 226. fig. 55.) and rapse (Vol.11, p. 227. fig. 57.) (large and small cabbage or garden white butterflies), that make their appearance in the early spring, are much smaller in size, and have the black marks on their wings much fainter than in the specimens produced later in the season. In the case of P. rapae, more especially, the wings on the upper side sometimes present a perfectly immaculate surface. This variety of P. rapae has, we are told, long been known among collectors by the appellation of " Mr. Howard's White," and in Mr. Haworth's superb collection of Lepidoptera is ticketed " P. rapae var. prae'cox." That eminent entomologist, Mr. Stephens, was, however, I believe, the first to raise these varieties to the rank of species under the respective names of P. Chariclea and P. Metr«! ; and the principal points of difference by which they are to be distinguished from their too nearly allied congeners may be found detailed at large in his the large and small Cabbage Butterjlies. 243 interesting Blustrations of Entomology, now in the course of publication. It yet remains to be seen, however, whether, in the judgment of entomologists in general, these Early Whites (as they are termed) will eventually maintain their place as genuine and distinct species ; and it is under the hope that some accurate observer may be induced to institute experi- ments with a view to set the question at rest, that I call your attention to the subject. For myself, I may say that I have not been unobservant of these insects for some years past, but have more particularly attended to them during the spring and summer of the present year ; and, as far as my observations go, they lead me to the conclusion that P. Charicle« and Metr« are mere varieties respectively of P. brassicae and rapae. P. rapae is avowedly a very variable insect, and being too, as well as P. brassicae, a most abundant species, there is consequently the more scope — there are so many more chances—- for variation to take place in the individuals. It must be admitted, indeed, that when a small and perfectly immaculate specimen of P. Metra is compared with a full-sized and strongly marked one of P. rapae, the prima facie difference is so wide, that any one would at once pronounce them distinct. But then, on the other hand, we find that intermediate specimens occur, which, presenting every possible shade and gradation of difference, appear naturally to connect and identify the two extremes ; and it would be next to impossible to decide, in many instances, to which of the two these intermediate links should with most propriety be referred. The same observations apply also to the kindred species P. napi, the earliest spring speci- mens of which are smaller than those of the summer brood, paler in their markings above, and sometimes almost entirely destitute of them ; and this species too, like P. brassicae and rapae, is subject to endless variations. In the spring of the present year I took many specimens of the pale varieties of all three species (one of P. rapae so early as * March 18.), but I could not observe that any of the paler specimens of either kind occurred in the summer brood. In a note at the end of the volume, Mr. Stephens states his opinion, that P. Chariclea and P. Metra are neither of them double-brooded, as he once supposed ; and hence, perhaps, he would draw an additional argument in proof of their being distinct from P. brassicae and * This is the only instance I ever knew of any Papilio coming forth from the chrysalis so early in the spring ; for although Vanessa To, Polychloros, urticae, and C. album, and Gonepteryx rhamni are often to be seen on the wing earlier in the month, and some of them occasionally in February or even January, these vernal specimens, it must be remembered, are such as have been produced in the preceding autumn, and have secreted themselves dwing the winter in the whiged state. ^44: Pontisi Chariclea and Metra. tkpse. But does not this circumstance, on the contraryj tend rather to show that the insects in question are merely varieties of the two last-mentioned species ? For it certainly would be strange that two insects, which, to say the least of them, are so closely allied, in habit as well as in markings and appear- ance, to P. brassicae and rapae, as to be generally confounded with them, and which, moreover, appear so early as the end of March or the beginning of April, should be only single- brooded, while their near allies P. brassicae and rapae, which do not appear till later in the season, are known to produce two or more broods in the course of the summer. * No mate- rial diiference has yet been observed in the caterpillar or chry- salis of the early whites, to distinguish them from P. brassicae and rapae ; and the distinctions in the markings, &c., pointed out by Mr. Stephens in proof of their being genuine species, seem scarcely sufficient to outweigh what may be urged on the other side. It is to be hoped, however, that, ere long, Mr. Stephens will decide the question, as he proposes, by rearing the insects from the egg. It is with some reluctance that I have ventured an opinion in opposition to that of so acute an observer as my friend, the author of Illustrations of Entomology, Should these remarks meet his eye, 1 trust he will excuse their freedom, my only object being the elucida- tion of the truth. Let me remind him of the memorable words of a great father in natural history, on an occasion when he found himself under the painful necessity of dissent- ing from the doctrine of a revered friend, ufAi^olv ovtolv fUoiVy odian ink, so much used by artists. Amongst the Mollusca there is not one which gives any essential aid to the physician, in his work of ministering to our ailments. In the Natural History of Pliny, indeed, there is a catalogue of medicines furnished by these animals sufficiently extensive and varied, but their reputation has passed away. For if oyster shells and the bone of the cuttle-fish (»Sepia ofiicinalis) still hold a precarious place in some pharmacopceias, it is more from respect to ancient usage, than from a conviction of their utility. Nor is there any benefit to be got from swal- lowing slugs (Z/imax agrestis) boiled in milk, nor from sucking * This condensed history of the Purpura has been drawn up from the following works : — Aristotle Hist. Animal.^ lib. v. cap. 13.; Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. ix. ; Edinburgh Enci/clopcsdiay vol. viii. art. Dyeing ; Thomson's History of the Royal SocietVy p. 67. &c. ; Beckman's Hist, of Inventions ^ vols. i. and ii. ; Pennant's Brit. Zool., vol. iv. ; Montagu's Test. Brit. Suj)., p. 105 — 108. 120. &c. J Cook's VoyageSy vol. i. p. 18. 12mo. Benefits, 261 the juice of shelled snails, though they were, and perhaps are, remedies in use among the lower orders, owing their popu- larity to a vulgar creed, that whatever is digusting and nauseous must necessarily be fraught with healing virtues. But, if poor in medicines of real efficacy, molluscous ani- mals furnish several which are powerful through a super- stitious faith. In South America, the Pietros des los Oozes, which are worn fragments of shells, are believed to be endowed with a sort of intelligence in removing extraneous bodies from the eyes, and are in consequence looked upon as something very wonderful. * The druggists of Venice sell the testaceous operculum of a species of Turbo, the Umbilicus Veneris, as they call it, to cure the cramp, which it does miraculously, by being tied to the limb. In England the rustic maiden can read her fortune in the meanders of a snail : — " Last May-day fair I search'd to find a snail. That might my secret lover's name reveal. Upon a gooseberry bush a snail I found, For always snails near sweetest fruit abound. I seized the vermin, home I quickly sped, And on the hearth the milk-white embers spread. Slow crawl'd the snail ; and, if I right can spell. In the soft ashes mark'd a curious L. Oh ! may this wondrous omen lucky prove I For L is found in Lubberkin and Love." Gay. And, in my younger days, I remember the country school- boy, while strolling, with satchel on his back, from his hamlet to the neighbouring village, would stay to solicit, by doggerel rhymes, the black slug (Z/imax ater) to protrude its horns; and, having seized them according to the prescribed rules, would go on his way with a gayer heart and elevated hopes. Ay, and I have envied the better fortune of my fellow who could tell, by the sounding of his whelk, of storms at sea, and of the fluxes of the tide ! For, with Wordsworth, I have seen " A curious child, who dwelt upon a tract Of inland ground, applying to his ear The convolutions of a smooth-lipp'd shell ; To which, in silence hush'd, his very soul Listen' d intensely, and his countenance soon Brighten' d with joy ; for murmurings from within Were heard, — sonorous cadences whereby, To his belief, the monitor express'd Mysterious union with its native sea." These notices you may think trifling, and somewhat out of place ; but I have ever taken an interest in the superstitious * The same superstition is said to prevail in Guernsey. 262 Antediluviafi Zoology and Botany. practices of the vulgar, and in return for the pains I take to cater for your information, you must occasionally allow me to digress, and indulge my own peculiar humour. I am. Sir, &c. G. J. Art. XII. Illustrations of Antediluvian Zoology and Botany, By R. C. Taylor, Esq. F.G.S. {Continued from p. 78.) One of the principal objects of geology is to distinguish the different epochs which have succeeded each other during the formation of the globe. This is best effected by means of the organic remains contained within the strata. Mineralogical characters are found to vary so frequently, while zoological analogies are comparatively so constant in the same epochs or formations, that geologists feel assured of the superior value of these latter tests. " In those cases, where characters derived from the nature of the rocks are opposed to those which we derive from organic remains, I should give," M. Brongniart remarks, " the preponderance to the latter." * In tracing any of our best recognised English formations, we cannot but be struck with the applicability of this rea- soning. At the same time it would be too much to expect the complete identity, the perfect similarity, of these and other formations, at remote points, without occasional zoological as well as mineralogical deviations from that which we have been accustomed to consider the type. All formations possess local modifications. We might instance, as most familiar to us, the variations in the zoological characters of the London clay, at several points where sections are exposed. Thus at Har- wich, at Sheppy, at Bognor, Stubbington, and Barton, are deposits of Testacea, which may, so far as we know, be almost local. The plastic clay has equally local accumulations of shells. Nor is the circumstance at all remarkable ; for it is repeated in the beds of living shellfish, and marine exuviae, upon our present coasts ; and no one acquainted with the gregarious habits of this part of the creation would look for an equal distribution of their remains, either on our shores or in their fossil state. It is proposed to comprise within the limits of the present and a succeeding article, an outline of the principal depart- * Address to the Academy of Sciences On the Importance of Zoological Characters in Geology ^ by M. Brongniart. Antediluvirm Zoology a?icl Bota7iy, 26S ments of fossil natural history, which we shall endeavour to elucidate by original or well authenticated illustrations. VEGETABLE REMAINS. No complete treatise on geological botany has hitherto appeared in this country. Mr. Parkinson's first volume, it is true, is dedicated to the consideration of the vegetable king- dom. It contains descriptions and beautiful figures of many varieties of fossil wood, plants, flowers, seeds, and fruits, from various parts of Europe, and treats of the mineral and petrify- ing processes to which they have been subjected. But at the period this writer commenced his labours, no systematic classi- fication or nomenclature had been formed, nor was it known that this class of fossils was so numerous. The great source whence our geologists have hitherto drawn their knowledge of antediluvian plants, is the splendid work, the Flora dey- Vorwelt, of Count Sternberg. In England the coal formations are particularly rich in beautifully preserved plants. So far as they admit of com- parison, they approach those tribes of plants which now exist in warm climates, and luxuriate in moist situations. They consist chiefly of palms and arborescent ferns (Jig. 48.), succulent plants, cacti, euphorbiae, canes, reeds, and gramina. The trunks or stems thus discovered, belong principally to arun- dinaceous plants, approxi- mating to those now known, partly to the palmaceous or- der, and partly to anomalous forms, constituting a transition between these and the coni- ferous plants. From the few comparisons which have been hitherto insti- tuted between the plants of various distant coal fields, there is reason to conclude that they have a general resemblance in all parts of the world ; and, if so, it contributes to establish a fact, on which much speculation has been employed, of the original uniformity of climate at those remote points on the earth's surface. In the enumeration of coal vegetation, it will be perceived that it does not properly belong to hard or solid wood trees, but to plants possessing a succulent, fibrous, pithy, or hollow structure. The appearances presented by these vegetables Filicites. Ferns, from coal shale. South Wales. 264 Antediluvian Zoology and Botany. also confirm this opinion : for it is observed that those stems which have preserved any thing like their original perpendi- cularity are filled v^^ith the argillaceous, siliceous, or other matrix, in which they happen to be embedded, whilst those which are inclined appear considerably compressed, and those placed horizontally are wholly flattened. In the South Wales - coal basin some of '■^^^^^^^^^^""""'""^ the richest of iron masses ore occur, moulded into the forms of gigantic compressed stems of plants, and fluted reeds or canes, (^fig. 49.) Leaves and pericarps of various unknown plants, and impressions resem- bling confervae and gramina also occur in all the coal for- mations. M. A. Erongniart Part of a fluted stem from this district, one of the vascular cryptogamous plants of the coal ; resembles Calamites deco- rktus of Artis's Antediluvian Pfiytology, pi. 24., and also pi. 14. in the Histoire des Vegetaux Fossiles, par M. Adolphe Brongniart. (The tubercles at the extremities of the strise are not sufficiently marked in our figure.) has ascertained that the vascular crypto- gamous plants had a vast numerical pro- portion in our great coal fields ; " and, in fact, of 260 species discovered in this terrain or period, 220 belong to this class." Vegetables having some analogies to a few of the arundina- ceous and succulent plants of the coal measures are occa- sionally traced in subsequent formations, amongst which the calcareous slate of Stonesfield is particularly distinguishable. Ferns, flags, gigantic reeds, and euphorbiae occur in the lias, Whitby alum shale, and incumbent sandstone. Perhaps the most remarkable assemblage of plants of this tribe, after the coal measures, is found in the limestone slate and carstone of Tilgate Forest. Mr. Mantell enumerates impressions of succulent plants, approaching to the euphorbiae, arborescent ferns, or palms, and unknown vegetables in a carbonised state; and considers that they assimilate to the vegetation of hot climates. With the invaluable assistance of Mr. Brown, in comparing these plants with recent specimens in his col- lection, it has been found practicable to point out, in the fossil Flora of Tilgate Forest, some genera which imperfectly ap- proach such as are now in existence. Amongst these are the Antediluvian Zoology mid Botariy. 265 genera Zamia and Cycas, Dracae^na draco, Cactus, and Filicites. (M 50.) 50 Jointed and fluted stems of plants [reetls ?] abounding in-shale in the Hastings sandstone series. The fragments are introduced here chiefly because they do not appear in Mr. Mantell's Fossils of Tilgate Forest. Some singular vegetable productions, which occur silicified in the freestone of the Isle of Portland, and are locally termed petrified birdsnests, have recently been subjected to the ex- amination of Mr. Brown, Dr. Buckland, and Mr. Loddiges, who conceive them to be the bases of the stems of plants allied to Zamia and Cycas, and their structure is such as to suggest their forming a link between the coniferous plants and the Cycadese. (.7%". 51.) These also are proper to tropical climates. Cycadeoidea raicrophjrlla, silicified in the Portland oolite. Vol. HI. — No. 13. t Trans. Geol. Sac, vol. ii. pi 49. fig. 2. 266 Afitediluvian Zoology and Botany, Wood, properly so called, is more or less abundant in the higher secondary strata. In none are they of mere interest- ing character than in the Portland limestone, where enormous silicified trunks are frequently discovered. Woody stems of dicotyledonous trees appear in the lias. The tertiary beds contain trunks and branches of trees, which are perforated by the Teredo antenautae (Fistulana personata). In the London clay so extensively have their ravages prevailed, that it is rare to find any fossil wood free from them, and numerous instances are observed where the original mass has been almost entirely occupied by congeries of these animals. Fossil wood, perforated by the genus Pholas, has been discovered in the ferruginous or lower green sand. Leaves and fragments of arborescent plants occur in the calcareous laminated sandstones near Hastings, and also in Tilgate Forest. They form a species of coal, or Surturbrand, in the plastic clay beds at Alum Bay, at Newhaven, and Corfe Castle. Fruit and seed-vessels occur in the Yorkshire oolitic coal shales, and abundantly in the London clay at Sheppy ; but the number of species has been there greatly exaggerated, owing to the fancied resemblance which some of the pyritous con- cretions bear to organic forms. Those of undoubted vegetable and terrestrial origin are, however, extremely abundant, and appear to be closely allied to genera now existing in tropical regions. Seven hundred species are said to have been col- lected, by one individual, from the beach at the foot of Sheppy cliffs. On careful examination this number will be found exceedingly over-rated, and it may probably be reduced to about twenty species. (,fig. 52.) Seed-vessels from Sheppy of the natural size. Antediluvian %oology and Botany. 267 Accumulations of trees, called " subterranean forests," may be traced at intervals, along our eastern coasts. Some of them, apparently, are the remains of forests which clothed the surface of our soil prior to the last great geological epoch. Most of the trees of this class, although broken off, over- whelmed by tremendous violence, and often flattened by the pressure of diluvial and alluvial deposits, appear to occupy their original sites ; their stumps still remain rooted in the soil on which they evidently once flourished. These lignites have been much confounded with others of obvious postdilu- vian lacustrine origin. Mosses, confe7'vcE, and other equally delicate vegetable sub- stances, preserved in agate and chalcedony, have been ex- amined by Dr. Mac Culloch, who is inclined to refer their origin to a period nearly coeval with the earliest existence of organic matter. Naturalists have often failed in their endeavours to iden- tify the antediluvian plants with those now existing. They evi- dently flourished under a warm climate ; but botanists hesitate to pronounce upon the species, or even the genera. In one instance, lately, a fossil plant has been determined with unusual precision. Under the name Trichomanes rotundatus, Mr. Lindley has described a vegetable discovered within a nodule of argillaceous ironstone, which plant he does not hesitate to identify closely with one which is now only known recent in the deep forests of New Zealand. Those who take an interest in comparative botany expect, with much satisfaction. The Fossil Flora of Great Britain^ by Mr. Lindley and Dr. Hutton. ZOOPHYTES, which form the link between vegetables and shellfish, are little less obscure than the plants ; and we are again struck with the want of agreement between the organic productions of the ancient and of the present world. As far as the inves- tigation has been pursued, it would seem that the zoophytes of those remote and mysterious times were not less numerous and beautiful than those of our own days. Mr. Parkinson examined 176 fossil corals, and found nearly the whole differed from any that are now known. " In my attempt," says this able observer, " to preserve a parallel between the recent and the fossil species, I have been most completely foiled. Indeed, so little could this parallel be preserved, that I am under the necessity of acknowledging I am not certain of the existence of the recent analogue of any one mineralised coral." T 2 268 Antediluvian %oology and Botany, the but properly On ac- crag have Consistently with our plan of supplying illustrations of the principal departments of fossil zoology, rather than a perfect classification, we commence with the lowest in the scale of animated nature, arranged under the class Sponges. — This tribe, whose structure approaches so closely to that of vegetables, is by no means abundant in the early fer- ruginous strata. It occurs plentifully in the ferruginous sand of Farringdon. {Jig. 53.) The upper green sand contains a few species ; the chalk 53 formation abounds with them ; and some spongiform varieties appear in of Suffolk, not been examined. count of the delicate texture of these bo- dies, and the filling up of their cellular cavities by the matter of their matrices, it is not often that they are sufficiently dis- tinct to admit of ready examination. The recent sponges, which are classed by M. Lamouroux under seven principal divisions, comprise 161 species. We have given two figures in this work, of S. oculata and S. flu- viatilis. (Vol. I. p. 278.) Siphbnice are distinguished by their resemblance to flowers (whence their original name of Tulip Alcyonia), and consist of bundles of tubuli, derived from a pedicle, and passing through a spongious substance. Several species have been noticed by Mr. Townsend, Mr. Parkinson, and Miss Bennett. (Vol. II. p. 295. fig. 82., supra, represents a Siphonia from the green sand of Blackdown.) They are associated in the upper green sand, and their principal localities are the Vale of Pewsey, Warminster, the Isle of Wight, and Devonshire. Mr. Web- ster traced them in the limestone of Portland, and in the sandstone between the chalk and the gault on the south coast of the Isle of Wight. A beautiful series of illustrative draw- ings, by this writer, occurs in the Trans, Geol, Soc, whence the following figure is derived (vol. ii. 1st series, pi. 28. fig. 3.). (Jg^ 54.) Sponges from Farringdon. The same species are figured in British Mineralogy under the name of 5p6ngia pezizSides, pi 482. Green Sand. Antediluvian Zoology and Botany. 269 w- Ventriculites. — Mr. Mantell has investigated this previously- obscure class of fossils, and illustrated their peculiar conform- ation by an extensive suite of specimens in his Geology of Sussex, He conceives that this animal (for it really ap- pears to be one animal, rather than a congeries) possessed the powers of dilatation and contraction of its disk, which ac- counts for the almost infinite variety of form which individuals of the same species are seen to present. (Jig. 55.) It is fair to state that Dr. Fleming objects to this hypothesis, and is dis- inclined to remove them from the ^Spongiae. Cer- tainly the recent ^Spongia otaheitea of Lamarck, also those of ElHs (tab. 59. figs. 1, 2, 3.), bear an extraordinary resemblance to the Ventriculites. Mr. Rose has furnished us (Vol. II. p. 335—339.) with several other illustrations of this zoophyte. The following figure from Mantell, tab. xiv. fig. 2. represents Ventriculites radiatus, having the external surface completely expanded. (Jg- 56.) T 3 V, radiatus Mantell, tab. x. Chalk. 270 AntediUivian Zoology and Botany. 56 Of the same character is the following specimen, which was detached from its flint envelope. It much resembles, in the quincuncial arrangement of its tubes, Mr. Rose's fig. 100.; but ours does not exhibit the pedicle. {Jig. 57., from Nor- wich.) Mr. Koenig appears to have figured this as Ocellaria, Icones Fossilium Sectiles, fig. 98, 99. Alci/onia, the production or the habitation of polypes. The number of fossil bodies included under the original head of Al- cyonites is much diminished since the families of Spongise, Ventriculites, Choanites, and Siphonise have been withdrawn from this division. They are chiefly limited to the chalk and chalk marl. Messrs. Coney- beare and Phillips conceived that the irregular cylindrical branches often found in the oolitic series, particularly in the great oolite, have derived their origin from ^Icyonia. In an attempt to arrange the fossil Alcyonites, according to their Antediluvian Zoologi/ and Botany ^ 271 characters in Lamouroux's table of 51 recent species, the result is rather an approximation to similarity, in a few cases, than an identification with any existing kinds. The recent v41cy6nia are disthiguished from the Sponges by having an external skin, full of openings, possessed by oviparous tenta- culated hydrae. Under the subdivisions, polypifers formed like network, foraminated polypifers, lamellated polypifers, cortiferous poly- pifers, &c., numerous genera have been described by Ellis and by Lamarck, and many fossil kinds are known in the English formations. They are extensively distributed, and abound particularly in the mountain limestone, the coral rag, and the crag. (fig. 58.) We have introduced into the following table some of the principal genera of fossil corals, &c. : — «, Flustra, Suffolk, Crag, 5, E'schara, Aldburgh, Crag. c, Retipora, Sunderland, Magnesian limestone, (f, Cellepora, Dudley, Moun. limest. €y Catinipora or Tubipora, Chain coral. Mountain limestone. fy Caryophyllae a, Norwich, Chalk. gy Caryophyllae^a, Steeple Ashton, Coral rag. hy Stylina of Parkinson, Cumber- land, Mountain lime&tone. iy Astrea, Mitford, Bath oolite. ky Madrepora, Dudley limestone. The Stylina above given is by some called a ramose Caryophyllae^a. In the transition limestone, several fossil species are arranged under the genus Stylhia. " The recent species, which Lamarck considers as the type of this genus, was brought from the South Seas, and furnishes us with another instance of animals whose remains are found in formations of the earliest creation ; no traces of which animals have been seen in any of the subsequent formations, but are now found in a living state in the seas of the opposite hemisphere." {fg. 59.) T 4 272 Antediluvian Zoology and Botany, Among these deposits few are so rich in zoo- phytes as the crag, and none have been so much neglected. As most of these bodies have never been noticed be- fore, we are in- duced to devote a larger space than this branch of zoology would otherwise be entitled to. They belong to a class not capable of easy identification, and are introduced here more for the purpose of attracting naturalists to their better consideration, than with the expectation of clearing up the a, Retfirara? 6e/, E'schara. c c, Turbinblia. - Sarclnula angulkris of Dr. Fleming.. It is similar to the porpital madreporite. Org. Rem. pi. vii. fig. 3. From Dadley limestone. FavosUes alveolata, Parkinson's Introductivn, p. 69. obscurities which attend them. Several species may be traced referable to the genera »Sp6ngia ? Sertularia, Flustra, E'schara, Caryophyllae a ? Retipora, Millepora, Turbinolia, Corallina? Fig.Ql. A spherical body, of which great abundance exists in some localities ; varying from the size of a pea nearly to a hen's egg. External surface co- vered with minute cy- lindrical pores. Interior construction exhibits numerous fine tubes, radiating to the ex- ternal cells or pores. Antediluvian Zoology and Botany. 273 Fig. 62. a, An elongated ramose body, probably a variety of the last, rather than a distinct species ; its surface also covered with minute pores. by A longitudinal section, showing the direction of the tubercles, which form delicate striae. Fig. 63. A zoophyte, consisting of concentric series of bundles of tubes radiating from the centre. The figure exhibits a double section, illustrating its internal structure. 63 Fig. 64. Section of a similar fossil, showing the outer surface and the extremities of the bundles of tubes 274^ Antediluvian Zoologij and Botanij. "ig. 65 «, Another crag zoopliyte. Variable in form ; sometiinecj ex- panded; sometimes collapsed, and often concave or cu[)-shaped. Has been figured, but not described, in Sowerby's British Mineralogy, pi. 481., with a coralline resembling Millepora foraminosa. h, A section pf the interior, showing its se- ries of con- centric coats, somewhat like an onion. Fig. 66. A group composed of most of the foregoing species, and in- cluding E'schara, Flustra, &c. A small Cidaris and a portion of a Belemnite are also attached to this specimen. Retipora, resembling R. cellulosa, covers a part o^fig. 61. i, and/g. 64. K The slabs to which these zoophytes are attached often resemble parts of a recent coral reef. Anteditu'oian Zoologi) and Botmiy. 275 RADIA^TA. * Stelleridce^ or radiated animals of a peculiar conformation, are divided into the four genera Comatula, Euryak (Astro- phyton), ^sterias, and Ophiura. Of these we have only space to notice Asterias, or star-fish, which contains several fossil species, but of rather rare occurrence. They belong chiefly to the chalk, wherein have been recognised four species, one of which is shown. {Jig. 67.) Thirteen fossil ^steriag are described in the same work. The rarity of perfect specimens of Stel- leridae is ascribed to the proneness to decomposition of the membranous con- necting matter. ^sterise have been observed in the oolites. In Vol. II. jbterias, approaching to Penta- p. 73. supra, we have fiffurcd an un- gonaster, Or^. iZ L II. Pleuroc5^sti. \ < . III. Catocysti. . IV. Fleurocf sti. 1. Echinus, Sea Urchin 2. Cidaris, the Turban 3. Ciypeus, the Buckler 4. Cassidulus, Helmet 5. Nucleolites 6. Echinarachnius, Spider's Web 7. GalerUes (C^nulus), Helmet 8. Clypeaster, Buckler 9. Scutella, Saucer 10. Fibularia, Button 11. Echinbneus 12. Ananchj^tes, Helmet-shaped 13. Spatangus Recent. Recent and Fossil. Fossil only. Total. 10 4 "l 1 "3 "9 7 2 1 11 doubtf. 1 1 doubtful "3 7 6 10 3 4 10 3 14 12 11 24 12 10 3 4 1 20 13 17 15 4 12 23 These 13 genera are represented in the following figures, and their names, localities, and strata are given below : — 278 Antediluvian Zoology and Dotanij. a, £'chinus, Calne, Coral rag. &, Cidaris, Calne, Coral rag. Cy Clypeus, Hampton Common, Great or Bath oolite, rf, Cassidulus, Wilts., Green sand. Cy Nucleolites, Normandy, Calcaire grossier ? /, Echinarachn., recent, Parkinson. g, Galerites, Wilts, Chalk. hy Clypeaster, Hungary, Tertiary. iy Scutella, recent. ky Fibula, recent, Encycl. Meth. /, Echinoneus, recent, Enc. Meth. My Ananchites, Norfolk, Chalk. Uy ♦S'patangus, Norfolk, Chalk. The number of English Fossil Species must at present be received as an approximation. Anocy'sti. sp. Catocy'sti. sp. Pleurocy'sti. sp. Crag Chalk - 2 peculiar. Chalk - 11 Chalk - - 8 - 2 peculiar. Green Sand 1 Gault - . 1 Chalk and Green Sand - - 1 common. Coral Rag - . 1 Green Sand - 5 Green Sand - 5 peculiar. Calcareous Grit 1 Coral Rag - - 1 Coral Rag and Cornbrash Cornbrash and Calcar. Grit - 8 peculiar. Cornbrash - . 1 Calcareous Grit and - 2 common. Fuller's Earth . 1 Oxford Clay - 1 Cornbrash and Oolite - - 9 common. Under Oolite . 1 — Under Oolite - 3 common. -_ Total 16 Lias - 1 Total 17 — • Total 32 The foregoing table contains 158 species, out of which number naturalists have been able to identify 1 6 species only, as agreeing with any now known, that is to say, occurring both in a recent and fossil state ; 30 species were found in a recent state only ; 1 2 species are not distinguished in the list, as to which class they belong ; and the remaining 100 species are exclusively found in a fossil state. Sixty-five species are distributed in the English formations, and are almost en- tirely derived from the last-mentioned class. Recent analogues of several of the fossil echinites exist in the South Seas. The British seas produce 7 recent species, according to Dr. Fleming. Mr. Wm. Smith's Stratigraphical Table of Y^cKini ought Antedikwian Zoology and Botdmj, 279 not to be passed unnoticed here ; and, although it is capable of extension from later discoveries, it affords a copious illus- tration of the geological position of this numerous order in the English strata. These fossils existed most abundantly in the chalk. One genus, Ananchites, containing many spe- cies, is known only in this formation, and has not been per- petuated in our present seas. Echini, of the genus Cidaris, first appear in the lias, but unfrequently. In the lower oolite several species abound, and the green sand is also rich in them. The crag contains a species from this genus. Mr. Parkinson notices that one genus, iSpatangus, appears first in the green sand, and then in the chalk ; that it is absent in all succeeding formations, but that it is found again, living in the seas of the present world. Mr. Phillips, however, has observed A^patangi much lower, having traced the same species in the calcareous grit, the coral rag, and Kelloways rock. Ananchites. Galea ovata ? A group of casts in flint from chalk, Norwich. TESTACEOUS MOLLU^SCA. Shellfish. — For convenience of arrangement, we separate this division into simple univalves, simple bivalves, ancient complicated bivalves, and multilocular or chambered uni- valves. From the first class some naturalists have withdrawn the tubular shells, to form a fifth under the head of Annulosa ; and even further subdivision has been made by other classi- fiers; while, again, in another case, the whole have been comprised in three classes, the Annelides, the Conchifera, and Mollusca. 280 Antediluviati Zoology and Botany. On the Continent this department was illustrated as early as 1775, in Knorr's magnificent Recueil des Monumens des Catastrophes que le Globe de la Terre a essuiees. Mr. Sowerby's Mineral Concliology of Great Britain com- prehends the greater portion of our fossil shells. Numerous additional species have, however, been described in other works; such, for instance, as those by Messrs. Young and Bird, Mr. J. Phillips, Mr. Mantell *, and by contributors to the Trans, Geol. Soc. From sources so authentic, it is possible to form estimates which will now convey some notion of the numbers, the prevalence, and the geological distribution of our mineralised Test^cea. The augmentation which such a table is capable of receiving is not, in one point of view, very material ; because it is not probable that the relative proportions which the respective classes bear to each other will be much affected by such addition. Proceeding at once to the result, the numbers and proportions are as follows : — Simple Univalves, Gasteropodous Mollusca - Simple Bivalves, Acephalous MolMsca Complicated Bivalves, in ancient formations Multilocular, or cham- > ri i, ^ j tv/tit lo lo bered UniValves - \ Cephalopodous Mollusca - 12 - 12 - 62 to 64 genera. - 69 or 71 - - 3— 3 In all 146 to 150 genera. The geological distribution of species comprised within these genera is found to be in the following manner : — In the secondary and f transition series of > Britain - - ) In the tertiary form- > ations - - Simple Uni- valves, inclu- ding the Tubular Species. Simple Bivalves. Species. Ancient Complex Bivalves. Species. Chambered and Multilocular Shells. Species. Total published species. 204 295 629 185 51 0 272 8 1156 488 499 814 51 280 1644 This number falls greatly short of the entire series. M. Deshayes has determined no less than 1200 species in the tertiary deposits alone of the Paris basin. * Mr. Mantell's Tabular Arrangeme7it of Sicssex Fossils, recently published by the Geological Society, furnishes an admirable condensation of local zoological information. Mr. J. Phillips's tables are also arranged with great care and ability. Antediluvian Zoology a?id Botany, 28 1' Illustrative Group Univalves. a, Limnea, I. Wight, Fresh-water. by Planorbis, Isle of Wight, Fresh- water. c, Murex, or rather Fusus, contra- rius; SuiFolk, Crag. d, Rostellaria macroptera,, Barton, London cjay. Bivalves. 1 r „ 3 ^^^ ^h® Sepia, but approaching nearest to the lat- P " J ter : analogous to the posterior part of the bone C of the Shpia. . p , r, , n i With a multilocular shell, but without a cavity. m i Found in chlorite chalk and lower oolite. Rhyncolithes - sev. \ ^'^\^^^^ ^ ^^vi^y- ^^ belonging to ancient forma- C Approaching to iS'epia, but resembling the beak of Conchorhynchus - < a bivalve shell : perhaps a genus nearest to Te- ([ rebratulae, r In the limestone of Pappenheim^ absolutely re- c^ • . J sembling those with which we are acquainted ^ " ' y at the present day ; also in the lias of Twiver- (. ton and Keynsham, near Bristol. Orthoceratites, Nautilites, &c. ARTICULATED ANIMALS. Crustacea. — Crabs and lobsters, in a mineralised state, have been obtained, sparingly, from several of the formations : commencing with the lias, abundant in the London clay, and almost unaltered in the crag. V 3 286 Antediluvian Zoology and Botany. Afstacus.^ — This genus is more extensively distributed than that of Cancer. We can only at present arrange them, with- out distinguishing species, as follows : — In tlie lias, 2 species ; inferior oolite, 1 ; Stonesfield slate, Kelloways rock, Oxford clay, 1 ; coral rag, 2 ; gault and Speetbn clay, 2; upper green sand, 1; chalk, 2; London clay, 1 or 2 ; crag, 1. Lobster from Sheppy. Whether the figure named by the author of I cones FosslUum SectUes as fanccr tuberculatus, fig. 54., from the same locality, is similar to this specimen, cannot be determined, on account of the extreme coarseness of his plate. Cancer. — Some varieties are stated to occur in the Stones- field slate; in the gault, 4 species; chalk, 2 species; Lon- don clay, 3 or 4- species ; perhaps in the inferior oolite, 2. These genera, particularly the crabs, are found in great numbers, although rarely perfect, upon the beach beneath the Sheppy clay cliffs. None of the fossil Crustaceajiave been ascertained to be identical with existing species. We possess no complete English work on the fossil Crustacea ; but refer, for further illustration of this branch of natural history, to the Histoire Naturelle des Criistaces Fossiles, })ar M. Desmarest. Crab from Sh^py. Pro- bably not the same as Cancer LeachiV of Desma- rest, pi. viii. fig. 5, fi. Antediluvian Zoology and Botany. 78 287 I'nachui' LamarckzV, also from Sheppy ; locally called sea spider. Agrees with Ues- marest's fig. 15. pi. ix. Under side of a crab from Sheppy; obscure. A crustaceous animal, of the size of a large shrimp, has been observed, in a cast, amongst teeth and bones of fishes, in the crag. Another, somewhat smaller than a shrimp, is men- tioned, in the ferruginous sandstone of Atherfield, Isle of Wight. The minute animal, figured as a bivalve in Mineral Conchology under the name of Cypris faba, abounding in the lamina of the Weald clay, has been recently affirmed to be a crustaceous insect. Cirripedes, or Barnacles, are now considered by Dr. Thompson to belong to the class Crustacea. Mr. Parkinson figures a small crustaceous animal, which is frequently found with the Trilobite in the Dudley limestone. {Org. Rem., vol. iii. pi. 17. fig. 19.) Trilobites, which are now properly arranged with the Crus- tacea, are of several species, but their living analogues are unknown. Mr. Weaver remarks, that one tuberculated trilo- . bite seems characteristic of the limestone and slate clay of the carboniferous series; occurring also in the Mendip Hills, Caldy Island, Bristol, and Cork ; in the Isles of Man and Anglesea, and Holy Island; in Kendal and Dumfriesshire. A larger species occurs in the transition slate of France. 79 «, Calymfene variolaris, from Dudley limestone. b, Calymt-ne BlumenbJichM, from Dudley. c, A'saphus Debiichzi, from Dynevoi Park, South Wales. On the subject of Trilobites M. A. Brongniart's Histoire Naturelle des Trilobites may be consulted. Several figures of Trilobites, from the Dudley and Barr limestones with Mr.J.D.C. Sowerby's remarks, have appeared in this work (Vol.11, p. 4-1.). R. C. T u 4- 288 PART II. REVIEWS. Art. I. Flora Devoniensis : or a Descriptive Catalogue of Plants growing tvild in the County of Devon, arranged both according to the Linnean and Natural Systems, with an Account of their Geographical Distribution, S^c. By the Rev. J. P. Jones and J. F. Kingston. London. 8vo. 16*. Local Floras are exceedingly useful both to the novice in science and the professed botanist. They confine the observation of the inexperienced within a limited district, and lessen the number of his particulars ; they lead him to an acquaintance with certain species, by directing him to their locali- ties in his neighbourhood, while the authors generally become the referees to clear up such obscure points as require elucidation. To the practised botanist they are still more important : they furnish him with materials for determining the conditions required for particular plants, and supply him also, in some measure, with the negative as well as the positive list of the district. The authors of the present work, instead of making botany a mere study of hard names, have very properly appended some general observations on vegetable distribution. We are sorry they are so meagre ; and that, with the views they profess to entertain, so large a portion of the volume should be filled with technical matter ; as, in the present day, a local Flora ought not to be confined to the hackneyed description of species which is to be found in every general work, but should be distinguished by such research as carries the subject forward ; and especially those particulars should be noticed which are presented to advantage in a limited district. The county of Devon is very favourable for such an undertaking : it offers to the botanist a great variety of soil j and some extensive and well marked strata. It comprehends a granite district, including Dartmoor, which will yield him a rich harvest of cryptogamic plants j a slate district of various degrees (tf fertility; transition limestone, less luxuriant; red sand- stone, uniformly fertile ; besides a long tract of coast, both on the north and south, where some of the greatest rarities of the kingdom are to be found. The authors observe, " With all this variety in the rock strata, we know of no peculiar vegetable features by which to distinguish one formation from another : the Cisteae, Conyza squarrosa, and one or two other plants, seem to affect the limestone ; the Clematis, also, appears to grow more luxuriantly among the crevices of that rock than elsewhere ; whilst the /'ris foetidissima and the elm prevail most in the red sandstone. Still, neither these, nor any other species, so far as we are aware, are exclusively confined to any parti- cular formation." We entertain, ourselves, a hope that accurate observ- ation will detect many vegetable attachments, few of which, probably, will be found exclusive ; but the like conditions being given of moisture, tem- perature, sunshine, shade, and other elements, then we may expect to find plants making an election of soil or stratum, so as to obtain them in the degree suited to their nature. We regret that the authors should have been compelled to leave to the future a closer examination of the northern portion of the county, as they will find it well worth a minute investigation. Their suspicions that the Literary Notices, 289 iVcirpus //oloschoe'nus is lost from Braunton Burrows is unfounded, as we have abundance of specimens from that spot, gathered three or four years ago. They will also find Tehcrium iScordium in a very peculiar situation, growing in wet sand, whereas it is usually a fen plant. As we delight in local Floi^asy we should be very ungrateful to quarrel with authors who have indulged our fancy ; yet we doubt the expediency of making their work so bulky and expensive, and should have been better satisfied if they had given us a list of species with their localities, and such new information as their diligence had enabled them to collect, and had not repeated twice over the generic and specific characters of the flowering plants for the sake of presenting the reader with both the Linnean and natural arrangement. A list of genera would have answered every purpose. One of the chief objects at which scientific writers should aim, is to make science cheap and accessible to all. We wish, too, that the authors had con- sulted the latest authorities on their subject ; but we do not observe a single reference to Sir James Smith's English FlorUy a work of indisputable merit, and on the question of species of the first authority. If his new views had been rejected, after due examination, we should have no right to complain, but they ought not to have been overlooked. The cryptogamic part is done with more care. After all, the work before us will be found useful to such persons as are residents within the county, and to those who are induced to visit " De- von's myrtle vales," from curiosity, or in search of the inestimable blessing of health. The faults are not such as are of great importance to the learner; and the experienced botanist will have access to more general works to supply the deficiencies. — CCJ" Art. II. Literary Notices. LiNDLEY and Hutton's Fossil Flora of Great Britain. — I rejoice to see a Fossil Flora announced by two such scientific gentlemen as Professor Lindley and Mr. Hutton. The well known botanic accuracy of the former will distinguish by the few remaining characters the fossils possess, whether their complete identity yet exists or not. This is a work which the mere English botanist would be incompetent to grapple with ; for the entire Flora of the older formations consists in scitamineous plants, ferns, and paims, cacti, &c., the resemblances of which at present are only found within the tropics, although every coal measure in Europe abounds with similar specimens. The nearest resemblance to the present vegetables of England exists in the more recent formation of the London clay. In this stratum, at least, races of plants similar to those of Europe and North America are abundant, which is sufficiently obvious in glancing over the acorns and nuts that have been so plentifully procured from the Isle of Sheppy ; yet even here some tropical remains are found, although more scantily. In the fossils of Colebrook Dale, syngenesious plants, mixed with the grasses, appear to be particularly abundant. The union of Mr. Hutton, of geological repute, with Mr. Lindley is a happy circumstance, and, I doubt not, a work of great utility to future geological enquiries will be the result. I trust that it will be published consecutively, beginning either with the more recent or primitive assemblages, a method that will imme- diately render the very first part of general utility ; a plan much more readily accomplished in fossil than in recent botany. — W. Masters. Canterburi/, Januarj/, 1830. A Geological Flor^a of Europe is in contemplation by some French and German botanists, in which the plants will be classed according to the rocks and soils believed to be most congenial to them. — B. Paris, March 1830. 290 PART III. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. Art. I. Foreign Notices. FRANCE. Two Poodles from Milan. — Sir, Two very remarkable savans now divide the attention of the French public with the romantic tragedy of Hernani by Victor Hugo, and I transmit to you a description of them which I received a few days ago : — " They are poodles from Milan, where they have received their edu- cation ; the elder, named Fido, is white, with some black patches on his head and back, and the younger, who is called Bianco, is also white, but with red spots. Fido is a grave and serious personage, walks with dignity round the circle assembled to see him, and appears much absorbed in reflection. Bianco is young and giddy, but full of talent when he chooses to apply it. Owing to his more sedate disposition, Fido, however, is called upon to act the principal part of the exhibition : a word is dictated to him from the Greek, Latin, Italian, German, French, or English lan- guage, and selected from a vocabulary where fifty words in each tongue are inscribed, and which altogether make three hundred diiferent com- binations. An alphabet is placed before Fido, and from it he takes the letters which compose the given word, and lays them in their proper order at the feet of his master. On one occasion he was told to spell the word Heaven, and he quickly placed the letters till he came to the second e, he stood for an instant as if puzzled, but in a moment after he took the e out of the first syllable, and put it into the second. His attainments in orthography, however, are not so surprising as those in arithmetic ; he practises the four rules with extraordinary facility, arranges the double ciphers as he did the double vowels in the word heaven, and rarely makes an error. When such does occur, his more thoughtless companion is called in to rectify it, which he invariably does with the greatest quickness, but as he had rather play than work, and pulls Fido by the ears to make him as idle as himself, he is quickly dismissed. One day the steady Fido spelt the word Jupiter with a b, instead of a p, after the manner of the Ger- mans ; Bianco was summoned to his aid, who, after contemplating the word, pushed out the b with his nose, and seizing a p between his teeth, put it into the vacancy. Fido is remarkable for the modest firmness with which he insists upon his correctness when he feels convinced of it himself; for a lady having struck a repeating watch in his ear, he selected an 8 for the hour, and a 6 for the three quarters. The company present, and his master, called out to him he was wrong ; he reviewed his numbers, and stood still, his master insisted, and he again examined his ciphers, after which he went quietly, but not in the least abashed, into the middle of the carpet, and looked at his audience; the watch was then sounded again, and it was found to have struck two at every quarter, and Fido received the plaudits which followed with as gentle a demeanour as he had borne the accusation of error. " One occupation seems to bring the giddy Bianco to the gravity oi the Foreign Notices : — Italy. 291 elder savant, and when the spectators are tired of arithmetic and orthogra- phy, the two dogs eitlier sit down with each other to ecarte, or become the antagonists of one of the company. They ask for, or refuse cards, as their hands require, with a most important look, they cut at the proper times, and never mistake one suit for another. They have recourse to their ciphers to mark their points, and on one occasion Bianco having vv^on, he selected his number, and on being asked what were the gains of his adversary, he immediately took an 0 between his teeth, and showed it to the querist ; and both seem to know all the turns of the game as thoroughly as the most expe- rienced card-players. " All this passes without the slightest visible or audible sign between the poodles and their master, the spectators are placed within three steps of the carpet on which the performance goes forward ; people have gone for the sole purpose of watching the master, every body visits them, and yet no one has yet found out the mode of communication established between them and their owner. Whatever this communication may be, it does not deduct from the wonderful intelligence of these animals; for there must be a multiplicity of signs not only to be understood with eyes or ears, but to be separated from each other in their minds, or to be combined one with another, for the various trials in which they are exercised. " I have seen learned pigs and ponies, and can, after these spectacles, readily imagine how the extraordinary sagacity of a dog may be brought to a knowledge of the orthography of three hundred words ; but I must con- fess myself puzzled by the acquirements of these poodles in arithmetic, which must depend upon the will of the spectator who proposes the numbers ; but that which is most surprising of all is the skill with which they play ecarte. The gravity and attention with which they carry on their game is almost ludicrous, and the satisfaction of Bianco when he marks his points is per- fectly evident. " I nmst not omit a very amiable feature in the character of these four- footed savans, which is, that their great superiority of instruction over their brethren has not in the least destroyed their more engaging quali- ties. Not only are they obedient, but lively, affectionate, and gentle, and have not one particle of conceit, though all Paris sees and admires them." I can vouch for the entire veracity of the above statement, and am. Sir, yours, &c. — Sarah Lee. 27. Burton Street, Burton Crescent, March, 1830. ITALY. Volcano of Pietra Mala. — In crossing the Apennines we slept at the village of Pietra Mala, about half way between Bologna and Florence, that we might more conveniently see the celebrated volcano, which is about a mile from the village, and to which, attended by a guide, we bent our steps soon after it was dark. As usual we found the account in our guide-book incorrect. Far from illuminating the surrounding mountains, we should not, until quite near it, have taken it for any thing but a candle in a cottage window, or at most a small bonfire ; and instead of presenting the extraor- dinary peculiarity of lighting wood but not heating stones, we found those which lie upon it so hot as not to be held in the hand, and the heat suffi- cient to roast, very speedily, some chestnuts which my sons chanced to have in their pockets, and which they ate with double glee on account of their cookery at this natural furnace, which has been burning for ages, and which from this circumstance derives its greatest interest. Strictly it has little claim to be called a volcano, there not being the slightest appearance of any crater. It is merely a flame of hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen gas, issuing from crevices in an oval space 6 ft. or 8 ft. long, by 3 ft. or 4 ft. broad, on the same level with the surrounding field, and which space is 292 Natural History in London. covered to the height of about a foot with small pieces of indurated clay, or clay slate of a red colour, but in such small quantity, that it seems more pro- bable that they have been purposely thrown there than elevated from below. The flame breaks out here and there from among the stones, to the height of about a foot, the whole having much the appearance of a fire of wood, spread about, on which stones or brick bats had been thrown, whence pro- bably the Italian name for it, Fuoco di Legno. Our guide, being a mere boy, could give us no information as to whether the flame is ever extinguished, which one would think might happen from the extremely heavy rains and high winds that occur among the Apennines ; whether, as the guide-book asserts, it is more vivid in wet weather, &c. &c. ; and I have not had an opportunity of consulting modern Italian works on these and other points, as the precise chemical composition of the gas, which has doubtless been examined and determined. Having satisfied our curiosity as far as practicable, we returned to the village by the wretched road we had previously traversed, the state of which, and of the inn, are striking proofs of Italian apathy. This so called volcano has been famous for upwards of 250 years, Montaigne, in his interesting Travels in Italy ^ in 1580, mentioning his great regtet that he had not stopped to examine it ; and if the road were good, which it might be made at an expense of less than 50/., and the accommodations at the inn ample, scarcely a traveller would cross the Apennines who would not sleep there, in order to visit this remarkable phenomenon. Instead of which, the road is so wretchedly bad, first through a dirty lane, and then over rocks and across ploughed fields, as to be almost impracticable after rain for females ; and the inn, though improved since Forsyth described it in such dark colours, is still very indifferent, and the charges exorbitant, so that a great proportion of travellers give up seeing the volcano, and sleep at Coviliajo, a better inn, a few miles farther on. How differently would these things be managed in England or Germany ! where, in passing from Bavaria to the Tyrol, we found an excellent gravel walk, purposely made to lead to a cascade some hundred yards from the high road, though not near any inn or village, and no one claimed any thing for the accommoda- tion. — W. S. Florence y January 2. 1830. Art. II. Natural History in London. Zoological Society. — A somewhat noisy Meeting of this Society took place on April 1., at the Society's house. Lord Auckland was in the chair. The chief subject of dispute was the continuance of Mr. Sabine ex-Secre- tary of the Horticultural Society, as superintendant of the Zoological Farm. Mr. Sabine was warmly defended by Lord Auckland and Lord Carnarvon, and attacked with equal warmth by Messrs. Burke, Ker, Chambers, and others. There are few things more remarkable in the Meetings of bodies entirely dependent on their popularity for existence, than the strenuous efforts which the leaders almost invariably make in the defence of any indi- vidual who happens to be accidentally connected with them. Of Mr. Sabine's cattle-feeding capabilities, of course, we do not pretend to judge ; but when it is on record that his ignorance and extravagance have already brought one Society to the brink of ruin, can any thing be conceived more strange than that men of common sense should insist on his being allowed an opportunity of doing the same by another, because he has not been convicted of any thing fraudulent ? Did the fact of Mr. Sabine's being an honest man, — which Lord Auckland seemed to think quite conclusive of that gentle- man's merits, — in any respect diminish the load of debt which his con- duct has entailed on the Horticultural Society ? There was another point Natural Histoi-y in London, 293 which was endeavoured to be made a great deal of, and which is in every respect as unsound. Mr. Sabine, it seems, gives his superintendence gra- tuitously. The only consequence we ever knew to result from that species of service was, that it made those who received it the thralls of those who gave it ; that it destroyed all responsibility in the servant, and all claim to supervision in the master. If the Society engage an active respectable man to do their business — which they may do for one hundred and fifty, or two hundred pounds a year, — they will have one whom a sense of interest will render attentive and obedient, whom they may correct when he goes wrong, and discharge if he will not be corrected. At present they save this mighty sum by employing a man who will attend to his honorary duties when he likes, and how he likes ; whose condijct, whether right or wrong, they dare not challenge ; and of whose disservice they will soon find it next to impos- sible to rid themselves. There is indeed a remedy to this species of folly, which never fails of effect, — the subscribers can withdraw. And they will do so. The Medico-Botanical, the Horticultural, the Zoological, will pro- bably continue to exhibit their princes, their pines, and their parrots, for some time longer ; but the impulse which put their machinery in motion has ceased, and the friction is every hour increasing. In a year or two more they may expect to encounter the fate to which folly and favouritism, when not supported by statute, are ever subjected, and to add to the long list of useful projects which wisdom has begun and mismanagement ended. (Spec- tator, April 3.) To the above very judicious observations, we shall only add, that nothing can show the consummate vanity of Mr. Sabine more than the fact of his continuing to obtrude his services both on the Zoological Society, and to a certain extent on the Horticultural ; certain parts and things in the Chis- wick Garden being still under his care. Mr. Sabine's friends and enemies, we believe, alike wish him to retire altogether from both these Societies, and the former have done every thing short of telling him so to his face. If Mr. Sabine really wishes well to these Societies, he ought to sacrifice his " own feelings to public opinion, and back out of them, as the phrase is, with all possible speed. He may rely upon this, that his espionnage system (monstrous, as Mr. Lindley well termed it), as given in evidence to the Committee of the Horticultural Society, published in part in the last num- ber (xxv.) of the Gardener's Magaziney has rendered his name loathsome, not merely to every gardener or naturalist, but to every man with the feelings of an Englishman, to every man, in short, of common honour and honesty. It is right that such practices should be exposed, in order that they may excite universal execration, and thus tend to prevent their re- currence. — Cond. Contributions to the M.enagery. The taste for zoological science has so much extended in the country within the last few years, that there is every reason to hope that we shall very shortly have no cause to complain of inferiority to our neighbours in this department of natural history. That the establishment of the Zoological Society has very much contributed to increase and diffuse this taste, no one can doubt; and, considering the short time that Society has been established, it is astonishing what advances have been made both in the formation of a museum and menagery. The latter contains specimens of the most valuable kind, but is still very deficient in examples from our British Fauna. Notwithstanding the numerous parks in this country, no one has presented them with a pair of deer ; and in most of the smaller animals indigenous to this country they are entirely wanting. If the friends of natural history would contribute their efforts to this object, the deficiency would soon be supplied. Those noblemen and gentlemen interested in the institution would confer a great benefit upon it, if they would direct their keepers to send specimens of all kinds of ver- min (as they are called) and birds, alive, to Bruton Street. I would parti- 294* Natural History in London. cularly direct their attention to individuals of the ilfustela, or weasel tribe ; the polecat, marten, ferret, weasel, &c. &c. ; also the badger, hare, rabbit, pheasant (especially the ring-necked), partridge, and all kinds of birds from the house sparrow to the hawk. I have not mentioned different varieties of Sorex, or shrew mouse, water rat, field mouse, &c. Any contributions would be very valuable, and I know that the Society would willingly pay any expenses incident upon their transmission to Bruton Street. — F. Z. S. LondoHy April 15. 1820. Linnean Society/. — March IQ. On this evening (being the eve of St. Patrick), Mr. Bicheno, the secretary, read a paper on the plant intended by the shamrock of Ireland, in which he attempted to prove by botanical, his- torical, and etymological evidence, that the original plant was not the white clover, which is now employed as the national emblem. He stated that it would seem a condition at least suitable, if not necessary, to a national emblem, that it should be something familiar to the people, and familiar too at that season when the national feast is celebrated. Thus the Welsh have given the leek to St. David, being a favourite oleraceous herb, and the only green thing they could find on the 1st of March. The Scotch, on the other hand, whose feast is in autumn, have adopted the thistle. The white clover is not fully expanded on St. Patrick's day, and wild specimens of it could hardly be obtained at this season. Be- sides it was probably, nay, almost certainly, a plant of uncommon occur- rence in Ireland during its early history, having been introduced into that country in the middle of the seventeenth century, and made common by cultivation. He then referred to several old authors, to prove that the shamrock was eaten by the Irish ; and to one who went over to Ireland in the sixteenth century, who says it was eaten, and was a sour plant. The name, also, of shamrock is common to several trefoils, both in the Irish and Gaelic languages. Now clover could not have been eaten, and it is not sour. Taking, therefore, all the conditions requisite, they are only found in the wood-sorrel, (/xalis Acetosella. It is an early spring plant ; it was, and is, abundant in Ireland ; it is a trefoil ; it is called sham-rog by the old herbalists, and it is sour: whilst its beauty might well entitle it to the distinction of being the national emblem. The substitution of one for the other has been occasioned by cultivation, which made the wood-sorrel less plentiful, and the Dutch clover abundant. {Phil. Mag., April 1830;, p. 228.) Geological Society/. — Feb. 19. This being the Anniversary Meeting, an excellent address was delivered from the chair by the president. Professor Sedgewick. The affairs of the Society are in a prosperous condition, and the number of members increasing. During the last year, fifty home and seven foreign members have been added to the list, and several excellent papers have been received and read, the most important of which were noticed by the Professor, in his most eloquent and philosophical discourse. The address, being too long for our pages, will be found at length in the Philosophical Magazine , vol. vii. No. 40. for April 1830, p. 289. The Meetings of this Society, unlike those of the Linnean, the Zoological, or the Horticultural, are characterised by discussions on the subject of the papers which have been read : this we consider an important feature in favour of this Society, and one which ought to be considered essential in every similar association. Without this kind of discussion and convers- ation, it seems to us that nine tenths of the good to be done by an assem- blage of men devoted to the same pursuits must be lost. Take away the personal intercourse between the members, which takes place before and after the main business of the Meeting, and the rest Avill appear a species of mummery, often dull enough. But more of this hereafter. — Cond. Calendar of Nature, 295 Art. III. Calendar of Nature, Scotland. Diagram {fig. 80.), showing the Motion of the Mercury in the Barometer and Thermometer, and the Dew Point, or the Mean of each, for e^^^ery Ten Days in the Months of February and March ; also the Mean Temperature of the Air within 6 in. of a South Brick Wall, commencing on the 1st of March, the Thermometer being shaded ; and the Depth of Rain in the Pluviometer, and the Quantity of Moisture evaporated in the Evapo- rating Gauge during the same Period; as extracted from the Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perthshire, N. lat. 56° 23^^ above the level of the sea 172 ft., and 15 miles from the coast, being the mean of daily observations at 10 o'clock morning and 10 o'clock evening. 80 1 1 o 1 Evaporating Gauge. Rain Gauge, and Index of Thermometer ] and Barometer. Evaporating Gauge. o 1 I 1 tr\ <>(> _i_ ..\^ A ^ // u.d -. — . ■ V ^& If f X // \\ II 1 \s / ^ J / 50 w^ // ^ -^/ 29 ^ yy / - / /- [ w/ t/ / / s/ A 7 / ^ -^ t ^ / •— c::;:^— ' / nO / \. / i£— 40 \ cl r^O 28 / cfi oo'o ^ 27 ^Oc )0 oo"" 1 i 0 20 2 B iO 20 28 iO 20 Si i 0 30 5 \t Feb. February. March. ; March. The lines marked h show the motion of the mercury in the barometer, ^ « m; the mean temperature of the air near a south garden wall, t the mean temperature in the open air, and d the dew point. The coldest day in February was the 6th : mean temperature of that day 25° ; extreme cold 24° ; wind easterly. The warmest day was the 26th : mean temperature of that day 51*5°; extreme heat 56°; wind south-west. There were 5 days of brilliant, and 7 of partial, sunshine ; 16 were cloudy. 296 Retrospective Criticism. The wind blew from the east and north-east on 9 d^s, from the north-west on 3 days, and from the west and south-west on 16 days. Rain or snow fell on 11 days ; 17 days were fair. There were loud gales of wind on the 19th from the north; on the 21st from the north-west, accompanied with drifted snow; and on the 26th and 27th from the west, accompanied with rain. The coldest day in March was the 5th : mean temperature of that day 36*5° ; wind east ; extreme cold 30°. The wannest day was the 28th : mean temperature of that day 34°; wind west; extreme heat 63^. There were only 5 days of brilliant, and 9 of partial, sunshine; 17 days were cloudy. Rain and snow fell on 1 1 days ; 20 days were fair. The wind blew from the east on 9 days, from the north on 2 days, from the north- west on 3 days, and from the west on 17 days. There were loud gales of wind from the north on the 11th; and from the west on the 12th, 14th, 18th, 19th, 20th, and 29th. The mean temperature for the month of February being as low as 37*1°, vegetation made very little progress. The winter aconite (i/elleborus hyemalis) was in flower on the 12th ; snowdrops appeared above ground on the 13th, and flowered on the 20th. The field lark was first heard to sing on the morning of the 15th. Wood pigeons cooing and partridges pairing on the evening of the 16th. The mavis and blackbird commenced whistling on the morning of the 24th, when the temperature was 44°. At the beginning of March, vegetation was about 10 days later than on an ave- rage of years; and the temperature continued low during the first 10 days. The Crocus vernus, which, in ordinary seasons, blows about the last week in February, did not this year come in flower before the 9th of March ; from that period the temperature became unusually high, as will be seen by the diagram; the consequence was a sudden appearance of spring flowers, which had been retarded by the preceding protracted low temperature. Revet wheat, that was sown on the 26th of January, only appeared above ground on the 14th of March, a period of 47 days ; mean temperature of that period 38*3° The *S'axifraga oppositifolia flowered on the 14th, 6 days earlier than last season, and 10 days later than in 1828. The Z)raba «izo- ides flowered on the 16th ; apricot trees on south walls were in full blow by the 23d ; iVarcissus minor on the 24th ; Erythronium Dens canis on the 25th ; gooseberries were in leaf by the 26th ; the Pulmonaria paniculata was in flower on the 27th ; larch trees were coming in flower by the 28th, on which day the mercury in the thermometer rose to 63°, and fell to 25° on the last hour of the month. — A. G. April 1. 1830. Art. IV. Retrospective Criticism. The Goatsucker's Foot-comb. — It frequently happens that the most ingenious and apparently incontrovertible reasoning in natural history is overturned or confirmed by facts accidentally observed. I was, I confess, disposed to think Mr. Dillon's account of the goat- sucker (p. Sl.^l more plausible than true, and to agree with White and the learned arguments of S. "W., till I met with the following passage in Wilson's American Ornithology^ vol. vi. p. 97., respecting his Caprimulgus carolin^nsis : — " Their mouths," he says, " are capable of prodigious expansion, to seize with more certainty, and furnished with long hairs, or bristles, serving as palisades to secure what comes between them. Reposing much during the heats of the day, they are much infested with vermin [Nirmi ? Ornithomy'ije ?], particularly about the head, and are provided with a comb on the inner edge of the middle claw, with which they are often employed in ridding themselves of these pests, at least when in a state of captivity." This, I think, will set the question at rest. It will only remain for S. W. to show that the Australian group, which wantthecombed claw, are not infested with Nirmi, &c.,and that the Herons either are so, or thai their comb is used for some other purpose. — J. Rennie. Lee, Kent, April 5. THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, JULY, 1880. Art. I. Remarks on some of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Periodical Works on Ifatural History, By a Purchaser of Periodicjals. "X i , ■-" ' ,«..., Sir, ^ As your Magazine opens a wide field for free discussion and enquiry, and affords not only room but a iplace for almost any subject connected with natural history, I may, perhaps, be allowed to offer, through the medium of your pages, a few remarks on some of the advantages and disadvantages attend- ant on works which come out in periodical numbers, confining myself, however, to such as relate to natural history. Of such works there is now no lack : we have Floras and Faunas, Magazines, Miscellanies, Registers, Cabinets, Monographs, and Enumerations, in abundance, together with Illustrations, zoological, entomological, and ornithological, besides a for- midable phalanx (formidable, I mean, to the pockets of the purchasers) of Transactions, the result of the joint wisdom and abilities of those learned bodies, our scientific societies. I do not complain of the number of these publications ; on the contrary, I wish to see it increase ; for, as it is morally impossible for a man of moderate private fortune to purchase any thing like all of them, it is desirable that there should be an ample supply, out of which to make a judicious selection. Of the sort of works in question, I have been, or still am, a purchaser, for my sphere, of a considerable number. I " take them in," as it is called. I have, therefore, some right to speak, from experience, of the advantages and disadvantages of the system. In stating what I have to offer, I am actuated by two motives : first, I would wish to recommend and encou- rage periodicals on natural history, as being a highly useful, convenient, and agreeable mode of publication ; and, secondly, Vol. III. — No. 14. x 298 Advantages and Disadvantages of to see the evils and abuses with which they are sometimes attended, and to which they are always more or less liable, as far as possible removed. It is to be regretted, as being, however, an almost unavoid- able evil, that works on natural history are, for the most part, necessarily expensive, especially if they contain plates ; still more, if the plates are coloured, as, in many cases, they must be, fully to answer the purpose intended ; and, most of all, if these are really well executed, and the work splendidly got up. The cost, for example, of such a work as Sowerby's English Botany (not to take one of larger calibre), extending as it did to six and thirty good-sized volumes, though pub- lished at a moderate price, would amount (I speak at a rough guess) to, perhaps, near 50Z. or more. Now, this may be thought a serious sum to pay for a favourite hobby, for the mere gratification of one's taste ; and many of those who took the work in would have been deterred, I suspect, from pur- chasing it, had the money been to be paid down for it in a lump. But, as it came out in monthly numbers, and occu- pied a course of years in its completion, we some of us now find our libraries enriched with a costly and truly valuable book, which, had it been published all at once, we might hardly have thought ourselves justified in purchasing. It will be said, perhaps, in reply, that this way of representing things is mere self-delusion, invented for the sole purpose of quieting the consciences of those who choose to indulge in such elegant and expensive luxuries ; for that the same identical sum of money, to a penny, is paid for the article, whether it be taken in seriatim or bought complete. No doubt, the same sum is paid ; but, being paid gradually, and by small instalments, dis- tributed, as it were, through a course of many years, the tax falls lightly, and is scarcely felt. This, then, is one of the advantages of publishing works in the form of periodical numbers : it brings them within the reach of men of moderate means ; and, therefore, extends their circulation, and, conse- quently, their utility. Another advantage of this method is, that it gives oppor- tunity, not only for correcting any mistakes which the author may have inadvertently fallen into at the commencement of his labours, but also for including in the work all the recent dis- coveries, which are continually being made during the pro- gress of publication, and thus renders the Flora or Fauna, &c., far more complete than it could have been, had the whole issued simultaneously from the press. Take, again, as an example in point, the case of English Botany, the first volume of which bears, in the titlepage, the date of 1790, and the Periodical Works on Natural Historij. 299 last that of 1 8 1 4. That very many additions were made to our British Flora during these twenty-four years, it is quite unne- cessary to point out. (In the sister department of entomo- logy, the new discoveries, during the same space of time, must have been far more numerous.) The botanical mine is still inexhausted, as new plants are constantly being added to our indigenous list; and these accessions, since the period of 1 8 1 4, are now found to be sufficient in number to form a sup- plement to the above work, which, every British botanist must rejoice to know, has already been commenced. The last advantage I shall mention, as attending the pe- riodical mode of publication, is, that it enhances, if I mistake not, the pleasure which the purchaser derives from the work he takes in, and serves to keep up his interest in it. Count Rumford is said to have recommended, in some cases, the use of tough meat in preference to tender, on the ground that it ^prolonged the 'pleasure of eating. Without going the length which the philosopher did in this instance, I certainly think the quantum of enjoyment we experience from the sort of works now under consideration, is greatly increased by their being dealt out to us piecemeal, and at intervals. Few per- sons like to have the whole of their dinner, fish, meat, and pudding, heaped on their plate at once ; nor do I, for my part, like to see, on a journey, ten or twenty miles of road before me, in a uniform, monotonous, straight line, as Mr. Telford would have us. These things are somewhat appalling ; and, in the one case, would be enough to take away one's appetite, and in the other to damp one's ardour for travelling — for travel- ling, at least, for pleasure. Six and thirty volumes (to have recourse again to English Botany for an example) coming upon one in a body would, perhaps, be equally overpowering ; the mind would be bewildered, and at a loss almost to decide what portions of the work to examine first ; and certainly the whole has much better chance of being perused and tho- roughly digested, when presented to us at stated intervals, in the form of periodical numbers. Then, too, there is the plea- sure o^ anticipation : there is something exceedingly agreeable in looking forward to the first of the month for the arrival of a new fasciculus of Flora , or Illustrations of , or the next Number, Mr. Editor, of your Magazine. A high degree of interest is excited by speculating what new or curious sub- jects will next be introduced to us, or what old acquaintances we may expect to meet with, correctly described and figured, and illustrated, perhaps, with much additional information. Such, as it appears to me, are among the advantages of the X 2 300 Advantages and Disadvantages of plan I speak of. Having shown the bright side of the case; we must now do justice, and, turning the picture, look to the disadvantages. But, first, I must mention a circumstance attendant on some, though not on all, periodical works, of which I stand in doubt, whether it ought more properly to be referred to the side of advantages or the contrary, as it will be found to belong either to the one or the other, exactly as the case may be. I mean, that some of our periodicals actually remind one of a tape worm, — they seem to be ab- solutely interminable ! For example, no conceivable period, short of domesday, can be calculated upon for the probable termination of such works as the Botanical Magazine and Bo- tanical Register, comprehending, as they do, within their capa- cious range, plants from every region of the known world. So long, indeed, as these works keep up their character, and remain under the auspices of men of science and ability, like their present conductors, we have no reason to complain ; but should they, at any time, from whatever cause, fall off and degenerate, verifying the ancient dogma, " Omnia in pejus," the sooner they are brought to a conclusion the better. And, no doubt, there is a pleasm'e in completing any thing ; in being able to say, " Now this is finished; " — a pleasure which, of course, is not to be attained in the case of a work which is carried on from generation to generation, and extended ad infinitum. The almost total absence, too, of every thing like systematic arrangement which unavoidably takes place in most periodical works, is another inherent quality of a rather (though far less) ambiguous character, possessing, along with its manifold and great disadvantages, something (and but little) to recom- mend it. By some people, the promiscuous introduction of plants or animals side by side, having no manner of con- nection with, or affinity to, each other, may be thought to present an agreeable contrast and pleasing variety, like the miscellaneous ingredients of a mere ornamental parterre ; while others (and myself among the number) cannot but re- gret the want of that lucidus ordo which the natural, or even the Linnean, arrangement of the subjects would afford. Aris- totle's maxim, " YlupuKKriXa fjioiXXov yvMpif/.u,^^ is one of general application ; and in nothing does it hold good more than in natural history, the species of a genus being best distin- guished — their differences and resemblances most apparent 7— when placed all together in juxtaposition. The book itself, likewise, especially if it be voluminous, is far more convenient for reference when arranged on some regular plan, whether it be a systematic or mere alphabetical arrangement of the Periodical Works on Natural History. 301 genera and species.* To use a common proverb', it would be like " searching for a needle in a pottle of hay," to look for a plant among the fifty-six volumes of the Botanical Magazine^ were it not for the assistance of the general index, without which the work would be little better than a confused medley of sweets, rudis indigestaque moles, possessing, indeed, an abundance of rich and valuable stores, of which, however, we could only, with labour and difficulty, avail ourselves in time of need* Turn we now to the positive M;z?W2>e*!=5^g^ > W S S 5 *-• C:^ ^^•C -S ^ ^ III 1 ^ I o o Rj oj aj o >Ht«U CJ M ^ minrfi W >< 6060 iSS s -c -n £ s2 ^§§ sssgg gc3d ^^io^w -2^ 00 O c)r5 C/30 < -s «" ':Sf^ S, aj ' 3 -u S..S oSWOQQ Pc iH ►* -a K M iH ti «3Bja)'^aja;«a>a> tf e4 j^-^-<5 ^;^ohj\ ^ s s ^ J^ So ° =^ r- ^ g I ' "^ ^ ^RJ C on cj > aj 3 S2 s t: r •c 8 3 p 3 s ^ s Is' INI I I I I I I I I I I Sp^pu Q H 1 1 Wo II 5 ^ tg-S'^ SiS s I c c >. 3 3*"ajs>^o3 S ^ >-■ ^ II s ss UU M M oK 1 1. ill Cm o >< si =-^3? 03 .— CJ O 5^ ^ oa •C Q O M &, fe II 3 P5 o o £^ u :g ns 4) MS si oJ^.dS*^* ,.mcj 0*^.0 I'll 11^ I I I ii| P . ^111 Natural History of Molluscous Ariimals, 335 Art. VIII. A7i Introduction to the Natural History of Molluscous Animals, In a Series of Letters. By G. J. Letter 5. On the Forms, Composition, and Structure of Shells. Sir, Molluscous animals, in one point of view, may be divided into two classes ; those, viz., which have, and those which have not, a shell to cover and protect the body. The latter are said to be naked, and the former testaceous Mollusca; but however discriminative and important the character which separates them may at first appear, it is really, in a systematic view, one of trivial consequence, and perfectly arbitrary. In several testaceous species the shell is too small to contain the body of the animal, while many of the naked tribes possess a shell which, however, is concealed under the folds of the skin, and is protective only of the internal viscera. The system which separates and places in distinct orders the naked slug and the shelled snail must be artificial ; and if for the present I adopt the distinction, it is because I now wish to give you some account of the structure of shells, and of the manner of their formation ; for I would not that you should be familiar with their varied forms, and yet be ignorant of the mode in which they are constructed. Conchologists arrange shells under three orders, the multi- valve, bivalve, and miivalve ; or, to reverse the series, into shells composed of one, two, or more than two, pieces. After removing such species as belong to animals * of a different category, there remain very few multivalve shells. These have their valves connected by a soft coriaceous mem- brane, and they are laid, in an imbricated manner, along the back of the animal, which, in general outline, resembles a wood-louse. They constitute the genus Chiton of Linnaeus. {Jig. 86.) The bivalves are very numerous, and belong exclusively f to a distinct order of molluscous animals. These shells are formed in general of two pieces only, placed in apposition, equal or nearly so in size, and commonly alike in form. The pieces or valves are connected at their beaks by an elastic ligament of a peculiar structure, which forms a hinge on which the valves open and shut. In a few instances there is no hinge of this sort ; but a * We do not include the Cirripedes (Xepas Xw/.) amongst the Mol- lusca. f So at least says Lamarck ; but the shells of some Entomdstraca appear to be true bivalves. z 4 336 Natural History of Molluscous Aiiimah : — bivalve shell is so peculiar that you can seldom be at a loss where to place it, even at first sight. Thus, you will certainly not place the Pholades amongst multivalves, as the mere conchologist has done, because it has a few additional pieces placed over and above the hinge ; for the habit of these shells is that of bivalves, and the little accessory pieces have no cha- racter of proper valves. The only shells which can perplex you are those which Lamarck has placed in a family denomi- nated Tubicolse, from the circumstance of the animals forming a calcareous tube for their protection, and which tube, until the French naturalist explained its true nature, had been con- sidered as the shell itself. To this family belong the Teredo, of which we have had occasion to say so much, and the Asper- gillum or water -pot shell, perhaps the most singular of its class. These are truly bivalves, but the proper valves are small, and theu* existence was not recognised until lately, when naturalists, not satisfied with observing and admiring external characters, began to examine with attention internal structure. In Aspergillum (^g, 87.), the part generally preserved in col- lections is the tube, to the inside of which, near its lower extremity, the valves are closely soldered : but in Teredo the true shell is placed without the tube at the posterior extremity. The valves are small, and somewhat anomalous in form, while the tube is long, flexuose, and worm-like, and lines the bore which the creature has made in the wood. * It is unnecessary in this place to describe the various forms which bivalves assume, and on which their distribution into families and genera is founded. That will be done in a future letter. I wish merely further to observe, that, in relation to their structure, they may be divided into the compact and foliated. The former are heavy, hard, uniform throughout, and have a clean fracture ; while the latter are light, divisible into layers, and break into irregular splints. The oysters and the genera allied to them exhibit this latter structure in the clearest manner, the pectens and muscles, both fresh-water and marine, less so ; and, if you will compare any of these with a species of Mactra or Venus Lin., you will at once have * See the figure at p. 23. fig. 7. b of Vol. 11. Forms, Composition, and Structure of Shells. 337 an accurate notion of what is a foliated and what a compact shell. Univalves are still more numerous than bivalves, and more diversified and beautiful in their forms and colouring. Some are simply conical (Patella Lin.), either entire or perforated on the summit, or slit at the margin ; some are tube-like (Dentalium) ; some bear a similitude to the human ear (Hali- hiis Lin.) ; but by far the greater number are spiral, the whorls being contorted in a thousand pleasing ways. Thus the Planorbis and some others have them rolled upon one another without being raised, so that the last whorl is on the outside, and forms the margin. These flattened shells are said to be discoid. In Helix, A^erita, and Dolium, the last whorl is so disproportionally large to those which constitute the spire, that the shell assumes a globular shape ; in Zrochus it is a regular pyramid ; in Terebra and Turritella the whorls are so numerous and elongated that the shell resembles a turret, and is hence said to be turreted or turriculate. But between these extremes there are many intermediate forms, and the spire in general is a more or less acute oblique cone, tapered from the base, or with its greatest diameter towards the middle. There is, however, a large and beautiful tribe of univalve shells, which are denominated convolute ; for the whorls, which are small segments of large circles, are wrap- ped round the pillar, and, the one rising a little above the other, embrace or enclose the preceding ones. Hence it results, that the aperture of a convolute shell must be parallel to its length. The cowries (Cypr^^«), volutes, and cones are examples of this kind of formation, and in elegance of form and brilliancy of colouring they exceed all others of the class. The iVautilus and Argonauta are, on the contrary, revolute shells ; that is to say, their whorls are twisted backwards into a spire, which is contained within the outer whorl. * Revolute shells, in common with many discoid ones, differ in a very remarkable character from other univalves ; for their cavity is divided by transverse partitions, more or less com- plete, into many chambers ; and hence they are called cham- bered, or, more commonly, multilocular, shells. The recent shells of this description are few in species, nor are the species very numerous in individuals ; but the fossil kinds are many and abundant, and some of them have been of a size so great that they were not unworthy to play their part with the cro- codiles, the Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri of a former world. * The reader will find these forms delineated in some beautiful cuts which illustrate a paper signed Conchilla, in Vol. I. p. 25. et seq. 338 Natural History of Molluscous Animals: — What are vulgarly called Cornua Ammc>n/5 are fossil multi- locular shells, and their preservation is so complete, that, from these remains, we can form some tolerably plausible notions of what has been the structure and habits of their animals. Further, the inmates of many univalves can close the aper- ture of their shells with a horny or calcareous plug attached to the dorsal part of the foot, and termed the operculum. These are said to be operculated, while those which have no protection of this sort are non-operculated shells. The for- mer, in the opinion of some naturalists, are the links which connect the univalves to bivalves, the operculum being con- sidered analogous to the second valve, and Blainville indeed goes so far as to call them sub-bivalves. * This is surely straining analogies, and seeking them in things between which there is no mutual resemblance ; but in fact the opinion is a part of a theory relative to the mutation of one organ into another, which has been brought forward and illustrated at great length by some French physiologists, and too hastily adopted by some of our own countrymen. We will probably have a future opportunity of discussing this doctrine, which, I may here remark, appears to be the offspring of metaphy- sical subtlety, and as likely to lead to error in regard to the functions of parts, as to guide us to a knowledge of their true uses. To return from this digression, I remark that univalve shells are again distinguished into such as have the margin of the aperture entire, and into such as have it notched, channel- led, or more or less lengthened into a canal. The latter are said to be canaliculate, or emarginate, or effuse, and, as will be afterwards shown, differ from the first in the habits of their animals, so that the character is of greater importance than is at first obvious. These distinctions and terms it is necessary to remember, as I shall have frequent occasion to use them in our future correspondence. However varied in external character, shells differ very little in their chemical composition. They all consist of car- bonate of lime united to a soft albuminous matter, and any variation that occurs in different shells is merely in the rela- * Manuel de Malacologie et de Conchiliologie, p. 229. In another place, however, he more correctly observes, " Quelques aiiteurs, et entre autres Adanson, I'ont regardee comme I'analogue d'une des valves d'une coquille bivalve, mais evidemment a tort ; car sa position, par rapport au corps de I'animal, n'indique aucune analogic," &c. (p. 103.) [" Some authors, and amongst others Adanson, have regarded it as the analogue of one of the valves of a bivalve shell, but evidently wrongly ; for its position with relation to the body of the animal does not indicate any analogy."] Fotms^ Composition, and Structure of Shells, 339 tlve proportions of these constituent parts. * Mr. Hatchett, to whom we are indebted for all our correct information on this subject, has divided shells into two classes, according to the proportion and state of their animal matter. The first class he names Porcellaneous Shells, since they resemble por- celain, are usually of a compact texture, and have an enamel- led surface, which is often finely variegated. The convolute shells afford good examples of this class. They consist of carbonate of lime, cemented together by so small a portion of albumen, that, when immersed in a dilute acid, the shell is completely dissolved, and not a sensible trace of it left behind. " The shells belonging to the second class are usually covered with a strong epidermis, below which lies the shell in layers, and composed entirely of the substance well known by the name of mother-of-pearl. They have been distinguished by the name of Mother-of-pearl Shells." The fresh-water mus- cles, the oysters, the Hali5tis, and pearly Turbines are examples of this class. " When immersed in acids they effer- vesce, at first strongly, but gradually more and more feebly, till at last the emission of air-bubbles is scarcely perceptible. The acids take up only lime, and leave a number of thin membranous substances, which still retain the form of the shell." These membranes have the properties of coagulated albumen, f But the distinction between these two classes holds good only in extreme cases ; for there are many shells which are intermediate, and stand on debatable ground. The compact bivalves dissolve in the menstruum entirely, as does also the common whelk (5uccinum undatum), but they are not properly porcellaneous ; while the various land snails leave an insoluble membrane, though they are not perlaceous shells. Whence doth the animal borrow these materials, and in what manner doth it apply them to rear up its mansion well fashioned in every part? To the first question, I believe, no satisfactory answer can be given. Some physiologists indeed have analysed the food, and have summed up its constituent item of lime, and there find the earthy material of the shell. But the quantity of lime which the animal takes in this way seems trifling when compared with what is required, and which it actually excretes. 1 know that, in favour of the opi- nion I combat, it has been asserted that the edible snail ( Helix pomatia), which under ordinary circumstances forms a calca- * Raspail and Prevost have found that bivalve shells in the first periods of their growth consist wholly, or nearly so, of phosphate of lime, a dis- covery as inexplicable as it was unexpected. •j- Thomson's Chemistry, v. p. 554-5. Edinburgh, 1807. 340 Natural Histoiy of Molluscous Animals : — reous operculum previously to hybernation, is unable to make any thing more than a membranous substitute " when deprived of nourishment ; " and that the snail itself thrives better, and is found in greater numbers, in chalky districts than elsewhere. This may all be true, and yet it proves little ; for we are far from denying that the food is the source of the lime ; and that lime is not necessary to be eaten in order to the perfect formation of the operculum is proved, as Mr. Bell remarks, by many snails in his possession having formed that part, though during the whole summer they had no access to any preparation of lime. * And, further, sea- water and sea-weed contain a mere fraction of calcareous matter ; yet what and how many large and compact shells are produced by creatures which have no other sustenance ! I repeat, then, that though the food unquestionably is the source of the material of shells^ yet has the architect as certainly the power of changing its constituent principles, and of altering their qualities. The mode in which the shell is built is less a mystery; so that the second question admits a more satisfactory answer. If you will examine the snail of any common Helix, you will perceive that where the body rises into the shell there is a fold or membrane of a semicircular shape. This part is denominated the collar, from the manner in which it surrounds the body, and it is the organ which secretes the shell. The animal is born with the rudiments of its future covering, and by its gradual increase of growth is enabled to push the col- lar for a space, and from time to time, beyond the original margin. In these operations a thin layer of membranous and calcareous matter is excreted and deposited, which is gradually thickened by successive layers being laid on within the first by the repeated protrusions and retractions of the collar. This portion being formed, the animal commences another, and finishes it in the same manner ; and the extent of each portion is marked in some shells by an elevated rib, in others by a slight depression. There is not, as the language of some authors would seem to imply, a regular and alternate deposi- tion of a layer of membrane and a layer of lime ; but in all shells the animal and earthy matters are obviously secreted and deposited at the same moment and in commixture. And although it be true that the exterior or smallest layers are formed first, and that others are successively deposited sub- jacent to them, yet it does not follow, as is commonly stated, that each new layer is complete, and extends beyond the mar- gin of the former one, so that the shell, by every addition, * Zoological Joiu'nal, i. 96-7. Forms^ Composition^ and Structure of Shells. 34«1 increases in thickness and circumference. This, we feel per- suaded, is not the case ; and is disproved by the examination of every univalve, and not supported by the structure of any bivalve. The first-formed whorls of the former are not thicker, not even in fact so thick, as the ultimate ones are ; nor do any bivalves, so far as we are aware, gradually thicken from the beak to the margin. The layers are only partial formations, and do not extend beyond the points to which the animal can protrude or retract the collar or the margins of the cloak. Bivalve shells are formed in precisely the same way as uni- valves ; but here the margins of the cloak or mantle which embraces the body of the animal on each side perform the functions of the collar. You will have observed that the inner surface of all shells is very smooth, and apparently denser and harder than the outer. It appears that the Mollusca, to form this inner layer, excrete the lime in a nearly pure state, that is to say, mixed with much less animal matter, so that in concreting the par- ticles become very close and compact, and receive a polish from the repeated frictions of the soft parts. This structure is very brittle, and hence is called vitreous. It is often used to strengthen and finish the apertures of univalves, as is very remarkable in the helmet shells ( Cassis Lamaixk). The upper part of the spire of some turreted shells are filled with the same matter at a late period of the animal's life, and, be- coming dry and brittle, it is readily broken off, giving rise to what are called decollated shells. The particles which divide multilocular shells into several chambers are likewise vitreous, and seem to be formed by a deposition from the posterior part of the inhabitant at stated periods in its growth, the periods being regulated by a law of its original constitution. In a great number of Mollusca it would appear that the increase of the shell from birth to mature size is uninterrupt- edly progressive ; but there are, perhaps, an equal number, in which the animal, at certain and determined intervals, forms a transverse rib or varix, and seems to become for a season inoperative. These ribs vary much in their numbers, in their figure, and in the distances at which they are placed in dif- ferent shells, but in the same species are alike and uniform, so that it would perhaps be better at once to refer their form- ation to a law of their individual life imprinted on them by their Creator, than to seek for its explanation in causes which are only partially applicable, or of doubtful existence. We may suppose, indeed, with Blainville, that, during the season of love, the derivation of fluid and of energy to the generative system may diminish the secretion of fluid and of 342 Natural History of Molluscous Atmnah : — lime from the cloak, and that then the growth of the shell goes on as usual, as is indicated by the plain intermediate spaces. We may further suppose, that, when the seminal tur- gescence has subsided, the fluids are carried in greater abun- dance to the skin, whence an accumulation of calcareous matter in the margins of the collar, and a consequent varix or rib. We may make such or similar suppositions, but they are idle and improbable; and I mention the hypothesis rather from respect to its able author than frorii any the slightest convic- tion of its truth. It is inconsistent with analogy to believe that the Mollusca are influenced by the sexual passion ere they have attained maturity, yet the hypothesis supposes that some of them feel its power almost from the date of their birth, and afterwards at very short and frequent intervals ; while others, of the same genus even, are swayed by it at dis- tant periods, and only two or three times during the term of their existence. And in what predicament are those which are plain and ribless ? Are we to believe that their life is love unceasing ; or that it ceases only as the animal reaches ma- turity, and is about to finish the aperture of its edifice ? A theory of the formation of shells different from that just explained was once maintained by many naturalists, and amongst others by Klein and Bonnet, men of great learning and celebrity. They said, that the full-grown shell was a mere evolution of the fcetal one, from the addition of matter by in- tusception ; and they supported the theory by the observation, that the shell yet unborn has as many whorls as the adult. The observation is contrary to fact * ; and it is now generally admitted that the collar secretes the material of the building. " It is found to contain in its glands or vessels the carbonate of lime in a free state ; so that, when the surface of the collar is touched by any foreign body, at each point of contact a quantity of it is thrown out mixed with a tenacious mucilage. To be still further convinced of the fact," says M. Gaspard, in an interesting essay on the physiology of the Helix poma- tia, " I cut off" the collar of the mantle, and having thrown it into a dilute acid, a quantity of gas was given off*, and the liquid gave the usual white precipitate with the addition of soda. No other structure similarly treated afforded the same results." f Further, if we drill a hole in the shell, the animal fills it up, not by any secretion from the adjacent portion of skin, but by withdrawing the collar as far as may be neces- * See the admirable preface to Muller's Historia Vermkim, vol. ii. p. xxi. and xxiv. t Zoological Journal, i. 96. Fcn-ms, Ccmiposition, and Structure of Shells* 343 sary ; and in passing it repeatedly over the hole, leaves a layer of calcareous matter each time, until the new piece has ac- quired the requisite thickness. I will not deny that other parts may occasionally secrete shell. The operculum, in the tribes furnished with it, is certainly secreted by the part to which it is attached ; and the skin investing the body appears to furnish the material required for the formation of the septa of multilocular shells, and the tubes of the Tubicolae. The shell is to be considered as a model of the body of its architect ; so that, when we observe two shells to differ re- markably in their figure, we may infer, with perfect safety, that the animals differed no less ; and it is this agreement between the living snail and its dead envelope which gives to the study of the latter an importance it could not otherwise possess. Even the various processes, foliations, and spines, which vary and ornament the outer surface of shells, are the result of similar variations in the collar. " The form of the shell," I translate the words of Blainville, " and even the pre- dominance of the animal matter over the earthy, bear a rela- tion to the form of the skin or of the cloak, and to the age of the snail. Thus, the tubular, spinous, and lamellated elonga- tions, which occur so frequently on the outer surface, are the consequences merely of prolongations, lobes, and fringes of the cloak ; and the notches and channels of the aperture are also produced by the habitual though intermittent protrusion of some organ, as of the respiratory tube, or of the head, or of the oviduct, &c." * When, however, we come to apply the above general doc- trine of the formation of shells to particular cases, we meet with some apparent exceptions. The cowries (Cypr^^^a), for example, by an addition of matter to the edges of their lips, would soon have the aperture entirely closed, as you will per- ceive on examining any species of that genus. To get rid of this difficulty, Bruguiere and others have imagined that the animal threw off the shell when it had become too small for his necessities, and then formed another more capacious, and bet- ter fitted for his ease. This theory labours under insurmount- able difficulty, nor does it seem required by the circumstances of the case. The Cypr<^V, in their immature state, have a very different form from that they have when full grown. When young, they are very thin and brittle, with an evident spire, and a wide aperture, the margins of which are not * Manuel de Malacologie, p. 94. — I may here, once for all, acknowledge the great assistance I have received from this work, in the compilation of this Letter. 344' Natural History of Molluscous Animals : — toothed and inflected, but plain and effuse. {Jig, 88.) They ^® ^'^^fWf^'tm ^^^ then, in fact, convolute shells of the ordinary character, and are obviously enlarged, like all others, by the addition of matter to the outer lip alone. fiut maturity brings with it a change in the organs of the animal. The lobes of its cloak become more developed, and ultimately very large; so that, one issuing from each side of the aperture, they can cover the shell, and meet in the centre of the back. These lobes are secretory organs, and pour out an abundance of lime in a vitreous state ; and by their motions spreading it over the outer surface the shell is thickened, and assumes a form totally different from its primary one, and dependent on the new developement of the soft parts. The Cypr<^^^ are not the only moUusca which acquire a superior developement at maturity; but it is common, in a greater or less degree, to many of them. At this period, many land and marine Mollusca strengthen the lips of their shell with an external or internal rib : others modify and con- tract it with a deposition of vitreous lime ; and others, again, enlarge it by the addition of parts of which there was no pre- vious trace. Thus, the AStromb^sidse (A^trombus Lin.) resemble a cone in their young state, and have no dilated and spinous lip, so remarkably characteristic of their perfect shells. Here we must suppose that, about this period, the lateral lobe of the cloak is enlarged and otherwise changed, in accordance with the digitations of the lip. It is here necessary to take some notice of an opinion, which, though not, perhaps, originally proposed by him, has of late been much insisted on by Mr. G. B. Sowerby, a na- turalist who has paid particular attention to conchology, and whose work *, from which I am about to quote, you will find very useful in your future studies. He tells us that the ani- mal of the cowries, of the cones, and of some other genera, has the capability of dissolving and reabsorbing the calcareous matter of one part of the shell, and of again depositing it in places where additional strength or size is required by the change of form which accompanies the progress towards ma- turity. Thus he accounts for the fact that " young cowries which have formed their involute outer lip, are generally larger than when they are full grown and have completed * Genera of Recent and FossU Shells. I FmmSy Composition, and Structure of Shells, 345 their shell ;" * and thus it happens, that, in cones, the " inner concealed volutions " are ''exceedingly thin," while "the outer or exposed parts are comparatively thick and strong." So, likewise, the transverse spinous ridges which thicken and protect the external lip of the Murices, or rock shells, are removed, probably by a solvent liquor ; " for otherwise, he adds, " it is obvious that these murications or spines mUst be in the way of the future increase of the shells." Let us for a moment admit this hypothesis, and trace the consequences. It supposes the existence of a solvent liquor, and of a glandular apparatus fitted for its secretion ; it supposes that this gland is in action only at particular seasons, and then only for a very limited time, after which it good*-naturedly remains quiescent ; it supposes that the living flesh of the creature is insensible to the burning of this acid, which, it further supposes, is so equally and carefully applied, that the inner volutions are worn only " exceedingly thin," but in no place perforated or destroyed ; and so much only of the spinous lip of the ikfurex dissolved that the spines fall off, and leave the part smooth and even, a state in which an acid never left a part before. It supposes (and this is a startling supposition) that the snail swallows the redissolved lime charged with all its solvent liquor, which, it would seem, passes through the body to reach the excreting organs, and be again deposited. Or, if the supposition is not to be admitted, by what organs, I ask, is the liquid lime pre- vented from being washed away; and by what organs is it purified of the acid, and again spread out and solidified ? A hypothesis which requires so many and such strange supposi- tions for its support cannot for a moment be entertained. It ." is itself so exceedingly absurd," to use Mr. Sowerby's own words, when combating the less unreasonable doctrine of a ce- lebrated naturalist, " that we could have wished, for the credit of science, that it had never disgraced the pages of any books on natural history : " and if any other explanation than what we have given is required to explain the facts, it must be sought for in a more perfect knowledge of the structure of the animals. Let me now direct your attention to the colouring of shells. The shell is rarely coloured throughout. The interior layers are commonly white ; the internal surface is sometimes par- tially coloured, the external one almost always. The fine iridescence of the internal surface of many uni- valves and bivalves is not owing to any colouring matter, but, * This remark seems to have been made, in the first instance, by Mr. Burrows, in his Elements of Coiichology^ p. 95. The fact is very singular, but I do not see exactly how it bears on the question at issue. Vol. IIL — No. 14. a a 346 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : — as the experiments of Dr. Brewster have proved, to the me- chanical disposition of the component particles. This sur- face, however, is, besides, often tainted yellow, red, or brown ; and these spots probably derive their colour from being near to, or in contact with, an organ which secretes a coloured fluid. Thus the yellow or brown spots observable in some univalves are produced, according to Blainville, by the proxi- mity of the liver ; and the shell of the Janthina is stained of a uniform blue by the excrementitious fluid of the animal. The painting of the external surface is in general super- ficial, and its tracing is dependent on the arrangement of the glands which secrete the colouring matter, and which are situated on the margins of the cloak or collar. If you exa- mine a banded snail, you will perceive as many coloured spots on the edge of the collar as there are zones on the shell ; and if a part of the margin of the shell be cut away, the piece re- produced is brown opposite to the dark portion of the collar, but in other parts yellow. In those cases where the colours are disposed in continuous bands, there is no difiiculty in understanding the mode of their formation ; but no experi- ments or observations yet enable us to explain how some are painted in spots disposed in every varied form, some in lines and spots intermixed, and some in bands placed at intervals in the direction of the striae of growth. What Reaumur and Bosc have said on the subject is so entirely hypothetical, that it is unnecessary to repeat it. You can, I doubt not, create for yourself a theory which shall be as satisfactory as theirs ; but, remember, it is not worth the trouble, unless it is based on experiment. Beneath the superficial and visible colouring of the full- grown cowries, and of some olives, there is concealed a deeper painting, different from the first both in colour and in charac- ter. This is accounted for when we remember the peculiar manner in which these shells are perfected. The first thin shell is coloured like other shells, and in the same manner from the margins of the cloak ; but when the dilated cuta- neous lobes of the animal have attained their full size, and deposit the highly polished testaceous coat which strengthens the shell, they deposit at the same time a colouring matter which always assumes a form different from the first; the painting deriving its peculiar character from the manner in which the colouring glands are arranged in the lobes. The colour of shells is a good deal influenced by the operation of light ; so much so, that, in general, the liveliness of the one bears some proportion to the intensity of the other. How varied, vivid, and beautiful are the testaceous Mollusca Forms, Composition, and Structure of Shells, 347 of tropical seas and of tropical climes ! How sober and sub- dued are those which inhabit our northern shores ! The ter- restrial Helices, being most exposed to the operation of light, vary most in their colours ; while those shells which are con- cealed within the bodies of their snails are always white, as are also those which live in holes whence they never issue. An- other striking pi'oof of the blanching effect of darkness is fur- nished by some bivalve shells permanently affixed by their lower valve, which is constantly white, while the upper one may possibly be variegated with bright colours. The spon- dyli, and a number of pectens, afford examples of this con- trast between their valves. Olivi has further remarked, that the shells which are enveloped in sponges, or other foreign bodies, or which burrow in sand, or even which live in con- stantly shaded places, are much paler than those which crawl about unprotected from the light; and even the exposed parts of the same shell are more highly coloured than the parts which are shaded. There is only one other part which remains to be noticed in this letter. This is the epidermis, or what the French call the drap marine. It is a dry horn-coloured membrane, of greater or less thickness, generally smooth, but sometimes rough, or even shaggy, which covers the external surface of most shells ; though many, particularly those of the convolute kind, do not possess it. Some difference of opinion exists as to its nature. Blainville supposes that it is the true epidermis or scarf-skin of the animal, raised from its position by the deposition of the shell underneath it ; and this opinion, we believe, is generally entertained as correct by the French na- turalists. It seems inconsistent, however, with the doctrine of the formation of shells explained above, and cannot, there- fore, be adopted by us. Mr. Gray, who calls this membrane the Periostraca, it appears to me, has given its true theory. He says, " From attentive examination, I am inclined to be- lieve that the periostraca is formed by the outer edges of the plates of animal matter (which has no cretaceous matter de- posited in it, or only a very small quantity) being soldered together, and forming a kind of external coat." * It is, in fact, a dried sheet of coagulated albumen effused at the same time, or, perhaps, even prior to the first layer ; and may be of us6 to protect the subjacent and more cretaceous layers from the action of the air or water during their consolidation. To conclude. When a shell has attained its full growth, the changes which the animal further effects are almost limited * See his very interesting Conchological Observations, in the first volume of the Zoological Journal, p. 210. A A 2 348 HyJrflf, or Fresh-*iioater Polypus, to some increase of its thickness \ not, however, by the addi- tion of any new layers, but by the effusion of vitreous matter. Hence holes and canalss previously visible, are now filled up ; the aperture contracted, and the margins strengthened and enlarged; the upper part of the spire, perhaps, filled and made solid ; and the peculiarities which distinguish the sexes of the dioecious species fully developed. Foreign agents now begin to act, and the external layers lose their hair4ike coat- ing or their epidermis ; the colours become paler, and ulti- mately disappear ; striae and tubercles are smoothed and worn down ; and parasites deform and perforate the outer surface. Death at length overtakes the architect, and the shell decays under the influences of the water and of the air. Such, then, is the manner in which shells are formed, so beautifully painted, and so curiously fashioned. They are the house and strong hold of their proprietors, to whose exist- ence, amid the strife of elements, and the wiles and voracity of their foes, they seem essentially necessary. The shells of the marine tribes, as was fit, are in general of great strength and hardness ; or, if defective in these qualities, their weak- ness, through the appliance of other means, is made strength. The river kinds are less hard, and thinner, being less exposed to the danger of a stormy element and a rocky bottom ; while the shells of land snails are both light and thin, yet com- pletely impervious either to moisture or air. There is much to admire in all this : in the fitness of the shell to its element, in the art displayed in the building, and in the painting of the edifice, there is much to admire ; and yet the possessor crawls on, unconscious of all, admiring nought. Wherefore, then, this profusion of beauty ? Surely the Creator hath pleasure in his works ; surely Epictetus speaks the language of reason when he says, " God hath introduced man into the world to be the spectator of his works, and of their divine Author ; and not to be the spectator only, but to be the announcer and interpreter of the wonders which he sees and adores." I am. Sir, &c. G. J. Art. IX. On tJw H^dra, or Fresh-water Polypus. By Samuel Woodward, Esq. Sir, I AM not aware that the subject of the il/ydra, or fresh- water polypus, has been particularly noticed since the elabo- rate treatise published by Henry Baker, Esq. F.R.S., in IT^S ; and, that work having become scarce, a few remarks may be interesting to your readers. Hydra^ or Fresh-^aoater Polypus, 349 Having, from time to time, collected these animals from the ditches intersecting the meadows in the Cathedral Pre- cinct here, I am desirous that you should record the locality, and, at the same time, direct the attention of naturalists to these interesting objects. For the purpose of ascertaining if they had resumed their summer station, I visited the spot on the 20th of May ; and, in a six-ounce vial of the water (from just beneath the surface) and duckweed which I collected, I found no less than twelve animals, eight of which were of the green kind, i/ydra viridis Lin, {fig* 89. a, twice the natural size), and four pink- s' y k\ / coloured (^), noticed '~~^^^r^ --^^^^^^^ ^y ^^' Baker, at p. 20. if) r^ ^^^ natural history '^ ^ '' -^^^ of these animals. The green species were from 1 to 2 lines in length ; the pink would stretch themselves to nearly 4 lines, and were much the largest ani- mals. On the 23d of this month they began to bud (as at c) ; and on the 24th, young animals, in different stages of growth, were to be seen extending their slender arms from nearly all the specimens : in some instances one, and in others two, were seen attached to the parent stem {de), I observed, in several of the young animals, only five arms, which arose from the remaining two not being developed. Mr. William Anderson, F.R.S., to whom Mr. Baker ac- knowledges himself under great obligations for his assistance in his second treatise on the microscope, paid great attention to these animals, and collected thenj from the ditches around Norwich ; and from his manuscript journal, in my possession, it appears that the principal locality was a ditch in Spring Garden, situate about a quarter of a mil^ south of the place where I collected mine. * He remarks that he has never found any before the beginning of May, or later than August. Of their food, he observes that he found the small white worm, inhabiting the mud of our channels^ to be more acceptable. Mr. Baker fed his upon the small red ^arthrworm. It would, perhaps, be superfluous in me to make any fur- ther remarks, so much having been said by Mr. Baker, to whose interesting work I beg to refer your readers. I ^m, Sir, &c. Samuel Woodward. Dianas Square^ Norwich, May 25. 1829. * The Hydra fusca may be found in the pond by the Red House, at Battersea, as large as Mr. Woodward's drawings of H. viridis. — J, D,C. S. A A 3 350 Introdiictorij View of the Art. X. An Introductory View of the Linnean System of Plants. By Miss Kent, Authoress of Flora Domestica, Sylvan Sketches, &c. {Concluded from ^. \ ^2.') My dear Reader, I HAVE now but a very short time to spend with you, and yet have much to say. Under such circumstances, people are seldom very pleasant companions : they talk too hastily to be very clearly intelligible, and fatigue both their hearers and themselves to little purpose. There is, however, this advan- tage in epistolary companionship, that the parties may take their leave, even in the midst of a sentence, without any breach of politeness. The ninth class, Ennedndria, is a very small one, con- taining three orders. In the first, Monogynia, we have no British plants ; its chief wealth consists of the fine exotic genus Xaurus, which comprehends many handsome and valu- able species : the camphor, cinnamon, and sassafras trees, the poet's laurel, the alligator-pear, and some excellent timber trees. The cashew-nut, Anacardium (from two Greek words signifying heart-shaped) occidentale, also belonging to this order, is a handsome Indian tree, producing fine evergreen leaves ; fragrant flowers ; an edible pear-shaped fruit, from the end of which the nut protrudes ; a caustic oil, applied to various uses ; a gum ; and a natural ink for marking linen. In the second order, Trigynia, is rhubarb, jRheum (from Rha, the ancient name of the river Volga) . The roots of several of the species are used medicinally, and their leaf-stalks for the table. In the third order, Hexagynia^ we have one British species, the flowering rush, Butomus umbellatus, a tall aquatic plant, producing large umbels of handsome flowers, with six rose-coloured petals, and as many pistils of a deeper red, hexa- gonally disposed. The leaves are nearly 3 ft. long, and have three sharp angles, which, wounding the mouths of cattle feeding upon the plant, have obtained for it the name of Bu- tomus, from two Greek words, signifying an ox, and to cut. The tenth class, Decandria^ has five orders. In the first, Monogynia, we find the beautiful evergreen called the straw- berry tree, ^^rbutus Uhedo*, which displays its delicate fruit * The word Arbutus has been derived from the Celtic ar-boiscy austere bush; in reference to the roughness of the fruit. In the same manner, Pliny's appellation, C/nedo (signifying, I eat one) is supposed to express that naturalist's opinion of the fruit ; but surely neither name can be con- sidered as justly applying to this tree strawberry, which, however some may call it insipid, can never deserve a harsher epithet. They might b^- better bestowed on the red bear-berry, A. Uva-ursi. Linnean System of Plants, 351 and flowers in the dreariest months of the year, and is elegant and ornamental at all seasons. It grows wild near the Lake of Killarney, in Ireland ; but is by many persons supposed to have been originally introduced from the south of Europe. The two other species included in the British Flora are trail- ing shrubs, growing on mountainous heaths. Another elegant genus of evergreens, very nearly related to the ^'rbutus, is the Andromeda, so called by Linnaeus, from the fair lady of that name, who was exposed to the fury of sea-monsters, and rescued by Perseus. We have one British species, men- tioned by Linnaeus in that delightful work, his Tou7' in Lap^ land. The exotic species are numerous. Rivalling these in elegance of growth is the genus wintergreen (Pyrola), of which we have several British species growing in the woods of Scotland and the north of England. Among the more important productions of this order are, the logwood of com- merce, the Brazil wood of the dyers, lignum vitae, mahogany, the balsam of capevi, and the quassia bark, so named in me- mory of the negro slave Quassi, who first discovered its valu- able properties. A very remarkable plant is Venus's fly-trap (Dionae^« muscipula), which, from the form and irritability of the leaves at their extremity, entraps small insects. Among the more ornamental plants generally cultivated in England are the rhododendrons, kalmias, and andromedas. In the second order, Digynia^ are placed the Hydrangea (from two Greek words, signifying water and vessel, on account of the great quantity of water it consumes), the pink (Dianthus, from the Greek, signifying God's flower, on account of its superior beauty) ; and the saxifrage, of which that delicate little plant called London Pride, so well known as thriving even in the smoke of cities, is a species. Another native species, S. granulata, aflbrds to the young botanist an example of the gra- nulated root; in which a number of small solid knobs are connected by fibres, {fg. 90.) A handsome and fragrant native plant of this order is the soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), so called from the cleansing properties of the sap. The other orders are chiefly composed of plants of inferior note. In the next three classes we are to consider not only the number of sta- mens, but their insertion. The eleventh class, Dodeccindria, includes plants of which the flowers have A A 4 35^ Introductory View of the from eleven to twenty stamens, affixed to the receptacle. The twelfth class, Icosdndria, has twenty or more stamens, affixed to the calyx ; and the thirteenth class, Polyandria, has from twenty to a thousand, affixed to the receptacle. The eleventh class, Dodecdndria^ has six orders, distin- guished, as in the former classes, by the number of pistils : in the first order, Monogynia, we have two British plants, asara- bacca, the pulverised leaves of which act as a powerful snuff; and loosestrife, iy thrum (from two Greek words signifying black blood, in reference to the colour of the flowers) Salicaria (willow-like ; from salix, a willow), a very handsome plant, not unfrequently cultivated in gardens. Among the more important exotics is the mangosteen (Garcin/a Mangostdna), the fine fruit of which is equally delicious, refreshing, and salutary. In the second order, Digynia^ we have but one British plant, agrimony, formerly much used in medicine ; and of late years a principal ingredient in most of the com- pounds called British tea. The sweet mignonette, so general a favourite, is a species of jReseda, a genus belonging to the third order, Trigynia, We have a British species, called wild mignonette ; but it is deficient in the principal charm of the exotic plant, its fragrance. Another British species is used for dyeing yellow. The common house-leek, frequently seen on the walls and roofs of cottages, is in the sixth order, Dodecagynla, The twelfth class, Icosdndria, has three orders : the first, Monogynia, includes the plum, cherry, apricot (Prunus); the peach, nectarine, almond (^mygdalus), the pomegranate, the clove tree, the allspice tree, the myrtle, the syringa, and the extensive and very curious genus Cactus ; of which many of the species are interesting, and some singularly beautiful. The second order consists of plants furnished with from two to five pistils (the number varying, not only on the same species, but sometimes on the same plant), and is styled Di- Pentagynia, It comprehends the apple and pear in all their varieties (Py rus) ; the qumce, the medlar, the hawthorn, and that large and brilHant genus, Mesembryanthemum, &c. &c. The order Polygynia is possessed of the raspberry, blackberry, &c. (jRubus) ; the strawberry (Fragaria), the beautiful genus jRosa, &c. The class Polydndria was formerly divided into seven orders. Sir J. E. Smith recommended that they should be reduced to three ; the pistils being so variable in number as to cause much confusion to no purpose. In his English Flora, therefore, he has thrown several orders into one, which, the number five mostly prevailing, he calls Pentagynia; but Linnean Si/stem of Plants, S53 observes that the pistils vary from two to six. In the first order of this class, Monogynia^ are found many handsome plants, and many of ill repute : but plants, like human beings, however ill a name they bear, are generally found to possess some redeeming qualities. The white poppy (Papaver som- niferum), which produces opium, should rather be lauded for its beneficence, than branded as an assassin : its virtues are acknowledged by thousands who have had experience of them, and, while treated with the respect it so well deserves, it exhi- bits virtues only. Power is a dangerous thing, and all who possess it should be approached with caution; but it is not always employed to destroy. Even hellebore and aconite, great as is their power to destroy life, are sometimes em- ployed to preserve it. The lime tree (Tilia) alone might redeem all the sins of the other genera in this order : in this country it is cultivated chiefly for its scent and beauty ; but, to say nothing of its reputation for purifying the air around it, the many uses to which it is applied, more particularly by the Russians, show, at least, of what it is capable. Nor should we forget that this tree, which we may proudly claim as a Briton, gave its name to the illustrious Linnaeus, whom every naturalist may style his friend. Among the handsomest of our native plants in this order, we may reckon the white and yellow water-lilies : the former nearly related to the sacred lotus flower of the Egyptians ; the latter, in Norfolk called brandy-bottles, possessing so strong a scent and flavour of that spirit, that they are not only used to flavour sherbet, but the Greeks make a cordial of them. Some of the more remark- able exotics are, the mammee apple; the anchovy pear; the Sarracenm, with its curious tubular leaves; and the Cor- chorus, one species of which so generally enlivens our gar- dens with its profusion of sunny-coloured flowers. In the second order, Pentagynia^ the principal genera are the pseony, the larkspur, wolfsbane, and columbine; of all which we have native species. The third order, Polygynia, contains, besides the Anemone, JSanunculus, Clematis, and jBTelleborus, of which we have British species, the beautiful tulip tree, Liriodendron Tulipifera, and the noble Magnolm. The fourteenth class, Didyndmia, is distinguished by four stamens, of which two are longer than the rest. The flowers have a tubular calyx, generally five-cleft ; an irregular mono- petalous corolla, of which the border is mostly divided into two lips, the upper erect, the lower spreading and three- cleft. They have but one pistil, of which the stigma is cleft or notched. This class is divided into two orders ; Gymno- spermia (from the Greek, a naked seed), the seeds, generally $54 Introducto)^ View of the four in number, lying uncovered at the bottom of the calyx ; and Angiospermia (from the Greek, seed-vessel), the seeds being enclosed in a capsule. In addition to the characters by vi^hich this class is principally distinguished, there are, in the first order, so many points of general resemblance, that a very little experience will enable the young botanist to detect them 91 at sight. One glance at the flowers of the ground-ivy, Glechoma Aede- racea [Jig, 91.), and the white dead- nettle, Xamium album (Vol. I. p. 429. fig. 186.), will give a better idea of this order than any explanation that I have space to offer. Here are placed many of our aromatic herbs, as mint, thyme, marjoram, balm, lavender, .^ hyssop, &c. The form of the corolla is much more varied in the second order than in the first : in some ge- nera it is elongated into a spur at the base, and the mouth closed ; in others, the tube is simply cylindrical, and the mouth open ; some have a bell-shaped corolla, as the fox- glove ; while a few, more regularly formed, are less strikingly characterised by their general air, as the Linnae^fl!, an elegant little plant, bearing the name of the illustrious Swede, and, like himself, sui generis. As there is one Linnaeus, so is there one Linnse^tt, described by himself as " a little northern plant, long overlooked, depressed, abject, flowering early." He might have added, — standing alone in systematic botany, whether natural or artificial ; and occupying an elevated sta- tion, in which nature had placed, and time would preserve, it. Among the more remarkable exotics of this order are the trumpet-flower (Bignonm) ; the celebrated Acanthus of the architect ; and the calabash tree, of the fruit of which, the pulp being scooped out, the rind is used as a basin to contain liquids. This order is also remarkable for the number of its genera, named in honour of botanists, among whom (not to mention their great sovereign Linnaeus) we find Gesner, Thunberg, Gmelin, Haller, Gerard, Sibthorp, Celsius, &c. The fifteenth class, Tetradyndmia *, is distinguished by six stamens, of which four are longer than the other two. It is composed of the cross-shaped, botanically termed cruciform, flowers. They have a calyx of four leaves, a corolla of four * The words Didynamia and Tetradynamia have been differently, but not satisfactorily, derived. Linnean Sy stein of Plants, 355 petals, and one pistil. Four stamens are placed in pairs on opposite sides of the germen ; and between each pair a single stamen, which, bending outwards to include a small gland, serving as a nectary, at the base of the germen, is thereby rendered shorter, or rather lower, than those which have no such interruption. There are two orders, distinguished by the form of the seed-vessel, which, in the first, Siliculosa, is short and broad ; in the second order, Siliquosa, long and narrow, formed of two valves, with the seeds fastened along both sutures ; in many cases there is a membranous portion be- tween, and parallel with the valves, dividing the interior of the silique into two cells. In the first order, we have the British plants, dyer's-woad, horse-radish, and sea-kale; in the second order, the cabbage, turnip, mustard, water-cress, " the lady's smock, all silver white," and the stock gillyflower ; other stocks, wallflowers, rockets, &c., from the south of Europe; and the radish, from China. The sixteenth class, Monadelphia, is characterised by the lower part of the filaments being all united, sometimes only at the immediate base, sometimes half their length, or more. This union is expressed in the name of the class, which is formed from two Greek words, signifying one brotherhood. The orders of this class are distinguished by the number of stamens (in the first thirteen classes, a classical character). The first order, Triandria, claims the tamarind tree ; the tiger flower, as short-lived as it is splendid ; and a few other genera of less note. The most important genus in the second order, Pentandria^ is the passion flower (Passiflora), of which several species bear edible fruits, juicy, well-flavoured, and extremely refreshing in a hot climate ; and all are eminently ornamental. Here stands the heron's bill (Erodium), which formerly made a part of the genus Geranium, now divided into three genera, all named in reference to the beaked fruit. The stork's bill (Pelargonium), comprising most of the African geraniums, constitutes the third order, Heptagynia, The crane's bill (Geranium), from which the two last-mentioned have been separated, retains its old name, and its station in the fifth order, Decdndria, Many of the species are British plants, some very common, but all more or less pretty and interesting. G. lucidum, of which the flowers are small and comparatively inconspicuous, discovers considerable beauty when narrowly observed ; more particularly the calyx. It is an elegant little plant, with a tendency to redden ; the leaves, as though emulating the petals, growing redder and redder every day, until the latter become pale in the comparison. The same change may be observed in some other species, 356 Introductory View of the more especially in G, Robert/«W7», which may often be seen in the autumn, of one deep and vivid crimson. In this order is placed the splendid genus Browner, named, not from the celebrated botanist now living, but from a physician of the last century, who published a natural history of Jamaica. The principal genera in the sixth order, Dodecandria, are Mon- sbnia, and Astrapae^a; the latter named from a Greek word signifying lightning, in reference to the splendour of its flowers. The seventh order, Polyandria, contains several ex- tensive and important genera, as the mallow (Malva) ; J/ibis- cus; cotton plant (Gossypium); the silk-cotton tree (Bombax); the sour gourd ( Adansonxa), said to have a thicker trunk than any other known tree ; the Camelb'«, in which genus some botanists include the tea tree, and other trees and shrubs of surpassing beauty. The character of the seventeenth class, Diadelphia (two brotherhoods), is the combination of the filaments in two sets, equal or unequal. These are sometimes observed slightly to cohere at the immediate base. The orders are four, distin- guished, as in the last and the next class, by the number of stamens. Pentandria contains only a few genera of inferior note ; Hexdndria consists chiefly of the beautiful genus JFu- maria ; the milkwort (Polygala) is the principal genus in the third order, Octdndria ; the great wealth of the class is in the fourth order, Decdndria, which holds a high rank both for the utility and beauty of its productions. The genera have papiUo- naceous flowers (butterfly-like; from papilio^ a butterfly) ; and, in consideration of their family likeness, many have been admitted which more properly belong to Monadelphia. The license is perhaps to be regretted, as there are still some papilionaceous plants excluded ; if, in a flower of this form, there be ten stamens perfectly distinct, it has its place in the tenth class : if the stamens be in any way combined, it will be found in Diadelphia. The young botanist will mostly find nine of the stamens combined, and one simple, in the flowers of this order ; the calyx of one leaf, five-cleft at the margin, the lower segment longer, the two upper rather shorter, than the lateral segments, and the corolla of five petals, all affixed to the receptacle. Two of the petals cohering at the lower side, form a boat-shaped cavity, termed the keel, in which the pistil and stamens are lodged, taking the same curved direc- tion; two other petals, called the wings, are placed at the sides of the keel ; while the fifth, termed the standard, longer and broader than the rest, crosses and rests upon the upper side of the keel, closing in the stamens and pistil. The com- bination of the filaments usually corresponds with the length Linnean System of Plants, iS37 of the germ ; beyond the germ they are all distinct. Where there is one simple stamenj it serves as a door by which the germ can escape from confinement as it increases in size, and it fits in so exactly between the sides of the broader filament, as sometimes to appear as if a part of it. When all the fila- ments are combined, they either form a tube enclosing the germ, which^ in its increase, forces itself a way out, by rending it in two ; or the combined part folds round the germ, the sides closely meeting, but not uniting. The seed-vessel is either a pod of two valves, both of which have seeds affixed to a receptacle running along their upper edge, as in the pea ; or a succession of closed one-seeded joints, as in //edysarum, &c. Linnaeus said of this order, that it did not contain one noxious plant. This, as Sir J. E. Smith observes, is saying rather too much ; but it has very few deserving of that epithet (none of British growth), while it produces much wholesome herbage for cattle, and a great variety of seeds eaten by man. We may instance clover, lucerne, saintfoin, tare, peas, beans, lentils, &c. The tonquin bean, so much admired for its fra- grance, is the seed of a plant of this order : another produces the red saunders wood, others yield indigo, liquorice, &c. Of the more ornamental plants, we are well acquainted with the laburnum, the acacia {Rohinia Pseudacacia) so valuable for its hard durable wood, the sweet pea, everlasting pea, broom, the golden furze of our heaths, &c., to say nothing of the Glycine, Erythrlna, and other exotics less generally known. But the most remarkable plant in this order is the -Hedysarum gyrans, familiarly called the moving plant, which has an irregular and apparently voluntary motion, for which no external cause has yet been ascertained. Sometimes many leaves are moving in various directions, sometimes one leaf, or one leaflet only ; it is quiescent in a strong wind, or sun, and in general on very hot days, — shall we say, because too languid for exertion, or because it does not then require exercise to keep it warm ? This appearance of voluntary power is calcu- lated to excite doubts whether plants may not be more capable of sensation than has been supposed : and whether they may quite approve of the manner in which we lord it over them. The eighteenth class, Polyadelphia, has the filaments so combined at the base as to form more than two sets. This is a small but important class. In the order Decandria stands the chocolate nut tree, Theobr^ma (from two Greek words signifying God and food). Polydndria^ with many genera eminently ornamental, has one invaluable genus, of which the extraordinary beauty is its least merit; the Citrus, to which 35^ Infrodiictory View of the we are indebted for the lime, the lemon, the citron, and the orange. The orange tree may be considered as one of the graces of the vegetable world, uniting in itself a multiplicity of charms. It is a tree of handsome growth, with polished evergreen leaves of the most elegant form, a profusion of beautiful and fragrant flowers, and a wholesome and delicious fruit, cased in gold, which has inspired the poets with a thou- sand exquisite images ; yet, not satisfied with all these perfec- tions, it insists upon yet further provoking the genus ii^itabile^ by possessing them all at once ; the delicate white blossoms breathing out their sweetness upon the very cheeks of the glowing fruit. Such is the beauty of the tree ; ask the feverish invalid if its benevolence be not yet greater. We have one British genus of this order, St. John's wort (jHypericum), one species of which the peasants of France and Germany gather on St. John's day, and hang in their windows, as a charm against evil spirits. The nineteenth class, Syngenesia, has compound flowers, with the anthers united into a tube. The name of the class (from the Greek, growing together) tells in two ways ; apply- ing both to the union of the anthers and to the number of florets forming the compound flower. The florets are of two kinds ; either tubular, with a spreading five-cleft margin, or ligulate^ long, flat, and narrow, with a very minute tube at the base. They have five stamens and one pistil, and are crowded many together on one common receptacle, seated in a common calyx. In the first order, Polygdmia ^qu-dlis^ the florets are all ligulate, as the common dandelion. In the second order, Polygdmia Superflua^ a number of ligulate florets wanting stamens are ranged round the circumference of the receptacle, and called the rays ; while the centre is crowded with tubular florets, having both stamens and pistil, and is termed the disk, as in the daisy, in which the disk is yellow, and the rays white. In the third order, Polygdmia Prustrdnea^ the florets of the circumference have neither stamens nor pis- til, as may be seen in the common blue corn-flower. In the fourth order, Polygdmia Necessdria, the florets of the disk have no pistil, the marginal florets no stamens, as may be observed in the common garden marigold (Calendula). In the last order, Polygdmia Segregdta, the florets have, in addition to the common calyx which protects them all, a partial calyx, sometimes to eadi separate floret, sometimes containing two or more. Of this order we can give no familiar example. From this class we derive several esculent plants and bitter herbs, as the lettuce, endive, cardoon, artichoke, tansy, worm- wood, chamomile, &c. ; and some ornamental flowers, as the Linnean System of Plants. 359 chrysanthemum, xeranthemum, sunflower, dahlia, asters, French marigold, &c. The twentieth class, Gynandria, has the stamens proceed^ ing from the germen or the style. The flowers of this class have a peculiar construction, not to be hastily explained ; and the young botanist will do well to make himself practically acquainted with the less difficult classes, before he attempts the study of this, or the twenty-fourth class, Cryptogdmia, It contains many beautiful genera, among which the O^rchis tribe are conspicuous. The roots of several species of O^rchis, dried and ground, form the powder called salep (as it is sup- posed, from the original Arabic, sahhleb). The twenty-first class, Monce'cia^ comprehends such plants as have their stamens and pistils in different flowers on the same plant. The name signifies one house ; the plant being so considered, we may suppose the flowers to be the rooms in which its unsocial inhabitants lodge. In the first order, Mon- andria^ we find the bread-fruit tree, Artocarpus (of which word the English name is a translation), so well known for its large bread-like fruit, forming the chief sustenance of thou- sands of human beings in the Indies and South Sea islands ; and the curious genus JBuphorbm, of which many of the species grow in the most grotesque and fantastic forms. They abound in an acrid, milky juice, which is applied to various purposes ; that of E. helioscopia, a British species, is used for the cure of warts ; whence the plant is familiarly termed wart- wort. In the third order, Tridndria^ stands the Indian corn, of which Mr. Cobbett has latterly been so zealous to promote the cultivation in this country ; and the sedge, many species of which are employed for tying up vines, making chair bot- toms, weaving over Florence flasks to protect the glass, &c. The fourth order contains some valuable trees and evergreen shrubs, as the alder, mulberry, box, aucuba, &c. In this good company we find the nettle, which has its leaves covered with tubular bristles, each furnished with a bag of poison at its base, of which most of us have experienced the powers. Yet the plant has its uses : cloth, ropes, and paper may be made from the stalks, and the young shoots are frequently eaten as greens. Some insects, as mischievous as themselves, may sometimes feed upon the fresh leaves ; but they also afford food to some of our loveliest butterflies. The genus ^marantus is in the order Peiitdndria, In the sixth order, Hexdndria, is the cocoa-nut tree, one of many fine palms distributed in this and the two following classes. It furnishes to the In- dians almost every necessary of life : every part of it has its uses. A house to live in, furniture, clothing, and food, are 360 Linnean System of Plants, all obtained from this tree, which demands a volume to do it justice. Some of the most important genera of the seventh order, Polyandria^ are the beech, birch, nut, chestnut, walnut, plane, hornbeam, and oak, an extensive genus, of which the cork tree is a species. The sweet-gum tree (Liquidambar) is valuable both for the fragrant gum from which it is named, and for its hard and compact wood. Lords and ladies are of this order. The last order, Monad4lphia, also, is a very im- portant one, comprising the areca-nut tree, the pine, fir, larch, cypress, cedar, arbor vitae, &c. Gourds, cucumbers, melons, tapioca, castor oil, and various medicinal drugs, are obtained from plants of this order. Here, too, are placed the tallow tree, and the poisonous manchineel of the West Indies, The twenty-second class, Dice'cia (two houses), has the sta- mens and pistils not only in separate flowers, but on separate plants. The principal genus in the order Didndria is the willow, of which Sir J. E. Smith has enumerated sixty-four native species. In Triandria we find the date palm, and the irrope-grass, generally used at the Cape of Good Hope for thatching houses, and found to be remarkably durable. In Tetrandria are placed mistletoe, and the candleberry myrtle. Pentdndria, though a small order, is a wealthy one, being possessed of the pistacia, the hop, hemp, &c. In Hexdndria is the yam, and the poplar occupies the order Octdndria. In Polydndria, besides the butcher's broom, which has its flower- stalk concealed under the upper surface of the leaf, are the juniper, the yew, the nutmeg tree, and the pitcher plant, so named from a tubular pitcher-shaped appendage at the ex- tremity of the leaf. In the class Polygdmia there are perfect flowers, flowers with stamens, and flowers with pistils only, either on the same or on distinct plants. Those which bear them on the same plant are included in the order Monce'cia ; those which bear them on separate plants form the order Dioe^cia, In the first we find the genus Mimosa, of which two remarkable species are the sensitive and the humble plants ; the interesting genus -4cacia, &c. In the second order are the carob tree, the fruit of which was supposed to have been eaten by St. John in the wilderness, whence it was named St. John's bread ; the bread-nut tree of Jamaica, of which the fruit is boiled and eaten with their meat by the negroes ; the date plum ; ginseng, the root of which is considered, in more countries than its own, as a remedy for every ill, whether of mind or body ; and that peculiarly interesting genus, the fig tree. As these letters were intended for the use of persons com- Antediluvian Zoology. 361 mencing the study of botany, I have mentioned chiefly such genera as are more or less known in this country : by far the greater number, even of these, I have necessarily passed un- noticed ; and many, but cursorily mentioned, might occupy volumes. The two last-mentioned classes, in particular, con- tain many genera of extraordinary interest, as the oak, fir, willow, Mimosa, Acacia, i^icus, &c. It will not be necessary at present to touch upon the twenty- fourth class, Cnjptogamia. The young student should be well familiarised with the less difficult classes before he attempts to study plants so imperfectly understood even by the best botanists. At some future period I purpose to speak of this class more at length than circumstances will admit of my doing at this moment. Till then, reader, farewell. Art. XI. Illustrations of Antediluvian Zoology. By R. C. Taylor, Esq., F.G.S. {Concluded from p. 287.) We resume our notices of Antediluvian Zoology, continuing the division of ARTICULATED ANIMALS, Insects. — When we consider the enormous proportion of in- sects to the rest of the animated beings in the present world, — being, according to Baron Humboldt, no less than 44,000 out of 51,700, — we might expect to discover more frequent traces of these tribes in the fossil w^orld. Whether they did not pre- vail in such numbers during the former period of the globe, or whether, as is most probable, the extreme delicacy of their structure was unfavourable to their preservation, we have only the fact, that but scanty traces of their former existence, par- ticularly in the elder beds, do now appear. The elytra of two or three species of Coleopterous Insects are found in the Stonesfield calcareous slate. They are also traced in the coal shale of the oolite series in Yorkshire, and occasionally in older coal slates, and accompanying some other vegetable deposits. They have been observed in the peaty beds below the diluvium of the Norfolk coasts, and in a similar bed on the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire coasts. In the sub- marine forest of Mount's Bay, Dr. Boase recognised fragments of insects, particularly the elytra and mandibles of the beetle tribe, vi^hich still display the most beautiful shining colours when first dug up. The wings of beetles were found in spUt- ting the shale at Danby coal-pits in Yorkshire. Vol. III. — No. 14. b b S62 Aiitediluvian Zoology. We proceed to a more important division, that of the VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Birds. — These remains also are of rare occurrence ; and the same remark might be applied to them, with respect to proportion, as to the preceding order. It does seem a singular circumstance, that more birds have not been found fossil, when we consider that they now are, as regards species, five times as numerous as the Mammalia. The known proportions are estimated by Baron Humboldt as follows : — In the world. Birds - - 4000 species. Reptiles - - 700 Mammalia - 500 In Europe only. Birds - - 400 species. Reptiles - - 30 Mammalia - 80 In the opposite or southern zone we find likewise nearly five times more birds than Mammalia, and towards the equa- tor the proportion of birds increases considerably. These facts are remarkably opposed to those furnished by the antediluvian zoology, where, according to Cuvier's enu- meration of fossil animals, it appears that in those ancient periods the globe was inhabited much more by Mammalia than by birds. Bones of birds have been detected in the oolite limestone of Stonesfield by Dr. Buckland, and two species in the ferrugi- nous sandstones of Hastings and of Tilgate Forest by Mr. Mantell. Since the discovery of a perfect skeleton of the flying reptile to which has been affixed the name of Pterodac- tyl us, which appears both in the lias of Dorsetshire and in the tertiary beds of Paris, it has been suggested by Dr. Buckland that some of the bones at Stonesfield, which have been hitherto assigned to birds, may possibly belong to this singular animal. Should this supposition prove to be well founded, our proofs of the ancient existence of birds will be much cir- cumscribed. Ten species of birds have been furnished by the gypsum quarries near Paris. * * The editors of the English edition of the Animal Kingdom have pointed out the errors of compilers relative to fossil birds, particularly as to the petnfied cucJcooSy arising from a mistaken quotation from Zannichelli, who speaks of a fish bearing that name, and not of a bird. A mistake, equally ludicrous, has been repeated in this country. Martin, fifty years ago, described the bird called the stone curlew as existing in the neighbourhood of Thetford. A work of very extensive circulation and popularity has subsequently assured its readers that petrified curlews have been discovered at Thetford, and the error seems likely to be perpetuated by other equally accurate topographers ! Antediluvid7i Zoology. ^63 Fishes, — The most common form in which they are found is compressed between the laminag of sandstones, schists, cal- careous slates, and Purbeck marble. Their teeth, scales, and vertebrae are abundant in many formations between the lias and London clay, particularly in the latter, and are even yet more plentiful in the Suffolk crag beds. These teeth are commonly ascribed to varieties of sharks. Palates, or " dentes molares," are found in the oolites, and are beautifully preserved in chalk. No animal remains are common to so many forma- tions, from the transition limestone to the crag, as the spinous radii of some species of Balistes. Mr. Mantell has observed eighteen or more kinds of fishes in the Sussex chalk, and several genera and species in the Tilgate stone. The mineralised remains of fishes, particularly towards the upper portion of our strata, are found to accord with existing genera, and even with some species, more than most fossils. Much remains to be done in this department of natural history. One fact like that observed in the Testacea, mentioned by several writers, is too interesting to be passed over, the con- centration of many genera of fossil fishes which are now dis- persed in various seas. A vast collection of impressions of fish have long been known to exist in the calcareous schist of Monte Bolca, many of which have been identified with living species. In M. Bozza*s collection, out of 1 00 known fishes, 4« were ascertained to be similar to those living in the seas of Otaheite. In the Paris museum, containing 62 species, 28 are said to be common to European seas ; 1 4 to Indian seas ; 2 to Afri- can ; 1 3 to South American ; and 5 to North American. In another collection, of 105 species, from the same place, M. Saussure decided that 34 resemble those of European seas; 39 Asiatic ; 3 African; 1 8 South American ; 11 North American. Recent observation and more critical examination have determined that a larger proportion than is here assigned may be classed with the inhabitants of our seas. Professor Sedgewick and Mr. Murchison discovered nume- rous fossil fish in the calcareo-bituminous schist of Caithness and the Orkneys. Some of these, on being submitted to the inspection of Baron Cuvier, were considered by him to be analogous to the bony pike. On examination of more perfect specimens, Mr. Pentland confirmed the conjecture of Baron Cuvier, and ascertained two new genera, one of which con- tains four, the other two, species of Ichthyolites. They are B B 2 S64 Antediluvia7i Zoology^ probably all of fresh-water origin, and are accompanied by remains of Trionyx (?), but no marine exuviae have been ob- served. Professor Sedgewick conceives this bituminous schist to be a perfectly distinct fresh-water formation, situate between the new and the old red sandstones, and not at present identi- fied with any part of the English series. Mr. J. Phillips has figured teeth, vertebrae, and other bones of fishes from the gault, coral rag, Oxford clay, and lias beds, of Yorkshire. The marl slate of the magnesian limestone of Durham has produced seven or eight species of Ichthyolites, belonging to the order Malacopterygii abdominales and the genus Palaeothrissum. To the Reverend A. Sedgewick we are indebted for a fine series of illustrative drawings of these fish. GeoL Trans.^ vol. iii. pi. 8. to 1 2. OVIPAROUS QUADRUPEDS (AMPHi'bIA). Bauria, — An improved acquaintance with comparative anatomy has led to the classification of numerous animals of this order. Several genera are now known in different form- ations. Mr. Coneybeare is of opinion that eleven or twelve distinct species of gavials and crocodiles occur in the second- ary strata, and in as many different geological sites. They commence in the new red sandstone, and occur in the lias, and thence upwards to the London clay. As the recent species of crocodiles and gavials are natives of hot climates, an important inference has hence been drawn, that these fossil species were also inhabitants of hot climates ; and it is con- firmatory of other circumstances which seem to show that all fossils originally existed in a higher temperature than prevails at present in the latitudes where we discover them. These opinions have given rise to an animated controversy, conducted by Dr. Fleming, Mr. Coneybeare, and Dr. Buckland, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, The lias beds are rich in saurian remains, and the frag- ments that are found in the Stonesfield slate, the ferruginous sandstone of Tilgate Forest, of Hastings, and the Isle of Wight, indicate the prodigious magnitude of the reptiles to which they belonged. It does not appear that the fossil skeletons of any saurian animals assimilate precisely to living species. By far the greater number are of extraordinary conformation. Thus, the Plesiosaurus (Jig. 92.) approaches to the genus Crocodile, but possesses double the number of vertebrae ; a neck resembling the body of a serpent ; the head of a lizard ; nstead of feet, it has swimmers like a whale, or paddles like Atitediluvian Zoology, 365 92 ^*™^i^ Restoration of the Plesiosaurus dolichodelrus. Geol. Trans., vol. i. pi. xlix. 2d series, fig. 6. those of turtles, and in other respects its proportions present some approach to those animals. * The Ichthyosaurus {Jigs, 93. and 94.) recedes from the form Sketch of Ichthyosaftrus, discovered in the Whitby alum shale, and figured by Messrs. Young and Bird, Geol. of Yorkshire. of the lizard family, and in the structure of its vertebrae it approaches that of fishes. It has forty-one cervical and dorsal * From Mr. Coneybeare's interesting anatomical description of the Ple- siosaurus we learn that this animal had from thirty-five to forty-one joints in the neck, which is about seven times the number possessed- by qua- drupeds and Mammalia ; five times that by reptiles ; three times that by birds ; and twice, at least, that by the Ichthyosaurus. With reference to the supposed habits of this animal, we cannot forbear quoting this accomplished naturalist ; — " That it was aquatic, is evident from the form of its paddles ', that it was marine, is almost equally so, from the remains with which it is universally associated ; that it may have occa- sionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to those of the turtle may lead us to conjecture. Its motion, however, must have been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded its progress through the water ; presenting a striking contrast to the organisation which so admirably fits the Ichthyosaurus to cut through the ,waves. May it not therefore be concluded (since, in addition to these circumstances, its respiration must have required frequent access of air), that it swam upon or near the surface, arching back its long neck like the swan, and occasion- ally darting it down at the fish which happened to float within reach ? It may, perhaps, have lurked in shoal water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and, raising its nostrils to a level with the surface from a considerable depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous enemies ; while the length and flexibility of its neck may have compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for swift motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the attack which they enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey, which came within its extensive sweep." B B 3 366 Antediluvian Zoology. vertebrae, and is also furnished with paddles, intermediate between feet and fins. " This genus exhibits the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of a crocodile, the head and sternum of a lizard, the swimmers of a whale, and the vertebrae of a fish." Found in the lias, Stonesfield slate, Oxford clay, Kimmeridge clay, coral rag or Malton oolite, and probably in other form- ations. Restoration of Ichthyosaurus communis, by the Reii||i|/. D. Coneylieare, Geol. Trans., vol. i. The Megalosaurus, or gigantic lizard of Stonesfield and Tilgate Forest, is computed by Dr. Buckland to be 40 ft. long. It possesses resemblances both to the monitors and the crocodiles. Mr. Mantell estimates the Iguanodon, the great herbivorous reptile of the Tilgate stone, to have far exceeded the last in magnitude, and to have attained the extraordinary length of 60 ft. This appears to have been an inhabitant of fresh-water lakes, and rivers. Vertebrae of another saurian animal have lately been dis- t^overed in the Portland series at Thame, near Oxford, of still more extraordinary dimensions. They are twice as large as those of the Iguanodon, and four times the size of the ver- tebrae of the Mastodon. The Stonesfield slate contains perhaps one of the most remarkable assemblages of organic remains that are known to geologists. Here are marine, amphibious, and terrestrial animals, associated with terrestrial, fluviatile or lacustrine, and marine plants, and with birds and insects ; all collected in a hed, *t!ohose greatest thickness does not exceed 6ft, This deposit has a singular parallel in the ferruginous sand- stone of Tilgate Forest, where a similar series occurs, notwith- standing the formations are of different periods. Here occurs, blended with the bones of a gigantic species of crocodile, of the Megalosaurus and the Plesiosaurus, the Leptorjnchus, the Pterodactylus, and the remains of turtles, birds, shells, and tropical vegetation, that extinct herbivorous reptile to which Mr. Mantell, at the suggestion of Mr. Coneybeare, has given the name of Iguanodon, from its close affinity to the recent Igiuhia of the West Indies. The great difference appears to be Antediluvian Zoology. 367 in the size of the fossil animal, which is of gigantic propor-. tions. It is concluded that, if an amphibious, it was not a marine reptile, but the inhabitant of rivers and fresh-water lakes. The same animal may be traced, in its enormous frag- ments, on the eastern and western sides of the Isle of Wight, and in the Isle of Purbeck, mingled with the remains of two species of crocodile and the Megalosaurus. We have figured several illustrations of the teeth of Iguanodon in p. 14. fig. 14. In Yorkshire, the teeth and vertebrae of saurian animals were noticed by Mr. J. Phillips in the gault or Speeton clay, Oxford clay, Bath oolite, and abundantly in the lias shale. Vertebrae and teeth of Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, and Crocodile, occur in the old diluvium of Norfolk. Pterodactyl us, or winged lizard, one of the most extraordi- nary productions of the fossil world, is an animal which forms the intermediate link, hitherto deemed to exist only in fable, between birds and reptiles. This creature, previously known in two formations upon the Continent, has been recently recognised in the lias of Dorsetshire. We cannot resist the temptation to introduce this remark- able animal in the language of Professor Buckland : — " In size and general form, and in the disposition and character of its wings, this fossil genus, according to Cuvier, somewhat resembled our modern bats and vampyres, but had its beak elongated, like the bill of a woodcock, and armed with teeth, like the snout of a crocodile ; its vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, legs, and feet, resembled those of a lizard ; its three anterior fingers terminated in long hooked claws, like that on the fore- finger of the bat ; and over its body was a covering, neither composed of feathers, as in the bird, nor of hair, as in the bat, but of scaly armour, like that of an iguana : in short, a mon- ster, resembling nothing that has ever been seen or heard of upon earth, excepting the dragons of romance and heraldry. Moreover, it was probably noctivagous and insectivorous, and in both these points resembled the Jbat ; but differed from it, in having the most important bones in its body constructed after the manner of those of reptiles. With flocks of such like creatures flying in the air, and shoals of no less monstrous Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri swarming in the ocean, and gigantic crocodiles and tortoises crawling on the shores of the primeval lakes and rivers, — air, sea, and land must have been strangely tenanted in those early periods of our infant world." Testiidines. — Traces of tortoises (Trionyx) are first ob- served in the bituminous schist of the north of Scotland, the n ]3 4 368 Antediluvian %oology. geological situation of which is probably similar to that of the coal-measures of England. Impressions, resembling the footsteps made by tortoises, were not long since noticed on the surface of beds of new red sandstone in Dumfriesshire. Turtle and tortoises occur in the lias, and occasionally in some intermediate formations, particularly the Purbeck stone, up to the London clay. There are evidently many of these animals occurring in a fossil state ; but much difficulty exists in determining the spe- cies. Some of them are marine, and others belong to fresh- water deposits. The strata of Tilgate Forest contain some of this class, which Mr. Mantell has determined to belong to the genera Trionyx, E^mys, and Chelcinia. E^mys has also been found at Sheppey. MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS. Marine Mammalia, Viviparous, producing their young alive. Qeti, — ^alae^na, or Whale, &c. Bones of several cetaceous animals occur in marine diluvium, particularly in Norfolk. They have been traced much earlier in the Stonesfield slate, in the Tilgate stone, the Kimmeridge clay, and in limestone near Bath. Their occurrence is somewhat rare with us, but less so on some parts of the Continent. In Italy, entire skeletons, at 1 200 ft. elevation. Baron Cuvier enumerates 10 fossil species. " One is like a species native of the Ganges ; a second has no close affinity with any known species ; while the remaining eight bear a resemblance to the species at present natives of the British seas." — Dr, Fleming, Lamantines and Dolphins have not yet been observed in England. They have come under the observation of Con- tinental geologists, in beds allied to our highest marine form- ations. Vhbcce, or Seals, — In marine diluvium on the banks of the Forth. QUADRUPEDS. The animals of this class whose skeletons abound amidst the debris of the ancient world, are conceived to have been in existence at that epoch which immediately preceded the deluge. Accumulations of similar debris, containing precisely similar animal remains, have, from time to time, been dis- covered in every explored part of our globe. Hence an argument has been employed, that the climate of that ancient world was universal, at least that the temperature was more equal at that period than now. With regard to the geological distribution of fossil quadru- Antediluvian Zoology. 369 peds. Baron Cuvier observed that mammiferous sea animals are in more ancient strata than mammiferous land animals ; oviparous quadrupeds than viviparous quadrupeds. The ovi- parous quadrupeds apparently began to exist at the same time with the fishes ; the land quadrupeds not until long after, and after the period when most of the shells were deposited. On comparing the antediluvian animals with those existing, it is seen that the principal loss has fallen upon the Carnivora, while the ruminants are preserved. Another singular fact has been elicited through the labours of the baron. " The fossil ruminants appertain precisely to the genera and sub- genera at present most common in the northern climates : to the aurochs, the musk-ox, the elk, and the rein- deer ; while the fossil Pachydermata, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the tapir, are limited at present to the torrid zone." Carnivora, — Remains of carnivorous animals are frequently found in our island. The supposed antediluvian fissures of rocks, chiefly in the mountain limestone, red sandstone, and oolite, are their principal receptacles. They are derived firom several extinct species of hyaenas, wolf, tiger, bear, and weasel. {Jig. 95.) o, Molar tooth of wolf; 5, molar tooth of tiger ; c, molar tooth of hyjena. From Kirkdale cave. Science is indebted to the zealous researches of Dr. Buck- land for investigating the circumstances connected with the caverns where these animals have been discovered. Similar bones have been found, mixed with brick earth and lacustrine exuviae, at Brentford, in gravel at Rugby, and in diluvium near Maidstone. It is probable that all the animals whose remains have been seen in caves will be traced in the diluvial or transported gravel, an opinion which is derived from high geological authority. In Yorkshire, an interesting discovery has more recently been communicated by Mr. Vernon, of the 370 Antediluvian Zoology. bones of the lion and wolf mixed with those of large herbivo- rous animals, in lacustrine marl, beneath diluvial gravel. Baron Cuvier describes 20 or more species of fossil Carnivora, in- cluding several small species from the quarries of Mont- martre. {Jig, 96.) ,.--',; The slate of Stonesfield, nearOx- ford, has furnished three or four speci- mens which were derived from carni- vorous Mammalia of more than one ex- tinct genus. Mr. a. Canine tooth or tusk of bear : reduced scale. T^rr»rl<^i'ir» V»oc rlp» b. Tusk of fox ; full size. -^^ "^^^^ ^P ^^'^* ^^^ r, Great molar tooth of fox. ScHbcd and llluS- ^, Molar tooth of hog. All from Kirkdale cave, and figured from Dr. Buckland's tratcd OUC of thcSC licliquice Diluvianoi. . -, ^ 7 • t m the Zoological Journal. It represents the lower jaw of a didelphis or opossum, of the size of a small kangaroo rat ; and, as Professor Buck- land observes, " forms a case hitherto unique in the discoveries of geology, viz. that of the remains of a land quadruped being found in a formation subjacent to chalk." Herbivorous Quadrupeds occupy the same geological position with the foregoing fossil Mammalia. The larger animals of this class are found to possess anatomical differences from those now existing. They are subdivided into the following orders : — Fachydermata, thick-skinned herbivorous quadrupeds, hav- ing more than two toes to the foot, and incisive teeth in both jaws. The Kirkdale cave has furnished bones of the elephant, rhhioceros, hippopotamus, and horse. Bones of the elephant or mammoth are among the most abundant in every part of the globe. We have derived numerous specimens from Suffolk and Norfolk. The Mastodon, although figured in some works on English geology, does not appear to have been authenticated as a British fossil animal. The peculiar structure of the teeth and bones of these animals has been fully illustrated in various scientific publications. An extinct quadruped of this order, named by Cuvier Anoplotherium, found in the plaster quarries of Paris, appears in a single instance to have been traced in the lower fresh- water beds of the Isle of Wight. Antediluvian Zoologi/. 97 b sn ' ■ rt, Rhinoceros : molar tooth, one third size, b, Hippopotaraus ; worn molar tooth. Also froiii Kirkdale. Nearly forty species of extinct Pachydermata are found in the upper deposits of the Paris environs. Among them are numerous skeletons resembling tapirs and camels, some other species of rhinoceroses and the new genus Palseotheria, and three or four others. a b 9S c a. Molar tooth of ox, on a reduced scale ; b, molar tooth of large species of deer, upper jaw, full size y c, molar tooth of horse, full size. Kirkdale. Solipedes. — Bones of the horse (^^quus) are found in similar situations to the foregoing, and were therefore contempora- neous with those extinct Pachydermata. Rumindntia, or Bisidca, are commonly associated with the preceding. Remains of the ox, the aurochs or bison, and several species of deer, were observed in the cave of Kirkdale. They have been found in the marl of Northcliff' in the same county; also above the crag beds of Suffolk, and in the peaty valleys of Norfolk. They are often taken up by the oyster-dredgers on the same coast. At Brentford, Ilford, Gravesend, and ntimerous parts of the vale of Thames, they are abundant ; in fact, they occur, more or less, in all the great diluvial 372 Antediluvian Zoology. deposits of this country, and in the valleys through which our great rivers pass. Skulls of the Bos LTrus at Walton Naze, Woolwich, Ilford, &c. The great fossil elk of Ireland is found in peat bogs and gravel beds. Some of these skeletons have been met with, although rarely, in England, at Walton and in Holderness. Cervus jElaphus, or red deer ; common in diluvial gravel of the eastern counties. Cervus Z)kma, or fallow deer ; traced occasionally in similar situations. Cervus Capr^olus, or antelope ; near Ipswich, and at Roy- don, Norfolk. Rodentia^ or Gnawers, — Of this order the Kirkdale cave alone yielded to the researches of Dr. Buckland the genera hare, rabbit, rat, water-rat, and mouse. {Jig. 99.) Incisors, ascribed to the beaver, have been noticed in the crag. Of Quadimmanous animals there exist no known traces in this or any other part of the globe, either of the a, molar tooth of rabbit ; b, molar ape, monkcv, or the liuman svecies. tooth of water-rat; c. Incisor oi ^ -r -,-, .*'-( ^ . -, water-rat. From Kirkdale. In alluVial depOSltS, CalcarCOUS m- crustations, peat formations, mines, and volcanic debris, human bones and their accompaniments have frequently been discovered, bearing evidence of very high antiquity; but they are all referable to more recent times than the deluge, and may be explained by similar events of ordinary occurrence. No works of art, or other indications of the former exist- ence of man, occur in diluvial or tertiary beds. We are there- fore led to unite in the opinion that he is among " the most recent tenants of the globe," coincident with the oldest records and traditions of his race ; and that the time in which he has inhabited the earth forms but a trifling portion of its absolute duration. Whether man was coeval with the mastodons, the mam- moths, and other mighty animals that once ranged the earth, and left their traces on so large a part of its surface, is an enquiry which there seems little probability will ever be solved. At present we have only the negative fact, that no human remains have been discovered of equal antiquity with those extinct races of animals of which we have made brief mention in this imperfect sketch. R. C. T. On Brong7iiarfs Theory of primeval Vegetation. 373 Art. XII. Remarks on M. Adolphe JBrongniart' s Opinion as to the Vegetatio7i which covered the Surface of the Earth at the different Epochs of the Formation of its Crust, By Nat, John Winch, Esq. A.L.S. &c. Sir, In the sixth volume, of the Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal, p. 34<9. &c. Sec, is a translation of M. Adolphe Bron- gniart's essay on the nature of the vegetation which covered the surface of the earth at the different epochs of the formation of its crust. This paper is well worthy the attention of the botanist and geologist ; and sorry should I be if the following remark (for it amounts to no more), which in some measure differs from the preconceived opinion of a valued acquaint- ance, should be thought hostile to his general theory of the ancient state of the globe. But, under the sanction of his name, it is now laid down as a law of nature, not to be dis- puted, that no phaenogamous vegetable existed during the period of the oldest of his epochs, no remains of such plant having been discovered in the fir^ of his four formations, comprising the numerous strata of grauwacke, encrinal lime- stone, and carboniferous rocks, magnesian limestone, and red sandstone. His systematic division of the vegetable kingdoms which at remote periods have from time to time covered the surface of the earth appears to me excellent ; but I can by no means agree with him in the belief, that, in the first of his periods just mentioned, no phaenogamous vegetables were in existence ; for it is a fact well known in this neighbourhood, and at least thirty years have elapsed since the remark was first made, that the large trunks of trees found mineralised in our sandstone strata were branched in the same way as our forest timber, and must of course belong to the dicotyledonous subdivision of plants. As a proof of this, it is only necessary to remark that their branches have been thrown out from knots which enter the heart of the tree, as is the case with trees of a similar description at the present day. This mode of growth, if I mistake not, never occurs in vascular crypto- gamic vegetables, however gigantic may be their size, though it obtains in the tribe Pinus, among which the cotyledons are variously formed. On a future occasion I may trouble you with a few memoranda respecting the vegetable fossils embed- ded in the lias shale of Yorkshire. I am. Sir, &c. Nat. Jno. Winch. Newcastle upon Tyne, Dec, 10. 1829. 3.74 Weather at Florence Art. XIII. Notes on the Weather at Floretice during the past Winter. By W. S pence, Esq. An account of the weather at any place for a single season can seldom be of much value ; but as some of your readers who attend to meteorology may like to compare the weather in England this last severe winter with that at Florence, I send you a summary of the imperfect register which I have kept at the latter place, without other instrument than a Fahrenheit's thermometer, and that usually observed but once daily, adding from my memoranda a few rough notes on different heads, not susceptible of being condensed into a tabular form. Nov. 18. to 30. 1829. i Dec. January 1830. Feb. March. Mean height of thermometer in the shade at 8 A.M. Highest point of thermometer at 8 A.M. Lowest point of thermometer at 8 A. M. Days of bright sunshine partially sunny and fair cloudy and fair rainy - . . - snowy - - - - Wind north north-east east south-east south south-west west north-west '.] 42° 37° 3¥> (25.) 530,(3.) 49° (24.) 45° (22.) 30O 5 2 1 5 number of days (30.) 220 (12.) 240 (1.) .) 50° I 2 12 5 5 5 1 1 6 2 3 (26.) 57° (6.) 350* 23 3 5 Frost. During the winter there have been four distinct periods of continued frost, as under : 1. From Nov. 18. to Nov.23. ice on ponds 2 to 3 in. thick. 2. — Dec. 26. — Jan. 18. 6 to 7 3. — Jan. 27. — Feb. 10. — 3 to 4 4. — Feb. 14.— Feb. 18. — 1 to 2 In all, 48 days of frost. Between these periods the weather was open, but with slight frosts occasionally. The second and longest period of tw enty-three days was interrupted by one day of rain on the 8 th of January. Though the cold was once 22^ (and probably lower in the night), no material injury was sustained by the bitter orange trees, iVerium Oleander, Agave americana. Yucca «loef(Mia, one or two species of the hardier palms, &c., which are planted in the open ground with- out protection. The variety of Agave americana with yellow * The following account of the height of the thermometer in the shade, at different hours of one day, March 28., will serve to give an idea of the average daily variations of temperature towards the end of the month. Thermometer at 6^ A.M. 45° ; at 9, 57° ; at 4 P.M. 71°; at 7, 65°. In the full sun, March 29. at 3 P.M. 102°. during the past Winter. 375 margins to the leaves is often planted with good effect in vases surmounting the pillars of gateways. Of these, some have the upper leaves killed, but many are little injured, though the roots must have been exposed to severe cold. The common myrtle, though a native of this part of Italy, is more cut by the frost than any of the exotic plants above named, and has suffered as much as it often does in Devonshire in severe winters. Rain. — Deluges of rain, both heavier and of longer con- tinuance than are usual in England, fell in the latter end of November and middle of December. Of these, taking the Arno as a rain-gauge, that which prevailed more or less from the 17th to the 21st of December was the most considerable. From the 21st of February to the 31st of March, some very slight showers excepted, no rain fell; whence resulted not pecks, but tons, of March dust, and the finest possible weather for pruning the vines, and working the vineyards and olive grounds, which entirely surround Florence for miles, and are almost wholly dug by hand. Snow. — Some snow, mixed with sleet and rain, fell on the 9th and 17th of January, and on the 13th the roofs were covered half an inch deep for a few hours : but the only con- siderable fall during the winter was on the 4th of February, when the snow was 4 or 5 in. deep on the level ; a gi-eater fall than has occurred for eight or ten years, according to the Florentines, whose eager curiosity at every door and window to watch the descending flakes, showed that they do not wit- ness this exhibition every year. The snow had disappeared from the middle (or second) range of Apennines surrounding Florence on February 25th, except drifted patches, a few of which still remained on March 27th, at which time the third or farthest range was still covered. Fogs. — Florence has the reputation, in some books of travels, of being subject to fogs ; but it has scarcely deserved this character the past winter; in which there were about eight days in which the mornings w^ere foggy till ten o'clock, and then succeeded by bright sunshine, but not more than two days of continued fog. Wind. — What is noted in the table as to the direction of the wind must be taken with some grains of allowance, as it is not always easy to be accurate on this point when residing in a city where, the fuel being mostly charcoal, you may look long without seeing smoke issue from a single chimney, and where, from its proximity to the Apennines, a superior current of air is not unfrequently directly contrary to that which pre- vails near the surface. This was the case for the whole of two days (Jan. 28. and 29.); the lower current being south- 576 Weather at Florence east or east, and the upper, as indicated by the course of the clouds, directly west. The highest wind was on Jan. 2., when, from five to eight p. m., it blew almost a hurricane. Dryness of Air. — The superior dryness of the air in Italy in summer, compared with that of England and many parts of the north of Europe, is well known : but I was not aware that the difference is equally striking even in the rainy part of winter, judging, for want of a better hygrometer, from the condensation of moisture on the inside of windows in rooms without a fire ; which I have always observed to be very con- siderable in winter, both in England, and also at Brussels during a three years' residence there, whenever a cold night succeeds a rainy or warm day, the condensed moistuj-e often even running down to the floor : whereas at Florence, under precisely similar circumstances, I have never but once observed more than a slight condensation in the middle of the panes, as if breathed on, even in rooms with a north aspect ; and only once during the frost, any appearance, and that but slight, of that thick crust of ice formed on the inside of the panes in England and at Brussels whenever a hard frost sets in. Among many other proofs of the greater dryness of the air in winter, one is afforded by the profusion in which grapes are to be had, at less than twopence a pound, at the corners of every street, up to the end of March, quite free from all mouldiness, though cut full four months, and kept merely by being hung at the top of rooms without a fire. Progress of Vegetation^ 8fC. — The effect of shade, in prevent- ing, or rather neutralising, terrestrial radiation, was very strik- ingly exhibited in the Cascine (or park) at Florence, Jan. 22., after the second and longest frost. While all the rest of the surrounding exposed grass looked bare and withered, that under a group of old evergreen oaks had made a shoot of from 1 to 2 in., and was of a fine vivid green, distinguishable at a great distance. Groundsel, the daisy, shepherd's purse, Veronica arvensis. Calendula arvensis, &c., in flower the whole winter, their blossoms expanding, during the frost, on bright warm days. — Leaves hcdf-expanded, of elder and weeping willow, March 7. ; hawthorn, March ] 2. ; Cratae'gus Pyra- cantha Lin. (which, with blackthorn and Paliurus australis, chiefly forms the hedges round Florence), March 25. ; elms (the lower branches), and Liriodendron Tulipifera, March 27. ; Paliurus australis, March 30. — Wild plants in Jiower,, as under : — O'xalis corniculata, January 28. ; Crocus biflorus ? (which covered a grass field of six or eight acres as profusely as Colchicum autumnale does some English meadows), Feb. during the past Winter, 377 16. ; Eranthis hyemalis (a troublesome weed in the vineyards and olive grounds), Feb. 19. ; ^yacinthu5 racemosus (which here replaces the hare-bell of Britain), Feb. 23.; pilewort, March 2. ; violets (which are more abundant about Florence than I ever saw them anywhere), and primroses (less common), March 5.; i/elleborus viridis and Anemone hortensis (both very common at the foot of the Apennines towards Fiesole), March 1 5. ; /^inca major, March 24. ; iaurus nobilis, March 28. — Standard peach and almond trees : a few flowers un- folded, March 9., but not generally in blossom until March 15., when, mixed with the blue-green olive trees, they made a glorious show ; blackthorn, March 1 9. ; pear and plum trees, March 27. Vine buds still apparently quiescent at the end of March, and, owing to the unusually backward spring, the pruning then not entirely finished, though the risk of the vines bleeding must be considerable, as the peasants seem well aware, judging from the five or six pruners now often hard at work in one vineyard. Vanessa Atalant«, C. album, and other common butterflies, on the wing early in March. Bats flying, more or less, nearly all the winter, and often long before dusk. Lizards, of several species, swarming, from the beginning of March, by hundreds, on every bank. A tortoise, about 8 in. long, of a species com- mon in Germany and Italy, kept in a neighbouring garden, awaked from its winter's sleep, and appeared above ground March 26., and was brought to us still encrusted with the earth out of which it had made its way. A single swallow was seen by my eldest son, March 1 6., but from that time none were vis- ible till March 29., when they appeared in considerable numbers. General Remarks. — The natives of Florence concur in calling the past winter the most severe which they have ex- perienced for thirty years; yet, comparing it with my own recollections of former ones, of which six were spent in De- vonshire, it has been the pleasantest I ever passed. The north winds from the Apennines, at its commencement, were high, and most piercingly cold, but afterwards the air was generally calm, and its coolness tempered by a bright sun, so as to be extremely agreeable ; and the spring has been still more de- lightful, no rain, except two or three showers not sufiicient to lay the dust, having fallen from Feb. 21. to March 31., of which thirty-eight days, the whole, with the exception of five cloudy ones, has been one uninterrupted period of sunshine and balmy breezes, mostly from the south-west, and quite equal to the finest May weather in England. Rain, however, now begins to be much wanted. I am, Sir, &c. Florence, April 2. 1830. V^. Spence. Vol. III. — No. 14. c c ;78 PART II. REVIEWS. Art. I. Delicice Sylvdrum ; or Grand and Romantic Forest Scenery in England and Scotland. Drawn from Nature and etched by Jacob George Strutt, Author of the Sylva Britdnnica, London. Fol. Nos. I. and II. The forest scenery of Great Britain constitutes one of the noblest ornaments of our island, and one, moreover, of that peculiar kind, which it is least within the power of art to create suddenly and at once. Stately edifices may be erected, gardens laid out and enriched with the choicest gifts of Flora, fountains and expansive lakes may be formed and brought to perfection in the space of a comparatively short time, by any one who, together with the inclination for such undertakings, possesses the command of wealth : but ages and generations must pass over before a single oak tree can arrive even at maturity, much less at that stage of growth, or rather of decay, in which its genuine beauty and magnificence are best developed. We apprehend that the age of our venerable stag-headed oaks is much under-rated by the generality even of intelligent persons. As to the opinion so commonly broached, that a oak is a hundred years in coming to per- fection, a hundred in what may be called the vigour of life, and another hundred in decay, it is, we feel confident, a mere vulgar error, and does not hold true in any one part of the assertion. The Tortworth Chestnut (of whose existence as a large and notable tree so far back as the reign of King Stephen there is historical record), it has been calculated, is not less than eleven hundred years old. " And if we consider," says an intelligent writer *, " the quick growth of the chest- nut compared with that of the oak, and at the same time the inferior bulk of the Tortworth Chestnut to the Cowthorpe (see Vol. I. p. 247. fig. 102.), the Bentley, and the Boddington Oaks, may we not venture to infer, that the existence of these truly venerable trees commenced some centuries prior to the * See Planting and Ornamental Gardenings a Practical Treatise, Pub- lished by Dodsley, 1785. Stimtfs DelicicE Sylvdrum, 379 era of Christianity ? " We can readily subscribe to this doc- trine ; and feel, indeed, quite at a loss to set limits (under favourable circumstances) to the natural duration of this mo- narch of the forest. A fine picturesque oak is perhaps the most beautiful object in nature. And here we would entreat all such as are so fortunate as to be the possessors of these " venerable and living antiquities of nature," not to mutilate their forms and destroy their character by cutting out as unsightly objects, the raunpikes, or rampikes as they are called, that is, the dead and denudated arms, that have endured the blast of ages, — a practice which we are sorry to see adopted in the parks of some of our nobility and gentry, and of which the example is set even in the royal domain at Windsor. The bold projecting limbs, now " blasted with antiquity," though no longer adorned with rich and verdant foliage, still add greatly to the grandeur and picturesque effect of the tree ; they preserve the proper balance of the parts, which is conse- quently destroyed by their removal, and serve as memoran- dums of its pristine vigour, to define the original outline and extent of the whole ; the imagination supplying to the mind what is no longer actually visible to the eye. We should as soon think of removing some ivy-mantled turret, or mouldering moss-grown buttress, from an ancient castellated ruin, with a view to improve its beauty, as of depriving our oaks of their raunpikes, and " curtailing them of this fair proportion." Delighting as we do in our " old patrician trees," it is never without regret that we see the woodman exercising his craft upon them, or hear the sound of the axe echoing through the grove. The demands of the state, however, — the cupidity, the extravagance, or, perhaps, the bad taste of landed proprie- tors,— the blasting and tempestuous elements, — or, lastly, the unsparing hand of time, — some or all of these are causes per- petually in operation to ravage the forests and despoil the country of its ornamental timber. It is therefore with no ordinary satisfaction that we hail Mr. Strutfs successful attempt to portray some of the choicest specimens of our forest scenery, and leave to after-ages a memorial of them, " Quod nee Jovis ira, nee ignes, Nee poterit ferrum, nee edax abolere vetustas." * Mr. Strutt is already known to the public, not only as an elegant and accomplished scholar, the translator oi Clau- * " Which, Jove's rage, Nor fire, nor sword shall raze, nor eating age." Ovid\ Met. (Sandys's translation.) c c 2 580 StruWs Delicice Si/lvdrum, dian *, and of the Latin and Italian poems of Milton, and as a landscape-painter, but also more particularly as the author of Sylva Britdnnica, or Portraits of Forest Trees dis" tinguished for their Antiquity, Magnitude, or Beauty. We have a remark or two to make relative to this last-mentioned work, before we proceed to that which stands at the head of the present article. The two publications are of the same size, and of congenial character. Several, indeed, of the sub- jects in either work might without impropriety have found a place in the other. It is to be regretted, we think, that the Sylva Britdnnica was not enlarged to double its extent, or more, so as to have included portraits of all the more remark- able trees still remaining throughout the country, — trees, we mean, either connected with some historical fact or tradition, commemorative of some illustrious personage, or themselves remarkable for their size, beauty, or extraordinary growth and conformation. We should like to have had a complete collection of such trees. It is not very probable that any other person should now commence a work on an exactly similar plan; and if it were undertaken, we much doubt whether it would be executed with an equal degree of taste and ability. Mr. Strutt*s plates are etchings of a folio size, and of a very superior order. There is no journeyman's work in them ; but, having been executed entirely by his own hand, they possess the freshness, spirit, and freedom of ori- ginal sketches from the pencil of a master, and have lost nothing by evaporation from being transferred from the drawing to the copper. They have the merit too — a merit but seldom aimed at even by painters — of depicting, and in most cases with great precision, the true characteristic features of each species intended to be represented. The trees figured proclaim their own kind : they are oak trees, ash, beech, yew, &c., and not only so, but faithful portraits of individual specimens of each. In expressing the foliage of the oak, and its contorted branches, the touch of the artist is peculiarly happy. We happen to know that the author was strongly urged by several of his subscribers to extend the Sylva Bri- tdnnica by the addition of some extra-numbers ; and there is reason to believe, that had he consulted either his private inclination or his own pecuniary interest, he would readily have complied with the request. His refusal to do so is, we suspect, to be attributed to feelings of delicacy towards his subscribers. He had in the outset engaged to complete the * This translation of select poems from Claudian is a work of great merit, and by no means so well known as it deserves to be. It was pub- lished in 1814, and sold by Messrs. Longman. StrutfsDeliciceSi/lvdrum, 381 work in twelve numbers, and he judged that he should not be fulfilling his engagements and keeping faith with the public, if he exceeded that quantity. Thus finding himself, there- fore, " spatiis exclusus iniquis *," he declined complying with the urgent solicitations of some, at the risk of offending others. We are the more inclined to attribute his refusal to some such honourable motives, from the very handsome manner in which the work was conducted throughout from the beginning, and finally brought to a close. A progressive improvement in the plates was visible in each succeeding number. There was more of finish in the execution, more labour expended, more light and shade, more pictorial effect, in the latter than in the earlier etchings. And, to the credit of Mr. Strutt, it ought not to be forgotten that, when the concluding number came forth, each subscriber was presented with two extra- plates, a frontispiece and tailpiece, of equal size with the rest, without any additional charge being made for the over-, weight. This certainly was making his bow in the most handsome way to those who had encouraged his undertaking. By such liberal conduct we hope and trust he will be no loser ; as it may serve as a pledge and earnest to the public, that they are safe in his hands, and run no risk of being shabbily treated by him in his present or any future publication. We now turn to the work more immediately before us, the DelicicB Sylvdrum^ or Grand and Romantic Forest Scenery in England and Scotland, The contents of the two numbers already published do not disappoint the expectations raised by this imposing title. In the Sylva Britdnnica, from the very nature of the undertaking, the portraits of single trees now and then presented rather stiff and formal subjects, and were in some few instances unavoidably deficient in picturesque beauty. The plates in the present work are not liable to the same objection, being all of them in perfect accordance with the best taste of the landscape-painter, and in point of execu- tion equal or superior to the very best etchings in the former work. The frontispiece, which is extremely appropriate, is a plate of great merit. Mr. Strutt has not thought well to' tell us where the scene is to be met with, or whether it has any existence in reality ; we presume, therefore, that it is a com- position. At the same time, we could almost fancy that we had, during our summer rambles in a midland county, our- selves seen the identical old oak (fig. 100.), with its dragon claws casting anchor in the rock below, which forms the more prominent object in the plate. Be this as it may, however, * " In narrow bounds confined." C C 3 382 Strutfs Delicice Sylvdrum, we feel confident, and stake our credit on the assertion, that the tree in question, if not an actual portrait, has at least its prototype in nature, and is not a mere invention of the artist manufactured in his painting-room in Duke Street. If we mistake not, Mr. Strutt is more of an out-of-doors artist than some of his fraternity ; we mean that he is in the habit of sketching much, and even painting, in the open air. From a close and repeated inspection of his works, both on canvass and on copper, we apprehend that he studies Nature above and before all other models, and looks upon her as a surer guide to excellence than even the best of the old masters. 1 Strut fs Deliciic Sylvdrum. 383 We are far from meaning in the least degree to detract from the merit of our Claudes, Ruysdaels, and Hobbimas (on the contrary, we have them in the highest esteem), or to deny the utility of their works in correcting the taste and guiding the execution of modern painters. Nevertheless we would not wish to see these heroes of former days, eminent as they were in their profession, too servilely copied, or too exclusively attended to. Art may be carried too far. It is very possible and very common to study pictures more than nature ; almost, indeed, to the utter exclusion of the latter. Was it not by a close application to the study of nature that the old masters themselves attained to eminence ? The modern aspirant after fame, therefore, should pursue the like course ; and " with all appliances and means to boot," which are fairly to be derived from an inspection of the works of his predecessors, let him go in the first instance to the fountain-head, and study Nature for himself, instead of taking up with her beauties at second hand, and viewing them, as it were, through the eyes of another. We could expatiate on this subject, but our limits warn us to forbear. The first number of Delicicje Sylvdrum contains, besides the frontispiece already spoken of, four plates, the full complement of each number, representing, respectively, scenes from Wind- sor, Epping, and Marlborough Forests, and one view near Chepstow. Among these we decidedly give the preference to the genuine forest views. The oak in the Epping plate, with its foreshortened arms, the brilliant spring of water at its foot, and the weeds in the fore-ground, demand our unqualified praise. We have one fault, however, and but one, to find with this beautiful plate. The head of the tree, in the middle of the picture towards the top, is heavy, lumpish, and too unlike foliage ; nor is the outline of it good. We are quite sure that, with a little care, Mr. Strutt could have managed this part of the etching better, since, as we have already remarked, he excels in depicting foliage, and especially the foliage of the oak. The fault complained of is owing, we conceive, to some alteration having been made in the plate, after the design was etched on the copper, of which alteration we fancy we can perceive evident traces. One or two Other instances of a similar kind might be pointed out in some of the other plates ; and we mention the circumstance the rather, not in the spirit of severe criticism, but in the hope that Mr. Strutt will take care to avoid inflicting on his plates the same kind of blemishes in future. The more complete he has his design at the first, and the fewer alterations he makes with the iscraper and burnisher after the acid has once been applied to c c 4 384. Strutfs Delicice Sylvdrmn, the copper, the better. At all events, if he thinks well to make any material alteration in a plate, the portion of work which it is wished to erase should be erased thoroughly, and not left as a blot to mar the fair beauty of the whole. Had our artist more scrupulously attended to this rule, we should not have had to lament the imperfect apparition of a waggon and horses still visible in the next plate we shall notice, which represents a scene from Marlborough Forest. We have here a portrait of a beautiful and extraordinary oak (fig, 101.), which, we are informed, " from a large portion of its branches scarcely lifting themselves off the earth, is known by the name of the creeping oak." This tree ought by all means to have found a place in the Sylva Britdnnica, and would have made an appropriate companion to the king oak {Jig. 102.), standing in the same forest, and of which a portrait is given in that work. We pass on to the second number, in which we find the wild and romantic Linn of Dee in the forest of Brae-mar Scotland, the Burnham Beeches, and two scenes in the Forest of Arden. Of these plates, which are all good, we admire most the two former, on account of the superior brilliancy and sharpness of the etching ; and particularly that of the Bum- ham Beeches. We can speak to the accuracy of this plate as a view, having ourselves sauntered with infinite delight in this StruWs DcUcice Sylvdrum, 385 sequestered spot, which recommends itself to our notice as well by its own intrinsic beauty, as by the circumstance of its having been, as Mr. Strutt informs us, the favourite haunt of the poet Gray, and " the scene of his poetic musings." This charming tract of woodland, which is of considerable extent, lies only a few miles from Stoke Pogis *, in Buckingham- shire. It possesses sufficient inequality of ground and variety of surface to give additional interest to the sylvan scenery. The oak, the birch, and the holly contribute their shades ; and the native juniper, a local if not a rare shrub, flourishes here in profusion, and casts a dark and sober-coloured mantle over the whole landscape. But that which constitutes the peculiar feature of the place, and marks its character, and from which, indeed, it derives its appellation, is the beech, " That wreaths its old fantastic roots so high,'* and appears to be the staple growth of this part of the coun- try. These trees are of great antiquity, and many of them of a large size ; and, having been pollarded or lopped, most probably for fuel, at some remote period, have since been * In the church-yard at Stoke, which probably suggested the idea of his celebrated elegy, the mortal remains of the poet are entombed. 3S6 StruWs Delicice Sylvdrum, suffered to grow and take their own course, unmolested by the axe, and now assume the wildest forms, occasionally pre- senting almost a grotesque appearance. Their roots espe- cially are in many instances of a very large size, and extraor- dinarily picturesque ; the clefts or interstices between their separate divisions will be found on admeasurement in some cases to exceed a yard in depth. We know of no place that we would sooner select for the purpose of taking up our abode for a week in the summer, and pitching our camp, gipsy-like, " patulae sub tegmine fagi," to ramble about at leisure, and enjoy the pure charms of nature, than the Burn- ham Beeches. Not only the lover of forest scenery and of the beauties of nature in general, but the botanist and the entomologist, would each of them here find an ample field for his pursuits and a rich remuneration for his labours. Of the two scenes in the Forest of Arden much might be said in praise, though the plates are, as we have said, in point of brilliancy of etching, not quite equal to their companions in the same number. This partial inferiority is owing, we apprehend, to a want of equal success in the operation of biting in, — an operation which, while it requires much skill and experience in the artist, depends, after all, in some degree, on chance, or at least on circumstances over which the operator has not the entire control. Independently of the strength of the acid employed for the purpose, the state of the atmosphere, the temperature of the room, and, above all, the due admixture of the metals of which the plate is com- posed — all or any of these will make a material difference. • " The very name of the Forest of Arden," observes our author, " conjures up in the mind of the English reader a thousand poetical images ; for he involuntarily links it with Shakspeare's muse ; peoples it with banished lords ; listens in imagination to ' the moralising of the melancholy Jaques,' and longs to find out the individual oak " * Whose antique roots peep out Upon the brook that brawls along this wood : To the which place a poor sequester'd stag, That from the hunter's aim had ta'en a hurt, Did come to languish.' " It is, however, too often the unwelcome province of the historian and topographer to destroy the associations with which fancy loves to deck a favourite scene, by showing the fallacy on which they are founded." Accordingly, the Shak- spearean Forest of Arden, it is almost unnecessary to state, is to be sought for in foreign, not in English, soil, and is no other than the Ardennes of our Gallic neighbours. With StruWs Delicice Sylvdriim, 387 respect to the Warwickshire Arden, little or nothing is known on the subject. That it ever had any claims to the name or legal character of a forest, as Mr. Strutt, on no better autho- rity than the poet Drayton, leaves us to infer, we very much doubt, or rather entirely disbelieve. To some this may per- haps appear a startling assertion ; however, it is not hastily made. " Arden" is supposed by Whitaker to mean a great wood ; and there can be no doubt that a certain district in Warwickshire, comprehending probably the Woodland in opposition to the Feldon, was so called ; from whence Turkil de Arden acquired his appellation, and the distant vills of Weston in Arden and Hampton in Arden their adjunctive distinction ; but that its magnitude corresponded with the poet Drayton's verse, as quoted by Mr. Strutt, " Her one hand touching Trent, the other Severn's side," is not to be believed for a moment ; nor dare we place any more reliance on the " Map of the Arden," in Bartletfs Manduessedum. That the district in question was woodland generally, is clear from the circumstance of lands in the time of Henry the Third being sold " per magnam mensuram de Ardenne," the woodland measure long continuing to be larger than that which was applied in meting other lands. There are, indeed, smatterers in antiquarian lore, who scruple not to maintain that the present names of certain parishes in Warwickshire still serve to point out the boundaries of the ancient Forest of Arden. Thus they assert, and so far assert truly, that there runs through a portion of the county, com- mencing from the north, and extending in a south-easterly direction, an uninterrupted line of parishes, the names of which terminate in " ley," as, e, g, Badesley, Baxterley, Ansley, Arley, Astley, Fillongley, Corley, Allesley, &c. And these, we are required to believe, constituted what they choose to call the lei/ or lai/ lands of the forest, situate on its out- skirts, meaning by that term the cultivated lands, or those employed for agricultural purposes, in contradistinction to the uncultivated or woodland tracts. All this, we hesitate not to say, is in our opinion mere antiquarian quackery ; the termi- nation of these names having about as much to do with defining the boundaries of the forest as it has with determin- ing the source and direction of the mysterious Niger. The truth, we believe, is, as we are compelled to state, and have above pretty broadly hinted, that the Warwickshire Forest of Arden never was, in fact, any forest at all ; but that the dis- trict, being generally woodland (as already stated), acquired the appellation of forest in contradistinction to the more open country. - 388 Strutfs Delicia: Sylvdrum, We beg pardon of our readers for having detained them so long in the forest, and with (we fear) such dry and unpa- latable fare. We thought it not unimportant, however, to expose the fallacy of an opinion, which seems to be wide spread and deep rooted. People talk of the Forest of Arden, and, caught by the sound of the words, without the least enquiry, take up with the belief, that in the olden time the lands had a legitimate right to that character which the name implies. Ourwj uTCtkai'UTMpo^ rolg iroKKoig y; ^^TYiijw,a Ij us\ \ long after the charming scenes it por- trays shall have mouldered into decay. * " So impatient of labour are the most men in search of truth, and em- brace soonest the things that are next to hand." — Thuct/dideSjh. i. (Hobbes.) t " For an everlasting possession." Pa7is's Life of Sh Humphry Davy, 389 P. S. — We think it but justice to inform our readers that the three wood-cuts which accompany the present article are miniature sketches, by Mr. Williams, from Mr. Strutt's original etchings in the DelicicB Sylvdrum and Sylva Britdnnica, These two artists work admirably well in couples ; an assertion in which, we think, we are borne out by an inspection of the vignettes themselves, as well as of similar specimens from the same source in former Numbers of the Magazine. To Mr. Strutt is due the merit of having made the sketches, and drawn them with pencil on the wood ; and to Mr. Williams that of having most successfully executed the blocks so traced by his coadjutor. We avow ourselves great admirers of the xylogra- phic art ; and among all its professors we know of few who equal, of none who surpass, Mr. Williams ; for executing sylvan subjects he stands, we think, unrivalled in this department of the fine arts. — A. R. Y, Art. II. Life of Sir Humphry Davy, By Dr. Paris. In the Annual Biography and Obituary for 1830. The lives of men of transcendent talents and genius, who have raised themselves from the humble walks of society to distinguished eminence, offer some of the most useful examples which biography can record, as they afford encouragement to intellectual exertion, when deprived of the ad- ventitious aid of family consequence, and an expensive education. Any attempt to disguise the real circumstances under which the early lives of great men have often been passed, and to represent them as more dignified than they really were, may be compared to smearing a beautiful statue of Parian marble with paint, and clothing it in a court dress. We have been led into these remarks, by perusing the life of Sir Hum- phry Davy in the Annual Biography and Obituary for 1830. The writer of the article has given a very luminous and masterly sketch of Sir Humphrey Davy's scientific discoveries ; but, not content with claiming respect for him as a philosopher, he would increase our veneration for him on account of the gentility of his family. " The name of Davy," he informs us, " is of ancient respectability in the West of England ; his father, Robert Davy, possessed a paternal estate opposite to St. Michael's Mount, called Bartel, which, though small, was amply competent for the supply of his limited desires. It is, therefore, probable that his profession, which was that of a carver in wood, was pursued by him as an object rather of amusement than of necessity ; although, in the town and neighbourhood of Penzance, there are many specimens of his art ; and, among others, several chimney-pieces curiously embellished by his chisel." Had the writer stated that Ro- bert Davy was an honest industrious man, the praise would have been better understood in Penzance, where, as we have been informed, he was best known by the title of " Little Carver Davy ; " and Sir Humphry, when young, was always spoken of in the place as " Carver Davy's boy ; " and under this title, we believe, he was first introduced to Mr. Davies Giddy, now Gilbert, President of the Royal Society. Dr. Southey, in his life of Kirke White the poet, informs us that he was the son of a butcher at Nottingham. He might have added, with truth, that Mr. White, the butcher, was possessed of some landed property ; but Dr. Southey had too much respect for the understanding of his readers to tell them, " It is probable that Mr. White slaughtered oxen, calves, and sheep, rather for amusement than from necessity, though he constantly supplied many families in Nottingham and its vicinity with meat, and was particularly dis- tinguished for the excellence of his veal." Some persons have such a fas- tidious taste, that they would have all eminent discoveries to be made by gentlemen, or men who have had a university education ; but the history of philosophy will inform us that four fifths of the most important advance- ments in science have been made by self-taught men, the children of parents 390 Paris^s Life of Sir Humphry Davy. engaged in useful trades or occupations. Indeed, except mere book learn- ing, no education is available for the promotion of science but what every man gives to himself; and it has been recently stated, with much truth, that Sir Isaac Newton was made the greatest of natural philosophers, not by Cambridge, but by himself; and it is even doubted whether he derived any substantial benefit from his university education, though Dr. Barrow was then one of the professors. With the domestic concerns or private foibles of men who have conferred an honour on their country, the public have nothing to do ; but, if allusions be made to them, we have a right to expect that the words should convey a correct representation of facts. The high praise bestowed on Lady Davy we fully believe to be justly merited : the very circumstance of her going to join her husband on his travels, during his last illness, would alone aiFord sufficient proof of this ; but while the biographer speaks of the " inestimable treasure of an affectionate and exemplary wife, and a congenial friend and companion," does he not, by the mention of these qualities, excite recollec- tions which the best friends to the memory of this eminent philosopher would desire to be buried in oblivion ? The biographer, as well as the his- torian, who writes immediately after passing events, has sometimes a diffi- cult task to perform, if he departs from an unvaried and unmeaning strain of eulogy in describing his characters ; but he who undertakes to write the life of such a man as Sir Humphry Davy, should recollect that, if the task be well executed, he is not writing for the present age alone, but for poste- rity : and, if he descend to details of the philosopher's family, and of his manners, habits, and opinions *, the only value such details can possess will be from their verisimilitude. Indeed, without this verisimilitude, private biography, as is too frequently the case, is nothing but a " cunningly devised fable," intended to mislead, and not to instruct. We have been more copious in our remarks, because it is announced that the same gentleman who wrote the article of Sir Humphry Davy is preparing for publication a full life of this eminent philosopher. From the able and perspicuous sketch of his discoveries given in the Obituary y the writer has proved himself well qualified for the undertaking : we have no doubt that the work will be worthy, in this respect, of the subject ; and we should be sorry to see it dis- figured by any instances of bad taste or affectation. * Dr. Paris says something about the " spawn of infidelity," and seems to wish, by implication, to puff off Sir Humphry Davy's piety : his real senti- ments on religious subjects were well known to his intimate friends. The inference which Dr. Paris would wish his readers to draw respecting the domestic life of the philosopher is, that Sir Humphry Davy and his lady lived in a state of the highest connubial felicity. On this subject he had done much better to have maintained silence. — L. H, Davy " hearing, while at Gottenberg, that Berzelius was in the south of Sweden, he wrote him, desiring he would not leave Helsingborg till a cer- tain day, where he would meet him. Accordingly, Berzelius, with Orsted, and, I believe, Brongniart, were there at the time, and waited two days beyond it ; till the two latter lost patience, and set off; and Berzelius had his horses in his carriage when news was brought that the Englishman had arrived : and, when they met, Davy's excuse was, * that he had found such capital fishing by the way^ that he could not thinlc of leaving it^ The waiting and the excuse, conjoined with the hauteur which, in later life, made Davy forget most of his old friends, and his old friends dislike him, were sufficient to create an unfriendly feeling : so, after spending four hours together, they parted. * Any degree or mark of respect I was disposed to give him, as a great philosopher,' said Berzelius : * but it was a pity to see a mind like his stoop to the demand of deference as a man of the world.' " (Johnston, in Brewster's Journal, April, \S30,p 205.) 391 PART III. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. Art. I. Calendar of Nature. Scotland. Diagram, showing the Motion of the Mercury in the Barometer and Ther- mometer, and the Dew Point, or the Mean of each, for every Ten Days in the Months of April and May ; also the Mean Temperature of the Air within 6 in. of a South Brick Wall, the Thermometer being shaded ; the Depth of Rain in the Pluviometer, and the Quantity of Moisture eva- porated in the Evaporating Gauge, during the same Period ; as extracted from the Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perthshire, N. Lat. 56° 23§', above the level of the sea 172 ft., and 15 miles from the coast ; being the mean of daily observations at 10 o'clock morning and 10 o'clock evening. 103 o ! o Is, IS f 1 Rain Gauge, and Index of Thermometer g and Barometer. §•; W 1 5 1 GO , -30. ijr. _^^^ ""-^t^^ ^ f .^ ^^^ T ^ - f ~ ^ ^0... i fr^^^ ..'^y - ^ ■Vv /^ C ^V> I — - r o-^ / doO 'Oo o" f % ,o^ •^^ ' 0° - . o ^ o 40 . _ 28 1 Q^ 1 o , "^ Ooh". r~ 1 -| 30 27 ID 20 30 10 20 30 » 20 31 10 20 31 1 April. April May. M ay. 1 The lines marked b show the motion of the mercury in the barometer ; t sw the mean temper- ature of the air near a south garden wall ; t the mean temperature in the open air, and in the shade ; and d the dew point. 392 Caleridar of Nature. The coldest day in April was the 2d : mean temperature of that day 34°, extreme cold 22°, wind east. The warmest day in that month was the 30th : mean temperature of that day 53°, extreme heat 65°, wind south-east. There were only 4 days of brilliant, and 10 days of partial, sunshine ; 16 days were cloudy. The wind blew from the east and horth-east on 11 days, from the north and north-west on 8 days, and from the west and south-west on 11 days : there were moderate gales of wind from the north-west on the 25ih and 26th. — The coldest day in May was on the 10th : mean temperature of that day 42°, minimum temperature 35° ; wind easterly. The warmest day in that month was the 6th : extreme heat 64° ; wind east. There were 6 days of brilliant, and 9 days of partial, sunshine ; on 16 days the atmosphere was cloudy. The wind blew from the east and north on 18 days, from the west and south-west on 13 days. There were loud gales of wind from the west on the 2d and 3d, and from the east on the 8th and 9th. The month of April commenced with keen frost, which lasted four days, and did much hurt to early blossoms, which the unusually high temperature towards the end of March had brought forward. The flowers of gooseberries were fully expanded by the 6th, at which time green gage plums on south walls were in full blossom, 23 days earlier than last year. The larch was in leaf on the 8th. The crown imperial was in flower in the border on the 9th, and the leaves of the hawthorn were expanded on the 10th. The (Xxalis Acetosella (wood-sorrel), a plant supposed by some to be the Irish shamrock, opened its little flowers on the 17th. On the even- ing of the 19th, about half-past 10 o'clock, the Aurora Borealis appeared unusually brilliant, and continued with increasing splendour about three hours and a half. This phenomenon is usually the precursor of dropping weather, and was in the present instance followed by frequent and heavy rains, till the 25th. On the 20th, the wild geese, which had taken up their winter quarters in the Carse of Gowrie, began to exercise their wings in short excursions previously to theii* setting out to the north coasts ; swallows were first seen on the 24th. Oats brairded on the 24th, which had been sown on the 7th, a period of 17 days : mean temperature during that period 47°. On the 27th the maple and horsechestnut were in leaf. The Craw- ford and Green Chisel pears on standards were in flower by the 24th ; the Galston Muirfowl Egg, and Benvie pears on the 27th ; the genuine Golden Knap on the 28th, and the Longueville on the 30th ; by which time the lime and birch were in full leaf, and wild geese had departed to their sum- mer residence in the north. The mean temperature for April, notwith- standing the four days of severe frost at its commencement, was 46-7o, or 1® higher than on an average of seven years, and 4° higher than last season. Young crows were coming out on the branches by the end of the month. At the beginning of May, vegetation was as far advanced as on an average of seasons. The summer snowdrop, which last year came in flower on the 11th, was this year in flower on the 1st of May ; Morello cherries and Virginian strawberries were in flower on the 5th. The cuckoo was heard on the 5th. This bird seems to keep dates, without reference to temperature: it is usual to hear his first call on a rainy day, but this year there was no " gowk's speat " to usher him in : he •was first heard in Lancashire on the 27th of April. (Report, Country Times.) Beech was in full leaf by the 6th. Barley sown at Annat Park on the 27th of April gave a braird on the 6th, a period of 9 days ; mean temperature of that period 52o : under a temperature of 43-3", barley requires 14 days in the ground. (Vol. II. p. 285.) On the 8th a violent east wind was accom- panied with a heavjr fall of rain, amounting in 14 hours to 17 in., and under a temperature of 42°. The foliage on the eastern or exposed side of larch plantations was shrivelled by the blast, and still retains a withered appearance. Codlin, Eve, and Orange Pippin apples were in flower by the 11th, but many of the blossoms had been destroyed by the tempest on the 8th. The landrail was heard on the evening of the 12th. Grey Leadington apples were in full flower by the 16th, the narcissus on the 17th, This flower has appeared about 10 days earlier this year than usual, and as much out of its ordinary place in the march of vegetation. Can its progress have been accelerated by the unusual quantity of moisture in the soil ? The lilac came in flower on the 18th. The oak was in leaf on the 20th. The walnut and fig have been retarded to a later period in opening their foliage than is natural to these plants, by reason of the buds on the extremities of the shoots having perished by the frosts in the beginning of April. A profusion of small side buds have in consequence been protruded, and the walnut came in leaf on the 29th, and the figs on south walls on the 3lst. The pupie of the wheat-fly are numerous in all fields where wheat stood last season. Their transformation seems to be hastened by elevated temperature ; some of the pupae were enclosed in a glass phial amongst moistened earth about the middle of March, and the phial placed in a hotbed. The flies appeared in full wing and vigour on the 15th of May ; those in the ground appear animated, and larger than when they dropped from the ear. When exposed tu light, they have a slow undulating motion, as if still half asleep ; the joints or rings become beautifully transparent, and the usual sulphur colour is changed into a light or whitish yellow. It they happen to come into the fly state about the middle of June, their depredations on the unfold- ing ear of wheat will prove seriously injurious to the farmer. The mean temperature for the month of May was 505°, or exactly 1° lower than on an average of the seven past years. — A. G. Mayox, 1830. THE MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, SEPTEMBER, 1830. Art. I. Remarks on the Natural History of the Parish of Slaptouy near Dartmouth^ Devonshire. By H. V. D. Sir, Encouraged by your ready insertion (Vol. II. p. 143.) of my communication on the natural history of that portion of the genus ^Scolopax that fell under my own immediate observ- ation, I am induced to offer, for the use of your valuable Magazine, such remarks on the natural history of the parish of Slapton, in Devon, as may at various periods present themselves to my notice. My former communication was made to you from the county of Norfolk, where I had for many years attentively observed and registered the habits and migrations of our winter visitants of that natural family. The parish in which I now reside will, I expect, afford me oppor- tunities to fill up the chasms, and supply the information de- ficient in my former letter, with regard to the movements of this tribe, interesting alike to the naturalist, the sportsman, and the epicure. The parish of Slapton is situated in that part of Devon denominated the South Hams, remarkable for the tempera- ture of its climate, the fertility of its soil, and the salubrity of its atmosphere. The district of the South Hams is bounded on the north by the mountainous tract of Dartmoor, on the east and south by the English Channel, and on the west by the river Tamar. The parish itself is bounded on the north by that of Blackawton, on the east by Start Bay, on the south by Stokenham, which parish, with that of East Alvington, forms its western boundary. It is in latitude 50° 15' south, in longitude 3° 30' west, six miles distant from the port of Kingsbridge, and about seven from that of Dartmouth. Tot- ness is the nearest place through which a London coach passes, which is about thirteen miles hence. It is, therefore, seldom Vol. III. — No. 15. dd S94 Natu7'al Historic of visited by persons from the metropolis, or, in short, by any travellers. The manners of its inhabitants are in consequence very unsophisticated : they are kind and hospitable beyond what we meet with in more polished society. The whole of the neighbourhood is situated upon an argil- laceous slate, which, in this parish, jn'incipally dips to the S.E. This slate is in most places regularly divided by nar- row veins of white flint, called by the inhabitants Whitacre stone. In the north part of the parish, where the land is high, this stone much abounds, and the soil from that cause is poor and sterile. The greatest part of the parish consists of clay slate, which, when decomposed (as it does readily), forms good corn land, and produces fine orchards. On the N.E. corner, the slate is surmounted by a red sandstone, on which is found some of the finest pasturage in the district. The land is principally cultivated in pasture, some corn land, and orchards; with but little wood, except Slapton Wood, which contains about 50 acres, and a few small coppices. There is an extensive piece of water, called Slapton Lea, or Ley, connected with which are several circumstances inte- resting to the naturalist. It is situated in the parishes of Black- awton, Slapton, and Stokenham. Its length from Streetgate, in the parish of Blackawton, on the north, to Torcross on the south, is 2 miles 3 furlongs ; the greatest width is about the third of a mile ; and it contains rather more than 207 acres. It runs parallel to the shores of Start Baj^, from which it is separated by a low narrow sand-bank, called Slapton Sands, the greatest width of which is 165 yards, the least 77 yards. It is fed by three small rivulets : one runs into it at the north, or Streetgate end, and is the most considerable of the three; another empties itself about the middle of the Ley; and the smallest at the south, or Torcross end. In the lan- guage of the South Hams, these small streams, mill streams, and even the gutters by which the pastures are irrigated, are, by a strange perversion of terms, called lakes. The water thus accumulated forms the Lea, which has no visible outlet into the bay, and discharges itself by percolating through the sand. At about a mile from Streetgate, the Lea is crossed by Slapton Bridge, which divides it into two parts : the part north of the bridge is called the upper, containing rather more than 23 acres ; the south portion, the lower Lea, containing 184 acres. The upper Lea is entirely overgrown by the ^riindo Phragmites, iScirpus lacustris, »Sparganium ramosum, S. erectum, and similar aquatic plants. Through these reeds, &c. (in which are bred great numbers of wild ducks, coots, dabchicks, water hens, water rails, &c. &c.) the Parish of Slapton, 395 runsj in a defined channel, the upper streamlet or Jake ; which, passing under Slapton Bridge, unites its waters with those of the lower Lea. This, the lai'ger portion, is open water, with the exception of reeds, &c., growing near the shore ; and especially at the end near Torcross. In the lower Lea are likewise bred great quantities of water-fowl ; and in severe weather, such as we had this winter, its surface is covered with wild fowl of every description, which will afford me ample subjects for my future communications. With regard to the fish contained in this water there arises a paradox, which I am not CEdipus enough to solve. I visited Devonshire about seven years ago, for the benefit of my health : I amused myself, as my strength recovered (which it did with surprising rapidity), with my fly-rod, catching trout in the rivers in various parts of this delightful county. I en- quired in every place where I angled concerning pike, perch, roach, and dace, which had been the objects of my sport in the eastern part of the kingdom ; but T could not hear, from the various persons I fished with, the least intimation that such fish existed in Devon, except in some private water of Lord Clifford's, at Chudleigh. I was, therefore, much sur- prised, on my arrival at this place, to find Slapton Lea swarm- ing with large pike, perch, roach, and eels. The problem to be solved is, whence came these pike, perch, and roach ? As far as I can learn, they exist only in the place I have mentioned, which is more than 30 miles hence; and, to my own certain knowledge, there are none in this immediate neighbourhood. The two rivulets which flow into the Lea, afford trout in some abundance, of good flavour, but small, one of a pound's weight being accounted. large. I have ob- served that the trout in the Dart, and in all the rivers in which I have fished in this county, are small. Another rare occurrence respecting this piece of water exists. The water of the Lea empties itself into the bay, by oozing through the sand, which consists of large coarse-grained nodules of various sizes, from that of a pea to the bulk of a man's fist. When the tides in the ba}^ are low, the Lea dis- charges its waters in great quantities through the sand into the bay ; but should the water in the Lea be low, and a spring tide occur, the salt water in like manner flows through the sand, and rapidly advances the water in the Lea. There is one particular spot where this principally occurs, named the Gulf, and many instances are on record in which the sea and the Lea have been united ; but, as in my present letter I de- sign only to give you a general outline of the place, I shall reserve a particular account of these circumstances for a future D D 2 396 Natural History of the Parish of Slapion. Scale of chains. 20 10 0 5 0 fl. Torcross. b, Watchhouse. c. Road to Stokenhara. d. Marsh. et Bridge and Road to Stokeley House. kk, High-water mark. g. Cow Point. //, The lower Lea. i i i. The shore sands. h. Hartshorn Point. /, Western cellars. m. Boundary line between Stokenham parish above, or to the south, and Slapton parish below, or to the north. n. Boundary stone. o, Slapton cellars. Py Limekilns. q. Round-house. r. Road to Slapton. s. The higher Ley. Gun or boundary stone. i, Blackawton parish, w. Intended road. V, Abraham Wellend, Esq. IV. Gate to Street Hill. Parasite Habits of the Night-jar, 397 letter. Slapton Sands, by which the Lea and sea are divided, afford but few specimens of shells, and those of the most com- mon occurrence. Many species of the genus Tringa breed here. Start Bay supplies the neighbourhood with abundance and variety of excellent fish. Of these I purpose giving you as good an account as I can ; but I must confess that I am not at present very conversant with the science of ichthyology. In botany I hope to be able to supply you with a list oi plantcs rar tores; but my residence here having been of short du- ration, I cannot speak with absolute certainty upon that sub- ject, i^ilices abound, and I see the leaves of the Sibth6rpm europae^a in some moist rocky spots in the village. In the meadows in the autumn I gathered Bartsia viscosa. I will now close my present letter, with the assurance of my desire to assist your undertaking in every way that lies in my power ; and if you think that my present letter is worthy of insertion in your most useful Magazine, I shall be proud to communicate to its pages any thing relative to the delightful science of natural history that may present itself to my notice. I send you herewith a map of Slapton Lea (^g, 104?.), of which you can make what use you please. I am, Sir, &c. Slapton, Devon, April 23. H. V. D. Art. II. Supposed Parasite Habits of the Night-jar [Caprimulgus europ(B'us)f and Nests of the Cuckoo, By J. Rennie, Esq. The statement of your correspondent, Mr. Masters, of the Canterbury Museum (Vol. III. p. 192.), with respect to the night-jar depositing an ^gi jiii. J \o S I bfiB [itiiii' la to si&n c y'no siawaiariT M .8 bniw j °g'^ n6 .3 .VL baa .3. edi sno-^ w^d bov/, V ^''A'^'l.^''^^ "l^^ ^^ {onlAa ; >.vA: V no .W.Vi him *%J Mj'il • V«^^^«^ of Je^^^e^ ^j^^,^,-} ..^^^b 5 siOiiT ,87Jib t no .:7 'diil moi^ ^^ Scotland ■ - ^'-^ '^' ^^"^' • ^^ ^^^ ^'^'^ ^'"^ no TirrfntdVif Imfj i^bnnd;^ bus ,L'. ■i'i no abniw/haJgow bnol 3T3W •),J)tAfiB Ail, showing the Motion of the Merctiry in th6 Barometer sted Tbfer- ,^, mometer, and the Dew Point, or the Mean of each, for every Ten Days J* , in the Months of June and July ; also the Mean of the minimum Tempera- „r, .ture, and of the Mean Temperature, within 6 in. of a South Brick Wall, I' the Thermometer being shaded; the Depth of Rain in the Pluviometer, !. and the Quantity of Moisture evaporated in the Evaporating Gauge, {\ during the same period: as extracted from the Register kept at Annat ,^' Gai'dens, Perthshire, N. Lat. 56° 23^' ; above the Level of the Sea 172 ft., ^., and 15 miles from the Coast ; being the Mean of daily Observations at "10 o'clock Mofning and 10 o'clock, JvenTOj* ifA odi'io tij^wvu . c «o' -rnjJ 'oj ')..'. '• • .1-;,: .!; :;M'i{t-,Hu>r, f.iVH ii'jii.. j-jj^ov ,'^xiM 1o bn3 orfi JA Calendar of Nature, 441 107 1 i 1 1 gj, Rain Gauge, and Index of T 3 and Barometer. O herraometer / |_ Jf- Is 1 S 2 1 - / / 60 > y 30 / / """^ A / / ^ ' y < / ^ / ^^ — p<^ ^ / \ t^ C^ J c / ^ ^ d^ / "—f- o >°°oooo 9 /// / . 'ol^^iv o** /// 50 / ^o °Oo"^ h - f ' ?.9 «° — v^ ^^> -3^ T" "^ 7 ao °°. ooooc / y ——..jmin t ^ ^ y^ ii£ - 28 ' - 30 27 10 20 3 0 JO ' 50 20 - 31 10 20 3 i >< Jul le. June. July. July. The double lines, marked 6, show the motion of the mercury in the baro- meter ; tswy the mean temperature of the air, near a south garden-wall ; ty the mean temperature in the open air and in the shade ; rf, the dew-point ; and min. ty the mean of the minimum temperature in the open air at night. The coldest day in June was on the 14th : mean temperature of that day 47° ; extreme cold throughout the month 38°; wind E. The warmest day in June was the 27th : mean temperature of that day 59-5° ; extreme heat 65° ; wind S. E. There were only 5 days of brilliant, and 12 of partial, sun- shine; 13 days were cloudy. The wind blew from the E. and N. E. on 5 days ; from the S. and S. E. on 3 days ; from the N. and N.W. on 7 days ; and from the W. and S.W. on 10 days ; and from due E. on 5 days. There were loud westerly winds on the 1st and 2d, and thunder and lightning on the 28th. The coldest day in July was on the 2d : mean temperature of that day 51*5°; minimum temperature for the month 46°. The warmest day in July was on the 28th : mean temperature of that day 71°; extreme heat 82° ; wind W. There were 7 days of brilliant, and 6 days of partial, sun- shine ; 18 days were cloudy. The wind blew from easterly points on 10 days, and from westerly points on 21 days. There was a loud gale of westerly wind on the 19th, and long-continued peals of thunder on the afternoon and evening of the 30th. The mean temperature of June was 54*4°, or nearly 3° below an ordinary mean ; that of July was 59'5°, or just 1° lower than on an average of the last seven years. At the end of May, vegetation was something in arrear. The low tem- VOL. III.—- No. 15. GG ^4-2 Listrmtions fo)' tUe Collection perature, and moisture in the soil, retarded its progress throughout the month of June. The laburnum came in flower on the 8th, and the mul- berry in leaf on the 9th, 4 days later than last year; the Buddleaglobosaon the 25th, or 9 days later than last year ; and the Tradescantia discolor on the 26th. The wheat-fly began to appear, in warm sheltered situations, by the 22d ; and the temperature falling to 38^ in the open air, on the evening of that day, the first crop of these marauders was killed outright. It was prevented from laying its eggs on the wheat-ear, by brisk winds, except on the evenings of the 23d (when they were only a few hours in the fly state), and on the evenings of the 27th, 29th, and 30th : so that the early part of the crop has not been so severely injured as last year. Throughout the whole of July, the air was exceecUngly moist ; and, till near the end, the tem- perature was low, the atmosphere cloudy, and rains frequent though sel- dom heavy : plants, consequently, elongated without matiu-ation. The white single campanula (Campanula /)ersicif61ia) opened its blossom on the 8th, thesame day as last year ; and, like last year, it was late in July before hay-cutting could commence, by reason of the rains. Peas that brairded in the field on the 31st of March came in flower on the 12th, a period, from the time of brairding, of 103 days : mean temperature of that period 50*8°. China wheat seeds from Mr. Loudon, sown on the 24th of March, brairded on the lOtb of April, and came in the ear in the open ground on the 12th of July, a period, from the time of brairding, of 93 days : mean tem- perature of that period 51°. The JTordeum nudum seeds, also from Mr. Loudon last year, that brairded in the field at the same time with common barley, came, in the ear also at the same time on the 16th ; a period, from the time of brairding (p. 392.), of 101 days : mean temperature of that period 51*5 '. Oats which brairded on the 24th of April, came in the ear on the 24th; a period, from the time of brairding, of 91 days: mean tempera- ture of that period 52'9f>. Last year, oats came in the ear in 74 days, in the same park, from the time of brairding; but the temperature was 1*5° higher, and the moisture in the soil less copious, during the early stage of the plant's growth. The wheat A^phis appeared to join the Cecidomyia tritici in completing the ruin of the Carse farmer on the 28th and 29th : a thunder storm, with a heavy fall of rain, swept them off" on the evening of the 30th, and left the maggots, and their black foes the ichneumons, in quiet posses- sion of the ear. During these two days, the ears in many fields were lite- rally covered with the brown-coloured A'phis : they now lie dead on the surface of the ground, except on awned or bearded wheat, where they have been in some measure protected from the inclemency of the weather. — A.G, Aug.2. Art. VIL Instructions for the Collection of Geological Specimens. ; ' (Copy of ^ Paper issued by the Geological Society.) 1. The Geological Society begs to impress upon the minds of all collec- tors, that the chief objects of their research should be specimens of all those rocks, marls, or clays, which contain shells, plants, or any sort of petrifaction. „ 2. The petrifactions should, if possible, be kept united with portions of the rock, sand, or clay, in which they are found ; it being more desirable that the mass should be examined carefully when brought to England, than that any separation of the shells should be attempted at the time of their collection. This injunction, however, does not apply to those cases in which the shells fall readily from their surrounding matrix ; but, in this event, great care must be taken of the petrifactions, by rolling them in paper, or some soft material. 3. If several varieties of stone are jseen in Xhe same cliff or quarry, and of Geological Specimens. 443 particularly if they contain any petrifactions, specimens of each should be taken, and numbered according to their order of succession ; marking the uppermost No. 1., and thence descending with Nos. 2, 3, &c., making as correct an estimate as time will permit, of the thickness of the beds. None of these specimens need be more than 3 in. square, and one and a half or two thick. {Jig. 108.) Quarry 108 f^tgetable Soil 8 ft \ Gravel Cliff Cliff 3A > Sea Bones T ft. Plants bft. Shells \0/l. 4. If the rocks are stratified, that is, divided into beds, state whether they are horizontal, inclined, or twisted. If inclined, observe pretty nearly at what angle, and to what point of the compass they dip ; if twisted, a sketch, however slight, is desirable. — N. B. The true dip can seldom be ascer- tained without examining the beds on more sides than one. (^g. 109.) Horizontal Beds. Inclined Beds. Dip 60°. Twisted Beds. 5. One kind of rock is occasionally seen to cross and cut through the beds of another. In such a case, observe whether the beds are in the same plane on each side of the intruding rock ; if not, mark the extent of the disturbance, and also, if there be any difference in the nature of the stone of which the beds are composed, at those points where they touch the intruding rock. Take specimens from the junction, and make a sketch of it. (Jig. no.) Fault, or Dislocated Beds. 110 Fault, or Dislocated Beds. Rock A cutting through other rocks. 6, Where there are wells, get a list of the beds sunk through in digging them ; specifying the thickness of each stratum in its order, from the sur- face downwards. 7. In volcanic districts, procure a list of the volcanoes now or recently in action, and of those which are extinct; stating their position, their disr tance from the sea or any great lake ; the extent, nature, and, if possible, the age, of particular streams of lava, or the relative age of different gtreams : also, whether the lava currents conform to the valleys, or are seen at different heights above the present rivers ; and also if any gravel beds be discoverable beneath the streams of lava. (/^. HI.) . ; G G 2 444 Collecting Geological Specimens, ,' ' > - Lawi " : has fA'^in srf 1 jffJ»"^ r r » '"'- - fit lib :-Bc<<**«»"/A Shells. 8. Note the names of all places known to contain coal, bitumen, salt, alabaster, metallic ores, or any valuable minerals, specifying their extent, and the nature of the rocks in which they occur ; but do not bring away large quantities of iron ore, spar, salt, &c. 9; In cases of coal-pits, specimens of the coal itself and of the beds passed through to obtain it (especially when plants have been found) will be valuable. State whether limestone, iron ore, or springs of bitumen are found near the coal ; and if the limestone contains shells, collect abundance of them. 10. Make particular enquiries whether, in digging gravel-pits, or beds of surface clay, mud, and sand, the workmen are in the habit of finding any bones of quadrupeds ; and obtain as many of diem as possible, selecting particularly teeth and vertebras. iwfl)l. -Search also for bones in cracks of rocks, and in caverns. In the larftfer, the lowest pits or hollows are most likely to contain bones; and if the solid rock be covered with a crust of spar or marl, break through it, jjttd dig out atiy bones, horns, or pebbles from beneath, {fig. 112.) i 12. Observe if the surface of the country be strewed over with large blocks of stone; remark whether these blocks are angular or rounded, and whether they are of the same or a different nature from the stratum on which they are laid. If the latter, endeavour to trace them to their native bed. Note the different heights at which gravel is found, and whether or not it is composed of the same rocks as the adjoining country. 13. Nautical collectors are requested to separate and preserve any shells (Or corals which may be brought up, either with the lead or the anchor.'; noting the depth and the locality. 14. On coasts where there is a considerable ebb tide, and where thei shore consists of rocks or clay containing fossils, some of the best of these petrifactions maybe looked for, by breaking up with a: pick-axe the shelviila beds exposed at low water. . . '. ' 15. In making sections, or memorandums, distinguish well upon the lioast, between masses which have simply slipped and fallen away, and the real cliff itself. 16. When drift \^6dd is met with at s^a, collect pieces of it: note thei longitude and latitude, the distance from the nearest land, and the directioVi of the current by which it has been borne. Examine well the state of the floating mass, and see whether any roots or leaves be attached to it. 17. Every specimen should be labelled on the spot, or as soon after -^Mehvspective CrHicism, ^ 44-5 collection as possible, and then rolled in strong paper, or any soft material, to protect its edges. 18. A heavy hammer to break off the specimens from the rock, and a smaller one to trim them into shape, are indispensable. If the larger ham- mer have a pick at one end, it will be found very useful in digging up and flaking off those thin shaly beds which usually contain the best preserved shells, &c. A chisel or two are also desirable. 19. The recommendation expressed in the instruction No. 1. may be repeated : — That it should be a general maxim with geological collectors to direct their principal attention to the procuring of fossil organic remains, both animal and vegetable. These are always of value when brought from distant countries, especially when their localities are carefully m^^e^'i: but when the rocks contain no petrifications, very small speciaj^:^ fff/e* sufficient. ,>p og'.iji *** All boxes to be addressed to W. Lonsdale, Esq. Curatp^iGfO* logical Society, Somerset House, London. . ,' \':\h'n?nq ^..^partments of the Geological Societt/y Somerspt^^^^q^ ^^^^ : .aldBjjlBV ad OM/ : . Londqn,^^ebmari/ 19. 1830. rij-iibnii liaoo odi *i£9n bnuyl lo sLad 10 ^8liq-fo7m§ ^ras^igife m ,'i'-' -tbpns iBluoiji^q s^eM .01 \nR ^nrbnfl "^o i'ukd JriJ m-,-^ Ma hna .buoi ,^^bIo aoiiiiua . gniioula? .aldj^^o^^aJTirii^Ip Retrospective €rkimkm\}nhnu\) ** > 39 lod ■ ' , ' •(Vy'-rrf hiv.. ■'■'' ' •hiAiiuq ■ri{\ Wl^BRAim an4 RUsen'& l^ictufe of Organised i^ftf^retM?!-! object ti^^-^^ft^F incorrect passages in your review of this worky r-i- VoL IL p. 349. ! ' ** 'Ehd lion" lives " only in Africa's burning deserts," This is so far frcaaa bein^ the case, that the lion is also found in the comparatively fig^ jQjiiaij^teijiif Northern India and Southern Africa. — P. 349. " The camels of the Old iW^orld belong to the warmer half of the temperate zone." Are they not found in the torrid zone too ? From what is said (p. 350.) of tlie ox and buffalo, the obvious inference is, that the fonxier is pecuHar to the temperate zones, and that its place in the torrid zone is supplied by the buffalo ; but the ox as well as the buffalo abounds in the torrid zone, and more than one species is found wild in India. " The horse (p. 350.) is" not " fouWd wild in Arabia," neither, I believe, " in Java ; " nor is " the bear" (p. 350.) peculiar " to the coldest half of the temperate zone," three species being found in India and its islands. In the same page (350.), " the dog " is said to extend from the " snow to the torrid zone, terminating with the jackall and hyaena ; " but the hyaena has been properly separated from the genus Canis, and not only are the jackall and it found in the torrid zone, but the wolf and wild dog also. — P. 350. Again, " the cat genus," " towards the middle of the temperate zone, diminishes into the wild cat." The wild cat, however, the very type of our domestic one, I have oftei^ seen in the woods of Southern India. In the same page, the " stork " is oddly enough combined with the " ermine and weasel : " I presum^e; stoat is meant. In the same page, again, " moles " are said to " inhabit both the temperate and torrid zones. " Is this correct ? Again, same page, " porcupines " are not restricted " to the warmest part of the tem- perate zones : " they are common in the south of India, in the torrid zone. A similar remark applies to the wild swine, which is abundant in most paits of India. " Gulls (p. 351.) are" not "peculiar to the northern hemi- sphere." I have two different species, which I brought from the Cape pf Good Hope; Table Bay is full of them. Is it meant (p. 351.) that frogs are more numerous " in the colder portion of the temperate zone " than m the torrid zone? If so, it is a mistaken idea. As to the lizards being " most numerous in the direction of the snow line," yet " belonging chiefly to the torrid zone," I know not what to make of it. " Crabs and shellfish (p. 352.) are met with in the southern hemisphere beyond 80°"! Who G G 3 446 Retrospective Criticism^ discovered them there ? Who ever penetrated beyond 80° ? In "Vol. II. p. 473. is an extract from the Medico-Chirurgical Journal relating to the vulture and " the toucan in India : " now, the toucan is not a native of India, and if the hornbill is meant, such, I can say from my own observa- tion, are not its usual habits j I scarcely ever saw it on the ground even, it keeping generally in close shady trees like the cuckoo. Such errors as I have noticed, tacitly sanctioned by being admitted without remark into your valuable magazine, can only serve to mislead or perplex your young zoological readers. — A Subsaiber. Januari/ 26. 1830. Cuvier's Zoology. — In the first volume of the Magazine of Natural His- tory are some very useful articles, containing an epitome oiCuvier's System of Zoology. There is, however, an observation (p. 315.) which requires notice, as being calculated to mislead, namely, that which states that " iron colours the blood." It is true, soon after the discovery of oxygen, chemists and other philosophers stated that the cause of the red colour of the blood was a small portion of iron which is found in that vital fluid : but subsequent enquiries have not decided this to be the fact ; in truth, the cause of the red colour of the blood appears to be still subjudice. It will not be convenient to quote much from recent physiologists to show the truth of this pro- position ; but it may be.necessary and useful to say, that Dr. Ure, under the article bloody in his Chemical Dictionary ^ observes : — "No good explan- ation has yet been given of the change of colour which blood undergoes from exposure to oxygen and other gases;" and Mr. Brande {Manual of Chemistry') says : — " The iron appears to be regarded by Berzelius as con- tributing to the red colour of the blood ; a conclusion which my own expe- riments, detailed in the paper already quoted {Philosophical Transactions for 1812), by no means warrant, and which is also at variance with the opinion of M. Vauquelin." Another is the paragraph (p. 317.) calling, among other conditions of the mind, memory y the association of ideas y imaginationy volition (what is meant by volition?)y and reasoningy faculties. Tf the reader wUl give himself the trouble to refer to what I have said, in my Lecture on the Mindy concerning the term Facidtyy he will soon see, it is presumed, the misapplication of the term Faculty to states and operations of the mind. I am yours, &c. — James Jennings. London, January 28. 1830. Goitre, (p. 191.) — In my Glance at the Beauties and Sublimities of Switzer- land (p. 161. to 165. inclusive), I have given an opinion on the cause of this smgular enlargement of the thyroid gland, which I have investigated on the spot, in the valleys of Switzerland and Savoy. The conclusions which I have been led to form are the results of a careful revision of the facts collected, and I can hardly think that any other opinion can be formed. In this country it scarce, comparatively speaking, deserves the name of goitre. I have, after the descent of Mount Cenis towards Chambery, witnessed this glandular elongation so monstrous, that it required to be put up in a sack, and cast over the shoulders, not to impede their progress in walking. The hydriodate of potassa mixed up with lard, applied by friction externally as an unguent, has been found very successful in extirpating the goitre, even after it has attained a terrific size. I analysed almost all the fountains and springs in the canton of the Vallais, and found the water unusually pure in its chemical constituents, and free from extraneous matter mechani- cally suspended. A gentleman lately arrived from India has communicated some facts to me analogically confirmatory of my views on this curious and important subject. The water of the Hoogly branch of the Ganges ex- hibits a more reduced temperature, compared with that of the atmosphere, than is found in the Poonah branch of that river. In the former case, also, the ground is low, and presents a humid level, while in the latter it is mountainous, and swept by constant currents of air. In the Hoogly the Brahmins are accustomed to remain several hours during their ablutions, ^Hetrospecti^ve Criticism, 447 and in the recitations of their prayers, and their lower extremities swell to the thickness almost of the human trunk, while no such circumstance takes place in the Poonah. The peculiar character of idiotism which I have met with in some parts of Wales bears a striking resemblance to the ^etinisvi of Switzerland and Savoy. Yours, &c. — J. Murray. Carmar- then, Aj)nl 2. 1830. Mermaid. — I examined the " thing of shreds and patches " exhibited «ome years ago as a "mermaid" in the metropolis (p. 188.), and could distinctly perceive the junction of the compound, for it was certainly sewed together. I concluded it to be the upper part of the long-armed ape attached to the tail portion of a fish from the Ganges allied to the genus 5almo. The creature seemed to have been put to some cruel death to produce a horrid caricature of humanity. It was constructed in utter defi- ance of the laws of gravitation, and would have been in the condition of the man who ventured into the water with cork boots. Moreover, it would •have required two distinct species of circulation, for a warm-hlooAed animal €ould never coalesce with a co/rf-blooded one. — J, Murray^. Carmarihen^ April 2. 1830. Hard Substances in the Stomach of the Alligator. — J. R. (Vol. L p. 372.) observes, " It is well known that many species of birds swallow small stones, for the purpose, as is supposed, of aiding digestion ; but it is, I believe, an anomaly amongst other other orders of animals. ^^ This assertion is by no means correct, as will be seen from the following extract from a most interesting article on the natural history of the alligator, published in Jameson's Philosophical Journal, by my talented friend, Mr. Audubon of Louisiana: — " In those that I have killed, and, I assure you, I have killed a great many, if opened, to see the contents of the stomach, or take fresh fish out of them, I regularly have found round masses of a hard sub- stance, resembling petrified wood. These masses appeared to be useful to the animal in the process of digestion, like those found in the craws of some species of birds. I have broken some of them with a hammer, and found them brittle, and as hard as stones, ivhich they resemble outwardly also very much.''' {Jameson's Journal, No. iv. p. 280.) Speaking of the extreme gentleness of alligators during the summer and autumn months, the same eloquent and observant naturalist remarks : — "At this period of the year, to sit or ride on one would not be more difficult than for a child to mount his wooden rocking-horse." This statement fully corroborates the curious account given by Waterton, in his amusing Wanderings in South America. — Perceval Hunter. iWaj/6. 1829. The Song of Birds not innate, but acquired. — Sir, Your correspondent 'J. S., Thurgarton (p. 145.), seems to imagine that the song of birds is not acquired, but innate : by which, 1 suppose, he must believe that a young bird, bred up from the nest, and never allowed to hear any one of its own species sing, will still sing its natural song. If he supposes this, he is quite mistaken, as he may readily be convinced of, by noticing blackbirds or thrushes in a town or city, where they have not heard any wild ones sing. Their song will be found quite different under such circumstances, and sometimes even their voice disagreeable, particularly to such as have been used to hear them in their natural state. They have no variety in their note, and the greater part of their song is what they have picked up from people whistling to them, or the creaking of a cart or wheelbarrow, or some : other discordant noise. I have never found any bird whatever that was ' bred from the nest, or caught very young, that sang its proper note, except it was placed where it could hear the wild ones sing, and then it will frequently learn the song of some other bird. I had a nightingale that was caught when young, and had never heard a wild one sing : this I kept for three years, and it only sang two or three notes. I then turned it out with a -female that I had kept six years. They remained about the neighbourhood G G 4 448 Retrospective Critici^bJl until the time of their migration in autumn ; in spring they l-etumfed, or, at any rate, the male, for it sang in the front of my habitation all the first months of summer. I recognised it immediately on its arrival by its imper- fect song, which it had not improved in the least : it had a nest, and reared its young just by ; but whether the female was the same that I set off with it, I could not ascertain, as I had no mark to recognise her by. This, I think, proves that nightingales might be colonised in any situation where there were none before, by turning a pair or two of old ones out in spring, which would, without doubt, breed, if in a favourable situation, and their young would most probably return there the following season. This is certainly far preferable to hatching their eggs under other birds, though I do not know that it would make much difference in their song, as they vy^ould most probably mix with others of theii* own species, in the countries they visit in winter, where I suspect they sing the whole of the time, after they leave this country, as they frequently do in a cage all the winter, if ke|)t in a warm situation, and supplied with food that they are partial to. I had one began singing the first of last December, and continued in full song all the month, as loud and fine as if in the month of May. Another bird tha;t I bred from the nest, Saxicola Rubetra, or whinchat, turned out to ■ be oi^e pf the finest singing birds I ever heard; but it had scarcely anyr tl^li^^'ofit^' natural song, but all acquired, mocking every bird that it heard sirig, and imitating their voices as well as notes. Amongst them it had the aipazingly loud song of the missel thrush, which sang in Sir H. Wilson's p'ark, near the house where I then resided, during the winter and springs liearly all day long (this will be an answer to J. B. on the song of the misseF thrush. The whinchat sang this song so loud and exact, that we could xipt bear it in the room when singing ; it also sang the notes of all the dther birds that were with it in the cages so exactly that they could not be distinguished apart. The . following are the birds it imitated; — the larger/ whitethroat, the willow-wren, redstart, nightingale, and wheatear. I have at present some blackcaps that were bred up from their nest, which, having frequently heard wild ones sing, sing their proper notes ; but, besides this, they sing the notes of many other birds. The redstart they imitate so j exactly that they cannot be distinguished ; also the thrush, which they hear sirig in the gardens : they have part of the song of the nightingale and whitethroat, and also the exact call of the canary bird and siskin (or aber- devine), and will learn the song of any bird in a very short time. I think this will show that the song of birds is not innate, but acquired ; for even in a wild state some birds of the same species have a much greater variety of liotes than others, and are much better songsters; and many birds, parti** cularly the blackcap, will imitate several other bh-ds, even in a wild state* I am, &c. — R. Sweet. Pomona Place, March 29. 1830. , ,, The Kingfisher ; in reply to J. R. (Vol. II. p. 457.) — Sii', Very pressing engagements, and a severe and long illness, have prevented my noticing the observations of your correspondent J. R., relative to the habits of the king- fisher. We are certainly much obliged to J. R. for the facts concerning that bird which are there stated ; but why my statements concerning it are to be questioned, because J. R. has found a solitary exception, I am at a loss to comprehend. As to the Ravensbourne itself, I am, I presume, much better acquainted with the banks of that river than J. R., having resided for many years at Ladywell, Lewisham, and been on its banks at every hour of the day, from four o'clock in the morning tUl after sunset ; and from Deptford all the way up to beyond Rushy Green. / have never once seen a kingfisher ; and I did therefore mention in my work {Ornitho- logia) the circumstance of a kingfisher being seen between Bromley and Beckenham : and I do still consider the fact as rare ; as much so as that related by J. R. In regard to my still more extensive acquaintance with the birds of Somersetshh-e, I can say that Inever have seen the kingfisher Retrospective Cnticismj^x 449 near the habitations of man in that county; and I am therefore not dji^r posed, on one solitary fact, to alter my statement concerning that bird in Omithologia. It is, as far as I am acquainted with it, a very shy bird. If any additional confirmation were wanted of the scarcity of this bird in thq neighbourhood of the Ravensbourne, I might mention, that to him who delights in a very pleasant walk on the banks of the canal, from New Cross, through Forest Hill Wood, to Sydenham, and thence to Penge Wood, a rich treat is offered, particularly in the spring; when the nightingale and a numerous et ccotera will gratify his taste ; but although here again I have rambled at all hours of the day, early and late and at noon, I never saw one solitary kingfisher, although the canal is not deficient in fish. Will these statements satisfy J. R,, as they confirm mine, in my " little work ; " a work, however, permit me to say, that, had it been printed in a larger type, would have made a decent quarto? — James Jennings. 14. Goswell jRoadjJanuar?/ 20. 1830. :.^j^ Claw of the Fern Owl. — I would beg leave to suggest to Mr. DU],hn^ (p. 31.) that the singular claw of the fern owl is formed for the purpose, pf"^ detaching the sharp hooked claws of the beetles or chafers which are occa- sionally affixed to the sides of the mouth, and must impede the bird's sw^^j lowing them. — J. Hayward. February 11. 1830. , ^j I'Po^vers of Smell asonbed to the Vulture. — Sir, As it has repeatedly be^| remarked, in the annals of science, that the most splendid discoveries at^ most ingenious inventions have been attributed to wrong individuals, , J take* the liberty of humbly, observing, that the extracts inserted in the tenth Number of your admirable Journal, relative to the power of smell so ^nerally ascribed to the vulture tribe^ are not original. To your talent^^i correspondent, Mr. Audubon of Louisiana, whose Shakspearean notes qfl,, the Falco Washingtomana have already made him known to so many of your reader«y is due the honour of having first exposed the fallacy of those views, in an interesting treatise, in the third number of Jameson'' s Journal^ entitled, " An Account of the habits of the Tui'key Buzzard, Tultur Aura Lin.y with the view of exploding the opinion generally entertained of its extraordinary power of smelling;" on an attentive perusal of which, no one, in my humble opinion, can for a moment hesitate in crediting his assertion, that the vulture is not, and never was, in the enjoyment of any extraordi- nary olfactory power. — Perceval Hunter. WalthamstoWy March 19. A Female Sparrowhawk with a blue Back. — Sur, In the Magazine of Natural History (Vol. I. p. 220.), your correspondent T. F. says he has ' never seen a female sparrowhawk with a blue back, like the adult male : I have seen two the last year (1829); one shot in October, the other in November, by myself, in the act of pursuing a wounded fieldfare, and it is now in my possession stuffed. — F, B. Kingsbury ^ February ^ 1830. , • 'df%e Smpe's Beak, -r- Sir, I observe your correspondent, S. T. P. (p. 29.), speaks of the snipe's beak as being formed for boring. I know the notioin,, is very generally entertained that the woodcock and the snipe obtain their food by boring for it in soft earth ; but this, I think, is mere conjecture, and not well founded. If these birds obtained their food in this manner, their bills must necessarily carry the marks of the mud, at the depth to which the bill has penetrated, and this I never could find. But being desirous of ascertaining the fact, I once took an opportunity of watching six or seven snipes at the foot of a little rill of water, in a meadow, during a hard frost, for fifteen or twenty minutes, through a glass, and they appeared to watch for their food, like the heron, and to take it by dashing their bills very quick into the water, which they also drew back again with great quick- ness, shifting their ground a little, occasionally. No doubt their food consists chiefly of animalcula, which they see moving in the water or oj\ the wet surface. I once also had two young woodcocks, not half gi'.Qwn, which; fwere -caught by a cow4)cty-4jri a; hiH,= where there w^ ho wat?er^„a«d 450 Retrospective Criticism. •not only where the earth was dry and hard, but their bills were evidently too soft and tender to be thrust into the earth. — J. Hay ward. Feb. 11. 1830. The Cuckoo and the Cuckoo's Maid. — Sir, Your correspondent X. Y. {p. 160.), speaking of the abundance of cuckoos in the neighbourhood of vthe Malvern Hills, observes, that " the workmen in the neighbourhood say a bird comes with them, which they call the cuckoo'' s maid ; but I never saw it." The species alluded to, I have no doubt, is the wryneck (Funx Tor- quilla), which comes and is heard about the same time as the cuckoo, or usually a little before that bird, and is commonly known in this neighbour- hood by the name of cuckoo's mate. Possibly X. Y. may have mistaken the word " mate " for " maid," owing to the provincial pronunciation of his informers ; or the bird may really be called " cuckoo's maid " in that quarter, from the notion of its being the usual attendant, the handmaid as it were, of the cuckoo. I recollect once, in the spring, asking an intelligent labourer, much in the habit of observing birds, whether he had yet heard the cuckoo ? " No, Sir," he replied, " but I dare say we soon shall, for I have heard his mate." While on the subject of the cuckoo, I may be allowed, perhaps, to ask (and I do it respectfully, without meaning to give offence,) whether Mr. White of Bedford can be correct in stating (p. 154.) that " the cuckoo continued to charm us with his twofold note till the 28th of July ? " The hiYdi is commonly silent three weeks or more before that date ; and if, in this instance, he continued his song till the- 28th of July, it is certainly a very unusual circumstance. .,,.,, Departure of the Swift. The same naturalist, too, I cannot help think- ing, must be under a mistake where he states (p. 154.) that " the house marten and the swift took their departure on October 27." The latest date at which I ever could see the swift was September 15., two or three individuals only, at the sea-coast, near Penzance, evidently in the act of migrating, as the main body of them had disappeared long before. Mr. 'White's notice seems to imply, not that a stray swift was left till Oc- 'tober 27. (which yet would be a very remarkable instance), but that the general flight remained till that time, which appears to me hardly credible. Some apology, I am aware, is due from me to Mr. White, for having ven- tured to call in question the correctness of his information. Truth and accuracy, however, I conceive to be the object with us both. Having long been a close observer of these interesting birds, and finding them, for the most part, pretty uniform in their motions, I cannot help hesitating to give •implicit credence to statements so very much at variance with what usually takes place. Had the swifts presented themselves to my notice at the end of October, I assure you I should have looked at them again and again, 'before I could have been persuaded to believe my own eyes. It is not impossible that some typographical error respecting the date may have crept into the text of your Magazine, in which case it would be desirable to correct it in a future Number. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory ^ March 29. Snakes taking the Water. — In reference to your Portsmouth corre- spondent, it may be remarked, that I believe it not a rare phenomenon to find snakes or vipers occasionally take the water, either to cross a stream or traverse a pond or lake. A curious instance was communicated to me of an adder having seized the artificial fly of an individual when fishing in one of the lakes of Scotland, on the verge of the estuary of a river. It was finally drowned, by dragging it into the current against the stream. — ■J.Murray. CarmarthenyApril2. 1830. Skate Spawn. — The "Fairy Purses" found in abundance along the sea shore, and alluded to in p. 157., are well known to be the ovaria of the skate; but it is very rare to find an imperforated specimen ; they are generally rent, and the young animal has made its escape. I have in my Retrospect ive Criticism^ 4<51 collection two beautiful specimens from the Indian Seas: both contain the perfect " animal" within, and distinctly perceptible through the envelope. I selected them from a great many : all the rest were empty cases : the threads proceeding from the angles form beautiful curled tassels. — J. Murray, Cannartheny April 2. 1830. 'Buccinum lajnllus. — Sir, Your correspondent G. J., on Molluscous Animals {p. 44.), says that the .Buccinum laplllus, is " exposed for sale in large quan- tities in the fish-shops of the metropolis." He is certainly mistaken in the species : the only species of the whelk tribe sold in London, as an article of food, are the B. undatum, and the i^furex antiquus Lin. It may lead young beginners into an error. The least observation will show how dif- ferent the species are ; the B. laplllus not being one fifth the size of the other two. I am no draughtsman, or I would send you a sketch of the three. — A Constant Reader. Stepney, Jan. 28. 1830. • Conway Pearl Fishery. — Two very diiFerent kinds of pearl are collected about the Conway : one kind, the produce of a fresh-water muscle, iliya margaritifera, called by the Welsh, Cregin y dylw (shells of the flood), or perhaps Cregin y deuliw (shells of two colours) ; from which very valuable pearls are sometimes obtained, not much inferior to the Oriental ones. I have seen a very beautiful pearl from a lake in Scotland half an inch in diameter, and of a perfectly hemispherical shape. They are taken in the upper part of the Conway, near Llanrwst, but the search is very precarious. The other kind is abundantly obtained from the common edible muscle, iliytilus edulis, in the mouth of the river Conway, and in the Menai near Bangor. When the tide is out, numbers of people may be seen, of all ages, gathering the shells from the rocks and stones to which they are attached. The pearls yielded by these shells, though numerous, are small, irregularly formed, and of a bad colour. It is these pearls that are sent to London, and the destination of which is so mysterious. — W. Wilson. Warrington^ Juncy 1830. Pearls in the Conway, (p. 130.) — I suppose the misshapen so-called pearls sent to you must have been obtained, not from the Jfya margaritifera (U^nio elongata of Lamarck), but from the common muscle (ikfytilus edulis) in which minute and misshapen and ill-coloured concretions are often found. My late brother found a very fine pearl in the common muscle : it was of a perfect form and considerable size, that of an ordinary pea : it wa6 unfortunately however of a purplish tint, and wanted all the rich brilliancy which so distinguishes the Oriental pearls. Though pearls are found in the shells of various Testacea, as the common oyster, ikfytilus edulis. Pinna, Haliotis, &c., I believe the i^fytilus margaritifera and Mya. margaritifera are those alone which yield the best supply as to colour, number, quality, ^ize, and form. That rara avis the " pink pearl" is found in one of the conchs. I have seen small Oriental pearls of a perfect form, yet in great variety of colours, in Earl Mountnorris's collection ; and even when obtained from the " pearl oyster" (muscle) as it is commonly called, the forms are sometimes fantastic enough. I have a very fine one, large ; a complete biceps, resembling a double-headed shot ; it is Oriental, and of the finest brilliancy, but useless as an article for jewellery. The pearl fisheries of the Conway, and especially of Scotland, were once considerable, and charters were granted for their monopoly. I have been informed that a lady on the Conway nets nearly a thousand a year by the pearls of that river, imder a charier : doubtless these must be obtained from the Mya margari- tifera (the pearl muscle does not exist in the Conway), if this is actually the case, for it is probable I may have been misinformed. Poor persons pick out useless pearls, such as do not deserve the name of that beautiful concretion, the ornament of coronets and crowns, and vend them for a trifle. It is, however, some years now since I was on the Conway, and the delightful science of conchology formed then no part of my studies. nm Retrospective CriticisTii, I think it demonstrable that the pearl is not the product of disease; an animal excretion, but moulded from the pearly matter of the shell; the cavities in the interior of the shell, and where the pearls are found to lodge, seem to go far to prove this. The vast size and great variety of form and colour occasionally presented concur in the conjectural probability. They are formed by the animal as plugs to stop up the enemies' mine, — the circular, -&c., perforations of theVenmlithophagus, ilfytiluslithophagus, Pholas dac- tylus, and Mixrex BranddriSy &c. — J. Murray, Carmarthen /April 2. 1830. Leather Coat Jack (Vol. III. p. 80). — Sir, The following extract from Kirby and Spence's Entomology, vol. iv. p. 189., will throw some light upon the history of this wonder-working individual, who appears to have been, by a feat almost as extraordinary, transformed by Mr. Rhind into an insecti " But the grub of Elophilus tenax (a drone-looking fly) affords a more sui'- prising instance of this power of counteraction : — an inhabitant of muddy pools, it has occasionally been taken up with the water used in paper- making, and, strange to say, according to Linne, has resisted without injui*y' the immense pressure given to.the surrounding pulp (jFw. &uec. 1799); likfe Leather Coat Jack, mentioned by Mr. Bell QAnatomy of Expression in Painting, 170.), who, from a similar force of muscle, could suffer carriages to drive gycp tttH without receiving any injury." The circumstance maii tioned by Linnaeus is however more wonderful than the exploits of the abo^d individual; and the authority of the learned Swede is of so high a nature, that but :,littlei /doubt can arise upon the narrative. — J, O. Westwood, IchnewmmMcB, — l^^-^B: k)a3C»lfibBl)arffei source of regret to the real lover of nature, that the m6re-irfaiute^«a5Jfeotfeaf)the creation are gener^ly looked upon by the^ professed general natraiiliHfeTiwithS apathy, even if they are not entirely disregarded, as though they were unworthy of attention and in- vestigation. Forgetful that the Icjwest ' infeect or polype, even the meanest atom that lives, the Monas itself, derives importance from occupying a link in the great and complicated chain of the creation, such persons are contented to observe and study objects only whicli attract their attention by thi^ir- splendour or size, or by the benefits or injuries which they discover them to be capable of bestowing or inflicting. It is not however to be denied that many, najr, the majority, of the more minute creatures exhibit " the work, of an almighty hand" in a far more wonderful and interesting manner than their larger brethren, whether we regard the brilliancy of their colouring, the peculiarity of their characters, or the exceeding singularity of their economy. Hence, from such inattention must obviously arise great confusion in the nomenclature of the objects ; and it has hence repeatedly occurred, that the most interesting observations have become lost to the student, from the circumstance of the object being either unnamed or mis- named. Of this confusion existing in the greatest degree, the minute families of hymenopterous insects have perhaps afforded the most preva- lent examples. And I cannot but regret that the communication of your correspondent T. H. (p. 31.) has exhibited an additional proof of this confusion in his nomenclature of the object of his paper, namely, a very small species of ichneumon fly (/chneumon ovulorum of Linnaeus, Platygaster ovulorum of the fam. Proctotrupidae of Latreille. In the first place, it is to be observed, that the name of the insect adopted by your correspondent, /. ovulorum, is sufficient of itself, from its reference to the economy of the species, to prove that it could not be applicable to the insect in ques- tion ; the true /. ovulorum of Linnasus inhabiting, as the name implies, the eggs of lepidopterous insects. Your correspondent's insect is in fact the /chneumon glomeratus of Linnaeus, and its history has been investi- gated by Reaumur, De Geer, Rdsel, &c. &c. In the second place, supposing that your correspondent's insect were the true /chneumon ovulomm, or that he were correct in referring the egg-feeding ichneumon to the genus Retrospective Criticism, 453 Platygaster * amongst the Proctotriipidse of Latreille, it is singular that the characters of the latter family should have been completely overlooked in considering them to be capable of including your correspondent's insect, the characters of which, as will be seen below, completely disagree with those of the Proctotrupidae. I have therefore thought that it might prove serviceable to subjoin the two following tables of the characters, &c., of the four very distinct families, /chneumonidae, Cynipidae, Chalcididae, and- Proctotrupidae, which have, nevertheless, in a greater or less degree, been hitherto confused with each other, and of "vvhiph families many hundred species are inhabitants of this country. \ g. These tables, you will perceive, are not drawn up in that strictly scientific and technical form which, I am convinced, retards rather than promotes, the increase of knowledge ; neither are they intended to comprise or reject all those modifications in structure which the terminal objects in anygrou|>[ exhibit. The first is deduced from the manners and economy, and the second from the structure of the parts, of such of the insects as may be c^q«ftsid^^,as.tfe^ |yp^,P^-^hjg> different groups i,„yiij ^vidc^ix^ uruyjuim yrii m vtmvxKs^A. \ \mo^ttKk) ii ' banoitaara tiofil ifioO 'iiriiBsJ p,., .; ,o,> ^.4+,,. lA.rA^ ,>i.>-.rr... Table Iftinia b aioii ,oriw /.Oil ^•g,sv■\toU^SL HerUvormiSy forming galls upon various plaateoai iuofks^wif^t&Mi aviib oJ> i?«2««^«?^ feeding either within or upon th&^mffm&^^iAu^aail ^dbsrioii jf^^I n a r eggs, larvae, or pupas, of other insects wb sdj has, ? liiuDivibni ,booutW^€\ipa' naked - - - ^i ©rfAiait^irtJBdi i^Ai ri am not aware of any"j PROCTO^^-pfD^'^ ijvof ifi9Pa^<«hfek^edJo rsmaterial difference be- 1 ^^wSw^r^ks^oI bsiool ^l{BiHIi^§(a)iBC»»id3i3fewteen the habits of these | /cnNEUMo^NiD^T:' ^^ ioa 91B fad J li n-^va ^^{;rit4qlJ tka'families • - J (typical species iarg^)lii^ 'ttj ha& noiJnaiJB lo yrinoVnu 3T)w \3fii flguodJ as ^bnbicsoiBil) vl lijna i?:^nf"^m ^M rroys yga foq to IdsSUbIeb^^I ori"^ iBih Lu1:t9g'io1 mk iixi^lasv Anfennay^oi elbowed (i:^. With the basal joint shoA ?^^ ^^^"^^^ ^"^^ .' ?*:^ and not thickened at the tips: <<-5 bns 1b3ijj oriJ m :dflil nofinoiJB Composed of more than '20 joints ; oviA '"' ' i^^-tnainoD i.'^ivo-i-ibx'-positor with three straight fillets; zuings V Icn^F.VMo'^WM^Y 9d oJ 19-^ '^ith numerous nerves - -J ^'=H^>^ -^'^ oJ n^ad:^ iidu X9 a^bmposed of not more than 15 joints ; oviA 'V'^^ ^/^^ ^»"^^J^ §ndPDi9*i.^ positor spiral, concealed in the abdomen j| CYNr^b^fP'^ ^^^ iiodilop ,^nder wings with only one nervure - J "J^^" lunnsin ^fe?^fe;elbowed (with the basal ioint long), and witfr ;- -^-' i '"^^ .uannolQii the tips generally thickened: "^ .ymonoas -Laffi xo \.L.;;^..., 77^^ u^ings nerveless; upper ivings nervei^l"^''-' ''^*^ "^ noigulnoD PRO€T0{69fj;j«1|j§ia diiii iO .h^ana Ai3m\d lo asiliiTifil ^i. .a^iqroext' JasI f iii^hx cH{K3TnL03r . ot to 83ioi)q(? "lining 3fl:t oJ Jgo |ggg^ Qj. ^-^j^ ^ ^-g^ nerves ; antcnnce 12 to "8101 10 h) l5jointed;^j«/pi long; ovepoiff /or tubular; Qliimiw i colours sombre - - - -BV9iq if'fUnder wings with one nerve ; upper wings °'?^\ 10 ^j^-jj QYiQ nerve descending into the centre 8inJ lo 7< > of the wing from the middle of the front X13Y G ,7. margin; antennce with not more than 12 °roJ?jfw/lB: joints; joa//je short; ovipositor composed aiJi ,03^.1 of three straight fillets, generally con-, it. 4ff.ob,To.;. cealed in the abdomen; colours splendid^T ^^^^ .hovia^do ad oi ^^ ^ J. westwooS: Feh:i:mo} ^l ILepturay Crioceridce, — Sir, The communication of your correspondenJL laa. ni jii jojain '3Hii'i?i i^nsiyam^^tfinli gy* !■.> t>iiy>r^ii\ ^■♦P'^:>.-" rt^o;! -^.-ri ;.(.;. ri S'*t i.r,, _,'nna'-i 1o ^^^! ' KT ih li n '- it. »;.: JM-iiLl t)d-^ * I observe that Mr. Stephens has done this in his Catalogue, but I am, not aware upon what published authority. X. however think the referenec 4$^ Retrospective Criticism. E. S. (p. 148. fig. 30. a b) tends, I regret to say, from the additional initial affixed to his signature, to show that there still remain some disciples of that school, who, although they deem it an honourable mark of distinc- tion to rank themselves as members of that society which bears the name, and which ought also to adopt the principles, of the great Linnaeus, yet apparently consider that the labours of that great master were, unlike those of other men, susceptible of no further improvement ; and who consequently overlook not only the labours of men almost equal in rank with himself, but also the very principles which guided him throughout his bright career, and which would doubtless have induced him to adopt, if not absolutely to propose, those very alterations and improvements in science which his would-be-considered disciples refuse to countenance and employ, if they do not actually laugh at and deride, but which more accurate investigation and by far greater numbers of the objects of such investigation have proved to be well-founded and correct. I need not, in this place, attempt to show the differences of structure which exist between the insects composing the family called Crioceridae, to one of the genera of which, Donacia, the subject of your correspondent's observations actually belongs; and the family Leptiiridae, in the typical or chief genus of which, Leptura, your correspondent has placed the insect alluded to, doubtless because Linnaeus himself regarded those species with which he was acquainted as belonging thereto. It is sufficient for my present purpose to point out the circum- stance, that this difference in structure is borne out by difference in habits, inasmuch as the true Lepturae do not form silken cells, but undergo a naked transformation; whereas the Donaciae, as E. S. himself informs us, construct cells for purposes which it may not be uninteresting to enquire, into, more especially as E. S. has left the question, whether they are the production of the larva or perfect insect, in doubt, and also in consequence of the circum- stance described by E. S. involving the interesting enquiry of the hyberna- tion of insects. Cases of the nature of those described by E. S. may be fabricated either by the perfect insect or by the larva. If by the former, they may be con- sidered as constructed either for the purpose of a general habitation, or merely for the purpose of hybernation. But it appears to me very evident that it was for neither of these purposes that these cases were formed. Indeed, in respect to habitations formed by the perfect insect, for the pur- poses of a general and constant, or even an occasional, habitation, Messrs. Kirby and Spence {Introduction^ vol. i. p. 473.) remark, in treating upon this subject, " From the next division of the habitations of insects — those formed by solitary perfect insects for their own accommodation — I shall select for description only two, both the work of spiders, which, indeed, with the exception of the inartificial retreats made by the -^chetae, Cicin- delae, and perhaps a few others, are the only ones properly belonging to it." With regard also to the formation of habitations by the perfect insect for the purpose of hybernation, the same authors (vol. ii. p. 440.) observe that " it does not appear that any perfect insect has the faculty of fabri- cating for itself a winter abode similar to those formed of silk, &c., by some larvae. Schmid, indeed, has mentioned finding jffhagium mordax and inquisitor F. in such abodes, constructed, as he thought, of the inner bark of trees ; but these, as Uliger has suggested, were more probably the deserted dwellings of lepidopterous larvae, of which the beetles in question had taken possession." One of the circumstances mentioned by E. S. must also be considered as sufficient in itself to prove that the perfect insect was not the architect of the cases in question, since it cannot be supposed that an insect living above the surface of the water, and constantly on the wing, would select a spot for its abode under water. ^ It only remains therefore tor regard these cases as the production of the larvae: and here the researches of the same interesting authors will at Retrospective Criticism,- 4^6^ once clear up the doubt, since we are informed by them, (vol. iii. p. 214.) that amongst the larvse (although chiefly of the lepidopterous tribes)' which enclose themselves in silken cocoons, are " those brilliant beetles frequenting aquatic plants constituting the genus Donacia F. ; and in a: subsequent page (227.), when speaking of the situation, often very remote from their place of feeding, in which larvae fabricate their cocoons, they state, that that of Donacia fasciata is fastened by one side to the roots or- ■ surculi of T'ypha latifolia." •> It does not appear to me improbable that E. S. was led to conclude- that the cocoons in question were the fabrication of the perfect insect, in consequence of his having found the perfect insect enclosed. He has, how-' ever, omitted to state the precise time when he discovered them, which ' would in some degree determine the question, although we may conclude' that it was some time during the winter. A circumstance, however, which I observed last October, induces me to consider that the insect attains its perfect state in the beginning of the winter, and remains enclosed in its cocoon until revived by the warmth of the following spring ; indeed, Kirby and Spence confirm this supposition by observing (vol. iii. p. 293. n. c.) that " insects of the beetle tribe, especially such as undergo their metamor- phosis under ground, in the trunks of trees, &c., are often a considerable time after quitting the puparium before their organs acquire the requisite ' hardness to enable them to make their way to the surface." . i\ The following are the particulars of the circumstance above alluded tof and several interesting enquiries arise upon it, which it is not my present intention to enter upon. During the month of October, I have repeatedly found upon the leaves of the oak a circular gall, when full grown about! • the size of a boy's marble, on opening which I invariably discovered its in- v terior to have been but very little eaten by the larva, the centre only being occupied by a small circular cell about one sixth of an inch in diameter. In some galls this cell contained a full-sized grub ready to transform to the pupa, whilst in others that transformation had already taken place. In the majority of instances, however, the cell contained a perfect gall fly, Cynips quercus-folii * ; and Reaumur, who does not notice the circumstance above mentioned of the discovery of the larva and pupa, has given the following observations upon this insect : — " Quand la feuille tombe au commence- ment de I'hiver, la galle tombe necessairement avec elle. J'en ai ramasse de celles qui etoient tombees, et je les ai ouvertes dans le mois de Decembre ; j'ai vu alors que le centre de chacune avoit une cavite bien spherique, qui etoit le logement d'une mouche qui s'etoit tiree de sa depouille de nymphe, mais qui attendoit que la rude saison fut passee pour sortir d'une cellule bien close et en etat de la defendre par I'epaisseur de ses parois contre les injures de rair."f — MemoireSy &c., vol. iii. mem. 12. p. 226. edit. 12mo, and plate 39. f. 13 — 16. Rosel has also given most beautiful illustrations of' this insect in all its stages, in his Der Monatlichy &c. vol. iii. pi. 52, 53. '• It only remains for me to notice the concluding interesting observation of E. S. relative to the formation of the cocoon under water without the water entering into it during the progress of its formation. Is E. S. certain that the situation in which the cocoon was found was under water at the * Some of the flies appeared to me to be endeavouring to cut their way out of the galls. f " In the month of December I opened some galls which had fallen with the leaves at the commencement of winter, and in the centre of each I found a spherical cavity tenanted by a fly, already escaped from its pupa- rium, and only awaiting the departure of the cold season to emerge from a cell well closed, and sufficient, from the thickness of its walls, to defend the inhabitant from the- inclemency of the atmosphere." ^B6 Retrospective Criticism, time of its fabrication ? If such were not the case, it is necessary, in order to ascertain the true mode employed in the formation, to bear in mind the habitation of the larva ; upon which point Latreille, in his Histoire Katurellcy &c., vol. ii. p. 324., states that the species of Donacia are generally found " sur I'iris et le roseau j ce qui fait croire que leurs larves, qui ne sont pas connues, vivent dans la tige de ces plantes. Selon Linnaeus, la nymphe de la Donacie crassipede, qui a la forme d'une coque brune, est fixee sur la racine de la Phellandrie." * And Kirby and Spence (vol. iv. p. 500.) more decidedly state that " on aquatic plants you must look for Helodes, and the splendid Donaciae, which, living on submerged shoots and roots of these plants in their larva state, continue to attend them when perfect." The question is one of considerable interest, involving as it does the method in which other aquatic insects, such as the Dyticidae, Hydrophilidae, &c., construct their cocoons, as well also as the method in which the cases of the grubs of the caddice flies (Trichoptera) are formed. I have not however at present an opportunity of referring to the observations of De Geer, Reaumur, &c., upon these points. I remain. Sir, &c. — John O. Westwood. Chelsea, March 22. 1830. P. S. I find that the Cynips quercus-folii occasionally remains in the larva or pupa state through the winter, my friend Mr. Ingpen having dis- covered some of the galls upon leaves lying upon the ground, so late as the 28th ult., each of which, when opened, contained a single pupa. — J.O.W, Aprils. 1830. The Ascent of aeronautic Spiders in the Atmosphere. — Mr. Murray states that "a spider's thread, darted through the air,must necessarily acquire electricity from the friction occasioned by its hnpulse through that medium ; and, if propelled counter to a current, the amount of excitement will be greater.'* What would take place under such circumstances, Mr. Murray may amuse himself with supposing, if he pleases ; but, how stands the fact ? Why, I have clearly proved, by direct experiments, given in detail, — experiments requiring no delicate manipulation, which I have invited, and again do invite, Mr. Murray to repeat, that spiders are utterly incapable of darting their lines eve7i through the space of half an inch. These animals, though placed on excellent conductors of electricity, such as metallic rods insulated by water, if exposed to a current of air, let out their lines with facility, and invariably in the direction of the breeze. The act is perfectly voluntary ; and the lines, immediately after they are emitted, nay, at the very time they are issuing from the spinning-apparatus, if blown upon from any other quarter, instantly obey the new impulse thus imparted to them. I have tried this experiment many hundred times, without once perceiving the slightest deviation from these results, which I therefore regard as com- pletely established. To suppose, in direct opposition to the most conclu- sive evidence to the contrary, that spiders, not larger than the head of a small pin, can dart out lines, so fine as to be absolutely invisible, except in a powerful light, to a distance of 10 or 20 ft., through a resisting medium like the atmosphere, implies no ordinary share of mental obliquity ; but to insist, as Mr. Murray does, that they can propel them in a right line, against a stream of air, is in the highest degree unphilosophical. My oppo- nent, anxious to induce an exalted opinion of his merits as an experiment- alist by affecting to despise those of others, insinuates that I am ignorant of phenomena familiar to almost every tyro in electricity, and falls into the absurdity of putting as queries what, in the same paragraph, he assumes to * " Upon the iris and the reed ; which renders it probable that their larvae, which are unknown, live in the stems of these plants. According to Linnaeus, the chrysalis of the thick-footed Donacia, which resembles a brown shell, is fixed upon the roots of Phellandrium. Retrospective Criticism, 457 be unquestionable. As for his electrical experiments made on spiders a^ their lines, I again affirm that I have repeated the greater part of them, with all the exactness of which they are susceptible, without having suc- ceeded in establishing their validity in a single instance. With a degree of inconsistency almost unparalleled, Mr. Murray ex- presses his contempt for authorities at the very time he is appealing to others in support of his own statements. Now, surely the observations <^ a Humboldt are as deserving of confidence as the attestations of Mr. Mur- ray's anonymous friends can be. That I am not the only individual whose attempts to confirm the accuracy of Mr. Murray's experiments on spiders have proved ineifectual, will be seen from the following passage, transcribed from a work entitled Insect Architec'- ture, published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful. Knowledge. The author, after giving an abstract of Mr. Murray's investigations (part ii. p. 345-6.), adds, " Such is the chief evidence in sup- port of the electrical theory ; but, though we have tried these experiments, we have not succeeded in verifying any one of them." This extract, certainly, is not adapted to remove Mr. Murray's prejudice against authorities ; I am persuaded, however, that it will not be deemed unimportant by impartial enquirers. I proceed to notice Mr. Murray's remarks upon the " dark brown glossy gossamer spider ^^ which, with his usual want of precision, he terms a variety. After asserting the correctness of his former observations on the speedy dissolution of this species in a state of confinement, he recommends a repetition of the experiment, but is evidently reluctant that I should in- vestigate the matter further. Thus Mr. Murray not only declines to try my experiments, but would gladly preclude me from examining his. Ck)uld this have been anticipated from one whose professed object is the promo- tion of truth ? Any comment would be superfluous. The results of my researches on this subject may be found in my letter of the 18th of July, 1829 (Vol. II, p. 397-8.), and subsequent experiments confirm their accu- racy. Mortified that he cannot controvert the evidence advanced in support of my doctrines, Mr. Murray is mean enough to intimate that I maintain opi- nions which I know to be false. I can make every suitable allowance for the irritation of a vanquished adversary, but so glaring a delinquency as this is quite inexcusable. In retiring from this needlessly protracted contest, my antagonist conde- scends to assure me, that if I can satisfactorily confute the facts and phe- nomena recorded in his Experimental Researches in Natural Historyy he shall give me credit for more wit than he supposed I possessed. To correct the numerous errors contained in that publication would be a practicable though laborious undertaking : but who, beside Mr. Murray, ever thought of confuting facts and phenomena ? If his good opinion is to be obtained on this condition only, there remains no alternative for me but to endeavour' to console myself without it. I am, Sir, &c. — John BlacJcwall. Crump- sail Hally March 8. 1830. The Ascent of the Spider. — Notwithstanding what Mr. Rennie says, in his very delightful book on insect architecture. Bowman and Murray are certainly right. It is by electric influence that they ascend. It was on the apex of the gnomon of my sundial here that I saw these gentlemen separately m^ke their experiments. They wish me, as does D , to strike a blow in your Magazine; but I abhor controversy, and this spider one seems to have banished courtesy. — J. F. M. May 30. 1830. O - Flight of Spiders. — I feel indebted to Mr, Thompson, of Hull, for the record of this phenomenon, (p. 47.) I notice it here as a singular coinci- dence with what I had myself observed on the 28th of July last, in a hay- field near Hull, and published in my Treatise on Atmospherical Electricity, Vol. III. — No. 1 5. h h ^58 Retfvspective Criticism, " Three aeronautic spiders ascended from the same spoty when each moved in a different direction," &c. (p. 81.) Now, that no collusion maybe sus- pected in the case, it may suffice to mention, I have not the honour to know Mr. Thompson personally, and have had no communication whatever with him ; nor is it likely he had seen my work on aerial electricity. This was published in December last, and Mr. Thompson's communication ha^, for the first time, appeared in the present Number (Jan.). How long it has been in your possession I know not, but of its existence I at any rate was ignorant. It is palpably evident that in the one case the projectile thread was independent of a current of air. The naturalist of Selboume declares the same thing, and he was a keen and cautious observer ; and it seems also clear that in both the floatage owned another cause than the ascent of calorific emanations. I have, however, other facts, which I shall elsewhere adduce, and that I believe will set the matter to rest, — J. Murray. Car- mariheUy April 2, 1830. Nidm on a Rush. — Sir, The nidus figured in VoL II. p. 104. is not, I believe, the work of an aquatic spider, as supposed by your correspond- ent, and also by our celebrated entomologist, the Rev. W. Kirby (Vol. IL p 405.), nor is it so uncommon as it is considered by that indefatigable and successful collector. Captain Blomer. (Vol. II. p. 303.) I have found it on high stalks of grass in shallow road-side drains, which are dry in summer and at other times when water does not abound : this shows that it is not the nest of an aquatic spider. I have to mention another circum- stance respecting it, which seems to have escaped the notice of others, and which will account for its supposed rarity. This snow-white silken fabric is concealed by a covering of mud soon after it is spun. Several years ago, when I was on an entomological ramble in the neighbourhood of Stowey, in Somersetshire, I found a few of the nestSy just like those figured. On searching further, I met with one partly covered with mud, which led me ta the discovery of others thoroughly plastered over. In this state they resem- bled bits of dirt splashed from the road on the stalks of grass. The plaster was evidently collected by the parent spider • from the moist bed of the drain from which the grass grew. I could have collected dozens of the nests in the dif- ferent states : the plastered ones were the most numerous. I brought home a few, but the young spiders never came out, and I regret that I cannot in- form you what species perform this ingenious work, for 1 con- sider it as beautiful and in- teresting as any thing recorded in the history of insect architecture. I have reared young spiders from analogous nests, a sketch of which I send herewith, together with figures of our beautiful nidus in its unplastered and plastered state, {fig. 1 13.) — — W. B. B. W. February 20. 1830. The Hessian F/j/. — The insect figured by Mr. Kirby (Vol. I. p. 227.) is evidently one of the Ciilices; but he refers it to the Tipula genus. The Tipulae, I believe, are destitute of a trunk, with which the Culices are furnished. The resemblance of some of the smaller species of these two genera is so close, that they have been confounded by both Goedart and Swammerdam. — A. L. A. Alnwicky April 7. 1830. Fly^s Eye under the Microscope. — By far the most beautiful phenomenon of this kind is exhibited in the picture of the window reflected from the numerous facets of the compound eye of the Libellula or dragon fly, and this multiplied image becomes extremely curious, being in motion, when an 113 Retrospect 'we Criticism, 459 assistant at the same time raises and lowers the sashes of the window. — J. Murray, CarmartheUy Aiir'd 2. 1830. Fildria. (p. 149.) — During my present pedestrian rambles through South Wales, I accidentally stumbled on a specimen of Leptura, which had been crushed on the road about two miles from Abergavenny. In this case, my attention was arrested by what seemed to be several coils of a thready matter, not much unlike fine catgut, and protruded from the abdomen. I carefully removed this, and found it to be Filaria, more than 3 in. long : it was still alive, and seemed to have threaded itself into a knot {Jig. 1 14.) in jjj^ the body of the insect. The conductor of that very elegant and valuable periodical the Botanic Garden may, therefore, be per- suaded, with myself, that it will be found more generally an intestinal parasite, in coleopterous insects, than it may be at present believed, and that it is by no means peculiar to the Forf Icula. — J. Murray, Carmarthen^ April 2. 1830. Drying Plants. — Having (Vol. II. p. 245.) recommended the plan of drying plants between papers from an experience of more than twenty years, I deem it my duty to such of your readers as may have put it in practice, to inform them that I have this season tried, with unlooked-for success, the method long since recommended by Mr. Whateley, in the • introductory volume of Withering's Botanical Arrangement, of drying them in sand. The ultimate result of each, when properly pursued, is nearly similar ; but the expedition, the great saving of time and trouble, and the ease with which the requisite pressure is adjusted, give to the process by sand such decided advantages, that I cannot too strongly recommend it. I generally place the sand-boxes in an oven, and heat the sand to about 100° Fahrenheit.* As many of your young readers may not have access to Withering's now superseded volumes, it m^ht be well if you would copy Mr. ; Whateley's directions into your valuable pages. — J. E. B. June 3. 1830," " Previously to the dr}dng of plants by this plan, it will be necessary to^ procure the apparatus: — 1. A strong oak box, of the size and shape of' those used for the packing up of tin plates. 2. A quantity of fine dry and searced sand of any kind, sufficient to fill the box. 3. A considerable number of pieces of pliant paper, from 1 in. to 4 in. square. 4. Some small flat leaden weights, and a few small bound books, " The specimen of any plant intended for the herbarium should be care- fiilly collected when dry, and in the height of its flowering, with the different parts as perfect as possible, and in the smaller plants the roots should be taken up. It should then be brought home in a tin-box, well closed from the air. The plant should be cleared from the decayed leaves and dirt, and afterwards laid upon the inside of one of the leaves of a sheet of com- mon cap paper. The upper leaves and flowers should then be covered in an expanded state with pieces -j- of the prepared paper, which may be placed in any irregular way, and kept down by the fingers till these parts of the plant are entirely covered by them : and after that, let one or two of the leaden weights be placed upon the papers. The parts of the plants below should then be covered with the pieces of paper, and likewise with the weights, and thus the whole plant should be laid in its proper expanded form by the same method. The weights should then be carefully removed. * Twenty-four or thii*ty-six hours in this temperature generally produces complete desiccation. " f As the beauty of the specimen depends very much upon this part of- the process, each large petal ought to be laid flat, separately, with a piece of paper, and the utmost care taken that every part of the plant be laid down without folds, which may be done, in general, in a short time." H H 2 460 Retrospective Criticism. and the other l^clt'tfi^s^f^ip^P^^^ applied to its opposite one, having the loose pieces of paper and' pfants between them. After which one or two of the books should be placed on the outside of the paper, and remain there until as many other plants as are intended to be preserved have been prepared in like manner. A layer of sand, an inch deep, should then be put into the box, and afterwards one of the plants, with the books placed upon it, which last should be removed after a sufficient quantity of sand is put upon the paper, to prevent the plant from varying its form. * All the other plants may then be put into the box in the same manner, with a layer of sand about an inch thick between each, when the sand should be gently pressed down by the foot, and the degree of pressure, in some mea- sure, regulated by the kind of plants in the box. If they are stiff and firm, as the holly or furze, much pressure is required. If tender and succulent, a less degree is better, for fear of extravasating the juices^ which would injure the colour of the plant ; but particular care should be taken to make a sufficient degree of pressure upon the expanded blossoms of plants, that they may not shrivel in drying. The box should then be carefully placed before a fire, with one side a little raised, or occasionally flat, as may be most convenient, alternately changing the sides of the box to the fire, twice or thrice a day ; or, when convenient, it may be put into an oven in a gentle heat. In two or three days the plants will be perfectly dry. The sand should then be taken out with a common plate, and put into a spare box, and the plants carefully taken out also, and removed to a sheet of writing paper." (Whatelei/yin Witkenng^s Botmij/,\o[.i. p. 28.) The Practice of Travellers^ in disseminating Exotics among our Indigenous Plants. — Sir, I beg to call your attention to the following extract from the valuable and highly interesting new edition of the Ari^angement of British Plants^ in which a practice, worthy surely of severer reprobation, is thus courteously condemned: — Additions and corrections, p. 442. vol. iv. " Antirrhinum Cymbal aria. In reference to the note, add : Since writing the above, we observe an acknowledgment, on the part of a certain enthu- siastic naturalist (see Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. I. p. 400.), of his having sown the plant in question on the rock near Barmouth ; a practice from which other similar errors have originated, and concerning which,, as tending to create confusion in science, among those especially who would wish to see . the stations of our native plants defined with accuracy, there can he hit one opinion. E." - — ^ Your insertion of this notice may be the means of deterring other travellers from conduct so reprehensible, and will moreover oblige — A Constant Subscriber. Bristol , May 29. 1830. [Is not the beauti- fying of our wild scenery a thousand times more valuable than this exclu- sive devotion to a single science ?] — Cond. Disseminating Exotics, and mistaking them for British Plants. — An impression was formerly too prevalent, that the Flora of the British islands had been so fully investigated, that no new discoveries could be made; and this misconception has been strengthened by the deservedly unsuccessful attempts to introduce mere varieties as species, through the medium of the later editions of Withering' s Botanical Arra7igement. But a new and more auspicious era has now commenced; and while the taste for natural science is daily augmented and diffused by the zeal of its professors in the various universities of the three kingdoms, the recent additions to our British plants in Dr. Hooker's newly published Flora, as well as those which had but a short time previously appeared, for the first time, in the English Flora of Sir J. E. Smith, are sufficient to show that our own country may still possess " * Those of the genus Potamogeton, and others of the same kind, ought to be put into the sand without loss of time, and well pressed, otherwise they are apt to dry too fast, and shrivel." Retrospective Criticism, 1.61 ,„-rf;rf ^frn 4-"^^^^ many a flower yet born to blush unseen,,,^ , ^^^^ , And waste its sweetness on the desert air." ^^ '^''^ ' " *'' Yet, in our researches, some caution is requisite ; for it appears that a race of disseminators has arisen, from whose gratuitous labours we are likely to have many spiirioits appendages to our list. (See a late Number of the Mag. Nat. Hist.) This practice is not to be recommended, and it is earnestly suggested to the individuals who adopt it (and I particularly address my- self to the candid and talented writer alluded to in the Magazine), that if they should hereafter discover a new and truly indigenous plant, the cir- cumstance of their having been thus employed will very much weaken, if it does not wholly destroy, the weight of their testimony ; for, though full credit for intentional veracity may be due to them, and conceded, it may -yet be doubted whether they be not mistaken in their recollection, or pur- ' posely deceived by other less honest disseminators. Nor will the incon- venience* be entirely removed by a timely avowal of the interpolation, sijioe no botanist can hereaftter investigate the districts so contaminated without having the discouraging idea that whatever he sees therey new or interesting^ has perhaps been officiously conveyed thither by others: and when it is considered how desirable it is that a perfect and authentic catalogue of our indigenous plants should exist in print (and in no former age have such favourable and adequate opportunities been possessed as in the present), vsurely no true botanist will hereafter lend himself to a practice so replete ^ with mischief. i—fT. ff^?7*on. Warrington, June, \^^0. Ap6ci/?iu7nandroscBmifdliuni. — In mentioning The Journal of a Naturalist, a work from which I have derived much instruction and amusement, I fTegret that there is any part which can afford opportunity for condemnation ; but the account (p.8G>. 1st edit.) and engraving of that curious plant, the -4p6cynum«ndros8emif61ium (Fly-catching Dog's-bane), is so very incor- rect, that' I cannot think the author can ever have seen a specimen, much less examined erne. From having frequently examined the plant, I can recommend to the notice of your readers the description of it in p. 280. j vol. viii. of Qnvtisi's Botanical Magazine, as being very accurate and clear, rilt is accompanied also with a coi-rect representation of the flower. — W. C. o^jivjan.28. 1830. : .r - - •■■ '. .. • a'^" JEV/'tttoi— Pelargoniuiti'phje'um (p. 169.), and P. lucidum and colum- ifefewfar^p. 174'.), should be Geranium p.,1., and c. : there is no British species I'of-^iPdargoiiium. — R. Sweet. Pomona Place, March 29. 1830. 'i-^^ "^MmpHdr urn pubescens.-^ A.t\i4 2^1. of Vol.1, there is a figure of this -kpeoris^iifrhich ife altogether erroneous. The stem is perfectly smooth, not ^Wmtg^it is. represented ,* and the rough downiness of the peduncles is scarcely visible without a magnifier, while in the figure they are bristled a^tronger than a thistle. The reviewer of the Flora of Berwick hints a doubt !of its' distinctness from E. polystachyon, but the species are totally different 'both in characters and habit. The figure of the latter in English Botany is very good. — - George Johnston. Berivick uj)on Tweed, March 17. 1830. Blue-bells of Scotland. — In the Flora of Berwick I have said that the Campanula rotundifolia is the blue-bell of Scotland, an assertion ques- tioned by my too favourable reviewer (Vol. II. p. 236.), who believes the iS'cilla nutans to be the flower thus distinguished. I have spent nearly the whole of the days of my life in the extreme north of England, and in the south of Scotland, and until science had made known to me another and a less interesting nomenclature, I knew the Campanula only as the blue-bell 'of my native land ; and a subsequent enquiry has satisfied me that I am correct. These heart-stirring and endearing names, I regret to add, are fast lapsing to oblivion, and, unless the local florist will conunemorate them in his pages, our children will read our pastoral poets witjiout knowledge of the olyect^.dpc^|^^^^ \^^^^^^^ ^^, 462 Retrospective Criticism. " E'en the slight hare-bell raised its head. Elastic, from her airy tread,'* is writing, I may remark, in English, and more attentive, probably, to the harmony of his verse than to the local name of his flower. — George John- ston. Berivick tipon Tweed, March 17. Y'lcla lath^roides. — In the review of the. Flora of Berwick, Vol. II. p. 237., it is asserted that Ticia /athyroides " has hitherto been found only on the sands of the eastern counties ;" and, therefore, that our plant is probably either L. angustifolia or some variety of V. sativa. The assertion of the reviewer is at variance with the testimony of the best authorities. Sir J. E. Smith appears to have found F. /athyroides in the King's Park at Edin- burgh iE7ig. Fl.y iii. p. 223.), where it was originally detected by Dr. Par- sons. Dr. Greville, we infer, has gathered it in the same station (Fl. Edin.y p. 157.); and Hooker, and Borrer, and Arnott, botanists of the very first rank, have each of them found it in Scotland. {Hook. Fl. Scot., p. 215.) From Smith's account we must, I think, consider the character drawn from the seeds as the most important and discriminative, and in the speci- mens which we examined for the purpose of ascertaining the species, the seeds were very plainly square ajid gramdated. In other respects our plant very closely resembles small varieties of V. sativa, from which it is, how- ever, readily distinguished by its small, inconspicuous, bluish-purple flowers ; a character not perhaps of much consequence, but which may call the attention of the young botanist to it. In all the wild varieties of V. sativa the flowers are large, reddish purple, and very pretty ; not merely evident to the practised eye, but showing bravely among the short thick herbage in which they delight to grow. — Id. Shining Moss. — Sir, My remarks on this singularly brilliant vegetable, in your Magazine for September last (Vol. II. p. 407.), being made from imperfect specimens, and under some degree of uncertainty whether the figure I gave was that of the true luminous object, it may be satisfactory to state, that a recent examination of fresh specimens, made under more favourable circumstances, and with a compound microscope, on the spot, has enabled me to speak with certainty, both as to its form and the cause of its extraordinary brilliancy. This is the more necessary, as a corre- spondent in your Number for March last (p. 152.) has suggested whether the light might not proceed from minute plants of Dicranum /axifolium. I have no doubt that " the phosphorescent brilliancy" he describes is the same I have observed in Derbyshire; but it certainly could not proceed from this common moss, as its leaves are not reticulated. Has he not mis- taken for it the more rare Gymndstomum osmwndlxceum (Schistostega pennata Hooker), which I have found accompanying the shining moss in several neighbouring stations in Derbyshire ? The drawing which accompanied my former remarks is undoubtedly that of the true plant; but, being made from dried specimens subsequently moistened, the articulations of the fronds and innotations have too much of an oval or oblong shape. When examined fresh, they appear, under the microscope, perfectly globular, like so many minute beads threaded over every part of the plant, or like particles of spherical pollen linearly arranged into the form it bears, and their size is precisely that of the seeds of Gym- nostomum pyriforme, which I had under the microscope at the same time. The innotations are occasionally cylindrical, without articulations, near the summit, such being, perhaps, in an early unformed state. The base, or cen- tral part of the plant, adheres horizontally to the loose sand, and consists of a flat layer of closely congregated globules, from the outer edges of which issue the sprig-like divaricating branches. The central frondose mass of spherules escaped my observation last year in the dried specimens ; but the annexed sketches {fig. 115), taken v/ith the microscope from fresh plants, show their perfect form : a, an entire plant, highly magnified ; b, a detached portion ; c, a separate branch, more highly magnified. Hetrospective Criticism, 4^63 From many repeated observations, I am satisfied as to the correctness of the explanation I ventured to give of the cause of the splendid appearance of this minute vegetable. Indeed, a person acquainted with the laws of optics, as exhibited in lenses, would, on examining its structure of innu- merable perfect globules filled with a highly pellucid green fluid, have pro- nounced, a priori^ that they would condense the rays of light, and appear luminous to.an eye placed in the angle of incidence, and the fact that it is always most brilliant, either in the cave or in a room with only a single w^indow, when the face is turned fro7n the light, illustrates the theory in a singular manner. I have no hesitation in referring this beautiful moss to the order A^lgse, of which it will probably be found to belong to the tribe Confervoideae ,• but I must leave it to those who are better acquainted with this obscure family to decide whether it has yet obtained a name and a place in the system of modern cryptogamic botanists. — J. E. Bowman. The Courts near Wrex- ham, June's. 1830. Geological Errors. — In p. 67. you give, in fig. 15., a sketch to show the relative position of the secondary rocks, which is taken from one of Dr. Buckland's sections given in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Geological Society , to illustrate his description of the groups of slate and greenstone rocks, which occur in Cumberland and Westmoreland, at the base of the great escarpment of Crossfell. The error has probably arisen from confounding the two colours used to show the " whin sill" in the midst of the mountain limestone beds, and the belt of greenstone rocks which accompany the slates and porphyries, through nearly their whole course ; perhaps, also, some confusion may have occurred from the term " trap" being used in the description on the plate; but, from whatever source it arises, an attention to the description in the text would clearly have explained Dr. Buckland's meaning. In your Magazine, the green- stone is designated " trap or whin sill;" from which it might naturally be inferred, that it was a portion of the whin sill which is found in the escarp- ment aijove, more especially as there are beds of mountain limestone, sandstone, and coal reposing upon it. This would be a great error, as it has no relation to that bed, but is merely, as Dr. Buckland describes it, a greenstone, whose varieties, from the different proportions of its ingre- dients, are almost endless. Having twice had an opportunity of examining this singular group of rocks in the course of my observations on the " whin sill," I cannot refrain from offering my humble tribute of praise to Dr. Buck- .land, for the clear and accurate description he has given of them. I would, besides, take the present opportunity of saying a few words upon the old red sandstone, which occurs here, well defined, although of inconsiderable thick- ness.* The error into which Forster fell, in his section of the strata, by con- founding the old red conglomerate with the new red sandstone formation of * It is a singular thing, that Smith, in his geological maps of Cumberland and Westmoreland, does not notice the old red sandstone of the foot of Crossfell. H H 4 464- Retrospective CriHeismM the vale of the Eden, and supposing the latter to underlie the mountain lime stone, has been long explbdedj nevertheless some excdllent geologists have very recently again confounded the two formations, by considering the con- glomerate, as it displays itself lipon Melmerby Fell, as the lower member of the new red sandstone, analogous to the well-known Exeter conglomer- ate. This error has arisen from the peculiar nature of. the ground, and from a too confined examination of the stratum. On Melmerby Fell the whole face of the escarpment is thrown into disorder by great land-slips which have taken place, so that, in rising upwards, we would appear to arrive at several beds of the same rock. Thus in endeavouring to reach the great or Melmerby Scar limestone, which here forms so important a feature, after toiling up a steep ascent, we arrive at what appears to be the regular basset of the stratum, but, when upon it, find, that it is only a fragment slipped from the bed, which in ay be seen at a great height above. This is precisely the cause of the confusion in the old red sandstone : it is here raised considerably above its usual level, by the greater protrusion of the slate rocks ; and, in ascending the Fell by Melmerby Beck,-^it makes its appearance several times, so that its true relation to the adjoining strata is very difBcuit to define. By tracing the foot of the escarpment southward^ k may be seen in many places undisturbed, but perhaps can no where be studied to greater advantage than in Blencarn Burn, between Melmerby amd Knock. Here it is found at the base of the cliff regularly reposing upon the clay slate rocks, and having resting upon it the alternating beds of the mountain limestone formation. If we examine this group of slate and greenstone rocks, and the beds associated with it, according to the views recently propounded in France by M. Elie de Beaumont, it/ would ap- pear that the range of Crossfell had been raised after theiconsolidatioa eif ti?e coal measures, and bfefore the deposition of the new redi sandstone. ■JKe-'beds of mountain limestone and coal strata, throivft into' a piosition almost vertical by the rising of the slate and greenstone rOcks, prove the ficSt^,;pi^)iiSs»tioifiBfiiTd! the! >imdisturbed state of' the new red sandstone, i^hdch, lyce'a* sea, sweeps rotind aild fills up the inequalities of the olddr Mrstt^ h&ug thus brought into contact 'with rocks of all ages, ^\ould appear to prove the "^ec6adi'^^WiUmviiM^itmi,AiNeimasikuupout 7^ i^pt)U^ iSS^ riiiw bohiis iyimi oi Jn-^irioa Ibw nssd ovbH Lluoria I ** "io Bap ^jielii^fhltmjl'; ^^g^^rtG>^. •E;»f pJ'O0j)3di l^iiintmbsfeaiiK«ras ti«ttiyfayPT^lua|jl@jlj)a|^s''be not unnecessarily/8cwH]iIeA bj^bowltroversyi : TSO^itofAcBiofyiM (Jbs^k^ons of T. E. of Can-vtaittoe sfeaUriAetefiwfe-jbe is lwi^ft«s<^c«sibl(K/ Ifhelbteltlef 8 of Dr. IJre in plafcif^'the tifa^isbore tfoe Bpii«it-'3lg,^^ar|d^hich^^in:rf]3pi^ol»ahce, I deemed'anlttlHpoitteDfr/euriDr^ybbr Gambrid^g. Qorrefepondent says ought only to be ooa^ideucnd .asif^JU'igFoas over)sJght.*4w theffeoi'rection of the jjress ! " Be it s6. !» iSoraeylpediiaps^jfwiH thifi^ ^i'lEiiiSuej^fclikiotfas seveix; as mine. ■iButJdaiETJoB.ybb Helwwits when h«&'4fe8em #Bi»^r^"re is actually right in)his!a«cbimt^df ilbe strata and fossils-^ (5f>tfee HgsWhgS beds ? > Can it be correct to "stated' itricmfi part of "^he volume, that those dGi)OsiiS are probably of marine origin, "and that their orgauic remains are-iVautili, Ammoni/'^A,&c. (i>. Urc,-\p. 21^.); «aAm another part to mention that herbivorous ^ptiles, terrestrial vegetables, &c, are found' in ^e same^ljfedQ, -and qwo^er as authority an author (lDf. Ure^ p. 453.) who main tain .4 that neither J^autili, nor AmmoniV^^, nor any of the other ancient multilocular genera of;TestiiU:^a, occur in them ? I might, indeed. Sir, refer to th^ Number to, eatt correct me if my inferences are erroneous. But I feel,^ Sir>, Lmay bajvje ventured too far; a Cambridge man, who has an opportunit}': of attending the lectures of Professor Sedgewick, must be right, and the authorities upoa which ray remarks are founded may be wrong, or, what is more probable^ have been misunderstood by me. It may, after all, be not an important error to invert the order of superposition of the strata ; it may be right to declare that a formation is marine, and contains marine shells, &c,> and group it with a series of marine deposits, and afterwards describe the fresh- water and terrestrial remains with which it abounds. It may be laniraport? ant to figure, as the characteristic shells of one group of strata, shells tha^ occur only in another. But if it be so, it must be allowed that geology is still, what it was formerly asserted to be, a science of paradoxes v—*^ Jamiartf2S. \mO. - > .. .,,-1 >^ . ,; ,■ (^oinla ( iZM lire's Geohgy, (s^i 90i)-H^ Having admitted onoore t^an one'apQh^g}^^]^ ifcislworik^ we think ifcBecessary to give the following statement respecting']^ frbm^P?efescJt" Sedgewick's Address delivered to the Geological Society; at (theif* Annual Oen^aV Meeting on Feb. 19. 1830. :' — - - u^oiniii " I should have been well content to have ended with tb<6s$ ^nei^ censares } but dul-ing the past yeaf there has been sent forth, by> 01^ of our own ibody, * A New System of Geology, in which the great revoluticMr© of the earth and of animated nature are reconciled at once to modecn science and to sacred history;' and to this title I will venture to add,. iri which the worst violations of philosophic rule, by the daring union of things incongruous, have been adopted by the author from others, and at the same time decorated by new fantasies of his own. I shall not stop to combat the bold and unauthorised hypothesis, that all the successive fornlf ations of the old schistose rocks wer6 called into being simultaneously^ by a fiat of Creative: Power, anterior to the existence of creatures possessing life; nor shall I urge that, among these primitive creations of the authoa", are mountain masses of rock formed by mechanical degradation from rocks which preceded, and beds of organic remains, placed there, if we may believe his system, in mere mockery of our senses ; neither shall I detain you by dwelling upon the errors and contradictions which are scattered through the early pages of his volume. On this part of the * New System ' all criticism is uncalled for here; fcr it soars far above us and our lowly contemplations. Its character is written, and its very physiognomy ap- pears, in that dignified and oracular censure which he himself has quoted from the works of Bacon : * Tanto magis haec vanitas inhibenda venit et eoercenda, quia ex divinorum et humanorum male-sana admixtione, non solum educitur philosophia phantastica, sed etiam religio haeretica,' — * Thi^ vanity merits castigation and reprpof ; the mote aSj firom the mischievous 466 Retrospective Criticism, admixture of divine and human things, there is compounded at once a fantastical philosophy and a heretical religion.' " All these things, gentlemen, I shall pass over : but the author has stood forward as the popular expositor of the present state of secondary ; of that very portion of our science which has for so many years employed the best efforts of our Society. This part of the work appears not to con- tain one original fact, or the result of one original investigation ; and of this we do not complain. We have, however, a right to look to it for information, which shall not repeat exploded errors, but shall make a near approach to the level of recent observations. But is this the case in the work before us ? Unquestionably not. All the old errors in the arrange- ment of the English strata, between the chalk and the oolites, are un- accountably repeated; errors which have been corrected since 1824 in our transactions^ in English and Scotch philosophical journals, and in various independent works of natural history, and have excited, during the last five or six years, more discussions in this room than have arisen out of any other part of secondary geology. Other antiquated errors, of like kind, have found a place of refuge in the pages of this * New System.' " But let us pass over what may be, perhaps, only regarded as errors of omission, and see how the author has employed the materials before him. The best part of his narrative is made up of successive extracts, often taken word for word, yet without the marks of quotation, from various well- known works on geology. Many of these extracts, although in themselves admirable, appear in the book before us but as disjointed fragments, in the arrangement of which the author has but ill performed the humble duties of a compiler ; for, in the chapter on secondary formations, we find enor- mous faults and dislocations, of which there is neither any written record, nor any archetype in the book of nature. Thus we find the lias some- times below the oolites and the green sand. * In one page, the cornbrash and forest marble have shifted places ; in another the whole lower oolite System is absolutely inverted, f Again, at p. 247., we are told that the several beds are given, * as usual, in the ascendifig order ; ' yet, in this very page the inferior members of the lower oolites are copied, word for word, from another book, and are in the descending order. On the next leaf, the same error is repeated in a still worse form ; and within four pages of this last bouleversementy we find the Oxford clay, the corn-brash, and the forest marble twice shuffled under the great oolite. J The goodly pile, gentle- men, which many of you have helped to rear, after years of labour, has been pulled down and reconstructed, but with such unskilful hands that its inscriptions are turned upside down ; its sculptured figures have their heads to the ground, and their heels to the heavens ; and the whole fabric, amid the fantastic ornaments by which it is degraded, has lost all the beauty and the harmony of its old proportions. " So much has been written in illustration of the zoological history of our several formations, that the labour of a compiler is now made com- paratively easy. Yet, in the distribution of organic remains, given in the * New System,' there is such a complication of errors as nearly baffles all attempts at description. In one place we are told that the lower second- ary rocks are characterised by the simplest forms of the animal kingdom : in another, we find fish enumerated among the fossils of the transition (or submedial) strata. § In one place, our magnesian limestone is properly identified with the first flotz limestone of Werner : in another, our moun- New System of Geology. Compare p. 133. 153. with p. 137. 197. Ibid.,p. 187. 195. Ibid., p. 253. Compare Introduction, p.xlix. and p. 143. Retrospective Criticism. 467 tain limestone is placed on the same parallel, and, by a double blunder, is described ' as the lowest sepulchre of vertebrated animals.' * " In one page, orthoceratites are brought near the order of corals ; in another, a coral is figured as an encrinite; in a third, the Steeple- Ashton caryophyllia (the characteristic fossil of the middle oolite) is figured as a fossil of the inferior system ; in a fourth, a caryophyllia of the mountain limestone is figured among the organic remains of the cornbrash ; and, lastly, the celebrated lily encrinite (a characteristic fossil of the muschel- kalk, a formation unknown in England,) is introduced and figured among the fossils of the lower oolitic system, -j- " Errors like these are, above every thing, calculated to mislead men who are unpractised in geology ; - and they do not terminate here. But 1 have no right to detain you with a longer enumeration. % I have stated "I New System, p. 175. 177. 187. Ibid., p. 149. 176. 251. 256, 257. For the purpose of illustrating the organic remains of the successive mineral strata, there are, at the end of the * New System,' five plates, representing groups of fossils, with their generic and specific names. Had the figures been well selected, they might have been of great use; as it is, they can only be the means of disseminating error. " Plate I. professes to represent the * Shells of the Mountain Limestone.* Of its thirteen figures, three or four are well chosen ; none of the rest ought to have appeared. One of them is wrong named; and a recent nerita, with all its fresh markings, has unaccountably found its place among these old fossils. " Plate II. * Shells of the Lias.' In this plate, of twelve species, we are astonished to find a transition orthoceratite, the Productus scoticus of the mountain limestone, and a scaphite of the green sand, placed side by side with the Gryphae'aincurva,Plagi6stoma gigas, and some other true lias fossils ! " Plate III. * Shells of the Under Oolite.' Thirteen species; and a more uncharacteristic assemblage was, perhaps, never before brought to- gether. A tertiary mya and a nummulite have here found their way, for the first time, among the shells of the under oolite. Two or three of the other species ought to have appeared, if at all, in the next plate. " Plate IV. * Shells of the Cornbrash and Upper Oolites.' Here the confusion is still greater; for, of twelve species, seven are positively mis- placed, the others are ill selected, and one of them is wrong named. The mineral conchologist is confounded at the sight of the well-known turrilites and hamites of the green sand group, of the tui'ritellae and superb Rostellaria macroptera of the London clay, jostled in among the fossils of the oolites. Had the author drawn out by lot, from all the fossils in Mi*. Sowerby's work, the species which were to decorate this plate, chance might have given him a more illustrative series. " Plate V. ' Shells of the Chalk and superior Strata.' Among the nineteen figures of this plate, no attempt is made to separate the shells of the chalk from those of the over-lying tertiary deposits, although the two groups have not, perhaps, one species in common. In Plate I. two fresh- water shells were introduced, which were not characteristic : here fresh- water shells are characteristic, but are omitted altogether ; and the Pecten quinquecostatus is the characteristic fossil of the green sand. " One who was even moderately acquainted with the characteristic forms of organic remains could never have been led into such a complication of errors ; and they are the more discreditable, as the greater part of them might have been avoided by the mere exercise of the humblest duty of a compiler." 468 Queries and Answers, enpugl^ to prove, that, in the conduct of this work, the author has shown neither the information nor the industry which might justify h^im in be- coming an interpreter of the labours of others, or the fram^r of q. system of his own." (P/w7. Mflrg., April, 1830, p. 313.) T/ie Dcscripfioji of the Double Shadows noticed by me, and inserted in your Magazine (Vol. XL p. 10?^.)^ having been misunderstood by your cor- .^esponden^ ^;;^ :^^a^^ |b^^pu ih^ nlriqruBq oni\I lfei/i<- b Hf&A J .ion wori 1 «89'j. i&hi ii Jiid : ru'^fil oi ia-v/enB rr qij nwfji' ^ , jTTf IBSV J (it 3onia*l4t)8B3ioni'*riQjwrti of^ <^i {;• J I ifiiRJdo Off /iim ia9[&y8 sdi no '^^ijsjijp nil iH^i te nsad avBff'.JjIiioD (aril 'hndi wc ^oiiv //stostt^^Vsv^T) arii ni* *ij98oqoiq aoiiah^^ e in 10 tifift ii ai ^iieiiiBq sril nKjC^inuoo ad J 'i< ' o'^js^j t/r. j8Bq ,t>IdBiB jgLoow lo jeiianb:? ^bnei arh *i raiii lo y^jigod ^rigriootn lo ^noal (pd% ejjli lo 9iuJBn ydi gi Isriw to ,mBoI''.,(9/B bqab -mAi j (- iJ ^ib jBri// jsiaifi//- tQ^r;-! fOSUBrisMus THB siauJ 9iA *: nin ^^arif 'ol iiBge 98ii bnB ,d}TB9 ^Ai ojni iriia (tadt ;•. 37 adJ '1 i'ao^BJ.^ J iw Jb ^^dl e'.B luH- fA^ *! lol b^)Ji'i>{ip9^1V-^ril "i oJtjid Ib »9J:)9l9 n '3rhDB rii to W3 )p tfidw 1b lo ■' 't)eg to state that, in no one instance, have tliere been any pools of water in iihe street that could reflect the sun's image when the double shadows have %een observed. The Carriage way in this town is a macadamised road, %ept in the best order possible. The arguments of W. would have been •perfectly correct, had there been any collection of water in the road, and had the appearance of the shadows been such as represented in his diagram. In the present case, I think some other cause must be assigned. I am, •♦«ir, &c. — Mitj)hatamet. Wycombe, Jan. 16. 1830. ^^^^ 'Errata. — In p. 244. line 30. for " fig. 57." read " fig. 58." In p. 247. -\v6iQ 25. for " Papilio crataegata" read " Papilio cratae^gi." In p. 372. Ulna 19. after *' Quadnmanous" insert the words " sndBimanousJ" , B in iin-iniio odi j8 jb ito lo ^j-iod^ -jiii w /jbi. mi to t-M-uHyj ■)Ai jib " 4 JiBui^n to nilio^i ^^^fiini Tjdto bnfi \3jiifiiAb f/^iha Uid ^fasJijiiJadu?. tJioriJo pub J>'.»:jniit{/' td uhun ^yn-iup S'-ydl lo /nsM -A^i^ , tBcn im'v^ n e-ii: av.)dl_LiiB ; sjuMjm lo iiiliJoi.tiBq ooJ ad Jonnuo jodi ^.j.A-MONTULY Guide far Yawng Naturalists, -rrri^]£fW\\Xymi, Parochial Natural History.— Sir, If you woiil'd trbiible yoftrself "^o draw up a list of questions to be proposed to the readers of your Magazine of Natural History, with a view of obtaining, from their answers, something of the natural history of the respective parishes in which they reside, you could not fail of accumulating much useful and interesting matter, and such as^jiiight afterwards be applied to very valuable purposes. A list of queries to this eiFect was inserted in the Gentleman* s Magazine for 1755, what success I know not. I have a small 12mo pamphlet, published at Edinburgh, entitled A Description of the Parish of Melrose, which appears to have been drawn up in answer to them ; but it relate$ entirely to the history and antiquities of the place. I The taste for natural history is so much increased since the year 1775, !^hat answers to well selecte(jj questions on the subject may be obtained 'with much greater facility now than they could have been at that time. fiThe following are a few of the queries proposed in the Gentleman's MagUr If'^^'— ..• ... . ii H " What is the appearance of the country in the parish, is it flat, or hill|yrj i*ocky or mountainous ? Do the lands consist of woods, arable, pasturic^^ meadow, heath, or what ? Are they fenny or moorish, boggy or firm ? fs there satid, clay, chalk, stone, gravel, loam, or what is the nature of tl^e soil ? Are there any lakes, racers, of waters ; what are they ; their depth ; where do they rise, and whither do they run ? Are there any subterraneous rivers, which appear in one place, then sink into the earth, and rise agaiii? Are there any mineral springs, what are they, at what seasons of the ye^r are they reckoned best, and what distempers are they frequented torT Are there any periodical springs which rise and fall, ebb and flow ; at what sea/- $l)ns? Are there any and what mines ? Any marble, moorstone, or other I feibne of any sort ? What are the chief products of the lands ; wheat, bar- ley, &;c. &c. ? What sort of fish do the rivers produce, what quantities, and in what seasons are they best ? Are there any remarkable caves or grottoes ? On digging wells, or other openings, what strata of soil do they meet with, and liow thick is each ? How low do the springs lie ? Does the parish produce any quantities of timber, of what sort ? What is the nature of the air ? . Any petrifying springs ? Any hot wells ? Are there any figured stones, such as ecliinites, belemnites, &c. ? Any having tht! in(i- pression of plants or fishes on them, or any fossil marine bodies, such as shell, corals, &c., or aiiy petrified parts of animals ? Is any part pf the parish subject to inundations pic land floods? If the parish is on the sea coast, what sort of shore, flat, sandy, high, or rocky r| What sorts of fish are caught ? What other sea animals, plants, spopges, corals, shells, &(?. are found on the coasts ? Are there any remarkable. gf a we^i}|?^. Mh^ are the courses of the tide on the shore, or off* at sea ; the currents at a mile's distance ; and other things worthy of remark ? " Many of these queries might be expunged, and others substituted, but they cannot be too particular or minute ; and there are a great many sub- jects of interest which are not at all touched Upon ; these you would frame new questions for, entirely divesting them of all technicalities. I do but throw out the hint to you, as being a matter particularly de- serving your consideration : if you think it worth attending to, I shall be most happy to give you such information as lies within my power. Yours, &c. — G. M. Lynn Regis, March 9-. 1830. A pamphlet by the Rev. Edward Stanley, F. L. S., entitled Statistical 470 Queries and Ansrvers. Questions y includes also questions on every department of natural history, When we can spare room, we intend to select these, and print them in this Magazine, as a stimulus to readers of leisure in the country. In the mean time, as the pamphlet costs only a shilling, we recommend it to be pro- cured. — Cond. Various Queries. — Can you or any of your correspondents inform me which is the best method to keep snails and slugs in confinement, with a view to studying their natural habits ? Which is the best elementary trea- tise on comparative anatomy ? Have any ofyour readers ever seen a living specimen of the great Irish greyhound, the Clnis grains hibernicus of Ray ; and, if so, can they inform me where it is to be seen ? It is mentioned by Buffon and Pennant as " very scarce ;" and it is not noticed in Fleming's British Animals. The breed is at present most probably extinct. Can you or any of your correspondents give me any information respecting the habits of that curious compound of bird and beast, the Ornithorjnchus ? — Perceval Hunter. Waltkamstow, March 19. 1830. Natural Hiitory Depot, and Native Ornithology. — Sir, In the Number of your Magazine for March, I observe some valuable hints relative to the establishment of a depot for objects of natural history, by which persons forming collections in different parts of the British Isles (but who, by pro- fessional business or otherwise, are compelled to reside in one place) might be enabled to procure specimens in exchange. In so desirable a scheme I cordially concur, and trust that ere long some zealous person may step forward, and set on foot an undertaking of such general utility. Until, however, something of the kind shall be established, I am desirous of knowing if there is any gentleman forming a native ornithological col- lection, who has duplicates he would wish to exchange, and if he could furnish me with a list of them, and also of those specimens which he wishes to have. It is well known that some parts of our islands are much more frequented by different species of birds than others ; and that in one dis- trict a bird may be considered rare, which in another is common. By in- terchanges of specimens both parties are benefited, and by establishing such a correspondence, hints and observations are reciprocally communi- cated, which may tend materially to advance so delightfiil a study as that of ornithology. — Jas. Drummond Marshall. Belfast, May 25. 1830. The best Work on Zoology . — Sir, I should be glad to know, which is the best work on zoology, especially on the Mammalia and AVes, to be found in the English language ? Can Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, edited by Griffith, be depended upon, as exhibiting a comprehensive and correct view of the two above-mentioned departments ? Are the plates in that work gene- rally considered faithful delineations of the animals which they are in- tended to represent ? A reply to these questions in your next Number will greatly oblige — A Zoological Student. Bangor, Caernarvonshire, June 1. 1830. Taking it altogether, we should consider Griffith's Cuvier as the best work in the English language ; but we prefer the French original. Griffith has overlaid Cuvier, and produced much too bulky and dear a book. — Cond. The Cause of Goitre. — The remarks of Mr. Aaron, on the cause of goitre, that drinking snow water does not cause it, are certainly correct. At San- tipur, in Bengal, goitre is very prevalent among the Mahommedan popula- tion, and is, I believe, confined to them ; the Hindoos, drinking only the water of the Ganges, while the Mahommedans sink wells within their co7n- pounds, and drink the water, which rises through a bed of sand ; a chemi- cal analysis of the well water at Santipur might possibly throw some light on the subject. Many of the Mahommedans are occupied in embroidering muslins, and sit with the head lowered down, looking on their work. Can such employment affect the muscles, and cause enlargement ? — An Old Ben- gally. April 15. 1830. Queries arid A7iswers. 471 Gold on the Teeth, of Sheep. — Sir, In Vol. II. p. 467., I observe a note . on the opinion among the peasantry of Scotland, that gold may be dis- covered by examining the teeth of sheep feeding on pastures where it is subjacent. I think that in one of the Roman poets there is a passage to the same effect. I have part of the jaw of a sheep, in which the teeth are coated with iron pyrites, looking like silver. This explains the origin of the above-mentioned opinions ; the coating of silver, or gold-like pyrites, being probably derived from the water or soil of the pastures where the sheep have fed. — W. C. T. Jan. 28. 1830. The Water-Shrew. — Sir, Having seen in your valuable work, two inte- resting accounts of the water-shrew, one by Mr. Dovaston (Vol. II. p. 2 19.), and the other by W. L. (p. 236.), I beg leave to inform you, that in a mouse- trap baited with cheese, in our cellar, within four or five miles of this town^ two were taken, male and female, together with several other animals which are not generally found in houses, principally the long-tailed field mouse and common shrew ; during a severe frost, in the month of January^ 1825, when all the water in the neighbourhood was frozen over. The pit, from which I rather suppose they came (having since seen one there), which is not above three or four hundred yards from the house, is very shallow, and must have been almost one complete sheet of ice, except in the deepest parts ; and as the animal does not appear to go far from the edge, I should apprehend it could not reach the water at all, and was therefore driven from its usual haunts to seek food in places very dissimilar to its nature. The male was taken about a week before the female : his colour was a glossy black above, silvery beneath, and the throat of a deep chestnut colour, which in the female was greyish. His length was 6 in. He did not appear at all alarmed, but would not eat any thing, though I observed him every now and then gnawing into pieces some grass and hay which were put into his cage. He did not appear to swallow any part of them, but was continually drinking of, and dabbling in, some water which was placed for him. He died suddenly, without showing any symptoms of illness, the third day after his capture, and apparently as plump as when he was taken. The female was caught one evening in the following week, and though great care was taken in removing her into another box, so as to prevent any injury, she was found dead the following morning, I suppose from agitation, as the traps were so constructed that they could not possibly have hurt either of them : her length was a quarter of an inch less than that of the male, and her colour generally lighter. I have since observed one, diving in the manner Mr. Dovaston described, at the pit I before alluded to, in the month of May, 1828, when it might be observed any evening for about six weeks, after which time it disappeared, and has never returned since. The water- shrew may certainly be considered one of the rarest quadrupeds in this neighbourhood, as I have frequently searched for them, but have never been able to find any others. There was also another of the AS'orex genus, to which I should wish to call your attention, as I have never seen any account of an animal similar to it. It was taken, in the summer of 1827, in one of our clover fields, by the mowers, and brought to me when just killed* At the first sight I took it to be a water-shrew, but, on closer inspection, I found there were none of the ciliations on the tail and toes, which in the wa- ter-shrew were very apparent, and white both in the male and female : in size it was 5| in., nearly equal to the water-shrew. There are only two sorts of shrews said to beBritish species, yet, from the characteristic marks of this ani- mal, I am convinced that it must be one ; the water-shrew it evidently is not, on account of there being no ciliations as if formed for swimming, and there was no brook or pit near the field in which it was found, and in the summer time I think this animal would not be far from the vicinity of water. The common shrew, Mr. Donovan says, never exceeds 3 in., and this being nearly twice that size, and of a much darker colour, indeed quite as deep a 472 Qtieries and Ansimet's, shade as the mole, inclines me to think that it is hardly possible that it can be that animal, or that the common shrew can undergo so great a change both in colour and size. I have the three specimens stuffed. Does the common shrew grow larger or darker-coloured from age, or any other cause? Perhaps some of your numerous and intelligent. correspondents can throw some light on this subject. — W. W. Liverpooly May 31. ,1830. A Land Tortoise mutilated hy Rats. — Sir, Rather a singular occurrence took place a short time ago respecting a land tortoise. 1 have examined all the works on natural history that I can meet with in this neighbourhood, but can find no satisfactory account of it. Perhaps you would have the goodness to allow an enquiry to be made through the medium of your widely circulated Magazine. In October last a land tortoise was placed in a convenient corner to spend his torpid winter. He was soon attacked by some rats, which eat away his eyes, tongue, and all the under part of his throat, together with the windpipe. In that same mutilated state it is supposed that he remained about three weeks before it was discovered. On examination I could not discern that the least decomposition had taken place, rteither could I dis- cover any symptoms of animation. I then proceeded to open the shell, with the view of preserving it for a museum. I found in the lower part of the shell about two table-spoonfuls of gravel, the grains of which varied from _i_ to ^ in. in diameter ; there was also a quantity of green matter, which appeared like masticated grass, mixed with a kind of viscid slime, but all was perfectly sweet. After extracting the inside, and taking the bones and flesh from the legs and neck, I applied a large quantity of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in spirits of wine, which I had found to be an effective antiseptic for all animal substances I had before applied it to ; but in this case it failed, as a slight putrefaction has taken place. What I want to learn are, if there is any better antiseptic than the one I have tried ? or if there is any peculiar method to preserve a tortoise ? and if the sleepy tribe are susceptible of sensation whilst in their torpid state ? I am, &c. — William Jones. Post-Office, Ludlow, March 28. 1830. Oviparous Quadrupeds (^Amphibia), p. 364. — Ought the newly discovered marine animals with paddles to be called quadrupeds ? Ought animals formed for only moving in the ocean to be called Amphibia? — L. July 2. 1830. A7i Egg within an Egg. — I have lately seen a preternaturally large but perfect goose's egg, containing a smaller one within it, the inner one pos- sessing its proper calcareous shell. If, as I have learned from books, the shell is not added to the ovum until its arrival in the uterus of the bird, how could this inner egg acquire its shell? Will some of your readers have the goodness to inform me ? — Anser. June, 1830. The Songs of Birds innate or acquired. — Sir, Looking over your Magazine the other day, my attention was arrested by a letter from a Nor- folk correspondent on the subject of the notes of birds. The question was, " whether they are hmate or acquired^ Now, really, it appears to me that the habits of the cuckoo render the former conclusive. It is well known that that bird never gives itself the trouble to build a nest, but deposits its egg in that of some other bird ; often, I believe, the hedge-sparrow : con- sequently, the note of the sparrow would be more familiar to it than that of its real parent ; yet I imagine the note of the cuckoo, whatever may be the species of its foster parent, is always that of its kind. A few years ago I saw, in a town in Devonshire, a cuckoo in a cage, which had been found half- fledged in a field the preceding spring, and transplanted to a house in a narrow street in the middle of the town, a situation where he most pro- bably never saw or heard one of his own species, yet at the sight of his protectress, or when hungry, he would cry cuckoo ! cuckoo ! in the natural tone J and, what I thought a remarkable circumstance, he would not feed Querms and Ansxaers. 473 himself) biitj^r^^hough food wa^ alwaya placed within his reach, awaited the return of his mistress, whose avocations occasioned her absence for two or three liQiirs at a time, and then would flutter t6 the side of the cage, crying cuckoo! cuckoo ! as if impatient to be fed. I mentioned this to a gentleman the day after I had seen the bii'd, who assured me it was a peculiarity natural to a cuckoo never to feed itseffi and that the, office is performed. by some other bird. I own I was incredulous, and am so still, having ex-a^ ininedsever-al histories of the cuekoo, none of which mentions it ; nor have I met with any one who coidd confirm it. Certainly the facfc^ of the young bird I saw in the cage not feeding himself, though nine months iold^/isisorae- what corrohoratiye of the gentlemau's assertioiii'40}Ji&8ftV»iSic/TA«itt— iifillffl St.4/b(vi'.$^4p)-U^A^^^,,,,x ^.h J. ■ !.. -jjpna hb woIIb o1 e^anboon The Vocal Powers of the Missel Thrush. — In^^f lafeBgBM beatEllBoabmrinlriiv 9atif^^-!,9f tfr ,^. 9»:ith§i; s»bJB§l^ ^/^Sififtl'i^^bMJ^ (rf tjhel miiifeljthniifeh, (p. 193.), I have to i^ayf^itfei^&Yfoifetflfe^^Hrfeetiiffasc^finedrthfch^ missel thrush frctjucntl^ffi^stTii^ ^^my^f^1^W^i^^S^v^t\yl■^^cn}A^^ap your correspondent. This biiH;is.no\v.fi0tea^^ihfi8etj}rfii€iilghpi^w^t5i^^ years ago, xme shot in Auchincriiivagardeu esreiJt^'fldSJ^isi^cWcfeaftsiSpBQkk "^M ^\jMijPW'^^^y even on reference to.§lv.(^flsib©|p|kalwdrbcflAsil®jitfe ^fi985^?yf^^ ^'^''^' ^*'""^ attentive obserY#«Mlk«l I«)(»fl6i<^efied ^hnostva® ^ert^inly ^ncScatzive of bad weather as a fal}iftgjJ)aiP0H^^f| hemmiit ^Htkivm sional, and not confined to any particular season, so that thergfifej i^feateeljl a week in ail the .year within which its song may not be h'tard. r^It ©fteii. hapjiens that the \yoods resound far and near with its powerful inelody, op a still day in the iuidcUe of winter, or very early in, spring, when no otheK songster is heard. , I have observed them in the mornings in autimm fecnl- ing voraciously on the fruit of . the mountain ash, and t^^eyrroughly iMiiit away the redwing fieldfare from sharing this repast, .qfi^fg^ife^^gcc^t^ berries of the holly.— ,>^. Z. %v', jWm, 1830.. rduq :tri§il8' e 8fi ^bslifi^ . The Missel Thrush. — The connnunjcation of J. B^p-e^pecllngi^^ Qiis^ih thrush is perfectly correct. I can corroborate every -ag^er^ipnyHtad^^ ^Wki cerning it from personal observation. . In the present year I have heai'd,th^ bird singing many times, and more particularly towards.the end of Pebruar}^^^ Indeed, in the part of the country where I reside, the missel .thrush >is vulgarly called the storm-cochy intimating that its singing is indicativ.^.^ stormy weather. lam. Sir, &c.— T****. R—cL , i! rol The Missel Thrush ; in answer to our correspondent J.B. (p. 193.)-v-T!his bird seems to have two kinds of song, one not unlike the notes of t^Cfj blackbird, the other very sweet, though in a much lower tone, and mor^t nearly resembling those of the common thrush. I have one which I reared ; from the nest, and having been kept about a year near a canary, it has ta( a certain degree acquired its song, as in several notes.it has imitated itt almost to perfection. I have now had it nearly four years, and it has .be- come a great pet. It eats mostly bread and milk, but eagerly devours snails, beetles, &c. ^Et seems to possess a singular antipathy to worms, as it neyi^r^ attempts to touch them if offered to it. — James Drummond MarshaU^^ Belfast, Mai/ 25. 1830. , ^ , , ,, i Roohs .2)rei/ing on young/B^ds.-r-Xs it customary for rooks to despoiJi the heists of the smaller birds, and devour their young? or is the following, j occurrence to be explained upon the supposition that rooks, in large cities,,, finding it difficult to procure worms, &c., to carry to their nests, are glaj|^ to substitute other prey ? , ,-, As I was passing through Chandos Street, Cavendish Square, soon after^ six o'clock this morning, my attention was attracted to a rook flying \qw\^ near the walls of some out-buildings, in which were many holes occupied.by,, sparrows' nests. He directed his flight to one of these holes, into whidpi i he thrust himself as far as possible. It was evident that he was attempting . tor^ch something with his im^^b^l^^aji^ VOL. IJI. — No. 15. J J 474» Queries and Answers. he shortly withdrew himself from this hole, and flew to another, into which he intruded himself in the same manner. From this second hole he retired almost immediately, bearing in his beak one of the callow brood. He flew with his spoil to a high chimney at the corner house, followed for a short distance by ten or twelve sparrows clamouring loudly at such an atrocious robbery ; and one sparrow, probably the parent, ventured to pursue even to the chimney-top, as if determined to assail the fell destroyer ; but both the rook and the sparrow quickly disappeared behind the chimney-pot, and prevented any further observation. — S. M. Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, May 31. 1830. Migration and Breeding of Sivallows ; in answer to W. H. White (p. 194.). — I consider that there is no longer any doubt that swallows, at the end of the year, do leave Europe, even the most extreme southern parts of it, as the kingdom of Naples, Sicily, the Morea, &c., and migrate ta Africa and Asia. Of their actual migration, an intelligent traveller assures us, " he had the fullest proof in the immense bodies of these birds, which he perceived pushing their way in the direction of Egypt from Europe during the present month (November), when the winter sets in.'* (See W. Rae Wilsoiis Travels in Egypt, p. 7.) In solution of your correspondent's last question, " Do they propagate their species there as well as here ? " 1 would observe, that, it being a well known fact that birds, even in a domestic state, will, if kept warm and well fed, frequently nidifi- cate during our severe winter months ; so I should certainly say, that the J^irundinidae, stimulated by the heat of the countries, and by an abun- dance of food which Asia and Africa afford them at that season, do propa- gate. The parent birds perform the rites of a second incubation ; and the young ones, or those which in the previous summer were born in Europe, do commence the great cpmmand of nature, and in like manner increase and multiply their kind. — J. H. N. March 5. 1830. Mother Carey's Chickens^ — A man here who has been much at sea has two preserved birds, which he calls by this name. They are nearly all black, and bear some resemblance to the swallow tribe, but have longer beaks. He says they always forebode a storm at sea, and that there are generally many of them seen round the ship in a storm. I believe them to be the stormy petrel (Procellaria pelagica). Am I correct? — Thomas Morgan. Southampton, June 21. 1830. Yes. — Cond. The Cuckoo- Mate. — Sir, As I was walking this morning in the garden, I observed a bird called by some the cuckoo-mate, from its generally appear- ing just before or about the same time with the cuckoo, its note very much resembling the word peep repeated about four times in quick succession. I shot it, and from the beautiful appearance it exhibited I was induced to think it might be worthy a place in some cabinet. The greatest singularity belonging to the bird is the great length of its tongue, it being upwards of 3 in. in length, and about half an inch of the point of a stiff horny sub- stance. I will do myself the honour of presenting it to you. Should it prove acceptable, I shall feel highly gratified. Yours, &c. — C. Spring. Eastbourne, Sussex, May 3. 1830. The bird here referred to is the wryneck ( Funx Torquilla of Linnaeus) j probably so called from a habit it exhibits of moving the head and neck in various directions, sometimes describing parts of circles, at others from side to side^ with an undulating motion not unlike the actions of the snake, and in some counties in England this bird is called the snakebird from this cii- cumstance.. When found upon its nest, within a hole in a tree, it makes a loud hissing noise, sets up an elongated crest, and writhing its head and neck towards each shoulder alternately, with grotesque contortions, be- comes an object of terror to a timid intruder, and the bird, taking advantage of a moment of indecision, darts with the rapidity of lightning from a situ- ation whence escape seemed impossible. Queries atid Answers. ^IS The wryneck is the only species of the genus that visits this country, and forms an interesting link between the cuckoo and the woodpeckers, having the long flexible tail of the former, with the extensile tongue of the latter. They have two toes only projecting forwards, and two turned backwards, a construction of the feet which enables them to climb trees with facility, and sustain themselves in various positions on the surface of the bark while searching for insects. They are often seen on the ground near ant-hills, consuming, as food, large quantities of the ants and their larvae. Wrynecks are, with us, summer visitors only, preceding the cuckoo in the spring, and as their line of flight on departing in autumn is in a south- eastern direction, they probably, with many others of our summer visitors, pass the winter in Asia or Africa. The swill, the swallow, and one of our martens, have been seen at Sierra Leone, and the Island of St. Thomas, in the months of January and February. The anatomical construction of the tongue and its appendages in the wry- neck, and the consequent mode of taking its food, are beautiful adaptations of means to an end, and will amply repay the closest examination. By a peculiar elongation of the two lateral portions of the bones of the tongue, and the muscles attached to them, this bird is able to extend the tongue a very considerable distance beyond the point of his beak : the end of the tongue itself is horny, and consequently hard, but by no means pointed. A very large and long gland is situated at the under edge of the lower jaw on each side, which secretes a glutinous mucus, and transfers it to the inside of the mouth by a slender duct. With this glutinous mucus the end of the tongue is always covered, for the especial purpose of conveying food into the mouth by contact alone. I have frequently examined the contents of the stomach in the wryneck, but without finding any fracture or mutilation of the food from the action of the beak, unless the substance proved too large and heavy to be lifted by adhesion. So unerring is the aim with which the tongue is darted out, and so certain the effect of the adhesive moisture, that the bird never fails in obtaining its object at every attempt. So rapid, also, is the action of the tongue in thus conveying food into the mouth, that the eye is unable distinctly to follow it j and Montagu, who had an opportunity of observing this bird feed while confined in a cage, says, an ant's egg, which is of a light colour, and more conspicuous than the tongue, had somewhat the appearance of moving towards the mouth by attraction, as a needle flies to a magnet. The woodpeckers take their food in the same manner, but with some specific modification in the structure of their tongues, — S. T. P. Whether, by destroying ike Buds of Fruit Trees, Birds were, or were not, conferring an obligation, has long, I believe, been a disputed point amongst naturalists ; whether those devoured by them were in a diseased state, and containing the larvae of insects, or whether they were healthful, and likely to arrive in due season at maturity. Witnessing, a few springs since, the havoc made by a number of bullfinches, on two thriving young codlin trees, that for several years had blossomed and borne profusely, and had, at that time, every appearance of health, my curiosity was excited on this subject, and I then saw opened the crops of two of these depredators. They were wholly filled with the vegetable matter on which the birds had been feeding, and which did not appear to contain insects of any kind. Since that time the codlin trees have never grown with so much vigour as they did previously, many branches being so entirely stripped of buds that they never recovered. This spring the trial was repeated, and when the trees were in a more advanced state, in fact, just as the leaves were begin- ning to expand, and the blossom buds to make their appearance. A culprit bullfinch was killed in the very act, an unswallowed morsel yet remaining in his bill, to bear witness against him. This was a single flower-bud, with I I 2 476 Queries arid Answers, all its parts yet entire, but those buds with which its ctStr6mbus gigas is nearly 1 ft. in length. The weight of the former is 4 lbs.. % oz., that of the latter 4 lbs. * Account of the Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 544. f This is the usual account, but, according to Mr. Main, it is erroneous ; the muscular motions, instead of being from head to tail, being propagated in the contrary direction ; so that the animal's motion cannot be caused by impulses in the direction of its progress. He gives two conjectures as to the cause of the animal's motion ; namely, 1st, that the body is moved for- ward by the retromissive discharge of slime, which, being emitted simul- taneously from every part of the under surface, he conceives, may exercise a force adequate to the propelling of the animal ; or, 2dly, from its power of forming its lower surface into segments of circles along the whole of its length J and thus, by assuming a vertical vermicular action on the plane of the sustaining surface, impelling the body forward by alternate contraction and expansion. As dry air deprives the animal of motion, Mr. Main is inclined to consider the first surmise the more probable. See Zool. Journ.y iii. 599. Conjiection and Locomotion, .5 SI 9 oz. ; yet the snail creeps under this load at apparent ease. Those which, like the Helices and Trochi, have conical shells flattened at the base carry them upright; but wJien the shell is fusiform, or turreted, it is trailed in nearly a horizontal position, with the point always directed back- wards. The Cypr<^V, when they walk, cover their shell with the lateral lobes of their cloak, which are very often beautifully and vividly marked with various colours; and many other Mollusca cover their shells more or less com- pletely with similar expansions. But the Pleurotoma is the most singular of all in this respect. According to Argen- ville, when this Mollusca creeps, it elevates and sustains its shell and cloak upon a rather long peduncle or stalk, which rises vertically from the back. In consequence of this remark- able position of the shell, the animal tumbles over at every impediment; but it heeds not, quietly resumes its proper attitude, and pursues the road.* All Gasteropodes are not confined, however, to crawl on the solid bottom : many of them can ascend to the surface, and make the waters a liquid pavement, along which they creep, in the same manner as they do on land, with the differ- ence only of having their body and shell in a reversed position. I have observed the once terrible Aphysia depilans crossing pools on our shore in this way ; and there is some reason to believe that all the marine naked Mollusca possess this faculty. When I have confined a number of the minute Turbines, so common on our coasts, in a glass of sea water, some have very soon suspended themselves from the surface^ but it is the freshwater snails (Mollusca pulmonifera) which exhibit 131 ^ this not unremarkable mode of progression in the most perfect manner. On a sum- mer's day any one may see the Lymnae'se {Jig, 131.) and Planorbes thus traversing the surface of ponds and ditches in an easy undulating line f , or suspended there in luxurious repose, perhaps — * Lamarck, Anim. sans Vert., vii. 90. If a molluscous animal be touched during progression, it immediately, as it is well known, shrinks and stops for a time : but a terrestrial species (( Helicolimax Lamarckii) affords an excep- tion ; for, " if disturbed or irritated, it only crawls the faster ; and, if at rest and contracted, it directly puts itself in motion on being touched or dis- turbed." — Lowe in ZooL Journal, iv. 342. f MuUer says that in this position no motion of the foot is perceptible. " In fluviatilibus nulla quidem undulatio percipitur ; ope tamen occultae rotationis vel ignoto mechanismo nee lentius, quam terrestres, progrediun- tur." (Hist. Verm. ii. pref. xx.) " In freshwater snails there is no percep- 532 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : — " To taste the freshness of heaven's breath, and feel That light is pleasant, and the sunbeam warm.'* When thus suspended they will sometimes relax their hold iind drop at once to the bottom, from which, in general, they emerge by crawling up some solid body: but occasionally I have seen them rise up direct through the water ; a fact 1 can explain only by supposing that they have the power of com- pressing, in the first instance, the air in their pulmonary cavity, and of again allowing it to expand and dilate so as to render the body lighter than the medium in which they live. One pretty lacustrine species, the Physa fontinalis, can let itself down gradually by means of a thread affixed to the sur- face of the water * ; a manner of proceeding which finds an analogy only in some land slugs, which have been observed to spin a line of the glutinous secretion from their skin, and thus let themselves down from trees and over precipices. I have said that many freshwater Molliisca occasionally float at ease, but there is a marine genus to which this is habitual, nor does it seem certain that it can change its place in any other way. This genus is the lanthina, which, by the aid of a spongy organ, attached to the posterior part of the foot, and composed of little vesicles, apparently filled with air f , floats without any exertion, and probably directs its course by means of a small membrane, which runs along each side of the foot, a little above its edge. The common ■species is an inhabitant of the seas of the West Indies, and it has sometimes been driven on the shores of Scotland and of Wales, no willing visitant, you may believe, of these northern climes, yet treated by British naturalists as a native of them. As the animal is really one of much interest, I will transcribe for you what Brown says of it in his Account of Jamaica : — " The creature probably passes the greatest part of life at the bottom of the sea, but rises sometimes to the surface, and to do so, it is obliged, piscium more [after the manner of fishes], to distend an air-bladder ; which, however, is formed only for the present occasion, and made of tough viscid slime, swelled tible undulation ; but their progression, by means of some concealed rotation "or unknown mechanism, is not more slow than that of land snails." * Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 227. -|- Cuvier thinks that this organ bears some analogy to the opercula of other univalves, and that it may be a vestige of an operculum which has undergone such modifications in its form and structure as we frequently observe in the productions of nature. {Soiverby^s Genera, No. v.) I con- -sider this as an example of those false analogies or affinities which so much ■abound in modern works on natural history, and which seem got up for no other purpose than to prop a favourite theory. Conneclion a?id Locomotion. 533". into a vesicular transparent mass, that sticks to the head of the animal, at the opening of the shell. This raises and sus-. tains it while it pleases to continue oh the surface ; but when it wants to return, it throws off' its bladder, and sinks. I have taken up many of these insects alive, with the bladder yet affixed to the aperture of the shell, and still preserve some with it on in spirits. I have also observed many of the vesi- cula themselves swimming upon the surface of the water about that place, which induced me to think they were thrown, off" as the creature retired." The Mollusca with bivalve shells can none of them, according to Dr. Fleming, float on the water, neither can any of them swim ; but many have the power of moving from one place to another by means of a muscular foot, which they protrude and retract at will. This organ varies in form in the different genera; but in the locomotive tribes it is in general of an oblong shape, often with a bend in the middle, and more or less compressed. It is of a firm semi-cartila- ginous texture, composed of interlaced fibres, and drawn inwards, or exserted by other muscles, which run towards different points of the shell where they are inserted. Its length is often surprising. I have seen a small individual of the Modiola discrepans put forth a foot at least six times longer than the shell, which, nevertheless, when not in action, was so neatly folded up and contracted within it that no part was visible. Bivalve Mollusca proceed at a rate even slower than that of any snail, and, perhaps, seldom attempt the exercise, un- less driven by some urgent want. One species only (Psam- mobia aurantia Lamar.) is certainly known to creep like the Gasteropodes, although, from the structure of the foot, it has been conjectured that some A'rcae likewise do so.* The rest, when bent on change, leisurely protrude the motive organ, extend it to the utmost, apply it with hesitation and care to a solid surface, and then, by contracting it, as with a painful effort, they drag on the body and its testaceous envelope. Now the foot is again extended in the same cautious manner, and the shell again dragged forward to the point of fixture. Such is the manner in which I have seen the Cyclas, an inha- bitant of our ponds, and some of the lesser bivalves which inhabit our shores, move along ; and, I presume, it is in a similar manner that the other and larger species proceed; though I am aware that a somewhat different and compli- cated mode of progression has been attributed to the fresh- * Blainville, ut sup. cit. p. 151. 534? Natural History of Molluscous Animals. water muscles, of the accuracy of which I am, however, by no means satisfied.* The scallops (Pecten), it has been asserted, can even leap by first opening their valves to the utmost, and then closing them by a strong and sudden effort. When deserted by the tide on any occasion, they will tumble forward in this way until they have regained the water. Nay, some popular writers repeat a story from the ancients that these scallops can rise up from their beds in the deep, and navigate the surface, having one valve raised and exposed with its concavity to the breeze, while the other remains under the water, and answers the purpose of an anchor, by steadying the animal, and preventing its being overset ; but this part of their history you may safely reject. There is lastly an order of rather doubtful Mollusca which have no shell, but merely a coriaceous membrane for their envelope, and which, in consequence, have been named Mol- lusca tunicata by modern naturalists. By far the greater proportion of these are fixed animals, but some of them swim in and on the ocean ; not, however, by the aid of any particu- lar organ, but by partial contractions of their cloak. The jSalpae are examples of this tribe, of which a number of indi- viduals belonging to the same species will cohere together by minute suckers which garnish their sides, and form floating chains, more obvious, it may be, in the night season than dur- ing the day, from the phosphorescent light they diffuse. The Pyros6mse (Jig, 132.) are a still more singular family of the same order. Each seeming individual of this genus is, in fact, a numerous colony of little Mollusca, each in its own cell, dis- tinct, yet inseparably connected with its fellows. Collected into the figure of a gelatinous cylinder, open at one extremity and closed at the other, and roughened externally by a multitude of tubercles disposed sometimes in rings and sometimes irre- gularly, they float in the Australian seas like stars of this lower world, shedding around them a halo of light, brilliant indeed, but surpassed in beauty by those other colours of the * Smellie's Phil, of Nat. History, i. 137. Ow Vessels made of the Vupyrus, 535' creatures which it serves to disclose ; colours which come and go at pleasure, glorying, as it were, in their subtle changes, passing rapidly from a lively red to aurora, to orange, to green, and to azure blue ; a magic scene, compelling more than the admiration of every beholder. " O Lord 1 how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all." Note, — In this, and in a preceding letter, I have charac- terised the iSepia, usually found in the shell of the Argonaiita A'rgo, as a parasite ; but in a late number of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal I find it stated that the opposite opi^ nion has been satisfactorily proved by Professor Stefano delle Chiage of Naples, who has an engraving which exhibits " in embryo, within the ovum, the rudiments of the shell in which the animal lives." I must, however, acknowledge that I am still sceptical on this point ; but I will here state, in the shortest manner, the arguments for both opinions. Parasitical. Non-parasitical. 1. The jSepia has no organic or 1. The /Sepia is connected to the muscular connection with the shell, shell by a ligament. Blanchard. Aristotle^ Cranchy Poll. 2. More than one species of »S'e- 2. No animal but the (Sepia has pia inhabit the same species of ever been found in the shell which shell. Bosc. is common. 3. The outward markings of the 3. The animal, when fresh, pre- animal do not correspond with the sents upon its cloak the exact form sculpture of the shell. Blainville. of the shell, and the impressions of the grooves and tubercles with which it is ornamented. Ferussac. 4. The ovum contains no trace 4. The construction of the shell of a shell {Bauer ^ Roget) ; nor is it is entirely conformable to the organ- contained in a chambered nidus, isation of its inhabitant. Ferussac^ Home, Blanchardy Cuvier. The ovum contains the shell in embryo. Dwcerneyy Poliy Blanchard. The evidence is so contradictory that there seems no alter- native but to conclude that the shell has been formed by one Cephalopode, its proper inhabitant ; and is occasionally occu- pied by another Cephalopode, its parasitical tenant. I am, Sir, yours, &c. G. J. Art. X. Farther Illustration of Observations on Vessels made of the Vapjrus, By John Hogg, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. &c. Sir, On perusing Captain Robert Mignan's Travels in Chald^a I was struck with his descriptions of several kinds of vessels, 536 On Vessels made of the Vapyrus. which are evt present used in that country ; and as they dq so exactly ilhistrate parts of my former paper on vessels madeof the Papyrus (Vol.11, p. 324— 332.), I beg to submit the following passages to the notice of the readers of your Magazine : — Captain Mignan relates (p. 23.), that, in passing through an Arab encampment, " parties of both sexes were crossing the stream (Tigris) in a state of nudity, upon a stra- tum of rush, which is evidently of the same kind as the ' vessels of bulrushes upon the waters ' alluded to by Isaiah in chap, xviii. v. 2." Now this stratum of rush is identical with the sort of bundle of reeds, or faisceau de paille, described by Denon, and figured (Vol. 11. p. 328. fig. 89.), and is most probably formed of the same species of plant, the paper reed or rush (Cyperus Papyrus Lin.). It is used by the Arab in Chaldaea after the samn manner as by the inhabitant of Upper Egypt. We may refer to E. (p. 242.) for a copious and interesting note on the kelek, or leather raft, of Assyria, where are described three other kinds of barks, differently constructed, and covered with bitumen, and which are constantly in use oa the Tigris and Euphrates. The same author notices (p. 55,) the round wicker-baskets, called in Arabic koqffah, and represented in a diagram (p. 56.), They are daubed over with naphtha, and are common on the Euphrates. Herodotus has mentioned them in his account of Babylon (Clio, c. 194.) ; and they have undergone little or no change since he visited that country. On the Tigris, near Bagdad, he further remarks (p. 54.) ; " We passed a fleet of boats laden with wood. These vessels are of a most singular construction, being put together with reeds and willow, thickly coated with bitumen : the prow is the broadest part of the boat, being extremely bluff, and the whole as clumsy and unwieldy as possible." A neatly executed wood-cut (p. 55.) gives a view of two of these Bagdad wood-boats, which are two-prowed and crescent-shaped, and most remarkably re- semble in their form the ancient canoe figured Vol. II. p. 329. fig. 92. I will now only remark, since these vessels are common at the present day, as well on the lakes and rivers of Egypt and Abyssinia, and the Red Sea, as on the Tigris and Euphrates, and are of the like shape, and built with the same materials as in the days of the sacred and heathen writers, that the same sorts of boats and rafts or floats are commonly used on all the rivers, lakes, and streams of Northern Africa, Arabia, Judaea, Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Chaldaea, Babylonia, and even of a great portion of the East. And, moreover, Identity of knagdllis arvensis and cceridea, 537 they may be truly accounted the most ancient vessels in the world, because their forms, and materials, and equipments, have remained unaltered since the times of the earliest histo- rians. Yours, &c. July 31. 1830. John Hogg. Art. XI. On the Specific Identity of Knagdllis arvdnsis and cceruka. By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Sir, Dr. Hooker, in his most excellent British Flora^ still keeps the ^nagallis caerulea distinct from the A, arvensis ; and perhaps the difference pointed out by him in the shape of the petals fully justifies him for so doing in the present uncertain state of our knowledge of the laws which regulate the limit- ation of species, J received last year, from the Reverend E. Wilson, some specimens and seeds of ^nagallis caerulea gathered in Yorkshire. From these seeds I have raised a dozen plants, nine of which have blue flowers, and three have red. Hence it should seem that in future ^nagallis caerulea must be considered as a variety of A, arvensis. I conclude, from the above fact, that whatever may be the cause which disposes the petals of this species to assume a blue colour, this likewise disposes them to become notched or toothed at the margin, as Dr. Hooker has universally observed them to be. Though we cannot say the following law is certain in botany, yet it seems to me very likely to be true, viz. '* That if a change takes place in one of the organs of a plant, a simul- taneous change may be expected in some or all of the other or- gans considered to be modifications of the same organs." For instance, considering the calyx and corolla to be modifications of the leaf, when we see the leaf of the cowslip diiFering from that of the primrose, we need not be surprised to find that the calyx and corolla should differ also, though these plants be not distinct species, as I showed in my communication to the last Number of your Magazine. I have met with the light pink variety of A. arvensis at Higham, Kent ; and the gentleman: from whom I received the seeds of the blue variety mentioned in this communication, sent at the same time, and from the same place, some seeds of a white variety, similar to that received by Dr. Hooker from South Wales. From these seeds I have raised seven Vol. III. — No. 16. n n 538 Remarks upon the Winter of 1829-50, plants, one of which flowered red, and the other six white, tinged more or less with light pink, and having a bright pink eye. I wish I could persuade some of your correspondents to try similar experiments, in different parts of the kingdom, upon any of the various plants which approach each other so nearly as to leave it still a matter of doubt whether they ought to be considered distinct species or mere varieties of the same. I have some of them under trial, and propose sending you the results from time to time ; but, as accidents are unavoid- able, it would be more satisfactory to see them confirmed from different quarters. I remain, Sir, &c. Cambridge, September 17. 1830. J. S. Henslow. Art. XIT. Some "Remarks upon the late Winter of 1829-30, and upon the general Character of the Weather which preceded and followed it. By the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A. F.L.S. The late winter having been more severe than what is usually experienced in this climate, it may not be without in- terest, or without some benefit to the science of meteorology, to record a few particulars connected with its commencement and duration. In the first place, it is worthy of observation that it was preceded by a remarkably wet and cold summer.* What the exact quantity of rain was which fell in the course of that sea- son, I am not prepared to say, not having made any regular measurement of it ; but, from other memoranda which I pre- served, it appears that at Swaffham Bulbeck, in Cambridge- shire, the number of wet days which occurred in the months of June, July, August, and September, 1829, was 14, 20, 19, and 14 respectively. The mean temperature, calculated from the observations made, in most instances daily, at the hours of 9 A. M. and 8^ p.m., was, for June 60*4°, for July 60*7°, for August 58-2°, and for September 53-4°. It will be remembered that the summer of 1828 was like- wise characterised by the great quantity of rain which fell at intervals more or less throughout the season ; but in that in- stance the bad weather was observed to clear off in a great mea- * This fact is very much in accordance with some observations by Mr. White, who, in his History of Selborney mentions two or three instances of long and severe frosts which set in after very rainy seasons. (See his 62d Letter to the Hon. Daines Barrington.) and the Weather ixjhich preceded and followed. 539 sure towards the middle of September, and was followed by an unprecedentedly fine and mild autumn, which continued, with scarcely any interruption by frost, quite to the close of the year.* It was far otherwise in the year 1829 ; for though, as before, the fall of rain somewhat abated in the months of September and October, yet the weather, considered gene- rally during those months, was dull and cheerless, and the mean temperature lower than had been experienced for seve- ral preceding years. Perhaps it is worth mentioning that, on the 7th of October, large flocks of wild geese were seen flying in a south-westerly direction, it being earlier than I ever re- member to have noticed these birds before ; and it was on the following night that the first frost occurred. Neither did the weather receive any sensible improvement as the year declined : on the contrary, the temperature in November became still further reduced, and winter seemed approaching by unusually rapid strides. Now and then a mild day was experienced ; but at intervals, especially towards the middle of the month, there was an occurrence of sharp frost ; and on the 25th this was accompanied by snow, which came on in the night previous, and fell throughout the day ; a brisk wind springing up at the same time from the north- east, the snow was considerably drifted, insomuch that, in some places, the roads were for a short time obstructed. The beginning of December was somewhat warmer than the preceding month, and on the 4th a good deal of rain ensued ) but on the 6th the weather relapsed very much into its former state, with mostly frost at night, little or no sun during the day, and the wind fixed in the east. On the 11th the wind changed, passing from the east to the south-east, and thence, through the south, to the south-west. This was followed by four or five days of dense fog, which came on soon afterwards, and hung in the atmosphere night and day together with scarcely any intermission ; and it is worthy of especial notice, that it was during the prevalence of this fog, after a second shift of the wind back to the north-east, that the weather first assumed that more determined appearance by which it was afterwards characterised.! Indeed, from the night of the 15th we may date the commencement of a frost * Throughout the month of December, 1828, the thermometer at Bot- tisham (distant half a mile from SwafFham Bulbeck) was in no one instance during the day (that is to say, between sunrise and sunset) below the freez- ing point, and, till the 26th, was not below 40"^ within the same period. f I find, by referring to Howard's Climate of London (tab. 89.), that the severe winter of 1813-14 had its commencement, as in the present instance, during a succession of thick fogs ; and in another part of that essay (tab. 115,}, N N 2 . -i K> 6i0 Remarks upofi the Winter of IS29^30\ which continued during the remainder of that month, the greater part of January in the following year, and on to the end of the first week in February, a period, on the whole, of nearly two months. The weather, however, during all this time, was far from being equally severe. As the frost itself came on very gra- dually, so after its commencement the degree of cold was very gradually increased ; and, for a few days, the range of the thermometer was inconsiderable, the mercury seldom rising above, nor yet falling many degrees below, the freezing point. -But after the 21st the cold became greater; and from the 23d to the end of the month, during which interval the ther- mometer on one occasion descended to 15^, the mean tem- perature was only 26*2°. Throughout the last fortnight of the year, snow fell more or less nearly every day, notwith- standing a high and rising barometer. This appeared, for the most part, in the character of flying storms from the north-east. It is remarkable that the commencement of the new year was characterised by more snow, which continued falling at intervals throughout the 1st of January, although the baro- meter, at 9 A.M. on that day, had reached the unusual eleva- tion of 30*61. The temperature, however, at this time rose ; and from the 3d to the 8th, with the exception of one night, there was a slight interruption of the frost, attended at inter- vals by much fog and mizzling rain : still the thermometer, during that period, was seldom many degrees above the freez- ing point, and in only two instances as high as 40°. These occurred on the 5th and 7th of January, both of which were extremely fine days, and the only ones at all pleasurable to the feelings which had been experienced for upwards of three weeks. Indeed, on the second of these occasions, we were almost induced, from the promising appearance of the sky, to anticipate some decided change of weather ; but our hopes were soon at an end. The very next night after the 7th, the thermometer fell again several degrees below the freezing point, attended by more snow ; and from that time to the 7th of February there was scarcely any further variation in the weather at all, it being marked by one continued suc- cession of frost and snow, with keen winds, principally from the east and north-east ; or when no snow, by alternations of mist and sunshine. But though, in general respects, the wea- ther presented a very uniform character during this period, the author speaks of copious mists as generally accompanying the setting in of long frosts. and the Weather xMch 'preceded and followed, 54* 1 yet, as in the former instance, the cqld was not equally severe the whole time. For the first nine days, that is to say, from the 8th to the 1 6th of January (both days inclusive), the mean temperature of the 24 hours ranged from 28° to 33*5° ; but on the 17th it descended to 25°, and on the 18th to 16°.* On the 19th it was likewise as low as 20*5°, but on the 20th it rose again to 32° ; and thence to the 30th the cold somewhat abated, the mean temperature seldom descending much below the freezing point, and occasionally rising as high as 34° and 35°. However, on the 31st, the frost again set in with increased severity ; and the mean temperature of the six first days in February was only 20*6°. I have endeavoured above to trace the principal fluctuations of the mean daily temperature during the continuance of this long frost. The first break to the severe weather occurred on the 7th of February, when a decided thaw took place, attended by much wind and driving rain from the south ; yet, after two or three days, the weather showed a strong disposition to relapse into its former state, and a full fortnight expired before there was any considerable rise of the thermometer ; which instrument, during this period, was seldom higher than 40°, often not so high, and frequently descended in the night to 28° and 25°. It was not till the 24th of February that any thing like an approach to spring weather was expe- rienced. On that day, however, without any apparent cause, the wind remaining in the same quarter in which it had been for the four previous days, the thermometer rose to 55'5° in the shade, being more than 10^ higher than it had stood at any time before since the commencement of the new year. This sudden increase of temperature seemed to exert consi- derable influence over both the animal and vegetable world : a few plants were observed in flower ; many insects came on wing ; the birds resumed their song ; and, more especially, large flocks of wild geese, none of which had been noticed since October, 1829, were seen shifting their quarters princi- pally in the direction of north and north-west. Neither was this a mere temporary change : from that time the weather became more seasonable, and, especially from the little rain * It is a curious fact, that during this severe weather a brood of tipuli- deous insects (Trichocera hieraalis Meig.) suddenly made their appearance and were noticed abroad in considerable numbers, settling upon the walls of different outbuildings, as if they had just emerged from the pupa state ; and though they did not offer to take wing for several weeks, yet they readily moved their quarters when disturbed ; a proof that, notwithstanding the continued frost, they had the power of resisting torpidity, and to a degree far exceeding any other insects. N N ■- 3 542 Memarh upo7i the Winter of IS^d-^^O, which fell during the following month, it had the effect of thoroughly drying the country of its superabundant moisture, and thereby adapting the soil for the important purpose of sowing. From the circumstance of the ground being more or less covered with snow throughout the whole period (though, ex- cept where drifted, it was never more than a few inches in depth), the long and severe frost did not appear to have caused any essential injury to vegetation. The evergreens, however, in some situations, were an exception, and more especially the bays, laurustines, and laurels, many young plants of which were at once killed to the ground, whilst others were so injured as to give little hope of their final re- covery. It is worth noticing, with respect to the laurels in particular, since it confirms an observation by Mr. White, in his Natural History of Selborne *, that those only suffered to any extent which had been planted in southern aspects; and this was so remarkably the case, that, in one or two instances in which they grew on the north side of the border, but had overtopped the other shrubs, the uppermost branches, which from this circumstance were occasionally exposed to the full action of the sun, turned of a dead yellow, whilst the rest of the plant remained green. Doubtless, as Mr. White observes, this is owing to the repeated melting and freezing of the snow upon the surface of their leaves, to which the plants are, under such circumstances more than any other, necessarily subjected. It is also remarkable that the hard winter had not the effect of even retarding vegetation to any thing like the extent which might have been looked for. Of course, all those plants which, in ordinary seasons, put forth their flowers during the months of December and January, or in the early part of February, such as the winter aconite (Eranthis hiemalis), snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), hepatica (//epatica triloba), furze (i/lex europae'a), hazel (Corylus ^vellana), stinking hellebore (jyelleborus foe tidus), spurge hazel (Z)aphne Laureola), and many others, will, in such a season as that we have lately experienced, remain in a nearly torpid state so long as the frost and snow continue. But it was curious to observe how soon these plants were in flower immediately after the first breaking up of the hard weather ; whilst in the case of other species, which naturally do not blow till March or towards the end of February, scarcely any difference in the time of flowering was remarked. The same may also be said with * See his 61st and 62d Letters to the Hon. Daines Barrington. and the Weather "which preceded andfollomed, 543 respect to the leafing of trees. At SwafFham Bulbeck, the whitethorn was seen in leaf by the 20th of March, and the horsechestnut by the 23d ; it being, in each case, only five days later than in the season following the unparalleled mild winter of 1821-22 : whilst a large number of other trees began to exhibit their foliage towards the end of that month and the beginning of the next ; many of which, as the lime, elm, birch, beech, and hornbeam, were even several days earlier in that respect than the same trees in the year above-men- tioned. There Can be little doubt that this forward state of vege- tation was, latterly, in a great measure owing to the unusually hot weather which prevailed during the last week in March. The former part of that month, indeed, may, with the excep- tion of a very few days, be said to have been mild ; but upon the 25th the thermometer rose to 60°, and from that time to the 30th the temperature was, perhaps, higher than on any six consecutive days before remembered at so early a period of the year. I regret that absence from home prevented me from noticing the exact maximum degree of heat on the 26th and 27th ; but so late in the day as 5 p.m. I found the ther- mometer, on each occasion, standing in the shade as high as 67^; and on the two following days the same instrument, in a situation where it was wholly out of the reach of radiation, rose to Q&^ and Q^° respectively. On the 30th it fell again to 60°. The weather during these six days was extremely fine, and uniformly followed after sunset by calm bright evenings, which caused at night, as is usual under such circumstances, a considerable radiation of heat from the surface of the earth. To try the extent of this, as well as the force of solar radiation during the day, on the evening of the 27th I placed a small thermometer, having a naked bulb, upon short grass, in a situation where it was fully exposed to the open sky. By 7 o'clock this thermometer had fallen to 40°, and by 9 o'clock to 38°, having the bulb and stem of the instrument covered with dew. At the time of this last observation the tempera- ture of the air was 4-9*5°, indicating a difference of 11*5°.* I again examined this thermometer at 6 o'clock on the following morning, when I found it standing at 30°, and firmly held to the grass by hoar frost ; but the temperature of the air had likewise fallen as low as 37°; so that the difference between them, or the amount of terrestrial radiation, was at this time * Daniel states the maximum force of terrestrial radiation ever observed by him in this month to be 10 degrees. {Meteorological Essays, p. 230.) N N 4 5445 Singular Rainboiio, reduced to 7°.* Of course, the cold produced in this manner was speedily dissipated after the appearance of the sun above the horizon ; and the ensuing day proving equally fine v^^ith those that had preceded, I was enabled to observe the utmost intensity of the sun*s rays, which, at 1 p. m., had raised to the height of 1 05° the same thermometer which at 6 a. m. was 2° below the freezing point ; so that in seven hours the vegetation of that spot experienced a range of temperature equalling 75°. At the time of the above observation, the temperature of the air was 63°, indicating the force of solar radiation to have been 42°. The first week in April presented a striking contrast to the last week in March. On the 2d of that month, being only four days after the temperature of the air had risen to 69°, the thermometer was never higher than 34°; and snow and sleet together, accompanied by a keen wind from the north- east, continued falling without interruption the whole day. This was followed by several nights of very severe frost, inso- much that, in one instance, the morning of the 5th, the ther- mometer, exactly at sunrise, stood as low as 25°; whilst another on the grass, placed as on the occasion before men- tioned, was depressed to 20^*. Soon after this, however, the weather again became seasonable. I have only to add, in concluding this subject, that the whole of the above observations were made at SwafFham Bul- beck, the situation of which place is about 8 miles E. N. E. of Cambridge. Art. XIII. Sir, Notice of a singular Appearance of the Rainbow, By E. G. ( 133 The following account of a singular appearance of the rainbow {fig. 133.), which was seen 1 4th September last, at a quarter past five P.M., on the shores of the Solway Frith, in Cumberland, may per- haps be interesting to some of your readers, should you think it worth insertion in your Magazine : — * This circumstance is in exact a£;reement with the observations of Wells. {Essay on Detv, p. 43. and 6 1 .) Singular Rainbow. 545 A B was a perfect and very splendid primary bow. c D re- presents a secondary bow, having its colours of course in an inverse order to those of the primary. But from e, in the direction e f, came the segment of a third bow, commencing, as nearly as could be guessed, between 1 5° and 20° from the vertex of the secondary, and descending in the direction shown in the figure. This segment was equally vivid with the second- ary, but had its colours in the order of the primary. No con- tinuation of it could be discerned above or on the left of the secondary, and its centre evidently lay considerably to the left of that of the other bows. The termination at the lower ex- tremity (f) was abrupt and well defined. It remained visible for more than ten minutes ; the extremity (f) appearing lat- terly to have moved somewhat nearer to the primary bow, from which, however, it was never less than a bow's breadth distant. The side c of the upper bow first became invisible, but so long as the other side could be seen the segment could also. A somewhat similar phenomenon is recorded in the PhiL Trans, p. 1793., as having been seen on the coast of Hamp- shire ; and the explanation there offered is, that the additional bow was caused by the reflection of the sun from the sea when perfectly still. But, if this were the cause, would not such appearances be more usual ? Besides, if a ray of light pro- is 4. "^^^^^^ ceeding from the earth falls on the lower side of a drop, must it not be refracted into the air (as in^^. 314.), and not towards the earth, s being considered ^^^ the reflection of the sun ? And what again becomes of the received opinion, that the eye of the observer must be in the apex of the cone, of which the bow forms the base ? I am, Sir, &c. Coventry y Oct. 12. 1829. E. G. 546 PART II. REVIEWS. Art. I. Sylva Britdnnica ; or Portraits of Forest Trees distin- guished for their Antiquity, Magnitude, or Beauty. Drawn from . Nature by Jacob George Strutt. Imp. 8vo. London, published > by the Author, 8. Duke Street, St. James's. We should be sorry to be accused of puffing, or deemed chargeable with being lavish in bestowing praise, where the same is not justly due. We can, however, without scruple, conscientiously assert that this is, in our judgment, really one of the prettiest and most elegant books we have ever seen. Our opinion of Mr. Strutt, and of his merits as an artist and man of taste, is already known to our readers, from the re- marks we made in a former Number, when his Delicice Sylvd- rum passed under our review. We availed ourselves of that opportunity to make incidental mention also of his previous work, the Sylva Britdnnica, The pen was scarcely laid aside, and the ink was only drying on our paper, when, behold ! forth issues from the same source another Sylva Britannica^ the larger work having produced a little one. Whether Mr. Strutt has duly consulted his own interest in putting forth this second, and comparatively small, edition (which will be likely, we think, to interfere with, if not entirely to supersede, the sale of the former one), is no business of ours ; and we shall not stop to enquire. Should it be thought that the pub- lications in question are in some respects too dissimilar to bear exactly the same name ; it may be urged, on the other hand, that they are in essentials far too much alike to justify the imposition of a different one. As some little confusion, how- ever, perhaps disappointment, may occasionally arise between the booksellers and their customers, from the circumstance of the name and title of the parent having descended unimpaired to the offspring, we shall proceed to point out in what re- spects they agree, and in what they differ. The work, then, in imperial octavo, whose title stands at the head of the present article, is, in fact, a smaller edition of Stndt*s Sylva Britannica, 547 its folio namesake, with some omissions, however, and some additions ; and it bears about the same relation to its prede- cessor as a watch does to a time-piece : or, to adopt our author's more elegant comparison, it " will afford a gratifica- tion similar to that which a lover of art derives from compar- ing a finished miniature with the same subject in full size," The original folio work, from its size, the labour expended on the plates, and the splendid style in which it was got up, was necessarily a somewhat costly publication, and consequently beyond the pockets of many persons, who yet wanted neither the taste nor inclination to become purchasers. The present work, offered at a far lower price, is within the reach of that more numerous class of readers whose means are moderate, and we trust it will obtain a much wider circulation. An octavo volume, too, has the manifest advantage over a cum- brous folio of being more portable and commodious, and, as such, a far more agreeable book to read. And, if we mistake not, it will, from its very size, possess a charm in the eyes of those who subscribe to the truth of the maxim, " Inest sua gratia parvis." We greatly admire the original or parent work ; and, in speaking of the present, so far from seeing any cause to alter our tone, and lay aside the language of pane- gyric, we feel disposed to adopt the complimentary address of the poet to his mistress, and apostrophise this beautiful volume, in the words of Horace : — " O matre pulchra filia pulchrior." The two editions contain exactly the same number of plates, namely, fifty ; though, as already hinted, there is some varia- tion in the selection of the subjects. Mr. Strutt has omitted, in the new edition, eight of the more unimportant plates con- tained in the original, substituting in their room an equal number of subjects possessed of greater interest. Of the plates omitted we seriously regret the absence of only one — the Knole Beech, a magnificent example of the species in its vigour, possessing, with its accompanying background of forest scenery, much picturesque beauty, and altogether well worthy of finding a place in any collection of the kind. For what reason Mr. Strutt should have discarded it on the present occasion, we are utterly at a loss to discover ; and the more so, as the plate exhibited a most successful effort of his genius, portraying, as it did, with admirable precision, the genuine character and distinctive features of the beech. The new subjects, those we mean which are not to be found in the first edition, are as follows ; viz. the Bull Oak in Wedgenock ^4-8 Strutfs Si/lva Britdfinicd. 4 rk ; the Creeping Oak in Savernake Forest, of which a portrait is given in the Delicice Sylvdrum ; the Gospel Oak near Stoneleigh ; the Great Beech in Windsor Forest, and the Burnhani Beeches, both also figured in the same work ; the Fallen Chestnut at Cobham Park ; the Great Cedar at Hammersmith House ; and the old Cedars in Chelsea Gar- den. In the present edition, as the entire work has been brought out at once, and submitted to the public in the form of a complete volume, some alteration has been adopted in the arrangement of the subjects, by placing all the specimens of each species of tree in juxtaposition. This certainly is an improvement ; as it throws an air of regularity around the book, and gives it a more methodical and systematic charac- ter. It should be mentioned, too, that no inconsiderable additions have been made to the letter-press, or descriptive portions of the work. Such, then, are among the particulars in which the two editions differ from each other. But, as regards the plates, a more important point of discrepance remains to be noticed : we do not allude to their inferiority in size, to their compara- tive merits, nor to the circumstance of the prints in the new edition being (unlike those of the former one) in the style of sketches or vignettes, but to the peculiar kind of engraving of which they consist. On this subject considerable difference of opinion has been found to exist even among those who are not unskilled in the arts. By most persons, we believe, they are taken for etchings executed on copper or on steel plates ; and some few of them at least we have heard pronounced by others to have been cut on wood. The fact is, they have neither been cut on wood, nor etched on copper nor on steel, but — on stone ! They are pure lithography, and nothing else ! Such of our readers as have inspected the plates in question may, perhaps, be a little startled at this assertion, as we certainly should have been ourselves had we heard it made without knowing, as we do, the fact to be as already stated. We are free to confess, that hitherto we have for the most part entertained rather a mean opinion of lithographic prints, and have been accustomed to refer them to the very fag end of the fine arts. The practitioners in this craft we have been in the habit of hearing sometimes called in contempt by the opprobrious appellation of " stone-masons," and have our- selves been almost ready to join in the general outcry against them. In truth, the superior quickness and facility with which lithographic prints are executed, as compared with those engraved on metal or on wood, and the far more agreeable kind of work which is alone requisite to produce struts s Syha Eritdnnica. WL^ them ; — the artist in this case not being obliged, like the cal- cographer, to pore laboriously over a smoked and murky plate, to the injury of his eyesight ; but having, on the con- trary, a fair, clean, light-coloured surface on which to trace his subject, and work at his ease ; — these circumstances, com- bined perhaps with the novelty of the method, have induced tyros of all descriptions, who could wield a pencil, as well as artists of no mean pretensions, to essay their hand on stone. And the consequence has been, that the windows of the print- shops have teemed again, " usque ad nauseam," with the crudest productions of art, and the very counters within have groaned beneath the heaps of trash that have issued from the lithographic press. There were, of course, exceptions : but nine tenths of the stone engravings with which we have been inundated, it may be safely pronounced, scarcely came up to mediocrity ; and were fit only to find a place in the portfolio of a child, or, at most, to adorn, — we might rather say disfigure, — that motley and multifarious receptacle for the works of genius, which, in modern days, young ladies term a " scrap-book." We never, indeed, for a moment disputed the ingenuity of the invention, or denied its obvious utility in taking off, with des- patch, and at a cheap rate, the more ordinary sort of prints, such as plans and mere explanatory illustrations, and other articles in which no very high degree of exquisite workman- ship or pictorial effect was either aimed at or required. And we were always of opinion, too, that stone engraving was admirably calculated for the purpose of executing such out- lines of subjects of natural history* as are designed to be afterwards filled up and coloured by hand ; the soft chalk-like touch of the worker on stone amalgamating far better with the colouring than the sharper and more determined lines of stroke-engraving can well do. But, viewing it on its own merits as a branch of the fine arts, we repeat, we thought meanly of the invention, and deemed it but a pitiful and sorry substitute for copperplate etching, which thus seemed threatened to be almost driven out of the field by its more modern rival. Such was our opinion of stone-engravings till of late ; an opinion which, after inspecting Mr. Strutt's per- * The plates in Swainson's Zoological Illustrations are, we believe, in most instances lithographic; and in our judgment they are scarcely to be equalled, certainly not excelled, by those of any other publication. Some of the shells more especially we think the most beautiful things of the kind we have ever seen. We could wish, however, for his own sake, that Mr. Swainson would not levy so exorbitant a tax on his subscribers, as to charge them half a crown for about eight pages of titlepage, preface, indices, &c. 550 SfTKtfs St/lva Britannica» formances, and some few others which we have seen *, we now feel bound in candour to retract. We really did not believe it to have been within the scope and compass of the lithographic art to have produced such beautiful specimens as those which are now before us. Free from the vapid insipidity, the mealy meagreness, so usual with their kind, they exhibit all the brilliancy of stroke and vigour of effect to be found in pure etchings, for which, as already stated, they are commonly taken, and may bear no mean comparison with the more racy productions of the Dutch and Flemish school. Mr. Strutt's plates are by no means all of equal merit; what artisfs, indeed, are so ? Nor do they, in every instance, appear to have been taken off with the same degree of care, so as to pro- duce equally bright and strong impressions, f But, without hesitation, we call upon our readers to admire along with us, among other portraits in the volume, particularly those of the Bull Oak, the Gospel, Wotton, Cowthorpe, and Shelton Oaks, the Cedar at Hammersmith House, and the Willow at Bury St. Edmunds, with its silvery and delicate foliage so exquisitely delineated. In some instances our artist's plates would have been much improved had they been rather more finished, and a little additional labour been expended on them ; for ex- ample, the Swilcar Lawn Oak, Gilpin's Maple, and still more some of the Scotch subjects, are too slight and sketchy, and, consequently, strike us as deficient in force and effect. From, the same cause, the views of the Scotch Fir at Dunmore, and the Silver Fir at Roseneath, and, we might add, the Larches at Dunkeld, actually remind one of snow scenes ; and, as they lie in " the north countrie," perhaps Mr. Strutt intended them as such. The Creeping Oak in Savernake Forest, one of r * We allude more particularly to a large and interesting plate which we have seen at the office of Mr. Netherclift (No. 8. Newman Street, Ox- ford Street), representing the Martyrdom of Charles the First, together with portraits of Bradshaw, Cromwell, Ireton, and Fairfax (all copied from old prints), fac-similes of the death warrant and of the autographs of the regicides. We believe the plate was executed by Mr. Netherclift, or by some one employed in his establishment; and for clearness and brilliancy of stroke it is not to be exceeded by engraving on copper. f All the copies of the work which we have inspected, amounting to the number of about eight or ten, contain one or more weak impressions, which ought to have been thrown aside, and, not suffered to be bound up in the volumes offered for sale. As these failures do not always occur in one and the same plate, but in various ones, they must be attributed, not to the incapability of the plates themselves to produce good impressions, but to the manner in which they have been worked off. We have particularly observed that many of the copies of the Wallace Oak are weak and poor. The greatest care ought to have been taken in the press-work, and every copy bordering on a bad impression discarded. StricU*s Syha BritafiJiica. 3^1 the sweetest subjects in the whole collection, is, we presume to think, almost an entire failure. Nor are we quite satisfied with receiving at the hands of an artist like Mr. Strutt such a plate as that of the King Oak in the same forest. And we notice the above circumstances in the hope that, should the work proceed to another edition, the author will discard these plates, at least the former of the two, and execute them afresh ; as we feel confident that he is capable of doing more ample justice to subjects which are so exactly in harmony with his own taste, and therefore so well calculated to call forth and display his peculiar excellence. * In the oaks, too, in Yard- ley Chase, slightly as they are etched, and destitute of the woodland scenery by which they are in reality surrounded, it was at first not without difficulty that we recognised our old friends and favourites, Gog and Magog. Nevertheless, there is a something about this plate, in its present raw unfinished state, which we cannot but admire, and which involuntarily calls to our recollection the masterly etchings of Henry Naiwyncx. We have now done with finding fault, and shall proceed to give some account, chiefly extracted from our author's pages, of the two trees, the figures of which are here presented to our readers, executed, like similar ones heretofore, by the hand of that incomparable artist Mr. WilUams. The Bull Oak (Jig. 135.), the property of the Earl of Warwick, stands in a meadow within the boundary of what was formerly Wedge- nock Park, one of the most ancient parks in England, accord- ing to Dugdale, who informs us that " Henry de Newburgh, the first Earl of Warwick after the Conquest, in imitation of Ring Henry J., who made the park at Woodstock, did im- park it." The tree we should conceive to be one of the very oldest specimens of the kind now remaining in the country; and is, we doubt not, at least coeval with the origin of the park in which it stands, and most probably of much higher antiquity. On this time-worn relic our author tells us that Mr. South makes the following observations, in his fourth letter on the growth of oaks, addressed to the Bath Society : — " About twenty years before the time of his writing (1783) he had the * Mr. Strutt has painted both these Savernake Forest scenes on a large scale. We were exceedingly pleased with his picture of the Kuig Oak, which we saw exhibited in Pall Mall some years ago. Whether he has yet disposed of it, we cannot say ; but such are its merits, at least in our eyes, that we wonder it did not meet with a ready purchaser on its first appear- ance at Somerset House. The etching now before us, pretty as it is in itself, is yet inferior to what we know Mr. Strutt can produce when em- ployed on such a subject ; and, in proof of this remark, we need only refer to his plate of this tree in the folio work. 552 Struts s Sylva Britdnnica. curiosity to measure this tree. Its head was as green and vigorous last summer as it was at that time ; and though hol- low as a tube, it has increased in its measure some inches. Upon the whole, this bears every mark of having been a short-stemmed branchy tree, of the first magnitude, spreading its arms in all directions round it. Its aperture is a small, ill- formed, Gothic arch, hewn out, or enlarged with an axe, and the bark now curls over the wound, a sure sign that it con- tinues growing: and hence it is evident, that the hollow oaks. 135 of enormous size, recorded by antiquaries, did not obtain such bulk whilst sound ; for the shell increases when the substance is no more. The blea and the inner bark receive annual tri- butes of nutritious particles from the sap, in its progress to the leaves ; and thence acquire a power of extending the outer bark, and increasing its circumference slowly. Thus a tree, which at 300 years old was sound, and 5 ft. in diameter, like the Langley oak, would, if left to perish gradually, in its thousandth year become a shell of 10 ft. diameter Bull oaks," continues Mr. South, " are thus denominated from the Struts s Sylva Briiannica, 553 no uncommon circumstance of bulls taking shelter within them ; which these animals effect, not by going in and turning round, but by retreating backwards into the cavity till the head only projects at the aperture. The one I am about to particularise stands in the middle of a pasture, bears the most venerable marks of antiquity, gives the name compounded of itself and its situation to the farm on which it grows, viz. Oakly Farm, and was the favourite retreat of a bull. Twenty people, old and young, have crowded into it at a time. A calf being shut up there for convenience, its dam, a two-year old heifer, constantly went in to suckle it, and left suflicient room for milking her. It is supposed to be near a thousand years old " [we could readily believe it older] ; " the body is nothing but a shell, covered with burly protuberances ; the upper part of the shaft is hollow like a chimney ; it has been mutilated in all its limbs, but from their stumps arise a number of small branches, forming a burly head, so remarkable for fertility, that in years of plenty, it has produced two sacks of acorns in a season." Thus far Mr. South. " The dimensions," says Mr. Strutt, " of this venerable remnant of antiquity are, at one yard from the ground, 1 1 yds. 1 ft. ; one foot above the ground, 13 yds. 1 ft. ; six feet from the ground, 12 yds. 1 ft. ; broadest side, 7 yds. 5 in. ; close to the ground, 1 8 yds. 1 ft. 7 in. ; height of the trunk, about 4? yds. 1 ft." Having ourselves visited this remarkable tree, and reclined in an idle hour under its shade, we may add that it has long since been care- fully fenced round with substantial posts and rails, and has had the two extremities of its projecting limbs supported from beneath by strong pieces of timber. These artificial appendages, creditable as they are to the noble owner, as proofs of his laudable regard for so interesting a piece of sylvan antiquity, have been {judiciously^ we think) omitted by Mr. Strutt in his drawing ; since, however necessary they may be to preserve the tree from external injury, they form no true part of it, and add nothing to its picturesque effect, but, on the contrary, manifestly detract from the beauty of the object. We pass on to the Gospel Oak {^fig, 136.), which is a bound- ary tree, situate at Stoneleigh in Warwickshire, defining the extremity of that parish from the adjoining parish of Bagin- ton. Many an old oak, as well as other tree, bearing the like title and character, may still be met with throughout the country, , " Religione patrum multos servata per annos." * Virgil. * " By the religion of our ancestors, Preserved for ages." Trapp*s Translation. Vol. III. —No. 16. o o 554> Strutt^s Sylva Britdnnica, We wish we could add, that in modern times such memo- rials of days gone by always received that respect and foster- ing care, at the hands of their owners, which their age alone might reasonably demand. The contrary, however, is too often the case. An enclosure of waste lands is on the point of taking place in a certain district, or, perhaps, it is merely talked of, and in agitation : previously to the passing of the bill in parliament, and to the partition of the lands among the freeholders, the lord of the manor, sensibly alive to his own interest, and extremely jealous of his rights, or his still more grasping steward, seizes, with the rapacity of a harpy, iipon every the minutest item of property to which he can possibly Strutfs Sylva Britdnnica, 555 lay claim. Accordingly, each stick of timber, great and small, young and old, thriving and in decay, is cut down from the waste with ruthless and unsparing hand, lest haply, in the general division, it should fall to the allotment of some other proprietor; and thus the boundary-trees, the ancient land- marks of the neighbourhood, the monumental guardians of parochial territory, the very Gospel oaks themselves, whose name alone ought to render them sacred and inviolable, are too often indiscriminately levelled in the general devastation. Several instances of such wanton acts of spoliation have fallen under our own knowledge, and in our immediate vicinity ; and we blush for the perpetrators of the deed. The value of these scathed and antiquated trees, as timber, is quite inconsider- able ; the bark seldom runs well, and, if it is peeled off, con- sists of so large a portion of scotch, as it is called, or dry outside rind, that it is of little worth in the estimation of the tanner. The whole profit, in short, derived from these Goth-like, sacri- legious practices is trifling in amount, and in many cases (we hope it may prove so in all) can scarcely repay the expense of the labour in felling. We could mention an instance, not exactly of a Gospel oak, but an ornamental one, of great size, beauty, and antiquity, cut down by the express order of its owner ; the trunk of which was of such large dimensions, that, as it lay along on the ground, two men on horseback, as they sat in their saddles, one on each side the prostrate giant, could not discern the least portion of each other's hats, owing to the large diameter of the intervening but. We visited the tree ourselves, accompanied by a friend, each party on horse- back, some years after it had been felled, and therefore can vouch for the accuracy of the statement. For what purpose the tree was felled it would be difficult to conjecture, as the trunk was completely hollow, and must have been known beforehand to be in that condition ; and the shell, as might be expected, proved so " unwedgeable and gnarled " as to be utterly unserviceable for the ordinary purposes of timber: accordingly, it lay neglected and unworked up for a number of years ; and probably may still remain to this day, to rot at leisure in the spot where it fell. " Embowell'd now, and of thy ancient self Possessing nought but the scoop'd rind, that seems An huge throat, calling to the clouds for drink, Which it would give in rivulets to thy root ; Thou temptest none^ but rather much forbidd'st The feller's toil, which thou couldst ill requite^'' Cowper. Who can read Gilbert White's graphic account of the vast o o 2 556 Strutfs S^lva Britdnnica, oak in the Plestor * at Selborne, with its " short squat body, and huge horizontal arms, extending almost to the extremity of the area, — surrounded with stone steps, and seats above them, the delight of old and young, and a place of much resort in summer evenings ; where the former sat in grave debate, while the latter frolicked and danced before them :" — who can reflect upon this pleasing picture of rural life with- out sympathising with the simple villagers and their pastor upon their irreparable loss, and regretting the catastrophe which overthrew the tree and deprived them of its genial shelter ? Or who, again, can peruse the almost affecting narrative, by the same author, of the fall of the Raven Oak, and not wish that it had been spared from the axe to this day ? " In the centre of LosePs Grove," says White, in his second letter to Pennant, " there stood an oak, which, though shapely and tall on the whole, bulged out into a large excrescence about the middle of the stem. On this a pair of ravens had fixed their residence for such a series of years, that the oak was distinguished by the title of ' the raven tree.' Many were the attempts of the neighbouring youths to get at this eyry; the difficulty whetted their inclinations, and each was ambitious of surmounting the arduous task. But when they arrived at the swelling, it jutted out so in their way, and was so far beyond their grasp, that the most daring lads were awed, and acknowledged the undertaking to be too hazardous. So the ravens built on, nest upon nest, in perfect security, till the fatal day arrived in which the wood was to be levelled : it was in the month of February, when those birds usually sit. The saw was applied to the but, the wedges were inserted * " We have the following explanation of the Plestor in the Antiquities of Selborne" says Sir W. Jardine, in his notes appended to the late pocket edition of White's natural history of that place : — " It appears to have been left as a sort of redeeming offering by Sir Adam Gurdon, in olden times an inhabitant of Selborne, well known in English history during the reign of Henry III., particularly as a leader of the Mountfort faction. Mr. Wl^ite says : As Sir Adam began to advance in years, he found his mind influenced by the prevailing opinion of the reasonableness and efficacy of prayers for the dead ; and therefore, in conjunction with his wife Constan- tia, in the year 1271, granted to the prior and convent of Selborne all his right and claim to a certain place, ptacea, called La Plej/stowy in the village aforesaid, * in liberaniy j^uraniy et pei'petuam elemosinam* This Pleystow, locus ludoruniy or play-place, is in a level area near the church, of about 44 yards by 36, and is known now by the name of the Plestor. It continues still, as it was in old times, to be the scene of recreation for the youths and children of the neighbourhood ; and impresses an idea on the mind that this village, even in Saxon times, could not be the most abject of places, when the inhabitants thought proper to assign so spacious a spot for the sports and amusements of its young people." Stf^tfs Syha Britannka, 557 into the opening, the woods echoed with the heavy blows of the beetle or mallet, the tree nodded to its fall ; but still the dam sat on. At last, when it gave way, the bird was flung from her nest ; and, though her parental affection deserved a better fate, was whipped down by the twigs, which brought her dead to the ground." We have strayed from our subject, and must return to the origin of the term Gospel Oak,* " The custom," says Mr. Strutt, " of making the boundaries of parishes by the neighbouring inhabitants going round them once a year, and stopping at certain spots to perform different ceremonies, in order that the localities might be impressed on the memories of the young, as they were attested by the recollections of the old, is still common in various parts of the kingdom. The custom itself is of great antiquity, and is supposed by some to have been derived from the feast called Terminalia, which was dedicated to the god Terminus, who was considered as the guardian of fields and landmarks, and the promoter of friend- ship and peace among men It was introduced among Christians about the year 800, by the pious Avitus, Bishop of Vienna, in a season of dearth and calamity, and has been continued since his time by the different clergy ; the minister of each parish, accompanied by his churchwardens and pa- rishioners, going round the bounds and limits of his parish in Rogation week, or on one of the three days before Holy Thursday (the feast of our Lord's Ascension), and stopping at remarkable spots and trees to recite passages from the Gos- pels, and implore the blessing of the Almighty on the fruits of the earth, and for the preservation of the rights and properties * Oaks have sometimes not only been termed " Gospel " trees, but have also been dignified by the title of " Apostles." Thus the fine group, con- sisting of twelve in number, at Burley in the New Forest (of which a repre- sentation is given in the titlepage to Mr. Strutt's volume) is known by the appellation of the " Twelve Apostles." Towards the centre of Coleshill Park, in Warwickshire, there once stood four very aged oaks, forming a square, one occupying each corner, which were familiarly known by the name of the " Four Apostles " (the Four Evangelists, we presume, they ought rather to have been called). Some forty or fifty years ago the stew- ard of the manor fell foul of one of these consecrated trees, and uncere- moniously cut it down, for the purpose of repairing the park pales. This sacrilegious act excited the honest indignation of the old park-keeper, near whose residence the trees grew, who, observing that " there always had been four apostles in Coleshill Park ever since he had known the place," swore, with an oath, that if he could have his way " there always should be." Accordingly, he planted another in the room of the displaced apostle. This newly planted tree, on account of its youth, acquired (as might be expected) the name of St. John. We have often seen it in company with its three aged fellows, and believe it is still a vigorous and thriving young tree. o o 3 558 Strutt^s Sylva Britannica, of the parish. The learned and excellent Andrews, Bishop of Winchester, left a fine model of prayer for these occasions ; and it must have been a soothing sight to witness the devo- tional feelings of the multitude, thus called forth in the sim- plicity of patriarchal worship in the open air, and surrounded by the works of God." The Gospel oak near Stoneleigh, to which we are now more particularly alluding, " stands," Mr. Strutt informs us, , " in a little retired coppice, the solitude of which is equally favourable to thought and to devotion, to the reveries of the philosopher on ages past, and the contemplation of the Chris- tian on the ages to come." We will only add, from our per- sonal knowledge of the spot, that it is much to be regretted that some of the upstart saplings, the impertinent firs and larches of modern growth *, which surround this primitive tree, and interfere sadly with its branches, have not long since been cleared away by the proprietor, in order to give space and a freer circulation of air to the original and rightful occupant of the grove. Having already quoted so largely from our author's pages, and from others of kindred character, we fear that we have more than exceeded our limits, as well as trespassed on the patience of our readers. We cannot, however, resist the temptation to make one more extract, were it only for the sake of the beauti- ful and appropriate poetic effusion which it will be the means of introducing to more general notice. Mr. Strutt is speaking of an aged oak in the park at Moccas Court, on the banks of the Wye, in Herefordshire. " The whole estate," he says, " from the very nature of its situation, forming part of the borders between England and Wales, is fraught with historical associations, which extend themselves, with pleasing interest, to this * ancient monarch of the wood ;' among whose boughs the war-cry has often reverberated in former ages, and who has witnessed many a fierce contention under our Henries and our Edwards, hand to hand and foot to foot, for the domains on which he still survives, in venerable though decaying ma- jesty, surrounded by aged denizens of the forest ; the oldest of whom, nevertheless, compared with himself, seem but as of yesterday. The stillness of the scene at the present time forms a soothing contrast to the recollections of the turbulent past; and the following lines are so in harmony with the reflections it is calculated to awaken, that it is hoped the transplanting of them from the pages of a brother amateur of * These have been very properly omitted in Mr. Strutt's view, as well as in the wood-cut now presented to our readers. Strutfs Sylva Britannica, ^^^ the forests to the page before us will not displease either him or the reader : — " * Than a tree, a grander child earth bears not. What are the boasted palaces of man. Imperial city or triumphal arch, To forests of immeasurable extent, Which Time confirms, which centuries waste not ? Oaks gather strength for ages ; and when at last They wane, so beauteous in decrepitude. So grand in weakness ! E'en in their decay So venerable ! 'T were sacrilege t' escape The consecrating touch of Time. Time watch'd The blossom on the parent bough ; Time saw The acorn loosen from the spray j Time pass'd While, springing from its swaddling shell, yon oak. The cloud-crown' d monarch of our woods, by thorns Environ'd, 'scaped the raven's bill, the tooth Of goat and deer, the schoolboy's knife, and sprang A royal hero from his nurse's arms. Time gave it seasons, and Time gave it years. Ages bestow'd, and centuries grudged not ; Time knew the sapling when gay summer's breath Shook to the roots the infant oak, which after Tempests moved not. Time hollow'd in its trunk A tomb for centuries ; and buried there The epochs of the rise and fall of states, The fading generations of the world, The memory of man.' '* On a former occasion we expressed our regret that the folio edition of the work before us had not been enlarged, so as to have included portraits of all the more remarkable trees still remaining throughout the country ; and we ventured an opi- nion that Mr. Strutt was restrained from exceeding the ori- ginal limits of his work by feelings of delicacy towards his subscribers. Our surmises, it seems, were not far from the truth. " The author," we read in the preface to the present edition, " was entreated by several highly esteemed friends to add a supplement to the work, for the purpose of including various specimens of trees which the original limits did not admit of containing. But, however flattering those solicitations might be, his unwillingness to incur the slightest appearance of trespassing on the liberality of his subscribers formed an insuperable bar to his compliance with them." We respect our author's motives, while we lament the loss that we sus- tain in consequence of them. As the work, however, in this second edition, has now assumed a novel and somewhat altered guise, we do trust that he will so far comply with the wishes of his friends as to add to it another volume. To this plan not the most scrupulous delicacy can frame a reasonable objection. Ere long, therefore, we hope to meet Mr. Strutt o o 4 560 Murray on Atmospheric Electricity, again, in company with the ancient denizens of the forest and the grove. In the mean time, we venture strongly to recom- mend the present volume to the notice of our readers ; to such of them, at least, as, with us, admire aged trees and beautiful etchings, of both which it supplies no scanty store. For our- selves we are ready to acknowledge, that we delight in these sylvan haunts and forest glens, where Nature is seen in her wildest, loveliest forms, far more than we do in " the cloud- capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces," reared by the hand of man. " Habitarunt dii quoque sylvas. Dardaniusque Paris. Pallas, quas condidit arces. Ipsa colat : nobis placeant ante omnia sylvae." * Virgil. A. R. Y. Art. II. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published, with some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British Naturalists, Britain. Murray, J., Esq. F.S.A. L.S. H.S. &c.. Author of various Works : A Treatise on Atmospheric Electricity, including Lightning-rods and Para- greles. Small 8vo. 1830. This, though a brief, is a very interesting history of electricity. It pre- sents a satisfactory view of its agency in almost all the phenomena of na- ture ; shows how it may be collected, directed, and managed by art ; and describes its wonderful powers, and the instruments which have been in- vented to detect its presence and character. Electricity is stated to be necessary to animal life, to vegetable develope- ment, and to all atmospheric changes. After describing these its various uses in nature, the author adverts to its concentrated and terrible effects, which sometimes devastate portions of the earth, and which, he imagines, it is in a great measure in the power of man to avert. To prove and explain this (the main purpose of the volume before us), Mr. Murray brings into view all that is certainly known relative to electri- city ; interspersed with many curious original observations of his own, illus- trative of the effects of this subtle and powerful element. He ascribes to it, as already mentioned, all atmospheric phenomena ; all spontaneous mo- tions of physical atoms j the luminous appearances in the air and on earth, viz. Aurora borealis, ignes fatiu, shooting stars, St. Elmo's fire, &c. To it, too, he ascribes the formation of aerolites, of which he gives an interesting account ; showing in what veneration they were held by the ancient Pagans, who, like the Ephesians mentioned by St. Luke (Acts of the Apostles), worshipped the goddess Diana, which image fell down from Jupiter, being no other than an aerolite. Mr. Murray might have added, that they are still idolised by the Mahometans. Burckhardt, in his pilgrimage to Mecca, notices the holy stone, which in remote times was considered sacred by the Egyp- Gods have lived in woods. And Trojan Paris. In the towers she built Let Pallas dwell ; the woods be our delight." Trajip's Translation. Murray on Atmospheric Electricity. 561 tians, and is now preserved in the Kaaba of Mecca ; which stone, he says, is one of the objects of adoration by the adherents of Ismaelism. It is sup- posed by Burckhardt to be a piece of basalt, but probably an aerolite. The author also describes what are called Ceraunkim scintre, or lightning tubes, formed, it is supposed, by the descent of the thunderbolt in the earth vitri- fying the sand through which it passes. One is mentioned of the length of nearly thirty feet. Mr. Murray next adverts to the agency of electricity on vegetation. That plants are susceptive of its influence is a reasonable, and a very gene- rally received opinion ; but that it eifects all that has been attributed to its agency, as causing the direct and retrograde motions of the sap in vegetables, is perhaps still doubtful. Our author adopts M. Dutrochet's theory of the motion of the sap. This is quite natural ; as no one but a profound electrician can possibly understand such a theory. Here, it appears, Mr. Murray sur- renders his own penetration and judgment entirely. He says, quoting M. Dutrochet, " The roots absorb water, with such soluble matter as may be present ; this flows upwards to the leaves, through the lymphatic tubes of Decandolle, and which are found both in the soft and hard wood : this fluid solution, as it ascends, absorbs laterally a portion of the already elaborated and assimilated sap, to form the leaves." What leaves? those already expanded, or such as are reposing in the bosom of the buds ? Mr. Murray proceeds : " Being carried up to the leaves in spring, the sap there under- goes a chemical change, by evolving oxygen by day, and carbonic acid gas at night : thus assimilated, it again returns, descending through the bark and soft wood, and giving off laterally in its descent elaborated sap, finally changed into bark and wood." In other words, simple water, impregnated with soluble matters existing in the soil, after being mixed with the essen- tial sap of the tree, is afterwards changed into ligneous fibre ! Had M. Du- trochet said that such supplies of watery food assisted to expand the lig- neous vessels, and the various parts of the vegetable being, he would have been easily understood ; because he, as a chemical and botanical philoso- pher, as well as the no less enlightened Mr.Murray, should, nay, must, know that all the fibrous structure of a plant is in existence for years previously to the reception of that food which expands them into full developement. The most gigantic oak, and every part of it, was once contained in the narrow bounds of an acorn. Vegetable growth is only the enlargement of preexisting components, urged forward by a combination of heat, light, and moisture, assisted no doubt by the restless currents of electricity. The *' organisable properties " of a homogeneous fluid is an imaginary assump- tion that has too long diverted the students of vegetable physiology from the truth. To a mind unfettered by specious theories, it appears an impos- sibility that the simple element of water, united with gum, resin, sugar, or any other quality essential to a plant, should ever become changed into the fibrous or woody components of plants. Our author next speaks of, but without describing, " the radiated tracheae of the wood." That there is a lateral transfusion of both sap and air through the vascular or porous fibrous tissues of both bark and wood, cannot be denied ; but if Mr. Murray means that what are called the " medullary rays " in the grain of the wood are tubu- lar tracheae, it is an oversight ; for, in fact, these rays are vertical partitions, of extremely close texture, and are the glossy waves which are exposed by the saw and plane in working panels in joinery. The bladder, fixed to the end of a bleeding vine, swelling till it bursted, appears to be nothing more than its being surcharged by the sap and gaseous air, evolved by the fer- mentation and expansion of the juice of the tree. Among other effects attributed to electric action is noticed the very common one of dead disbarked twigs of some kinds of trees bearing a curious fringe of slender icicles in frosty weather. It it always seen in beech woods ; and sometimes, though rarely, on the twigs of hornbeam and alder. It is only seen on half-rotten wood, from which the bark h^s fallen 562 Murray on Atmospheric Electricity, off, and is composed of very attenuated silk-like filaments, above one inch in length. Unlike other crystals of ice, they possess a considerable degree of tenacity, and are more persisting than the hoar frost on other bodies. In position the filaments are divergent like radii from the pith of the twig, and have all the appearance of being produced, as Mr. Murray suspects, as jets from the external orifices of the wood, similar to the columnar masses of icicles which heave up the surface of damp peat-earthy ground in frosty weather. Whether this is an exemplification of the truth of M. Dutrochet's theory, and of the counter currents of the sap in plants, is, however, not very obvious.* The incident of trees condensing the moisture of the air in foggy weather is noticed. Hence the author infers that thickly wooded countries must necessarily be colder and more humid than naked savannahs. Trees are, therefore, it would seem, ready conductors of aerial electricity j the climate being improved when woods are cleared away, and becoming more moist by planting. Of this circumstance there can be no doubt, as it appears from the histories of both this island and of North America. He alludes again to the curious phenomenon of certain spiders being en- dowed with the power of propelling threads, which, being acted on by posi- tive electricity, carries them aloft in the air, even against the direction of the wind. The author does this with a view, it would seem, of replying to Mr. Blackwall, who opposed the doctrine in this Magazine ; but, from the many proofs brought forward by Mr. Murray and his friends, there seems to be no longer any doubt of the fact. Mr. Blackwall attributes their ascent to currents of warm air, which are ever rising in a greater or less degree from the earth. That such currents are always in action, notwithstanding Mr. Murray's scepticism, is undoubtedly true ; but it is questionable whe- ther they are at all times so powerful as to cause the ascent of any particle of matter, even so light as an aeronautic spider. The author, in the seventh chapter, proceeds to describe the effects of atmospheric electricity, and the various phenomena of dew, rain, snow, &c. He espouses Dr. Wells's theory of dew ; not, it appears, from any experi- mental proof or convictions of his own, but from pure implicit accordance. That a still atmosphere is necessary to its formation in the open air, is most true, because agitation of the air accelerates evaporation ; but that a clear nocturnal sky is also necessary is a mistake. Dew is formed in every degree of temperature under one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, and certainly is not a precipitation, otherwise it would fall on every body of equal temperature. Dead or sickly plants carry no dew, nor do those on dry places : dew will be copious within a hand-glass, or any other thick covering which obstructs the view of " a clear nocturnal sky " and the agitation of the air, while not a drop is visible without. Healthy plants on every evaporating surface carry dew in calm weather. There also a lower degree of temperature exists ; but whether caused by evaporation, or radiation, or whether these terms are used synonymously, our author saith not. His remarks on meteorology in general bring him to the practical in- ferences deducible from his preceding observations, viz. that the severity of thunder and hail storms may be moderated by withdrawing a part of the atmospheric electricity by means of well constructed lightning-rods and paragreles. Aware of the diversity of opinion relative to the effects of these instruments, and incompetent to decide on which side the truth lies, we would only suggest (while we grant the plausibility of Mr. Murray's con- clusions), whether if they be so efficient as to divest the storm-cloud of its dangerous effects, they should not only be used as temporary pro- tectors ? For, if effective at one time, so will they be at another. The * Since the above was written the highly extolled theory of M. Dutrochet has been proved incorrect, and abandoned by himself. (Foreign Review.) Catalogue of the Norfolk and No7-wich Museum, 563 Italian peasantry, it has been said, condemned the use of paragreles and lightning-rods, not because they prevented hail-storms, but because they caused much and frequent unsettled weather. Whether this was only a foolish prejudice of the peasants, we need not stop to consider ; but, as Mr. Murray is an advocate for the use of para- greles, he must be aware of their effects in fine as well as in foul weather. From all he has brought forward respecting electricity, it is manifest that when it abounds in the atmosphere in its positive character, we have fine weather ; and when it changes to a negative state, the reverse. In the first, the air is pure and warm ; the aerial spider ascends ; plants secrete their juices ; dew is copious, &c. : in the second, the atmosphere is turbid, clouds are formed, and rains descend ; the flying spider, together with its threads, falls to the earth; plants absorb moisture; and perhaps the tempest rages. From these changes it would appear, that as there are oceans of water and of air, so there is also what may be called an ocean of electricity constantly flowing between the atmosphere and earth, and in quantity alternating from the one to the other. When it abounds in the atmosphere, the aqueous exhalations from the earth are kept in a state of solution. Though not a cloud be visible, the barometer shows that an addition requiring space is raised into the air ; and it seems that, when this solutive power is arrested, water and electricity descend again to the earth, and if after a long course of fine weather, often in violent storms of thunder and lightning. These few concluding observations are deduced from the author's state- ments ; and, though brief, and not perhaps clearly expressed, are submitted to his notice, in order that he may, at some future time, make a more gene- ral application of the agency of electricity to define and improve our stock of meteorological knowledge. Mr. Murray admits that, if the whole country were covered with trees, the climate would become more damp ; so, if the country were generally studded with paragreles, the same effect would follow. The climate of Britain, it is very generally believed, has deteriorated, in being much more changeable than it was sixty years ago. This has been attributed to the extent of planting, to the introduction of green crops, and abolition of fallows in our improved system of agriculture. Some think it is owing to the accumulation of ice at the north pole ; and others, taking a wider flight, believe that, as the earth is but a cooled star, it must necessarily decrease in its temperature every year. Be these fancies as they may, there is much room for improvement in meteorological knowledge ; and it appears pretty evident that a closer study of atmospheric electricity can alone afford the assistance necessary for such improvement. Mr. Murray's intimate acquaintance with experimental and natural philo- sophy renders him particularly fit to prosecute such a study ; and, should he have leisure to enter upon it, we are certain he will produce something as worthy of himself as of the science. — J. M, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Contents of the Norfolk and Norwich Museum. Part I. comprising Antiquities, Manuscripts, Printed Books, Drawings, Engravings, Coins, Medals, Seals, and other Works of Art. Norwich. Pamph. small 4to, pp. 46. \s. 6d. This museum has been liberally supported ; and it is gratifying to reflect on the pleasure and instruction which local collections of such easy access must afford to the neighbourhood. Every county town ought to have such a museum, and also a botanic garden and a zoological garden ; and the time will shortly come when these sources of scientific enjoyment will be as common as town-halls and market-places. This tract was accompanied with some lithographic sketches by our ingenious and skilful correspondent S. Woodward, Esq., author of that useful work A Synoptical Table ofFossils, and one of the Committee who have the care of the Institution, and who have ordered the publication of this Catalogue. 564} British Booh. An Introductory Address delivered hy the "Reverend William Turner^ at the First Meeting of the Natural History Society of Northumbei'landy Durham^ and Neivcastle upon Tyne^ held on Tuesday y Sept. 13. 1829 : to which are appended the Provisional Laws directed by the Meeting to be prepared by the Committee, and to continue in force until the An- niversary ; and a List of the Officers and Members. Newcastle, 1829. Pamph. 8vo. Report of the Natural History Society of Northumberland ^ Durham, and Newcastle upon Tyne^for the Year ending August 3. 1830 ; to which are appended the Laws and a List of the Officers and Members. New- castle, 1830. Pamph. 8vo. Transactions of the Natural History Society of NorthumherlandyDurhamy and Newcastle upon Tyne. Vol. L Part L Newcastle, 1830. 4to, 1 1 plates. Neilly Patricky Esq., Secretary to the Wernerian Society, to the Caledonian Horticultural Society, &c. &c. : An Address to the Members of the Wernerian Natural History Society. Pamph. 8vo. 1830. A local controversy between one of the best of men and we do not know very well whom else, of no public interest. Library of Entertaining Knowledge. Published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London. 12mo. 2^. Since we first noticed this work (p. 80.), it has extended as far as the 13th part, forming parti, of vol.vii. Reviews of those parts which treat of insects are in hand by a skilful contributor. First Report of the Scarborough Philosophical >^ ,- ! - — \ ^V» ^ ^ 1 \ ■*>-^ ^ ■ — \ . 1 ^s. . '■■■■ ?- * ~ .__ r— N p^ L— ^ -\ S ^ 2.P , . \ ^ — 28 30 ^' " H ■ 1 - ■ 1 -- I T - 1 ___!.27. 10 20 30 1 ,. 2o 31 10 20 30 10 2 0 3o| August. August. il September. Sep t. r Calendar of Nature, 5QT The double lines, marked b, show the motion of the mercury in the ba- rometer ; tswy the mean temperature of the air near a south garden-wall ; t, the mean temperature in the open air and in the shade ; d, the dew-point ; and min. ty the minimum temperature in the open air at night. The coldest day in August was on the 26th : mean temperature of that day 48-5°; extreme cold 39" three feet above the surface, and 31° on the grass ; wind westerly. The warmest day in August was on the 4th : mean temperature of that day 60*5° ; extreme heat 69° ; wind westerly. The mean temperature for the month was 54*4°, nearly 4° below the average tempera- ture for that month for the seven preceding years. There were 6 days of brilliant, and 12 of partial, sunshine; 13 days were cloudy. The wind blew from easterly points on 9 days, and from westerly points on 22 days. There were no remarkably loud winds during the month ; but on the 8th, about 5 o'clock in the afternoon, there was a loud and violent thunder-storm, ac- companied with hail ; and at Errol, in the centre of the Carse of Gowrie, ice fell in large pieces of the size of a cubic inch and upwards, covering an area of about 500 acres, on which the corn crops were completely denuded of the partially filled grain, and the green crops of their foliage. The minimum temperature during the night was 46°, and yet much of the ice lay undis- solved in ditches and shady places till near noon the following day : a phenomenon of this nature is seldom observed in Scotland. The coldest day in September was on the 23d : mean temperature of that day 49° ; extreme cold 41° ; wind variable. The warmest day was on the 27th j mean temperature of that day 58° ; extreme heat 60° ; wind S.W. There were 8 days of brilliant, and 8 days of partial, sunshine ; 14 days were cloudy : the wind blew from easterly points on 5 days, and from westerly points on 25 days. There were loud gales on the 11th, 19th, 20th, 24th, and 25th. The mean temperature for September was 52*9° ; the ordinary temperature for that month is 54*7°. The fall of rain during the two past months has been excessive, amounting to 10'39 in. ; and from the moist state of the atmo- sphere, which will be observed by the line repi esenting the dew point being so near the mean temperature, little evaporation could take place : conse- quently the soil has been all along exceedingly moist. This, accompanied with a temperature under the ordinary mean, has protracted the ripening process to a later period in the season than usual. The general clouded state of the atmosphere, too, has retarded the ripening of wall-fruits ; for it is sun- shine that communicates that heat to walls by which fruit is ripened in the same space of time with those of the same kind some 6° or 7° farther south in the open air. Too much stress is sometimes laid on walls giving out much caloric throughout the night, by writers on gardening. On a cloudy, day, or at midnight, a thermometer, within 6 in. of a south brick wall, will not indicate above a half degree higher than one on a north aspect. During clear sunshine, the difference in favour of the south wall is from 10° to 12°; but they uniformly approximate a short time after sunset : taking, there- fore, the mean of the daily extremes of the temperature of a south wall in September, when the atmosphere was for the most part cloudy, it did not exceed the common mean much above 2°. In August, the difference in favour of a south wall is as 4*2°. In the flower-border, the LiXmm candidum opened its elegant flowers on the 1st of August ; Timothy grass in fields came in flower on the 2d;^ the Digitalis ferruginea on the 5th, four days later than last year ; Coreopsis verticillata on the 15th, five days later than last season. Peas that came in flower in the field by the 12th of July, were ripe by the 8th of Septem- ber, a period of 58 days : mean temperature of that period 56*6° ; depth of rain 7| in. The excess of moisture in the air and in the soil prevented the pods from filling, and also retarded the ripening process. Barley that came in the ear on the 16th of July was ripe on the 10th of September, a period of 56 days ; mean temperature of that period 56-6" : a curious coincidence 568 Queries and Anstvers, between the ripening of barley, in the same park, this and the last season ; the length of time between earing and ripening, and the mean temperature of the periods, being exactly the same ; last year, too, it should be recol- lected, the fall of rain in August was excessive. The ifordeum nudum (Vol. III. p. 442.) ripened simultaneously with English barley in the same field. It should also be remarked, that both earing and ripening were 19 days later this than last year; the seeds were also later in being sown. Wheat that came in the ear on the 30th of June was cut ripe on the 9th of September, a period of 7 1 days ; mean temperature of that period 56'5°. The coincidence between the ripening this and last year (Vol. 11. p. 483.), under similar circumstances, would lead to the inference, that, under a temperature of 56*5°, a period of about 70 days is requisite to ripen wheat, from the time the ear appears, with abundance of moisture in the soil. China wheat (Vol. III. p. 442.), which came in the ear on the 12th of July, was cut on the 30th of September, a period of 80 days : mean temperature of that period 55*5°. This beautiful and promising wheat, the seeds of which were kindly distributed by Mr. Loudon, was so severely attacked by yellow gum or rust that the seeds are much shrivelled : this, however, should not prevent another trial. Wheat from England always suffers by rust with us the first year after its introduction, but seldom after. The Bocc6nf« quer- cifolia was in flower on the 5th of September; white Beurree pears ripe on the 30th ; Elruge nectarines beginning to drop. In the moors, game has been plenty ; the partridge seems to suffer by moisture. They are so few and weak, that many sportsmen are determined not to kill any for the season. — A, G. Sept. 1. Art. II. Queries and Answers. The Long'tailed Titmouse. — Some time ago, when my brothers and my- self were seekers of birds' nests, we found one of the long-tailed titmouse (Parus caudatus), about two miles fnom home, containing young ones half- nedged. Being anxious to rear them, we hit upon the plan of catching the old ones, and giving them the trouble instead of ourselves. We accordingly set lime twigs near the nest, and caught six old ones of the seven of which the colony consisted, and brought them away in triumph : but the old ones would not eat in confinement j and all died but one, which we allowed to escape, in the hope that it would come back and feed the young ones. This it did, and, by the most unwearied exertions reared the whole brood, sometimes feeding them ten times a minute. Never having seen this habit stated in any Ornithology y I am not aware that it is generally known to naturalists ; but it is right to say that I have only found one nest of the species since, and this my avocations would not permit me to examine. I am not aware whether the fact I have stated was an exception to the general habits of this bird, or whether such is invariably the case. Some of your correspondents will, no doubt, be able to give an answer to this. — T. G. Clithero, April 17. 1829. The Wren's Nest. ---Mr. Jennings and yourself, in opposition to Montagu, are of opinion (Vol. I. p. 344.) that the wren never lines its nest with feathers ; like the knights of the gold and silver shield, both sides are right. It is true, that many wrens' nests may be found which have no feathers, but did you ever find either eggs or young ones in them ? As far as my observ- ations go, the fact is, that the nest in which the wren lays its eggs is profusely lined with feathers : but, during the period of incubation, the male, apparently from a desire to be doing something, constructs as many as half a dozen nests in the vicinity of the first, none of which are lined ; and, whilst the first nest is so artfully concealed as to be very seldom found, the latter are very fre- quently seen. The wren does not appear to be very careful in the selection of a site for the cock nests, as they are called by the schoolboys in Yorkshire. I have frequently seen them in the twigs of a thick thorn hedge, under banks, in haystacks, in ivy bushes, in old stumps, in the loop- holes of buildings, and in one instance in an old bonnet, which was placed among some peas, td frighten away the blackcaps. — T. G. Clithero, April 17. 1829. GLOSSARIAL INDEX TECHNICAL TERMS MADE USE OF IN THE DIFFERENT INTRODUCTIONS, AND GENERALLY IN VOLS. I. IL AND III, ANACA'RDIUM,heart.shsiped, iii. 350. Abddmen, the belly, i. 124. Acanthurus, from akantha, thorn, oura, tail, i. 163. Acclpitres, from accipitcr, a hawk, i. 121. Accipitrina, hawk-like, i. 122. AVe?-, sharp, iii. 140. AchatinMa, dim. oi achates, an agate, i. 168. Aculeus, the sting, i. 423. Acrotdrsium, front of the foot, i. 277. JEstivalis, of the summer, iii. 55. A^lcB, the wings, i. 124. Alisma, from alls, water (Celt), iii. 62. A'lula spuria, bastard wing, i. 123. Ambulatbriif walking, i. 124. Amentum, a bond, iii. 52. Ampiilla, from ampulla, a bottle, i. 28. Anapheles, from a, int., apheles, slender, i. 54. Anat{fera, from anas, a goose, fero, to bear, 1.30. A'nseres, from anser, a goose, i. 121. Antinnce, horns, i. 423. Antholyxa, from anthos, a flower, lyssa, rage, i. 274. Apetalous, without petals, i. 435. A'ptera, from a, privative, pteron, a wing, i. 424. Aquilina, eagle-like, i. 122. A'rbutus, from the Celtic ar-boise, austere bush j roughness of the fruit, iii. 350. Argonauta, from argonautes, companions of Jason so called, i. 28. Argutor, from argutor, to make a shrill noise, i. 55. ArmillcE, bracelets, i. 124. Arndldn, from Dr. Arnold, i. 67. Arundo, from am, water (Celt), iii. 59. A'tropa, from Atropos, one of the Fates, i. 435. Auchenium, below the nape, i. 277. Aiires, the ears, i. 123. AxilliS, axillaries, i. 123. Bamboo, from Bambusa, iii. 59. Bdnks'ia, named after Sir Jos. Banks, i. 362. Burba, the beard, i. 123. Belluce, from bellua, a great beast, iii. 515. Biennis, from bis, twice, annus, a year, iii. 137. Bimanes, from bis, twice, manus, a hand, iii. 513. Bipinnate, twice-winged, ii. 156. Bivalve shell, composed of two pieces, iii. 335. Braird, to shoot above the earth's surface, ii.480. Branchiostegous, from brdnchicc, gills, stege, a covering, i. 162. Brida, from brutus, brute, iii. 514. 'Ruteonina, buzzard-like, i. 122. Biitomus, from bous, an ox, femnOj to cut, i. 161. Calamus, from kalam, Arab., iii. 59. Calcaria, the spurs, i. 124. Calochdrtus, from kalos, handsome, chortos, a kind of grass, i. 166. Calyciflhrce, from calyx, andj?os, a flower, i. 136. €alyptra, a cover, iii. 52. Campagnol, from campana, a bell, i. 198. Campestre, champaign, iii. 140. Cdraium, from kardia, the heart, i. 29. Carinhria, from carina, a keel, i. 30. Carndssiers, from caro, flesh, iii. 513. Carpella, dim. of karpos, a fruit, i. 141. Carpology, from karpos, fruit, and logos, a dis- course, i. 137. C&rthamus, from quortom, to paint (Arab.), i. 168. Vol,. III. — No. 16. I Carnnculee, wattles, i. 124, Capistrum, the face, i 123. Cciput, the head, i. 123. Catbdon, from kato, below, odous, a tooth, ii. 197. Cauda, the tail, i. 123. Cellulures, from cellula, a little cell, i. 136 Cephaelis, from kephale, a head, i. 61. Cera, wax (on the bill), i. 123. Cervix, hinder part of the neck, i. 277. Cetaceous, from cete, a whale, iii. 514. Charadri(E, sea-larks, i. 122. Chce'todon, from chaite, a bristle, odous, tooth, i. 163. Ch\one, from Chione, the daughter of Daedalion, 1. 30. Chlorophane, from chloros, green, phaino, to shine, i. 154. Clypeus, shield of the head, i. 423. Coccin^lla, dim. of kokkos, a berry, i. 54. Coleorhiza, from koleos, a sheath, rfiiza, a root, i. 143. Coledptera, from koleos, a sheath, pteron, a wing, i. 424. C6llum, the neck, i. 123. Colymbetes, from kolymbetes, a swimmer, i. 54. Comdtula, from coma, a tuft, ii. 115. Condyle, from kondylos, a knuckle, iii. 511. Conirdstres, conic-beaked, i. 122. Connate, from con, together, natus, born, i. 45L Cdrnua, the horns, i. 124. Corolla, dim. of corona, a crown, i. 231. Corollijidrce, from corolla, and Jios, a flower, i. 136. Cdrpus, the body, i. 124. Crista, the crest, i. 123. Crinoidea, hly-like, ii. 115. Crissum, the vent, i. 123. Crura, the legs, i. 123. Culmen, the ridge, i. 277. Cultch, term defined, iii. 42. Cummlngia^ named after Lady .Gordon Gum- ming, i. 362. DentirOstres, tooth-beaked, i. 122. Dertrum, the hook, i. 277. Dichlam'pdecB, from dis, two, and chlamys, a covering, i. 136. Dicotyltldones, from dis, two, and cotyledon, i. 136, Diddctyli, two-toed, i. 123. Digiti, the toes, i. 124. Dice\-ia, from dis, twice, oikos, a house, i. 164. Diplecolobece, from diplax, double, lobos, a pod, i. 144. Dipsacus, from dipsao, to thirst, i. 431. Diptera, from dis, twice, pteron, a wing, i. 424. Doree, from dore*?, gilt, i. 89. Dorsal, from dorsum, the back, i. 162. Ddrsum, the back, i. 124. Drydndra, from Dr. Dryander, i. 360. Dryandroides, from Dry&ndra and eidos, like, i. 362. Ec/«5m, sea-urchins, ii. 115. Edentes, from e, without, and dens, a tooth, iii. 513. E'lytra, the wing covers, i. 423. Entomology, from entoma, insects, logos, a dis. course, i. 421. Epidermis of shells, the external membrane ■ iii. 347. Epiphyte, from epi, upon, phyton, a plant, i, 61 Er(Co, from emAo, to break, iii. 13a 570 GLOSSARIAL INDEX. Evaluation, estimate, iii, 504. Exchbitor, from excubitor, a watcher, i. 93. Fagapyrum, from fagus, a beech, pyros, corn, iii. 142. Falconma, falcon-like, i. 122. Fasciolaria, from fasciola, a winding band, i, 56. Feldspathic, feldspar-like, iii. 497. Femora, the thighs, i. 123; Ferce, from ferus, a wild beast, iii. 514, Fissirdstres, cleft-beaked, i. 122. Flexura, the bend of the wing, i. 277. Folicicea;, from foliaceus, leafy, i. 136. Formbsum, handsome, iii. 139. Franciscea, from Francis, Emperor of Ger- many, i. 165. FritiUaria, from fritillus, a chess-board, iii. 56. From, the forehead, i. 123. GalecB, shields of the mouth, i. 423. GallincB, from gallus, a cock, i. 121. Gallinaceous, from gallus, a cock, ii. 442. Gence, the cheeks, i. 123. Geodesical, relating to the measurement of the earth's surface, iii. 504. Glires, from glis, a dormouse, iii. 515. Gluma, a husk, iii 52. Gneiss, a species of rock, iii. 497. Gonys, inferior point of the mandible, i. 277. Grdllce, from grallce, stilts, i. 121. Gressbrii, leaping, i. 124. Greywacke, a species of rock, iii. 498. Giila, the chin, i. 123. Gymndtus, from gytnnos, naked^ noios, back, Gymnospermia, a naked seed, iii. 353. Hallux, the great toe, i. 277. Halter es, the balancers, i. 423. Hamddryas, from Hamadryades^ nymphs who preside over trees, i. 287. Hamadryades, from hama, with, diys, the oak, i. 287. Haustiltum, a peculiar kind of mouth, i. 423. Helix, from heileo, to twist round, i. 25. Hemiptera, from hemtsu, half, pteron, a wing, i. 424. Holoc^ntrus, from holos, hall, kentron, a spur, i. 163. Hopeana, in compliment to Mrs. Thonus Hope, Humeri, the shoulders, i.. 123. Hypoch6ndrice, hypochondres, i. 123. Hypobldstus, from hypo, under, blastos, a bud, i. 142. * Hymendptera, from hymen, a film, pteron, a wing, i. 424. Jnirmis, unarmed, iii. 142. Ingluvies, the crop, i. 124. Insect, from inscctus, cut or notched, i. 424. Insessbres, perchers, i. 122. Involuaum, a wrapper, iii. 52. Jnterscdpulum, between shoulders, i. 123. Ipecacuanha, from Ipe, aboriginal word, in Peru, for root, cacuan, aboriginal distinction for that root, i. 61. Jiigulum, the throat, i. 123. Labrum, lip or tip, i. 160. iMgdstomos, from lagost a hare, stoma, a mouth, i. 185. hampyrls, from lampo, to shine, pyr, fire, i. 155. Lanceolaius, lance-leaved, i. 167. Lanceolate, shaped like a lance, i. 235» Lanius, from lanius, a butcher, i. 93. Lemur, from lemures, ghosts, i. 208. "Lepas, from lepas, a rock, i. 30. Lepidoptera, from lepis, a scale, pteron, a wing, i. 424. lueucbjum, from leulcos, white, ion, violet, iii. 55. Leucopbgon, from leulcos, white, pogon, a b^rd, i. 167. Lobatus, lobed feet, i. 124. L6ris, from loeris, a clown (Dutch), i. 209. Lorum, naked line at the base of the upper ridge of the bill, i. 123.277. Ligula, a latchet, i. 423. Lindleyii, from John Lindley, Esq. F.R.S. I 165. Lingua, the tongue, i. 123. ' " ' Macrocdrpus, from makros, long, HarpoSrii^tj. i. 166. Mammiferous, from mamma, breasts, iii. 510. Marshpia, from tnarsupium, a bag or purse, iii. 513. Marsupites, from marsupium, a purse, ii. 115.- Menuon, the chin, i. 277. Mesorrinium, the upi)er ridge, i. 277. Mica slate, a slate abounding with mica, iii. 497, Milvina, kite-like, i. 122. Monochlamydeee, from monos, one, and chlamysr a covering, i. 136. Monocotyledones, from monos, one, and cotyle^ don,t. 136. Monopetalous, one-petaled, i. 433. Multivalve shell, composed of many pieces, iiL 555. Murex, from murex, the point of a'rock, i. 56; 'i^arclssus, from narke, stupor, iii. 55. Nares, the nostrils, i. 123. Ncisus, nose, i. 160. "^ Natatbres, swimmers, i. 122. Nataldrius, palmatedfeet, i. 123. 'Sailtilu.'i, from nans, a ship, i. 28. "Sepenthes, from ne, negative, penthosy grief, i. 80. Merita, from neros, hollow, i. 30. Neurdptera, from neuron, a nerve, pteron, a wing, i. 424. NoctUuca, from nox, mg\\t,lucus, a light, i. 155. Notorhlxe^, from notos, the back, rfiixa, a root. i. 144. N&cha, the nape, i. 123. O'cciput, the hind-head, i. 123. Ocellata, from ocellus, a little eye,. L £4). O'culi, the eyes, i. 123. O'rbitcB, the orbits, i. 12a Orthoplbcece, from orthos, upright, ploke, a fold, i. 144. Oryctology, from oryhtos, fossil, logos, a dis- course, i. 190. Os, the mouth, i. 423. Pachydermes, fiom pachys, thick, and derma, n skin, iii. 514. Pce'ciltis, from pozkilos, spotted, i. 155. Pdlpi, patters, i, 160. Papilionaceous, butterfly-like, iii. 356. Paris, from par, equal, iii. 142. Fusseres, from passer, a sparrow,' i. 121. Patella,, from patella, a little dish, i. 28. Pecora, from pecus, cattle, iii. 515. Pectoral, from pectus, the chest, i. 162. Pectus, the breast, i. 124. Peltate, from pelta, a target, iii. 141. Pentacrinus, from pente, five, krinon, lily, ii. 62L. Pentapetalous, five-petaled, i, 435. Pcrfoliata, through the leaf, iii. 138. Pes, the foot, i- 123. Petalite, from pet a Ion, a thin plate, i 154. Phcebpus, from phaios, dark, dps, face, i. 297. Phdlas, from pholeo, to seek a hiding place, i. 25. PJciS, from pica, a magpie, i. 121. Vinna, from pinna, a wing or feather, i. 30. Pinndtus, pinnated, i. 124. Pldnta, the foot with the toes, i. 277. Plat§derus,'{rom platys,hroad,dere, a neck, i. 55. PleurorhixecB, from pleuron, the side, rhiza, a root, i. 144. Pogbmus, from pogon, a beard, i. 55, Polybrachion, many arms, iii. 149. Pokjbrachibne, from polys, many, brachion, arai, i.'62. Polygonum, from polys, many, gonu, a joint, iii. 142. Poly 6mmatus, from polys,many,omma, eye, i.'56. Pomaderris, from poma, a lid, derris, a mem- — brane, i. 61. Prehe'nsilis, grasping, i. 124. Primarite, quills, i. 277. Primates, from primus, first, iii. 514. ' Proboscis, the feeding trunk, i. 423. Pc^eudo-pldtanus, false-plane tree, iii. 140. Quh-cus, from quer, fine, cuex, tree, i. 248. Raptbres, preyers, i. 122. Rash-es, scratchers, i. 122. Rectrices, the tail feathers, i. 124. INDEX TO BOOKS REVIEWED AND NOTICED. 571 Baffles'in, after Sir S. Raffles, i. 67. Eegio ophthdlmica, region of the eye, j. 277. Begio parotica,ptotuherance over tlie-ear, i. 277. Memiges, the oars, i. 277. Rheum, from Rha, the ancient name of the River Volga, ill. 350. JRhizamorpka, from rhixa, root, and morphe, form, i. 15.5. Rbbur, applied by the Romans to the hardest kind of oak, i. 248, Rongeurs, from ronger, to gnaw, iii. 513. Rdstrum, the bill, i. 123. Rubdite, from rubellus, reddish, 1. 154. Rumindntes, from rumlnare, to chew again, iii. 514. Siiccus jugularis, the pouch, i. 124. Sablonous, sandy, iii. 500. Salep, from the Arabic sahkleb, iii. 352. Salpigldssis, from salpigx, a trumpet, glossa, a tong-ue, i. 362. 'Scaribsa, scarious, i. 168. Scapulares, scapulars, i. 123. Scansbres, climbers, i. 122. Scansbrii, climbing, i. 124. Schists, argillaceous clayey slate, or schistose slate, iii. 499. Schistose, rocks abounding with schist, iii. 500. "Scorpcp^na, from skorpios, a scorpion, i. 162. Semipalmaius, semipalmated feet, i. 124. Sinciput, hinder part of the head, i. 277. "Sblen, from solSn, a tube, i. 28. Soulang'ikna, in honour of the Chev. Soulange- Bodin, i. 362. Spatha, a slice, iii. 52. Speculum, the wing spot, i. 123. Sphendtoma, from spheno, to connect together, ioma^ a slice or section, i. 61. Spirolbbece, from speira, a spire, 7o6t»s, a pod, i. 144. Spondylus, from spondylos, the prickly head of an artichoke, i. 28. SupercUia, the eyebrews, i. 123. Tectriccs caUdce, the tail-coverts, i. 123. Tectrices, the wing-coverts, i. 123. Telarius, from tela, a web, i. 157. Tempora, the temples, i. 123. Tenuerdstres, slender-beaked, i. 122. Testaceous, having a shell, iii. 33.5. ThalamfftbrcB, from thalamus, a bed, &nd Jlos, a flower, i. 13a Tincibrius, dyeing, usedTjy dyers, 1. 168. Toise, the French, equal to 1-06575 English fa- thoms, iii. 499. Trichoddctylus, from thrix, hair, and daktylos^ a toe, i. 185. Triddctyli, three-toed, i. 123. Trbchus, from trochus, a boy's top, i. 29. Trorioi^olum, dim. of tropceum, a trophy, iii. 141. Truncus, the trunk, i. 423. Uvibelliferoiis, umbel-bearing, ii. 156, tJ'ngues, the claws, i. 124. Univalve shell, composed of one piece, iii. 335. Uropygium, the rump, i. 123. 227. Fasculdres, from vas, a vessel, i. 126. Ventral, from venter, the belly, i. 162. Vertex, the crown, i. 123, Vtbrissce, from vibro, to shake or move nimbly, iii. 33. f^ittbtus, from vitta, a band, i. 163. Vdlitans, from volito, to fly about, i. 162. Vdlva, from volvere, to wrap, iii. 52. WillughbieWa, named after Willughby, a friend of Ray's, i. 273. Zoophyte, from zoon, an ammeH^phyton, a plant, i. 159. INDEX TO BOOKS REVIEWED AND NOTICED. T« THE GENERAL SUBJECT. JJRITISH Naturalist, the, vol. i. 80. vol.ii. 426. Catalogue of the Norfolk and Norwich Museum, 563. First Report of the Scarborough Phil. Soc. Nat. 564. Gardens and Menagerie of the Zool. Soc., 81. Gorham's Memoirs of Martyn, 427. Johnson's Life of Ray, announced, 81. Journal of a Naturalist, 84. Library of Entertaining Knowledge, 80. 564. Neill's Address, &c. &c. noticed, 564. Paris's Life of Sir H. Davy, reviewed, 389. Report of the N, H. Soc. of Northumberland, &c. .564. Rhind's Studies in Natural History, 79. Transactions of the Plinian Society, not. 79. Transactions of the N. H. Soc. of Northumber- land, &c. 564. Turner's Introductory Address to the N. H. Soc. of Northumberland, &c. 564:. Young Lady's Book, 81, ZOOLOGY, . Audouin's Systems of the Linnean Insects, &c, announced, 565. Bennet's Fishes of Ceylon, 427. Boisduval's N. American Coleoptera, &c. 565, Brebisson's Minute Hymenoptera, 565. Brown's Conchology of Great Britain and Ire- land, 427. Carcel's Minute Hymenoptera, 565. Curtis's British Entomology, vol. vi. ann. 81. De Jean's Species General of Coleoptera, ann 565. — — ^— Iconography of the Europ. Coleoptera, ann. 565. Desvoidy, Robineau, his 3/iiscid2e, 565. Dupont's Beetles, ann. 565. Duponchel's French Moths, 565. Gory and Percheron's Cetoniadae, ann. 565. Gray's Illustrations of Indian Zoology, ann. 81. Griffiths' AniiTuJ Kingdom, not. 56i. Guerin's Iconography of Cuvier, &c. &c. 565. Latreille's Introduction to Entomology, ann. h65. Natural Classification of the Weevils, ann. 565. Lefebvre's Cimlcidae, atin. 56.5. Percheron's Hemiptera, &c. &c. ann. .565. Richardson's Zoology of Northern British Ame.* rica, 427. , Saint Hilaire's Cours de I'Histoire Naturelle de.* Mammif&res, rev. 420. Saint Fargeau's Hymen6ptera, 565. Selby's Illustrations of British Ornithology, 427. Serville's Faune Frangaise, 565. Thompson's Zoological Researches, &c. 426. Zoological Journal, 564, BOTANY. Castle's Introduction to Botany, 427. Chandler's CamelbW, 427. Geological Flora of Europe, not. 289. Greville's A'^gee Britannicae, 427. Jones and Kingston's Fl&ra Devoniensis, &c., rev. 288. Lindley's First Principles of Botany, 427 ; copper- plates to, 564 ; Introduction to the Nat. Syst. of Botany, not. 564. Loudon's H6rtus Britannicus, 426. Sowerby's Supplement to English Botany, 427. Strutt's Delioia; S\ Ivarum, rev. 378 ; Sylva Bri- tannica, rev. .546. Walli|ji's Plant* Asiaticae Raribres, 427. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. Lindley and Mutton's Fossil Flora of Great Britain, not 289, Lyell's Principles of Geology, 427, Ure's Geology, 90. Young's Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, rev., 45^3. METEOROLOGY. Murray's Atmospheric Electricity, not, f6a P 2 GENERAL INDEX. A.ARON, J., on the cause of goitre, 191. .^"'cer, 140. ilddress delivered to the Zoological Club of the Lin. Soc. of London, by N. A. Vigors, 201. Ainsworth, W., Notes on the Pyrenees, 496. Air, dryness of, at Florence, 376. .(41cfedo, species of, 147. jilcy6nia, remains of, 270. A'\g3z, query on preserving, 198. yilisma Plant^go, 62. Alligator, hard substances in stomach of, 447. >4'llium, 59. Alluvium, in Geology, 77. ' America, pearls in, 251. Amphfbia, fossil remains of, 363, 366; query respecting, 472. ./Imyris, 141, >fnag&llis arv^nsis and caertilea, on the specific identity of, by the Rev. J. S, Henslow, 537. Anatomical preparations, query on, by B. Maund, and answer to, 92. Anatomy, comparative, query best treatise, 470. Ants and aphides, 148. .<4p6cynum androsEemifblium, remark on, 461. Arden, Forest of, 386. Aspergillum, 336. Aspidium lobatum, 166. Aviaries in the Garden of Plants at Paris, 24. Awn of tlie oat, observations respecting, 486. Baird, W., on the luminousness of the sea, 320. Bakewell, Robert, a visit to the Mantellian Mu- seum at Lewes, 9. Bakewell, R , jun., on the Falls of Niagara, 117. Ball containing bees, curious, explained, 195. Bancroft, Dr., noticed, 215. Battles of the stickleback fish, 330. Bellus, 515. Bewick, Robert Elliot, noticed, 4. Bewick, Thomas, memoir of, 1 ; concluded, 97 ; his fondness for children, 4; his great strength, 4 ; his daughters, 4 ; spirit of his vignettes, 6 ; his fishes, 103 ; his reception in London, 104 ; query on his relics, 92 ; reply to, 191. Belemnites figured and described, 284. Bell, Mr., noticed, 214. Bennett, Mr., noticed, 208. Bicheno, Mr., on the shamrock of Ireland, 294. Bill, remarkable formation of the, observed in several birds, by John Blackwall^ Esq., 402. Bimanes, 513, Birch tree, large, 175. Bird, small unknown, answer to query, 93. Birds, rare, shot, hints respecting, 185; soften- ing the skins of, answer respecting, 123; in i the west of Scotland, facts and queries respect- ing, 194; arrival of a valuable collection of, 211 ; fossil remains of, 362 ; remarkable form- ation of the bill observed in several species of, by John Blackwall, 402; summer, early ar- rival of, by J. D. Hoy, 436 ; rare, killed in Suffolk, and on the borders of Norfolk and Essex, by J. D. Hoy, 436 ; song of, critical remarks respecting, by R. Sweet, 447 ; songs of, observations respecting, 472; destroying the buds of fruit trees, query respectij^, 475. Biscachoand Coquimbo owl, critique on, 188. Blackbird, white, 146. Blackwall, John, Esq., remarkable formation of the bill observed in several birds, 402 ; on the ascent of aeronautic spiders, 456. Blood, cause of colour not ascertained, 446. Bloxam, A., plants in Charnwood Forest, 167. Blue-bells of Scotland, critical remark on, 461. Bonnet's theory of shells, 342. Botanical Society suggested, 185, Bowman, J. E., figure and description of the shining moss, 462. Breach of Roland, the, 507. Bree, the Rev. W. T., M.A., sketch of a natural calendar of coincidence, 17 ; criticism respect- ing the water shrew, 90; answer respecting a small unknown bird, 93; dates of the first and last appearances of the Hirfindines in the neighbourhood of AUesley rectory, for 1829, 130; the distinction of sex in the wood-cock, 147 ; botanical frauds, 150 ; rare plants found in Warwickshire, 162 ; stones found in the stomachs of pike, 241 ; on the large and small cabbage butterflies, 242; the mode in which the common frog takes its food, 326; critical re- marks on the cuckoo and cuckoo's maid, and on the departure of the swift, 450. Bride stones, 426, Brongniart's theory of primeval vegetation, re- marks on, by Nat. John Winch, A.L.S., 373. Brown, John F.L.S., query on skate spawn, 93; on a mass of fused green porphyry, 199. Bruguiere's theory respecting shells, 343. J5iiccinum lapillus, critique respecting the, 484. Bull-trout, queries respecting the, 480. Bull oak, the, 551. Bungay, Orchideje and uncommon plants found near, 155; calendar of nature in, for 1829, 179v Bunting, the black-headed, answer, 92. Bushmen of South Africa, 429. Bustard, Great, of India, description of, with notices of some other Indian bustards, 515. Butterflies, Cabbage, large and small, 242. Butterflies and flies, query respecting, 476. Butterfly, painted lady, 247 ; black-ribbed, 247 ; Argus, 247. Byron'-s poetry, Bewick's opinion of, 99. Calendar, natural, of coincidence, sketch of, 17. Calendar of nature for Scotland, 82. 181. 295, 391. 440. ; for Bungay, 178. Caley, the late Mr. George, notice of, 226. Calla aethiopica, 136. Calyx, on the different species of, 52. Camelopardalis on cover of Magazine, 188. Campanula p^tula, 163. Carabus, query respecting, 477. Carlisle, arrival of 24 summer birds of passage in the neighbourhood of, during 1829, 172. Carnassiers, 513. Carr, J,, answer to query respecting the samlet, botcher, and gillion, 196. Carrageen or Irish moss, query, and answer, 483. Carus, Dr., observations relative to his discovery of the circulation of the blood in insects, 48, Cassida, metamorphosis of a species of, 523. Cetaceous animals, 514. CHe, 515. Ceylon, productive of pearls, 250. ^ Chalk districts, plants of the, 418. Chama gigas, figured, 43. Chameleon, critical remark concerning, 188 ; on the habits of the, by H. Slight, M.R.C.S., 232. Charnwood Forest, plants in, by A. Bloxam, 167. Chestnut, the Tortworth, 378. Chlbra perfolikta, 138. Clarke, W. B., impression of a star-stone on flint, 152 ; unusual appearance in the sky, 199. Clio borealis, 529. Coal fields, extensive, in North America, 429. Coccin^lla septempunctata, 248. Cock of the wood, in Britain, 157. Collecting geological specimens, 442. Colouring of shells, 315 ; influenced by light, 346. Conftrva, duck's-foot, query and answer, 483. Conv(jlvulus SoldantJlla, locality of, 417. GENERAL INDEX. 573 Coot, greater, 177. Corals, fossil, 271. Cornwall, rare birds observed in, 175. Corvorant, 177. Cowslip, monstrous, 151. Couch, J., on a substance drawn up at sea, 481. Crabs in Jamaica, query respecting, 197 ; fossil remains of, 286. Creation, order of, in geology, 64. Crocodile, the, on land and in water, 422. Cromer, natural history of neighbourhood, 155. Crossbill, 176. Crow, carrion and hooded, 146. Crusta.cea, fossil, 285. Cuckoo, on the Malvern Hills, 160 ; arrival of, at Bedford, 154; query respecting, 193; on the nests of the, by J. Rennie, 397 ; and cuckoo's maid, critical remarks respecting, 450. €uckoo-mate, 474 ; observations on, 475. Cucullus simplex, curious phenomenon in, 95 ; remark on, 190. Cticulus canbrus, 175. Curculios, query respecting, by J. C. Farmer,477. Curtis, J., notices respecting Pterostichus punc- t^tus and Leistus montJinus, 477, 478. Cuttle-fish, 527. Daffodil, the, 56. Dale, J. C, capture of Vanessa Himtera for the first time in Britain, 332. Dartford, rare birds shot, by Jas. C. Hurst, 435. Davies, J. H., remark respecting the natural system of plants in the Magazine of Natural History, 187; remark on the explanation of terms, 187 ; on the museum at Haslar, 188 ; on the mermaid, 188 ; on the chameleon, 188 ; periodical appearance of certain insects, 247. Davy, Sir Humphry, Dr. Paris's Life of, 389. Decandria, the class, described, 350. Delicize Sylvarum, 378. Dep6t, natural history, remarks on, 470. Diadelphia, the class, described, 356. Didynamia, the class, described, 353. Dikes, W. H., food of bearded titmouse, 239. Dillon, Bartholomew, Esq., on the fern owl, 30. Diluvium, in geology, 75. Dioe^cia, the class, described, 360. Discussion at meetings of societies, 294. Doctrines, absurd, of the system of nature, 352. Dodecandria, the class, described, 352. Dort^e in Sol way Frith, 174. Dotterel, arrival of, at Carlisle, 173. Douglas, Mr., his services to zoology, 204. Dovaston, John F. M,, Esq. A.M , some account of the life, genius, and personal habits of the late Thomas Bewick, 1 ; concluded, 97; reply respecting Bewick's relics, 191. Diver, northern, 177. Drosier, Richardj an ornithological visit to the islands of Shetland and Orkney, 321. Drying plants, Whateley's directions for, 459. Dugong, queries respecting the, 480. Eagle and the skua gull, 323. Eagle-stone, query respecting the, 484. Echinite, fossil rem.ains of, 276; table of La- marck's arrangement of, 277. Edentes, 513. Egg within an egg, query respecting an, 472. Electricity, query concerning, 200 ; remark, 488. Elephants in the Garden of Plants at Paris, 24. EUes, J., remarks on the water beetle, 148. Encrinites, fossil remains of, 275. P^nneandria, the class, described, 350. Epidermis of shells, 347. Erbdium marlnum, locality of, 416; deuterium, or moschatum, locality of, 417. Eri6phorumpub^scens, critical remarks on, 461. Errors, geological, corrected by W. Hulton, 463. Evans, John, query respecting'a trilcbite, 483. Exchanges of specimens in natural history, 155 ; depot for, 185. Exotics, the dissemination of, among indigenous plants, condemned, 460 ; observations on, 461. Fillco peregrinus, 175. Fan palm, the, 60. Farmer, J. C, query respecting Curculios, 477 ; query on a grub injurious to oats, 477. Farrar, W., M.D., on preternatural growth of incisor teeth in Mammalia rodentia, 27; the pied flycatcher and grasshopper warbler, 146. Fauna, British, additions to, by W. Yarrell. 524. * Fern owl, on the, by Bartholomew Dillon, 30 ; use of the claw of the, by J. Hayward, 449. Ferce, 514. Fieldfares and thrushes, arrival of, 434. Fight between a rat and a hedgesparrow, 192. Filaria forf iculse, remarks by B. Maund, 149. Filkria, critical observation on, by J. Murray, 459. Fish, voice of, 147 ; in Slapton Lea, 395 ; silver, 478 ; fossil remains of, 363. Floras, local, use of, 288. Florence, on the weather at, by W. Spence, 374. Fly's eye, curious property of, 195 ; under a microscope, remark by J. Murray, 458. Flycatcher, pied, 146: arrival of at Carlisle, 172. Fogs at Florence, 375. Forest of Arden, 386. Fossil shellfish, 280. Foula Island, 322. Foxcote, fossils figured and described, 159. Foxglove, localities of, 418. Frauds, botanical, 150. Fritillary, the, 56. Frog, mode of taking its food, 326. Frost at Florence, 374. Fruit and seed-vessels, geological remains, 266. Fixci, query on collecting, 198. Fuel in America, 496. Fulton, Robert, notice respecting, 493. Gaster6steus trachfirus, semiarmatus, and leiii- rus, 522. Geographical Society of London, 431. Geology, introduction to, continued, 62. Geological systems of arrangement, 62. Geological Society of London, Feb, 19., 294. Geological specimens, collection of, 442 Geranium RobeTtiamim, where luxuriant, 415 j prat^nse, where luxuriant, 416. German naturalists and physicians, eighth an. nual meeting of the, 428. Gilbertson, collection of shells from Preston, 170; remarks on, 171. Giraffe, the, in the garden of plants at Paris, 22. Glechbma /iederacea, figured, 354. Gil res, 515. Goatsucker, remarks concerning, 188; query respecting, 192 ; foot-comb of, 296. Goitre, remarks on the cause of, 191 ; opinion respecting, 446 ; query respecting 470. Gold, native, instance of, by J. Murray, 439; on the teeth of sheep, cause of, 471. Gooseberry grub, on the, 245. Gorrie, A., remarks on meteorological observ- ations 190. Gorrie, W., rare plants indigenous to the parish of Kilspindie, in Perthshire, 440. Gospel oak, the, 553. 557. Grasshopper warbler, 146. Greyhound, Irish, query respecting, 470. Grilse, queries respecting the, 480. Grub, gooseberry, on the, 245 ; injurious to oats, query on a, by J. C. Farmer, 477. Gryphae^a arcuata, critical remark on, 190. Guinea-pig, described, by P. Hunter, 192. Gull, the skua, 322; an enemy to the eagle, 323; the arctic, 326. Gyn&ndria, the class, described, 359. Hamilton's monument on the Hudson, 495. " *i Hardwicke, General, noticed, 215. Harvey, J. A., a snipe of a novel colour shot near Kington, 436. Hawkins, Thomas, doubts on the samlet con- firmed, 94; remarks respecting the salmon varieties, 94. Hayward, ,J., use of the claw of the fern owl, 449 ; the snipe's beak, 449. Heaths, localities of, 417. Hfelix pomatia, figured, 46 ; eaten by the Ro- mans, 46. Henna, 142. Henslow, the Rev. John Stevens, Prof. Bot., on the specific identity of the primrose, oxlip. 574 GENERAL INDEX. cowslip, and polyanthus, 406 ; on specific iden- tity of Jnagallis arvensis and casrulea, 537. Herling, queries respecting the, 480. Hessian fly, critical remark respecting the, 458. Hexandria, the class, described, 54. High Wycombe, journal of the weather at, 179. /Tiriindines at Allesley Rectory, first and last appearances for 1829, 130. Hogg, John, A.M. F.L.S., on the geography, geology, and vegetation of Sicily, 105 j farther illustration of vessels made of Papy^rus, 206. Horsechestnut, beauties of the, 134. Hoy, J. D., migration and habits of some of the genus Sylvia, in England, 34 ; on the habits and nidification of thebearded titmouse, 328 ; rare birds killed in Suffolk, and on the borders of Norfolk and Essex, 436 j early arrival of summer birds, &c., 436. Hudson River, the, 491 ; scenery on the, 494, Hunter, P., guinea-pig described, 192: hard substances found in the stomach of tne alli- gator, 447 ; various queries by, 470. Hurst, James C , rare birds near Dartford, 435. Hutton, W., correction of geological errors, 463. Hfdra, on the, by Samuel Woodward, 348. Hfdra. fusca, habitat of, 349. lanthina, the genus, 532. /chneumunida?, critical remarks on, 452. Icosandria, the class, described, 352. Insect tribe, extraordinary instincts peculiar to some of the, .50; a new locality for some less common, 154 ; certain, on the periodical ap- pearance of, 247; fossil remains of, 361. Insects, observations relative to Dr. Carus's dis- covery of the circulation of the blood in, 48. Instincts, extraordinary, of some insects, 50. Jackdaw, remarkably formed bill of a, 402. Jennings, James, errors respecting the colour of blood, and the faculties of the mind, 446 ; cri- tical remarks respecting the kingfisher, 448. Jenyns, Mr., noticed, 206. Jenyns, the Rev. L., M. A. F.L.S., some remarks upon the late winter of 1829-1830, &c., 538. Johnston, G., critical remark on Erifjphorum , pub&cens, 461 ; the blue-bells of Scotland, 461 ; Ficia Zathyroides, 462. Jones, W., queries on the tortoise by, 472. Journal of a Naturalist, criticism on, 84. Kent, Miss, continuation of the Linnean system of plants, 52. 134 ; concluded, 350. Kilspindie, rare plants indigenous to, 440. Kingfisher, 175 ; critical remarks on, 448. Klein and Bonnet's theory of shells, 342. Ladanum, mode of gathering, 95. Lakes, the Rev. J., answer to query on the black-headed bunting, 192; plumage of the r bearded titmouse, when a young bird, 239. Lamarck's arrangement of echinites, 277. Lambe, C, tenacity of life in weevils, 149. Lamprey, queries respecting the sex of the, 478. Lay, Mr. George Tradescant, noticed, 205. Leaf, fall of the, in evergreens, queried, 95. Leathercoat Jack, critical observation on, 452. Leaves, geological remains of, 2G6. Ledbury, limestone at, answer respecting, 198. Lee, Mrs. R , details respecting the garden of plants and the national museum at Paris, £2 ; notice of two singular poodles, 290. Lees, Edwin, plants on the Malvern Hills, 160; plants varying in the colour of their flowers, 161 ; answer respecting the limestone at Led- bury, 198; limeworks at Colwall, 198; lime- stone near the Wrekin, 199; remark respecting plants with white flowers, 190. Leistus montnnus, locality of, 171. 478. Leptura mlcans, winter quarters of, 148 ; Crio- c^ridte, critical remarks respecting, 4 '3. Light, curious brilliant golden green, 152. Z/ilium Mdriagon, 153. 438. Lily of the valley, 57. Limestone, carboniferous, near theWrekin, 199 Ling, 139. Linnean system of plants, continued, by Miss Kent, 52. 134 ; concluded, 350. Linnean Society of London, March 16, 294. Longevity in Wales, 439. ' L(jxia Coccothraftstes, 436. Luminousness of the sea, 320. LymnseX 531. Zysimachia thyrsiflbra, 168. Macculloch, Dr., error of, respecting the lumi nousness of the sea, 320. Macleay, Mr. S., noticed, 206. Macrosc^lides, genus of, 204. Main, J., answer to Mr. Gorrie's query respect- ing the weather, 486. Malvern Hills, plants on, by Edwin Lees, 160. Mamm&.lia, 510 ; divisions of, into orders, 512. Mantell, Mr., his labours for geology, 9. Maple, 140. Marine vegetables^ as food, answer, 198. Marshall, James Drummond, remarks on a na- tural history depot, and native ornithology, 470 ; answer respecting the missel thrush, 473. MarsLipia, 513. Masters, W., remark on the Canterbury Philo- soph'ical and Literary Institution, 154 ; query respecting the goatsucker, 192. Matthews, Mr. A., letter from Rio Janeiro, 430. Maund, B,, query on anatomical preparations, and answer, 92 ; on Filkria forf iculcB, 49. MediLsa possessing a luminous property, 314. Meleagrlna margaritifera, 249. Menagery of the Zoological Society, 293. Menziesia, 139. Mermaid exhibited in London, remark on, 447* Mermaids, remarks concerning, 188. Meteorological observations, remarks on, 191. Meteors, appearance of, 154. Milne, John, notice of a pair of siskin finches, having hatched, 440. Mirage, supposed cause of, 200 ; explained, 484. Missel thrush,answer respecting the vocal powers of the, 473 ; by James D. Marshall, 473. Mollusca, Heteropode and Pteropode, 529 ; Gasteropodous, 530; bivalve, 533; tunicata, 534. Molluscous animals, introduction to the natural history of, 39. 249. S35. 5<25. Monad^lphia, the class, described, 355. Monce'^cia, the class, described, 359. Morgan, Thomas, query respecting Mother Carey's chickens, and answer to, 474 ; query respecting flies and butterflies, 476. Mosses, geological remains of, 267. Mother-of-pearl shells, 339. Mother Carey's chickens, 474. Murray, J., circumstance respecting cock-phea- sants, 146 ; the aerial spider, 189 ; instance of native gold, 439; opinion respecting the goitre, 446 ; the mermaid exhibited in Lon. don, 447 ; snakes taking the water not uncom- mon, 450 ; skate spawn, 450 : critical observ- ation on the flight of spiders, 457 ; the fly's eye under a microscope, 438; critical notice of Filaria, 459. Museum of Norfolk and Norwich, meeting of, Nov. 25. 1829, 158. Museum, Mantellian, at LeweSj 9. Music, remarks on, 2. Muscicapa luctubsa, query on, and answer, 92. iVarcissus, the, 55. Nasturtium, 141. Natural History Society of Gloucester, 159 ; of Newcastle upon Tyne, meeting of Sept. 15. 1829, 169; Nov. 17., 170; parochial, hint re- specting, 469. Naturalists, young, monthly guide for, 468, 469. Niagara, on the falls of, and on the physical structure of the adjacent country, 117. Nidus on a reed, 94. 194, 195 ; on a rush, 458 ; attached to a reed, 476. Nightingale, when first heard, 434. Nightingale's nest, 146. Night-jar, supposed parasite habits of, 397. Nomenclature, changes in, mischiefs from, 143. North America, original letters, descriptive of a natural history tour in, 489. Northern Diver, 436. Oak, the creeping, 384 ; the king, S8i>. Oakly Farm oak, 5.53. Oaks, age of, under-rated, 378. GENERAL INDEX. 575 Ogllby, Mr., noticed, 205, Oriole, golden, 175. Oriblus Galbula, 436. Ornithorynclms, query respecting, 470. Ornithology, native, query respecting, 470. Orobanche csriilea, 435. Oysters esteemed by the Romans, 41. Pachyd^rmes, 514. Palmer, the Rev. Mr., his list of plants, 189. Papyrus, vessels made of the, further illustra- tions of observations on, 535. Paris, garden of plants, and natural museum at, details respecting, by Mrs. R. Lee, 22. Paris, Dr., his life of Sir Humphry Davy, 389. Peacock, wild, food of, 146. Pearl fishery, British, now existing on the Con- way, 132: of the Conway, observations on, by W. Wilson, 451. Pearls, pioduction of, explained, 249 ; among the Romans, 250 j in America, 251. P^cora, 515. Pentacrites, fossil remains of, 275. Periodical works on natural history, advantages and disadvantages of, 297. Petrel, the stormy, 325. Pettychaps, Lesser, 520. Phalae''na typicSides, remarkable visitation of the, 404. Pheasants, cock, circumstances respecting, 146. Philosophers, generally self-taught, 389. Philosophical and literary institution of Canter- bury, 154. Pliilosophical Society of Yorkshire, anniversary meeting of, Feb. 2„ 437. Ph^sa fontin^is, 532. Pig-parsnep, a good foliage for foregrounds, 99. Pike, extraordinary growth of, 147 ; stones found in the stomachs of, 241. Pimpinella m&gna, 164. Plantago major, curious variety of, 482. Plants varying in the colour of their flowers, by Edwin Lees, 161 ; with white flowers, remark respecting, 190; night-smelling, query, 197. Polyad^lphia, the class, described, 357. Poly&ndria, the class, described, 352. Polybrachion, the, 149. Polygamia, the class, described, 360. Polypus, fresh-water, by S. Woodward, 348. Poodles, notice of two singular ones, 290. Porphyry, green, fused, query respecting, 199. Powder mill, blowing up of a, 508. Preston, collection of shells from, by W. Gil- bertson, 170; remarks on, 171. Primary rocks, 64. PrimJltes, 514. Primrose, oxlip, cowslip, and polyanthus, on the specific identity of the, 406. Proverbs respecting natural appearances, 17. Pter6stichus parumpunctktus, answer, 477. Puffin, the Manks, 325. Pyrenees, notes on the, by W. Ainsworth, 496. Pyrogeneous formations, in geology, 65. Pyrola secunda, locality of, by H. C. Watson, 174. Quadrtimanes, 513. Quail, arrival of, at Carlisle, 172. ftuercus sessiflbra, 165. Rain at Florence, 374, Rainbow, a singular appearance of the, 544. Rats resisted by ducks and hens, account of, 146. Raven oak, the, 556. Rennie, J., critical remark on the goatsucker's foot-comb, 296; supposed parasite habits of the night-jar, and nests of the cuckoo, 397. Rice, 60. Richardson, Dr., noticed, 205. Richmond, early flowering and rare plants near, 168. Rio Janeiro, letter from, by Mr. Matthews, 430. Robertson, John, on the Puruk sheep, 144. Rocks, primary, 64 ; crystalline, of the Pyrenees, 497. Rongeurs, 513. Rook, remarkable bill of a, 402. Rooks, preying on young birds, query, 473. iJbsa sepium, 164; tomentbsa, 164. Rose, W. B., fossil remains from Foxcote, figured and described, 159. Ruhi, three new species of, 481, liamex, the genus, 61, Rumin&ntes, 514, Rush, the, 58. Sabine, Mr., remarks on, 293. ' Saint Hilaire's theory in zoology, 420. Salmon, varieties of, opinion respecting, by Thos. Hawkins, 94 ; queries respecting, 480. Samlet, doubts on the, confirmed, by Thos. Hawkins, 94; botcher and gillion, answer to query respecting, 196. Saul, M., rats resisted by ducks and hens, 146. 5axifraga granul&ta, 351. Scallop worn in the hats of pilgrims, 256, Scenery on the Hudson River, 494. School of botany at Paris, 26. Sc61opax grisea, figured, 28 j Sabini, 29, Sc61opax, peculiarity in the beak of, 29. Scotland, west of, facts and queries on birds in, 194 ; calendar of nature for, 391. 440. 566, Scouler, Dr., noticed, 207. Sea, vision over, 96 ; luminousness of, 308. Sea-trout, queries respecting the, 480. Secondary rocks, 66. 5en&cio lividus and sylvaticus, query, 197. Sfepia, the, whether parasitical or not, 535. Shadows, double, correction respecting the, 468, Shamrock of Ireland, observations on, 294. Sheep, the Puruk, of Ladusk, remarks on, 145. Shellfish, fossil, 280. Shells, arrangement of, by conchologists, 335 ; multivalve, 335; bivalve, 335; univalve, 337; revolute, 337 ; mother-of-pearl, 339 ; manner in which they are formed, 340; the colouring of, 345 ; influenced by light, 346; admirable formation of, 348 ; of molluscous animals, con- nection of the, 525. Shetland and Orkney ornithological visit to, 321. Shining moss, figured and described, 462. Sicily, on the geography, geology, &c., 105. Silks and flannels emitting sparks in frost, 488. Siphbniae, 268. Siskin finches, notice of a'pair hatching, 440. Skate spawn, query on, 93; conjecture, 195. 450 j answer, 478. Skins of birds, answer to query on softening, 93. Sky, unusual aj)pearance in, 199. Slapton, on the natural history of, 393. Slight, H., on the habits of the cameleon. 232. Smith, H. S., on a remarkable Vanessa Vo, 194, Smith's stratigraphical table of echinites, 278. Snails, how to keep in confinement, 470. Snakes taking the water, not uncommon, 450. Snipe of a novel colour shot near Kington, 437. Snipe's beak, critical observation respecting, 449, Snipes, British, supplement to the notice of, 27. Snow at Florence, 374. Society of Naturalists, hints respecting, 185. Song of birds, critical remarks respecting, 447. Sowerby, J. D. C, catalogue of the fossils from Foxcote, 159 ; his opinion respecting cowries and cones, &c., 344. Sparrowhawk, female, with a blue back, 449. Spence, W., observations relative to Dr. Carus's discovery of the circulation of the blood in insects, 48 ; on the weather at Florence, 374. Spiders, flight of, by Thomas Thompson, 147 j aerial, critical remarks on, by J. Murray, 189 j aeronautic, ascent of, critical remarks respect- ing, by J. Blackwall, 456 ; critical observations on the ascent of, 457 ; flight of, critical ob- servations respecting, 457. Spring, C, notice respecting the cuckoo-mate, 474 ; observations on, 475. Sponges, geological remains of, 268. Stanley, J., birds near Whitehaven, 171, Star-fish, fossil remains of, 275. Star-stone, impression of one in flint, 152, Steam-boats, American, 492. Stickleback fish, some account of, 329 ; the black variety, 332. Sticklebacks, 522. Stoat pursuing a water rat through a pond, 145. Stobs's powder-mill, certain efJects attending the blowing up of, 507. Stock, D., Orchidea; and uncommon plants found in the vicinity of Bungay, 155 j Calen- 576 GENERAL INDEX. dar of Nature in the neighbourhood of Bun- gay for 1829, 178. Storm, description of, on board a steam-boat, 493. Stowe, W., explanation of a curious ball con- taining bees, 195. Strata, geological, and the plants found growing on their superincumbent soils, on the relation subsisting between, 410. Strictures of A Friend to Fair Criticism, reply to, 18a Strutt's Deliciaj Sylv^rum, 378. Substance, curious, drawn up at sea, 481. Supplement to the notice of British snipes, 27. Swallows, on the wanton destruction of, 35; arrival of at Bedford, 154 ; arrival of at Car- : lisle, 172 ; query respecting, 194 ; early ap- pearance of, 434 ; answer respecting the mi- gration and breeding of, 474. Swans, wild, on the lakes of Cumberland, 432. Sweet flag, 57. Sweet, R., arrival of the thrushes and fieldfares, J 434; critical remarks respecting the song of birds, 447; correction of errata, 461. Swift, departure of the, 450. Swiss natunilists, July meeting of the, 428. Sylvia, migration and habits in England, 34. Syngenfesia, the class, described, 358. Tatem, Mr., his method of making meteorologi- cal observations, 95 ; journal of the weather at High Wycombe, 179. Taylor, R. C, Illustrations of Antediluvian Zo- ology and Botany, 262 ; concluded, 361. Teeth, of an Igu&nodon, figured and described, 14 ; incisor, preternatural growth of in Mam- malia, by W. Farrar, Esq. M.D , 27; of quad- rupeds, fossil remains of, 369 — 372. Terms, explanation of, remark on, 187. Tern, common, arrival of at Carlisle, 174; Tertiary formations in geology, 68. Tetradynamia, the class, described, 354. Thermometer, the differential^ 487 Thompson, E. P., hint respecting rare birds shot, 185 ; on softening the skins of birds, 192. Thompson, Thomas, volte of .fishes, 147; flight of spiders, 147 ; a term misapplied, 187 ; ex- planation of the nidus 6n a reed, 194 ; conjec- ture respecting skate spawn, 195. Thomson, W., A.M., on the relations subsisting between geological strata and the plants most frequently found growing on their superin- cumbent soils, 410. Thrush, missel, query respecting, 193; habits of the, 237. Thrushes and fieldfares, arrival of the, 434. Titlepage, vignette for, criticism on, 89. Titmouse, bearded, discovery respecting the food of the, 239; plumage of, when a young bird, 239; the habits and nidification of, 328. Titmouse, long-tailed, query respecting, 568. Tomtit destroying bees, 476. Tortoise, query respecting the, byW. Jones, 472. Tour in North America, 490. Transition rocks, 65. Travelling, effects of, on the mind, 491i Trees, condensing the moisture of the air, 562 ; efffect of, on the climate, 563. Trifolium, localities of, 417. Trilobite, fossil, query respecting a, 483. Trilobites, fossil, 287. Turdus milsicus, query respecting, 193. Typha latifblia, figured and described, 151. Tyrian dye, 258. lire's geology, criticism respecting, 90. 464, 465. U^nio margaritifera, 249. Faccinium, 138. Vanessa Vo, remarkable, query respecting, 194. Vanessa Hdntera, capture for the first time in , Britain, and other rare insects, 332. Vegetable remains, 263. Vegetation, progress of, at Florence, 376. Ventriculites, geological remains of, 269. ^fcia /athyrOides, observations on, 462. Vigors, N. A., Address to the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society of London, 201. Vision, effects of heat and cold relatively to, query respecting, 200; answer, 484. Volcano of Pietro Mala, 291. Wales, longevity in, 439. Warbler, grasshopper, arrival of, at Carlisle, 173. Warwickshire, rare plants found in, 162. Wasp, social, nest of a species of, 476. Wasps, query respecting, 20. Water beetle, remarks on the, by J. Elles, 148. Water shrew, critique respecting, £0. 188 ; note respecting, 236; .query respecting, 471. Watson, H. C, locality of Pyrola secunda, 174. Weasel, trait in the habits of, 234. Weather, answer to Mr. Gorrie's queries re- specting, &c., by J. Main, 486 ; character of that which preceded and followed the winter of 1829-30, by.th« Rev. L. Jenyns, 538. Weaver's museum ia Birmingham, 162. Weevils, tenacity of life in, by C. Lambe, 149. Westwood, Mr., noticed, 218. WestwoOd, J. O., critical observation respecting the leather-coat jack, 452 ; on /chneumunidas, .452 ; on Leptdra, Crioceridas, 453 ; answer re- specting a certain nidus, 476. Whale killed at Runton, 157. Whately, his directions for drying plants, 459. Wheatear, 176 ; arrival of, at Carlisle, 173. White, W. H., H.M.C., arrival of the cuckoo at Bedford, 154; of swallows, 154 ; appearance of meteors, 154; query on the cuckoo, 193; query respecting TVirdus musicus, 193 ; query on swallows, 194 ; a northern diver shot in the Ouse, 436. Whitehaven, birds in the neighbourhood of, 171. Whitling, queries respecting the, 480. Wilbrand and Ritsen's Picture of Organised Na- ture, incorrect passages in the review of, 445. Williams, Mr., the wood engraver^ 389. Willow-herb, 137. Wilson, W., on the Conway pearl fishery, 451 ; critical remarks on the dissemination of exotics among native plants, 460. Winch, Nat. John, A.L.S., on Brongniart's theory of primeval vegetation, 373. Wind at Florence, 375. Wing, spurious, use of the, 145. Withering, W.> LLD. F.LS., further notice of the late Mr. George Caley, 226. Wood, geological remains of, 266. Woods, Mr., noticed, 205. Woodcock, distinction of sex in, 147. Woodmen on the river Hudson, 496. Woodpecker, remarkably formed bill of a, 403. Woodward, SamueL on the i/^dra, or fresh- water polypus, 348. Worm, curious, answer respecting, 481. Wren's nest, remark concerning the, 568. Wrens, the British willow, some observations on, 518 ; the wood, 519 ; the yellow, 519. Wryneck, the, 474. Yarrell, Mr., noticed, 208; his additions to the British Fauna, 524. Yeovil, rare plants found near, 174. Zoological farm, state of the, 433. Zoological garden, labels in the, 433. Zoological Society, incidental remark respecting, 185 ; meeting of April 1., 292 ; letter respect- ing to Lord Lansdowne, 153. Zoology and Botany, Antediluvian, Illustrations of, by R. C.Taylor, F.G.S.,262; concluded, 361. Zoology, query the best work on, 470. Zoophytes, geological remains of, 267. END OF THE THIRD VOLUME London : Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode, Ne w - Street- Square. 'S^i^^!???^^^^ VWfeS:-.; ;!-./lW'> 'Af^lH'^^ .AA^:«^ft:>^>;^^^^^AA h^k.^f^:h^: ^W^;a';aa^^;^^^m^.ma ^ ^^^ ,Mj^^ ^<>/\';^imi^'^w* ,.,,M' M^ mm%. °'WA '^^'^->,^^n!':-:%- AiJH^^' ;r.^/1flfl^ ^rv f I ''fJi