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THE

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

CONDUCTED XVVt^V*^

By EDWARD CHARLESWOlTH, F.G.S

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,

PATERNOSTER ROW.

1838.

Iondon:

printed by g. luxfor.d,

katcliff highway.

PREFACE.

Twenty -four monthly numbers of the second series of the ' Maga-
zine of Natural History' are now before the public, and from their
contents a tolerably fair estimate may be formed of the character which
the work is likely to maintain, in that portion of our periodical literature
devoted to science, — and the degree of confidence it is entitled to from
those who contribute to its pages.

The Editor willingly renews the conditional pledge held out in 1837,
with regard to its continuation, and in one respect he may do so with
greatly increased confidence, since the risk of an inadequate supply of
communications, is a crisis which no longer threatens the Magazine,
although one which undoubtedly existed about the time the change in
the Editorship took place. Altogether indeed the circumstances under
which the publication of the present series was determined on were
most inauspicious. The Editor was unknown even by report to the
subscribers : several of the more valuable Contributors had seceded to
establish the « Magazine of Zoology and Botany,' whilst another por-
tion of them had united to establish a rival periodical, under the falla-
cious expectation that it would prove a source of pecuniary emolument ;
and no lack of solicitations and tempting proposals was wanting to win
over the few who yet stood by Mr. Loudon. In this position of
affairs, to have succeeded in carrying the Magazine forward and pro-
curing for it the favourable opinion of men of undoubted scientific
eminence, is a result that cannot be otherwise than gratifying to the
Editor. His labor, it is true, might in a pecuniary sense, have been
otherwise more profitably employed ; for the encouragement bestowed
in this country upon scientific periodicals is so slight, that if the
question of remuneration were entertained for a moment on the part
of those who are engaged in them, it would be fatal to the existence of
any English journal, on the pages of which Zoology forms a leading
feature. Yet it is this class of works that is turned to for information
upon every new discovery in science, — which is so eagerly had recourse
to when the result of individual observation or research, requires rapid
and universal publicity, and by which a medium of common inter-
course and communication is established between the cultivators of
science in every quarter of the globe.

IV PREFACE.

With regard to the prospects of the ' Magazine of Natural History/
the Editor indulges a hope that ultimately it may so far form an ex-
ception to the general rule, as to enable him to conduct it upon the
strength of its own resources, without feeling that its existence is de-
pendent upon fortuitous circumstances. If in the number of those
among whom it now circulates there be any who think that its columns
might supply a more regular and comprehensive report of what is
passing in the scientific world, the Editor can only plead the want of
power, and not that of inclination to supply this deficiency. After
being carried on without interruption for nine years under the super-
intendence of Mr. Loudon, the Magazine was threatened with the same
fate that has befallen some of its contemporaries, and though this
danger has been averted, the hours successfully devoted to that object
have only been such as could be snatched from leisure intervals of
more definite occupation.

103, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, ^

Nov. 25, 1838.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS,

With References to the several Articles contributed by each.

Page.

Bartlett, A. D.

On the Plumage of the Smew ... - 398

Bird, F. J.

On the Artificial Arrangement of some of the more extensive
Natural Orders of British Plants - 604

Bird, Golding, M.D., F.L.S., &c.

Observations on the existence of organized Saline Combina-
tions in Vegetable Structures - - - -74

Blyth, Edward.

Outlines of a New Arrangement of Insessorial Birds - 256, 314
Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds in the Order In-

sessores Heterogenes - - - - 351, 420

On the Adult Plumage of the Female Smew - 395

Remark relating to the Migration of Woodcocks - - 396

On the Plumage of the-Smew, Merganser, and the Crossbill - 451
On the Doctrine of Spontaneous Organization - - 507

Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds composing the
Order Strepitores ------ 589

Bonaparte, Charles Lucien, (Prince of Musignano).

Remarks on the Species of the Genus Mustela - - 37

Observations on the Long-tailed Trogon - 229

BOWERBANK, J. S., F.G.S., &C

Geological Notice of Headon Hill, in the Isle of Wight - 674
Bowman, J. E., F.L.S., &c

Observations on Cuscuta Epilinum - 343

Bradley, Thos.

Observations on the Electric Eel in the Adelaide Gallery \- 668
Bree, Rev. W. T.

On a new locality for Polyommatus Arion - - - 161

Brehm, Rev. Dr.

Observations on some of the Domestic Instincts of Birds - 399
Bromhead, Sir Edward F. Bart., F.R.S., &c.

Remarks on the Affinities of Lythraceee and Vochyacece - 210

Remarks on Zoological Classification - * - 412,484

Brown, John, F.G.S.

On the discovery of a large pair of Fossil Horns, in Essex - 163

On the Bones of Mammalia in the Crag - 346

Burnell, Edward H.

Notice of the capture of a specimen of the Little Auk, at Wi-
tham, Essex - - - - - 53

Chambers, Richard, F.L.S., &c.

Catalogue of the rarer indigenous Plants growing in the neigh-
bourhood of Tring - - - - - 38

VI CONTENTS.

Cjurlesworth, Edward, F.G.S., &c. (See Editor).

Notice of the Remains of Vertebrated Animals, occurring in
the Tertiary Beds of Norfolk and Suffolk - - - 40

C arke, W. Barnard, M.D.

Notice of the fourth occurrence of the Argentine (? Scopelus

Humboldtii, Yarr.) on the British Shores - - -22

Remarks on the Habits of the common Snake - - 479

Clarke, Rev. W. Branwhite, M.A., F.G.S.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire, 79, 128
Note on the Crag Beds of Suffolk and Essex - - 162

Letter in reference to alleged Mammalian Remains in the Crag
of Suffolk - - - - - - 224

Letter on the non-identity of Suffolk Diluvium and Crag - 285
Clarke, L. W.

On the Antenna of Insects ----- 393

On the Organs of Hearing in Insects - - - 472

On the Pulmonary Orifice in Insects - - - 514

Cooper, Daniel, A.L.S., &c.

On a singular effect supposed to have been caused by change
of temperature on small Birds - - - - 53

On the probable cause of the death of Birds confined in cages 293
On Succinea amphibia (Drap.) and its varieties - - 476

Details of the first Excursion made this Summer by the Mem-
bers of the Botanical Society of London ; with Observations
on Varieties of Plants ----- 556

Couch, Jonathan, F.L.S., &c.

Description of a new British Ray - - - - 71

Observations on the Lancelet - - - - - 381

Cox, J. C., F.Z.S., &c.

Notice of a curious Fact in the Habits of the Viper - - 237

Dalrymple, John.

Account of a peculiar Structure in the Eves of Fishes - 136

Letter in Reply to Mr. Wallace - - - 624

Desjardins, Julien.

Monograph of the Genus Leptocera(Dejesi\\); with Descriptions
of two new Species from the Isle of Bourbon - - 468

Drummond, J. L., M.D., &c.

Notices of Irish Entozoa - 515,571,655

Editor.

Notice respecting a female Orang and a Seal, at the" Gar-
dens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park - - 47
Note appended to the Translation of M. Turpin's Memoir on

the Acarus discovered by Mr. Cross - - - 62

Note appended to Madame Power's Physiological Experiments 65
Remarks on the Memoir by M. Desnoyers, respecting the age

of the Faluns of the Loire and the Crag of England - 1 17

Remarks on the claims of M. Coste to the discovery of the Al-

lantois in the fcetal Kangaroo - 157

Notice of the lapse of one of the Medals offered by the Royal
Society - - - - - - - 159

Remarks upon the Rev. W. B. Clarke's supposed discovery of

the Remains of Mammalia in the Red Crag of Suffolk - 162
Remarks on Mr. Swainson's Reply to his Reviewers - - 398

Evton, T. C, F.L.S., &c.

Note respecting the Arrangement of the Gulls - - 567

CONTENTS. Vll

Garner, Robert, F.L.S.

On the Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiate Conchiferous Ani-
mals - - - - - - - 578

Gill, Thomas.

On some recent improvements in the Microscope - - 345

Hancock, John, M.D., C.M.Z.S.

Notes on the Trumpeter Bird, (Psophia crepitans) - - 490

Observations on the Oubudi, or Great Cashew Tree of Guiana 509
Hancock, T., M.B.S.

Notes on Raputia aromatica - - - - 97

Harvey, J. B., Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc.

On the best mode of preserving Marine Productions - - 98

Remarks on Cepola rubescens - 238

Remarks on Tubularia indivisa - - - - 511

Notice of the White Light from burning Corallines - - 512

Notes on Birds - - - - - 512

Henle, Dr.

On the generic characters of Cartilaginous Fishes - 33, 88
Heward, Robert, F.L.S.

Observations on a Collection of Ferns brought from the Island
of Jamaica ..-_-- 453

Heysham, T. C.

Some observations on the Habits of the Dottrel, (Charadrius
Morinellus, Linn.) made in Cumberland, during the Summer

of 1835 295

Jackson, Clement

On a New Method of Setting up Fishes * * - 350

Lenau, Dr. J.

Translation of Hermann Von Meyer's communication on Fossil
Zoology -.._._- 548
Luxford, George, A.L.S., &c.

Notice of the discovery of Cucubalus baccifer, in the Isle of
Dogs - - - - - --44

Observations on Chrysosplenium alternifolium - - 396

Notes on a few British Plants - 616

Macauley, James, M.A.

On the Flower-Gardens of the Ancients - 364

Martin, W. L., F.L.S., &c.

Monograph of the genus Semnopithecus - - 320, 434

M'Coy, Frederick.

Remarks on Mr. Eyton's Arrangement of the Gulls - - 487

Meyer, Hermann Von.

Recent Researches in Fossil Zoology - - 548, 583

Mitchell, James, L.L.D., F.G.S., &c.

Remarks on certain beds in the neighbourhood of London con-
taining peculiar Flints - - -■ - - 218
Moore, E.,M.D. F.L.S.

On the occurrence of Teredo navalis and Limnoria terebrans in
Plymouth Harbour - - - - - 206

Remarks on the Pied Fly-catcher and the Northern Diver - 634
Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen.

Communication announcing his resignation of the proprietor-
ship of the Naturalist - - - - - 110
Morris, John.

Remarks on the production of Crystals - - - 43*

viii CONTENTS.

On the Deposits containing Carnivora and other Mammalia
in the Valley of the Thames - - - - 539

Muller, J. (Professor).

On the generic characters of Cartilaginous Fishes - 33, 88
Newman, Edward, F.L.S.

On the British species of Polypodium - 141

Remarks on the Antenna: of Insects, in relation to their sup-
posed Auditory Functions - 26S
Descriptions of new species of Popillia - - 336, 392
Descriptive list of the species of Rhysodes - 663
Ogilby, W., M.A., F.R.A.S. &c.

Observations on " Rules for Nomenclature" - - - 150

Further Observations on " Rules for Nomenclature." - 275

Letter in reference to Mr. Strickland's Observations on the ap-
plication of the term Simla - - - 492
Owen, R. (Professor.)

Letter to M. Arago - - - - - - 94

A Reply to the Communication addressed by M. Coste to the
French Academy of Sciences, entitled ' Memoire en Reponse
a la Lettre de M. R. Owen : — in a Letter addressed to M.
Arago, Perpetual Secretary to the Academy - - 183

On the camerated structure of the Shell of the Water-Clam,
(Spondylus varius) ------ 407

Power, Madame Jeannette.

Experiments made with a view of ascertaining how far certain
marine testaceous animals possess the power of renewing
parts which may have been removed - - - 63

Rees, G. 0., M.D.

Notice respecting the proportion of siliceous matter in Chalk 676
Roos, Georgina.

Translation of Meteoric Observations, from a German Paper - 120
Shuckard, W. E., V.P.E.S. &c.

Description of a new species of Myrmica - 626

Skaife, John.

Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes - - - - 331

On the Ornithology of Blackburn and the North of Lanca-
shire, 426, 524

Smith, Andrew, M.D.

Contributions to South African Zoology - - 30, 92

Sowerby, G. B., F.L.S.

Description of a new genus of Trochidea - - -96

On the true locality for Brookite - 293

Comparison of Cyrena, Valvata, and Unio found fossil at Grays,
with recent species - - - - - -546

Strickland, H. E., F.G.S.

Substitution of a new generic name, Thetis, for the second ge-
nus of Proteus, in the class Infusoria - - - 53
Remarks on 'Viator's' proposed new name for the infusorian
genus, Proteus - - - - - -165

Reply to Mr. Ogilby's 'Observations on Zoological Nomencla-
ture' - - - - - - - 198

Remarks on. Mr. Ogilby's 'Further Observations on Rules for
Nomenclature' ------ 326

On the Naturalization of Dreissena polymorpha in Great Bri-
tain - - 361

A few words of explanation in reference to Mr. Ogilby's Letter 555

contents. ix

Swainson, William,

Reply to his Reviewers ----- 494

Thompson, William, F.L.S.

Notes on the Natural History of a portion of the South West of
Scotland - - - - - - - 18

Remarks on the Golden and Sea Eagles, (Aquila Chrysaetos
and Aq. albicilla) : and on the Bald Eagle, (Haliaetus leu-
cocephalus, Savig) ------ 146

Notes on the Red Band Fish, (Cepola rubescens, Linn.) - 214

Thompson, William, (of Hull).

On the identity of Hunter's Delphinus bidentatus, Baussard's
Hyperoodon horifloriensis, and Dale's Bottle-head Whale - 221
Townsend, T.

Notice of the capture of the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaetus al-
bicella, Selby) on the Suffolk Coast - 292

Walker, F., F.L.S.

Remarks relating to the Geographical Distribution of Insects 677
Wallace, W. C, M.D.

Reply to Mr. Dalrymple ' On an undescribed Muscle in the
Eyes of Fishes - - - - - - 553

Ward, N. B., F.L.S., &c.

List of the Questions proposed to the Candidates for the Bota-
nical Prizes offered by the Society of Apothecaries - - 670
Waterhouse, G. R.

Description of a Male specimen of Goliathus torquatus captur-
ed at Sierra Leone ------ 635

Weissenborn, W., D.Ph.

On the Influence of Man in modifying the Zoological features
of the Globe ; with statistical accounts respecting a few of
the more important species of Animals - 13, 65, 122, 239
Transmission of Experience in Birds in the form of instinctive
knowledge - - - - - - -50

Instances of Longevity in Animals - - - - 109

Remarks on Hydrophobia occurring among Foxes in Germany 226
- Description, Habits, &c. of the Bos urus - 305

On Spontaneous Generation - 369, 621

Note on the History of the Bos urus - 391

Effects of the excessive and protracted cold of the last winter - 542
Letter pointing out some Errata in previous communications 13
On the peculiar insulation of the Nervous Currents in the Cha-
meleon ; with observations on change of colour in that animal 532
Record of the capture of a large specimen of Gypa'etos barbatus

among the rocks of the Stockhorn mountain - - 567

Instance of the rapid Flight of Pigeons - 567

Instance of Jealousy in a Dog - 568

Facts relating to the Hybernation of the Marmot - - 568

Communication of a Letter containing information respecting

the Nests of the Hirundo esculenta - 568

Information respecting the Lake of Arendsee, in Madgeburg 569
On the Instinct of Animals - -514

Remarks on Secale cornutum ----- 634

On the transformation of Oats into Rye - 670

Notice of the constitution of the German Scientific Association 678
Westwood, J. O., F.L.S.

On Coptosoma, an anomalous genus of Heteropterous Insects 26
Remarks on Mr. Ogilby's Views of Zoological Nomenclature 204

X CONTENTS.

Observations on Cicindcla hybrida, Linn. - 342

Note on Gynandromorphons Hymenopterous Insects - - 393

Notes on the Natural History of the Ant-Lion, (Myrmeleonfor-
micarium, Linn.) ------ 601

Wetherell, N. T., F,G.S.

Notice of Fossil Remains in the London Clay, near Highgate 675
Wright, Thomas, M.R,C.S., &c.

Observations on a rare British Dolphin, (Delphinus Tursio,Tdb.) 609
Wyatt, Frederic^.

Anecdotes relating to a tame Rook - 349

Yarrell, W., F.L.S. &c.

Remarks appended to Dr. W. B. Clarke's Communication on
the discovery of the Argentine in the Frith of Forth - 25

ARTICLES WITH ASSUMED SIGNATURES.

Viator.

Substitution of a new generic name (Thetis) for the second ge-
nus of Proteus, in the class Infusoria - - - 53

W. L.

Reply to Mr. Fairholme's Remarks on Woodcocks breeding in
Ross-shire ----- 347

TRANSLATIONS

Reflections on the nature of the Vegetation which has covered the sur-
face of the Earth, at the different periods of its formation. — By M.
Adolphe Brongniart. - - - - 1

Notes by M. Turpin, on a species of Acarus presented to the French
Academy, at their sitting of the 30th October, 1837, by Mr. Rober-
ton, to whom it had been forwarded by Mr. Cross. - - 65

Experiments on the Reproductive Powers of Marine Testaceous Ani-
mals.— By Madame Jeannette Power, Member of the Gioenian
Academy of Catania, &c. - - - - 63

Considerations on the Faluns of the Loire and the Crag of England.
— By M. Desnoyers. - - - - - 111

Meteoric Observations in Germany, in November, 1837. - - 120

The Influence of the soil on the distribution of Plants ; demonstrated
by the Vegetation of the Western Tyrol. — By Dr. Unger. - 167

Doubts respecting the Class, Family, and Genus to which the Fossil
Bones found at Stonesfield, and designated by the names of Didel-
phis Prevostii and Did. Buchlandii, should be referred. — By M. de
Blainville. - 4 - - - - - 639

CONTENTS. XI

REVIEWS.

1. — Die Kafer der Mark Brandenburgh ; von Ericlison. 2. — Insecta
Lapponica Descripta; a I. W. Zetterstedt. 3. — The Coleopterist's
Manual ; by the Rev. F. W. Hope. 4. — Kurzen Abriss der Ento-
mologie, &c; von Altman, Dr. M. - 231

Naturgeschichte der Schadliehen Insecten, &c. By Vincent Kollar,
Curator of the Royal Museum of Vienna, &c. - - 235

The Annals of Natural History. - 236

Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North
America ; by the Prince of Musignano. - 237

The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Part I. The Fossil
Mammalia ; by Professor Owen. - - - - 286

Fauna Boreali-Americana. Part IV. — The Insects ; by The Rev. W.
Kirby, M.A. &c. 384

Jardine's Naturalists' Library. — Ornithology. — Muscicapidae or Fly-
catchers ; by W. Swainson, Esq. - 389

The Honey-Bee. its Natural History, Physiology, and Management.
By Edward Bevan, M.D. - - - - - 559

The Bee-keeper's Manual ; or Practical Hints on the Management
and complete Preservation of the Honey-Bee, and particularly in
Collateral Hives. By Henry Taylor. - - - - 561

A short and simple Letter to Cottagers, from a Conservative Bee-keeper 561

Letters on the Natural History of the Insects mentioned in Shakspear's
Plays ; with incidental notices of the Entomology of Ireland. By
Robert Patterson, Treasurer of the Nat. Hist. Society of Belfast. - 562

Forest-Insects, or Descriptions and Figures of the Species of Insects
which are obnoxious or beneficial to Forest Trees in Prussia. By
J. T. C. Ratzburg. 563

Account of the various species of noxious and beneficial Insects found
in Scandinavia. By G. Dahlbohm. - 563

A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Sciences, containing a clear
exposition of their principles and practice. By And. Ure, M.D. 564, 634

A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom. By Thos. Rymer Jones,
F.R.S. - 565, 633

The Zoological Gardens. A Hand-Book for Visitors. - 566

Westwood's Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. - 627

The Spirit of the Woods ; by the author of the Moral of Flowers. - 631

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

JANUARY, 1838.

Art. I. Reflections on the nature of the Vegetables which have co-
vered the surface of the Earth, at the different periods of its for-
mation. By M. Adolphe Brongniart. (Translated from the
Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie des
Sciences.) Read at the Sitting of the llth Sept. 1837.

Curiosity is one of the most distinctive faculties of the hu-
man mind ; — one of those which establish a marked separation
between man and the rest of the animal creation : and for this
reason we may affirm, that it is one of man's best faculties,
when directed towards an end really worthy of him.

It is this principle which is continually stimulating us to
extend the fields of our knowledge, — to fathom the most hid-
den mysteries of nature, — frequently without being able to
hope for any other result from our researches, than the plea-
sure which is experienced by every intelligent being, in pro-
portion as he is enabled to form accurate ideas concerning
the nature of the phenomena which surround him. The
greater the apparent difficulty attending the study of these
phenomena, and the more they are, by their nature or their
position, placed out of our immediate reach, the more are we
struck with the results, to which profound research has con-
ducted those individuals, who have made them the object of
their investigation.

Thus, a strong impression is produced upon our minds, at
the perfection to which the telescope has been brought, in
placing before us the phenomena of the most distant regions
of space ; and the microscope, in revealing to us the existence
of myriads of beings, whose minuteness, without its aid,
would have concealed them from our examination.

In these modern times, science had already made such great

Vol. II.— No. 1. n. s. b

2 Reflections on Primitive Vegetation.

progress, that we could scarcely have hoped that a new track
would be opened, equally rich in discoveries as stimulating
to human curiosity as those which the telescope and micro-
scope had led us through. But nevertheless, the investigation
of the soil which we daily tread under foot, has become, dur-
ing the last half century, in the hands of Werner, Cuvier, and
a crowd of other scientific men, who have followed rapidly in
their steps, a science most fertile in results, that are not only
deeply interesting to those immediately engaged in this study,
but calculated to strike the imagination of every one who loves
to reflect on the great phenomena of nature.

Geology has, in fact, become capable of revealing to us the
history of the earth, during the long periods which preceded
its present state. For, by studying the beds of which the
crust of the earth is composed, their order of superposition,
their nature, and the remains of animals or vegetables which
they enclose, we become acquainted with the creatures which
have successively inhabited its surface, the revolutions which
have occasioned their destruction and given birth to the mi-
neral beds in which they are entombed, and the modifications
which this surface itself has undergone, in consequence of
these revolutions ; and finally, geology proves to us, that all
these phenomena, which must necessarily have required ma-
ny ages to effect them, took place before the creation of man.

Geology thus gives us an insight into the events, and ena-
bles us to construct anew the beings, which have preceded,
by many millions of years, not only man's earliest historical
traditions, but even his very existence.

As in the history of nations, so, during the long history of
the formation of the crust of the earth, we find there have
been alternate periods of repose and of revolution ; the for-
mer having been sufficiently tranquil to allow the surface of
the earth, and the masses of water which partially covered it,
to become peopled with inhabitants of different kinds, — but
during the latter, we see the operation of powerful influences
breaking up the surface, elevating mountains, submerging
parts of the globe previously uncovered by the ocean, and
raising above the level of the waters others which had before
formed the beds of seas ; and, finally, spreading over pre-ex-
isting rocks, the materials of new beds, containing the remains
of living beings, which had been destroyed by these violent
catastrophes; whose preserved relics enable us to ascertain,
after so many millions of years, the nature of the ancient po-
pulations of our globe, and the order in which they succeeded
each other.

The study of the periods of revolution and of those of re-

Reflections on Primitive Vegetation. 3

pose, is equally replete with interest ; but the first are entire-
ly under the cognizance of the geologist; the second, on the
contrary, necessarily demand the knowledge of the zoologist
and the botanist: for they alone, by an exact comparison
between the remains of fossilized animals or vegetables, and
the corresponding parts of beings now existing, are capable
of determining the relations which connect the inhabitants of
the globe, at different periods. It is thus that Cuvier, in his
admirable Researches on Fossil Bones, basing his conclusions
on the positive evidences furnished by comparative anatomy,
has gone so far as to re-construct skeletons of the greater part
of the animals, whose remains had been then discovered, and
has been able to determine, and most probably, correctly, their
external forms, and their affinities to existing species.

Botany, although for a long time it had furnished fewer docu-
ments relating to the ancient state of the globe, must never-
theless be equally called upon to lend its aid to the geologist;
and may even throw more light than zoology, upon the state
of the earth's surface, during the most distant periods of its
formation. Indeed, at the period when life began to shew it-
self upon our globe, the animals were small in size, and ex-
clusively confined to the ocean ; and a luxuriant vegetation,
forming immense forests, covered all those portions of the
surface, which the sea left unoccupied : and ultimately each
period of repose, had its proper vegetation, more or less vari-
ed and abundant, according to the circumstances which acted
upon the developement of the materials of which it was com-
posed, and perhaps, according to the duration of these periods,
but almost always entirely different from that of the subse-
quent or preceding epoch.

Of these several distinct associations of vegetables which
have successively flourished upon our globe, none is so wor-
thy of our attention, as that which appears to have been the
first developed, and which, during a long space of time, seems
to have covered with thick forests, all those parts of the earth
which were above the level of the waters, and the remains of
which, piled one upon another, have formed those frequently
thick and numerous beds of coal, which are the preserved re-
lics of the primitive forests that preceded, by many ages, the
existence of man ; and which, furnishing a substitute for the
forests of the present sera, that are daily diminishing through
the increase of population, are become one of the principal
sources of national prosperity.

There can, indeed, be no doubt, that coal owes its origin to
accumulated masses of vegetables, altered and modified in the
same manner as the peat-beds of our marshes would probably

b 2

4 Reflections on Primitive Vegetation.

have been, if they had been covered, and pressed beneath the
weight of a thick deposit of mineral substances, and then ex-
posed to a high temperature. In order to be convinced of
this, it is only necessary to observe the almost ligneous struc-
ture which coal sometimes exhibits; and to examine the
numerous remains of plants contained in the rocks which ac-
company it.

But the study of the impressions of stems, leaves, and even
fruits, which are generally enclosed in such numbers in these
rocks, not only proves the vegetable origin of this substance,
but also leads us to determine the nature of the vegetables
which enter into its formation, and which, consequently, must
have then occupied the surface of the earth. Among these
vegetable impressions, the most frequent are occasioned by
the leaves of ferns ; but these ferns of the primitive world, are
not those now growing in our climates, for Europe does not
produce, at the present day, more than thirty or forty species,
while the same countries then nourished more than two hun-
dred, all much more allied to those which now grow between
the tropics, than to those of temperate climates.

Besides these leaves of ferns, the same strata contain stems,
whose dimensions might be compared to those of the largest
trees of our forests, while, in their form, they are totally uu-
like them ; so that all the older naturalists, struck with this
difference, and wishing, nevertheless, to find an analogy be-
tween them and the vegetables of the present world, had re-
ferred them to the arborescent vegetables, which were but
little understood at that time, to the bamboos, and palms, or
those large species of Cactus, commonly known under the
name oicierge.

But a more minute comparison between the trees of the
equinoctial regions, and these stems of the ancient world, is
sufficient to nullify these supposed relations, (founded only
upon a resemblance in their general aspect), which some had
wished to establish between them ; and a more attentive stu-
dy, either of these stems, or of the leaves which accompany
them, very soon shews that the vegetables which formed the
primitive forests, cannot be compared with any of the trees
which now exist on our globe.

The arborescent ferns, which, by the elegance of their ap-
pearance, now form one of the principal ornaments of the equi-
noctial regions, are the only arborescent plants which we can
find among these remains of ancient vegetables ; and their
number is very small.

As to the other fossil stems, the remains of the primitive
forests of the ancient world, it is amongst the most humble

Reflections on Primitive Vegetation. 5

vegetables of our epoch that we must look for species analo-
gous to them.

Thus, the Catamites, which are from four to five metres in
height, and from one to two decimetres in diameter, bear an
almost exact resemblance, in every point of their organiza-
tion, to the Equiseta, known commonly by the name of horse-
tails, which grow so abundantly in the marshy places in our
climates, and whose stems, hardly thicker than a finger, sel-
dom exceed a metre in height. The Catamites, therefore,
must have been arborescent JEquiseta, a form under which
these plants have totally disappeared from the globe.

The Lepidodendrons, the numerous species of which must
have formed an essential part of the forests of that remote
epoch, and which have probably contributed more than all
other vegetables, to the formation of coal, differ very litle from
our Lycopodia. We recognise in their stems the same essen-
tial structure, the same mode of ramification, and, finally, we
see leaves and fruit, similar to those of these plants, inserted
upon their branches. But, whilst the Lycopodia of the pre-
sent day are small plants, frequently creeping, and resembling
large mosses, rarely attaining a metre in height, and covered
with very small leaves, the Lepidodendrons, retaining the same
form and appearance, rose to the height of twenty or thirty
metres, with a base of a metre and a half in diameter, and bore
leaves, which sometimes reached to half a metre in length ;
they must, consequently, have been arborescent Lycopodia,
as high as the largest of our fir-trees, whose place they occu-
pied in this primitive world, forming, like them, immense fo-
rests, under the shade of which the numerous ferns of that
period were developed.

How different must have been this mighty vegetation from
that which now clothes the surface of the earth with its varied
tints ! Size, strength, and rapidity of growth were its essen-
tial characteristics; the smallest plants of our epoch were then
represented by gigantic forms ; but what simplicity of organi-
zation, and what uniformity do they display, in the midst of
all this developement of vegetative power !

In the present age, even in those spots where man has
caused no change in what nature has created, the eye delights
to repose in succession upon trees, which are at once distin-
guished by the diversity of their form, colour, and foliage, and
which frequently display flowers and fruits of the most oppo-
site colors. This variation in aspect is still more marked if our
glance descend to the different shrubs and plants which skirt
our forests or form our fields, with flowers of all the hues of the
rainbow. In short it results from this diversity of structure^

b 3

6 Reflections on Primitive Vegetation.

that among these plants, many serve for the food of men and
animals, and are even indispensible to their existence.

The variety of organization and external character display-
ed in the vegetables which now cover our globe, is indicated
by the number of natural groups into which they may be di-
vided. These natural groups, or families, are more than two
hundred and fifty in number, about two hundred belonging to
the class of Dicotyledonous plants, which consequently pre-
sent great variety of structure : and thirty to the Monocoty-
ledonous class. Now, the first of these classes, that is to say,
the two hundred families which it includes, is altogether
absent from the primitive flora ; and we find there scarcely
any traces of Monocotyledonous plants.

The class which almost entirely constituted the vegetation
of the primitive world, is that of the vascular Cryptogamia,
which, in the present day, comprehends only five families,
nearly the whole of which had their representatives in the
ancient world ; such as the Filices, the Equiseta, and the Ly-
copodia. These families form what we may term the first step
of ligneous vegetation ; like the Dicotyledonous or Monoco-
tyledonous trees, they present to our view stems more or less
developed, of a solid texture, although of a more simple struc-
ture, than that of the trees before mentioned, and are decora-
ted with numerous leaves ; but they are destitute of those re-
productive organs which constitute flowers, and, instead of
fruit, display organs much less complicated.

These simple and slightly diversified plants, which, from
their limited number and small size, occupy only an inferior
rank in modern vegetation, constituted, in the earliest period
of organic life, nearly the whole of the vegetable kingdom,
and formed immense forests, which have no parallel in the
modern creation. The rigid texture displayed in the leaves
of these plants, and the absence of pulpy fruits and farinace-
ous seeds, must have rendered them ill adapted for animal
food; but terrestrial animals did not then exist; the seas
alone possessed inhabitants ; and the vegetable kingdom then
held undivided sway over the visible surface of the earth, up-
on which it seems to have been placed, to act another part in
the general economy of nature.

We cannot indeed doubt, that the immense mass of carbon
accumulated in the state of coal, in the bosom of the earth,
and arising from the destruction of vegetables which flourish-
ed at this distant period, on the surface of the globe, must
have been imbibed by them from the carbonic acid present
in the atmosphere ; the only form under which carbon, not
arising from the destruction of pre-existing organic bodies,

Reflection* on Primitive Vegetation* 7

can be absorbed by a plant. Now, even a small proportion
of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, is generally unfavourable
to animal life, and especially of the more perfect animals, as
the mammifers and birds ; this proportion, on the contrary, is
highly favourable to the growth of vegetables, and if we admit
that there existed a greater quantity of this gas in the primi-
tive atmosphere of the globe, than there is in our atmosphere,
we may consider it as one of the principal causes of the lux-
uriant vegetation of those distant periods.

This mass of vegetables, which, from their simplicity and
uniformity would have been so little fitted to furnish materi-
als for the sustenance of animals, differing in their structure,
like those which now exist, may have prepared such a state of
things as was necessary for a more varied creation, by purify-
ing the air from the excess of carbonic acid it then contained ;
and if we would indulge the feeling of pride which sometimes
leads man to think that all nature has been created for his
benefit, we may suppose that this first vegetable creation, pre-
ceding, by so many ages, the appearance of man upon the
earth, may have been intended to bring about that state of the
atmosphere, which would be necessary for his existence, and
the accumulation of those immense beds of fuel, which his
industry was afterwards to avail itself of.

But independently of this difference in the constitution of
the atmosphere, which the formation of these immense depo-
sits of fossil coal, renders extremely probable, may not the
nature of vegetables themselves, furnish us with some data
concerning the other physical conditions, to which the sur-
face of the earth was subjected during this period ?

What is now going on in different parts of the globe, may
throw some light on this question.

The study of the geographical distribution of plants belong-
ing to the same tribes that composed the entire vegetation of
the coal period, may, in effect, point out to us the state of cli-
mate, and, consequently, the physical causes, which favour
the increase of size and number in these vegetables ; and we
may, in all probability, conclude from it, that the same causes
occasioned their preponderance at the epoch under review.

We see, for example, that the Filices, Equisetacece, and
Eycopodiacece, attain a greater height in proportion as they
approach the equatorial regions. So that it is only in the
hottest parts of the globe we can find the arborescent ferns,
which, uniting with the upright and majestic form of the palm
tree, the elegant foliage of the common fern, we have already
mentioned as existing in the coal strata. In the same regions,
the Equiseta and Lycopodia attain to a height, double and

b 4

8 Reflections on Primitive Vegetation.

triple that which is presented by the largest species of the
temperate climates. Another circumstance appears to have
a still more decided influence on their preponderance, in re-
lation to plants belonging to other families, namely, humidity
and uniformity of climate ; conditions which are found in the
greatest degree of perfection in small islands, at a distance
from continents.

In these isles, indeed, the extent of the surrounding seas
causes a constant humidity, and a temperature but little ex-
posed to change, which seem, in a remarkable degree, to fa-
vour the developement and increase of species among the ferns
and other similar vegetables ; while phanerogamous plants, on
the contrary, are, under the same influence, much fewer in
number, and in small variety. The result follows, that while
in the great continents, the vascular plants of the class Cryp-
togamia, such as the Filices, Equiseta and Lycopodia, often
form scarcely a fiftieth part of the whole number of vegetables,
in the small islands of the equinoctial regions, these plants
constitute almost half, and sometimes even two thirds, of the
whole number of the vegetable tribes which inhabit them.

The Archipelagoes situated between the tropics, such as the
Antilles, or the islands of the great Pacific ocean, are then the
parts of the globe which display, in the present day, a ve-
getation most nearly corresponding to that which existed on
the earth, when the vegetable kingdom began, for the first
time, to be developed.

We are consequently led, by the study of the vegetables
which accompany the beds of coal, to infer that at this early
period the surface of the earth, in the countries producing the
best known of these coal-deposits, namely, Europe and North
America, possessed a state of climate similar to that now ex-
isting in the Archipelagoes of the equinoctial regions, and,
probably, a geographical configuration very little different.

When we consider the number and thickness of the beds
which constitute the greater part of the coal strata, and when
we examine, from first to last, the changes which have opera-
ted on the specific form of the vegetables to which they owe
their origin, we are constrained to acknowledge that this lux-
uriant vegetation of the primitive world, must have covered,
with its dense forests, all those portions of the globe which
were raised above the level of the sea ; for it presents itself,
with the same characters, in Europe, and in America; equato-
rial Asia, as well as New Holland, seem also to have partaken
of this general uniformity of vegetable structure.

Nevertheless, this first vegetable creation was shortly to
disappear, that it might give place to another, composed of

Reflections on Primitive Vegetation. 9

beings, with an organization, less extraordinary than that of
their predecessors, but differing from them almost as widely
as they did from those of our epoch.

To what causes can we attribute the destruction of all the
plants which characterise this remarkable vegetation ? Is it
to a violent revolution of the globe ? Is it to a gradual change
in the physical circumstances necessary to their existence, —
a change which may, in part, be owing to the very presence
of these vegetables ? These are questions which we cannot
determine in the present state of our knowledge.

Meanwhile we are certain, that the deposition of the latest
beds of the coal formation, was followed by the destruction
of all the species which constituted the primitive vegetation,
particularly of those singularly constructed and gigantic trees
the Lycopodia, Filices, and arborescent Equiseta, which were
the most prominent feature of this early creation*

After the destruction of this luxuriant primitive vegetation,
the vegetable kingdom appears to have been a long time in
reaching an equal degree of developement. Scarcely ever,
indeed, in the numerous beds of the secondary formations,
which succeed the coal strata, do we find any of those masses
of vegetable impressions, a kind of natural herbaria, which, in
these ancient deposits of carbon, are evidences of the simul-
taneous existence of a prodigious number of plants. Scarcely
any where do we see in these strata, such immense beds of
fossil fuel ; and when found, they are never, in number and
extent, to be compared with those of the regular coal deposits.
In fact, during the formation of the secondary rocks, the ve-
getable kingdom must either have occupied but very narrow
limits on the earth's surface, or its scattered individuals must
have barely covered a barren soil, of which the revolutions of
the globe did not allow them to become the quiet possessors,
or, finally, the state of the surface of the earth at that period,
was not favorable to the preservation of its vegetable inhabi-
tants.

However, the long interval of time which divides the coal
formations from the tertiary strata, a period which witnessed
so many physical revolutions of the globe, and the creation of
those gigantic reptiles in the midst of the ocean, types of an
organization so extraordinary, that we might often fancy our-
selves recognising the monsters to which the imagination
of the poets of antiquity gave birth ; — this period, I repeat, is

* We still find, in some parts of the secondary strata, a small number of
arborescent Ferns and gigantic Calamites, but they are much less than
those of the coal strata ; and we discover no trace of the arborescent Lyco-
podiacea, analogous to the Lepidodendrons.

10 Reflections an Primitive Vegetation.

remarkable in the history of the vegetable kingdom, for the
preponderance of two families, which are lost, as it were, in
the midst of the immense variety of vegetable forms, with
which the surface of the earth is at this time covered, but
which then predominated above all the rest, both in number
and size. These are the Coniferw, of which the fir, the pine,
the yew, and the cypress, furnish well-known examples ; and
the Cycadece, which are plants altogether exotic, less nume-
rous in our present world, than in that remote period, and
which join to the foliage and height of the palm, the essen-
tial structure of coniferous plants. The existence of these
two families during this period, is so much the more worthy
of attention, because being connected with each other by their
organization, they form the intermediate link between the
vascular Cryptogamia which almost solely formed the primi-
tive vegetation of the coal period, and the phanerogamous
Dicotyledones, properly so called, which formed the greater
part of the vegetable kingdom, during the tertiary period.

Thus, the vascular Cryptogamia, the first step of ligneous
organization, are succeeded by the Conifera and the Cyca-
dece, which hold a more elevated rank in the scale of vegeta-
tion; and these again are succeeded by the dicotyledonous
plants, which occupy its summit.

Thus in the vegetable as well as in the animal kingdom,
there has been a gradual advance towards perfection, in the
organization of the beings, which have successively lived up-
on our globe ; — from those which first appeared upon its sur-
face, to those by which it is now inhabited.

The tertiary period, during which were deposited the stra-
ta on which rest the foundations of the greatest capitals of
Europe, as London, Paris, and Vienna, witnessed the opera-
ration of greater changes in the organic world, than any that
have been effected since the destruction of the primeval vege-
tation. In the animal kingdom, the creation of Mammifera,*
a class which all naturalists agree in placing at the top of the
scale of animated beings, and which seems to have been form-
ed as a prelude to the creation of man. In the vegetable
kingdom, the creation of Dicotyledones, the great division
which the unanimous consent of botanists has always placed
at the head of this kingdom ; and which, by the variety of its
forms, and its organization, by the size of its leaves, and the
beauty of its flowers and fruit, must have stamped upon the

*In referring the creation of the Mammiferous class to the tertiary epoch,
I omit the hitherto unique occurrence of the fossil Mammifer in the Stones-
field slate : this is quite an exceptionable fact, and would he altogether out
of place in a short sketch, like the present.

Reflections on Primitive Vegetation. 11

vegetable world a very different aspect from that, which, till
then, it had always presented. This class of Dicotyledonous
plants, some traces of which we can, though with difficulty,
detect in the latter part of the secondary period, suddenly
presents itself during the tertiary period, in great preponder-
ance. As in the present day it surpasses all the other classes
of the vegetable kingdom, both in the number and variety of
its species, and in the size of individual plants. Thus, the
vegetation which flourished in our countries, while the ter-
tiary strata were being deposited, and enveloping its fragments
in sedimentary beds, was more nearly allied to that now ex-
isting, and more particularly to the botany of the temperate
regions of Europe and America. The face of these countries
was then covered, as it is now, with pines, firs, poplars, elms,
birches, walnuts, maples, and other trees allied to those which
which still flourish in our climates.

Thus, not only do we find there no traces of those singular
vegetables which characterised the primitive forests of the
coal period, but we very rarely meet with fragments of such
plants as are analogous to those now existing within the tropics.

We are not, however, to imagine, that the same vegetable
forms have been perpetuated from an epoch still very remote,
since it preceded the existence of man, until our own day. —
No ; very marked differences almost always distinguish these
inhabitants of our globe, (in a geological sense, very recent,
though chronologically, of great antiquity), from the modern
vegetables, by the side of which we might class them. And
the existence in these very strata, towards the north of France,
of some palms, very different from those which still grow on
the shores of the Mediterranean sea, and of a number of other
plants which belong to families now confined to warmer re-
gions, seems to indicate that at this epoch, central Europe
enjoyed a much more elevated temperature than at present; a
result which perfectly agrees with that deduced from the pre-
sence, in the same strata, and in the same countries, of ele-
phants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, animals which now
seldom extend beyond the tropics.

What an astonishing contrast between the aspect of nature,
during these later geological periods, and that which it offered
when the primitive vegetation covered the surface of this
globe !

In fact, in these latter times of the geological history of the
world, the earth had assumed, in great part at least, the ap-
pearance which it retains at the present day ; extensive con-
tinents, and mountains, already of considerable height, must
have caused a variety of climates, and thus favoured the di-

12 Reflections on Primitive Vegetation.

versity of organisms. Thus, in a country of small extent, the
vegetable kingdom offers to our notice plants as different from
each other as they are at the present day.

To the Coniferce, with leaves narrow, hard, and of a dark
green colour, are added birches, poplars, walnuts, and maples,
whose leaves are large and of a fine green ; under the shade
of these trees, on the banks of lakes, or on their surface, grew
herbaceous plants, analogous to those which still embellish the
open country by the diversity of their forms and colours, and
whose variety renders them calculated to satisfy the different
appetites of an infinite number of animals of all classes.

The forests of the ancient world, like those of our epoch,
served, in fact, for the retreat of a great number of animals,
more or less analogous to those now existing on our globe.
Thus, elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, bears, lions, stags of all
forms, and even of all heights, have successively inhabited
them ; birds, reptiles, and even numerous insects, complete
this picture of nature, as it then presented itself, upon those
parts of the earth, whose surface was above the waters ; — na-
ture as beautiful and as diversified, as that which we now see
upon its surface.

On the contrary, in the Jirst ages of the creation of organ-
ized beings, the terrestrial surface, divided, without doubt,
into an infinity of low islands, and of a very uniform tempe-
rature, was, it is true, covered with immense vegetables, but
these trees, differing little from each other in their aspect
or the colour of their foliage, and deprived of the brilliantly
coloured flowers and fruits which array so many of our large
trees, must have impressed upon vegetation a monotony which
was unbroken, even by those small herbaceous plants, which
by the beauty of their flowers form the ornament of our woods.

To this may be added, that neither mammifer, bird, nor
any other animal, appeared to animate these thick forests, and
we may form to ourselves a tolerably just idea of this prime-
val state of nature, sombre, melancholy and silent, but at the
same time so imposing, by its grandeur, and the part which
it has acted in the history of the globe.

Such is, gentlemen, a sketch of the great revolutions of ter-
restrial vegetation ; as far as the researches made upon this
subject, during thirty years, will allow us to trace it. Each
day adds, undoubtedly, some new point to its details ; but
recent discoveries, in confirming the results at which we had
long since arrived, seem to announce, that no part of this
picture will undergo great changes, even when, thanks to the
materials collecting from all parts for this end, we may un-
dertake to form this outline into a more perfect picture.

On general Zoological changes. 13

Art. II. On the influence of Man in modifying the Zoological fea-
tures of the globe ; with statistical accounts respecting a few of
the more important species. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.

The history of man does already, in a very appreciable degree',
involve the condition of a great many species of the lower ani-
mals ; and on account of the strict dependence of all the spe-
cies on others, or on the rest of the natural productions, which
man likewise modifies, we are perhaps warranted in conclud-
ing, that there is no species whose natural relations have not
been materially affected by human influence.

The influence which our species exercises in this respect,
is either indirect or direct. The former, which I shall briefly
consider first, is a consequence of the change which man
brings about in the mineralogical, botanical, or even meteor-
ological features, of every part of the globe's surface subjected
to his agency. Wherever he makes his appearance, with
the exception of such tracts as are, on account of their low
temperature or aridity, utterly irreclaimable from their pre-
sent barren condition, the surface is gradually modified, as
to its constituent principles, state of irrigation, botanical pro-
ductions, and the proportion, as well as form, of the vapour
dissoh ed in the atmosphere ; whereby, of course, the animal
productions of such localities are likewise materially affected.
Swamps are drained, forests give way to cultivated fields, and
the primitive habitats of animals are thus exchanged with new
ones, that owe their origin to man. Plants migrate with him,
carrying with them their parasitic insects, or drawing after
them other species, that depend chiefly on them for their sub-
sistence ; and by these, and other means, he will evidently
change the zoological features of every country of which he
takes possession.

Important as this indirect influence of man must appear,
even if considered in its mere outline, it is perhaps less great,
and at all events less striking, in its immediate effects, than
the direct influence which he exercises on the rest of the ani-
mals, as to their very existence, or relative numbers in certain
localities, or absolute numbers, by destroying or protecting
them.

As a direct agent, man affects the condition of the lower
animals, either accidentally or methodically. In the former
case, he is but a blind instrument in the hand of the same su-
preme power, under whose guidance he unconsciously fulfils
his own destinies ; in the latter, he acts as a self-conscious
being, in regulating the condition of the lower animals, as he
does his own social existence : in the former, nature takes it
upon herself to fill the gaps which man makes in her ranks,

14 On Man's Influence in effecting

according to the laws presiding over the mutual dependence
and geographical distribution of the species; in the latter, man
undertakes to substitute tame or other species, for those which
he thinks proper to exterminate or repress : in the former, eve-
rything will spontaneously tend to restore a new equilibrium ;
in the latter, the self-called wisdom and divine power of man,
which too often are but ignorance, and unpunishable arro-
gance, will often tend to keep up a zoological state, as much
at variance with the laws of a natural equilibrium, as with the
true interests of his own species.

The former principle has, hitherto, evidently been in ope-
ration on the larger scale ; but the latter will claim its superi-
ority in the proportion as mankind approaches the standard of
civilization, or as its progress towards that standard becomes
more self-conscious and universal. As, however, man is often
most methodical, when he least intends to be so, as well as
most irrational, when acting after a system, it is not possible
to say what part of the ultimate effect will belong to the one
principle or to the other, or which is destined to act the most
prominent part upon the whole. They both, moreover, in
many cases, determine each other, and walk abreast with the
indirect influence of man ; so that we may sum up the total
effect of man's agency, in saying, that the general zoological
features of the globe, greatly depend on the general progress
of mankind towards its great temporal end ; whereas the zo-
ological condition of each particular country will, in a great
measure, be determined by the social institutions and habits
of its inhabitants, so that the moral and political state of the
latter, may be very fairly tested by the condition of the lower
animals.

I shall now try to give a general sketch of the changes which
man effects in the animal kingdom, according to the different
stages and forms of his own developement.

First, the wandering and savage tribes of hunters leave the
surface of their habitats nearly in its original state, but cause
a considerable destruction with reference to the herbivorous
and carnivorous animals, upon which they draw for their sub-
sistence, clothing, and poor comforts. However, as the old
habitats of animals remain unaltered, the direct destruction
will be almost imperceptible, provided the surface of the hunt-
ing district bear a large proportion to the population ; (and
that it almost invariably does, as the hardships and other cir-
cumstances of this mode of life, are unfavourable to the mul-
tiplication of the human species), as the consumption of game
will be almost balanced by the conservation of it, in conse-
quence of the destruction of animals of prey. Thus we find

general Zoological changes. 15

almost all those large tracts, where savage hunters roam in
uncontrolled liberty, and kill animals only for their home con-
sumption, well stocked with all the indigenous species of ani-
mals. Man, in this stage, is, in fact, little more, as to the point
in question, than one of the natural elements of the animal
kingdom, which keep each other in equilibrium.

As to the nomadic tribes, which wander with their herds or
flocks over boundless tracts, they likewise leave the surface,
which in itself is mostly of a comparatively little changeable
nature, pretty much in its ancient condition. They have,
however, substituted for the game, their tame animals, as a
regular article of food ; and if they indulge in hunting, it will
be done, for the greater part, with a view of protecting their
cattle from the inroads of the larger animals of prey. Still,
they cannot make any great or lasting impression on the wild
animals of a given district, particularly as most of the species
lead the same vagrant life there, as man himself, and thus the
first great step towards civilization, if left uncomplicated, does
not affect the animal kingdom in a very striking degree.

As soon, however, as man has made the second great step
towards his own improvement, by engaging in agricultural
pursuits, and becoming a fixed tenant of the ground, the rela-
tions of the lower animals to man are essentially changed, and
they will be so the more thoroughly, as the developement of
man in that stage becomes more perfect. Not only does the
indirect influence of man, directly begin to work visible and
lasting effects, but it is evident that the large herbivorous spe-
cies ought to be exterminated, or greatly reduced in numbers,
to prevent their depredations on the crops ; and that the ex-
istence of the fierce carnivorous animals is incompatible with
the security of the persons and live stock, in a cultivated dis-
trict. Against them, therefore, a most determined war will
be waged, on the very outset of agricultural pursuits ; but the
more regular mode of life of the settler will gradually involve
the condition, or even the existence, of all the other animals,
in the proportion as they are important to man, in every form
of this stage of social developement.

If we take a hasty view of the influence which the different
and principal forms of the social state of agricultural nations
have exercised, or do still exercise, on the animal kingdom,
we shall first find the hierarchical form of government to have
effected a most decided and curious aspect of zoology, in ma-
ny parts of the globe. The priests did not only set themselves
forth as the supreme authority, in regulating the duties of man
to God, or to man, but they took it also upon themselves to
establish fixed laws about the behaviour of man to the infe-

16 On Man's Influence in effecting

rior creatures ; which, no doubt, operated, in some instances,
well, as to the localities for which they were devised, but in
others present the most uncalled for and censurable cases, in
which the ministers of religion have meddled with human af-
fairs, and substituted their own arbitrary and short-sighted
views, for those which flow from an unprejudiced and en-
lightened consideration of the part which man is to act, with
reference to the lower animals. The religion of the Hindoo
nation, according to which it is sinful to kill any animal, from
man down to the microscopic animalcule, produces, wherever
it is in force, a most ridiculous encroachment of the animals
on the rights of man; and, but for the indirect influence of the
latter, and the order which nature keeps up, in spite of man,
such countries must be almost uninhabitable by him. The
peaceful co-existence of man with all the living creatures, has
indeed something in it, that will please us at first sight ; and
many may admire the tame peacocks or fish in India, which
latter are fed by the Hindoo watermen ; but if we cast a look
upon the hospitals for vermin, or consider that such a state of
things can only be kept up by enslaving the human mind by
pious fraud, and by rendering it unfit for the attainment of
much higher ends, we cannot help condemning it, both in
principle and practice. The ancient Egyptian priesthood
thought proper to take a great many animals under their special
protection, by casting round them the odour of sanctity ; they
did so in such a whimsical manner, that they promoted the
multiplication as well of the most useful as the most injurious
wild species ; for instance, the ibis and the crocodile. Even
the Mosaic law, by declaring many animals to be unclean,
must have had a decided influence upon their numbers ; and
though we cannot see why eating the flesh of hares, rabbits,
or ostriches, was deemed to be particularly unwholesome,
even to the unclean people which the Jews appear to have
been, about the time of Moses, yet we can even less conceive
why the red Caffres, (Bichuanas), should have added to most
of the animals unclean to the Jews, every species of fish, un-
less they were made to believe it was the law of the creator.
The Roman hierarchy has not tried to enslave the human
mind in that respect ; though by eating, almost exclusively,
fish, on many days, which is called fasting, the followers of
that confession have vastly contributed to diminish the num-
bers, not only of many species of Piscis, (Linn.) but of other
animals, as water fowl, the otter, beaver, which are classed
with the fish by the infallible church.

In adverting to the worldly forms of government, as not
complicated by the hierarchy, the pure democratic, where

general Zoological changes. 17

every wild animal is considered as res nullius, and merely
awaiting the primus occupans, works as destructively with re-
ference to the animals, as it does in every other respect. —
Where a democratic population becomes at all numerous,
every useful or interesting wild animal will be wantonly per-
secuted, by any individual, without any consideration to the
season, or to the detriment which its extermination would
cause, as to the more important interests, as well as the com-
forts or pleasure of all the other inhabitants ; so that those
species which hold out great temptations to him who takes
possession of them, and to which the localities afford little
natural protection, soon become extirpated ; whereas others
can only with difficulty stand their ground, in consequence of
their own cunning, or faculties of adaptation, or the favoura-
ble chances which the locality in itself gives them.

The aristocratic form of government, on the other hand, if
taking any great developement, will react against that general
persecution of animals, in favor of such species as it may be the
interest or pleasure of the privileged class to conserve, without
taking notice of the rest ; and thus create and perpetuate one
of those public nuisances, which the aristocracy of every coun-
try have been guilty of starting and fostering.

The monarchical form, in its many modifications, from the
most absolute despotism, up to that where the monarch sanc-
tions and determines only what is considered to be the gene-
ral will, or benefit of the nation, may act, in regulating the
condition of the lower animals in a country, either as a perfect
curse or blessing. Not but that any proportion of the merit
or blame attaches to any particular modification of that form ;
a wise despot may do, within a few years, more to bring the
condition of the animals in his dominions, into more perfect
harmony with the interests of his subjects, than a constitu-
tional king, crossed in his good intentions by a domineering
party of his nation ; but, on the other hand, a prince, more or
less absolute in that respect, when it pleases him to favor cer-
tain species of animals, more than his subjects, may, within
a very short time cause the latter to be hurt in their most vi-
tal interests by the former ; whereas this is impossible if the
power of the prince be duly limited. It is, therefore, not a
quality inherent to any particular shade of monarchical go-
vernment, to make the quickest strides towards a perfect e-
quilibrium of the respective conditions of man and the lower
animals ; only what is quickly gained in the one, may be as
quickly lost ; and what is gradually gained in the other, may
be gained for all times to come. A properly centralized state
has also, in this particular, great advantages over one, where

Vol. II. — No. 1. sr. s. c

18 On the Natural History of part

the local authorities are too independent, and may stand in
the way of general improvement ; whereas what is merely lo-
cally important, may be safely regulated by the local magis-
trates ; and a large kingdom that is well arrondi, has a better
chance of succeeding in regulating the condition of many
species, than a small or scattered state. I might quote ex-
amples to prove all this, from times and countries quite at
hand ; but I should, by so doing, only anticipate what I shall
have a better opportunity to say and to prove, in the para-
graph at the end of this article, where I intend to consider
the condition of a few particular species, in their different re-
lations to man, in different countries.
To be continued.

Art. III. Notes upon the Natural History of a portion of the South
West of Scotland. By William Thompson, Esq. F.L.S. &c. —
Vice-President of the Natural History Society, of Belfast.

As, by the kindness of friends and correspondents, I have oc-
casional opportunities of learning something of the Natural
History of a portion of the South West of Scotland, I here
bring together notices of a few of the most rare and interest-
ing species that have thus come under my observation.

Bee-Eater. Merops Apiaster, Linn. Of this species,
which has so rarely occurred in the British islands, I saw an
individual in a recent state, that was shot on the 6th of Oct.
1832, by Capt. James McDowall, 2nd Life Guards, at his seat
near the Mull of Galloway. It was sent to Belfast by my
friend, Capt. Fayrer, R.N. to be preserved and set up for that
gentleman.

Iceland Gull. Larus Islandicus, Edmonston. Being late-
ly informed that a few rare gulls had appeared about Ballan-
trae, in Ayrshire, and which, after displaying for a season some
interesting peculiarities of manner, had been shot, and one of
them preserved; I embraced my informant's kind offer of
bringing it from Scotland for my inspection, on his recent re-
turn to this country. It proved to be the Iceland Gull, (Z.
Islandicus, Linn.) in the stage of plumage, apparently, which
immediately precedes maturity. A professional gentleman at
Ballantrae, into whose possession this bird came, and by
whom it was preserved, favoured me with the following par-
ticulars respecting it, in a letter dated October 26, 1837. —
" At the end of last year, three gulls, of the same kind, made
their appearance on the shore where the fishermen reside. —
Two of them were shot in the spring, and the one you have,

of the South West of Scotland. 19

in June. As they frequented the fishing boats, the men used
to supply them with fish ; and in a short time they became
quite familiar; took whatever was thrown to them, but would
not allow themselves to be caught. They were never obser-
ved to go far from the place where they were first seen. The
person who gave me this information, shot the two in the
spring ; and says that every winter one or more are seen on
the coast. He cannot say where they breed, but is sure there
are none on the Craig [of Ailsa]." This indifference to the
near presence of man, on the part of these northern strangers,
reminded me of that of the first Larus Sahini, — also a native
of the arctic regions, — obtained on the British shores. (Mag.
Zool. and Bot. v. i. p. 460). The month of June seems a late
period for the Iceland Gull to remain in such a comparatively
southern latitude ; and there can hardly be a doubt that it
is the same species which is seen about Ballantrae every win-
ter, as the authority for the statement must evidently know it
well from its congeners, when he correctly states that it breeds
not on Ailsa Craig.

Gannet. Sula Bassana, Briss. Having heard from two
friends, who had been grouse-shooting in the neighbourhood
of Ballantrae, that they had seen great numbers of gannets
lying in a state of decay, in holes on the beach, and which
had been taken at extraordinary depths in the fishermen's
nets ; I made particular enquiry on the subject, from a worthy
resident of my acquaintance, (who is postmaster, &c. in the
village) ; and on the 15th November, 1836, received the fol-
lowing reply. " Gannets are very commonly caught about
Ballantrae, (chiefly in the month of March), in the fishermen's
nets, which are generally sunk from 9 to 20, but sometimes to
the depth of 30 fathoms,* just as the fish, herrings &c. are
lying. They are taken at all these depths, when the water is
rough as well as smooth, and in both the cod and turbot nets,
(respectively 5 and 7 inches wide in the mesh). Of the great-
est quantity taken at one time, " John, son of old Alex. Coul-
ter can make oath, that he took 94 gannets from one net, at a
single haul, a few years ago. The net was about 60 fathoms
long, a cod-net, wrought in a 5-inch scale. The birds brought
up the net, with its sinkers and fish, to the top, where such
as were not drowned, made a sad struggle to escape. There
were four nets in this train ; but the above 94 were in one of
the nets, and there were 34 additional birds in the other part
of the train, being 128 gannets in all." It is added that
" there are found also in the nets, what are here called holland

* One hundred and eighty feet ; there heing 6 feet in a fathom.
c2

•20 On the Natural History of part

hawks,t and burrians ;% — a holland hawk weighs 14fb — the
bird called burrian, weighs 7 or 8 lb. and is speckled on the
back like a starling, belly and breast pure white. Some others
of the Ailsa birds are also got in the nets at all depths ; — one
is about the size of a pigeon,§ moves in the water with ex-
tended wings, always pushing his way forward, and thus gets
drowned. Herrings are occasionally taken in the wide cod
net, and also mackerel." Were these facts not amply attest-
ed, I must confess that I would be incredulous about the
depths which the gannet sounds ; but the information fur-
nished in writing, the truth of which, it is stated, may be im-
plicitly relied on, is precisely what was related to my friends,
and the singularity of which prompted my enquiry. The vi-
cinity of Ailsa Craig, the great breeding haunt of the gannet
in this quarter, must be recollected, in connection with what
is here related.

Anglesea Morris. Leptocephalus Morrisii. Early in
the summer of 1837, Capt. Fayrer captured a specimen of
this singular fish, in the harbour at Portpatrick. He remarks
that "it appeared in an active state of health and vigour, sport-
ing now and then on the surface, and as quickly descending."
On account of its delicate organization, it was judiciously put
in very weak preservative liquor, about one part only of com-
mon spirits, to four of water ; and was thus kept by me for
four months, without being injured as a specimen. It was al-
most equally transparent as it had been in its native element.
When put in stronger liquid, for permanent preservation, it
of course became discoloured, and more opaque. It is so
buoyant as to float on the surface like a cork, and on the phial
being reversed, as quickly attains this position. The speci-
men is 5|- inches in length ; and in the spotting, differs from
others described and figured. Distant lj inch from the an-
terior extremity, small black dots appear on the lateral line,
and continue to the tail ; J inch from the same part, a row of
black dots, larger than those on the lateral line, commences,
and extends, on each side, to within f inch of the end of the
tail ; from where these terminate, the black is taken up by
the base of the anal fin ; every ray, — and they are here close
together, — being spotted at the base. Not a spot appears on
the dorsal ridge, nor anywhere but as here mentioned. The

f Great Northern Diver. Colymbus glacialis, Linn. " Allan-hawk " is
applied to Divers, (Colymbi) generally, in Belfast Bay.

\ Red-throated Diver. Colymbus septentrionalis, Linn.

§ Puffin. Mormon Fratercula, Temm. probably, judging from the size.
The description of the manner of moving under water, would, perhaps, ap-
ply generally to diving birds.

of the South West of Scotland. 21

irides are bright silver. I have elsewhere recorded a Lepto-
cephalus, which was taken on the opposite coast of Downshire.
(Zool. Proc. 1835, p. 82).

Purple Ocean Shell. lanthina communis. A specimen
of this shell, kindly forwarded for my inspection, by Captain
Fayrer, in March, 1837, was one of about a dozen collected
some time before, on the shore of Wigtonshire, by Lady
Agnew, of Lochnaw Castle. About the 1st of August, 1836,
this species was abundant in the vicinity of the Giant's Cause-
way; and on the 11th of this month, a few individuals were
found by Dr. J. L. Drummond and myself, on the beach near
Bangor, on the Down coast. I had never before known the
lanthina to be washed ashore in this county, but on the
northern parts of Antrim, it was long since observed. Those
obtained in Scotland were, in all probability, a portion of the
same fleet that had thus touched at certain parts of the coast
of Ireland.

Sea Long-worm, (Borlase). Nemertes Borlasii, Cuv. —
About the same time that the Leptocephalus was obtained,
Capt. Fayrer got an individual of this species, holding on to
a bait, (the "buckie," Buccinum undatum, Linn.) on his long
line, when he was fishing for cod, off Portpatrick. Having
put it in spirits, diluted with an equal portion of water, Capt.
F. observes, " that the contortions of the poor animal were
really horrible." Montagu mentions, that one about 8 feet
long, which he " put alive into spirits, instantly contracted to
about 1 foot, at the same time increasing to double the bulk,
which originally was about the diameter of a crow-quill." —
Linn. Trans, vol. vii. p. 73. Judging from this, the present
specimen must have been very much larger, as in its present
contracted state, it is about 3 feet in length, and from 1 J- to
3J lines in diameter. Its colour is as described by the author
just quoted, " dusky brown, with a tinge of green, with five
[several] faint longitudinal lines, of a paler colour." A few
years ago, a specimen of the Nemertes about 12 feet in length,
was taken on the opposite coast of Ireland, near the entrance
of Strangford Lough, by my friend Mr. Hyndman, (Member
Nat. Hist. Soc. of Belfast) : in this instance it was found shel-
tered beneath a stone, at low water. This remarkable worm,
the only species of the genus, I believe, yet discovered, has
three generic appellations attached to it ; being the Lineus of
Sowerby, the Borlasia of Oken, and the Nemertes of Cuvier.

Belfast, Nov. 2nd, 1837.

c3

2*2 Fourth occurrence of the Argentine

Art. IV. Notice of the fourth occurrence of the Argentine, (? Scope-
lus Humboldtii, Yarr.) upon the British Shores. By Dr. W. B.
Clarke. With additional Remarks, by W. Yarrell, Esq.

I beg leave to transmit, for insertion in the Magazine of Na-
tural History, a sketch and description of a species of Argen-
tine, which I obtained upon the shore of the Firth of Forth,
at Portobello, in April, 1833.

I discovered this highly elegant little fish, whilst looking
amongst the various bodies cast up by the water, and observed
it lying entangled in some sea-weed, which had been accu-
mulated in masses, and left by the retiring tide. The fish
was dead, but from its freshness could not long have been so.

In the Animal Kingdom of Cuvier, translated by Griffith,
we have the following description of the genus.
Scqpelus, Cuv. Serpes of Risso.

"Mouth and gills extremely cleft ; the two jaws furnished
with very small teeth : the edge of the upper entirely formed
by the intermaxillaries : the tongue and palate smooth.- —
Their muzzle is very short and obtuse : there are nine or ten
rays to the gills ; and besides the usual dorsal, which corre-
sponds to the interval of the ventrals, and the anal, there is
another very small one behind, in which the vestiges of rays
are perceptible."

" These fishes are caught in the Mediterranean, intermin-
gled with the anchovies, and they are there called Melettes,
as are other small fishes. One of them, the Serpes Hum-
boldtii, Risso, pi. x. fig. 38, is remarkable for the brilliancy
of the silvery points which are distributed along the body and
tail."

Then in a note we have, " I believe this fish to be the pre-
tended Argentina Sphyrama of Pennant's Brit. Zool. No. 156;
therefore it should be found in our part of the Atlantic."

Besides the Scopelus Humboldtii, which probably is iden-
tical with the species under description, there are two other
species, Viz. Serpes (Scopelus) crocodile, Risso, p. 357 ; and
Serpes (Scopelus) balbo, Id. Ac. des Sc. de Turin, tome xxv.
pi. x. fig. 3.

Mr. Yarrell, in his invaluable wrok upon the British Fishes,
states, " Pennant, and the Rev. Mr. Low, of Orkney, appear

upon the British Shores. 23

to be the only British observers who have met with, on our
shores, examples of this brilliant little fish, which Cuvier con-
siders as belonging to the genus Scopelus" " Pennant's speci-
men was taken in the sea near Downing, in Flintshire. Mr.
Low's fish was brought to him by a boy, who said he found
it by the edge of the water, amongst sea- weed. The receipt
of an additional portion of M.S. recently confided to me by
William Walcott, Esq. furnishes a notice, written by his fa-
ther, of a third instance of the occurrence of the Argentine,
which was found stranded on the shore, near Exmouth."

Pennant's description agrees, in many respects, with my
fish ; but as the figure contained in Mr. Yarrell's work, (which
was taken from Pennant's), differs very materially about the
head and tail, although it resembles it in the form of the body,
I have sent an exact figure of my own specimen, to shew the
precise form of the bones of the opercula and sides of the
head ; together with a full description : which may assist fu-
ture observers in determining whether more than one species
visits our shores. If Pennant's figure be an exact represen-
tation, the fish it was taken from was certainly a different
species to the one under description.

Pennant describes his as follows ; viz. " Length, two inches
and a quarter : the eyes large, irides silvery ; the lower jaw
sloped much : the teeth small : body compressed, and of an
equal depth almost to the anal fin : tail forked : back was of
a dusky green : the sides and covers of the gills as if plaited
with silver: the lateral line was in the middle, and quite
straight : on each side of the belly was a row of circular punc-
tures, above them another, which ceased near the vent."

My specimen would correspond with the above, except the
following; viz. Length, 1 inch \l : the back of a dense blue-
black, presenting, in certain lights, a brownish tinge : lateral
line central and straight, but inclining upwards, at about its
anterior sixth, towards the upper angle of the operculum.

The number and arrangement of the guttce in the specimen
under consideration,, are as follows ; viz. On each side, upper
series between os hyo'ides and origin of pectoral fin, five ; up-
per abdominal series between base of pectoral and a spot per-
dendicularly over the ventral, nine ; lower abdominal series,
from a spot perpendicularly beneath the posterior margin of
orbit, to base of ventral, twelve ; between base of ventral and
commencement of anal, six ; the two anterior directed down-
wards and backwards ; \hefour posterior forming an arch from
a little above the second gutta to the commencement of the
anal fin : one large gutta, in a line with the upper abdomi-
nal series, is placed slightly anterior, but above the com-

c 4

24 Fourth occurrence of the Argentine

mencement of the anal fin : between the anterior commence-
ment of anal and base of caudal twenty-four; but between
the eighth and ninth from the caudal fin, there is a space
where a spot appears to have been obliterated.

About midway between the anterior commencement of the
dorsal and base of caudal, but rather nearer the latter, there
is a slight elevation, where, apparently, the fleshy fin has its
origin ; but in the specimen under description, it is scarcely
perceptible, being, even with the aid of a lens, only like a
slight membranous ridge.

The formula of the fin rays appears to be D. 9. P. 17. V. 8. A. 20. C. 18'

Mr. YarrelPs formula is D. 9. P. 17. V. 8. A. 15. C. 19'

Mr. Yarrell remarks, " the figure of this fish, referred to in
Risso's work, represents the anal fin as containing many more
rays than are represented in the figure by Pennant." The
fish obtained by me possesses more anal rays than Pennant's
would appear to have had, judging from the figure which he
has published.

Length of head compared with whole length of fish, as one
to four : diameter of eye to length of head, as one to three :
first dorsal fin commences midway between end of nose and
tail : depth of body to whole length of fish, as one to five and
a half : nostrils double, situated in a depression midway be-
tween the eye and centre of intermaxillary bone. The oper-
culum is extremely large, and appears to be developed at the
expense of the pre-operculum, which is very small, and joins
the former by a straight moveable suture, running in a line
perpendicularly downwards, from the posterior margin of the
orbit ; it forms an obtuse-angled triangle, with the obtuse an-
gle pointing downwards and backwards : the sub-orbital bone
occupies nearly the anterior inferior half of the orbit, and is
of a beautiful argenteous lustre, like the operculum. There
are five oval spots, forming a fan-shaped figure, occupying
the space between the anterior edge of the superior maxillary
bone, and the anterior inferior angle of the pre-operculum,
beneath the sub-orbital bone, and distinctly seen through the
transparent intermaxillary bone, which is very large. There
is one gutta upon the pre-operculum, at its anterior inferior
angle, and the appearance of another at the anterior inferior
angle of the sub-operculum : there is no appearance of bran-
chiostegous rays whilst the opercula are closed.

The sides of this elegant little fish are of the most resplen-
dent argenteous lustre ; the gutta are of a dense opaque white,
and round their margin, especially along the sub-caudal series,
there is a steel-blue tinge, giving that part of the body a very
beautiful appearance. The upper abdominal series have an

on the British Shores. 25

arched appearance, from this tinge not being continued round
the inferior margin of the guttce. The back of the specimen
under description, which has been in spirits ever since its
capture, is of a dense blue-black, presenting, in certain lights,
a brownish tinge.

From specimens of this fish having been found in the above
localities, viz. — in the sea near Flintshire, on the shore in
Orkney, in Devonshire, and, lastly, in Edinburghshire, we
may infer that it is generally, although sparingly, diffused
through the British seas. Probably, ere long, we may hear
of other examples of its occurrence upon our snores, or in our
seas ; for I am convinced, that from the admirable character
of Mr. Yarrell's work, it will have the effect of exciting such
an interest in the inhabitants of the boundless deep, that ma-
ny interesting facts respecting the Ichthyology of our seas
will soon be brought to light, which, but for such a publica-
tion, would have remained unrecorded, perhaps unnoticed.

Ipswich, Nov. 2nd, 1837.

[Upon the receipt of the ahove interesting notice from Dr. Clarke, we for-
warded the MS. to Mr. Yarrell, who obligingly returned it with the follow-
ing Letter. Ed.]

Dear Sir,

The various communications recently re-
ceived by you and others, as well as by myself, on the subject
of British Fishes, are to me so many gratifying testimonials
of the increasing number of observers, whose attention is be-
ing directed to the Fauna of our seas ; and I feel a sincere
pleasure in the prospect of the many additions, and more cor-
rect illustrations, which our Ichthyology is likely to derive
from the great interest now taken in this branch of Natural
History.

The minute size of the fish renders it, I think, extremely
probable, that the example obtained by Dr. Clarke at Porto-
bello, the one noticed by the Rev. Mr. Low, as found in Ork-
ney, and a third specimen taken still farther north, now pre-
served in the museum at Bergen, and described by Professor
Nilsson, in his Prodromus, will eventually prove to be distinct
as a species, from the examples found by Dr. Walcott, and
Pennant, on our south coast, and in the west ; the more so,
because I learn from the Prince of Musignano, who is now in
London, that the species of the genus Scopelus, or of genera
very closely allied, are much more numerous than have hither-
to been supposed. In a new History of the Fishes of the
Mediterranean, written by the Prince of Musignano, which it
is hoped will soon be put to press, no less than thirteen spe-
cies are described, as inhabiting that sea. The extensive re-

26 On an anomalous genus

sources of this gentleman, and his great acquirements as a
naturalist, cannot fail to render this intended publication
equally interesting and valuable.

. I am, Dear Sir,

Yours very truly,
Ryder St. Dec. 20, 1837. Wm. Yarrell.

Editor of Mag. Nat. Hist.

Art. V. On Coptosoma, an anomalous genus of Heteropterous In-
sects. By J. O. Westwood, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

The illustrious Swammerdam, long ago, remarked upon the
great advantages to be derived from thoroughly investigat-
ing a single species, belonging to each of the great types
of the insect tribes ; whereby the student would be enabled
to obtain a knowledge of the general structure of the entire
class. No advice could be more philosophical, for no me-
thod could be devised, by whieh we can so completely master
the difficulties attending the investigation of such an im-
mense series of minute creatures. To know, for instance, that
having made ourselves well acquainted with the cockchaffer,
in all its peculiarities of organization, we have learned the
general formation, in all probability of nearly 100,000 distinct
species of Coleopterous insects, is in itself a sufficient ground
for adopting Swammerdam's advice ; but there is still another
reason, which scarcely yields to the former, namely, that by
instituting a comparative examination of the structure of any
particular organ, throughout each of these chosen types, in
conjunction with its varied uses, we are enabled to obtain
more perfect physiological views of these tribes, than could
possibly be obtained by studying any single species, in the
utmost detail. We are in this manner more completely able
to trace those modifications and apparent anomalies of struc-
ture, which so constantly meet us in our researches, to their
true source, and to ascertain wherefore they have been given
to the species. For example, having carefully studied a com-
mon white garden butterfly, and ascertained that its spiral
tongue is composed of two distinct pieces, representing, in
their situation, the maxilla of beetles, and applicable for col-
lecting the nectar of flowers, we at once, and in the most
satisfactory manner, come to the conclusion, that the very
elongated filaments which proceed from the mouth of the Co-
leopterous genus Nemognatha, are the real maxilla of the
beetle, notwithstanding their very attenuated form, and that
their use must be analogous to that of the spiral tongue of the
butterfly.

of Heteropterous Insects. 27

The anomaly in the genus which I propose to notice in
this communication, consists in the peculiar structure of the
upper wings, (or hemelytra as they have been termed by
Messrs. Kirby and Spence, in the Heteropterous insects), of
the species of which it is composed. A few general remarks
upon the structure and functions of these organs will not be
out of place.

In the order Coleoptera, the upper pair of wings is trans-
formed into a pair of corneous cases, generally extending to
the extremity of the body, and when unemployed, shutting
closely together by a straight suture down the back. Thus
united, they become a shield of great strength, defending the
posterior pair of wings, which, when at rest, are transversely
folded up beneath them, and which, when the insect is on the
wing, are its only effective organs of flight. This lower pair
of wings is membranous, and distended by corneous air-tubes.
In the order Orthoptera, the anterior wings, when at rest, form
a shield to the posterior wings, although much less effective
than that of the beetles, since they are of a much more coria-
ceous texture ; the posterior wings themselves are membran-
ous, of a large size, and when at rest, they are longitudinally
folded. During flight, both pairs of wings assist in locomo-
tion. In the Neuropterous, and some other groups, the pos-
terior pair of wings are not defended, when at rest, by the
anterior, and they are consequently not folded up, as in the
foregoing ; whilst, in the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, the
anterior wings are larger than the posterior, which are likewise
never folded up. In these last tribes, all the wings are mem-
branaceous. We thus see, that where the posterior wings
take a large share in the act of flight, it is necessary that, being
of a larger size, they should be folded up, and defended by
more or less powerful wing-cases, while unemployed ; when,
on the other hand, the anterior wings take the largest share
of active force during flight, the posterior are so much redu-
ced, as to require no defence : in other words, where we find
large and strong wing-cases or shields, the active organs of
flight are membranous, large, and folded up.

On applying these principles to the Heteropterous insects,
(Genera Cimex, Nepa, and Notonecta of Linnaeus), we find
that the organization of the wings differs from any of the
groups mentioned above, yet their general functions may be
most assimilated to those of the Orthoptera. The anterior
wings are coriaceous throughout their basal half, and mem-
branous throughout their apical portion ; the posterior wings
are of a moderate size, and when at rest folded longitudinally,
and defended by the hemelytra, which are horizontally shut

•28 On an anomalous genus

when at rest : the membranous portion of the one, folding up-
on the same part in the other, and extending only as far as
the extremity of the body.

In the genus of Heteropterous insects now under conside-
ration, the anomaly consists in having the anterior wings very
much elongated, and, when at rest, transversely folded ; a pe-
culiarity hitherto unnoticed, and which exists, as far as I am
aware, in no other group of insects. The posterior wings are
also present, and of small size. The only transverse folding
of the wings of any insects, occurs, as above stated, in the
posterior wings of Coleopterous and in Forficuloideous insects;
we will therefore enquire whether there be any circumstances
shewing an analogy, as regards their functions, between them
and the anterior wings of this Cimicoideous genus. The pos-
terior wings of the Coleoptera are large and transversely folded,
and it is consequently requisite for them to have a strong shield,
which exists in the united horny wing-cases. In this genus,
the anterior wings evidently perform the greatest share during
flight, being so much enlarged as to require a transverse fold;
they are, moreover, entirely membranous, thus rendering the
existence of a shield doubly requisite, and for which purpose
the scutellum is so much enlarged, as entirely to cover the
abdomen, thus becoming, as to its functions, the analogue of
the united corneous elytra of the beetle. As to the reason
why these anterior wings should be so much enlarged in size,
we have only to look at the peculiar shape of the body, which
is short and almost triangular, instead of being oblong or oval,
so that if these wings had retained their proportionate size,
they would have been so short as to have been unable to sup-
port the massy body of the insect during flight.

The genus in question was first separated as a section of
Scutellera, by Latreille, that genus being divided into three
groups ; the names of Thyreocoris and Tetyra having been
previously respectively proposed by Schrank and Fabricius,
for the genus Scutellera, in its undivided state. Dr. Leach
subsequently gave Latreille's three divisions as genera, and ap-
plied to them, according to his usual irregular plan, the sy-
nonymical names of Scutellera, Tetyra, and Thyreocoris ; the
last of which is the subject of this memoir, having for its type
the Cimex globus of Wolff, a small species, which, according
to Stephens' Catalogue, has been found in this country. —
Laporte subsequently, without adopting Leach's nomencla-
ture, gave the Cimex globus as the type of a new genus, which
he named Coptosoma, and characterized it by the scutellum
being entire at the extremity, &c. &c. adding a second sub-
genus, under the name of Platycephala, which he particularly

of Heteropterous Insects.

29

characterized from the very broad Lead, and the scutellum
einarginate behind, in the middle. In the appendix to his
treatise, however, he substituted the name of Canopus for
that of Platycephala, on the authority of Griffith's Animal
Kingdom, Insects, (pi. 92, fig. 2) where a species of this sub-
genus is figured under the name of Canopus punctatus, of
Leach ; but as M. Lefebvre has more recently proved the incor-
rectness of this nomenclature, it would be proper to return to
M. Laporte's previous name, had it not been long previously
employed by Mergen, for a genus of Dipterous insects. Un-
der these circumstances I beg leave to propose for this broad-
headed division, the sub-generic name of Plataspis, a name
which I had long ago given to the entire genus, in a memoir
prepared upon it, for the Zoological Journal.

Hahn subsequently published the Cimex globus in his work
on the Cimicidce, under the generic name of Globocoris, ac-
companied by a very inaccurate series of outline dissections.
Boisduval also figured another broad-headed species, in the
Voyage de l'Astrolabe, under the generic name of Brachy-
platys. Burmeister, on the other hand, in the second volume
of his Handbuch, restored Schrank's name, Tliyreocoris, to
the genus, as improperly applied by Leach; for which reason
I consider it will be most just to adopt Laporte's name, Cop-
tosoma.

The last-named author has, however, erred, in giving the
entire or notched extremity of the scutellum, as the character
of the two sub-genera of which the genus is composed ; since
it is another unnoticed peculiarity in both sub-genera, that
in the males, the scutellum is deeply notched, whilst it is en-
tire in the females. In addition to the other characters given
by Laporte, it may be mentioned, that Plataspis differs from
Coptosoma in the form of the terminal ventral segment, which
is of a triangular form in both sexes ; and in the posterior

Fig. 2 No. 1 repre-
sents Coptosoma glo-
om, male, magnified.
2. Anterior wing fold-
ed. 3. Ditto unfold-
ed. 4. Extremity of
scutellum and abdo-
men of the male. 5.
Ditto of female. 6.
Posterior tarsi of male.

30

Contributions on

terior tarsi of the males, having the basal joint as long as the
terminal. Moreover, although the genus certainly belongs to
the Scutelleridce, I have not been able to discover more than
two joints in the tarsi.

Fig. 3. No. 7. Platas-
pis nigriventris, mag-
nified, (Java). 8. Ex-
tremity of the scutel-
lum and abdomen of
male. 9. Ditto of fe-
male. 10. Posterior
tarsi of male. 1 1 . Do.
of female.

Art. VI. Contributions to South African Zoology. By Andrew
Smith, M.D. Surgeon to the Forces.

No. I.

Whilst lately engaged in examining the saurian reptiles of
South Africa, I found amongst them nine species referrible to
the genus Cordylus, of Gronovius ; and as only one of them
appears to be distinctly described, I here propose to charac-
terise the remaining eight species ; not, however, without a
suspicion, that some of them, at least, may have already been
indicated by Schlegel, in his Monograph of the genus Cordy-
lus, which I have not been able to consult. All the species
belong decidedly to the same genus ; at least, their general
configuration and anatomical characters, place them together:
yet there are modifications presented by some, which may
render it desirable to arrange them for the present, in sec-
tions, or sub-genera. The characters common to all, may
be indicated as those of the genus ; and the peculiarities com-
mon to certain of the species, as those of the sections, or sub-
genera.

Genus CORD YL US, Gronov.
Head broader than the neck, somewhat triangular, square behind, the
temples bulging, above it is covered with thin plates, five of which form a dis-
tinct square upon the occiput. Teeth small, cylindrical, closely set, and
disposed in a groove, around the inner surface of both jaws; those about
half way between the nose and angle of the mouth, generally the largest. —
Tongue short, its apex emarginate. Ears partially concealed by the hinder

South African Zoology. 31

edges of the temples. Scale* of the hack and helly disposed in transverse
rows ; those of the tail, in spinous rings. Femoral pores distinct, and ar-
ranged in one or two rows.

A. Scales forming the transverse rows contiguous or over -lapping , of a
squarish form, and smooth or carinated ; sides of the neck armed with pro-
jecting spinous scales ; most of the scales of the tail carinated, and many of
them, particularly those on the sides, terminated by strong sharp spines ; fe-
moral pores in one row, and in the male only. Cordylus.

C. griseus, Seba. Back with about 26 transverse rows of quadrangular
scales, the latter smooth towards the dorsal line, but, on the sides, carinated.
Anterior edge of ear concealed by two or three slightly projecting semicircu-
lar horny scales. Above, colour brown, or brownish black, below, light brown.
The back, in many individuals, is variegated with irregular black or light
reddish brown spots, and in some there is a reddish brown line, following the
course of the spine. Femoral pores generally 7 on each side. Length from
6 to 8 inches.

C. polyzonus. Back crossed by about 40 bands of quadrangular scales,
the latter smooth, except on the sides, where they are slightly carinated. —
Anterior margin of ear covered by several thick, projecting, pointed scales,
the lowermost of which is largest. Temporal scales slightly carinated, and
each with a faint aculeus. Above, brown or black, sometimes brown varie-
gated with spots of a darker or lighter tint; below, livid brown; on each
side of the neck, immediately behind the ear, an oblong black blotch. Fe-
moral pores 12 on each side. Length, from 8 to 10 inches.

C. nebulosus. Back with about 16 transverse rows of quadrangular scales,
the latter smooth on the middle of the back, but strongly carinated and spi-
nous on the sides. Ears defended by four large projecting scales. Sides
of neck armed with strong spinous scales, directed outwards. Temples ve-
ry prominent, thereby giving a great breadth to the hinder part of the head.
Scales of the tail terminating in very strong spines. Colour above, brown,
below, yellowish brown, clouded with black spots and stripes. Length, from
6 to 8 inches.

The diagnostic characters of the foregoing species are nu-
merous. They may all be readily distinguished, simply by
reckoning the rows of scales, which are nearly uniform in the
individuals of each species ; but should this not be considered
sufficient, other discrepancies will easily be discovered. On
comparing specimens of Cordylus griseus and C. polyzonus,
it will be found that the rows of scales are much narrower in
the latter than in the former, and that the scales of the tail
in polyzonus are never so strongly armed as in griseus; besides,
the latter never attains to the same size as the former, nor does
it ever exhibit the oblong black blotch, which occurs on the
side of the neck of polyzonus. C. nebulosus is again easily
to be distinguished from both the last, by the breadth of its
hind head, the great size of its scales, their superior strength,
and the very strong and lengthened spines, with which the
greater portion of the tail is armed. The black variegations
upon the chin, throat, and belly, are also peculiar to it.

32 Contributions to Soutlt African Zooloyy.

B. Back covered by transverse roivs of contiguous or over -lapping scales ;
sides by small tubercular or granular scales ; sides of the neck with a fold of
loose skin, which, as well as the parts surrounding it, is covered with granular
scales. Hemicordvlus.

H. Capensis. Scales of the back quadrangular and carinated ; the num-
ber of transverse rows considerable, but from their being indistinct on the
back of the neck, where the granular scales abound, it is not possible to
reckon them with any certainty. About the middle of each side, a longitu-
dinal row of large scales amongst the granular ones. Scales of tail with
moderate spines. Belly with 8 longitudinal rows of square plates. Femo-
ral pores, 18. Colour above, dirty black, beneath, livid blue black. Length
1\ inches.

This is the only species I have yet seen, which well belongs
to this section ; and the only specimen of the species which
I have had an opportunity of examining, is contained in the
Museum of the Army Medical Department, whither it was
sent, from the Cape of Good Hope, by Assistant Surgeon
Forde, of the 72nd Regiment. By its peculiar scales, it is at
once to be distinguished from the species of the foregoing sec-
tion. The mixed character of the scales on the sides, points
out its close connection with the species of the next section.

C. Scales of the back and sides disposed in transverse rows, somewhat cir-
cular inform, and those of each row more or less separated by the intervention
of small granular scales. Neck with two folds of loose skin, and by the
mode in which they are disposed generally give rise to triangular depressions
behind the ears. Femoral pores in two rows, most distinct in the male. —

PsE UDOCORDYLUS.

s P. montanus. Scales forming the transverse rows small, somewhat ovate
and faintly carinated ; those on the sides largest ; scales of tail with mode-
rate sized spines. Colour above, brown or blackish brown, and transversely
divided at nearly equal distances by 7 or 8 interrupted yellowish bands ; be-
low, yellow or orange, with tints of red ; legs variegated by transverse yel-
low bands ; tail irregularly marked, black and yellow. Femoral pores 8 in
the last, and 4 or 5 in the first row. Length, from 10 to 13 inches.

vS' V.fasciatus. Scales forming the transverse rows rather closely set, some-
what circular, and with elevated discs. Anterior margin of ear concealed
by three projecting horny scales, the lowest being largest. Colour above,
brown-black, variegated by 7 or 8 transverse rows of dirty white spots, 2 of
which rows cross the back of the neck ; beneath, light livid brown. Seven
femoral pores in the last row, and 4 or 5 in the first. Length, from 8 to 10
inches.

s P. melanotus. Scales circular and small along the middle of the back, on
the sides larger and somewhat ovate, each with a faint carina, ending in a
rudimentary spine. Colour above, black, sides and belly orange yellow,
tinted with vermilion red. On each side of the neck two large black spots.
Ten femoral pores in the last row, and 8 in the first. Length, from 12 to
14 inches. The female has the back freely variegated with short yellowish
stripes.

P. Algoensis. Scales forming the transverse rows, sub-ovate, each with
an elevated disc, and a faint carina ; those towards the dorsal line smallest.
Colour above, reddish brown, crossed by some imperfect yellow bands in the
male, and by 6 or 7 rows of yellow spots in the female ; sides and belly o-
range yellow, tinted with vermilion red ; two large black spots on each side

On the Characters of Cartilaginous Fishes. 33

of the neck. From 7 to 9 femoral pores in the last row, and 4 in the first.
Length, from 14 to 16 inches.

P. sub-viridis. Scales of transverse rows smallest towards the dorsal line,
where they are of a somewhat circular form ; on the sides they are larger,
and inclined to a triangular shape, with elevated discs, and each faintly ca-
rinated. Colour above, blue green, the back freely variegated with faint
longitudinal short whitish streaks, beneath greenish brown. Length 1 0 inches.

There is a considerable resemblance between the two first
species of this section, but they will easily be distinguished
by a regard to the character of the scales. In montanus they
are carinated ; whilst in fasciatus they have elevated discs,
without any appearance of carina?.

Art. VII. On the generic characters of Cartilaginous Fishes, with
Descriptions of new genera. By Professor J. Muller and Dr.
Henle.

The confusion which still exists in the natural history of car-
tilaginous fishes, may be attributed to the generally imperfect
descriptions which have been given of the species, and also
to the circumstance of the most important generic characters
having been, in many instances, either overlooked or not suffi-
ciently appreciated. In searching for characters by which the
genera and species might be distinguished with more accura-
cy than had been previously done, we found ourselves com-
pelled to enlarge the number of genera and subgenera hitherto
established ; but, at the same time, we most carefully avoided
making these additions, unless very essential differences ren-
dered their establishment necessary. Such are, in the order of
Sharks, the system of dentition, the form of the nose, of the
mouth, and lips, and of the caudal fin; the existence or want of
the eyelid, {membrana nictitans) spiracles, and of the small de-
pression or dimple on the root of the tail ; the situation of the
branchial openings, and of the dorsal fins ; and in the order of
Skates, the form of the nasal valve, and of the membranaceous
curtain behind the teeth, {velum maxillare) the number and si-

* We regard this communication as an extremely valuable one, from the
veiy extensive materials to which the authors have had access, in drawing
up the arrangement of so highly interesting an order of vertebrate animals
as the Cartilaginous Fishes. Prof. Muller and Dr. Henle have just return-
ed to Berlin, after spending some months in this country ; during which
they visited the different Museums of Natural History, besides having the
use of Dr. Andrew Smith's extensive collection of Sharks from the Cape ;
the result of their investigations, up to the present time, is embodied in this
paper. The Article is in Dr. Henle's own English, with a few revisions. Ed,

Vol. III.— No. 13. n. s. d

34 On the generic characters

tuation of the fins, and the shape of the teeth ; only in the genus
Rata this last character is uncertain, the teeth changing here
with the age and sex, so as to be a character which cannot be
depended upon, even in the distinction of species. The same
may be said, to a certain extent, of the scales of the skin, and
the shape of the snout. Fortunately, in a collection of Sicilian
fishes, presented by Dr. Schultz to our anatomical museum,
and in the admirable manner in which they are arranged, we
possess the means of comparing a great number of individu-
als of the same species, whereby we are enabled to determine
the limits of individual differences.

The most important character by which the great order of
Skates, {Rata) differs from that of the Sharks, [Squall), is the
existence of a peculiar cartilage arising from the nasal part of
the skull, and extending toward, or even meeting, the anterior
part of the crest of the pectoral fin. This cartilage is found
in all the Skates, and also in Rhinobatus and Pristis ; where-
as there is no trace of it in any Shark.

At the head of the order of Sharks we place the family of
the Scyllia, of which the following characters may be given.

Fam. SCYLLIUM.

An anal and two dorsal fins ; the first dorsal placed behind or opposite, but
never before the abdominal fins. The spiracles are distinct in all, and pretty
large in most of them. The eye-lid, (membrana nictitans) is wanting.

The distinction of Cuvier, which is taken from the. distance
between the mouth and nostrils, is not sufficient, as it is a diffe-
rence only of degree. We confine the name Scyllium to such
Sharks of this family as have the anal fin placed nearer to the
head than the second dorsal fin. (11 species.)

Gen. Pristiurus, Bonap.
Differs from Scyllium only by its long snout, and by a series of larger
scales, arranged like a saw, on the upper edge of the tail. (1 sp.)

Chiloscy Ilium, Nobis.
Anal fin placed farther back than the second dorsal, and the last bran-
chial opening approximating to the fourth. The characteristic mark of this
genus is the broad, membranaceous under lip, separated from the skin of the
throat by a kind of furrow. The upper nasal valve bears a cirrhus. (4 sp.)

Hemiscy Ilium, Nob.
Situation of the fins is as in the preceding genus ; the nose and mouth as
in Scyllium. (1 sp.)

Crossorhinus, Nob.
Remarkable for a great number of small membranaceous lobules, situa-
ted between the nostrils, and the first branchial opening. The mouth is
nearly at the top of the head. The two dorsal fins are placed towards the
posterior end of the animal ; the first of them being situated above, and a
little behind, the abdominal fins. (1 sp. the Squalus lobatus, Bl. Schn.)

of Cartilaginous Fisltes. 35

Ginglymostoma, Nob.
Has small spiracles, the two last branchial openings approximating to each
other. The first dorsal fin above the abdominal ones ; the second dorsal fin
opposite to the anal. In adult specimens, the inferior part of the fold bor-
dering the corners of the mouth, is distinctly separated from the skin of the
lower jaw, by a perpendicular furrow. (1 sp.)

Stegostoma, Nob.
The first dorsal fin begins a little before the abdominal ones, standing,
for the greater part, opposite to this. The branchial openings are as in
Chiloscyllium. A large and thick wreath or rim conceals the upper jaw and
the opening of the mouth, which is placed transversely : the nasal valves are
reduced to lateral edges of this wreath. (1 sp. Squalus fasciatus, Bl. Schn.
3 var.)

All the Scyllia have the teeth small, pointed, with one or
two, or more, lateral denticles en each side. In Stegostoma
they are like trifid leaves ; in Ginglymostoma the number of
the lateral denticles increases to four on each side. To this
group belong, as it seems, all the oviparous Sharks. All of
them, whose anatomy we are acquainted with, have the valve
of the intestine in the form of a spiral.

The Sharks of the second division possess, like the Scyllia,
an anal and two dorsal fins, and five branchial openings ; but
their first dorsal fin is always placed between the pectoral
and abdominal fins. They may be divided in the following
manner.

A large group is distinguished by a membrana nictitans,
by the situation of the second dorsal fin, which is opposite to
the anal one, and by the situation of the branchial openings,
the last, or two last of them being always placed above the
base of the pectoral fins. We distribute them in two divi-
sions, characterized by the presence or absence of spiracles ;
and we make subdivisions according to the form of the teeth.

A. Without spiracles.

a Teeth flat, sharp, the edges serrated or smooth

1 . Carcharias. Their flat and sharp teeth are serrated on each side, ei-

ther in the upper jaw only, or in both. Spiracles are never met
with in the adult specimens, though the rudiments of these organs
may be observed in the foetus of a few species. (20 sp.)

2. Scoliodon,N6b. differs only by the teeth being of the same shape in

the upper and lower jaw ; viz. the points directed towards the cor-
ner of the mouth, with a smooth edge, and a truncated protuber-
ance, either smooth or indented, on the exterior side of the base. —
(5 sp.)

3. Zygcena; the generic characters of which we need not repeat. Teeth

as in Scoliodon, but in the adult specimens distinctly serrated. —
(3sp.)

These three genera have the valve of the intestine longitu-
dinal and rolled ; an incision near the extremity of the elon-
gated upper lobe of the caudal fin, and a small dimple at the

d 2

W On the characters of Cartilaginous Fishes.

root of this fin. It seems that there exist Sharks, very nearly
related to Carcharias, but wanting this dimple, a character
which would of itself constitute a genus.

b. Teeth pointed, with lateral denticles, like the teeth of Scyllium.

1. Triaenodon, Nob. On each side of the teeth there is a denticle, which

on the exterior side of most of those in the lower jaw is double. —
Caudal fin as in Carcharias, with a dimple at the root. (1 sp.)

2. Leptocharias, Andr. Smith. Teeth numerous, one or two lateral denti-

cleson each side. The dimple near the caudal fin wanting, and the
inferiorlobe of the fin scarcely indicated. The nasal valve elongated
into a cirrhus. (1 sp.)
We are as yet unacquainted with the valves of the intes-
tine in these two genera.
B. Possessing spiracles.

a. Teeth flat, sharp, serrated or not serrated.

1 . Galeocerdo, Nob. Teeth strongly serrated on the exterior edge, finely

on the interior. Spiracles small. A dimple on the root of the tail :
the upper lobe of the caudal fin elongated, with two incisions. —
Valve of the intestine as in Carcharias. (2 sp.)

2. Loxodon, Nob. Teeth without serrature, as in Scoliodon Spiracles

very small. Valve of intestine, dimple of the tail, and caudal fin as
in the preceding genus, but the upper lobe of that fin with only one
incision. (1 sp.)

3. Galeus. Teeth, in both jaws, serrated on the exterior edge, inclined

outwardly. Tail as in Carcharias, but wanting the dimple. Valve
of intestine in a spiral. (1 sp.)

b. Teeth pointed, as in Scyllium.

Triakis, Nob. Teeth as in Triaenodon. Dimple of the tail wanting ;
the inferior lobe of the caudal fin not distinct. (1 sp.)

c. Teeth pavement-like, or presenting a general continuity of surface, as in

the Skates.
. Mustelus. Spiracles large. Inferior lobe of the caudal fin very short.
Membrana nictitans only rudimental. Valve of intestine in a spi-
ral. (1 sp. 3 var.)

In none of the following genera is there any trace of a mem-
brana nictitans.

The Lamnoidea form the second group, of which the fol-
lowing characters may be given.

Fam. LAMNOIDEA.

Branchial openings large, all situated before the pectoral fins. Spiracles
small. Caudal fin in the form of a crescent, with a lateral keel and a dis-
tinct dimple, and the small anal and second dorsal fins opposite each other.

1. Lamna. Head pointed, conic; spiracles extremely small, disco-

vered by Dr. Smith ; teeth long, pointed, with two lateral denticles,
indistinct or wanting in young individuals. The third, sometimes
also the fourth or fifth tooth of the upper jaw is smaller than the
rest. (2 sp.)

2. Oxyrrhina, Agass. Teeth long and thick, like nails, without lateral

denticles, the anterior ones introverted; the third tooth of the up-
per jaw is small and short. (2 sp.)

*This Shark is the Lamia of Rondelet, and seems to be the Carcharias
verus of Agassiz.

Remarks mi the genus Mustela. 37

3. Carcharodon, Smith. Teeth as in Carcharis, serrated on both edges

The third tooth of the upper jaw smaller. (1 sp.)*

4. Selache. Teeth very small, narrow, conic, numerous. Snout short.

(1 sp.)

5. Rineodon, Smith. Teeth exceedingly small, pointed. Mouth on

the top of the snout.

The valve of the intesline seems to form a spiral in all the
Lamnoidea ; there is only Carcharodon and Oxyrrhina in
which we cannot be sure of this point, because we have had
no opportunity of dissecting them.

Berlin, Dec. 12. To be continued.

Art. VIII. Remarks on the species of the genus Mustela. By
Charles L. Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano.* Communi-
cated by the Author.

In all English zoological publications, we find two American
species noticed, with more or less certainty, under the names
of Mustela vulgaris and M. erminea.

During my stay in the United States, I only saw a small
species of Mustela, very common throughout the Union, which
all the naturalists at that time considered as the M. vulgaris.
I at once perceived that it was not that European animal, and
that it approached more to the M. erminea. From that re-
mark of mine the name was changed, as, for example, in Dr.
Godman's Natural History.

I have since, in my Iconography of the Italian Fauna,
speaking of the new M. boccamela, taken an opportunity of
revising the group Mustela, and of distinguishing the Ameri-
can under the name of M. Cigognanii ; as it is intermediate
between the two European species. I believed, (not to speak
of the American authors, who have only studied nature in
European books), that the American M. vulgaris and M. er-
minea, had both been founded on this species ; I have now
found two American species the true representatives of ermi-
nea. . For these I shall now propose a name ; and as my
observations on the genus may not be known in England,
I shall give a short compendium of my labours.

The genus Mustela, as may be seen at length in the work
quoted, is by me divided into four genera; Zorilla, Martes,
(the Mustela of Cuv.) Putorius, {Putorii pars, Cuv.) and Mus-
tela, {Putorii pars, Cuv.) Of the necessity of retaining the
classical name of Mustela to these small slender-tailed species,
every one acquainted with Latinity cannot have a doubt.

The following are the species of the genus, as I have re-
stricted it.

* Read at the Zoological Society.
d3

38 Botany of the Neighbourhood of Tring.

1 . Mustela erminea, Linn. Europe.

2. Mustela Cicognanii, Nob. North America.

3. Mustela boccamela, Nob. Sardinia.

4. Mustela vulgaris, Linn. Europe.

5. Mustela Richardsonii, Nob. (M. erminea, Rich. F. Bor. Amer.)

North America.

6. Mustela longicauda, Nob. (M. erminea, Rich. F. Bor. Amer.)

North America.

7. Mustela frcenata, Licht. A beautiful species from Mexico.
One of the new species is named after Dr. Richardson, the

author of the truly excellent Fauna Boreali Americana, who
has done so much for American Zoology. As to the snorter
tailed American species, it was a source of great gratification to
me to be able, in a book published in Rome, to pay, by naming
after him an American animal, a compliment to an accom-
plished and most esteemed friend ; who, for upwards of four-
teen years had served, in diplomatic and commercial concerns,
with mutual satisfaction, two countries, separated by such an
immense distance, and so different in their institutions, as
the Roman and United States of America. My object was,
I must confess, that the good Americans, (alien I am sure from
proverbial republican ingratitude), should have constantly un-
der their eye, this very common little animal, as the perpetual
memorial of the worthy individual after whom I have named it.

Art. XI. Catalogue of the rarer indigenous Plants growing in the
neighbourhood of Tring. By Richard Chambers, Esq. F.L.S.
&c.

The town of Tring is situated on the western extremity of
the county of Herts, on the borders of Buckinghamshire ;
which, lying on the great chalk formation, that extends, with
but little interruption, from Cromer, in Norfolk, to the Isle of
Purbeck, in Dorsetshire, renders the neighbourhood highly
favourable for our rarer plants, particularly the Orchidea. —
Thinking that every addition to our botanical localities would
be acceptable to those who read

" Sermons in flowers, and good in every thing,"
I have given a list of the rarer phsenogamous plants, which I
have met with in my various rambles through this interesting
district.
Dipsacus pilosus. Beech woods near Buckland Common. From five

to six feet high.
Asperula cynanchica. Chalky meadows around Tring.
Alchemilla vulgaris. Abundant in the beech woods south west of Tring.

Extremely luxuriant, being frequently more than two feet high.
Atropa Belladonna. Copse on the road from London, within a mile of
Tring.

Botany of the neighbourhood of Tring. 39

Vinca major. Hedge-banks ; Barley End, near Ashridge.

Gentiana verna. Chalky meadows between Tring and Aston Clinton.

Convallaria multijiora. Beech woods above Aston Hill.

Chlora perfoliata. Chalk banks; road-side between Tring and Aston

Clinton.
Paris quadrifolia. Abundant in the woods near Albury, on the borders

of Northchurch Common.
Monotropa Hypopitys. Beech woods above Aston Hill.
Pyrola minor. Woods south west of Tring, in abundance.
Rubus idceus. Beech woods around Tring.
Fragaria elatior. Woods near Wigginton Common.
Aquilegia vulgaris. Hedges and woods near the Aylesbury road.
Anemone Pulsatilla. Most abundant on the chalky downs between Tring

and Aldbury.
Melampyrum cristatum. Wood near Northchurch Common.
Antirrhinum minus. Hilly meadows under the beech woods.
Turritis hirsuta. Woody glen at the bottom of Aston Hill.
Vicia sylvatica. Beech woods above Aston Hill, festooning the trees in

the utmost luxuriance.
Hippocrepis comosa. Road-sides; most abundant.
Prenanthes muralis. Beech woods west of Tring.
Cineraria integrifolia. Abundant on the downs to the north of Tring.
Epipactis grandijiora. ]

latifolia. I Beech woods around Tring.

Nidus avis.)

Htmin^moZrcJds. }Chalky mead?ws at Barley End> near Ashridge.

Ophrys muscifera. Borders of meadows and woods near Tring Park.

■ apifera. Meadows between Wigginton and the London road.

Orchis conopsea. } Very luxuriant and abundant on all the chalk banks

pyramidalis. j by Tring, Aston Clinton, and Ivinghoe.

ustulata. Chalk banks at the bottom of Aston Hill, and on the

downs between Tring and Ivinghoe Hill.

militaris. Chalk banks bordering on the beech woods to the west
of Tring. As this splendid Orchis has been frequently confounded
with the Orchis fusca, and the O. tephrosanthos, I have given a fi-
gure of each, by which I think it will be readily distinguished from
its congeners.

4

Orchis tephrosanthos. O. fusca. O. militaris.

A few years since the Orchis militaris was found in great
abundance in many places around Tring, particularly in the
hilly meadows which intersect the beech woods to the south
west of the town ; but now it is as rare as it was formerly
abundant. And it is to be regretted that the avidity of col-

n4

40 On the Remains of Vertebrated Animals

lectors has nearly extirpated some of our rarest plants. The
Cypripedium Calceolus, once common near Ingleborough, in
Yorkshire, is now hardly ever met with ; and such is the fate
of the Orchis militaris. How desirable is it, that botanists
should bear in mind the christian advice of the late Mr. James
Dickson, that " if they found but four or five specimens of a
plant, only to take one ; ever recollecting, that there are other
botanists, equally eager as themselves, to collect a specimen."
Instead of following this golden rule, many seem to consider
quantity as the only criterion of botanical knowledge ; and
sorry am I to say, that the students of some of our public in-
stitutions have adopted this erroneous and selfish opinion. —
It gives me great pain to be compelled to make these remarks,
but when I see these wholesale collectors, after a day's her-
barising, laden with bundles and baskets, full of our rarer
plants, like a regiment of botanical pedlars, I cannot help, for
the sake of the present as well as future botanists, urging them
to bear in mind the beautiful precept of doing as they would
be done by ; and also reminding them, that true liberty does
not consist in doing what we please, — but, in doing what we
please without injuring another.
London, Dec. 10th, 1837.

Art. X. A Notice of the Remains of Vertebrated Animals occur-
ring in the Tertiary Beds of Norfolk and Suffolk. By Edward
Charlesworth, F.G.S. &c.

(From the Sixth Report of the British Association for the Advancement of

Science.)*

The author brings forward this paper, principally with a view
to substantiate the fact, that some of the marine fossiliferous
deposits on the eastern coast of England, belonging to the
tertiary epoch, contain the remains of extinct and existing
species of terrestrial Mammalia, clearly contemporaneous with
the shells and other organic bodies in association with them.
In 1835 the author described a newly-discovered bed o,'
fossils,f separating the crag from the London clay, at various
localities in Suffolk, which he proposed to call "Coralline
Crag,1' suggesting, at the same time, the term " Red Crag"
as an appropriate designation for the overlying ferruginous

* The geological relations of the crag fossils described in the New Series
of the Mag. Nat. Hist, will he readily understood by a reference to the pre-
sent article. Ed.

fSee London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, August, 1835.

in the Tertiary Deposits of Norfolk and Suffolk. 41

shelly strata with which geologists were already familiar. —
Never having detected the remains of mammalia in either of
the above-named deposits, and believing that the crag of Nor-
folk was merely an extension of the upper or red crag of Suf-
folk, the author, in common with Professor Phillips, and some
other geological writers, had thrown doubts upon the exist-
ence of the bones of elephants and other land animals, in the
tertiary beds of the former county, believing that their sup-
posed occurrence probably originated in the erroneous iden-
tification of diluvium with crag; the extremely superficial
character of the latter, and the abrasion to which it has, in
some places, been exposed, rendering a precise separation of
the two a matter, sometimes, of considerable difficulty.

A recent examination, however, of Norfolk, has produced
a total change in the opinions previously entertained by the
author upon this subject; for he finds that not only are the
bones of land animals constantly found in the so-called " crag"
of that county, but that they are of most frequent occurrence
in those particular beds which furnish the strongest evidence
of tranquil deposition ; and further, the bones strictly belong-
ing to these beds of marine origin, can be at once distinguish-
ed from those of the overlying diluvial or lacustrine deposits,
by the peculiar chemical change which the former have un
dergone. The list of mammalia enumerated by the author, as
belonging to the tertiary period, include six or eight species
of Rodentia and Ruminantia, one of the genus Lutra, besides
teeth of the elephant, hippopotamus, and mastodon. Dr-
William Smith was the first who announced the discovery of
the mastodon in our own country; and though geologists
have generally refused to place it on the list of British fossil
Pachydermata, the existence of this genus has recently been
most completely established by the researches of Mr. Robert
Fitch and Mr. Samuel Woodward, of Norwich, and Captain
Alexander, of Yarmouth.

The author, in the next place, proceeds to discuss the re-
lation which this mammiferous stratum bears to the two ter-
tiary deposits of the adjoining county, and shews that is not,
as he had anticipaied, an extension of the red crag of Suffolk,
but a deposit altogether distinct from it and the coralline, dif-
fering essentially from both, in the number and nature of its
organic contents. Its geographical limits are not confined to
Norfolk, since it may be traced from Norwich, to Aldeburgh
in Suffolk, overlying some part of the coral reefs in that most
interesting locality. It may be most advantageously examined
in the immediate neighbourhood of Norwich, at Southwold,

42 Remains of Vertebrate in Tertiary Deposits.

and on Thorp Common, near Aldeburgh. This stratum, as
regards relative age, may be looked upon as holding a station
intermediate to the red crag, and those deposits in which the
testaceous remains appear to belong, almost exclusively, to
existing species of mollusca.

The beds above the chalk in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex,
may be grouped into two sections, determined by the presence
of terrestrial mammalia throughout a part of the series, which
in descending order will be as follows. —

A. Beds furnishing remains of Terrestrial Mammalia.

1. Superficial gravel, containing bones of land animals, pro-
bably washed out of stratified deposits.

2. Superficial marine deposits of clay, sand, &c. in which
the shells, very few in number, (10 or 15 species), may
all be identified with such as are now existing.

Examples. — Brick earth of the Nar, Norfolk.

3. Fluviatile and lacustrine deposits, containing a consi-
derable number of land and fresh-water shells, with a
small proportion of extinct species. (Mammalian remains
in great abundance.)

Localities. — Ilford, Copford, and Grays, in Essex ; Stutton
in Suffolk.

4. Mammiferous crag of Norfolk and Suffolk, hitherto con-
founded with red crag, containing about eighty species
of shells ; proportion of extinct species undecided.

Localities. — Bramerton, near Norwich; Southwold, and
Thorp, in Suffolk.
B. Beds in which no traces of Terrestrial Mammalia have yet been observed.

1. Red crag, containing 150 to 200 species of shells ; pro-
portion of extinct species undetermined.

Localities. — Walton and Dovercourt, Essex; Felixstow,
Newbourne, and Bawdesey, Suffolk.

2. Coralline crag, containing 300 to 400 species of shells ;
proportion of extinct species undetermined.

Localities. — Ramsholt, Sutton, Tattingstone, (beneath red
crag), Aldeburgh, Orford.

3. London clay.

4. Plastic clay.

The author next adverts to the remains of birds, which he
has recently obtained, on several occasions, in the mammife-
rous stratum of crag. The bones, principally belonging to
the phalanges, have not yet been minutely compared with
the corresponding portions of skeletons of existing species.
These remains occur at Southwold, and have undergone the
same chemical change as the bones of mammalia.

On the production of Crystals. 43

No remains which can be satisfactorily referred to the
Reptilia, have been discovered in the crag.

The remains of fish are very abundantly dispersed through-
out the red and mammiferous crag, but are far less numerous
in the coralline. Occurring only as detached bones, it is not
very easy to arrive at any very satisfactory results in their
examination. Their distribution throughout the three depo-
sits is as follows. —

Mammiferous Crag. — Bones of the genus Platax, in im-
mense numbers ; several species of the genus Rata ; ver-
tebra of genera totally new to Agassiz.
Red Crag. — Teeth of Carcharias, several species, including
C. Megalodon of Agassiz ; palates of Myliobatis ; teeth
of Lanina, Notidanis, Galeus.
Coralline Crag. Genera undetermined.

Art. XI. Remarks on the production of Crystals. By John
Morris, Esq.

The origin of the various combinations of the metallic and
earthy bodies familiar to the geologist, in the primary and se-
condary rocks, will become more elucidated in proportion as
the chemist investigates their composition. Nature, though
silent has not been inactive, during the long succession of
ages intervening since their deposition. Mechanical action
is evident in the consolidation of shales and clays by pressure
— in the conversion of sand into sandstone — in the hardening
of calcareous marls — the deposition of chert, &c. There is
also extensive evidence of chemical action ; from an attentive
examination of the contents of our secondary strata, . I have
been led to the opinion of the animal origin of some of the
sulphur ; we find it combined in the state of sulphuret and
sulphate, through all the argillaceous deposits — in the clay
slate — lias marls and clays — the Oxford and Kimmeridge
clays — in the gault and London clay, and sparingly in the
oolites and chalk ; — the two latter contain a smaller propor-
tion of iron scattered through their substance, whilst in the
former, it not only exists in great quantities, but in a finely
divided state. The abundance of fossil remains in these for-
mations, especially of the testaceous tribes, is well known,
and it is probable that many of the animals were entombed
with their shelly covering ; the decomposition of all this ani-
mal matter has produced quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen,
which, in a nascent state, may have united with the particles
of iron, and converted them into a sulphuret, or at certain

44 Discovery of Cucubalus baccifer

depths, this gas may have become liquid, and combined with
the iron in that state ;* the sulphuret may have become acid-
ified, the acid uniting with the lime, and forming sulphate,
the iron being set free, and entering into other combinations,
such as those ochreous concretions so common in these depo-
sits ; or sulphate of ironf may be formed, and this again de-
composed by contact with calcareous or earthy substances.
In this way I have been able to produce, artificially, crystals
of sulphate of lime, by placing pieces of compact limestone
in solutions of the sulphates of the various metals, and leaving
them for a considerable time, the sulphates have become de-
composed, one portion is precipitated on the limestone, in
the state of sub-sulphate, the other portion of the acid unit-
ing with the lime, and forming transparent acicular crystals
of the sulphate, which shoot out from the mass itself. When
sub-sulphate of copper is formed in this way, and allowed to
continue for some time, it is again partially decomposed, and
converted into a carbonate. By the same slow process,
continued for two or three years, I have formed ochre and
other substances. Now, it would appear that some native
mineral compounds have been so formed, having frequently
observed in specimens of carbonate of copper, the crystals
arranged in bundles or masses round a nucleus of the sulphu-
ret, the surface of the limestone itself presenting rhomboidal
facets, as if it had been acted upon by an acid : also speci-
mens of sulphuret and carbonate of barytes. and other native
mineral substances.
Kensington, Nov. 1837.

Art. XII. Notice of the Discovery of Cucubalus baccifer, in the
Isle of Dogs. By Mr. George Luxford, A.L.S.

The following passages in Sir J. E. Smith's admirable Dis-
course read at the opening of the Linnean Society, appear so
apposite to the singular history of the plant which forms the
subject of the present communication, that I make no apo-
logy for using them as a preface to this article.

*" Sulphuretted hydrogen becomes liquid at 50° F. under a pressure of 17
atmospheres, or beneath 578 feet of water, or 250 feet of rock."

Geol. Researches, by De Labeche.

" Sulphuret of iron has been formed by mice and rats falling accidentally
into a solution of sulphate of iron the vessel not being disturbed for some
time." PepyS) — Geol. Trans.

f Some of the pyritous fossils of the Isle of Sheppy, exude sulphur, or sul-
phate of iron, according as they have been exposed to a damp state.

in the Isle of Dogs. 45

u Besides an attention to Natural History in general, a pe-
culiar regard to the productions of our own country may be
expected from us. We have yet much to learn concerning
many plants, which authors copy from one another as the
produce of Cheat Britain, hut which few have seen.'" "Of
the productions of our own country we ought to make our-
selves perfectly masters, as no natural object can anywhere
be studied half so well as in its native soil."

This Discourse was written about fifty years ago ; and al-
though since that time so much has been done in the different
branches of Natural History, and Botany in particular, in con-
sequence of the discoveries which have recently been made in
it, has become comparatively anew science, it must be granted
that much still remains to be done — that "we have yet much
to learn concerning many plants ; " not only those of distant
lands, or even the more rare productions of our own country,
but also concerning those with whose forms we are most fa-
miliar. These " gems of the earth," which, from their being so
common, we too much neglect, will, if read aright, be found to
display more beauties, and to possess a greater number of inte-
resting peculiarities, than we had ' dreamt of in our philosophy.'

But to the subject. — Whilst botanizing in the Isle of Dogs
in June last, in company with my highly respected friend,
Mr. Cameron, Curator of the Birmingham Botanic Garden, I
observed growing among nettles and brambles on the southern
bank of one of the ditches, a considerable quantity of what I
thought was Cerastium aquaticum, not in flower ; and I felt
so persuaded of its being merely that common plant, that I,
for a time, totally forgot the circumstance, and made one bo-
tanical visit to the island, without examining, or even thinking
of the locality. In the early part of the following August,
however, being again botanizing there with another esteemed
Birmingham friend, Frederic Westcott, Esq. one of the Hon.
Sees, to the Botanical and Horticultural Society, I quite by
accident came again to the place where I had before seen
what I thought was Cerastium aquaticum. The plant was
now in full flower ; and I at once, to my equal surprise and
delight, perceived it to be the highly interesting Cucubalus
baccifer ; a plant which, although it had occupied a place in
every British Flora, and every list of British plants, for a pe-
riod of one hundred years, appears never before to have been
found wild, or even apparently wild, in any part of the British
islands.

This plant is a native of the south of Europe, and was in-
serted by Dillenius, as a British plant, under the name of
Cucubalus Plinii, in the 3rd edition of Ray's Synopsis, 267,

46 Cucubalus baccifer in the Isle of Dogs.

published in 1724. He there speaks of it as having been " ga-
thered in hedges in Anglesea, (Mono), by Mr. Foulkes, of
Llanbeder, and sent to Dr. Richardson." The following let-
ter from Mr. Foulkes to the latter gentleman shews, however,
that his information was erroneous.

" Sir, Llanbeder, near Ruthin, Nov. 7, 1727.

I am to beg your pardon, which I do heartily, for informing

you that Alsine baccifera grew in Anglesea, which I did from the account of

it from one who pretended to know plants very well, and had attended Mr.

Edward Lloyd."

In a note to Alsine baccifera in the above letter, Sir J. E.
Smith says ; —

Cucubalus baccifer. The only authority for this plant being reckoned a
native of Britain, is the above Mr, Foulkes. Nobody, as far as I can learn,
has met with the plant since, except in curious botanic gardens, in any part
of the British isles ; and I was accordingly obliged to be content with a gar-
den specimen, for the figure in English Botany, t. 1577. I am therefore
under the necessity, however unwillingly, of excluding the Cucubalus bac-
cifer from our British Flora. The Rev. Hugh Davies, who is so intimately
acquainted with the Botany of Anglesea, could never meet with this plant."
Linnean Correspondence, Vol. \\.p. 171.

And subsequently, in his Eng. Fl. published in 18*28, he
remarks ; —

" Cucubalus baccifer, which has hitherto found a place in every British
Flora, and which, in Fl. Brit. 464, stands as the only representative of its ge-
nus, must here be omitted." Vol. Up. 290.

Dr. Macreight, in his Manual of Botany, published in 1837,
inserts the plant on the authority of Mr. G. Don, as growing
in " shady woods near Edinburgh ; " but Professor Don says
he believes this is a mistake ; and that his brother only thinks
the plant he saw, might have been the Cucubalus.

My chief object in making this communication is to call
the attention of botanists to this singular plant. For although
it would perhaps be too much to claim its restoration to the
British Flora, on the ground of its occurrence in this single
locality, yet I cannot but believe that I have before met with
it, in similar situations, in other parts of England ; where, not
having been in flower at the time, T have always passed it by,
as I did on my first sight of it in the Isle of Dogs, thinking
it to be its natural ally, Cerastium aquaticum, to which, when
not in flower, it bears a very strong resemblance. Moreover,
from the very luxuriant state of the Cucubalus in the above
locality, I should conclude that it had been, for a long time,
in undisturbed possession of the place where it was growing:
and the ditch having been cleaned out, and the banks cleared
of their rank herbage, on each side of this place, it is not im-
probable that the plant had been destroyed in the cleared
parts. Under the circumstances there can, I think, be no
harm done in considering it a naturalized plant, at least un-

Female Orang at the Zoological Society's Gardens. 47

til further investigation shall have thrown more light on the
subject.

The frequent occurrence of Polygonum dumetorum since
its first discovery, may be instanced as the effect of the atten-
tion of botanists being directed to any particular plant ; and
induces me to hope that this notice may lead to the detection of
the plant which is the subject of it, in other localities, and its
consequent restoration to its long-occupied place in the British
Flora. Whether this be the case or not, it is a curious coinci-
dence, that three plants, Bupleurum falcatum, Polygonum
dumetorum, and Cucubalus baccifer, which the older bota-
nists seem to have considered as belonging to our Flora, but
apparently on insufficient grounds, should yet, in our modern
days, be found growing within so short a distance of the
metropolis. Truly, it goes far to prove that these honest old
simplers knew what they were about, and that they were not
quite such noodles as some of their descendants are too apt
to take them for.

London, Dec. 25, 1837.

SCIENTIFIC NOTICES, INTELLIGENCE, &c.

Zoological Society's Gfirdens. — In our last number we no-
ticed the interesting addition which the Zoological Society
had then then just made to their Menagerie, in the purchase
of a female Orang ; and, up to the present date, (Dec. 25th),
we are enabled to give the most favourable report of the crea-
ture's health. She has become excessively attached to her
keeper, and is daily improving in strength and spirits, and
promises to be, for a long time, one of the most attractive ob-
jects at the gardens. At the evening meeting of the Society,
Dec. 12th, Mr. Owen made some remarks upon one or two
particulars, in which this animal differs very materially from
the Chimpanzee, whose death was so much regretted about
two years since. He observed, that one very marked differ-
ence consisted in the inferiority of the Orang, as regards the
functions of the organs of voice; for, while the Chimpanzee
expressed its anger by loud cries, or a succession of short
quick sounds, resembling a bark, the Orang, when vexed or
thwarted of its favorite object, displayed its wrath by uttering
a feeble and almost inaudible continuous whine. The Orang
is also far less active in its habits, rarely moving, unless to
follow its keeper, or when strongly tempted, and then its mo-
tion is slower, and more awkward than in the Chimpanzee ;

48 Live Seal. — Animal of the Argonaut.

the awkwardness arising from the extreme disparity in the
length of the anterior and posterior extremities. The hair
on the head is all directed forwards ; in the Chimpanzee it
radiated from a centre.

Mr. Owen also remarked that the thumbs of the lower ex-
tremities were devoid of nails, and that the animal had the de-
ciduous series of teeth in use ; viz. 2 canines and 4 grinders
in each jaw.

Another object at this time alive in the Society's collection
is a tame seal ; which, from the grotesque singularity of its
movements when on land, and the general intelligence and
docility the creature evinces, proves a source of considerable
amusement and interest to the visitors. This animal was
captured somewhere on the eastern coast, and brought up the
river Orwell ; where it fell into the hands of a small innkeeper
at Ipswich, who contrived, for the first few weeks, to keep it
alive by forcing flour down its throat, as it obstinately refused
to take any food of its own accord. In a short time however
it became reconciled to its new condition, and devoured fish
most voraciously, eating 30 or 40 small flounders in a day. —
Its favourite mode of taking them was in a tub of salt wrater,
in which it was allowed to bathe. A small straw sty was
erected for it in the inn-yard ; but when first seen by us, the
creature was lying outside the house door, a place which it
always occupied when left to follow its own inclination. Al-
though it followed persons with whom it was familiar, like a
dog, it was not safe to play with it, since it was apt to snap
at the hands, even of its owner, but apparently more from a na-
tural propensity than from a vicious disposition. When seized
by the tail, and raised from the ground, it was utterly helpless,
having apparently not even the power to struggle, in that po-
sition. A spacious yard, with a pond in the centre, which is
replenished every two or three days, with salt water, has been
appropriated to its use, in the gardens, and it is supplied with
fresh fish every day. Several Seals have, at various times
been in the Society's possession, but three or four weeks have
been the average duration of the time they have been kept a-
live. The present one has been a prisoner five months, and
appears as brisk as if just taken from its native element.

Question of the parasitic nature of the Animal found in
the Argonaut. — Within the last few weeks we have had the
pleasure of receiving a visit from Madame Jeannette Power,
the lady to whom M. M. Dumeril and de Blainville refer in
their Report of a Notice by M. Rang, respecting the Animal
of the Argonaut. [Mag. Nat. Hist. v. i. N. s. pp. 393 & 526).

Scientific Expeditions. 49

It is probable that \vc may shortly have an opportunity of
publishing a translation of Mme. Power's original memoir,
read to the Genoese Academy; and we shall suspend, until
then, any observations upon the nature of the conclusions
which this lady has deduced from her experiments.

Scientific Expeditions. — We have received some details re-
specting the more dangerous of the two expeditions, which
have been undertaken this year, at the expense of the Impe-
rial Academy of St. Petersburgh ; viz. that of M. de Baer, to
Nova Sembla ; and that of M. Parrot to the North Cape. —
In the night of July 14th, M. de Baer arrived at the coast of
Lapland, and set sail from thence on the 24th. Within five
days the expedition reached the entrance of the Matotschkin-
Schar, or the great straits separating the two islands of Nova
Sembla. The north wind had cleared the sea of ice, and ex-
cursions were made from that point to every quarter, as well
as communications established with the walrus-hunters. The
district toward the Carian sea was still covered with ice, which
afterwards broke up, so that a boat could enter it; here stormy
weather exposed the expedition to great danger. On the 13th
of August they met with immense numbers of Beroe, in icy
cold water, whose swimming-bladders presented a most beau-
tiful variety of colours. On their return, they found on an
island near Beluga Bay, Rossmyslow's hut, (who had winter-
ed there in 1767), where they recruited. On August 16th
they sailed through the straits of Matotschkin, which in the
mean time had become quite free from ice ; and then to the
south, as the wind was from the north. After landing in a
bay, still without a name, and surveying Kostin-Schar, as well
as the mouth of the Nachwatowa, where part of the crew was
almost lost in hunting the rein-deer, the season heing already
much advanced, (end of August), they repaired to the penin-
sula of Kola, (Lapland).

The expedition was, upon the whole, very successful ; and
the collections obtained are comparatively rich. They con-
sist of 90 Phanerogamous, and about 50 Cryptogamous plants,
and more than 70 invertebrated marine animals.

M. Solomon Miiller has at length returned to Heidelberg,
after an absence of fourteen years, of which three were spent
in Sumatra, and most of the rest in other parts of the East
Indies. He has penetrated very far into the interior of Bor-
neo, and has brought from thence a specimen of the Orang-
Utang, between 6 and 7 feet in height.

Dr. Gaimard, the well-known traveller, is making prepara-
tions for a scientific tour through Scandinavia, up to the

Vol. II.— No. 13. n. s. e

50 Transmission of

North Cape. The expense will be defrayed by the French
government.

The Prussian traveller, M. Moritz, having been prevented
by a revolution, which broke out on the Upper Oronoko, from
continuing his journey down that river, to Rio Nigro and Va-
rinas, after waiting several months in the missionary stations
on the river Carani, has returned to Europe, by Angostura and
St. Thomas. He has brought with him an extensive zoolo-
gical and botanical collection, which has been added to the
Museum and Botanic garden at Berlin.

M, Hedenborg, a Swede, who has travelled seven years in
Africa, and is said to have penetrated farther into that conti-
nent, by Egypt, than any of his many predecessors, has ar-
rived in Alexandria ; where he intends remaining some time,
to recruit his health, before returning to his own country. —
His collections in the different branches of Natural History,
are said to be extremely rich and important.

The collections of Baron Hugel, the result of his long and
distant travels through Asia and Australasia, are now exhi-
biting in Vienna.

The collection of the late Prof. Afzelius, consisting of natural
and other curiosities from Africa, has been bought by H.R.H.
the Prince hereditary of Sweden, for the University of Upsala.

Death of Professor Nitzsch, of Halle. — On the 16th of Au-
gust, the University of Halle lost one of its most distinguished
members, Mr. C. L. Nitzsch, Professor of Natural History,
and Director of the Zoological Department. He was a very
successful cultivator of several branches of the science, espe-
Entomology and Ornithology.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Transmission of experience in birds, in the form of instinc-
tive Knowledge. — I have seen lately a brief notice of Sir
Thomas Andrew Knight's paper on the transmission of he-
reditary propensities in animals, read before the Royal Society
in August last. I hope the following instance may be thought
sufficiently interesting, as proving, that the collective expe-
rience of many generations of animals has a much more pow-
erful influence on their behaviour, than their individual
experience. The Bustard is one of the wariest birds ; like
the wild geese, it always is guarded by one or more sentinels,
according to the number of the flock, whilst the latter is
feeding, and through uncommon caution the flocks of this

Experience in birds. 51

bird continue undiminished in the open districts of Germany,
although it hatches but two or three young ones a year, and
although it is much persecuted, not so much for the value of
its flesh (only that of the young being esteemed), as for the
sake of destroying a creature so injurious to the crops, es-
pecially those of colza, or rape seed, and on account of the
sport. I have often admired the sagacity, which enables this
large and heavy creature to exist and thrive amid so many
dangers, in a thickly peopled country ; but in adverting more
particularly to the means through which it effects this pur-
pose, we shall find that every generation learns instinctively
from the former, what objects the experience of the latter
has taught them to shun. From these the bird recedes at
very great distances ; but it takes not to the wing, nor does
it run away, at the sight of every object of certain kinds, but
it makes the nicest distinctions between the different varieties
or modifications of the same kind of object. It evinces no
great fear of man in general, but it shuns men dressed like
gamekeepers or sportsmen, and if the latter put on peasants'
frocks, they have a much better chance of getting near the
bustards. In neighbourhoods where this stratagem has been
often tried, the disguise is not sufficient, but the sportsman
must behave like a peasant for many hours, within sight of
the flock, and draw near and retreat among rural occupations,
before he has an opportunity of uncovering his rifle to shoot
at one of the bustards. The stratagem of disguising oneself
as a peasant woman with a high basket on one's back, in
which the rifle is, and of feigning to be weeding, succeeds
the best now, because few hunters have been original or
eager enough to resort to it. I know a shepherd, who inva-
riably succeeds in driving the bustards near a pit made for
the purpose at a convenient place, in which the hunter lies
concealed. But this man, who has almost as quick an eye
as the bustards themselves, sometimes works from morning
till late in the afternoon, before he brings the birds fairly in.
He takes a wheelbarrow, fills it with earth, which he carries
to some distant spot, but in all his movements he is directed
by a plan of operation, through which he gains his point,
sooner or later, according to the degree of caution which the
bustards show that day ; and they cannot find him out, as
the dreaded report of the gun comes from a different quarter.
With reference to other moving objects, as different sorts of
carriages, they are now most distrustful of droskes, because
these are the favourite conveyance of sporting characters, and
the bustards have often been shot at from them. In a close
carriage one may pass -comparatively near the bustards, when

e 4

52 Transmission of Experience in birds.

they happen to feed near the road, and in rainy weather I
remember having seen thirty-four together, which allowed
the coach to pass within ten or twenty yards. A dung-cart
may leave the road, and approach them, without exciting
their suspicion, which is not the case with other carts or
waggons employed by the farmers. But though the indivi-
dual bird becomes more and more wary, in the proportion as
it grows older, yet it profits very little, comparatively, by its
own immediate experience ; and as the smell of iron must be
neutralized, by carefully rubbing all the parts of a trap with
pine-twigs, for catching wolves or foxes, which have never
seen one, so, for the bustard, which relies chiefly on its eye
for its safety, every suspicious appearance, which the instinc-
tive knowledge of the bird would denounce as dangerous,
must be removed from the objects intended for its destruction ;
and thus the same instruments may be repeatedly and suc-
cessfully employed against the same individuals. Among
different examples, which I could communicate in support
of this, I shall mention the following as the most striking.
In 1817, I had a long ox-cart stuck round with straw wisps,
so as to resemble a dung-cart and to allow a man to sit con-
cealed in it. It was mounted with a duck- gun, on a swivel-
joint; the back part of the cart, from which the muzzle of the
gun projected a little, presenting a considerable opening be-
tween the wisps, to allow the marksman a certain range of
sight sideways. The gun was loaded with two handfuls of
swan-shot and a proportionate quantity of powder, and with
this cart I, with two other sportsmen, all dressed in peasants'
frocks, under which we had rifles, repaired to a district where
bustards may always be found. We soon discovered a flock
of seven, and with proper management approached them so
near as to kill two, by discharging the gun and rifles. The
rest flew in a direction, where we did not lose sight of them
with our telescopes, until they alighted, at the distance of
about four English miles. We followed them, and, by the
same manoeuvres, got a second shot at them, which, however
brought only one bird down. This time the survivors flew
very high, and passed a ridge, beyond which we were not able
to discover them again. To elucidate this principle by ano-
ther example, I may refer to the Ampelis garritlt/s, which is
bred in northern wildernesses, where, unmolested by man, it
cannot become possessed of transmitted instinctive caution as
to him. When a flock of these birds, which visit Germany
every seventh or eighth year, alight on a mountain ash to feed
on its fruit, one may approach them without any caution, and
shoot a number of them. The rest fly to a neighbouring tree,

Proposed new name for the genus Proteus. 53

and return to the mountain ash, as soon as the hunter has re-
tired to some distance. Thus the whole flock may be destroy-
ed, by repeating the same operation. — W. Weissenborn. —
Weimar, Oct. 20, 1837.

Singular effect supposed to have been caused by change of
temperature on small birds. — A singular occurrence took place
the night of Wednesday, Nov. 8th, ult, which, as you may
perhaps remember, was the coldest we have experienced this
season. Four small birds, (Haberdevats), were exposed at a
window in an apartment, during the night, and were disco-
vered, the following morning, to be dead in the cage. Upon
examination it was found that the skin of each was ruptured
on both sides the median line extending from the head to the
tail. This is an extraordinary fact. Has cold the power of
contracting the skins of animals to such a degree as to rupture
them ? I have shewn one of the birds to my friends, Messrs,
Bell and Walker, and mentioned the circumstance to Mr. J.
E. Gray, who, like myself, cannot account for this extraordi-
nary occurrence. Should a similar effect have come under
the observation of any of your readers, I should feel obliged
by their recording it, as I think it may perhaps account for
the death of many of the smaller birds during the winter
months, whose skins are extremely fine. By inserting this
in your Magazine, you will much oblige &c. — Daniel Cooper.
82, Blackfriars Road.

On Monday last a fine specimen of the Mergula melano-
lencos, or little Auk, was found in the garden of Wm. W. Lu-
ard, Esq. of Witham Lodge. It was so much exhausted that
it suffered itself to be taken by the hand ; and on being open-
ed, no trace of food was found in it.

It is here considered a very rare bird, though I do not know
whether it is sufficiently so to merit a corner in your " Short
communications/' On that point you must exercise your own
discretion. — Edward H. Burnell. Witham, Nov. 17, 1837.

Substitution of a new generic name, Thetis, for the second
genus of Proteus, in the class, Infusoria. —

" Majus in sequora Proteus,

" Jushabet" anguinus.
Having given a short memoir of the Proteus anguinus, Laur.
in the last No. of the Magazine of Natural History, I think
it worth while to correct the following error.

On reference to the order " Les Infusoires Homogenes" in
Cuvier's Regne Animal, (Edit. 1817), it will be seen that there
is mentioned another genus of Proteus ; now as this is a vio-
lation of the well-kuown rule in Natural History, — that not
more than one genus in Zoology, or one in Botany, or one in

54 Proposed new name for the genus Proteus.

any other of the like sciences, should receive the same name,
— it is fit that one of these two genera of Proteus be changed.
Laurenti, when he gave that name to his new amphibious
animal, seems not to have been aware that it had already been
bestowed upon a minute animal, belonging to the last order
of the lowest class of the Animal Kingdom. Another rule
also prevails in Natural History; which is this, — that the
name of a second animal, or plant, &c. to which the same ge-
neric appellation shall have been given, shall yield the pre-
ference to the one which was first so designated ; — hence, we
must ascertain which of the two animals is able to claim the
priority of that term. Roesel, I find, discovered the infusori-
al! animalcule which he has described under the title of * der
kleine Proteus,' i. e. — P. minutus, at p. 621, vol. 8, of his 'In-
secten,' which was published in the year 1755. Now Lau-
renti did not give to the world his account and name of the
P. anguinus until the year 1768, in his work entitled — ' Spe-
cimen Medicum exhibens Synopsin Keptilium ; ' and this was
the first notice of it that had ever appeared. Wherefore it is
evident that the least of these animals is the most worthy of,
and ought strictly to retain, that generic term. But, since the
amphibious creature is now so well known by that appella-
tion, and since, in all probability, he is wont, (amongst other
tiny food), to devour some myriads of his aquatic namesake,
it would, in this case, be manifestly injudicious to change it : I
therefore propose to call the infusorian genus, Thetis* instead
of Proteus, in order to bear in mind the tale of Proteus and
Thetis, in Ovid's elegant verses. — (Vide Met. XI. fab. 7). —
And the name of Thetis is especially appropriate to this ani-
malcule, because as she "centum mentita figuras," — so this
diminutive creature, in the words of Lamark, "jamais ne se
presente une minute de suite, sous la meme forme," — several
•of whose different forms are well represented in the 101st
plate of RoeseFs Insects. There appear to be only two spe-
cies, viz. Thetis dijffluens, and T. ten ax, which are described
by Bosc in his Histoire des Vers, torn. 3, p. 258, and fey La-
marck, in torn. 1, p. 416, Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Verte-
bres. — Viator. London, Dec. 22nd, 1837.

* I have had some trouble in ascertaining -whether any genus in Zoology is
already dedicated to Thetis, but, as far as I can find, there is none. If there
be, of course, I have fallen into the very same mistake, which I have here
wished to remedy ; and then the infusorian Proteus must be re-named. An
alphabetical List of all the names of the families, genera, species, and their
synonymes, in every branch of Natural History, with references to the au-
thors, is much wanted, and would prove of great assistance to Naturalists,

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

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s«»% odJ ds-h) ■ . ■ ===n hm^i r/\o

bLoiy H FEBRUARY, 183.fe'I?
9W toonoil — ; boJj ■ a jo oili qi a

off! ffrLsiO oi old/; dtr xi/iii'i6oa£

Art. I. JVote* % M. Turpin, <m a species of Acarus, presented to
the Academy at the Sitting of the 30th of October, by Mr. Rober-
ton,(x ) to whom it had been forwarded by Mr. Cross.*

In bringing forward the present communication, the dignity
of the Academy renders it necessary for us to state, that these
notes are not to be regarded in the light of a regular Report,
since the subject is one very far beneath the important and
definite labours in which it is usually occupied ; indeed, had
it not been for the too great publicity given to a little animal
which is not worth the trouble it has occasioned, and for its
having been sent by the President for our examination, we
should have allowed it to sink into oblivion, together with
the ideas promulgated concerning its mysterious origin.

Upon reflection we also thought it would be as well, if on-
ly for our own satisfaction, to bestow some study upon the
animal, as we entertained a hope of being able to recognize
its identity with some species already described, and of refer-
ring it to its proper source. We thought, too, that by fur-
nishing a description and figure of it, we might be rendering
some service to the science of Entomology. Having effected
this, and completed our investigation of the subject, we have
been led on to declare our personal opinion as to the preten-
ded origin of this microscopic spider.

A solitary specimen of the Acarus of Mr. Cross, preserved
in spirits of wine, and enclosed in a small phial, presented,
on examination, the following characters^.^

(*) Immediately upon reading of this note, we received a letter from Mr.
Roberton, stating- that the Acarus presented by him to the Academy, had
not come directly from Mr. Cross, but through Dr. Buckland, to whom Mr.
Cross had presented numerous specimens, offering, as we suppose, a larger
proportion of females than males, as is usual with the other species of this
genus, and which explains the circumstance of the individual presented to
the Academy being a female, ready to deposit the egg which it contains.

* From the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie
des Sciences. (Nov. 13th, 1837).

Vol. II. — No. 14. n. s. f

56 Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarus.

Viewed with the naked eye, while still in the phial, it ap-
peared merely as a whitish speck ; its specific gravity causing
it to remain at the bottom of the vessel.

The magnifying glass rendered visible a small oval body,
bristled with long diverging hairs.

Having taken it out of the alcohol, dried it as much as pos-
sible, and then placed it between two plates of glass, with a
thin layer of varnish, in order to render all its parts more
transparent, and consequently easier to study, we placed it
under the microscope, applying a power which magnified the
diameter 280 times. Examined under these circumstances,
we saw that the body was of an oval form, and that the sto-
mach was slightly flattened, and the back very much arched,
particularly towards the posterior part of the body. The dor-
sal surface was studded with a profusion of small papilla, a
certain number of which, larger than the rest, and distributed
here and there among them, served as bases or bulbs to some
long hairs or bristles, which pointed in every direction, and
the greater number of which were at least as long as the bo-
dy of the animal.

These hairs, standing erect on the arched back of the
Acarus, gave it very much the appearance of a microscopic
porcupine ; its resemblance to that animal being still farther
heightened by the lengthened snout.

Viewing it as a transparent object, we have not been able
to discover any traces of a stomach, ovary, or lateral pulmo-
nary lobes.

The situation of the anus is faintly indicated by a slight
indentation situated in the direction of the median line, and
at the posterior part of the abdomen.

We however saw very clearly a large oval egg, like those
which are perceived, often to the number of two, three, or even
four, in the transparent body of the female domestic Acarus,
both of cheese and flour, and in those of the same sex in the
Acarus of the human body, as represented in the drawing
which we have had the honor to submit to the Academy. —
This egg, which is similar in shape at both ends, and -f of a
millemeter in length, happens, rather singularly, to occur in
the solitary individual sent by Mr. Cross, as if chance were
willing to furnish us with a material proof of the well-known
mode of re-production of the Acari, in the very species which
had been supposed to be producible at will, merely by the
aid of elementary molecules floating in space.

From the anterior part of the body projects a sort of head,
terminating in a lengthened snout; the separate parts of
which it was very difficult to examine, but we could, howev-

Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarns.

57

er, distinctly perceive in it an upper lip, notched at its extre-
mity, beneath which a dagger-shaped rostrum projected, and
under this, but situated laterally, we found two large move-
able mandibles, which were pointed, and slightly bent in-
wards. Within these, and pointing in the same direction,
were two palpi, shorter than the mandibles, and nearly hidden
by them, and the lip which protected them.

5

Acarus horridus, Turpin.

Having had but one individual at our disposal, it has not
been possible for us to establish the existence of a lower lip,
which is so large and so evident in the Acarus infesting the
human body. Neither have we been more fortunate with re-
gard to the two small smooth eyes, situated on the neck of
the other species of this genus.

On the circumference of a kind of sternum are placed eight
limbs, all locomotive and articulated ; the four anterior direct-
ed towards the front, and the four posterior towards the hinder
part. They are all composed of the same number of pieces ; but
as may be remarked in many insects, and in the Arachnida and
Crustacea, the two anterior pairs of limbs are shorter, thicker,
and more robust than the hinder ones. This difference, though
hardly observable in the Acari of cheese and flour, is very
great in the Acarus of the human body ; in which, without
an attentive examination, we might be almost led to suppose
that the two pair of posterior limbs, which indeed are only
rudiments, were organs of a different kind.

r 2

58 Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarns.

Each of the eight legs of the Acarus sent by Mr. Cross, is
formed of seven joints, without including the tarsus. The
first is triangular, and may be considered as the hip ; the se-
cond and third are longer than the hip ; the fourth is longer
than the two preceding ; the fifth is shorter than the fourth ;
the sixth and seventh are longer and thinner than the others,
and the seventh is terminated by a little transparent tarsus,
which appeared to us to be bi-lobate, and provided with a
single claw, bent inwards. Upon the upper edge of each of
these joints, except the one which forms the hip, are one or
two straight and stiff hairs.

The actual length of the body and head, is half a millemetre.

The Acarus of Mr. Cross appears to constitute a new spe-
cies of that genus. The species to which it most nearly ap-
proaches, of such as are already described and figured, are
those found in cheese and in flour, or, perhaps more nearly,
Hermann's Acarus dimidiatus. It differs from the two first
in the absence of a false corselet, in the two longer and more
slender articulations which precede the tarsus, in the form of
the body, which is shorter, more ovoid, and more tumid, and
finally, by the long and numerous hairs with which the back
is covered.

It is distinguished from the Acarus dimidiatus, (which has
a spherical body, with a false corselet, more coloured than the
rest of the abdomen), by the want of the little short hairs
which cover the surface of the eight limbs of the latter ; but
resembles it in the numerous diverging hairs which cover the
back.

We propose to give to this species, supposing that it ulti-
mately appears not to have been previously described, and
retains its novel mode of originating, the name of the Rough
Acarus, (Acarus horridusj.

Thus far we have limited our remarks to the facts connect-
ed with zoological details ; we have examined, described, and
figured, counted and measured, all the constituent parts of
this little animal. We have by these means really proved that
the phial presented to the Academy by Mr. Roberton, does
certainly contain the animalcule or the Acarus announced to
us ; and which, indeed, may be seen by the naked eye, as a
whitish speck.

We now request permission to say a few words on the sin-
gular origin, or rather the singular creation, of an animal,
which, although microscopic, is so complicated in its struc-
ture, and holds so elevated a rank in the scale of organization.
Its parts, as we have seen, consist of, First, a body ; second-
ly, a head, formed of two lips, two mandibles, two feelers, a

Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarus. 59

rostrum, a mouth, and two eyes ; thirdly, a stomach and anus;
fourthly, two lateral pulmonary lobes ; * fifthly, an ovary, con-
taining eggs in the female specimens ; sixthly, eight limbs,
each composed of eight joints, including the tarsus ; seventh-
ly, a skin, bristled with numerous long hairs.

As we have seen, it would be hardly possible for the orga-
nization of this animal to have been more complex ; since in
addition to what we have just stated, there are distinct sexes,
in which intercourse and fecundation are necessary to the re-
production of individuals of the species, and in which, conse-
quently, we must admit the existence of reproductive organs;
and finally, that the females form and deposit eggs, whence
proceed young individuals, at first provided with only six legs,
until the period when, shedding their- skins, two more appear,
which were in progress of developement under this cutaneous
slough.

If Mr. Cross believes that he has really formed an animal
of such elevated organization as the Acarus in question, mere-
ly by employing simple material elements, such as might se-
parate themselves from the surface of a piece of lava, kept in
a humid state by silicate of potash spread over it, saturated
with an excess of muriatic acid, and incessantly electrified ;
a belief, in which we know, on good authority, that the new
creator is daily fortifying himself, we will venture to remark,
that Mr. Cross does not appear to have sufficiently studied
the organization and comparative physiology of living crea-
tures ; without which knowledge, a naturalist, even though
very skilful, may strangely deceive himself, by imagining him-
self to be more powerful than he really is.

It may readily be conceived, that by the aid of the elemen-
tary materials diffused through space, we may obtain either
amorphous conglomerations, or conglomerations which are
regular and crystalline ; but from these inorganic formations
to the creation of the simplest organized being, there appears
to us to be an immense distance.

Before we dream of creating animals so complex as the
Acarus, let us only try to fabricate or to obtain the globules
of the Protosphceriat, and the filaments of the Protonem<B,f

* The contraction of the animal, so long steeped in alcohol, prevented
us from seeing the eyes and pulmonary lohes distinctly.

f Protospheeria simplex, Turp. Protonema simplex, Turp. Diet, des Sci-
ences Naturelles ; Atlas Botanique, tome ii. pp. 1 and 2. We have, at the
present moment, in a living state, a considerable number of filamentous
Protonemce, which vegetate indiscriminately with Hcematococcus, and Hete-
rocarpella geminata.

We should have great pleasure in shewing them, under the microscope,
to any one desirous of seeing one of the simplest creations of the organic

l 3

60 Notes on Mr. Cross s Acarus.

two productions which appear to us the simplest of the orga-
nic kingdom — the very commencement of organization — and
which point out the moment when matter assumes a globu-
lar form, and is drawn out, in order to serve, the next moment,
for the formation of the various structures of all other beings,
whether animal or vegetable.

In these very simple globules and filaments, we can per-
ceive no internal granulation, which might serve for their
reproduction. From this we might, perhaps, be led to think
that these two kinds of organisms, are undoubted elements of
those of a higher order, — that they are organized productions
formed immediately of matter. But who can say positively
that these Protosphceria and Protonem<B do not contain repro-
ductive globules, which escape the action of our most powerful
microscopes ? Or at all events, and which amounts to nearly
the same thing, who can say that these simple and diminutive
vegetables do not separate into particles, at the moment when
the life of association abandons them, in such a manner that
each particle, animated with a new and independent life, be-
comes a sort of scion, reproducing the species ? If these are
but conjectures, they have, at least, the merit of being in per-
fect accordance with what takes place every where else, ex-
cept in these two solitary productions.

All our microscopic researches, with regard to organized
beings, whether animal or vegetable, and those the smallest
in their dimensions and the simplest in their structure, have
always shewn us, that their reproduction was entirely depen-
dent on an individual of the same kind which preceded them,
and which alone, drawing its materials of nourishment from
space, could expand itself into a germ, destined, by means of
separation, to reproduce its species.

It is thus, that in proportion as we have more closely pur-
sued the comparative study of organized beings, and by means
of the microscope, have reached even the smallest gradations,
we have successively witnessed the disappearance of those
numerous generations presumed to be spontaneous, a race of
phantoms, which could not stand against the light of true and
constant observation.

From our own knowledge, then, acquired by a long succes-
sion of labours in organization and physiology, we will take
upon ourselves to assert, that Mr. Cross has not created the

kingdom, as compared with its most complex production — man. The Pro-
tonemcB are beings, complete of their kind ; they are not a thallus, or a stem
preceding or preparing a terminal fructification, such as, for example, the
stalk of the mushroom.

Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarus. 61

Acarus horrldus, by the mere aid of the materials which he
points out. These means, even supposing them to have been,
under the circumstances, indispensible to the appearance of the
animal, have acted but as simple stimulants, which, like those
exciting organic germination in a grain of corn, have hasten-
ed the developement of eggs, similar to that contained in the
female individual sent by Mr. Cross himself, — eggs which
happened to be laid or deposited upon the surface of the lava
made the subject of experiment.

Being unacquainted with the works written by Mr. Cross,
upon the artificial and voluntary production of his Acarus,
we are ignorant whether the animal comes fresh from the
experiment in its perfect state, or if, as would be more con-
sonant with the laws which regulate the developement of or-
ganized beings, it passes through the different stages and
metamorphoses which are so familiar to us, in all the other
species of this genus; whether, in the experiments, it commen-
ces by being only a point, then a globule, then an egg, next
a young Acarus, having only six legs, and finally, a perfect
Acarus, with eight legs, male, or female without eggs, or con-
taining eggs, like that manufactured by Mr. Cross, a figure of
which, taken with the aid of the microscope, we have had
the honour of submitting to the Academy.

But in viewing the production of Mr. Cross's Acarus in
this light, there still remains one great difficulty, — that of
knowing how and where these animals, naturally so vora-
cious, could find the nourishment necessary for their deve-
lopement ; since organized beings can increase in weight and
size, only by taking in the nutritive matter found around them,
and assimilating it by means of a mysterious power peculiar
to themselves.

Physiology, in the present day, being more enlightened,
and consequently but little credulous in the matter of spon-
taneous organizations, and above all of organizations formed
by the hand and at the will of man ; convinced, moreover, by
observation, that all organized beings result, by tissular exten-
sion, from a parent similar to themselves, and which alone
has received from nature the power of reproduction ; — this
physiology, exacting but little, does not demand from phy-
sics and synthetical chemistry, unaided by the living labora-
tories of which we have just spoken, the construction of an
Acarus, which is an animal almost as complicated as one of
the Mammifera, — but only that of a single muscous globule
ofProtosphteria, endowed, let it be understood, with the pro-
perties or attributes of organic life, viz. absorption, assimila-
tion, and the reproduction of its species.

F 4

62 Notes on Mr. Cross's Acarus.

This simple globule, though, in the scale of organization,
infinitely below the Acarus of Mr. Cross, would be more than
sufficient to excite, in the highest degree, the admiration of
physiologists and philosophers, or probably might still give
rise to fresh doubts.

In producing his animal, Mr. Cross is far from having had
the merit of priority of invention, but he has at least that of
fixing most accurately, the object of his creation, in designa-
ting it by the name of Acarus^ and in shewing us its nature.
It is to be regretted, that the first production of a source so
new and unlooked for, should have been one of the ugliest
forms of the animal creation. But let us wait, since this is
but a beginning.

The author of a well- written work on a similar subject,*
has also told us of a crowd of animals and vegetables manu-
factured by himself, and by simple chemical means. It is
true that he has not displayed his productions, (we mean to
men capable of appreciating them as naturalists), and that he
has confined himself in speaking of them, to such vague terms
as hazard little, but which, consequently, inspire no confi-
dence. There were some beings among them which resem-
bled lobsters, spiders, leeches, gnats flying with%two spreading
wings, and others which were but rough-hewn attempts at
insects, some of them wanting a head, and others, legs.

When any one has the rare good fortune to make, or to en-
joy the exclusive privilege of making, such astonishing dis-
coveries, he should first make sure that he is wide awake, and
then have resolution to be silent on the subject, until select
and competent persons have verified and established the facts
by their own observations. By such a course, in the pursuit
of the positive knowledge attainable by man, how many ab-
surdities might be avoided, which, when once introduced into
science, cling to it in such a manner as renders ages necessary
to effect their removal.

[We do not think that M. Turpin has handled his subject, at least so
much of it as relates to the "pretended origin of the microscopic spider," in
the most philosophical manner ; and we dislike exceedingly the spirit in
which his critical observations are written. By his own admission it ap-
pears that he has not perused Mr. Cross's history of the matter, and he has
therefore, in a most unwarrantable manner, identified that gentleman with
the ideas promulgated concerning the mysterious origin of the Acarus. —
We believe Mr. Cross to have acted in the most open and straightforward
manner, in this business ; having simply stated the conditions under which
these Acari made their appearance, without in the least pretending to say,
that he could at any time produce them by the agency of electricity. Ed.]

*I. B. Fray; "Essai sur l'origine des corps organises et inorganises."
1817.

Experiments on Marine Testaceous Animals. 63

Art. II. Experiments made with a view of ascertaining how far
certain marine testaceous animals, possess the power of renewing
parts which may have been removed.* By Madame Jeannette
Power, Member of the Gioenian Academy of Catania, and other
Scientific Societies, f

In imitation of other observers of animated beings, as Signor
Abbate Spallanzani, and Charles Bonnet, who investigated
the reproductive powers of the Limaces, Polypi, and land tes-
taceous animals, I turned my attention to the marine species,
with a view of determining whether they possess, in an equal
degree, the power of reproducing such parts as may have been
cut off.

These molluscs are generally very difficult to study in a
house ; for when taken from their proper element, the series
of their phenomena cannot be correctly observed. I there-
fore constructed a kind of cage,J which was made entirely on
a plan of my own, leaving between the bars a convenient in-
terval for the free passage of the water, without allowing the
animal to escape, when placed in the sea. I had several of
these cages made of different sizes, to correspond with the
bulk of the animals I meant to study, and placed them in
a sheltered part of the port of Messina, near the citadel. I
introduced some Murices, Tritones, and other testaceous
animals, as well as my favourite "Polpo delV Argonauta ;"
fiunishing them with proper aliment, although I frequently
found that they procured their own nourishment.

I hope that this method will be not only approved, but a-
dopted by naturalists generally, when studying the habits of
marine molluscs ; they would by this means be rendered less
liable to form incorrect notions, and prevent their recurrence
to hypothesis.

These cages should be placed according to the nature of the
animals to be studied ; some species, for instance, liking a ra-
ther muddy bottom ; and others requiring that marine plants
should be introduced along with them.

The Illustrious Professor Charles Gemettaro having favored
me with a visit, in the month of August, I communicated my
method to him, and he greatly approved of it, as well as to
Dr. Cocco, who frequently accompanied me during my ob-
servations.

* From the 13th Vol. of the Transactions of the Gioenian Academy of
Catania.

f Translated by James Power, Esq. and communicated by the Authoress.

% These cages were afterwards named, by the Academy, " Gabbiole alia
Power."

64 Experiments on Marine Testaceous Animals.

Spring and autumn are the most proper seasons for these
observations. It is requisite for the observer to be endowed
with great patience, these animals being very sensitive to the
least touch ; for which reason it is extremely difficult to cut
off the part wished to be reproduced : and it has frequently
happened, that at the slightest touch of the sharp instrument,
they drew in immediately, and retired to the innermost part
of their shells, and I was obliged to wait for a more favorable
moment, on their re-appearance.

The shell must be placed in a firm position, and the animal
watched, until it presents the part you desire to operate upon.
The operation must be performed with skill and agility, other-
wise the opportunity is lost : the greatest difficulty, however,
is with the smaller animals.

On the 8^ August, 1836, I procured a Triton nodiferum,
Lam. about eight inches long ; cut off one of the tentacula,
with the eye, which is situated on the external side of its base.
I also broke off a piece of the shell ; and placed the whole in
a cage.

\bth August. Examined it, but saw no appearance of an
attempt at reparation, and then replaced it in the cage, fear-
ing my hopes would not be realized.

28th August. Re-examined it, and to my great satisfac-
tion found that the eye and tentaculum had appeared, to the
length of about six lines ; that which had been cut off mea-
sured fourteen lines. The shell was nearly repaired, although
irregular.

12th September. Made similar experiments with another
Triton, of wrhich a drawing was made, when the reproduced
tentaculum measured three lines.

6th September. Took ten specimens of Murex trunculus,
from fourteen to eighteen lines long ; cut off their heads and
tore off their operculum.

10th October. Found eight alive, six of which had repro-
duced their operculum, and four their heads and tentacula.

Wth September. Cut off the spout and tentacula of a Co-
nns, fourteen lines long.

8th October. Visited it, and found that it had reproduced
both, perfectly similar to the others.

6th September. Made similar experiments on two other
specimens of Triton nodiferum, and on the Fusus lignarius,
with a result similar to the preceding.

To prove my observations, I sent to the Genoese Academy
some of the animals alive, and others preserved in spirits of
wine, to correspond with all that I assert in this article, as
having determined by experiment.

On general Zoological changes. 65

I am making other experiments, and should they be crown-
ed with success, shall do myself the pleasure of communicat-
ing the result to the same illustrious Academy. Should my
want of knowledge relative to the object of these observations
have made me consider my experiments new, I trust, even if
they prove otherwise, that I shall receive indulgence, as be-
ing deprived of the means of gaining such information, as
would have enabled me to ascertain the fact.

[It was in one of the cages spoken of in the preceding communication,
that Madame Power placed the Argonauts, after having removed certain
portions of the shell ; and though, unfortunately, the circumstance of this
lady's very slight acquaintance with comparative anatomy and physiology,
renders her observations of less importance than they might otherwise have
been, yet there is every reason for believing, that experiments conducted in
the manner which she has suggested, may satisfactorily determine whether
or not the species of the genus Ocythoe, are the true constructors of the
shells which they inhabit. Ed.]

Art. III. On the influence of Man in modifying the Zoological
Features of the Globe ; with statistical accounts respecting a few
of the more important species. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.
{Continued from p. 18)

A circumstance which concerns us more especially, and
which, in most European countries, has broken in upon the
harmonious manner in which the condition of the tame, as
well as of the wild animals, might have been regulated under
the influence of a monarchical form of government, is the pe-
culiar complication of the feudal system ; a political theory,
according to which, the liege lord was considered as the ori-
ginal proprietor of a whole country, the divisions and subdi-
visions of which were entrusted to vassals, sub-vassals, and
tenants, on conditions, which were the more arbitrary and
oppressive, in proportion as the removes became more distant
from the head of the system. This state of things would, of
course, restrict the free use of property, both as relates to the
domesticated animals, and those of a wild nature, in a manner
quite at variance with sound principles of political economy,
even after the feudal system had ceased to be the foundation
on which the security or existence of the kingdoms once rest-
ed. Thus, from the time when that system began to lose its
importance to the nations at large, its laws relating to the
management of animals, have more and more taken the form
of oppressive measures or public nuisances ; which, however,
are now gradually disappearing, and in many German coun-

66 Oh Mans influence in effecting

tries great progress has already been made towards their total
abolition.

The laws bearing upon this subject, which were made un-
der the influence of the feudal system, almost invariably bear
the stamp of the grossest selfishness and ignorance. They
were calculated to preserve the game for the sports of the pri-
vileged, with a reckless indifference to the interests of the
working classes ; whereby not only the increase and improve-
ment of live stock was greatly prevented, but the wild boar,
stag, and fallow deer devoured the produce of the farmer,
without his receiving any indemnity for the loss : and if he
turned poacher from necessity, he forfeited his life. Innume-
rable are the evils which the game-laws have produced in
many countries, by spoliating the peaceable cultivator, or by
irritating his feelings, as well as by turning into derision eve-
ry civil or moral obligation. As to enactments made with a
view of destroying the enemies of the game, they went not a
step farther than the short-sighted law-giver thought it his
interest to let them. The wolf was an outlaw, no doubt ; but
the inhabitants were not allowed to destroy it indiscriminate-
ly, lest the deer might be disturbed ; much less was the ex-
tirpation of this obnoxious animal encouraged by rewards. —
The gamekeepers, however, were tempted to wage war against
every animal reputed to be injurious to the protected wild
quadrupeds or birds, by prizes paid on the heads or feet of
such species, being delivered up to the officers of the forest
department ; and under the common appellation of Ranbzeug,
(vermin), the little owl, the kestrel, rook, crow, hedge-hog,
and even the wood-pecker, were the objects of the same de-
structive and persevering persecution, as the Strix Bubo, the
eagle, marten, weasel, &c.

Science has, however, of late effected a salutary reform in
our ideas as to the particular animals to be considered injurious
or useful ; and the governments of many states, at the head of
which is Prussia, are now tending towards regulating the con-
dition of all the animals over which their legislation extends,
so that it may be in harmony with the interests of the com-
monwealth. I shall return to this subject when treating more
particularly of individual species.

Though the regulations made for whole kingdoms or states,
as that law which obliges the proprietor of game to make com-
pensation for the damage it effects, or those which regulate the
width of the meshes of fishing-nets, or those which protect
the singing birds, or encourage the multiplication, improve-
ment, or introduction of certain species of domestic animals,
operate on a larger scale, we must not entirely overlook the

general Zoological changes. 67

exertions which local authorities, as municipalities, or even in-
dividuals have made, within their own immediate jurisdiction,
towards effecting the same purpose. These measures have
been injurious or beneficial, in proportion as the theory on
which they were based was erroneous or just. Thus, about
thirty years ago, many parishes in Thuringia paid a certain
premium for each sparrow's head brought to the mayor, with
a view of protecting their white crops from the depredations
of that bird. But this measure was found to be incompatible
with the preservation of their orchards and green crops from
insects. On the other hand, the very serious damage which
the hamster, {Mus Cricetus), did in the fields of Gotha, and
the neighbouring villages, where the deep loamy soil encou-
rages the multiplication of that animal, to an intolerable de-
gree, was most properly and effectually repressed by a general
extermination of that species, made at the expense of the mu-
nicipality and parishes. An individual of Dantzic has left a
legacy, out of wrhich 100 dollars are annually paid to the fish-
erman of that town, who makes use of the widest mesh in the
exercise of his calling ; but some one of the profession may
think it to his interest to use such a wide mesh as to catch
nothing in his net, except the premium, and others may find
it more profitable not to try for it at all.

We have still to consider one subject connected with the
progress of civilization, which has acted a most prominent
part in modifying the relative proportions of the lower ani-
mals all over the globe, and has been superadded to every
form of government, the pure hierarchical perhaps excepted,
viz. commerce. This extends its influence far beyond the li-
mits of the territory subjected to the direct agency of the
respective nations. The whale-fishery, for instance, in con-
sequence of which a few species of the large Cetacea, former-
ly very numerous throughout about two thirds of the surface
of the globe, have already become very scarce, and are almost
entirely driven from many seas ; and if we try to appreciate
how it must have affected the relative numbers of the different
inhabitants of the ocean, through all the links of the chain
which they form, in their dependence on each other, we shall
form an adequate idea of what commerce has effected, in this
respect alone ; and were it possible to reduce the total effect
of the whale-fishery to a strict calculation, we should without
doubt arrive at the most surprising results, whereas, for the
present, we must content ourselves with referring to that
source a few insulated phenomena, such as the well-known
multiplication of the dog-fish, and other fish of prey, in the
German sea. The cod and herring fisheries must likewise

68 On Maris influence in effecting

have had a similar influence; and the extensive destruction of
PhoccB, which are now almost extinct in New South Shetland,
and many other localities, where they formerly existed in in-
numerable herds, is another instance of the same character.
The fur animals of North America, where companies keep
standing armies of hunters, to supply the trade, as well as of
Siberia, which has so long been decimated, both by convicts
and the natives, who pay their tribute in furs, have had their
ranks likewise very visibly thinned by commerce, as appears
from comparing the commercial tables of different periods.

Though, in the present state of the surface of the globe,
and of the occupancy of man, it is, upon the whole, quite im-
possible to predict, with any precision, when certain species
of animals will have shared the fate of some already extinct,
as the Didus ineptus, or at what rate the numbers of others
shall diminish or increase, through human agency ; yet, in a
few instances, and particularly with reference to certain habi-
tats, we may be pretty confident in our anticipations. The
large Pachydermata, as well as the fiercer animals of prey, or
reptiles, will be exterminated in every country brought com-
pletely under the dominion of man ; and this will ultimately
be their fate over the whole of the globe. But it is difficult
to say whether the polar bear may not make a successful stand
against man, as long as the present climates are not entirely
changed ; a circumstance which probably never will happen,
whilst our species inhabits the globe. In such other locali-
ties also, as man cannot make any great impression upon, as
the immense deserts of Africa^ or the snow region of the high-
est mountains, several species, that would elsewhere be threat-
ened with extirpation, may protract their existence to an in-
definite time, though the Capricorn has been exterminated in
the Alps ; whereas others, whose existence depends on the
primitive state of more accessible and changeable localities,
as the elk, the Bos urus, the beaver, &c. must certainly be-
come the victims of the progressive influence of man, however
individuals or legislation may attempt to preserve them. The
same fate ultimately awaits the large birds of prey, as the
Gypaetos barbatus, which has already become very scarce,
even in the Alps, or the brown eagle, which no longer haunts
the lesser primitive mountains of Germany, where it formerly
used to breed. In short, every large wild animal, whose ex-
istence is not profitable to the commonwealth, will, sooner or
later, cease to exist, unless it can be made to continue in a
controllable state ; and we may anticipate that this principle
will extend its influence, more or less strictly, over many of
the smaller animals of all tribes.

general Zoological changes. 69

A particular interest attaches to the ultimate condition or
fate of the migratory species of birds, on whose numbers the
degree of persecution to which they are subjected, in the dif-
ferent countries through which they pass, or where they pe-
riodically settle, must have a proportionate influence. The
methods of catching birds, have perhaps, in no country, ar-
rived at so high a state of perfection so early, or have been so
extensively used, as in Germany. Only within the last cen-
tury, the employment of the same means has been gradually
introduced, through the emigration of German hunters, all
over the eastern countries of Europe ; and in the proportion
as they have gained ground there, the produce of that sort of
sport has visibly diminished in this country, as respects the
species of the genus Turdas, that are either indigenous, or
visit us in autumn. The same observation applies to the sky-
larks, of which I have seen, about thirty years ago, above
3000 taken in nets, within a few minutes, at the commence-
ment of twilight, in a locality where 1000 are now reckoned
a good return. This sport, which can be exercised during a
few weeks in autumn, must, I am afraid, sooner or later, cease
altogether ; for if introduced in several more localities, over
which the lark passes, it will probably not repay the trouble
and expense. At present, too, the southern coast of the Black
Sea, where the flocks of our sky -larks arrive in such an ex-
hausted state, that the birds may be caught with the hand,
is very thinly peopled, and richly stocked with more valuable
game of different descriptions, wherefore the larks are there
comparatively safe ; and so are, for similar reasons, the quails
on the northern coast of Africa. On the other hand, the
woodcocks have a very bad chance, when, exhausted from the
fatigue of their flight over the Baltic, they alight on the south-
ern coast of that sea ; and so eager are the inhabitants of
the Holstein coast, to hit the right moment, that when it hap-
pens to coincide with divine service, the whole congregation
rush from the churches, and the minister goes home, without
taking offence at what he cannot prevent. Who can say how
thinly the larks or quails may be scattered over our fields,
when they shall once meet with the same sort of reception in
Asia Minor or Africa ?

As to the extirpation or great diminution of particular spe-
cies in particular countries or spots, we may often determine
the conditions on which their present existence or numbers
depend, with sufficient precision to fix the subsequent condi-
tions through which they would become extinct, or greatly
reduced. The bustard, for example, being a very obnoxious
and now outlawed bird, would soon disappear in Germany,

70 On general Zoological changes.

as it has in England, were the former country as much inter-
sected by hedges as the latter, since the success with which
that bird evades its enemy, depends altogether on its com-
manding a wide range of sight. The great numbers in which
the white stork is found in Holland, as well as in many parts
of Germany, are owing to the pious prejudice which protects
the bird there ; whereas it is extremely scarce in England,
where there are so many fine localities for it, but where it is
wantonly shot, as the heron is with us. The predilection for
the chimney- swallow, a bird that would soon be extinct, were
man its enemy, is even more general than that for the white
stork.

We may also hope, (as has been lately tried in Scotland,
but I know not with what success, with respect to the caper-
cailzie introduced from Norway), to see many species reoccu-
pying their legitimate domiciles, when the wanton persecution
of them shall have been put a stop to. Certain harmless and
interesting species, that have clung to certain spots almost
like parasitic plants, have at last been driven from them, by
the incessant destruction of the individuals that settled there.
Thus, I may refer to the black stork, a species generally scarce,
which used to breed on a rock near the village of Dorrenberg,
in the Thuringian mountains, but which has so repeatedly
been shot and deprived of its young there, that at last none
of the individuals which used to pass over that neighbourhood,
has been left, to settle on that favourite spot. Then the blue-
breast, {Sylvia mecica, Lath. S. cyanecula, Meyer), has tried,
every spring within the recollection of man, to settle on the
southern escarpment of a bushy hill near Waltershausen, on
the northern slope of the same mountains, but has always
been caught by the expert fowlers of that town, almost as soon
as it alighted.

Other wild species will, no doubt, be naturalized, in many
civilized countries, where they are not indigenous ; as was ef-
fected last year in Silesia, with the Tetrao rufus, introduced
from the south of France, by a society of proprietors. The
experiment, I understand, promises to succeed perfectly, as
the birds bred last summer, and appear to thrive in the neigh-
bourhood of Breslau. Even with fish or other classes, simi-
lar experiments will be attended with success, when science
shall have made us more perfectly acquainted with the condi-
tions on which their existence depends.
(To be continued).

Description of a new British Ray.

6

71

Art. IV. Description of a species of Ray-jish, not hitherto included
in the British Fauna. By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

We owe it to Mr. Yarrell that we are able to decide what are,
and, by consequence, what are not, the British species of
Ray; a genus which, until the publication of the History of
British Fishes, had been in a state of great confusion. With
eight of the species described and figured in that work, I am
sufficiently acquainted to be able to decide that they are dif-
ferent to one which I have now to introduce to the notice of
English naturalists ; and my description and figure, will, I
hope, be sufficient to prove that it cannot be confounded with
any other, recognized as British : but whether it can be re-
Vol. II. — No. 14. n. s. G

72 Description of a new British Ray.

ferred to any species described by other authors, I am not
able to specify, except that I have, with some degree of hesi-
tation, supposed it to be possibly the Rata Asterias of Ray,
Syn. Pise. p. 27. I can find nothing in Eisso's Ichthyologie
de Nice, 1810, or in Fleming's or Jenyns' Works on British
Animals, to lead me to suppose that this fish is known to ei-
ther of these gentlemen.

The specimen described, which was of the ordinary size,
measured 3 feet 8 inches in length, of which the tail was 19
inches ; the breadth 2 feet 4 J inches. The snout projected
f inch, prominent and elevated ; the mouth 3 J inches wide,
6 inches from the snout. Under jaw peaked in the middle,
the teeth slender, sharp, in rows not very closely placed. —
The body passes off circularly from the snout, the greatest
breadth opposite the centre of the disk, and of a rounded form.
From the snout the ridge is elevated to the eyes, a distance
of 5j inches ; eyes 2 inches asunder ; temporal orifices large.
Body thickest posteriorly; the tail stout at its origin, rounded
above, tapering ; a groove along the body and tail ; two fins
on the latter, close together. A few spines near the end of
the snout, a semicircle of them behind each eye ; four short
parallel rows on the centre of the back, and a middle one con-
tinued along the groove to the tail ; which is covered with
stout hooks, scarcely in regular order. The remainder of the
body smooth. Colour above, a uniform dusky brown, white
below. On the back, a variable number of ocellated spots,
the size of the section of a large pea, the centre pale yellow,
the margin a deeper impression, of the colour of the skin. I
have counted from eight to sixteen of these spots in different
specimens, and believe they have no determinate number ;
but they are always placed, on each side, with corresponding
regularity.

Besides this description and figure, which I hope will en-
able those who visit our fishing vessels to ascertain this spe-
cies, I will further observe, as marks of distinction from the
other British species of this genus, that in addition to the form
of the teeth, which are crooked and slender, resembling a bird's
claw in miniature, but which still are less long, slender, sharp
or crooked than in young specimens of the R. Oxyrhynchus,
it may be distingaished by a great tendency to circularity in
the disk, formed chiefly by a rounding off of the pectoral fins,
by a flatness of the anterior portion, by the uniformity of its
colour, the regularity of the spots, and the comparatively
short and tapering tail.

It is properly the sandy ray of fishermen, that name being
applied to the R. maculata, or homlyn, only by carelessly

Description of a new British Ray. 73

confounding it with the present species, to which it bears but
a distant resemblance, either in appearance or value; for while
the homlyn is esteemed as food, either fresh or salted, this is
thought worthy only to bait the crab-pot, or, just as frequent-
ly, to be thrown aside for manure. It was by an oversight
that this fish was not included in Mr. Yarrell's History of
British Fishes ; for it is of frequent occurrence in moderately
deep water, from spring to the end of autumn. In winter,
however, it is not often seen, chiefly perhaps because at that
season the boats do not venture quite so far from land ; but
perhaps, also, from the fish having changed its quarters.

I cannot persuade myself but that this species has been de-
scribed by some author, to whose writings I have no oppor-
tunity of obtaining access ; I therefore refrain from assigning
to it a trivial name, that I may be in no danger of adding to
science a useless synonyme. Its English name of " Sandy
Ray" will be sufficient as a provisional designation.

While on the subject of British Rays, I have great pleasure
in being able to add something to what is already known, re-
specting another species of which only three specimens, and
those females, have been recorded. Since my account of the
only specimen of the painted ray I had then seen, (Yarrell's Br.
F. vol. ii. p. 433), was communicated to my friend, Mr. Yarrell,
a full grown male has come into my possession : having been
caught on the 21st of April, — a date I mention the rather, as
the former specimen having been caught in January, it points
out the period in which it visits our coast. The form of the
body was similar to that given in the British Fishes, with the
addition of the prehensile organs, and a more formidable ar-
mature near the eyes and on the back, common to most spe-
cies of ray ; but the colours were even far more beautiful and
varied, and perhaps will be found to differ in different indivi-
duals. The ground was a brilliant yellow, on which were
numerous beautiful lyre-shaped gyrations, each side exactly
answering to the other. These gyrations were formed of a
dark line, margined on each side with a contiguous series of
pale yellow spots, like beads, as if laid on by the hand of a
very fantastic artist. Both the species of Ray which form the
subjects of this paper, were taken with the ordinary line and
bait of the fishermen ; and the first named seems to be an in-
discriminate feeder, living on small fishes, and different kinds
of Crustacea.

g 2 \

74 On saline combinations

Art. V. Observations on the existence of Saline combinations in an
organized state, in vegetable structures. By Golding Bird, Esq.
F.L.S. F.G.S. &c. Lecturer on Experimental Philosophy at Guy's
Hospital.

Botanists have long been familiar with the fact, that vege-
tables, during every stage of develop ement, contain certain
saline, and, as usually considered, inorganic constituents, dis-
solved in their sap, or imprisoned in their tissues ; and the
question has long been agitated, whether these saline matters
are derived from external sources, or actually formed by the
vital chemistry of the vegetable being. The former seems to
be the more probable, and is certainly the more generally re-
ceived opinion ; since it is obvious that the admission of the
latter, would be equivalent to asserting, that all, (chemically
speaking) simple substances, as potassium, sodium, &c. are
elaborated by plants, from the elements yielded by the earth
in which they grow, by the water with which they are sup-
plied, or by the aerial medium in which they exist ; and, con-
sequently, that all chemical substances are compounded of
nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, or carbon : a conclusion totally
at variance with the received theories of chemistry.

Upon expressing the fluids contained in any vegetable tis-
sue, we find portions of saline matter dissolved in the various
secretions; these saline matters being of that class usually
denominated inorganic, and incapable of being formed by the
vital energy of the plant : but if, after thoroughly washing the
vegetable tissue, exhausted of its juices, we digest it in weak
acids, until nothing more is yielded up to these solvents, we
shall obtain a substance nearly white, composed of cellular
or vascular tissue, or both, and forming, in the opinion of
many eminent botanists, the vegetable skeleton. Let us now
very carefully incinerate this mass of tissue, exhausted of its
juices, and apparently also of its saline ingredients, by expos-
ing it to heat on a tray of platinum foil, and examine the re-
sults. Now as, according to the opinions of some of the first
botanists of the day, all principles except hydrogen, oxygen,
carbon or nitrogen, are to be regarded as foreign to plants,*
and therefore not necessarily, or perhaps possibly, entering,
as organizable constituents, into the formation of vegetable
structure, we ought to expect to find left on the platinum tray

* " Those principles are called foreign to plants, which cannot be referred
to either hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, or azote ; such, for example, are carbo-
nate of soda, sulphate of soda, nitrate of soda, the carbonates of potash, lime,
and magnesia, phosphate of lime, chlorides of soda and potash, (query, sodi-
um and potassium) and the oxides of aluminum, silicium, iron, and manga-
nese ; — &c." Lindley ; — Introduction to Botany, p. 232.

existing in vegetable structures. 75

only mere accidental traces of saline matter ; for the other
elements of vegetable tissue, are capable of forming volatile
combinations, under the influence of the heat employed. —
Thus, the hydrogen and nitrogen unite, and are evolved as
ammonia; the carbon unites with oxygen from the air, to form
carbonic acid ; and the remaining hydrogen with the oxygen
of the plant, or of the atmosphere, to form water. All these
new combinations escape in a gaseous form, and leave behind,
not mere insignificant traces of saline matter, but the genuine
skeleton of the vegetable tissue employed, formed of siliceous
and saline matter, in which may be observed the most deli-
cate forms of the organic structure ; spiral vessels, ducts, and
the outline of cellular tissue being distinctly visible, notwith-
standing that every trace of the organic products of which
they are generally considered to be formed, has been expelled
by the heat employed in effecting the incineration.

For this highly interesting and valuable observation we are
undoubtedly indebted to the ingenious researches of Raspail,
whose labours, it is much to be regretted, have neither in this
country, nor in his own, attracted that degree of notice and
attention to which their importance justly entitles them ; a
circumstance which may be attributed partly to the peculiar
style in which his works are written, and partly to the bitter
and sarcastic spirit with which they are, unhappily, imbued.
One of this philosopher's experiments is peculiarly worthy of
attention, as well from its elegance and interest, as from the
light which it throws on the difficulties of the subject under
consideration. If we take a fragment of the epidermis of a
plant, and press it flat upon a plate of glass, after having sub-
mitted it to the action of a dilute acid, for the purpose of re-
moving any saline matter incrusting its tissue, and examine
it with the assistance of a microscope, we shall observe its
cellular structure with the utmost readiness. Let us now sub-
mit this piece of glass, with the fragment of epidermis, to a
red heat, and, when cold, again subject it to microscopic ex-
amination ; and so perfect will the structure of the epidermis
appear, that we can scarcely believe that its organic matter
has been destroyed, all its cellular tissue remaining imprinted
on the glass, in a skeleton formed chiefly of phosphate and
carbonate of lime ; for the addition of a single drop of diluted
hydrochloric acid, dissolves these salts, and causes every ap-
pearance of organization to vanish.*

*" Mais une seule goutte d'acicle, tres etendu, suffit pour detruire cette
illusion ; et ces reticulations y disparaissent avec rapidite."

Raspail; — Nouv. Syst. de Chim. Organiq. p. 529.
g3

76 On saline combinations

From this simple but very instructive experiment, we may
deduce some highly interesting conclusions. First ; — let us
recollect that the fragment of epidermis, prior to its incinera-
tion, was digested in a dilute acid, for the purpose of remov-
ing all saline matters soluble in that menstruum ; the acid
however could not dissolve that portion of saline matter which
existed in an organized form, and constituted the fixed skele-
ton of the vegetable tissue, because this was completely enve-
loped and enclosed on every side by organic matter, over
which the dilute acid employed, exercised no solvent action.
Next, we learn, that as the outline of every form of tissue is
met with, in the saline matter found in its ashes after incine-
ration, simply organic matter, or matter destructible by heat,
cannot be regarded as forming the true skeleton of plants, but
that this skeleton, like that of any animal, consists chiefly of
saline, or, (to use the generally received, but evidently impro-
per term), inorganic matter. These facts, if shewn to be uni-
versally true, are of the highest importance, and will serve to
give new and interesting features to the structure of organic
tissue ; and even in the present imperfect state of our know-
ledge on this head, they cast some little light upon the pre-
viously most mysterious subject of the fossilization of wood;
and although they are at present quite unequal to the task of
explaining this curious process, yet they assist in raising, to
a certain extent, the veil of obscurity with which it was co-
vered. One of the most puzzling questions that was ever
presented to the mind of the naturalist, is the manner in which
all, even the minutest and most delicate portions of vegetable
tissue, are preserved in a silicified state. It was formerly
conceived to be necessary, that in proportion as the minutest
atom of a vessel or cell, was removed by decomposition, an
equally minute atom of siliceous matter should be deposit-
ed from its solution, to supply the place of the organic mole-
cule, in order to preserve so perfectly the delicate vessels and
cells which are visible in fossil wood ; thus making the pro-
cess, which can scarcely be considered otherwise than one of
decomposition and destruction of vegetable matter, analogous
to that of secretion and absorption in animals, and so placing
it on a level with a process which, for its perfection, requires
the highest efforts of vital chemistry. Having proved, how-
ever, that the skeleton of the most elaborate and delicate form
of organic tissue consists of inorganic particles, it is no longer
a matter of surprise, that these should be spared when decom-
position of organic matter goes on ; or that when by the action
of running water or otherwise, every fragment of organic mat-
ter is removed, the indestructible materials which compose the

existing in vegetable structures. 77

skeleton of the plant, should remain, and serve as nuclei for
the deposition of saline or calcareous matter from the stream
that may flow over, or through them. Thus these depositions,
merely by supplying and filling up the vacuities formed by
the removal of the organic matter, at length produce a fossil
mass, in which the skeleton of the cellular and vascular tissue
remains the same, not only in form, but in matter, with that
which gave support to the vegetable when living ; the only
portion actually foreign to the original plant, being that which
has infiltrated between the delicate meshes of the inorganic
skeleton, where it has been deposited, and forms, of course,
the great mass of the fossil vegetable.

Tn the coal formation, which was long merely suspected to
be of vegetable origin, we find beautiful and satisfactory evi-
dence of the existence of the same inorganic skeletons of the
tissues of plants, as those we have just been considering. —
For although the organic portion of these plants, by under-
going what has been, not unaptly, termed the bituminous fer-
mentation, has lost all traces of organization, yet we can find
fragments of the inorganic skeletons of tissue, mixed up with
the bituminous or carbonaceous mass : thus in the ashes of a
common coal fire, we may discover all the usual forms of or-
ganic structure, viz. cellular tissue, spiral vessels, annular
ducts, &c. And in such a perfect state of preservation are
these skeletons, that all the finest markings observed in the
recent structures, remain undisturbed : thus proving, beyond
the possibility of a doubt, the vegetable origin of our extensive
coal-fields. For this discovery of the skeletons of vegetable
tissues in coal, we are entirely indebted to the interesting
researches of the Rev. J. B. Reade, who is almost the only
phytologist in this country, who has devoted his time to this
no less curious than important department of vegetable phy-
siology.

If it be granted that the skeleton of vegetable tissue is es-
sentially formed of inorganic matter, we have aright to expect
that if we attempt to cultivate plants in media from which all
traces of inorganic matter are carefully excluded, their deve-
lopement will be checked as completely as when we cease
to supply them with air or water. And this, from the expe-
riments of Jablonski, appears to be the case. This philoso-
pher planted various seeds in pure sublimed sulphur, taking
the precaution to supply them with water saturated with car-
bonic acid; after some time the cotyledons separated, but the
plumula did not become developed, and in a short time the
infant plants lingered and died. Jablonski then planted
seeds in the sublimed sulphur of commerce, which contained

g 4

78 On saline combinations in vegetable structure.

4 per cent, of foreign matter, chiefly inorganic ; they deve-
loped themselves, attained the height of four inches, and died,
at intervals between the seventh and tenth week, not having
undergone any apparent increase of growth, during the pre-
vious three weeks.* These two comparative experiments ap-
pear to prove that the presence of inorganic saline matter is
absolutely necessary for the perfect developement of a plant ;
as we might expect from theoretical reasoning.

If we admit that the skeleton of vegetable tissue is formed
of saline or siliceous matters, it follows that we can no longer
consider them as incapable of being organized, seeing that
they assume precisely the form of the tissue of which they are
the bases. Hence, although we may apply to such saline
substances the term inorganic, bee ause they are derived from
without, and are not the products of organization, yet, we
cannot avoid considering them as organized, seeing they as-
sist in constituting the parietes of the vegetable. No better
term can perhaps be applied to these saline matters, than that
of saline bases of tissues, a term applied by Raspail in the
work before quoted; although the ingenious web of theory
with which he has surrounded this part of his subject, may be
more questionable. " Une molecule de carbone, et une mo-
lecule d'eau, s'associent pour former la molecule organique
sous forme spherique ; la molecule organique, en se combinant
avec une base, forme les parois des tissus ligneux, si la base
est fixe, et glutineux ou albumineux, si la base est ammonia-
caler Nouv. Syst. Raspail. 1439.

From a consideration of the foregoing observations, it is
evident that the saline matters existing in the tissues of plants
have been too much neglected, seeing that the part they play
in the economy of vegetable life, is as important as that of
any other constituents ; and that we have been far too hasty
in declaring their presence adventitious and accidental. And
have we not also sufficient grounds to justify our considering
that those botanists, however high their names may rank in
the records of science, have been in error in assuming that all
principles, except carbon, ^hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen,
are foreign to vegetable structure ?

22, Wilmington Square, Dec. 20th, 1836.

* Wiegmann's Archiv fur Naturgeschichte ; 1837. See also the transla-
tion of Prof. Meyer's Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology, far
1836, in Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. Nov. 1837.

Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire. 79

Art. VI. Illustrations of the Geology of the South East of Dorset-
shire. By The Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A. F.G.S.

No. II. On the Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry

Rocks.

(Continued from Vol. i. n. s. p.

The particular object of the paper on "The Vertical and
Curved Strata of Ballard Head," was to point out, in general
terms, the features of the district under examination, together
with the connection of its superficial phenomena, with those
of more distant localities ; an object which completely put
out of my power any attempt to describe the composition or
contents of the beds, now to be more especially considered.
That point, together with the proofs of my positions, was, of
necessity, reserved for this and the subsequent illustrations.
The present paper will, I hope, without further controversy,
convince Dr. Mitchell that he has assumed, in his criticism,
(vol. i. p. 587 — 591), a tone and language neither justified by
his little knowledge of the extent of my information, nor by
the manifest defect in his own. He will find that I have not
trusted " too implicitly to the authority of those persons who
have previously written on this part of the coast," — and that
the only "error" I have fallen into, has resulted from my not
having sufficiently trusted them, — a want of faith, which, on
his part, has not placed his own observations in the most fa-
vorable light.

Dr. Mitchell says Durlstone Head is stated by me, to be
" composed of curved strata and breccia of Purbeck stone." —
Where did I ever say so ? Not, assuredly at p. 417, (Jig,
35). I merely pointed out that at 1 in that figure, the posi-
tion of the " overhanging, dark, curved strata, and breccia of
Purbeck stone, at Durlstone Head," were represented. Now
Dr. M. denies my general assumption of " curved strata and
breccia, in any part of Durlstone Head." He says the strata
" are not curved, but are in long parallel lines, separated from
each other by intermediate masses of clay." The clay has
nothing to do with the subject; for I was not describing the
contents of the beds, but the appearance of the coast from
the sea. The strata may be " in long parallel lines," and yet
be curved, for there are such things as parallel curves, whe-
ther long or short. But how any geologist with his eyes open
could possibly examine the coast from Swanwich to Durlstone
Head, and not see curved strata, is most marvellous ! Per-
haps, in all England, there are no such singularly striking
examples of curved strata, as are there evident to the most
casual observer. These curvatures are exhibited pretty ac-

80

Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

curately in the wood-cuts, {Jigs. 7 and 8) after two of Mr.
Webster's drawings, and together with Jig. 9 farther on, con-
vey a good idea of the sections.

Curved Beds and Breccia at Durlstone Head.
1, Purbeck stone. 2, Brown bituminous schistose limestone.

Curved Beds at Durlstone Head.
1, Ravine ; first fault. 2, Gulley ; second fault.

That such was the case on the 16th of June, 1811, the fol-
lowing extract from a letter by Mr. Webster will shew.

" In the north side of Durlstone Bay, the strata are regu-
lar, dipping a few degrees to the north : but about the middle
of the bay, they suddenly become very much contorted and
broken ; (pi. xxx.) and this state continues, with more or less
variation, all the way to the south side of the bay, called Durl-
stone Head.

" These contorted strata are precisely of the same nature
as those which are straight, and the quarrymen can recognise

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 81

among them the very same beds. Nothing can be more sa-
tisfactory than the evidence which the inspection of them af-
fords, that these changes took place when the strata were in
a soft and yielding state, yet after their complete formation
and separation from each other. The cliffs along the shore
are constantly foundering ; but it is easy to distinguish be-
tween recent and ancient changes : since the former produce
only straight fragments, mixed with soft clay, whereas the
latter have bent the strata into the most fantastic forms, and
the fragments are cemented together into a most singular rock,
of which plate xxxi exhibits an example.

" At Durlstone Head, (pi. xxxii, No. 1), {fig. 7), these
appearances are the most extraordinary. Here the stratum is
dark grey bituminous limestone" (not, it seems, an oolite),
" intersected by numerous veins of calcareous spar, the sur-
face of which has been scooped into hollows. Upon this
surface are deposited the contorted and broken fragments of
the series of Purbeck beds, as one would build a wall over
rugged rocks.

" It may here be evidently seen, that the contortions do not
in the least resemble those which may be supposed to be de-
rived from deposition upon an irregular nucleus, such as are
frequent in sandstone : and it is quite impossible to suppose
they could owe their forms to any original undisturbed for-
mation. The whole distinctly marks the changes which have
been produced by ancient revolutionary causes, the true na-
ture of which it is, perhaps, impossible yet to develope.

" Underneath the series of Purbeck stone, in this hill, there
is a thick bed of clay, containing massy gypsum, both fibrous
and amorphous ; but at Durlstone Head, the clay is want-
ing. Could the contorted strata at this place, have, at one
time, occupied a higher situation ? And have they fallen in-
to their present position, by the subtraction of the clay exist-
ing below them ?

" Turning round Durlstone Head, this dark coloured lime-
stone rises to the West, continuing till it forms the uppermost
stratum of the cliff, about half a mile off, at a place called
Tillywhim. The stratum below it here, is an oolite, and, in
fact, is the beginning of that series." (Englefield's Isle of
Wight, p. 172—174).

In despite of all this, Dr. Mitchell says, " Throughout the
coast, for many miles, beginning at Swanwich, the strata,
though dipping a little, approach to horizontality of posi-
tion"!!

In the elaborate monograph of Dr. Fitton, on the strata be-
low the chalk, just published in the Geological Transactions,

82 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

vol. iv. p. 208, that accurate observer says, " The whole of
the Purbeck series is exposed in the ruinous cliffs of Durl-
stone Bat/, where the strata have been enumerated in detail
by Mr. Webster, (Geol. Tr. ii. 38, 39).

"At the upper fart they consist of compact limestone, al-
ternating with clay, and abounding in fresh water shells, es-
pecially of the genus Cyclas: but including also a thick bed
called ' cinder' by the quarrymen, which is almost entirely
composed of oyster-shells. At the lower part, the formation
consists principally of fissile limestone, the junction of which
with the Portland strata exhibits some very remarkable ap-
pearances.

" All the stone which is quarried at present, occurs in the
upper part of the series ; and from Mr. Webster's list it ap-
pears that in a thickness of about 125 feet, 55 consist of beds
of useful stone; 12 feet of the ' cinder,' composed of oyster-
shells ; and the remaining 58 feet, of slaty clay, and thin beds
of unprofitable stone. I was informed that about 150 feet
more, of what the workmen call ' rubbish' and ' slate,' inter-
vene between the lowest of the courses, (or ' veins') of good
stone, and the top of the Portland formation ; so that the to-
tal thickness of the Purbeck formation, is about 275 feet,"
(274 feet 8 inches). What becomes then of Dr. Mitchell's
"two sections observed at Durlstone Head in 1833," ? (p. 588).
He speaks of 8 and 11 alternations of "stone;" Mr. Webster
enumerates and names 52 beds, alternating with clay or shale !

Dr. Fitton continues ; — " The high ground between Pever-
ill Point and Durlstone Head, is divided by a depression or
ravine, on the north of which, in addition to the flexures and
contortions seen in all the sections, and well represented in
Mr. Webster's plates, the strata are traversed by fissures, pro-
duced by upheavings, or subsidence, or both. The effect of
these disturbances can be traced by means of the 'cinder'
bed; disjointed portions of which are still visible, inclined at
different angles, in three or four successive falls, the first
throwing down that bed more than 100 feet, and others 40,
15, and 3 feet. The fissures which separate the disjointed
masses, are widest at the top, and are filled with fragments of
the dislocated strata. The place where these derangements
occur, is called 'the Gulley:'* on the south side of it the
strata are much less disturbed, and the 'cinder' can be traced
almost continuously in its proper situation, till it disappears
near the face of the hill, not far from Durlstone Head." (G.
T. iv. p. 209).

* This spot is marked in my Fig. 35.

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 83

The upper bed, (called marble rag), distinguished for its
multitude of Paludince, may be traced from the level of the
sea at Peverill Point, to the top of the hill above the Gulley ;
and again from the level of the sea, below that great fault, to
the top of the opposite cliffs ; in passing whence it forms a
double arch, convex and concave, the former being cracked
in the direction of its radii, as represented at 7 in the follow-
ing sketch, (Jig. 9), taken near the spot, and affording an

9

osaoqrtioo

Coast section from Peverill Point to Durlstone Head.

1, Coast from Poole to Christchurch, (Plastic clay). 2, Old Harry,

(Chalk). 3, Ballard Point, C. 4, Cliffs in Swanwich Bay, Hastings
Sands. 5, Peverill Point, Purbeck beds. 6, Gulley, P. 7, Arched
strata, Durlstone Head, P. 8, Breccia on the shore, P. 9, Chalk downs.

analogous example to that given by Dr. Fitton elsewhere, of
the conditions of the saddle of lower green sand, which ex-
tends from Sevenoaks to Godstone in Surrey, at a spot near
Brasted Place, in Kent, here copied. (G. T. iv. p. 135).

10

-OT

Bending of the strata of Green Sand, at the ' New World,' Brasted Place,

Kent.

Mr. Webster mentions that on the shore near Peverill Point,
fragments of bone are frequently found in the masses of rock
thrown down. I have observed, very near the stair-case that
descends to the beach at Peverill Point, an imbedded bone ir
the cliff, through which has passed one of those cracks tha
have separated the rock into so many masses, leaving portions
of the bone on each side ; a proof this, that the derangements
have taken place since the consolidation of the rock.

84 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

Dr. Fitton also says, in further contradiction of Di\ Mitch-
ell's 'horizontality of position' for some miles from Sivanwich,
— " between the extreme points of Durlstone Head and Gad
Cliff, a real curvature, combined with the general inclination
of the strata towards the north, which is, in some places, very
rapid, has caused an extensive disclosure of the lower beds,
excellent sections of which are visible on the west of St. Al-
ban's Head."— p. 210.

I pass on to Dr. Mitchell's 'remark,' " on what are called
the highly inclined red cliffs of Hastings sand, in Swanwich
Bay." (p. 589). He criticises the wood-cut, and says, "it
would be supposed, that the cliffs referred to were close to
the town, and rose at a high angle." The wood-cut, as before
stated, represents the coast as seen from the sea, and is merely
a sketch from a certain point, giving what is actually seen
from that point. The flat space Dr. M. alludes to, could
scarcely be seen from that point of view ; but if it could be
seen, it is not " about half a mile " in length, but exactly 200
paces ! (Measured by Dr. Fitton ; G. T. iv. p. 207).

Dr. M. goes on ; — " Half a mile from Swanwich, and for the
extent of more than half a mile, as far north of the chalk," —
&c. &c. I suppose these two measurements make more than
a mile to the chalk. Now the first half mile is about 200
paces, and the second more than 20 times as far ! For, from
the end of these 200 paces to the chalk, there are about 4250
paces ; the whole space is about 4270 paces. This space is
occupied by Upper green sand, 250 paces.

Gault, 200

Lower green sand, 240?

Weald clay, 46 ?

Hastings sand, 3500

4236
(See Fitton's Monograph, p. 207).

Dr. M. says the dip is 15°. I have frequently measured
portions of the series, and found the dip to be 24°. Mr. Web-
ster, Dr. Fitton, and others, call the beds " highly inclined"
Dr. Buckland says they vary from 15° to 30°. (G. T. iii. p.
429). Since the publication of Dr. M.'s criticism, I have mea-
sured the beds again, and near the junction of the Hastings
sand with the weald clay, I found the inclination to be 56° !
This is, I think, " highly inclined"

Dr. M. says the " red stripes" " in the Hastings sands, are
the changed form of brown sand." I can assure Dr. M. that
there is red sand, as well as brown, yellow, green, whitish,
drab, and various other coloured sands and marls.

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 85

He goes on : — " It is for theorists to identify these beds
with what are called Hastings sands." Theory is, surely, a
most illogical way of identifying one thing with another ; and
it is not by theory, but by an actual comparison of the fossils,
which Dr. M. says " he has never heard of" (!) as well as
by the miner alogical character, that the identity with the stra-
ta at Sandown Bay, Isle of Wight, has been made out. He
will find there precisely similar beds of yellow and brown
sand. As to the term, theorist, it can only apply to one who
would class beds between the chalk and the wealden strata,
with the sands of Alum Bay, or, "what is more," with those
over the London clay ! In the first place, I may observe, the
sands at Alum Bay, are not opposite to Swanwich Bay. —
Alum Bay is opposite to Studland Bay, and Swanwich Bay
is opposite to the east side of Freshwater Bay, on the other
side of the Isle of Wight. The chalk, in each case, separates
the plastic clay from the sub -cretaceous beds. In the next
place, mineralogical character alone is but of little avail, in
many cases, as a geological test. I could shew, from my
own collection, specimens from the ascent to Fairlight Down
near Hastings ; the plastic clay of Dorsetshire ; the quarries
in the Gres Bigarre at Liverpool ; and from the old red sand-
stone near Huy, in Belgium ; which so exactly resemble each
other, that no eye could detect whether they belong to one
or to four formations ; and every geologist, who has exten-
sively worked out his own acquaintance with rocks, knows
well, that mineralogical character is most deceptive. Mr.
Lyell, (Principles, 5th ed. vol. iv. p. 148), speaking of the
tertiary fresh water deposits of Auvergne, says that there are
beds of " red sandstone and red marl, which are identical, in
all their characters, with the secondary new red sandstone and
marl of England. In these secondary rocks, the red ground
is sometimes variegated with light greenish spots, and the
same may be seen in the tertiary formation, of fresh water
origin, at Coudes, on the Allier." I am able to confirm, from
examination, Mr. Lyeli's remark ; as strongly I deny, from
examination, Dr. Mitchell's position, that the sands of Swan-
wich Bay " are not to be distinguished from some of the per-
pendicular strata directly opposite, ( ? ) in Alum Bay" I have
now before me, bottles filled with sand from both localities.
I can see a material distinction in the character, — mineralo-
gically, however, they agree in both being quartzose, and
both coloured by iron I Is this sufficient for a geologist, and
one who criticises others upon such grave topics as the pro-
per classification of strata ? It ought not to be, most assur-
edly.

86 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

Dr. M. says he "has never heard of any fossils being found"
in the Swanwich Bay sands. Has he then never read Dr.
Buckland's paper, (G. T. vol. 3), on the discovery of the bones
of the Iguanodon, Plesiosaurus, Megalosaurus, and Crocodile,
in these very cliffs, by the Rev. Mr. Bartlett and Col. White,
and which I have seen in the former gentleman's museum ?
Has he never seen Mr. De la Beche's Geological Manual,
wherein are distinctly named, from Swanwich Bay, a Cardi-
um, a Pinna, a Venus, three species of Cyclas, a Paludina,
two species of Melania, and a Cypris? (2nd Ed. p. 304). —
Or has he never become acquainted with Dr. Fitton's learned
paper before alluded to ; in which he will find that the mine-
ralogical characters given by Dr. Fitton, are a vast deal more
to be depended on, than his own generalising similarities ? —
" In the coast section on the east of Purbeck, the whole series
from the chalk down to the Portland stone is disclosed : "
(this is represented in my fig. 35, p. 417). "The upper green
sand, gault, lower green sand, and weald clay, in strata highly
inclined, occurring in a nook or recess called Pemfield, at the
southern foot of Ballard Hill ; and the Hastings sands, occu-
pying the whole of the range of cliffs thenCe to the town of
Swanage, (see fig. 9) ; the section of which is so distinct,
that with sufficient labour all the details can be made out. —
The strata correspond, however, precisely with what I have
mentioned in the preceding account of the Isle of Wight, and
of the coast near Hastings, and, as at those places, consist of
sand and sand rock, including concretions of calcareous grit,
and alternating with a very large proportion of reddish and
greenish cohesive sandy clay. Detached portions of lignite
are frequent also throughout the series here. Fragments of
the trunks of silicified coniferous trees have been found in
dark brown masses ; and detached bones of the Iguanodon
sometimes occur loose on the shore, beneath the cliffs near
the town of Swanage." (G. T. iv. p. 207).

Fragments of nearly perfect coal are also found at the side
of the road from Studland.

Dr. Fitton also gives the following, (in a list of fossils) from
these cliffs.

Gryphcea vesiculosa
Pec ten quinquecostatus

asper

orbicularis
-quadricostatus

Upper green sand under Ballard Hill.

Serpula antiquata

Terebratula pectita

Mya mandibula Gault, Pemfield.

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 87

Cyclas media

membranacea

Cypris tuberculata

Valdensis

Exogyra P in brown clay

Melanopsis P attenuata, in blue clay

— tricarinata, in blue clay

Ostrea ; a plicated species. In a bed of stone
subordinate to the weald clay, the greater
part composed of shells, with a striated bi-
valve, (a Cardium P)

Ostrea ; a smooth species

Paludina acuminata

elongata (with Cyclas media)

Unio

Cyclas media ; Sand cliff between Swanage and'
Pemfield. In nodules of clay iron ore, with
Paludinte.

Unio, one or more species between Pemfield and
Swanage.

Wealden, Pemfield.

Hastings sand.

To this list I add, on my own authority, collected on the
7th November, 1837, the following. Vermeius concavus, Den-
talium medium, Trigonia rugosa, Ammonites varicosus, A.
marginatum ; all from the lower green sand: Solarium orna-
tum, and a Mytilus, from the gault : besides a huge Ammon-
ite, and some other characteristic shells, from the lower chalk
at Pemfield.

Whether ' theorists' may or may not identify the c stripes of
red sand, and stripes of yellow sand,' with what are called
Hastings sands, it is, at any rate, certain, that Dr. Mitchell
ought not to have set up for a critic upon the point, until he
" had heard of any fossils being found in them.'" He tells us
that he found [at Pemfield], " at the point of junction near
the sand " (and chalk), " an immense mass of debris, thickly
overgrown with grass. The theorists say that the green sand
formation is there : i" saw none of it? ! The only wonder is
how he could avoid seeing it. The disengaged blocks and
pebbles of the upper green sand, (as green as the 'grass' which
he did see), lie in all directions amongst that debris ; and the
extent of the beds may be distinctly traced, not only at the
point of junction, but up the steep pathway to the top of the
cliff, and along the fields to the road from Studland to Swan-
age. But Dr. M. saw nothing but grass. I should have sup-
posed that he must have seen the rushes also, that distinctly
point out the existence of the black bed of gault, that lies be-
tween the upper and lower green sands !

Professor Sedgwick, in a letter to me dated 13th Nov. says
" So your opponent denies the existence of green sand be-
tween the Ballard Head chalk and Swanwich Bay ! Now it
Vol. II. — No. 14. n. s. h

88 On the Generic Characters

is odd enough, that I collected, (in the summer of 1820), from

that locality, the best green sand fossils I have in my museum.'''

(To be continued).

Art. VII. On the generic characters of Cartilaginous Fishes, with
Descriptions of new genera. By Dr. J. Muller, Professor of
Anatomy and Physiology at the Royal University of Berlin ; and
Dr. Henle. Communicated by the Authors.
[Continued from page 37).

The three following genera are all as different from each other
as from the preceding group ; and would, therefore, in a sys-
tem, take the place of families.

TRIGLOCHIS, Nob.

Large "branchial openings and small spiracles, as in Lamna. The tail
like Carcharias, but without the dimple. The first dorsal fin stands before
the abdominal ones; the second dorsal between the abdominal and anal fins;
they are all pretty large. Teeth long, pointed, with one lateral denticle, or
two on each side. We are not acquainted with the valve of the intestine.

To this genus, or to a very confined one, will probably be-
long the genus Odontaspis, Agassiz ; the author himself refer-
ring to it the Squalus ferox, Risso, which has all the charac-
ters of our Triglochis.

ALOPECIAS.

Head, dorsal and anal fins, and spiracles, as in Lamna, (the latter having
been hitherto overlooked), but the branchial openings are small, and the
last above the pectoral fins, and the upper lobe of the caudal fin, extremely
elongated. A dimple on the tail, but no lateral keel. Teeth sharp, trian-
gular, without serrature or protuberance. Intestinal valve in a spiral. (1 sp.)
CESTRACION.

Branchial openings as in Alopecias ; second dorsal fin between the anal
and abdominal ones, like Triglochis. Spiracles small. Teeth arranged in
pavement ; the anterior rows small and pointed. A prickle or sting before
each dorsal fin. (1 sp.)

The Sharks of the third division possess, like the preced-
ing, an anal, but only one dorsal fin, and six or seven bran-
chial openings. It is the genus Notidanus, Cuv. which we
divide, with Rafinesque, into two genera ; Hexanchus, with
six branchial openings, (1 sp.) and Heptanchus, with seven.
(2 sp.)

The fourth division of the Sharks, without an anal fin, we
separate into two groups ; the first of which has a sting be-
fore every dorsal fin; the second wants this sting. Both have
spiracles, and are without the membrana nictitans.

The group with dorsal stings, {Acanthorhinus, Blainv.) con-
tains four genera : —

1. Acanthiat, Bonap. Teeth with a transverse edge, the point being di-
rected outwardly, of the same shape in the upper and the lower jaw. —
(4 sp.)

of Cartilaginous Fishes. 89

2. Spinax, Bonap. Teeth of the lower jaw as in the preceding; teeth of
the upper jaw with a long point in the middle, and two shorter ones on
each side. (1 sp.)

3. Centrina, Cuv. Teeth of the lower jaw nearly straight, leaflike, with
a serrated edge, and a flat triangular point ; those of the upper jaw al-
so straight, hut more narrow, conic, pointed, forming a cluster in the
central part of the maxilla. (1 sp.)

4. Centrophorus, Noh. The lower teeth have a transverse edge, indis-
tinctly serrated, the point of each being directed towards the corner of
the mouth ; the point of the upper teeth is directed downwards ; they
are equilateral, without any serrature. (1 sp. Sq. squamosus, Bl. Schn.)

To a new genus, but which, perhaps, is nearly allied to this,
probably belongs the Squalus squamosus, Bl. Schn. with the
teeth of which we are not acquainted.

The group without dorsal stings, (Scymnus, Cuv.) embra-
ces three genera : —

1. Scymnus, Noh. Teeth in the upper jaw straight and narrow, in the
lower jaw crooked, pyramidal, equilateral. The first dorsal fin before,
the second behind, the abdominal fins. (2 sp.)

2. Laemargus, Nob. The situation of the fins is the same as in the pre-
ceding, but the lower teeth have a transverse edge, as in Acanthias ;
the upper teeth are narrow, conic, straight, or curved outwardly. (3 sp.)

3. Echinarrhinus, Blainv. (Gonoidus, Agass.) The first dorsal fin op-
posite to the abdominal ones. Teeth in both jaws broad and low, the
edge nearly horizontal. The lateral edges have one or two transverse
denticles. (1 sp.)

The fifth and last division consists only of the genus Squa-
tina, (2 sp.) without an anal fin, with a protractile mouth at
the top of the head, and the peculiar and sufficiently known
form of the pectoral fins.

Amongst the Skates, the genus Pristis should be placed
next to the Sharks, from the general shape of the body. The
Pristis cirrhatus, Lath, forms the type of our new genus,
Pristioph or us.

The branchial apertures on the sides of the neck, before the pectoral fins,
which begin with a slender base, as in the Sharks ; the fifth branchial open-
ing approximates to the fourth, as in many Scyllia. Teeth pointed. (1 sp.)

In Pristis, s. s. the teeth are pavement-like, and the branchial apertures
open on the inferior surface, as in the other Skates. (5 sp.)

The family RHINOBATIS we form into two divisions
and five genera.

a. First dorsal fin opposite to the abdominal ones ; caudal fin terminating

in two lobes. Mouth undulated.

1. Rhina, Schn. The nasal valve extending to the interior corner of the

nostril. Body orbicular. Teeth round. (1 sp.

2. Rhynchobatus, Nob. The nasal valve does not extend to the interi-

or corner of the nostril. Body oval, as in Rhinobatus. The teeth
broader than long, elliptical. (1 sp.)

b. The two dorsal fins placed upon the tail. Extremity of the caudal fin

cut obliquely, forming only one lobe.
1 . Rhinobatus. The nasal valve like Rhynchobatus. (1 sp.)

H 2

90 On the generic characters

2. Platyrhina, Nob. The nasal valve extends beyond the inner corner

of the nostril, nearly to the middle of the snout, which is obtuse,
and the body orbicular, approaching Torpedo. (1 sp.)

3. Trygonorrhina, Nob. Tail of Rhinobatus, with the nose of Trygon.

(1 sp.)

. The TORPE DINES constitute four genera -.—Torpedo,
s. s. (3 sp.) Narcine, Henle, (4 sp.) Astrape, Nob. (T. ca-
pe nsis and dipterygia, aut.) and Temera, Gray. (1 sp )

The true RAIJE contain three genera : —

1. Raia, Cuv. (17 sp.)

2. Sympterygia, Nob. Tail of Raia ; the pectoral fins, which do not

reach to the keel of the snout in the true Raice, are, in the Sympter-
ygice, extended to the mesial line, touching each other with their in-
ner edges. The abdominal fin is not divided into two lobes by an
incision, as it is in Raia. (1 sp.)

3. Uraptera, Nob. diners from Raia only by the want of a caudal fin. —

(1 sp.)*

The genus TRYGON, Cuv. has become a large family,
containing the following genera : —

Trygon, s. s. are the Sting Rays, the teeth of which are elliptical, and
have a transverse wreath. There is either no fin at all on the tail, or a low
one, which does not extend to the extremity of the tail, or a fin below only,
or one both above and below : therefore we can form three sub-genera ; —

1. Trygon, (restricted). A fin on the tail, above and below. (H spj

2. Hemitrygon, Nob. Fin of the upper margin of the tail wanting. —
r2sp.j

3. Himantura. No fin on the tail. ( 6 sp.^

Pteroplatea, Nob. The Sting Rays, which are much broader than long,
with a tail shorter than the body, and teeth terminating in one or thre
points. (3 spj

Taeniura, Nob. has no upper caudal fin, the inferior one extending to
the extremity of the tail. Teeth pointed, with an elliptical base. Mouth
undulated j the projecting parts of the upper jaw form a sharp edge on each
side. (1 sp. Tr. ornata, Gray and Hardw.)

Hypolophus, Nob. Distinguished by its inferior caudal fin, which is ve-
ry high, and does not reach to the end of the tail. Teeth hexagonal, very
small in the middle of the upper jaw, large at the sides. (I sp. Raia )

Lastly, the Raia cruciata, Lacep. is the type of our genus,

Urolophus, remarkable for a fin at the point of the tail. Teeth as in
Raia, bearing in the middle a wreath or point. (1 sp.J

Another family has the tail of Trygon, but wants the sting.
To this belong two genera : —

Anacanthus, Ehrenb. Tail without any fin. (1 sp.J And

Urogymnus, Nob. having, on the under side of the tail, a low fin, which
does not reach to the extremity of the tail. (1 sp. Raia asperrima, Bl. Schn.)

Myliobatis, Cuv. (Aetobatis, Bl. j Rhinoptera, Kuhl, and a new genus,
are put in one family, characterized by its large teeth, arranged as in a
pavement, or like mosaic work ; — by the' pectoral fins being separated from
the fins of the head; — by a fin upon the root of the tail, and a sting behind
this fin.

* The genus Propleygia, Otto, is founded on a kind of monstrosity, which
is not seldom met with in Skates.

of Cartilaginous Fishes. 91

Myliobatis has the teeth large in the middle, and small on the sides of the
jaws. The nasal valve has a straight edge. The fins of the head united.
(5 sp.j

Aetobatis, Nob. has the same fins of the head, hut the lower jaw projects
far beyond the upper one. Only one row of teeth in each jaw, and the na-
sal valve deeply cut. (2 spj

In Rhinoptera the fin of the head has an excision in the middle. The
teeth are hexagonal plates, large in the middle of the jaw, diminishing in
size as they approach the sides. (3 spj

In the last family, CEPHALOPTERA, we place two
genera : —

Cephaloptera, Dum. Mouth on the under side of the body ; teeth small
and pointed, or like tubercles in both jaws. (4 spj

Ceratoptera, Nob. the type of which is the Cephaloptera described by Le-
sueur. The mouth is at the top of the head ; the teeth, distinct only in the
lower jaw, are little scales or leaves. (3 spj

The number of genera indicated in the preceding Synopsis,
amounts to 64 ; of which 36, including 85 species, belong to
the family of Sharks, and 28, including 96 species, to the
Rays. In a paper which we published some months ago, in
the ' Reports of the Academy of Sciences, of Berlin,' (July,
1837), we enumerated 30 genera of Sharks, and 24 genera of
Skates. The genera which we have subsequently added, we
found by visiting the collections of Leyden and London. —
They are Hemiscy Ilium, Leptocharias, Loxodon, Triakis, Car-
charodon, and Rineodon, in the division of the Sharks ; and
Platyrrhina, Trygonorrhina, Temera and Hemitrygon in the
division of the Skates.

We gladly avail ourselves of this opportunity to express
our sincere and grateful acknowledgements, to the distin-
guished naturalists, through whose liberality we were allowed
the free use of the collections under their care ; especially of
the Museum at Leyden, and, in London, that of the British
Museum : also of the collections of the Zoological Society,
the Royal College of Surgeons, the London University Col-
lege, and that of the United Service Museum. The obliga-
tions which we owe to them, and to many others in London,
we shall make it a point to advert more explicitly to, in our
forthcoming work. With regard however to the genera esta-
blished by Dr. Andrew Smith, and which in part are here for
the first time brought before the public, we feel bound to em-
brace the earliest opportunity of acknowledging the liberality
and generosity, with which this eminent individual has as-
sisted us in our enquiries, by allowing us to make an unlimit-
ed use of the rich collection of Sharks, which he has recently
brought from the Cape of Good Hope.

Berlin, Dec. 12th, 1837.

h 3

92 Contributions to

Art. VIII. Contributions to the Natural History of Southern
Africa. By Andrew Smith, M. D. Surgeon to the Forces.

( Continued from page 33 )

Genus NAJA, Dand.

N. nigra. Colour above, livid black, beneath, greenish black; each ab-
dominal plate margined behind by a tint of a lighter hue. Scales on the
upper part of the neck near to the head, somewhat circular, those on the
body ovate. Abdominal plates 224. Subcaudal scales 75 pairs. Length
5 feet 9 inches, of which the tail measures 13 inches. Circumference of the
thickest part of the body 3£ inches. Inhabits the districts towards the O-
range River ; and is called the " Spitting Snake," from its being in the ha-
bit, according to the natives, of casting its poison at individuals who may
be passing near it.

N. gutturalis. Colour above, a light yellowish brown, sometimes finely
mottled with delicate short white and almost invisible streaks ; beneath,
nearly the same tint, with a dark brown collar, nearly 2 inches in breadth,
about an inch behind the head ; and towards its anterior extremity extend-
ing upwards on the sides of the neck, so as to be visible when the snake is
lying flat on the ground. Abdominal plates 204. Subcaudal scales 59
pairs. Length 1 foot 10 inches. Inhabits the country near the mouth of
the Orange river.

Genus VIPERA.

V. ocellata. Colour above, a yellowish or reddish brown, with a row of
large brown spots along each side, and each spot marked with a blue tint
near its centre. Along the middle of the back is a series of transverse black
bars, each edged, on one side at least, by a white or yellowish white line ;
beneath, of a yellowish white or pearly hue. Over each eye a conical ele-
vation, out of which projects a cylindrical spine, slightly curved backwards,
and about a line and a half, or nearly two lines in length. Abdominal
plates 149. Subcaudal scales 27 pairs. Length 14 inches. Young speci-
mens exhibit no appearance of spines over the eyes. Inhabits sandy dis-
tricts north of the Cape Colony, and is very dangerous from its being liable
to be trodden upon, owing to its colour being so nearly that of the sand.

Genus LACERTA.
1. Palpebral plates* not edged by granular scales.

L. elegans. Scales somewhat circular, small and flat, placed in trans-
verse rows ; abdominal plates disposed in 6 rows ; collar formed of 8 scales ;
femoral pores 14 or 15. Colour of back and sides light reddish brown, tail
and legs light red; under parts reddish white. Length, from 12 to 15 in.
Inhabits Little Namaqualand and the country towards the Orange river.

L. tesselata. Anterior part of back, and the sides, for nearly their whole
length, black, the former variegated by 4 fine, white, longitudinal lines,
the latter by vertical white stripes. Posterior part of back and tail green-
ish brown ; beneath yellowish white ; fore legs variegated by white spots. —
Abdominal plates disposed in 6 longitudinal rows; collar composed of 10
plates; femoral pores 12 or 14. Length about 14 inches. Inhabits the
eastern parts of the Cape Colony.

L. livida. Back brown, sides black, the latter closely spotted or striped
with white, the former with 6 white lines, either continuous, or formed of
short stripes or spots ; fore legs spotted with white. Tail greenish brown,

* Plates immediately above the eves.

South African Zoology. 93

with a black irregular line on each side towards its base; under parts white.
Six rows of abdominal plates, collar formed of 10 scales. Femoral pores

10. Length about 12 inches. Inhabits the northern parts of the Cape
Colony,

This may perhaps be only a variety of the last ; in many points they ap-
proximate, and in others, some of them essential points, they differ.

L. tceniolata. Back brown, with two fine black lines, in places composed
of dots ; sides black, with 3 longitudinal white lines, vanishing at or near
the base of the tail. Tail brown above, inclined to red near the extremity,
and marked on each side, towards the base, with a blackish line ; under
parts dull white. Abdominal plates in 6 longitudinal rows ; collar of 9
scales ; femoral pores 14. Length about 9 inches. Young — Black above,
with 9 longitudinal white lines, the central one extending only a little dis-
tance along the neck. Inhabits the grassy districts of the Cape Colony.

L. intertexta. Colour above, reddish brown, with two rows of circular
white spots, discontinued about half way between the anterior and posterior
extremities, each spot surrounded by a* black ring; sides chequered, black
and white, the latter colour disposed in narrow vertical stripes. Tail light
brown, with a dotted black line on each side, and the space between them
above, irregularly marked with small black spots ; under parts white. Ab-
dominal plates in 6 rows; collar consisting of 12 or 13 scales; femoral pores

11. Length about 9 or 10 inches. Inhabits the country near Latakoo.

2. Palpebral plates partially or entirely surrounded by one or more rows of
small granular scales.

L. ctenodactylus. Colour above rusty yellow, sometimes greenish brown,
and finely variegated with brown or black points ; sides brownish black,
with two longitudinal whitish lines, either continuous, or formed of distinct
spots ; space between the lines also variegated with white spots ; each side
of the tail towards the base, marked with a black stripe ; under parts yel-
lowish white ; extremities freely variegated with irregular yellowish white
spots. Palpebral scales margined on their outer and hinder edges, by small
granular scales. Abdominal plates in 18 longitudinal rows; collar formed
by 11 scales; femoral pores 29 or 30. Length from 6 to 8 inches. Outer
edge of each toe margined by a row of projecting, pointed scales, like the
teeth of a comb. Inhabits the sandy deserts of Little Namaqualand.

L. undata. Colour above reddish yellow inclined to orange, with five
broad black longitudinal lines, the central one lost on the neck, the next of
each side united near the base of the tail, and from thence extend as one, a
little way on the latter; the outermost on each side waved, or slightly tortu-
ous, and below edged with some yellow spots. Palpebral plates edged on
their posterior, anterior, and outer margins, by small granular scales. Col-
lar composed of 13 scales ; femoral pores 9 to 12 ; abdominal plates dispo-
sed in 10 longitudinal rows. Length about 6 inches. Inhabits the north-
ern and western parts of the Cape Colony.

L. lugubris. Palpebral plates completely surrounded with small granular
scales. Scales on the body small, inclined to 4-sided, and placed in oblique
transverse rows. Collar formed of 8 scales ; abdominal plates disposed in
6 longitudinal rows; femoral pores from 14 to 16, or more. Colour of the
body above and below, deep black or brown, more or less tinted with black,
and above variegated with three golden yellow longitudinal stripes, either
continuous or interrupted, the centre stripe bifid near the head ; tail gene-
rally light red ; extremities black or brownish, with yellow spots. Length
about 6 inches. Inhabits the district immediately beyond the northern
frontier of the Colony.

L. Capensis. Anterior, posterior, and outer margins of palpebral plates,

h 4

94. Letter from Richard Owen, Esq.

edged by several rows of small granular scales, their inner margin by a sin-
gle row. Collar formed of 9 scales; femoral pores 11 or 12; abdominal
plates in 14 longitudinal rows. Colour above, blueish green, with 5 longi-
tudinal black lines, the central one very narrow, and bifid at its anterior
extremity, the lateral ones slightly broken, and the one on each side next
to the central one, inclosing white spots ; tail above, and on the sides, of a
light brown tint, under parts whitish. Length about 8 inches. Inhabits
the arid districts of Cape Colony.

Genus ALGYRA, Cuv.

A. Capensis. Colour above, reddish yellow, with two or three irregular
rows of black spots or stripes, many of the spots being encircled, or partial-
ly margined by white; along each side one, and sometimes two rows of white
spots, or continuous white lines, the lowermost, when two exist, extends a-
cross the temples, as far as the eye ; tail above, towards the base, marked
with black spots ; under parts yellowish white. Plates on upper surface of
head, rough and furrowed, frontal plate concave towards its anterior extre*
mity, and from the latter a deep groove extends to the apex of nose. Fe-
moral pores from 10 to 13. Abdominal plates imbricate, and disposed in
about 10 rows. Length from 7 to 9 inches. Inhabits the sandy deserts
around Latakoo.

(To be continued.)

Art. IX. Letter from Richard Owen, Esq. F.R.S. &c. Hunterian
Professor to the Royal College of Surgeons, addressed to M. Ara-
go, Perpetual Secretary to the French Academy of Sciences. Com-
municated by the author.*

Royal College of Surgeons,

London, January 21st, 1838.

Sir,

I regret that, owing to absence from London,
and other causes, I have not, until this day, perused the pa-
ragraphs relating to the Allantois of the Kangaroo, which
have appeared in the ' Comptes Rendus' of the Academy of
Sciences; — Nos. 18, 19, and 20, of which have been placed
in my hands, by my friend, Mr. Robert Brown.

With reference to the description of the allantois of the
kangaroo given in No. 18, p. 638, I have briefly to state that
M. Coste is mistaken, in supposing that an undissected ovum
of a kangaroo, was submitted by me for his examination ; it
was the foetus of a kangaroo, with the vitelline sac and allan-
tois appended to it: the ovum, (l'oeuf de kangaroo), had been

* The preparation of the membranes in a foetal kangaroo, described and
figured in the Mag. Nat. Hist. (Vol. i. p. 483, n. s.) was shewn by Mr. Owen
to M. Coste, during a late visit of the latter to this country. On his return
to Paris, M. Coste communicated to the French Academy, the existence of
the allantois, accompanied by a direct intimation that this highly interesting
and important discovery had been effected by his, M. Coste's dissection. Ed.

to M. Arauo. 95

dissected several weeks before his visit to London ; and the
external investing membrane, or chorion, removed. I need
not observe that the dissection of a mammiferous ovum, and
the consequent detection of the sacs appended to the embryo
imply, that the chorion should be previously entire. Now,
this external membrane of the ovum in question, was not ex-
hibited to M. Coste, nor has he ever seen it.

The modifications which I detected in the chorion of the
ovum in question, as compared with that which I had previ-
ously dissected and described,* afforded the additional fact,
of chief importance in the history of marsupial develope-
ment ;t but this fact I did not feel myself called upon to com-
municate or demonstrate to M. Coste, as it had not, at that
time, been published.

With respect to the allantois, as its presence afforded
merely a confirmation of my previous statements, founded on
dissections, the results of which were published in the Phi-
losophical Transactions for 1834, I had no hesitation in af-
fording M. Coste the means of obtaining ocular demonstration
of the fact ; and I was chiefly induced to place before him
the foetus of the kangaroo, with the appended allantois, be-
cause I found that in his work on * Embriogenie,' p. 118, he
states that the allantois is not developed in the Marsupiata,
a statement which is in accordance with the figure of the dis-
sected embryo, (pi. ix), which is copied from my paper, but
which is in direct opposition to my text, where the evidences
of the existence of an allantois in the more mature marsupial
foetus, are fully described.]:

In order to gratify M. Coste's praiseworthy desire to ob-
tain full evidence respecting the nature of the membranous
sacs, appended to the foetus of the kangaroo, I permitted him
to dissect the foetus, and, with the assistance which I was
happy to afford him, the same connections of the vessels of
the umbilical sac with those of the foetus were demonstrated,
as are described and delineated in my memoir of 1834 ; and
the urachus, which is described and figured in the same me-
moir, was found to be connected with the smaller sac, or al-

* Phil. Trans. 1834. Coste, Embriogenie Comparee, pi. ix.

f Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1837, p. 83.

% In the Philos. Trans. 1834, I state (p. 338), that " I have detected the
remains of a urachus, and of umbilical arteries, in a mammary foetus of a
kangaroo about a fortnight old ; and of a urachus in a very small mammary
foetus of a Petaurus, and Phalangista" (These preparations I also exhibit-
ed to M. Coste), and from them I inferred, (p. 342), " that an allantois and
umbilical vessels are developed at a later period of gestation, than the uter-
ine foetus here described, had arrived at."

90 Description of a new genus of Trochidea.

lantois, discovered when the ovum was originally examined.
Had any new fact been brought to light in this dissection of
the foetus, I should always have had great pleasure in ac-
knowledging the share which M. Coste had taken in its reve-
lation.

I have only to add the expression of my regret, that M.
Coste, in rectifying, by this dissection, an error into which
he had fallen by a too hasty perusal of my memoir, should
have compelled me to notice another erroneous statement, in
reference to the embryology of the kangaroo. He adds, in a
note at the conclusion of his description in the 'Comptes
Rendus', No. 18, p. 639, 'Le chorion est confondu avec la
vesicule ombilicale"

I would not, by any means, attribute this extraordinary
statement to the necessity which M. Coste felt, of saying some-
thing about the chorion, after having asserted that he had dis-
dissected the ovum, " (Foeuf de kangaroo, qu'il n'avoit point
encore examine);" — but would rather suppose that M. Coste,
having fallen into that belief, and finding that his notes and
figures related only to the foetus, and its appended vesicles,
had no other alternative than to suppose that the chorion was
blended, (confondu), with the umbilical vesicle. The true
condition of the chorion of this ovum, I have, however, de-
scribed in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, for Au-
gust, 1837, and it has induced me to modify my opinion of the
ovo-viviparity of the Marsupiata, at least of the kangaroo.
I have the honor to be, Sir,

Your obedient Servant,

Richard Owen.
To M. Arago,

Secret. Perpetuel de TAcademie des Sciences, &c. &c.

Art. X. Description of a new genus of Trochidea, belonging to the
family of Gasteropoda phytophaga. By G. B. Sowerby, Esq.
F.L.S.

The remarkable shell which forms the subject of the follow-
ing observations, was brought to this country some years
since, by Captain Beechey, but it has been impossible to as-
certain where it was found. The specimen from which the
description is taken, is in the possession of Thos. Norris, Esq.
of Redvales, who has kindly permitted me to draw and de-
scribe it. Another specimen, though in very bad condition,
is in the possession of Miss Banks, of Leeds.

Notes on Raputia aromatica. 97

On account of its resemblance to two well-known genera,
namely, Trochus and Rotella, to neither of which can it, with
propriety, be referred, I have thought it necessary to give it
a generic appellation ; and for this purpose, I have chosen
Trochiscus, (from Tpo^o-yioe, Rotula). I would have used the
word Rotula, but that it is preoccupied, or a corruption of it,
for one of the most nearly cognate genera, {Rotella).

^m^ 10

Trochiscus Norrisii, Sowerby.

TROCHISCUS.

Char. Gen. Testa suborbicularis, depressiuscula, crassa, umbilicata, in-
tus margaritacea, spira brevi, conica, obtusa ; apertura subtrigonali, posti-
ce subacuminata, angiitis rotundatis ; labio columellari incrassato, antice
obsolete unituberculato ; umbilico majusculo, profundo.

I have designated this very curious and rare shell, by the
specific name of Trochiscus Norrisii, in honour of the gentle-
man to whose liberality I am indebted for the opportunity of
describing it.

In its general form it approaches very nearly to Rotella,
but differs from that genus in having a rather large and deep
open umbilicus. The shell is nearly smooth ; its lines of
growth are, however, distinct, but not prominent. Its outer
coat is of a chesnut brown colour, but the inside is of a bril-
liant pearly lustre. The border of the outer lip is nearly black,
that of the inner lip is green, and the inside of the umbilicus
is nearly colourless. Width 1.7, axis, 1.3 inches.

Art. XI. Notes on Raputia aromatica. By Mr. Thomas
Hancock, M.B.S.

The natural affinities of Raputia are extremely equivocal,
and have puzzled the brains of more botanists than one. Sir
J. E. Smith considered the plant as strictly allied to Euphor-
bia, whilst Decandolle insisted on its relationship to the Si-
marubem. Jussieu, however, placed it in the second tribe,

98 On preserving Marine productions.

Cusparidem, of the natural order Rutacece, — to which, indeed,
it rightly belongs : and the same distinguished botanist has
further suggested its affinity to Monniera, but with this ge-
nus it has little analogy, except in the dotted character of the
leaves.

These conflicting opinions may doubtless be accounted for
from the want of a due examination into the subject; both
species of Raputia being extremely scarce, and but few spe-
cimens of either having been brought to this country.

Having specimens of R. aromatica, I have carefully com-
pared its characters with those of the several families to which
it has been represented as allied, and have arrived at the con-
clusion that it is a legitimate species of Galipea. Like the
latter, three of its stamina are sterile, and the germ is sur-
rounded by an angular gland. The foliation, too, and inflo-
rescence, are precisely similar to G. cusparia.

Leaves villous ; bracteas armed with stiff hairs ; middle
foliole large and petiolate, the lateral ones subsessile, pellu-
cid, and sometimes without puncta. In Raputia, the seeds
are inclosed in a tunic of two elastic valves, which is likewise
the casein Galipea : and both possess the same peculiar aro-
matic properties, — which, according to Sir J. E. Smith, re-
main unaltered for twenty years after the plant has been dried.

The other marks of generic distinction presented in Rapu-
tia, (or Sciuris, as it has been termed by Persoon), are pre-
cisely those of Galipea ; — so that the description of the latter
is fully and correctly applicable to the former. Further in-
vestigation will confirm these statements, and establish the
fact, that Raputia not only forms a part of the important or-
der, CusparidecE, but that it is, itself, a true and legitimate
species of the genus Galipea.

Bee. 25th, 1837.

Art. XII. Observations upon the best mode of preserving marine
productions. By J. B. Harvey, Esq.*

Having been asked to give a description of the method which
I adopt in preserving marine productions, I have ventured to
trespass upon your valuable pages. I am not aware that I

* The most successful instance that we have ever seen, of the preservation
of Zoological specimens, is exhibited by the Echini, Asterice, Sec. in Mr.
Harvey's interesting collection, at Teignmouth. Ed.

On preserving Marine productions. 99

employ any means but those which ought to suggest them-
selves to every person who collects specimens in their living
state : but if this should meet the eye of any collector going
abroad, it may be instrumental in preventing his sending home
specimens preserved in the very careless manner which is u-
sually adopted ; and of which, the rare and interesting speci-
mens at present seen in the British Museum, and other pub-
lic collections, shew the most lamentable proofs. I feel quite
convinced, and I say it with much sorrow, that most of the
specimens of Echinodermata — particularly the larger Asterice,
contained in those collections, are in a state of decomposition;
they are quite pliant, and will not bear to be handled for the
purpose of examination ; many of them are covered with mil-
dew, and their spines are continually falling off: — this is owing
to the quantity of animal matter contained in them, which is
saturated with salt ; — a state ill adapted to withstand the ef-
fects of a damp atmosphere.

I conceive that the great object to be kept in view in pre-
serving these specimens, is to get rid of all the animal matter,
for, when dried, it doesuiot convey the slightest idea of its
form while living, and it prevents the beautiful structure of
the shell of the animal being seen, — and to free the specimen
from every particle of salt. This is a work requiring a great
sacrifice of time, and it is a tedious and dirty job ; but it is
indispensable in order to procure a fine specimen, and one
that will keep : — (the specimen which accompanies this pa-
per should be carefully examined.) Specimens preserved in
the manner which I shall describe presently, do not lose their
firmness, and they look as fresh as when taken alive. I am
of opinion, that if many of the more valuable specimens which
are in the national collection, were soaked in warm water,
( changed every six hours ) for two days, and then dried, if
even nothing more were done to them, they would last longer,
and look better than they do now.

Of course if some of the animal matter were carefully re-
moved, (this can be done with the more solid ones, for I have
tried upon an old West-Indian specimen;) greater value would
be added in proportion as the specimen became completely
freed from it. The specimen might be varnished or not, when
dried ; I think the inner surface should have a thin coat. I
use a cheap and useful varnish, composed of one ounce of
Canada balsam, dissolved in two ounces of rectified oil of tur-
pentine ; and my cement for small specimens, is Canada bal-
sam only : both of which I find to answer extremely well.

When I go to sea for the purpose of dredging, I take out a
jar filled with distilled water, and a bottle of spirit of wine.

100 On preserving Marine productions.

The moment the dredge is pulled up, I take out the more de-
licate specimens, — Comatulm, Ophiurce, &c. and put them
into spirit of wine mixed with an equal quantity of water. —
The larger specimens, — Asterim, Echini, Spatangi, &c. I put
into distilled water, which instantly kills them. By this me-
thod I secure all their feelers and spines perfect. It is next
to impossible to preserve an Ophiura or a Comatula, in any
other manner, for they drop off all their feelers the instant
they leave the sea water. When I reach home, I first take
all the specimens which I intend to dry, and put them into
pans, filled with distilled water, (or if that be not easily ob-
tained, rain water will do, but having a steam apparatus, I am
never without a sufficient supply, and therefore I cannot speak
very positively about it). The smaller specimens I allow to
soak for a day, or twenty-four hours, if in cold weather ; and
the larger ones two or three days, changing the water fre-
quently ; (every two or three hours, when it becomes turbid).
In cleaning them, I merely wash the Comatulce with a ca-
mel's hair pencil, in warm water, and pin the specimen out
upon oiled paper, placed upon cork ; (otherwise the feelers
could not be separated from the paper, when dry). The O-
phiurcb I squeeze all over the body, to press out the ovaria,
&c. wash, and pin them out as before. The Asterice I cut
open through every finger, and take out all their contents,
then wash the inner as well as the outer surface, with a tooth-
brush, scraping off all the soft feelers, but leaving the bony
ones ; then pin the specimens on cork or board, covered with
white blotting paper, three or four times doubled. The lar-
ger specimens, which, if not dried quickly, will fall to pieces,
I put into the oven until they are set ; I keep the heat to 110°
only, and turn the specimen every half hour, putting fresh
blotting paper under it each time. Generally about three
hours is sufficient, to keep them in the oven. I then place
them in a current of air to harden. All these specimens, par-
ticularly the red ones, should be dried in the shade, and co-
verered over loosely, for they lose their colour on exposure
to the sun while drying.

The Echini I clean by taking out all the internal matter,
and soaking them in rain water, changed frequently, for three
or four days, after which I hang them in the air for a week or
so, to take off the faint smell which is peculiar to them.

To preserve the spines on Echini, which have been dried
without cleaning, I recommend the whole specimen to be
dipped into a weak solution of isinglass, two or three times,
which, when dry, will exclude the air from their attachments,
besides acting as a cement to make them adhere more firmly.

Teignmouth, Nov. 15th, 1837.

Mr. Crosse s Electrical Experiments. 101

SCIENTIFIC NOTICES, INTELLIGENCE, &c.

[Since our first sheet was made up, containing a translation of M. Tur-
pin's notes upon Mr. Crosse's new species of Acarus, a report has appeared
in the Morning Post of January 22nd, furnishing the substance of a com-
munication made by the latter gentleman, to the Electrical Society; and as
the article bears the stamp of authenticity, we have transferred a considera-
ble portion of it to our own pages. Ed.]

"In endeavouring to form artificial minerals by along-conti-
nued electric action on fluids, holding in solution such sub-
stances as were necessary for the purpose, every variety of
contrivance had been employed by Mr. Crosse which might
enable him to keep up a never-failing electrical current of
greater or less intensity, or quantity, or both, as the case re-
quired, and which would expose the solutions used to the
electric action, in the manner best calculated to effect the ob-
ject in view. Amongst other contrivances, a wooden frame
was constructed of about two feet in height, consisting of
four legs proceeding from a shelf at the bottom, supporting
another at the top, and containing a third in the middle, each
of these shelves about seven inches square. The upper one
was pierced with an aperture, in which was fixed a funnel of
Wedgewood ware ; within this rested a quart basin, on a cir-
cular piece of mahogany placed within the funnel. When this
basin was filled with a fluidj a strip of flannel wetted with
the same was suspended over the edge of the basin, and in-
side the funnel, and, acting as a syphon, conveyed the fluid
out of the basin through the funnel, in successive drops. The
middle shelf of the frame was likewise pierced with an aper-
ture, in which was fixed a smaller funnel, of glass, supporting
a piece of somewhat porous red oxide of iron, from Vesuvius,
immediately under the dropping of the upper funnel. This
stone was kept constantly electrified by means of two platina
wires on either side of it, connected with the poles of a vol-
taic battery of nineteen pairs of five-inch zinc and copper
single plates, in two porcelain troughs, the cells of which were
filled at first with water, and 1 -500th of hydrochloric acid,
but afterwards with water alone. ( In all the subsequent ex-
periments relative to these insects, the cells of the batteries
employed were filled with nothing but common water.) The
lower shelf merely supported a wide-mouthed bottle, to receive
the drops as they fell from the second funnel, to be poured
back again into the bason above, without disturbing the po-
sition of the stone. The volcanic substance was selected by

10*2 Mr. Crosse s Electrical Experiments.

mere chance, in consequence of its partial porosity, and Mr.
Crosse did not believe that it had the slightest effect in the
production of the insects. The fluid with which the basin
was filled was made as follows : — A piece of black flint having
been exposed to a red heat, and quenched in water, to make
it friable, was reduced to powder, two ounces of which were
intimately mixed with six ounces of carbonate of potassa, and
the compound was exposed to a strong heat for 15 minutes
in a black lead crucible, in an air furnace. In this fused state
it was poured on an iron plate, reduced to powder, whilst still
warm, and boiling water poured upon it ; it was then kept
boiling for some minutes in a sand bath. The greater part of
the soluble glass thus formed was taken up by the water, to-
gether with a portion of alumina from the crucible, ( a silver
one would have been used but Mr. Crosse had none sufficient-
ly large.) To a portion of the silicate of potassa thus formed
boiling water was added to dilute it ; and then slowly, to su-
persaturation, hydrochloric acid. This fluid was subjected
to a long-continued electric action, through the intervention
of a porous stone, in order that, if possible, crystals of silica
might be formed at one of the poles of the battery; but Mr.
Crosse failed in accomplishing this by these means. On the
fourteenth morning from the commencement of the experi-
ment, were observed, through a lens, a few small whitish ex-
crescences or nipples, projecting from about the middle of the
electrified stone, and nearly under the dropping of the fluid
above. On the eighteenth day these projections were enlar-
ged, and seven or eight filaments, each of them larger than
the excrescence from which it grew, made their appearance
on each of the nipples. On the twenty-second day these ap-
pearances were more elevated and distinct, and on the twen-
ty-sixth day each figure assumed the form of a perfect insect,
standing erect on a few bristles which formed its tail. Until
this period Mr. Crosse had no notion that these appearances
were any other than an incipient mineral formation, but it was
not until the twenty-eighth day, when he plainly perceived
the little creatures move their legs, that he felt any surprise ;
and when this occurred, as may be easily imagined, he was
not a little astonished. Mr. Crosse endeavoured to detach
with the point of a needle one or two of them from their po-
sition on the stone, but they immediately died, and he was
obliged to wait patiently for a few days longer, when they se-
parated themselves from the stone, and moved about at plea-
sure, although they had been for some time after their birth
apparently averse to motion. In the course of a few weeks,
about a hundred made their appearance on the stone. At

Mr. Crosse's Electrical Experiments. 103

first each of them fixed itself for a considerable time in one
spot, appearing to feed by suction, but when a ray of light
from the sun was directed upon it, it seemed disturbed, and
removed itself to the shaded part of the stone. Out of about
a hundred insects, not above five or six were born on the
south side of the stone. On being examined with a micro-
scope the smaller ones appeared to have only six legs, but the
larger ones eight. Mr. Crosse states that " It would be su-
perfluous to attempt a description of these insects, when so
able a one has been transmitted from Paris. It seems they
are of the genus Acarus, but of a species not hitherto obser-
ved." They have been seen and examined by many scientific
men and eminent physiologists, who all coincide with the o-
pinion of M. Turpin, and the members of the Academie des
Sciences, as to their genus and species. Mr. Crosse has ne-
ver ventured an opinion as to the cause of their birth. He
conjectured that they arose from ova, deposited by insects
floating in the air, and that they might possibly be hatched
by the electric action ; but he could not imagine that an ovum
could shoot out filaments, and that these filaments would be-
come bristles ; and he could not, on the closest inspection,
detect any remains of a shell. Moreover, we have no right to
assume that electric action is necessary to vitality, until such
fact shall have been most distinctly proved. Mr. Crosse next
imagined their origin to be from the water, and closely exa-
mined several hundred vessels in the- same room, filled with
the same water as that which held in solution the silicate of
potassa, but could perceive no trace of an insect of that de-
scription. He then examined the crevices and dusty parts
of the room, with no better success. In the course of some
months these insects so increased, that when they were strong-
enough to leave their moistened birthplace, they issued out in
different directions, Mr. Crosse supposed in quest of food, but
they generally huddled together under a card, or piece of pa-
per, in their neighbourhood, as if to avoid light and disturb-
ance. In the course of experiments on other matters, a glass
basin was filled with a concentrated solution of silicate of po-
tassa, without acid, in the middle of which was placed a piece
of brick, consisting chiefly of silica, connected at each end
with the poles of a voltaic battery, of sixty-three pairs of
plates, each about two inches square. After many months'
action, silica, in a gelatinous state, formed on the bottom of
the brick, and as the solution evaporated, it was replaced by
additions, so that the outside of the glass basin, being con-
stantly wet by repeated overflowings, was of course constant-
ly electrified. On this outside, as well as on the edge of the
Vol. II.— No. 14. n. s. i

104 Mr. Crosse's Electrical Experiments.

fluid within, the insects were similarly produced. The ap-
paratus was covered with them ; they hid themselves where-
ver they could find shelter ; many were plainly perceptible
to the naked eye, as they nimbly crawled from one spot to
another. On examining the table with a lens, no such ex-
crescence as that which marks their incipient state, could be
perceived. Other experiments were also in progress at this
time, with different-sized batteries. On a clay slate, suspend-
ed in a glass cylinder by two platina wires, in a similar solu-
tion to the foregoing, similar excrescences, and growth to
perfect insects, were observed. Between the poles of the bat-
tery were interposed a series of seven glass cylinders, filled
with the following concentrated solutions: — 1, Nitrate of cop-
per ; 2, sub-carbonate of potassa ; 3, sulphate of copper ; 4,
green sulphate of iron ; 5, sulphate of zinc ; 6, water, acidi-
fied with a minute portion of hydrochloric acid ; 7, water,
poured on powdered metallic arsenic, resting on a copper cup
connected with the positive pole of the battery. All these
cylinders were electrically united together by arcs of sheet
copper, so that the same electric current passed through the
whole of them. After many months' action, and consequent
formation of certain crystalline matters, similar excrescences
appeared at the edge of the fluid, in every one of the cylin-
ders, excepting the two which contained the carbonate of
potassa, and the metallic arsenic, and in due time a host of
insects made their appearance. In another experiment, a
bent iron wire, one-fifth of an inch in diameter, in the form
of an inverted syphon, was plunged some inches into a con-
centrated solution of silicate of potassa, and connected with
the positive pole, whilst a small coil of fine silver wire joined
it with the negative. Similar insects were formed on the ge-
latinous silica on both wires, also on that part of the wires
free from the siliceous deposits, about half an inch below the
surface of the fluid. Some of them were formed on the in-
verted part of the syphon-shaped wire, yet did they repeatedly
contrive to arrive at the surface, and to extricate themselves
from the fluid. The room in which the three last batteries
were acting was kept almost constantly darkened. — Morning
Post, Jan. 22nd, 1838.

At the Linnean Society. Nov. 1th, a paper was read from
Dr. John Hancock, on the Angostura bark tree, {Orayuri),
and its botanical characters, compared with those of Cusparia,
or Bonplandia trifoliata, Willd. The essay consisted chiefly
of answers to some objections which have been urged against
the former being considered a distinct species, and a vindica-
tion of the accuracy of the description, published by the

Angostura Bark Tree — Victoria r eg ia. 105

author some few years since. In the Angostura bark tree,
(Galipea officinalis), the sterile stamens are broad, or dilated
and foliaceous ; they are crowned, each with a small pellucid
glandule, which is very perspicuous in the recent flowers. —
Dr. H. was not aware if the same obtains in Humboldt's, or
other species ; and he thought that, if not so, it might almost
afford a generic distinction : such small parts in the flower,
indeed, are often employed as generic characters, — nature, as
Linnaeus and others have remarked, — being more constant in
her minuter works. In Humboldt's plant, too, there axe Jive
stamens and five capitate stigmas ; but in this, Oratfuri, are
constantly seven stamens, and one single and simple stigma ;
if these be real facts, and they appeared fully proved, the au-
thor considered them amply sufficient for distinguishing the
two species. The native names, also, were suggested, as af-
fording presumptive evidence of the fact ; and besides, the
Bonplandia is a large tree, growing to the height of 60 or 80
feet ; — whereas, so low was the Orayuri, that the author ever
found it easy, standing on the ground, to reach its branches,
and thus procure abundant specimens. The probability is,
that the Baron Humboldt and Bonpland never saw the flow-
ers of the true Angostura bark tree ; and the time of the year
they visited Angostura, — for they did not visit Carony, — was
prior to the season of its flowering. M. Ravago, as he him-
self informed Dr. Hancock, sent an Indian, at Mr. H.'s re-
quest, for specimens of the tree ; he returned with them, but
without flowers, to the great regret of the travellers. They
afterwards met with a tree in Barcelona, (Bonp. trifoliata),
which they considered to be identical with it.

The author thus concludes ; — " Had my printed statements
of 18*29 been unfounded, M. Humboldt, whose paramount ob-
jects are ever to elicit truth, would probably have corrected
them ; and more especially, since they have been noticed in
several French, German, and other European works. It
might farther be remarked, that in 18*28 or 9, complete speci-
mens were given to several of the most eminent botanists —
Messrs. Brown, Lambert, and Don ; and, ever zealous as they
are for the interests of truth and science, it may be presumed
that, had my published description not been found, in the
main points, correct, one or other of these gentlemen would,
ere this, have exposed its fallacy."

The following Note by Dr. Lindley, upon the plant named
Victoria regia, was read at the last meeting of the Royal Ge-
ographical Society, Jan. 22nd. — I have great satisfaction in
stating to the Royal Geographical Society, that some speci-
mens of the flowers of this extraordinary plant, which have

i 2

106 Professor Lindley on Victoria regia.

lately been received from M. Schomburgh, completely con-
firm the statement of that traveller, in all essential particulars,
and, at the same time, establish the new genus Victoria, up-
on the most complete evidence. The most startling circum-
stance named by M. Schomburgh was, that the flowers mea-
sured fifteen inches in diameter ; one of the specimens now
received measures fourteen inches in diameter, although its
petals have rotted off, in consequence of the bad manner in
which they have been prepared.

With respect to the genus, it has already been mentioned
in the Journal of the Geographical Society, (vol. vii. p. 350),
at my request, that although Victoria is possibly the same as
the Euryale amazonica of Poeppig, yet it is, in my opinion,
quite distinct from the latter genus. I am not aware that any
one in this country, of any botanical reputation, has called
this opinion in question ; and therefore it may appear unne-
cessary to notice it further. But Professor Poeppig is so good
a naturalist, that it is due to him to state upon what grounds
I consider him to be wrong in the genus to which he referred
the plant.*

Euryale is an East Indian water plant, with very large
floating leaves, sometimes as much as four feet in diameter,
light purple underneath, and reticulated with numerous, very
large, prominent veins. It is, moreover, covered with sharp
prickles on the under side of the leaves, the leaf-stalks, flow-
er-stalks, and calyx. In these particulars it agrees with Vic-
toria, but in little else. Victoria has the inner petals rigid,
and curved inwards over the stamina, into which they gradu-
ally pass ; in Euryale there is no transition of this kind. In
Victoria is a double row of hornlike sterile stamens, curving
over the stigmas, and adhering firmly to their back; Euryale
has no such structure. In Victoria there are thirty-six large,
reniform, compressed, fleshy stigmas ; in lieu of this very sin-
gular character, Euryale has only the margin of a cup, with
six, seven, or eight crenatures. Victoria has twenty-six cells
to the ovary ; Euryale only from six to eight. And, finally,
to say nothing of minor distinctions, the ripe fruit of Victoria
lies at the bottom of a regularly truncated cup, which stands
high above the water ; while the flower of Euryale sinks in-
to the water after flowering, and the fruit, when ripe, is in-
vested with the decayed remains of the calyx and corolla. —
These facts will, I think, confirm my original statement, that
notwithstanding the prickles of the leaves and stalks, the ge-

* For the description of Preppig's Euryale amazonica,sce Mag. Nat. Hist,
vol. i. n.s. p. 606.

Botanical Society. — Mr. Gould. — New Antelope. 107

nus Victoria is more closely allied to Nyrnphaea than to Eu-
ryale, and will, I hope, set at rest all future ingenious specu-
lations, upon the first of these genera being untenable.*

Botanical Society of London. — By a report which we have
received of this Society, established Nov. 1836, it appears
that the number of members is sixty-five. The number of
British plants received, as donations, amounts to 4819 speci-
mens, including Ferns; 767 species, including 1313 speci-
mens, have been arranged in the herbarium, according to the
system of DeCandolle. The remaining 3506 duplicates, in-
cluding 515 species, will be distributed to those persons who
have favored the curator with lists of desiderata.

The council beg to inform the members, that in order
to afford every facility for examining the herbarium and li-
brary, the rooms of the Society will be open one hour and a
half previous to the ordinary meetings of the Society, when
the curator and secretary will attend, to render any assistance
that may be required, and to circulate the books.

The meetings of the Society are held on the first and third
Friday in each month, from November to June ; and the first
Friday of every other month ; at their rooms, No. 75, New-
man St. Oxford St. at 8 o'clock, p. m. precisely : where all
communications to the secretary are requested to be addressed.

Mr. Gould, the eminent Ornithologist, has determined on
leaving England, in the spring, for Australia. He purposes
spending two years there ; his object being to render the splen-
did work which he has commenced, on the birds of that portion
of the globe, a contribution to science which shall furnish na-
turalists, not merely with faithful delineations of the nume-
rous and interesting forms inhabiting that country, but also
contain a history of the habits and general economy of the
subjects represented. That no interruption to the progress
of the work may occur, all the materials necessary for conti-
nuing its publication will be carried out with him. The out-
lines of the subjects will be made by his own hand, and the
lithography, as in all his previous Illustrations, will be exe-
cuted by Mrs. Gould, who will accompany him in his travels.

A large and beautiful new species of antelope has recently
reached this country from Africa. It was discovered by Cap-
tain W. C. Harris, of the Bombay Engineers, whilst on an
exploring expedition, between the 24th and 26th parallels of
south latitude, and within 28° and 30Q east longitude, on the
northern side of the Cashan range of mountains, about a de-
gree and a half south of the tropic of Capricorn. It belongs

* From a Report in the Athenaeum.

108 Scientific Expeditions.

to the sub-genus Aigoceros, and the discoverer has proposed
to name it A. niger, Sable Antelope. The specimen has been
admirably stuffed by M. Verreaux, of Cape Town, and its dis-
posal to some public collection is contemplated, with a view
of defraying the expenses of the exploring party, who were
so fortunate as to effect its capture : no other individual of
the species having been seen in Europe, or indeed known to
African travellers.

By accounts received from M. Russegger, dated Urbeith,
the capital of Kordofan, on the limits of the explored part
of north-eastern Africa, M. R. found the White Nile swarm-
ing with Hippopotami and crocodiles, and the primitive fo-
rests in those regions crowded with new species of birds,
apes, &c. He left the White Nile near Ternah, where it
is still a noble river; and on his way to Urbeith, (travel-
ling nine days on dromedaries), saw the tracks of Giraffes.
A second communication from the same traveller and place,
states, that he has travelled to the south as far as 10° N.
L. with an escort of 300 regular infantry, and 140 horse,
all Berbers. The farther he advanced to the south, the more
fertile became the country. Palm-trees, with smooth trunks,
80 feet in height ; sotor-trees, heavily laden with fruit and
flowers ; Adansonias, measuring 50 feet in circumference ; —
excited the astonishment of the beholder. Antelopes, leo-
pards, lions and elephants, were observed in great numbers
in the forests. After ten days they reached the gold works
of Djebel-Tira. The gold is washed from the alluvial soil
of the rivulets at the foot of the mountains. This part of
Africa was never before trodden by a European.

The latest news from M. Schimper, (who, after having re-
turned from a journey in Egypt and Arabia, made during the
years 1834 — 36, with rich collections for the W^urtemberg
Society for encouraging the travels of natural philosophers,
has set out for Abyssinia), are from Adowa, the residence
of Ras Ubie, who is the ruler of the part of Abyssinia call-
ed Tigre. He set out in November, 1836, travelling by
Dshidda and Massawa, where he arrived in January, 1837,
and on by Arkiko and Haley, to Adowa. His journey was
attended with much danger, as well as pecuniary loss, be-
cause two Frenchmen had killed a native of Abyssinia, a
short time before he reached that countiy. He was, however
well received by King Ubie, as he was the bearer of an intro-
ductory letter from the consul-general of Austria, at Cairo.
At Adowa M. Schimper is awaiting fresh funds, to enable
him to continue his journey. He lives at the house of the
English missionaries ; and intends next to pay a visit to the

Scientific Expeditions. 109

Semmen mountains, a branch of the Abyssinian Alps, chief-
ly for the purpose of collecting plants and seeds. Several
new plants, raised from seeds brought by M. Schimper from
Arabia, flowered last year, (1837), in the botanic garden of
Stuttgart ; but his expedition to the mountains of the torrid
zone of Africa, promises to give much more interesting re-
sults.

The French traveller, M. Diard, who was induced, by
Baron Cuvier, to undertake a Voyage to the East Indies,
and the Indian Archipelago, with a view of collecting ob-
jects in natural history, is now in Batavia, where he is in
high favour with the Dutch authorities, in his capacity of
president of the board of agriculture. His collections are
particularly rich in Botany and Zoology. He passed a year
in Cochinchina, where he became accustomed to the flesh
of crocodiles, which is a favorite dish with the natives.

Forthcoming Works on Natural History. — Mr. Van Voorst
will shortly publish a History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds
of the London clay ; by James Scott Bowerbank, Esq. F.G.S.
&c. Being acquainted with the extensive materials which
the author has been accumulating for several years past, with
a view to the publication of this work, and having examined
the plates, (executed by Mr. J. D. C. Sowerby), with which
it will be illustrated, we are able to speak with confidence of
its value, as likely to elucidate the history of a class of fossils
highly characteristic of the most important tertiary deposit
in this island, but of which no naturalist has hitherto at-
tempted the determination of either genera or species. We
understand that Mr. Bowerbank has examined, or had in
his possession, upwards of one hundred thousand fossil fruits
since he first directed his attention to this class of organic
remains. Figures will be given of all the species that can
be satisfactorily determined.

Mr. Van Voorst has also in preparation, a Geographical
and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North
America ; by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Musig-
nano.

Professor Phillips, of York, has announced the intended
publication of a work on British Belemnites, to be illustra-
ted by the author's own drawings, and to contain about one
hundred and fifty figures.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Instances of long evity in Animals. — A German paper (Niirn^
berger Correspondent, October, 1837,) mentions, that a mer*

110 Longevity of Animals.

chant of Amsterdam has been in possession of a grey parrot
for the last 32 years, after a relation had had the same bird
41 years. This would make its present age 73 years, exclu-
sively of the age it had when it was brought to Europe. It
is now in a complete state of marasmus. Its power of vision
and memory are gone, and it is constantly dozing. The ow-
ner feeds it at regular intervals, on sweet-meats dipped in old
Madeira. In its youth this bird was a prodigy of learning
and loquacity. At 60, its memory began to fail, it could not
be taught any thing new, and it jumbled the phrases it knew
in a most ridiculous manner. Till 60, it regularly moulted
once a year, and the last time, the red feathers in its tail were
exchanged for yellow ones.

This history is the more credible, as it contains nothing
very extraordinary : parrots after living to a very great age,
and old birds frequently deviating from the common colour
of the plumage of the species, especially in captivity. The
following, however, I should be less inclined to believe, were
it not communicated to me on very good authority. A respec-
table tradesman of this town, (Weimar), had a nightingale
which hung for 16 years in his parlour. He obtained it from
a merchant of Gera, who had had it during six years. The
former paid great regard to the bird's cleanliness and always
fed it on pupa of ants, either fresh or dry, according to the
season, with a few meal worms a day, and whenever the bird
appeared unwell, a spider, if it could be obtained. It sung
beautifully, throughout the year, except in April and May,
when it moulted. After the tradesman had had it 16 years,
a tax of 6 dollars a year was levied upon every nightingale
kept in captivity, and the man, thinking it very unjust that
he should pay it for a bird caught so long ago, gave it to a
physician, who kept it for five years ; during which it sang
very little. From the latter person it came into the posses-
sion of a fourth, who had it three or four years, and where it
used to sing again. It died at a merchant's house, after it had
been with him about two years. The length of the last three
periods is not quite so certain as that of the first two ; how-
ever, it may be taken for granted, that this nightingale, which
had been caught in its adult state, cannot have lived much
less than thirty years in its prison. — TV. Weissenhorn.

We have received a communication from the Rev. Francis
Orpen Morris, requesting us to inform all those whom it may
concern, that he has resigned his proprietorship of the Na-
turalist, and ceased to have any connection with that pe-
riodical.— Ed.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MARCH, 1838.

Art. I. Considerations upon the position in the Tertiary System,
to which the Faluns of the Loire, and the Crag of England, ought
to be referred; and upon the difficulty of determining their rela-
tive age, solely by the law of the proportional number of fossil spe-
cies, analogous to species now in existence.* By M. Desnoyers.

J_ his law, which consists in regarding a tertiary formation as
so much the more recent, in proportion as it contains a great-
er number of species of shells analogous to those now exist-
ing, all other characters being put aside, may be excellent in
itself, (as M. Deshayes has shewn, who has drawn from it
the most positive inferences) especially when it is strengthen-
ed by geological considerations, derived, either from the more
or less direct superposition of beds, or from the geographical
relations of basins : it is, however, of very difficult application,
and may lead into serious errors, or, at least, into contradic-
tory results, in a case where the fossils of similar strata are
examined by conchologists, who form different estimates of
the value of characters, in the discrimination of species ; or,
more particularly, when it is endeavoured to fix the relative
age of many strata, according to numerical results, obtained
separately by observers who do not agree upon the essential-
ly distinguishing specific marks.

Now we know how far naturalists are from a general un-
derstanding, with respect to the extremely nice question, as
to the limits of possible variations occurring at particular pe-
riods of growth, or in consequence of the influence of this or
that situation, and other local circumstances ; not only as re-
spects the Mollusca, but in all the other branches of zoology.

* From the ' Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France ; ' April 3rd,
1837.

Vol. II. — No. 15. n. s. k

112 Considerations on determining

The particular views according to which different observ-
ers form their respective estimates of specific limitations,
must then occasion a considerable variation in the numerical
results, connected with the identification of fossil with recent
shells ; and, consequently, a corresponding difference in the
determination of the age of the strata in which the former are
contained. It is, however, upon this foundation, that geoge-
nic inferences, of the most important character, are based ;
such as, the progressive changes of temperature, and the suc-
cessive creation of species, or their insensible modification
from one epoch to another, and from one, to a neighbouring
basin.

It is then necessary, for greater certainty, that the fossils
of different tertiary strata should be compared among them-
selves, and with living forms, by the same conchologists ; or
that, at least, specific characters should be adopted, which
are uniform, and of fixed value. But it will be a long time
before this can be the case ; nevertheless, this chronometer,
once introduced into the science, will necessarily be made
use of by all those who may think themselves sufficiently ac-
quainted with comparative zoology to employ it practically,
however different may be their principles of specific recogni-
tion.

It is thus that the attentive study of the fossil shells of two
tertiary formations, the faluns of the Loire, and the crag of
the eastern side of England, has recently led to results so
contradictory, that it seems to me important to call attention
to them, before we allow them to be definitively established
in the science. It is now no longer doubted, that these two
important deposits are more recent than the whole of the Pa-
risian strata : but if this opinion, (which I have endeavoured*
to establish from the direct superposition of the faluns of the
Loire, upon the last freshwater stratum of the basin of the
Seine, and from a very striking general resemblance between
the faluns and the crag,) has been generally adopted, it has
not been the same with regard to their mutual agreement in
age, which I also pointed out as very probable. Yet it was
not merely from external characters, owing to the deposition
of these two strata under analogous physical circumstances,
that is to say, in shallow gulphs, and upon shores, that I had
pointed out this connection, but from the amount of analo-
gies among fossils of different classes, common to the two

* Annales des Sciences naturelles, February and April, 1829, (v. xvi.
p. 171 and 402): Observations on a series of marine deposits more recent
than the tertiary strata of the basin of the Seine.

the age of Tertiary Deposits. 113

deposits. M. Deshayes, and Mr. Lyell,* while they admit
the incontestably later date of the faluns and crag, than of the
whole Paris basin, have made of the former, two distinct for-
mations, from the proportional number of their fossil shells,
analogous to species now existing ; which, according to M.
Deshayes, differs greatly in each : and it has been concluded
from this, that they are separated from each other by some
one of the revolutions which have determined the formation
of the last great chain of mountains. The faluns, according
to M. Deshayes, (whose zoological results Mr. Lyell has en-
tirely adopted, by making them the basis of his three tertiary
periods, eocene, miocene, and pliocene), should contain 19 per
cent, of shells analogous to recent species, and should be-
long to the middle tertiary formation, the miocene of Mr. Ly-
ell ; which comprehends also the greater part of the tertiary
strata of the Gironde, those of Vienna, Turin, &c. The crag
on the contrary, containing at least 50 per cent, of species
analogous to the recent ones, should belong to the upper ter-
tiary formation, the pliocene ; to which also are referred the
sub-appennine hills, Sicily, and other deposits in the basin of
the Mediterranean, and even the littoral deposits, formed al-
most entirely of species now living in the neighbouring seas,
as those of Nice, Uddewalla, and many others.

Now results so positive are found to be contradicted, and
this order set aside, at least provisionally, by the more recent
observations of M. Dujardin, upon the faluns ; and those of
Dr. Beck, upon the crag. Biassed by preconceived opinions
of a completely opposite nature, M. Dujardin, inclining to
admit analogous species, and Dr. Beck not to acknowledge
any ; these two naturalists arrive at results, each entirely dif-
ferent from those of M. Deshayes, which have been the sole
cause for distinguishing between the faluns and the crag. M.
Dujardin,f after having for a long time hesitated to admit, in
support of the recent age of the faluns, the close and indispu-
table connection which I had pointed out, between the fresh-
water stratum of the Loire, covered by the faluns, and the
Parisian freshwater stratum, has been led, by the mere exa-
mination of the fossil shells of the faluns, — an examination

* Lyell, Principles of Geology, first edition. The tables of M. Deshayes,
published in an appendix at the end of the third volume, May, 1833. The
results of his important labours since published in several other works, have
been again brought forward by M. Deshayes, in his last memoir on the
temperature of the tertiary periods. (Annales des Sciences naturelles, May,
1836.)

f Memoirs on the deposits in Touraine. Memoires de la Societe geolo-
gique de France. Vol. II. 2nd part, 1837.

K 2

114 Considerations on determining

more exact than I had been able to make, — to regard them
as belonging to the most recent of the tertiary formations. —
He points out there, indeed, 50 per cent, of species analogous
to those still existing, for the most part, in the Mediterranean;
and he connects them with the strata of Sicily, and the sub-
appennine hills, in which M. Deshayes indicates the same
proportions, but which he distinguishes from the faluns, as
forming a more recent tertiary stage.

While the researches and exact determinations of M. Du-
jardin tend to lessen the antiquity of the deposit of the faluns
of the Loire, an examination of the fossil shells of the crag of
England, rendered easier by the assemblage of a larger num-
ber of species than M. Deshayes had been acquainted with,
led to a diametrically opposite result. A very numerous col-
lection of these shells, studied about a year since, in London,
by Dr. Beck, of Copenhagen, curator of the museum belong-
ing to the Prince Royal of Denmark, presented to him nume-
rical results, very different from those previously established
by M. Deshayes, and adopted by Mr. Lyell, in support of the
classification of the crag in the upper division of the tertiary
strata. Instead of recognising there 50 per cent, analogous
to the living species of the German ocean, Dr. Beck considers
almost all the fossil species of the crag which he has exa-
mined, to the number of four hundred and fifty, as distinct
from any known existing species; though he finds among
them in general, more resemblance to those of the north seas
than to any others* Mr. G. B. Sowerby has joined in the
same opinion, as to the almost total absence of analogous
species. M. Agassiz having examined the remains of fishes,
and M. Milne Edwards those of Polypi, which are very nu-
merous in this deposit, have found no species analogous to re-
cent ones. In support of these considerations, which tend to
heighten the antiquity of the English crag, great stress has
recently been laid on the presence, in this deposit, of the
teeth of the Mastodon, which are also found in the faluns, an
argument of which I availed myself, in favor of the contem-
poraneous origin of the two deposits. Upon these determi-
nations, many English geologists have not hesitated to bring
down the crag into the middle tertiary formation ; whilst the
computations of M. Dujardin would reduce the age of the fa-
luns to a much more recent period ; a result, the inverse of
that arrived at by M. Deshayes and Mr. Lyell.

* Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, Vol. II. No. 44 ;
address of Mr. Lyell on the progress of the Geological Society of London,
in 1835.— Read on the 19th of February, 1836.

the age of Tertiary Deposits. 115

Mr. Charlesworth, who appears to have lately paid consi-
derable attention to the examination of the crag,* and who
has offered many objections to the employment of the pro-
portional number of analogous species, in determining the
ages of the tertiary strata ; among others, that of the possible
introduction of the fossils of one stratum, into an adjoining
one, proposes, it is true, to distinguish two formations in the
English crag, the lower, or coralline crag, and the upper, or
red crag, as belonging to two different periods. But there
appears to exist between them so intimate a union, that their
separation does not seem to me more admissable, than that
which we might also propose in the basin of the Loire, be-
tween the beds of littoral crag, composed of broken shells,
and those of calcareous coral, deposited under calmer waters,
and which appear generally lower.

It is, then, with the entire deposit of crag, that we must
compare the deposit of the faluns. Now, to resume our argu-
ment, the following is a statement of the present state of di-
verging opinions with regard to this subject.

The faluns, according to M. Deshayes, contains 19 per cent."\ of

according to M. Dujardin, 50 - V analogous

The English crag, M. Deshayes, - 50 - -j species.

Dr. Beck, no analogous species.

Consequently, if we admit the separate results of M. Dujar-
din, who has not, it is true, studied the crag, and of Dr. Beck,
who has not studied the faluns, but who have each based
their judgment upon the examination of a great number of
species of each deposit, unmixed with those of any other ba-
sin, even of basins supposed to be contemporaneous, we must
conclude from them, that the faluns are as recent as the sub-
appennine hills, and the upper stratum of Sicily ; and that
the crag is not only more recent than the faluns, but, by the
mere application of the law of the proportional number of a-
nalogous species, will descend into the lower formation of
Paris and London. I am far from admitting all these conse-
quences, especially the last ; and I do not doubt that in de-
fault of perfect identity, we ought to reckon a greater or less
analogy between the fossils of different basins, and the recent
species, as M. Defrance formerly proposed. It is also very
possible, that if Dr. Beck had examined the fossil shells of
the faluns, he would not have recognised there anything like
so many analogous species as M. Dujardin; and that if the
latter had studied those of the crag, he would have pointed

* Proceedings of the Geological Society, No. 41. — Edin. Phil. Jour.
[Taylor's] October 1836, and January 1837.— Loudon's Mag. Nat. Hist.
Nos. for Jan. and Feb. 1837.

k 3

116 Considerations on determining

out there, perhaps, as many analogous species as in the faluns;
and from this double examination we may conclude, as I had
already done, eight years since, upon a more superficial in-
vestigation, that these two deposits are contemporaneous, a
mean conclusion, between two opposite results.

If I have particularly called the attention of geological con-
chologists to this difference of determinations, it is because
it may have more important consequences than we should at
first believe ; and may tend to modify the opinions now ad-
mitted, in consequence of the important labours of M. De-
shayes, and of many other geologists, upon the relative age
of other tertiary groups of the middle of Europe^ more impor-
tant than those of the faluns and the crag, but of which these
have been considered the representatives and contemporaries.
But it is not possible to be too scrupulous in our examina-
tion, ere we admit facts or opinions, opposed to such as have
in their favor, a course of study as long and as conscientious
as that of M. Deshayes ; and which are supported by the ex-
amination of a collection, so rich as his. To cite but one ex-
ample of the indirect but positive consequences which may
result from the proportional numbers of analogous species
fixed by M. Dujardin, I shall call to mind that M. M. de
Beaumont and Dufrenoy divide, into two large formations,
the whole of the Parisian strata, the most recent of which
comprehends the marine freestone of Fontainebleau, and the
upper freshwater deposit. To this second group they conti-
nue, notwithstanding very strong objections, to refer, at the
same time with many other deposits in the south of France,
the faluns of Touraine ; of which, nevertheless, they admit
the incontestible superposition to the upper freshwater depo-
sit. Now if the faluns does indeed contain 50 per cent, of
species, analogous to recent ones, how can it be regarded as
nearly contemporaneous with a marine formation, which does
not furnish more than 3 per cent, for such is the computation
adopted by M. Deshayes for the whole of the Paris basin ?
That is to say, how can we unite the two extremes of the
tertiary period ? And the lower marine deposit of Paris, is
there too closely connected with the upper deposit, to allow
of our perceiving between them any greater difference than
between the latter and the faluns, which, at twenty leagues
distance, contains hardly ten species common to the Paris ba-
sin, among more than three hundred. Must we not conclude
from this, either that the law of the proportional number of
analogous species is entirely inapplicable, or that the calcu-
lations obtained by M. Dujardin are inadmissible, or, finally,
that we cannot arrange in one group, the faluns, and the up-

the age of Tertiary Deposits. Ill

per Parisian formation, referred by M. M. de Beaumont and
Dufrenoy to the middle tertiary period ?

I might also point out, in support of my opinion, which
tends to regard the faluns and the crag as contemporaneous,
that this latter deposit, whether upon the eastern side of Eng-
land, or upon the opposite coast of the low countries, repre-
sents there the middle tertiary formation ; the seas of which,
according to the contrary opinion held by M. Deshayes and
Mr. Lyell, did not penetrate into this part of Europe. We
follow the formation of the faluns, from the basin of the low-
er Loire, to the sides of the channel, into Cotentin, across
central Bretagne, to Chateaubriand, Rennes, Dinan, and from
the other side of the channel, to Carentan, &c. By degrees,
in proportion as the deposits are more northern, we see a
great part of the larger species of the faluns of the Loire and
the Gironde, disappear ; while there remains, notwithstand-
ing, a great number of smaller species, common to both the
faluns and the crag ; so that the identity between the faluns
of Carentan, and the crag of Suffolk, is almost incontestable,
and is greater than with the faluns of the Loire. How then
can we separate them so completely as has been proposed ?
Must we not, on the contrary, admit their differences to be
simply topographical, in one and the same period ?

But without insisting much upon this geographical argu-
ment, which is not without importance, and would be render-
ed more evident by a distinction of colour, upon a map of the
distribution of the different tertiary formations of Europe, I
shall confine myself to calling once more to this question, the
scrupulous examination of those zoologists and geologists,
who have particularly applied themselves to the study of the
tertiary formations.

[We have been led to give the above observations of M. Desnoyers, a
place in the Magazine of Natural History, from a conviction that the at-
tention of those who may be interested in the advancement of tertiary geo-
logy, cannot be too frequently, or too forcibly, directed to the unlimited
extent of error which must inevitably result from an implicit belief in the
merits of the per-centage test of M. Deshayes and Mr. Lyell ; and also, be-
cause we feel called upon to notice the circumstances under which M. Des-
noyers comes forward as the expounder of the fallacies likely to arise, in
forming a chronological classification of fossiliferous rocks, by "the law of
the proportional number of species analogous to species now in existence. "

In the original memoir, (p. 207), we find the following remark. — " M.
Charlesworth, qui parait s'etre beaucoup occupe, dans ces derniers temps,
de l'examen du crag, et qui a presente aussi, a ce sujet, plusieurs objec-
tions sur Pemploi du nombre proportionnel des especes analogues, pour de-
terminer l'age des terrains tertiaires, entre autres, celle du melange possible
des fossiles d'un terrain, dans le terrain adjacent." Then in a note at the
bottom of the page, a reference is given to the English journals in which
these objections have appeared. Now as it was clearly the intention of M.

K 4

118 Considerations on determining

Desnoyers, to demonstrate the difficulty of determining, by Mr. Lyell's me-
thod, the relative ages of tertiary deposits, and since he admits that many
objections had been urged against the practical application of the percen-
tage test, by a previous writer, surely he might have been expected to give
some further intimation of the nature of those objections, even were it merely
for the purpose of strengthening his own cause. In treating upon all mat-
ters of scientific enquiry, either in recording new facts, or enlarging upon
the ideas of others, it is usual for some reference to be made to the condi-
tion in which the particular subject under investigation, has been left by
preceding writers. The reasons, however, which have led M. Desnoyers, in
this instance, to deviate from a course so obviously consistent with just and
honorable feeling, are but too plainly apparent. The " objections " spoken
of by this geologist, but without any explanation as to their nature or bear-
ing, are nothing more or less than the very same which now appear in the
Bulletin of the Geological Society of France, in the form of original sug-
gestions, by M. Desnoyers ; although they have been transferred to the pa-
ges of that work, from communications which have appeared, at various
times, in the scientific periodicals of this country. We would remark also,
that M. Desnoyers' acquaintance, as a practical geologist, with tertiary de-
posits, does not appear to have furnished him with one single objection a-
gainstthe employment of the per-centage test; his sole ground for opposing
its general introduction into the science, resting upon the opposite views en-
tertained by different naturalists, respecting the identification of fossil with
recent species. The amount of originality contained in M. Desnoyers' re-
flections, and the degree of assurance he must have possessed, to exclaim
" Sij'ai appele specialement l'attention des geologues conchyliologistes sur
cette divergence de determinations," (p. 209), can only be duly estimated by
presenting one or two passages from the memoirs, the contents of which he
appears to have so freely consulted.

In the Magazine of Natural History for 1836, p. 537, an abstract is
given of a paper, read at the previous meeting of the British Association,
by the editor of the present series of this journal ; the title being, — "On.
some fallacies involved in the results relating to the comparative age of tertia-
ry deposits, obtained from the application of the test recently introduced by
Mr. Lyell and M. Deshayes."

The following passage will be found in this article, at p. 537.

" During the author's investigation of the fossiliferous strata above the
London clay, in Suffolk and Norfolk, some facts have come under his obser-
vation, which appear to him to point out sources of error to a considerable
extent, in the application of the test recently proposed by M. Deshayes and
Mr. Lyell, and which is now so generally made use of in the classification
of tertiary formations.

" The crag has been referred, by Mr. Lyell, to his older pliocene period,
on the authority of M. Deshayes, who identified, among the fossil Testacea
of that deposit, 40 per cent, with existing species. The correctness of this
result has been called in question by other eminent conchologists, particu-
larly Dr. Beck, of Copenhagen, who has examined the crag fossils in the
author's collection, and considers that the whole of them are extinct. In
this opinion Dr. Beck is supported by Mr. G. B. Sowerby; who states that
he has met with only two or three crag shells, which may, perhaps, be iden-
tified with existing species. Professor Agassiz has inspected an extensive
series of ichthyological remains, collected from the crag by the author ; and
pronounces them all to belong to extinct genera or species : while a pre-
cisely similar result has attended Dr. Milne Edwards's examination of the
corals.

"Professor Phillips, in his Introduction to Geology, has placed the crag

the age of Tertiary Deposits. 119

in the miocene division ; while Dr. Fleming, who, for more than a quarter
of a century, has been an indefatigable collector of British shells, considers
that the proportion of recent species, in the fossils of that formation, has
been rather under than over rated by Deshayes ; and, among the corals of
the crag, he has detected a large proportion of living forms.

" The particular one of Mr. Lyell's divisions, to which a geologist will
refer any given deposit, must, therefore, depend upon his own estimate of
the characters which constitute specific distinctions ; and which is evident-
ly liable to the greatest possible amount of variation."

In Taylor's London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, for Janu-
ary, 1837, p. 1, a paper is published by the same author, entitled, — "Ob-
servations on the crag, and on the fallacies involved in the present system of
classification of tertiary deposits"

In this subsequent memoir, the discrepancies in the opinions of different
naturalists, as regards the specific identities of the crag fossils with re-
cent species, are more fully treated of; and the following remarks, having
immediate reference to that subject, occur at p. 7.

" In the annual address delivered by the President to the Fellows of the
Geological Society, Mr. Lyell particularly adverts to the discordance of o-
pinion between two such eminent naturalists as Dr. Beck and M. Deshayes,
and suggests that it may probably be attributed to their difference of opi
nion as to the amount of variation necessary to constitute a distinct species.
Thus, for instance, Dr. Beck would look upon those six or eight forms which
M. Deshayes includes under the name of Lucina divaricata, as six or eight
distinct species of the genus Lucina ; while M. Deshayes would consider
them as varieties only. Now, this explanation is only admissible upon the
assumption that M. Deshayes allows the existence of as much difference
between the crag fossils, and what he now regards as their living analogues,
as there is between the six or eight varieties of Lucina divaricata. This is
an important consideration; for if M. Deshayes should assert the identifi-
cation to be complete, between the crag fossils and living shells, it is evi-
dent that the explanation affords no solution whatever of the difficulty.

" From these facts, the following inference may, I think, be fairly drawn:
that if a series of tertiary fossils be placed before the most eminent concho-
logists in different countries, for the purpose of ascertaining, from the per-
centage of extinct species, what position, in a geological series, the forma-
tion should hold, from which these fossils had been obtained, that position
might be decided to be, eocene in Denmark, miocene in England, and plio-
cene in France ; and had we fifty intermediate gradations, it is very possible
that no two conchologists would refer the deposit in question to the same
position.

" Greatly as the discordance of these results is to be lamented, as retard-
ing the progress of geology, it must be mainly attributed to the present im-
perfect condition of conchological science, and not be supposed to invalidate
the general course of induction pursued by Mr. Lyell. Nevertheless, it
must be admitted, that the practical application of the principle advocated
by this eminent geologist, in the classification of the supracretaceous rocks,
will be extremely limited in operation ; for even if we suppose that con-
chologists universally admit the soundness of the principle upon which the
present system of chronological arrangement is founded, they cannot equal-
ly make use of it as a means of obtaining numerical relations of affinity,
since the characters thought by one to constitute a distinction of species,
are, by another, looked upon as mere modifications of form."

The views embodied in the observations of M. Desnoyers, so precisely ac-
cord with the opinions expressed in the above extracts, that the former can
hardly be looked upon in any other light than a translation of the latter ;

120 Meteoric Observations.

more especially as M. Desnoyers admits his acquaintance with the articles
in question, when republishing their contents, without acknowledgment. —
The circumstance of connecting with these views, the deposits of the Loire,
and the numerical estimate of M. Dujardin, cannot be regarded as afford-
ing, in any way, the character of originality to M. Desnoyers' remarks, since
the source of error having once been pointed out, it may apply, to a great-
er or less extent, whenever a series of fossil species are submitted to the ex-
amination of any conchologist.

After the publication in our last number, (p. 94), of Professor Owen's let-
ter, detailing the circumstances through which M. Coste was enabled to
communicate to the French Academy, the existence of an allantois in the
foetal kangaroo, it is with regret that we are thus compelled to notice
on the part of a continental naturalist, labouring in a different field of "sci-
entific research, a somewhat similar instance of undue appropriation. The
cases are, it is true, in some respects widely different; for though the points
at issue in both, are of extreme importance, still, in the present instance, the
facts were so obvious, and the inferences so palpable, that no great^share of
credit could ever arise to the original impugner of the per-centage test,
merely upon the ground of a non-agreement among conchologists, as to the
determination of species. The violation of principle, however, involved in
both, remains the same.

M. Desnoyers in opposing the separation of the red and coralline crag
upon the ground of their intimate relation to each other, has exposed his
extremely superficial acquaintance with the facts which have been pub-
lished respecting the history of these two deposits; since it has been ex-
pressly shewn that the occurrence in both beds, of certain species presumed
to be identical, only establishes a relation similar to that connecting the
red crag, with the shelly strata now accumulating in the bed of the Ger-
man ocean; for the crag species now actually in existence, are estimated
by M. Deshayes at 40 or 50 per cent ; consequently this large proportion
is common to the crag, and the deposits now forming in our seas ; yet no
one denies the remote era to which the former belongs, when compared
with the formations in progress at the present day, although there may
be differences of opinion, as to its relative age, and its position in the ter-
tiary series. Ed.]

Art. II. Meteoric Observations made in Germany, in November

last*

The observations made in Gratz on the nights of the 12th
and 13th of November, respecting the often-predicted meteo-
ric stars, have furnished some not uninteresting results, though
the sky was very much overcast, and brightened up only oc-
casionally. The night between the 12th and 13 th, set in with
a beautiful Aurora borealis, which appeared in the northern
quarter of the sky, towards six in the evening. It assumed
the form of an arch, and took a direction extending from N.
W. to N. N. E. at an elevation of about 20° above the hori-
zon. Its colour was rose, passing into violet. The highest
point of the arch was about 15° below the constellation Ur-

* For this translation from the Allgemeine Zeitung of Dec. 15th, we are
indebted to a correspondent signing herself Georgina Roos. Ed.

Meteoric Observations. 121

sa minor. After the continuance of about 50 minutes, the
red colour began to grow paler, and finally disappeared in
the moonlight, which occasionally penetrated through the
clouds : traces of it were, however, visible till nine in the e-
vening. The rays which usually accompany an aurora bore-
alts were not observable in this. From seven till eleven, the
sky was so covered with masses of feather-like clouds, which
came from the east, that no observation could be made. Af-
ter eleven, the clouds separated, and there were several points
on the equinoctial, which became visible, together with the
constellations Orion, Cants major, and C. minor : Castor and
Pollux, Cancer, Ursa major, U. minor, and Cassiopeia came
afterwards into view. No trace of the aurora, though the
sky continued clear in these places till two o'clock in the
morning, nor even a single falling star, was discovered, al-
though an attentive and thorough observation of the heavens,
on every side, was kept up. Under these circumstances,
then, nothing of much consequence can be said to have pre-
sented itself, on the night between the 12th and 13th of No-
vember, with the exception of the aurora borealis. On the
following night it was otherwise. Although the sky was, on
this night likewise, so overcast, that no observations could
successfully be made, from six to eleven, the clouds after-
wards dispersed, so as to leave the region of Orion, Canis
major, C. minor, Gemini, Cancer, Leo major, L. minor, Ur-
sa major, and Cassiopeia, serene, from four minutes before
twelve in the evening, until half past five in the morning, —
that is, for a duration of five hours and a half. In the course
of this time, twenty-six, for the greater part very considera-
ble, shooting stars were observed ; by far the greater number
of which became visible at determinate points of the equinoc-
tial and the ecliptic, and seemed to be there concentrated. —
But ten, most of them of considerable brightness, and with
luminous, rocket-like tails, appeared in the constellation of
Orion, and its immediate neighbourhood, from 20 minutes
past twelve to 23 minutes before three, a period of two hours
and seventeen minutes. Six, not less considerable, some im-
mediately in Leo major, others in the neighbouring constel-
lations of Cancer and Leo minor, were seen from 6 minutes
to one, to 5 minutes past three, — namely, during two hours
and thirteen minutes. Four were visible in Gemini, from 14
minutes past one till 6 minutes to three, — viz. one hour and
forty minutes. Of the remaining six, three appeared in Ur-
sa major, one in Cassiopeia, one in Triangulum, and one in
Pisces, during a period of two hours and forty-two minutes.
It is worthy of remark that the falling stars, with only two

122 On Man's Influence in effecting

exceptions, held their course in a direction which corre-
sponded generally with the motion of the earth in its orbit,
only that the motion of most of them was from east to west ;
some deviated a little to the north and south, but only two
had a purely north or south direction.

The number of falling stars observed during these five
hours and a half, was not, indeed, considerable ; but when it
is recollected that the sky, during that time, was only par-
tially clear, and that even the bright spots were occasionally
obscured by passing clouds, it will be admitted that the num-
ber of falling stars observed is probably only half what it
would have been, had the sky been cloudless. Besides, the
observations were limited to the period above mentioned, as
the sky was again, at half past five in the morning, covered
with clouds, and no further observations could be made. It
is evident, then, from these circumstances, that the night be-
tween the 13th and 14th of November, ought to be numbered
among the remarkable meteoric nights ; and it now remains
for us to await the accounts of other, and perhaps more fa-
voured, observers.

In consequence of the resolution come to by several Ger-
man astronomers, at a meeting of natural philosophers, held
at Prague, watch was kept at Gratz, for the falling stars ex-
pected to appear on the nights from the 27th to the 30th of
November. The sky, however, proved unfavourable, being
thickly covered with clouds during the whole of the three
nights. Nevertheless, early in the morning of the last-named
day, a very strong north-west wind dispersed the clouds, and
a brightening up of the north-west part of the sky ensued. —
No falling star, however, was seen ; but at five o'clock in the
morning, a clearly defined redness was observed, which last-
ed forty-five minutes, increasing and decreasing at regular in-
tervals, and which the reporter is inclined to think was the
last trace of a disappearing aurora borealis.

Gratz, December, 1837.

Art. III. On the influence of Man in modifying the Zoological
Features of the Globe ; with statistical accounts respecting a few
of the more important species. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.
( Continued from p. 70 J.

If I have at all succeeded in interesting the reader by the
aphoristical view I have taken of my subject, or the arrange-
ment I have given to materials, which, for the greater part,
cannot claim the merit of novelty, I hope I may be permitted

general Zoological changes. 123

to engage his attention still farther, in considering, in a more
detailed manner, how man has acted upon particular species,
and what will or ought to be their ultimate condition. I shall
only single out a few, as deserving particular attention, or
upon which I think I have been able to collect information
sufficiently interesting for publication. I shall begin with
The Common Wolf.

Like ill weeds, this rapacious animal thrives in almost eve-
ry climate ; destroying every other creature it can master, and
consuming during the year, on a moderate calculation, about
thirty times its own weight of more or less valuable animal
substances : though in cultivated countries the damage it does
to the live stock makes its injurious character appear propor-
tionately far greater ; not to mention the dangers to which
even man is exposed, from its ferocious nature.

Where the wolf is the undisturbed tenant of the wilder-
ness, as we still find it to be in the most secluded parts of the
high latitudes of North America, it hunts in packs, and, by
beating up the woods, contrives to destroy great numbers of
red or other deer, by driving them over precipices. Within
its own societies, this animal carries the principle of gross
selfishness, and the jus fortioris, perhaps to a greater excess
than any other creature ; as the aged and young individuals
are invariably found lean, whilst the middle aged and strong
ones are well fed. But we are here more nearly interested in
its habits, when it is either acted upon by man, or acts upon
him. Even in very thinly peopled countries, this animal e-
vinces a great disposition to damage man in a direct manner.
Packs of twelve or more are generally to be found at no great
distance from the huts of the Esquimaux, lying in wait for
the domestic dog, which they succeed in killing, if it wander
so far as to be out of reach of assistance from its owners. —
In one instance, in the arctic regions, two of them rushed up-
on a fine Newfoundland dog, belonging to Captain Lyon, in
the day-time, and would have killed it, but for the timely in-
terference of its master.

As the countries inhabited by the wolf become peopled
with settlers and tame animals, and less stocked with game,
the audacity with which he attacks the tame species, notwith-
standing the more extensive persecution to which the animal
itself is subjected, increases even more than appears in pro-
portion to the necessity for drawing more and more upon them
for subsistence ; until, at last, man himself becomes the prey
of the wolf. We shall see below, to what an awful extent
human lives and property are, in civilized countries, exposed
to the encroachments of this audacious robber, if energetic

124 On Maris influence in effecting

and extensive measures be not resorted to, for the purpose of
keeping him down.

To crown the list of the wolf's crimes, it is, like the other
canine species, subject to the primary developement of that
dreadful disease, hydrophobia ; which it has, in too many in-
stances, communicated to man.

In return for all the evils which this animal inflicts upon
man, it has only its fur to offer ; for obtaining which alone,
no hunter, in civilized countries, will incur the necessary ex-
pense, loss of time, and trouble. No wonder, therefore, that
the same game-codes, which were, to such an unjust degree,
conservative as to the wild boar, stag, &c. should have out-
lawed the wolf from time immemorial, as being very injurious
to the herbivorous game. But the narrow-minded selfishness
by which, until lately, almost all the game-laws have been
dictated, did not admit of going a step farther, by encourag-
ing the extirpation of the wolf, by premiums sufficiently high,
or in proportion to the interest which the commonwealth had
in getting rid of the nuisance. On the contrary, the undue
protection bestowed on the herbivorous game, presented great
obstacles to the natural right of man to exterminate the wolf;
whereas, in every country that is fairly brought under man's
control, no wolf ought to exist : a result which, in England,
has been effected long ago.

With respect to Europe, it may not, at present, be found
practicable to exterminate the wolf in the Pyrenean or Car-
pathian mountains ; the adjacent countries must, therefore,
remain more or less subject to the occasional inroads of this
animal : but it is probable the Jura, as well as the rest of
France, Lower Austria, Upper Silesia, and Poland, might be
thoroughly cleared of their resident wolves ; and it is impor-
tant, in this respect, that the animal appears to lose the cou-
rage necessary to assail man, where it is but a straggler, and
that it becomes the more shy, the farther it recedes from the
place where it was born ; so that within a certain range, it is
still very dangerous to the live stock, whereas, if it stray be-
yond this range, it loses all confidence, and makes every shift
to escape detection.

Considering all this, we cannot sufficiently applaud the
decision which the ' tribunal correctionel ' of La Rochelle,
has just given against the Countess du Cayla. The mayors
of the villages of Bouhet and Benon, in the arrondissement
of that town, had summoned a number of gentlemen, to su-
perintend a general * battue,' which the inhabitants of those
villages intended to make against the wolves, which did great
damage to their cattle and flocks. The battue took place on

general Zoological changes. 125

the 27th of August, 1837, and extended over the Countess'
property, in spite of the remonstrances of her game-keepers.
She lodged an accusation against several of the gentlemen
who had been at the chase, but was condemned in the costs
of the suit, conformably to Art. v. of Pluviose 19th, An v. by
which the administrative authorities are authorized to direct
chases to be held, without consulting, or obtaining the con-
sent of the proprietors, wherever wolves or deer endanger the
personal security or property of the inhabitants.

In almost every department of France infested by the wolf,
there is a society, called ' Societe de louveterie,' the object of
which is to keep that animal down ; and premiums, varying
in amount according to the sex and age of the animals killed,
are likewise paid. The necessity for extirpating the wolf is
therefore acknowledged in that country ; but the facts shew
that it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated, because the
means hitherto employed, have been altogether inadequate
to effect the purpose.

If, however, we wish to see just retaliation upon the wolves,
from human law, we must observe what is going on in Prus-
sia, a country, whose internal administration is distinguished,
in so many respects, by the truly enlightened spirit in which
it is conducted.

After the peace of Tilsit, by which the present province of
Posen was severed from that kingdom, and incorporated with
the duchy of Warsaw, the new government lowered the pre-
miums which the Prussian government, previously to that
peace, had paid to those who killed wolves, to 1 dollar for an
adult animal, and half a dollar for a cub. This, as well as
the great difficulty of obtaining the reward, though deserved,
held out so little encouragement for their destruction, that
the wolves increased at such a rapid rate, within the few
years from 1807 to 1815, that in 1814, three grown persons
and sixteen children were devoured by them, in the circle of
Wongrowiec alone. As soon, however, as Prussia had again
taken possession of Posen, in 1815, no time was lost by the
government in getting rid of so great a public nuisance. —
The rewards which had been paid previously to 1807, when
Posen formed part of the province of South Prussia, were a-
gain awarded ; viz. 6 dollars for an adult wolf, 3 dollars for
a cub, and 1 dollar for each embryo found in a female. Ge-
neral battues were periodically made, and different regulations
issued, with a view of poisoning the wolves with nux vomica.*

*It has been found that the most successful method of poisoning wolves,
is to drug small sausages with nux vomica, and hang them on the boughs

126 On Mans influence in effecting

The joint effect of these measures completely answered the
intended purpose. Within the five years, from 1815 to 1819
inclusive, 4618 dollars were paid by the government, in re-
wards for killing wolves. The exact number killed within
that period, I cannot state; but in 1817, the animal had al-
ready become sufficiently scarce, to make a considerable in-
crease in the premiums both necessary and practicable. —
These were now, 12 dollars for an adult female wolf, 10 dol-
lars for an adult male, 8 dollars for a young wolf, 4 dollars a
cub, and 1 dollar an embryo, as before. Thus the persecu-
tion of the wolves did not abate, but the animals themselves
became so scarce, that notwithstanding the tempting rewards,
only 1449 dollars were paid, within the quinquennial period
from 1831 to 1836 inclusive, for a total number of 256 wolves
destroyed during that time ; although during the latter years
of that period, the number of wolves had been rapidly in-
creasing. The reason is, that the use of fire-arms having
been, to a great degree, prohibited in Poland, after the revo-
tion, the wolves are rapidly multiplying there, and make more
frequent inroads into the neighbouring countries. Still no
human lives have been sacrificed by the wolves, in the pro-
vince of Posen ; but we may judge that the destruction of
men from that cause, must be very serious in Poland itself.
In the absence of more positive and extensive information, I
can only say, that according to the papers, four girls, of dif-
ferent ages, up to 16 years, were torn to pieces in August last,
(1837), in the parish of Briala, district of Rawa, not far from
their houses ; and if such things happen in summer, what
must be the audacity of the wolves in winter !

The present increase of the wolves in Poland will exempli-
fy, in a very striking manner, how quickly the political state
of a country re-acts upon its indigenous animals ; and until
the Russian government shall have found means to keep down
the wolves in Poland, the task of destroying them in the pro-
vince of Posen, will be beset with serious complications and
difficulties. Though the lives of the Prussian subjects are
not much threatened by the stray wolves of Poland, yet these
commit such depredations on the live stock, that a society is
now forming in the province of Posen, for the purpose of pay-
ing extra premiums, of five times the amount of those allow-

of trees, at such a height, that the wolf must leap to ohtain them. Under
these circumstances the animal swallows the bait at once, and has not time
to find out that it contains any suspicious admixture, which it often does if
the poison be applied to the carcases of horses, &c.

general Zoological changes. 127

ed by government ; so that, for instance, any one who kills an
old female wolf, will receive 12+ 60=72 dollars. The con-
tributions of the members will be in proportion to the value
of their respective live stock; and it is to be hoped, that in
consequence of that measure, the province will be kept pretty
clear, even under the present unfavourable circumstances.

As to the Prussian provinces on the left bank of the Rhine,
40 wolves were killed, and 256 dollars paid in rewards there,
in 1836. In that number were 7 old females, 6 old males, 1
young wolf, and 26 cubs.

I trust I am but expressing what every thinking person
must feel on the subject, if I conclude for the present with
saying; — Censeo lupum funditus esse delendum.

(To be continued).

[Note on the account of the introduction of the reel partridge, (Tetrao
rufus), into Silesia, p. 70].

After my last remarks were sent to England, I obtained more certain in-
formation respecting the results of the proceedings of the joint-stock com-
pany, which was formed last year in Silesia, with a view of naturalising the
Tetrao rufus, by introducing adult birds from the south of France. The
partridges had paired and begun to lay, in the two preserves formed for the
purpose, near Domatschin and Laskowitz. In the former eleven eggs were
laid ; but in the latter, only three, because the distribution of the newly ar-
rived birds was delayed, and those already established did not well agree
with the new comers. The fourteen eggs were hatched by two hens of the
common fowl; on the twenty -third day of incubation, there appeared twelve
healthy chickens, which, up the age of six weeks, were fed with the pupa of
ants, greens, or the common food of young pheasants. They had already
grown to three fourths the size of the fledged bird, and nothing appeared
to stand in the way of their full developement, when the cholera morbus
broke out, with great severity, in the neighbourhood of the preserves ; in
consequence of which all the young, and three of the old partridges, died,
up to September 17th. The cholera, as appears from many reports on the
Concomitant phenomena, published in different countries of middle Europe,
is particularly injurious to the galline species, though the health of other
animals has likewise been found to be more or less affected by it ; and the
death of these partridges cannot well be ascribed to any other cause, un-
less we are willing to suppose, that the birds did not find, in these preserves,
some peculiar insects, or other food, on which their existence may depend,
and for which even the most careful attention paid to them in other re-
spects, cannot make up. The old red partridges with which the district of
Domatschin was stocked last spring, were observed there for about two
months, but probably failed in hatching young, on account of heavy rains.
They afterwards left that neighbourhood, and it could not be ascertained
whither they went. Twelve fresh specimens have already been procured
for Domatschin, whereas there are at present six at Laskowitz, and new ar-
rivals are expected from Bordeaux next spring; so that the experiment will
be renewed in 1838, on a larger scale.

Vol. II. — No. 15. n. s. l

128 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

The proprietors of the estates of Zopten and Langenols, in Silesia, have
besides tried to naturalise this species last spring, by procuring eggs from
the south of France, by the diligence, well packed in a box, the interstices
being filled with the elastic husks of beans. This experiment has hitherto
been attended with better success than the former : the eggs were hatched
by hen turkeys, the young reared in the open air, and the preserve of those
estates is now stocked with eighty-five well-fledged young. — W. Weis sen-
born.

[The red-legged partridge is in such bad repute with English sportsmen,
that we believe a very general wish is felt, in the counties overrun by this
bird, to effect its extermination, rather than to extend its range to other
parts of England. — Ed.]

Art. IV. Illustrations of the Geology of the South East of Dor-
setshire. By The Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A. F.G.S.
{Concluded from p. 88).

I do not exactly comprehend Dr. Mitchell's meaning in the
second and third paragraphs of p. 590. I have sufficiently
explained that my sketch was intended to represent the order
of the formations in one line only, from south to north ; it
was impossible to describe in that line the chalk and chalk
marl from east to west, from Ballard Head to Punfield, be-
cause it is not seen in the line assumed ; therefore, the chalk
does begin, as I stated, at Ballard Head : and literally so, for
Ballard Head is a promontory, and the allusion of Dr. M. is
to the side of this promontory, and not to its transverse sec-
tion, which was all I considered. But as Dr. M. alludes to
this side of the promontory, I must explain the appearances
he mentions, so as to clear up his mystery. " We soon began,"
he says, "to see lines of flint towards the top of the cliff;
which, in some places, dip about 40° to the east. Towards
Ballard Point, they become quite horizontal, there being still
chalk without flint at the bottom." The explanation of this
is very easy. The lofty ridge of chalk, of which Ballard
Point is a section, slopes down on the southern side, in some
places gradually, in others by stages of descent, to the shore,
along which are strewed heaps of fallen masses from above,
partially obscuring the gault and lower green sand, which rise
close to the shore, and in one or two places form an under-
cliff, from 10 to 12 feet high. The lines of flint at the top,
are, therefore, nothing more than the continuous summits of
the vertical layers, which thus appear horizontal or inclining
to the east, according to the various characters of the diffe-
rent portions of the slope. "The chalk without flints at the
bottom," is the chalk marl, which, with its characteristic fos-
sils, rises in its proper place, between the chalk and the gault,
to the south of the former ; but, owing to the slope and the
debris, appears to be below the chalk with flints, when it is

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 129

actually not below, but to the southward.

plans, \fig> 11 and 12) explain this position.

11

The following

Profile of the cliffs at Punfield, head of Swanwich Bay.

1, Chalk. 2, Chalk marl and upper green sand. 3, Gault and lower

green sand. 4, Weald clay. 5, Hastings sands. A, Punfield.
B, Ballard Point. C, Swanwich Bay. 7, Apparently horizontal
layers of flint, the same as 3 in fig. 12.

12

Chalk cliff, north side of Swanwich Bay.

1, Gault and lower green sand. 2, Chalk marl. 3, Chalk. N,

Old Harry. X Ballard Point.

The chalk marl, in consequence of the pressure it has sus-
tained, and the effects of the atmosphere, when seen from the
end of Ballard Point obliquely, looking towards Punfield, ap-
pears columnar ; that is to say, the fragments into which it
is broken, (and it has a peculiar conchoidal fracture, breaking
into lumps of nearly a regular form), assume, when partly dis-
jointed, that peculiar appearance which characterises basalt.

Dr. Mitchell next attempts to correct Sir H. Englefield. —
That writer, however, does not misname Ballard Point, Stand-
fast Point, but he calls the whole promontory between Stud-
land and Swanwich Bays, Hand-fast Point. The misnaming
all belongs to Dr. M.

As to Jig. 36, which is said to be "exceedingly bad" — and
fig. 38 "equally so ; " I freely confess this sentence, as it re-
spects the latter figure, is by no means undeserved : as to the
former, it is faulty, but not "exceedingly bad." But before I
proceed to explain these, and a manifest error in them, and

l2

130 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

in the text relating to them, I must be allowed to quote a few
words in favor of the "wood-cuts," from a high authority. —
Professor Sedgwick, alluding to them in a private letter, says,
"Your little plates, published in the memoir you sent me,
seemed also extremely good. I say this without any wish to
natter you." Had it been my intention to point out how
many beds of flint there are, I would have counted them;
but my object was of a character more general than this, and
had no reference to such minute details ; for the phenomena
I have tried to explain, are not affected by any consideration
of the kind.

The re-examination of the whole coast, which I have made
in consequence of Dr. M.'s paper, has led me to retract my
assertion respecting the inclination of 19° at Old Harry, but,
at the same time, to mention some circumstances not before de-
scribed by any one. All my previous passages round Old Har-
ry, had been made when the sea was too rough to approach
near enough to the cliffs, to measure them by the clinometer.
But on the last occasion, I was enabled to land at various
points under the cliffs, where there are patches of shingle
lodged in the hollows at the bottom. Had I ever approach-
ed, as Dr. M. did, from the south, I should have declared that
the beds were horizontal ; — but on coming round from the
north, the appearance is, at a little distance, as I described,
and as I thought, justly. The fact is, that the beds at Old
Harry are extremely broken, and the bedding lines are not
horizontal, but sometimes sloping ; combined with these, the
.dip of the beds to the west, on the sides of Old Harry and
his wife, and the other projecting masses, gave the appear-
ance, when the offing was such as to conceal the projection,
of a regular inclination, amounting to 19°. Had I followed
" too implicitly" other writers, I should not have fallen into
this error, for they all say the beds are horizontal ; it is true
the flint lines are so, but not the chalk. I wish then to re-
call, (and with thanks to Dr. M.), so much of my previous
remarks, and the tendency of the lines to the N. in fig. 38,
and fig. 36, as convey, what I now acknowledge to be, a
wrong impression * At the same time, I must, in my turn,
again comment upon Dr. M.'s remarks, in introducing some
new matter into this illustration of the coast. He is correct
in saying that " the lines of flint descend in a curve, and soon
become" nearly? "horizontal." But he is not correct in say-
ing that "the bending lines of flint are exactly twenty-two in

* The editor will do me the justice to say, that I wished to correct the
wood-cuts before the paper went to press ; which I was not permitted to do.

Strata let ween Durhtone Head and Old Harry. 181

number;" — there are more than double that number ; (farther
on he himself speaks of forty -nine horizontal layers). I tried
to count them, but failed in reckoning all, as some of them
are double, and subject to change in their order. I mention
one fact which has escaped Dr. Mitchell, and all other ob-
servers. About the thirty-fifth "bending" line of flint, the
curve, instead of being continuous, is snapped asunder, and
the line re-commences a little below the former part, the lines
to the top of the cliff pursuing the same course. It is, in
fact, a fault, at that place, as if the upper beds had given way
in the straining of the mass, and the northern portions had
slipped away to the north ; an analogous example of that
phenomenon presented by the whole cliff on a larger scale.
And in closely observing, there appear certain cracks, which
traverse the upper parts of the curved beds, in a direction
transverse to the line of the great fault below, and which
agree with the joints before alluded to, as affecting the whole
cliff, {fig. 37), and which are also found in the cliffs of Hast-
ings sand, in Swanwich Bay.

There is another curious circumstance. A little distance
from the great fault, the vertical beds of flint are interrupted
by the insertion of a mass of broken flintless chalk, between
two vertical bedding-lines ; the flint seams being again con-
tinued to the south point of Ballard Head. Does this beto-
ken a still greater derangement than has been yet contempla-
ted ? Of this I am sure, the local phenomena are infinitely
more extraordinary than Dr. M. believes ; far more so than I
had an idea of before ; for though I had examined very closely
this end of the cliff, I had never so critically scrutinized it,
till Dr. M. set me the example ; my previous observations be-
ing directed to a general survey, for purposes distinctive from
an analysis of the beds and their contents. There appear to
have been extensive dislocations in the chalk, at a period
when the mass extended farther than at present, to the east.
These are betokened by the appearance of cracks parallel to the
great fault, all through the cliffs, and also by the circumstances
attending the insulated masses and projections that line the
coast. It is very clear to me, that not only Old Harry and his
wife, the square tabular rock mentioned by Dr. Mitchell, at p.
591, (3 infig. 13), and that far more lofty, pointed pillar, not far
from it, (4 in fig. 13), (the four I allude to at p. 418 above,^.
39, the latter not being named by Dr. M.), but also the projec-
tion just under the signal-staff, (fig. 36 and fig. 39) which bids
fair to become a separate pillar before many years, (fig. 14),
have originated from a pre-existing crack, which traversed
the whole ridge in a line parallel with the present cliff, the

l3

132 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

13

The four Pillars off Ballard Head, (Webster.

1, Old Harry. 2,

Wife. 3, Dr. Mitchell's tabular mass,
ed rock near No. 3.

4, Point-

existence of which is very clear at the junction of the beds
that dip to the west, with the horizontal beds immediately
under the flag-staff, as represented roughly in the following

figure, {Jig. 14).

14

Buttress of chalk dipping to the west, under the signal staff, Ballard Head.

At the point of junction, the crack is very evident all the
way down, and at the bottom there is an incipient arch, pier-
ced by the sea. This also explains the formation of those
arches and caves, existing at the foot of the cliffs, which are
not round, but rectilinear, and shaped by the removal of the
chalk blocks, according to the direction of the joints and bed-
ding. An arch of this kind, at the foot of another buttress, a
little distance from the flag-staff point, illustrates the lines of
fault, the joints, and bedding, most admirably. The follow-
ing is a rough outline, (Jig. 15), which shews the structure of
the pillar to be that of a coarse masonry.

Strata between Diirlstone Head and Old Harry. 133

15

Arch in the chalk off Ballard Head, formed by the removal of regular
fragments of chalk.

The dotted part below the water, is pierced by myriads of
limpets, which have fixed their habitation between high and
low water mark, and superficially have honey-combed the
whole cliff, from Old Harry to Ballard Head, in a most sin-
gular manner.

Two other points sub judice, are, the height of the cliffs,
and the rate of decay. I have stated the cliff at Old Harry
to be about 100 feet high ; (p. 418). Dr. M. says "the boat-
men ascertained Old Harry to be about 70 feet high, by look-
ing at the mast of an India/man, which came very near him?
Now Old Harry stands on a ledge, dry at low water, and
having only a depth of 6 feet over it, at high water. Old
Harry's wife has two feet water at the base, at low, and 8 feet
at high, water. There is, moreover, not a depth of water
equal to 4 fathoms, within half a mile ; and there is generally
a heavy sea running, even in moderate weather, all along the
ledge that runs outside the coast, and it is dangerous, even
for a boat, at low water, to navigate too close, owing to the
fragments of chalk, the ruins of former cliffs, now destroyed,
that form dangerous rocks below the surface. I cannot there-
fore imagine that the boatmen got at the height so easily, if
at all, without measurement. In order, however, to make cer-
tain, (for, of my two boatmen, one said Old Harry was 70,
and the other, 100 feet high), I requested Lieut. Billingsley,
R. N. chief officer at Studland, to have it measured. This he
accomplished by a hand-line, over the cliff, and his determi-
nation is, that Old Harry rock is not more than 70 feet, the
cliff being higher ; — and that Old Harry's wife is 93 feet high,
the cliff opposite being 130 feet. The height, therefore, of
100 feet which T affixed to the cliff at Old Harry, is not far
from the truth : it was from an old measurement, on a map
made several years back, and not mere tradition. I cannot

i,4

134 Geology of the South East of Dorsetshire.

but think, that since that time the cliff has become lower at
that point, owing to atmospheric agency, assisted by the
waves, which have reduced the height, by throwing the cliff
back, into a hollow in the surface. But the cliff immediately
rises to the south of Old Harry.

Dr. M. speaks of a tabular mass, half way to Ballard Point,
about 100 feet high, (3 in fig. 13) ; and says, 50 years ago,
there was a connection between it and the main land. This
I have heard before and since ; but, if 50 years have been suf-
ficient to separate so far, this pillar of "so exceedingly hard''''
chalk, the waves, assisted by rain, and frost, and fog, those
mighty agents of destruction, far more insidious and powerful
than old Neptune himself, with all his battering rams, will,
assuredly, save me from the charge of exaggeration in my o-
pinion, (expressed at p. 419), that "two other and larger pin-
nacles will not remain many years uncompleted." I have in
this paper assigned a sufficient reason, viz. the existence of
vertical cracks, which traverse the whole strata. Whether
these cracks be true joints, or mechanical dislocations, I will
not pretend to say ; though I think they imply, that at the
north end of the promontory, there have been upheavings and
depressions, collateral with those near Ballard Point. If Dr.
M. doubts my assumption of the measure of decay in these
cliffs, let him compare Mr. Webster's drawing, made in 1813,
with what he himself saw in 1833.

Lastly, Dr. Mitchell " endeavours to remove an error which
has appeared in Sir Henry Englefield's work, and is also in
that of Messrs. Coneybeare and Phillips," (p. 591). This
supposed " error" alludes to the "shivered" flints of the Pur-
beck range. Now it is hardly fair to attribute such an "error"
to the works in question, when they do not commit it. Mr.
Webster actually says ; " These flints do not frequently fall
into fragments in the hand, as those in the Isle of Wight,''''
(the charge alleged against this author being, that he says
they do), "the parts being firmly imbedded in the chalk ; but
there is the same variety in the size of the fragments, from
large pieces to the finest powder." (Englefield's I. Wight,
p. 167). The fact is, there are whole flints and broken flints,
all through the Purbeck chalk range; and at Corfe Castle, the
fragments of flint are separated, in the same nodules, by chalk
and crystallised carbonate of lime, to considerable distances,
even where the casts of fossils, (such as Galerites, Spatangi,
&c.) exist, the flinty mass is traversed by cracks and little
faults, which have been cemented by carbonate of lime, or a
siliceous paste of another colour. And oftentimes, the casts
of these fossils, which, though in flint, are of carbonate of

Strata between Durlstone Head and Old Harry. 135

lime, are depressed and squeezed out of all shape. Such ex-
amples, however, occur out of the Purbeck range, as in the
chalk-pits near Blandford, Dorset ; and at Bury St. Edmunds,
in Suffolk.

Mr. Webster expressly states, that the locality of the frac-
tured flints at Hand-fast Point, (Ballard Point ?) is on the
south side, and not the east ; (p. 166, and Outlines, p. 113) :
so that Dr. Mitchell's landing from the boat, and finding it
"not so"( p. 591) does not apply to the account he comments on.

I have now, I trust, satisfied my friend's zeal in behalf of
geological truth, and shewn him that I have, (by candidly
confessing my mistake in one instance), given the best gua-
rantee for my intention to state facts in others. The chief
object I had in view in alluding to the cliffs in question, was
to explain the superficial phenomena of this district ; and
that done, I had accomplished my intention, with what suc-
cess, it is not for me to suggest : but I have the opinion of a
geologist of some little weight, from whom I have before quo-
ted, and who knows the country well, to encourage me to
proceed in my Illustrations of the south east of Dorsetshire.
Professor Sedgwick, (whose permission I have to employ his
opinion), says ; "Your account of the collocation of the chalk
strata at Ballard Head, is ingenious, {Jig. 37), and, I think,
nearer the truth than any yet given. I did not like Web-
ster's ; and I was dissatisfied with Conybeare's : — not for
the reason you give, into which I do not enter ; " (this
was my objection to the denudation of the chalk in Purbeck);
" but, because the hypothesis seemed to violate a very general
rule, viz. that the drop of the beds is always on the slant side
of the fault line. Now, according to Conybeare's reasoning,
the drop must have been on the hanging side of that line. —
Again, do not the beds on the right hand side of the figure,
[Jig. 37), look exactly as if they had been dog-eared, by a
movement of descent rubbing their edges against the vertical
mass, — or, (which comes to exactly the same thing), by the
vertical up-cast of the vertical mass ? "

Should Dr. Mitchell feel it worth his while to re-examine
this coast, I hope he will not think it necessary to take up
his abode at that " delightful habitation, the hotel at Swan-
wich," whilst he can find quarters with me. Should he, when
the season opens for geology, have any inclination to be con-
vinced, I shall be ready to shew him, that I have not studied
this country, by " occasional peeps from the tops of the steep
cliffs on shore ; " — and that, " if he will keep the eyes of his
understanding open," he will "be able to find such a concen-
tration of strata," as working labourers in the fields of expe-

136 Peculiar Structure in the Eyes of Fishes.

rience, (not "imaginative theorists"), have convinced, (not
"persuaded") themselves "are there." I shall then be happy
to give him an opportunity of following a candid example, by
enabling him to correct his own errors, in acknowledging, as
I point them out to his sight, the existence of "curved strata
and breccia of Purbeck stone," at Durlstone Head ; — of Has-
tings sands, and embedded fossils, in the cliffs of Swanwich
Bay ; — of green sand, &c. &c. at Punfield, and between it
and Ballard Point ; — and of all the other phenomena which I
have stated to characterise these interesting sections.

Stanley Green, 6th Dec. 1837.

Art. V. Some account of a peculiar Structure in the Eyes of
Fishes. By John Dalrymple, Esq. Lecturer on Surgery at Sy-
denham College.

If it be considered necessary that animals, living in atmo-
spheric air, should possess some description of mechanism,
by which the focal adjustment of the eye can be regulated
for near or distant vision, it may be presumed that those
which inhabit an aqueous medium, should be gifted with some
apparatus for a like purpose.

Land animals have been thought to possess this power of
adaptation, — 1st, by an alteration of the convexity of the cor-
nea, through the action of the straight muscles of the globe ;
a position which, though argued with considerable ingenuity
by Sir E. Home, in the Croonian Lectures, has yet found,
and is likely to find, but few advocates, except, perhaps, in
relation to some birds.

2ndly, by an action of the ciliary processes ; their extreme
vascularity rendering it probable that something analogous to
erectility of tissue may serve this end.

3rdly, by the action of the iris itself, whether it be erectile
or muscular ; for it is well ascertained that contraction and
dilatation take place, in exact accordance with the proximity or
distance of the object viewed. Persons in whom the pupil has
been widely dilated by the action of Belladonna, are much more
capable of viewing distant than near bodies distinctly. Other
circumstances, connected with these states of contraction and
dilatation, render it inconclusive whether the iris possesses
the sole power in regulating the focal relations of the eye.

In birds and reptiles there is superadded a new organ, the
pecten or marsupium ; which, while it bears, in appearance
and structure, a resemblance to the ciliary processes, yet,

Peculiar Structure in the Eyes of Fishes. 137

from its peculiar connection with the lens, (more or less di-
rectly varying in different tribes), may fairly be presumed to
exert an immediate influence on the position of this refractive
body.

In fish, however, the eye differs in many essential respects
from that organ in land animals. The cornea is nearly flat,
while the sclerotica is often cartilaginous, or so thick as to be
but little acted on by the feeble muscles inserted into it. The
iris possesses no appearance of fibre, (in the true fishes), and
its vessels are not only less numerous, but present no trace of
that remarkable arrangement, on which, in land animals, the
erectility of tissue has been presumed to depend. There are
no ciliary processes. The lens is nearly, if not altogether,
spherical. There is, indeed, a new, and doubtless an impor-
tant organ, superadded ; this is the choroid gland, as it has
been called : it is of considerable size, and great vascularity,
but its functions are, as yet, undetermined.

In those fish which I have had an opportunity of observ-
ing in their living state, I could never detect any movement
of the iris, in accordance with the degrees of light ; although
I am by no means prepared to deny the possibility of such
action. Still, the absence of those organs, supposed by ma-
ny to exercise an influence in determining the focal adjust-
ment of the lens in land animals, viz. an active iris, ciliary
processes, and a marsupium, might lead us to enquire whe-
ther any other means exist, by which the organ might be a-
dapted to vision at different distances. The fact of the sphe-
ricity of the lens, would induce us to suspect that the power
of adjustment, if any, would be fine ; a very inconsiderable
movement in a lens so shaped, making a great difference in
the distinctness of the image refracted ; or, in other words,
making a sensible alteration in its focus.

Some few years back, in examining the organ of vision in
a pike, (Esox lucius), I observed a small, roundish, grey-co-
loured body, about the size of a hemp-seed, attached to the
circumference of the lens ; and at that time, certainly without
due consideration, I designated it a muscle, principally from
the fact, that I traced a nerve running from the posterior part
of the eye, to this peculiar body. The preparations then
made, I exhibited to some young American gentlemen, at-
tending the practice of the Moorfields Ophthalmic Hospital.
The enquiry was prosecuted no further, until lately, when it
was resumed ; and its results, imperfect as they are, I now
communicate, with a view of inducing attention to this point,
from those whose pursuits or opportunities may lead them to
extend the scanty details I can as yet furnish.

138 Peculiar Structure in the Eyes of Fishes.

If the cornea of a cod-fish, pike, whiting, mackerel, &c. be
removed, the eye remaining in situ, and the iris carefully
stripped off, a small roundish body, slightly stained with the
usual pigment, will be seen attached to one point of the cir-
cumference of the crystalline capsule, where it is surrounded
by that portion of hyaloid membrane, analogous to the ante-
rior layer of the canal of Petit, in Mammalia. The opposite
extremity of this body, or its apex, for it is somewhat pear-
shaped, is attached to the posterior and external margin of
the iris, or at the junction of that membrane with the choroid.
A delicate fibril of nerve, stained with pigment, proceeds
downwards and backwards from this body, between the fis-
sure in the retina of these animals, which extends from the
optic nerve, to its anterior termination.

The connection of the pyriform body with the lens is not
immediate, but by the interposition of a fine, transparent, and
highly elastic ligament, possibly a portion of the hyaloid mem-
brane, to which it closely adheres.

At a point immediately opposite to the implantation of
this body, the circumference of the lens is firmly bound to
the vitreous body, and intermediately to the junction of the
circumference of the iris with the choroid membrane, by a
highly elastic, tough, very strong and transparent membrane,
capable of supporting the whole weight of the eye : it seems
to be gradually shaded off on each side, into the hyaloid mem-
brane investing the circumference of the crystalline capsule.

Owing to the slight convexity of the vitreous body anteri-
riorly, the fixed circumferential points, both of the pear-shap-
ed body, and of the elastic membrane, or ligament, opposite,
are posterior to their insertions into the crystalline capsule ;
hence, if any action like that of contraction were to take place
in this body, the lens would be drawn slightly backwards,
and its focal relation altered. Upon a cessation of the con-
traction, the lens would be restored to its place, by the re- ac-
tion of the elastic ligament.

The relative situation of this body may be determined in
the following manner. If the gill-covers of the fish, (cod or
pike), be removed, and an imaginary line, (D E, Jig. 16), be
drawn from the nostril to the superior articulation of the
hranchicB, and another line, (F G), cutting it at right angles,
drawn through the centre of the eye, this body will be found
placed in the under and anterior quarter into which the eye
will be thus artificially divided. In this diagram, A indicates
the position of the pear-shaped body; B, the elastic ligament
opposite ; C, the iris, partially removed.

Peculiar Structure in the Eyes of Fishes. 139

16

In the preparation taken from the eye of the pike,
is now in the museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons, I found this body supplied by a
considerable filament of nerve, which, traced
to the posterior part of the eye, was found to
enter the sclerotica, in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the optic nerve. The diagram,
[fig. 17), represents this preparation.

This body, if placed between two plates of
glass, and carefully expanded by pressure,
exhibits, under a good microscope, a granu-
lar mass, interspersed with minute blood-
vessels, capable of being coloured by a ver-
milion and turpentine injection. It is also
threaded by filaments of nerve. I have not
yet been able to trace distinct fibres, possibly owing to the
softness of the mass, it being crushed under even light pres-
sure ; no marks, therefore, of the lineae transversa, as seen in
ordinary muscular fibre, can be observed. This latter cir-
cumstance is no proof of its not being muscular, since although
these parallel lines or furrows, when present, are tests of mus-
cular fibre, yet they have not been discovered in those of the
involuntary class, as in the heart or intestines.

The pear-shaped body is sensibly hardened by boiling, spi-
rits of wine, and acids ; and from the circumstance of its large
nervous supply, I am inclined to believe it muscular, although

140 Peculiar Structure in the Eyes of Fishes.

at present, direct and incontestible proof is wanting. I may
observe that in the eye of the pike, a predaeeous fish, posses-
sing remarkable quickness of vision, the pyriform body is not
only relatively, but absolutely larger than in a cod fish, great-
ly exceeding it in weight.

That the existence of this body is as yet unknown, in Eng-
land at least, is I think borne out by the fact, that the learned
Professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Royal College of
Surgeons, Mr. Owen ; and Mr. Yarrell, so well known by his
beautiful work on the ichthyology of Great Britain ; were both
unacquainted with the circumstance when I mentioned it to
them.

In a number of the American Journal of Science and Arts,
will be found a somewhat similar account of a muscle, disco-
vered in the eye of the streaked bass, (Perca nobilis vel Mit-
chellii), by Mr. W. Clay Wallace, surgeon to the New York
institution for the blind. This gentleman did me the favor
to send me over, about twelve months since, his paper pub-
lished in that journal. From the circumstance of my not be-
ing aware of being personally acquainted with Mr. Wallace,
I cannot help suspecting that he is one of the Americans to
whom the observations made by me, were imparted at the
ophthalmic hospital, some years ago. I beg, however, to re-
turn him my thanks for much new and interesting matter,
which has been added by him.

The following quotation from Mr. Wallace's paper, gives
all that he has said relative to this body.

" At the inferior axis of the crystalline lens, (in the Perca
nobilis), and attached to its capsule, is a small triangular bo-
dy, having its inner surface covered with pigmentum nigrum.
It adheres to a cord placed at the divided portion of the re-
tina. It passes through a loop in the iris, and is inserted
into the vitreous humour, behind the crystalline. When the
portion, a part of which passes through the loop, is brought
into action, the vitreous humour is drawn forwards, and the
lens is pushed before it. When the other portion acts, the
lens is drawn backwards.

" Cuvier states that ' in a great number of fishes, there is a
falciform ligament which passes through a slit in the retina,
and penetrates the vitreous humour.' * It contains blood-ves-
sels and nerves, and is attached to the capsule of the crystal-
line lens, at its inferior surface, sometimes by a simple ele-
vation, or by a fold, a little more opaque ; at other times by
means of a grain or tubercle, transparent and harder than the
vitreous humour in which it is placed.' Cuvier has ascribed
no function to what is described. Jurin named it the gan-

On the British species of Poly-podium. 141

glion of the crystalline. I considered it the expansion of a
nerve, before closely examining its fibrous structure and con-
nections."

I can only remark on this description of Mr. Wallace, that
in no fish which I have as yet examined, do I find any troch-
lea or loop, through which the pyriform body passes : its
figure and size seem to preclude the possibility of such an
arrangement. I am bound however to state, that I have had
no opportunity of examining the anatomy of the organ of vi-
sion in this particular fish.

As every fact relating to the perfection of the organ of vi-
sion, must needs possess considerable interest, I hope this im-
perfect account of a new structure, may induce some zealous
comparative anatomist to give it a further examination, and
favor the scientific public with a communication of the results.

8, New Broad Street,
Nov. 10th, 1837.

Art. VI. A few Notes on the British species of the genus Poly po-
dium, of Linnceus. By Edward Newman, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

When among the Welch mountains, I have always amused
myself with admiring the infinite variety of ferns that half co-
ver the face of the country ; but this autumn, for the first time
in my life, a desire came over me to learn their names. With
this view, I gathered hundreds of fronds, and when arrived at
a quiet inn in the country, I arranged them into supposed
species. I found that even on those bleak and barren moun-
tains, where fern is cut, dried, and housed, as the only litter
that can be obtained for horses, three distinct species flourish-
ed in great abundance: but where some little rill tumbled
over a precipitous bank, or a ledge of rock, keeping the sur-
face in a state of perpetual moisture, half a score species, at
least, might be found: and again, where the country had
yielded to some attempts at cultivation, a few others made
their appearance.

To those who have never dabbled in natural history, every
fern is l a green leaf,' and nothing more ; so is every insect 'a
bug,' or ' black beetle.' But the naturalist, however young in
his vocation, desires knowledge of a somewhat more precise
and definite nature ; — a name seems indispensable to him. —
It was not long before I set to work with Smith, and Wither-
ing, yet, — how shall I express my disappointment ! — after a
most minute and really elaborate examination, I could only

142 On the British species of Polypodium.

be certain of two species, Pteris aquilina, and Polypodium
vulgar e.

I hear some of my readers telling me, that this must have
arisen from sheer stupidity on my part ; the point I will not
contest; but, as a collateral remark, I would observe, that
books intended for instruction, should really afford some in-
formation to the ardent enquirer, although he might be stu-
pid. I never recollect giving up an enquiry without satisfy-
ing myself: the step I therefore took was to avail myself of
the knowledge of my friends, and thus get my ferns named. —
When this was accomplished, I compared the specimens with
the descriptions, and made them out very well.

I have now paid some attention to the specific characters,
as laid down by our best authors, and I feel inclined to doubt
whether the most distinctive have been seized on. It appears
that the manner in which a frond is cut or divided, constitutes
almost the sole ground of specific distinction. Now, as we
find the majority of specimens in a state of semicultivation,
that is, partaking more or less of the influence of the spade,
or plough and harrow, and nourished by an infinite variety of
soils and manures, this character is precisely equivalent to
that of colour, in the feathers of a domestic fowl. I am in-
clined to think that better, that is, more stable characters, ex-
ist in the coverings of the seed, in the root, and in the extreme
outline of the frond ; and further, I am inclined to believe,
and, being nothing of a botanist, I hazard the opinion with
much diffidence, that the cutting or dividing of the frond sel-
dom furnishes a higher distinctive character than that of a va-
riety.

As to characters which serve for generic or specific divi-
sions, I much fear we shall never decide which is which. I
have elsewhere said, that a genus is a most artificial division.
A species is a collection of similar animals or plants, descend-
ing from one common stock or parentage ; a genus is a re-u-
nion of several such species. The limits of a species are
marked by the natural power of reproducing its kind, but the
Creator has set no mark on that collection or re-union of spe-
cies, which we denominate a genus ; but every writer on na-
tural history, possesses and exercises a perfectly arbitrary
power, as to the limits and contents of the genus which he
describes. Thus, suppose A, B, C, and D, to represent four
distinct and well-ascertained species, decidedly differing from
each other, yet possessing certain characters in common ; one
author will insist that they constitute a natural genus ; a se-
cond will point out a character before unobserved, and shew
that they should be divided thus, AB — CD ; a third will dis-

On the British species of Polypodivm. 143

cover a more decisive character, and supersede, with some
harsh comment, the genera proposed by the second, and in-
sist that the species must be divided thus, A — BCD ; in ano-
ther year a fourth author will laugh at his predecessors, and
insist that this, and this only, is a division on philosophical
principles, DA — BC. Let any one refer to our orchideous
plants, for a corroboration of these observations ; what is the
result? Every one knows the species; no one the genera.

To return to ferns : — the shape and cover of the masses of
seed have always been considered valuable characters for ge-
neric distinction. But here a question arises, whether the
shape of the mass, or its situation, or the presence of a cover,
is the best and most available character : this will never be
decided. Even adopting the circular or linear form of the
seed, as a generic character, Linnaeus, Withering, Smith, Gal-
pine, and a host of other botanists, have associated, in the
genus Polypodium, Filix mas, having circular masses, with
Filix foemina, which has linear ones ; thus allowing the si-
milarity in general habit to supersede the distinction imposed
by themselves. Recent writers have, with as little hesitation,
taken Filix foemina from the genus Polypodium, and placed
it in the genus Asplenium. Now, if genera are of any value
at all, a whole tribe of closely-allied ferns, tender, fragile, de-
ciduous, alike in figure and fructification, might be associated
under a new generic name, of which genus Filix foemina,
the only species indigenous to Great Britain, might be
considered as the type. The genus might be named En-
phorium, on account of the exceeding abundance of its seed
when in a state of maturity and vigour.

Leaving the beautiful Filix foemina to occupy its present
situation in the genus Asplenium, I will now offer a few re-
marks on those ferns which have the seed in nearly circular
masses, and to which Linnaeus gave the name Polypodium.

1st. They appear to be of slow growth and very long life.

2ndly. They are raised from seed ; and as they approach
maturity, they vary year by year, and often frond by frond,
both in general appearance, and in the cutting of the frond.

3rdly. If a seedling be so situated as to lack sufficient
shade, moisture, or covering to its roots, all highly essential
to its arriving at perfection, then is its progress towards ma-
turity delayed, and the period of its seedling appearance in-
definitely prolonged.

4thly. But so powerful is the command, 6 increase and mul-
tiply,' so innate throughout nature is the tendency to repro-
duce its kind, that those plants, in which the usual appear-
ances of maturity are thus delayed, do nevertheless produce

Vol. II.— No. 15.,n. s. m

144

On the British Species of Polypodium.

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On the British species of Polypodiwm. 145

Division A. — Root creeping.

1. P. vulgare, Linnaeus.

This species is abundant in every part of the kingdom that
I have visited ; there is scarcely a hedge-row without it. —
Generally speaking, it is but little subject to variation; it
however assumes the following forms.

a. vulgare. Pinnatifid, lobes simple.

(3. serratum. Pinnatifid, lobes deeply serrated.

y. Cambricum. Pinnatifid, lobes deeply indented.

o. proliferum. Pinnatifid, lobes broadly and deeply indented, almost
twice pinnatifid.

e. digitatum, (n. v.) Pinnatifid, lobes with the extremities divided.

£. acutum. Pinnatifid, lobes terminating in a sharp point.

2. P. Phegopteris. Frond triangular, drooping, pinnate ; pinnce pinnati-
fid, opposite, the first pair turned back ; sori marginal.

3. P. Dryopteris. Frond triangular and triple, i. e. at its first division
forming three nearly equal sub-divisions; each of these twice pinnate.. So-
ri near the margin, scattered.

This beautiful and delicate little fern is found in the crevi-
ces of rocks, mostly in the neighbourhood of waterfalls, but
almost invariably sheltered from their spray, by a projecting
ledge. Two varieties have been named.
a. Dryopteris. As above.

/3. calcarcum. As above, but is said to possess larger sori, and to be
of a darker green colour.

4. P. Thelypteris. Frond pinnate, pinnce somewhat distant, deeply pin-
natifid ; sori regular, almost marginal, when immature separate, when ma-
ture, so crowded as to form a nearly continuous marginal line.

No varieties of this beautiful species have received names.
The barren fronds differ from the fertile ones, in having their
pinnce and lobes broader and more crowded.

Note. The ferns of this division are to be instantly distin-
guished from those which follow, by their mode of growth ;
the roots send out horizontal runners, which, at certain knots,
issue fresh fibres, fix themselves, and become plants. They
are never fast in the earth like those which follow.
Division B. — Root tufted.

5. P. Oreopteris. Frond pinnate, pinnce cleft, decreasing in size as they
approach the root, until they become very short ; lobes rounded, sori mar-
ginal ; whole plant covered with glands, containing a powerfully scented
liquid.

This very distinct fern covers acres of waste mountain in
the neighbourhood of ' Water-break-its-neck,' Radnorshire;
and takes the place of Filia? mas in most of the hedge-rows
of that county. Its varieties are un-named.

6. P. cristatum. Frond pinnate, pinna distant, opposite, pinnatifid,
short, obtuse ; sori discoidal.

I have not seen this species growing ; the dried specimens
in herbaria appear distinct from the following.

m 2

146 On the British species of Poly podium.

7. P. Filix mas. Frond pinnate, pinna nearer, alternate, pinnatifid,
lobes obtuse, almost truncate, with serrated margins ; sori discoidal, retain-
ing the cover very long.

The named varieties of this abundant fern are never consi-
dered species, except the last.
a. Filix mas. As above.

/3. variegatum. The same, but variegated in colour.
y. recurvum. The same, pinnce crisped and turned down.

d. spinosum. Lobes more serrated.

e. rigidum. Frond almost bi-pinnate, and having a greater length
of rachis without pinnce.

The name of rigidum has been variously applied by Eng-
lish botanists. In herbaria we usually find it represented by
one of the varieties of dilatatum ; and more especially by the
variety spinulosum of these notes. Others again have attach-
ed the name to this variety of Filix mas. And thirdly, a still
different plant, said to have been found by Mr. Bree on Ingle-
borough, has been called by this name. Supposing the Po-
lystichum rigidum of Decandolle &c. a plant found in Swit-
zerland, to be really a species, on which I cannot pretend to
give an opinion, and supposing it ever to be found in Britain,
it will occupy a station between Filix mas and dilatatum.

The varieties variegatum and spinosum are mentioned sole-
ly out of respect to those botanists who have taken the trou-
ble to name them ; other varieties are mentioned in the course
of this paper, on the same principle. The variety recurvum,
is of a different character ; it is constantly and decidedly dis-
tinct, whether the frond be large or small, barren or fruitful,
seedling or mature ; it grows to a vast size. I found a plant
of it in a thick wood, on Dinmore Hill, in Herefordshire,
which had six fronds, each exceeding 5 feet in height. Fi-
lix mas, in its usual form, also grows to nearly the same size
in the same locality.

8. P. dilatatum. Frond triangular.

a. murale. (n. v.) Frond pinnatifid, pinnce dentate.

In this state the plant is much smaller than Asplenium Ru-
ta muraria, but in its simply pinnatifid frond, and general
habit, it more resembles a dwarf plant of Polypodium vulga-
re. It is usually supposed, by intelligent botanists, to be
Asplenium Adiantum nigrum. This is the true seedling state
of the species ; and may occasionally, though very rarely, be
found in the young state, especially in moss. It is found in
an old state, with very tufted roots, and a scaly rachis, on old
churches and garden walls, in company with Grammitis Ce-
terach, Asplenium Trichomanes, A. Ruta muraria, A. Adian-
tum nigrum, and Polypodium vulgar e.

£. riparium. (n. v.) Frond pinnate, pinnce deeply dentate.

This variety is variable in size, sometimes reaching 4 inch-

On the British species of Poly podium. 147

es in height. It is not uncommon on dry sandy banks. I
have seen it in some abundance on Hampstead Heath.

y. rejlexum. Frond pinnate, pinnce pinnatifid, lobes dentate, concave ;

colour dark green.
6\ dumetorum. Frond twice pinnate, lobes pinnatifid, with terminal,

sharp, prickly teeth.
c. syhestre. (n. v.) Frond thrice pinnate, perfectly triangular, ele-
gant, drooping, bright green ; lobes dentate and spined.
This plant I believe to be P. spinulosum of Galpine. It is
found in thick woods, growing among decayed leaves, &c.
f. cataractarum. (n. v.) Frond thrice pinnate, elongate, drooping, e-
legant, yellow green ; pinnce distant.
This beautiful plant seems to be abundant about the water-
falls in Wales ; I have not yet seen it in England.

rj. spinulosum. Frond sometimes thrice pinnate at the base, but ge-
nerally only twice pinnate, with the lobes pinnatifid ; elongate, nar-
row, sides parallel as far as the fifth or sixth pair oipinnm^ then with
the apex pointed; erect, rigid, spiny, pale sickly green; rachis
smoother and paler than in the other varieties.
Frequent in thick woods and on moors, growing on dying
trees, &c. Certainly grows from the same root as sylvestre
and dilataUim.

6. dilatatum. Frond thin, pinnate ; lobes separate, and often stalked ;
rachis long, stout, black, scaly, erect at first, then gracefully droop-
ing ; frond sometimes 3 feet in height.
Hedge-rows and banks. This appears to be the typical
form of the species.

t. ferax. (n. v.) Frond thrice pinnate ; lobes separate and stalked ;
sori confluent, covering the under surface.
This variety is somewhat too widely separated from the
rest ; but the few dried fronds which have reached London, my
friend, Mr. D. Don has seen, and considers them as belonging
to the present species, and I bow to his decision. The plant
is exclusively Irish, and has the habit of a very luxuriant and
fruitful specimen of Asplenium Adiantum nigrum.

Above I have attempted to describe the striking and con-
stant varieties of this very common fern ; but I by no means
wish it to be supposed that I consider the list complete. —
I have examined, from different sources, a tolerable number
of fronds, amounting probably to thousands, and I find a re-
gular gradation of form, from the variety which I suppose to
be the typical dilatatum of authors, to each of the other va-
rieties, with the exception of ferax : a list, therefore, to be
complete, should trace this gradation, minutely describing
each intervening form. To such a list it must be objected,
that excepting with a view of settling some disputed point, it
would be a work of useless labour. The variety which our
botanists consider of the greatest value, appears to be spinu-
losum ; I have fortunately found this plant in profusion, grow-

148 On the British species of Poly podium.

ing completely intermixed with sylvestre, and from the very
same root.

9. P. Lonchitis. There is a striking and constant character in this spe-
cies. In each pinna, the upper portion immediately adjoining the rachis,
is produced, and stretches forward towards the pinna which precedes it, be-
yond the stipes of which it frequently extends. The frond is elongate and
lanceolate, and evergreen.

a. seminalis. (n. v.) Frond pinnatifid, dwarf, prickly.
It is perhaps necessary to say a word on the somewhat ob-
jectionable precedent of naming a seedling plant In the pre-
sent instance the plant, under the described form, arrives at
perfect maturity, as far as copiously producing seed can be so
considered : the bulk and toughness of its roots further proves
that the possession of this seedling form is no positive indica-
tion of youth.

p. Lonchitis. Frond pinnate, more elongate, prickly.
Locality seems to be the only ground for distinguishing this
from the following, but I bow to the opinion of able botanists
in considering them distinct. The present plant is found on
the mountains of Scotland and the north of England.
y. lonchitidoides. Frond pinnate, elongate, prickly.
Hedges and lanes in most parts of the country; common in
the vicinity of London. Some writers have given this as the
early state of aculeatum, others as the early state of lobatum.
Both are correct. I am ignorant on what ground it has been
separated from Lonchitis.

8. bifrons. (n. v.) Frond pinnate, pinna pinnatifid.
This is equally common with the last, and exactly inter-
mediate between it and the following.

e. lobatum. Frond twice pinnate, drooping, pinna and pinnules crowd*-
ed.
A common plant, uninjured by the severest cold of winter,
and adorning our hedges at all seasons of the year. A vari-
ety precisely intermediate between this and the following, oc-
curs abundantly in Herefordshire, and near Ongar, in Essex.

£ aculeatum. Frond twice pinnate, rachis erect near the root, but af-
terwards gracefully arched; pinna and pinnules more separated and
distinct.
r). angulare. Frond twice pinnate, pinna and pinnula distinct ; the
latter small, the entire plant exceedingly graceful and beautiful.
These names of the two varieties have been occasionally
transposed ; I believe they are correct as given above.

6. lineare. Frond twice pinnate, pinna and pinnula distant ; the lat-
ter linear.
It will require several years of close observation to prove,
by real experiment, that these varieties constitute but a single
species. The seed must be collected with caution, and rais-
ed in earth in which all extraneous vegetable matter has been

On the British species of Poly podium. 149

destroyed. I do not pretend to have done this ; but not hav-
ing done so, I must resort to the best evidence I can adduce.
In the first place, I have collected fronds which will connect
angulare with seminalis, passing through all the intermediate
varieties. 2ndly, I have found fronds of seminalis, lonchiti-
doides, and lobatum, on the same root. 3rdly, I have seen
immense roots of aculeatum and lobatum, having had their
hold disturbed by plough or spade, actually returning, in their
recent fronds, towards the seminalis habit, although still pos-
sessing the dried remains of the mature and fully developed
fronds, which, under more favorable circumstances, had been
produced the previous year. Of the variety lineare I am ig-
norant ; I have been led by a figure of the plant, to place it
here.

10. P. fragile.

I know scarcely anything of the described varieties of this
delicate and truly fragile species. It occurs abundantly about
the waterfalls, and on moist rocks and walls throughout Wales,
throwing up its little bunch of delicate and feathery fronds,
from between the clefts of rock, or the interstices of the stone.

a. fragile. " Frond "between oblong and lance-shaped, twice pinnate;
leaflets egg-shaped, pinnatifid, the lobes toothed or serrate, partial
stalks bordered ; sori crowded."

/3. dentatum. " Frond between oblong and lance-shaped, twice pin-
nate ; leaflets egg-shaped, obtuse, pinnatifid ; the segments oblong,
obtuse and toothed, partial stalks bordered."

y. angustatum. " Frond oblong ; leaflets lance-shaped, decurrent, pin-
natifid, with linear acute segments ; sori scattered, remaining sepa-
rate."

6\ alpinum. "Frond tri-pinnate, ovate-lanceolate; pinnules ovate,
blunt, segments linear, obtuse, toothed.

€ . regium. " It is distinguished from alpinum by its more compact
frond, by its shorter, broader, and cuneiform segments, and by the
still more important characters of its more copious sori, and of its
narrower and tapering indusium. In alpinum the segments are li-
near, and the sori much fewer, being mostly solitary on the lobes,
and the indusium broader, truncate, and not taper-pointed." D. Don,
in Linn. Trans, xvii. p. 437. Mr. Don also informs us that he knows
of no British station for P. regium.

P. regium being thus, for the present, dismissed, I confess
I am not sufficient botanist to recognise the other varieties,
should I ever be fortunate enough to find them.

11. P. Ilvense. Frond pinnate, pinna elongate, cordate, pinnatifid, scaly.
a. Ilvense. As above.

£. hyperboreum. Varies in having the pinna shorter, and the frond less
scaly.
I have seen these plants growing, and should not have no-
ticed the difference between them.

150 Observations on Rules for Nomenclature.

Art. VII. Observations on "Rules for Nomenclature" By W.
Ogilby, Esq. M.A. F.R.A.S. F.L.S. F.G.S. F.Z.S. &c. &c.

In the November number of the Magazine of Natural Histo-
ry, (Vol. I. N. s. p. 604), I find a communication from Mr. H.
E. Strickland, under the title of "Objections to the nomencla-
ture employed by Mr. Ogilby," which my absence in Germa-
ny at the time of its publication, and other engagements since
my return home, have hitherto prevented me from noticing. —
As Mr. Strickland's "objections" all turn upon the nonconfor-
mity of the nomenclature in question, to certain "rules" lately
published by himself and some other naturalists, it might per-
haps be a sufficient answer, to remind him, that these rules
make no part of zoology, that they are in their nature purely
arbitrary and dogmatical, that their only legitimate object is
convenience, and that no naturalist is bound to follow them
farther than he finds them conducive to that purpose. But
the courtesy which is due to a gentleman who states his ob-
jections in so fair and candid a spirit, as well as to Mr. Strick-
land personally, for whom I entertain the highest respect, as
an accurate and original observer, demands a more detailed
explanation of my views upon this subject ; and if the posi-
tive mischief which I shall point out, in many cases, as hav-
ing resulted from these gags upon nomenclature, these scien-
tific thumb-screws, these verbal crucibles, in which every
original name is to be melted down and re-compoimded, as
may best suit the fancy or the caprice of the presiding alche-
mist,— if this positive mischief leads me to employ strong
terms in reprobating the system from which it springs, I beg
leave to assure all those concerned in the matter, that my cen-
sure is directed simply against the system itself, and by no
means intended to apply to its abettors or supporters. I
know, indeed, that the conceit of imposing these practical
fetters upon scientific nomenclature, did not originate in the
present day, and that it had formerly one or two great names
to support it ; I grant that a few simple "rules for nomencla-
ture," if founded upon principles so palpable and indisputa-
ble as to command the unanimous assent of naturalists, would
be both convenient and useful ; but it is the abuse of this
wholesome principle, the arbitrary, dogmatical, unfounded
and unnecessary rules lately revived or imagined, that I de-
sire to reprobate ; and I hope my censure may be understood
as being directed solely against an abuse pregnant with so
many evils.

It is not my intention to criticise these mischievous "rules"
seriatim : any one who takes the trouble of reading and com-

Observations on Rides for Nomenclature. 151

paring them, will readily perceive how arbitrary and unfound-
ed, in return natura the generality of them are, and often how
contradictory of one another ; I shall confine my attention to
those which bear upon the subject of Mr. Strickland's "objec-
tions," and to one other example, for the purpose of demon-
strating the carelessness and utter disregard of fixed princi-
ples with which they have been drawn up.

As to the first rule cited by Mr. Strickland, — that names of
families should always end in idee, and adcB, — I grant that,
generally speaking, the adoption of these terminations may
have some practical advantage, when they are employed to
designate equivalent groups; but it should be remembered
that this is merely a matter of convenience, a species of arti-
ficial memory, useful enough in its way no doubt, but of no
actual scientific importance. Restricted within proper limits,
it is unobjectionable ; but, like all arbitrary rules, it is liable
to be pushed too far, and thus to sacrifice the substance of
the principle to the shadow of the name. The instance which
Mr. Strickland censures in my nomenclature of the cheiro-
peds, furnishes a glaring example of this kind of mischief, a-
rising from the inconsiderate and indiscriminate application
of a purely arbitrary rule. The nomenclature in question was
not adopted without due consideration, as Mr. Strickland will
perceive upon referring to my memoir ; (Mag. Nat. Hist. vol.
i. p. 456, n s.) I employed the term Simia to denote the
anthropomorphous Quadrumana of Asia and Africa, simply
because it was the legitimate and original generic name by
which the ancients designated the same animals, and by
which they are still known to all scholars who have any pre-
tensions to critical accuracy ; and I applied the term Simia-
ddn to the analogous group of anthropomorphous Pedimana,
inhabiting the continent of South America, intending by the
similarity in the sound and structure of the word, to express
the obvious and important relations which these animals bear
to the true Simiae. By this means T conceive that I gained
two positive advantages ; first I employed an ancient classi-
cal term in ancient classical acceptation ; and secondly, the
new-coined term was made to express a valuable scientific
relation.

So much for the advantages of my own nomenclature ; now
for those of Mr. Strickland's. Mr. Strickland would substi-
tute the term Simiadce for my Simice, and replace the former
by the word Cebidce. What would science gain by the
change ? In the first place Mr. Strickland would discard the
ancient classical and highly appropriate name of the group,
to replace it by a new name of his own coinage ; and in the

Vol. II. — No. 15. n. s. n

152 Observatious on Rules for Nomenclature.

second place he would lose the expression of the important
scientific relations conveyed in my nomenclature ; and all this
for no better reason than to comply with an arbitrary and ca-
pricious "rule." Nay, the very advantage of a "memoria tech-
nical the only legitimate object of the "rule" in question, is
entirely in favour of my nomenclature, and would be totally
destroyed by the adoption of the very "rule" which Mr. Strick-
land intends should secure it. The rule would be satisfied,
no doubt, but it would be satisfied at the expense of both sci-
ence and criticism ; a substantial scientific relation would be
sacrificed to a verbal shadow; and I think Mr. Strickland
himself will admit that the advantage is very incommensurate
with the sacrifice.

The second rule which Mr. Strickland quotes as being vi-
olated by my nomenclature, is subject to the same contingen-
cies, and liable to the same objections, as the first. Generally
speaking, it may be a matter of convenience to form the fami-
ly name from that of some conspicuous genus included in the
group ; but, as in the present instance, it may not be always
either expedient or practicable to do so. By giving the name
of Simia to one or other of the genera of real apes, in compli-
ance with Mr. Strickland's "rule," I should have committed
the following three cardinal sins ; which, however venial they
may be in the estimation of the Dracos and Solons of zoolo-
gical nomenclature, are, according to my creed, worthy of utter
scientific condemnation. In the first place, I should have
used the word Simia in a new sense, different from its legiti-
mate acceptation, and from the meaning which has been
hitherto attached to it in zoology ; thus at the same time
burthening the science with unnecessary synonyms, and con-
fusing their import: secondly, I should have captiously alter-
ed an established nomenclature, without any commensurate
advantage, other than the very questionable one of satisfying
a purely arbitrary "rule ;" and, in the third place, I should
have countenanced the disreputable practice, which, I regret
to say, is but too prevalent both in this country and on the
continent, of imposing new names upon groups, with the for-
mation or definition of which the proposer is in no way con-
nected, merely because the old ones do not happen to suit his
individual taste, or the particular code of "rules" which he
patronises, or perhaps from the contemptible vanity of having
his name attached to it, and quoted by succeeding writers ;
thus, by a species of zoological petty larceny, filching the ho-
nest reputation of original observers, and unscrupulously ap-
propriating it to himself.

That certain reforms in the generic nomenclature of the

Observations on Rules for Nomenclature. 153

Simla are both desirable and necessary, there is no doubt ;
but I think I have sufficiently shewn that they would not be
promoted by the adoption of the alterations proposed by Mr.
Strickland ; and I feel convinced that Mr. Strickland himself,
who has earned more substantial claims to scientific reputa-
tation, than any which can be conferred by the change of a
name, will join with me in reprobating that wholesale love of
innovation, that inundation of new terms and synonymes,
which, breaking down all the established land-marks of sci-
ence, threatens to overwhelm the principles of zoology in a
chaos of words.

To demonstrate the perfectly arbitrary and dogmatical na-
ture of these "rules," their opposition to good sense, sound
criticism, and fixed principles, and the consequent careless-
ness, to use the mildest possible expression, with which they
have been drawn up, let us take the following example. — -
" Names," say the legislators, " should be taken either from
the Latin or Greek languages." Now, at the risk of shocking
the refined taste of these fastidious arbitri elegantiarum, who,
more classical than the Greeks and Romans themselves, would
fetter our free choice of terms, and impose restraints upon the
ancient languages which the ancients themselves repudiated,
I must beg leave to differ with them in toto : and my reasons
are, because their rule is opposed to the genius and spirit of
all languages, ancient and modern, and directly contradicted
by the practice of the Greeks and Romans themselves.

First, it is opposed to the genius and spirit of all language;
for no language thinks it necessary to form new names from
its own resources, to designate new objects with which it was
originally unacquainted, but adopts the names which those
objects bear in their native countries, only modifying them in
such a manner as to suit them to its own peculiar harmony
and orthography. All language, moreover, has an instinctive
horror of compound epithets ; and it is only where the sim-
ple and appropriate native names cannot be obtained, or
readily adapted to the peculiar genius of its harmony and or-
thography, that it ever condescends to employ them. This
leading principle of sound criticism, founded upon the nature
and practice of all languages, whether ancient or modern, is
entirely disregarded by the legislators "for scientific nomen-
clature," who, besides, forget that the compound epithets
which they patronise so exclusively, are no more entitled to
be considered as pure Greek or Latin, than the so-called bar-
barous adaptations. Nay, I shall presently shew, that the
Greeks and Romans themselves would have rejected them, in
favour of these very identical adaptations of barbarous terms so

n 2

154 Observations on Rales for Nomenclature.

shocking to the more refined taste of our modern legislators.

In the second place, the "rule" is directly opposed to the
invariable practice of the Greeks and Romans themselves. —
The classical nations of antiquity imposed no such restraints
upon their respective languages, as those contemplated by the
rule in question ; on the contrary, they were accustomed to
adopt barbarous words and terms with the greatest freedom,
only giving them an appropriate termination or orthography,
to adapt them to the peculiar spirit of their respective tongues.
Take the following examples as cases in point, and the list
might be easily extended to any given length. KapyXor and
Camelus, from the Hebrew Gamal ; Bison, Urus, Alces, and
Fiber, from the ancient German Wisent, Auerochs, Mlg, and
Biber, respectively ; Pala,* the plantain, is still called Bala
by the Hindoos ; so also Avkuov, Lycium, the barberry, is still
denominated Lukyoon by the same people, as has been lately
shewn by Professor Royle ; "Ifator, which occurs in Homer ,f
as the name of a mountain Ruminant, is still, under the form
of Isard or Ysard, the common name of the chamois among
the mountaineers of the Pyrenees ; the Kepar of ^Elian^ and
other writers, which has so much puzzled some modern com-
mentators and naturalists, is nothing more than the Gems and
Chamois of the Germans and French ; Kovihog, Koovih*o$, and Cu-
niculus, are only so many adaptations of the ancient Iberian
word Coney, still subsisting in the Welch, Irish, and other cog-
nate languages, as well as in modern Spanish ; Tagavdor and Ta-
randus, appear to be only the native Teutonic name ran, or
renne with the article te or the prefixed ; and even the Pegasus
of Pliny, § described as a wild horse of Ethiopia, with wings
and horns, is probably the wild species of maned buffalo, still
called Pecasse among the negroes. That the ancients occa-
sionally made use of compound epithets, such as Ka/twjXowaf 3a*j$
htw*&tuf^f\mhfoa$w, &c. only proves that we may occasion-
ally do so likewise, which I do not deny ; but these instances
are manifest exceptions to their general rule, and appear to
have been adopted only when they were unacquainted with
the native names of the animals.

Am I not, therefore, justified in reprobating the mischiev-
ous and meddling caprice, which would change Tupaia into
Cladobates, or Cavia into Ancema, and reject Tapirus, Ma-
nis, and Gazella, out of mere compliance with an arbitrary
"rule," contradicted by every principle of soimd taste and cri-

* Plinii Hist. Nat. lib. xii. c. 6. f Iliad, A. v. 105. | Lib. xiv. c. 14.
§Hist. Nat. lib. viii. c. 21.

Observations on Rules for Nomenclature. 155

ticism, as well as by the practice of antiquity? But let me
not be understood as hostile to such " laws of nomenclature "
as are founded upon just and fixed principles. These, how-
ever, are few and simple : I conceive that they may be all re-
duced to euphony and propriety of application, principles
which are equally sanctioned by sound logic and the nature
and practice of all languages, but which I find no where
clearly developed in any of the codes of nomenclature, lately
published.

But the spirit of innovation is not confined to the mere no-
menclature of science; our zoological radicals have even con-
descended to undertake the reformation of the vulgar tongue;
mere English terms are not sufficiently " poluphlosboiopha-
nous "* to suit the refined taste of these fastidious legislators,
and the commonest words in the language must be assayed
anew, and recoined at their patent mint. Two or three inge-
nious gentlemen have undertaken the herculean task of cor-
recting the vernacular names of our common British birds; and
if, out of the 36,000,000 of human beings who speak our
language, they can only succeed in persuading the other
35,999,997 or 8, to adopt the proposed reform, I shall be
very willing to follow the example, and congratulate them on
their success. Others, again, write Mammalians, Reptilians,
and Molluscans, for the more simple terms mammals, reptiles,
and mollusks ; and I am only surprised that they have not
likewise discarded such mean and vulgar words as birds and
fish, in favour of the more "poluphlosboiophanous" terms, a-
vians and piscians. Nay, the very names employed by the
ancient Greeks in their own language, are not sufficiently "po-
luphlosboiophanous" to suit the modern taste ; the word Me-
taphysics has given place to Psychology, and one gentleman
even calls mind the Psychian faculty I

Such are a few of the results of intermeddling legislation; —
confusion of terms, petty larceny, multiplication of unneces-
sary synonymes, murder of the Queen's English, and "polu-
phlosboiophony " !

But before concluding, let me briefly advert to a subject
which I confess I have much at heart, because the strength
and euphony of our powerful and harmonious language are
both interested in the question. I allude to the kind of rival-
ry at present subsisting between the words mammal and

* As the poverty of our language does not afford a term sufficiently mag-
niloquent to express the great quality aimed at by the reformers of nomen-
clature, I beg leave to introduce that here proposed, which, being formed
in strict accordance with " the laws of nomenclature," will, I hope, satisfy
the most fastidious of our legislators.

1 56 Observations on Rules for Nomenclature.

mammifere, for British naturalization. There can be no he-
sitation as to our choice : mammal and mammals are in every
point of view preferable to mammifere and mammiferes : first
because they have the priority in point of time, having been
originally invented by the great Linnaeus, and introduced into
our language in the year 1832 ; (see Penny Cyclopedia, vol.
i. p. 2.); secondly, because they are simple, and formed ac-
cording to the strict analogies both of the Latin and English
languages, being derived from mamma, a breast or udder, in
the same way as animal and animals, from anima, a mind or
spirit ; thirdly, because on account of their simplicity, they
are forcible ; fourthly, because they are harmonious, and a-
dapted to the genius of our language ; and fifthly, because
they can never lead to error, or convey a false impression. —
Mammifere and Mammiferes, on the contrary, are French
parvenus, which rose to notice at that wild epoch of revolu-
tionary innovation, when every word and thing was rejected,
that could not boast a French origin, and even the days of the
week and the months of the year had new names imposed up-
on them; they were not used in English till the year 1835 ;
they are compound terms, harsh and rugged in their sound
and structure ; totally imadapted to the spirit and analogies
of our language ; and imply the erroneous idea that all mam-
mals have externally developed udders, (which is not the case
in either of the extensive orders of Marsupialia* or Cetacea),
because fero is opposed to capio in its sense of containing, and
has an external reference, as this has an internal. Mammal,
mammals ; marsupial, marsupials ; animal, animals ; are all
simple, analogous terms, formed according to the strict philo-
sophical principles of general grammar, and consonant with
the euphony of the English language : but if we are to have
mammifere and mammiferes, then in the name of consistency,
let us also have the other barbarisms, marsupifere, marsupi-
feres, and animafere, animaferes, if it be only for the sake
of that uniformity and regularity of structure, which are the
soul of all cultivated languages ; and which it is the great aim
of "rules for nomenclature" to secure to the language of sci-
ence. In this instance, we can gain this important advantage
without the sacrifice of any scientific object; on the contrary,
science and the English language will both be equally bene-

* I may here notice that some of our English naturalists use marsupiata;
this is incorrect, unless as a qualifying term : animalia marsupiata, mam-
malia marsupiata, &c. are proper enough ; but marsupiata should never be
employed alone; it is an adjective, to which the corresponding substantive
is marsupialia, and this term alone is admissible as the name of the order
in question.

Discovery of the Allan tois in the Kangaroo. 157

fited ; but if, in spite of all these advantages, our rage for
French fashions makes us doggedly persist in following this
revolutionary ignis fatuus, as if it were the lamp of truth, we
shall only be led into confusion and inconsistency. In fact,
the French themselves are, of all the civilized nations of Eu-
rope, the very worst linguists, and the most careless in mat-
ters of nomenclature ; in the present instance, moreover, they
are grossly inconsistent, for they adopt marsupial, marsupi-
aux, and reject mammal, mammaux, for no other assignable
reason than because the former were invented by a Frenchman
and the latter by a foreigner.

The word mammiferous may, perhaps, be tolerated even in
our own language, as a qualifying adjective ; as for instance,
mammiferous animals, mammiferous creatures, &c. though
even here mammated is preferable, as being more agreeable
to English analogies ; but the noun - substantive mammifere,
mammiferes, is a downright barbarism, and ought to be scout-
ed out of all civilized society. There is, however, one sense
in which the word mammiferous has been occasionally em-
ployed of late, and in which it is altogether inadmissible, viz.
as a geological term, to designate such deposits as contain the
bones of mammals. A very slight alteration, however, will
obviate this error : if, instead of mammiferous, we say mam-
maliferous deposits, mammaliferous strata, &c. our phjjaseo-
logy will be both correct and appropriate ; and this facility of
composition is a powerful argument, in addition to those al-
ready enumerated, in favour of the simple and expressive term
mammal, rather than the harsh compound mammifere.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, NOTICES, &c.

Discovery of the Allantois in the fcetal Kangaroo. —
Having just received the last number of the Comptes Ren-
dus, we observe that M. Coste has written to the French
Academy, requesting permission to lay before it a memoir,
in reply to the statements contained in Professor Owen's
letter, addressed to M. Arago ; (Comptes Rendus, 1838, p.
147, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1838, p. 94) ; and which memoir,
he intimates, will enable the Academy to decide upon the
merits of the question, as regards the discovery of the al-
lantois'.

We cannot sufficiently admire the boldness displayed by
M. Coste, in a remark accompanying this request, in which
he speaks of the point at issue between himself and Pro-

158 Discovery of the Allantois in the Kangaroo.

fessor Owen, as appearing to be one of words, rather than
of things. " Comme sur ce point la discussion parait plu-
tot porter sur les mots que sur les choses." Doubtless it
would be to the interest of the French embryologist, that
the Academy should see the propriety of relieving him from
the rather awkward position in which he is placed, by a-
dopting this highly ingenious suggestion ; but as the letter
of Professor Owen to M. Arago has been published on the
continent, as well as in this country, it will require no or-
dinary share of sagacity, on the part of M. Coste, to palm
upon the French savans, a view so palpably irreconcileable
with the statements made in that communication.

M. Coste's description of the chorion, is, that it was
blended with the umbilical vesicle; — "le chorion etait con-
fondu avec la vesicule ombilicale." Now, Professor Owen
states, that prior to his shewing M. Coste the foetus, with
the appended allantois, he had removed the chorion, and
that he did not exhibit this membrane to M. Coste. The
real condition of the chorion we subsequently find thus de-
scribed by Professor Owen, in the Proceedings of the Zo-
ological Society, for August, 1837.

" The chorion, which enveloped and concealed the foetus,
was a sac of considerable capacity, exceeding probably by ten
times the bulk of the foetus and its immediate appendages,
and adapted to the smaller cavity of the uterus, by innumera-
ble folds and wrinkles. It did not adhere, at any part of its
circumference, to the uterus, but presented a most interesting
modification, not observed in the previous dissection of the
kangaroo's impregnated uterus, viz. that it was in part orga-
nised by the extension of the omphalo-mesenteric vessels up-
on it, from the adherent umbilical sac."

Now no misapprehension of terms can be urged, as expla-
natory of the fact of these two statements being so completely
opposed to each other, respecting the condition of the chori-
on. The possession of this membrane, and the consequent
ability to produce it, presents us with an unquestionable gua-
rantee for the correctness of the history of its relations to the
foetus, as recorded by Professor Owen. Hence we must at-
tribute the description of M. Coste, to his imagination; and
may we not assume that this faculty was called into such ac-
tive operation in the one case, at the expense of memory in
the other, as the only satisfactory explanation of the belief
entertained by M. Coste, that instead of Professor Owen hav-
ing discovered the allantois, and imparted the fact of its exist-
ence to his visitor, he, M. Coste, had detected the allantois,
and communicated the discovery to Professor Owen.

Lapse of a Royal Medal. — The Apteryx. 159

Lapse of one of the Royal Medals, for 1837. — As the sub-
ject of the classification of fossiliferous rocks, by means of
the per-centage test, is brought forward in our present num-
ber, it may not be out of place to notice the fact of there
having been no paper sent in to the Royal Society, for the
medal of last year, (value fifty guineas), and which, as was
announced in 1835, was intended to be given to the au-
thor of the best essay, entitled, "Contributions towards a
system of geological chronology, founded on an examina-
tion of fossil remains, and their attendant phenomena."

In selecting this subject for a prize essay, we conlude
that the council had in prospect a more extended applica-
tion of Mr. Ly ell's views in the determination of the age
of fossiliferous deposits ; for in awarding at that time, one
of the Royal medals to this eminent geologist, among other
reasons particularly specified, we find, — "The new mode
of investigating tertiary deposits, which his labours have
greatly contributed to introduce ; namely, that of determin-
ing the proportions of extinct and still existing species, with
a view to discover the relative ages of distant and unconnect-
ed tertiary deposits."*

The circumstance of no geologist having attempted to carry
into more extensive operation, the principle of the per-cent-
age test, or to bring forward any other system of geological
chronology, founded upon zoological facts, in consequence of
which the medal for 1837 has lapsed, looks very like a tacit
admission of the force of the objections urged against the em-
ployment of the numerical estimates of the conchologist, in
determining the relative ages of supra-cretaceous deposits.

In the last part of Mr. Gould's work on the Australian
Birds, we remark an admirably executed representation of the
Apteryx, two excellent specimens of which, supposed to be
male and female, have lately been presented, by the associa-
tion for colonizing New Zealand, to the Museum of the Zoo-
logical Society. The Society has also very recently received
as a donation from the Earl of Derby, the body of this most
extraordinary bird, in a fit state for anatomical investigation;
so that the scientific world is likely soon to be in possession
of the relations exhibited by its skeleton and soft parts, to

* Believing, as we do, that incalculable mischief would have arisen to
the science of geology, if no check had been given to the introduction
of the per-centage test, we gladly take this opportunity of stating our con-
viction, that the Royal medal has, in no instance, been hitherto, and we
may perhaps even venture to say, never will be again, awarded with more
honorable distinction, that when given to the author of the " Principles of
Geology."

Vol. II. — No. 15. n. s. u

160 Botanical Society. — Mr. Woodward.

the struthious genera, with which it is thought to be allied.

Botanical Society of London, — At the meeting of this So-
ciety held February 2nd, Mr. Daniel Cooper, the curator, re-
ported, that in accordance with the rules of the Society, he
had distributed eleven packets of seeds from the Cape of Good
Hope, presented to the Society by M. Schmidt, to those mem-
bers who have the opportunity of raising them, in order that
the plants may be laid before the Society in the course of the
ensuing season. He also stated that forty packets of the So-
ciety's duplicates had been distributed in the month of Janu-
ary. On the first and third Friday in each month, (the nights
of meeting), Mr. D. Cooper will deliver a course of lectures
illustrating the practical part of Botany, which members and
their friends are invited to attend. These lectures will com-
mence in March, and will be delivered one hour previously
to the chair being taken, (viz. 7 o'clock). The above course,
to which ladies will be admitted, is gratuitously offered for
the benefit of those members who are unacquainted with the
practical part of the science.

Mr. Schloss, the Foreign Bookseller, of Great Russell St.
has just published a lithographic print of Professor Mtiller,
of Berlin ; it is decidedly one of the most faithful likenesses
we have ever seen.

It is with sincere regret that we have to record the death
of Dr. Alexander Murray, author of the ' Northern Flora,' a
work noticed at some length in our last volume. He was cut
off by typhus fever, after only eight days' illness, just as he
had entered his 40th year.

Mr. Samuel Woodward, of Norwich, an old contributor
to the Magazine of Natural History, and also known to natu-
ralists by his Synoptical Table of British fossils, and a small
work on the Geology of the county of Norfolk, died a few
weeks since, leaving a large and young family, several of whom
shew decided talents for the scientific pursuits to which their
father was so ardently attached.

During the last two or three years Mr. Woodward had di-
rected his attention to the British fossil Echini, and devoted
some of his leisure hours to making drawings of the unfigured
species, with a view, we believe, of publishing a monograph
upon the family. From a hasty glance over his portfolio a-
bout a twelvemonth since, our impression is that these draw-
ings were extremely carefully and accurately executed, and
we trust that they may still prove of some service to science,
although the intentions of the artist have been thus prema-
turely frustrated.

New locality for Polyommatus Arion. lb'l

The last upon our list is Mr. Jabez Gibson, a banker, of
Saffron Walden ; to whose liberal contributions, and most ac-
tive exertions, we believe the interesting* museum of Natural
History in that town, is chiefly indebted for its formation.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

New locality for Polyommatus Arion. — As a taste for the
study and collection of insects becomes, (as it has of late
years), more prevailing, it is not surprising that instances
should occur, of insects, formerly considered to be of great ra-
rity, being occasionally found in some abundance, in different
parts of the country. Among the Papilioniaw, Calms hyale,
Argynius lathonia, Ly carta dispar, Pamphyla Paniscus, &c.
might be mentioned as instances in point.

The capture of Lyccena [Polyommatus?~\ Arion, in plenty,
by Mr. Dale, has already been recorded in this Magazine, vol.
vii. p. 499. The object of the present communication is to
introduce to the notice of entomologists, a new locality for this
splendid species, hitherto considered to be an insect of extreme
rarity in Britain. My son, a very young entomologist, took
nine or ten specimens of Polyommatus Arion, on the 14th,
15th and 16th of July last, in a rough, grassy, pasture field
near Barnwell Wold, Northamptonshire. Individuals of both
sexes were captured ; some of them were in a rather faded
condition, from which circumstance we may infer that the in-
sect appears on the wing early in July.

Barnwell Wold is situated about a mile and a half from the
village of that name, near Oundle. It is an extensive, and in
some parts almost impervious wood, intersected, however, by
broad grassy rides, and appears to afford a rich field for the
entomologist. In the latter end of May, 1835, I saw there
Pamphila Paniscus flying about plentifully; also Nemeobius
Lucina in far greater abundance than I ever observed it else-
where. I am informed likewise that Argynius Lathonia has
been captured in the same situation.

I take this opportunity of mentioning that I have seen ma-
ny specimens of Polyommatus Acis, {Cimon of Lewin), which
were taken last July, on a heath on the borders of Worcester-
shire, no great distance from Birmingham. — TV. T. Bree. —
Allesley Rectory, Jan. 29///, 1838.

162 On the Crag Beds of Suffolk and Essex.

Note on the Crag Beds of Suffolk and Essex. (See Mag.
Nat. Hist. vol. ii. N. s. p. 42). — In the list of crag beds "in
which no traces of terrestrial Mammalia have yet been ob-
served," as stated by you in the paper republished in the Ja-
nuary number, from the sixth Report of the British Associa-
tion, I observe you have enumerated the red crag beds of
Walton, Essex, and Felixstow, Suffolk, and the coralline crag
of Tattingstone, and I am sure you will pardon me for draw-
ing your attention to the fact, that bones of Mammalia have
been found in all those beds. I remember having seen enor-
mous thigh bones, when a boy, which were found by Mr.
Barnard, of Walton, and sent by him to East Bergholt, where
they were exhibited in the shop of his brother, the late Mr.
Benjamin Barnard, and many persons now living at Bergholt
may probably remember having seen them there. I have my-
self found mammalian remains at Tattingstone, and several
large bones were found in Mr. Cowper's pits, in Tattingstone
park, in 1827 or 1828. My authority for the remains at Fe-
lixstow is 'The Beauties of England and Wales,' which says
that " Roger Petti wood, of Felixstow, Esq. had a petrified
elephant's tooth, from the cliffs of Felixstow." Lambard al-
so says, in his Dictionary, that "in Queen Elizabeth's time,
bones were found at Walton, (Suffolk?), of a man whose skull
would contain five pecks, and one of his teeth, as big as a
man's fist, and weighed 10 oz." "These bones," he says, "had
sometimes bodies, not of beasts, but of men, for the difference
is manifest." Rude as this information is, I think it clear as
to the fact of mammalian remains. — W. B. Clarke. — Stanley
Green, Poole, Feb. %th, 1838.

[Our valued correspondent appears, by the above communication, to take
it for granted that bones of the elephant, shewn to him as the production of
the Walton and Felixstow cliffs, must, as such, have been taken out of the
crag. Now elephants' teeth have been found in abundance in the Brighton
cliffs ; in still greater numbers at Heme Bay ; and occasionally in the Isle
of Sheppy ; yet, surely, Mr. Clarke would not consider himself warranted
in concluding from this circumstance, that terrestrial Mammalia occur in
the chalk and London clay. We are not aware of any circumstances, con-
nected with the history of the fossil Mammalia in Suffolk and Essex, which
would lead us to suppose that their geological relations differs widely from
such as usually accompany similar remains in other parts of England ;
and certainly, in the absence of direct proof, we should not be disposed to
refer the bones of the elephant to a marine tertiary formation, of the same
age as the beds of crag alluded to by Mr. Clarke, if brought from a district
in which more recent deposits were present.

The bones of pachydermatous animals, along with those of ruminants,
&c. only occur at Walton and Felixstow, in common with a hundred other
localities along the line of coast, from Brighton to Scarborough, the
cliffs of which may present us with a section of crag, London clay, chalk,
or any thing else ; we find in the neighbourhood of each, an equal a-

Large Fossil Horns, in Essex. 163

bundance of these remains, undoubtedly referrible to a period considerably
nearer the present era, than that during which any one of the above-named
formations were deposited.

In the absence of more definite information from Mr. Clarke, these ob-
servations will probably apply to the inland locality, Tattingstone. The
bones were doubtless found in the quarry, but not, therefore, in the crag. —
At this spot the red crag- has been cut through, and the coralline reached;
the whole being capped by a thick covering of sand and pebbles, probably
of the same age as the common diluvium of the county, but the junction of
which with the beds beneath, it is, perhaps, impossible to define; a circum-
stance which might readily occasion a casual visitor to suppose, that mam-
malian remains occurring in the upper part of the quarry, belonged to the
crag, more especially if, like Mr. Clarke, he laboured under the impression
that such remains are abundant in this formation.

In stating that bones of terrestrial Mammalia do not occur in the red and
coralline crag, we simply put forward the result of some years' intimate ac-
quaintance with the tertiary deposits of Essex and Suffolk, particularly of
those localities mentioned by Mr. Clarke, a result confirmed by the expe-
rience of all geological observers in that part of the country, whose cabi-
nets we have had the opportunity of consulting, or with whom we have had
personal intercourse. Under these circumstances we feel sure that Mr.
Clarke will admit the probability of his having entertained an erroneous o-
pinion, unless he is quite satisfied, that a bone, taken by himself from an
undisturbed bed of crag, has been positively identified as that of some ter-
restrial mammiferous animal. — EdJ]

Discovery of a large pair of fossil horns in Essex. — Though
the geological features of the county of Essex may not be of
that highly interesting character, exhibited by the mining
districts of England; and though the facts respecting the phy-
sical history of our planet are not developed in such quick
succession here, as they are found to be in some localities,
owing in a great measure, to the mineral properties of our
tertiary beds, not being of that quality to warrant expensive
excavations ; still as the constant action of the sea upon the
blue clay cliffs of our coast, washes those cliffs down, and
brings to our notice the fossils which they have so long con-
cealed, or if by any of our artificial removals of soil, those re-
lics are brought to light, the facts are as worthy of being re-
corded, as if the organic remains were of still higher antiquity.

I am induced to make these observations, by my having
just received from a friend the two bony portions (commonly
called the core, or slug of the horn), of the interior of a pair
of very large horns of the ox, lately discovered at Clacton, on
the Essex coast, about 10 miles south of Walton. They were
found in a mass of drift sand, overlying the London clay, and
in consequence of the cliffs slipping down, they were disen-
tombed : many portions of the skull were found with them,
and the os frontis was attached to them. By measurement,
I find them to be three feet long on the outer curve, from the
base to their tips ; they are curved about 8 inches, and are

164 Golden and Sea Eagles. — Bald Eagle.

18 inches in circumference at the base. The diameter of each
hom at the base is 6 inches in one direction, and 5 inches in
the other. They have not the fluted character so conspicu-
ous in the horn which I found three years ago, at Copford,
noticed at p. 437, vol. vii. but they have the punctures so com-
mon to the bony portion of horns in general.

In both instances the remains of the elephant were found
associated with those of the ox. At Copford, a vertebra and
the cuneiform bone of the right fore foot of the former, were
discovered, subsequently to those of the ox above-mentioned.
And, with the horns recently discovered at Clacton, was found
a perfect elephant's tooth, 11 inches in length, and 3 inches
wide upon the grinding surface, and eight inches in depth.

As no doubt the horns themselves, (of which not the least
vestige was retained), were of a proportionate thickness and
length to these gigantic remains, what a formidable crea-
ture must have been the ox, or wild bull, which ranged through
the ancient forests! — John Brown. — Stanway, Dec. 21, 1837.

[The fossil remains of the ox are more or less abundant throughout the
whole of the county of Essex, but the dimensions of the horns recorded a-
bove, are greater than in any specimens we have had an opportunity of ex-
amining.— Ed.]

Golden and Sea Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetos and A. albicilla.
In the more recent works on British ornithology, there is not
any notice of eyries, either of the golden or sea eagle, in Eng-
land at the present time ; but, from my having seen two birds
of one or other of these species, (though not sufficiently near
to be specifically determined), on the 13th of July, 1835, about
the English lakes, they most probably breed in that quarter.
One appeared near the eastern extremity of the vale of New-
lands, not far from Keswick, and the other at Crummock Wa-
ter. Willughby states that there was an eyrie of the sea eagle
in Whinfield Park, Westmoreland ; and Latham, on the au-
thority of Dr. Heysham, remarks, that the same species bred
near Keswick. It may be added that in visiting all but three
of the lakes of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire,
(Lowes-Water, Ennerdale, and Wast-water) in the month of
July, 1835, I saw eagles on one day only. — Wm. Thompson.
Belfast, Jan. 1838.

Bald Eagle, Haliaetus leucocepJialus, Savig. — Wilson, in
his American Ornithology, (vol. ii. p. 310, Jardine's ed.) ob-
serves respecting this bird, — "of the precise time of build-
ing, we have no account, but something may be deduced
from the following circumstance. " — Here follows the de-
scription of an ascent to a nest in a pine tree, near Great
Egg Harbour, in the month of May ; when it was found

New Name for the Genus Proteus. 165

that the young birds must have vacated the nest some time
before. It is added, — "Our guide had passed this place,
early in February, at which time both the male and female
were making a great noise about the nest; and from what
we afterwards learned, it is highly probable it contained
young, even at that early time of the season." In the Fau-
na Boreali- Americana, (part 2, p. 15), Dr. Richardson re-
marks of this eagle, — "It is known to breed as far south
as Virginia, but its nests do not appear to be so common
within any part of the United States, as they are in the
fur countries."

In the following note there is, at the same time, proof
that the bald eagle builds at the early period presumed by
Wilson, and that during the season of incubation, it is
found much farther to the south than is mentioned in the
latter work. During a tour made by my friend, Richard
Langtry Esq. (of Fort William, near Belfast), through the
United States, in 1836, he, in the middle of January, ob-
served a pair of these birds flying about a nest, which was
in the top of a gigantic pitch pine, that stood a little re-
mote from other trees, on the bank of Fish River, Mobile
Bay. On the 6th of February he returned to the place,
in the hope of procuring a young bird alive ; but as the
nest was inaccessible, recourse was had to the axe, and,
with the tree, it came to the ground, together with one
young bird, which was killed by the fall. The eaglet was
covered with down, interspersed with a few feathers. The
nest was rather flat, and composed of sticks ; it contained
the heads and bones of mullet, and two heads of the grey
pelican. The parent birds were in great consternation dur-
ing the felling of the pine, and to the last moment conti-
nued flying clamorously about the nest. Mr. Langley was
informed that two or three pairs of bald eagles build here
annually about Mobile Bay, and had their nests pointed
out to him. — Id.

Remarks on ' Viator's'* proposed new name for the In-
fusorian Genus, Proteus. (Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 53).
— Your correspondent ' Viator' states as a well-known ride,
"that not more than one genus in Zoology, or one in Bo-
tany, or one in any other of the like Sciences, should re-
ceive the same name." It is not very clear from the above
words, whether 'Viator' objects to the employment of du-
plicate terms in different sciences, or merely to the repe-
tition of a generic term in the same science ; — or in other
words, whether he has the same objection to the double
emploi of the term Posidonia, (e. g.) in Botany and Zoo-

166 New Name for the Genus Proteus.

logy, which he justly has to that of Proteus for an Am-
phibian and an Infusorian. I hope and believe that the
former was the intended meaning of ' Viator,' for it is now
generally agreed by naturalists, that no generic term must
be common both to Botany and Zoology.

The question between the two rival claimants to the ti-
tle of Proteus, is one of considerable difficulty. The mi-
nute and despised Infusorian might plead the undoubted
right of priority, its baptism being registered, as observed
by ' Viator,' in 1755; whereas the Amphibian, was not drawn
from its murky caverns till 1768. Moreover, it might be
argued, that the term Proteus is peculiarly expressive of
the versatile powers of the animalcule, while it is utterly
inapplicable to the Amphibian, whose essential and distin-
guishing character is that of undergoing no metamorpho-
sis at all. Laurenti, therefore, was guilty of a great over-
sight, in giving to his animal a name, which not only had
already been appropriated, but which was, perhaps, the
most unsuitable one that could have been chosen. On the
other hand, it must be remembered, that the Amphibian
has now been known by the name of Proteus anguinus, for
70 years, and that this name has been universally adopted
by the numerous naturalists who have made this extraor-
dinary animal their study. This question of names is there-
fore too knotty to be decided by an anonymous author,
though our thanks are due to him for having directed our
attention to it. I trust the time may arrive when a com-
mittee of nomenclature may be appointed, out of the whole
republic of science, invested with power to revise the sys-
tematic terms of Zoology and Botany, and to establish their
terminology on a sure foundation. But when changes in
nomenclature are attempted by individuals, whose weight
in the scientific world is not sufficient to ensure the uni-
versal adoption of their improvements, (admitting them to
"be such), the science receives more injury by the multipli-
cation of synonymes, than benefit by these partial amelio-
rations.

I have only to add that 'Viator' has been unlucky in
his choice of the term Thetis as a substitute for Proteus,
that name having been adopted, some years since, by Mr.
Sowerby, in his Mineral Conchology, vol. xvi. pi. 513,
for a genus of fossil shells, and is confirmed by Brown,
Lethrea Geognostica, p. 704. — H. E. Strickland.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

APRIL, 1838.

Art. I. The Influence of the nature of the soil upon the distribu-
tion of Vegetables ; demonstrated by the Vegetation of the Western
Tyrol. By Dr. F. Unger.*

Called to reside in the town of Kitzbiihel, in the Tyrol, as
district physician, the author has had the skill to turn to ac-
count every moment of leisure allowed by an extensive prac-
tice ; and at the end of four years he has been able to place
before the scientific world a complete history of the country,
embracing its geology, botany, and meteorological phenome-
na. It so rarely happens that We are presented with a work
in which nature is displayed as a whole, — in which the seve-
ral departments of science, like the links of a chain, are treat-
ed of in connection, and in which, along with the description
of a plant, is that of the soil in which it grows, of the air it
breathes, and the different degrees of temperature to which it
is exposed, — that we deem it right to give such a detailed
analysis of the one before us, as will cause the richness of its
materials and the extent of philosophical knowledge which
distinguish it, to be fully appreciated.

The territory of Kitzbiihel presents a surface of nineteen
square German miles ; it is bounded on the east, south, and
north-east, by the country of Salzbourg ; and on the north by
Bavaria ; while on the west it extends to the river Inn, in a
line parallel with the course of the Wiedau. The town itself
is situated in latitude 47° 27', and longitude 30° 4' From
File de Fer to an elevation of 2350 feet above the level of the

*"Ueber den Einfluss des Bodens auf die Vertlieilung der Gewaechse,
nachgwiesen in der Vegetation des nordcestlichen Tyrols, Sec. &c.' 1 vol.
8vo. Vienna, 1836. For this abstract of the work, we are indebted to the
friendship of Dr. Martins." — Ed. Annates des Sci. Nat. August, 1837.

Vol. II.— No. 16. n. s. p

168 The Influence of the Soil

sea, the whole country is thickly set with mountains, some of
which terminate in sharp ridges ; but the greater number are
depressed at their summits, and rise gradually, forming a se-
ries of rounded eminences. None of these attain the height
of 7500 feet, and consequently do not approach the limits of
perpetual snow ; which, in the central chain, are found at
8200 feet: the greater part, however, have an altitude of more
than 5000 feet, and the remainder at least above 3500 feet. —
The country is watered by three rapid streams ; while coolness
and humidity are everywhere supported by springs, which are
more considerable, but of less frequent occurrence, in the cal-
careous than in the primitive rocks.

The temperature of springs being in general equal to the
mean temperature of the year, the author has given a table of
all those which have come under his notice. These tempe-
ratures are the mean results of many observations, and are ac-
companied by notices of the height of the springs, and the
nature of the rocks through which they flow. As a total, their
temperature varies between 2,9° and 7,1° It. These figures
may be taken as representing the mean atmospheric tempera-
ture, the law being confirmed by the author's observations in
the town of Kitzblihel itself; for the mean temperature of all
the springs in that town is 6,1° It. and the mean atmospheric
temperature of the year 6,2° R. Besides these springs, the
country contains many pieces of water, one of which, called
Walchsee, is more than a league in circumference.

Placed between the primitive formations of the central
chain, and the secondary beds of the alpine limestone, the ter-
ritory of Kitzblihel belongs almost entirely to the transition
rocks. We cannot here enter upon the purely geological re-
flections of the author ; numerous sections are designed to
give an exact idea of the geognostic constitution of the coun-
try, and of the different modes of superposition of the beds.
We speak only to botanists, and the nature of the surface of
the soil is all that possesses an interest for them.

The argillaceous schist occupies about two thirds of the
country, but it is traversed from east to west by bands of
schistose grauwacke, of freestone, (Uebergangs-Sandstein),
and of mountain limestone ; the latter forming, almost exclu-
sively, the northern part of the district.

The argillaceous schist is coarse and of an ashy colour, and
encloses pebbles of quartz. It is frequently found alternating
with schistose grauwacke. The limestone is in grains not so
fine as those of the primitive limestone ; its angles are less a-
cute ; its colour is white, yellowish, or greyish ; and it con-
tains a small portion of oxide of iron. It is this which forms

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 169

the group of Rettenstein. The argillaceous schist contains
copper ore. The sandstone is of two sorts ; that which is in
contact with the grauwacke, (the old red sandstone of Eng-
land), is of a deep red or grey ; its texture is uniform and
schistose, and it often encloses beds of gypsum. The new
red sandstone, (todt liegende), is hard, of a pale red, often
greenish or whitish, variegated, fine-grained, abounding in
mica, and sometimes schistose. The limestone forms moun-
tains, some of which rise to the height of from 5000 to 7300
feet ; the mountain variety belongs to the limestone of the re-
cent transition series ; sometimes it is replaced by conglome-
rates. Erratic boulders, the composition of which is different
from that of all the rocks found in the country, present them-
selves to the notice of the observer on every side ; many dis-
play marks of friction upon their surfaces, which may throw
some light on the manner of their transportation. They re-
sist all atmospheric influence, and present only here and there
some traces of lichens, which have succeeded in fixing them-
selves through the decomposition of the feldspar, a rock more
readily acted upon by external agents than the others.

The atmospheric influences, which, in conjunction with
those of the sun and of the latitude, determine or modify the
vegetation of a country, are, 1st, the weight of the air, and its
variations ; 2ndly, the annual and diurnal changes of tempe-
rature ; 3rdly, the hygrometrical and electrical state of the air;
4thly, rain, snow, hail, &c. ; 5thly, the winds ; 6thly, the
changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere. All
these influences united constitute what we term climate.

The barometrical observations were made three times a day
for a year ; and give for the mean height of the barometer, at
Kitzbuhel, 697,04 millemetres. Nevertheless as, during the
whole of the year 1834, the barometer stood unusually high,
we ought perhaps to make a correction, the quota for which
may be furnished by the barometer at Inspruck ; this, redu-
ced to 0°, has for its mean height, deduced from fifty years7
observation, 708,31, whilst the mean of 1834 is 710,56 ; from
which we may conclude that the mean height of the barome-
ter at Kitzbuhel is 694,78 millemetres. Taking the mean
height of the barometer at the seacoast, and supposing it, ac-
cording to Schouw, to be 760,90, the height of Kitzbuhel a-
bove the sea is 2347,8 feet. For the height of Inspruck, we
arrive at a scarcely different result. According to geodesical
and trigonometrical measurement, this town is situated 1791,2
feet above the level of the sea ; and Kitzbiihel, according to
the corresponding barometrical observations, is 558,6 feet a-
bove Inspruck, which gives 2349,8 for the absolute height. —

p 2

170 'Die Influence of the Soil

The annual barometrical variations at Kitzbuhel are compris-
ed between 693,33 and 715,08.

The thermometrical observations were continued for three
years, — from 1831 to 1834: and were made three times every
day, — at 7, 12, and 5 o'clock. The mean temperature of each
month was, — January, — 2,69 ; February, — 0,21 ; March,
+ 2,21; April, 4 6,80; May, 411,49; June, 413,28; July,
414,99; August, 414,77; September, 411,25; October,
46,98; November, 41,72; December, — 1,05. The mean
temperature of the year is 6,21 ; whilst at Inspruck it is 7,21.
This result perfectly agrees with the law established by Schiib-
ler, according to which this mean temperature diminishes a
degree of Reaumur for every 533 feet up to the height of 3000
feet. The maximum of temperature at Kitzbuhel was on the
11th of July, 1832, when the thermometer stood at 22,0; and
the minimum on the 3rd, 19th, and 22nd of January, in the
same year, when it stood at — 12,0 ; which gives an interval
of 34°.

The climate of Kitzbuhel is humid, for we find 125 rainy
days. In winter the country is covered with snow, from four
to six feet deep ; which does not entirely disappear until the
month of May. Storms are frequent, and the winds very vio-
lent ; that from the south sometimes overthrowing houses and
tearing up trees. Ten tables are appended to the meteorolo-
gical portion of the work, which we have been thus rapidly
analysing ; they contain a multitude of observations, placed
in . comparison with those made at Inspruck, Trieste, and
Gries.

Taking into consideration all the circumstances we have
just mentioned, we shall be led to conclude that the Flora of
Kitzbuhel must have an alpine character. It accordingly be-
longs to that great system which extends from the Pyrenees
to the range of the Caucasus. Along this extensive line, ve-
getation exhibits many common characters, but it also pre-
sents some remarkable differences. Thus, the Flora of the
Pyrenees differs less from that of the Alps, than does this lat-
ter from the vegetation of the Caucasus. The Tyrol lying
between the two, it follows that a host of western plants reach
its limits, while those of the eastern extremity are quite fo-
reign to us. Thus the Petrocallis pyrenaica, Horminum py-
renaicum, and Potentilla nivea, are common to it with Swit-
zerland, Dauphigny, Provence, and the Pyrenees. Others,
which grow only here and there in privileged localities, ex-
tend very far towards the east, yet without penetrating into
this country; such are the Geranium pyrenaicum, Valeriana
saliunca, Papaver pyrenaicum, and Ornithogalum pyrenai-

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 171

cum. Our territory forms, in its turn, the western limit of
some species peculiar to the mountains of Austria, as the He-
racleum austriacum ; whilst the Linum alpinum, Aconitum,
Author a, and Dianthus alpinus, extend into Liguria and Pied-
mont. The plants of the south side of the Alps sometimes
pass their summit, and are found inhabiting the north side ;
thus we find upon this side, a great number of species belong-
ing to the Flora of the Mediterranean ; none of these however
have ventured into the north Tyrol. Our Flora has conse-
quently been sheltered from those invasions and mixtures^
which might have altered its primordial character ; neverthe-
less, a great number of plants which grow in the fields, must
have been propagated with the cultivated vegetables, from
which they are inseparable. For instance ; Scleranthus an-
num, Agrostemma Githago, Saponaria officinalis, Papaver
Rhceas, many veronicas, Centaurea Cyanus, Capsella Bursa
pastoris, Solanum nigrum, &c. Some few, as the Thlaspi
arvense, Teucrium Scorodonia, and Myricaria germanica,
have only been observed within the last few years, in the fields
of flax which lie near Jochberg. By the intervention of the
vallies of Leuk and Brixen, that of Kitzbuhel has communi-
cation with countries belonging to the Scandinavo-Germanic
Flora. Some of the plants which form a part of it, stop at
the very foot of the mountains; such as, for instance, the Dip-
sac us sylvestris, which ceases as early as the vicinity of Reich^
enhalle, whilst the Euphorbia platyphylla ascends as high as
Thunsee. The Papaver Rhceas is very common round Scheit-
zelreith, and Staphylea pinnata advances to Unken. Analo-
gous examples are common in other countries ; thus the Ono-
nis natrix pauses in the Tyrol upon the southern slope of the
Brenner, while the Saponaria ocymoides is found again on the
other side, as well as the Dorycnium herbaceum and Colutea
arborescens. Some elevated parts of the territory are occupi-
ed, on the contrary, only by northern species, which is more
particularly the case with the turfy marshes of Bichlach.

The result of all that we have been saying is, that at least
a third of the plants which compose the Flora of Kitzbuhel
belong to other regions ; and that only two thirds can be con-
sidered as characterizing the vegetation of the western Tyrol.
There also exists a remarkable difference between the vegeta-
tion of the north and south parts of the district. Whilst the
calcareous ridges of the north lift their naked summits towards
heaven, the schistose mountains on the contrary are covered
with the richest vegetation. Hegetschweller remarked the
contrary in Switzerland, and the author of this extract has
had an opportunity of verifying his observations, upon the

p3

17-2 The Influence of the Soil

Col de Fours, the mountains which form the southern boun-
dary of the Allee blanche, and in the department of the lower
Alps.

The northern part of the district is moreover covered with
forests of great extent ; they rise from the bottom of the val-
lies to a height of 4800 feet, and are chiefly composed of
beeches. In the south we find the Abies excelsa, D. C, the
larch, the Pinus sylvestris, and Abies picea ; many willows,
Alnus incana, the fowlers' service-tree, the hazel, ash, oak,
Populus nigra, and, above all, the Acer Pseudo - platanus,
which sometimes attains to an enormous size. When this ar-
borescent vegetation ceases, it is replaced by another, com-
posed of the Pinus pumilio, Alnus viridis, dwarf willows, the
Rhododendron ferrugineum, R. hirsutum, Lonicera alpigena,
Atragene alpina, and Juniperus nana. An extract from the
forest-archives of the country proves that 32 per cent, of the
territory is covered with wood ; this report corresponds with
what we find to be the case in Bresil, a region which may as
yet be considered free from any attempt at cultivation.

To the forests succeed the alpine prairies, properly so call-
ed ; they are composed, for the most part, of the plants which
are found among the Swiss Alps. These prairies are very ex-
tensive, for they cover about half the surface of the soil.

Before we enter upon the consideration of the influence of
the soil upon the vegetation of the country we are examining,
we have to resolve, by way of preamble, some important ques-
tions intimately connected with our immediate subject. Let
us first endeavour to determine with exactness, the part per-
formed by the root in the nourishment of the plant. Duha-
mel, Senebier, and Carradori have proved that the root absorbs
only by its capillary extremities ; and further, Mohl has made
it evident, ('De Palmarum Structural/), that the organization
of the root differs altogether from that of the trunk, and that
it is the product of a system of gemma, having their point of
separation at the base of the stem. At the extremity of the
roots the vessels disappear, and are replaced by cellular tis-
sue, filled with a fluid, and sometimes with elongated crystals,
which I first observed in the second cellular layer of Lemna.
At the base of the spongiole we generally find cylindrical
hairs, which are frequently recurved ; they multiply in a sin-
gular manner under the influence of a humid atmosphere, and
in Streptopus amplexifolius they form a thick felt. I think,
with Carradori, and contrary to Treviranus, that these hairs
perform a prominent part in the absorbing functions of plants.
What proves to me the energy of their vitality, is the pheno-
menon of cyclosis, which, after M. Meyen, I have observed

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 173

in those of the Hydrocharis. The roots are, besides, co-
vered with a layer of epidermis, differing from the epidermis
of the stem, in the circumstances of its cellules having no
particular form, and in being destitute of stomata. When ex-
posed to the contact of the air, this layer thickens, becomes
tough, and covers the root with an envelope like parchment,
as may be observed in the aerial roots of Pothos and Epiden-
drum. I have examined in the Lemna, a very important or-
gan of the root, namely, the coleorhiza. The root of Lemna
is covered with a double layer of epidermis ; and so long as
the root is not more than a line and a half long, the two lay-
ers are combined ; but when it lengthens, the outer layer is
ruptured horizontally, and remains united to the inner one
only towards the point of the root. We can perceive traces
of it at the base of the root, although they are very indistinct.
If we cut off the extremities of such roots as are furnished
with a coleorhiza, the plant is not destroyed ; for new radicles
are instantly developed, and, in about ten days, attain the
same length as the first. It is certain that the epidermis, and
even some isolated layers of the bark of the roots, are sepa-
rated from the cellular tissue which they cover, and are de-
tached, in the same manner as we frequently observe in the
trunk. Some authors have even supposed that they fall like
the leaves. Without adopting so decided an opinion, we will
readily admit that these organs are in great part renewed.

The respiratory functions of the leaves are connected with
the absorbing properties of the root ; they increase and dimi-
nish together. The leaves absorb by means of their hairs,
which are precisely analogous to those of the roots. The
leaves of plants exposed to the sun, become either villous or
tough ; the plant by this means restores the equilibrium, and
replaces the loss occasioned by a too rapid evaporation. This
explanation is different from that of M. DeCandolle, who
thinks that the hairs, in closing the openings of the stomata,
prevent a too abundant evaporation ; but the definitive result
is the same. The following experiment proves that the roots,
in the absence of the green parts, may supply their place. —
I raised from seed a Solanum Lycopersicum ; the cotyledons
were cut off as soon as they had performed their office, and
as fast as the leaves appeared, they also were cut off. Adven-
titious roots were soon developed at the base of the stem,
which became more and more numerous ; the plant lived and
flowered, but produced no fruit. It is not yet well ascer-
tained, whether plants merely assimilate the constituent
principles of the air, or whether they are able, of them-
selves, to produce carbon. The experiments of Crell seem to

p4

174 The Influence of the Soil

prove that they do possess this power. He placed a hya-
cinth-bulb in a vase filled with distilled Avater, and hermeti-
cally sealed. The leaves grew to the length of 6 or 7 inches,
and the total weight of carbon in the plant increased to 47,166
grains. Another bulb, placed in pounded quartz, presented
the same phenomena. Now, these two plants vegetated in a
space containing 50 cubic inches of air, and consequently on-
ly 0,08 grains of carbon ; it could not then be from the atmo-
spheric air alone that the plants imbibed this principle. In
M. Braconnot's experiments, small plants of white mustard,
which had germinated in sand, increased in weight in the pro-
portion of 0,206 to 0,234, under the influence of light alone.
The experiments of Gceppert, ('Nonnulla de plantarum nu-
tritione'), give quite opposite results ; the quantity of carbon
did not increase: those of John lead to analogous conclusions.
These contradictory experiments nevertheless agree in prov-
ing the influence of external agencies. That of water, which
can by itself nourish plants, has been proved by the trials of
Duhamel, Hasenfratz, De Saussure, and Crell, who raised
plants in marble, pounded quartz, horse-hair, &c. by water-
ing them with spring or river water. The experiments of
Hales, Percival, Ruckert, and De Saussure, demonstrate that
the carbonic acid is decomposed under the influence of light.
The last physiologist has made it evident that this decompos-
ing power is very energetic, since seven plants of periwinkle,
occupying a space of half a cubic inch square, decomposed
21,75 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas in six days. The ex-
periments of Link also prove that it is not sufficient for the
plant to receive carbonic acid, by the intervention of water
penetrating through its roots, in order that all the stages of
its vegetation and fructification may be accomplished ; but it
is further necessary that it should decompose that of the at-
mospheric air : it even appears, according to the observations
of M. Ad. Brongniart, that this mode of nutrition preponderat-
ed over the other, in antediluvian plants, which appears to in-
dicate that the composition of the atmosphere was different
then to what it is in the present day.

We might have concluded from the preceding remarks, that
the nature of the soil could have no influence on the nutrition
of plants, carbonic acid appearing to be their only aliment ;
but we also find in their tissues, metals, alkalies, and salts,
which prove the influence of the soil in which they grow. —
Wahlenberg, however, founding his opinion upon facts pub-
lished by Vanhelmont, Boyle, Duhamel, Kraft, Bonnet, &c.
maintained that they were produced by the action of water
upon the tissues of the plant.

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 175

Others have thought that plants themselves gave birth to
these foreign bodies. Schrader, having sown grains of barley
and wheat in washed flowers of sulphur, and watered them
with water containing only carbonic acid, found in the plants
which sprung from them, silex, lime, oxide of iron, and man-
ganese. Moreover, he found in them more silex than in the
wheat which had grown in the open fields. Braconnot dis-
covered silex, and carbonate and phosphate both of lime and
iron, in the ashes of Sinapis alba, whether they had germi-
nated in powdered oxide of lead, or sulphur, or between
grains of lead, and had been watered with distilled water.

John, in analysing some lichens, (Ramalina fraxinea, and
Borrera ciliaris), which had grown at the top of a fir tree,
standing in earth in which no traces of iron could be found,
discovered in them a great quantity of this metal. Neverthe-
less, in his finished memoir upon the nutrition of plants, he
proves that all the metals which exist in vegetables, have pe-
netrated into them in a soluble state; iron, in the form of sul-
phate ; manganese, under that of carbonate or nitrate : and he
has established the fact, that nitrate of potash, which is found
in so many plants, disappears the moment they are placed in
earth where this salt does not exist. The beautiful experiment
of M. Lassaigne is in perfect accordance with these last-men-
tioned facts ; it shews that the silex and the salts which we
find in a plant reared in sulphur, excluded from the air, and
watered with distilled water, previously existed in the seeds
from which they sprung. Peschier has also observed that
cresses, watered with water containing sulphate of lime in a
state of solution, produced, when analysed, much more sul-
phate of potash than those which had been supplied with pure
water : which proves that plants can modify, but not produce
the chemical substances existing in their tissues.

The last researches on this subject we owe to M. Ch. Dau-
beny. He has raised plants in pulverised sulphate of stron-
tian ; others he watered with a solution of nitrate of strontian;
and he has found traces of this salt only in the root, never in
the parts exposed to the air. On the contrary, they contain-
ed lime and silex, and these in more perceptible quantities
when they had grown in pulverised Carrara marble, than when
they had vegetated in quartzose sand. The existence of ex-
cretions from the roots, already pointed out by Murray, Hales,
John, Mirbel and Brugmans, has been apparently placed be-
yond doubt by M. Macaire. He plunged different plants in
water, after having carefully washed them, and found that the
roots of the Cichoracece secreted a juice analogous to thridace,
{lactiicarium) ; those of the Euphorbiacece, a gum-resinous

176 The Influence of the Soil

substance ; those of leguminous plants, a gum ; those of gra-
mineous plants, a gummy substance containing salts. Upon
plunging one of the roots of a Mercurialis in acetate of lead,
whilst the other was steeped in distilled water, he very soon
discovered in the latter, manifest traces of the presence of this
salt of lead. These experiments are however subject to two
very strong objections : — 1st, it is impossible that in freeing
the roots from the earth which surrounded them, some entan-
gled filaments should not have been broken ; in which case
the juices contained in the vessels themselves would have es-
caped, and it is not surprising that the writer should have
found them : 2ndly, the transmission of the acetate of lead
through the roots, is easily explained by the mere capillary
action of the root itself. To provide against these inconveni-
ences, I have selected plants whose roots do not adhere to the
soil, as, for example, Lemna minor. Three grains of acetate
of lead were dissolved in four ounces of pure water, and about
forty small plants of the Lemna placed in the solution : on
the eighth day many of them had become yellow. These
were separated from the others, and frequently washed in pure
water, and afterwards in distilled water, until the latter ceased
to indicate the presence of the acetate of lead. They were
then placed in a glass containing two oimces of distilled wa-
ter, but the water did not give the least sign of the presence
of the salt ; nevertheless, it had penetrated the tissue of the
plants, for when hydrosulphate of ammonia was applied to
them, they became entirely black. A microscopic examina-
tion farther shewed, that this blackness was communicated
even to the membrane of the cellules ; besides which, it had
coloured all the cells of the lower surface, while those of the
upper one were only partially affected ; which leads me to
suppose that even the frond of the plant had absorbed the poi-
son, by the surface in contact with it.

Wishing to make a contrary experiment, I placed some
plants of Lemna in a solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia,
and then removed them into water containing acetate of lead
in solution ; the liquid was not at all disturbed by the process :
and here my experiments terminated. Those of M. Daubeny
made with different substances, have led to analogous results.
It follows from these experiments that plants do, to a certain
degree, select the substances with which they find themselves
in contact ; but that those substances which are absorbed, are
so, simply in the direct ratio of their quantity. Thus we must
admit that water, air, and earth, exercise a real and sensible
influence upon the character of vegetable life. Hence arises
the presence of certain species in localities whence others are

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 177

excluded ; and hence, in particular, the existence of marine,
fluviatile, and lacustrine plants ; hence also the analogy sub-
sisting between the vegetation of salt marshes and that of the
sea shore.

It cannot be denied that calcareous strata possess a Flora
very different from that of all others. Zuccarini and Sieber
observed this fact, upon the south side of the Alps; in the Car-
pathian mountains, Wahlenberg counted forty-three plants
which belong only to a calcareous soil ; and he made the
same observation in Sweden. On the new continent, Martius
was struck with the same facts, in the neighbourhood of the
river San Francisco, where the chalk begins ; he there per-
ceived vegetation to assume a peculiar character, remarkable
for the predominance of certain forms, as those of the Tere-
binthaceai, Malvaceae, Solanece, Ficoidece, mimosas, and cas-
sias. There are plants peculiar to gypsum, as many of the
Gypsophilce, the Gymnostomum curvirostrum, Urceolaria
gypsacea, Sarcosyphus gypsophilus, Wall. The vegetation be-
longing to quartz, chalk, and clay, is never entirely different,
because these substances do not occur pure, but are always
accompanied by others, and covered with soil which is eve-
rywhere the same. The plants peculiar to quartz, for exam-
ple, are Arundo arenaria, Plantago arenaria, Jasione mon-
tana, Statice Armeria, Gnaphalium arenarium, &c. In the
argillaceous strata we find, on the contrary, Tussilago Farfa-
ra, T. Petasites, Arctium Lappa, Sonchus arvensis, Inula
dysenterica, Thlaspi campestre, &c. But these influences
operate only when the formation occupies a very large surface;
it is thus that I found upon the lignite in the vicinity of Hae-
ring, in the Tyrol, only Funaria hygrometrica, as peculiar to
it ; the other plants were the same as in the environs, and had
invaded the little plot of lignite. The turfy strata likewise
have a vegetation peculiar to themselves, and their influence
is such that we may recognise the same species upon the turf
beds of different parts of Europe ; as if the influence of the
soil preponderated over that of the climate itself. The vege-
tation of the province of Minas-Geraes, according to Martius,
is the most distinctly characterised of that of the Campos, and
is never observed upon calcareous or granitic strata.

Nevertheless, observations have been made which appear
to invalidate the correctness of the preceding. Wahlenberg
observed on the Carpathian mountains, thirty -nine plants con-
sidered to belong exclusively to the calcareous formations ;
of these thirty -nine plants he afterwards met with twenty-two
on the granite in Switzerland and Lapland. Schouw, travers-
ing the whole of Switzerland and the Apennines, with a ge-

►

178 The Influence of the Soil

ological map in his hand, observed no botanical differences
connected with the strata. M. DeCandolle, in his numerous
agricultural journeys through France, has established as a
fact, that plants grow indifferently upon all strata ; he was
struck, however, in Limousin, by perceiving that the chesnut
appeared only upon the bands of sandstone which cross that
province ; and this observation has been repeated in many lo-
calities.

Zahlbruckner, who, in describing a part of Austria, placed
in opposition to each other the vegetation of the calcareous
and the primitive strata, points out important differences. —
Lachmann, in his 'Flore de Brunswick,' finds variations, if
not in species, at least in their number and developement, up-
on each of the secondary or tertiary formations of that country.

To return to the territory of Kitzbuhel ; — we will divide the
plants which cover it, into three sections, determined by their
affinity, and their constancy to the same strata. We will call
the first Bodenstete Pflanzen, which signifies plants never
found but on the same formation ; Bodenholde Pflanzen, or
those which are found more on one formation than another,
without being exclusively confined to either ; and lastly, Bo-
denwage Pflanzen, those which inhabit all soils indifferently.
These last are the most numerous, and the most common eve-
rywhere ; so much so, that in characterising a stratum, we
should have some difficulty in selecting the plants there met
with in the greatest abundance. It is true, it may happen
that the characteristic plants have nearly exterminated the
others ; thus, the Rhododendron hirsutum, R. Chamcecistus,
Globularia cordifolia, Biscutella laevigata, and Erica carnea,
frequently cover the calcareous strata which they characterise;
whilst the Rhododendron ferrugineum, Azalea procumbent.
Chrysanthemum alpinum, Sesleria disticha, and Juncus iri-
Jidus, indicate the presence of granite. If we include those of
the turf-beds, the plants characteristic of our country form
about a fifth part of the whole number. This number would
be still greater, if the strata themselves did not offer nume-
rous varieties in the same formation. Those called secondary
and tertiary being often nothing more than ancient rocks, mo-
dified by fire, water, or air, there results a want of homo gene -
ousness which must influence vegetation. It is upon elevated
summits, where the layer of soil is least considerable, and cul-
tivation has not been able to reach, that the natural formation
exercises the most powerful influence in determining the ex-
istence of certain plants. I have observed that the phane-
rogamous plants, which we may consider as the most cha-

upon the Distribution of Vegetables.

179

racteristic of the calcareous strata in the north Tyrol, are the
following : —

Carex mucronata
C. tenuis
C. firma

Streptopus amplexifolius
Allium victoriale
Orchis erubescens
Ophrys myodes
Cephalanthera ensifolia
Epipactis atrorubens
Vypripedium Calceolus
Pinus pumilio
Juniperus nana
Salix Wulfeniana
Fagus sylvatica
Valeriana saxatilis
Centaurea rnontana
Achillea Clavennce
Arnica scorpioides
Buphthalmum salicifolium
Crepis alpestris, Rb.
Hieracium succiscefolium
H. villosum
H. Jlexuosum
Tussilago nivea
Carduus dejioratus
Carlina acaulis
Plantago rnontana
Teucrium montanum
Thymus alpinus
Polygala Chamtebuxus
Pedicularis Jacquini

Pedicularis foliosa
Globularia nudicaulis
G. cordifolia
Erica herbacea
Pyrola rotundifolia
Arctystaphylos alpina
Rhododendron hirsutum
R. Chamcecistus
Laserpitium latifolium
Astragalus glycyphyllos
Anthyllis vulneraria
Hippocrepis comosa
Saxifraga aphylla
S. ccesia
S. Burseriana
Potentilla caulescens
P. minima
Dryas octopetala
Rubus saxatilis
Pyrus Aria
Mespilus Cotoneaster
Biscutella laevigata
Iberis rotundifolia
Kernera saxatilis
Helianthemum vulgare
H alpestre
Ranunculus hybridus
Hepatica triloba
Aquilegia atrata
Euphorbia Cyparissias
Gypsophila repens

There are others which are most frequently met with upon
the chalk, although they also occur on other strata; these
are, for example : —

Tozzia alpina Anemone narcissiflora

Gentiana ciliata Thalictrum aquilegifolium

G. acaulis Aconitum cammarum

Daphne Mezereum Alchemilla alpina

Astrantia major Rosa alpina, &c.

The differences which may exist between the vegetation of
the different kinds of calcareous strata, are still less distin-
guishable ; I have however endeavoured to arrange a table of
the species which more particularly inhabit each of these for-
mations.

Thus there exist plants peculiar to the alpine limestone, the
metalliferous limestone, the limestone of Rettenstein, and the
primitive limestone, or that of Brennthal, the veins of which
traverse our argillaceous schist.

180 The Influence of the Soil

Many of the saxifrages which are found upon the calcare-
ous soil, present exudations of carbonate of lime, analogous
to those of the Chara. These exudations appear under three
different forms. Upon the Saxifraga Aizoon, and upon the
analogous species, we find, all along the edge of the leaves,
little cavities filled with carbonate of lime ; upon S. cassia are
small holes placed on the upper surface of the leaf, in which
the salt is deposited in successive layers, from the bottom to
the top ; the under surface is pierced with numerous stomata,
which, from their number, seem designed to supply the im-
perfect evaporation of the upper surface.

The plants peculiar to the argillaceous schist, are less nu-
merous than those of the calcareous strata ; this may be attri-
buted to the slight affinity of plants for alumina, which is
never found in them except in infinitely minute quantities. —
We may admit the following : —

Blechnum boreale Veronica bellidioides

Sesleria disticha Rhododendron ferrugineum

Juncus trifidus Sibbaldia procumbens

Hieracium grandijlorum Phaca astragalina

H. intybaceum P. australis
Phyteuma hemispharicum

Upon the grauwacke and red sandstone we notice plants
from both the calcareous and argillaceous beds ; their number
depending upon the manner in which the former formations
may have been modified by being in contact with the latter.
If upon the granite or gneiss, we sometimes by chance meet
with plants belonging to the calcareous strata, a careful exa-
mination of the rock will explain their occurrence ; it was in
this manner that, having observed the Sesleria ccerulea upon
the hornblende, and Gpysophila repens upon granite, I ascer-
tained that these rocks were in a state of decomposition, ow-
ing to the presence of acids. I ought, however, to confess,
that I have sometimes found the Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga
oppositifolia, Hieracium villosum, and the beech, upon the
same strata, without being at all able to account for their de-
velopement, except in calling to mind that Hugi, Wahlenberg,
and myself, have observed plutonic rocks covered with a light
calcareous bed, which time had caused to disappear after the
dev elopement of the plant. If it be incontestible that the na-
ture of the soil influences the principles which are found in
vegetables, we have reason to suspect that it may also have
an influence upon the forms of plants. I here give lists of
some varieties, which I consider the simple consequences of
the different nature of the subjacent strata.

upon the Distribution of Vegetables. 181

LIMESTONE. ARGILLACEOUS SCHIST.

Luzula glabrata, Desv. Luzula spadicea, DC.

Juncus monanthos, Jacq. Juncus trifidus, L.

Primula pubescens, Jacq. Primula hirsuta, Willd.

Phyteuma orbiculare, L. Phyteuma fistulosum, fib.

Lepidium alpinum, L. Lepidium brevicaule, Hoppe.

Anemone grandiflora, Hoppe. Anemone alpina, L.

Ribes alpinum, L. Ribes petraum, Wulf.

Gentiana bavarica, L. Gentiana imbricata, Frcehl.

Dianthus alpinus, L. Dianthus glacialis, Haencke.

We also sometimes see species acting, upon one formation,
the part that analogous species perform upon others ; so that
under different latitudes, genera and even species reciprocally
replace each other.

LIMESTONE. ARGILLACEOUS SCHIST.

Sesleria ccerulea Sesleria disticha

Luzula maxima Luzula spicata

Carex mucronata Carex frigida

Chrysanthemum atratum Chrysanthemum alpinum

Erigeron alpinum Erigeron uniflorum

Arnica scorpioides Arnica Doronicum

Phyteuma orbiculare Phyteuma hemisphcericum

Campanula alpina Campanula thyrsoidea

Rhododendron hirsutum Rhododendron ferrugineum

Saxifraga aphylla Saxifraga muscoides

Astragalus glycyphyllos Phaca astragalina

Biscutella laevigata Erysimum lanceolatum

The altitudinal limits of vegetation in this country are as
follow. The walnut rises to 2700 feet ; the cereal plants,
sometimes as high as 3764 feet ; the beech to 4000, and in a
stunted state as high as 4800 ; the fir to 5200. The region
of alpine shrubs is between 5000 and 7000 feet ; these are,
the two species of Rhododendron, the Betula viridis, and the
small willows. Pinus pumilio is still vigorous at 5903. We
will not follow the author in the comparisons which he esta-
blishes between these heights, and those observed by Zahl-
bruckner in lower Austria; Hegetschweller, Leopold de Buch
and General de Welden in Switzerland and Piedmont ; trees
and cultivated fields rise higher in these latter countries, as it
was easy to foresee in considering the difference of latitude.
In the Tyrol we observe also that certain specific forms of the
plain are modified by ascending to a greater height, to such
a degree as to have been taken by some authors for new spe-
cies. Such are, Poly gala alpestris, Rb. Biscutella alpestris,
Kit., Rhinanthus alpestris, Wahl., Chrysanthemum atratum^
Jacq., Euphrasia minima, Schleicher, Juniperus nana, Will.,
and many others. All are distinguished from their primitive
form, by being less high, and by having corollas relatively
larger, more simple leaves, and fewer ramifications.

] 8*2 Professor Oiverts Reply

The time of flowering of each plant is important, because
it characterises the climate, and may serve as an index to a-
gricultural experiments. The author has taken the means of
four years, after having noted the exact time when a species
is in mil flower. The following are some of the results.

Alnus incana, March 15 th Primula elatior, April 15th

Corylus Avellana, March 17th Prunus avium, May 7th

Daphne Mezereum, April 2nd Fragaria vesca, May 8th

Hepatica triloba, April 6th Ribes Grossularia, May 9th

Crocus vernus, April 8th Pyrus Malus, May 21st

Leucojum vernum, April 15th Berberis vulgaris, May 25th

Viola odorata, April 16th Secale cereale, June 24th

Chrysosplenium alternifolium, Solidago Virgaurea, August 28th
April 20th

The work is terminated by a complete enumeration of the
cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants of the territory of
Kitzblihel, arranged in natural families. To each plant is at-
tached an index to other countries where it has been observ-
ed. It is embellished with three beautiful plates, one giving
a view of Kitzblihel ; the second a geological map of the coun-
try, pointing out, by means of figures, the localities in which
the plants characteristic of the different strata are found;
and the third exhibits several geological sections, and some
details of vegetable anatomy.

Our brief analysis has, we hope, shewn how rich the vo-
lume is in interesting facts and new observations. It proves
the very varied knowledge of the author, joined to that enthu-
siasm which only could make him forget the fatigue and pri-
vations inseparable from journeys into the high Alps, and arm
the naturalist with the perseverence necessary for accomplish-
ing an undertaking, including such a diversity of objects.

Note from Professor Owen, to the Editor.

College of Surgeons, March 20th, 1838.
Sir,

As you have done me the honour to insert in your
Magazine, my letter (of the 21st of January) to the Secretary of
the Academy of Sciences, of Paris, relating to M. Coste's de-
scription of my preparation of the Allantois of the Kangaroo,
I beg leave to forward to you my Reply to the Memoir which
M. Coste has subsequently addressed to the Academy, on the
subject of my letter; and which Memoir he has printed, and
privately circulated.

to M. Coste's Memoir. 183

Should you deem the Manuscript herewith sent to contain
such remarks on the Physiology of the Marsupialia, as may
render it at all interesting to your readers, and be worthy of
occupying a few pages in your periodical, I shall be gratified
and obliged.

I remain, Sir,

With much respect,

Your obedient Servant,

Richard Owen.

To the Editor of the Magazine
of Natural History.

Art. II. A Reply to the Communication addressed by M. Coste to
the French Academy of Sciences, entitled " Memoire en Reponse
a la lettre de M. R. Owen : " — in a Letter addressed to M. Arago,
Perpetual Secretary to the Academy. By Richard Owen, Esq.
F.R.S. &c.

Sir,

It gives me sincere regret to find that M. Coste,
in his communications to the Academy,* instead of acknow-
ledging, as he ought to have done, the mistaken impressions
under which he had examined, while in London, my prepa-
ration of the allantois of the kangaroo, should have persist-
ed in his endeavours to appropriate to himself, and to deprive
me of the credit of the discovery of that additional fact in
the history of marsupial developement. It is with still great-
er regret that I perceive in his Memoir to the Academy, al-
legations, which compel me again to appeal to the honourable
members of that learned body, in the maintenance of whose
good opinion I am much concerned. At the same time, in
this appeal, I shall restrain the expression of feelings which
the treatment I have received from M. Coste naturally excites,
and endeavour to blend with my statements such physiologi-
cal observations, as may render my communication not altoge-
ther a barren controversy for individual rights.

M. Coste commences his Memoir to the Academy in reply
to my letter, by stating what is his view of the subject of con-
troversy between us. He says it relates "au sujet d'un foetus
uterin de kangaroo, qu'il, (M. Owen), designe sous le nom de
foetus et ses vesicules appendiculaires, et que nous conside-
rons, nous, comme un ceuf." In this assertion M. Coste would

* Letter published in the 'C omptes Rendus Hebdomadaires,' February
3rd, 1838 ; and Memoir subsequently printed.
Vol, II.— No. 16. n. s. q

184 Professor Owen's Reply

have the Academy to believe, that the difference between us
is one of words, and not of things. I am much mistaken, how-
ever, if any one of the learned Academicians, how different
soever his studies may be from the subject of animal physio-
logy, will need to be informed that an ovum is something more
than a foetus and its vesicular appendages, and that it is a
great deal more than an uterine foetus alone.

The marsupial embryo, like every other embryo, is deve-
loped within a chorion, which incloses and conceals it, so far
as observation has yet extended, at every stage of its deve-
lopement. I found it necessary to lay open this exterior sac,
in order to expose the foetus, when I discovered, in 1834, its
first-developed appendage ; namely, the umbilical sac. I
found it equally necessary to lay open the chorion, in order
to expose its contents, when I discovered, in June, 1837, the
second-developed vesicular appendage of the foetus, namely,
the allantois. The embryologist must pardon me, if, in re-
ply to M. Coste's assertion, that I am contending for words
instead of things,* I make the trite observation, that the cho-
rion is no part of the embryo, that it is not developed by or
from the embryo, but that it pre-exists to the first rudiments
of the embryo, and, together with the embryo and its vesicular
appendages, forms an essential constituent of the ovum.

It is of importance only to M. Coste, that it should be be-
lieved that an ovum in general is as complete without a cho-
rion as with one ; and that in the kangaroo in particular, if a
chorion can be said to exist at all in the ovum, it exists in a
state of fusion with the umbilical vesicle, or that the two mem-
branes are confounded together ; — a proposition which is es-
sential to his claim of having discovered the allantois, since
the only opportunity which he ever enjoyed of seeing the al-
lantois of the kangaroo, was after it had been exposed by the
removal of the chorion, and when the true ovum had been
reduced, by previous dissection, to the condition of a foetus
and its vesicular appendages. This I hope to prove to the
satisfaction of the Academy, and of the commission ap-
pointed to report upon the merits of M. Coste's Memoir, by

* In reference to my letter which M. Coste states to relate "au sujet d'un
produit uterin de kangaroo, qu'il designe sons le nom de foetus et ses ap-
pendices vesiculeux, et que j'ai considere comme un ceuf," M. Coste ob-
serves in his note printed in the'Comptes Rendus de l'Academie,' "Comme
sur ce point la discussion parait porter plutot sur les mots que sur les choses,
et comme d'ailleurs je suis parfaitement enmesure de repondre a toutesles
assertions de M. Owen, je demande a l'Academie la permission de soumet-
tre a son jugement le Memoire ci-joint, dans lequel elle trouvera, j'espere,
les moyens de decider la question, et dans le fond, et dans la forme."

to M. Cost J s Memoir. 185

M. Coste' s own assertions, and by the evidence of the artist
which he adduces to support those assertions.

But before noticing these assertions, and that evidence, I
must offer a few remarks on the general dissertation on marsu-
pial developement, with which M. Coste involves the immedi-
ate question, because although this dissertation is set forth with
higher pretensions, it in fact consists, in all its essential points,
of a mere paraphrase of an imperfect translation of my first
Memoir of 1834. M. Coste says, "Nous soumettons au juge-
ment de TAcademie, une dissertation, qui sera a la fois la re-
futation de la lettre de M. R. Owen, et qui, en meme temps,
contiendra toute Thistoire connue de Tovologie du kangaroo."
Memoire, p. 3. The learning he deems requisite for this his-
tory, is restricted however to a mere repetition of the names
of the authors whose works are quoted in my Memoir. But
in that Memoir I did not pretend to enter into the whole known
history of the ovology of the kangaroo ; my aim was restricted
to the elucidation of certain doubtful points in the history of
marsupial developement ; otherwise I should have furnished
M. Coste with more names of authors of originality, than
those which appear in his dissertation. It is not, however,
my business here to occupy the time of the Academy, by de-
monstrating the poverty of M. Coste' s critical acquirements
on the subject he proposes to teach. But I may observe, en
passant, that if the recent admirable descriptions of Rengger
had been known to him, he would have been in possession of
evidence relating to the condition of the marsupial ovum, in
the multiparous species, of which he appears to be in igno-
rance; and I may add that if he knew the writings of Collie,
otherwise than by the extracts which are introduced into my
Memoir of 1834, he would be acquainted with phenomena
which are very essential to the man who, elevated by the ad-
dition of one new fact to his small stock of ideas on the sub-
ject, undertakes to teach the whole known history of the oology
of the kangaroo ; — "toute l'histoire connue de l'ovologie du
kangaroo."

Yet even in the easy task of superficially paraphrasing a
statement of facts which he had no share in accumulating, M.
Coste cannot avoid falling into the errors which usually be-
tray a hasty compilation. And first, with reference to M.
Coste' s description of the female organs of the kangaroo, I
may observe, that there exist two interesting modifications of
these organs of the marsupials, one of which relates to
multiparity, the other to uniparity. In those marsupials
where ova are simultaneously developed in both uteri, the
median cul-de-sac is equally divided by a longitudinal septum,

Q2

186 Professor Owen's Reply

and each uterus opens into a separate compartment of the sac;
and thus is obviated the evil that would have ensued from the
simultaneous entry of two tender embryos into one common
contractile cavity. But in those species of marsupials in
which but one ovum is developed at one pregnancy, two dis-
tinct cul-de-sacs are unnecessary, and the uteri open into one
common ccecal cavity. Now this latter is precisely the con-
dition of the female organs in the kangaroos, to which M.
Coste attributes the multiparous type of structure, in describ-
ing the median cul-de-sac as being divided by a 'cloison inter-
mediaire.' I suspect that here again M. Coste has deceived him-
self, by a hasty glance at my plate vi. in which an imperfect
or rudimental septum, such as usually exists in the kangaroo,
is represented. M. Coste would have escaped the double er-
ror of adducing what forms the distinctive peculiarity of the
female organs of the multiparous marsupials, as the type of
those parts in the whole order, and, — what makes the error an
absurdity, — the ascription of this peculiarity to the uniparous
kangaroo ; and he would also have been acquainted with
what I conceive to be an interesting physiological relation,
had he ever perused in the original, my Memoir of 1834.*

It may be said that the subject of the structure of the ge-
nerative organs of the kangaroo, has little reference to the
question of the discovery of the allantois in this species : I
admit it. But it must be remembered that the irrelevant in-
troduction of this subject into the present discussion did not
originate with me ; and I now allude to it only to shew what
are the qualifications of the man who proposes, in his refuta-
tion of my claims to the discovery in question, to teach the
whole known history of the ovology of the kangaroo.

Among the numerous topics with which the question of the
discovery of the allantois is involved by M. Coste, in this his-
tory, are some corrections of my nomenclature of the consti-
tuents of the ovum ; and he taunts me for retaining certain
opinions, as, for example, regarding the analogy and organized
nature of the chorion, which he considers to be obsolete. Thus
he conceives himself to have exploded from oology the term
chorion, as applied to the most exterior of the membranes of
the mammiferous ovum, and to have degraded it to asynonyme.
But M. Coste is little aware all the while, that the imperfect

* The blunder into which M. Coste falls in his first step in the general
history, is the more ridiculous, as he proposes to restrict his observations to
the physiological relations of the parts in question. "Mais pour ne pas
donner a une question secondaire, plus de poids qu'elle n'en a reellement,
nous serons succinct dans notre description, et nous la ferons plutot sous le
point de vue physiologique que sous celui de Panatomie : " p. 4.

to M. Coste' s Memoir. 187

observations and mistaken analogy which seduced him into
the error of supposing the mammiferous chorion to be the ana-
logue of the vitelline membrane of the oviparous ovum, are
fully appreciated by all of his contemporaries, whose opinions
on this subject possess any value in the physiological world.

With the same taste which pervades the whole of his work
on Embryogenie, M. Coste observes, (p. 288), with respect to
the chorion, "cette membrane, que, dans ces demiers temps
encore un savant tres haut place a ete conduit, nous ne sa-
vons trop pour quelle raison, mais sans doute en V absence de
toute idee d'analogie, a considerer comme le representant de
la coque de l'ceuf des ovipares," &c. In this paragraph M.=
Coste spoke more truths than he intended, in confessing his
ignorance of the reasons which induced the distinguished sa-
van to whom he thus pertly alludes, to regard the mammife-
rous chorion as the analogue of the cortical membrane of the
ovipara. I shall leave M. Coste in the state of ignorance in
which he confesses himself to be on this point, and merely
observe that the correctness of the opinion at which he sneers,
has been established by the late excellent researches of
Krause, (in Midler's 'Archiven'), and of Wharton Jones, (in
the Philos. Trans, for 1837). And the Academy will permit
me to state that prior to the discoveries of these acute observ-
ers, I had shewn the fallacy of M. Coste' s dogma, that the
chorion of the mammiferous ovum is the analogue of the vitel-
line membrane, by demonstrating the co-existence of the cho-
rion and the vitelline membrane in the ovum of the Qrnitho*
rhynchus ; Philos. Trans. 1834. With the structure of this
ovum, the ova of the Batrachia present a close analogy, being
inclosed by both a vitelline membrane and an external gela-
tinous chorion : and in the Triton, Mr. Jones has observed,
that when the embryo has attained a certain size, but still at
an early period, the vitelline membrane is ruptured, and the
embryo, with its amnios, and umbilical sac, is then immedi-
ately invested by the chorion. It is, I apprehend, in this
curious phenomenon of the destruction of the vitelline mem-
brane, that we have the key to the true analogies and rela-
tions of the mammiferous chorion.

I pass over other general questions in oology in which M.
Coste conceives that I entertain erroneous opinions. My de-
fence of these views, like the remarks I have just offered, would
demonstrate how much M. Coste has to learn, before he will
be able to teach all the known history of any single branch
of comparative embryogeny. I beg the Academy to believe
that I omit to notice these points only because I am desirous
to proceed to the allegations and arguments of M. Coste,

q3

188 Professor Owen's Reply

which relate more immediately to my claim to the discovery
of the allantois of the kangaroo.

When I was first made acquainted with the attempt on the
part of M. Coste, to invalidate that claim, I sought to establish
the proof of my discovery on other evidence than bare recla-
mation ; and I appealed, in my previous letter to the Acade-
my, to the condition of the parts exhibited by me to M. Coste,
and which M. Coste had asserted to be an undissected ovum
of the kangaroo. I appealed, and I still appeal, to the ex-
tensively developed chorion, preserved in the Hunterian Mu-
seum of Comparative Anatomy, and demonstrating the con-
dition of a distinct membranous sac, but which M. Coste,
unluckily for himself, was induced to describe as being con-
founded with the umbilical vesicle. This chorion of the ovum
of the kangaroo, was, in truth, adherent by only a small pro-
portion of its internal surface to the umbilical sac, and the re-
sistance which this adhesion offered, I found little difficulty
in overcoming, (except at one point), when, in June, 1837, I
first dissected the ovum in question.

M. Coste now confesses what he ought to have stated to
the Academy and to M. Blainville in his first letter, namely,
that he knew nothing of the chorion from actual observation,
but that the description he presented to the Academy as to its
condition, reposed solely on induction. "Lorsque nous avons
annonce quHl, fie chorion J, etait confondu avec la vesicule
ombilicale, nous n 'avons juge que par induction, et nous a-
vons cm avancer un fait que Inexperience et l'analogie nous
conduisent a soutenir :" — p. 15.

Now what is the experience, and what the analogy, behind
which M. Coste seeks to shelter himself from the sentiments
which every honorable and impartial man of science must en-
tertain towards him, in reference to this imaginary description
and the motive which induced him to make it ? His expe-
rience respecting the chorion of the marsupial ovum, was li-
mited to the results of the dissection of a single ovum. In
my account of this dissection, (Philos. Trans. 1834), the cho-
rion is described and figured as a membrane distinct from the
umbilical sac. I there state that at the part where they ad-
hered together, the two membranes could be separated from
each other with a slight effort, except at the line of the vena
terminalis of the umbilical sac. Did this his sole experience
respecting the condition and relations of the marsupial cho-
rion to which M. Coste could appeal, justify him in his un-
worthy insinuation* with reference to the statement made by

*"Sans chercher a penetrerles motifs qui ontpu determiner M. R. Owen

to M. Code's Memoir. 189

me to the Academy, that I had removed the chorion in the dis-
section of my second marsupial ovum, some weeks before its
exposed and naked contents were exhibited to M. Coste ?

Returning, and I confess that it is more in sadness than in
anger, to this subject, I ask, in the second place, what are the
analogies adduced by M. Coste to induce the Academy to ac-
cept his imaginary, or, as he prefers to term them, inductive
views of the condition of the chorion, in my second marsupi-
al ovum ?

M. Coste asserts that in other Mammalia it becomes im-
possible, at a certain epoch, to separate the chorion from the
vesicula umbilicalis^ — and he appeals to all the physiologists
who have made the same researches as himself, for the truth
of this assertion. "Nous savions," says he, "que chez les au-
tres mammiferes, il devient impossible, a une certaine epoque,
d'isoler le chorion de la vesicule ombilicale :" p. 15.

Now this statement may be understood as referring either
to a partial or total fusion of the chorion with the umbilical
sac ; if to the former, it tells against M. Coste' s analogical ar-
gument, because he then admits that a certain proportion, (and
it is always a large one), of the chorion is left free for removal;
but we must suppose that M. Coste is here speaking of the
chorion in totality, in the sense in which he described to the
Academy the chorion of the kangaroo. We can only marvel
at the profundity of the recent researches which have conduct-
ed M. Coste to such a generalization. Nevertheless, we have
seen that embryology is not yet reduced, even by M. Coste, to
that exact science which will enable an anatomist with safety
to describe a chorion which he never saw. M. Coste then goes
on to say, — "dans l'ceuf que M. R. Owen nous aremis, le de-

a ecrire cette lettre, nous dirons que ce n'est point un fcetus qu'il a eu
l'obligeanee de mettre a notre disposition, mais bien un ceuf complet, c'est
a dire, un embryon, avec son amnios, sa vesicule ombilicale, son allanto'ide
enveloppe dans les replis de cette derniere, et sa membrane vitelline, ou
chorion. II est vrai que M. Owen, pour prouver que ce n'etait pas un ceuf,
affirme que dans ce qu'il nous a remis, cette derniere membrane n'existait
point ; et comme preuve de son negation, il annonce que quelques semaines
avant lors de la dissection qu'il dit avoir faite de cet ceuf, il aurait enleve
le chorion. Lorsqu' un homme du caractere de M. R. Owen avance un
pareil fait, on doit Ten croire ; il n'est pas convenable d'elever des doutes a
cet egard."

The motives which induced me to write the letter to the French Acade-
my, (printed in the February number of this Magazine), require little pene-
tration to decipher ; they were simply to unmask a pretender, who sought
to appropriate to himself a discovery which did not belong to him, and who
supported his claims before the Academy, by boldly describing a part which
he had never seen.

q4

190 Professor Owens Reply

veloppement etant deja assez avance, et l1 aspect general de cet
oeuf etant le meme que celui qu'offrent les rongeurs &c. nous en
avons conclu que la membrane vitelline, ou chorion, etait con-
fondue avec la vesiculeombilicale:"p. 15. M. Coste will pardon
me if I doubt that he drew his conclusion from the premises
which he here assigns. He knows well what the general as-
pect, and even what the general conditions of the ovum of a
rodent are, for he has figured the ovum of the rabbit in his work
on Embryogeny. Now let any one compare these figures with
the sketch by M. Coste of what he calls the ovum of the kan-
garoo, or the figure of the real ovum of the kangaroo, in which
the chorion is truly represented, and which figure M. Coste
has borrowed from me, to form the 9th plate of his treatise of
Embryogeny. I cannot think so poorly of M. Coste's pow-
ers of comparison, as to suppose he could see a resemblance
in ova, the conditions of which are so totally different.

The commission, M. Coste however adds, will judge if he
has been deceived by this comparison.

If I mistake not there will be one honourable Academician
to whom, in conjunction with the immortal Cuvier, science is
indebted for many just and excellent observations on the ova
of the Mammalia, and who will be peculiarly able to form a
true judgment of the comparison suggested by M. Coste. M.
Dutrochet will not require to be informed that in the Roden-
tia, there is an early and active determination of the blood
and organizing forces to the exterior of the ovum, for the pur-
pose of developing a large cylindrical placenta, and of pro-
ducing an adhesion of the ovum to the parietes of the uterus,
by an interlacement of innumerable foetal and maternal capil-
laries. While, on the contrary, in the Marsupialia, no pla-
centa is developed, and no adhesion, by interlacing capillaries
or otherwise, ever takes place, so far as experience has hither-
to informed us, between the exterior surface of the ovum and
the internal surface of the womb. Now no two conditions of
an ovum could be expected to affect more differently the re-
lations of the chorion to the umbilical sac and allantois, that
are those of the rodent and marsupial. Yet M. Coste asserts
that it was his knowledge of the structure of the ovum of the
Rodentia which led him to describe inductively the chorionoi
the kangaroo. Had he not made this assertion, I should
certainly have thought that he had been induced to hazard
his brief but comprehensive description of that part, with a
view to persuade the Academy that he had dissected an ovum
that had never been dissected before.

I have next to notice the criticisms of M. Coste on my de-
scription of the ovum of the kangaroo dissected in 1834; —

to M. Coste" s Memoir. 191

criticisms, which I presume he considers as an adequate re-
turn for the pains I took in making him acquainted, dining
his visit to England, with the additional facts I had since ac-
quired, relating to marsupial oology. I stated to M. Coste
when he first saw the allantois in my dissected ovum, as M.
Gerbe rightly recollects, that I had foreseen that it would be
developed, and had even predicted its degree of developement
in my Memoir of 1834. I have stated in that Memoir, "it
would appear, indeed, from the examination of the small mam-
mary foetuses of the Kangaroo, Petaurus, and Phalangista,
that an allantois and umbilical arteries are developed at a
later period of gestation than the uterine foetus here described
had arrived at ; " and I added, " but it is not likely that the
allantois would be developed farther that to serve as a recep-
tacle of the urine secreted in the foetal state." And from the
small size and limited extent of the umbilical vein, I conclud-
ed that the umbilical or allantoid arteries had never been sub-
servient to the organization of a placenta. (Philos. Trans.
1834, p. 342).

The sense of this paragraph is ingeniously nullified by a
mistranslation on the part of M. Coste. The words of the
passage in my Memoir are, " None of the above specimens,
(i. e. the mammary foetuses of the Kangaroo, Petaurus, &c.)
however, presented any trace of an umbilical vein extending
to the liver, and I therefore regard it as improbable that the
umbilical arteries spread over the chorion to organize a pla-
centa." In this passage the reader will see that no doubt what-
ever is expressed as to the ulterior developement of an allan-
tois, but only as to its being made subservient, as in the ordi-
nary Mammalia, to the organization of a placenta. Umbili-
cal vessels are not necessarily co-existent with a placenta :
they exist and are developed for other purposes in birds and
reptiles. — Now M. Coste, in order to deprive me, in the opin-
ion of the readers of his ' Reponse,' of the credit of my previ-
sion, translates the passage of my Memoir above quoted, as
follows. "Cependant aucun foetus uterin de kangaroo, de Pe-
taurus, n'a presente de traces de veine ombilicale, ou d'arteres,
qui s'etendaient au chorion pour organiser un placenta." And
he adds, "Or, il est generalement admis par tous les physiolo-
gistes, que le systeme forme par les vaisseaux ombilicaux,
(allantoidiens), est porte par rallantoide ; en signalent l'ab-
sence de ce systeme, M. R. Owen fait done, par cela meme,
naitre des doutes sur l'existence de cette allanto'ide." Re-
ponse, p. 12.

Now, when I state that not only is this system of vessels
described in my text, but that it is figured in the plates, and

192 Professor Owen's Reply

the umbilical arteries especially pointed out at c c, jig. 8, pi.
vii. in a very young mammary (which M. Coste translates u-
terine) foetus of a kangaroo, I leave the Academy to judge of
the candour with which the criticisms of M. Coste have been
penned.

The same spirit which dictated the criticism which I have
just refuted pervades the succeeding paragraphs in M. Coste's
' Reponse,' in which he insinuates that I had overlooked the
allantois in my first dissection, and dwells on the difficulties
he had to overcome in detecting it in my second.

" II nous a fallu derouler les membranes afin de pouvoir
distinguer les unes des autres ; nous ajouterons que l'allan-
toi'de etait tellement comprimee et se confondait si bien a-
vec les parois de la vesicule ombilicale, avec laquelle elle
avait des rapports de contiguite, que ce n'est qu'apres
quelque temps d'une attention soutenue, que nous sommes
parvenu alareconnaitre, et al'isoler sans efforts." Ibid, p. 22.
Now the truth is, that M. Coste simply deroulait mem-
branes that had been deroule before, and which had return-
ed to the corrugated or pelotonne state in which they had
been hardened by the alcohol, during the period of a voy-
age from Australia to London. And I need not state to
the practical anatomist, that an animal membrane so coagu-
lated and hardened, always retains its corrugations, unless
they are artificially and forcibly obliterated. But as after
my dissection of the ovum in question, in which I remov-
ed the chorion for a more detailed and microscopical inves-
tigation, I replaced the foetus and its vesicular appendages
in the uterus from which I had taken them ; so when they
were a second time removed to be exhibited to M. Coste,
they presented the appearances described by M. Gerbe,. and
to which I shall presently refer. But I cannot allow M.
Coste's statement, that the allantois was confounded with
the umbilical vesicle, to have the chance of passing into
the records of embryological science, without entering a-
gainst it a formal negation. M. Coste's description of the
adhesion of the allantois to the umbilical vesicle, and of
the difficulties he encountered in detecting it, repose, like
his description of the chorion of the same ovum, on pure
induction.

Both M. Gerbe and myself have given figures of the allan-
tois in question. It is not a microscopic object. — The value
of its discovery does not rest upon the acute eye and rare
skill which its detection demands in the anatomical observer,
but upon the physiological conclusion to be deduced from it,
and its application to the general analogies of embryological

io M. Coste' s Memoir. 193

science.* M. Coste however is desirous that his readers should
believe that the impediments which he overcame in the dis-
covery of the allantois in my second ovum, were too great for
me in the dissection of my first ovum ; and that the allantois
was present in that ovum, but overlooked by me. However,
the membranes of my marsupial ovum of 1834, are simply
stretched out in the preparation; nothing is removed save the
small portions of the external membrane, which I then sub-
mitted to microscopical observations. This ovum M. Coste
examined whilst he was in England; and I can only say that
if he had found the allantois there, he would have made a
real discovery.

M. Coste, however, again appeals to analogy in proof of his
suspicions, that an allantois must have been present in this
ovum, but he is not more fortunate in this, than in his pre-
ceding attempt in that line of argument. He says, "M. Owen
n'ignore pas que 1' apparition de l'allantoide est anterieure a
certaines phenomenes qui, chez les carnassiers, les ruminants,
les rongeurs, et les oiseaux meme, correspond a une epoque
primordiale du developpement. 11 sait, par exemple, qu'elle
precede de beaucoup la formation du cordon ombilical." I
have here certainly to admit my ignorance of the correspon-
dence between the carnassiers &c. and the birds, in the pe-
riod of the developement of the allantois. So far from the
allantois being developed at the primordial epoch of embryo-
logical developement in the bird, my researches in that class
have shewn me that it does not take place until the embryo
has made a certain progress in developement ; until the head
is well distinguished from the trunk, the eyes plainly percep-
tible, and the rudiments of the four extremities have begun to
bud forth. In the Rodentia and Ruminantia, and in all the
placental Mammalia, of which the developement has hi-
therto been traced, the allantois, which is the prime agent

*In my notes to ' Hunter's Animal Economy,' to which I first consigned
my discovery of the allantois in question, I drew the following inference
from the imperfect state of its developement. " When the extremities are
formed, and the uterine foetus has attained about two-thirds of its size, an
allantois is developed ; the umbilical arteries co-extended with this sac, do
not, however, as in the placental Mammalia, pass to the chorion, and con-
sequently there is no adhesion of the foetal membranes to the uterine pari-
etes, and therefore, no obstruction to the escape of the embryo from the ute-
rus into the vagina."

I here consider the condition of the allantois as one of the accessory
causes of the premature birth of the marsupial embryo : it harmonises with
many other modifications, all tending to the same result. With M. Coste
the state of the developement of the allantois is the sole cause of the avorte-
ment of the embryo. See p. 24.

194 Professor OwerCs Reply

in the formation of the placenta, is developed at a much
earlier period than in the birds ; at an epoch to which the
vague term, primordiale, may perhaps be applied, but which
I shall more distinctly define by stating, that in the embryo
of the rat, for example, the allantois makes its appearance
before the head is distinguished from the body by any cervi-
cal constriction, before the complete elimination of the intes-
tinal tube, and before the appearance of the extremities : the
abdomen is also widely open. In the embryo calf, the two-
horned allantois makes its appearance at a still earlier period.

Now the importance to physiology of examinations of the
marsupial ova chiefly depends on the impartiality of the ob-
server, on the independence of his mind from preconceived
notions of the analogies which the marsupial ova ought to
present to the higher mammiferous, or to any other class of
ova. Descriptions/row? induction are above all to be scouted
in reference to these rare and difficult subjects of embryolo-
gical research. It is through the marsupial ova that we shall
obtain the key to the true nature of the modifications of the
ova of the placentally developed Mammalia, and these marsu-
pial ova, if fairly and rightly studied, will teach us what are
the oological conditions and phenomena which essentially
relate to the developement of a placenta.

What an example of an investigator of scientific truth does
M. Coste present to our eyes, when he infers that the embryo
of the kangaroo, at a certain period of developement must
have possessed an allantois, because the placental embryo
at the same, or at an earlier period, manifests this appendage !
An inference moreover which he had once the opportunity of
confirming or rejecting, from actual observation, and which
he now puts forth merely to throw discredit on the unbias-
sed researches of the individual who had exerted his utmost
to improve M. Coste' s knowledge on this branch of embryology.
M. Coste, in the same spirit, makes an assertion which is not
consistent with fact, and for which he has no foundation : he
says that the marsupial uterine foetus first described by me,
was 'deja parfaitement developpe,7 and that Tevasement abdo-
minal avoit completement disparu." Now the specimen itself,
which M. Coste saw, and my description and figures thereof,
equally contradict these assertions. I have particularly no-
ticed at p. 37, of my Memoir of 1834, that the abdominal pa-
rietes were not completed, and that a loop of intestine was
out of the abdomen, and contained in the short umbilical
chord; and I have figured this condition of the uterine/a?-
tus zXfig. 3, pi. vii.

I moreover took the pains, after having ascertained the con-

to M. Coste' s Memoir. 195

dition of my first marsupial ovum, and after having found it
to differ from the ova of the placental Mammalia in the ab-
sence of the allantois, to trace the developement of the bird
up to the period when the allantois first buds out, and I in-
troduced a figure of the embryo of the goose at this period, in
order to contrast its advanced condition of developement, as
compared with the placental mammiferous embryo at the cor-
responding stage of the developement of the allantois, and to
shew the degree of correspondence which thus existed between
the oviparous and marsupial embryo.

I come lastly to consider the evidence which M. Coste has
adduced to prove that the uterine product of the kangaroo
submitted to him by me, was an entire ovum, which had not
previously undergone dissection. I have already asserted
that this ovum had been dissected by me, — so far as the ex-
posure and discovery of the allantois and umbilical -vesicle
were concerned, some weeks before M. Coste saw these parts.

M. Gerbe, in his letter to the Academy, states that I spoke
of the preparation in question to M. Coste, as " un produit
uterin de kangaroo, qu'il n'avait point encore eu le temps
d'examiner." I assert that I informed M. Coste distinctly, with
reference to the preparation in question, that I had not then
had time to give a description of it.

I comprehend perfectly the delicate position in which the
commission is placed by these contradictory statements.

I could not have made a more explicit statement, even had
it been possible for me to have entertained the idea that the
preparation I was about to exhibit to M. Coste, could ever
have been mistaken for an undissected ovum.

M. Coste however adduces M. Gerbe's description of the
state of the ovum, when it was first submitted to their view.
This part of M. Gerbe's testimony I accept ; the truth of his
description I acknowledge. I am willing that my case should
rest upon it, — upon this evidence adduced by M. Coste. And
now the commission and every impartial physiologist possess
ground for forming their judgment as to the truth of M. Coste' s
assertion, that he was the first who dissected the ovum in ques-
tion, independently of speculations as to the value of his or
my word.

M. Gerbe's description is as follows. "Ce que j'ai vu, et
ce que je puis afnrmer en toute assurance, c'est que rien n'in-
diquait que cet ceuf eut ete disseque." This would have been
an unfortunate statement for me, if he had omitted to describe
what he did see. But he proceeds to say ; — " Le foetus seule-
ment etait isole de ses membranes, mais celle-ci etaient ex-
cessivement pelotonnees ensemble. L' amnios meme etait tres-

19(> Professor Owen's Reply

peu flottant : il formait une sorte d'entonnoir, dont le sommet,
attenant an cordon ombilical, regardait le foetus, et dont la
base embrassait les membranes de la vesicule ombilicale. Un
des dessins que M. Coste a deja eu l'honneur de mettre sous
les yeux de l'Academie, traduit cet etat. Je n'eusse pas rap-
porte ce fait, s'il ne demontrait combien peu cet ceuf devait
avoir subi de dissection^ The last-quoted italics are M.
Gerbe's. That a foetus should be exposed and isolated from
its membranes, without the ovum having undergone any dis-
section, may be a belief possible to an individual possessing
the embryological attainments of M. Gerbe. I attribute no
bad faith to this gentleman, on account of the conclusions
which his zeal for his friend and patron, M. Coste, renders
him eager to draw. I am, on the contrary, much indebted
to him for the accuracy of his description : he reminds me of
what I might have added to my first letter to the Academy,
namely, not only that I had removed the chorion, but had al-
so exposed the foetus immediately to view, by laying open the
amniotic sac, and reflecting it from the foetus, upon the vesi-
cular appendages of the umbilical chord. This I well remem-
ber to have done in my first dissection in June, 1837, in order
to compare the developement of the extremities in the embryo
in question, with those in my first-described embryo of 1834.

M. Gerbe refers to the sketch of the preparation which he
made before M. Coste began his examination. That sketch
is doubtless now before the commission : if it be as accurate
as its author's description, it will exhibit the foetus uncover-
ed, and the amnios reflected from it in the form of a funnel,
whose apex reaches the umbilical chord, and its base is
spread over the vesicular appendages of the foetus.

We have seen that the exposed state of the foetus and its
appended sacs presented no difficulties to M. Coste, while re-
presenting himself to the Academy as the dissector of a pre-
viously undissected ovum : the chorion, — the external enve-
loping membrane, — was summarily disposed of: but by
what accident will M. Coste now explain the condition of the
amnios, as described by M. Gerbe, — this naturally closed sac,
— laid open and reflected from the embryo upon the umbilical
chord and its appendages ?

The commission, in their report on this part of M. Coste's
evidence, on which I am willing to rest my case, will doubt-
less point out to the Academy with how much truth this de-
scription by M. Gerbe represents an ovum which presented
no indications of having been dissected.

As my claim to the discovery of the allantois rests upon
the fact of my having dissected the ovum in question, and de-

to M. Coste's Memoir. 197

tected the allantois some weeks before M. Coste's arrival in
England, I needed only to have cited M. Gerbe's description
of the state of the parts when submitted to M. Coste in proof
of my claim, and in refutation of M. Coste's assertion than an
intact and undissected ovum had been submitted to him.

I can assure the Academy that the importance given to M.
Coste's Memoir, by the formation of a commission to examine
its merits, has been my only inducement to notice any other
point in it than the one which Mr. Gerbe's description has
afforded me. As, however, I have entered upon the refutation
of as many parts of M. Coste's memoir, as it seemed to me
the commission would deem worthy of their attention, I shall,
before concluding, notice two other points in the letter of M.
Gerbe. He goes on to state, " Presque immediatement apres
mon arrivee dans le cabinet ou l'examen se faisait, M. R. Ow-
en nous quitta, et s'est en son absence que l'allantoide a ete
isolee des parties qui l'environnoient. Nous n'etions que M.
Coste et moi, lorsque cette decouverte a eu lieu."

I left M. Coste to examine the allantois and the other
contents of the ovum which I had laid bare in my previous
dissection, because I had already satisfied my own curiosity
as to their nature. M. Coste must feel the utter futility of
his attempt to persuade any physiologist that I, than whom
no one could feel more interested in the dissection of a marsu-
pial ovum, would have absented myself at the instant the ex-
posure of its contents was about to take place, — at the very
moment of projection. I am much mistaken if the factitious
nature of M. Coste's first announcement of the discovery of
the allantois to the Academy, was not suspected by all his
hearers to whom I have the honour of being known, were it
only from the theatrical disposition of my exits and entrances,
so convenient, and indeed so essential, to M. Coste's undivid-
ed claims to the discovery of the allantois. I have already
stated that M. Coste had but to unfold with the forceps the
corrugations of the vesicular appendages before him to bring
them into view ; and that his description of the attachments
of the allantois is as inductive as that of the chorion.

When I returned I found M. Coste and his artist gazing
with an air of surprise at the part before them, which, as it
respected M. Coste, somewhat surprised me, seeing that I had
already informed him of what he was about to witness. But
deeming his surprise to arise from his not having conceived
the possibility of an allantois being developed in the marsu-
pial ovum, I stated to him that its discovery had been no sur-
prise to me, seeing that it was " a peu pres ce que j'avais
suppose dans ma premiere memoire."

198' Reply to Mr. Ogilby' s

M Coste having on a subsequent visit expressed doubts as
to my determination of the two sacs being continued from the
umbilical chord of the embryo; I then, as M. Gerbe truly de-
scribes, proceeded to dissipate these doubts by laying open
the chord and demonstrating the connexions of the two sacs
and their vessels. " Je ne duis pas oublier d'avouer que M.
R. Owen, d'apres la priere de M. Coste, a fait une incision
longitudinale sur le cordon ombilical de maniere a mettre a
decouverte les visceres abdominaux, l'ouraque, et la vessie."
This, in fact was the only part of the dissection of the ovum
in question, which M. Coste witnessed : for, as his artist tru-
ly describes, the contents alone of the chorion were placed
before him, — that exterior membrane of the ovum having been
previously removed ; and the amnios having also been laid o-
pen and reflected from the foetus, which was thus immediately
brought into view. The next stage of the dissection was that
which M. Gerbe describes, and truly attributes to me. But
the commission will observe that M. Coste has by no means
thought it necessary to avow this fact. The only share which
he assigns to me in this matter, is to make me walk out of the
laboratory the moment the dissection began, and re-enter at
the conclusion of it.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your very obedient humble Servant,
Richard Owen.
March 20th9 1838.

Art. III. Reply to Mr. Ogilby s " Observations on Rules for No-
menclature." By Hugh E. Strickland, Esq. F.G.S. &c.

Having read Mr. Ogilby' s remarks in the last number of this
Magazine, I hope I may be allowed the privilege of a reply.
I must first observe, that respecting as I do the talents of Mr.
Ogilby, and valuing his friendship, I shall do my utmost to
preserve a temperate tone in the discussion ; though some
there are, among former correspondents at least of this Maga-
zine, who, if they or their writings were lashed with equal
severity, would not, I think be equally patient. I cannot,
however withold my opinion, that Mr. Ogilby has been too
sweeping in his censure of the humble attempts which have
been made to introduce something like regularity into the
vast chaos of the nomenclature of Natural History. To de-
precate all laws, and to expect that the thousands of persons
now employed in advancing our knowledge of Zoology, can

" Observations on Rules for Nomenclature.'''' 199

work out anything like an harmonious system by their un-
guided and independant exertions, is a proceeding of quite as
radical a tendency as to establish new laws and to amend
old ones. Mr. Ogilby, therefore, has surely committed an
error in nomenclature, when he applies the term " zoological
radicals," not to those who would put down law,and establish
anarchy, but to those who are labouring to bring back Zoology
from its present state . of anarchy, to one of order and good
government. Not that such persons are Carlists, — they do
not sigh for the antiquated yet happy despotism of Carolus
Linnaeus, but merely wish that a well digested constitution
should be established, suited to the present advanced and
diffused state of zoological knowledge. The only effectual
step towards this happy consummation, would be (as I have
before remarked, Mag. Nat. Hist. n.s. vol. i. p. 128, and vol.
ii. p. 166), to form a congress, or in humbler phrase, a com-
mittee of naturalists from all parts of the scientific world, to
draw up a code of zoological laws, not indeed to be like those
of the Medes and Persians, yet to be adhered to for the sake
of order and convenience, till a good reason for changing
them shouldbecome apparent. Such a committee, if carefully
constituted, might confer a lasting benefit on Zoology, by
consigning to oblivion the vast mass of dross which now en-
cumbers the science, and by refining, analyzing and coining
the precious metals ; — in plainer terms, by drawing up a
general outline of the animal kingdom,— by preparing cata-
logues of zoological works, distinguishing the degree of au-
thority which attaches to each, — by defining rules for nomen-
clature,— by deciding the claims of rival generic and specific
terms, &c. &c. The law^s established by this means would of
course have no other sanction than that of opinion, yet if based
on common sense, and on truth, there would be no fear of
their not being generally adopted. Then should we see all
museums arranged on the same system, and all naturalists
speaking the same language. But such a plan would fail of
its effects unless placed on a truly cosmopolitan basis, and
unless the narrow prejudices caused by a few miles of salt
water, or by an imaginary boundary line were pro tanto laid
aside. Such a plan is well worthy the attention of the Bri-
tish Association, though from the prevalence of international
prejudices, the time is probably far distant when it may be
brought into advantageous operation. What then is to be
done in the mean time ? Shall we go on accumulating the
riches of nature in our vast warehouses, each man describing,
naming, re-naming, classifying, and " improving" according
to any preconceived crotchet, or according to no crotchet at
Vol. II.— No. 16. n. s. r

200 Reply to Mr. Oyilbi/s

all, — without making an attempt to preserve order and regu-
larity in the science ? Is it not better that a few plain rules
should be submitted to the consideration of naturalists, and
followed, if for no better reason, for convenience sake, — than
that we should suffer the immense ^convenience of having
no rules whatever to guide us ?

With a view of contributing my mite to the preservation of
order, I communicated to this Magazine (vol. i. n.s. p. 173,)
a few miscellaneous propositions, which were submitted to
naturalists, — not as an act for their guidance, but as a bill for
their approval. These rules had no pretensions to originality,
but were selected from various sources, especially from the
works ofMr.Swainson. Yet, so far am I from being a "zoolo-
gical radical" that I then introduced a principle of a decidedly
conservative character, namely, that the rules there proposed
should not be retrospective, but should merely serve as guides
in the naming of new genera and species, and consequently
that the names of genera and species originally imposed by
their founders, should, (with very few exceptions), be retained.
Therefore it is clear that I am innocent of the charge of ma-
nufacturing " verbal crucibles in which every original name
is to be melted down and recompounded as may best suit the
fancy or the caprice of the presiding alchemists." Indeed I
fully agree with Mr. Ogilby in resisting the retrospective
operation of these rules, witness vol. i. n.s. p. 173. " Names
which have been long adopted and established require a dif-
ferent set of rules from those which are given for the first
time." And hence I regret to see in Mr. Swainson's useful
Classification of Birds, so large a list of " generic terms not
adopted;" and if I were writing on that subject, I should have
no hesitation in re-adopting all such as possessed the claim
of priority. All that I think can be effected by drawing up
rules, such as we are speaking of, is to make naturalists, in
future, more careful than they have hitherto been, in imposing
new names on their discoveries, for the more they, in so doing,
conform to such rules as are adopted by the majority of na-
turalists, the more probability is there that those names will
be permanently retained. But if a naturalist now, when he
ought to know better, persists in naming a new genus or
species by a term which is erroneous, or too long, or unclas-
sical, or comparative, or otherwise objectionable, he cannot
expect to be treated with the same lenity which is extended
to the fathers of science, whose nomenclature is sanctioned
by long usage.

I now proceed to notice some of the minor points of Mr.
Ogilby's paper. There is perhaps no one of the proposed

" Observations on Rules /or Nomenclature" 201

zoological " rules" which is less open to objection than that
which recommends Xk'dX families should be named after their
most prominent genus, with the termination idee or adce. It in-
troduces no new terms to the science or the memory , but, select-
ing from the existing stock such as are in general the most
familiarly known, it forms, by a slight change in the termina-
tion, a new set of names which express the exact station and
relations of the groups to which they are applied. This ap-
plication of words ending in idee is moreover perfectly con-
formable to classical usage. The term Alcmceonidce, for in-
stance, was applied to the house or family which included
Alcmceon himself and his immediate relations. Therefore Mr.
Ogilby, who professes great respect for classical usage, ought
in consistency to apply the term Simiadce to the anthropoid
Quadrumana of the old world, thus including both those spe-
cies known to the ancients as Simice, and the other species
and genera which are allied to them. But when Mr. O. ap-
plies the term to the American species in order "to express the
obvious and important relations which these animals bear to
the true Simice," he seems to be infringing both modern and
ancient " rules for nomenclature,1' for the termination idee im-
plies,— not the resemblance of one group to another, — but the
inclusion in a larger group of the smaller one from which the
named is derived. In order to express the relations of the
American group to the true Simice, Mr. O. should rather have
termed them Simioidce. In the same way Mr. Ogilby's term
Gliridce on being placed before a naturalist for the first time
would immediately suggest the idea, — not of a group resem-
bling or analogous to the dormice, — but of a group containing
the dormice.

Mr. O. enquires " What would science gain by the change"
from the term Simiadce to Cebidce, as applied to the American
species ? I answer, it would gain a term implying that the
family contains the genus Cebus (which it does) instead of
one implying that it contains the genus Simia (which it does
not). Mr. O. further writes " The very advantage of Si'me-
moria technical is entirely in favour of my nomenclature,
and would be totally destroyed by the adoption of the very
rule which Mr. S. intends should secure it." This is, I think,
rather too unqualified. All candid persons will admit that
when the term Cebidce is used to express the family which
contains the genus Cebus, the advantages of a memoria tecli-
nica are not totally destroyed.

In the communication to which Mr. O.'s paper refers, I re-
marked, that " when the name of a genus has once become
well established, it should never be dropped, whatever be the

r 2

202 Reply to Mr. Ogilbys

subdivisions into which it may become necessary to break up
that genus." This proposition is founded injustice ; for when
a person has denned and named a group, it is unjust to blot
out his original name, merely because that group may require
further subdivision. It is also founded in convenience ; for it
is much more convenient to retain an established term, even
though its meaning may require from time to time to be mo-
dified and confined within narrower limits, than to discard it
altogether, and ad\ppt a new one every time that a limitation
in its extent becomes necessary. This rule is now so gene-
rally acted upon, that of the Linnean generic terms, there are
very few which have been wholly laid aside, though almost
the whole of them are now used in a much more limited sense
than was applied to them by Linnaeus himself. It was in
conformity with this principle that I recommended the term
Simia to be retained for the ourang outangs, in lieu of Geof-
froy's term Pithecus, a proceeding which, according to Mr.
Ogilby, involves the commission of three cardinal sins. "First,"
says Mr. O. " the word Simia would have been used in a new
sense, different from its legitimate acceptation and from the sense
which has hitherto attached to it in Zoology." Now if I had
proposed to give the name Simia to a genus of Ruminantia,
then indeed it might be said that I was using it in a new sense,
but I submit, that in applying the term to the ourang outangs,
it is not used in a new, but only in a more limited sense than
that applied to it by Linnaeus and the ancients. Now with
regard to Linnaeus I have shewn above that almost every one
of his generic names is now in the same predicament, and
therefore that if this be a cardinal sin, it is at least a very pre-
valent one. And as for the ancients, their zoological know-
ledge was so vague and imperfect, that few naturalists think
it necessary to be very exact in applying their names with
precision, for the plain reason that it is rarely possible to as-
certain the precise species to which these names anciently
referred. Of this laxity Mr. O. himself has given us an in-
stance in the terms Cebus and Callithrix, both of which
names were used by the ancients for African monkeys, but
which Mr. O. admits for American genera. Mr. Ogilby's se-
cond cardinal sin is that of " captiously altering an established
nomenclature without any commensurate advantage." This,
I admit, is a great zoological sin, but it was Geoffroy Saint
Hilaire, not I, who committed it; for not only had Linnaeus
applied to the monkeys the generic term Simia, which Geof-
froy ought therefore to have retained for this, the most remark-
able and conspicuous group of them, but Erxleben as long
ago as 1777, had defined the ourangs as a genus under this

" Observations on Rules for Nomenclature." 203

very name of Simla. In substituting Simla for Pithecus,
therefore, I was merely restoring the original nomenclature of
Linnaeus and Erxleben, which Geoffroy had thought proper
to abandon. This explanation will equally serve to acquit
me from Mr. Ogilby's third cardinal sin, that of " imposing
new names upon groups with the definition or formation of
which the proposer is in no way concerned, merely because,"
&c, and I beg to say that I fully concur in the severity with
which he has animadverted upon the practice.

I must however again protest against the unqualified cen-
sure which Mr. O. pours out upon the whole code of rules
which have been proposed; accusing them of being "arbitrary
and dogmatical," of " opposition to good sense, sound criti-
cism, and fixed principles," &c. That some indeed of these
propositions may be open to criticism is very probable ; but
inasmuch as they were the result of much study, conducted
with a#view of substituting justice, order, and common sense
for anarchy and chaos, it is 1 think unfair to infer from one or
two examples, that the whole are equally deserving of censure.

With regard to the introduction of foreign or barbarous
names into science, I do not individually object to them, yet
as many naturalists do, I think it will be more prudent not to
employ them for new groups In future. But Mr. O. will see
(vol. i. n. s. p. 175, rule 10), that this rule is not made retro-
spective, and that an exception is introduced in favour of spe-
cies called by their native names.

Mr. O. says that euphony and propriety of application are
principles which he finds no where clearly developed In any
of the codes of nomenclature lately published. Now on turn-
ing to vol. i. n. s. p. 175, he will find that euphony is provided
for by rule 13, and that rules 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, and 21,
are all intended to ensure propriety of application. So that
the phrase " no where clearly developed In any of the codes"
is another instance of the rather free use of superlatives in
which Mr. O. has indulged.

After these strictures on Mr. Ogilby's paper, I am happy, in
conclusion, to express my entire concurrence in his censures
of those persons who attempt the reformation of vernacular
names. On this subject I need not enlarge, having already
explained my views in this Magazine, vol. i. N. s. p. 130, and
Analyst, vol. ii. p. 317. I cannot however withold the ex-
pression of my regret that Mr. Swainson, after deprecating, in
1836, the extension of English names to foreign ornithology,
should, in 1837, have committed this very error, by introducing
this unscientific and worse than useless English nomenclature
into his Birds of Western Africa.

204 Remarks on Mr. Ogilby's

If in this paper I have seen reasons for persisting in my ob-
jections to some of the terms employed by Mr. Ogilby for the
families of Cheiropoda, I can assure him that I am by no
means blind to the very great merits of his paper on the re-
lations of those animals, which I think all naturalists will
agree in pronouncing one of the most valuable and important
memoirs ever communicated to this Magazine.

Cracombe House,

Ever sham, March 19, 1838.

Art. IV. Remarks upon Mr. Ogilby s Views of Zoological Nomen-
clature. By J. O. Westwood, Esq. F.L.S. Secretary to the En-
tomological Society.

Having devoted considerable attention to the modern nomen-
clature of Natural History, especially with a view to render it,
in some degree, more in accordance with the vast improve-
ments which have resulted from the enlarged views of modern
naturalists, my attention has been, of course, attracted by Mr.
Ogilby's two papers, published in preceding numbers of the
Mag. Nat. Hist., and Mr. Strickland's comments on the first
of them. I am not disposed to quarrel with the tone of Mr.
Ogilby's last-published article; — I would only be allowed to
suggest, that in my experience of scientific discussions, I have
generally observed that those who resorted to raillery and ri-
dicule, were almost sure to come off second-best at last. —
Neither am I inclined to enter into any discussion as to the
propriety of regarding the Greeks and Romans as sound na-
turalists, and as such entitled to weight in matters of nomen-
clature. It is sufficient to know that Mr. Ogilby, in the
second of these articles, sets up the old classical names, dis-
carding, as mischievous and arbitrary, the family terminations
of names, which, for nearly thirty years, have been adopted
by almost every naturalist of eminence in this country, and
which are also, to some extent, now employed on the conti-
nent. It will be seen that in his nomenclature, the family
of the anthropomorphous Quadrumana of the old world, are
termed, as a group, Simice, because it was the name by which
the ancients designated the same animals ; and that the ana-
logous anthropomorphous Quadrmnana of South America are
termed Simiada, in order thereby to express the relation which
these animals bear to the true Simiw. In taking these steps,

Views of Zoological Nomenclature. 205

I maintain that Mr, Ogilby has himself set the rules of clas-
sical nomenclature at nought. I will not here enlarge upon
the advantages of adopting an uniform termination for groups
of equivalent value. In my humble opinion, this uniformity
has far greater merits than that of being "merely a matter of
convenience," as Mr. Ogilby admits it to be. I will take Mr.
Ogilby's own example ; and I trust I shall be able to shew
that even here, instead of Mr. Strickland's suggestions being
"a glaring example of the mischief arising from the inconsi-
derate and indiscriminate application of a purely arbitrary
rule," Mr. Ogilby himself has acted in defiance of his cherish-
ed "ancient classical " lore. First ; Mr. Ogilby will not, I
presume, quarrel with the application of the classical patro-
nymic termination, ida ovada,to designate a tribe of animals
instead of a race of men. If this be admitted, — and I can
bring forward the authority of zoologists, whose classical at-
tainments nobody ever thought of doubting, in its support, —
the application of the term Simiada or Simiida to the old Si-
mla,— the number of which has greatly increased as a tribe
of species, since the days when the name was first applied, — is
not unclassical. Secondly ; the application of the classical pa-
tronymic name, Simiada, as used by M. Ogilby for the South
American Quadrumana, must be unclassical, because the
group so named does not include the Simla. Thirdly ; the
term Simiada, as employed by Mr. Ogilby, dees not, unless
a person were actually informed thereof, give any idea of a
relation of the animals included therein, (not being Simia),
to the true Simia. To express this analogical relation, ano-
ther termination ought classically to have been added to the
name of the genus with which the resemblance is supposed
to exist. Hitherto oides, added to a Greek word, or formis
ox formes to a Latin one, have been employed to indicate the
relation suggested by Mr. Ogilby. Why should he therefore
object to use these terminations, and unclassically adopt ano-
ther, which has been classically used in a different and legiti-
mate acceptation by so many naturalists ? Fourthly ; Cebus,
being considered as the typical genus of the South American
anthropomorphous Quadrumana, it is classically correct to
give to the tribe of animals which it represents, the family pa-
tronymic name of Cebida.

206 Teredo navalis and Limnoria terebrans

Art. V. On, the occurrence of the Teredo navalis and Limnoria
terebrans, in Plymouth Harbour. By E. Moore, M.D. F.L.S.
Secretary to the Plymouth Institution.

In a paper " on burrowing and boring animals," by Mr. Os-
ier, in the 4th part of the Philosophical Transactions for 1826,
it is stated that "the Teredo navalis is probably quite extinct
as a British animal, as it is no longer to be found in Falmouth
or Plymouth Harbours ; and that he was shewn, in the royal
dock-yard at Devonport, specimens of wood bored by the
Teredo, treasured as a curiosity, being assured by Mr. Church-
ill, the builder, that the animal was no longer to be met with."

It must not, however, be considered from this observation,
that the Teredo has become extinct, as I shall presently shew
the contrary ; and it should have been mentioned that the
cause of its apparent disappearance was owing to the outer
piles of timber in the dock-yard jetties, having been coated
with broad-headed iron nails, which is a good remedy against
the attacks of this animal. It is well known by residents,
that the Teredo has always been existing here, and might at
any time have been observed by examining fixed timber in
other parts of the harbour, which had not been protected. —
I possess specimens of wood taken from an embankment here,
which are tenanted by the Teredo, and to which I shall after-
wards allude ; the officers of the dock-yard also can testify,
that the precautions taken have not been entirely effectual, as
the wood work of the jetties is constantly requiring renewal,
its destruction being caused, in a great measure, though not
entirely, by the Teredo. Mr. Churchward, the inspector of
the carpenters, possesses specimens of the animal, which he
obtained two years since ; and I have within these few days
obtained, through the kindness of Mr. Walker, a piece of oak
plank, 2 feet long and 7 inches wide, just taken from the piers
at Froward Point, in Plymouth yard, which contains eleven
perforations of these animals, many of which are now contain-
ed in the specimen.

Mr. Osier, considering it an imported animal, states that it
is not likely to become naturalized, because, from being an in-
habitant of warm climates, and always residing near the sur-
face, in situations left dry by the ebb tide, it could not with-
stand a severe winter. On the contrary, I seldom find the
Teredo above low water mark ; its ravages being mostly com-
mitted under that point : and it will be found that where it
has penetrated higher within the timber, the perforation by
which it entered is generally below it.

I have now, however, to announce that our harbour is ex-
posed to the attacks of a much more formidable enemy, the

occurring in Plymouth Harbour. 207

Limnoria terebrans, or gribble. I may state as preliminary
to my observations, that the harbour of Plymouth is formed
by the junction of two Rivers, the Plym and the Tamar; the
mouth of the Plym on the east constitutes the harbour of
Catwater, about one mile long, which is occupied by mer-
chant ships ; the mouth of the Tamar, on the westward, forms
the harbour of Hamoaze, about 2j miles long, which is de-
voted chiefly to the Royal navy ; the confluence of the wa-
ters of these two rivers, forms the Sound, another harbour of
large extent, about three miles square, which is defended from
the open ocean by the breakwater. In this large space there
are many places favourable for the existence of the Teredo
and Limnoria, the latter of which is known to be most abun-
dant between high and low water mark.

Within the harbour of Catwater, a large portion of land
was enclosed, about 20 years ago, by an embankment, about
one mile in length, for the purpose of forming a more direct
road to Plymouth ; and as it was necessary to make provision
for occasionally letting out the rain water, which might ac-
cumulate within, tunnels were made at different points through
the bank, which were closed by wooden doors, about 2 feet
square, opening outwards so as to prevent the ingress of the
sea during high water. In the course of a few years these
valves began to leak, so that in many instances the land was
overflowed by the sea ; on examination it was found that the
wood had become as it was thought rotten, and it was there-
fore renewed when necessary ; at length the constant dread
of inundation, and the injury sustained by so frequently open-
ing the bank, induced the proprietors to cause iron doors to
be substituted for wood ; about six months ago, I happened
to be present when one of the wooden doors, (one third of
which was destroyed) was taken out, and instantly discovered
that the wood which was called rotten, had been in fact eaten
by the Limnoria, thousands of which were at that moment to
be seen, and among them were four specimens of the Teredo ;
this wood is still in my possession. Thus it appears that in
two years, which is the time that this -door had been put in
the bank, apiece of elm, 2 feet square and 2 inches thick, had
been nearly one third destroyed by these animals ; and I have
not the least doubt but that the previous destruction of the
valves had been effected in the same manner, as I know that
elm may be kept much longer than two years under salt
water without manifesting any indications of decay.

The next instance which presents itself of the appearance
of the Limnoria, was at the mouth of Catwater, where " the
Busy," revenue cruiser, has for several years occupied the

Vol. II.— No. 16. n. s. s

208 Teredo navalis and Limnoria terebrans

mooring ground. This vessel lately required repairs, and was
for that purpose grounded, when it was found that although
the copper of the bottom of the vessel had been extended to
the sides of the keel, yet the under part, which was unprotect-
ed, was eaten out from end to end, to the depth of 6 or 8 in-
ches by this animal ; the portion of keel may now be seen
in possession of Mr. W. Moore, of Plymouth, who executed
the repairs ; this gentleman also informs me that several years
ago he lost a piece of oak plank in Catwater, which was dis-
covered three years afterwards, at a very low tide, sticking in
the mud, and which in the mean time had been nearly eaten
out by the gribble.

Proceeding to the western part of the harbour, we again
meet with the Limnoria, and upon making inquiries of Mr. Ro-
berts, the builder, and the other officers of the dock yard, I find
that both species of animals, known to them as the auger
worm and gribble, have for the last 30 or 40 years been found
occupying the underwater woodwork all round the yard, where
unprotected by iron nails, or copper sheathing. The inner
piles of the jetties not being protected, exhibit marks of the
destructive effects of the Limnoria ; large beams of timber 18
inches square have been entirely eaten through. About twelve
months since the south jetty was observed to be sinking, which
was found to arise from the same cause, and the jetty was
taken down and a new sea wall erected. The old piles are now
lying in the yard, where the ravages of the Limnoria may
easily be examined. The animal occupies nearly all the sub-
stance of the piles under water, even to several inches below
the surface of the mud ; the repairs of the different jetties are
still going on, and every day presents some fresh instances of
the destructive efforts of this diminutive animal.

This day (December 12), accompanied by Mr. Churchward,
I made an examination of the whole of the building slips,
jetties and piles, round the dock-yard, and found that the
south building slip, which was floored 23 years ago, under Mr.
C.'s superintendance, with four inch oak plank, is now entirely
honeycombed, between high and low water mark, by the Lim-
noria, the sensation on walking over it beirig like that of
treading on wet sponge ; the piles of the south, north, and
pitch-house jetties are also all occupied by it, and are now
about to undergo repair. Mr. Churchward informs me that
the woodwork of the outer wall of the mast-pond, where there
is the deepest water, is chiefly occupied by the Teredo; and he
states, that from the operation of both causes, even the piles
protected with iron or copper, require renewal about every 9 or
10 years, the animals having insinuated themselves under the

occurring in Plymouth Harbour. 209

bottom of the piers. While going round, I saw some of the
mooring buoys from the Sound, which were then being hoist-
ed in for repair, and although they had not been down more
than 2 or 3 years, their under surfaces were so eaten, as to
render them waterlogged ; from this circumstance, as well as
in that of the Busy cutter, it appears that the Limnoria is
disposed to attack floating timber as well as that which is
fixed.

Having thus shown that the Limnoria at present occupies
every part of Plymouth Harbour, it would be an interesting
question to ascertain whether it be an indigenous animal, or
as some consider, an imported one. I am inclined to believe
that it is an indigenous animal, as from the mode of its ope-
rations, the timber might easily be supposed to be decayed,
and the animal overlooked ; for althogh its identity was not
pointed out until it was discovered by Mr. Stevenson at the
Bell Rock in 1807, who sent it to Dr. Leach (see Lin. Trans,
vol, ii. p. 370), yet I am assured by Mr. Roberts and others,
that its effects have been observed in this dock-yard, for these
forty years. Again on referring to two excellentpapers on this
subject, one by Dr. Coldstream, who gives a drawing and his-
tory of the animal, in vol. xvi. of Jameson's Edinburgh new
Philosophical Journal, it will be seen that after being first
pointed out at the Bell Rock, it was found at the Crinan
Canal ; Trinity Pier, Leith Fort, and recently in Torbay, be-
sides being noticed by Mr. Stevenson on the coasts of France
and the Netherlands. The other paper by Mr. Thompson,
in vol. xviii. of the same Journal, shews that it has been found,
together with the Teredo, at Portpatrick in Ayr ; at Belfast ;
Donaghadee ; Youghall ; Dunmore ; and Kingston Harbour
(Dublin). It is also known in Bridlington Harbour, and by
a notice at the late meeting of the British Association at
Liverpool, it appears to be existing at Southampton. From all
these observations I think it a fair inference, that both these
animals have long existed on the coasts of our island ; and
that if at any time they might have been considered as fresh-
ly imported, they are now so fully established as to have be-
come entirely naturalized as British.

It is a matter of the greatest importance to discover the
best preservative against the attacks of these formidable ani-
mals, as the expenses annually incurred even in this dock-
yard, in copper, iron and labour of repairs, are sometimes
enormous. The use of stone, though most effectual, is not
always applicable, as in the dock-yard jetties, which require
to be built on numerous piles of timber, in order to have the
effect of breaking the force of the water in high winds, there-

s 2

210 Remarks on the Affinities

by enabling the ships to lie alongside at all times without
impeding their repairs. It appears from Mr. Stevenson's
experiments, that the Limnoria attacks every kind of wood
which he employed, except teak ; where this cannot be ob-
tained, the wood may be coppered or coated with iron nails,
in which case it is necessary to extend the coating, at least
six inches under the surface of the ground, as it has been
sometimes found that the protected piles have been attacked
by the animals obtaining access below the last row of nails.
Common tar and sulphur mixed have been found ineffectual
by Mr. Stephen at Donaghadee, but'paint seemed to succeed ;
gas-tar and pitch are effectual for a time, but all of these are
liable sooner or later to be washed off, in exposed situa-
tions, by the violence of the sea. Impregnation with some
poisonous materials, as Kyan's patent solution, promises to
be of service, as it is understood to protect the wood for a
certain distance from the surface, which is the point at which
the Limnoria begins its operations ; I have recently submitted
Kyanized wood to this test, and in a few months I shall
probably be able to state the results of the experiment; in the
mean time the best defence seems to be the employment of
teak entirely, or sheathing the piers with it, or in default of
that, I should recommend the more exposed timbers to be
coated with iron nails, and the others to be carefully painted.

Plymouth, January, 1838.

Art. VI. Remarks on the Affinities of Lythracew and Vochyacece. —
By Sir E. F. Bromhead, Bart. F.R.S. L. and E.

The formation of botanical alliances has placed the question
of affinity on a new footing, and affords tests unknown before.
It is not now sufficient to derive relations from a comparison
of the extreme deviations in two families ; their normal struc-
ture must be compared ; and above all, the joint- affinity must
be estimated from the normal structure of the particular alli-
ance in which the family must be placed under the supposed
affinity.

Lythracea offer a fair example of the principle. The older
botanists compared them with the labiate plants, on ac-
count of their mere aspect ; but the character of the Lamia-
les, (as to the limits of which I quite agree with Dr. Lindley),
will at once settle the question : —

LAMIALES. Stems round or tetragonal, with perfect nodes, not lac-
tescent ; stipules 0. Inflorescence not gyrate. Calyx persistent, odd caly-

of Lythracece and Vochyacece. 211

cine division superior. Corolla monopetalous, not plaited; more or less ir-
regular, hypogynous, deciduous. Stamens not exceeding 5, 2 or 4, or rarely
5, (some Myoporacece), fertile, stamens (above 2) not of the same length,
(exc. some Verbenacea), adherent to the corolla, alternating with the corol-
line divisions. Carpels 2, forming independent cells, free from the calyx,
connate with each other in the bud, carpellary midrib facing the odd sepal.
Style 1 , stigma of not more than 2 divisions. Fruit dry,, nucamentaceous.
Ovules erect or pendulous, not more than 2 in each cell. Embryo straight,
cotyledons foliaceous.

Here the petals are connate ; the stamens never exceed 5,
and they are free from the calyx ; the fruit is not capsular,
but nucamentaceous ; the ovules are erect or pendulous, and
not more than 2 to each carpel. This is sufficient, without
reference to other points in which the nixus is different.

Others have compared Lythracece with Malvaceae, but the
characters of the Malvales, (as to the limits of which I other-
wise agree with Dr. Lindley), rebut the affinity :: —

MALVALES. Branches round; hairs, (if present), usually stellate;
leaves alternate, petioled, simple ; stipules very rarely absent, free. Calyx
valvate in the bud, or ruptile, or irregular. Petals, (when present), as ma-
ny as the calycine divisions, alternating, hypogynous, twisted or convolute
in the bud. Stamens hypogynous, a multiple of the petals or indefinite,
monadelphous or within a long tubular calyx. Carpels forming indepen-
dent cells, verticillate or connate in the bud, (exc. perhaps Christiania, Ma-
lope, Sterculia, Erythropsis), free from the calyx. Ovules at the inner angle.

Here there are round branches, alternate leaves seldom en-
tire, stipules, petals twisted or convolute, stamens not fewer
than the petals, and hypogynous, albumen often present, &c.
The perigynous insertion has unquestionably been abused as
a character, but it is nevertheless of great value, and ought to
be cautiously violated. The Malvales seem uniformly hypo-
gynous, even in Elceocarpacece. The adherence to the calyx
on the other hand, is normal and uniform through a series of
alliances, Haloragales, CEnotherales, Myrtales, and Rosales.
The failure of the important character of adherence, usually
indicates an approach to the apetalous or sympetalous struc-
tures, or to alliances where the germen is sub-adherent to the
calex ; Agardh observes, "Perigyna et epigyna omnino con-
Jluunt".

Linnaeus placed Glaux next to Lythrum, which does not
require remark.

Lythracece were placed near Tamaricacece, when the sta-
mens of the latter family were not fully examined. The place
of Tamaricacece is ambiguous, but it can lie only with Cista-
les, or Violates, or Portulacales ; and with none of these can
we well place Lythracece, though the Portulacales are least
objectionable. Bartling and Shultz place Lythracece with
Elatinacece, one of the Cistales; Shultz also places Ly-

s3

Q12 Remarks on the Affinities

thracece and Montiniea: near Portulacacew ; Von Martius
places them with Frankeniacea as Marcenanthce. It is re-
markable that these writers should have adopted the stations
selected by others for Tamaricacece.

Botanists, almost with one voice, have placed the Lythra-
ce<B next some family in the series of perigynous alliances
before mentioned ; we there find them with Ceratophyllece,
CEnotheracece, Rhizophoracece, Combretacece, Melastomacece,
Myrtacece, and Rosacea, a somewhat decisive evidence of
joint affinity. The character suits well with CEnotherales,
among which I have placed both Lythracece and Vochyacece ;

CENOTHERALES. Not lactescent ; leaves simple, penni-nerved, un-
divided. Sepals more or less connate, valvate in the bud, or rarely some-
what open, (some Lythracece), or irregular, {Vochyacece) , odd sepal superior.
Petals, (when present), inserted on the calyx ; not exceeding the number of
the calycine lobes, alternating. Stamens not more than four times the num-
ber of calycine lobes, adherent to the calyx, not adelphous. Carpels 1 — 4,
not exceeding the number of calycine lobes, forming independent cells, con-
nate with each other, adherent to the calyx or enclosed. Style 1, slender.
Ovules indefinite and central, or definite and then pendulous or erect. Al-
bumen 0, (exc. Montinia) ; embryo straight.

Dr. Lindley does not here adopt the same limits for his al-
liance as Bartling, whose limits I have somewhat qualified.
The valvate calyx has been overlooked, and through an am-
biguity of expression, applicable only to the corolla, it seems
even to be negatived ; it is however a very striking analogy
among perigynous families, to the Malvales among hypogy-
nous families, and subjected merely to exceptions analogous
to BombacecE and Dipterocarpacece. Dr. Lindley has, with
Agardh, leant upon the quaternary structure, which is doubt-
less remarkable hereabouts, and probably connected with the
fact, that the carpels are limited to 4, through the sequence of
Piperales, Haloragales, and CEnotherales. If stress be laid
upon the unsupported resemblances to Hibiscus and Napcea,
we may produce Antherylium and Cassipourea.

Lythracece have also been compared with Adenaria in Ce-
lastracece, but no one has ventured to place them among the
Euphorbiales, though it might be done without great violence
to the general structure of that alliance. Such solitary un-
supported resemblances of extreme cases, are of little weight.

Vochyacece have been compared with Clusiacece and Marc-
graaviacece, two families of the Hypericales, and therefore
that alliance should be examined : —

HYPERICALES. Leaves simple ; stipules 0. Flowers regular. Se-
pals 2 — 7, in a broken series, imbricated. Corolla hypogynous, of 4 — 10
divisions. Stamens hypogynous, not fewer than the corolline divisions. —
Carpellary leaves more or less turned inwards at the edges, free from the
calyx, connate with each other. Albumen 0 or very small.

of Lythracece and Vochyacece. 213

Here we find stipules 0, flowers regular, corolla hypogy-
nous, stamens hypogynons, and not fewer than the corolline
divisions ; carpels free from the calyx. The hypogynous sta-
mens are also normal and without exception, through the se-
quence JEsculales, Hypericales, and Aurantiales.

An unsupported resemblance to Violacece has been claimed
for Vochyacece, but it is rebutted by the characters of the Vi-
olates, in which, among other points, the ovules are many,
and albumen rarely absent. The coincidences with Violates
lie almost wholly with the deviations of the different families
from the normal structure of that alliance.

Were we to suppose the Violacece in affinity with the Po-
ly galacece, the case for a joint affinity towards Vochyacece
might be stronger, but this seems now to be surrendered. —
The affinity of Polygalacece to Violacece is however much clo-
ser than the supposed affinity to Sapindacece among the JEs-
culales. Von Marthas, in the artificial arrangement of his
Conspectus, places Vochyacece near Sapindacece and other
families among the JEsculales and Euphorbiales : —

jESCULALUS. Leaves petioled; stipules rarely present, and then
small, (some Malpighiacece). Sepals in a broken series, imbricate, odd se-
pal superior. Torus discoid. Petals, (if present), issuing from the edge of
the disk, not connate with each other, deciduous. Stamens hypogynous,
filaments subulate or flat, (Milling tonieee), in a single or double row ; an-
thers introrse, bilocular, cells parallel, not opening by pores. Carpels 2, or
3, or 4, forming independent cells, free from the calyx,, connate with each
other. Stigmas not sessile. Trophosperms central ; ovules definite. Albu-
men 0, or extremely thin, (Millingtoniece) ; radicle next the hilum.

Polygalacece cannot be there ; and I at last agree with
Agardh's "Nullibi alias collocandce" in placing this most a-
nomalous family near the Brassicales. The affinity to Rese-
dacece seems to be admitted ; neither can I throw Treman-
driacece to the Rhamnales, which are Micranths, nor overlook
their passage to Capparidece- With all these Vochyacece has
no relation, nor does it shew any tendency to parietal or sub-
parietal placentation. The alliance of Polygalacece not being
definitely fixed, the test so far fails ; but in Polygalacece there
are no stipules ; the stamens are adelphous, hypogynous, and
not facing the petals ; ovary free from the calyx; ovules pen-
dulous ; albumen usually present.

Whatever may ultimately be the place of Vochyacece, it will
be nearest to its recognised relations, if stationed among CE-
notherales, not far from CEnotheracece, (Lopezia), Rhizopho-
racece, Combretacece, and Memecylacece, to which Reichen-
bach adds Chrysobalanacece. To these we may also add
Lythracece, which thus give mutual support to each other ;
there is the same tendency to tetragonal branches j Cuphea

s4

214 Notes on the Red Band- Fish.

has the spur of Vocliyacece, a structure apparently connected
here with the disappearance of a carpel, and indicating in Vo-
chyace<e, a departure by suppression from a quaternary state
of the germen.

Art. VII. Notes on the Red Band-Fish, Cepola rubescens, Linn. —
By Wm. Thompson, Esq. Vice President of the Natural History
Society, of Belfast.

A remarkably fine specimen of this fish, which, as British,
was, until last year,* known only to the southern shores of
England, was found on the beach near Ballantrae, on the
coast of Ayrshire, on the 29th of November, 1837, after a se-
vere storm.

It was taken to Dr. Wylie, of the village, who, on learning
from the fishermen that the species was unknown to them,
most liberally transmitted it to me.f In consequence of its
size, and its being received in a perfectly recent state, I here
transcribe some of my notes, made on comparing the speci-
men with the descriptions of various authors, before it was
transferred to spirits.

The largest English Cepola on record, is described by Mr.
Couch in the Linnean Transactions, (vol. xiv. p. 76), to have
been 15 inches in length. Cuvier and Valenciennes observe,
(Hist, des Poiss. t. x. p. 398), that their specimens were a foot
long ; but add, that the species has been found a foot and a
half in length. The present specimen, although broken off*
near the tail, is 19 J inches long ; and as the body, when per-
fect, tapers to a point, and that of the individual under con-
sideration is 2 lines deep at the fracture, I should consider,
judging from the gradual diminution of its depth before this
part, that it must have been from about 2 to 3 inches longer.
The depth of the head is 1 inch and J a line ; the greatest
depth of the body, (just behind the gill covers), is 11 lines, or

* When the above was written I had overlooked the following note, which
appeared in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, for June, 1837, (vol. ii.
p. 93). — "Cepola rubescens ', Linn. — Mr. P. W. Maclagan informs us, that
he has lately procured a specimen of this fish, which was caught off Dun-
ure, seven miles south of Ayr, on a whiting-line, baited with a mussell. Its
length is 15£ inches. The fisherman who brought it had seen another about
six weeks ago. — March 20th, 1837."

f This specimen afforded an illustration of the correct application of Tce-
nioidea, or ' Poissons en ruban,' to the family in which it ranks, in a point
of view that, in all probability, was overlooked by Cuvier. Although 19£
inches long, it was folded up like a riband, and forwarded through the post
office, under cover of a franked letter, of ordinary size and legal weight.

Notes on the Red Band- Fish. 215

1 J line less than the depth of the head, and thence it tapers
gradually towards the tail. Its thickness close to the head,
is 4j lines, at the centre 1 J line, and at the extremity £ a line.
Its weight is scarcely 1 oz.

The species has been generally described as destitute of
scales* Mr. Yarrell however states, that a specimen sent to
him by Mr. Couch, "exhibits, here and there, an occasional
thin, oval semitransparent scale." (Br. F. v. i. p. 197). It is re-
marked by Cuv. and Val. — "Les ecailles de la Cepole sont
extremement petites, ovales, lisses, entieres, insensibles au
tact, ne s'imbriquent point, et se presentent a la loupe comme
autant de petits pores enfonces et disposes en quinconce ser-
re ; ce n'est qu'en raclent la peau, qu'on en detache et qu'on
peut les voir separement : la tete et les nageoires n'en ont au-
cunes." (t. x. p. 397). My specimen entirely coincides with
this description, but it maybe further observed that its scales
increase gradually in size from the head towards the tail, and
that in approximating the latter, they are apparent to the na-
ked eye : from being more sunk in the skin, in addition to their
smaller size, they are not thus visible on the anterior part of
the fish — with a low magnifying power the longitudinal stria
of the scales on the posterior portion are conspicuous.

The Cepola rubescens and C. tcenia are described by au-
thors who hold them to be distinct, the former, as possessing
one, and the latter, two, rows of teeth in the lower jaw. Do-
novan, (British Fishes, No. 105), and Yarrell,* have consi-
dered that this difference may be owing to the age or size of
the individual. Risso in his 'Histoire,' (ed. 1826, tome 3, p.
294), in which the C. rubescens and C tcenia are brought to-
gether, though in his 'Ichthyologie' they were regarded as
distinct, attributes 14 teeth to the upper and 16 to the lower
jaw. Cuvier and Valenciennes enumerate 17 or 18 teeth on
each side of the upper jaw, and ten on each side of the under,
behind which 2 appear, and add that they vary a little in in-
dividuals. My specimen, considerably exceeding in magni-
tude the Cepola; examined by these authors, exhibits 41 teeth
in the upper jaw, (cavities denote that many are wanting), and
25 in the lower, of which latter, 17 are in a tolerably regular
row, inside of which is 1 tooth, and outside it 7, which are
equal in length to the largest in the row, but not so much
hooked. The tongue is smooth.

The lateral line is apparent only on close examination, be-
ing a mere faint-coloured line, sloping downwards for a short

* In a specimen 1\ inches long, this author found one tooth in the line of
the second row; and in an individual 13 inches in length, six teeth consti-
tuted this row. Br. Fishes, vol. i. p. 197.

£16 Notes on the Red Band- Fish.

distance from its origin, and thence extending in a straight
direction towards the tail, about equidistant from the dorsal
and ventral profile. From the upper point of the pre-opercu-
lum, a row of bone-like processes slopes upwards to the base
of the dorsal fin, and thence continues throughout the entire
length of the fish, giving it a carinated appearance; along the
base of the anal fin a similar carination extends.

In the dorsal fin the three first rays only are inarticulated
and simple, but they are as flexible as the rest ; the fourth
ray, and those which follow, are both articulated and branch-
ed. All the rays of the anal fin are articulated ; the first is
simple ; the second and succeeding ones are branched. The
fin-rays are in number,— D. 71. A 63. P. 17. V. 1 + 5.*—
Branch, mem. 6 rays.

The upper portion of the head and body is a deep rose colour,
shading gradually downwards to a paler hue ; posterior part of
the body of a uniform deep rose colour; base of the lower jaw
carmine ; space before and above the ventrals and pre-oper-
culum bright silver ; irides silvery, tinged with rose colour,
pupils blueish black ; membrane uniting the outer extremity
of the inter-maxillary with the maxillary, dusky, or clouded
with black, which latter colour it is described to be by Cuv.
and Val. The extreme anterior portion of the dorsal and anal
fins dark and pale rose colour, irregularly disposed, and bor-
dered with a narrow line of reddish lilac, which gradually in-
creases in breadth posteriorly, forming a beautiful termination
to the greater portion of these fins : in both the anal and dor-
sal, the rays are of a deep carmine hue, the connecting mem-
brane is either generally of an orange yellow, or reddish lilac,
at the base, the centre carmine, and the border reddish
lilac, which colour is separated from the orange yellow by a
narrow line of deep carmine. The pectorals have a slight
tinge of deep rose colour; the ventrals are pure white. There
is not the least indication of any transverse bands, as are fi-
gured by Montagu,* (Linn. Trans, vol. vii. pi. 17), and de-
scribed by Risso. The latter author mentions a reddish spot
at the origin of the dorsal fin, — at 1 J inch from the commence-

* The ordinary number of rays thus appearing in the D. and A. fins, (70
being commonly attributed to the former, and from 60 to 63 to the latter —
Donovan describing 69 in the A. fin of his specimen, which was 1 1 inches
in length), may seem against the presumption that the specimen was from
two to three inches longer than at present, as the depth of the broken extre-
mity denotes ; but in the fins of fishes generally, having many rays, I have
found the number to differ very much in individuals of the same species.

fThe two coloured figures of English specimens, (Montagu's and Dono-
van's), in which these fins are expanded, give no idea of this marginated

do any figures I have seen.

Notes on the Red Band-Fish. 217

ment of this fin in the present specimen, a somewhat oval
spot, of a deeper red than the surrounding parts, originates,
and extends for the space of half an inch.

The term 'Riband Fish,' applies equally well to the colour
as to the form of this Cepola ; as the much darker hue im*
parted by the carmine-colouredrays of the dorsal and anal fins,
when lying close to the rose-coloured body, — throughout the
entire length of which they are continued, — gives it striking-
ly the appearance of a bordered riband; and may indeed,
when so viewed, have suggested the trivial name of margi-
nata, to what was considered a distinct species : vide Cuv.
and Val. t. x. p. 392.

The C. taenia, as described by Bloch, chiefly differs from
the C. rubescens in the carination at the base of the dorsal and
anal fins; in having two rows of teeth in the lower jaw, in-
stead of one ; in having the tongue rough, rather than smooth ;
in wanting the silvery bands of C. rubescens ; and in having
many red spots on the sides. Of these characters, two are
present, and three wanting, in this specimen. It has the
double row of teeth, and a single inner tooth in addition,
suggesting the idea of a third row ; and likewise the carina-
tion on either side the base of the dorsal and anal fins. Not
only the transverse bands, but the spots also, are absent. —
The difference between the smoothness and roughness of the
tongue might, I conceive, arise from the mode of preservation,
for if originally smooth, the tongue would probably continue
so, were the specimen preserved in spirits, although were it
preserved dry, this organ might become rough. In the num-
ber of rays in the branchiostegous membrane and in the fins,
there is a general agreement between Bloch's C. taenia and
the specimen under consideration. The C. taenia is describ-
ed to have in Branc. memb. 6. P. 15. V. 6. A. 60. C. 10. D. 66.

It seems unnecessary to extend the description any farther,
or to those characters on which authors are agreed. In the
10th volume of the 'Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,' of Cu-
vier and Valenciennes, which did not appear in time to be
quoted in the excellent volumes of Mr. Yarrell, (Brit. Fishes),
and Mr. Jenyns, (Man. Brit. Vert.), the C. rubescens is treated
of in the usual full and complete manner characteristic of that
great work. The subject occupies thirteen pages, in which
the C. rubescens is set forth as the only species of its genus
yet discovered in the European seas, the C. taenia, C. mar-
ginata, &c. being rejected as species. I have, nevertheless,
thought it might not be useless to describe the present indi-
vidual, so far as I have done, in consequence of its superior

218 Beds of Peculiar Flints

size to Cuvier and Valencienne's specimens, which did not
come under their observation in a recent state.

Of four Mediterranean specimens, (preserved in spirits),
of C. rubescens, which I have examined, and which were ob-
tained at the Ionian islands, by Robert Templeton, Esq. of
the Royal Artillery, and presented, along with many other
fish from the same locality, to the Natural History Society of
Belfast, one is 6 inches, and the other three from 9 to 10 inch-
es in length. The smallest is very considerably compressed,
quite as much so as the largest, although an individual of a-
bout equal size, described by Mr. Couch, (Linn. Trans, vol.
xiv. p. 76), was nearly round; from which some authors have
inferred that this is the general form of the species in a young
state. In the two larger individuals, which are in better pre-
servation than the others, the series of bone-like processes
appear on the dorsal ridge, and also on the ventral, though
less conspicuously. In all, the tongue is smooth. In none
of them are there any teeth, either inside or outside the row
on the lower jaw, and in both jaws the teeth are much fewer
in number than in the large specimen which is the subject of
this communication.

Belfast, February, 1838.

Art. VIII. Remarks on certain Beds in the neighbourhood of Lon-
don, containing peculiar Flints. By James Mitchell, LL.D.
F.G.S.

On Blackheath, and over a considerable district in the coun-
ty of Kent, and a small portion of Surrey, there are most ex-
tensive and deep beds of a peculiar kind of flint, which it is
now proposed to describe. The designation of Blackheath
flint is proposed for it as involving no theoretical opinion.

Beginning at Croydon, on the east side of the town, Park
hill and the Addington hills are covered with millions of
these flints. The continuity is then interrupted by the vale
which extends from Lewisham to beyond Kenton, but on the
east side of this vale all Hayes Common is covered with flints
of a similar character as far south as Farnborough.

There is an equal abundance in the country about Brom-
ley, and over the whole of Chiselhurst common and Black-
heath. The same maybe said of Bexley Heath and the hills
from Plumstead to Erith, with the country about Erith : the
hills near Farnborough, Meopham, Shorne and Gadshill. In

in the Neighbourhood of London. 219

fact most of the higher grounds and heaths present myriads
of myriads, and in the other parts of the country they are
scattered, but not so plentifully. In the deep vales of the
Cray and Darent they are wanting.

There is one spot beyond the boundaries above described,
where such flints are exceedingly abundant, which is the hill
immediately above the firestone quarries, a mile north from
Godstone Green.

The best place near London where these flints may be
seen to advantage, is at the top of Blackheath hill, immediate-
ly in front of the Green Man hotel. One single view of such
a collection as is there will give a better idea than any de-
scription.

As to size, many of the Blackheath flints are not larger
th&npease axidbeans, and by such designation they are known
to builders and plasterers. The greater part are however
larger, from a pigeon's egg to a hen's egg, and a small pro-
portion of them are even as large as a swan's egg, only rather
flattened. The colour on the exterior is sometimes blue, but
it is generally of a brownish or rusty appearance.

The form of Blackheath flints is uniformly a flattened el-
lipsoid. The perfect sameness of form is perhaps the most
remarkable circumstance about them, and suggests the idea
of their having acquired it by means of gentle agitation whilst
yet in only a soft state.

When broken by the hammer the fracture is not like that
of chalk flints, being not nearly so much conchoidal. The
appearance is most frequently horny or waxy, with frequently
white spots, but it is sometimes reddish, though comparative-
ly seldom.

Blackheath flints are seldom at all affected by long expo-
sure to the air. Countless multitudes of them may be seen
on the surface, and near to it in many places within the country
where they are found, and have been so exposed for a period
to which we can set no limit : yet they have not acquired
a white crust nor even any white film making any approach
to it. However on the south side of the Addington hills, the
sun has produced an effect, and whitened to a small degree
the flints exposed to his rays.

Blackheath flints may be burnt in the fire, without their
exploding, which is seldom the case with other flints. This
has been attributed to their containing less water than other
flints, and it may possibly be so.

After being burnt in the fire the fracture is very rough and
uneven, and often appears as if blistered. The colour is a
dirty white with a considerable mixture of red produced by

220 Peculiar Flints in the Neighbourhood of London.

the presence of iron. The adhesion of the flint after being
burnt is much less than is the case in chalk flints.

Blackheath flints have never been used by the gun-flint
makers. No doubt it is possible to make gun-flints from
the larger specimens, but it would be with greater labour
than from the finer sorts of chalk flints, and the gun-flints so
obtained would be more brittle and less durable.

The Blackheath flints are totally unfit for the porcelain
manufacture. If there were no other objection, there is fre-
quently, indeed generally, a portion of oxide of iron on the
exterior, which would spoil the colour, and generally oxide
of iron is present in the interior also.

The powder also obtained by burning and grinding Black-
heath flints, would not be so fine. By burning a few speci-
mens in a common fire, and pounding them in a mortar, and
then comparing them with chalk flints, treated in a similar
way, the difference will appear most obvious.

The Blackheath flints are admirably adapted from their size,
for the purpose of the patent building, after being washed and
put in moulds, with lime freshed slacked with hot water, then
a solid body is produced of appearance like Portland stone in
front, and said to answer exceedingly well.

The small flints called pease and beans are used by plas-
terers as an ornament to their work. The only other use to
which they are applied is that of materials for the roads.

Fossil remains are seldom discovered in the Blackheath
flints, if we except certain snail-shaped or leech- shaped
bodies, found also in the chalk flints of some districts, sup-
posed to be Alcyonites. I have broken thousands upon thou-
sands in search of other fossils, and until this year without
success. On Plumstead common I broke open a flint in which
was an impression of a spine ; and I broke open another with a
very fine impression of a spine at Chiselhurst. Mr. John
Alfred Burgon, F.G.S.has found two Echini and a Pecten in
flint on Blackheath. Still as compared with the flints of
other districts, fossil remains are very rare.

The cause of this very great rarity of fossils in these flints
is not very obvious. Most of them are indeed too small to
envelope shells or even fragments of shells, but it is far from
being the case with them all. It is also obvious that although
a large number of small flints, agitated by the waters, would
destroy and reduce to powder any shells which might be near
them, yet some might notwithstanding escape, and be enve-
loped in the larger flints, as in the districts in which clay
flints abound, asWarley and St. Ann's hill; and it is not un-
likely that there was diffused through the water something

Thompson on Delphinus bidentatus. 221

unfavourable to the support of animal life, so that at the time
when the siliceous matter was deposited in this district, there
were few or no shells around which it might aggregate. It
is perhaps this matter mixed up with the silex, to which the
Blackheath flints owe their peculiar character.

The existence of beds of sand frequently discovered below
the Blackheath districts, proves the previous great agitation
of the waters, and that also must have contributed to diminish
the number of shells, but from their very great rarity some
destructive mixture seems to have been the most likely cause.

In breaking open some of the Blackheath flints, masses of
red coloured gravel are found enclosed, and where there is no
possible opening by which gravel might have penetrated into
any hollow part left in the flint at its formation. The flint
has aggregated around the gravel, precisely in the same way
as in the chalk the flint is often found to have aggregated
round a mass of chalk, and to have enclosed it on all sides.
Specimens of this sort have been met with at Erith, more fre-
quently than at any other place; but they may be found in
other localities also.

Art. IX. Upon the Identity of Hunters Delphinus bidentatus,
Baussard's Hyperoodon Honfloriensis, and Dale's Bottle Head
Whale. By W illiam Thompson, Esq.

Bell in his late work upon the British Quadrupeds and Ce-
tacea, mentions in his preface that further information is re-
quired on many points of great interest in the history of the
latter, and he instances " the relation of the Hyperoodon of
Dale to that of Hunter," and Sir W. Jardine in his volume
upon Cetacea, pages 194 to 197, canvasses the question of
the identity of Hunter's and Baussard's Cetacean, leaving the
matter as it appears tome in greater doubt than ever. Where
doctors differ I should have thought it the height of presump-
tion to have introduced my humble opinion, were it not that
I have an opportunity of forming a judgment not afforded to
either of the eminent naturalists in question. Let me at once
then state that I conceive there is not a doubt of the identity
of Hunter's and Baussard's specimens, both of which were
females, and that I conceive Dale's specimen to be the male
of the same species ; for though from the figure given on page
493 of Bell's work, it appears to differ from the others in
form, being thicker in the shoulder, yet I conceive it does not
differ more than the bull does from the cow, or the male lion
from the lioness : as regards this last point of mine, however,
I confess I have nothing beyond surmise ; but the possible

Thompson on Delphinns bidentatus

difference in figure of the male and female does not seem to
have occurred to either Bell or Jardine. But as far as regards
the identity of Hunter's Delphinus bidentatus, and. Baussard's
Hyperoodon Honfloriensis, my opinion is founded on a spe-
cimen of a Cetacean stranded just below the town of Hull last
year, which was exhibited for many days here, and the skele-
ton of which forms now part of the Museum of the Hull
Literary and Philosophical Society.

The animal in question before dissection was carefully
examined by myself and many others, and due attention paid
to the mouth, and before the flesh was removed, every one
declared it had no teeth, in this respect it quite agreed with
Baussard's specimen of a mother and cub stranded at Hon-
fleur, of which Jardine says, p. 195, " The circumstances on
which the claim of these specimens to be considered generic
rest, are the total want of teeth in either jaw.''''

Upon the skeleton of the Hull specimen being prepared,
however, on removing the gums " two strong and robust teeth
were discovered to exist at the extremity of the lower jaw,"
though previously covered and entirely concealed by the
gums.

Here then we have an animal in its perfect state, agreeing
with the creature which Baussard described in a similar state,
and also agreeing in its skeleton state, with the skeleton in the
Hunterian Museum, described by Hunter; thus, though both
are describing the same animal, yet one having seen it in the
recent, the other in the skeleton state, each gives a different
account as to its teeth, like the far-famed travellers' dispute
about the camelion's colour.

In figure the Hull specimen was a fac simile of Jardine's
Hyperoodon Hon floriensis, figured plate 13 of his volume,
with the exception that the engraver of that plate has insert-
ed two lateral teeth in the upper jaw of the figure ; 1 say the
engraver, for I conceive that Sir W. Jardine never authorized
their being inserted after describing the generic character of
the animal to consist " in its total want of teeth in either
jaw" These supposititious teeth in the upper jaw should be
immediately erased from Sir W. Jardine's plate, before any
more impressions are struck off. The plate in Bell's work p.
492, is also a good resemblance of the Hull whale, though
perhaps not so striking a portrait of it as Jardine's, with the
exception of the lateral teeth, which do not occur in Bell's
plate, rendering it more correct than Jardine's, and less likely
to create doubts in the mind of young naturalists.

Speaking of Baussard's whales, (mother and cub), Sir W.
Jardine says " Bounaterre in describing the individuals exa-

Thompson on Delpliinusbidentatus. 223

mined by him, most unaccountably assigned to them two
teeth in the lower jaw." Now I think it is well accounted
for thus ; Bounaterre described the skeletons ; Baussard the
animals with their flesh on ; this very circumstance agreeing
with the one I have described at Hull, shews that the Hon-
fleur specimens were identical in species with the Hull one ;
and since the Hull one in its skeleton state, quite corresponds
with the Hunterian specimen, it follows that Hunter's and
Baussard's specimens are also of the same species, — in short,
that Baussard's specimen, Hunter's specimen, and the Hull
specimen, are all specimens of Hyperoodon lionfloriensis.

The skull of the Hull specimen corresponds in its general
form, with the one figured in Bell's work, although the rise
in the back part of the head is larger in proportion to the
anterior rise, than that figured by Bell, as the following mea-
surement will shew, viz :

ft. in.

From the snout to the base of the front rise of the skull 0 9

From the base of the front rise, across that rise to the base of) , 0
the second rise j

From the base of second rise across that rise to its base next ) , , ,
the neck j

The total length of the animal skeleton, from snout to tail,
17 ft. 6 in. the lower jaw extending two inches further. When
alive however it was considerably longer, owing to its fleshy tail
extending beyond the last of the caudal vertebrae and owing
to the loss of much intervertebral matter.

Vertebra 39, viz. 2 cervical, 9 dorsal, with dorsal processes
and ribs attached, 20 dorsal, without ribs, but with dorsal pro-
cesses, 8 caudal, without any dorsal processes.

The scapula extends lOinches

The humerus 8

The ulna and radius 7

The hand to the tip of the longest finger 8

Should these observations at all assist in elucidating the
point Mr. Bell states to require elucidation, I shall be very
glad. At all events if my own remarks prove useless, the in-
formation where another specimen may be examined by able
naturalists must have some utility.

Hull, February 22nd, 1838.

Vol. II.— No. 16. n. s.

224 Letter from the Rev. W. B. Clarke

Art. X. Letter from The Rev. W. B. Clarke, in reference to the
alleged occurrence of the bones of terrestrial Mammalia in the red
and coralline Crag of Suffolk.

My dear Sir,

Had I more carefully recollected the object
of your paper, which I alluded to in my ■ Note on the Crag
Beds' in the last number, (p. 162), I should not have given you
the trouble of stating your views, in which I fully concur, —
But noticing the list of "beds in which no traces of terrestri-
al Mammalia occur" I overlooked the preceding observations
respecting the distinction you have drawn between the Mam-
maliferous shell-beds of Norfolk, and the true crag of Suffolk.
Now you are not unacquainted with my views on the subject
of the distinction between Suffolk diluvium and the crag ;
for they are stated fully in my paper on the Geology of Suf-
folk, &c. read in 1837 before the Geological Society ; and an
abstract of which is given in the Society's Proceedings, vol. ii.
p. 528. I have there shewn, that the diluvium and crag are
not, as Mr. Lyell has supposed, of the same age.* I have al-
so mentioned the fact, that mammalian remains are found
where I have mentioned, at Walton, Felixstow, and Tatting-
stone ; but I have never assumed that they are of the same
age as the shells of the crag. I have merely supposed, that
whilst the crag yet lay beneath the waters, before the up-heav-
ing of that formation, remains of land animals, drift wood,
gravel, &c. may have been washed into the then sea, and up-
on the sand and shell banks, which I assume to have been
then formed, as now they are, along our coasts, by the action
of currents, &c. I have also pointed out that diluvial gravel
has been washed, in one instance, (at Stratford St. Mary), in-
to fissures of the crag, and there, apparently, been stratified
with it. Such I conceive to have been the case with the bones
I alluded to. Now, at Tattingstone, I have taken pebbles of
red sandstone, (which I still have in my collection), covered
with Balani, from the true crag, and which, there is no doubt,
are drift of the crag age : — and near them I found, in the pits
I mentioned, remains of what I imagine belonged to a Mas-
todon. How they came there, I cannot say ; — whether fallen
from the superficial beds of drift, — or drifted into a hollow in
the crag before the crag was upheaved, — which I imagine lay

* The above observation of Mr. Clarke's appears to us calculated to con-
vey a wrong impression of the opinion Mr. Lyell has advanced upon this sub-
ject; for although he may have referred certain beds to the tertiary epoch,
which more properly belong to the diluvial, yet we think there is no ground
whatever for assuming that Mr. Lyell has considered, in an extended sense,
the diluvium of Suffolk and Norfolk to be of the same age as the crag. Ed.

on Mammalian Remains in the Crag. 225

under the waters during the diluvial clay epoch ; but I cer-
tainly do not suppose, that the Mammalia and crag mollusks
were contemporaneous, though their remains are occasionally
found together. In this point we both meet. The explana-
tion thus brought out will do no harm, — it enables facts to be
quoted, which might have remained unnoticed. As to the oc-
currence of bones of land animals in other lower supra-creta-
ceous deposits, they also might fall under the head of drift.
At Walton Naze, 800 or 900 yards from the village, and se-
veral rods from the shore, there was found an elephant's tusk,
8 feet in length ; the chord of the arc was 7 ft. 3 in., and the
circumference was, at the largest end, 18 inches. It was found
in the London clay, sticking upright, just above the low wa-
ter level. It was evidently a drift tusk, and had probably
been washed from above, at an ancient period, and exposed
from the effects of denudation, by the wear of the sea on that
ruinous coast. Bones similar to those I have mentioned from
the crag at Walton, have been also found in true surface-drift
near Flatford Bridge, in East Bergholt ; and a bone of great
size was taken thence in 1829, and when I left Suffolk in 1831,
was, I think, in the possession of Abram Constable, Esq. of
Flatford Mill. That the the crag was not upheaved till after
the irruption of the drift or diluvium of Suffolk and Norfolk,
I hope I have sufficiently established in the paper I before
alluded to ; admit this, and there can be no difficulty as to
the question, how the remains of land animals of the diluvial
epoch may have been drifted upon or into the crag, or Lon-
don clay, before the upheaving of the crag occurred ; for I
imagine that causes similar to those now in action, were in be-
ing both before and after the great convulsion which covered
parts of East Anglia with from 300 to 400 feet of drift clay
and gravel ; — and that land floods and rivers bore down, as
now, to the sea, whatever they found capable of transportation.
My knowledge of the conchological history of the crag is
very limited, and on this point I must confess your acquire-
ments such as to make you an authority which I ought not to
dispute. Yet so far as the superficial Geology of Suffolk goes,
I venture to suppose you will allow I have a claim to offer an
opinion ; and I think we do not differ therein.

Stanley Green, Yours faithfully,

March 1st, 1838. W. B. Clarke.

Editor of the Magazine

of Natural History.

T 2

226 Hydrophobia occurring in Foxes.

Art. XI. Remarks on Hydrophobia occurring among the Foxes, in
Germany, especially in the Kingdom of Wurtemberg. By W.
Weissenborn, D. Ph.

Since 1833, there has been observed among the foxes all over
Germany, as well as the neighbouring countries, different
symptoms of disease, which have a tendency to degenerate
into hydrophobia, so as to make the latter disorder assume
an epidemic character. It is curious that these phenomena
nearly coincide with the appearance of the cholera, and con-
sidering that the liver appears to be the primary seat of the
disease, it is perhaps not too speculative to suppose that the
peculiar unhealthy state of the foxes, owes its origin to the
same telluric and atmospheric influences, which predispose
the human organism for the cholera. However, unsupported
as this opinion stands by a closer investigation of the subject,
I should not have ventured upon emitting it, were the Etiolo-
gy given by writers on the subject, or the opinions of foresters,
whom I have consulted, at all calculated to throw much light
on the question. Most of them adduce the scarcity of mice ;
and indeed the faces of the foxes were found in several dis-
tricts, where the disease prevailed to a high degree, to be
mostly composed of the remains of cockchafers, &c. But
here, no doubt, a symptom is mistaken for the cause, as the
fox is probably compelled, by a depraved appetite, or the
weakness to which it is reduced, to subsist chiefly on a de-
scription of food, which in general forms only a supplemen-
tary part of its diet. Quitting this speculative part of the
subject, I shall now first communicate a few observations,
which were made in the principality of Saxe-Eisenach, about
the time when the disease first appeared, and then report on
its present state in the kingdom of Wurtemberg ; observing
that during the intermediate period, the foxes seem to have
been throughout affected with the same ailment, more or less,
over all Germany and Switzerland, the disease appearing in
one district, when it had ceased in another.*

* I may here mention a little work, which was published in 1835, at Zu-
rich; "Ueber die in unsern Zeiten unter den Fiichsen herrschende Kran-
kheit" (On the disease prevalent amongthe foxes in our time), by Dr. Joh.
Rud, Koechlin, in which the author draws the following conclusions :
1 . The disease is a peculiar kind of typhus, to which, in its primary state,
probably only the canine species are subject, but which may be communi-
cated to man, and other animals, by means of contagion. 2. This typhus,
in its different stages, as well as in different individuals, presents more or
less numerous and different phenomena, both during life and after death.
3. It is often accompanied by that rabid delirium or typhomania, which
impels the animal to bite. 4. The animal affected with it often dies, or is
killed, before the disorder has become contagious, or completed its deve-

Hydrophobia occurring in Foxes, 2*27

During the summer of 1833, it was observed about Eise-
nach, that foxes were less afraid of man than usually, and
subsequently several were killed in or near human habitations.
I shall detail the circumstances of a few cases.

In July, 1833, when the gardener who was on duty for the
night-watch, in the grand-ducal garden of Wilhelmsthal, enter-
ed the watch-hut, and had made a little fire, he was roused by
a violent snarling, proceeding from under the bench on which
he was sitting, when he discovered a fox which showed no
disposition to give up the position it had taken up. He went
for a gun, and the fox was shot. It was strong, but without
any particle of fat. No notice was taken of its sex, but all
the rest, which, in the neighbourhood of Eisenach, were killed
last year under similar circumstances, were males.

In November, 1833, a blood-hound belonging to Mr. C.
Hanff, of Wilhelmsthal, made a great noise late in the even-
ing, and broke loose from its chain. Her master descended
to the yard, tried to calm her, and having fastened her again
to the chain, retired to the house ; but scarcely had he entered
it, when the same noise began again. This time Mr. H. dis-
covered the cause of the uproar, for when searching the dog's
hut, he perceived a fox, which he shot. It being well fed
and furred, nobody then thought of the possibility of its being
mad. However, the hound went mad five weeks after, and
was killed, as the symptoms of rabies could not be mistaken.

Soon after, a fox descended at nightfall from a mountain
near Alchenbach, and began to play with a young dog belong-
ing to a labourer, whose cottage is at some distance from the
village. It was scared away, but returned the day after. —
This time the fox made a violent attack on the little dog, wor-
rying it till its master came to its assistance, and beat off the
fox. The animal made its escape, and did not return, but the
dog went mad, and bit several other dogs, which were direct-
ly shot, and a little boy of the schoolmaster. The boy was
subjected to proper and timely treatment, and recovered his
health.

Some time after a labourer killed a fox that had entered a
cow-house at Wilhelmsthall ; and at the same place a game-
keeper shot a fox in the yard of the inn. The animal was
walking there fearlessly, in broad day -light. It was very mea-

lopement. In such cases the bite of the animal is not dangerous. 5. How-
ever, as it is not always possible to decide that point, the treatment must
always be conducted as if the animal had been really mad. 6. To effect a
preservative cure in persons that have been bitten by mad foxes, an issue
should be formed upon the wounded place, with mild diet and diaphoretics ;
this has been found fully competent.

228 Hydrophobia occurring among Foxes.

ger, but well furred, and in its stomach was found nothing but
a little bit of cloth.

Besides, many foxes were killed in the same district, by
wood-cutters and peasants, either in the woods or villages,
many of which were affected with the mange.

The disease has committed such ravages in the principali-
ty of Eisenach, that ever since 1833, the whole number of
fox-skins obtained, is only one-seventh of what it was before.

On the more recent state of the disease in the kingdom of
Wurtemberg, I find a very interesting account in the July
number of Behlen's f Allgemeine Forst und Jagelzeitung,'
communicated by His Grace the Duke Henry of Wurtem-
berg, dated 'Ulm, May, 1837.' Already last summer, mad
foxes made their appearance here and there, and near Rothen-
burgh on the Nectar, a girl, bitten by one, died of hydropho-
bia, the symptoms of which shewed themselves nine or ten
days after the wound had been inflicted. In the beginning
of December, 1836, at a shooting party held near Ulm, seve-
ral diseased foxes were killed with sticks. The foxes were
scarce, upon the whole, for the season, and did not behave
with their accustomed caution, as they would approach
within a few yards of the hunters, even when in full view and
with the wind unfavorable. Moreover, the fur, though good,
was, in a few specimens, of a peculiar colour, and the hair
somewhat bristly. They were found to be exceedingly lean,
and the internal parts of a deep yellow colour. These symp-
toms of an epidemic among the foxes became more evident
as the season advanced. Many were found dead, or killed
with sticks ; and two village dogs, bitten by foxes, went mad
about ten days after. Similar events took place in other lo-
calities, and in one village forty-three dogs were destroyed as
a measure of precaution, because a few had been bitten by
mad foxes. A horse was assailed by a mad fox, and its nose
lacerated in a frightful manner ; but the fox escaped, as the
people present were so frightened, that they took to their
heels. The horse was apparently healed by a veterinarian
It remained well, and was frequently ridden, for seven weeks,
it then suddenly became depressed, and at length fell into per-
fect listlessness, and died in dreadful convulsions. On dis-
section, it was found that the lungs and liver were completely
disorganised, a general effusion of deep yellow bile had taken
place, and the viscera were, upon the whole, in a very advan-
ced state of decomposition.

The government of Wurtemberg caused several specimens
of the diseased foxes to be dissected by medical men, and the
result served, in a great measure, to confirm the opinion, that

Observations on the Trogon paradiseus. 229

hydrophobia is a bilious complaint of high intensity : for the
gall-bladder was found quite empty, and its contents had pe-
netrated into every tissue. The liver, though of the usual
size, was, like the other viscera, of a deep yellow colour. —
The spleen, pancreas, and plexus Solaris, were inflamed, and
the nervus sympathicus presented every appearance of high
inflammation. The clotted blood in the aorta and vena cava
was yellowish black, and the serum yellow. In a few speci-
mens, where death had taken place before the stage of rabies
had been well developed, the inflammatory symptoms were
less striking: but in every case the effusion of all the bile had
taken place, and the stomach was either empty, or contained
only foreign substances, such as earth, stones, leather, moss,
and in one case even an iron nail.

Art. XII. Observations on the Long-tailed Trogon. By Charles
Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano.*

Considerable interest being taken in the history of this spe-
cies, I have thought proper to offer some details respecting it,
which became known to myself before it had excited the at-
tention of naturalists generally.

The Quezalt, celebrated among the Indians of Guatemala,
one of the most magnificent productions of nature, and wor-
thy of being called the bird of paradise of America, was long
sought after to enrich our collections, but rarely met the eye
of any experienced naturalist. Having heard the very ani-
mated description given of it by M. Gonzales, Minister of the
United States of central America, at Washington, M. Rebello,
who represented the Brazilian government in that city, while
I was there, succeeded, through the exertions of the former
gentleman, in obtaining from the Indians, two beautiful spe-
cimens, in the best possible state of preservation. To these
two gentlemen I am indebted for the little I can say of the
habits of this species ; and I felt particularly grateful to the
Brazilian diplomatist for the liberality with which he permit-
ted me to describe and name this lovely species, which, in
the year 1826, 1 was enabled to register in the catalogues of
science, under the name of Trogon paradiseus, Paradise Cu-
rucui.

This bird, which is 13 \ inches in length from the point of
the bill to the extremity of the tail, measures neverthelss more

* Communicated by the Author. Read before the Zoological Society.

230 Observations on the Trogon paradisens.

than 31 from the bill to the tip of the longest of the upper tail
coverts : the bill, which is 1 j inch in length to the gape, looks
short, it is compressed, curved, entire, of a reddish yellow ;
the general plumage is of a most resplendent golden green,
slightly tinged with blue ; the feathers of the head are slen-
der, and form a circular, erect, compressed crest, commencing
at the base of the bill ; the eyes are surrounded with a black-
ish hue, which colour pervades the whole of the feathers, with
the exception of the brilliant tips. The very robust shafts of
the rump feathers are white at the base ; the throat and breast,
which have the general golden green colour, verge a little
more upon blue ; the whole of the abdomen, flanks, and vent,
are of a most brilliant and vivid red, which colour tinges the
tip only of the feathers ; those however which cover the thighs
are blackish throughout ; the wings, which have the third and
fourth quills the longest, measure 8 inches, and when folded,
reach to one third the length of the tail ; the superior wing
coverts are of the same colour as the back, and are more than
two inches in length, acute, and curved ; the inferior wing
coverts are blackish, slightly variegated with green ; the pri-
maries are wholly black ; the tail is 7 inches long, cuneiform,
composed of twelve feathers, the three outermost of which on
each side, are white, with a black shaft, the six middle fea-
thers are entirely black.

The principal singularity of this bird consists in the upper
tail coverts, which are similar in colour to the back ; loose in
their texture, as is the general plumage ; and all of them have
a tendency to prolongation, which is most conspicuous in the
lowest, four of which extend beyond the tail ; two of them
measuring more than thrice the length of the body ; the short-
est pair of these lengthened plumes measures one foot, the
other pair more than two. Not only the casual observer but
even naturalists, would at first sight mistake these ornamen-
tal plumes for a portion of the tail. The feet are blackish,
with the tarsi f of an inch in length, and the toes are dispos-
ed in pairs, as in all the trogons.

The Quezalt is a rare and very shy bird ; it is confined to
restricted limits, being found solely in a peculiar section of the
mountainous district of Vera Paz, in the province of the same
name, now forming one of the five independent states which
constitute the federal republic of central America. The In-
dians inhabiting that country celebrate every year the festival
called ' Quezalt,' during which they adorn their heads with
the skin and feathers of this bird, which they afterwards care-
fully preserve until the next anniversary, and are induced to
part with them with the utmost difficulty.

New Works on the Coleoptera. 231

A single instance is on record of this bird having been do-
mesticated. It builds its nest in the shape of a lengthened
barrel, or rather of a bag, both ends of which are left open, so
that its long feathers may not be injured. These long fea-
thers are admirably adapted, from their shape and texture, to
act as a rudder or counterpoise, in the violent winds to which
the country inhabited by the bird is subject.

The genus Trogon, of which this bird is a member, occu-
pies, in my old arrangement, the first station of the ciliated
section of the third family, Amphibolce, which it connects with
Frugivora ; it has in fact a great affinity to the genus Muso-
phaga, from which it differs chiefly by the artificial character
on which it is based, and forms, in addition to the pigeons, a
connecting link between the Passeres and Gallince. It must
therefore be placed the first of the Amphibolce.

After I had written the present article for one of the nume-
rous scientific journals of America, our bird, or an allied spe-
cies, dressed with the long plumes of the Quezalt, has been
figured by M. Temminck, in his PI. Col. who was not aware
of its being the celebrated Quezalt of central America, which
is certainly distinct from the Trogon pavoninus of Spix ; since
that bird as figured in the' Species Nova Avium Brasiliensium?
in smaller, destitute of crest, and the whole of the tail feathers
are black, it is also entirely devoid of the lengthened plumes.
This confusion has been already cleared up by Mr. Gould,
who possesses five or six species of this lovely group, to which
Mr. Swainson has assigned the appropriate name of Calurus.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. 1. Die Kafer der Mark Brandenburg; von Dr. W. F.
Erichson. 1st band, 1st abtheilung. Berlin, 8vo. 384 pp. 1837.

2. Insecta Lapponica descripta ; a I. W. Zetterstedt. Vol. 1,
fasc. 1. Lipsiee, 1838. Oblong 4to. 191 pp.

3. The Coleopterisfs Manual, containing the Lamellicorn In-
sects of Linnaeus and Fabricius. By the Rev. F. W, Hope, F.R.S.
L.S. Z.S. &c. &c. London: H. G. Bohn, 1837, 8vo. 121 pp.
with 4 plates.

4. Kurzen Abriss der Entomologie, mit besonderer rucksicht
auf Deutschland Kafer. Von Altaian, Dr. M. Lipsise, 1837,
sm. 8vo. 124 pp.

The works enumerated in the preceding list, are a few of
the many recent productions which have appeared upon
the Linnaean order of Coleopterous Insects, or, as they are
Vol. II.— No. 16. n. s. ij

•232 New Works on the Coleoptera.

ordinarily termed, beetles or chaffers, (in German, kafer). —
This tribe of insects at the present time, certainly reckons
a far greater number of votaries than the gay and attractive
tribes of butterflies, which, in the earlier days of entomo-
logical science, were so much more generally collected. —
Whether we are to attribute this still extending partiality
to the endless variety of form and structure presented to
our contemplation by the countless species of Coleoptera,
or to the facility with which, from the strong consistence of
their external envelope, they are preserved, is immaterial ; it
is sufficient to know that throughout Europe, save only in
Turkey, (for we never yet heard of a Turkish entomologist,
although there are many in Hungary, whose lucubrations in
the Maygar tongue are even more incomprehensible than the
Russian), the taste for the collection of coleopterous insects is
so extensive, that a coleopterist traveller is sure to find, in al-
most every provincial town, one or more persons engaged in the
same pursuit, with whom an intimacy may almost at once be
formed. The sketch of the travels of Victor de Motchoulsky,
published in the last part of the ' Bulletin de la Societe des
naturalistes de Moscou,' for 1837, sufficiently proves this state-
ment; the writer having visited almost every European coun-
try in his route.

We greatly fear, however, that like the professed concho-
logist, or lepidopterist, there are many of these gentry who
are but amateurs, who make collections for amusement, (and
a happy, healthful, amusement it is), without caring one iota
for the anatomical, structural, economical, physiological, geo-
graphical, or practical views, to which an investigation into
the objects of their pursuit, if rightly worked out, would ne-
cessarily lead them.

Moreover, the natural relations of these beings with each
other, leading to a knowledge of their natural classification
or system, is but rarely thought of, although, from the almost
infinite numbers of anomalous forms which require dissection,
it must be evident that we are in no fit state, at present, to
lay down anything like a satisfactory arrangement of Coleop-
tera. It is true Leon Dufour has done the greatest service to
the science, by his extensive series of internal anatomical ob-
servations ; but his knife has operated only upon the insects
of his own neighbourhood. The hundreds of strange forms
from India, Brazil, and New Holland, require similar exami-
nation ; whilst the knowledge of the preparatory states of
these insects, which would tend so materially to clear up our
views respecting their relations, although slowly extending,
is yet but in its infancy.

New Works on the Coleoptera. 233

Coleopterists, and indeed entomologists, (may we not say
naturalists in general?) at the present day, occupy themselves
too much with names. All that they seem to require, is the
names of the species in their possession; and when these are
discovered, the specimens are stored away, with the long
sought for names attached, as though the ultimate object of
science were gained. We have however already thrown out
hints sufficient to shew that our opinion is otherwise. Names,
it is undeniable, have their value, in a strictly scientific point
of view, as the condensed representatives of species and their
specific characters ; and until the various species of any par-
ticular country are accurately defined, with their varieties, the
entomologist of that country would be blameable, were he not
to endeavour to clear up the points of difference between the
species, so as to exhibit the fauna of his country, with refe-
rence not only to the national, natural, riches of his land, but
also to the interesting enquiries of the geographical naturalist.

Hence the character of the majority of natural history works
of the present day, and especially of entomological works pub-
lished on the continent, is a necessary result of the little pro-
gress hitherto made towards a general Species or Systema
Naturae, or rather, we should say it is a convincing evidence
of the mass of materials of which no description has hitherto
been given to the public. Add to this the difficulties arising
from the insufficient descriptions or the errors of previous de-
scribers, which call for correction, and it will be seen that
there is yet much to be done before the actual species of in-
sects, (or of any other tribe of animals), of our own or any
continental country, can be considered as established.

The first two works on our list have for their object the as-
certaining the species of beetles of two distant portions of
Europe : the third is a revision of a portion of the coleopte-
rous writings of Linnaeus and Fabricius : and the last is a
slight sketch of the distribution of the Coleoptera, foimded
upon the tarsal system of Latreille.

Dr. Erichson, (whose fame as a clear-sighted entomologist,
was established by his first work, c Genera Dyticeorum,' 1832)
has in the volume at the head of this article, given descrip-
tions of the Coleopterous insects belonging to the Cicindeli-
da3, Carabiclae, Gyrinidae, Dyticidae, Hydrophilidae, Silphidae,
Pselaphidae, and Aleocharideous Staphylinidae, inhabiting
the 'Mark Brandenburg;' and as the majority of the species
are also inhabitants of this country, and his descriptions pre-
cise, his work will be an acceptable companion to that of Mr.
Stephens. Although from the occurrence of Omopliron lim-
batum, Procrustes coriaceus, four species of Calosoma, &c.

u2

•211 New Works on the Coleoptera .

in his work, we might have been led to expect a more nume-
rous and more southern kind of list than our own country
possesses, yet a comparison of the lists is decidedly in our
favour ; for instance, there is but one species of Elaphrtis,
one of Licinus, one of Cymindis, two of Pselaphus, six of
Euplecttis, &c. It is to be regretted that the author was not
acquainted with Stephens' Illustrations, because many of his
names, both of genera and species, will necessarily sink into
synonymes, being posterior to those of our English writers ;
thus, his genus Cyllidium is the Chcetarthria of Waterhouse
and Stephens ; his Cyclonotum is Ccelosterna of Brulle. The
Aleocharidii are very elaborately worked out, and many new
genera proposed.

The second in our list is the commencement of a work up-
on the Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera of Lapland,
by the veteran Zetterstedt. This first part is of an oblong
quarto form, (a rather incommodious one), and is printed in
double columns, without plates. The system adopted is that
of Latreille, and the species are described to the end of the
Tetramerous Xylophaga. It may be easily conceived that in
the region in question, insects are less numerous than in our
own land ; and it will be sufficient to observe that there are
only seven species of Apion described in the work. Of the
genera, one only is mentioned which does not occur in this
country, namely, Boreaphilus, a small Staphylinideous in-
sect, which will probably occur in Scotland.

The third work on our list is an illustration of so much of
the 'Systema Naturae' of Linnaeus, and of the 'Systema Eleu-
theratorum' of Fabricius, as relates to the two great Linnaean
genera, Scarabceus and Lacanus; the object of the writer
being to point out the modern genera to which the old de-
scribed species are referrible, the authors of such modern ge-
nera having, in many instances, too much neglected the writ-
ings of these "heroes sciential" whilst the latter were often in
error as to the true localities of their species. With this view,
tables are given of the species, indicating the name, locality,
and modern genus of each of the Linnaean and Fabrician spe-
cies, and accompanied by notes upon many of the species,
and by an appendix, in which a number of new genera are
described, which had been for the most part previously indica-
ted and partly described, in Mr. Kirby's manuscripts, presented
by that gentleman to the Entomological Society. From the
examination of the Linnaean collection and the Banksian ca-
binet, described by Fabricius, both in the possession of the
Linnean Society, and from his own splendid collection, and
an extensive correspondence with continental naturalists, Mr.

Natural History of Injurious Insects. 235

Hope has been enabled to clear up the doubts attaching to
many of the Linnsean and Fabrician species, although some
still remain, and which it is to be hoped that the continental
entomologists will endeavour to settle, by reference to the ca-
binets described by Linnaeus and Fabricius, and thus over-
throw the frivolous arguments of Dejean, promulgated in the
new edition of his Catalogue. The frontispiece to his work
represents a splendid new species of Goliathus, and the
other plates are filled with structural details of the new ge-
nera described in the appendix. We trust that the other
groups of the Coleoptera will be similarly treated.

The last work on our list contains a slight but concise
sketch of the distribution of the Coleopterous genera, with lists
of some of the more conspicuous species of beetles inhabiting
Germany. Such a work is more requisite in that country
than it would be in France, where the works of Latreille and
the numerous abridgements thereof, are to be found in the
hands of all entomologists ; or in England, where the work
of Stephens exists.

Art. II. Naturgeschichte der Schadlichen Insect en, fyc. The Na-
tural History of Injurious Insects, for the use of Landowners and
Foresters. By Vincent Kollar, Curator of the Royal Museum of
Vienna, &c. 8vo. 421 pp. Vienna, 1837.

We are happy to perceive that many professed entomologists
of the present day, are using their endeavours in the most ef-
fectual manner, to remove the stigma of inutility which is so
often cast upon their favourite pursuit, by tracing, through all
their stages of existence, those particular species of insects
which are found to be injurious to the horticulturist, agricul-
turist, or arboriculturist. The pages of our Magazine, dining
the past year, have shewn that both in this country, and in
France, practical utility has not been lost sight of in the pro-
secution of the science of entomology ; and we have now to
notice a new work, exhibiting the same symptoms, proceed-
ing from M. Kollar, well and long known as one of the most
eminent of the Austrian entomologists.

We cannot too strongly impress on the mind of the reader
that the only possible means of checking the ravages of, or
actually destroying, any obnoxious species of insect, must be
consequent upon an accurate investigation of the peculiarities
of its economy. This opinion is most strenuously inculcat-
ed in the volume before us, which is the result of a recom-
mendation, originating in the Royal Agricultural Society of

*236 Annals- of Natural History.

Austria, addressed to Messrs. Kollar and Von Kreigelstein, and
the Canon Schmidberger ; the last of whom has communica-
ted a very considerable portion of the work, particularly that
of the insects injurious to fruit-trees.

The work is divided into sections, according to the nature
of the substances &c. attacked or injured, including man, cat-
tle, grain, both in the growing and housed state, vegetables,
fruit-trees, forest trees, household materials, &c. A conside-
rable portion of the work consists of original observations on
the natural history of the different insects, so that the entire
work may be regarded as one of the most interesting addi-
tions which have been made to our insect biography.

Art. III. The Annals of Natural History ; or Magazine of Zo-
ology, Botany, and Geology. (Being a Continuation of the 'Ma-
gazine of Zoology and Botany,' and Sir W. J. Hookers 'Botanical
Companion.') Conducted by Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ; P. J. Selby,
Esq; Dr. Johnson; Sir W. J. Hooker, Regius Professor of Bota-
ny; and Richard Taylor, F.L.S.

The Magazine of Zoology and Botany has received an addi-
tion to the number of its editors ; the names of Sir William
J. Hooker and Mr. Richard Taylor appearing in conjunction
with those of its former contributors. In future it is to be
published monthly, under the title of 'Annals of Natural His-
tory.' The alteration in the time of its publication we think
a judicious one ; the change in the title appears to us uncall-
ed for and inexpedient.

The following notice appeared on the wrapper of the con-
cluding number of the last volume, (February, 1838).

" When this Magazine was commenced, it was published at the risk of the
Conductors, and the Publisher in Edinburgh, — not as a money speculation,
but as an experiment to try how far a periodical, endeavoured to be con-
ducted on scientific principles, would succeed ; and although from the re-
sults they cannot speak very highly of the encouragement which Naturalists
have bestowed upon it, or of their anxiety to encourage scientific papers and
facts unadorned and truthful, they have still had the satisfaction of being
able, with the assistance of their Contributors, to carry their periodical
through a second year, in a manner which they believe has been acknow-
ledged to stand high in the estimation of those who were inclined to dip
below the surface of the subjects which others pretended to study and ad-
mire ; and they have the further satisfaction of now saying to their Subscri-
bers, that this experimental commencement has been the means of enabling
them to continue the work without risk to themselves, and with every pros-
pect of a more ample and efficient scientific support."

The Contributors to the first Number of the present series,
are, Dr. Drummond, Dr. Johnston, Dr. Grisebach, Mr. J. E.
Gray, and Mr William Thompson.

Birds of Europe and America. — The Viper. 237

Art. IV. A Geographical and comparative list of the Birds of
Europe and North America. By Charles Lucien Bonaparte,
Prince of Musignano. Van Voorst, London, 1838.
We are much gratified at the appearing of this volume, small
as it is, from the pen of the Prince of Musignano, not merely
because it must prove of value to naturalists, who cultivate
Ornithology, in a really philosophical spirit, but because we
hope it may be the forerunner of a more extensive work, which
its distinguished Author may be induced to place in the hands
of the same able and successful publisher.

Being simply a list of all the known species inhabiting
the two great Continents of Europe and America, the work
does not present us with much matter for comment. It bears
however ample evidence of having been drawn up with consi-
derable care. The following is the result given by the author
of a comparison of the number of species occurring in the
two continents, and of such as are common to both.

EUROPE

AMERICA

Families 36 —

— 34

32 )

of which are

Genera 246 —

— 218

137

common to both

Species 503 —

— 471

100 J

Continents.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Notice of a curious fact in the habits of the Viper.* — In
the study of natural history, as in all other parts of science,
we must be careful not to be deceived by first appearances,
especially if they involve any deviation from normal struc-
ture, or we shall be likely to publish as novelties, things which
do not in themselves afford any real change of formation.

A specimen of an extraordinary description was found in
the neighbourhood of Lausanne, having the following charac-
ter. The general appearance was that of a viper. It was
about ten inches long ; but at about one third of the length
from the tail, there was, on the left side, a decided leg, analo-
gous to those of saurians ; and on the corresponding part of
the opposite side, there was a projection, as if there were a
leg, imperfectly developed, under the skin. There were also
projections of a similar kind on the fore part, about one third
from the head, but no mark externally. In progression, the
viper did not appear to use the leg. It was languid and weak,
but lived three days after it was caught, when it was killed
by being thrown into spirits of wine.

*By J. C. Cox, Esq. Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society.

238 Cepola rubescens. — Literary Intelligence.

The real history of the phenomenon is as follows. — The vi-
per, (the common Coluber verus), had seized a common lizard,
{Lacerta agilis) of full size, and swallowed it. The viper
was a young one, and the lizard nearly as long as itself. It
also appears to have been very strong, and to have retained
its vitality long after it descended into the stomach of its de-
vourer. The consequence was, that it scraped with its little
nails, until it made a hole through the side of the viper, and
the fore leg was completely protruded. The colour and ap-
pearance of the integuments of the leg, Aery much resembled
the colour and texture of the skin of the viper ; while the a-
perture made by the leg so nearly fitted it, that the orifice was
not perceptible, except on minute examination. There can
be no doubt that lizards retain their vitality for a very long
period, and under circumstances very disadvantageous to life ;
and the one in question must have continued to live a very
considerable time after it was swallowed by the viper. I have
sent a sketch of the animal ; and the original is in the Musee
Cantonal, at Lausanne. — J. C. Cox. — Naples, Nov. 1837.

Cepola rubescens. — There has been quite a shoal of the
'red ribbon fish' thrown on our beach. I have preserved nine,
and I have been told that at least thirty were found, but I
believe all have been destroyed, except my specimens. — J.
B. Harvey.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE

Works preparing for publication during the Spring. — Longman <Sf Co,

The Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt (son of the Archbishop of York), has
in the press a work on the " Doctrine of the Deluge." His object is to vin-
dicate the Scriptural History of the Deluge from the doubts which have
been recently thrown upon it by geological speculations. This the author
has endeavoured to^ accomplish by showing, upon the testimony of a long
list of ancient and modern authors, that since the era of that catastrophe a
set of religionists never ceased to exist, whose opinions and usages were
founded upon a veneration of the Ark as the preserver of their race. In 2
vols. 8vo.

Mr. Westwood's " Popular Introduction to the Modern Classification
of Insects,"* which has been so long announced for publication, is at
length in the press, and will be published in Monthly Parts ; the first will
appear on the 1st of June. The author has for eight years been employed
upon it, collecting materials from the Continental as well as British Mu-
seums. It will be illustrated with many thousand figures engraved on
wood. The author has paid very minute attention to the Natural History
of the Transformations of Insects, and confidently hopes that there will be
found much new and interesting matter in his work. It is intended to form
a sequel to the popular work of Messrs. Kirby and Spence. 1 vol. 8vo.

Essays in Natural History. By Charles Waterton, Esq. With a
View of Walton Hall, and an Autobiography of the Author. 1 vol. fcap. 8vo.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

MAY, 1838.

Art. I. On the Influence of Man in modifying the Zoological Fea-
tures of the Globe ; with Statistical Accounts respecting a few of
the more important Species. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.

(Continued from Page 128J.

The Zubr,* (Fy. ZhvbrJ, Bos urus.
This interesting animal, of which the former geographical
range is rather uncertain, but which, no doubt, anciently
inhabited the whole tract between the Baltic and Hacmus,
whilst the Black Sea and the steppes of Russia confined it on
the east, and the cold hindered it from penetrating farther in
a north-easterly direction, its original western limit being as
yet not sufficiently established, is now restricted to a single
habitat, the wild and swampy forest of Bialowicza, in Lithu-
ania, where the legends of the natives place the paradise of
the animals, to which, they say, all sick or decrepit individu-
als repair, that they may die in peace.f Thither the species

* I give the preference to this name of the animal, because it is so called
in the country where it now exists, and because many of its other synonyms
are subject to controversy.

j It is a curious fact, that so few carcasses of animals which have died a
natural death, are found in the woods, &c. ; and a Polish gentleman, with
whom I lately conversed, respecting the origin of the above legend, ascrib-
ed it to what he considered a general fact, viz. that such carcasses are never
met with, wherefore the natives of Lithuania suppose that the sick animals
retire to those spots in the forest, which, to this day are quite inaccessible
to man. If, however, we consider, that animal substances, exposed to the
atmosphere, are speedily decomposed, and that numbers of animals of prey,
birds, insects, &c. feed upon them, the scarcity of such carcasses is sufficient-
ly explained. From my own experience I can moreover state, that I have
found, in my numerous excursions, the bodies of stags, foxes, Sec. the bad

Vol. II. — No. 17. n. s. x

240 On Man's Influence in effecting

now under consideration has been driven, as to its last asylum,
by incessant persecution, and the thinning of the woods which
it formerly haunted ; and there its existence is prolonged on-
ly by preservative game laws, and the more direct care of
man, who partially supplies it with food during the cold sea-
son. But even the forest of Bialowicza must, in the course
of time, change its wild aspect, when, through the progress
of civilization, and the increase in the numbers of the inha-
bitants of Lithuania, that wilderness shall have been subject-
ed to a regular rotation of forest culture. The most severe
game enactments could not prevent the last zubr in the forest
of Tilsit, where that species formerly existed under much the
same conditions as it does now in the forest of Bialowicza,
from being killed by a poacher, as early as 1775 ; (see Dr.
Hagen, ' Geshicte des preussischen Auers, in Beitrage zur
Kunde Preussens, Konigsberg, 1819, ii. 3, p. 225 et seq.): and
the rigour of the Russian law has already relented so far, in
consideration of the relative value of man and the lower ani-
mals, that he who kills a zubr without the permission of go-
vernment, no longer forfeits his life, but pays 2000 rubles; or
if unable to meet the penalty, he is transported to Siberia. —
We may therefore anticipate that however desirous individu-
als may be to perpetuate the existence of the species, which,
however, has already degenerated, inasmuch as it does not
grow to the same bulk in its present circumscribed abode, at
no very distant period it will be found only in a few museums,
or be known from books or drawings.

This consideration makes it the more desirable that the his-
tory and description of the zubr should be settled in our time,
with as much precision as possible. As to its osteological
features, this task may be considered as having been almost
fully accomplished by Bojanus, in his learned monograph,
('De Uro nostrate, ejusque Sceleto' ; Vilnae, 1825), inserted
in the second part of the thirteenth volume of the ' Nova Acta
Physico-Medica Acad. Caes. Leop. Car. Nat. Cur.' ; Bonnae,
1827. The same, however, cannot be said as to the other
points of its natural history.

In turning our minds seriously to this subject, we can
scarcely refrain from reviewing the early history of an animal

condition of which, as well as the absence of all external injury, proved
that they had died of some disease; and I remember two cases, where, in a
district over-stocked with roe deer, nearly the whole of them were destroy-
ed by larva of the (Estrus, bred in their nostrils ; at which time numerous
carcasses were found in the woods and their outskirts.

General Zoological Changes. 241

which, until lately, has been unjustly considered as the origi-
nal stock of our tame horned cattle, (Bos taurus). Linnaeus,
in accordance with that view, called it Bos ferus ; Buffon,
quite confident in the same opinion, Bos urus ; which name
has been received by most subsequent writers. The specific
difference of the zubr and Bos taurus is now, however, suffi-
ciently established by comparative anatomy. But a very im-
portant point is still left uncertain, namely, whether the zubr
be the only native bovine animal of middle Europe, in which
case it would be the legitimate owner of the synonymes, Bi-
son, Urus, Auerochs, Thur, &c. ; or whether two such abori-
ginal species were, within the historical times, found in that
tract of country. Cuvier, in his 'Recherches sur les Osse-
mens Fossiles,' tome iv. p. 107, &c. had raised the opinion,
that the Bison and Urus of the ancients were distinct species,
to a high degree of probability; but Bojanus, in reviewing
the evidence on which Cuvier had endeavoured to establish
his conclusion, arrived at the contrary view, thus leaving the
field open to fresh enquiry ; and though I have not the pre-
sumption to think that I shall decide the point effectually,
yet by attempting a new revision of the evidence already be-
fore the public, as well as of that which has escaped both
Cuvier and Bojanus, I may hope that even the errors into
which I may fall, may give a new impulse to others towards
completing what I consider to be a most interesting and de-
sirable task.

In reviewing the indigested mass of heterogeneous infor-
mation on animals belonging to the bovine genus, as depo-
sited in the ancient works of Greek and Latin writers, we find
ourselves compelled to admit, that they are much more agreed
about the characters of the Sphinx, Chimaera, sirens, Lamia,
Cerberus, &c. than upon those of the real creatures here un-
der consideration. The various materials there found, may,
however, be arranged under three different heads. First;
statements which evidently rest upon one animal having been
mistaken for another : secondly ; such as depend on the an-
cients referring the facts they observed, to false and often ri-
diculous causes, whereby they ascribed to the animals a great
many intentions which did not exist, as well as habits or
forms which led to the reception of fabulous species : third-
ly ; the facts which they had really observed with sufficient
precision. By separating the materials of the two first class-
es, as well as the palpable exaggerations, from those of the
third, we may hope to arrive at the truth, in cases where the
distinction of the materials is possible, and the description of
the animals not too defective.

x2

242 On Man's Influence in effecting

To the first class belong, for example, the reports of wild
carnivorous bulls, which Agatharchides, Diodorus Siculus,
and Strabo mention as being found in the country to the south-
west of the Red Sea. Here lions have no doubt been mista-
ken for zubrs. The general shape of the two animals is, in-
deed, much alike, and, in many points, the resemblance is
striking, as in the mane, the comparative slenderness of the
hind train, and in the tail, though this organ is much shorter
in the zubr. This conjecture is rendered the more probable
by the circumstance, that a mouth opening to the ears, and
moveable horns, are ascribed to these wild oxen. Should
any one doubt that the ancients were subject to such gross
mistakes, 1 would recall to his memory the fact, that the Ro-
mans took the first elephants they saw for oxen, thinking, no
doubt, that the tusks were horns ; whence the Roman name
of ''bos luca?* for the elephant.

In passing over other palpable instances of one species hav-
ing been mistaken for another, I shall now mention a few
cases where circumstances, which have been observed by the
ancients in bovine animals, have been referred to wrong caus-
es, from which have been drawn conclusions, that have alto-
gether perverted the descriptions of the animals under consi-
deration, and misled others to multiply the species. The
aggregate of fables, with here and there an interesting fact,
which ^Elian has compiled under the name of i Tlz$i Zaoov <&o-
TflTOf,' might supply us with a few examples of this sort ; but
as it contains scarcely more than one or two useful hints in
the many passages where bovine animals are mentioned, I
feel some reluctance to quote from him, (lib. xiv. c. 11) the
place where he speaks of the wild oxen of Lybia, that walk
backwards, because their horns are so grown, that they can-
not see before them. Everybody knows that all oxen, what-

* Pliny gives the following etymological explanation of that term. — "E-
lephantes Italia primum vidit Pyrrhi regis bello, et boves lucas appellavit,
in Lucanis visos."-— Hist. Nat. viii. 6. Varro, ' De Ling. Rom.' vi. 3. en-
quires into the o 'g-:n of the tenn 'Zwra,' and gives several other conjec-
tures, though that ol Pliny appears to deserve the preference before all others.
As to the term '60s,' as applied to the elephants, he gives the reason, — " ab
eo, quod nostri, cum maximam quadrupedem, quam ipsi haberent, vocarent
bovem, et in Lucanis Pyrrhi bello primum vidissent apud hosteis elephan-
tos, lucam bovem appellasse ;" and he never thinks of the tusks, which the
Romans, frightened as they were, might easily mistake for horns.

" Ut Lucas boves
" Olim resumpto praeferoces praelio,
"Fugit juventus Romula." Seneca: Hippol. 351.
Even Conrad Gesner, the author of the ' Icones Animalium,' was not quite
sure whether the elephant had horns or not. " Elephanti cornua dentes vi-
dentur." See ed. of Heidelberg, 1606, p. 29.

General Zoological Changes. 243

ever may be the direction of their horns, will occasionally
walk backwards when browsing ; but few persons would be
found now-a-days silly enough to draw such an inference from
that fact. But, as interesting us more nearly, I ought to re-
fer to the preposterous story with which Aristotle has spoiled
his description of thebonasos, (zubr), which, in other respects,
is tolerably correct. " The horns," he says,* " are so turned
towards each other, that the animal cannot thrust with them.
When put to flight, it does not stop, until it can run no far-
ther. It defends itself by kicking and voiding its excrements,
which it throws to the distance of four fathoms, (6pyvia$). This
is a convenient defence, and it resorts to it often. These ex-
crements burn so much, that the dogs which are hit by them
lose their hair ; but they have that quality only when the ani-
mal is frightened."t This passage may, in my opinion, be
easily reduced to its real merits. The individual who had
observed the irrelevant circumstance upon which the whole
preposterous report rests, did not know that all quadru-
peds and birds are apt to void their excrements, when put to
flight, in consequence of the direct impression of fear upon
their nervous system, which has the effect, and perhaps is the
chief end, of making the animal lighter in its flight. It is con-
stantly observed in heavy birds, when taking wing, and in
other animals, especially the wolf, when flying before the
dogs. The stag and roe, as well as the horse, ass, ox, &c.
do the same ; and the latter kick, when taking to their heels.
This phenomenon has been exaggerated, by an occasional
observer, into the most potent means of defence of the bona-
sos, and has prompted him to draw inferences as to the shape
of the horns &c. We shall find man, if unassisted by sci-
ence, still the same. I was only lately informed by a peasant,
with whom I conversed on the bustard, that this bird was
most " malicious," as he had sprung one from its nest, which
contaminated its eggs on taking wing, and never returned to
the nest ; which the bustard never does in such cases.

In turning now to the third class of materials bearing upon
our question, namely, the facts which we may suppose to have
been ascertained on sufficiently good authority, we have cer-
tainly to regret the great want of system with reference to the

* TIe^i Zcoew lo-Togiag, ix. 45.
f Pliny, who appears to have known little more than this misconceived
part of Aristotle's description of the Bonasus, or at least never thought of re-
ferring the correct part of it, which we shall see farther below, to his Bison,
speaks of the Bonasus as of a different, though doubtful species ; he only
changes four fathoms into "tria jugera." He therefore allows the animal
the dangerous range of more than 700 feet.

x3

244 On Man's Influence in effecting

manner in which the ancients described objects of natural
history. Though their senses were sound, their observations
stood insulated, and though they sometimes made use of com-
parisons with objects more currently known, these compari-
sons were not founded on the unerring basis of systematic
knowledge. Hence the vagueness of their information, even
when true, and, as a necessary consequence, the comparative
uncertainty of their nomenclature. If the former already
leaves us doubtful as to the objects to which their descriptions
refer, the latter may increase the difficulties to such a degree,
that we must draw upon other and more general sources of
information, to form an opinion which will allow us to acqui-
esce in its probability. This, I am afraid, is the extreme li-
mit at which I shall be able to arrive in the present enquiry.
In adverting to the direct written evidence upon which the
question, whether there were formerly two wild bovine ani-
mals inhabiting middle Europe, must be discussed, we have
first to hear Aristotle, who knew two species of wild oxen ;
the one living in Arachosia, or that part of Persia which was
nearest to India, and being evidently the buffalo,* does not
concern us in our present enquiry ; the other he calls Bona-
sos, or Monassos, and describes it in the following terms, after
having stated that it is found in Pseonia, (the modern Bulga-
ria). "The general form is much like that of a bull, but it
has a mane like the horse, which extends to the shoulders.
The hair of the mane is however softer than in the horse; it
is thick, and falls over the eyes. Its colour is between grey
and russet, and it is wool-like from below, (xarwfov, which can
very well be construed as referring to the downy hair growing
under the shaggy one). The colour of the horns is shining
black. The tail, which, in other respects, is like that of an
ox, is shorter in proportion to the body. Its skin cannot be
easily cut through. Its flesh is excellent, and the animal is
hunted for it."f If we compare this description with that of
the zubr given below, we cannot in the least doubt that it is
meant for that animal. Aristotle's information is, moreover,
verified and rendered more complete by Pausanias, who speaks
as an eye-witness of the wild oxen of Paeonia, which he calls
Bison. " I saw Paeonian oxen, which are particularly shag-
gy about the chest and the lower jaw; "I and he describes
the mode of catching them alive, in trap-holes, where they
are partially tamed by hunger :§ as well as by Oppian,|| who

• See Cuvier, ' Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles,' t. iv. p. 112.

tllEf* Zuav i<7T0fia$, lib.ix.c. 45. $ Pausanias, lib. ix. c. 21. §Lib.x.c. 13.

||Cyneget. ii. v. 160, seq.

General Zoological Changes. 245

derives the name of Bison from their native country, Bistoni-
an Thrace, and corrects the fabulous report of Aristotle, of
the horns not being fit for fighting, by stating that " the sharp
tips of the horns are like curved hooks of metal, and do not,
as in other oxen, (at least in some of the breeds), lean ob-
liquely towards one another, but point straight upwards. —
Therefore when in running they strike either a man or a beast,
they toss it into the air." This perpendicular direction, not
exactly of the tips but of the middle part of the horns, is ve-
ry characteristic of the zubr.* Therefore two of the legiti-
mate names of the zubr are Bonasus and Bison, and one of
its native haunts is the tract of country north of Greece, which
was its southern limit. More to the north it is easy to trace
it to the modern times, through Moldavia, (where it was call-
ed zimbr, about the time of Demetrius Cantemir),f Poland
and Prussia, to its present place of refuge.

So far everything is pretty clear ; but if we try to trace the
zubr to its western limit, we shall find that in the woods of
Germany and France, the Bison either was taken for a diffe-
rent animal of the same genus, or that it co-existed with one
commonly called Urus. This word, which is first mentioned
in Caesar, (B. G. vi., 28), who never saw the animal, (he does
not say that he did, at least), which was so called by the in-
habitants of Gallia, and which is first mentioned in the Greek
language by writers of a comparatively late period, (otyog), is
said by Macrobius to be of Gallic origin. J However this
may be, it is probable that Caesar drew his description of the
animal which he calls Urus, not from his own observation,
and that he knew it from the report of some Gallian. His de-
scription runs thus. "These Uri are little less than elephants;
their look, colour and form, are like those of a bull ; they are
extremely strong and swift, and spare neither man nor beast
that they get sight of. They are untameable, even when
caught yomig. The width, form, and appearance of the horns
is very different from that of our oxen." Our reason for sup-
posing that Caesar never saw the Urus is, that he describes it
along with other animals of the Hercynian forest, of which he
could not have made such a fabulous report, if he had observ-

* Oppian further says, that these oxen have the same beautiful shape as
the fierce lion, the king of beasts. He also, in describing the roughness of
the tongue, (which is likewise very striking in the zubr), mentions that they
lick the skin bloody with it. Herodotus, (vii. 126), reports, that Paeonia
contains wild oxen, (jSoej ayqioi), and lions. Associations like these make it
very probable, I think, that Greek travellers have mistaken in Africa lions
for bisons, and in the countries to the north of Greece, bisons for lions.
fSee BufTon, ed. by Cuvier, tome xvii. p. 85.

X Saturn, iv. 4. " Urus gallica vox est, qua fori boves significantur." —

x 4

216 On Man's Influence in effecting

ed them himself, when at the limit of that forest. All how-
ever that he says of the Urus, with the exception of the ex-
aggerated bulk, is correct, if we refer it to the Bison, though
we may feel somewhat surprised at the mane not being men-
tioned, which, however, is not a very glaring omission in so
general a description.

We now arrive at the testimony of an author, who is the
first that mentions both the Bison and the Urus, viz. Pliny.*
" There are," he says, " two remarkable species of wild oxen,
the maned Bison and the Urus, whose strength and swiftness
are extraordinary, and which common people in their igno-
rance call Bubali? This is all he has to say about animals
wliich he thinks so remarkable; but the less this natural phi-
losopher knew of these creatures, the more convinced must
we feel that he never had an opportunity of seeing either, and
that one of the names came to him from Greece, and the other
from Gallia. I think therefore that the testimony of Pliny has
but little weight in establishing the specific difference of the
Bison and Urus.f

That, however, the animal called Urus was well known to
the Romans about the time of the elder Pliny, as far at least
as it could be known from its hide, is proved by a passage in
the 'Annals' of Tacitus, (lib. iv. c. 72); from which we learn
that in the sixteenth year of the reign of Tiberius, (A. D. 28),
the Frisians rebelled, because Olennius insisted that the hides
of oxen, which they furnished to the Romans for military pur-
poses, as a tribute, must all be the size of "terga urorum"
or the hides of Uri. That in this instance the skin of the
wild animal is to be understood, appears from the whole te-
nour of the passage. + We can, however, scarcely suppose,

As for the Greek ougog, it occurs in an epigram of the Emperor Hadrian, on
a votive offering of the Emperor Trajan. 'Annals,' ii. p. 285. " Kai $oo$
ou^ov, — aamTOV %fy<™ 7rac/A<pavocovTi K£ga$." I found a statement that
the word was already mentioned hy Empedocles, ' Fragmenta de Sphacera,'
hut I have sought for it in vain.

* 'Hist. Nat. lib. viii. c. 15.

fin the 16th chapter Pliny gives the description of the Bonasus, in which
he describes that animal as having the mane of the horse, and the shape of
a bull, and then goes on repeating the fabulous manner of defence, which
Aristotle had ascribed to the Bonasus, and which, no doubt, prevailed upon
Pliny to mention the Bison under two different names.

J" Tributum iis Drusus jusserat modicum, pro angustia rerum, ut in u-
sus militares coria bourn penderent: non intenta cujusquam cura, quae fir-
mitudo, quae mensura ; donee Olennius, e primilaribus, regendis Frisiis
impositus, terga urorum delegit, quorum ad formam accipirentur. Id aliis
quoque nationibus arduum, apud Gcrmanos difficilius tolerabatur, quis in-
gentium belluarum feraces saltus, modica domi arminta sunt," &c.

General Zoological Changes. 247

that these skins were ever sent te Rome in Pliny's time, for
in that case he would have given a more detailed description
of the Urus ; and thus the knowledge which the Roman sol-
diers in Germany had of the animal, did not turn out profit-
able to the science.

We have now to consider those writers, of whom Cuvier
says, that they can testify to the specific difference of the Bi-
son and Urus, as eye-witnesses, because they had seen them
in the circus. There is a passage in one of the tragedies com-
monly ascribed to Seneca,* the vagueness of which is fully
proved by the circumstance that the Bison had also very large
horns ; wherefore we may as well suppose that the Urus may
have had a shaggy skin, although the poet does not mention
the latter character in the one animal, nor the former in the
other. But the passage on which Cuvier chiefly relies, is one
from Martial,t where the Bubalus and Bison are brought to-
gether, as having appeared in the arena. Yet though we have
the testimony of Pliny, that the " imperitum valgus " called
the Urus, t Bubalus,' we also have the same authority! for
knowing that the real Bubalas lived in Africa ; and I think
it much more probable that Martial, who was not numbered
with the "imperitum vulgus" had in view the animal brought
from Africa under the name of Bubalus. The same author
speaks of bisons having drawn cars ;§ and we have the testi-
mony of Pausanias,|| that those of Paeonia were caught alive,
and sometimes tamed by hunger ; whereas the nations inha-
biting the Hercynian forest, never tried or contrived to tame
the Uri, which they had caught in pits.H Thus it is easily
explained, why there were seen in the Roman circus animals
called bisons, and none called Uri.

If we refer to Solinus, an author who is supposed to have
lived in the third century, we find he states that the same
tract which Caesar informs us was the true breeding- ground
of the Uri, swarmed with bisons.** We may therefore sup-
pose that about that time, the nations of Dacia and the south
of Germany, had already become accustomed to the Greek

* " Tibi dant variae pectora tigres,
" Tibi villosi terga bisontes

" Latisque feri cornibus uri." Hippol. Act i. v. 63.
f " UK cessit atrox bubalus atque bison." De Spect. Ep. xxiii.
+ Plin. H.N. lib. viii. c. 15.
§"Turpes esseda quod trahunt bisontes." — Mart. i. cv.
||Pausanias, lib. ix. c. 13. f Caesar, B. G. lib. vi. c. 28.

**C. Jul. Solinus, c. 23, de Germania, in speaking of the Hercynian fo-
rest, says : '*' In hoc tractu, et in omni septentrionali plaga, bisontes frequen-
tissimi, qui bubus feris similes, setosi colla, jubas horridi, ultra tauros per
nicitatc, capti assuescere manu nesciunt."

248 On Mail's Influence in effecting

name of the animal, which, through the great migration of
nations from the east to the west, about A. D. 400, spread as
far westward as the animal itself. This doubt about the name
of the animal, in a country where it was formerly called Urus,
(for I now venture to speak of the Bison and Urus as identi-
cal), is most clearly shewn in the work of a monk of St. Gal-
len,* who describes a hunting party of Carolus Magnus, which
was held in honour of the Persian ambassadors, not far from
Aachen, (Aix la Chapelle), probably in the Ardennes, in or-
der to kill Uri or bisons. Now although the author makes
use of the particle vel, {Bisontes vel Uri), which may be con-
strued in favor of either view, yet I trust no one will suppose
that the Ardennes were inhabited by both the Paeonian Bison
and the Gallic Urus. Besides, as only one individual was
killed, the monk would no doubt have stated to which of the
two species it belonged, had he thought of more than one.

From about that time, the names of Wisen, Wisant, Vi-
sent,f as derived from Bison ; and Ur, Our, Auer, Urochs,
Auerochs, &c. as derived from Urus, appear to have been in-
differently applied, in Germany, to the wild indigenous ox of
middle Europe, until the latter set of names superseded the
former ; and in proportion as the animal was driven farther
east, they followed it through eastern Germany and Prussia,
to its present abode, as the Sclavonian name of zimbr or zubr
has done from a different quarter. + There are other Latin

*Monachus Sangallensis, ' De Gestis Car. Mag.' lib. ii. c. 11. His work
is printed in Basnage Thes. Mon. Eccl. Mag. ; Bouquet Script. Rer. Gal.;
Duchesne Script. Hist. Franc. ; Hahnii Monum. Sec. It is dedicated to
Carolus Crassus, and consequently written within memory of many of the
hunting party which the monk of St. Gallen describes in such a detailed
and matter-of-fact way, that there is no doubt he obtained the particulars
from an eye-witness. We shall have occasion to return to this subject when
speaking of the horns of the Bison and Urus.

fCuvier thinks that the name of Wisen <kc. is derived from the German
Bisam, (musk), and that Bison is of German origin ; (' Ossein. Foss. t.
iv. p. 114). 1 should rather think that Bisam was derived from the name
of the animal, in which the smell of musk forms so striking a feature. —
However this may be, the word Bison may have originated among the bar-
barous nations, as Oppian knew no better derivation than from the Bisto-
nian Thracians. Cyneg. ii. 155.

X I have been somewhat puzzled by a verse which occurs in our ancient
epic, the ' Nibelungenlied,' the origin of which may be traced to the 9th
century. The verse in question relates to the achievements of Siegfried or
Sifrit, the hero of the poem, who, in a hunting party held in Burgundy, is
said to have killed one wisent and four ours.

o

" Darnach sluch er schiere einen Wisent und einen Elch,

o
" Starcher Ure viere und einen grimmen Schelch."
But if we consider how many other tautologies occur in that fantastic po-

General Zoological Changes. 249

authors of the early period of the middle ages, who call the
wild ox of the Ardennes and the Vosgian mountains, " Bu-
balus" as Fortunatus,* whom Cuvier quotes in support of his
opinion ; but is there any proof or probability, that Martial
has used the expression Bubalus in the same sense as the au-
thor of such barbarous Latin verses as those of Fortunatus ?
The author of the 'Martyrdom of St. Genevieve' testifies,
however, that the animal called ' Bubalus ' by the writers of
that period, is the one which was called ' Urus? (Auer), in
Germany.

In support of the opinion that the Urus was a distinct ani-
mal, and the original stock of our horned cattle, Cuvier like-
wise states, that the latter is still called Ur in several parts of
Switzerland. To this we might object, that within very mo-
dern times, the zubr was believed to be the species from which
our tame cattle had sprung; and if the zubr was also called
Auer or Ur by the nations of the Teutonic race, the above ap-
pellation of the tame ox in Switzerland is easily explained on
a different principle. As little have we to think of the real
Urus, at the expression of ' Uri J or i Uri sylvestresj which we
find in Virgil,f and which ought to be referred to common
bulls, enjoying comparative liberty of pasture, or grown half
wild ; or if even these be not deemed wild enough, to really
wild bovine animals of any species you like, as any would
suit the object of the poet.

In my enquiry respecting the characters given by the
Greek and Roman writers, of the Bison and Urus, I have al-
so obtained quite a different result from that at which Cuvi-
er has arrived.^ It is a fact, that in the very few passages
where ancient authors mention the real Urus, which we may

em, and that Sifrit slew also a lion on the same occasion, we may suppose
that the author cared less for realities, than for words conveying proper as-
sociations, and that he was glad to find two names for the same fierce animal.
* " Ardenna, an Vosagus, cervi, caprae, helices ursi
" Caede sagittifera silva fragore tonat,
" Seu validi buhali ferit inter cornua campum."

Lib. vi. poem 4.
f " Tempore non alio dicunt regionibus illis
" Quaesitas ad sacra boves Junonis, et uris
" Imparibus ductos alta ad donaria currus."

Virg. Georg. iii. 531 .
"Cui, super indignas hyemes, solemque potentem,
" Si/lvestres uri assidue capraeque sequaces
" Il'ludunt." Id. ii. 373.

%l Recherches sur les Ossem. Foss.' t. iv. p. 112. " En comparent avec
soin les passages ou il en est question, on voit que le bison se distinguoit
par sa criniere laineuse, et l'urus par la grandeur de ses cornes."

250 On Mans Influence in effecting

take for granted none of them had seen, the mane, or shaggy
neck of the animal is not mentioned ; but as for the horns,
we have as good, and perhaps better evidence that those of
the Bison were of enormous size, as that those of the Urus
were of large growth. Herodotus says of the Bob; aypioi of
Paeonia, "uv rcc ne^ea usrEf^syaSsa." Samios or Simmios, in the
epigram on the skin of a wild ox, (probably a Bison), dedi-
cated to Hercules by king Philip, the son of Demetrius, (see
'Brunckii Anthol.' i. p. 485), first calls the horns " o^yviaia"
and then more precisely, "Teo-o-aga nat $t)ta$u$a" (of the size of
fourteen palms); and if therefore Caesar and Solinus ascribe
to the Urus large horns, this can only argue for the opinion
that the Bison and Urus were the same animal. The monk
of St. Gallen likewise says of the animal wounded by Carolus
Magnus and killed by Isambardus, which he calls Bison vel
Urus, that its horns were of an enormous size, {imi?ianissi?nis
cornibus in testimonium prolatis), and this various evidence
is quite in harmony with what we may suppose the horns of
the zubr to have been at an earlier period. For that animal,
which has now dwindled down to the weight of 700 pounds
for the largest specimens, and which formerly must have been
when full grown, at least 2000 pounds, still has horns that
measure, from tip to tip, round their curves and over the fore-
head, four French feet.* We may therefore take for granted
that, at a time when the old zubrs grew to the weight of 2000
pounds and more, their horns encompassed from seven to eight
feet, and must have excited the greatest wonder in the behold-
ers. As late as the beginning of the 17th century, specimens
were killed in Poland weighing 1800 pounds ; and the state-
ment of Herberstein, that about the beginning of the 16th cen-
tury one was found, between whose horns three stout men
could sit, is therefore not so incredible as Bojanus thinks it.
Moreover, I cannot see why the origin of our tame cattle
should be traced to a wild species, distinguished for the im-
mense size of its horns. In no breed of oxen that I am ac-
quainted with, has the bull very large horns. The uncom-
mon size to which they often grow, is a consequence of cas-
tration, a circumstance already indicated by Democritus, as
testified by yElian, ('TIe^i Zcow faonrroi,' lib. xii. c. 19). In
Hungary it is statedf there are oxen whose horns measure six
feet from tip to tip, but this I suppose to be only the effect of
castration.

* Bojanus, 'De Uro nostrate,' Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol, vol.
vxiii. pp. 451 and 452. " Spatium inter cornuum radicem, ubi angustissi-
mum, 1 pes. Cornuum longitudo, juxta convexum eorum marginem, la p

tGemeinnutzigeNaturgcscliichte,vonDr.H.C.Lenz,Gotlia,1835,p.406.

General Zoological Changes. 251

In the authors of that period of the middle ages which fol-
lows the reigns of the early Frankonian kings, down to the
time of the reformation, we look in vain for information which
would enlighten us more on the point in question. The prin-
ces and knights had, as to the wild oxen, no higher aim than
that of hunting and eating them ; the minstrels cared very lit-
tle for the scientific part of Natural History ; and the monks
faithfully copied what had been written a thousand years ago.
It is scarcely credible, but nevertheless true, that the monk
Aimonius, (Aimoine)* who wrote his four books of French
History,* about a thousand years after Caesar, has copied ver-
batim what the latter says of the Urus, though he might have
obtained much better information, had he taken the trouble
to consult living authorities. But towards the middle of the
17th century, appeared an author of note, Herberstein,f who
gives a decided opinion on the subject, which has influenced
all subsequent writers down to the latest period. Herberstein
gives descriptions and figures of two bovine animals, which
he says were found in Poland at the time he visited that coun-
try. The one he calls Bison, Lat. ; Zubr, Pol. ; and Bisont,
Germ. ; adding, that ignorant people name it Urus : the other,
Urus, Lat. ; Tar, Pol. ; and Aurox, Germ. ; adding, that ig-
norant people call it Bisons. The description and figure of
the former agree very well with the animal now found in the
forest of Bialowicza ; those of the latter, which Herberstein
states to live only in a few preserves or parks of Muscovia,
are, in every essential respect, like those of the domestic horn-
ed cattle. As Herberstein staid a considerable time at the
court of king Sigismundus Augustus, we might, at first sight,
believe that he had ample opportunities of observing for himself
the objects of his report. But if we look more closely into
his statement, we shall find much internal evidence respect-
ing a great want of precise information about the Tur ; and
it is my conviction, that most of what he says on that animal
has been palmed upon him. In addition to what Bojanus
alleges,! as being favorable to the opinion that the turs of
Masovia were a few individuals of the original wild ox, (Bos
taurus), which had escaped death or domestication, such as,
he says, are still found in a few parks of Scotland and Eng-
land ; or what Jarocki states§ to prove that the tur was the

* Duchesne's Script. Hist. Franc. ; see Aimonius. Hist. Franc, lib. i. c. 2.

t Rerum Muscoviticarum Commentarii. Basil, 1556. j Lib. c. p. 416. seq.

§Jarocky, O Pusczy Bialowiezkiey, Warsaw, 1830. The chief argument
of which this author makes use, to refute Herberstein, and to establish the
identity of the tur and zubr, is, that the people in Masovia still know the
plants of which the animal they called tur was most fond, and that they are

•252 On Man^s Influence in effecting

same animal as the zubr, which he thinks was called tur in
Muscovia and Samogitia, and zubr in Lithuania, I shall say,
in corroboration of the latter opinion, that nearly all that Her-
berstein knew about the tur from hearsay, is fabulous ; (for in-
stance, that it breeds with tame cows, but that the progeny
does not come to perfection, "vituli qui nascuntur non sunt
vitales ; " that the turs which have mixed with tame cows,
are expelled from their herd, as infamous, &c.) the report
which he makes respecting the carcass of a tur, given to him
by King Sigismundus Augustus, bears strong evidence of his
having received a zubr, which the men who delivered it call-
ed tur, whereas he himself allows that he was absent at the
time the present was received. For the specimen in question
was one of those driven from the herd for the reason above
stated, and it is well known that the zubrs often drive bulls
from their herds, or that old bulls insulate themselves of their
own accord, which solitary specimens are now called " Sa-
mowtor," or "Odyniec." In the specimen which Herberstein
obtained, the scalp was wanting; and this happens to be just
the part of the skin which is the centre of the musky smell
in the zubr, and to which medicinal and mysterious powers
were formerly ascribed. However, Herberstein forgot to ask
why it was wanting,* and as on that occasion he did not
even ascertain the nature of the hair of the tur, but describes
this important character from a girdle of the skin of the Urus
(or tur), sent to him at a later period, when in Austria, by
Antonius Schneeberger,f we have strong reasons to suppose
that he did not even see the carcass presented to him.

I must also refer to a circumstance which is not irrelevant
as to the opinion that the zubr and tur are identical. In Con-
rad Gesner's'Icones Animalium,' p. 30, (Heidelb. edit. 1606),
is a representation of the manner in which the Urus was kill-
ed, which evidently owes its origin to the description from
which Herberstein copies his report on the method of hunt-
precisely the same as those which the zubr prefers, in the forest of Bialow-
icza. He found in the Archives of Warsaw, that the last turs in Masovia
died in 1630, of a distemper communicated to them by the tame cattle, pro-
bably the typhus. This may be true of half-wild common oxen kept in
parks, and wrongly called turs. As for the real turs or zubr, they were pro-
bably extirpated by poachers, as the forest of Jakturow in Masovia was not
strictly preserved.

*" Quod non temere factum esse credidi, quanquam cur id fieri soleret,
per incogitantiam quandam non sum percontatus."

f-"Cujus corium duriusculum validumque est; pili vero, (quod mireris),
mollissimi, instar pecoris lance, densi coloris nigri, sed rufo modice admix-
to, si proprius spectes." This was no doubt a piece of skin of the part
of the zubr that is not shaggy.

General Zoological Changes. 253

ing the Bison; (see below). The animal figured there has
the form of a common ox, but the author is honest enough
to confess that it was not drawn from nature ; whereas at p.
31 is a very tolerable figure of the Bison, (zubr). From the
above it appears, that the painter from whose map of Russia*
Gesner obtained the figure of the Urus, (to which the latter
gives the synonyme of Thur), had drawn his composition af-
ter the same information, as applied to the tur, as that which
Herberstein had obtained, as applied to the zubr.

Enough has been said by Bojanus, Jarocld, &c. to shew
that the subsequent authors, down to Cuvier, who have given
an opinion on the tur and zubr, and were more or less sway-
ed by Herberstein, as Gesner, Aldrovand, Jonston, Henne-
berger, Hartknoch, Masecovius, Cnapius, Thad. Czacki,
Kluck, and even Buffon, Linnaeus, Pallas, &c. have only ren-
dered the subject more obscure. f

The result at which we have at length arrived, with a de-
gree of probability which is perhaps allowed to be better es-
tablished than that obtained by Bojanus, is, that the Urns
and Bison are the same animal ; and that we have for the
creature now called in the system, Bos Urns, four sets of sy-
nonymes, viz. one probably of barbarous origin, but employ-
ed by Aristotle, Bonasus, Monassus : one, it seems also of
barbarous origin, Bison, Visen, Wisont, Wisant, &c. ; one

* Gesner. 1. c. "Aus einer Mappa des Moscowiterlands genommen."
fl must leave it to such as live nearer the ancient habitat of the Scottish
Bison, described by Hector Boethius as being quite white, as having a mane
like a lion, but in other respects much resembling the tame oxen, to settle
the doubts which still exist respecting the real nature of this interesting a-
nimal. Boethius further says that these bisons are so wild, that when a man
has touched with his hand, or even breathed upon grass, trees, Sec. they will
avoid such places for many days ; and that they will die with sadness if
caught. (Descrip. Regn. Scot. fol. xi.). If nothing but this description
were extant, and the same authentic, we should perhaps not hesitate to re-
fer the animal to the Bos urus, (zubr). But from the time of Boethius,
(16th century), to that of Buffon, these bisons, though kept in nearly the
same manner in the parks of the Dukes of Hamilton and Queensberry, as
the zubr is in the forest of Bialowicza, had lost their mane, if we may give
credit to a letter of Forster to Buffon, (see Cuvier's edition of Buffon, t.
xviii. pp. 88 and 89). This appears very strange in a rather cold climate.
He also states that they were then not larger than a middling-sized ox ; the
males weighing 530, and the females 400 pounds. Their colour was white,
except at the muzzle and ears, which were black. The description of their
form, as given by Forster, is extremely imperfect, as he merely says that
they had finer horns and higher legs than the domestic oxen, which brings
them again nearer the zubr, as does also the strength of their skin, the rush
they made at the hunter, and their antipathy to the tame cattle. Cuvier
took this animal for a variety of the zubr, but in the absence of osteological
testimony, I apprehend this point will never be decided.

254 On Maris Influence in effecting

derived from the same root as Taurus, (the syllable or, or ur,
of the primitive language, from which the Greek 6%o$, and the
very word origin is derived, and which conveys the idea of
what is ancient and grand), Urus, Gall, and Lat. Our, Auer,
Ur, Auerochs, Germ. TJreox, Eng. Tur, Pol. Tor, Russ. Tyr,
Dan.; and one of Sclavonian origin, Zimbr, Mold, and Zubr
Lith.

Though the Bos primogenius, of which Gesner obtained a
skull from England, and of which crania, found in different
parts of Europe, exist in the Museums of Paris, Gottingen,
Darmstadt, &c. and that of Jena possesses a perfect skeleton,
dug up near Hassleben, a village in the grand-duchy of Wei-
mar,* have been proved by Cuvier to be the antediluvian re-
presentative of the Bos taurus,f yet the short and straight
hair which the domesticated ox retains in every climate, if
compared with that of its congeners, the Bos urus, B. Ame-
ricanus, B. moschatus, makes it probable that it is indige-
nous to a warm country, and that it has been brought from
India, by Egypt, to Europe ; whereas its wild stock, like that
of the camel and dromedary, has vanished at a very remote
period.

Before I begin the description of the Bos urus, I feel com-
pelled to make a few remarks on the more remote habitats
which have been ascribed to this species. The statement
that it was found in Siberia and on Mount Caucasus, had hi-
therto rested upon misconceptions or vague rumours, until
Mr. de Baer, of the St. Petersburgh Academy, endeavour-
ed to shew, in two articles read to the Academy on the 23rd
September, and the 20th October, 1836, that the Bos urus is
found, at the present day, in the Caucasian mountains, and
that it is probably met with in some districts of India, as well
as other parts of Asia.

The former opinion Mr. de Baer tries to establish on the
authority of a skin sent to the Academy from Mount Cauca-
sus, by General Rosen. There are, however, some points in
that eminent philosopher's own comparison of that skin with
the skin of the Bos urus of Lithuania, wThich would appear to
lead to a different conclusion. In the first place Mr. de Baer
owns that there are differences in the length and direction of
the horns, as well as the length and colour of the hair, on dif-
ferent parts of the body, which differences he ascribes to the
circumstance, that the skin sent by General Rosen, is that of

* A very good figure of that skeleton may be seen in the article of Boja-
nus, Nov. Act. Acad. C»s. Leop. Carol, t. xiii. p. 2.
f Ossein. Foss. t. iv. p. 150, &c.

General Zoological Changes. 255

a cow. But these points might, no doubt, have been settled
in a very precise manner, by a comparison with the skins of
zubr-cows, which are probably nowhere to be found in great-
er variety than in the Museum of the Academy, and of which
there exists a specimen in that of Wilna. The presence of
a black stripe along the mesial line of the back, as well as the
difference in the hoofs, which Mr. de Baer says are much
shorter in what he calls the Caucasian variety of the Bos u-
rusy are, however, enough in themselves to cause a doubt of
the specific identity of the two animals. Without insisting
too much on the perfect equality of wild species having a ve-
ry extensive habitat, (though Dr. Poppig found, for example
the fox quite the same in Chili and Pennsylvania), I would
be allowed to remark, that the dark stripe along the back is
one of the constant characters of several species, and that in
a whole genus, (Equus), the stripes of the skin form one of
the distinguishing characters. But what militates even more
against Mr. de Baer's opinion, is the comparative shortness
of the hoof in the Caucasian animal. We may, no doubt, ob-
serve, in domesticated animals that have followed man to lo-
calities not originally their own, a considerable deviation of
that organ from its primary type; as, for instance, the hoof of
horses bred in mountainous districts, is considerably narrow-
er and shorter than in the flat and soft-hoofed horses reared
on the marshy plains near Madgeburg ; but assuredly this
analogy does not apply to wild animals, nor especially to the
Bos urus, if it did live in Caucasia, where the swampy forests,
which are its natural abode, as proved, not only by several of
its habits, but particularly by the herbaceous plants to which
it gives a decided preference, as we shall see hereafter, which
exist in such profusion in the valleys, that it would rather have
suffered itself to be extirpated there, than have taken refuge in
the mountains. Thus the zebra is never found on the Kar-
roo mountains, but always in the plains around them ; while
the douw, or mountain horse, (Equus montanus, Burch.), ne-
ver descends from the same mountains into the plain. Yet
the specific difference of these two animals rests chiefly on
the presence or absence of a few stripes of the skin, as well
as on the comparative flatness or shortness of hoof. There-
fore until the skeleton of the Caucasian Bos shall have been
compared with that of the Bos urus, I think we may consider
the two creatures as bearing much the same relation to each
other, as the Equus montanus and the E. Zebra.*

* Mr. Ed. Eichwald, who, after having made the Bos urus of Lithuania
the object of his special study, has travelled in Mount Caucasus, could
Vol. II.— No. 17. n. s. y

256 Observations upon the Affinities

After taking for granted that the Bos urus is likewise found
on Mount Caucasus, Mr. de Baer advances the opinion, that
the Gaour of India, which has but lately been discovered, in
the mountains of Mine Rout, near the Bay of Bengal, is like-
wise a variety of the zubr. The gaour we know only from
the imperfect descriptions given by Mr. Breton and Major
Hamilton, (who names the species Bos Gaurus), of a male
specimen killed in 1816, as well as through that of Major
Roughsedge, who saw a specimen killed in 1818. But though
the gaour be very nearly allied to the Bos urus, in point of
structure, yet its horns are said to be flattened, (whereas they
are entirely round in the Bos urus), its hair, from the knee
downwards, is of a dirty white, and that which covers the
trunk is stated to be as short and shining as that of the seal.
Then the smell of musk, so striking in the Bos urus, has not
been observed, and the animal has not been found in a marshy
locality, nor in the valley. Thus I do not see why, in this
little advanced stage of our knowledge of that animal, we are
justified in considering it the same species as the Bos urus,
particularly as it seems to deviate more from it, than the Bos
americanus.

We may, therefore, with much probability, consider the
zubrs of the forest of Bialowicza, as the only survivors of a
species which was formerly found, in great numbers, in
the vast swampy forests of the whole of middle Europe, and
perhaps Great Britain, whilst no other wild bovine animal
inhabited the same tract within the historical times.

(To be continued).

Art. II. Outlines of a new arrangement of Insessorial Birds.
By Edward Blyth, Esq. Curator to the Ornithological Society.

Having been induced to postpone the publication of a new
Systema Avium, in consequence of a recent connection war-
ranting the anticipation of being able, in due time, to obtain
several present desiderata, I now submit the following sum-

not there detect the least trace of the animal. The description of his jour-
ney is just publishing at Stuttgart and Tubingen : ' Reise auf dem Kas-
pischen Meere, und in dem Kaukasus, in den Jahren 1825 & 1826, von E.
Eichwald, K.R. Staatsrath, Th. i. Abth. 1 & 2. 1834 & 1837, 8vo. I may
also remark, in addition to what I have stated above, that in the report I
have read on Mr. de Baer's article, there is nothing said about the smell of
musk having been observed in the skin sent by General Rosen.

and Classification of Birds. 257

mary to the attention of naturalists ; reserving, until the con-
clusion of it, some remarks on the principles upon which it is
founded.

The class of Birds appears to me to be resolvable into three
primary divisions, which might be respectively styled, —
INSESSORES,
GRESSORES, and
NATATORES;
for I think it will be admitted, that, with regard to the first,
(to which alone I am now desirous to call attention), a king-
fisher and a sparrow, a parrot and a humming-bird, are fully
as remote in their affinities from one another, as are either of
them from a member of the Accipitres, (Linnaeus) ; while, on
the other hand, the whole of these present decidedly a closer
mutual physiological relation, than either of them evinces for
any species pertaining to the Gressores or Natatores. These
three comprehensive primary groups, I prefer to denominate
Sub-classes.

For the sake of perspicuity, it is here necessary to remark,
that under the designation Gressores, I unite the Rasores and
Grallatores of the quinary systematists, for similar reasons to
those which have prompted the junction of the Raptores and
Insessores. On no other principle could I accede to the sup-
pression of the strongly-characterized struthious genera, or
the 'oiseaux abnormaux' of recent French systematise, as a
primary division ; in which distinct group, it may be remark-
ed, the bustards, which are little else than massive plovers,
have been strangely misplaced.

It is also proper to add, before proceeding farther, as con-
firmatory of a position advanced in the preceding paragraph
but one, that the genus Alectura, (Gray), or the " New Hol-
land vulture" of Latham, classified among the Vulturidce by
Mr. Swainson, is in every respect a true Gallinaceous bird,
which picks up grain voraciously, like other poultry, (as T am
informed by an eye-witness of the fact). Indeed there are very
few, who do not entirely confine their attention to the most
superficial characters, who could for a moment suppose that
the skeleton, or the digestive organs, of a vulture and poultry
bird, could admit of combination. Again, the Megapodius
and Menura, arranged by the same systematist among the
curassows, depart, in no essential particular, (so far as is
known), from the thrush tribe : the species of the former ge-
nus even progressing by a saltatory gait, which is observable
in no member of the Gressores ; and the Menura, as I have
been informed, being a bird of song. Examination of a sin-
gle feather even, plucked from either of these two genera,

y 2

258 Observations upon the Affinities

abundantly suffices to shew its appropriate systematic station.
The resemblance which the parrots bear to the pigeons, in
the particular of secreting a lacteal fluid for the nourishment
of their young, may seem of importance ; but I am inclined to
regard this as a coincidence, rather than as a token of affinity.

In every branch of natural history, except Ornithology, it
would be superfluous at the present day to remark, that the
resemblances which subsist among organisms are of two dis-
tinct kinds, — namely, rudimentary and adaptive, or intrin-
sical, as opposed to superficial, — characters indicative of
affinity, or physiological proximity, and those which imply
simply what is understood by the term analogy. It is trite to
affirm that the whale is in every essential feature a true mam-
malian, though modified to pass its life after the manner of
fishes ; yet on precisely the same principle that that animal
is still vulgarly classed with fishes, has the Alectura been
placed with the vultures, and the Megapodius with the curas-
sows; the only difference being, that in these instances groups
of a lower degree of value are concerned. Analogous approx-
imations might be cited without number ; as, in the Insesso-
res alone, those of the swifts to the swallows, the todies to
the dentirostral flycatchers, the hoopoes to the creepers or
Promerops group, the Scythrops to the toucans, the humming
birds to the sun-birds, (Cinnyrida), &c. while separations,
equally at variance with every physiological accordancy,
have been necessarily as frequent. How indeed could it be
otherwise, when the internal structure of a bird has received
not even the slightest share of attention on the part of those
who, nevertheless, venture to speak authoritatively respect-
ing the affinities of groups ? When the adaptive characters
of species have, confessedly, been allowed the precedence of
their rudimentary distinctions ?

The composition of the group Fissirostres of modern Eng-
lish systematists, may be adduced as a very forcible illustra-
tion of the heterogeneous associations necessarily consequent
on the adoption of the preposterous mode of classifying which
is here impugned.

Of course, such gross violations of affinity continually in-
tercept extensive, and sometimes important, generalizations.
Thus, the improper admittance of the rain fowl, (Scythrops),
into the Rhamphastidce, and of the Menura into the Craci-
dce, extends the distribution of both these families into Aus-
tralia; whereas their legitimate components are inhabitants
solely of South America. Again, the vast region of Australia
is remarkable for possessing no known species appertaining
to the vulture family, (a fact which may be regarded in con-

and Classification of Birds. 259

nection with the absence of indigenous ruminant quadrupeds);
wherefore the erroneous introduction of the Alectura into that
family, similarly negatives another fact connected with the ge-
ographical distribution of forms. How easy, upon this prin-
ciple, to affirm that the Psittacidce are represented in northern
Europe ! We have only to admit the crossbills into it, which
would be confounding groups of an inferior degree of value
to those which have been specified !

The quinary distribution of birds may, I imagine, be pre-
sumed to be founded on the supposition, that the rudimental
anatomy offers corresponding gradations to those which have
been indicated as obtaining externally : but, if such be the no-
tion, nought can be more thoroughly gratuitous, or even more
palpably opposed to fact. For my own part, deeming that
anatomy, when aided by every character which the manner
of propagation, the progressive changes, and other physiolo-
gical data supply, is the only sure basis of classification, I
have spared no pains to collect all the information in my pow-
er, that could conduce to the establishment of a permanent
system of Ornithology : and, by slow degrees, I have now ar-
rived at a general classification, most widely and essentially
different from that published in a late volume of 'Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia.' It remains to be seen which is the
more philosophical, or consistent with the real affinities of
groups.

But little, I apprehend, can be affirmed to distinguish di-
chotomously the members of the insessorial sub-class, as here
composed. All have the toes articulated on an even plane,
with the claws more or less retractile : and the young are in
every instance hatched helpless and blind, requiring to have
food placed in their mouths.* Excepting in the vulture fa-
mily, the number of cervical vertebrae never exceeds thirteen ;f
and the entire vertebral formula is considerably less subject to
variation than in the Gressores and Natatores. These charac-
ters, however, are to be considered as generalizations, rather
than distinctions; and I am unaware of a single universal
character of the Insesso?°es, which will not equally apply to
the pigeons. It may be added, that, with the exception of a
very few parasitic species, which engender promiscuously^

* Will this apply to the Alectura P And will it not apply to the Mega-
podius and Menura P

f Or rather, perhaps, to speak more strictly, twelve ; which is the lowest
number in this class of animals, although the* Fringillidce have been repeat-
edly stated to have only nine : the thirteenth vertebra bearing, in numerous
instances, a minute rib, which is commonly wanting in mounted skeletons,
having been lost in the preparation.

y 3

260 Observations upon the Affinities

the members of this sub-class are strictly monogamous ; the
sexes incubating by turns, and assisting to rear their broods.
There is no ascertained instance of a truly polygamous bird,
save among the Gressores.

Of course, the Accipitres, (Linnaeus), being admitted into
this great primary division, compose an exceedingly distinct
ordinal section of it. Another, equally so, has never, that I
am aware of, been definitively recognised, (unless by L'Her-
minier in his excellent work on the sterna of birds, where it
is partially indicated). It consists of that excessively nume-
rous group of species which are distinguished by possessing
five pairs of muscles to the inferior larynx ; all of which a-
gree most closely in the structure of the skeleton, in that of
the digestive organs, and, in short, in all the principal details
of their anatomy. The members of this group accord in their
rudimental structure, however in their adaptive characters
they may vary exceedingly. The swallow and the tree-creep-
er, the promerops, the finch, and the crow, the dipper and
the manakin, are merely so many modifications of a single
anatomical type, to which no species that does not possess
the complex vocal apparatus before adverted to, appertains.
Every member of this most distinctly demarcated group, may
be at once recognised by the conformation of its sternal ap-
paratus ;* and, except from the diurnal Accipitres, by the
constant presence of two small ccecal appendages to the in-
testine, whereas all other Insessores, so far as my researches
have gone, are either entirely destitute of cceca, or have them
developed to the same proportional magnitude as in the owls,
which, throughout the present sub-class, is never exceeded.
The absence of cooca I have ascertained in the hombills, king-
fishers and halcyons, toucans, touracos, parrots, woodpeck-
ers, wrynecks, piculets, (Picumnus), swifts, and humming-
birds ; and their presence, of the maximum dimensions stated,
in the todies, jacamars, trogons, cuckoos, (including Scy-
throps), and moth-hunters, (Caprimulgidce) : judging from
analogy, I infer that they are absent in the hoopoes, bee-eat-
ers, rollers, barbets, honey-guides, and perhaps motmots, and
the Oxyrhynchus ; and developed in the puff-birds, courols,
coucals, malkohas, and ani. Information relative to the
anatomy of either of the twelve last-named groups, would to
me be extremely acceptable.

* Several examples of this type of sternum, with the other bones in im-
mediate connexion with it, are depicted in Mr. Yarrell's ' History of British
Birds,' as vignettes to the descriptions of some of the thrushes, and allied
genera.

and Classification of Birds. 261

It may be worth while, here, to bestow a few remarks on
the developement or absence of the coeca coli, considered as
a zoological character. That their presence is of trivial or
no importance in the animal economy, when very small, is
proved by the occasional absence of these appendages, in
species which normally possess them : thus, of two young
male ospreys which I have recently dissected, they existed in
one specimen and not in the other. Again, Mr. Owen has
detected caeca, larger than in a lark, in a single individual of
the green woodpecker, throughout which group they are in-
disputably normally absent. The same anatomist has record-
ed their absence in a spoonbill, in which species I have found
them, though exceedingly minute, as in the storks. Analo-
gous discrepancies, however, obtain in various other organs,
serving to indicate the extreme caution requisite in deducing
conclusions from the examination of an insufficient number
of specimens. Of three giraffes, dissected by Mr. Owen, the
first possessed a capacious gall-bladder, whilst not the slight-
est trace of this organ existed in either of the others ; yet the
gall-bladder, (so far as has been observed), is constantly pre-
sent in the antelopes, and absent in the deer ; constituting,
in these groups, a distinctive character. A receptacle for the
secretion of the liver is also inconstantly present in some spe-
cies of birds ; the French Academicians failed to detect it in
four out of six demoiselles, [Gruidce : Anthropoides virgo) ;
yet in the parrots and pigeons, (both exclusively vegetable
feeders), its absence is an invariable characteristic; as its pre-
sence is throughout the group of Accipitres. The spoonbill,
like the storks and adjutants, is described to be destitute of
any muscles to the trachea, which ordinarily undergoes a con-
volution resembling the figure of 8 ; yet in a female which I
not long ago dissected, the windpipe proceeded straight to
the divarication of the bronchi, and it was furnished with a
small pair of sterno-tracheales. Of seven Bewick's swans,
which I have examined carefully, three possessed eighteen
tail-feathers, two nineteen, and the others twenty ; while a
number of hooper swans respectively presented twenty, twen-
ty-one, and twenty-two ; and however extraordinary the un-
even numbers may appear, yet, that no accidental deficiency
existed, was ascertained to complete satisfaction, by scrupu-
lous internal examination. It should be remembered that
much importance has been attached to this last character by
the discriminators of species ; and although it is true that
some species of motmots appear to nave constantly ten tail-
feathers and others twelve, (the outermost minute), yet, taking
the Tnsessores generally, I must still contend that the number

y 4

26*2 Observations upon the Affinities

of tail-feathers in this sub-class is a valuable, or rather per-
haps useful, diagnostic : for instance, in the Accipitres, and
in the other grand division which I have partly characterized,
their number is, without exception, twelve ; while, curiously
enough, in nearly all the genera which have been improperly
placed with the members of these divisions, it does not ex-
ceed ten. I refer to Podargus, which has been approximated
to the owls ; Caprimulgus, and Cgpselus, to the swallows ;
Upupa to the creepers or promerops group ; and the Troclii-
lidce to the Cinnyridoi : in all which instances this apparent-
ly unimportant diversity indicates distinctions of real conse-
quence, pervading the entire structure. It may be remarked
that throughout the Insessores the number of caudal feathers
never exceeds twelve ; which number is in no instance fallen
short of in the Gressores and Natatores, — save, however, in
two or three genera, as the grebes, which possess no tail what-
ever.* The Alectura accords with the grouse, and various
other GallinaceSy in possessing eighteen caudal feathers;
even this external character distinctly pointing out its appro-
priate systematic station.f

But to return to the consideration of the cceca. Without
regarding individual deviations or monstrosities, as of suffici-
ent importance to mar extensive generalizations, the facts
that have been already stated relative to the absence or de-
gree of developement, of these appendages in the Insessores,
impart a value to the character which is thence derivable,
disproportionate to the influence that they exercise in the ani-
mal economy. It has been remarked, for instance, in refe-
rence to the large size of the cceca in the owl family, as com-
pared with the minuteness of them in the diurnal Accipitres,
that, — "As digestion may be supposed to go on less actively
in the somnolent night-flying owls, than in the high-soaring
diurnal birds of prey, an additional complexity of the alimen-
tary canal, for the purpose of retaining the chyme somewhat
longer in its passage, might naturally be expected ; and the
enlarged cceca of the nocturnal Raptores afford the requisite
adjustment in this case. For, although the nature of the food
is the same in the owls as in the hawks, yet the differences of

* Yet the grebes have the uropygal glands considerably developed, which
subverts the notion that these have any necessary connexion with the tail,
as has been assumed from their absence, together with the part that should
contain them, in the Gallus ecaudatus of Temminck.

f The poultry genera differ very remarkably in the number of tail-feathers.
Thus, the colins, (Ortyx)y have only twelve, the partridges fourteen, the ptar-
migan sixteen, and the true grouse eighteen, which I believe is the ultima-
tum arrived at.

and Classification of Birds. *26'3

habit of life call for corresponding differences in the mechan-
ism for its assimilation."* But admitting to the full extent
the reasonableness of this view, and its accordancy with fact,
in the aggregate, it should still be remembered that the ra-
pidly-flying, active, snowy owl, which on the wing is scarce-
ly distinguishable from the jer falcon, possesses cceca fully as
much developed as the light-flapping barn owl; while, on the
other hand, the lazy, smooth-sailing buzzard, the floating
kite, or the buoyantly-skimming harrier, presents no farther
developement of these appendages than the darting hawks,
or the impetuous far-rushing falcons, f The diurnal and
nocturnal Accipitres differ importantly in the skeleton, as well
as in other portions of the structure of the alimentary pas-
sage ; exhibiting no trace whatever of a gradation or transi-
tion from one into the other, in these rudimentary characters,
however they may superficially appear to do so. They con-
stitute, in brief, two separate sub-types of the more general
type of the Accipitres : and the respective amount of deve-
lopement of the ceeca coli, is one of many invariable charac-
ters proper to each. It is, as it were, a necessary accompa-
niment, or one of the items of the subtypical conformation.

Throughout the Insessores, I have found that the degree of
developement of the cceca is thus an adjunctive character of
some value in indicating natural groups ; but in the Gresso-
res and Natatores it is of less importance.^ Of course it would
be idle to demonstrate to any practical naturalist, that the
majority of characters are thus of variable consequence in dif-
ferent groups.

To sum up, we have seen that the intestine, in the pre-
sent sub-class, is either entirely devoid of cceca, or that these
appendages, being present, are either of small size, or of
considerable dimensions, that is to say, of the magnitude no-
ticeable in the owls. They are either minute, or largely de-
veloped, in the Accipitres ; invariably present, and of small
size, in the extensive division which presents the anatomy of
the raven ; and either absent, or considerably developed, in
the remainder of the sub-class : at present I know of no (nor-
mal) exception to these generalizations.

The structure of the vocal organs, also, as has been alrea-

* Cyclop. Anat. and Phys. i. 324.

f There are even some instances of an inverse developement of cceca to
that required hy the theory respecting the use of these appendages, which
has heen quoted. Thus the skuas, (Lestris), possess them of much larger
size than the gulls.

X For instance, the smew possesses only one minute ccecum, while its con-
geners, the other species of Merganser, have two comparatively large cceca.

264 Observations upon the Affinities

dy intimated, affords assistance towards extricating the com-
ponent groups of the Insessores from the confusion into which
they have been plunged. The reader is referred, however, for
minute descriptions of the several modifications, to Mr. Yar-
rell's elaborate and well-known paper on the trachea of birds
in the 'Linnean Transactions.' The following are the varia-
tions presented in the present sub-class. First ; a wind-pipe
destitute of any peculiar muscle, which occurs only in the ge-
nus Sarcoramphus, (or condor, comprising Vultur gryphus
and V. papa of Linnaeus) ; the members of which are neces-
sarily deprived of voice, and emit no sound beyond a weak
snorting. Secondly ; the existence of a single pair of mus-
cles, which have been designated sterno-tracheales ; though
the term is not in every instance applicable, as in some birds,
(the crowned cranes, for example), the lower attachment of
these muscles is to the first true rib, and I have noticed some
other variations which require investigation : this, which is
the prevalent structure throughout the entire class, is com-
mon to the rest of the Accipitres, and to all other Insessores,
except the parrots, and those which have been indicated as
possessing small-sized coeca ; in the peregrine falcon, how-
ever, a. short second pair, or more strictly speaking division
of the first, is continued downward and attached to the bony
ring whence the bronchi divaricate ; and there are rudiments
of a similar structure in other species. We may generalize
by styling this a simple vocal apparatus. Thirdly; the com-
plicated inferior larynx of the Psittacidce, operated upon by
three pairs of muscles, and which is capable of dilatation and
contraction, whence the superior facility possessed by these
birds of inflecting the voice, and, by the more imitative, of
articulating words. Fourthly ; the complex organ of the ra-
ven, and its very numerous allies, presenting as many as five
pairs of muscles ; though in one instance, that of the mina
genus, (as I am informed by Mr. Yarrell), the long sterno-tra-
cheales being absent, the number is reduced to four.* All
singing birds appertain to this division ; and although many
species, framed upon the same rudimental type, and conse-
quently possessing similar vocal organs, as the cotingas and
manakins, and our native nuthatch, have only a monotonous
cry, yet the reason of this does not proceed from the incapa-
city of modulating the voice, as songless species, reared in
captivity under warblers, have been known to imitate the
notes of the latter to perfection.

* This exception may be regarded as analogous to that which the con-
dors offer to the rest of the Accipitres ; all the peculiar muscles of the pre-
ceding group being retained.

and Classification oj Birds. 265

Arrived at these generalizations, a suspicion is immediate-
ly cast on the reputed power of the ani, {Crotophaga), to imi-
tate sounds;* and on the reported song of the todies, {To-
dm) :f but we are tempted to ask why Mr. Swainson should
express surprise at the musical powers of the Cinnyrida?, at-
tested as they are by several observers of credit, on no other
ground than because he has thought fit to approximate them
to the songless group of humming-birds. % Examination of
the lower larynx of the two former genera, at once disproves
the assertions of numerous authors ; while, in the latter in-
stance, satisfactory confirmation is obtained. I have been in-
formed by observers of these birds in their native haunts, of
the fallacy of descriptions of the two former ; and Mr. Mac-
Leay relates that the loquacious boat-tailed grackle has been
repeatedly confounded with the ani.

It is in the two groups which have been stated to possess
a complex vocal apparatus, conjointly with the diurnal Rap-
tores, that we find the highest cerebral developement in the
feathered class, accompanied by the maximum of intelligence,
or of sagacity as opposed to blind instinct ; while the reverse
extreme is likewise noticeable in the Insessores, in the in-
stances of the cuckoo, wherein the entire mass of brain bare-
ly exceeds in weight a single eye, and of the moth-hunter,
one eye of which considerably outweighs the brain ; — though,
in the latter case, the organ of vision happens to be of unu-
sual magnitude, the brain also being proportionally smaller
than in any other bird I know of ; in connexion with which
facts, it may be remarked, that the quality or attribute of do-
cility, or rather, perhaps, imitativeness, is peculiar among
the Insessores to the members of the three first-specified di-
visions ; for although there are many instances of insessorial
birds, not pertaining to these groups, which have been ren-
dered extremely tame and familiar, and which have become
considerably attached to persons whom they knew, distin-
guishing such very readily from strangers, yet I do not re-
member one wherein capacity for instruction has been exhi-
bited, which forcibly contrasts with the extreme docility of
the falcon, the parrots, and of the raven and its allies. It
should be borne in mind, however, that there are many spe-
cies, framed upon each of these three types of structure, which
are far from equalling the true falcons, the typical parrots,
and the crows, in mental superiority.

I have already alluded to the secretion of a lacteal fluid by

* Vide Regne Animal. f Vide Vieillot and others.

| Vide Birds of Western Africa, Part i. 133.

266 Observations on the Affinities

the parrots and pigeons, which may be said to evince a rela-
tionship in these groups to the Mammalia : and it is worthy
of notice, that as milk is much more copiously secreted by
herbivorous mammalians, so the parrots and pigeons are al-
most the only birds which, at no period of their life, touch
any description of animal food. M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, how-
ever, has described a still more curious approach to the Mam-
malia on the part of the parrots, which fact may be placed in
juxta-position with that of the existence of the rudiments of
dentition, in the gums of the foetal toothless whales ; than
which it is even more worthy of the attention of the physio-
logist. In & foetus of a parroquet, nearly ready for hatching,
he found that the margins of the bill were beset with tuber-
cles, arranged in a regular order, and having all the exterior
appearance of teeth : these tubercles were not, indeed, im-
planted in the jaw-bones, but formed part and parcel of the
exterior sheath of the bill. Under each tubercle, however,
there was a gelatinous pulp, analogous to the pulps which se-
crete teeth, but resting on the edge of the maxillary bones,
and every pulp was supplied by vessels and nerves, travers-
ing a canal in the substance of the bone. These tubercles
form the first margins of the mandibles, and their remains are
indicated by canals in the horny sheath subsequently formed,
which contain a softer material, and which commence from
small foramina in the margin of the bone.*

But waving the consideration of the parrot family, for the
present, respecting which it is admitted by the warmest ad-
vocates for the theory of universal gradation, that, " if any
group in nature be isolated, it is this," and that " possessing
in themselves the strongest characteristics, there is no bird
yet discovered, which presents any point of connexion to
them,"f let us now see if there be not many groups equal-
ly isolated, which have been overlooked in consequence of
the superficial method of investigation too commonly pursu-
ed. An equally distinct group, I aver, is constituted by the
multitudinous host of species which agree in possessing the
complex vocal apparatus of the raven, in addition to many
other peculiar characters ; and I propose to designate this
extensive order Cantrices, in preference to Cantatores, re-
stricting the latter dissyllabic termination to the divisions of
a higher degree of value. The term Cantrices, it may be
remarked, has less reference to the actual utterance of song,
than to the invariable possession of a peculiarly complicated

* Anatomie Comparee, tome ii. 193, as quoted in Cycl. Anat. and Phys.
by Mr. Owen, vol i. 311. fMag. Zool. and Bot. ii. 554.

and Classification of Birds. 267

inferior larynx, which enables the voice to be modulated. In
the structure of the sternum, that important bone upon which
a bird may be said to be especially organized, and the varia-
tions of which afford indications of really natural groups,
more prominently, perhaps, than any other portion of the en-
tire structure, considered separately, — in the configuration of
the sternal apparatus there exists the most surprising uni-
formity throughout the most dissimilar genera modified up-
on this rudimental type ; while, as compared with the bony
framework of any other bird whatever, the skeletons of this
excessively numerous group, present as insulated a form as
do those of the parrots. The same may be asserted of the
alimentary organs, and of other essential details of the anato-
my : while, to descend to habit, we find that the process of
interweaving a nest is all but confined to the members of this
division : one or two species of parrot, the Trocliilidm, and
the singular genus Coitus, being the only exceptions that I
know of:* all other nest-builders merely heaping together
materials, which, in some instances, as in the swifts, and cer-
tain hummingbirds, are agglutinated by a viscid mucus, se-
creted by the large salivary glands of the bird. By far the
great majority of this division lay bluish or speckled eggs, of
what may be designated the ordinary form, smaller at one
end ; and the young have a few scattered plumules of down
when first excluded. The feet have constantly three toes
placed forwards, and one behind ; and are, in some rare in-
stances, syndactyle, (as in the allied genera Eurylaimus, Ca-
lyptomenes, Rupicola, and Pipra), but ordinarily present what
may be denominated the ccenodactylef structure, having the
third and fourth, or the outer and middle toes, basally con-
nected, and the second or inner one free to the articulation;
which form of foot, it may be added, even abnormally, is of
rare occurrence in other Insessores, and perfectly developed,
as in a thrush or raven, in no other.

It is needless to observe that the establishment of the im-
portant order Cantrices overturns the whole fabric of the
quinary distribution of Insessores. I challenge the advocates
of the theory of universal gradation to bring forward a single
instance, wherein this comprehensive group merges into any
other.

For convenience only, I have commenced by indicating
this distinct division; for I am by no means disposed to place

* The extremely loose and ill-built nests, to judge from description, of the
nidificatory Cuculidce, I suspect to be constructed without interweaving.
t Koivo$ , ordinary, most prevalent : and AaHTi>Xo$.

268 The supposed Auditory Powers

it immediately following the Accipitres. I now proceed to
point out other reciprocally distinct groups, of various de-
grees of value and of mutual affinity ; and I respectfully in-
vite the disciples of the quinarian theory to demonstrate, that,
in a single instance, there are species which connect any two
of them together.

{To be continued).

Art. III. A few Remarks on the Antenna of Insects, in relation
to the theory that these appendages are analogous to the Ears of
higher Animals. By Edward Newman, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

From the earliest ages of entomological science, the antennce
of insects have been, by the thoughtless and unreflecting, ta-
ken for ears. The grounds for this theory are these : First,
insects possess no other obvious ears ; Secondly, the anten-
na are generally situated where ears might be expected to be
found ; Thirdly, the senses of sight, smell, and taste, appear
distinctly ascertained to be located in other parts of the head.
Argument on this subject has yet taken no wider range.

In 1832, Mr. Rennie publicly broached the subject, re-ad-
ducing the old arguments ; and Mr. Newport has still more
recently, written a very long and elaborate paper on the
subject, which has occupied two sittings of the Entomologi-
cal Society, and which I have heard read with much interest.
It is this paper of Mr. Newport's that has again called my at-
tention to the enquiry ; an enquiry, as every zoologist will, I
am sure, admit, fraught with the highest interest, because it
is clear that these conspicuous instruments are either the seat
of some one of those senses or faculties which we ourselves
possess, or of some other sense or faculty of which we at pre-
sent remain in utter ignorance.

I am fully aware that Mr. Newport's voluminous paper, not
being yet before the public in a tangible form, it would be out
of order to offer comments on opinions that he may hereafter
modify, or assertions which a more close examination of the
question may lead him to withdraw. I confine myself there-
fore to the abstract question, avoiding with care the train of
argument he has maintained, and viewing the subject in a
light in which he has not attempted to place it.

Whoever has paid the slightest attention to the structure
of animals, must have observed of every part, the use of which
is decidedly ascertained, how beautifully, how admirably,
such part is adapted to such use. If we regard the hand of

of the Antenna of Insects. 269

man, the membrane connecting the toes of a bat, or of a duck,
the prehensile tail of many tree-climbing mammals, the adhe-
sive foot of the ceiling-wandering fly, we cannot fail to re-
mark how nicely each peculiarity of structure is adapted to
its destined end.

Throughout creation, wherever it has seemed good to Pro-
vidence, in his never-ceasing care for his manifold creatures,
that some function should be exercised in an extraordinary
degree, there has He bestowed a corresponding instrument,
not of casual form, not of fortuitous situation, but of form and
site in every respect best adapted to the function for the due
performance of which it was called into existence.

Here then let us enquire what form of instrument is best
adapted to the faculty of hearing ; and it must be distinctly
understood that the question does not extend to the auditory
faculty itself, but to the external portion of the instrument, or
that part which is entrusted with the reception and transmis-
sion of sound. Most of the higher mammals are known to
possess the faculty of hearing, in a very superior degree. —
We have ample opportunity of observing the acknowledged
instrument of hearing, which these possess. The result of
such observation is nature's own reply. The ear of animals
is, without doubt, infinitely better adapted to its office, than
any artificial instrument which theory might devise or that
science could perfect.

The ear of higher animals is, as far as I am aware, without
exception, a hollow conch, either sunk in the head itself, or
attached to the external surface of the head. At the bottom
of this conch is a very obvious aperture, passing completely
into the head, where it communicates with the seat of the
auditory faculty. On the size of the external conch depends,
in great measure, the quantity of sound received, a fact prov-
ed by the application of the hand to our own ear, after the
manner of persons who are deaf; thus proving, beyond a
doubt, that a large external conch is the form of instrument
best adapted for the reception and transmission of sound. —
We conclude, not only rationally but inevitably, for we can-
not avoid it, that mice, hares, and other animals remark-
able for the acuteness of their hearing, are indebted for that
very acuteness to the extraordinary aevelopement of the ex-
ternal portion of their auditory instrument.

Man is perfectly insensible to sounds which the timid hare
hears with painful distinctness ; and the poor tortoise, unfur-
nished with an external conch, takes no heed of sounds that
are readily perceptible by man. In this again is the Creator's
never-slumbering care for the welfare of his creatures, admi-

270 The supposed Auditory Powers

rably exhibited. The hare, the mouse, &c. instantly retreat
from the danger of which their acute hearing constantly
warns them ; but the tortoise cannot so retreat : acute hear-
ing, and acute sense of danger, were to him a perpetual pu-
nishment. I have thus, I think, established from a reference
to nature herself, that a hollow conch is the best external au-
ditory instrument, and that, as a general rule, probably liable
to many exceptions, the larger the conch the more acute is
the auditory power. I now turn to insects.

The antenna of insects are of infinitely varied form, so
much so indeed, that the conclusions we draw from them can
only be of a very limited and general kind. The following
characters however appear constant : antenna are perfectly
solid, and without any tube or cavity in the interior ; and
they possess no external orifice by which sound could enter
them, nor any internal orifice by which they could transmit
sound to the seat of the auditory faculty. These characters,
as I said, admit but of a general conclusion ; but, though ge-
neral, the conclusion is obvious, that if the antenna are real-
ly auditory instruments, their employment as such implies the
existence of principles in acoustics with which philosophers
are hitherto entirely unacquainted.

Taking the vast insect kingdom as a mass, we find it next
to an impossibility to prove that they possess the faculty of
hearing ; but it is not at all inconsistent with reason and ana-
logy to suppose such to be the case. We have many insects
musical ; and we infer, with every apparently reasonable
ground, that there is a correspondent auditory faculty posses-
sed by the individuals for whom this music is intended. —
This conclusion is not visionary, but is rational, and almost
self-demonstrative. Of musical insects, the great tribes of ci-
cadas and crickets stand far before all others ; and if we care-
fully examine the remarkably minute antenna of the Cicada >
or the remarkably slender hair-like antenna of the crickets,
we must conclude, not only that these instruments are ill-
adapted to collect and transmit sound, but further still, that
were the task imposed on us of framing an instrument ex-
pressly to avoid arresting the progress of sound, we should
fashion it precisely after the similitude of these antenna.

Pursuing analogical reasoning one step farther, we should
say that the luminous property of the female glow-worm im-
plies the existence of the faculty of sight in the male ; and
we think it reasonable that the male should possess a more
perfect and extended vision than the female, which requires
not the same guide. The suggestion is a just one : nature
has given to the male glow-worm, eyes six times as large as

of the Antenna of Insects. 271

those of the female, indeed they occupy, as in Diptera, near-
ly the entire sphere of the head. Let us apply this to hear-
ing : the male insects are the musicians, the females therefore
require the greater developement of auditory instruments. —
We cannot doubt that in accordance with the universal law
of adapting the instrument to its end, this greater develope-
ment has been provided. In vain we look for the required
developement in the antenna, for in them it is invariably pos-
sessed by the males, not by the females.

When, in 1832, Mr. Rennie supported the views which Mr.
Newport has now revived, I paid some attention to the sub-
ject, and made a variety of observations on mute insects, with
a view of ascertaining their auditory powers. I could trace
no connexion between the auditory faculty, and any particu-
lar part of the insect ; neither could I trace any correspon-
dence between the extent of the auditory faculty, and the de-
velopement of the antenna. I could not discover that the
males of Eucera longicornis and Bombyx quercus were at all
cognisant of sound ; they evinced no symptoms of hearing
even the loudest noises. The common house fly has a quick
and acute perception of sound : this is the case with many
other Diptera. Let it not however be concluded that the pos-
session of the auditory faculty is the necessary consequence
or accompaniment of small antenna, and vice versa. This is
by no means the case. Cerambyx moschatus certainly com-
bines the auditory power with the possession of long anten-
na, which however it constantly employs as tactors. In this
insect both sexes are gifted with the power of producing
sound. The result of a long series of observations was nega-
tive,— it established nothing.

We will now regard the subject in another light. We will
suppose that the present enquiry has found the antenna not
of the worst, as is the case, but, like other parts of this vast
and admirable creation, of the best possible formation for
their supposed auditory office. We then suggest this very
reasonable enquiry. Why has Providence given to some in-
sects this extraordinary preponderance of the auditory facul-
ty ? Nothing is created in vain. Every part has its appoint-
ed function : the eye sees, the hand grasps, the foot walks :
each instrument has neither more nor less power or predomi-
nance than it actually requires ; each is precisely adapted to
its end, and to that end only. Why then have so large a ma-
jority of insects these enormously developed ears ? It is quite
certain that hearing is not the main safeguard of an insect's
life : experiments have never shewn that an insect, like the
hare and the mouse, is warned by sound of the approach of

Vol. II. — No. 17. n. s. z

272 The supposed Auditory Powers

danger, while daily experience shews us that sight has this
warning effect. Allow your hand to approach a fly, and this
assertion is proved. The power of hearing is not available
to the male in his search of the female, for we see the males
of our larger Lepidoptera, as Bombyx quercus, B. versicolor,
and Pavonia minor, when assiduously engaged in this pur-
suit, traversing the regions of air at a height where no sound
from the female could possibly reach them. Some other fa-
culty, perhaps wholly unknown to us, or, more probably, as
in many mammals, that of smell, may on these occasions be
their guide. The latter supposition offers no outrage to rea-
son or experience, and is abundantly supported by analogy.
Finally, the power of hearing is not available in obtaining
food, which, in all the Bombyces, longicorn beetles, and other
insects with very long antenna, is invariably inanimate, in-
ert, and silent. Preservation of the kind, therefore, accom-
plished conjointly by individual preservation, by reproduction
and its various consequent energies, or by the search of nu-
tritious and appropriate food, is found not to require this vast
auditory power. The question, then, remains unanswered,
and, unless we admit the truth, that it exists not, unanswerable.
Having thus stated my opinion as to what antennae are not,
it will perhaps be expected that I should also give an opinion
as to what they are ; but it appears to me that the true office
of antenna scarcely needs an enquiry. No one can study the
proceedings of bees in a glass hive, and observe that every
object is touched, and examined, and scrutinized, by the an-
tenna, without feeling an assurance that they are then in the
performance of their legitimate office as tactors ? Again, who
van watch the ant, who can observe the anxious scrutiny to
which she subjects every object before tasting it, or even be-
fore venturing to mount upon it, without being certain that
the antenna are her feelers or tactors ? Still more evident
is their occupation in the crickets, cockroaches, and a hun-
dred other tribes which shun the light, and make their jour-
neyings under cover of darkness. In these the antennae, as
tactors, are substitutes for eyes, and perform their office when
the latter are useless. This view of the subject bears inves-
tigation. We find that the grasshoppers, a sun-loving race,
closely allied to the crickets, neither require nor possess the
long thread-like antenna of their congeners ; on the contra-
ry, their antenna are short, erect, and apparently chiefly or-
namental. Flies and dragon-flies, which only affect the most
brilliant glare of light, are almost without antenna ; while
gnats and Phrygania, both lovers of the evening, have long
antenna; one genus of gnats, (Macrocera), which flies in

of the Antenna of Insects. 273

darkness, coming to the midnight lamp of him who watches
for moths, has antennae of enormous length. Take also the
kindred groups of Cerambycites and Lepturites, the former
nocturnal, the latter diurnal, and the same discrepancy of an-
tenna will be observed. In fact, illustration so crowds on il-
lustration, that I should weary your readers were I to write a
tithe of those instances which occur to me, as affording evi-
dence that antenna are given as tactors, and are only called
into full activity when the opportunity of using eyes has in a
great measure ceased. Tactors are capable of a much more
varied perception than we should on the first thought be in-
clined to suppose. A power may long remain dormant, if no
circumstances occur to call it into action. The human fin-
gers become both fingers and eyes to the blind. If then in
the human species the fingers of one individual possess pow-
ers, of which another can scarcely form a conception, how
reasonable is it to suppose that the tactors of a cricket are
still tactors in a grasshopper, although their employment as
such may never be required. The four wings of insects are
the instruments of flight ; yet in beetles the fore pair have en-
tirely given up that occupation, and are invariably employed
as mere covers or protectors to the hind wings, and the soft
and yielding abdomen: and again, the hind pair in flies have
ceased to bear even the semblance of wings. In the same
way we see the fore legs of a vast number of butterflies, (the
Rhopalocera suspensa), losing entirely their usual function,
the very obvious and important one of walking, and becom-
ing mere tufts, or ornamental appendages, the end and pur-
port of which might lead us into endless theories, were it not
established beyond a doubt, that they are neither more nor
less than legs, which the necessities of the animal has not
required should be perfected in the same manner as the rest:
yet by watching the habits and actions of this tribe of but-
terflies, we fail to discover any cause why they should pos-
sess but four legs, while the cognate group of Rhopalocera
succincta have invariably six; their flight is neither more
sustained, nor more vigorous, neither have they in any minor
degree the disposition to settle on flowers, or on the ground.
The question appears to me to be still further simplified
by the fact that antennae are not possessed by insects alone.
Crustacea are also furnished with them, and in these the an-
tenna seem to have reached the maximum of developement.
Now in Crustacea the antenna are tactors and tactors only.
I believe I am correct in saying, that no zoologist has ever
hinted at their possessing Any other office : indeed zoologists

z 2

274 Supposed auditory powers of Insect Antennce.

are agreed in assigning to Crustacea a true ear, analogous to
that of mammals. Analogy therefore fails to furnish us with
even the slightest support, if we attempt to fix on the anten-
na an office foreign to their legitimate use.

We have now seen that the antennce, of insects, if regarded
as the external instruments of the auditory faculty, have the
worst possible structure for such an office, thus outraging that
great law of nature which adapts each instrument to its des-
tined end. We have seen that the antenna frequently in-
crease in developement, where the faculty of hearing appears
to be entirely useless, and greatly decrease where hearing was
obviously required. We have seen that insects do not need
such a preponderance of the auditory faculty, as these com-
paratively enormous instruments would imply that they pos-
sess. We have seen that the antennce of other animals pos-
sess no auditory faculty, but are used solely as tactors or
feelers ; and that such animals possess an auditory faculty,
the distinct site of which is ascertained. We have seen that
there is abundant evidence of the antennce of insects also be-
ing used as tactors or feelers, while no single instance is on
record, tending to establish their use as ears. How can we
then do otherwise than conclude that this supposed auditory
faculty of the antennce is nothing more than a vague and wild
theory, unsupported by reason, analogy, or fact ? How can
we claim for such a theory the support of the anatomist, the
general zoologist, or the man of common sense ? How can
we defend that theoretical fabric, whose foundation every fact
undermines, whose superstructure is beaten down by every
natural analogy ? Is not fact the fairest test of theory ? And
should not theory be the child of fact ?

I have done. The broad principle of enquiry with which
I have treated the subject before me, is, I acknowledge, un-
wonted; the appeal from facts to common sense on a subject
of science, may perhaps be considered somewhat out of or-
der : yet why should this be so ? Science is or should be an
accumulation of fact ; and that theory is alone worthy the
name, which illustrates a design of Providence, by bringing
a mass of facts to bear harmoniously on each other.

April, 1838.

Further Observations on Rales for Nomenclature. 275

Art. IV. Further Observations on " Rules for Nomenclature." —
By W Ogilby, Esq., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S., &c.

Before proceeding more particularly to notice the several
points of Mr. Strickland's ' Reply' to my former ' Observa-
tions,' I must be permitted to express my deep regret that he
should have felt personally hurt at any thing I may have said
on that occasion, since nothing was farther from my wish than
to give personal offence to any individual ; and I hoped that
I had sufficiently guarded myself against misinterpretation
in this particular, by the explicit declaration, twice repeated,
that " my censure was directed solely against the abuse of a
system pregnant with many evils, and by no means intended
to apply to its abettors or supporters." Mr. Strickland's name
was unavoidably mixed up with my observations ; but if so,
I took occasion to separate him personally from their opera-
tion, by the unequivocal manner in which I expressed those
feelings of respect, which, I may be permitted to say, in com-
mon with all who have the pleasure of his acquaintance, I en-
tertain for him, both as a gentleman and a zoologist. I must
again express my regret that I should have been misunder-
stood upon this point ; but such being the case, I feel grate-
ful to Mr. Strickland for the temperate and gentlemanly tone
which he has preserved throughout the discussion, not less
than for the nattering terms in which he is pleased to speak
of his adversary ; and if he has on one or two occasions mis-
apprehended my meaning, it was but natural under the cir-
cumstances, and I should be the last person to complain. —
Having the same end in view, and differing only as to the
proper means of attaining it, our sentiments must coincide in
the long run, however we may disagree in words ; and if I
"lashed" the system which Mr. Strickland supports, I can as-
sure him that my censure was by no means directed against
any one "code of rules" in particular, but applied to the whole
system of f codification ;' and so anxious was I to avoid offend-
ing those who differ with me in opinion, that the only rule which
I criticised at length, was selected simply because it originat-
ed with Illiger, (or it may be at a still earlier period, for I am
not curious in this sort of antiquities), and therefore, I could
not be charged with affronting any living author. I shall now
briefly advert to some of the principal points of Mr. Strick-
land's reply.

In charging me with "deprecating all laws," and "pouring
out unqualified censure upon the whole code of rules," &c.
Mr. Strickland will see, upon farther reference to my paper,
that he has permitted his haste to betray him into an error,
and thus into an unintentional mistatement. So far am I from

276 Further Observations

"deprecating all laws," that I expressly stated my opinion,
"that &few simple ' rules for nomenclature,' if founded upon
principles so palpable and indisputable as to command the
unanimous assent of naturalists, would be both convenient
and useful ; " I granted that generally speaking the particular
rules originally cited by Mr. Strickland, might have some
practical advantage, if not pushed too far; and I desired it to
be understood that " I was not hostile to such rules of nomen-
clature as are founded upon just and fixed principles ; " nay,
I even turned legislator myself, and ventured to suggest "eu-
phony and propriety of application," as, in my opinion, the
only legitimate and requisite principles of nomenclature. My
censure was directed, not against the use but the abuse of such
rules, and that it was neither misapplied nor unnecessary, is
proved by Mr. Strickland's own admissions, and by facts which
I shall mention in the sequel.

I was very well aware that Mr. Strickland was not the ma-
ker but the compiler of the "Rules" published under his name,
and that he had separated those relating to established no-
menclature from such as are applicable to the formation of
new names; though I certainly did not consider him, as he
now assures me, opposed to the mischievous practice, upon
which I chiefly animadverted, of giving them a retrospective
tendency, since I find three of them, (Nos. 5, 6, and 7), ex-
pressly regulating the cases in which established names may
be expunged. That Mr. Strickland did not intend to make
his rules retrospective, I fully believe, and regret that I should
have been led into the error of an opposite opinion ; but that
he has inadvertently done so, is not less certain ; and it was
against the interminable mischief and confusion resulting from
the introduction of a principle at once so dangerous, so
unfair, and so uncalled for, that I directed the weight of my
censure. Nor were my fears upon this subject merely hypo-
thetical; I had, myself, suffered to some extent from this
contemptible species of petty larceny, one gentleman having
done me the favour of appropriating no fewer than six of my
generic and specific names within the last few months ; Illiger,
a very Minos among legislators, had not been sparing with
the rights of his predecessors; and I could mention many
other instances, were it necessary. But is not the fact cited
by Mr. Strickland himself, of the well-known naturalist from
whose works he has chiefly compiled his "rules," having sanc-
tioned their retrospective character, and thereby set the ex-
ample to the host of minor luminaries who circulate round
him as the sun and centre of their system, and who will not
be slow to profit by it, a sufficient justification of the severity

on Rules for Nomenclature, 277

with which I deprecated the mischievous tendency of these
codes ? The truth is, that like the old poor-laws, they are
better calculated to afford a plausible pretext to idleness and
peculation, than to secure the fruits of honest industry.

With regard to the terminations ides, and adce, Mr. Strick-
land will perceive, on reference to my paper, that I quarrelled
not with the use, but with the abuse of these terms ; I have
sanctioned their use upon many occasions, by adopting them
myself, but I objected, and still do object, out of mere com-
pliance with a rule, which Mr. Strickland will admit to be
purely arbitrary, to sacrifice the legitimate classical import of
the term Simla?, as well as the zoological relation which I
have made to depend upon its similarity of structure with the
new-coined word Simiadm. These Mr. Strickland will sure-
ly admit to be substantial reasons ; he has himself adduced
none on the contrary side of the question, except the propri-
ety of complying with the rule, which, with great deference
to Mr. Strickland's logic, is begging the question ; since, that
being the very subject in dispute, he is clearly prohibited from
taking for granted what he ought to prove, — namely, that my
nomenclature is necessarily vicious, because it does not com-
ply with his rule. Nor can I altogether agree with Mr. Strick-
land as to the import of the affix idee. He says it expresses
"not the resemblanee of one group to another, but the inclu-
sion in a larger group of a smaller," and that the term Alc-
maeonidae signifies " the house or family which included Alc-
maeon himself, and his immediate relations.'1 If for relations
Mr. Strickland had written descendants, I think he would
have been nearer the truth, for I am not aware that the affix
in question ever included collaterals ; nay, if I be not greatly
mistaken, it is absolutely identical with the affix oidod, which,
as Mr. Strickland admits, expresses relationship, the o being
merely the last letter of the primitive Greek word with which
edvis is most commonly joined in composition. The root of
the affix idm, as I take it, is to be sought in the verb Eitiu ; it
is cognate with the terms e1$os, Etdcobov, Idea, and idsai, all of which
signify forma, species, similitudo, likeness or similarity ; and
enters frequently into composition in this sense, as Apuydaxo-
sidyg, amygdala species gerens ; Avfyw7ro-Eiby\$, like a man, or
anthropoid ; At^o-ei^, vapori similis ; ®£o-Eidri$, Deo similis;*
&c. It is needless to mention that idee is only the Latin form
of the plural of ti$h$ ; so that Mr. Strickland will perceive that
the primitive and only legitimate meaning of the term is re-

* Ah his Scapulae sententiis differt CI. Westwoodius, sed male.

278 Further Observations

semblance, likeness, or similarity, and not inclusiveness, as he
supposes.

If Mr. Strickland find this suggestion correct, I think he
will admit it to be decisive of the question, in my favour, even
upon his own grounds ; but at all events, the zoological ap-
plication of the affix in question is equally conventional, ei-
ther upon Mr. Strickland's principle or mine, and I must be
pardoned for observing that the perseverance with which my
application is criticised, in spite of its priority, is but an ex-
ample of the indulgence displayed towards one's own doxy,
and the intolerance towards every other man's doxy, which is
inseparable from the very spirit of " legislation." Whether
the term Simiada be employed to denote the anthropomor-
phous Quadrumana of the old world or the anthropomorphous
Pedimana of the new, its use is equally arbitrary ; since its
original import no more expresses the relation of the baboons
to the apes, than of the American monkeys to the African :
and as to the memoria technica which Mr. Strickland insists
so much upon securing, by calling the American animals Ce-
bidw, because they contain the genus Cebus, the advantage
is of mighty small consequence, since the term, at most, sug-
gests but a single genus, whilst there are nine or ten others
to which it furnishes no key whatever.

To my question, " what would science gain by the change
of Simiadce into Cebidce f -V. Mr. Strickland answers, "it
would gain a term implying that the family contains the ge-
nus Cebus, (which it does), instead of one implying that it
contains the genus Simia, (which it does not)." With great
deference to Mr. Strickland, neither of these terms implies ei-
ther one or other of the things which he has here supposed,
except by the operation of his own rule, which, being the sub-
ject matter in dispute, cannot be appealed to in proof of its
own propriety. But this is a sophism, which, as I have had
occasion to remark elsewhere, runs through the whole of Mr.
Strickland's argument. Neither is Mr. Strickland correct in
accusing me of " altogether discarding the Linnean term Si-
mia, since I really retain it, not only in its legitimate accepta-
tion,but as the name of a more important group than he wishes
to assign it to.

In refusing to limit the term Simia> to the orangs, for which
I stated my reasons at length in my former " Observations,"
without meaning, in the most remote degree, to apply any of
the "cardinal sins" there enumerated, to Mr. Strickland, though
I regret to find him labouring under this misconception, I
stated, that, had I done so, " I should have been using the
term in a new sense, different from its legitimate acceptation,

on Rules for Nomenclature. 279

and from the sense which had been hitherto attached to it in
Zoology." The latter part of this statement Mr. . Strickland
has taken considerable pains to combat, and appeals, in sup-
port of his position, to the authority of Linnaeus and Erxle-
ben. That both these naturalists employed the term Simla
in a sense different from its real signification, is very true, but
that neither one nor the other of them sanctions its applica-
tion in the sense contended for by Mr. Strickland, is no less
so; and I should not consider myself justified in wilfully and
knowingly committing a fault, because others have done so
before me. And here let me pause, once more, to remark the
arbitrary and intolerant spirit of "legislation," tolerant of its
own sins, impatient of another s virtues : it is granted on all
hands, that my application of the term Simla, is conformable
to the exact and legitimate meaning of the word ; yet here
we have a "code of rules," professing to secure " propriety of
application," and in the same breath upbraiding me for my
adherence to this very principle, professing to secure " the
right of the founder of a higher division to give it a name,"
and at the same time contesting my exercise of this unques-
tionable privilege ! And why ? Because, in spite of the
"right" and the "propriety," which the code pretends to se-
cure by one rule, their exercise, in this particular instance,
clashes with another ; and thus it is modestly expected, nay
insisted on, that every consideration of propriety, priority and
convenience, should give way to these ill-digested and con-
tradictory "rules" ! The whole system is one monstrous so-
phism, an egregious "petitlo prlncipll" and I must therefore
crave leave to persist in my own nomenclature, in spite of its
anathemas, not because it is my own, but because it is the
best I have met with.

In protesting against my unqualified censure of all rules,
" as arbitrary and dogmatical, and equally opposed to good
sense, sound criticism, and fixed principles," Mr. Strickland
admits that some of them may be open to criticism, but thinks
it unfair to infer from one or two examples, that the whole
are equally deserving of censure. To convince Mr. Strick-
land that I did not generalize too rapidly in this matter, or
draw my inference from insufficient premises, I must beg leave
to make a few remarks upon two or three others of the rules in
question, taking my examples at random from his own "code"
and that of Illiger, and assuring him that in deprecating the
carelessness of the system, I mean no disrespect for the authors
or compilers of the "rules," or, to use the words of the cele-
brated Dr. Reid, on a similar occasion, " that no disparage-
ment is meant to the understandings ofMhe authors or main-

VOL. II. — No. 17. N. S. A A

280 Further Observations

tainers of such opinions, which commonly proceed, not from
defect of understanding, but from haste, and an excess of re-
finement."

The 6th rule of Mr. Strickland's code enacts that "a name
may be expunged, whose meaning is false as applied to the
object or group which it represents," and according to the
11th, "the meaning of a name must imply some proposition
which is true as applied to the object which it represents." —
The idea expressed in the first of these rules is one of the be-
setting sins of the age, and as it opens a wide door for the
most captious and mischievous innovation, so unfortunately
its operation is not confined to Zoology, but extends to every
other department of science, and even to the language of com-
mon life ! The second rule is equally unnecessary, though
not so mischievous, since it professes to apply only to new
names, whilst the first is retrospective ; both arise from a to-
tal disregard of the true use and meaning of language, a hea-
vy charge against gentlemen who profess to dictate laws and
expound the principles of nomenclature. Words are but the
signs of ideas ; their application is at first purely arbitrary ;
they gain currency only by convention, and so long as we a-
gree to give them a particular signification, it matters not a
pinch of snuff what may have been their original or literal
meaning, or whether they had any meaning at all. If there
be any difference, the latter sort are indubitably the best, in
spite of the dictum laid down by "Rule 11 ;" because, as
signs of ideas, they can never lead to error or confusion, where-
as those recommended by the "rule," are in their very nature
equivocal. But let us hear what Locke says upon this sub-
ject, an authority from which, I presume, even the legislators
for zoological nomenclature will not be hardy enough to dis-
sent. " Names are but arbitrary marks of conceptions ; and
so they be sufficiently appropriated to them in their use, I
know no other difference any of them have in particular, but
as they are of difficult or easy pronunciation, or of more or
less pleasant sound ; and what particular antipathies there
may be in men to some of them, is not easy to be foreseen;....
for my part, I have no fondness for, nor antipathy to, any par-
ticular articulate soimds, nor do I think there is any spell or
fascination in any of them." This is philosophy and good
sense, but it is not the fashion ; the modern rage is all for
change and innovation; "Poluphlosboiophanism" is the or-
der of the day ; it has invaded the very names of all ranks
from the prince to the peasant ;

" Julius Augustus Alexander Spire,

" Was gamekeeper to Thomas Stubbs, Esquire ; "

on Rules for Nomenclature. 281

the old name of Metaphysics, which had done very well for
two thousand years, has been lately found unsuited to this"po-
luphlosboiophanous" age; the science of mind is now Psy-
chology, Ideology, Phrenology, or Pneumatology, just as it
happens to suit the taste of the legislator, and I live in daily
hope of the advent of some adventurous Shiloe, who will ex-
tend the fashionable principle to History and Biography, to the
great advantage and improvement of these branches of know-
ledge. It is a sign of the times ; the unknown tongues have
not died with Mr. Irving, though I fear the power of inter-
preting them has, and if not soon stopped, we may look out for
nothing less than a second dispersion of mankind from this
universal babylonic confusion.

Rule 7 is equally objectionable, though for a different rea-
son, but as its scope is comparatively limited, I shall pass on
to Rule 14, which is one of those cited in Mr. Strickland's
" Reply." " The meaning of names should be founded on
absolute characters, not on relative or comparative ones." To
my simple apprehension, this rule involves a metaphysical
impossibility. What are absolute characters or qualities ?
I know of none such in nature, and if the author of the rule
does, I can only say that he beats John Locke and Dugald
Stewart hollow, and should forthwith communicate so rare
and important a discovery to the rest of the world. At all
events, having much the advantage of his readers, he should
have taken pity on our ignorance, and denned what he meant
by absolute characters, or at least drawn some line of distinc-
tion between them and relative ; a task, however, which might,
perhaps, bother a whole jury of legislators, with Mr. West-
wood for foreman. But let me not be accused of hypercriti-
cism ; perhaps by absolute, the author may mean differential
characters, and by relative, mere modifications ; if so, the
rule is less objectionable ; but I have been induced to notice
it because it affords a glaring example of the carelessness with
which I formerly accused such rules of being drawn up.

Let us now glance at Rule 18, another of those cited in
Mr. Strickland's "Reply;" "names of families and sub-fami-
lies should be derived from the most typical genus in them."
It is under the authority of this rule that I am so severely re-
primanded for not calling the anthropomorphous Pedimana,
CebidcF, because the group includes the genus Cebus, which
the legislators are pleased to call its typical genus, though for
what reason, or what right it has to that distinction more
than the genus Mycetes, or Lagothryx, I am utterly at a loss
to imagine. But let us see with what justice I am accused.
We hear continually of the type of such or such a genus, and of

a a2

282 Further Observations

typical species, typical groups, and typical genera. Now if the
word type be merely synonymous with example, I see no ob-
jection to it, but on the contrary have employed it in this sig-
nification myself: but it is notoriously employed by others in
a very different sense, and one to which I confess I can attach
no definite meaning. A generic term, such as the name of a
group, genus, or family, necessarily expresses an abstract idea,
which refers to no existing thing, but is a mere creature of
abstraction, or if you will, of imagination. To talk therefore
of the type of an abstract idea, is sheer nonsense, and only
betrays how little those who use the term study its import.

Turning to the code of Illiger, I find the following enact-
ment ; "Nomina ex vocabulo grceco et latino similibusque hy-
brida, non agnoscenda sunt ; " which I quote merely to shew
the singular latitude which the legislators allow themselves,
even in breaking through their own rules. There is not a single
instance of the Gh'eek affix idae or adce being appended to a
Latin word, in which they do not openly violate this law ! —
But Mr. Strickland may tell me that the law is not found in
his code: very true, but it is as good a law as any found there,
and proves that whilst the authority of the legislators clashes
inter se, they are unreasonable in attempting to make it obli-
gatory with others. Again, according to Illiger, " Nomina
anatomicorum, artificum, (et vita communis) nomenclatu-
ris communia, omittenda sunt." Here is a splendid field o-
pen for the poachers ; and it must be confessed that they have
the example as well as the precept of the author. What other
purpose this pernicious retrospective principle can possibly
answer, unless it be charitably intended to prevent us from
confounding Arvicola vulgaris with Columella or Trip tol emus,
or mistaking Tantalus Ibis for the ancient prototype of the
" tea-totallers," I am utterly at a loss to conceive. But I have
spent more time upon this part of the subject than I had ori-
ginally intended, though I am still far from having exhausted
the objections which I might urge against the system of "co-
dification." I hope however I have said enough to justify my
former denunciation of the rules, as " arbitrary, dogmatical,
and carelessly drawn up."

Mr. Strickland says, " Mr. O. says that euphony and pro-
priety of application are principles which he finds no where
clearly developed in any of the codes of nomenclature lately
published. Now on turning to vol. i. n. s. p. 175, he will
find that euphony is provided for by Rule 13, and that Rules
11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20 and 21, are all intended to insure
propriety of application ; so that the phrase, " no where
clearly developed in any of the codes," is another instance of

on Rules for Nomenclature. 283

the rather free use of superlatives in which Mr. 0. has in-
dulged." Had Mr. Strickland in this passage underlined
clearly instead of the words which he has put in italics, and
which is an alteration of his own, not found in the original,
he would have more justly conveyed my meaning : but let us
see how far I am to blame, even upon his own showing. —
Turning to Rule 13, which Mr. Strickland says provides for
the euphony which I failed to discover in any of the codes, I
find it says, " Names shoidd not be too long, even though
classically compounded.1' Now unless Mr. Strickland had
told me so, I confess I should never have discovered how this
rule provided for "euphony." To my mind euphony is a very
different quality from redundancy ; nor can I imagine what it
has to do with the mere length or shortness of words. The
Greek and German languages, remarkable for the length of
their polysyllabic compounds, are equally celebrated for the
harmony and liquid softness of their enunciation ; the term
"poluphlosboiophanous," which I took the liberty of intro-
ducing to the English reader in my former " Observations,"
has been admired for its euphony ever since Homer wrote the
Iliad, yet I know few longer, except

A word that ought only to be said on holidays, when one has
nothing else to do," — so that far from meriting the reproach of
" indulging too freely in the use of superlatives," I have really
been more lenient towards the "Rules," in this matter of eu-
phony, than they deserved ; since in reality it appears evident
that this essential quality is not only no where clearly pro-
vided for, but that it is no where provided for at all. As to
"propriety of application," the term is never mentioned in
any of the codes I am acquainted with, and granting that the
rules enumerated by Mr. Strickland do, in some sort, aim at
securing it, T must confess that I still consider the phrase "no
where clearly developed," as strictly and justly applicable to
the case. But I care little for the phrase itself, and should
not have thought it worth defending, had not Mr. Strickland
charged it with being overstrained.

I have hitherto confined my observations principally to in-
dividual "rules," but I confess that one of my greatest objec-
tions arises from the interminable length of the "codes" them-
selves, and the great multiplicity of laws which they embrace,
frequently arbitrary and unfounded, and sometimes opposed
to one another; so that it is next to impossible to comply with
them all, or avoid being tripped up by some expert legislator
when you least expect it. The code collected by Mr. Strick-
land himself contains twenty-two rules ; that of Illiger, nine-

284 Further Observations on Rules for Nomenclature.

teen ; besides which we have the ' Codex Westwoodianus,'
and, for aught I know to the contrary, a hundred others which
I have not had the good fortune to meet with, but which, ta-
ken all together, must needs make the search after a new name
as difficult and intricate as that for the north-west passage,
or the philosopher's stone. Here lies Scllya, there Charyb-
dis ; to the right, a rock, to the left, a sand-bank ; the passage
being so beset with whirlpools and quicksands that Palinu-
rus himself, with the advice and experience of Mr. Westwood
to boot, could scarce steer through the labyrinth. In short,
these "Codes for Nomenclature" put me in mind of nothing
so much as Mrs. Malaprop's account of the " laws of confu-
sion, the Chinese Philosopher,

"Where you feel like a needle going astray,

" With its one eye out, through a bundle of hay."

I have now done with "Codes" and "Codification." The
subject was forced upon me, or I should never have volunta-
rily taken it up : I have been arraigned before a court of
which I dispute the jurisdiction, and tried by laws which de-
rive no force either from their wisdom or utility, and whose
authority, I have endeavoured to shew, neither is nor ought to
be binding, inasmuch as it is derived not from necessity, con-
sent, or any fixed principles, but only from the arbitrary dic-
tum of individuals ; and whose practical operation, far from
securing the stability or uniformity of scientific nomenclature,
can only tend to involve it in interminable confusion and un^
certainty. I repeat again that I am not hostile to such "rules
for nomenclature" as are founded in rerum naturd, and con-
formable to good sense, sound criticism and fixed principles ;
and if what I have said here and elsewhere, can in any way
tend to promote so desirable an object, I shall not think my
labour in vain. Mr. Strickland and those who think with him,
have, I am sure, the same end in view as I have myself, — that
of benefiting science, and restraining the depredations of
poachers and petty larceners, — we disagree only about the
proper means, nor do I think our opinions differ so much in
reality as they appear to do in words. So long, however, as
the very groups themselves, in Zoology, are not less unsettled
and fluctuating than their names, it is useless to think of re-
forming or amending the nomenclature of the science ; it is
beginning at the wrong end ; let us rather set about studying
the natural boundaries and relations of the groups, and it will
be time enough afterwards to settle their nomenclature.

Non- Identity of Suffolk Diluvium and Crag. 285

Art. V. Letter from The Rev. W. B. Clarke, on the Non-Iden-
tity of Suffolk Diluvium and Crag.

My Dear Sir,

As nothing tends so materially to the increase
of error, as ascribing to others those opinions or expressions
which they do not employ, I am sure that you will allow me
to make a remark or two on the note which you have append-
ed to my letter "in reference to the alleged occurrence of the
bones of terrestrial Mammalia in the red and coralline crag
of Suffolk." (P. 224—225).

I have alluded in that letter to Mr. Lyell's opinions respect-
ing the relative ages of the crag and diluvium ; and my words
are, — ' I have shewn that the diluvium and crag are not, as
Mr. Lyell has supposed, of the same age.' To this you have
added in a foot-note,- — ■ The above observation of Mr. Clarke's
appears to us calculated to convey a wrong impression of the
opinion Mr. Lyell has advanced upon this subject; for al-
though he may have referred certain beds to the tertiary epoch,
which more properly belong to the diluvial, yet we think there
is no ground whatever for assuming that Mr. Lyell has consi-
dered, in an extended sense, the diluvium of SufFolk and Nor-
folk to be of the same age as the crag.' — Ed.

Giving you credit for that desire to be candid and fair which
I assume to myself, I must beg you to compare my assertion
respecting Mr. Lyell's views, as to the unity of age of these
formations with his own words, in which he conveys, 'in an
extended sense,' all and more than I have attributed to him.
After describing the composition of the crag beds, and what
I term diluvium, together with their transported and foreign
contents, he says, — ' It has been questioned whether all the
above-mentioned beds can be considered as belonging to the
same era. The subject may admit of doubt, but after exa-
mining, in 1829, the whole line of coast of Essex, Suffolk,
and Norfolk, I found it impossible to draw any line of sepa-
ration between the different groups. Each seemed in its turn
to pass into another, and those masses which approach in
character to alluvium, and contain the remains of terrestrial
quadrupeds, are occasionally intermixed with the strata of the
crag.' (Vol. 3, 8vo. ed. ch. xiii. pp. 171 & 172).

You will now, I am assured, acquit me of misrepresenting
Mr. Lyell's opinions. It is true, however, that in the last e-
dition of his 'Principles &c.' he has adopted another view. —
He says, (ed. 5, 1837, vol. iv. p. 76), 'Superimposed upon the
fossiliferous crag in the cliffs of Norfolk and Suffolk, is a for-
mation of much greater thickness and of more uncertain age.

286 Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle.

It has been sometimes classed with the crag, and sometimes
distinguished from it under the name of diluvium.'

But the remarks in my former letter had reference to the
views I adopted in my Memoir on Suffolk Geology, in dis-
tinction to Mr. Lyell's, as first adopted by him ; and it was
not till after that Memoir had been read, that I first saw his
expression, 'more uncertain age,' in the edition published af-
ter the reading of that paper, and the discussion on the very
subject of crag and diluvium, in which both you and myself
took part at Bristol, in 1836. How far any opinions held by
me, in common with others, may have had any influence on
the distinguished author and geologist, whose opinion on the
subject of the crag and diluvium I ventured to oppose, I can-
not presume to say ; yet it is certain, that he held the views
I attributed to him, and that he has now only modified them
to a certain extent. As my object in this letter is to set my-
self right with your readers, I shall not extend it so as to af-
ford any further proof that my position as to the different
ages of the Suffolk diluvium and the crag, is a correct one.
At a future time I may, perhaps, trouble you with a few illustra-
tions from my notes upon the subject.

Your's faithfully,

W. B. Clarke.

Stanley Green,

April 10th, 1838.

Editor of the Magazine of Natural History.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the
command of Captain Fitzroy, during the years 1832—1836. —
Published with the approval of the Lords Commissioners of Her
Majesty's Treasury. Edited and superintended by Charles Dar-
win, Esq. M.A., F.G.S. C.M.Z.S. Naturalist to the Expedition.
Part I. No. 1. — The Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen, Esq.
Professor of Anatomy aud Physiology in the Royal College of Sur-
geons. London: Smith, Elder & Co., Cornhill. 1838.

It is with much pleasure that we take an early opportunity
of noticing the commencement of a work, which, when com-
plete, will contain a mass of zoological detail, of no ordinary
value and interest ; and perhaps unexampled in amount, con-
sidered as the result of single-handed research, undertaken
by an individual whose attention is known to have been, dur-
ing the same time so successfully directed to other matters of
philosophical investigation. The circumstances under which

Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 287

the scientific world is about to be put in possession of this
rich fund of new information upon so many objects of natural
history, are of a somewhat unusual nature ; for pecuniary as-
sistance has, in this country, hitherto been rarely extended
by the government, for the advancement of zoological know-
ledge, by specific grants to aid the publication of such works
as the present. Although the assistance so liberally afforded
to Mr. Darwin on the present occasion,* cannot fail of being
a source of gratification to all those who feel an interest in
the progress of Zoology, as indicating the just appreciation
of the value of his labours, in the quarter from which that
assistance was derived, at the same time we cannot help ex-
pressing our conviction, that the policy of this measure on
the part of the government, is, to a certain extent, a debata-
ble point. That the immediate result is a beneficial one, can-
not be disputed ; but is it not brought about by the interven-
tion of means involving consequences which, to a greater or
less extent, may operate injuriously upon the very cause which
it was originally intended to serve ?

How many ardent cultivators of scientific pursuits there
are in the field of Natural History, the results of whose labors
are launched forth, backed only by their own resources, or
those of their publishers ! Purchasers are prone, inconside-
rately perhaps, to judge by comparison ; and when a scienti-
fic volume of such paramount interest as the one in question,
comes before the public at a price far less than the actual ex-
pense of publication, may not the prospective effect be unfa-
vorable, as regards the making public the researches of those
naturalists, who may not be so fortunate as to gain a share of
the same powerful co-operation ?

It is perhaps almost unnecessary to remark, save for the
sake of argument, that instances might readily be mentioned
of individuals, who, in devoting their time and energies to the
illustration of particular departments of Natural History, are,
to a very great extent, dependant upon the encouragement
given to scientific publications, and who could not, by possi-
bility, employ their talents in pursuits of this nature, unless
able, from their scientific acquirements, to reap some pecuni-
ary advantage. Now if a certain proportion of expensively
illustrated works are offered by government to the public, at
a greatly reduced price, a natural consequence will be, that
these will sell, to the partial exclusion of some of the more
costly publications which are brought out at individual risk,

*A similar grant has also been made to Dr. Andrew Smith, for his forth-
coming work on South African Zoology.
Vol. II. — No. 17. n. s b b

288 Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle.

and hence a check would, in this respect, be placed upon the
spirit of private speculation. Let us suppose, for instance,
that Mr. Gould, whose intention of visiting Australia was no-
ticed in a recent number of the Mag. Nat. Hist, had returned
to this country, contemplating the publication of a work,
which, instead of being restricted to the birds, should em-
brace the entire Zoology of that portion of the globe, would
he not, upon finding that two works of the same general na-
ture as his own, were being issued for the price of letter-press
and paper only, feel this circumstance an obstacle in the way
of his own success, unless he were conscious that his esta-
blished reputation as a naturalist, would ensure him a suffi-
cient sale to justify his risking the necessary outlay of capital ?
The works, it is true, could not be regarded in any way as
interfering with each other in their nature and object, as each
would refer to distinct parts of the world, but it is obvious
enough that in cases where the resources of public institu-
tions or of private individuals did not allow of their subscrib-
ing to all three, that the preference would be given to those
published under the patronage of the government.

We make the above casual observations, without meaning
to express any decided opinion upon the merits of the ques-
tion, but rather with a view of directing attention to the
subject.

The first public announcement of the treasures Mr. Darwin
was accumulating in the southern continent of America, is
still vividly fresh in our recollection ; and such of our read-
ers as were present at the Geological Society, on that even-
ing, will doubtless remember the great interest excited by
extracts from his letters, which were communicated to the
meeting by Professor Sedgwick. Since that time, Mr. Dar-
win's return to this country, and his residence in London,
have enabled him to take an active part in the scientific pro-
ceedings of that flourishing Society, where the proofs which
have been given of his talent, have more than realised the san-
guine anticipations indulged in by those, who, during his ab-
sence on the expedition, had the opportunity of becoming
acquainted with some partial details of the researches in
which he was so successfully occupied. Captain Fitzroy was
certainly most fortunate in meeting with a gentleman who has
shewn himself so admirably suited to carry his wishes into
effect, with regard to the scientific part of the expedition. —
Possessing a general and comprehensive knowledge of Na-
tural History, without entertaining so strong a predilection in
favor of some one branch of it, as might have led him to con-
centrate his observations upon that alone, to the exclusion of

Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 289

others ; — endowed with extraordinary talent for observation,
and a just confidence in his own powers of induction and
generalization ; and, added to these, the capability of re-
cording his views upon such phenomena as might present
themselves to his notice, in a style at once clear, forcible and
concise ; — are among the qualifications which rendered Mr.
Darwin peculiarly fitted to accompany, in the character of
Naturalist, a voyage like that undertaken by the Beagle.

We cannot omit a passing notice of the course pursued by
Mr. Darwin, in reference to the disposal of the rich stores in
the different classes of the animal kingdom, collected by him-
self during the progress of the expedition. There can be no
doubt that the scientific attainments of this gentleman are
such, as would readily have enabled him to characterise the
greater part of the new forms which he had collected, so as
at least to have entitled him to be considered the original de-
scriber of the species ; and the name of * Darwin' would, in
that case, have been appended to some hundred birds, quad-
rupeds, reptiles, &c. ; a means of acquiring scientific notori-
ety, most eagerly caught at by some aspirants to zoological
fame. The manner, however, in which Mr. Darwin has act-
ed, with reference to this point, is not less creditable to his
liberality of feeling, than to his appreciation of the way
in which science would reap the greatest amount of advan-
tage from the materials in his possession. Thus we find it
stated in the preface, that while the specimens themselves
have been presented to those Museums in which they would
be likely to prove most serviceable, the descriptions of the
recent Mammalia have been undertaken by Mr. Waterhouse,
the able Curator of the Zoological Society ; the birds by Mr.
Gould, the celebrated Ornithologist; the reptiles by Mr. Bell;
the fish by the Rev. L. Jenyns ; while the fossil Mammalia,
the history of some portion of which constitutes the contents
of the part now under notice, have been placed in the hands
of Professor Owen.

Mr. Owen's elaborate description of the Toxodon and Ma-
crauchenia, two of the most remarkable forms among the fos-
sil Mammalia, and his dissertation upon their probable affi-
nities, is prefaced by a slight history of the physical aspect
of the region in which these extinct genera were discovered,
with some account also of the nature of the deposit in which
they were embedded. This geological introduction, written
by Mr. Darwin, brief as it is, details some facts which appear
to us of the very highest importance, and which we trust will
be more fully treated of in the separate work which he is en-
gaged in preparing, upon the history of these deposits.

290 Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle.

The occurrence of certain species of marine shells, identi-
cal with species existing in the neighbouring sea, in the same
formation as that containing the fossil Mammalia, is particu-
larly noticed by Mr. Darwin, as a proof of the very recent e-
poch to which these fossiliferous beds should be referred. —
Upon this point, however, and upon the manner in which the
remains of land animals were introduced in such abundance
into these marine deposits, we will give the author's views in
his own words.

*** " We may feel certain, that at a period not very remote, a great bay
occupied the area both of the Pampas, and of the lower parts of Banda
Oriental. Into this bay the rivers which are now united in the one great
stream of the Plata, must formerly have carried down, (as happens at the
present day), the carcasses of the animals inhabiting the surrounding
countries ; and their skeletons would thus become entombed in the estuary-
mud which was then tranquilly accumulating. Nothing less than a long
succession of such accidents can account for the vast number of remains
now found buried. As their exposure has invariably been due to the intersec-
tion of the plain by the banks of some stream, it is not making an extravagant
assertion, to say, that any line whatever drawn across the Pampas, would
probably cross the skeleton of some extinct animal.

"At Bajada, a passage, as I have stated, may be traced upwards from the
beds containing marine shells, to the estuary-mud with the bones of land
animals. In another locality a bed of the same mineralogical nature with
the Pampas deposit, underlies clay containing large oysters and other shells,
apparently the same with those at Bajada. We may, therefore, conclude
that at the period when the Area, Venus, and Oyster were living, the phy-
sical condition of the surrounding country was nearly the same, as at the
time when the remains of the mammalia were embedded; and therefore
that these shells and the extinct quadrupeds probably either co-existed, or
that the interval between their respective existences was, in a geological
point of view, extremely short. In this part of South America there is rea-
son to believe that the movements of the land have been so regular, that
the period of its elevation may be taken as an element in considering the
age of any deposit. The circumstance, therefore, that the beds immediately
bordering the Plata, contain very nearly the same species of molluscs, with
those now existing in the neighbouring sea, harmonizes perfectly with the
more ancient (though really modern) tertiary character of the fossils un-
derlying the Pampas deposit at Bajada, situated at a greater height, and
at a considerable distance in the interior. I feel little doubt that the final
extinction of the several large quadrupeds of La Plata did not take place,
until the time when the sea was peopled with all, or nearly all, its present
inhabitants." Page 6.

"In another part of the bay, called Punta Alta, about eighteen miles from
Monte Hermoso, a very small extent of cliff, about twenty feet high, is ex-
posed. The lower bed, seen at ebb tide, extends over a considerable area ;
it consists of a mass of quartz shingle, irregularly stratified, and divided by
curved layers of indurated clay. The pebbles are cemented together by
calcareous matter, which results, perhaps, from the partial decomposition of
numerous embedded shells. In this gravel the remains of several gigantic
animals were extraordinarily numerous. The cliff, in the part above high
water mark, is chiefly composed of a reddish indurated argillaceous earth ;
which either passes into, or is replaced by, the same kind of gravel as that
on which the whole rests. The earthy substance is coarser than that at

Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 291

Monte Hermoso, and does not contain calcareous concretions. I found in
it a very few fragments of shells, and part of the remains of one quadruped.

" From the bones in one of the skeletons, and likewise from those in part
of another, being embedded in their proper relative positions, the carcasses
of the animals, when they perished, were probably drifted to this spot in an
entire state. The gravel, from its stratification and general appearance,
exactly resembles that which is every day accumulating in banks, where
either tides or currents meet ; and the embedded shells are of littoral spe-
cies. But from the skeleton, in one instance, being in a position nearly
undisturbed, and from the abundance of Serpulce and encrusting corallines
adhering to some of the bones, the water, at the time of their burial, must
have been deeper than at present." Page 7.

" Of these shells it is almost certain that twelve species, (and the coral-
line), are absolutely identical with existing species ; and that four more are
perhaps so ; the doubt partly arising from the imperfect condition of the
specimens. Of the seven remaining ones, four are minute, and one extreme-
ly imperfect. If I had not made a collection, far from perfect, of the shells
now inhabiting Bahia Blanca, Mr. Sowerby would not have known as liv-
ing kinds, five out of the twelve fossils : therefore, it is probable, if more at-
tention had been paid to collecting the small living species, some of the se-
ven unknown ones would also have been found in that state. The twelve
first shells, as well as the four doubtful ones, are not only existing species,
but nearly all of them inhabit this same bay, on the shores of which they
are likewise found fossil. Moreover, at the time, I particularly noticed
that the proportional numbers appeared closely similar between the diffe-
rent kinds, — in those now cast up on the beach, and in those embedded with
the fossil bones. Under these circumstances, I think, we are justified, (al-
though some of the shells are at present unknown to conchologists,) in con-
sidering the shingle strata at Punta Alta, as belonging to an extremely
modern epoch." Page 9.

The most important consideration which occurs to us as
arising out of the facts noticed by Mr. Darwin in his exami-
nation of the deposits of the Pampas and neighbouring loca-
lities, is that the series of embedded fossil Mammalia should
consist of extinct genera or species, including some forms
with very remote affinities to any existing at the present day;
whilst the marine shells which so frequently accompanied the
bones of quadrupeds, were, with two or three exceptions, re-
ferrible to species inhabiting the nearest seas.

Mr. Lyell, it is true, has endeavoured to shew that in the
class Mammalia species have not an existence throughout so
extended a period of time as in the Mollusca; but in the pre-
sent instance, we apprehend that the revolution which has
taken place in the South American quadrupeds, has occurred
within so recent period, that a solution of the phenomenon
will hardly be discovered in the slow and gradual operation
of existing causes. Were it not for the circumstance of seve-
ral skeletons having been discovered, with the different bones
in their relative positions, we should have ventured to remind
Mr. Darwin that the fossils of two or more geological periods
may be introduced, to an unlimited extent, into one and the

292 Capture of the White-tailed Eagle.

same deposit, without the slightest clue being present by which
such a condition may be detected. The proposition that
the contemporaneous deposition of organic bodies in sedimen-
tary beds, is a proof of contemporaneous pre-existence, ought
long since to have been scouted by all geologists who have
the slightest insight into the operation of existing causes.
If a few hundred square miles of the bed of the sea along the
eastern coast of England, were at this moment to be elevated
above the level of the surrounding ocean, and the plain thus
formed intersected by streams, the skeletons of extinct Mam-
malia which are there being quietly entombed, literally by
hundreds of thousands, would become exposed in the same
abundance as they have recently been noticed in the various
localities alluded to by Mr. Darwin. Now we know that in
this case there would be no relation of contemporaneous pre-
existence between the tusks of the mammoth and the oyster-
shells adhering to them, though undoubtedly there would be
one of contemporaneous deposition. Had the entire skele-
tons, discovered by Mr. Darwin, been those of species now
inhabiting South America, we should have been strongly in-
clined to suspect that the Pampas deposit, like that now ac-
cumulating on some parts of our own coast, probably contain-
ed the remains of quadrupeds of different periods. In the
latter, the bones of extinct animals occur necessarily in a de-
tached state, but the carcasses of such of our indigenous
quadrupeds as may chance to be drifted down by rivers which
there enter the sea, would probably be inhumed entire.

The length to which our present notice has extended, obli-
ges us to defer, until the publication of the second part, our
remarks upon the extraordinary fossil genera, Toxodon and
Macrauchenia.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.
Capture of the White-tailed Eagle, (Ealco alhicilla: Penn.
Mont. Haliaetus alhicilla, Selby), on the Suffolk Coast, Fe-
bruary 22nd, 1838. — A fine specimen of this noble bird, an
adult female, was observed by some boatmen to fall into the
sea, at the mouth of the River Orwell, and not again rising,
they put off and secured it without difficulty : it expired in
a few minutes after its capture.

The men who secured it could give no reason for its thus
falling, (unless it pounced at a fish, and was unable to mount
again), as it was in fine condition, and did not appear to
have been wounded.

Locality for Brookite — Death of Parrots. 293

Thinking the above might be interesting to some of your
numerous readers, (if thought worthy of insertion), I have ta-
ken the liberty of forwarding it, the bird being in my posses-
sion.— Ipswich, February, 1838. — T. Townsend.

Locality for Brookite. — This extremely beautiful and rare
mineral is generally supposed to be one of the productions of
Snowdon ; but the true locality of it is on the road side be-
tween Beddgelert and Tremaddoc, Carnarvonshire, about 8
miles from Snowdon. It there occurs in large and distinct
crystals, many of which are transparent, accompanied by
Rock-crystal and Cleavelandite, in cavities and adhering to
the walls of a very large irregular vein of quartz in a some-
what slaty grauwacke rock. I have found two crystals of
anatase in the same vein. — G. B. Sowerby.

Probable cause of the Death of Parrots, and other Birds
confined in Cages. — A cockatoo having died suddenly during
the night, I was solicited to examine it, for the purpose of
exculpating certain individuals who were suspected of having
administered some deleterious substance in order that they
might not be further annoyed by its noises and screechings.

Having opened and inspected several other organs, my at-
tention was directed to the gizzard, on account of its extreme
solidity and apparent repletion. Upon making an incision in
it, I observed it to be full of small pieces of brass and iron
wire, variously twisted, with five small pebbles, about the size
of peas. I then made an enquiry relative to the state of the
bird's health, when it appeared that for some time past it had
shewn symptoms of disease, and had not touched any thing
in the shape of food for ten days together ; in the mean time
sickness and disease were produced, owing, without doubt, to
the wire acting as a poison. On further enquiry I ascertained
that neither sand, gravel, nor similar articles necessary for the
trituration of the food in the gizzard, had been placed in the
cage. Judging from the smooth and rounded appearance of
the pebbles, I have not the slightest hesitation in saying that
they had been in the gizzard ever since last summer, (a peri-
od of at least seven months). Upon closely examining the
gizzard, its internal surface was found to be much corroded,
and of a dark green and brownish colour ; it was also thick-
ened in some parts to the extent of 4|- lines. The cellular
structure at the opening was much inflamed and corroded,
and in some parts entirely destroyed by the acridity produced
by the metal.

Had gravel or sand been placed in the cage instead of ma-
hogany saw-dust, the life of the bird would undoutedly have

294 Literary Intelligence.

been prolonged. The nature of the sawdust not offering
sufficient resistance in order to accomplish the desired end,
the bird instinctively picked the smaller pieces of wire , used
to bind the cage together, to compensate for this deficiency
on the part of its owners. Much instinct was shown in the
manner in which it had folded the pieces of wire in order to
swallow them ; most of the pieces when doubled and twisted
measured one third of an inch in length, but when unfolded
measured nearly one inch. The contents of the gizzard af-
ter having been washed and dried, weighed 26.6 grains. —
Daniel Cooper, 82, Blackfriars Road.

We see by an announcement on the advertising sheet of our present
number, that the collection of objects in Natural History, formed by
Dr. Andrew Smith, in South Africa, and which has, for some time
past, been exhibiting at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, is shortly to be
put up to public sale. We observe also that the skull of the Deino-
therium, the discovery of which has recently excited so much attention
among naturalists, along with a large series of tertiary fossil Mamma-
lia, the property of Dr. Klipperstein, of Gissen, is advertised for sale
through Mr. Sowerby, of Great Russell Street. — Ed.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

Shortly ivill be published a monograph on the Anatidae or
Duck Tribe, including the geese and swans. Illustrated by
twenty-four lithographic plates, chiefly by Goued, Scharf,
and Lear, and upwards of seventy wood-cuts, illustrating the
forms of the bills and the feet in the different genera. By
Thomas C. Eyton, Esq. F.L.S. Author of a history of the ra-
rer British Birds, intended as a supplement to Bewick.

Kollars Natural History of Injurious Insects, reviewed at
p. 235 of this Magazine, has been translated into English,
and will shortly be published. It will be illustrated with
engravings, and edited by Mr. Westwood.

Professor Thomas Rymer Jones, of King's College, Lon-
don, is engaged in writing a general outline of the animal
kingdom, exhibiting the structure and internal economy of
every class of living beings, and their adaptation to the cir-
cumstances in which they are severally destined to exist.

The work will be systematically illustrated by an exten-
sive series of drawings by the author, and published on the
plan of Professor Bell's, and Mr. Yarreli's works on British
Zoology.

John Van Voorst, Paternoster Row, April 23rd, 1838.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

JUNE, 1838.

Art. I. Some Observations on the Habits of the Dottrel, (Cha-
radrius Morinellm, Linn J made in Cumberland, during the Sum-
mer of 1835. By T. C. Heysham, Esq.

Previous to the publication of Mr. Selby's ' Illustrations of
British Ornithology,' so many authors of undoubted talent
and veracity had stated that the dottrel was not only a regu-
lar summer visitant, but annually resorted to various districts
in the northern counties of England and the Highlands of
Scotland to breed, that I am altogether at a loss to conjecture
on what grounds a naturalist of Mr. Selby's ability and re-
search could deliberately assert that this bird is merely a cur-
sory visitant in this country, during its migration to and from
its breeding quarters in the northern latitudes, as well as that
the eggs of this species have never yet been found, with this
exception, that he was never able to meet with either during
the season of incubation, in his various excursions to the Che-
viot hills and the Highlands of Scotland.

In order, however, that the reader of this paper may be bet-
ter able to form an opinion on this question, I shall, in the
first place, give a few extracts from the different authors who
have written on the subject, (some of their works having be-
come exceedingly scarce, and consequently very difficult to
procure), then transcribe the whole of Mr. Selby's article, and
conclude with a few remarks on the habits of this bird during
the breeding season, the result of my own observation, which
I am confident will convince the most sceptical on this point,
that the dottrel is not only a regular summer visitaift, but an-
nually breeds on the mountains which contribute so materi-
ally to the grandeur and magnificence of some of the most

Vol. II.— No. 18. n. s. c c

296 Observations on the Dottrel.

beautiful and romantic scenery in the county of Cumberland.

Dr. Heysham, I believe, is one of the first naturalists in
this country who has given any authentic information relative
to the habits of this bird. In his ' Catalogue of Cumberland
Animals' I find the following remarks: "The dottrel comes
in May, is a scarce bird in this county, but is more plentiful
in Westmoreland. In June, 1784, ten or twelve were shot on
Skiddaw, where they breed. On the 18th of May, 1786, I
had two females sent from the neighbourhood of Appleby; on
dissection, I found the eggs very small, so that it is probable
that they do not lay till June. They leave this county the
latter end of September or beginning of October ; I have seen
one which was shot on the top of Skiddaw on the ] 6th of
September."* At the time the above was written, Dr. Hey-
sham had seen three eggs of this bird, which had been found
on Skiddaw. The subjoined description of these eggs was
published in the ' Philosophical Magazine,' along with a few
remarks of my own on this species. Dr. Heysham's MS. is
still in my possession.

" Sometime last summer a nest of the dottrel was found on
Skiddaw. The old bird was killed, and the eggs brought a-
way, which were three or four in number. I saw three of
them ; they are somewhat larger than a magpie's egg, the
ground is a dirty clay colour, marked with large irregular
black spots. February 14th, 1785." f

In the 'Ornithological Dictionary' and 'Supplement,' Col.
Montagu relates the following particulars. "The dottrel ap-
pears to make this country a resting place in its migratory
flights to and from its breeding place. It is seen on some of
our downs, heaths, and moors, from April, to the beginning
of June, and returns again in September, and remains till No-
vember. On the Wiltshire downs it resorts to the new-sown
corn or fallow ground, for the sake of worms, its principal
food. They fly in families of four or six, in the autumn,
which we have observed to be the two old birds and their
young ; but sometimes a dozen or more flock together. It is
a stupid bird, and easily shot ; when disturbed it will frequent-
ly extend one wing, and does not fly to a great distance. It
doubtless goes northward to breed, but we do not find any
one who mentions the nest or eggs. It is probable some may
breed in the mountains of Scotland. We once saw them in
pairs in that country, sufficiently late to form such an opin-
ion, and we are not singular in this conjecture." X

* Hutchinson's 'History of Cumberland,' vol. i. p. 19. 1794.

f'Phil. Mag. and Annals,' N.S. vol. vi. p. 280. 1830.

+ Montagu's 'Ornithological Dictionary.' 1802.

Observations on the Dottrel. 297

" It should seem that this bird has been seen in several
parts of Great Britain throughout the year, the natural con-
clusion of which is, that some actually breed with us ; but no
person to our knowledge has been fortunate enough to take
their eggs, so as to be clearly identified by a competent judge :
it is true, a person of credit, who frequents the Mendip Hills, in
Somersetshire, declares that they breed there, and that he has
taken their eggs. Young birds are frequently shot early in
September, on those hills and similar situations, but that is
no proof of their breeding there, as the nestling plumage con-
tinues till towards the following spring, and is very different
from the adult, being entirely destitute of the bands on the
breast, and the ferruginous and black on the belly. Colonel
Thornton, in his 'Sporting Tour,' p. 104, says he killed a dot-
trel on a Highland mountain, August 16th, and saw several
brace. The same gentleman informs us that he saw dottrels
in pairs on the Grampian mountains, but never saw a young
bird, (meaning a runner, incapable of flight). From all ac-
counts it is quite an alpine bird in the breeding season, and
probably breeds with, and may be confounded with, the gol-
den plover in the Highland swamps." *

The next author who alludes to this subject is Greaves : in
the third volume of his 'British Ornithology,' he says that
"we are informed by Mr. Gough, of Middleshaw, in West-
moreland, that this bird breeds on the neighbouring hills.f
We have been favoured with several eggs from different parts
of Scotland, said to belong to this bird; but our friends not
accompanying them with the bird, we are under doubts with
regard to their identity. " %

Dr. Latham in his ' General History of Birds,' gives some
very accurate information with respect to the breeding locali-
ties of this species in the Highlands of Scotland. He states
that " the dottrel is a local bird in respect to England, being
in some parts sufficiently common, in others not known ; seen
in tolerable quantities in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and
Derbyshire, in April, May, and June ; met with on the Wilt-
shire and Berkshire downs in April and September, in small
flocks of eight or ten, being on their passage to and from the
north where they breed. The same on the sea side at Meales,
in Lancashire, the beginning of April, continuing there about

* ' Supplement to Montagu's Orn. Diet.' 1813.

f Dottrels, about twenty-five years ago, used to breed annually on the hills

in the vicinity of Sedbergh and Dent, in the West Riding of York, and in

all probability still continue to do so in small numbers, having received

specimens from the above localities, within the last few years.

% Greaves' ' British Ornithology,' vol. iii. 1821.

c c 2

298 Observations on the Dottrel.

three weeks ; from thence to Leyton Haws, where they rest
for a fortnight. Are at the same time in plenty about Hol-
derness, in Yorkshire, and upon the woulds. These birds ap-
pear towards the end of May, in that district of Aberdeenshire
called Braemar, being the most elevated part of the country,
where they hatch their young, on dry mossy ground, near to
and on the summits of the highest parts, sometimes in the lit-
tle tufts of short heather or moss, which is to be found in those
elevated grounds, and in so exposed a situation. They take
so little trouble to form their nest, that were it not for their
eggs, no one could suppose there was one. The hen sits three
weeks, and the young make their appearance about the mid-
dle of July. They rarely lay above three eggs, and generally
bring forward as many young. Towards the end of October,
they gather together in large flocks, and sometimes hundreds
may be seen together, for very considerable numbers breed in
the district above-mentioned. However, their assembling in
large flocks at the above season, is no proof of their leaving
the country before winter, as grouse do the same, which are
constant inhabitants ; and our informant once fell in with a
small flock of about a dozen, at the foot of the highest moun-
tain in that country, about the end of February or beginning
of March, the ground having been for many weeks deeply co-
vered with snow. Three of these were shot, in good condi-
tion, though not so fat as those he used to kill in August and
September. As to their breeding place, it is always at an e-
levation of from 1500 to 2000 feet above the level of the sea,
and Dr. Heysham informed me that ten or twelve were shot
on the top of Skiddaw in Cumberland, in the month of June."*

At the conclusion of a very interesting paper in the Lin-
nean Transactions, on the capture of the buff-breasted sand-
piper, (Tringa rufescens, Vieill.), near Melbourne in Cam-
bridgeshire, Mr. Yarrell remarks that " the extensive range
of hills round Melbourne, is frequented by dottrel in consi-
derable numbers, for a short period every spring and autumn,
and the only locality from which I could ever obtain their
eggs, was the Grampian hills." f

Additional evidence of a similar tendency might be cited
from other writers had it been at all necessary ; but I think
it clearly appears from the quotations already given, that ma-
ny years before the publication of Mr. Selby's ( Illustrations,'
it had been satisfactorily ascertained : —

First ; that the dottrel was a regular summer visitant, not

* Latham's « General History of Birds?' vol. ix. p. 335. 1829.
f* Linnean Transactions,' vol. xvi. p. 109. 1829.

Observations on the Dottrel. 299

only in the northern counties of England, but also in the High-
lands of Scotland.

Secondly ; that this bird annually resorted to various moun-
tains in the north of England, as well as in Scotland, to breed.

Thirdly ; that the eggs of this species had not only been
found, but likewise described.*

I shall now, without further comment, lay before my read-
ers Mr. Selby's remarks.

" The dottrel can only be reckoned a cursory visitant, at
two periods of its migratory nights, viz. in spring, during the
months of April and May, when on its way to higher latitudes,
for the breeding season, and again in September and October,
on its return to its winter quarters in the warmer parts of Eu-
rope and Asia. By some writers, however, it has been sup-
posed that a part of the birds which visit Britain in spring, re-
main to breed upon the moors of the northern counties of Eng-
land and the Highlands of Scotland. Amongst whom Montagu
and Dr. Fleming seem to favour this opinion ; the former of
whom, in his ' Ornithological Dictionary,' after stating the
probability of the fact, observes that he once saw dottrels in
Scotland sufficiently late to induce him to entertain such an
idea ; and further adds, that Colonel Thornton informed him
of having seen dottrels in pairs upon the Grampian hills : but
unfortunately, in neither of these cases is the precise time of
the year mentioned. Dr. Fleming, in his ' History of British
Animals,' cites a passage from the 'Statistical Account of the
Parish of Carmylie,' in favor of the above supposition : but
the paragraph is too generally worded to establish as a fact,
the residence and breeding of these birds upon the Grampian
mountains.

" In Northumberland, (where considerable flocks annually
appear in certain haunts near the coast, in the month of May,
and where their visit seldom extends beyond a week or ten
days), I have, during summer, examined all the upland moors
and the range of the Cheviot hills, these being the situations
to which they would naturally retire, if any remained to breed,
but always without success : nor did the bird appear to be
known to the shepherds, or other inhabitants of these districts.
The same may be said of the moors of Cumberland, and the
south-western parts of Scotland, where indeed it is of very
rare occurrence, even during its periodical flight ; the line of
the migration of the passing bodies that visit us in the spring

* The eggs of the dottrel are figured in no less than three continental
works, all of which were published prior to or in the year 1830, two of them
are exclusively devoted to the eggs of the European birds.

cc3

300 Observations on the Dottrel.

being along the eastern coasts of the island. I may also add
that in my various excursions to the Highlands of Scotland,
I never met with the dottrel in the summer or breeding sea-
son, though its congener, the golden plover, was frequently
seen ; nor has any instance occurred of the nest, eggs, or im-
mature young of the bird having been yet found. It is seen
on its return from its breeding quarters, in particular haunts,
during the months of September and October, generally in fa-
milies of five or six together, being the old birds and their
brood : occasionally however, earlier appearance may happen,
as in the case of the bird mentioned by Colonel Thornton in
his 'Sporting Tour,1 which he killed in Scotland, on the 16th
August ; and a dottrel, apparently a bird of the year, once
fell before my own gun when shooting grouse, on the 20th of
August. These, in all probability, were birds of early hatch-
ings, which appear frequently to precede the main bodies of
their species in their equatorial migration, as I have frequent-
ly remarked in the history of the sanderling. The dottrel has
always been considered a stupid bird, but for what reason I
cannot conceive. I allow that on its first arrival it shews but
little fear of man, but this I apprehend arises more from inex-
perience of persecution in its native wilds, than from any other
cause, and which appears evident from the birds, when ha-
rassed and repeatedly fired at, soon becoming too cautious to
admit of near approach any longer. Their habits also contri-
bute to render them unwary; for being nocturnal feeders, (like
many others as the CharadriacUe), they are at rest and asleep
during the greater part of the day, in which state also the
golden plover, (a wary bird when roused), will frequently ad-
mit of a close approach. As to the story of the dottrel mi-
micking the actions of the fowler, by stretching out its leg,
wing, or head, when he sets the example, it without doubt
arose from the motions that they, as well as other birds, usu-
ally and most naturally make, when roused from a state of
repose, and which every one who attends to the habits of the
feathered race, must, (in flocks of gulls, tringas, plovers, &c),
have frequently observed."*

Having disposed of this question I will now narrate, as
succinctly as possible, what has fallen under my own obser-
vation relative to the habits and economy of this bird. In
the neighbourhood of Carlisle dottrels seldom make their ap-
pearance before the middle of May, about which time they
are occasionally seen in different localities, in flocks which
vary in number from five to fifteen, and almost invariably re-

* Selby's « Illustrations of British Ornithology,* vol. ii. p. 236. 1833.

Observations on the Dottrel. 301

sort to heaths, barren pastures, fallow grounds, &c. in open
and exposed situations, where they continue if unmolested,
from ten days to a fortnight, and then retire to the mountains
in the vicinity of the lakes, to breed. The most favourite
breeding haunts of these birds, are always near to or on the
summits of the highest mountains, particularly those that are
densely covered with the woolly fringe-moss, [Trichostomum
lanuginosum, Hedw.), which indeed grows more or less pro-
fusely on nearly all the most elevated parts of this alpine dis-
trict.* In these lonely places they constantly reside the whole
of the breeding season, a considerable part of the time enve-
loped in clouds, and almost daily drenched with rain or wet-
ting mists, so extremely prevalent in these dreary regions :
and there can be little doubt that it is owing to this peculiar
feature in their economy, that they have remained so long in
obscurity during the period of incubation. The dottrel is by
no means a solitary bird at this time, as a few pair usually as-
sociate together, and live, to all appearance, in the greatest
harmony. These birds do not make any nest, but deposit
their eggs, (which seldom exceed three in number), in a small
cavity on dry ground covered with vegetation, and generally
near a mo derate -sized stone, or fragment of rock. In early
seasons old females will occasionally begin to lay their eggs
about the 26th of May, but the greater part seldom commence
before the first or second week in June. It would appear
however from the following facts, that they vary exceedingly
in this respect. On the 19th of July, 1833, a perfect egg was
taken out of a female, which had been recently killed on Ro-
binson; and on the 26th of May, 1834, I received four dot-
trels from Keswick, which had been shot on Great Gavel the
day before. In the ovary of one of them I found an egg al-
most quite ready for exclusion, being a difference of nearly
eight weeks. So great a discrepancy in all probability is of
very rare occurrence, yet it will subsequently appear that eggs
recently laid, and a young bird, a few days old, were found
on the same day, at no great distance from each other. The
males assist the females in the incubation of their eggs. How
long incubation continues I have not yet been able to ascer-
tain, but I am inclined to think that it rarely lasts much long-
er than eighteen or twenty days. A week or two previous to
their departure, they congregate in flocks, and continue to-
gether until they finally leave this county, which takes place
sometimes during the latter end of August, at others, not be-

* The favourite breeding stations of the dottrel, are frequently called
'smittle places' by some of the guides and anglers at Keswick.

c c 4

302 Observations on the Dottrel.

fore the beginning of September. A few birds no doubt are
occasionally seen after this period, but they are either late
broods, or birds that are returning from more northern lati-
tudes. This autumn I visited several breeding stations on
the 25th of August, and again on the 2nd of September, but
in neither instance could I observe a single individual.

Anxious as I have been for several years past to procure
the eggs of the dottrel, for the purpose of adding undoubted
specimens of so rare an egg to my cabinet, as well as to prove
beyond all doubt that this bird breeds in Cumberland,
yet it was not until the present year that I had the gratifica-
tion of accomplishing an object which I have had so long in
view. After repeated excursions through the lake district,
this summer, for the express purpose, I was so fortunate as to
obtain their eggs in two different localities, namely, three on
Whiteside, contiguous to Helvellyn, on the 29th of June ; and
two on the 5th of July, on Robinson, in the vicinity of But-
termere. The former had been incubated twelve or fourteen
days, the latter were only recently laid, and in both instances
the birds were seen to leave their eggs ; one, on quitting them,
immediately spread out its wings and tail, which it trailed on
the ground a short distance, and then went away without ut-
tering a single note. On this day, (5th July, 1835), a young
bird, a few days old, was also captured.

Having spent a considerable portion of several days on Ro-
binson, in company with a very able assistant, searching for
the eggs of the dottrel, I had, of course, ample opportunities
of observing their manners ; and I flatter myself that the fol-
lowing particulars will be interesting to some of my ornitho-
logical readers. On the 3rd of July we found three or four
pair near the most elevated part of this mountain, and on all
our visits thither, whether early in the morning or late in the
afternoon, the greater part were always seen near the same
place, sitting on the ground. When first discovered, they per-
mitted us to approach within a short distance, without shew-
ing any symptoms of alarm ; and frequently afterwards, when
within a few paces, watching their movements, some would
move slowly about and pick up an insect, others would re-
main motionless, now and then stretching out their wings, and
a few would occasionally toy with each other, at the same time
uttering a few low notes, which had some resemblance to those
of the common linnet, {Linaria cannabina). In short they
appeared to be so very indifferent with regard to our presence,
that at last my assistant could not avoid exclaiming, " what
stupid birds these are ! " The female that had young, never-
theless evinced considerable anxiety for their safety, when-

Observations on the Dottrel. 303

ever We came near the place where they were concealed, and
as long as we remained in the vicinity, constantly flew to and
fro above us, uttering her note of alarm.

As soon as the young birds were fully feathered, two were
killed for the purpose of examining their plumage in this state;
and we found that after they had been fired at once or twice,
they became more wary, and eventually we had some little
difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to effect our pur-
pose. The moult appears to commence somewhat early in
old birds ; a male that was killed on the 25th of July, was
completely covered with pen feathers, and the belly, from in-
cubation, almost entirely bare. The stomachs I dissected were
all filled with the elytra and remains of small coleopterous
insects, which in all probability constitute their principal food
during the breeding season.

These birds T understand are getting every year more and
more scarce in the neighbourhood of the lakes ; and from the
numbers that are annually killed by the anglers at Keswick
and the vicinity, (their feathers having long been held in high
estimation for dressing artificial flies), it is extremely proba-
ble that in a few years they will become so exceedingly rare,
that specimens will be procured with considerable difficulty.
I have subjoined the names of some of the principal moun-
tains in this county, on which dottrels have been known to
breed, and I have also added, as far as practicable, their ele-
vation above the level of the sea, under the idea that this in-
formation may prove of some utility to naturalists who may
hereafter feel inclined to investigate the manners of this spe-
cies in the same district. The relative positions of these
mountains may be seen at a single glance, on referring to
Greenwood's excellent Map of the county of Cumberland.

Helvellyn, 3055^

Whiteside,

Whatson Dod,

Great Dod,

Saddleback, 2787

Skiddaw, 3022 ^Feet above the level of the sea *

Carrock Fell, .2110

Grasmoor, 2756

Robinson, 2292

Gold Scalp, 1114

Great Gavel, 2925^

Before I conclude this paper I will briefly describe and al-
so offer a few observations on the eggs found on Whiteside

* Carrock Fell, I have reason to believe, is the lowest of these mountains,
consequently all those whose elevation is not given, will exceed 21 10 feet
in height.

304 Observations on the Dottrel.

and Robinson. All these eggs were very similar with respect
to colour and markings, but differed a little in size and forma-
tion, varying from 14-| to 1-^ of an inch in length, and in
breadth from 1^ to 1-^, the ground colour wine yellow, va-
rying a little in tint, and all thickly covered with large blotch-
es and spots of different shades of brownish black, particu-
larly on the obtuse end. Hence it appears that they differ a
good deal from those seen and described by Dr. Heysham,
their ground colour being a dirty clay. The eggs of the dot-
trel however figured by Schinz, Thienemann and Polydore
Roux, also vary in this as well as in other respects ; it is
therefore extremely probable that the eggs of this bird are
subject to considerable variation.

DESCRIPTION

of a young dottrel, a few days old, captured alive on Ro-
binson, July 5th, 1835.

Front of the head, throat, a broad space round the neck, and all the un-
der parts covered with a whitish down. Top of the head, occiput, and all
the upper parts of the body, dark brown, mixed here and there with buff-
orange, and whitish down. The few feathers that have made their appear-
ance on the breast, belly, and flanks, buff-orange, slightly spotted with
greyish brown ; a few feathers on the back blackish brown, edged with red-
dish white. Bill black. Irides very dark brown. Legs and toes pale ci-
nereous, slightly tinged with green.

DESCRIPTION

of a young female, (by dissection), three weeks or a month
old, killed on Robinson, July 25th, 1835.

Forehead, throat, and sides of the face cream yellow, covered with small
spots and fine streaks of greyish brown. Crown of the head, occiput, and
also the feathers on the back, dark brown, all more or less broadly edged
with buff-orange. Scapulars and wing-coverts olive-green, deeply edged
with reddish white~ Tail the same, finely margined with white, the centre
feathers broadly tipped with reddish white, and the three lateral ones on
each side ending in a large irregular whitish spot. Sides of the neck, flanks,
and a broad band above each eye, buff-orange, the former finely streaked
with greyish brown. Breast cinereous, slightly tinged with reddish white,
and marked on each side with large spots of olive-green. Belly white, fine-
ly spotted here and there with greyish brown. Bill black. Irides dark
brown. Legs pale olive- green, soles, bright yellow.

Carlisle, September, 1835 *

* Communicated March, 1838, by the Author. — Ed.

General Zoological Changes. 305

Art. II. On the Influence of Man in modifying the Zoological Fea-
tures of the Globe ; with Statistical Accounts respecting a few of
the more important Species. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.
( Continued from Page 256).

Description, Habits, &c. of the Bos urus.
Of all animals now existing and sufficiently well known, the
American bison, {Bos Americanus), bears the greatest resem-
blance to the Bos urus. This resemblance is close enough
to have induced even Pallas to take both for the same species,
and I think a description of either ought to begin with com-
paring one with the other.

The comparative shortness of the legs, tail, and horns, the
weakness of the croup, the somewhat greater breadth of the
forehead, and the orbits, which descend less, and have less
projecting rims in the Bos Americanus, constitute differences
of outward structure, which to a somewhat practised eye give
to that species an aspect, by which it may be at once distin-
guished from the Bos urus. Besides, the B. Americanus has
fifteen pairs of ribs and as many dorsal vertebra, and only four
lumbar vertebra, whereas in the B. urus, the numbers are re-
spectively fourteen and five. Moreover the American ox has
not the same antipathy to the B. taurus as the zubr ; it may
be used to produce a mixed breed with the domesticated cat-
tle, and is, at all events, more tameable, as numbers of them
are kept in the paddocks of the western states of North Ame-
rica, whereof I obtained certain information from Mr. W.
Lenz, who returned from his travels in America but a few
months ago ; and lastly, I cannot find in any work I have con-
sulted on the subject, that the B. Americanus smells of musk.
The original natural size of the two animals is about the same,
the weight of the two animals being about a ton.

I shall now compare the B. urus with one of his congeners
better known to European readers, and by entering more in-
to detail, endeavour to bring, at the same time, many essen-
tial parts of the description of the former to the notice of the
reader. Let us represent to ourselves a bull, whose upper
mesial line, beginning at the atlas and ending at the root of
the tail, does not approach to the horizontal, but slopes down-
wards, both before and behind the fourth to the seventh dor-
sal vertebrae, (or those which answer to the withers), namely,
before, at an angle of about 30°, and behind, at one of about
15°. The chest of the B. urus appears therefore considera-
bly higher, and the whole of its fore-quarters more developed,
than in the tame ox, whilst the hind-quarters are not only
more gracefully built, but appear the more so from contrast,

306 On Mans Influence in effecting

particularly as the hair about the neck, withers, chest, and
shoulders, is much longer than that which covers the posteri-
or part of the trunk. The elevation of the anterior part of
the back in the zubr, is chiefly caused by the great length of
the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebra, in which also
that of the last vertebra colli partakes in a great measure. —
Those of the fourth to the seventh vertebrce are, however, not
the longest, though corresponding to the greatest height of
the back ; that of the second dorsal vertebra is the longest of
all, measuring 16 inches in length, French measure, and up-
wards, whereas in the common ox, it is never more than half
that length, and in the fossil B. primigenius, if reduced, by
subtracting one sixth, to the size of a zubr, where it is 16 in.
long, it would not be more than 12. The zubr has fourteen
pairs of ribs,* and only five lumbar vertebrce, whereas the B.
taurus, as well as the B. primigenius, and most other species,
has thirteen and six respectively. Besides-, the skeleton of
the zubr is of a lighter make.

The head of the zubr is smaller and shorter in proportion
than that of the common ox. The surface of the occiput forms
an obtuse angle with the frontal bone in the former, and an
acute one in the latter. The forehead of the zubr is broader,
owing to the great depth of the orbits, which project like tubes
and are convex, whereby the facial angle becomes greater than
in the B. taurus. The horns do not rise, as in the latter, at
the crown of the head, or at the ends of the line separating
the occiput from the frontal bone, but about opposite the mid-
dle of the convexity of the forehead, or two inches before the
line just mentioned. Of their form we shall speak afterwards,
as those of the B. taurus have no constant form whatever. —
The tube-like orbits, which are narrower at the rim than in
their hollow part, have such a direction that the eyes, though
at a greater distance from each other, point less sideways than
in the B. taurus. The bare part of the muzzle in the zubr,

* Bojanus states that the male Bos urus has fourteen, but the female on-
ly thirteen pairs of ribs. But he is contradicted by two later observers, Ja-
rocky, (1. c. p. 37), and Eichwald, (Naturhistorische Skitze von Lithauen),
who most positively ascribe fourteen pairs of ribs to both sexes. How so
accurate an observer as Bojanus was led into an error, which must have
struck him as very paradoxical, it is difficult to explain, unless we suppose
that the zubr cow which he obtained for the museum of Wilna, was a mon-
strum per defectum. However, the circumstance ought not to be overlooked,
that only the skeleton of the male, presented at the same time by the Empe-
ror Alexander, was prepared for the museum, whereby a mistake on the part
of Bojanus becomes somewhat less improbable. As for the minor differen-
ces in the skeletons of the two species, I must refer the reader to that au-
thor's monograph of the urus, as well as to Cuvier.

General Zoological Changes. 307

only extends over the middle of the upper lip, and the bor-
ders of the nostrils, whereas in the B. taurus it forms a broad
surface. As for the teeth, the number of which is the same
in all the species, those of the zubr are better adapted to
scrape, as well as to triturate hard substances, as bark and
branches. The incisors of the zubr are therefore stronger and
rougher above, and the last three molars, which increase in
size posteriorly, (but are nearly of the same size throughout
in the B. taurus), are furnished with an additional tubercle,
rising from the middle of their crowns. The ears and eyes
are smaller, and the mouth is more contracted in the zubr. —
Its chest is not only higher, but also wider and without a dew-
lap. The scrotum is never pendulous, but wrinkled, and the
testes are scarcely larger than those of a ram. The udder and
teats of the zubr cow are far less developed, and the tail of
the Bos urus with its brush, which measures from 10 to 11
inches, does not come lower down than the hock joint. The
legs of the zubr are, however, higher than those of the Bos
taurus. The hair of the latter is stiff, lying close to the skin
and much of the same description throughout ; that of the
zubr is softer, standing off at an obtuse angle, and of two ve-
ry different sorts.

After these comparisons the rest of my description will re-
fer to the zubr alone. The size of this animal in its present
abode is considerably less than it was formerly ; a deteriora-
tion which may be observed in all those wild herbivorous ani-
mals, whose liberty is checked by the approach of human
cultivation, and which no longer have a perfectly uncontroll-
ed choice of locality and pasture. The six-years-old male
lately obtained for the museum of Wilna, measured only 6 ft.
11 J French inches from the crown of the head to the tuber
ischii, and 4 ft. 4j inches from the highest part of the os sa-
crum, down through the trochanter to the calces, whereas the
height at the withers was 4 ft. 9 in. Yet we read that in 1595
an auerochs, 13 ft. long and 7 ft. high, was killed near Fried-
richsburg;* and another specimen, killed along with forty-one
others, in the forest of Bialowicza, by King Augustus III, of
Poland, as late as 1752, weighed 1450 lbs., as testified on a
monument erected on the spot where the animal was slain. —
Count Joh. Sigismundus held a hunting party in 1612, when
eight auerochs were killed, the largest of which weighed 1770
lbs. And in the more remote ages we may suppose that the
old bulls sometimes grew to a size, which makes the statement

*See Henneberger, 'Erklarung der grossern preussichen Landtafel,' ii.
3. 251. Here the head was probably included in the measurement.

308 On Man's Influence in effecting

of Caesar, as to their bulk being little less than an elephant's,
appear only a moderate exaggeration. Now-a-days the old
males are never found more than 1\ ft. (French measure) in
length, and 5 ft. in height, though in the time of Pallas there
was found one that measured 6 ft. at the withers.

The hair of the zubr is of two different sorts ; the one is
soft, woolly, and short, almost like that of the camel, and co-
vers the whole trunk and the extremities down to the knees ;
the other long, rough, thicker at the extremity than at the root,
and covers the upper part and sides of the head, as well as
the neck, withers, and shoulders. Between the branches of
the lower maxilla, along the neck to the chest, it is lengthen-
ed into a sort of beard, and on the upper crest of the neck, it
forms a sort of mane. The hair is of different qualities ac-
cording to the age, sex, and season. In young specimens it
is browner, softer, and much shorter ; in the old ones, black-
er, stiffer, and longer. In the bull it often grows at the beard,
mane, and on the shoulders, to the length of 1 foot, in the cow,
scarcely to more than 9 inches. It is thickest, longest, and
darkest, in November, as the winter fur appears with the first
snow ; and it begins to fall at the approach of the warm sea-
son, sometimes as early as February. The change then, ac-
cording to Mr. Eichwald, is often effected within two or three
days. The summer fur is far less shaggy, and being at first
of a greyish brown colour, becomes more and more shining,
until in the month of August, or about the rutting season, it
presents a jet-black colour under certain angles of reflection.

The horns bear a fine proportion to the size of the animal ;
their growth is not so rankly luxuriant as in some castrated
oxen of different breeds, for example, the Sicilian and Hun-
garian ; but what they want in length is made up by strength.
The horns of the 6-years-old bull, whose skeleton was pre-
pared for the Wilna museum, measure 10 \ inches round, at
the base ; while their length along the external curve is 18
inches. They are flattened in no part of their extent, but are
perfectly round, and rendered more or less rough near the root
by rings. From the root, which is comparatively thick, they
are first directed outwardly and a little downwards, then they
rise upwards, and the suddenly-tapering point is bent inward
and a little backward. These organs are much longer and
stronger in the bull than in the cow. Their colour is black,
and their substance very hard.

The expression of the eye, which, as we have observed be-
fore, is considerably smaller than in the Bos taurus, is meek
when the animal is not irritated, but becomes exceedingly fe-
rocious when its anger is awakened. The pupil then becomes

General Zoological Changes. 309

a perpendicular slit, whilst the white sclerotica occupies the
fore-part of the space between the eyelids, and much of the
red conjunctiva becomes visible, and the eyes appear to spar-
kle and assume the expression of madness.

The tongue, which, near its base especially, is covered with
hard tubercles, has a blue colour, as well as the lips, gums,
and palate. Bojanus says, that in three adult specimens he
found the colour of the tongue but little different from that of
the common ox : but Jarocki confirms Gilbert's statement as
to the blue colour. This probably increases with the state
of excitement of the capillary vessels, and is in a great mea-
sure lost some time after death, and Bojanus appears to have
seen only specimens that had been killed some time before.

The tail is covered with short hair, and furnished at its ex-
tremity with a brush of long and bristly hair, which is nearly
as stiff as that of a horse's tail. In young specimens this brush
comes no farther down than the calcaneum tarsi, or the hock
joint; whereas in the old ones it reaches somewhat below it.

The vertebras, of the tail descend only as low as the middle
of the thigh, or opposite the knee-joint, and the length of the
brush never exceeds 15 in. according to Hagen, (1. c. p. 213).
The statement of Cuvier that the tail reaches the ground, is,
therefore, erroneous.

The smell from which the Bos urus has either obtained the
name of bison, or which has taken its German name, bisam,
from that of the animal, is between that of musk and violets.
Its chief seat is that part of the skin and hair which covers
the convexity of the forehead. It is stronger in the male than
in the female, and strongest during the rutting season, when
it may be perceived at the distance of a hundred yards from the
herd. The flesh of the zubr is not, however, tainted with it,
as in the B. moschatus ; on the contrary, it is extremely well-
flavoured, and Jarocki says, its taste is between that of the
elk and ox, which does not convey any definite idea to such
as, like myself, have never tasted the former.* It was so
highly esteemed in former times, that pickled zubr-beef was
sent from Poland as a present to foreign kings. The flesh of
the zubr roasted, looks blueish. The flesh of the bulls, even
in winter, is quickly tainted, if the scrotum be not cut off from
the fresh-killed carcass.

The age to which the Bos urus attains, is differently stated
by different authors. Some assert that the animal never lives
longer than fifteen or sixteen years ; others allow it as many

* Prince Dolgorukow's guests recognised in it a slight resinous taste.

310 On Man's Influence in effecting

as twenty : but the game-keepers in the forest of Bialowicza,
who, I think ought to be heard before all others in that mat-
ter, believe that it lives fifty years and upwards.

The strength of the zubr is enormous, and trees of 5 or 6
inches in diameter cannot withstand the thrust of old bulls.
It is neither afraid of the wolf nor bear, and assails its ene-
mies both with its horns and hoofs. An old zubr is a match
for four wolves ; packs of the latter animal however sometimes
hunt down even old bulls, when alone, but a herd of zubrs
has nothing to fear from any rapacious animal.

Notwithstanding the great bulk of its body, the zubr can
run very swiftly. In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its
head, which it carries very low. However, the animal has
but little bottom, and seldom runs farther than one or two
English miles. It swims with great agility, and is very fond
of bathing.

The zubr is generally exceedingly shy, and avoids the ap-
proach of man. They can only be approached from the lee-
ward, as their smell is extremely acute. However, when ac-
cidentally and suddenly fallen in with, they will passionately
assail the intruder. In such fits of passion the animal thrusts
out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its sides with its tail, and
the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their sockets
and roll furiously. Such is their innate wildness, that none
of them has ever been completely tamed. When taken young
they become, it is true, accustomed to their keepers, but the
approach of other persons renders them furious, and even
their keepers must be careful always to wear the same sort of
dress, when going near them. Their great antipathy to the
Bos taurus, which they either avoid or kill, would render their
domestication, if it were practicable, but little desirable. The
experiments made with a view of obtaining a mixed breed
from the zubr and Bos taurus, have all failed, and are now
strictly prohibited. Probably there is something in the smell
of the tame cattle which the zubr detests. But for this aver-
sion, the crossing might produce a valuable breed, as the fla-
vour of the beef might not only be improved, but the quality
of the leather also changed considerably for the better ; for
the hide of the zubr is double the thickness of that of a com-
mon ox, and is extremely tough, and far more durable for all
sorts of harness work.

Now and then individuals of the zubr become, in their wild
state, uncommonly daring and fearless of man. This is par-
ticularly the case in such old bulls as walk alone. An in-
stance is related by Jarocky, where an old male of that de-
scription almost got the character of a highwayman. He

General Zoological Changes. 311

would station himself on the high road, and, without minding
the clack of whips, rush at the carriages or sledges, and make
the horses run away.

Up to the age of ten or twelve years, the zubrs live together
in herds of from ten to forty head. At a greater age, the bulls
either separate themselves of their own accord, or are expell-
ed from the herd. However in the rutting season, these old
bulls join the herd again, and even such as are no longer ca-
pable of propagating their species, which they are said to be
up to the age of thirty, are considerably excited, and rage in-
discriminately against their own kind. At this season, three-
years-old bulls, and even cows, are not unfrequently found
killed by these savage anchorites ; which, as the processes of
the dorsal vertebra continue growing, are easily distinguish-
ed by the great developement of the boss on their withers. —
The rest are particularly playful during that season, and de-
light in up-rooting young trees, whereby they sometimes in-
jure their horns.

As to the period of gestation in this species, I find different
statements. In the French dictionaries of natural history, it
is said to last eleven months. Bojanus says it lasts nine, and
Mr. Eichwald, seven or eight, as he found that the calves are
born about the latter end of March. They generally bear but
one calf, but at the most vigorous age sometimes have twins.
The calf follows its mother as soon as it is dry, and is suckled
for a whole year, according to Jarocki ; Mr. Eichwald, on the
contrary, says the males drive it away from the cow at the be-
ginning of the rutting season, which would make the suckling
time only five or five and a half months. As, however, the
game-keepers know with precision that the cows bear only
once in three years, 1 have the greater faith in Mr. JarockTs
statement.

The thickets near the swampy banks of rivers and rivulets
are the favourite places where the Bos urus takes up his resi-
dence, and from which the animal seldom walks to any con-
siderable distance. In summer, and during the warmer por-
tion of autumn, they select sandy spots ; in winter they keep
quiet by day, in the thickest part of the fir wood, only brows-
ing at night, and finding sustenance in the bark of young trees.
In spring they resort to neighbouring places where the her-
baceous plants which they relish begin to sprout.

The food of the Bos urus consists, first, of the bark of trees;
and it is to the bitter ones, as willows, poplars, horse-ches-
nuts, &c. that they give the preference. The hardness of
these substances often causes the incisors, in old zubrs, to be
worn away down to the gums. They are also fond of lichens

Vol. II.— No. 18. n. s. n n

312 On Maris Influence in effecting

which grow on trees, but never touch mosses that grow on
the ground. As to herbaceous plants, they give the preference
to those which grow in swampy localities, as several of the
Umbellatce, as well as Cnicus oleraceus, Calluna vulgaris, and
different Ranunculi. Of grasses they relish Agrostis arundi-
nacea, and particularly the dabrowka, {Hierochloe or Holcus
borealis). The tomka, (Anthoxanthum odoratum), on which
it has been asserted that the zubr chiefly relies for its subsis-
tence, and to which some authors have attributed the musky
smell of the animal, is not found at all in the forest of Bialo-
wicza. The list of these vegetables, as well as the habits of
the zubr, prove to a certainty that it has not been destined by
nature to live upon mountains.

The voice of the Bos urus is a short grunt,* and when a
person is near a herd, it may be compared to the sound of a
distant straggling fire of soldiery ; at a greater distance it re-
sembles the sound made by birds in flying.

When the stomach of the Bos urus is opened, and a light
brought near the opening, a high flame is seen flashing up.
Mr. Jarocki mentions this as something peculiar to the spe-
cies ; but the stomach of all ruminating and other animals,
evolves inflammable gases ; and that which causes the well-
known disease in cows, sheep, &c. called tympanitis, consists
for the greater part of hydrogen. This circumstance, there-
fore, appears to possess no particular interest.

In the stomach, (probably the rumen), of a specimen killed
on the 12th of October, 1836, were found intestinal worms,
belonging to the Amphistoma contemn, or entozoon, likewise
often met with in the rumen, or also the reticulum of the Bos
taurus.

I shall now conclude my description of the Bos urus with
adverting to the peculiar circumstances under which that ani-
mal is now living in the forest of Bialowicza, (pr. Bealowe-
zha), which may be considered as the only primitive forest in
Europe. This woodland district is level upon the whole, and
swampy. It is intersected by numerous rivulets, and a con-
siderable river, the Narew ; "these have their origin in many
morasses, some of which have not yet been thoroughly inves-
tigated. Its total surface amounts to about 352 English ge-
ographical square miles, of which about 60 are rushy swamps;

* This circumstance has suggested to me the idea that the name of Biauv
may still be of Greek origin, and derived from Bycrcrco or Bn&y, to cough,
thence B>j£g)v or Biacov, the coughing ox, as the voice of the Bos urus must
have struck the Grecians as much as that of the Bos grunniens did the tra-
vellers in Thibet,

General Zoological Changes. 313

the remainder is overgrown with Scotch and red firs, in the
proportion of -£; and with numerous species of deciduous
trees, in that of -f . A list of these may be found in Baron de
Brincken's 'Memoire descriptif sur laforet imperial e de Bia-
lowicza, &c.' Varsovie, 1826. In this forest, where the elk
is also still met with, there were, according to the census of
1828, given by Mr. Eichwald, 696 head of zubrs, and thirty
or forty besides in a neighbouring wood of comparatively small
extent. Mr. Jarocki, who gives the number of them after the
census of 1829, states the sum total of the adult individuals
to have been at that time 663, and 48 calves besides. Whe-
ther the number has subsequently considerably decreased, as
supposedhj Dr. H. O. Lenz, ('Gemeinnutzige Naturgeshichte'
p. 419), in consequence of the Polish revolution, is to me ve-
ry doubtful, as I have been assured by a Polish gentleman,
that the forest of Bialowicza had not, in any appreciable de-
gree, been disturbed during that period.

In this forest the zubr lives, under the protection of strict,
but no longer inhuman game laws, as much as possible in its
primitive state of locality and liberty. Yet are they so far af-
fected by the cultivation which circumscribes them, that with-
out the assistance of man, they could not well get through the
winter. During that season, they receive supplies of hay at
certain places, where the stacks must be well secured, other-
wise the zubrs break in to them, and spoil much more than
they consume, by thrusting their heads deeply into the mass
of hay, in order to get at the most fragrant part of it.

All noisy occupations are strictly prohibited in those parts
of the forest where the zubrs live, and when wolves are hunt-
ed, it is done with great caution and but few dogs.

The manner of hunting the zubr, as described by Herber-
stein, is no longer in use. "Those," he says, "who hunt the
bison must be very strong, adroit, and knowing men. A spot
is selected where the trees are at the proper distance from each
other, and neither too thick in the trunks, that the hunters
may be able to get quickly round them, nor too thin, that they
may be sufficiently protected. Near such trees a number of
hunters are posted singly ; and when a bison has been driven
to the spot by the dogs, it makes a violent rush at the first
hunter who may present himself. He, however, screens him-
self behind his tree, and wounds the animal with his spear.
But the bison is not so easily killed, and becoming more and
more furious, rages not only with its horns, but likewise thrusts
out its tongue, which is so rough, that when it catches any
part of the hunter's dress, the man is lost ; for the bison will
pull him down and kill him on the spot. If however a hunter

D D 2

314 Observations upon the Affinities

is over-fatigued with running and thrusting, and wishes to
take breath, he throws a red hat to the animal, against which
it vents its fury with its horns and feet. Then another hunt-
er will attract the animal's rage towards himself, by shouting
' Ululu' ; and at all events the animal must be killed, other-
wise the hunters could not get away from the spot, without
imminent danger."

In our days when one or more zubrs are to be killed, which
can be legally done only by the especial permission of the
Emperor of Russia, the wood is beaten up, as for other game,
but the drivers, who are furnished with sticks, beat against
the trees, shouting 'Uhaha.' The marksmen must be posted
to the leeward of the zubrs, otherwise the latter will infallibly
force their way through the line of drivers.

From the time of Augustus III, down to the year 1836, the
forest of Bialowicza had not been the scene of a solemn zubr-
chase. On the 12th of October, 1836, however, one was held,
with a view of furnishing some of the museums in Prussia with
specimens ; and Prince Dolgorukow, the governor- general of
the province of Baly stock, who presided at it, caused it to be
conducted with more than usual solemnity. Two thousand
drivers and marksmen were assembled, besides an immense
number of spectators whom curiosity had drawn to the spot,
where a balcony of fir-branches had been erected for the prince
and his suite. Thither different herds of zubrs were driven,
to be fired at, and the flesh of the largest bull was dressed,
to give additional interest to the concluding act of the party,
a plentiful dinner.

In conclusion, I ought not to forget to mention, that very
good figures after nature, of both the male and female Bos
urus, are contained in the little work of Mr. Jarocki, the ti-
tle of which has been given above.

Weimar, March 1st, 1838.

Art. III. Outlines of a New Arrangement of Insessorial Birds.
By Edward Blyth, Esq.
(Continued from p. 268).
In my preceding communication it will be remembered that
I reduced the class of Birds to three primary embranchemens,
the first of which, Insessores, includes the Accipitres of Lin-
naeus.

Proceeding, then, to arrange the Insessores (so constituted)
into orders, I deemed it expedient to detach, first, the Rapaces

and Classification of Birds. 315

from one extremity of the series, and the Cantrices, mihi, from
the other. It was necessary to treat, in part, of the latter im-
portant and vastly comprehensive group, that the exception-
less constancy of its numerous distinctive characters might
be duly appreciated, and its consequent thorough separate-
ness acknowledged, on the occasion of any reference or allu-
sion being made to it, the more especially as so many imagina-
ry, but un-real, or what may be termed skin-deep affinities
have been indicated, as connecting some of its components
with genera at most according, superficially, in external aspect.

To promote this effectually, it became further requisite to
enter somewhat diffusely into details, relative to some of the
more prominent internal differential characters, the valuable
aid of which has rarely been sought by ornithological system-
atists : and the generalizations to which these investigations
have given rise, (all suggested by myself, from data chiefly
the accumulated result of my own observations, whether or
not others may chance to have preceded me in deducing them),
will tend, I hope, to shew the necessity of studying all parts
of an animal's structure, in order to arrive, conclusively and
securely, at its systematical relations.

It devolves on me, now, to descant on the insessorial ge-
nera excluded from the two well-defined orders which have
been mentioned. They form a succession of distinct groups,
more or less extensive, and of various degrees of value and of
mutual affinity, but which do not admit of being collected in-
to a few separate orders, though nought can perhaps be stat-
ed in common of the entire series. I shall therefore bestow
on them, provisionally at least, the appellation Heterogenes :
and commence by succinctly placing them before the reader,
as nearly according to the order of their mutual relations as
I am able, reserving, for the present, a more detailed exposi-
tion of their characters. The elucidation of this series of
forms is, indeed, the more immediate object of the present
essay.

I may be pardoned for repeating here, that the intestine, in
all these birds, is either quite devoid of coeca, or else, these
appendages being present, are of considerable size, pedicil-
late, and dilated towards the extremity, as in the owls : they
are absent in the majority; and present chiefly in those which
pass most of their time in a state of quietude. Save in the
parrots, there exists no craw or enlargement of the oesopha-
gus ; but the stomach is generally capacious, extending into
the abdominal portion of the cavity of the body. The par-
rots only, also, have more than the ordinary stemo-tracheal
muscles connected with the inferior larynx.

d d 3

316 Observations upon the Affinities

Among the many distinctions which subsist betwixt the
Rapaces and Cantrices, one of the most prominent consists in
the diverse modification of the stomach, which in the Hete-
rogenes is variously intermediate. The shape of the egg is
nearly spherical in the Rapaces, and considerably more elon-
gated in the Cantrices; and in this, also, a gradation from
one to the other is effected in the series of Heterogenes.

In the circumstance of retaining the first plumage till the
second autumn, again, the rollers, bee-eaters, and kingfishers,
which three families have also the least muscular stomachs,
and lay the most globular eggs, would seem to have the best
claim to be ranged immediately following the Rapaces ; but
a better series may be formed by commencing with the horn-
bills, in which the muscular coat of the stomach is much
thicker. To proceed. —

Tongue very small, short, and heart-shaped. Intestine short and with-
out cceca. Sternal conformation peculiar ; the posterior edge of the breast-
bone with only one slight emargination on each side. Feet typically syn-
dactyle. Tail consisting often feathers only. Example, Buceridce ; hornbills.

" Stomach a membranous bag."* Sternum more deeply emarginated.
Feet ccenodactyle. Ex. Upupidce ; hoopoes.

Sternum doubly emarginated. Twelve tail-feathers. Ex. Coracidce ;
rollers, (Coracias and Eurystomus). With the feet syndactyle. Ex. Me-
ropidce ; bee-eaters : (Merops and Nyctiornis). Haley onida ; halcyons and
kingfishers.

Tongue lengthened, tapering, and very thin. Stomach more muscular.
Intestine extremely short, and furnished with large cceca. Ex. Todidee ;
todies. With the outer toe reversed. Ex. Galbulida ; jacamars.

Tongue laterally barbed. Stomach as in preceding.! The cceca proba-
bly absent. Only ten tail-feathers in some. Feet syndactyle. Ex. Prio-
nitidce ; motmots.

Feet zygodactyle, having the outer toe reversed. No cceca. Only ten
tail-feathers. Ex. Rhamphastida ; toucans and aricaris.

Tongue barbed only towards the extremity. The feet having the first
and fourth toes disposed laterally. Ex. Musophagidce, in part; or the tou-
racos, (Corythaix), plantain-eaters, (Musophaya), and napecrests, (Chizcerhis)
With all four toes having a forward tendency ; the foot being plantigrade.
Tongue not barbed. Ex. Musophayidce, the remainder; or the colies,
(Colius).

Tongue very peculiar: the oesophagus dilated into a crop, which becomes
glandular during incubation: intestine very long and slender. Sternal ap-
paratus differing very considerably from the rest, having a small foramen,
at most, in place of an emargination : the furcula absent in some.J Inferi-
or larynx complicated, and operated upon by three pairs of muscles. Feet
plantigrade, and zygodactyle. Twelve tail-feathers, &c. &c. Ex. Psitta-
cida; parrots.

*Selby. fLeVaillant.

J In some Rhamphastida the clavicles are separate and very short.

and Classification of Birds. 317

Tongue vermiform and protrusile: intestine of mean length. Sternum
doubly emarginated. Ex. Picidoe, in part; woodpeckers, piculets and wry-
necks. The tongue not protrusile. Ex. Picidce, the remainder; or the
honey-guides, (Indicator). With only ten tail-feathers. Ex. Bucconidcc ;
barbets.

Feet zygodactyle, but on a different principle from the others ; the ordi-
nary inner toe being reversed. Cceca developed. Twelve tail-feathers. —
Ex. Trogonidce ; trogons.

First and fourth toes disposed laterally. Ex. Tamatiadce ; or the puff-
birds, (Tamatia and Lyporynx), the barbacous, (Monasa), and the courols,
(Leptosomus). None of the remaining genera have more than ten tail-fea
thers.

Feet zygodactyle, the outer toe reversed. Only eight tail-feathers. Ex.
Crotophagidce ; anis. With ten tail-feathers. Ex. Cuculidce ; cuckoos,
couas, coucals, and malkohas ; which should perhaps range in two or more
separate families*

Feet ccenodactyle, but the outer toes separate to the articulation. Ex.
Podargidce ; podargues. Having the thumb directed inward. Ex. Capri-
mulgidce ; moth-hunters.

The four toes directed forward. No cceca, nor posterior emargination to
the sternum. Ex. Cypselidce, in part ; the swifts, (Cypselus). With cceno-
dactyle feet. Ex. Cypselidce, the remainder; (Chcetura). The minute and
narrow tongue of the swifts and moth-hunters much lengthened and protru-
sile. Ex. Trochilidce ; humming-birds.

(N.B. — The swifts and humming-birds are very intimately allied in their
whole structure ; but of this hereafter).

The foregoing brief enumeration of some of the principal
distinctive characters of these various groups, will suffice to
shew that the yoke-footed birds cannot, with any propriety,
be ranged together as a single separate division.

As in the Rapaces, so in the Heterogenes, the moult proba-
bly takes place in no instance more than once in a year ; and the
majority shed all their nestling feathers a few weeks after leav-
ing the nest. Others undergo no change till their second au-
tumn.

The eggs, in by far the greater number of instances, are
pure white ; and most commonly deposited in holes of some
description. With few exceptions, the young are hatched
naked ; but in the moth-hunters, (and perhaps in the swifts),
are densely clothed with down from their first exclusion.

A few are destitute of any gall-bladder, as the toucans, par-
rots, and cuckoos : in the touracos this organ is very small.

The sternal apparatus presents very considerable modifica-
tion ; the entire group of Cantrices appearing to be equiva-

*In Cuculus, and in Caprimulgus, the sterna are singly emarginated, and
not very unlike. The malkohas, coucals, and at least the true Coceyzi, (those
of Africa), are stated by L'Herminicr to have doubly notched sterna. I am.
quite ignorant of those of Crotophaga and Podargus.

D D 4

318 Observations upon the Affinities

lent only to some of the divisions of Heterogenes : yet I con-
fess my inability to reduce the series of the latter to groups
of a corresponding degree of value ; as a continuity of suc-
cession, (though not an intergradation of species), prevails ge-
nerally, which effectually resists all attempts at separation,
except into a considerable number of divisions.

Thus, although no passage exists from the motmots into
the kingfishers, or into the toucans, and although the king-
fishers and toucans differ materially, yet the interposition of
the motmots so connects those other two groups, that they
cannot be ranged with either of them to the exclusion of the
other ; and the toucans, in like manner, combine the charac-
ters of the motmots and touracos, &c. Again, the hornbills
and hoopoes accord in their alimentary organs with the roll-
ers, bee-eaters, and kingfishers, but not in the skeleton ; while
the todies and jacamars approximate them in the skeleton but
not in the alimentary organs, &c. This much is clear, that
the structure of the foot, and even of the bill in many instan-
ces, is of considerably less importance than is commonly
deemed.

In my succeeding communications, I will bring together
all the information that I have collected, relative to each group
of the Heterogenes respectively : but I am not prepared to en-
ter into similar details on the Cantrices, the component groups
of which being of inferior value, are less obviously different.
Moreover, ornithologists have written less on their differential
characters, than on those which they have conceived to link
the different families together ; which latter being often very
superficial, that is to say, consisting merely in a slight resem-
blance in the shape of the beak, while everything else is over-
looked, as in the instances of a tit, (Falcunculus), being placed
with the shrikes, a fringillidous bird, (Calamophilus, which
is most nearly allied to Estrilda), with the tits, &c. &c, the
overweening consequence which has been attached to such
unimportant adaptive characters, has induced an amount of
confusion which requires no little study to disentangle. If
naturalists, before offering an opinion on the affinities of
groups, were but to consider well the totality of characters be-
longing to each of those which they suspect to be allied, were
but to study all their points of difference, as eagerly as they
catch at those of similarity, the progress of scientific ornitho-
logy would be greatly accelerated. To exemplify my mean-
ing, let me ask upon what data the Anthus Richardi has been
deemed to connect the pipits with the larks ? If we trace the
progressive changes of these two genera, we find that the larks
are clad at first in a very peculiar mottled nestling plumage,

and Classification of Birds. 319

which is entirely shed previously to the first winter ; after
which the moult takes place in autumn only, any seasonal dif-
ference that may be exhibited being produced solely by the
wearing off of the edges of the feathers. But the first plu-
mage x>f the pipits is similar, except in texture, to that of the
adult; and the primaries are never shed before the second
autumn : moreover, the clothing feathers are renewed again
in spring, and regularly twice a year, even where, (as in the
tree pipit), the summer and winter garb are scarcely distin-
guishable. Now the A. Richardi, I am able to affirm with
confidence, accords in these particulars exactly with the o-
ther pipits, presenting no approach whatever to the larks :
and my observations lead me to conclude that the Alaudidce,
or larks, on the one hand, and the Motacillidce, or pipits and
wagtails, on the other, are insulated groups, every member of
which will be found to conform to the characters which I
have here indicated;* and that, consequently, there is no grad-
ing or transition into the finches, on the part of the one, nor
into the enicures, on that of the other. At the same time,
while considerable similarity in external aspect is thus no sure
intimation of affinity, the reverse does not of necessity imply
a wide removal ; for if we take up the thrush tribe, or some
others that might be cited, we find a special type most ex-
cessively modified, and radiating in various directions, till the
extremes at length become so very dissimilar, as to be recog-
nized with difficulty : and hence has arisen the very preva-
lent illusion, that there are no real divisions throughout or-
ganized nature.

"L'echelle pretendue des etres," says Cuvier, "n'est qu'une
application eronnee a la totalite de la creation, de ces obser-
vations partielles qui n'ont de justesse qu'autant qu'on les re-
streint dans les limites ou elles ont ete faites, et cette appli-
cation, selon moi, a nui, a un degre que Ton aurait peine a
imaginer, aux progres de l'histoire naturelle dans ces derniers
temps." (Preface to the ' Regne Animal').

May 3rd, 1838.

* It would be easy to point out further differences in their habits : for in-
stance, the larks dust themselves, but never wash ; the others wash fre-
quently, but never dust ; &c.

320 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

Art. IV. A Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. By W. C.
L. Martin, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

The genus Semnopithecus, established by Fred. Cuvier, con-
tains a group of Simiadce exclusively restricted to India and
its islands. As respects external characters, the members of
this genus differ, in many essential points, from the Cercopi-
theci of Africa, insomuch that a glance is sufficient to enable
us to discriminate between them. Nor is it only in external
characters that this difference exists; it obtains to a most re-
markable degree in the structure of the digestive organs, as
will be pointed out hereafter, proving that the alliance between
these genera, is less immediate than might at first have been
imagined. In many respects, indeed, the Semnopitheci ap-
proximate towards the gibbons, especially in dentition, and
contour of body. Like the gibbons, {Hylobates), and the ma-
caques, (Macacus), the Semnopitheci have five instead of four
tubercles on the crown of the last molar tooth of the lower
jaw. The body is slender, the limbs long and thin, as are
also the hands and feet ; cheek-pouches are either wanting,
or very small, but there is a large laryngeal sac, communi-
cating with the larynx ; the callosities are small ; the tail is
of great length. In the gibbons, there is as in the Semnopi-
theci, a laryngeal sac, and small callosities ; in the former a-
nimals however, it is in the arms that we find so remarkable
a degree of length, and not in the posterior extremities, which
are indeed short in proportion. In the Semnopitheci on the
contrary, the hinder limbs are even more strikingly developed
than are the anterior, and with this developement of the hind-
er limbs is associated a long and slender tail, acting as a ba-
lance in all their movements. The rounded form of the skull,
the developement of the forehead, and the obtuseness of the
facial angle, are marked characters in the gibbons; the Sem-
nopitheci, while young, exhibit these peculiarities also, but
as they attain to maturity, the muzzle advances and the fore-
head recedes, becoming apparently diminished also in its ad-
measurements, so that the facial angle, instead of continuing
at about 60°, is reduced to 40° or 45°. The supra-orbital
ridge is by no means prominent, but it is surmounted by a
row of long bristly hairs, projecting forward, and forming a
sort of continuous eyebrow, more full in some species than in
others. In indicating the points of structure in which the
Semnopitheci approach the gibbons, we do not mean to say
that the species of the one genus can by any possibility be
assigned to the other genus, — the gibbons are too well defin-
ed a group, and have characters too clear to be mistaken, even

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 321

setting aside the total absence of a tail. On this point we
need not insist.

If we examine with attention the hands and feet of the
Semnopitheci, we shall find the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones, and also the phalanges of the fingers greatly elongat-
ed, while the thumb, both of the hands and feet, is dispro-
portionately small. The thumb of the hands indeed is so in-
significant, that it appears almost useless, and can scarcely
be regarded as antagonizing with the fingers, or as assisting
in the action of grasping. The condition of the thumb is a
more important character than might at first be supposed, as
will easily be understood when we investigate its develope-
ment in other groups of the present family.

Turning from India to Western Africa, we are presented
with a genus, in which the thumb of the fore hands is reduced
to so low a degree in the scale, that indeed it cannot be said
to exist ; its situation being indicated nearly by a small nail-less
tubercle. The genus to which we allude is that of Colobus,
which, in fact, may be described as being a repetition of the
form of Semnopithecus. In both we have the same small
round head and short flat face, the same attenuated contour
of body, long slender limbs, and elongated tail, and the same
dental formula. Even in the character of the fur, which in
many of the Semnopitheci is full, soft, and long, we perceive
the accordance. So far then are there two genera intimately
related, and if, in Colobus, the thumb of the fore hands be
wanting, it is but little more than rudimentary in Semnopi-
thecus. By way of note we may here observe that the ab-
sence of a thumb is not peculiar to the genus Colobus ; the
American genus Ateles, containing the long, slender, prehen-
sile-tailed spider-monkeys, is similarly conditioned. It would
seem indeed to be a rule, (we here refer more exclusively to
the Simiadce), that whenever the limbs and hands are peculi-
arly elongated, that such developement takes place at the
expense of one of the parts entering into their structure ; in-
dependently of the instances already adduced, in which a re-
duction of the thumb, even to the minutest rudiment, is ac-
companied by such a conformation, we may turn to the orang,
in whose structure a similar feature is presented, viz. a reduc-
tion of the thumb, in connection with hands and arms of pro-
digious elongation. As however we wish to be cautious in
promulgating theories, which are often more plausible than
true, we shall not push this subject "ad extremum ; " it suf-
fices to have hinted at it.

It is then, we conceive, by means of Semnopithecus on the
one hand, and Colobus on the other, that we are furnished

322 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

with an immediate link of union between the long tailed monkeys
of India and Africa. The genus Colobus in fact appears to be
related rather to the Semnopitheci than to the Cercopitheci,
a group comprehending the typical Simiadce of the old world.
The Cercopitheci, or "guenons" of the French writers, have
the head tolerably round, but the forehead low, and the su-
perciliary ridge prominent; the muzzle projects, giving a fa-
cial angle of about 45°. Their form is spare and light,
their limbs and tail long, but in a much less degree than in
the Semnopitheci or Colobi, and the thumbs of the fore hands,
though short, are much better developed than in the Semno-
pitheci. The callosities are larger, the cheeks have ample
cheek -pouches, and the tubercles of the molar teeth are bold-
er and more acute. With respect to cheek-pouches in the
genus Colobus, it may be observed that Geoffroy St. Hilaire
states them to be tolerably well developed. Mr. Ogilby as-
serts that they are very large and distinct, adding that he was
"the more particular in making this last observation, because
the organs in question had not been previously recorded as
existing in the Colobi, and because M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
in his valuable lectures, even doubts their existence." The
words of M. Geoffroy are these; — "Leurs abajoues sont assez
developpees" We have ourselves carefully examined the dri-
ed specimen in which Mr. Ogilby considers the cheek-pouch-
es to be "extremely apparent and rather capacious," and
though we hesitate in differing from so discriminating and
judicious a naturalist, we cannot help confessing that we did
not feel satisfied on this point. The skin of the head and
face, in order to the preparation of the specimen, had evi-
dently been separated from the bones, and after the applica-
tion of the ingredients used in preserving it, returned to its
former position. In drying, a space would naturally inter-
vene between it and the bones of the jaws, and it would be
difficult to say, in a specimen so prepared, whether the vacu-
um thus presented indicated capacious cheek-pouches, or was
merely a consequence of the flaying of the head, and the sub-
sequent contraction of the skin in drying. The presence or
absence of these cheek-pouches, in dried specimens, is a very
difficult point to ascertain.

The teeth of the Cercopitheci, furnished with more acute
tubercles, are adapted for grain, hard fruits, roots and insects,
those of the Semnopitheci for leaves and soft fruits, on which
these monkeys principally subsist. With this modification
of the dental system is associated a still more decided modifi-
cation in the structure of the stomach, at least on the part of
the Semnopitheci, which would hardly be expected. In the

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 323

guenons, macaques, and other genera, the stomach is simple,
— in the Semnopitheci, on the contrary, it is highly complex,
being divided into numerous large sacculi, a mode of organi-
zation leading M. Otto to regard it as an analogue of the ru-
minating stomach of the Ruminantia, an hypothesis which
appears to be inadmissible. This peculiarity of the stomach
of the Semnopitheci was first observed by Wurmb, in the pro-
boscis monkey, but not described in detail ; it was subse-
quently noticed by M. Otto in the S. leucoprymnus, and it
has since been observed by Mr. Owen in the S. maurus and
the S. fascicular is, Raffles, and the S. Entellus. The latter
species has indeed been more than once dissected by our-
selves, and the stomach prepared. Mr. Owen's original de-
scription of the stomach of the Entellus is as follows. " It
may be regarded as consisting of three divisions ; — First, a
cardiac pouch, with smooth and simple parietes, slightly bi-
fid at the extremity. Secondly, a middle, very wide and sac-
culated portion. Thirdly, a narrow, elongated canal, saccu-
lated at its commencement, and of simple structure towards
its termination. The latter, from its great vascularity, and the
more abundant distribution of the nerves of the eighth pair,
Mr. Owen regards as the true digestive stomach; the two for-
mer divisions being rather to be considered as preparatory re-
ceptacles." These divisions are not, however, characterized,
as in the stomachs of the Ruminantia or Cetacea, by any es-
sential difference of structure, none of them possessing a cu-
ticular lining. Mr. Owen conceives it highly probable that
the food of the Semnopitheci is more herbaceous than that of
the monkeys generally, and "that the enlarged capacity of the
stomach enables them to carry off great quantities of herbage
to masticate at their leisure, the great developement of these
receptacles compensating at once both for the absence or rudi-
mentary condition of the cheek-pouches, and for the less nutri-
tious quality of the food." That the cardiac and middle sac-
culi are receptacles for a vast mass of herbaceous aliment, we
admit, — but, as far as we are aware, there is no proof of the
act of regurgitation taking place in these animals, nor do we
consider it to be needed, inasmuch as the soft mass would
only require to be transmitted gradually from the magazine-
like sacculi into the true digesting portion, in order to its due
elaboration. Besides, the stomach, though divided into com-
partments, does not exhibit the same structural peculiarities
as obtain in the stomach of the Ruminantia. Nevertheless
it is possible, that regurgitation may occasionally take place,
as it does in the kangaroos ; — we say occasionally, not habit-
ually and necessarily, as in the ox or antelope. Now in the

324 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

Cercopitheci, as we have stated, this complex form of stomach
does not exist ; but on the contrary, we have reason to believe
that it obtains in the Colobi, as it does in the Semnopitheci ;
— and we anxiously wait the opportunity of dissecting a Co-
lobus, in order to put the point to the test.

From what we have said, the general characters of the ge-
nus Semnopithecus, and the situation in which it stands among
the conterminous groups of the Simiadce, may be easily un-
derstood. On the latter point we may sum up our ideas by
observing that India presents us with the following forms of
Simiadce, — viz. the orangs, the gibbons, the Macaci, and the
Semnopitheci. Africa presents us with the chimpanzee,
( Troglodytes), the Cynocephali, the magots, ( Inuus), the
Cercopitheci, the Cercocebi, if they deserve separation, and
the Colobi. The Macaci of India pass, by an easy transition
through the Macacus niger on the one hand, and the Barba-
ry ape, [Inuus sylvanus), on the other, into the Cynocephali,
or dog-faced race. The affinity of the orangs and chimpan-
zee, (though less immediate than has been imagined), is ne-
vertheless obvious ; the orangs naturally merge into the gib-
bons, and these approach nearer to the Semnopitheci than to
any other of the tailed monkeys ; the Semnopitheci are close-
ly linked to the Colobi, which may be regarded as binding
the Semnopitheci to the Cercopitheci, though approximating
more decidedly to the former group than to the latter, which,
through the species placed in the genus Cercocebus, links with
the Cynocephali.

Two genera which we sink into that termed Semnopithecus.,
require a passing notice, — we allude to Nasalis, Geoffrey, and
Lasiopyga, Illiger. The genus Nasalis contains two species,
the N. larvatus, Geoff, and the N. recurvus, Vig. and Horsf.
On the anatomy of the former species we have laid a few
statements before one of the scientific meetings of the Zoolo-
gical Society, the substance being as follows. Like the Sem-
nopitheci, the Nasalis larvatus has a complex stomach, an
intestinal canal of extraordinary length ; no cheek-pouches,
(notwithstanding M. Geoffroy's assertion), but a laryngeal
sacculus of enormous magnitude, undivided, and extending
below the clavicles ; a fifth tubercle on the last molar of the
lower jaw, and in fact a general similarity of structure to that
of the other species of the Semnopitheci, so that we know not
on what solid grounds it can be separated from the members
of that oriental genus. (See Zool. Proceed. 1837, p. 70).

It may be advanced indeed that the form and develope-
ment of the nose, resembling to a certain extent the analo-
gous organ in the human subject, differs essentially from that

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 325

of the Semnopitheci, and imparts to the physiognomy an air
of intelligence, almost justifying the popular belief of the na-
tives of Borneo, that the Kahau, (as they term it from its cry),
is a being endowed with reason. It is to be observed, how-
ever, that the nose is not developed to so great a degree in
the second species, {Nasalis recurvus of Vigors and Horsfield),
and that setting this organ aside, or supposing it removed,
the face would not materially differ in its outline from that of
the Semnopitheci generally. It may be added that the gene-
ral contour of the body is the same as in the rest of the Sem-
nopitheci; as we particularly noticed this fact in the specimen
we dissected : the body was meager, and the limbs long and
slender.

Perhaps it may be deemed presumptuous to contend against
the authority of Geoffroy, who founded the genus Nasalis,
but the aim of every naturalist is truth, and truth owns no
authority. Geoffroy St. Hilaire in his lectures, indeed, ad-
mits the uncertainty in which his genus Nasalis stands, when
he says of the Kahau that its manner among the trees, and
its general habits, are similar to those of all the other Semno-
pitheci, but that " nevertheless it does not appear to us to be
yet demonstrated that the long-nosed monkey, (singe nasique),
is truly a Semnopithecus ; and it is very possible, that when
the species shall become less imperfectly known, we may be
under the necessity of re-establishing the genus Nasalis, in
which it was formerly isolated, but which has not been ad-
mitted by the majority of modern authors." Since however
the anatomy of this animal is known, — since its digestive ap-
paratus is that of a Semnopithecus, the stomach exhibiting
those structural peculiarities as yet actually found in no other
group of the Simiadce, all doubtful speculation seems at an end.
We must therefore, (and we think, rightly) merge the genus
Nasalis into Semnopithecus, from which it has been needless-
ly separated.

The next genus in question, namely, Pygathrix of Geoffroy,
Lasiopyga of Illiger, stands in the same predicament as Na-
salis, and must also merge into Semnopithecus; the apparent
want of callosities in the douc monkey induced both Geoffroy
and Illiger to found each a genus for its reception. Now it
happens unfortunately for these authors, that the specimen on
which both relied was mutilated, the callosities being cut a-
way ; but callosities do not only exist in the douc, but they
are large ; a fine specimen of this beautiful monkey has been
often carefully examined by ourselves, and we give the fact
of the presence of callosities upon our personal observation.

326 Remarks on Mr. Ogilby s

In our account of the douc however, as well as of the long-
nosed monkey, and its small ally, the S. recurvus, Vig. and
Horsf. we shall retain the above generic names as synonyms.

(To be continued).

Art. V. Remarks on Mr. Ogilby1 s "Further Observations on Rules
for Nomenclature." By H. E. Strickland, Esq. F.G.S. &c.

" Plato and truth are both dear to me, but it is my duty to give the prefe-
rence to truth." — Aristotle.

I would not again have introduced this subject into your pa-
ges, were it not that Mr. Ogilby appears, in several instances,
to have so far misapprehended my meaning, as to oblige me,
in justice to myself, to put forward a few words of explana-
tion. I am fully disposed to believe, with Mr. Ogilby, that
we both have the same end in view, and that we differ less in
reality than in appearance. And if this discussion shall tend
to disentangle the truth from the complex net- work of words,
it will not be without its use.

§ 1. — Retrospective operation of Rules. — When I stated at
page 200, that I had introduced into my code the conserva-
tive doctrine that the rules there proposed should not be re-
trospective, I certainly did not expect that Rules 5, 6, and 7
would have been brought forward as proof to the contrary. —
The rare and extreme exceptions provided for by these rules,
are such as I conceived no zoologist, however conservative,
would dissent from. Rule 5 provides for the extinction of
names which had before been applied to some other species
in the same genus, or to some other group of the same rank.
Rule 6 states that "a name maybe expunged whose meaning
is false as applied to the object or group which it represents."
This of course can rarely happen; and when it does, it is bet-
ter, I think, that the person who gave the false name should
pay the penalty of his negligence, by the obliteration of the
name, than that so obvious a source of error and confusion
should be made perpetual. Yet so conservative was the spi-
rit in which those rules were drawn up, that even here it is
provided that in those cases "where a name, though false, does
not really mislead, it should be retained, if long established"
e. g. Caprimulgus. Rule 7 provides that " a name may be
expunged which has never been clearly denned." I cannot
comprehend what objection Mr. Ogilby has to that. If a
name is not clearly denned at first, it cannot be recognized

"Further Observations:" 327

afterwards, and therefore means nothing. Numerous names
used by Aristotle and Pliny are in this predicament, and there-
fore it is that modem naturalists do not scruple to exclude
those names altogether, or to use them in new and conven-
tional senses.

It is on the strength of these three special exceptions that
Mr. Ogilby accuses me of "inadvertently" making my rules
retrospective, and it is " against the interminable mischief and
confusion resulting from the introduction of a principle at once
so dangerous, so unfair, and so uncalled for," that he "direct-
ed the weight of his censure." I appeal to impartial judges
to pronounce what there is dangerous, unfair, or uncalled for
in Rules 5, 6, and 7.

Mr. Ogilby further writes, "But is not the fact cited by Mr.
Strickland himself, of the well-known naturalist from whose
works he has chiefly compiled his "rules," having sanctioned
their retrospective character, — a sufficient justification of the
severity with which I deprecated the mischievous tendency
of these codes ? " So, because Mr. Swainson chooses to make
his code retrospective and consequently mischievous, there-
fore my code, and codes in general, retrospective or not, arc
to be deprecated as mischievous.

§ 2. — Terminations in idae and adae. — Mr. Ogilby is per-
fectly right in stating that the affix oidce expresses the rela-
tionship of similarity, — " the o being merely the last letter of
the primitive Greek word with which eiftg is most commonly
joined in composition." But all classical scholars will agree
in thinking that he is "greatly mistaken" when he considers
the patronymic affix idea or adce to be "absolutely identical
with the affix oidce:' Matthias, (no mean authority), in his
'Greek Grammar,' section 99, classes patronymics in idee not
among compound words, but among substantives which re-
ceive a new meaning by a change of form. Therefore idee is
a mere formal termination, — not a super-added word. Vari
ous forms of these terminations were used by the Greeks to
express family relationship, — the principal of which were this,
a&K, and lav. ^ Indeed the quantity of idee proves it not to be
derived from htibg, similitudo, for it would then be long instead
of short. It is true that some patronymics have the diphthong
si instead of the simple i, but in such cases the £ belongs to
the preceding root, — not to the affix. Thus, no one would
derive 'Ar^sifts from 'Arp-Eifts, resembling Atreus, but from
'Ar^e-ifts, akin to Atreus. When resemblance is implied, the
o is always prefixed to the lifts, and therefore, if that be Mr.
Ogilby's object, he must, as I before remarked, write Siniioi*

Vol. II.— No. 18. n. s. e e

328 Remarks on Mr. Ogilby1 s

cite, and Gliroidce, or else drop the Greek affix altogether, and
make it Simiiformes, Gliriformes.

I never intended to express that inclusion is the essential
idea implied by the termination idee, but only that it neces-
sarily results from the close and immediate affinity which is
essentially implied by words so terminated. Thus according
to the received usage of modern naturalists, the term Corvidce
for example, implies a family containing those genera which
are closely and immediately allied to Corvus, inclusive. Whe-
ther the convenience attending these uniform terminations for
families be so great as to justify their universal adoption, is
matter of opinion. Mr. Ogilby thinks they should not be u-
niversal, — I think they should. Be this as it may, I trust it
has been proved that family names in adce and idee, (not oidce),
cannot be correctly used to express mere resemblance or re-
mote affinity, as in the groups which Mr. Ogilby has termed
Simiadce and Gliridce.

§ 3. — Real signification of the word Simia. — Mr. Ogilby
says in p. 279, " that both Linnaeus and Erxleben employed
the term Simia in a sense different from its real signification,
is very true, but that neither one nor the other of them sanc-
tion its application in the sense contended for by Mr. Strick-
land is no less so." I will deal with the latter part of this
sentence first. I argue that Linnaeus does sanction our mo-
dern application of the term Simia to the orangs, by having
himself applied it to the group in which the orangs are con-
tained. If for instance we are justified in using the term Fal-
co or Stria: in a more limited sense than Linnaeus did, we are,
by parity of reasoning, justified in treating Simia in the same
way. With regard to Erxleben, though I have not his work
at hand to refer to, yet I believe I am correct in stating that
he does apply the term Simia to the orang outangs, though
Mr. Ogilby asserts that he does not sanction its application
in that sense.

Now for the former part of the sentence quoted, viz. that
"both Linnaeus and Erxleben employed the term Simia in a
sense different from its real signification." The whole ques-
tion here is, "what is the real signification of the term Si-
mia ? " Mr. Ogilby' s answer would probably be, "the sense
in which it was used by the ancients." And pray let me ask,
what is the "real signification," in this point of view, of the
terms Cebus and Callithrix f Pliny applies them to certain
African monkeys, yet Mr. Ogilby is content to use them for
American genera ! Is this acting consistently ? Is this pay-
ing due regard to classical usage and to the right of priority?

"Further Observations." 3-29

If Mr. Ogilby insists on annulling the generic term Simia, as
used by the moderns, and bringing it back to its Plinian mean-
ing, let him do the same with Cebus and Callithrix.

To me however it appears that by carrying our veneration
for the ancients to this extent, we are injuring the cause of
Zoology. Classical criticism has but little connection with
modern science ; and I have remarked in a former paper, that
" the zoological knowledge of the ancients was so vague and
imperfect, that few naturalists think it necessary to be very
exact in applying their names with precision, for the plain
reason that it is rarely possible to ascertain the precise spe-
cies to which these names anciently referred." Excellent
therefore as is the rule of priority, yet I greatly doubt whe-
ther any advantage would arise from carrying it farther back
than the times of Linnaeus and Brisson. Linnaeus was the
first to attach any clear and definite idea to a zoological ge-
nus ; — he was the first to apply trivial names to species, and
to give definitions of these groups on a uniform plan, so that
they could be recognized in future. Systematic Zoology
therefore dates from the publication of the 'Sy sterna NaturceJ
and it would, I think, be highly undesirable at the present
day, to extend the operation of the law of priority into the
dim obscurity which precedes that great zoological event. —
Linnaeus indeed might have been more careful in adopting the
nomenclature of his predecessors, imperfect though it was, —
but it is too late to complain of that now. The law of pre-
scription, which is found so convenient in civil matters, ought
also to operate in science ; and the undisputed possession of
a name for a given period, should authorize its permanent a-
doption, the law of priority notwithstanding. I should there-
fore define the "real signification" of the term Simia, when
used by zoologists, to be its zoological signification, — that is,
the signification first imposed upon it by Linnaeus, the father
of Zoology, and afterwards modified by subsequent naturalists.

§ 4. — Etymological meaning of names. — Mr. Ogilby next
proceeds to criticise certain of my "rules" in detail. He com-
mences with Rule 6, which is quoted above. Now I fully
agree with him when he says that "words are but the signs of
ideas," and that "so long as we agree to give them a particu-
lar signification, it matters not what may have been their ori-
ginal meaning, or whether they have any meaning at all." —
If Mr. Ogilby will refer to vol. viii. pp. 37, 38, of this Maga-
zine, he will find that I long ago said the same thing, in very
nearly the same words. See also Rule 9, vol. i. n. s. p. 175.
But my Rule 6 is introduced solely on account of that infir-
mity of human nature, whereby, when the meaning of a word

e'e2

330 Remarks on Mr. Oyilby's "Further Observations.''''

is false, men will not "agree to give it a particular significa-
tion" contrary to its obvious one. Such words therefore fail
of their effect as conventional signs of ideas, and there can be
no doubt that they should be rejected. But a proviso is at-
tached to the rule, that when such words as Caprimulgus,
Apoda, &c. have accidentally acquired a conventional mean-
ing, in spite of the falsity of their etymological one, they cease
to mislead, and should be retained. It appears then that Mr.
Ogilby and I agree in principle, though we differ in the ap-
plication of our principles to practice. And I can only say,
that if zoologists would agree to use such terms as are desti-
tute of an etymological meaning, I, for one, should not have
the slightest objection to them, and Rule 11 might then be
dispensed with.

§ 5. — Absolute and relative characters. — Mr. Ogilby seems
to be greatly puzzled with my Rule 14, that " the meaning of
names should be founded on absolute characters, — not on rela-
tive or comparative ones." Could I have anticipated his difficul-
ties, I would have appended to the rule a few words of explana-
tion. By absolute characters, I meant characters which are ap-
parent in the object itself, without reference to its congeners,
such, for instance, as are expressed by the terms rujipes, viridis,
sibilatrix, Americanus, &c. Names founded on relative or com-
parative characters, are such as imply comparison with some
other object, and which cannot therefore be intelligible, un-
less a knowledge of the object compared be presupposed, —
Of this class are the terms tinnunculoides, vespiformis, major,
minor, &c. Unless a person is acquainted with the species
tinnunculus, he gains no additional knowledge from the term
tinnunculoides, which in such a case only explains ignotum
per ignotius. Objections to this class of words are not of mo-
dern date, for they are urged by Linnaeus in his 'Critica Bo-
tanical To prevent the adoption of such terms in future,
was the object of Rule 14 ; and I know of no other more in-
telligible form of words than that in which it is announced.

§ 6. — Meaning of the word type. — My view of the word
type is precisely the same as Mr. Ogilby's. By the type of
a genus I mean that species which is usually selected as an
example of the genus, and "by the most typical genus" of a
family, I mean that genus which seems to afford the best sam-
ple of the characters on which the family is based, with the
least tendency to diverge into other families. My doctrine is,
that all species were created free and equal, and that all the
distinctions about typical, aberrant, &c. are instances of mere
human favoriteism, which have no existence in rerum natu-
rd. Man selects a group of closely-allied species, which he

Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes. 331

calls a genus, and confines within certain discretionary li-
mits ; and that species which affords the fairest sample of the
whole, he calls a type. I am aware that the quinary theorists
attach to the word type, a deeper and more mysterious mean-
ing ; but this is not the only one of their doctrines to which I
do not subscribe. I have therefore no objection to alter Rule
18 into the following form. "The names of families and sub-
families should be derived from that genus in them which af-
fords the best example of their characters."

§ 7. — Euphony. — By euphony I understand agreeableness
of sound ; and I cannot but think that too great redundancy
of syllables is no less prejudicial to this object, than a want
of " harmony and liquid softness."

If Mr. Ogilby will publish his own code of " euphony and
propriety of application, he will confer a great benefit on sci-
entific nomenclature. As his eyes are open to the numerous
errors in the codes of his predecessors, we may hope that his
code will be neither "arbitrary, dogmatical, and carelessly
drawn up," nor guilty of that "interminable length" apparent in
my code, which actually extends to nearly three 8vo pages, and
no less than twenty-two clauses, thereby setting a bad example
of prolixity to the framers of acts of parliament. I shall re-
joice if the 'Codex Ogilbyanus' shall appear to be an improve-
ment on its predecessors, for I am well aware that the exist-
ing codes are far from perfect, though I do not think Mr. O-
gilby has been quite just in his criticisms of them.

I have now said all that appears necessary to explain my
views, and trust there will be no occasion to recur to the sub-
ject. I hope that this protracted discussion will at least point
out to those naturalists who shall in future have occasion to
name new species or new groups, that the best way of defeat-
ing the designs of the poachers and petty larceners whom Mr.
Ogilby so justly censures, is to adopt such names as the very
poachers themselves cannot meddle with. If a new group is
distinguished by a name whose meaning is at once obvious
and distinctive, the poachers will in vain attempt to appro-
priate it; — they may seize on it for a time, but justice will
soon restore the stolen goods to their owners.

Art. VI. Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes. By Mr. John Skaife.

The Smew. I have now lying before me a beautiful speci-
men of the female smew, {Meryus albellus), which I obtained
at Preston, on Saturday, January 13th, 1838. In the excel-
lent figure by Gould, (' Birds of Europe,' pi. 42, vol. 5), the

332 Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes.

female is distinguished by a black mark on the cheek, and a-
round the eye ; in his description Mr. Gould observes that
'this marking in the femalehas hitherto escaped the observation
of ornithologists.' This assertion is not strictly correct, at
least in regard to one ornithologist, (Montagu, ed. by Rennie,
1831, p. 467), who says that 'the female has the same black
mark on the side of the head as the male.' In the i British
Cyclopaedia of Natural History,' edited by Partington, at p.
237, vol. iii. in the description of the smew it is stated, ' the
spot on the eye is dusky.' But other naturalists have omitted
all notice of this mark in the female ; as Temminck, ('Manu-
el d'Ornithologie^, does not mention it, neither does Wilson,
('Birds of America,' edited by Jameson), nor Bewick. The
description and figure given by Bewick of his ' lough diver,'
ed. of 1832, vol. ii. p. 278), might have been taken from the
bird I now have under my inspection. In this specimen there
is not the slightest trace of a black mark on the cheek, or a-
bout any part of the head. My specimen in evidently an old
bird, and in full feather. A fortnight after I procured this
specimen, I obtained a second at Preston, in precisely the same
state of plumage, with not a trace of the black mark. With
great diffidence I venture to offer the following suggestion for
the consideration of ornithologists. Seeing that the black
mark is not universal in females, may not the birds distin-
guished by it possibly be young males, and those not possess-
ing it be females ?

White Partridge. In the township of Alston, a few miles
from Preston, in the summer of last year, (1837), a covey of
partridges was frequently seen, which contained four birds of
a perfectly white colour ; the remaining birds in the covey
being in the ordinary plumage. The white birds were all shot
in the month of September, 1837, by different persons ; three
were suffered to go to decay, and only one prepared for the
private cabinet of the gentleman who shot it. A more beau-
tiful bird I never beheld; the plumage was of the purest white
throughout, without a single speck or flaw of any other colour.
The eye was of that bright red peculiar to albinoes ; as the
white rabbit, polar bear, ferret, &c. I never saw a ptarmigan
whose plumage was of a clearer white than this partridge ;
which is the more remarkable, as the so-called white part-
ridges are seldom without an admixture of feathers of the usu-
al grey colour. #

The Stormy Petrel. After a dreadfully severe storm of
wind in September, 1837, a stormy petrel, (Thalassidroma
pelagica), was picked up on Preston Moor, by a little boy,
alive, but completely exhausted, although it survived its cap-

Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes. 333

ture two clays, and so far recovered its strength and activity,
that had it not been killed for the purpose of mounting, it
would probably have flown off. This bird is now in my pos-
session, and is the smallest of the species I ever saw, though
in perfect plumage. Preston Moor, where this bird was tak-
en, is a low, marshy piece of ground, close to the town, re-
cently enclosed and drained, and is hardly entitled to the name
of ' Moor,' as with that term is usually associated the idea of
a wild, mountainous and desert country.

The Pomarine Gull ; [Lestris Pomarinus). The same
storm which drove the poor petrel to such an uncongenial lo-
cality, sent to the moor above-mentioned two pomarine gulls
in youthful plumage, both of which were captured. I obtain-
ed one of them. In some places these birds are considered,
and probably are, anything but rarities ; but I assure you, in
this part of the kingdom* they are so seldom seen, as to be
considered great curiosities.

The Red-breasted Merganser ; {Mergus serrator). A
most splendid male specimen of this bird was shot at * * *
* * #fnear Southport, on Saturday, February 10th, 1838. —
So rare is this bird in these parts, that none of the bird-stuff-
ers, nor the oldest sportsmen and fishermen, ever remember
to have seen one of this species before. Southport is a fa-
shionable bathing-place, on the west coast of Lancashire, a
few miles below the estuary of the Bibble.

The Wild Swan; {Cygnus ferus). The present dreadful-
ly severe weather has driven to the estuary of, and even high
up, the river Kibble, a flock of wild swans, originally twenty-
seven in number. The capture of four of these has come
within my own observation ; the first was shot in the neigh-
bourhood of # * * t upwards of twenty miles from the mouth
of the river, on Wednesday, February 7th. This bird I did
not see myself, but from the description I obtained of it,
should judge it must be a young bird, similar to the one
shortly to be described. The second was shot near Walton-
le-Dale, about two miles up the Ribble, above Preston ; this
being shot by a farmer, the Goth actually had it plucked and
roasted. The third was shot near Clitheroe, still higher up

* When I say ' this part of the kingdom,' and am alluding to waterfowl,
I do not mean the town or immediate neighbourhood of Blackburn, where
I reside, near which, being an inland town, there can be little probability of
gulls being seen; but I mean the sea-coast of Lancashire, where I have ob-
tained most of my specimens of waterfowl.

f Our correspondent must have forgotten the request which has so fre-
quently appeared on the wrapper, respecting the writing of proper names in
legible characters. — Ed.

334 Miscellaneous Ornithological Notes.

the river ; this was an old bird, in the most perfect state of
plumage ; the cere was of a beautiful bright yellow, and the
bird altogether bore a striking resemblance to Gould's figure.
The fourth bird came into my possession on Saturday, Fe-
bruary 17th, 1838, in quite a recent state, having been killed,
I believe, near the embouchure of the Kibble two days before.
It is evidently a young bird, though full grown : from the end
of the bill to the tip of the tail it measured 5 feet, and the
wings when extended measured 8 feet from tip to tip. The
breadth of the foot, when the web was stretched out, was 7 j-
inches. Altogether the linear dimensions were equal to, or
rather greater than those of the above-named adult specimen.
The bird was excessively thin and meager, and weighed on-
ly 12 lbs. whilst the weight of the adult was 20 lbs. The
cere was of a pale flesh colour, with blotches and dashes of
black, but exhibiting no trace whatever of yellow ; and the
plumage, instead of being of the beautiful snowy white of the
adult, was of a dirty greyish white throughout, conveying to
the mind, at first sight, the impression that the bird was dir-
ty, but on a closer inspection this colour of the plumage was
found to be permanent. In the works of the various ornitho-
logists in my possession, the writers content themselves with
describing the adult birds, and make no mention of the diffe-
rent colouring of the young bird ; from this, however, I must
except M. Temminck, who describes the young bird very mi-
nutely, and his description for the most part agrees with the
appearance of my specimen.

The Canada Goose. It is generally believed that this
bird is not indigenous to Europe, and Gould omits all men-
tion of it in the ' Birds of Europe.' Possibly it may be so,
but I am inclined to agree with a writer in your Magazine,
who is of opinion that the specimens shot occasionally in
England, are really, bond fide wild specimens, and not do-
mesticated or semi-domesticated birds, escaped from confine-
ment in gentlemen's parks, or from farm-yards. On Saturday,
January 27th, there were two remarkably fine specimens of
this bird in the Preston market; I purchased the finest of
them, and therefore had an opportunity of minute inspection,
and certainly, in my opinion, the bird presented no marks of
domestication ; but I repeat, I may possibly be mistaken :
and if it had escaped some time from confinement, it would
have much more the appearance of a wild bird, than if its es-
cape had been recent.

Blackburn, Lancashire,
February 19th, 1838.

Zoological Society. 335

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

At the Meeting for scientific business of the Zoological
Society, May 18th, Mr. Waterhouse exhibited a valuable and
highly interesting series of skins of Mammalia, from the island
of Fernando Po, which had recently been presented to the
Society's Museum by George Knapp, Esq. The collection
contained eight or nine species, which Mr. Waterhouse con-
siders to be entirely new ; in which are included two unde-
scribed species of the genus Colobus, forming a most impor-
tant addition to that group of Quadrumana, of which our
knowledge is so extremely limited, from the very small num-
ber of -skins hitherto brought to Europe. Mr. Waterhouse
proposes to name one of these Colobi in honour of Pennant,
C. Pennantii, and he remarked that it is the nearest species to
the bay monkey of that naturalist, yet discovered, but differs
from it in having the throat and cheeks white, and in exhi-
biting three distinct shades of colouring on the body ; the
species described by Pennant was also from a different loca-
lity, Sierra Leone, a circumstance which strengthens the pro-
bability of its being distinct. For the remaining species of
Colobus Mr. Waterhouse proposes the specific appellation of
Satanas ; its uniform black colour will at once serve to dis-
tinguish it from the only allied species, leucoprymnus and
ursinus, the former having white thighs and a white throat,
while the latter has the tail entirely white. Mr. Waterhouse
next proceeded to describe two species of the genus Cerco-
pithecus, one of which was named C. Martini, and the other
C. erythrotis. A new species of genet, which Mr. Water-
house stated to differ from all other African genets in its ge-
neral colour, and the dark marks and spots upon the body,
was called Genetta Poensis. A new otter was called Lutra
Poensis ; and an antelope, also included in the same collec-
tion, was characterized as Antilope Ogilbyi. The skin of this
last animal was imperfect, being without the head and extre-
mities ; but it was regarded by Mr. Waterhouse as most close-
ly allied to the A. scripta, in which case he remarked that it
would belong to the sub-genus Tragelaphus of Ham. Smith,
or the more extended group to which Mr. Ogilby has applied
the name of Calliope.

Mr. Waterhouse then proceeded to notice two extremely
interesting skins which had just been brought over from
Sierra Leone by Major Dundas Campbell, and sent by him
for exhibition at the Society's evening meeting, with a pro-
mise, on the part of Major Campbell, to present them to the

Vol. II.— No. 18. n. s." f f

336 New Species of Popillia.

Society, in the event of his being able to make an arrange-
ment with a party, to whom he had parted with them as an
article of commerce. One of these specimens was a remark-
ably fine skin of a species of Colobus described by Mr. Ogil-
by some time since, in the Society's 'Proceedings,' under the
name of ursinus ; the skin, however, upon which Mr. Ogilby
founded his species, was imperfect, and until the opportunity
afforded by the inspection of the present specimen, nothing
was known of the colour of the head and face, which prove to
be greyish white. The other skin was a new species of the
genus Cercopithecus, peculiar for its long fur, and for the hair
being parted down the middle of the back, as in most of the
Colobi. The specific name of C. Campbelli was proposed
for the above animal.

Mr, Ogilby exhibited and described various species of kan-
garoo rats, {Hypsiprimnus), from the Society's collection, and
read several extracts relating to them from a paper which he
had prepared upon the subject, so long ago as the year 1832,
and which, though partly read before the Linnean Society at
that time, had never been made public, owing to the imper-
fection of the materials then in this country, for the perfect
illustration of the genus. Reserving the detail of his obser-
vations for an express monograph, Mr. Ogilby briefly charac-
terized the following species. Hyp. setosus, myosurus, me-
lanotis, formosus, Philippi, cuniculus, and murinus.

A new Chameleon from Fernando Po was then described
by Mr. Martin, who proposed to call it C. Bibroni, in ac-
knowledgement of the great assistance he had derived from
the work of M. Bibron, whilst engaged upon the determina-
tion of the species of Reptilia in the Society's collection.

New species of Popillia. — At the Entomological Society
on Monday evening, the 7th of May, a paper by Mr. Newman
on the genus Popillia, (Leach), was read. The author de-
scribes twenty-one new species, as under.

1. V.regina. Omnino laete viridi-aenea, glabra, splendidissima : elytra
profunde striata, striispunctatis: mesosternum valde productum, curvatura.
Habitat Asia. Corp. long. .7 unc. lat. .45 unc.

2. P. dorsigera. Nigro-senea, elytrorum fascia mediana transversa com-
muni fulva: podex brunneus pilis albis bisignatus: elytra striata striis
punctatis et (lmo excepto) abbreviatis. Habitat Africa. Corp. long. .75
unc. lat. .4 unc.

3. P. brunnea. Nigra ; clypeo, antennis, elytris, pedibusque brunneis,
metatarsis piceis: podex pilis albis bisignatus : elytra striata striis puctatis.
Habitat Africa. Corp. long. .65 unc. lat. .4 unc.

4. P. JEneas. Olivaceo-viridis ; antennis, pedibusque brunneis, meta-
tarsis piceis : podex pilis albis bisignatis : elytra punctato-striata. Habitat
Africa. Corp. long. .65 unc. lat. .4 unc.

New Species of Popillia. 837

5. P. olea. Olivacea, luce varians : antennis elytrisque testaceis, fulgo-
re metallico nitidis : pedibus testaceis fulgore cupreo nitidis : podex pilis
albis bisignatis: elytra punctato-striata. Habitat Africa. Corp. long. .5
unc. lat. .3 una

6. P. mutans. Brunnea, fulgore aeneo nitida; antennis pedibusque con-
coloribus: podex haud signatus: elytra punctato-striata, utrinque prope
suturam profunde foveata. Habitat Ind. Orient. Corp. long. .5 unc. lat.
.35 unc.

7. P. chlorion. Obscure viridis : antennis piceis : pedibus chalybeo-ni-
gris ; podex pilis albidis bisignatus : elytra striata, utrinque prope suturam
profunde foveata. Habitat Ind. Orient. Corp. long. .4 unc. lat. .25 unc.

8. P. Adamas. Nigro-cyanea, nitida; pedibus concoloribus ; antennis
nigris : podex pilis niveis bisignatus : elytra punctato-striata, utrinque pro-
pe suturam profunde foveata. Habitat Ind. Orient. Corp. long. .4 unc.
lat. .25 unc. ; magnitudine valde variat.

9. P. complanata. Caput, prothorax, et scutellum viridi-aenei : clypeus
brunneus, antennae brunneae capitulo nigro: elytra testacea complanata
punctato-striata, utrinque prope suturam vage foveata; pedes brunnei fulgore
metallico nitidi. Habitat Ind. Orient. Corp. long. .45 unc. lat. .275 unc.

10. P. lucida. Chalybeo-aenea, antennis piceis, elytris testaceis; pedibus
brunneis fulgore metallico nitidis: podex pilis niveis bisignatus: elytra
punctato-striata utrinque prope suturam profunde foveata. Habitat Ind.
Orient. Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. J2 unc.

11. P. Japonica. Cupreo-aenea; antennis piceis capitulo nigro ; pedi-
bus viridi- aut cupreo-aeneis, tarsis nigris : elytra testacea, sutura margini-
busque nigro-seneis : podex pilis albis bisignatus : elytra punctato-striata.
Habitat Insul. Japon. Corp. long. .45 unc. lat. .275 unc.

12. P. difficilis. Laete aenea ; antennis testaceis capitulo nigro ; elytris
testaceis, pedibus brunneis, fulgore metallico nitidis : podex aeneus, pilis
albis obscure bisignatus : elytra punctato-striata. Habitat Ind. Orient. —
Corp. long. .325 unc. lat. .175 unc.

13. V.nasuta. Cuprea; antennis piceis : clypeo elongato recurvo : ely-
tris cupreo-testaceis : pedibus nigro-aeneis, cupreo variis, tarsis nigris : po-
dex aeneus, nullo modo signatus : elytra punctato-striata. Habitat Ind..
Orient. Corp. long. .45 unc. lat. .275 unc.

14. P. acuta- Laete cupreo-aenea ; clypeo elongato recurvo acutissimo ;
antennis brunneis ; elytris pedibusque testaceis fulgore cupreo nitidis : po-
dex aeneus nullo modo signatus ; elytra punctato-striata. Habitat Ind. O-
rient. Corp. long. .425 unc. lat. .265 unc: magnitudine valde variat.

15. P. rugicollis. Caput viride, clypeo antennisque testaceis: prothorax
viridis, rugosus, marginibus testaceis : elytra testacea sulcata, sulcis punc-
tatis : podex nigro-aeneus, pilosus, immaculatus. Habitat Ind. Orient. —
Corp. long. .375 unc. lat. .2 unc.

16. P. fimbriata. Nigra; antennis testaceis,. capitulo nigro: caput et
prothorax virescentes: elytra chalybea: podex pilis albis manifeste 1-linea-
tus. Habitat Ind. Orient. Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. .175 unc.

17. P. sticticollis. Testacea, capitis maculis 2, prothoracis maculis dis-
coidalibus 2, marginibusque antico et postico, scutelli margo, elytrorum su-
tura, margoque lateralis versus apicem nigri. Habitat Mexico. Corp. long-
.45 unc. lat. .275. unc.

18. P. vidua. Nigra, glabra : antennae testacea? capitulo nigro. Habi-
tat Mexico. Corp. long. .425 unc. lat. .25. unc.

FF 2

338 Fossil Infusoria.

19. P. semirufa. Ferruginea, antenna rum capitulus, capitis vertex, pro-
thoracis discus, elytra tota, protibiae omnino, metatibiarum apices, tarsique
undique nigri. Habitat Mexico. Corp. long. .425 unc. lat. .25 unc.

20. P. Castor. Brunnea, prothoracis discus rugosus, brunneus, margini-
bus ochraceis : elytra sulcata, sulci profunde punctati : elytrorum humeri
nigri. Habitat Mexico. Corp. long. .28 unc. lat. .175 unc.

21. P. Pollux. Nigro-amea: prothoracis marginibus, elytrisque totis
testaceis: pedes brunnei, tarsis piceis : elytra sulcata, sulcis profunde punc-
tatis. Habitat Mexico. Corp. long. .27 unc. lat. .16 unc.

Mr. Newman also describes the following published spe-
cies. Rufipes and bipunctata of Fabricius ; biguttata of
Wiedemann; cyanea, minuta, cupricollis, virescens, margi-
nicollis, and nitida of Hope. Beryllina of Hope he consi-
ders a variety of cyanea ; and formosa and smaragdala, both
remarkable for their splendid colouring, he gives as varieties
of cupricollis. The number of distinct species is thirty, all
of them in the rich cabinet of Mr. Hope ; and also five named
varieties : one additional species is added from the British
Museum.

Meetings of the Friends of Natural History, of Berlin. —
January 16th. Prof. Ehrenberg exhibited samples of the sili-
ceous earth, which was found a short time before, near Ebs-
dorf, in the neighbourhood of Liineburg, in Hanover. This
earth, which has been discovered at six different places in the
same district, forms two layers of different colours, and is co-
vered with one of peat-earth only, 1 J foot thick. The upper
stratum, which is from 10 to 18 feet thick, is very white, and
consists of pure silica, according to the analysis of Prof. Wig-
gers, of Gottingen. The second, the colour of which is brown-
ish grey, is at least 10 ft. thick; it also consists of silica, with
a small proportion of bitumen : the latter disappearing on
the earth being heated, its colour likewise becoming white.
As Prof. Hausmann of Gottingen suspected this earth to be
composed of the remains of organic beings, he sent samples
of both the varieties to Prof. Ehrenberg, who examined them
under the microscope. Both sorts are much alike, with refe-
rence to their composition, and not only contain the minute
shields of Infusoria, but consist of them. Prof. Ehrenberg
had distinguished in them sixteen different organic bodies, of
which fourteen are the siliceous tested of Infusoria. The white
or upper stratum is entirely composed of such testae, in a state
of perfect preservation, with a slight admixture of grains of
quartz ; much resembling in this respect the mountain meal,
(bergmehl), of Santafiora, but it is purer. Prof. Ehrenberg
has already distinguished twelve different species of Infuso-
ria. The brownish grey, or lower layer, consists of the same
testa, but in a less perfect state, and of two more species,

Fossil Infusoria. 839

which Prof. Ehrenberg could not detect in the upper stratum,
namely, Gallionella varians and Cocconeis clypeus. But what
is more remarkable, it contains an admixture of vegetable sub-
stances and forms. In the lower part of the sample there were
found the pollen of a species of Finus, and the siliceous spi-
cule of sponge, in the proportion of about -^. All the twelve
species of the upper layer, as well as the Gallionella, are to
be met with in the living state near Berlin. Cocconeis clype-
us is found, along with Navicula viridis, in the Kieselguhr
(siliceous deposits) of Franzenbad. The pollen of a Finns
Prof. Ehrenberg first discovered in the mountain meal of Deg-
gernfors, in Sweden, afterwards in the Kieselguhr of Kym-
mene-Gard, in Finland, and lately in that of Franzensbad,
but always in small quantities. Prof. Ehrenberg then demon-
strated on living earth-worms, that the digestive process in
these creatures, has not the effect of destroying the structure
of the siliceous integuments of the Infusoria, but that the Ba-
cillariae, which they devour in great quantities, lose only their
animal constituents, their testae being voided in a perfect state .

February 20th. Prof. Ehrenberg communicated that the
severe cold, ( — 18 — 20° R.), of this winter, had not killed all
the Infusoria in the vegetable mould of the deer-garden near
Berlin ; but on the lumps of earth being cautiously thawed,
many of the animalcules were seen moving about, though a
great number certainly appeared to be dead. He also exhi-
bited a large mass of the infusorial earth from the lake of Lill-
haggsjon, which, from time immemorial, has been added to
flour, in making bread.

March 20th. Prof. Link read a paper on the develope-
ment of roots. He stated that, whilst the leaf-buds originate
from the pith, the roots always spring from the ligneous body.
Mr. Weiss exhibited scoriae from the puddling furnaces of II-
senburg, in the Hercynian forest, on which regular octahe-
drons of magnetic iron ore had formed.

April 17th. Prof. Link detailed the results of his micro-
scopical examination of the coal of South America. It ap-
pears to owe its existence to the same vegetable substances
as the coal of other countries. One variety seemed to be prin-
cipally formed of palm wood. Prof. Ehrenberg mentioned
that perfectly dried wheel-animalcules and other Infusoria,
could not be revived ; a fact which he had established by nu-
merous experiments. Prof. Muller laid before the Society the
plates of the 1st number of his and Dr. Henle's work on sharks
and skates.

May 15th. Prof. Link continued his observations on coal,
which he considers as primeval peat. He could discover in

340 Petrified Wood. — Dryness of Air. — M. Russegger.

it no traces of dicotyledonous plants, to which the anthracite
mostly owes its origin, though it also contains much fir. —
Prof. Ehrenberg stated that for ten months his Infusoria
have kept alive, without any supply of water.

Petrified Wood. — Prof. Goppertof Breslau has treated with
acids different sorts of petrified wood, (those combined with
lime, iron, or copper, he treated with muriatic acid, and those
combined with silica, with fluoric acid), and thus succeeded
in removing the petrifying materials to such a degree, that the
fibre became flexible, and in many cases exhibited the gene-
ric character. He thus laid bare the vasa scalaria of a plant,
(Stigmaria fucoidss), having a very extensive geographi-
cal range, and which Rhode was inclined to class with the
Cacti, but the structure of which was before entirely unknown.
These vessels became flexible, and the partitions between
their membranes distinctly visible. The results of these en-
quiries give great probability to the opinion, that these petri-
factions have been produced by aqueous solutions of the la-
pidifying substances.

Dryness of the atmosphere in Peru. — On the highest pla-
teaux of the southern part of Peru, the air is dryer than in
perhaps any other part of the globe, and the strong winds
which blow there at regular intervals every day, exsiccate all
the dead organic bodies subjected to their agency, within
an incredibly short time. Though the cold may contribute
also to preserve them from corruption, yet but a small pro-
portion of the result can be attributed to this cause. When
horses, mules, or other beasts of burden are left behind to die,
by their drivers, the vultures of the Cordilleras immediately
assail and kill them : but while the birds are opening the bel-
ly and feeding upon the entrails of their victim, the exsicca-
tion of the carcass makes such rapid progress, that the vultures
are not able to tear the skin and flesh, which form a natural
mummy, and is preserved for centuries in the open air, just
where it happens to fall. The flesh nearly disappears, so that
the skin looks as if glued to the bones. The hair, teeth, and
hoofs remain in a most perfect state of preservation. (Reise-
beschreiburg des Prof. Julius Meyen).

M. de Russegger has now accomplished the object of his
journey, viz. to enquire into the mineralogical treasures of
all the countries subject to Mohammed Ali, from the Taurus,
in Asia Minor, down to Fazoglo, on the Elue River, or from
87° to 12° N. lat. The success with which his travels have
been attended, as to the immediate purpose of his mission, is
beyond what the most sanguine hopes of the viceroy could
have anticipated ; and the result promises to be highly inte-

Curious Experiment in Grafting. 341

resting in a scientific point of view. Since our last notice Mr.
de Russegger has written twice, viz. from Roserres, in the
country of Fazoglo, on the 19th December, 1837, and from
Fazoglo, on the Blue River, on the 8th of February, 1838. —
In the mountains of Shegedi, in Sennaar, he found a very con-
siderable vein of silver ore, the matrix being quartz, and the
rock through which it passes clay slate ; and in the chain of
Okelai and Keduss, on the western boundary of Abyssinia, he
met with an immense mass of quartz, (in granite), containing
various silver and copper ores. At Roserres the traveller
joined the army of Mustapha Bey, and continued his journey
to the south, through the negro countries of Fazoglo, Akaro,
Kassan, and Kamamil, to Shangolla, on the limit of the Gal-
las countries. On his way back to Fazoglo he examined the
whole tract in a mineralogical point of view. He found ma-
ny rivers, the alluvial deposits of which are so rich in gold,
that they may be worked with great profit. But the richest
district was discovered in the country of Fazoglo. — " Between
the chains of Fallowu and Fasangoru, lies the valley of the
river Adi, which, in an extent of two or three German miles,
is covered with mountains of quartz, containing quartz iron
ores, with native gold imbedded in them. We found this lat-
ter metal in great quantities, both in the solid rock and in the
rolled stones of the river. I bring with me a fragment of
quartz containing native gold, one grain of which weighs two
carats. The whole of the alluvial ground between these
quartz mountains, is immensely rich in gold, and the negroes
are extensively engaged in washing for it along the river Adi,
a circumstance hitherto quite unknown to the Egyptians. —
An army of a thousand men might be set to work directly; and
with the cheapest arrangements, and scarcely less simple than
those of the negroes, each would obtain gold to the amount of
6 or 8 florins convent, mon. (12 to 16 sh.) per day. The lo-
cality is extremely favourable, for the distance from the Blue
River, which bears large barges during the rainy season, is on-
ly three leagues, and there is plenty of wood." Upon the
whole, Mr. de Russegger feels convinced, that the little insu-
lated mountains of the tropical part of Africa, contain inex-
haustible treasures of various metals. He hoped to arrive at
Cairo towards the end of June.

Curious experiment in grafting. — A gardener at the botanic
garden of Metz, named Simon, has grafted a scion of the ches-
nut on an oak, and the experiment has perfectly succeeded.
The Royal Academy of Metz mentions this curious fact in its
' Report on the Progress of Gardening in 1837.'

Capricorn caught in Switzerland. — Near Wattenburgh,

342 Cicindela hybrida, Linn.

not far from Seftingen, in the canton of Bern, in the beginning
of April, 1838, a fine specimen of the Capricorn was caught,
but restored to liberty, in consequence of the legal enactments.
A Swiss locality where this rare animal is still said to breed,
is the forest of the Gournigel, near Bern.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Cicindela hybrida, Linn. — The greatest confusion exists
in modern entomological works, respecting this species of fly-
ing beetles ; (see Stephens' ' Illustr. Brit. Ent.' vol. i. pp. 8,
18, and 175; and vol. v. p. 366: Curtis, 'Brit. Ent.' No. 1,
second edition: Andouin and Brulle, 'Hist. Nat. Ins. Cole-
opt. 1. livr. 1.; Laporte in Selberm. 'Rev. Entomol.' No 7.
and ' Hist. Anim. Artie.' ; Klug, f Jahrbucher,' 1834 ; Erich-
son, 'Kafer Mark Brandenburg'). According, however, to the
Linnaean specimen of this species, preserved in the collection
of Linnaeus, in the possession of the Linnean Society, and
ticketed in the hand-writing of Linnaeus himself, the species
is identical with that to which Dejean has doubtingly assign-
ed the name of C. hybrida, and which Stephens has describ-
ed under the name of C. riparia. Moreover, the Linnaean
cabinet does not contain a specimen of the species which Sow-
erby figured under the name of C. hybrida, and which has
been described by the French authors under the name of C
maritima.

By the side of the Linnaean specimen are placed, (as though
regarded as the same species), a copper-coloured specimen of
the small C. sinuata, Fabr. ('Col. d'Eur.' t. 4, f. 6), and also
a specimen of a third species, as large as C. campestria, of a
dark greenish black colour, with markings like C. riparia,
and ticketed in a more recent hand, "Mt. Simpelon, Alps;
Dr. Young." These two specimens, and more particularly
the latter, have in all probability been introduced into the
cabinet since the death of Linnaeus, by Sir J. E. Smith, its
late possessor. In the Benksian cabinet, (the insects in which
were named by Fabricius), at the Linnean Society, a speci-
men of the species figured by me, is also named hybrida. —
This species was first introduced into the British lists by Mr.
Stephens, under the name of riparia, in the first number of
his ' Illustrations,' and in the second number he describes,
under the name of C. aprica, another supposed species, which
he doubtingly considered might possibly be an extreme vari-
ety of the former ; more recently, (Appendix to vol. v.), his
opinion upon this subject appears to have been confirmed,
and indeed some of the French authors regard, not only apri-

Cuscuta Epilinum a British Plant. 343

cjz and riparia, but also Integra, montana, and some others,
as varieties of the hybrida of Linnaeus and Dejean. Much
stress has been laid upon the colour of the labial palpi in this
and the allied species, both by Messrs. Stephens and Curtis;
this character, however, (as the former author indeed subse-
quently observed, 'Illust' vol. i. p. 20), is of little importance,
these organs, both in C. hybrida and sylvicola, being varia-
ble in colour from nearly white to black ; which variation
Mr. Stephens considers to be attributable to age, whilst M.
Brulle regards it as sexual ; the latter stating that these or-
gans are obscure in the female and pale in the male. This
however can scarcely be correct, since I possess a female of
C. maritima, {hybrida, Sowerby), with palpi as pale as in the
males, whilst I have a female of the true hybrida, with black
labial palpi. — J. O* Westwood.

Cuscuta Epilinum. — In the summer of 1836, I gathered a
species of Cuscuta upon flax, in a field near Ellesmere, Shrop-
shire, which I then took to be C. Europcea ; but finding, on
subsequent examination, the scales within the corolla, said to
be wanting in that species, I forwarded specimens to Sir W.
J. Hooker, and directed his attention to its examination. He
at once decided it to be Cuscuta Epilinum of Weihe, a conti-
nental species, and very destructive in Germany to the crops
of flax, stunting the growth of the stems by enveloping them
so tightly. I have sent a dried specimen, (with description),
to Mr. Sowerby, to be figured in his ' Supplement to English
Botany' ; but as this may not appear in time for the present
season, it may be as well to insert this notice in the forth-
coming number of the \ Magazine of Natural History,' that
botanists may have an opportunity of searching for the plant.
Sir W. Hooker suggested to me that all the Cuscuta found
on flax, will prove to be this species ; and this my friend W.
A. Leighton, of Shrewsbury, and myself, have found to be the
case, on examination of specimens in our respective herbaria.

C. Epilinum may be distinguished from C. Europcsa, by its
simple, not branched, habit, and by its very pale, (nearly
white) capitula or heads, which are without any of the rosy
tinge of the latter. These heads consist of fewer flowers than
in the latter species, (about five), and these are large, fleshy,
and succulent. Both the heads and their component flowers
are more decidedly sitting than in C Europcsa ; the heads
are subtended by a membranous, obovate, reflexed bractea,
of a reddish brown colour ; but there is no bractea under each
individual flower. This is at variance with Sir J. E. Smith's
generic character, and with Reichenbach's specific character,
— u glomerulus ebracteatis," — heads without bracteas, — which

Vol. II.— No. 18. n. s. g g

344 Cuscuta Epilinum a British Plant.

is wrong, because the bractea is only wanting to the indivi-
dual flowers. Indeed the general bractea is not easily seen,
being partly concealed and enveloped by the globular sessile
head. The calyx is large and spreading, its segments thick
and deltoid, almost as long as the corolla, which has very a-
cute segments and a globose tube, even before the enlarge-
ment of the germen. The filaments are also very short and
very acute ; beneath each of which, at the base of the corol-
la, is inserted a broad membranous scale, (perceived with dif-
ficuly from being in close contact with the tube), whose jag-
ged tips do not reach so high as the insertion of the stamens.
The capsule is globose, 2-celled, the cells 2-seeded, and the
seeds sub -triquetrous from compression as they swell, cover-
ed with chaffy granulations and deeply pitted.

In common with its congeners, the stems of C. Epilinum
twist upwards from west to east, often binding together ma-
ny contiguous plants of flax, and* strangling them as it were
with a tight cord. Its roots and the lower part of the stem
also wither away, as soon as it has firmly fixed itself upon
the stock by means of its wart-like suckers, through which
it supports itself on the juices of its foster-parent. Strictly
speaking, no station can be given for this parasite, as it can
only come to perfection where flax is cultivated. Though
ripe seeds which have been shed upon the ground may ger-
minate the ensuing spring, the young plants soon die if the
flax be not at hand on which to fix themselves. According-
ly I could not find a single specimen in the same field, the
ensuing summer, 1837, the crop having been changed. This
may account for a circumstance which occurred many years
ago, and which puzzled me at the time, and also confirms
Sir W. Hooker's opinion, that it will only grow on flax. I
had sown some purchased flax seed in a back border in my
garden, the plants from which were infested with C. Euro-
p<ea, (as I believed). I sowed some of the dodder seeds a-
mong nettles, in the corner of a field, and was disappointed
at their not producing a single plant ; though I now think it
probable that they germinated, and died away for want of their
proper food. If botanists would search in fields of growing
flax, or among purchased seed in spring, they would proba-
bly be rewarded by finding either living plants or seeds of
this troublesome parasite, which I suspect is not uncommon;
and it would well repay the farmer to rid his flax seed of this
worst species of Tares, before sowing it. The seeds are large,
nearly round, and would easily be detected among the flax.

If any botanist, being fully satisfied that he has found the
true plant, would kindly forward good growing specimens to

Improvements in the Microscope. 345

Mr. J. De C. Sowerby, 62, Pratt St. Camden Town, it would
enable that gentleman to give a better figure than it will be
possible to do from dried ones ; and while I am making this
request, I may as well include my friend Curtis, who has sig-
nified his desire on the covers of his unrivalled - British En-
tomology *' to be favoured with specimens of new and rare
plants, free of expense, to be figured in his truly beautiful
and splendid work. — J. E. Bowman, {late of Gresford, Den-
bighshire).— Elm Place, near Manchester ; 15th May, 1838.

Improvements in the Microscope. — Perhaps it may not be
considered out of place in f The Magazine of Natural Histo-
ry? to notice some improvements and simplifications on that
most important aid to the naturalist — the microscope, made
by myself. . ,

These consist in producing the two crossing motions of the
stage, and in regulating the light, in the following most facile
modes. My microscope has a square stem, with a rack and
pinion, the latter having a milled head, recently added by
myself, 2f inches in diameter, in order to obtain readily a to-
lerably accurate adjustment of the focus ; but the minute
adjustment is effected by a fine screw, with a milled head,
recently fitted to it by Mr. Andrew Ross, who has likewise
furnished me with a new body, three of his admirable achro-
matic compound objectives, and three astronomical eye-pieces;
and thus it is as perfect in these respects, as, I believe, any
microscope now in existence. It is likewise now indeed very
greatly improved by the exceedingly pleasant mode of exar
mining objects, effected by the simplification and improve-
ment of the stage by myself. The stage was originally mount-
ed upon a bracket, proceeding from the upper sliding socket
upon the stem, and had a steady-pin in addition to the screw,
by which it was fixed to the socket, and expressly designed
to prevent any side motion of the stage, as usual. Now, I had
only to remove the steady-pin, and thus obtained the sideway
movement of the stage in a most simple and effectual manner.
This was a very great improvement, and afforded much faci-
lity in viewing the different objects ; still, however, the op-
posite motion, to or from the observer, was wanted, and this
I have also been able to effect in as simple and useful a man-
ner, as the motion sideways. Mr. Ross had fitted to my stage
his valuable speculum for illuminating opaque objects side-
ivays ; and for this purpose had mounted a pipe or socket to
receive the stem of the carriage of the speculum, in a small
plate of brass, which he fixed by screws to the underside of
the stage, on the left side of it. This gave me the opportunity
of employing another cylindrical metal stem, to fit his pipe

g g 2

•346 Bones of Mammalia in the Crag.

or socket, with a flat circular head to it, nearly equal in thick-
ness to the stage ; and of cementing to it with shell lac, a plate
of glass, which lies upon the stage, and swings or turns upon
that as a centre, and thus affords the opposite crossing move-
ment required, in a most complete and effectual manner. 1
believe that such valuable results were never before attained
in so facile a way. And indeed it would seem as if every-
thing had been expressly provided for the occasion, and only
needed my wish to be possessed of this truly desirable pro-
perty of moving an object, even of considerable size, in every
direction, with the utmost freedom. I have cemented a small
flat ivory button upon the right hand corner of the glass plate,
by way of handle to move it by.

I have likewise effected the important object of graduating
the light from the plane or concave specula which slide upon
the stem, in a most simple and efficient manner. This I have
lately accomplished as follows ; a double convex lens, mount-
ed in a screwed cell, was formerly slidden upon the stem up-
wards and downwards, to concentrate or diffuse the light from
the specula. I however had laid this aside as useless. I now
have fitted a short tube, with a diaphragm, or circular hole, at
its upper end, a quarter of an inch in diameter, into a metal
cone which used to be fixed upon the cell, under the stage, to
lessen the light occasionally ; and this cone, so altered, is now
fixed to the screwed ring of the condensing lens, (but which
lens, as before mentioned, I had laid aside), and can be slid-
den up and down on the stem, nearer to or farther from, the
plane or concave speculum and the stage, at pleasure ; and
thus graduate the light cast by them upon the objects, in a
most complete manner. The length of the tube fixed within
the cone is three quarters of an inch ; and the aperture in the
cone below it, is three eighths of an inch: the diameter of the
cone itself being an inch and a half; and the whole is well
blackened with a dull coat of varnish. And thus the passage
of the light from the specula below to the stage, is effected
only through the short tube, and its upper and lower aper-
tures, the central rays only being suffered to pass ; an advan-
tage I need not dwell upon. — Thomas Gill. — 125, Central
Strand, London ; March 23rd, 1838.

Bones of Mammalia in the Crag. — Your worthy correspon-
dent, the Rev. W. B. Clarke, has, by his communication at
p. 162 of the number for March, reminded me of some bones
which I obtained from a person who told me he took them out
of the crag cliff at Felixstow, on the Suffolk coast.

This was in November last. I have since visited that lo-
cality, and the spot was pointed out to me ; in making further

Woodcock* breeding in Ross-shire. 347

search, I have obtained more bones from the identical spot
which contained those first found. This time I found two
fragments of bone, one of large size, of that kind so frequent-
ly met with in the neighbourhood of the "red crag." To the
latter fragments are attached numerous fossil Balani ; and it
is worthy of remark, that I did not find these on the beach,
but took them immediately from the crag. There is no gra-
vel over the crag at this place ; and if there were, it is impos-
sible that these fragments of bone could have been deposited
with it, and that the delicate Balani could have survived the
transporting action that brought from great distances the hard
substances which compose the gravel of this part of England,
and after this transportation be found in that perfect condi-
tion in which they appear on these bones,

I have also obtained bones from the " coralline crag," not
only in the quarries of Sudburne Park, but also from an ad-
joining parish. That the bones found in the crag at Felix-
stow, are those of Mammalia , I think there is no question ;
and the bones found in the "coralline crag" are so analogous
in structure, and other particulars, that there appears very lit-
tle doubt of their identity, but this point can be easily set at
rest. A fragment or two of bone of similar structure I have
also taken from the "red crag" of Orford.

I take this opportunity of informing you of the above cir-
cumstance, as from what you have said on this subject, it is
probable you may feel some degree of interest in it, being ac-
quainted with the geological features of this part of England.
— John Brown. — Stanway, April, 1838.

[In all probability the bones alluded to by Mr. Brown will prove to be
those of aquatic Mammalia, which are known to occur in the red crag; but
should they appear, upon examination, to belong to land animals, we shall
not fail to notice the circumstance. — Ed.~\

Woodcocks breeding in Ross-shire. — Residing in a part of
the country remote even from Edinburgh, I received Nos. 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9, of the Magazine of Natural History altogether,
and therefore could not sooner reply to Mr. Fairholme's stric-
tures in the number for July, p. 537, et seq.

Mr. Fairholme unaccountably says that I speak of wood-
cocks breeding in Selkirkshire, which is an oversight. I on-
ly mention having seen them in Ross-shire. Mr. Fairholme's
statement as to the breeding of woodcocks, as far as it goes,
agrees with my own repeated observations, excepting what
regards the low croaking sound, which has hitherto escaped
me. As Mr. Fairholme describes it as being not unlike the
purring of a cat, or the noise of a spinningwheel, it exactly
agrees with the peculiar sound made by the Caprimulgus, a

348 Woodcocks breeding in Ross-shire.

bird very common in the Highland woods, and which begins
generally after sunset, the time that I have observed the
woodcocks to commence flying about: but as this anomalous
sound is heard only as the breeze rises or falls, it is only heard
by a good ear. The cry of the woodcocks as they fly about,
does not seem to me to be like whistling, but, as I observed,
like the cry of the young redbreast, but sharper, and in two
notes.

Your learned and excellent correspondent Mr. E. Blyth, says
in No. 8, p. 439, that he is ready to concur with Mr. Fairholme
in the opinion that this increase in the number of woodcocks
that now breed in Britain, is owing to the number that are
annually wounded by sportsmen, and cannot remove at the
usual season, and so, — as they seem to suppose, — meet toge-
ther, male and female, and are content to remain and breed
in our climate.

This is all very plausible and ingenious, and may partly be
true. But why did not the woodcocks do so long ago ? And
moreover, it seems that the Jieldfare has likewise become a
native. Have they also begun to breed by wounded birds ?

Mr. Fairholme is so kind as to correct a mistake that he
thinks I have fallen into, by saying "without reservation,"
that no minnows or pike were to be found to the north of
Perth, but plenty of sticklebacks : and no pike in those streams
that fall into the west sea, or in the lakes from which they
flow. I by no means think these circumstances very asto-
nishing. I believe that the minnows were introduced into
the river Don, as I know they were into the Ness a few years
ago, for the purpose of bait ; — but I still hold myself correct.
The whole subject is curious, but I cannot now enter into it,
nor encroach much longer on your indulgence. Only allow
me to observe that there has been more than time for any one
of the multitude of sportsmen and naturalists who are con-
stantly perambulating the western Highlands, to have denied
the statement, and yet no one of them has given Mr. F. any
reason to think that he has been right in objecting to there
being no pike in the western rivers.

As to continuing to write anonymously, I have little more
to add to what you allowed me to say in No. 8, pp. 144 and
145 ; and it will very much depend on whether or not my too
irregular and unlearned communications are considered wor-
thy of insertion. — W. L.

[As the foregoing communication from W. L. relates to an article in a
former volume, we have given it insertion ; but we must in future adhere
to the principle mentioned on our wrapper in preceding numbers, respect-
ing anonymous Communications. — Ed.']

Docility in a Rook. 340

Docility in a Rook. — I send you the following account of
remarkable docility in a rook, thinking it may not be unac-
ceptable to some of your readers. A few years back, when
residing with Elliston Allen, Esq. on whose estate at Bal-
lingdon Grove there is a fine rookery, I procured at the an-
nual rook-shooting, several young rooks, and attempted to
rear them. They all however died, except one. This I fed
at first on raw flesh, taken from the breasts of the young rooks,
his companions, which had been shot ; but afterwards accus-
tomed him by degrees to relish bread moistened with water.
' Jack,' (for so I called him), soon grew a fine bird, and be-
came strong of wing. This, however, so far from inducing
him to fly away, was only the means by which he attached
himself more closely to my society; and he would frequently
follow me over the fields, far from home. His ear was so
nice that he could distinguish my voice from all others, and
whenever I called, 'Jack' would immediately answer me, by
his well-known note. He persisted however in the most ob-
stinate silence, whenever he was addressed by others, and all
efforts, not excepting the offer of food, were vainly used to
induce him to approach them. His fondness for mice was
excessive, and he shewed great dexterity in catching them.
Occasionally I would take him into an open space, and there
let loose some of these little animals for him to catch, taking
care however that they had about fifteen yards 'law/ He
was very quick in seizing them, which he always did by the
neck, holding them at the extreme point of his bill. This, I
presume was to prevent their biting him. Jack, like all o-
ther pets, acquired a number of amusing actions, too numer-
ous to mention ; one of which was calling me every morning
by tapping at my bed-room window with his bill.

As the rookery from which I had taken him was only a
short distance from the house, where Jack was always loiter-
ing about, it might naturally be supposed that he would have
associated with his fellows ; this, however, he sedulously a-
voided : and although he would frequently feed in the same
field with the whole flock, he always took care to keep at some
distance from them. I could always distinguish him from the
rest, by several white flight feathers in his wings, occasioned
by having had them pulled before he was fledged. I kept
Jack till nearly the following breeding season, but just as I
was beginning to wonder whether he would choose a com-
panion from the flock of wild ones, he was missed, and though
I made many enquiries, I could hear no tidings of him, nor
have I ever been able to ascertain whether he became the prey
of some prowling animal, or fell- a victim to the wanton cru-
elty of some juvenile sportsman. — Fred. Wyatt — Camberwell.

350 New Method of setting up Fishes.

New method of setting up Fishes. — Having tried all the
common methods of stuffing fishes, with which I was ac-
quainted, without producing anything like nature, I at length
hit upon the following plan, which, as far as I have tried it,
has more than answered my most sanguine expectations ; and
being attended with but little expense or trouble, it promises
to make a collection of fishes, (at least of many species), as
easily attainable as one of birds, always excepting the colours,
which fade more or less, but the size and form are perfectly
retained.

If the fish has scales, secure them either by drying in the
air, or by applying a coat or two of tissue paper, to retain
them in their places whilst removing the skin.

Open the fish in a straight line from the pectoral fin to the
tail ; and with a bone knife separate the skin from the flesh
on each side, to the back, snipping the fins just inside the
skin, with scissors ; remove the viscera, and snip the ribs close
to the back-bone ; then remove all the flesh, and scrape the
bone as clean as possible, leaving it attached to the head,
back-fins, and tail ; remove the gills, brain, and eyes, from
the inside, leaving the outer membrane of the latter, which
may be stuffed with Cotton, and when dry, have the figure of
the eye painted on it. Open the cheeks when necessary, stuff
with cotton, and sew them with a fine seam. Now, beginning
at the head, carefully sew up the skin with close stitches, and
if necessary, touch over the whole with preservative, introdu-
ced at the mouth, with a long-handled brush. The fins and
tail should next be spread between pieces of paper, which will
soon dry, and keep them in position. Suspend the skin by
the head, and fill it at the mouth with fine dry plaister of
Paris, well shaken in, introducing a stick to fill out every part,
and mould to shape with the fingers ; the plaister setting im-
mediately effectually prevents shrinking, and renders the out-
side as smooth as life ; let it remain suspended till the skin
and fins are perfectly dry ; then reversing its position, with
the assistance of a stick or wire to loosen it, shake out all the
plaister, remove the papers, brush the skin perfectly clean,
and give it a coat or two of Canada balsam thinned with spi-
rits of turpentine, which will restore its original transparency.

To fix it in a case, I would propose, previously to sewing
up, to fasten a thin slip of wood on each side the backbone,
twisting a couple of wires firmly round it ; these should pro-
ject either through the back or belly, as it may be wished to
suspend or support the specimen. — Clement Jackson. — East
Looe. .

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

JULY, 1838.

Art. I. Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds composing
the Order, Insessores Heterogenes. By Edward Blyth, Esq.

No. I. — Rollers, Bee-Eaters, and Kingfishers : Todies,
and Jacamars.

Since committing to paper my article of last month, it has oc-
curred to me that none of the Heterogenes, (so far as I have
seen), are in the habit of swallowing gravel for the purpose of
triturating their food, as appears to be the case, universally,
with the Cantrices. I am unaware, moreover, that any of
them are known to drink, unless the suctorial species oiTrochi-
lidcd, and nectar-feeding Psittacida, be regarded as excep-
tions : indeed the Psittacidce, which we have already seen to
differ in so many particulars from all the rest, and which, to
judge from their entire structure, compose a group equivalent
to that of the whole Cantrices, may possibly form a general
exception also to this rule. In some groups of the series of
Heterogenes, — as the rollers, bee-eaters, and kingfishers, the
hornbills, and the hoopoes, — the extreme shortness of the
tongue, particularly as compared with the great developement
of beak, renders it almost physically impossible for them to
take up water. So that we have here, apparently, two other
general characters of this little-conformable series, in accord-
ance with the Rapaces, and at variance with the immense
group of Cantrices.

When generalizing on the Heterogenes, I should have re-
peated the remark, that it is only in this series of forms,
throughout the class Aves, that the number of caudal rectri-
ces ever falls short of twelve.

Vol. II. — No. 19, n. s. h h

352 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

With regard to the Cantrices, I would particularly insist
on the relative or mutual independency of those structural
characters which I have indicated as constant: viz. the pe-
culiar sternal conformation, and complex vocal apparatus, the
small intestinal cceca, and high cerebral developement: either
of the two first of which characters is only found accompani-
ed by all the others. These coincidences in different systems
of organs, which in no degree necessitate each other, furnish
the most satisfactory and conclusive proof of the naturalness
of this comprehensive division.

I proceed now to treat on the successive groups of Hetero-
genes ; which, for the avoidance of unnecessary repetition, I
prefer to commence with the rollers, bee-eaters, and kingfish-
ers,— three nearly allied, but separate and distinct families,
which combine several characters of the todies and jacamars,
with others of the hornbills and of the hoopoes.

We perceive in the skeletons of these three families, a very
close affinity; though each has nevertheless its peculiar cha-
racters, which are as obvious as those apparent in the exter-
nal structure : the skeleton of the roller is in many respects
intermediate to those of the two others* In each, the ster-
num has four unossified posterior emarginations, the outer of
which extend almost half way up the bone, and nearly twice
as far as the inner: in the bee-eaters, the thin slip of bone
which separates these emarginations, is inclined inward, con-
verging toward the medial plane; a structure which is farther
carried out in the jacamars : in the rollers it is less noticeable;
and not in the kingfishers, old specimens of which have some-
times the outer notch reduced to a foramen, by the gradual
deposition of bone : the keel is well developed; its anterior
angle being sharp in the halcyons and kingfishers, less so in
the rollers, and comparatively obtuse in the bee-eaters ; in
which last, however, the projection is continued farthest for-
ward : the coracoids are shortest in the bee-eaters, and most
elongated in the kingfishers ; and the furcula is broad and
thin, forming a wide arch, which, in the rollers, is rather more
lengthened than in the others, and exhibits a slight enlarge-
ment at the junction of the clavicles of which it is composed,
but no regular appendage analogous to the vertical one ob-
servable in all the Cantrices : the bee-eaters have a rib less
than the others. The sternal apparatus of the genera Nycti-
ornis and Eurystomus remain J;o be described; but probably

* A skeleton of the European bee-eater is in Mr. Yarrell's valuable col-
lection ; and those of two species of roller in the museum of the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons.

in the Order Insessores Heterogenes. 353;

differ very little, if at all, from that of the true rollers and bee-
eaters.

It will be sufficient to add that the rollers are more stoutly,
framed than the others, only in this resembling the crows :
the bee-eaters have the leg-bones, in particular, extremely
slight ; and the general form is more elongated than in the
kingfishers and rollers. The crania of the roller and bee-eat?
er are very similar.

With respect to the soft parts of the genera Merops and
Coracias, it is only from cursory and incidental remarks that
I have obtained any information concerning them, but it would
appear that they resemble closely those of the kingfishers.—
The muscular coat of the stomach is much attenuated ; intes-
tine rather short; and cceca doubtless absent in all, as I have
found to be the case in several Halcyonida, both piscivorous
and insectivorous, which circumstance is indicated by no di-
versity in the conformation of the digestive organs. The sim-
plicity of the vocal apparatus is remarked by Cuvier : and the
tongue of each has been described as very short and heart-
shaped; insomuch that the rollers, like the hornbills and hoo-
poes, and various other birds which have this organ either
minute, or of a form unfit to assist in deglutition, are conse-
quently obliged to throw their food into the air, and catch it
in the throat.

Externally, these birds have, a thick and tough skin, and
generally firm plumage, which is brightly coloured. They
have a wide gape, and large and strong bill : powerful wings;
but short legs, ill adapted for progressive motion : the toes, in
the HalcyonidcB and Meropidce, are typically syndactyle. —
They subsist exclusively (I suspect) on living prey,* which is
mainly or wholly seized from the wing, but often watched for
sitting : and the beak only is made use of in capturing and
securing it. The whole of the species breed invariably in
holes, and always retire to roost to them, frequently during

* Bechstein asserts that the European roller "also eats bulbous roots,
aeorns, and grains of corn; " but he subsequently remarks of it, when in cap-
tivity, that " I have even brought it to eat bread, vegetables, and softened
oatmeal ; though it always prefers animal food." Temminck is silent about
its devouring any description of vegetable matter: but Le Vaillant, who la-
bours to show that the rollers are nearly related to the Corvidee, also states
that they are partially frugivorous. I believe that the European roller has
been reported to rob other birds of their eggs, which is not improbable, and
would be an interesting fact to ascertain : but, if its stomach, as described,
" resembles that of the kingfisher," it would consequently seem unfitted for
digesting vegetable substances ; even taking into consideration the mem-
branaceous character of this organ in the bustards and coursers, where a
more detailed description of it is required.

hh2

354 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

the day-time, when the weather is unpropitious for obtaining
food ; those with syndactyle feet burrowing to a considerable
depth in banks, the others resorting to hollow trees : they col-
lect few or sometimes no nest-materials ; and produce gene-
rally more than six very polished white eggs, of an almost
globular form, as in the Rapaces: only one brood is ever rais-
ed in a season, and the young are excluded in a very rudi-
mentary condition ; these are fed for some time on partially
digested food, disgorged by their parents, and remain extreme-
ly long in the nest-hole, where they slowly elaborate a plu-
mage, adult in its appearance and texture, and which, scarcely
differing from the brilliantly-tinted garb of the mature bird, is
retained, — as in the Falconidce, — till the second autumn : the
sexes differ slightly in the rollers and some Haley onidce, where-
in the young resemble the adult female, the males, (as we learn
from Bechstein in the instance of the roller), not acquiring the
distinguishing characters of their sex until more than a year
old, i. e. till their second autumn, when they moult : they pre-
sent little or no seasonal difference of appearance, although a
few, (particularly the younger Haley onidce), shed the extreme
tips of most of their clothing feathers towards the season of
propagation : the greater proportion of them exhibit splendid
colouring, but red is of unfrequent occurrence. It may be
added that the voidings of the young are not enclosed in a
film, as in most other Tnsessores ; in consequence of which
the nest-holes are apt to become extremely fetid, and the site
of them to be rendered very conspicuous : the same is notice-
able in the hoopoes and in the hornbills.

These birds have little voice, which is of course incapable
of inflection : or rather, the cry of most of them is seldom heard.
That of the European roller is a reiterated cha-cha-cha ; and
of the British kingfisher, a loud chwite : certain of the large
Australian Halcyonidce, however, which have acquired the
strange name of "laughing jack-asses," may be consequently
inferred to be, at times, extremely noisy. The Nyctiornis
Athertonii, (one of the species belonging to a good second
genus of Meropida), is described to inhabit the thickest jun-
gles of the interior of India, and to feed only by night, at which
time it is very noisy, repeating frequently the short cry of cur,
cur.

Of their external differences, it is unnecessary to say any-
thing. The manner of flying differs in each family ; and va-
ries from the smooth sailing of the bee-eaters, — high in air,
or low over the surface, — resembling the skim of the swallow,
to the meteor-like direct propulsion of the kingfishers, per-
formed by continuous rapid beating of their short wings. In

in the Order Imessores Heterogenes. 355

each it has, of course, reference to the peculiar prey. Thus,
the bee-eater glides aloft, in pursuit of insects, which it crush-
es with its powerfully compressive beak, and so is enabled to
prey on the most venomous : the roller chases swift-running
lizards or mice, through all their abrupt turns and meander-
ings: the Dacelo traverses the most arid districts of New Hol-
land, in quest of snakes : the halcyons dart upon the larger
insects, which they seize in the manner of a fly-catcher; some
of the stronger species, it has been said, also preying on crus-
taceans : and the kingfisher whisks along over shallow water,
— is arrested instantaneously, in its most rapid flight, at sight
of a fish, — poises itself for a moment, — then plunges with im-
petuosity upon its victim, which it carries in its beak to a perch,
and beats it to death, by knocking it repeatedly, with violence,
against whatever it stands on, a habit which is likewise no-
ticeable in the roller : all of them gulp their prey without
dividing it, and disgorge the indigestible parts in pellets,
which in course of time accumulate in their holes, and form
the bed on which their eggs are deposited. Bechstein, who
kept rollers in confinement, expressly remarks that he never
saw them drink. The bee-eaters are, furthermore, social birds,
which breed in society, and range to immense distances in
quest of food : the rollers are ordinarily seen in pairs, or in
families : and the halcyons and kingfishers are birds of soli-
tary habit, of which those only which have bred are seen ac-
companied by their mates, the young remaining un associated
through the first winter. With a very few exceptions, the
distribution of all is confined to warm latitudes ; and the ex-
tensive kingfisher family [Haley onidce) only, is feebly repre-
sented in America by a few piscivorous species : all the re-
mainder being peculiar to the eastern hemisphere.

When reared in captivity, these birds manifest little intel-
ligence, and do not appear to be capable of attachment to in-
dividuals : they can only be tamed, that is, rendered fearless,
but not familiar. A brood of kingfishers which I once raised,
were more active in the cage than I had anticipated, leaping
from perch to perch without difficulty, and sometimes for a
long while together : on a broad surface, they rested on the
entire length of the tarse ; and could advance only by short
waddling steps. Their expression of countenance strikingly
resembled that of the heron ; and they often raised the loose
occipital feathers. All their movements were accompanied
by a singular jerk of the head, as if troubled with the hiccoughs:
and they signified hunger by emitting sharply their cry, chwite.
I fed them entirely on raw meat, which they took from a pan of
water, invariably knocking each piece with much force against

356 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

their perch, for the purpose of killing it, before they attempted
to swallow it. In a specimen of the Dacelo, which has lived for
some years in the zoological gardens, I could never discern any
jerking motion, analogous to that of our native kingfisher. —
Bechstein attests the irreclaimableness of the captive roller.

From the foregoing details, it will sufficiently appear that
these three families are very intimately allied ; composing a
distinct natural group, which, as such, should be recognized
by a systematic name. 1 propose for it, therefore, that of Cy-
lindrirostres, as the best I can devise at present: the system
of nomenclature which I have adopted requiring that groups
of this value should be designated from the beak, in order that
their terminology should be in accordance. I shall be glad,
however, to substitute any better name that may be suggested.

The two families of jacamars and todies claim our next con-
sideration, as being most nearly allied to the preceding. I
am unaware that they have ever previously been especially
approximated : nor, perhaps, is the relation between them
quite so close as in the instance of the rollers, bee-eaters, and
kingfishers ; but it is nevertheless evident, and particularly
manifest in the structure of the tongue, and of the digestive
organs.

As compared with the previous group, the birds now un-
der consideration present a slighter conformation, obviously
incapable of violent and protracted exertion. The skin is ve-
ry thin and delicate : the plumage soft : and the habits are
precisely those of the weaker fly-catchers. I make the latter
qualification, because certain of the larger Tyrannida, (Ame-
rican tyrant fly-catchers), have been seen to plunge after fish ;*
affording thereby additional proof, — if any were required, —
of the insufficiency of habit alone to indicate affinity : these
large Tyrannid<e also throw up their food, and catch it in the
throat, f The skeleton of the tody approximates that of the
kingfisher, except that the sternum is shorter, with its keel
considerably less developed : yet the pectoral muscles (of the
specimen I dissected) were remarkably full, the bird being
heavy, fleshy, and compact. The jacamar's sternum ap-
proaches nearer to that of the bee-eater ; but is also very much
shorter, weaker, and with a shallower keel : the curving form of
its four bony projections, caused by the double emargination
of its hinder edge, imparts to it a peculiar character : these
projections first tend outwardly, then narrowing, incline to-
ward the medial plane, and again slightly diverge from it, the
outer expanding at their tips : divested of them, the front view

* Swainson. f Nuttall.

in the Order Insessores Heterogenes. 357

of the sternum is nearly heart-shaped, terminating in a point
backwards .* The tongue in both these families is much
lengthened, tapering, and extremely thin ; a fleshless lamina:
the stomach, a tolerably muscular gizzard : intestine, shorter
perhaps than in any other bird whatever, and furnished with
large ccecal appendages, resembling those of the owls. In
the stomachs of both I have found only the remains of insects.

Externally, the todies and jacamars differ in the disposi-
tion of the toes, which in the former resemble those of the
kingfisher, and are similarly joined ; but in the jacamars, al-
though the inner toe is connected to the next, the outer one
is reversed, as in the ordinary zygodactyle foot observable in
the toucans, &c.f Both have the mandibles much elongated,
and very slight; and in the todies, and jacamars pertaining
to the division Jacamerops, they are remarkably wide : the
nostrils are exposed, and not quite basal ; and around the beak
are the five sets of vibrissa so conspicuous in some barbets,
but small and little noticeable. The wings are rounded : and
the feeble texture of their feathers intimates that the moult is
probably effected early, in which they would differ from the
Cylindrirostres.

I shall now proceed to consider them separately : premis-
ing, however, one more general remark ; namely, that while
the prece ling tribal group is all but confined to the eastern
hemisphere, the present is quite restricted to tropical Ameri-
ca. It even appears, that as the Simiada of the old world
are represented by a different and distinct group in the new,
so the kingfishers are represented by the todies, and the bee-
eaters by the jacamars ; the rollers also, less directly, how-
ever, by the motmots ; while the motmots and toucans, and
even ani, together may be said to represent the hornbills ; and
the hornbills and touracos, together, inversely, the toucans.
Thus it is, that, if we attempt to follow up these vague and
fancied relations, — here and there seemingly perceptible, —
in the geographical distribution of forms, we very soon be-
come involved in a maze ; whence there is every reason to
doubt whether they can be regarded as implying anything,
being merely, (if I may so express it), fortuitous coincidences.
In the case of the hoopoes, we can discern no new world re-
presentative whatever ; and the very extensive family of king-

*A skeleton of the Galbula viridis is in the museum of the Royal Col-
"lege of Surgeons, and another in that of the London University: a speci-
men of Todus viridis in spirits is in the first-named collection.

fin one or two jacamars, the inner or ordinary opposahle toe is absent,
as in some woodpeckers ; not the analogous toe, however, to that which is
deficient in certain kingfishers, brought together under the name Ceyx.

358 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

fishers would appear to be most inadequately replaced by the
limited group of todies : indeed, in the instance of the Hal-
cyoniddBy we iind that some species occur on the American
continent. It is familiar to all that numerous groups are more
or less confined to particular regions ; and where one is re-
presented or replaced by another, it matters little how dissi-
milar are the types on which they are respectively modified,
inasmuch as it is in adaptive characters, rather than intrinsi-
cal physiological agreement, that the representation is mani-
fested : for example, the Trochilidce, which have the intimate
structure of the swifts, are represented in the tropical and
southern regions of the ancient continent and its islands, by
analogous groups of nectar-feeding birds, which differ from
them in every detail of their anatomy, being genuine Cantrices.
It has always appeared to me remarkable, that, since the
time of Linnaeus, not a single accession has been discovered
to that series of forms on which I am now engaged ; though,
in some instances, as that of the tody, only one species was
known to that indefatigable enquirer ; and it is only within
the last twelvemonth, that two more have been added by Mr.
Gould. They are birds of diminutive size, with much of the
general form of the halcyons, but a longer tarse, enabling
them to leap from spray to spray with facility. Their plumage
is very soft and full, vividly coloured, and glossless ; wings,
short and rounded; and "flight," according to a writer in the
'Field Naturalist's Magazine,' "always extremely short, hard-
ly ever farther than from bush to bush." " It may be easily,"
continues this observer, "knocked down ; and I used to pro-
cure them by striking them down with a switch, having a few
leaves not stripped off at the end of it." Mr. MacLeay, who
has also personally studied the Todus viridis in its native lo-
cality, informs me that the various accounts representing this
bird to sing, are erroneous ; as the absence of a complex mus-
cular apparatus to the lower larynx, of itself indicates. I am
indebted to him for the following interesting communication.
" While riding amidst the luxuriant vegetation which coats
the banks of the rivers in this noble island, [Cuba], I often
am amused by the bird which the Spaniards call by the home-
ly name of Peorrero. Perched on a twig close to me, he views
my motions askance, and makes a whirring noise to his fe-
male, as he now and then picks up an insect. His flight is
short, rather slow, and principally among the foliage, where,
accompanied by his mate, he seeks his insect prey. Brown,
in his ' History of Jamaica,' where this bird is called the "tom-
tit," says that 'it keeps much about houses in the country
parts.' I did not see the bird myself during my stay in that

u

in the Order Insessores Heterogenes. 359

island, but in Cuba it is never seen about houses, unless they
be near to rivers. M. Vieillot states that in St. Domingo it
has obtained the name of " Perroquet de terre" from its ha-
bit of resting almost constantly on the ground. Now this is
certainly wrong, for I never saw a Peorrero on the ground,
common as this bird is near Cogimar ; nay, from the forma-
tion of its feet, I do not see how it could conveniently rest on
the ground. I never j moreover, could see that remarkable
mode of carrying its head, which M. Vieillot both mentions
and figures in the 'Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Natu-
relle.' This bird carries its head in the usual way, and that
figure is, in fact, as unnatural and as unlike the Todus viridis
as any can possibly be."* The same writer that I before
quoted remarks, that "the only sound which I ever heard it
[the T. viridis] utter, was a sort of purr, or murmur, when ap-
proached, a sound invariably an intimation of its rising on
wing. It is essentially insectivorous."

T quote the following passage in detail from the i Familiar
History of Birds,' published some time ago by the present
Bishop of Norwich : the fact which it states will probably be
new to most readers, as regards the green tody. "Herodotus
asserted that there was a certain small bird, which, as often
as the crocodiles came on shore from the river Nile, flew fear-
lessly within their jaws, and relieved them of a peculiar kind
of leeches which infested their throats. This ancient histo-
rian added, that although other birds invariably avoided the
crocodile, it never did this bird any injury. So extraordinary
a story was treated as fabulous by the naturalists. It is, not-
withstanding, strictly true. M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, an emi-
nent and accurate French naturalist, confirms the fact beyond
doubt. The bird alluded to is the Egyptian plover, (Cha-
radrius JEgyptiacus), which sometimes enters the mouth of
the crocodile, attracted thither, not, according to his account,
by leeches, but by a small insect like a gnat, which frequents
the banks of the Nile in great quantities. When the croco-
dile comes on shore to repose, he is assailed by swarms of
these gnats, which get into his mouth in such numbers, that
his palate, — naturally of a bright yellow colour, — appears co-
vered with a blackish brown crust. Then it is, that the little
plover, which lives on these insects, comes to the aid of the
half-choked crocodile, and relieves him of his tormentors ;
and this without any risk, as the crocodile, before shutting
his mouth, takes care, by a preparatory movement, to warn the
bird to be off. This singular process is, moreover, not con-

* Extract from Diary.
Vol. II.— No. 19. n. s. i i

360 Descriptions of Groups of Insessores Heterogenes.

fined to the crocodiles of Egypt ; it has been noticed in those
of the West Indies, where, when attacked in a similar manner
by small flies called "maringouins," a little bird, (Todusviri-
dis), which lives chiefly on flies and insects, performs the same
kind office."*

M. Drapiez asserts, of the green tody, that "it establishes
its nest in the ground, or rather in the crumbly earth on the
edges of ravines, at such a height as may not endanger it from
inundations, and that the cradle of the young family may be
perfectly sheltered from rain. This nest, or rather subterra-
nean lodging, exhibits a rounded apartment, to which the ap-
proach is by a winding gallery. The lining of the nest con-
sists of bits of straw, covered with down, upon which the
female lays four or five eggs, of a grey colour spotted with
brownish," or, according to M. Chevrain, "with deep yellow."
The latter observer states additionally, that "they often nes-
tle in the low galleries of houses, yet always on the ground.
They make an excavation with their bill and claws, give it a
round form, hollow out the bottom, and place pliant straws,
dry moss, cotton and feathers, which they artfully arrange"
(I doubt whether they interweave). The young have been
raised in captivity, in which state they evince the same ob-
tuseness of faculty which has been remarked of the kingfishers.

It is, perhaps, superfluous to observe, that I have opened
several of the small broad-billed Tyrannidde, which have some-
times been ranged with the todies : their internal anatomy of-
fers no approximation to them whatever ; but exhibits every
character of the Cantrices.

The jacamars are divided into two groups; — one in which
the beak is straight and compressed, {Galbula), and another
in which it is slightly curved, and for two-thirds of its length
very broad, (Jacamerops). The ridge of both mandibles is
sharp and angular. Their plumage is light and loose, with a
brilliant metallic gloss on the upper parts and generally across
the breast : on the throat or fore-neck is a white patch, in the
male, which in the other sex is rufous : the tail is lengthened
and much graduated ; and the clothing feathers are single, or
without accessory shafts, whereas in the todies, a distinct
supplementary plume is present, of a peculiar narrow form.
The legs and feet are short, ill-adapted for progressive motion.
There are many species, inhabitants of the damper forests of
South America.

"The jacamar," says Mr. Waterton, "frequently sits on the

* This reminds me of a species of roller, (C. nuchalis), which has been
stated to perch familiarly on the horn of the rhinoceros.

Naturalization of Dreissena polymorpha. 361

trees over the water ; it feeds entirely on insects ; it sits on a
branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a fly, but-
terfly, or moth, passes by, it darts at it, and returns to the
branch it had just left. It seems an indolent, sedentary bird,
shunning the society of all others in the forest. It never vi-
sits the plantations, but is found at all times of the year in the
woods." They are further described to perch in a stiff atti-
tude, almost perpendicularly; and to be very silent birds, ex-
cept at the season of propagation, when they frequently emit
piercing cries. Le Vaillant was informed that they breed in the
holes of trees, and lay about four blue eggs ; but this part of
their history remains in much obscurity. M. Natterer, who
has lately returned from a long residence in the region which
they inhabit, will, it is hoped, elucidate all that is yet doubtful
concerning them.

For the tribal group of todies and jacamars, I hesitatingly
propose the name Angulirostres, which is little applicable to-
the former.

June 7th, 1838.

Art. II. On the Naturalization of Dreissena, (Vanbeneden), po-
lymorpha, (Pallas), in Great Britain. By Hugh E. Strickland,
Esq., F.G.S., &c.

There are several interesting facts connected with the histo-
ry of this mollusc, which deserve to be recorded. The recent
date at which it has been introduced, and the rapidity with
which it has become diffused over the country, afford some
valuable data for scientific inquiry. The zoologist will be led
to speculate on the means by which species are transported
to distant localities, and on the greater capabilities for emi-
gration possessed by certain species and genera, in conse-
quence of being more tenacious of life, more accommodating
to circumstances, and more prolific, than their congeners. —
And although the Dreissena has unquestionably been intro-
duced into this country by human agency, yet it might be
worth while to enquire how far the same result might have
been effected by natural causes alone, such as the drifting of
a piece of timber with these shells attached, down one of the
European rivers, and across the German Ocean, into some
brackish or freshwater estuary on our own coasts. The geo-
logist will see the importance of this inquiry, as connected
with the distribution of organic remains, and the sudden ap-
pearance and disappearance of particular species in a given
stratum.

The Dreissena polymorpha is admirably figured in this Ma-

n2

362 Naturalization of Dreissena polymorpha.

gazine, vol. ix. p. 573. Among the various names which have
been proposed for this genus, the term Dreissena is the least
to be commended, being chosen in compliment to an indivi-
dual, instead of expressing any fact with regard to the genus
itself. Nevertheless, the term Dreissena has the clear right
of priority in point of date, and ought therefore to be perma-
nently adopted.

Mr. Sowerby first noticed the introduction of this species
into Britain, in a communication to the Linnean Society, dat-
ed Nov. 2nd, 1824; (see Lin. Trans, vol., xiv. p. 585). He
states it to have been introduced into the Commercial Docks,
Rotherhithe, whither it had probably been brought attached
to Baltic timber. On visiting these docks a few months ago,
I observed multitudes of these shells in the depot for bonded
timber. It appeared that at least one generation had passed
away since 1824, for myriads of the dead shells were scatter-
ed over the bottom of the water, and served as points of at-
tachment for the byssi of the living.

This shell was next noticed in the Union Canal, near Edin-
burgh, by Mr. Stark, in 1834. In November, 1836, the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley communicated to this Magazine his discovery
of the Dreissena in the river Nen, in Northamptonshire. I
have further to add the following instances of its occurrence,
which have come to my own knowledge.

From the year 1828 to 1834 inclusive, I was frequently in
the habit of conchologizing in the Avon, near Evesham, dur-
ing which period, if the Dreissena polymorpha had inhabited
that river, I could scarcely have failed in detecting it. Not
the slightest vestige of it however occurred to me during that
time. An interval of two years elapsed, in which I was ab-
sent from England, and in the beginning of 1837, I was
much surprized at finding several specimens of this shell a-
mong the refuse on the banks of the river. On further search
I found that the Dreissena had become completely establish-
ed on the beds of gravel in the river ; and in the course of an
hour I collected several hundred full-grown specimens. There
is therefore clear evidence of the recent introduction of this
mollusc into the Avon, and of the rapidity with which it has
reached maturity and multiplied.

I have since observed it in the canal between Warwick and
Birmingham, and it has also been found in the canals near
Wednesbury in Staffordshire.

In all the cases hitherto cited, this shell has been found in
navigable waters, where its transport has doubtless been ef-
fected by means of timber. I only know of one instance to
the contrary, which is that of the Learn, at Leamington, where

Naturalization of Dreissena polymorpha. 363

it has been found of a large size by Dr. Lloyd of that place.
But though the Learn itself is not navigable, yet it is in the
immediate vicinity of the canal, from which the Dreissena
has probably been introduced. I have further to add that
this shell has lately been planted by Mr. Stuchbury of Bris-
tol, in some of the waters near that place.

It appears desirable to record these particulars, because it
may interest some of our field-naturalists to watch the gradu-
al spread of this species over the kingdom. Its propagation is
so astonishingly rapid, that it will probably become, in a few
years, one of our commonest British shells.

I lately kept some of these molluscs, of different ages, alive
for some time in a basin of water. The full-grown individu-
als, though they had been torn from their native bed, soon se-
creted a fresh byssus, and became anchored to the bottom of the
basin. It is evident from this that the byssus, when first se-
creted, must be in a highly glutinous state, which enables it
to become attached to the smooth surface of glazed earthen-
ware. The young individuals still retained the power of lo-
comotion, and crawled like gasteropods over the bottom. —
They effected this by protruding their foot in advance of the
anterior or cardinal end of the shell, and advanced by alter-
nate expansion and contraction of this foot, dragging the shell
after them. They indulged their wandering propensities for
a few weeks, and then wisely followed the example of their
parents, by selecting some convenient nook, to which they
attached themselves contentedly for life.

I further remarked that these molluscs, acephalous though
they be, have still an evident perception of light. When in
a quiescent state, they kept the shell partly open, with the
siphuncular and branchial apertures exposed ; but if any ob-
ject was suddenly brought over them, they immediately re-
ceded, and partially closed their valves, although care was
taken that no concussion should be given to the basin.

I have only to add that I have examined numerous speci-
mens, without detecting any of the crystals mentioned by Mr.
Sowerby, 'Mag. Nat. Hist.' vol. ix., p. 643, and figured p. 573.
Irregular pearly Concretions are, however, of frequent occur-
rence.

Evesham, June ISih, 1838.

364 On the Flower-Gardens of the Ancients.

Art. III. On the Flower- Gardens of the Ancients. By James
Macauley, Esq. M.A.

It is always asserted by modern writers on gardening, that
the ancients did not cultivate flowers as a source of amuse-
ment. In the descriptions, it is said, of all the most famous
gardens of antiquity which have come down to us, we read
merely of their fruits and their shade ; and when flowers are
mentioned, they are always reared for some special purpose,
such as to supply their feasts, or their votive offerings.

Considered merely as a useful art, gardening must be one
of the earliest cultivated, but as a refined source of pleasure,
it is always one of the latest. It is not till civilization and
elegance are far advanced among a people, that they can en-
joy the poetry or the pleasure of the artificial associations of
nature. Hence this question is interesting, as illustrating the
manners and the tastes of the times referred to.

Negative proofs are not sufficient to determine the point.
To show that the gardens of the Hesperides contained nothing
but oranges, or that of King Alcinous, (Odyss. vii.), nothing
but a few fruit-trees and pot-herbs, does not disprove the o-
pinion that others cultivated flowers as a source of pleasure.

Before speaking of the Roman flower-gardens, I would of-
fer a few remarks on those of Greece and the east.

From the little mutability of oriental customs, their ancient
gardening did not probably differ much from that of modern
times. The descriptions given by Maundrell, Russell, and o-
ther travellers, agree with what we read in the Scriptures of
the Hebrew gardens three thousand years ago.

Solomon, who had so extensive a knowledge of the vegeta-
ble kingdom, that he knew plants from the cedar of Lebanon
to the moss on the wall, enumerates gardening among the
pleasures he had tasted in his search after happiness. — " I
made me great works ; I builded me houses ; I planted me
vineyards ; I made me gardens and orchards." — Eccles. ii. 14.

From Xenophon and other writers we have a few notices
of the Persian gardens. Xenophon relates that Cyrus was
much devoted to the pleasures of gardening, and wherever he
resided, or whatever part of his dominions he visited, he took
care that the gardens should be filled with everything both
beautiful and useful, which the soil could produce. These
Ilaga&io-oi were sometimes only hunting parks, or enclosed fo-
rests, but there were also flower-gardens among them. Ci-
cero ('De Senectute') relates the following anecdote of Cyrus.
When Lysander the Spartan came to him with presents, to
Sardis, Cyrus showed him all his treasures and his gardens.
And when Lysander was struck with the height of the trees,

On the Flower -Gardens of the Ancients. 365

and the arrangement and fine cultivation of the grounds, and
the sweetness of the odours which were breathed upon them
from the flowers, ("sUavitate odorum qui afflarentur e flori-
bus,") he said that he admired not only the diligence but the
skill of the man who had contrived and laid out the garden :
and Cyrus answered, — "Atqui ego omnia ista sum dimensus;
mei sunt ordines ; mea descriptio ; multae etiam istarum ar-
borum mea manu sunt satae."

One of the earliest and best known of all the Grecian gar-
dens is that of King Alcinous, described in the Odyssey. —
" What," says Sir Robert Walpole, "was that boasted paradise
with which

"the Gods ordained

" To grace Alcinous and his happy land ?"

Why, divested of harmonious Greek and bewitching poetry,
it was a small orchard and vineyard, with some beds of herbs,
and two fountains that watered them, enclosed within a quick-
set hedge ! " Of course the whole scene is a mere romantic
creation of the poet, but in describing it, he would be guided
by what actually existed in nature, and perhaps took his idea
of the garden from some particular spot with which he was
acquainted. It is described as consisting of four acres, sur-
rounded by a fence, and adjoining the gates of the palace. —
It contained a few trees for shade and for fruits, and two foun-
tains, one for the palace and the other for the garden ; but
then he ends the simple and beautiful picture of the place
with these lines, —

" Ev9a H Hoo-fAYiTcu 7rga<riai waga, vsiarov q%%qv
" UavToicct 7T£<pucc<riv ETrnETavov yavouacu"

— " And there are beautiful plots of all kinds of plants at the
extreme borders of the garden, flowering all the year round."

The Athenians always had flower-gardens attached to their
country houses, one of which Anacharsis visited. "After hav-
ing crossed a court-yard, full of fowls and other domestic birds,
we visited the stables, sheep-folds, and likewise the flower-
garden; in which we successively saw bloom narcissuses,
hyacinths, irises, violets of different colours, roses of various
species, and all kinds of odoriferous plants." *

There was at Athens a public flower-market, and there were
persons whose trade it was to make bouquets, and to construct
letters with flowers symbolical of certain sentiments ; as is
still done in oriental countries.

The gardens of Epicurus and the other philosophers were

*For authorities see 'Voyage d'Anacharse,' tome v. p. 20.

366 On the Flower- Gardens of the Ancients.

mere groves and shaded walks, where the disciples were wont
to listen to the lessons of their masters ; —

"Atque inter sylvas academi quaerere verum."

We are not to look for ornamental gardening in the early
history of the Romans, as the soil of their little horti was cul-
tivated merely for the sake of procuring the necessaries of life.
Excellence in war and in agriculture were the chief virtues as
well as duties of the citizens, and we find bonus agricola and
bonus colonus used as synonymous with a good man. Some
of the noblest families of Rome derived their names from par-
ticular grains, such as the Lentuli, Pisones, Fabii, and many
others. The story of Cincinnatus being found by the mes-
sengers of the senate at the plough, is well known ; and Cu-
rius, after triumphing over the Samnites, the Sabines, and
Pyrrhus, spent his old age in the labours of the field. So
late as the Punic wars, Regulus, in the midst of his victories
in Africa, wrote to the senate, that his steward had left his
service and stolen his implements of agriculture, and begged
leave of absence from the army, to see about his affairs and
prevent his family from starving. The senate took the busi-
ness in hand, recovered his tools, and supported his wife and
children till his return.

It was not till they had come much in contact with the
Greeks, that the Romans would be anxious about pleasure or
elegance in their gardens, for it was thence they derived their
taste for all the arts of peace : —

" Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit : et artes

" Intulit agresti Latio."

Even in later Roman authors the allusions to gardening of-
ten relate more to the general pleasures and occupations of a
country life, than to the special cultivation of flowers. But
this is the richest theme in all ages, inasmuch as the subor-
dinate display of human art in gardening is eclipsed from the
eye of the poet by the beauties of nature even there displayed.
The scene of the ' Song of Solomon' is laid in a garden, but the
finest allusions which it contains, are to the general appear-
ance of nature. For example ; "Arise my love, my fair one,
and come away ; For lo, the winter is past, the rain is over
and gone: the flowers appear on the earth; the time of the
singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard
in our land ; the fig tree putteth forth her green figs, and the
vines with the tender grapes give a good smell : Arise my love,
my fair one, and come away." And again "Come let us go
forth into the field, let us get up early to the vineyards, let us
see if the vine flourish, whether the tender grape appear, and

On the Flower- Gardens of the Ancients. 367

the pomegranates bud forth: there will I give thee my loves."
Our own poets, when they paint a modern garden, dwell
most on its shade and freshness, its verdure and music, with-
out descending to particular description. Examples of this
must occur to every one. The garden of the Corycian old
man described in the fourth Georgic, and other similar clas-
sical scenes, are sometimes quoted, as proving the absence of
flowers as part of the ornaments of an ancient garden. But
we must not thus judge from negative or detached instances.
We might as well argue the poverty of that of Horace, mere-
ly from what he says in his invitation to Phyllis : —

— " Est in horto

" Phylli, nectendis apium coronis :

" Est hederae vis

" Multa, qua crines religata fulges."

He mentions only what was connected with his drinking in-
vitation, the parsley being supposed to ward off intoxication,
and the ivy being the sacred plant of Bacchus.

Nor is the garden of Lucullus,*which is so often referred to,
to be regarded as a specimen either of the art or the taste of
his time. We are told of its terraces and fish-ponds, its -sta-
tues, and sumptuous temples, and not of the cultivation of
flowers ; but this was alluded to by his own contemporaries.
Cicero records that Lucullus was often blamed for the vast
extravagance displayed in his Tusculan villa, and says that
he used to excuse himself by pointing to two neighbours, a
knight and a freedman, who tried to vie with him in the splen-
dour of their gardens. " Non vides, Luculle," he adds, "a te
id ipsum natum ut illi cuperent ? quibus id, si tu non faceres,
non liceret;" shewing it was from Lucullus they had derived
their taste and desire for this splendour. Varro who wrote on
agriculture during the time of Augustus, expressly says, "Hor-
tos Luculli non floribus fructibusque, sed tabulis fuisse insig-
nes," evidently implying that other pleasure gardens were
"insignis floribus."

In Latin authors the word Hortus seems to have four dis:
tinct significations. First, a garden, analogous to the gardens
of the Tuilleries and the Luxembourg, at Paris, composed
chiefly of shaded walks, with statues, water- works, and other
ornaments. Such were the gardens of Lucullus, Caesar, Pom-
pey, Maecenas, and the rich Patricians, who used to seek po-
pularity, by throwing them open to the people. The second
signification is, a little farm, or any place for the cultivation
of esculent vegetables. Perhaps the garden of the Corycian
old man was only one of these, but they seldom contained such
a variety as we find there. In the laws of the twelve tables

Vol. II.— No. 19. n. s. k k

368 On the Flower -Gardens of the Ancients.

horius is always put for a farm or a villa. The third sort of
hortus was devoted to the cultivation of those flowers which
were used at festivals and ceremonies, and for similar special
purposes. Such were the "biferi rosaria P<esti," and gar-
dens of this sort surrounded the city to supply the markets.
It is to these three species of horti alone that modern authors
refer, but there are many allusions in the classics, shewing
that the Romans had flower-gardens for pleasure as well as
utility. Such were the "delicati horti" the "venusti hortu-
IV of private individuals, which we read of in Tibullus, Phae-
drus, Martial, and other authors who occasionally refer to the
domestic manners of the Romans. If they cultivated their
flowers for the purposes alluded to, a single dinner-party or a
few chaplets would have stripped bare the whole garden.

As as example of such allusions, Tibullus compares the
surpassing excellence of a beautiful woman to that of a hya-
cinth over the other flowers of a garden : —

" Talis in rario solet

" Divitis domini hortulo

" Stare flos hyacinthinus." — Carm. 61 .

Again, in another song, (20) : —

" Mihi corolla picta vere ponitur,
" Mihi rubens arista soli fervido,
" Mihi virente dulcis uva pampino,
" Mihique glauca duro oliva frigore."

The same garden supplying fruit in the autumn, and a varie-
gated banquet in the spring.

There was always a statue of Priapus in the centre, as he
was the tutelary deity of gardening among the Romans : (Vir-
gil, Geor. iv., Martial, viii. 40 : &c.) And the principal flow-
ers mentioned are narcissuses, violets, hyacinths and lilies,
under which name many different plants are included.

The citizens of Rome used to cultivate plants in the balco-
nies of their houses, (Hor. I. Ep. x. &c.) ; and to rear flowers
in boxes and flower-pots, which were called ''Horti imagina-
nariV (Pliny). It is not likely that the rich would do this,
merely to procure materials for their votive offerings, or to
supply the ornaments for their entertainments, when these
could be easily purchased at the public markets. It shews
that a taste for their cultivation as objects of amusement, did
prevail, which followed them even amidst the "fumum, et opes,
strepitumque Romae."

There are also small garden-grounds attached to the houses
in many of the streets of Herculaneum, which, from their size
and their position in a great city, could not have been used
either for the cultivation of the festal flowers or of esculent

On Spontaneous Generation. 369

vegetables, and probably contained only a few beds of flow-
ers for ornament.

The description which the younger Pliny gives of his own
garden, with its straight walks and fantastically cut box trees,
is certainly repugnant to modern principles of taste ; but a few
reigns back it would have applied to many of the gardens even
in this country. Sir Robert Walpole, in his Essay, contrasts
this garden with the glorious architecture of the same time,
and remarks that nothing but a parterre is wanting, to make
the description of a garden in the reign of Trajan, serve for
one in the reign of King William. Pope's well-known ac-
count of the villa and Garden of the Duke of Chandos, (' Mo-
ral Essays,' Ep. iv.), would stand for that of an ancient Roman,
and he says less than even Pliny does, of the cultivation of
flowers, or any lesser ornaments. No one would deny the
existence of a taste for flower-gardening during the Dutch
epoch, when the same style as that of King's time prevailed.
Yet if, by some strange revolutions, we could conceive the
greater part of our literature to be lost, as has happened to
that of Rome, and only a few standard authors to survive, such
as Pope and Dryden, future gardeners and botanists could ar-
gue with great plausibility, against our ancestors having flow-
er-gardens at all. There is certainly no record of any great
floral epidemic, synchronous with the box-tree era of Roman
gardening, such as the tulipomania of modern times, but we
must not hence conclude that the cultivation of flowers as a
source of amusement was then disregarded. And as Flora
and Priapus are not invoked by any of the poets who have
come down to our times, we feel all the more regret in read-
ing these lines, where Virgil longs to sing of the gardens of
his native country.

" Atque equidem, extremo ni jam sub fine laborum
" Vela traham, et terris festinem advertere proram ;
" Forsitan, et pingues hortos, quae cura colendi
" Ornaret, canerem."

Art. IV. On Spontaneous Generation. By W. Weissenborn,

Ph.D.

The ancient doctrine of generatio spontanea seu cequivoca, as
opposed to that expressed in the tenet, "Omne vivum ex ovo,"
has, within the last few centuries, as often had the suffrages
of eminent natural philosophers, as it has been the object of
the most determined opposition from others. After Harvey,

k k2

370 On Spontaneous Generation.

Vallisneri, Redi, and even the great Linnaeus, had voted a-
gainst it, as regards plants, it was, for some time, considered
as entirely exploded ; but the discussion was actively renew-
ed, towards the middle of the 18th century, by the zoologists,
when Needham, Wrisberg, O. F. Mtiller, &c. supported the
doctrine against Spallanzani, Bonnet, Trechowsky, and other
opponents. Among botanists, the question was not agitated
at that time, and Willdenow treated the generatio cuquivoca
as an opinion which could only have been entertained during
the infancy of science. About the beginning of the present
century, however, Treviranus, Oken, and their followers,
allowed that spontaneous generation was possible as to or-
ganisms more or less perfect; but in 1823, Professor Schouw,
of Copenhagen, in his ' Journal Tidsskrift fur Naturwidens-
kaberne,' tried to invalidate the observations of Mr. Hofman
of Hofmansgave, that were favourable to that doctrine ; and
the Society of Natural History at Gorlitz, in Silesia, has just
published in its 'Transactions' along article, by which the
"omne vivum ex ovo" is again to be exalted to the throne, as
the only legitimate ruler. Thus, it would appear, the subject
requires to be once more treated uab ovo.''''

In attempting to do so in an unprejudiced manner, we ought
to discard from our minds such preconceived notions as must
needs prevent us from arriving at the truth, as far as we able
to perceive it in this mysterious matter. Though this remark
be self-evident, it is not uncalled for, in times when a man
may incur the imputation of atheism, for presuming to observe
the spontaneous generation of the Acarus horridus, several
thousand years after the Mosaic creation ; or when books con-
taining passages like the following, are eagerly read and im-
plicitly believed by many. " In this ark of safety, such of
the animal world as were intended to replace the genera that
would perish, also found a shelter; and when these provisions
for re-peopling the earth with its animated races, in the new
state and course of things that were ordained to succeed this
calamity, were completed, the tremendous revolution occur-
red"* Similar attempts, however, at distorting what may be

* See the last page of Mr. Sharon Turner's ' Sacred History of the Globe,'
fourth edition, 1833. This page, the only one which I have read in that
work, put me in mind of a manuscript, which I saw a few years ago, in the
possession of an English lady, and upon which she set great value. It was
'■A Treatise on the Species of Jonas' Whale,' which had been written during
a course of lectures delivered before an auditory of ladies. The conclusion
at which the learned Professor had arrived, was, that it was the Physetcr
macrocephalus. Bochart, ('Hicrozoieon,' P. I. lib. i. c. 7), made out, two
hundred years ago, that it was an immense specimen of the Careharias ca~

On Spontaneous Generation. 371

read in the book of nature, so as to make it agree with the
short-sighted interpretation of a symbolical tradition, must
be rejected by all sober minds. The vitality of the simple
and elevated truths of our religion, does not, I trust, require
the protection of such an insipid shell, for the benefit of the
souls of the natural philosophers of the present age. Though
it may be thought prudent to leave it untouched, as to such as
are yet exoteric to science, yet the attempts of those who wish
to make it thicker, in proportion as the season advances, and
the sun of science rises higher, ought to be denounced as in-
jurious to the regular dev elopement of our species. If posi-
tive theology encroach upon the territory of natural philoso-
phy, which latter can never become detrimental to the truth
contained in the former, it must act the part of a despot, who
wishes to subdue a free nation ; and if it raise the outcry of
"hie niger est" against any one who publishes facts or rea-
sonings, which do not exactly coincide with one of its sta-
tionary systems, it lowers itself to the level of the popish in-
fallibility of the middle ages.

Were it in my power to convince those who think otherwise,
that the progress of religion altogether depends on that of sci-
ence, and that the former places itself in a very questionable
position, if it force the latter to deviate from its true bearing,
I should doubtless be entitled to more merit, than by what I
have to say on the spontaneous generation of animals and
plants ; for I should contribute towards making the human
mind itself a more congenial ground for the spontaneous ge-
neration and propagation of truth.

The question of spontaneous generation may be considered
in two different points of view. We may firstly ask, whether
all the organic beings which have peopled the globe during
different epochs, did, in the first instance, originate in that
manner ; and secondly, whether that principle is in occasion-
al or extensive operation still, when the great creative period
of our epoch is long gone by.

As to the former part of the question, this is a mere matter
of speculation, which I think, however, admits of a solution,
in which we may acquiesce, provided we do not wish to go

nis. The stupendous learning of that author had probably weakened his
common sense, or he would have seen at once, that, by giving a wide throat
to Jonas' whale, he only lessened the merit of the miracle, without explain-
ing it. But how our orthodox theologians, who cannot always plead the
same excuse, can think it their duty, or even useful, to cram the brains of
ladies with such stuff, is to me quite inconceivable.

37*2 On Spontaneous Generation.

farther than we can, nor prefer to seek for more positive cer-
tainty in gratuitous assertions. No one, I hope, will suppose
for each of the geological epochs, which had a creation of its
own, subsequent to the general incandescence and oxidation
of the globe's surface, a Dens ex machind, or a sort of Pro-
metheus, who manufactured the different animals and plants
severally by mechanical means. But unless we thus create
God in our own images, or make unto us graven images, we
feel compelled to suppose that there was a period in each ge-
ological epoch, when most of their respective organic beings
took what is called a spontaneous generation, from the re-ac-
tion of different kinds of matter upon each other, in conse-
quence of the inherent qualities and powers with which they
were invested, through the omnipresence of the Creator. —
This view appears to be not only the most rational one, but
its perfect accordance with what is still going on in nature
may be amply proved.

This leads us to the latter part of the question, for the so-
lution of which we may draw upon human experience, though
the remote causes of the phenomena be quite as unfathomable
and mysterious, and in short the same, as those of the former.
We may, however, here trace the effects we observe, with more
precision, to their immediate causes. But before I commu-
cate a number of facts, which may contribute to establish our
conviction as to what has passed and is still passing on the
surface of the globe, I shall try to establish the general truth
of the principle, by what we observe in the most perfect of
its productions.

Man has been most appropriately called the microcosm,
and as to the subject here under consideration, this qualifica-
tion may be vindicated to him as fully as in any other respect.
His organism is most productive of spontaneous generations,
answering to the three kingdoms of nature. Some of these
productions make their appearance in consequence of his na-
tural and regular developement ; others only appear in certain
human bodies, or at no particular stage of man's progressive
developement, and may be considered as anomalous or inci-
dental. To the former belong the following animals: the
Pediculus capitis humani, because their spontaneous genera-
is avoided only by the cleanliness employed by man in a ci-
vilized state. All savages are covered with this parasite,
and if any healthy person be confined to his bed, by some
local accident, as a broken leg, for a period exceeding five or
six weeks, and under circumstances which prevent him from
adhering to those habits of cleanliness to which he may be
accustomed, his head will be at once covered with adult

On Spontaneous Generation. 373

Pediculi ; there are also the Pediculi corporis et pubis hu-
mani, &c. The following plants or growths, as the hair of
the head, and other parts of the body. The teeth and hollow
bones may be compared with lithophytes. To the anoma-
lous or incidental productions belong the Acarus scabiei and
scab, senilis, the one which forms the most striking symptom
of the disease called phthiriasis, intestinal worms, the ani-
malcules which have been observed in many morbid secre-
tions ; as for plants or growth, different eruptions of the skin,
which complete a regular circle of dev elopement, and have a
stage of fructification, which proves either capable of propa-
gating the species, (the pustules of the small pox, &c), or
abortive, (boils, &c); moreover growths that are less denned
in their developement, as the polypous and fungous excres-
cences ; lastly, minerals, as the calculi found in different or-
gans, the anomalous ossifications of arteries, &c. Most of
the animals thus spontaneously generated, afterwards propa-
gate their species by ova, and some of the growths by seeds
or sporules, by which they may be transmitted to any
other human organism that may be favourably predisposed
for their reception. Here therefore we observe a little world
of natural productions, the possibility of whose spontaneous
generation is offered by any human body called into existence.
The analogy between what we observe in man, and what
must have happened, and still occasionally happens, on an
extensive scale, on the surface of the globe, which no philo-
sopher of the present day would consider as a dead and ran-
dom aggregate of matter, is, I think, quite striking. The earth
since the general incandescence of its surface, has had a num-
ber of stages of developement, the latest of which are marked
by the organic creations of the transition, secondary, tertiary,
and the present series. Each of these stages or epochs had,
probably, a period when the creative power was most active,
and which gave rise to the great majority of the organic be-
ings of each series, by spontaneous generation. But acciden-
tal or incidental circumstances, to which, in the present epoch
belong the changes which the free operations of man effect
on the surface of the globe, have, I think, at a much later pe-
riod given rise to the partial and local generatio spontanea of
organisms, either coinciding with some already existing, or
presenting a specialization of their own. Where, for exam-
ple, the stratified rocks of any epoch were first pierced by a
volcanic eruption, the decomposition of the plutonic rocks,
thus brought to the surface, probably gave rise to the exist-
ence of new organic beings. How could we otherwise ac-
count for the peculiarities of the floras of volcanic districts, in

374 On Spontaneous Generation.

different climates, which are like so many islands amidst wide
tracts of neptunic formations. Could the seeds of plants cha-
racteristic of these localities, have been brought there from the
ignited bosom of the earth ? Or can the more recent volcanic
localities have received theirs from others, with which they
have no hydrographic communication ? When the bottom of
the sea, or of a lake, was laid dry, either by sudden elevation
or gradual exsiccation, there were likewise created breeding-
grounds for the spontaneous generation of animals and plants
peculiar to those localities, according to the nature of the
ground and climate. Even some of the modifications of mat-
ter effected for the first time by man, may, within the histo-
rical times have given rise to animals and plants not existing
before. But as volcanic eruptions, piercing through the stra-
ta of the present epoch, the change of the localities of seas
and lakes into dry land, as well as the other incidental modi-
fications of the surface of the globe, are, at the period in which
we live, for the greater part, if not altogether, repetitions of
what has happened many times before ; as, moreover, we are
so distant from the great creative period of our epoch, we can-
not expect to see new species of animals or plants rise from
the ground, though many circumstances appear to prove that
the spontaneous generation of plants of the species already
existing, is still actively going on ; whereas the series of the
organic creation of the present epoch, may be considered as
complete, or perhaps very nearly so.

With the undeniable cases of spontaneous generation in the
human body before us, we shall not hesitate to ask any unbi-
assed man, whether he can better understand how the
Pediculns capitis humani is generated from the integuments
of the human head, than how an elephant could spring from
the materials of the earth and atmosphere, of which he is com-
posed, under all the predisposing circumstances ? The an-
swer will be unanimously in the negative, but at the same
time everybody, I think, must allow, that the two cases are
perfectly analogous, and the conclusion to which this must
necessarily lead, is, that even if no direct proof can be brought
forward for the generatio aquivoca being a general law of na-
ture, the denial of it would be altogether unphilosophical.

That the aboriginal organisms of each locality owe their
existence, and peculiar type and structure, to the local condi-
tions of each part of the surface of the globe, becomes suffi-
ciently clear from the strict adaptation of the animals and
plants to their habitats, and to each other in each habitat ;
which principle is the more evident, the better any locality is
defined and insulated. There are countries where the simi-

On Spontaneous Generation. 375

larity of the types of the two kingdoms of nature is quite
striking, which has often been observed with regard to New
Holland ; and if there still be philosophers who are inclined
to think that the Casuarina was planted, and that the Casu-
ar walked about in the garden of Eden, and was afterwards
received into Noah's ark, I wish they would tell us how a
bird that can neither fly, nor likes to go into an element where
it would soon be drowned, has got to New Holland after the
deluge, or why this bird is not found at a reasonable distance
from mount Ararat, or on the old continent at all. The num-
ber of the species, moreover, bears a direct proportion to the
extent, climate, and variety of soil, of any particular country;
wherefore Du Petit Thouars found only 113 phanerogamous
and cryptogamous plants on the island of Tristan d'Acunha,
and De Buch observed that the flora of the Canary islands is
comparatively poor, which is sufficiently explained by the lit-
tle variety of formation in these volcanic islands. That the
nature of the soil is the great agent in determining the spon-
taneous generation of plants, and that the climate acts only a
subordinate part, within certain limits, may be proved by the
instance of the birch, whose natural breeding-ground appears
to be alluvial quartz-sand, strongly impregnated with humic
acid. Now, though this tree can bear a greater degree of cold
than any, we find it in the Alps of Tyrol very far below the
line of perpetual snow, immediately below the Scotch fir,
above which appear the pine, (Pinus Abies, L.), and larch ;
whereas in the north of Scandinavia, where its congenial soil
reaches up to the snow-line, it is above the Scotch fir, after
which follows the pine lower down.* The nature and order
of the respective soils no doubt fully accounts for this curious
inversion of the order of vegetation.

Among the many observations made within the last twenty
or thirty years, which may be brought forward as proofs of
the generatio cequivoca still going on, on a large scale, with
respect to plants, and which the opposers of that doctrine
have, with great self-complacency, laid hold of to prove their
assertion that the surface of the earth swarms with seeds, de-
posited there many thousand years ago, I shall select a few,
and support them by observations of my own.

Where a new alluvium is formed, or an ancient one laid
dry, the ground soon covers itself with plants exactly adapt-
ed to its nature. A fish-pond having been drained near Fre-
dericksberg,Mr. Holboll found on that spot Car ex cyperoides,\

*Blockein die ostlichen Alpen, &c. von Canstein, Berlin, 1837.
f Viborg, im Magazin der natnrforsehenden Freunde zu Berlin, 1808.
Vol. II.—No. 19. n. s l l

•376 On Spontaneous Generation.

a plant not otherwise met with in Denmark. In the same
country, Mr. Hofman of Hofmansgave made a very curious
observation in 1821 and 1822. An arm of the sea having been
laid dry, by the construction of a dyke, the whole of the 500
acres of ground thus obtained was covered, within two years,
with Arenaria marina, which even during the first year had
made its appearance on the most favourable spots. This phe-
nomenon, though interesting in our point of view, was less so
than the one offered by a single spot of that drained area,
where fresh water oozed through the ground. There, and
there only, grew Juncus bulbosus, Scirpus lacustris, Ttanun-
lus sceleratus, Cineraria palustris, Epilobium hirsutum, and
Chenopodium album; plants otherwise not found on sea-
ground laid dry. Professor Schouw, of Copenhagen,* tried
to explain all these phenomena by supposing that the seeds
of some of the plants, being furnished with & pappus, had been
brought to the spot by the wind, others by birds, others again
by the fresh water oozing through the ground. I make no
doubt that wind, birds, and water, act an important part in
conveying the seeds of plants to spots where the respective
species have not been observed before ; but these agents are
quite inadmissible in many cases. Leaving the seeds furnish-
ed with a pappus, and their vehicle, the air, out of the ques-
tion, there are many not enveloped in berries, &c. of which
every single grain is crushed by the birds which ijeed on them,
before they are swallowed, and yet we see their species grow-
ing at once on spots, whither they cannot have been carried
by water, because they do not grow on any more elevated
ground of the same hydrographical district, as soon as those
spots have undergone an appropriate change. To prove this,
I shall refer to an observation which I had an opportunity of
making many years ago, and which I believe may be verified
in many localities. A road was constructedf along the north-
ern slope of a limestone hill, containing Ammonites, &c. and
overlaid up to the middle with plastic clay. The road was
cut through this clay, and in one spot opened a small vein of
water, which before could not make its appearance above
ground, on account of the impermeable nature of the clay. —
The water formed a long pool in the narrow ditch on the up-
per side of the road, in which, the year after, grew in great
abundance, Veronica Beccabunga and Festuca fluitans. The
nearest localities for these two plants, are to the right and left
of that spot, at the distance of about half an English mile,

* See Tidsskrift for Naturwidenskaberne, N. 1 & seq.
| Near tlie town of Waltershausen, in the duchy of Gotha.

On Spontaneous Generation. 377

where the same sort of water forms natural puddles, and the
clay ends over a stratum of sandy loam. But they are not
found higher up the limestone hill, nor on the sand-stone
mountains in any part of the alpine district, which is farther
behind. Their seeds cannot, therefore, have been floated to
the new locality by the water, nor can I conceive how they
could have been carried there by birds.

I have, without exception, found Hypericum liumifusum
growing first on the circumference of that circular mound, ele-
vated above the level of irrigation of the adjacent district,
where coal-burners had charred resinous wood, provided the
mound consisted of that sandy soil which naturally covers it-
self with heather. I cannot state the precise time when the
Hypericum first appears, after the mound has been left by the
coal-burners ; but it always first shows itself on the limits of
the black disk formed by pieces of charcoal that have been
left, after the clamp has been removed, therefore on the spot
where the decomposition of the charcoal first takes place, and
as that decomposition proceeds towards the centre, the plant
overruns the whole mound. As long as the clamp, or char-
coal kiln, is in operation, there is no trace of the Hypericum,
and it afterwards first shews itself on spots that have been ex-
posed to a heat sufficient to kill any seeds that may have been
in the ground. The water from the neighbouring ground
having no access to the spot, and the seeds of the Hypericum
not being furnished with a pappus or wings, I do not see how
we are to account for this phenomenon, except by the gene-
ratio (Bquivoca, and this being granted, can we be accused of
speculating too wildly, if we venture the opinion, that the ori-
ginal generation of the plant took place under analogous cir-
cumstances, for instance, when in a temperate climate, a fir
wood, growing in a sandy locality, had been set on fire by
lightning, and partially consumed ?

Similar considerations lead me to suppose, that certain
plants which are mostly and almost exclusively found on spots
where ruins are mouldering, or buildings have formerly stood,
and where the rubbish of human constructions is mixed with
the natural constituents of the ground, have been first gene-
rated within man's existence. Even admitting this, it would
doubtless be difficult to point out exactly the species to which
such an origin may be ascribed, as they must have spread to
other localities, not capable of effecting their spontaneous
generation, but capable of developing their seeds into perfect
plants. Hyosciamus niger, Senecio viscosus, and Echium vul-
gare, have struck me as possible instances, but this origin ap-
peared to me probable as to a rare plant, Asperugo procumbens,

378 On Spontaneous Generation.

which throughout Thuringia I have only found on the space
between the foundation walls of ruined castles and the ground.*

Eighteen years ago Major Beatson wished to introduce in-
to England, a new system of manuring with burnt clay, as
exposed in his work, 'A new system of cultivation, without
lime or dung,' 1820, which he himself tried, on an extensive
scale, at Knowle Farm, in Sussex. If my views be not with-
out some foundation in fact, we should suppose that other
weeds, as those found on the neighbouring farms, must have
made their appearance on Knowle farm, by spontaneous ge-
neration.

It is true that a great number of seeds are annually carried
away by the water, and floated to other localities, both above
and under the ground. But they are, of course, carried to
lower localities, where they are decomposed, because the soil
does not suit their nature. But for that, the collectors of bo-
tanical specimens need only go to the lowest locality of any
hydrographical district, to find there the whole of its flora ;
whereas for the seven years during which I was employed in
collecting such specimens for a school, I met with but few
instances of the translocation of plants, besides those which
were favourable to spontaneous generation, inasmuch as a no-
table change had been effected in the ground itself, or the
vegetation which covered it before.

Those seeds, however, which are floated by water under-
ground, must likewise lose, in their muddy mediunm, the pow-
er of germinating, long before they can be deposited in places
where they are hermetically sealed up to keep for an indefi-
nite length of time. I know an instancef in which the snow
water, which collects in a valley enclosed by mountains of
granite, porphyry, sandstone and limestone, in due succession
on each side, forms, every spring, a temporary lake on a mea-
dow, which was formerly an artificial lake, but which has be-
come drained, and can never again be permanently submerged,
on account of the water having broken through the superfi-
cial strata, into a sort of natural tunnel, into which the snow
water empties itself within a day or two, carrying down with
the other detritus of the mountains, innumerable seeds of all
sorts ; the same water forms swamps about two English miles
lower down the valley, but as might be expected, not one of

* I may here refer to an interesting observation made by Dr. Retzius, of
Lund, who, eighteen years ago, kept a solution of muriate of baiytes in dis-
tilled water, in a well-stoppered glass bottle, for six months ; after which
time a Conferva had formed in it, which Professor Agardh declared to be
quite new.

f Near the ancient abbey of Remhardsbrunn, in the duchy of Gotha.

On Spontaneous Generation. 379

the mountain plants ever grows in those morasses, and who
would venture to assert, that these seeds are kept for a future
period, to mislead the supporters of generatio spontanea t

The society of Gorlitz, who take for granted "that millions
of seeds of all species of plants, lurk everywhere in the ground,
awaiting the favourable moment when their turn shall come
to shoot," have communicated a great many well-known ob-
servations, that are all much more in favour of generatio <e-
quivoca than of the " omne vivum ex ovo" among which is
one of their own, which I shall not withold from my readers.

The town of Gorlitz is situated in the neighbourhood of
tracts covered with Scotch fir and heather. The plants which
grow there spontaneously in the glades opened by felling the
Scotch firs, are first, Spergula pentandra, secondly, Senecio
sylvaticus, and last of all appears Epilobium angustifolium.

This spontaneous generation is quite as scanty as we ought
to expect to find, in the natural rotation of plants on a poor
sand, which has produced before only Scotch firs and heath.
In the glades of the red fir woods, [Pinus Abies, L.) which
grow on richer soil, and in those of the white deal fir, (Pinus
picea, L.) the natural soil of which is far more fertile, I have
universally found the spontaneous generation more varied and
luxuriant. In those of the former grow up tolerably good
grasses, such as Poce and Aires, besides Senecio sylvaticus,
Epilobium angustifolium, Hypericum quadrangulum and
dubium, &c. but their chief distingnishing feature appears to
be Digitalis purpurea, which covers large tracts of ground
with a luxuriant crop, and in the forest of Thuringia its leaves
are collected by the poor people, and sold to the tobacco-
manufacturers, who use them to adulterate the inferior sorts
of tobacco. The glades of the white deal fir offer a great
many more spontaneously-growing plants, among which Ver-
bascum Thapsus, Solanum Dulcamara, and Atropa Bella-
donna are the most striking.

To the many well-known instances of the natural rotation
of vegetation, Dr. Poppig has lately added one in the account
of his journey in diflerent provinces of South America. It
refers to the Andes of Anturo, in the southern part of Chili.
He says, "In the lower part of the valley the wood had been
on fire ; all the trees had lost their bark ; some were even par-
tially charred. In the uninhabited parts of the Andes the
woods are often set on fire from unknown causes, and are con-
sumed up to the snow-line, where a dwarfish beech (called
'Nirrhe') takes the place of the stunted Scotch firs of most of
the European mountains. After the conflagration, the ground
does not again produce tall timber, but thick underwood, which

380 On Spontaneous Generation.

fills the intervals between the solitary trees that have escaped
destruction. The new vegetation which replaces the former,
in every part of America, is uncommonly interesting. In
Pennsylvania the few ancient woods, untouched by either the
fire or the axe, are like a park without underwood; but scarcely
has the fire devastated a tract, when there springs up, espe-
cially in the more elevated places, a beautiful Rhododendron,
forming an impenetrable thicket. Where no tree has escaped
the general conflagration, the scrub oak, {Quercus ilicifolia,
Wangenh.) shoots up, presenting great obstacles to the hunt-
er and the farmer, as it is very difficult to extirpate its roots,
which continually give rise to new shoots* However, the
consequences of the combustion of the woods are still more
striking in the hot parts of America. In Cuba the tree net-
tle, ( Urtica baccifera, L.), which bums most severely, the ugly
Psychotria, Piper, and other unseemly shrubs, quickly shoot
up, and where cultivation does not successfully struggle
against the spontaneous vegetation, there is formed an impe-
netrable thicket of hook-thorned smilax, Ipomoea, and other
climbers. In Chili the first plants which grow in such pla-
ces are the severely -burning Loasce, the stems of which are
either upright or stoloniferous ; then follow shrubs whose
seeds are prickly, and attach themselves to every object com-
ing in contact with them, such as Acaence, Aucinice, and ma-
ny others. Soon after the Colligue takes root, which is an
arborescent grass, as characteristic of many districts of Chili
as the bamboo is of the hotter countries of Asia, or the sile-
rias of the tropical parts of America. Numerous stalks of this
grass shoot from a creeping root, and in rich soil they grow
to the height of 12 or 18 feet. They are studded, through-
out their whole length, with tufts of juicy green leaves, and
covered with a polished yellow cuticle, which is so hard that
it resists the knife, and is elastic to a high degree, so that
they recoil with violence against him who incautiously bends
them. From the sea-shore up to the elevated parts of the
Andes, this plant finds habitats adapted to it; but near the
snow-line it becomes a low shrub, and presents great obsta-
cles to the traveller, to whom its smooth procumbent stalks
cause many a fall. It is as useful to the natives of Chili as
the bamboo is to the Hindoo ; and many parts of the houses
are constructed of the Colligue. It is however a great nui-
sance, for on grouud newly brought into cultivation, it springs
up among the crops in the first spring, and in autumn its

* In the Canadas &c. when fir-woods are burnt, they are replaced by pop-
lars &c.

Observations on the Lancelot. 381

stalks are so strong that the reapers are much hindered by
them. Its extirpation is scarcely ever effected, for where the
least particle of root is left, new shoots will grow."

I think this natural description decidedly favourable to the
yeneratio cequivoca. The seeds of the plants which spring
up after the combustion of a forest, could hardly have been
preserved for thousands of years, so near the surface of the
ground as to have been accessible to atmosperic influences ;
and the means by which they would have been transported to
the spot directly after the conflagration, cannot, in many cases
be pointed out, with any degree of probability.

Though, therefore, the "omne vivum ex ovo" may now-a-
days be considered as presiding over the great majority of
cases, yet there are many, in my opinion, which form an ex-
ception to it, — a sufficient number to exclude it as a general
rule, and to lead us, from what we may observe even now, to
the same conclusion as I before arrived at by analogical de-
duction, namely, that there was a time to which that rule did
not at all apply.

Weimar, April 4th, 1838.

Art. V. Some Observations on the Lancelot, (Amphioxus lanceo-
latus). By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S.

So little is known of that singular little fish, the lancelot,

Amphioxus lanceolatus.
Amphioxus lanceolatus, (Yarrell's Br. F. vol. ii. p. 468), that
even a small addition to what is contained in the ' History of
British Fishes' may be regarded as interesting : the more es-
pecially as there is reason to suppose that our further acquain-
tance with its habits will be the result rather of accidental
opportunity than research.

A narrative of the circumstances attending my first acquain-
tance with this species, will be found in Mr. Yarrell's work
above referred to ; but a slight correction of that account is
necessary, not only for the sake of that accuracy which it is
no less Mr. Yarrell's wish than my own, to observe, — but al-
so because the error is connected with what, from the circum-
stances under which I have had the good fortune to discover

382 Observations on the Lancelot.

two other specimens, I am led to believe a characteristic ha-
bit of this fish.

The discovery of my first specimen is thus related in the
original notes. " It was found on the 21st of December, 1831,
the day succeeding stormy weather. On turning over a stone
in a cove of the harbour at Polperro, at about 50 feet from
the edge of the receding tide, at nearly low water, my atten-
tion was attracted to the tail of a fish that appeared on the
surface ; the body lying buried in a small accumulation of
sand. On removing it from this hiding place, and placing it
in a pool, I soon ascertained that it was new to me, though
its extreme activity for a time prevented me from distinguish-
ing the head from the tail ; but when these exertions ceased,
it always fell to the bottom and lay still. It is probable that
its usual residence is in the sand, and perhaps in deep water,
from which the late gales had dislodged it." I find it also
necessary to add a slight correction of the printed descrip-
tion, which was taken from the specimen after it had under-
gone some change from the spirit in which it was preserved ;
whereas my notes had the advantage of being made from the
fish while yet alive, and immediately after its death. " The
vent is at the length of one third of the body from the tail ;
and at this point begins the anal fin, which is joined with the
dorsal to encircle the tail, as in the eel. And at this part
there is a curious peculiarity; for though the fin here is more
developed than further forward, the singularly arched rays,"
(of which more presently), "were not visible," the texture be-
ing merely membranous at this part. The colour of the bo-
dy when alive was yellowish, tinted with green and yellow-
ish reflections towards the tail.

We owe our knowledge of several peculiarities in the struc-
ture of this fish, and the station which it occupies in the sys-
tem of nature, to Mr. Yarrell ; and a desire to elicit some other
circumstances connected with its form and habits, which still
continue obscure, was a sufficient inducement to me to make
frequent and diligent search, in every situation supposed like-
ly to afford it concealment, but without success, until the 26th
of February, 1838, when my wishes were again gratified. —
Two days previously we had suffered a severe and destruc-
tive storm ; when the waves, rolling with fury into the har-
bour, and tearing up the bottom, had killed many kinds of
animals, as Octopus vulgaris, and Holothuria pentactes, nu-
merous specimens of which lay on the beach ; and among the
rest my eye was attracted by two specimens of the lancelot,
— one of them too much injured to be worth preserving, but
the other of fine size, being 2^ inches in length, and only a

Observations on the Lancelot. 383

little bruised on the side. No other evidence than the place
and circumstances in which they were found, was necessary
to convince me that their residence had been in the ground
of the harbour, at no great distance from the spot where they
lay.

A minute and frequently-repeated examination of the more
perfect specimen above referred to, has enabled me to add
the following remarks to what is already known of the struc-
ture of this fish ; and that some further particulars were not
ascertained, must be ascribed to my wish not to injure the
specimen, that it might be presented, according to a promise
formerly made, to the national collection in the British
Museum.

That process of the cartilaginous skeleton which may be
judged to answer to a cranial vertebra, passes from the first
cervical to the anterior extremity; and after the specimen had
lain for a day or two in a weak mixture of spirit and water, I
could discern in that part some slight marks of separation, as
if the vertebral structure existed, but less decidedly than be-
hind. The number of lines that may be judged to mark the
number of vertebra, was sixty ; and between each and the
next were five perpendicular fin rays, with two or three an-
terior to the first line. The anal fin has these rays also, but
they become shorter, and then disappear, in both the dorsal
and anal fin, at about one fifth of the whole length from the
tail ; beyond which the structure of the fin is that of a sim-
ple membrane, as in the corresponding part of a lamprey. I
was not able to count the number of these fin-rays, but their
structure appeared to be of a most extraordinary nature ; not
rising from a single root, as in most fishes, but standing in
the form of a transverse bow or arch, the curve forming the
support of the fin, while the pillars rest on what probably will
be found to be two somewhat transverse spinal processes.—
These rays are raised or depressed but little, and in a longi-
tudinal direction ; and the fin, when not greatly expanded,
has the appearance of being thick, so far as these rays extend.

The tendrils of the mouth are represented in Mr. Yarrell's
figure ; but in their natural position in this specimen, they
appeared to cross each other at the orifice, and to lie along
the cheeks and fauces in a direction obliquely forward, as re-
presented in the figure at the end of this article, (Jig. 19).
After a few days these fibres hung dependant externally, from
the jaws or sides of the mouth. I counted ten of them, but
there might be one or two more.

The abdominal cavity was long and narrow, and without
any mark of the grains or ova so conspicuous in the first spe-

Vol. II. — No. 19. n. s. mm

384 Fauna Roreali- Americana.

cimen; but the stomach was capacious, and filled with a sub-
stance resembling yellowish mud, in lines or pellicles, pro-
bably decomposing animal matter, which Mr. Yarrell had
previously judged to be the food of this creature. Before the
diluted spirit had penetrated so far as to stop the further de-
composition, several bubbles of air were extricated, that es-
caped through the mouth.

[The Zoological Society possess two specimens of this singular fish, which
were sent by the late Dr. Leach from the Mediterranean, hut the particu-
lar locality at which they were collected was not stated. — Ed.]
19

Magnified view of the anterior portion of Amphioxus lanceolatus.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Fauna Boreali-Americana. Part the fourth and last. —
The Insects;— -By The Rev. William Kirby, M.A. F.R.S. F.L.S.
F.G.S. &c. Norwich: Fletcher. And Longmans. 1837. 4to.
325 pp. with 8 coloured plates.

We are at length permitted to see the completion of the beau-
tiful work, published under the direction of Dr. Richardson,
of the various objects of natural history collected in the late
northern land expeditions, under the command of Captain Sir
John Franklin, R.N., and of which the three preceding parts,
containing the quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, have been long
before, and duly appreciated by, the public.

The present volume comprises the insects, and exhibits in
a striking manner the talents of the distinguished leader of
British Entomology, who, for nearly half a century, has been
so indefatigable in forwarding his favorite science. The vo-
lume comprises notices of 447 different species, all of which
are carefully described, (the greater portion being new) \ of
which number 343 are Coleoptera, 3 Orthoptera, 2 Neurop-
tera, 2 Trichoptera, 32 Hymenoptera, 17 Hemiptera, 1
Homoptera, 32 Lepidoptera, 14 Diptera (and Homaloptera),
and 1 Aphaniptera. The great preponderance of the coleop-
terous species may readily be explained by the facility with

Fauna Boreali-Americana. 385

which both their capture and preservation are effected. In or-
der to make the work as complete an index of Arctic Ento-
mology as possible, the various species described by Fabricius,
Curtis, Children, and himself elsewhere, are enumerated.

Leaving the details of mere technical specific and generic
descriptions, we shall call the attention of our readers to what
may be rather considered as the philosophy of the volume. —
In doing this we are convinced that they will regard with as
high a degree of respect as ourselves, the views now first in-
troduced by the veteran entomologist, although, in common
with us, they may peradventure not entirely coincide with
them. Coming from the pen of a writer who has not looked
upon nature with the mere superficial eye of the specific de-
scriber or collector, every suggestion, being the result of deep
thought, and careful research, is entitled to the most serious
consideration.

After some introductory remarks upon the advantages de-
rivable to natural science, from expeditions having science
alone for their object, the author makes some observations
upon the natural arrangement of the objects of nature, which
are completely opposed to the modem views of several of our
most eminent naturalists. "Whoever," he observes, "consi-
ders the infinite ramifications of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, the vast number of groups, differing in rank and
value, and rolling, wheel within wheel, almost ad infinitum,
of which each consists ; may readily conceive that the forma-
tion of a numerical system, whether the number assumed as
the regulator be two, three, four, five, or seven, is a labour of
no very difficult accomplishment : but to construct it so that
the groups of each section, from the primary to the ultimate,
shall be equal or nearly equal in value, which alone can prove
that it is the system of the Creator, — hie labor, hoc opus est"
And in a subsequent page he continues : — "Whether we con-
sider the productions of our globe, in all their affinities, as
best represented by a branching tree, a net, or a sphere form-
ed of an infinity of larger and smaller orbits, connected on
every side, and placed, ad infinitum, wheel within wheel ; —
if we set ourselves to arrange and describe upon paper the
individuals composing any department of the three kingdoms,
we shall find that it is above us, either to conceive or deline-
ate it, so as to maintain all its connections undisturbed and
unbroken. We must do it in a series, which can only be a
series of mutilations and dislocations. It will be like cutting
off every branch and twig of the tree, to place them end to
end ; like tearing up the net, to place all the meshes one af-
ter the other ; like blowing up the sphere, and unravellingr as

m m 2

386 Fauna Boreali- Americana.

it were, all its orbits, great and small, to make a continuous
thread of them. So that it is a hopeless case to attempt an
arrangement according with nature in all its parts; vain man,
with all his boasted powers of intellect, cannot conceive, much
less utter and embody it."

This view of the relations and concatenations of natural
objects has evidently been produced by a very extended ob-
servation of the relations of animals, as drawn from their
structural peculiarities. Our readers are aware of the old
theory, that the various members of the animal and vegetable
world were naturally arranged in a straight line, — from which
it would necessarily result, that no object could have more
than two relationships, — namely, with the one immediately
preceding, and the one immediately following it. This the-
ory was opposed by MacLeay, who maintained that although
the series of nature was linear, yet the line was circular, where-
by some of the members of one circle were brought into con-
tact with some of the members of the adjacent circles. The
views of Mr. Kirby are a still further extension of the oppo-
sition to the old theory, being evidently founded upon the
idea, that there exist numberless relations, by each of which
one animal is allied to others. Thus, taking the Staphylini-
dw, for example, we have one close relation with the sexton
beetles, (Necrophorus), another with the water-beetles, (Dy-
ticidw), the larvae of these two families having the greatest
possible resemblance ; another with the Carabidae^ by means
of Lesteva; another with the Cicindelidce, by means of Ste-
nus ; another with the Nitidulx, by means of Micropeplus ;
another with the Scydmcenidae, by means of Pselaphus. Now
it must be evident that a far greater degree of attention and
minute investigation than has hitherto been devoted to the
subject, will alone enable us to discover the greater or less
value of these various relations, but which are, however, e-
vidently so numerous, that a linear series cannot be main-
tained. Mr. Kirby therefore says, ait has been my endea-
vour principally to make my groups as near to nature as pos-
sible, but with regard to the series and concatenations of them,
for the reasons above assigned, it was not possible to place
them upon paper, as they are inscribed by the Great Author
of nature in her pages."

Mr. Kirby has adopted the primary division of insects into
the mandibulated and haustellated sub-classes, commencing
the series with the Coleoptera, at the head of which the Ci-
cindelidce or tiger beetles are placed, with this observation.
"Amongst the higher animals, the lion, chief of the predace-
ous quadrupeds, is usually accounted the king of beasts; a

Fauna Boreali- Americana. 387

similar reason will justify modern entomologists for regard-
ing the above tribe of beetles as the typical and most perfect
form amongst insects, especially Coleoptera, instead of the
lamellicorn beetles, which Linnaeus had elevated to that rank."
Rejecting the tarsal system of Latreille, as well as the repre-
sentative theory of MacLeay, he divides the order Coleoptera
into thirteen primary groups : namely, 1, Adephaga, {Cicin-
dela, Carabus, Dyticus, and Gyrinus, L.) ; 2, Brachelytra,
(Staphylinus, L.) ; 3, Entaphia, (the single modern genus,
Necrophorus) ; 4, Necrophaga, {Silpha, Dermestes, &c.) ; 5,
Philhydrida, (Hydrophilus) ; 6, Lamellicornia, {Scarabceus
and Lucanus) ; 7, Sternoxa, {Elater, Buprestis) ; 8, Xylo-
phaga, {Cucujus, Cerambyx, Bostrichus); 9, Rhynchophora,
(Curculio) ; 10, Phytophaga, [Chrysomela) ; 11, Aphidipha-
ga, (Coccinella) ; 12, Heteromera, (in its Latreillian extent);
13, Malacoderma, (Telephorus, &c).

One novelty in the work is the introduction of an immense
number of new families, or rather, we should say, the cutting
up of the old families into many minor groups, to each of
which the family termination id<B is applied. For instance,
the eighty-four species of Carabido described, compose no
fewer than twenty families, such as Agonidw, Calathidae,
Pcecilidm, Amaridw, Harpalidte, &c. — the types of which
will be familiar to English entomologists. No descriptions
are, however, given of these families, so that the reader will
have to search in the works of Latreille and other authors,
for the characters of the sections which Mr. Kirby has trans-
formed into families. We are, however, decidedly averse to
the plan which has been thus adopted : the Linnaean genera
are in general so many admirably constituted groups, that no-
thing could be more advantageous than to preserve them en-
tire, and to regard them, as Latreille first proposed to do, as
so many natural families, ("families naturelles") ; which idea
Mr. Kirby in fact originally adopted, (in his 'Century'), mere-
ly adding the termination idee for uniformity, to the Linnaean
names. That these great groups require subdivision, is not
to be questioned ; only let us give to the subdivisions some
other names and terminations, so that we may have some
groups, at least, firmly established. These family names, as
well also as the different specific names, Mr. Kirby has in-
variably anglicised. Thus, the Cicindelidto are Cicindeli-
dans ; the Harpalidce, Harpalidans ; Vanessidce, Vanessi-
dans. Cicindela hirticollis is the "hairy -necked Cicindela;"
Oiceoptoma (Necrophila) terminatum, the "terminated O.
Necrophila." Although however we are adverse to the would-
be-science which must always talk in Latin or Greek, and

388 Fauna Boreali- Americana.

which cannot speak of a common animal or plant otherwise
than in its scientific technical name, we do not exactly perceive
the advantage of giving more than a Latin technical name to ani-
mals which, in ninety -nine cases out of a hundred, will never
be seen or thought of except in the cabinet of the collector,
neither should we deem it advisable to anglicise the names of
the sectional groups below those equivalent with the Linnae-
an genera, because it is not to be supposed that the generality
of persons will ever become acquainted with the groups of
an inferior rank to these.

We perceive, likewise, that Mr. Kirby has unhesitatingly
pronounced many of the species described in his work, as ab-
solutely identical with the natives of Europe. Thus, we have
Platynus angusticollis, Omaseus orinomum, O. nigrita, Cur-
tonotus convexiuscula, Noihiophilus aquaticus, &c. We be-
lieve, however, it is a question by no means decided by geo-
graphical naturalists, whether the animals of North America are
not the geographical representatives of distinct European spe-
cies. In one of the early volumes of the 'American Transac-
tions,' there is a long memoir as to the specific identity of the
European and American hive bee; and we happen to know
that the specific identity of the species of European and Ame-
rican domestic flies, is a subject which has attracted the atten-
tion of one of the best American entomologists.

We have been especially interested in the remarks with
which Mr. Kirby commences the descriptive portion of his
work. They are those of a profound observer, and have for
their object the description of a portion of the structure of
the predaceous beetles, which has been too much neglected
by entomologists, namely, the nature of the dilatation of the
tarsi in the males, and the different kinds of clothing upon
their under surface, or sole. A more extended examination
than Mr. Kirby has devoted to it, would most probably
prove that the characters to be obtained from this structure,
are of greater service in the arrangement of this difficult tribe
than any hitherto employed.

This work has evidently been written several years, and we
have therefore to regret that in several instances, the labours
of different recent authors have not been noticed, and that,
consequently, some, both of the generic and specific names,
must sink into synonyms.

The numerous coloured figures with which the work is or-
namented, are beautifully executed, being from the pencil of
Mr. Charles Curtis. We however miss the numerous outline

Swainson's Arrangement of Fly- Catchers. 889

structural details, which are now required in entomological
drawings, and which so materially facilitate the acquisition
of a knowledge of the different generic groups.

Art. II. Jardines Naturalist's Library. — Ornithology. — Musci-
capidce or Fly-catchers. — By W. Swainson, Esq. Lizars, Edin-
burgh; Highley, London.

We have watched with interest the progress of the series of
works which compose Sir W. Jardine's ' Naturalist's Library.'
The success which has attended this attempt to make scien-
tific Zoology accessible and interesting to the community, is
a sufficient proof that authors may remunerate themselves,
and at the same time benefit the public, by conveying infor-
mation at a much cheaper rate than the price usually affixed
to works on natural history. Here is a book containing more
than thirty plates, beautifully engraved, and accurately, if not
elaborately, coloured, selling at six shillings, — not one third
of the price at which many works of no greater scientific va-
lue have been and are still published.

The object of the volume is to exhibit Mr. Swainson's views
of the arrangement of the Muscicapidm, or fly-catchers. We
shall not here enter upon those theoretical notions which per-
vade all Mr. Swainson's writings,— the circular and quinary
progression of affinities, and the system of analogical repre-
sentation. These are subjects upon which many of our best
naturalists entertain directly opposite opinions, and which it
would be impossible to discuss, without entering into greater
detail than is consistent with our present limits. But what-
ever may be thought of Mr. Swainson's theories, that gentle-
man's labours have been of great benefit to Zoology, especially
by drawing the attention of naturalists to many minute, yet
important, variations of external structure, and by introducing
into his descriptions of species an accuracy of detail, which
is worthy of all imitation. Of this we have numerous exam-
ples in the work before us, as well as in Mr. Swainson's for-
mer volumes on the 'Birds of Western Africa.' Many of the
specific descriptions in the present volume are, however, de-
ficient in one point of great importance, namely, the habitat,
which is often omitted entirely, and in some cases only to be
gleaned with difficulty from the context.

This work would have been rendered of greater scientific
value, if Mr. Swainson had prefixed to each genus a careful
and exact definition, for which his general dissertations are
a poor substitute. For want of such definitions, it would be
difficult for a person by the help of this book alone, to refer

890 Swainson* s Arrangement of Fly-catchers.

to its right genus any species except those which are here de-
scribed or figured. If also to each genus there had been append-
ed a list of all the species which are known to belong to it, it
is needless to say how much the value of the work would have
been enhanced. Indeed it cannot be considered as a complete
synopsis even of the genera, for several important generic
forms, (such for instance as the white-headed tody, and the
so-called Muscicapa leucocilla), are wholly omitted, possibly
because Mr. Swainson has not succeeded in making them
square with the quinary arrangement, or the theory of repre-
sentation.

We must also notice the very numerous errors and misprints
which occur, not only in this, but in all the other recent pub-
lications of Mr. Swainson, — especially in the orthography of
the Latin names. Thus we have, at pp. 99 and 105, 'Fluvi-
colina? for 'Fluvicola; 'at p. 140, lMo?iacha, Horsf. and Vig.',
for 'Monarchal (a mis-spelling which also runs through the
whole of Mr. Swainson' s 'Classification of Birds') ; at p. 162,
'flat-bellied' for 'flat-billed? &c. &c. Whether these errata
originate with the author or the printer, we know not ; but
surely a little less haste in writing, or a little more care in
correcting the press, would obviate them.

We congratulate Mr. Lizars on the great improvement
which has lately taken place in his style of engraving birds.
Instead of that elaborate scale-like pattern, which makes the
figures in some of Sir. W. Jardine's former works on Orni-
thology resemble fish rather than birds, we have here a deli-
cate hair-like touch, far better adapted to express the softness
of plumage. There is however room for improvement in the
beaks of Mr. Lizars's figures, Artists are not so well aware
as ornithologists of the extreme importance of this organ; they
are apt to attend solely to the attitude and plumage, and are
too often indifferent to the precise shape of the pointed pro-
tuberance which stands for a beak. The fact is, however,
that it requires almost as much care and attention to depict
this member accurately, as to figure all the rest of the bird.
The figures in the present volume are better in this respect
than in the volumes on the ' Birds of Western Africa,' but are
yet far from perfect.

JVote on the Bos urns. 391

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

[The following note on the Bos urus, referring to p. 254, was received
from Dr. Weissenborn after his article on that animal went to press.]

After the above had been sent to England, the public has
been put in possession of the valuable information which Mr.
de Nordman, Professor of Natural History at the Odessa Ly-
ceum, has collected respecting the auerochs of Mount Cau-
casus, during his late travels in Caucasia, where he was often
obliged to make his scientific excursions under the protection
of a strong military escort, and a few field pieces. I do not
learn, however, that his observations ought to modify the view
which I have taken, as to the specific difference of the aue-
rochs of the Caucasus and the zubr of Lithuania. They are
as follows.

" This animal, though no longer occurring near the high
road from Taman to Teflis, &c. is not very scarce in the inte-
rior of Caucasia. On my arrival at Gelendshik, I obtained
information, on good authority, that in a few districts by the
river Kuban, the auerochs was found in herds. Farther to
the south, in Abchasia, at Bambori, I found the horns of that
animal in general use as cups, in the houses of the chieftains.
At a banquetigiven by Prince Lewan Dadian, of Mongrelia,
to General Rosen, and at which I was present, I saw from 50
to 70 of these drinking-horns together. In Imerethi, Honi,
and Guriel, I observed these horns richly ornamented and in-
laid with silver : t.h py had been obtained as presents from the
princes of Circassia and Abchasia. When late in the autumn
of 1836, I returned into Abchasia, I learned that in conse-
quence of much snow having fallen on the mountains, a num-
ber of these oxen had descended into the valleys inhabited by
the tribe of Psoeh ; but being too much weakened by fever,
and short of provisions, I was unable to go into that district.
The demand of the Abchasians for procuring a specimen for
me, was 150 silver roubles. The auerochs is found on Mount
Caucasus from the Kuban to the source of the Psib, a distance
of about 200 werst, (115 English geographical miles). Near
the Kuban it is met with, in swampy places, all the year round.
In the country of the Abazechians (Abchasians ?) it repairs to
the mountains in summer, and is then frequently killed by the

Vol. II._No. 19. n. s. n n

392 New Species of Popillia. — Eulophus Nemati.

Psoehs and other Caucasian tribes. Late in autumn it de-
scends from the mountains, to visit the pastures in valleys ne-
ver yet trodden by the foot of any European, except prisoners
of war. It is particularly numerous in the district of Zaadan.
Lieutenant Lissowski, who studied at Wilna, and possesses a
perfect knowledge of the zubr of Lithuania, assured me at
Bambori, that the latter animal was not very different from the
auerochs of Caucasia." — May, 1838. — Weimar, May 16th,
1838.

New species of Popillia. — Since my notes on the genus
Popillia were read at the Entomological Society, I have met
with a species totally different from any previously described,
and I shall feel obliged by your inserting the following no-
tice of it in your valuable journal.

POPILLIA sandyx, Newman.

Brunneo-picea,nitidissima; clypeus, prothoracis latera, etpodex, purpu-
reo-rubri ; podex pilis albis bisignatus ; elytra striata, utrinque prope sutu-
ram profunde foveata. Corp. long. .35 unc. lat. .25 unc.

Colour brown, inclining to pitchy red, very shining ; the
clypeus, the sides of the pro-thorax, and the podex, are red,
the latter has two small white spots ; the legs are pitchy red.
Sculpture : head very thickly punctured ; the pro-thorax is
punctured throughout ; the punctures on the sides and ante-
riorly are closer together, and also deeper, than those on the
disk ; the scutellum is deeply punctured at the base, but is
nearly without punctures at the apex ; the elytra are irregu-
larly punctate-striate ; on each is a deep fovea near the su-
ture, just below the scutellum.

This species inhabits the island of Sumatra, whence I be-
lieve it was brought to this country by the late Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles. There are three specimens in the cabinet
of the Zoological Society, of London — Edward Newman. —
Leominster, May 26th, 1838.

At a Meeting of the Entomological Society on the 4th of
June, Mr. Westwood exhibited a series of drawings in illus-
tration of the natural history of a species of saw-fly, which
resides, in the larva state, in galls upon willow trees, (Nema-
tns Gallicola, Westw.); and of Balaninus Salicivorus, which
\ is also a resident of the same galls : together with the histo-
ry of a new species of Eulophus, which is parasitic upon the
former insect, of which the following are the specific charac-
ters

EULOPHUS Nemati; Westw.

Eulophus, aureo-viridis, alis hyalinis, antennarum flagello et tarsorum
apice,.nigris.

Mas ; — pedibus albidis femoribus omnibus versus basin, abdomine nigro-

Gynandromorphous Insects. — Antennae of Insects. 393

violaceo interdum macula basali sub-pellucida alba : antennarum basi
nigro.

Fcem. ; — pedibus albidis, femoribus versus basin subfuscentibus, abdomi-
ne aureo-viridi, antennarum articulo basali nigro, subtus flavo.

Variat mas pedibus obscurioribus.

Syn. Eulophus pecticornis, Fonscol. in Ann. Sc. Nat. July, 1832, p. 25.
Nee Linn.

This beautiful species is parasitic, in the larva state, upon
the larvae of Nematus Gallicola, Westw. Steph. ; the female
piercing the gall with her ovipositor, in order to lay her eggs
in the centre, where the young larva of the Nematus resides.

Gynandromorphous* Hymenopterous Insects. — In the last
number of Mr. Curtis's 'British Entomology,' (June, 1838, pi.
632), is figured an interesting specimen of the common Ten-
thredo angulata, the right hand half of which is feminine, and
that on the left masculine, with this observation. — " Never
having seen any other hymenopterous insect of this kind, I
have been induced to figure the Tenthredo in the annexed
plate : and as the sexes vary in the colour and markings of
the abdomen &c. they are rendered conspicuous in the figure."
It is indeed only very recently that gynandromorphites have
been discovered in this order of insects, none being recorded in
Burmeister's ' Manual,7 but there are now several on. record.
The Baron de Romand has figured a gynandromorphous spe-
cimen of Scolia 6-maculata, Fabr. ('Ann. Soc. Ent. de France,7

1835, pi. 4, C.) ; M. C. Wesmael has figured a double-sexed
Ichneumon, in which the anterior portion of the body is that
of Ich. extensorius female, and the posterior part of the body
that of Ich. luctatorius male, thus proving that these suppos-
ed species are but the sexes of one. ('Bull. Acad. Bruxell.'

1836, No. 10). Mr. F. Smith captured a singular double-sex-
ed specimen of Anthophora retusa, of which he has commu-
nicated a drawing to the Entomological Society, and which
Mr. Shuckard has noticed in the 'Entomol. Magazine' for Ju-
ly, 1836; in which he also mentions a specimen of Cimbex
Griffinii, having the left anterior leg only, female; and a spe-
cimen of Andrena fulvescens, in which the sexual characters
are intimately intermingled. — J. O. Westw ood.

Mr. Newman's Remarks on the Antennae of Inseets. — I
was amused, a few years ago, by observing the operations of
wood ants, {Formica rnfa), passing up the trunk of a fir tree
in considerable numbers. I kicked the tree, and instantly, as
if by enchantment, every vagrant ant suspended its opera-
tions, and fantastically leaned forward with the antennae por-

* M. Lacordaire has proposed this term for monstrosities in which the sex-
es are unnaturally blended, retaining that of hermaphrodites for those which
are naturally double-sexed, as the Mollusca.

nn2

394 Remarks on the Antenna of Insects.

rect, as though they were listening to discover the cause of
the annoyance : — there was as much uniformity of posture as
in a company of soldiers at their exercise. In a few seconds
they resumed their avocations, and "caressed" each other
as they passed on their upward or downward progress. I re-
peated the blow ; — they assumed the same posture as before ;
and this incident, simple as it may seem, led me to believe
that they were possessed of the power of distinguishing sound.

A short time since I placed a Necrophorus Humator under
a wine-glass, about noontide; it soon became quiet in its pri-
son, and the plates forming the club of the antenna closed.
A few minutes afterwards, raising the glass and suspending it
about half an inch above the insect, I struck the edge with
my penknife ; the antennae were then moved about with ra-
pidity, the club dilated, and the insect sought to make its es-
cape; thus evincing that it was conscious of the sound pro-
duced, and also partly indicating that its antenna were the
organs by which the sound was conveyed to the brain.

So far anecdotal inference, but we will proceed to test our
deductions by an appeal to fact. Mr. Newman says these
"cranial feelers" are "solid." The instant I read the passage
proof was at hand. Taking one of these "tactors" from the
head of a Trichiosma Lucorum, I cut it into two parts with a
pair of fine scissors; placing the lower portion under a mani-
fier, I found it hollow, — I could see down it as a tube. —
Increasing the magnifying power by adding another glass, and
afterwards a third, the fact became more apparent. I then
proceeded to examine in succession, several insects, among
which I may mention Phryganea grandis, Silpha opaca, Ge-
otrupes stercorarius, Dyticus marginalise Gomphocerus bi-
gustatus, Creophilus maxillosus, Bombus terrestris, Pontia
rapa, &c, and in every instance the antenna were hollow in
the centre. Being so far satisfied with my test, I imagined
it better to proceed to dissection. Taking a head of Cara-
bus nemoralis, I remeved the lower part ; then extracted the
first ganglion as far anteriorly as possible, without destroying
the muscles connected with the antenna. On taking away
the upper jaws, the power of the organ was perceptible, and
beautifully distinct. There was a hollow distended fibre, the
tympanum, at the base of the antenna, connected with nerves
that unite in the principal ganglion, or nervous centre, — the
brain, or focus of sensation ; — the auditory nerve expanding
from the tymprnum, penetrating and lining every annulation
of the antenna, from the base to the apex. Was this an op-

Plumage of the Female Smew. — Pomarine Skua. 395

tical deception ? — a phantasmagoria ? No ! It is a fact, to*
shiver to atoms the delusions of theorists. Numerous other
insects were subjected to the same trial ; and in every one of
them an auditory mechanism is manifest; this we may all con-
firm by examining for ourselves.

During the investigation appearances presented themselves
from which I think I shall be able to prove to Mr. Newman,
that even if there be no communication directly with the at-
mosphere, the structure of the antenna is of the very best
possible kind, for the creatures possessing them to use as or-
gans of hearing. At my leisure I shall resume the enquiry,
and either make the result public, either through the medium
of your pages, or by some other convenient channel. In my
next I shall point out the method by which I proceed, and il-
lustrate it with outline sketches. But the subject is of so
much importance to zoologists, that I deem it better not to
postpone this notice of it. — Leonard W. Clarke, Hon. Ento-
mological Curator to the Birmingham Royal School of Me-
dicine, fyc. —June 9th, 1838.

Adult plumage of the female Smew. — Your correspondent
Mr. Skaife is mistaken in supposing his female smew, (p. 331),
to have attained its mature or final livery.

Great numbers were brought last winter to the London mar-
kets ; but during the severe weather, none occurred in the
state of plumage of his specimen, which is the second dress
of the species, and common to both sexes. In their first garb
— that which immediately succeeds the down, — the feathers
are of looser texture, and the tertiaries, (I perceive in some
that have not quite completed their moult), have conspicuous
terminal pale spots : this first change is mostly perfected, how-
ever, before their arrival, and in ordinary winters, the majority
of specimens occur in the garb of the first winter, which re-
mains till the succeeding autumn : the males then acquire
their elegant brilliant white livery, and the females that cor-
rectly figured by Mr. Gould, wherein the markings of the wing
become purer and better contrasted, and the black on the sides
of the face is assumed invariably. I have seen a dozen fe-
males together, all in this state of plumage.

As in many other birds, the adult smews are commonly
seen in pairs, and are more shy and difficult to procure than
immature specimens. Hence it is, that the old females are
not commonly obtained ; for when a pair of the adults have
been approached within gun-shot, the superior beauty, size,
and conspicuousness of the male, are sure to engross the at-
tention, so that his mate escapes on almost every occasion.

Pomarine Skua; (p. 338).— A very considerable number

396 Native Woodcocks. — Chrysosplenium alter nifolinm.

of birds of this species, both alive and dead, were brought to
the London markets during last November : all in their first
plumage, which is retained till the second autumn. Most of
these were procured on the eastern coast ; but they likewise
occurred on the southern, and rather plentifully in Devonshire.

Native Woodcocks. — In reference to the remarks of W. L.
(p. 348), I have to observe, that it is a general law for the
young of migratory birds to return to the place of their nati-
vity : from which I inferred that the increasing number of
woodcocks which now propagate in Britain, is owing, — not
to there being more wounded birds than formerly, (which ap-
pears to be his apprehension of my meaning), — but to the pre-
sumed circumstance of our home-bred woodcocks being the
posterity or multiplying descendants of wounded birds in the
first instance, which would pass the winter further to the
south. — Edwd. Blyth. — June 5th, 1838.

Observations on Chrysosplenium alternifolium. — Since the
publication of my 'Flora of the Neighbourhood of Reigate,' I
have had the gratification of seeing this rather rare species
growing in that neighbourhood, in greater profusion and lux-
uriance than I had ever before witnessed ; and having made
a few observations upon it, in what may truly be termed my
"Horce BotaniccR Subsescivce" I have here strung them to-
gether, in the hope that even if they offer nothing new, they
may at least afford a little amusement to some of the readers
of the ' Magazine of Natural History.'

The locality is an alder copse, on a rich, black, boggy soil,
forming part of ' the Moors,' at Littleton, near Reigate Heath ;
Corydalis claviculata is plentiful on the trees in the northern
part of the copse, while Rubus idaeus and Cardamine amara
abound in the southern portion. This part of the copse is in-
tersected by a small rivulet, on the banks of which, and in
various other parts of the copse, are numerous large patches
of Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, in a very luxuriant state,
owing to the richness of the soil. Many of these patches are
thickly studded with C. alternifolium, considerably overtop-
ping its more common congener, and rendered very conspicu-
ous by the pale hue of the whole plant, but more especially
by the bright yellow-green colour of the upper leaves, and
the pale yellow flowers, contrasting with the much darker
green of C. oppositifolium. There is indeed a most striking
difference even in the colour and general aspect of the two
species ; but this difference is quite the reverse of what is
stated in both Smith's and Hooker's Floras, where oppositifo-
lium is said to be the paler plant, which it may be in some
situations. But the specific distinctions are greater than the

Chrysosplenium alter nifdlium. 397

difference of colour, and are much more striking, even at first
sight, than are exhibited by the figures of the two plants in
'English Botany.' That of C. alter nifolium, tab. 54, (plate
593, second edition), conveys but a very imperfect idea of this
really elegant plant, and must have been drawn from a mise-
rable stunted specimen, or from an unusual variety. In all
the specimens of C. alternifolium which I have ever seen,
(and they have not been few) the lower leaves are truly radi-
cal, and on very long, slender, footstalks, as correctly describ-
ed in the Floras above mentioned ; indeed, the footstalks are
hardly ever shorter than half the height of the stem, which is
generally slightly decumbent at the base, but always perfect-
ly erect in the upper part, and usually bears two, and some-
times three, alternate leaves, while several others are crowded
under the terminal, corymbose, flowers. In the figure, the
lower leaves can scarcely be called radical, and are represent-
ed as on very short petioles.

That the greater length of the petioles of the radical leaves
in my specimens from the above locality, is not occasioned
by the rich nature of the soil in which they grew, may, I think,
be inferred from the fact, that the length of the footstalks of
these leaves bears the same relative proportion to the height
of the stem, in very weak specimens in my herbarium, which
were collected in another locality where the soil is not so rich
and rather stony.

Sir J. E. Smith observes that the leaves "are rough on both
sides with scattered, tubular, jointed hairs;" this I have ob-
served to be the case with the radical leaves only, those on
the stem being perfectly smooth on both sides.

I have not been able to find the early, central flower other-
wise than four-cleft and octandrous, in any of the specimens
which I have examined; and the character of the central flow-
er being five-cleft and decandrous appears to be by no
means constant in either of the species.

I cannot feel quite satisfied as to the propriety of including
this genus in the natural family Saxifrages, although it is
undoubtedly very closely allied to the rather heterogeneous
genus, Saxifraga ; but on this point I do not at present feel
competent to offer an opinion.

I may add that the figure of Chrysosplenium alternifolium
in 'Flora Danica,' tab. 366, is tolerably expressive of my plant,
as is the figure of Petiver, 'Hortus Britannicus,' tab. 6, Jig. 10.
The other figures quoted by Sir J. E. Smith in his 'English
Flora,' I have not yet had leisure to examine.

I shall feel grateful to any botanist who will be kind enough
to inform me, through the medium of this Magazine, whether

398 The Female Smew.

Chrysosplenium altemifolium be much subject to variation,
and if it be frequently met with in the state figured in ' Eng-
lish Botany/—*?. Luxford.— London, May 3rd, 1838.*

Plumage of the Smew. — A correspondent in your last num-
ber, in his remarks on the smew, expresses a doubt respect-
ing the female of that bird possessing the black mark round
the eye, and supposes the birds so marked, to be young males;
from my own observation I am able to say, that young males
obtain this mark, some time previously to their assuming the
adult garb. I can with confidence assure you, that the adult
females also possess this mark. During the past winter, I
collected upwards of twenty smews, and I can safely say that
I have examined four times that number, the greater part of
which were young birds ; out of the twenty collected by me,
nine were adult males, and four adult females. That the sex
of these birds, as well as of the other species of Merganser
common to this country, is easily ascertained without dissec-
tion, will be admitted by all who are aware of the different
forms of the trachea or windpipe. On passing the thumb and
finger along the throat of the male birds, a considerable en-
largement will be felt about the centre ; but in the females,
the trachea is simple throughout. Notwithstanding this, I
invariably dissect all the specimens I obtain, and in every in-
stance have found the above statement to be correct. I have
now before me two females, possessing the black mark ; in
one it is much more distinct than in the other. That which
is the most distinctly marked is the oldest bird ; the tip of
the bill being much more hooked, and the crest feathers of a
darker colour, and much longer ; the white markings on the
throat and wings are also more distinct, and the back darker.
— A. D. Bartlett.—±1, Museum Street, June 20th, 1838.

* Since writing the above, 1 have met with the following passage in an
interesting article on the Natural History of Lexden [near Colchester] and
its neighbourhood; signed J. G. 'Magazine of Natural History,' Vol. vii.,
p. 18. The description would almost serve for the locality at Littleton.—
" The boggy ground, in which the springs have their rise, is covered with
alders, and produces much that is interesting to the botanist. The rasp-
berry, (Rubus idceus), abounds in it, and, when the fruit is ripe, presents a
temptation to venture on the soft and treacherous soil. In spring, the bril-
liant Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, with its yellow flowers and shining fo-
liage, forms large beds of green and gold ; the lowly wood-sorrel, (Oxalis
Acetosella), hangs its pale and modest head beneath the stumps of the de-
cayed alders ; " &c.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

AUGUST, 1838.

Art. I. Observations on some of the Domestic Instincts of Birds.
By The Rev. Dr. Brehm, of Renthendorf, in Saxony.*

Birds present in their habits an interesting feature which
distinguishes them from almost all other animals, viz., that
most of them not only live in monogamy, but in a union which
ends only with the death of one of the parties. f Moreover,
the union of birds is distinguished by the circumstance, that
the males of almost all the species living in monogamy, inte-
rest themselves in their progeny, whereas in the Mammalia,
man alone excepted, it is only the female who takes charge
of the young. This is partly a natural consequence of their
being suckled by the female parent; but even after they have
been weaned, the dam alone feeds or guides them, whereas
the male does not even know or acknowledge his progeny.

In the lower animals, both vertebrated and invertebrated,
even the female is released from the obligation of taking care
of her offspring from the time that they are separated from
her, except in those insects which form well-regulated socie-
ties, where the progeny are the objects of particular attend-
ance. Faber states that the male of the Cyclopterus lumpus
squats down near the eggs and eyes them with great satisfac-
tion; but this dwindles into insignificance in comparison
with the care which the males of most species of birds be-
stow on their progeny.

* Read before the German Natural Philosophers and Physicians, assem-
bled at Jena, in the autumn of 1836. Communicated by Dr. Weissenborn.

f Among butterflies there is a Mexican species, the Papilio Teucer, which
lives in monogamy, according to the statement of Mr. Friedrich, of Alten-
burg ; a condition not otherwise observed in Lepidopterous insects.

Vol. II.— No. 20. n. s. o o

400 Observations on the

This care is evinced about the period when the building of
the nest begins ; for.^ is the male that maintains, with great
obstinacy, the place where the nest is to be constructed. This
has been ascribed to the jealousy with which they assert
their rights as legitimate husbands ; and it is true that the
male birds of many species do not tolerate any of their own
species and sex within a certain district ; but the females are
never seen to contend for the building place as the males do.

A starling had this year built its nest in a box, fixed on a
tree near my house. The young had scarcely left it, when a
couple of house-sparrows, who had before made several vain
endeavours to build in the same box, took possession of it.
A few days after, the young starlings being so far advanced
that they no longer required the incessant attention of their
parents, the latter appeared again, and dislodged the spar-
rows ; but only the males fought. The male starling cleared
the box of the feathers carried there by the sparrows, and by
making use of both beak and wings, drove the vociferous cock
sparrow to a good distance from the box. On the third morn-
ing the hen sparrow had laid an egg in the box ; the male
starling arrived, entered the box, brought out the egg in his
beak, and dropped it. The cock sparrow now, for the first
time, furiously attacked the starling, but was so ill received
that it made a precipitate retreat. After this the starling no
longer disputed the place with the sparrows, which built in
the box and reared their young. In a similar manner are
conducted all struggles for building places ; the males fight
it out, while the females remain passive spectators.

I shall now treat on birds of prey. We as yet know too
little of the genera Cathartes, Sarcorhamphos, Gypogeranos,
and Vultur, to be able to state anything satisfactory with re-
gard to the manner in which the males behave to their pro-
geny. As to Gypaetos, we are likewise deficient in good ob-
servations. With reference to the eagle, however, we are
better informed. The great sea eagles, for instance, hover
in pairs over their eyries, and both parents take a share in
rearing their young. Nay, the male feeds and guides them,
in common with the female, after they have left the nest, un-
til they can provide for their own subsistence and safety. —
The same applies to the true eagles, (Aquila), and the river-
eagles, {Pandion). The serpent -eagles and rough- legged
buzzards, (Circaetos and Archibuteo), probably behave in the
same way. As to the true buzzards, {Buteo), I may refer to
numerous observations of my own. The male not only feeds
the female while she is sitting, but takes care of the young
with great fondness.

Domestic Instincts of Birds. 401

In 1834 I found a nest of the species called by me Buteo
mediiis, not far from Renthendorf. The male paid great at-
tention to the female as long as she was sitting, but after she
was able to take longer flights from the nest, he did not trou-
ble himself much about the young, there being but one, which
was reared without difficulty by the dam. The female was
shot on the 4th of June, in the afternoon. We waited two
hours for the male, but he did not make his appearance until
early next morning, when, as I was watching under the tree,
he flew screaming through the neighbouring part of the forest
and was shot. The young one was taken from the nest ; it
had not been fed that morning. The male's affection for it
had not induced him to brave the danger.

In the same year a pair of the Buteo murum, Brehm, bred
near Auma. The male not only fed the female while sitting,
but the young also when hatched. The female being shot,
the male came directly to the nest, and was also killed.

A third pair of the same genus, the Buteo septentrionalis,
Brehm, bred near Weida ; the male was as assiduous as the
female in rearing the young, and both parents were taken in
a net on the nest.

The male of the honey-buzzard, (Pernis), presents the on-
ly instance known among birds of prey, of not only assisting
the female in rearing the young, but also in hatching. They
relieve each other regularly. Mr. Madel of Gotha shot a male
upon its eyrie, and found that it had been sitting upon the
eggs. I lately obtained an uncommonly large specimen dur-
ing the breeding season, which was so bare on the abdomen,
that at first sight I thought it was a female, presenting the
colours of the male ; but on dissection I found it to be a male
As far as I know the sub-genus Pernis, which is so remarka-
ble in other respects, is the only instance among the whole
order of birds of prey in which the males hatch. I need
scarcely observe after this, that these males are likewise very
eager to supply their young with food, such as the larvae of
wasps, caterpillars, chaffers, and other insects, as well as with
frogs and mice. I think it also very probable that this kind
of food undergoes a previous preparation in the craw of the
male, as it does in that of the female, before it is presented to
the young.

The male of both the russet and blackish-brown species of
Milvus, Briss. behave to their progeny like other birds of prey;
but they show such caution in the exercise of their parental
affection, that when they apprehend any danger, they will
soar over the eyrie beyond the range of guns, and let the food
fall into it from that height.

402 Observations on the

The males of the noble falcons evince about the same kind
of affection for their young as the hawks. That of the pere-
grine falcon {Falco peregrinus, L.), is but two-thirds the size
of the female, but he feeds her whilst she is sitting, and assists
faithfully in rearing the young. He clings so much to the
favourite rock on which the eyrie is built, as to remain there
even after the female and young have been destroyed. The
male of the Falco JEsalon, Linn, acts in precisely the same
manner ; but that of Falco Subbuteo presents peculiar features
It feeds its sitting mate, but does not carry the food to the ey-
rie itself. When it has caught a bird, it flies round and round
the nest, shouting glee, glee, glee. Upon this the female, ut-
tering a similar cry, leaves her eggs or tender young, flies to
meet the male, and takes the prey from him, carrying it to the
eyrie, there to eat it in comfort. It is delightful to observe
the affectionate meeting of these noble falcons. In feeding
the young the same forms are observed ; the male soars round
the nest with his joyous call, until the female arrives to re-
ceive the prey and carry it to the young. It is only when the
female has been killed that the male extends his functions,
and carries the food to the eyrie, where he often feeds the
young with insects from his craw. It is also very interest-
ing to observe how the male trains the young to hunting. —
At first they are taught to seize some prey which the male
presents to them when both parties are on the wing. When
they are able to do this with sufficient precision, they catch
dead birds &c. which the parent lets fall ; and this instruc-
tion is continued until the young are skilful enough to catch
living birds.

The behaviour of the kestrel, {Cerneis, Boje, Falco Tinnun-
culus, L.), is very different. The males of this sub-genus, like
those of Falco Subbuteo, are so much attached to their fe-
males, that they keep together even after the breeding season.
They migrate with their respective mates to distant countries,
and return with them. During the breeding season the at-
tentions of the male become more marked, even before the
first egg has been laid. When the female is resting near the
newly constructed eyrie, especially towards nightfall, the male
will often carry to her a mouse &c, and in arriving he utters
a very tender call, which is returned by the female. When
she has begun to sit, she may safely trust to the faithful care
of her mate, who never fails to provide her with choice mor-
sels. The food which he carries to her consists chiefly of
mice, (Hypudcaus arvalis). When he arrives he enters the
eyrie with great eagerness, and appears to delight so much in
seeing the female feasting, that he often stays a considerable

Domestic Instincts of Birds. 403

time, during which the couple exchange many tender sounds.
It is only after the female is duly provided for, that the male
thinks about satisfying his own appetite ; and this having been
done, he perches on the pinnacle of an old tower, or a neigh-
bouring tree, to keep watch over the female. He afterwards
contributes his due share in rearing the young, to which he
gives the food previously prepared in his craw. There is no
eyrie where there is more bustle than about that of the kestril.

As to the nests of the Falco Subbuteo and Falco Nisus, they
are commonly visited by the parents only at intervals of two
hours. With the kestrel the case is quite different. When
the young are nearly fledged, we may see one or the other of
the parents arriving every quarter of an hour. Their young
are also much more clamorous than those of other birds of
prey. It is true, however, that the prey which is carried to
them each time, is of small size, mice being generally the
largest animals they catch ; they often obtain much smaller
prey, as lizards, and the old ones will take the trouble to fly
to the nest with no more than a grasshopper, or a caterpillar
of the Sphinx Euphorbia : they are therefore constantly go-
ing backwards and forwards. On the other hand, when the
young have left the nest, they require much less care than
those of the Falco Subbuteo or F. Nisus.

In 1835, I shot a pair of the Falco Tinnunculus near their
eyrie, and then sent up a man to take the young. They were
however so full-fledged, that they flew away, and could not
be caught. The next day I went to the spot, with a full con-
viction that I should be able to find them by their calling for
food ; but I could neither hear nor see them, though a herds-
man had observed them in the thick underwood : they were
afterwards seen high in the air. It may therefore be taken
for granted that they had subsisted on insects &c, and train-
ed themselves to hunting by their own unassisted exertions,
which is the only example of the sort I know of; consequent-
ly their male parent, if he had lived, would have had very lit-
tle trouble in instructing them. In the common course of
things, however, the male, either alone or with the female,
brings them out with great care, and whilst they are flying
about, he is usually perched on the top of a tree, to guard
them from danger, warning them, when he sees anything sus-
picious, by crying glee, glee, glee, upon which the whole fa-
mily betake themselves to some safer spot.

We know nothing about the breeding of the Falco erythro-
pus, except what my friend Mr. Petenye, in Hungary, has
communicated to me, viz., that it constructs its nest in hol-
low trees, or avails itself of old magpies' nests, and that its

404 Observations on the

eggs are similar to those of the Falco Tinnunculus. It is,
therefore, impossible for me to say how the male behaves to
his progeny. With the genus, (Elanns Sav.), we are still
less acquainted. We have, however, interesting information
respecting the peculiarities of the hawks belonging to the sub-
genus Astur.

The male of the species Astur palumbarius, A. gallinarius,
and A. brachyorhynchos, appears to be altogether changed in
disposition during the breeding season. At other times he is
an unsociable, fierce and wary bird, evincing no affection for
his congeners, but great hatred against the Strix Bubo. —
During the breeding season he is quite changed. He joins
his former mate, which may be concluded to be the case from
the circumstance of the eyrie being always built in the old
place),* and becomes extremely tender and attentive to her.
Though the male is but half the size of the female, he sup-
plies her with food while she is sitting, and assists her in
rearing the young. At that time a pair of hawks becomes a
real nuisance to the neighbourhood. The philoprogenitive-
ness of the little male renders him bold and fearless to an as-
tonishing degree. He catches the squirrel, without caring
for its bites and scratches; he kills the well-armed jay; takes
the sitting partridge from her nest ; destroys young hares ;
and steals the young of the Falco Nisus and F. Tinnimcu-
lus I He takes the Anas crecca and A. circia from the pond,
as well as the pigeon from the roof and the hen from the yard.
Though so extremely wary at other times, he will feed his
young in the presence of man, and is not even afraid of the
iron trap which is set to catch him. Because the bird is so
very injurious, the game-keepers are proportionably eager to
destroy it. They take the young from the nest, bind them
fast in the back part of a little hut or passage, which they
construct of bark or branches, and set an iron trap before it.
With the genus Buteo, the species of which are likewise very
fond of their young, this method of catching the old ones does
not always succeed ; but with Astur it never fails. As soon
as the young are heard calling, the old ones will alight with
the prey, and one after the other is caught, as they walk fear-

* Though the translator would not invalidate Mr. Brehm's statement,
taking into consideration the general habit of birds of prey to remain faith-
ful to their former connexions, yet he must think that the reason given
above does not prove anything as to the point in question. For the predi-
lection of certain species of birds of prey, and many others, for certain breed-
ing places is such, that the latter are always occupied by other couples, how-
ever often their predecessors may have been killed, or they themselves de-
prived of their young.

Domestic Instincts of Birds. 405

lessly over the trap. The male is not unfrequently caught
first ; and even when he has seen the female writhing in the
trap, he does not hesitate to follow her example. It is won-
derful, indeed, what effects love can work even in the stout
heart of a hawk.

Many are the peculiarities to be observed in the three spe-
cies of sparrow-hawk which are indigenous in Germany, viz.
Nisus elegans, N. fringillarum, and N. peregrinus. Even
during the breeding season, the male perseveres in that stub-
born and insidious disposition which is peculiar to the sub-
genus, and which the female loses about that period. These
species show a boldness when near their eggs or young, which
is perfectly ridiculous. Instead of retreating when a man ap-
proaches the nest, they fly to meet him, perch before him in
the most open place, and will even sometimes make a rush at
the great enemy of all other creatures. On one occasion, a
female sparrow-hawk would have taken my cap from my head
if I had not parried her off with my gun. The male does not
act so openly. He supplies the female with food, as long as
she is sitting or warming the young ; but he proceeds in a
very secret manner in performing the business. It is difficult
to catch a glimpse of him when carrying food to his nest ;
and except at that time he is not to be seen at all. When
the female of other birds of prey has been scared from her
eyrie, and utters her anxious call, the male appears at once,
joins her in her lamentations, and is ready to do all in his
power to defend their progeny. The male of the sparrow-
hawk behaves in a very different way. Let the female call
ever so loudly and piteously, her mate will not make his ap-
pearance, at least so long as the young are not far advanced
in growth. I am able to bear full testimony to the truth of
this, having closely watched these birds near five different
nests. It is only when the young are become larger, and the
parents are obliged to make unusual exertions, that the male
shows himself uncommonly active. He is then heard scream-
ing about the eyrie, and seen carrying the prey to it. Four
young ones, when nearly fledged, require a daily allowance
of from sixteen to twenty small birds ; and one or the other
of the old birds arrives at the nest with food, at least once an
hour, in case the neighbourhood abounds in such young birds
as have lately left their nests; whereas before, the young were
fed only once in two hours. Nay, if the female have been
shot, the male makes double exertions, and will himself bring
from twelve to fifteen birds daily. In the last nest but one
on which I made my observations, the female was killed to-
wards night-fall, and one young bird left in the nest. About

406 Observations on Instincts of Birds.

9 o'clock next morning, the male had brought three birds, (an
old chimney-swallow, a young house -sparrow, and a young
black-throated stone-chat). The nearest spot where the last
species is found, is about half an English mile from the nest.
These three birds, which were in the nest, had been entirely
plucked, and partly devoured, by the old bird ; the entrails
had been taken from all, and two were without their heads ;
the clumsy young, though almost fledged, did not know how
to dispose of the remainder. Now as the male, though he
carried food to the nest, did not tear it to pieces, or help his
young to eat it ; as, moreover, the young sparrow-hawks re-
quire a longer period to learn to eat without assistance, than
other birds of prey, it is probable that they always die with
hunger when the female has been shot, although plentifully
supplied with food.

On an earlier occasion, I found in a nest of the sparrow-
hawk, after the female had been shot, every one of the young
dead with hunger, though twenty small birds were accumu-
lated near them. However, the male sparrow-hawk fulfils
his duty so faithfully, that he will even carry food to a stuffed
specimen of his progeny, placed in his nest. As he does not
prolong his stay there, it is long before he becomes aware of
the deception.

Of the European day birds of prey there remain only the
gledes, or glede-kites, on which, however, I can offer but few
remarks, as they do not breed in the neighbourhood of the
place where I reside.

I know that the male of the reed-kite, (moor-buzzard, Fal-
co ceruginosus), feeds his female whilst she is hatching, and
assists her in rearing the young. This is also the case with
the corn and meadow kite, {F. cyaneus). It is remarkable
how assiduously the females of the reed-kite are courted. I
know an instance in which three males were shot near the
same female in two days. The male of the corn-kite appears
to take great delight in hovering over his sitting mate. If,
in the month of June, we see a male of that species soaring
much over one particular spot, we may be almost certain of
finding the nest there, in corn, grass, or low bushes. While
the young are being reared, the male of the kites hunts very
eagerly and boldly, often till after sunset.

On the Shell of Spondylus varius. 407

Art. II. Observations upon the Camerated Structure in the Valves
of the Water-Clam, (Spondylus varius, Sow.,). By Richard
Owen, Esq. F.R.S., &c, Hunterian Professor at the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons.*

Having been led to reflect, while considering the uses of
the camerated part of the shell of the Nautilus, upon the de-
gree or extent to which that structure might depend upon the
mode of growth of the animal and its shell, and how far it was
a necessary physical consequence of the increase and change
of position of the animal, independently of any special pur-
pose served by the forsaken parts or chambers of the shell, I
have caused sections to be made of a great variety of shells,
and have examined them in the hope of arriving at the law of
the multilocular structure, which results physically from the
secretion, on the part of the animal, of a nacreous layer, form-
ing a new basis of support to the soft parts, and cutting off
the deserted portion of the shell from the chamber of occu-
pation.

It is well known that this process is not the only mode
adopted to suit the shell to the changing form and bulk or
other exigencies of its occupant. In the genus Magilus the
part of the shell from wrhich the body gradually recedes is
filled up by a continuous compact secretion of calcareous
matter, and a solid massive elongated shell is thus produced,
which would be a great incumbrance to a locomotive mollusc,
but is of no inconvenience to an univalve destined by nature
to exist in a fixed and motionless state, buried in a mass of
lithophytous coral, with the growth of which it is compelled
to keep pace.

In Helix decollata, again, the deserted part of the shell,
after being partitioned off by the nacreous layer secreted by
the posterior part of the mantle, is broken away by some yet
unexplained process, and consequently no chambers nor any
solid apex of the shell remains.

The retention of the deserted chambers and the intercep-
tion of certain spaces of the cell by calcareous septa, though
not unknown in the gasteropodous univalves, is more com-
mon in bivalves.

This process is generally consequent on an increase, but

* The greater portion of the present paper from Prof. Owen appeared in
the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for June, 1837, but the illustra-
tions and some additional matter have been subsequently introduced, and
communicated by the author for publication in the Magazine of Natural
History. — Ed.

Vol. II.— No. 20. n. s p p

408 On the Structure of the Shell

sometimes on a diminution, of the body of the molluscous
inhabitant. An oyster kept without food will frequently ex-
pend its last energies in secreting a new nacreous layer, at a
distance from the old internal surface of the concave valve, cor-
responding to the diminution of bulk which it has experien-
ced during its fast, and thus adapt its inflexible outward case
to its shrunken body.

In the calcareous tube exuded from the elongated mantle
of the Septari<e, Lam., the closed extremity of the tube is di^-
vided into chambers by a succession of calcareous layers,
having a regular concavity towards the open or siphonic ex-
tremity of the shell. These concave septa are composed en-
tirely of the nacreous constituent of the shell. A similar
structure is met with in the genus Vermetus : in the speci-
men figured {fig. 20). of Vermetus gigas, they were six in

Vermetus gigas.
number ; they are thin, smooth, and closely resemble the par-
titions in the Nautilus and Spirula, save in the absence of
the siphonic perforation.

Among bivalves the Ostrece not unfrequently present shal-
low and irregular empty spaces in the substance of the shell ;
the Etheriae again have vesicular cavities interposed between
the testaceous laminae ; but the most remarkable example of
the camerated structure of the shell is presented by the Spon-
dylus varius, Sow.

It was first noticed, I believe, in the present species, by Mr.
Sowerby, in the ' Appendix to Stutchbury's Sale Catalogue,'
but the cameration of the lower valve especially approaches
so closely to that of the true polythalamous shells, that I am
induced to hope that the accompanying description and fi-
gures, with the analysis of the fluid contained in the deserted

of Spondylus varius.

409

chambers, may not be unacceptable to your conchological
readers.

In order to examine in what manner the camerated struc-
ture of this shell was modified by the presence and progres-
sive change of place of the adductor muscle, I had the fine
specimen here represented of half the natural size, {jig. 21),

Section of Spondylus varius.

sawn through vertically and lengthwise. The length of the
concave valve is eight inches; it is two inches one-third
in thickness, and includes fourteen chambers, separated from
each other by very regularly formed and stout partitions, com-
posed, as in other chambered shells, of the nacreous portion
or constituent of the shell. The septa are slightly undulat-
ing in their course, but present a general concavity towards
the outlet of the shell. Not any of these partitions are, how-
ever, continued freely across the shell, but each becomes con-
tinuous at the muscular impression, which is near the middle
of the shell, with the contiguous septa. In general, also, the
septa commence singly from the cardinal or upper wall of the
valve, and divide into two when about one-fourth of the way
towards the opposite or lower wall ; the thickness of the un-
divided part of the septum being equal to, or greater than
that of the two divisions or layers into which it splits.

We can readily understand why the septa must necessa-
rily become united together at the point of insertion of the
adductor. The muscle never quits its attachment to the
valves ; while the lobe of the mantle, except in its circumfe-
rence, and where it is attached to the adductor muscle, must
detach itself from the surface of the plate which is about to
be partitioned off, when it secretes upon the interposed fluid
the new partition or basis of support. It is obvious, therc-

pp2

410 On the Structure of the Shell

fore, from the conditions under which the partitions are suc-
cessively secreted, that they must adhere together, not only
at their circumference, which forms the outer wall of the valve,
but to the preceding and succeeding septum, at the part occu-
pied by the adductor muscle, and for an extent corresponding
to its circumference. The progressive change in the position
of this muscle by the absorption of the posterior fibres, and
the addition of others anteriorly, changes in a corresponding
degree the relative position of these sub-central confluent
parts of the septa, and a beautiful undulated disposition of the
whole chambered part results. If the adductor muscle were
a tube instead of a solid mass, the central confluent part of
the septa would of course be perforated, and a siphon would
result, the calcareous walls of which, from the proximity of the
chambers, would no doubt be continuous, as in many fossil
Polythalamous shells.

A disposition to form chambers is manifested, but in a
much less degree, in the smaller flattened or superior valve of
the Spondylus varius. In the specimen here figured there
are three chambers, with narrower intervals, and much thick-
er partitions than in the lower valve. These partitions are
confluent opposite the muscular impression, as in the lower
valve, and each partition expands from this attachment in an
infundibular manner, which reminds one of the emboitement
of the calcareous parts of the siphon in the Spirula.

The secreting power of the lower lobe of the mantle in
the Spondylus seems to be greater than in the upper ; it is
certain at least that the abundant deposition of calcareous
matter upon the margin which forms the hinge of the shell,
and which is due to the part of the mantle extended behind
and between the cardinal teeth, takes place almost exclusive-
ly in the lower valve : and thus the layers of nacre which are
successively deposited on the cardinal margin, push forward
in a corresponding degree the upper valve, leaving a heel or
umbo behind the hinge of the lower valve. But this irregu-
larity in the results of the secreting faculty is not attributable,
as I once conceived,* to an inherent defect of power in the
upper lobe of the mantle, but simply to the circumstance of
the corresponding valve being free. If it were fixed by its
posterior margin to a foreign body, as in the lower valve, and
the same stimulus of necessity were consequently to affect
the calcifying organ of the upper valve, it is highly probable
that it would manifest the same activity as that of the lower
valve.

*' Proceedings of the Zool. Soe.' June, 1837.

of Spondylus varius. 411

The laminae, which are deposited in a continuous series
of superimposed layers at the hinge of the lower valve, are
not continued in a like state of superposition throughout ;
they soon separate from each other, and do not again unite
except at the space corresponding to the adductor muscle,
and at the circumference of the valve.

The interspaces of these successive layers of the growing
Spondylus cannot, from the absence of a medium of intercom-
munication, serve any purpose hydrostatically with reference
to locomotion : it is a singular fact, indeed, that the structure
above described is not constant in the Spondylus varius. I
am informed by Mr. Samuel Stutchbury that it occurs only in
those individuals which happen to have been developed be-
neath the overhanging ledge of a coral reef, or in situations
where they would be liable to be overgrown by coral if they
had not possessed the power, like the Vermeti and Magili,
of keeping their respiratoiy and nutritive apertures on a level
with the surrounding zoophytes. A glance at the figure will
show at once the process by which the Spondylus has, under
these conditions, gained the necessary ground. It must be
remembered that, like the oyster, it is attached by the exteri-
or surface of the lower valve to some extraneous body ; it has
no power of locomotion ; and therefore, in order to bring the
margins of its mantle to the influence of light, and of the free
currents of sea water, it is endowed with the power of carry-
ing forwards its dwelling-chamber by a series of new forma-
tions. These are not, however, to be regarded as the results
of a purely voluntary act, but to the inevitable obedience of
the secreting organs of the shell, (as long as the animal has
strength and material left), to the stimulus arising from im-
perfect insolation, respiration, and nutrition. The septa of
the deserted chambers we can of course only view in the light
of mere dermal exuviae still left adhering to the animal, to
which, being deprived of locomotion, they can be no incum-
brance. It is highly probable that all the chambers are ori-
ginally filled with fluid, as more or less is found in the outer
ones of the specimens brought to this country.

In the Testaceous Cephalopods a new structure is added to
their camerated shell, viz., the siphon, whereby the exuvial
layers and the deserted chambers are converted into a hydro-
static instrument, subservient to the locomotion of the animal.

The fluid contained in the large specimen here described,
was carefully withdrawn from the outer chambers before the
section was made : and my friend Dr. Bostock, who kindly
undertook a chemical examination of it, has transmitted to
me the following account of the results of his analysis.

412 Remarks on Zoological Classification.

" The fluid was turbid, had an acid saline taste, and a rank
disagreeable odour. After standing for twenty-four hours, it
deposited a whitish curdy sediment, and became clear and
transparent. The clear fluid, amounting to 54m.? was poured
from the sediment, and was subjected to various tests. It
was neither acid nor alkaline ; it produced a very copious
precipitate with the nitrate of silver, indicating the presence
of a large proportion of muriatic acid; the muriate of barytes
indicated a slight trace of sulphuric acid, while the appro-
priate tests of lime, magnesia, and iodine, produced no effect.
A portion of the fluid was evaporated by a gentle heat, when
a quantity of crystals of the muriate of soda was obtained,
amounting in weight to very nearly twenty per cent, of the
fluid. After the removal of the crystals, a little brown mat-
ter was left in the capsule, but in too minute a quantity to en-
able me to ascertain its nature and properties, except that it
was not soluble in alcohol ; we may, however, presume that
it gave the fluid its peculiar flavour and odour.

" It appears therefore that the fluid in question consisted
almost entirely of a solution of pure muriate of soda, differing
therefore, in its chemical constitution, from sea water.

" The sediment mentioned above I returned to Mr. Owen ;
it appeared to consist of small globular or rather pyriform
bodies, probably of an organic origin."

Art. III. Remarks on Zoological Classification. By Sir Edward
Ff. Bromhead, Bt„ F.R.S. L. & E.

1. The results obtained in an attempt to arrange the Botanical
families in Alliances, and those alliances in natural sequence,
without any preconceived views of dignity in structure, or any
effort to crowd together families supposed by many to be re-
lated, have induced me to adopt the same principles in at-
tempting to arrange the Zoological families.

2. It has not been presumed, that the most striking form
would begin a series of structures ; naturalists have usually
opened with Man, the Lion, the Whale, the Eagle, the Croco-
dile, the Elephant, the Carnivorous Coleoptera or the Scorpi-
on, though it is quite obvious that such marked forms must be
gradually approached and receded from, if we expect the
group to connect with any other series. Hence instead of a
forced subordination of the contents of each group under its
most striking and full dev elopement, we should rather attempt

Remarks on Zoological Classification. 413

to work from such a form as a centre, in opposite directions.
Mr. MacLeay has well laid down this law, and shown a ten-
dency to re-entering or Circulating forms, and has placed the
whole Animal Kingdom under five divisions : —

ACRITA,
MOLLUSC A,
VERTEBRATA,
ANNULOSA,
RADIATA.

The principle is undoubtedly sound, though his Quinary sys-
tem may be pushed beyond its just limits, and the materials
of the circle may not be quite correctly arranged.

3. It would appear moreover, that natural series do not
merely tend to re-enter, but that the alliances at equal dis-
tances from two extremes, may be in some degree parallel
or related to each other, as if the series rose to a certain
point, and then descended at the same rate, through analo-
gous structures.

4. In making this attempt, it was impossible to avoid re-
ference to the shape of the developement of other organized
bodies, as exhibited in the two parallel botanical races, but it
was proper to renounce any expectation of finding the same
number of alliances here, and also to leave it an open ques-
tion, whether the zoological alliances formed one, two, three,
or more independent Races. It now appears that these con-
stitute a single re-entering race, of which the alliances at e-
qual distances from the extreme points, offer analogies. I
cannot therefore conceal from myself, that the two botanical
races may also constitute a single Race, connected by the Rhi-
zanths and some of the Endogens at one extremity, or parting
in opposite directions from Fungoid structures at the other. —
Such suppositions will not in any way affect the existing ar-
rangement.

5. It was necessary in this investigation to presume the
possibility, that certain great divisions recognized in Zoology,
might, as in Botany, form the parallel portions of two diffe-
rent series. It seems however that the Mammalia, Aves, and
Insecta, are not so divided ; and the impossibility of finding
four distinct points in each, by which each might connect
with some other assemblage, proved their unity. On the other
hand it was not difficult to see that the Amphibia and Pisces
are so divisible. The Acephalous Conchifera and the Mollus-
ca proper have been lately united, but it would appear with-
out sufficient reason. The separation of the Entozoa from
the Radiata, and the Crustaceous families from the Insecta

414 Remarks on Zoological Classification.

and their allies, will not appear harsh to any naturalist. The
Crustaceans resume the station assigned by Aristotle.

6. It has also been necessary to keep out of sight any sup-
posed gradation of dignity in structure ; the very existence of
any re-entering series forbids this, nor could our views on this
point have any basis in practice beyond mere imagination. —
Lamarck aims at a kind of intellectual scale, which ought to
throw the dog, the elephant, and the ant into proximity, where-
as intellect is a matter of very subordinate importance in mere
animal nature. What makes such an attempt more unfortu-
nate, is the result herein exhibited, that the zoological race
not only consists of a single re-entering series, but that this
series itself consists of three sub-races, each also forming a
re-entering assemblage : — the Infusoria swell through the Ra-
diata and Conchifera up to the Crustacea, and then descend
through the true Mollusca down to the Polypoid Molluscs ;
the series then swells through certain Pisces and Amphibia
up to the Aves and Mammalia, and descends through other
Amphibia and Pisces down to the Cartilaginous Fish ; the se-
ries then swells from the Annelida and Myriopoda up to the
Coleopterous Insects, and then descends through the Arach-
nida to the Epizoa and Entozoa. For anything we know to
the contrary, one structure may be equivalent to another, and
a developement in one direction may compensate a non-deve-
lopement in another; in Botany, a parasitic plant without
leaves, may rank with others of apparent high developement.
Possibly in zoological structure the whole series may be stea-
dily rising towards an independent aeration, flight, or some
other property equivalent to the apparent contraction.

7. Naturalists have been very jealous about the place of
man in the system, and some have gloried in the impossibility
of placing him any where. He seems to me to stand between
Pithecus and Troglodytes, or between Troglodytes and one of
the Cebidce, yet to be discovered, and he seems to indicate an
approach towards the plantigrade Lemurs. Let us not deceive
ourselves ; the importance of man does not lie in the forma-
tion of his animal structure ; in this he is vastly inferior to ma-
ny other animals ; he is not free to use both land and water,
nor has he wings, nor the relative strength of the Termes, nor
the prodigious powers of insect leaping, nor senses as acute
nor perhaps as various as many, nor the wonderful powers of
manipulation in many, nor the speed of others, nor a shell or
other covering for protection, nor independent powers of re-
production, nor independent existence immediately after birth,
nor eyes multiplying many thousand-fold, nor independent

Remarks on Zoological Classification. 415

means of aeration, nor powers of fasting, nor powers of repro-
ducing limbs. An imaginative person would rather say, that
animal nature having left him in many points weaker than o-
thers, has in pity given him Reason, to preserve his continu-
ance in creation ; imagination would also point to the more
perfect insect forms higher in the scale of developement, and
to their metamorphosis, as shadowing his condition. It must
be admitted, that I expected to find Man in the middle of the
animal series, and in the middle of his alliance ; it appears
however that his dignity is not animal but moral, an immor-
tal Being waiting a change of body and form and powers.

8. I could have wished to avoid the question of a Quinary
principle in nature; it is not sought after in the general series,
and it is left for others to subdivide the three fundamental sub-
races, as they please, by breaking down the two extremities
of the Vertebrata into two supplementary divisions, or other-
wise working out their favorite principle. In the alliances a
quinary plan is adopted for these reasons : — I found a tenden-
cy of this nature in the botanical alliances, and adopted it af-
ter a prejudice against it ; I have found a similar tendency in
Zoology, and have also found it convenient in practice ; from
natural causes, or from the industrious leaning of zealous dis-
ciples, quinary assemblages have very frequently offered them-
selves ready formed. Possibly nature may not have any de-
fined law in the relative dignity of these subdivisions, nor any
uniform scale of rank, and in such case the leaning to any u-
niform system, even artificial, may tend to prevent wide de-
viations and inequalities. The alliances were first assembled
in groups according to recognized divisions, and have been
gradually worked to the present quinary shape, as offering, on
the whole, least violence to nature, and as the most conveni-
ent artificial plan provisionally.

9. I cannot refer to Mr. Swainson's families of Birds so free-
ly as I have done, without noticing the principle of Represen-
tative forms, which he most ingeniously attempts to trace
through all zoological nature. If we are justified in conceiv-
ing an ideal fundamental form, out of which all animals may
be supposed to be constructed by various degrees of develope-
ment in the different parts, it is also quite conceivable and
not improbable, that five or any other definite number of pri-
mary divisions, may arise from the whole force of develope-
ment being thrown successively on such five or more funda-
mental divisions of the ideal elementary structure. It is also
quite conceivable, that each of these primary divisions may

Vol. II.— No. 20. n. s. q q

41(> Remarks on Zoological Classification.

contain subdivisions, distinguished from each other by a suc-
cessive leaning towards developement in the direction of the
same elementary structures, nor need there be any limit to the
downward operation of such a principle. On the other hand,
I do not see any reason whatsoever for expecting that in each
sub-division, and in each department of such sub-division, the
same order should be always followed, and that the force of
developement should always fall in one unvarying succession
upon each of the supposed elementary structures.

10. This research confirms many analogies suggested by
ingenious writers, such as those between Bivalves and Dip-
tera, and between Arachnida and certain Radiata. An es-
tablished linear series checked by a parallel series would by
gradual progress and comparison of structure, settle many
such doubtful points of organization and function. The Ta-
ble also confirms the suggestion of a late writer, as to the zoo-
logical series passing in opposite directions from the Simiada.

11. The botanical arrangement is exceedingly more diffi-
cult than the zoological. Though in Botany some kind of
approach has been made towards definite limits of families, a
work most imperfectly performed in Zoology ; yet on the o-
ther hand, in Botany no great recognized natural groups were
to be found till very lately, beyond the Cryptogamous, Mono-
petalous, and Endogenous structures, so that families had to
be separately weighed from every possible quarter. In Zoo-
logy, the leading structures are much more distinctly marked,
except perhaps in the Aves and Pisces, and even these have,
in some degree, passed satisfactorily through the hands of
Swainson and Cuvier.

12. The limits of the alliances are not always very definite,
and some of them may hereafter require consolidation or sub-
division. I have endeavoured to use, as a sort of scale, some
obvious natural assemblages, apparently of this sort, such as
the Pachydermata, Ruminantia, Raptores, Natatores, Gral-
latores, Chondropterygii, Malacopterygii, Abdominales, My-
riopoda, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, and Echino-
dermata. I have also been aided by the presumed parallel-
ism of the alliances at equal distances from the extremities of
the series ; without such reference to the Crustaceous allian-
ces, it would scarcely have been possible to surmise the com-
parative rank of the groups in the Insecta, and the matter will
after all require steady re-examination.

13. The want of some such work as Dr. Lindley's Natural
System, puts me under a difficulty in indicating the limits of

Remarks on Zoological Classification. 417

the families, of which some few only are my own. Since how-
ever each family is named from a genus, the reader will un-
derstand it as applying to the usual division containing it,
limited by the families between which it stands, and without
any reference to the dignity claimed for such divisions by na-
turalists. I shall hereafter refer to the principal authorities
which I have followed. Recognized divisions above families
are indicated by a semicolon.

14. I have followed botanists in introducing a uniform ter-
mination, for all the zoological families ; there is a tendency
to use the termination in dee, and it is here made general. —
Genera ending in a are formed in adee ; in most other cases
they are formed in idee, except to avoid a termination in iidce ;
and finally the names are formed from the nominative, where
an ambiguity might otherwise be thrown on the generic name.
I have also, as in botany, adopted the termination in ales for
the Alliances, throwing aside entirely all characteristic names.
By this very necessary change the memory is unloaded from
an incredible number of harsh compounds, perpetually chang-
ing, often inaccurate, and often hostile to natural distribution.
The use of a generic name for families and alliances, is more-
over a direct aid to the memory, and frequently, as has been
justly observed, harmonizes with the limits and names of the
ancient genera.

15. A table such as this proposed, cannot safely make any
pretension to precision in the details, nor will its value at pre-
sent consist in that. It must require for a long period, many
corrections as to the limits of families, their place in the al-
liance, and the limits of the alliances themselves, and their
immediate succession, before the full benefit can be derived
from an improved nomenclature, a systematic grouping of fa-
milies, and a uniform scheme of complete continuous deve-
lopement through all animal organization.

418 Remarks on Zoological Classification.

a. Monadse, cyclidiadae, amcebadje ; enchelydae, tracheliadae,

b. Kolpodadae, vorticelladae ; flustrad^:, milleporadae, alcyonelladae ;

c. Hydradae, plumatelladae, SERTULARIADiE ; gorgoniadae, coralliada,*

d. Ammotheadae, pennatuladae ; madreporad^:, zoanthidae, actiniadae ;

e. Asteriadae, encrinidae, echinid^, spantangidae, holothuriadae ;

/. Physaliadae, physsophoradae, medusad.e, dipyadae, pelagiadae;
g. Pyrosomadae, botryllidae, ascidiad^ ; salpada ; linguladae ;
h. Pectenidae, ostreadas, AVICULADiE, pinnadas, arcadae;
i. Mytilidas, unionidae ; tridacnadje, cardiadas, pholadae ;
j. Tubicinelladae, balanidae, pyrgomadjE; anatifadas, cineradas ;

k. Maiada3, canceridae, gecarcinidje, calappadae, corystadae ;
I. Dromiadae, raninadas, hippadje, paguridae, porcellanadae ;
m. Scyllaridae, astacidae, PALiEMONIDiE ; mysidae, squilladae ;
/. Caprellads, cyamida3 ; hyperiadje, gammaridae, corophiadae ;
k. Byporidae, cymothoadae ; sph^eromadjE, idoteadae, asellidae ;

j. Onisciadae ; cyclopidae, cypridje ; limnadiadae, branchipodidas ;
i. Limulidae ; argulidae, caligid^e, cecropidae, dichelestiadae ;
A. Calymenid®, asaphidae, OGYGIAM2, paradoxididae, agnostidae;
g. Patelladae ; pliyllidiadae ; HALYOTiDiE, fissurelladae ; calyptasadae ;
/. Conidae, volutadae ; buccinid^:, muricidae, strombidae;

e. Trochidae, turbinidae, melaniad^, janthinadae, neritadae;

d. Ortlioceratidre, lituoladae, orbiculinad^e, milioladas, rotaliadae ;

c. Bulladae, aplysiadae; LIMACIDJS, helicidae, planorbidae ;

b. Nautilida, ammonitidae, argonautadje, octopodidae, sepiadae ;

a. Tritoniadae, glaucidae; PNEUMODERMONiD^jhyalaeadas; pterotracheadae;

aa. Trichiuridae, xyphiadas, scomberid^e, chaetodontidae, smaridae,

bb. Sparidas, sciaenadae, scorp^enadje, mullidae, percadae ;

cc. Tetraodontidae, balistidae ; SYNGNATHIDJE ; fistulariadas, labridae,

dd. Acanthuridae, anabantidae, mugilid^e, blenniadae, lophiadae ;

ee. Sirenidae, ranadae; trionycid^, testudinidae ; ornithocephalidas ;

//. Alcadae, colymbadae, anatid^e, pelecanidae, laridae ;
gg. Rallidae, tantalidEe, scolopacid^e, charadriadas, ardeadae ;
AA. Gypogeranidas, vulturidae, AQUILADJS, buteonidae, strigidae;
ii. Caprimulgidae, hirundinidas, meropid^;; trochilidae, meliphagadae ;
//. Sylviadae, muscicapadae, merulad.®; corvidae, fringilladae,

kk. Musophagadae, buceridae ; rhamphastid^e, psittacidae, cuculidae ;
11. Columbadae, phasianidae, tetraonidjE, otidae ; struthionidae ;

Remarks on Zoological Classification. 419

aaa. Cysticercidae ; taeniadae, tetrarhyncid^; ; polystomadfe, fascioladae,
bbb, Echinorhyncidae; strongylidae, liorhyncidje, cucullanida?, ascaridaa;
ccc. Iclitliydiadae, megalotrochadas, FURCULARIADiE, rotiferidae,

brachioBidae ;
ddd. Planariadae, lemaeadae, lerneopennad^:, lemeBtomadae, lerneopo-

dadae;
eee. Oribatadas, acaridas, gamasid^, liydraclmadae, trombidiadae ;

///. Salticidae, araneads, mygalidje ; scorpicmidae ; pycnogonidag ;

ggg. Hippoboscadae ; Bmscadae, (estrid^, ccmopsidae, syrphidae;

hhh. Empidae, asilidae, TABANID.dE; tipuladas, calicidae ;

i i i. Pterophoridae, papilioBidae, sphingidjE, bombycidae, tineadae ;

j j j. Phryganeadae ; termitidae, myrmeleonid^e; ephemeradae, libelluladae ;

kkk. Acridiadas, locustadae, gryllid^e; phasmadae, blattadae;
III. Forficuladae ; staphylinidae, oxytellid^;, tachinidae ; pselapliidae ;
ramm..Mastigidae, silphadae, DERMESTIDiE, byrrhidae, histeridae ;
III. Copridae ; trichiadae, melolonthad^;, scarabaeidae ; lucanidae ;
kkk. Ciciudeladae, brachinidae, carabid^e; dytiscidae, gyrinidae;

jjj. Hydrophilidae ; elateridae, BUPRESTiDiE; cleridae, lampyridae;
Hi. Cantharidae ; tenebrionidae, diaperidje, cisteladae, cedemeradae ;
hhh. Curculionidae, scolytidae, CUCUJIDiE, eerambycidae, sagradae;
ggg. Chrysomeladae, erotylidae; coccinellab^, lycoperdinadae ; stylopsidae;
///. Tenthredinidae ; ichneumonidae, formicad^, vespadae, cynipsidae;

eee. Aphidae, coccidae, cicadab^e ; notonectad33, cimicidae ;

ddd. Pulicidae ; pediculidae, ricinid^;; poduradae, lepismadae ;

ccc. Iulidae, polyxenidaB;SCUTIGERAD^E,scolopeBdradae, cryptopidae;

bbb. Peripatidae ; nereidae, euniceadje, aphroditadae ; sipuBculidae ;

aaa. Serpuladae; areaicoladae, lumbricibjE; B.iradiBidae;gastrobraBchidae,

a a. Petromyzidae ; squalidae, raiad^e ; chimaeradae, acipeBseridae ;

b b. Siluridae, salmoBidae, clupead^;, cypriBidae, esocidae ;

cc. Morrhuadas, soleadae, CYCLOPTERIDiE ; muraeBadae, gymBotidas;

dd. Caeciliadae, coluberidae, anguinidje ; sciacidae, chamaeleoBidae,

ee. Geckoidae, iguaBadse, lacertad^;, crocodilidae ; ichthyosauridae ;

//. DelphiBidae, balseaadae, manatibje ; pBocadffi ; lutradae,
gg. MBSteladae, felidae, canib^e; melesidae; soricidae;
hh. VespertilioBidae ; simiadae, HOMINIDjE, cebidae, lemuridae ;
i i . Didelphidae ; caviadae ; castorid^e, sciBridae ; kaBguridae ;
jj. Moschidae, cervidae, camelidje, bovidae, aBtelopidas ;

kk. ABoplotheriadae, eqBidae, elephantidje, SBidae, hyracidae;
1 1 . Bradypodidae ; dasypodidae, myrmecophagad.33 ; echidBadae, omitho-
rhyBcidae ;

( To be continued)
Thurlby Hall, Lincoln.
June \Wi, 1838.

420 Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

Art. IV. Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds composing
the Order Insessores Heterogenes. By Edward Blyth, Esq.

No. II. — Systematic Analysis of the Series. Charac-
ters OF THE MOTMOTS.

In my contribution to the 'Magazine of Natural History' for
June last, I specified the various groups of birds which were
there brought together (provisionally) under the term Hetero-
genes ; and I mentioned a few of their more prominent mu-
tual differential characters. Since then, in a general arrange-
ment of the class read before the Zoological Society, I have
endeavoured, by proposing divisions of several degrees of va-
lue, to reduce this difficult series to something like order: and
have also, while retaining the same ordinal groups which have
been indicated in the foregoing numbers of this Magazine,
been induced to make an alteration in their nomenclature, by
transferring to the divisions of this degree of value, the uni-
form termination ores; whence the Rapaces, Heterogenes, and
Cantrices of my previous communications may now be re-
spectively designated Raptores, Strepitores, and Cantores, the
parrots being furthermore detached from the second of these,
and styled, exclusively, Scansores.

Accordingly, therefore, the immense division Insessores of
the quinary classification may be dismembered into three se-
parate orders, each of which is invariably distinguished by a
very distinct structure of the organ of voice, in addition to
other peculiar characters. The names Strepitores, (screech-
ers), and Cantor es, (warblers or songsters), have reference to
the conformation of the lower larynx.

The parrots, — Scansores, — I place, for a variety of reasons,
at the head of the system ; preceding the Raptores, as among
Mammalia the handed animals do the Carnivora. It is in-
deed remarkable, that, in both instances, the highest order
should have the foot modified to act as a prehensile instru-
ment, or hand ; while in the typical Carnivora, of the class
Mammalia, much freedom of action is continued in the ante-
rior limb, the lion striking down his prey (if of moderate size)
with the fore paw ; and the Raptores, also, being enabled to
strike out the foot, by means of which, in the great majority
of instances, the prey is solely captured. There are, however,
much better characters than these incidental analogies to war-
rant the elevated station assigned to the restricted order Scan-
sores : but it will be time to treat in detail of the parrots when
the Strepitores are disposed of.

of the Order Insessores Heterogenes. 421

My third order, — Strepitores, (that is to say, the Heteroge-
nes, or those Insessores of Mr. Vigors's arrangement which
have a simple vocal apparatus), — sub-divides into three prin-
cipal groups, or sub-orders, which may be designated from
the prevalent construction of the foot, — Syndactyli, Zygodac-
tyly, and Heterodactyli.

The Syndactyli next fall into two divisions : those with the
hinder edge of the sternum singly emarginated, only ten tail-
feathers, and sober-coloured plumage, — Buceroides; and with
a doubly-notched sternum, twelve tail-feathers, and generally
gay plumage, — Halcyoides. Of groups of the next degree of
value, the Buceroides can be resolved into one only, — Arcui-
rostres, comprising the two families of hornbills, (Buceridce),
and hoopoes, ( Upupida) ; while the Halcyoides require to be
divided into three, — Cylindrirostres, composed of the three
families of bee-eaters, (Meropidce), rollers, [Coracidte), and
kingfishers, (Halcyonidce) ; — Angulirostres, consisting of the
todies, (Todidce), and jacamars, (Galbulidce) ; — and Serrati-
rostres, or the motmots, (Prionitidm).

The Zygodactyli also range in two primary divisions ; the
first having- a more muscular stomach, no cceca, and an ac-
cessory plume to the clothing feathers more or less developed,
— Picoides ; the second with a more lax stomach, great cae-
ca, and no trace of the accessory plume, — Cuculoides : the
former are remarkable for the length of the coracoid bones.
The Picoides then sub -divide into Levirostres, or the two fa-
milies of toucans, (Rhamphastidce), and touracos, (Mnsopha-
gidce), which latter requires to be farther separated into the
sub-families Musophagince, composed of the plantain-eaters,
(Musophaga), touracos, (Corythaix), and nape-crests, (Chi-
zhceris); and Colino, consisting of the colies, (Colius); — and
Cuneirostres, comprising also two families, those of the bar-
bets, (Bucconidce), and woodpeckers, {Picida), the latter di-
visable into Piciance, or the genera piculet, {Picumnus), wood-
pecker, {Picus), and wryneck, (Yunx) ; and Indicatorince,
composed of the honeyguides, (Indicator) : the Cuculoides,
in my present state of knowledge, I can venture only to range
in two families, those of the puff-birds, (Tamatiadce), which
perhaps require to be first separated into Tamatianw, or the
puff-birds, (Tamatia and Lypornyx), and barbacous, (Mona-
sa ; and LeptosomincR, or the courols, (Leptosomus) ; — and of
the cuckoos, (Cuculidce), which should range in three sub -fa-
milies, Cuculince, or the cuckoos, [Cuculus and Chalcites),
and rain-fowl, ( Scythrops) ; — Centropodince, or the couas,
(Coccyzus), coucals, (Centropus), malkohas, (Phamicophceus),
&c. — and Crotophagincd, or the ani, (Crotophaga).

422 Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

Lastly, the Heterodactyli require to be separated into those
with zygodactyle feet, (though on a different principle from
any of the preceding groups), — Trogonoides ; and with feet
not^ zygodactyle, — Cypseloides. The former contains only
the single family of trogons, {Trogonid<e), which may also be
termed Accurvirostres ; the latter consists of the Parvirostres,
or moth-hunter family, (Caprimulgidce), perhaps separable
into two sub-families, — and Tenuirostres, or the swifts, [Cyp-
selidce), and hummingbirds, {Trochilidce).

The following tabular view exhibits the foregoing distribu-
tion of the successive groups of Strepitores at a glance.

Syndactyli,

Zygodactyli,

Heterodactyli,

Buceroides,

Halcyoides,

Picoides,

( Buceridce.
\ Upupidce.
(MeropidcB.
(Cylindrirostres, j Coracidce.

\ Arcuirostres,

Angulirostres,
^Serratirostres,
| Levirostres,

{ Halcyonidce.
( Todidce.
\ Galbulidce.
Prionitida.
{ Rhamphastida.
\ Musophagidce.
j Bucconidce.
1 Picidee.

Cuneirostres,

~ 7 ., ( n j. { Tamatiadce.

iCuculoides, \Curvuhrostres, \CucuM^

Trogonoides, Accurvirostres,
' Parvirostres,

Cypseloides,

Tenuirostres,

Trogonidee.
Caprimulgidee.
Cypselidee.
Trochilida.

And a more striking contrast cannot be than is afforded by
this long succession of mutually distinct forms, as compared
with the next order, Cantores, which scarcely affords a sin-
gle character for subdivision, though containing, perhaps, tri-
ple the number of species at the lowest rough estimate.

My last communication was devoted to the consideration
of the two syndactyle groups of Cylindrirostres and Anguli-
rostres ; and I will content myself, at present, with complet-
ing the Halcyoides, by treating on the Serratirostres, or
motmots. The Buceroides will form the subject of my next
paper.

The family of motmots, — Prionitidce, called also sawbills,
and houtous, (which latter name expresses the unvaried cry
of one of the species), — is peculiar to the tropical regions of
South America, and combines several characters of the king-
fishers with others of the toucans.

The species average the size of a small jay; and their pro-
portions resemble those of a common magpie. The foot is
syndactyle, yet moderately adapted for progression on the

of the Order Insessores Heterogenes, 423

ground ; having the tarse of mean length, and the innermost
toe short, as in the kingfishers : the claw of the middle toe is
rather long, with an expanded inner edge. Beak almost cor-
vine, but with the lower mandible also slightly decurved; and
the nostrils quite bare, uncovered by incumbent bristle-like
feathers ; their orifice is a circular perforation in the fore-part
of the nasal membrane, and consequently a little removed
from the base of the bill, (as in the todies and jacamars) : the
medial portion of both mandibles is distinctly denticulated.
Wings rounded, having the fourth, fifth, and sixth feathers
nearly equal and longest : tail very much graduated, its sixth
or outermost pair of feathers short, and absent in some of the
species. The plumage is loosely webbed, as in the toucans,
having also the general appearance of that of the jays, ana-
logously with which it is somewhat lengthened upon the head,
where, in most of them, it is finely coloured, the tint resem-
bling that of the more brilliant kingfishers and halcyons ;
there is also a singular pointed tuft of similar elongated fea-
thers on the fore-part of the neck, which contrasts remarkably
with the surrounding plumage : the body-feathers are long,
and have a distinct supplementary shaft, as in the aricaris,
which is similarly flocculent and downy ; their colouring is
chaste and unobtrusive : around the beak are the fi\e sets of
vibrissa} so conspicuous in some barbets, but small and little
noticeable.

The sexes are undistinguishable ; and the young scarcely
differ, except in the more downy texture of their feathers. —
They appear to shed the primaries at the first moult.

The tongue is described to be barbed as in the toucans ;
the eye, also, to be large, as in those birds. Le Vaillant states
that the stomach is rather muscular. It is probable that their
skeleton considerably resembles that of the rollers, but with
the sternal crest less developed : and that the digestive or-
gans accord with those of the toucans, excepting, perhaps,
that a gall-bladder may be present, as in the hornbills and
kingfishers.

The most remarkable circumstance connected with this
group of birds is the unaccountable practice which most of
them exhibit of mutilating their long middle tail-feathers :
in other words, of nibbling off a small portion of the vanes of
them, immediately beyond the extremities of the next pair,
leaving, however, the tips barbed and untouched, as also the
entire remainder of their plumage. Of so general occurrence
is this, that it might reasonably be imagined to be an origi-
nal conformation, did not the absence of exact conformity in
the corresponding webs preclude the supposition ; besides

Vol. II. No. 20. n. s. r r

424 Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

which the artificial truncation is at once apparent when view-
ed with a lens, and newly-moulted specimens are occasion-
ally, though seldom, met with, which display the natural
structure.

Now, it has been intimated that the general figure of the
motmots is not unlike that of a common magpie ; and it par-
ticularly resembles those of the sub-division Dendrocitta of
Mr. Gould, (comprehending the Pica vagabunda, auct., and
some allied species) : and the fact is not a little curious, that
the members of that cantorial group further agree in present-
ing the anomalous habit in question. Both have the central
tail-feathers considerably longer than the next ; and the com-
mon Indian Dendrocitta vagabunda has them tipped for more
than an inch with black, the portion between which and the
extremities of the next pair is frequently so worn by nibbling,
as to be rendered sufficiently transparent to read through with
the utmost facility :* the unserrated mandibles of the pie be-
ing inadequate to cut through the web, as is done by the mot-
mots. It is not, therefore, improbable that by careful obser-
vation and comparison of the habits of these two essentially
incongruous genera, the intent of so strange a practice may
be divined.

In the motmots, however, it is furthermore exceedingly re-
markable, that although in the perfect feather of the adult
bird there exists not the slightest trace of irregularity, yet,
in the immature plumage (of one species at least, as figured
by Le Vaillant), a considerable and apparently pristine sinu-
ation occurs, where the artificial excision is practised by the
adults : though what inference can be deduced from this, I
am a loss to imagine, unless it be, simply, that some object
must be attained by the peculiarity.

Motmots are solitary birds, inhabitants of the interior of the
forest, though probably of the more open glades rather than the
dense entanglement They subsist both on small animals and
upon fruit: in this resembling the succeeding group of toucans.
Mr. Waterton narrates, of the P. momotus, that — " He who
wishes to observe this handsome bird in its native haunts,
must be in the forest in the morning's dawn. The houtou
shuns the society of man: the plantations and cultivated parts
are too much disturbed to engage it to settle there : the thick
and gloomy forests are the places preferred by the solitary
houtou. In those far-extending wilds [Guaiana], about day-
break, you hear him articulate in a distinct and mournful tone
" houtou, houtou." Move cautiously to where the sound pro-

* I find that the same is sometimes noticeahle in our native magpie.

of the Order Insessores Heterogenes. 425

ceeds from, and you will see him sitting in the underwood,
about a couple of yards from the ground, his tail moving up
and down every time he articulates " houtou." He lives on
insects and the berries amongst the underwood, and very rare-
ly is seen on the lofty trees, except the bastard Siloabali tree,
the fruit of which is grateful to him. He makes no nest, but
rears his young in a hole in the sand, generally on the side
of a hill."*

In the ' Illustrations of Ornithology,' by Sir W. Jardine,
Bt., and others, we read that the motmots " feed principally
on fruits, but occasionally plunder the nests of other birds of
their young. They breed in holes of the ground, or in old
hollow trees." I suspect that the latter site is a rare excep-
tion to the general rule, as the structure of the foot intimates
that they are burrowers. The number and colour of the eggs
remain to be described ; but are probably the same as in the
kingfishers, though perhaps less numerous.

We are indebted to the Spanish naturalist Don Felix d'A-
zara for some interesting details on the habits of these birds,
as remarked in a captive state. That excellent observer re-
lates two instances of their entering dwelling-houses, and be-
ing taken alive, which enabled him to obtain some insight
into their economy. He kept three motmots in captivity for
a considerable time, the habits of which, as described by
him, are strikingly intermediate to those of the kingfishers
and toucans. They were of a fierce and untameable disposi-
tion, and passed their time chiefly sitting on a piece of furni-
ture, only descending to the ground to feed. Their gait was
stiff and inelegant, by oblique hops ; accompanied by a pe-
culiar movement of the head. They preferred animal to ve-
getable food, but were fond of oranges and water-melons ;
rejecting maize, however softened and prepared. Small birds
and mice were seized with great avidity, and were swallowed
entire, and invariably head foremost, after beating them much,
with violence, against the ground, and breaking the bones of
the limbs by means of the serrated bill : they never divided
their prey, but left it if too large to swallow ; in this particu-
lar deviating from the toucans, and agreeing with the king-
fishers and rollers ; which latter are further recalled to mind
by the practice of beating it against the ground. It is pro-
bable that they also strike with their wings, as the bony tu-
bercle near the bend projects sufficiently to give effect to a
blow.

About six or seven species of Prionitidce have now been

*' Wanderings in Demerara and British Guaiana.'
rr2

426 Ornithology of Blackburn

ascertained, all of which are considerably allied, though pre-
senting certain trivial modifications of the beak only, which
I perceive have been lately seized upon as characters on which
to found generic separation. The distinction of Galbula and
Jacamerops, however, among the jacamars, is of correspond-
ing value : and we might proceed on the same principle to
dismember the great genus Buceros. Any divisions that may
be instituted among the motmots will most likely prove to
grade into each other, while the group composed of the whole
of them continues thoroughly distinct. It is difficult, indeed,
to conceive what could have induced even Mr. Swainson to
include them in his family Trogonidce I Yet that astute
systematist presumes to sneer at the illustrious Cuvier for ap-
proximating the hornbills to the kingfishers.

Art. V. On the Ornithology of Blackburn and the North of Lan-
cashire. By John Skaife Esq.*

It may be convenient to preface the following list of birds
with a brief description of the localities whence my specimens
were obtained, or where they were seen. Blackburn lies in
53* 46" N. lat., 2' 28" W. long., in the county palatine of
Lancaster ; situated in a valley surrounded on all sides by
hills, on the northern edge of the great coal-field of Lanca-
shire. Coal-pits have been sunk and worked, and coal ob-
tained, at a very short distance from the town, almost, indeed,
in the very suburbs. There is no coal found to the north of
this town, at least on the western side of the island, till we
reach Whitehaven, in Cumberland.

One of my principal boundaries is the river Kibble, which,
after quitting Yorkshire, directs its course nearly westward,
and flows through a beautiful and fertile valley, about six or
seven miles north of Blackburn ; at that distance is placed the
town or village of Ribchester, once a Roman station, and a
place of great importance, but now dwindled down to a mi-
serable weaving village, not even possessing a market. It
has obtained a little celebrity during the last half century,
from a number of valuable Roman antiquities having been
discovered there. It is said to have been a sea-port in the

* I must protest against this article being taken as a complete list of the
birds of Lancashire ; the remarks are merely those of an individual, who,
however zealous in the pursuit of his favourite science, must, like all indi-
viduals, be liable to error : besides, a large portion of the county I have not
visited at all.

and the North of Lancashire. 427

time of the Romans ; if so, the changes which' have taken
place in the bed of the Ribble must have been immense, as
that river is now fordable in many places below Ribchester,
and is not navigable for anything larger than a ferry-boat till
we arrive at the large and flourishing town of Preston, some
twelve miles down the stream. Below this town the river is
navigable for small craft. At the mouth, and on the north
bank of the Ribble, is situated the pleasant and fashionable
bathing village of Lytham. Following the line of the sea-
coast northwards, we arrive at Blackpool, another bathing
village ; this is placed so close to the margin of the sea, that
many parts have been undermined and washed away by the
action of the waves. The coast between Lytham and Black-
pool is much resorted to by water-fowl, and many specimens
are obtained there. Northwards we first arrive at the em-
bouchure of the river Wyre, next at that of the river Lune,
which flows past Lancaster, and finally at the Bay of More-
cambe, which is the limit of my personal observations north-
wards.

The Bay of Morecambe, or Lancaster Sands, as it is more
usually called, is a vast expanse of land covered by the tide
at high water, and left dry at low water. Into this bay the
rivers Keer, Kent, Winster, Leven, and Crake, disembogue
themselves ; and at low water the mouths of these rivers are
the resort of myriads of water fowl.

From Preston to Lancaster, going northwards, a distance
of twenty-two miles, taking the great north road as a centre,
to the left or west lies the Fylde country, a dead level, whilst
to the right or east we approach nearly to the foot of the
northern range of mountains, which there terminates ; from
the foot of the hills to the sea being, at a rough estimate, a
distance of fifteen miles.

South of Blackburn commence the high moors of Darwen,
Anglezark, &c, which extend to the large town of Bolton-le-
Moors, the origin of which name is obvious. To the east of
Blackburn lies the small town of Clitheroe, at a distance of
ten miles ; near which town the lofty hill or mountain of Pen-
die rears its head : this is another portion of the great north-
ern chain above referred to. Still farther to the north-east is
the mountainous district called the Forest of Bowland. This
district, though the nearest part is scarcely sixteen miles from
Blackburn, is in the county of York ; it is the most moun-
tainous and most romantic part of this country ; is intersect-
ed by numerous mountain streams, and traversed by the river
Hodder, a celebrated trout and salmon stream, and the largest
affluent of the Ribble.

rr 3

428 Ornithology of Blackburn

It is now about forty years since the last of the red deer,
which formerly roamed at will in these parts, was destroyed ;
the increase of population, and the enclosure of the lower
mountain districts, rendering their existence incompatible
with agricultural pursuits. The forest laws, at no very dis-
tant date enforced with great severity, are now in a great mea-
sure suspended or forgotten. At Brewsholme Hall, the resi-
dence of the bough-bearer, is still kept an iron stirrup or ring;
all dogs that could not pass through which ring, were de-
stroyed, in order to ensure the safety of the deer.

Having been somewhat diffuse on the topography of these
parts, a few words will suffice on their geological formations.
At the termination of the coal measures, to the north and
west of Blackburn, the red sand stone commences, and con-
tinues following the coast line up to Lancaster. Once more
taking the great north road as a centre, to the left the forma-
tion is entirely red sand-stone ; to the right is a large district of
millstone grit and limestone shale, till we pass high up the
mountains, where we meet with the carboniferous or mountain
limestone. On the northern extremity of Morecambe Bay lies
the isle of Walney, which, with a narrow strip of the mainland,
is composed of the old red sandstone ; this is succeeded by
the mountain limestone, — The forest of Bowland is compo-
sed partly of millstone grit and partly of mountain limestone.
Near Clitheroe the limestone district commences ; close to
that town are extensive lime-kilns, whence all the immediate
neighbourhood of Blackburn is supplied with lime.

About three and a half miles west from Blackburn, on the
millstone grit and limestone shale formation, is situated, in a
romantic and well-wooded glen, an immense mass of rock
called the ' Alum Rock,' or * Scarr.' At this spot extensive
alum-works were carried on for many years, but were aban-
doned about forty years ago, not from any unproductiveness
in the soil, but simply from the fact that the receipts barely
covered the outlay.

In the arrangement of the following list of birds, I have a-
dopted that of Mr. Ey ton's published Catalogue ; and I am
the more readily induced to do so, as it has already been fol-
lowed in your Magazine by Dr. Moore, of Plymouth.

Order I.—ACCIPITRES.

Division i. — Diurnee.

Gen. Falco. — Sub-gen. 1. Falco.

1 . Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. This bird is very rare, though
I possess two specimens, one caught in a trap in the Forest of Bow-
land, several years since ; and a second shot near Preston, in the
winter of 1836-7.

and the North of Lancashire. 4*29

2. Falco Msalon. Merlin. This bird is far from being uncommon ;

two or three specimens generally coming under my observation
every year.

3. Falco Tinnunculus. Kestrel. This is the most common species of

hawk with us, and is especially abundant. I seldom take a walk
of a few miles into the country, but I meet with a few specimens
hovering in the air in their peculiar style. A fact connected with
the natural history of this bird, I have several times had an op-
portunity of verifying ; which is, that it never preys on the star-
ling. In the fissures and crevices of the Alum Scar vast numbers
of starlings build their nests and rear their young, totally regard-
less of several pairs of kestrels, their neighbours, which likewise
build their nests and rear their young in the crevices of the same
rock. I have at different times lain concealed with my gun, in
order to get a shot at the kestrels, but so situated that I could
command a full view of the face of the cliff. The starlings would
pass in and out, chattering, whistling, and screaming or croaking,
taking no notice whatever of the kestrels, which would issue from
holes, I am sure not ten yards from the habitat of the starlings,
whom they never appeared to molest, there being a perfectly good
understanding established between them ; but the moment one of
the sparrow-hawks (which build in the trees in the woods below)
came in sight, there would be a general shriek of alarm, and the
poor starlings, in a state of the greatest agitation, would hurry for
shelter to their holes and crevices in the rock.
Gen. Astur.

4. Astur Palumbarius. Goshawk. Very rare, though shot or caught

occasionally in the Forest of Bowland. A relative of my own has
a beautiful pair, male and female, caught in a trap there a few
years since.
Gen. Accipiter.

5. Accipiter fringillarius. Sparrow-hawk. Very common, and next

in frequency to the kestrel. It is singular how diversified is the
plumage of this bird ; amongst numerous specimens I have sel-
dom found two alike.
Gen. Milvus.

6. Milvus regalis. Kite. I have never been able to meet with this

bird, though I have occasionally heard of one having been shot
in this neighbourhood.
Gen. Buteo.

7. Buteo vulgaris. Common Buzzard. Very rare, though a speci-

men or two has been shot in the mountains east of Blackburn.
Gen. Circus.

8. Circus Pygargus. Hen Harrier. Equally rare with the two latter

genera. I have a beautiful specimen of the male, shot in the
neighbourhood of Lancaster.

Division ii. — Nocturnes.

Gen. Strix. — Sub-gen. 1. Otus.

9. Otus vulgaris. Long-eared Owl. Very rare. I have one specimen

shot near Preston last winter.

10. Otus brachyotus. Short-eared Owl. Rather more plentiful than
the preceding, at least specimens are more frequently met with ;
still the bird is very rare. I possess a splendid specimen of the
female, caught in one of the streets in Manchester ; with this ex-

430 Ornithology of Blackburn

ception all the specimens I have heard of were taken on the moors.
Sub-gen. 2. Strix.

11. Strix Jlammea. Barn Owl. Very common.
Sub-gen. 3. Syrnium.

12. Syrnium Aluco. Wood Owl or Brown Owl. In these parts now
become rather scarce, though specimens are procurable occasion-
ally by using a little extra exertion. I learn from the game-keep-
ers, (their bitterest persecutors), that within a few years they were
very numerous in the woods towards the Ribble.

The above are all the species of owl that have come under my
own observation, but T heard of two specimens of a small owl be-
ing shot in the neighbourhood of Blackpool last year, which from
the description must have been Scops Aldrovandi.

Order II.— PASSERES.

Fam. i. — Dentirostres.
Gen. Lanius.

1. Lanius Collurio. Red-backed Shrike. This is by no means a rare

bird, several specimens being procured every year.
Gen. Muscicapa.

2. Muscicapa grisola. Spotted Fly-Catcher. Very common.

3. Muscicapa atricapilla. Pied Flycatcher. Extremely rare. I ne-

ver saw or heard of but one specimen, which was shot a few years
back in the woods at Feniscowles, 3^ miles W. of Blackburn, the x
seat of W. Feilden, Esq. M.P. ; and is now in the possession of
Mr. Cunningham, brewer, of this town.
Gen. Bombycilla.

4. Bombycilla Bohemica. Waxen Chatterer. Equally rare with the

preceding, as I never heard of more than one specimen, which was
shot a few years back near Ribchester, out of a small flock.
Gen. Turdus.

5. Turdus Merula. Blackbird. Common in gardens, orchards, thick-

ets and plantations.

6. Turdus tor quatus. Ring Ouzel. Frequent on the Moors. It breeds

in all the mountain districts described in my topographical sketch.
It is remarkably wild and shy in its manners, and owing to its ex-
treme wariness, specimens are procurable with difficulty.

7. Turdus viscivorus. Missel Thrush. Common.

8. Turdus pilaris. Fieldfare. Common.

9. Turdus musicus. Song Thrush. Common.
10. Turdus iliacus. Redwing. Common.

Gen. Cinclus.

11. Cinclus aquaticus. Water Ouzel. This bird is plentiful with us;
it has been shot within three miles of Blackburn. It is found in
all the mountain streams, I have also seen it in the larger rivers,
- -Hodder and Ribble.

Gen. Sylvia. — Sub-gen. 1 . Saxicola.

12. Saxicola rubicola. Stonechat. Not very plentiful ; it is the rar-

est of the Saxicola.

1 3. Saxicola Rubetra. Whinchat. Abundant in every meadow.

14. Saxicola CEnanthe. Wheatear. Common, though not so much

so as S. Rubetra, probably owing to its affecting particular loca-
lities, as old quarries, walls, and stony places generally. I have
found it most plentiful amongst the mountains in Bowland.

and the North of Lancashire. 431

Sub-gen. 2. Ficedula.

15. Ficedula Rubecula. Redbreast. Very common.*

16. Ficedula Rutacilla. Redstart. Not very plentiful, though speci-

mens may always he obtained in the summer.
Gen. Curruca. — Sub-gen. 1. Salicaria.

17. Salicaria arundinacea. Reed Warbler. Rare.

18. Salicaria Phragmites. Sedge Warbler. Tolerably plentiful, be-
ing the most common of the Salicaria, and found about almost
every old pit or pond, chattering in its peculiar way.

19. Salicaria Locustella. Grasshopper Warbler. Rare, though a few
specimens may generally be procured every summer : last sum-
mer, however, not one was to be found. At that time I was anx-
ious to complete a small case of the British warblers ; after the
most diligent search for many days, both by myself and several
agents, and that too in localities where they had been, for this bird,
tolerably plentiful, not one was either seen or heard. I have on-
ly heard it twice this summer.

Sub-gen. 2. Curruca.

20. Curruca atricapilla. Blackcap. Rather a scarce bird with us.

21. Curruca cinerea. Whitethroat. Not an uncommon species, though
not abundant. As to the Curruca garrula, notwithstanding the
most diligent search and enquiries, I have never been able to meet
with it.

22. Curruca hortensis. Garden Warbler. Very common.
Gen. Accentor.

23. Accentor modularis. Hedge Accentor. Very common.
Gen. Regulus.

24. Regulus auricapillus. Golden crested Wren. In certain locali-

ties very plentiful.
Gen. Svlvicola.

25. Sylvicola Trochilus. Willow Wren. Common.f

26. Sylvicola sibilatrix. Wood Wren. Plentiful.

27. Sylvicola rufa. Chiff-chaff. Abundant.
Gen. Troglodytes.

28. Troglodytes Europceus. Common Wren. Abundant.
Gen. Motacilla. — Sub-gen. 1. Motacilla.

29. Motacilla alba. White Wag-tail. Very abundant.
Sub-gen. 2. Budytes.

30. Budytes jlava. Yellow Wag-tail. Common.

31. Budytes boarula. Grey Wag-tail. Much more restricted in num-

bers than its congeners.
Gen. Anthus.

32. Anthus trivialis. Tree Pipit. Common.

33. Anthus pratensis. Meadow Pipit. Especially abundant.

34. Anthus aquaticus. Rock Pipit. Very rare. Specimens met with

occasionally on the coast.

* I am in possession of a robin which many persons would call white; but
it is of a dusky cream colour, the marking on the breast being of a lighter
hue than the rest of the plumage.

f A few years back, a friend of mine shot a white willow-wren in the Fo-
rest of Bowland, where he resides. It was one of the most lovely little birds
I ever beheld. Unfortunately the gentleman who shot it knew nothing of
the art of bird-mounting, nor even of skinning a bird ; and when I saw it,
it was in a state of decay. The colour was not pure white, but had a slight
tinge of yellow.

432 Ornithology of Blackburn

Fam. ii. — Conirostres.

Gen. Alauda.

35. Alauda arvensis. Skylark. It is singular that though the skylark

is one of our most common birds, its congener the woodlark is ne-
ver met with. I once had a specimen brought to me as a great
rarity. I saw by the state of the plumage that it was a cage bird,
and on enquiry it turned out that the bird had been brought in a
cage, from the south of England.*
Gen. Parus. — Sub-gen. 1. Parus.

36. Parus major. Great Tit. Common.

37. Parus ater. Colemouse. } Of these two palustris is much

38. Parus palustris. Marsh Tit. j more frequent than ater, which is

somewhat scarce.

39. Parus cceruleus. Blue Tit. Very common.

40. Parus caudatus. Long-tailed Tit. In some localities and seasons

very plentiful ; in others not to be met with.
Gen. Emberiza.

41. Emberiza citrinella. Yellow Bunting. One of the most common

of the Passeres.

42. Emberiza Schceniculus. Reed Bunting. Common.

43. Emberiza miliaria. CommonBunting. Rare, at least not common.
Gen. Plectrophanes.

44. Plectrophanes nivalis. Snow Bunting. Occasionally flocks have

been seen in the mountains, but they appear capricious in their
habits. We have had none for the last three years.
Gen. Fringilla. — Sub-gen. 1. Pyrgita.

45. Pyrgita domestica. House Sparrow. Abundant.f
Sub-gen. 2. Fringilla.

46. Fringilla ccelebs. Chaffinch. Common. In the winter I never
meet with any but males.

47. Fringilla Montifringilla. Mountain Finch. Rare, and only found

in the mountains, or their immediate neighbourhood.
Sub-gen. 3. Carduelis.

48. Carduelis aurata. Goldfinch. Sparingly scattered in our neigh-
bourhood.

Sub-gen. 4. Linaria.

49. Linaria Spinus. Siskin. Rare, but obtained occasionally.

50. Linaria Jlavirostris. Lesser Redpole. Common.

* Last year I was so fortunate as to procure a black lark. The ground
colour is a dark brown, and those parts of the plumage which, in the com-
mon skylark, are brown, in this bird are jet black. In form it is not distin-
guishable from the skylark. Last autumn a white lark was frequently seen
in a flock of skylarks, on the lower range of hills two miles south of Black-
burn. The colliers, who saw it several times, said that it was of a pure white,
and that the eye was red, for it flew so near to them as almost to be within
reach of the hand. As soon as I heard of it I sent a man, who is a good
shot, in pursuit of it ; he beat about its accustomed haunts for two days,
but could not meet with it.

fin August, 1834, a white sparrow was frequently seen about the farm
yards, hedges, &c, in the neighbourhood of the Alum Scar. I saw it seve-
ral times myself; it was of the usual dingy hue. Unfortunately I had no
gun : several of my sporting friends promised to shoot it for me, but when-
ever they beat up its quarters it was gone. It was seen occasionally for ma-
ny weeks : I never heard of its capture, nor do I believe that it was taken.

and the North of Lancashire. 433

51 . Linaria cannabina. Brown Linnet. Very common.

52. Linaria montium. Twite. Common. The moorlands are pecu-
liarly favourable to the linnets.

Gen. Coccothraustes. — Sub-gen. 1. Coccothraustes.

53. Coccothraustes Chloris. Green Grosbeak. Common.
Sub-gen. 2. Pyrrhula.

54. Pyrrhula vulgaris. Bulfinch. Common.
Gen. Sturnus.

55. Sturnus vulgaris. Starling. Especially abundant.
Gen. Fregilus.

56. Fregilus Graculus. Red-legged Chough. An occasional speci-
men has been taken at the mouth of the Ribble, after very stormy
weather; considered a great rarity. Probably driven from the
coast of Wales by stress of weather ; Wales being the nearest lo-
cality where they are found in abundance.

Gen. Corvus. — Sub-gen. 1. Corvus.

57. Corvus Monedula. Jackdaw. Common.

58. Corvus frugilegus. Rook. Abundant.

59. Corvus Corone. Carrion Crow. Only thinly scattered in these parts.

60. Corvus Comix. Hooded Crow. Rare. I have occasionally met
with a specimen or two on the coast.

Sub-gen. 2. Pica.

61. Pica caudata. Magpie. Common.
Sub-gen. 3. Garrulus.

62. Garrulus glandarius. Jay. Common.

Fam. iii. — Fissirostres.

Gen. Hirundo. — Sub-gen. 1. Cypselus.

63. Cypselus Apus. Swift. Common.
Sub-gen. 2. Hirundo.

64. Hirundo urbica. Marten. Common.

65. Hirundo riparia. Sand Marten. Common.

66. Hirundo rustica. Swallow. Common.
Gen. Caprimulgus.

67. Caprimulgus Europceus. Night-jar. Moderately plentiful.

Fam. iv. — Tenuirostres .

Gen. Certhia.

68. Certhia familiaris: Creeper. Common where found, but the lo-
calities are not many.

Gen. Alcedo.

69. Alcedo ispida. Kingfisher. Once very abundant in all the brooks

about here, and still commonly met with in the less frequented
parts.

(To be continued.)

Blackburn, Lancashire,
July Uth, 1838.

434 Monograph of the Genua Semnopithecus.

Art. VI. Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. By William
Martin, Esq. F.L.S.

( Continued from Page 326).

With respect to the habits and manners of the Semnopithe-
ci, little need be said. Their movements are more slow and
composed than we see among the Cercopitheci, — they have
far less brusquerie and petulance, and are more staid, quiet,
and gentle. While young they are playful and familiar, but
as age advances they become surly, mistrustful, and even fe-
rocious. They leap and bound among the trees of their na-
tive woods, with extreme address and vigour, exceeding even
the guenons in the distance to which they spring. Several
species, but more particularly the Entellus, are held in vene-
ration by the worshippers of Brama, and are not only tolerat-
ed but protected ; they are permitted to ravage gardens in
troops, without the least molestation, or even to enter within
the very walls of dwelling houses, and appropriate whatever
suits their appetite or inclination. This blind veneration is,
however, by no means universal. The Entellus, for instance,
which abounds in the forests of the western ghauts, is not re-
garded as sacred by the Mahratta people, nor, as we are as-
sured, do they object to its being killed. Many species attain
to considerable dimensions ; and many are distinguished by
the softness and glossiness of their fur, as well as by the beau-
ty of their colouring.

Among the species comprehended in the present genus,
there obtains a mass of confusion, which we trust to be able,
in some degree at least, to disentangle. Most of our descrip-
tions are original, and as correct as possible ; nor have we
omitted consulting various authorities on the subject, not,
however, to the warping of our opinion on a single species.
We shall arrange them as follows.

Genus SEMNOPITHECUS, F. Cuv.

SPECIES.

S. nemcsus. The Douc Monkey.

General colour of the body beautiful grey, arising from the hairs being
annulated with black and white. Forehead black ; long hairs around the
face white ; gorget light chesnut red ; shoulders and a bar under the gor-
get black. Fore arms white ; thighs black, legs bright deep chesnut red ;
hands and feet black ; tail white ; skin of face yellow. Fur full, deep and
soft. Length about 2 feet, — the tail being about 1 foot 8 or 9 inches.

Habitat Cochinchina.

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 435

Syn. — Simla nemceus. Linn.

Pygathrix nemceus. Geoffr. in Ann. Mus. vol. xix.
Laslopyga nemceus. Illig. in Prodrom. Syst. Mam.
Douc. Buffon ; Hist. Nat. vol. xiv.
Cochinchina Monkey. Pennant.

S. Entellus. Entellus Monkey.

Hair of the head radiating from a centre ; superciliary rows of bristles
projecting, long, and Mack, very marked. General colour ashy grey, with
a tinge of straw yellow, passing into dull white on the sides of the face and
under parts of the body. In young individuals, the hands and feet are
washed with dusky black, but this is not the case in adults, which have a
paler colouring altogether, often verging upon white, tinted with pale straw
colour. Face black, with a slight violet hue.

Length of an adult male fom vertex to root of tail 2 feet 5 inches ; the
tail being 3 feet 1 inch to the end of the hairs, which run out into a sort of
pencil, but do not form a tuft.

Habitat India and the islands of the Indian Archipelago.
Syn. — Rollewai. Thunberg, in Travels, 1793. And in Wolf: see
Residence in Ceylon, 1783.

Note. — From some unaccountable mistake the name of Rollewai, or
Roloway,has been transferred to the Diana monkey, (Cercopithecus Di-
ana), a native of Africa.

S. fascicularis. Kra, or Croo Monkey.

Back and upper part of the head reddish brown ; tail and sides of the
body grey, becoming still paler on the inside of the limbs, and under sur-
face of the body. Face brown, with short white hair, and a full grey tuft
on each side, before the ears. Ridge of the nose between the eyes promi-
nent. We have examined a variety of this monkey, of an ashy grey colour,
with the top of the head and back of a greyish brown, patches of the same
occurring on the arms and thighs.

Length 22 inches ; tail 2 feet 8 inches.

Habitat Sumatra and the Malay islands.
Syn. — Simla fascicularis. Raffles, in Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 246.
Semnopithecus comatus ? Desm.
Kra, of the Malays.

Sir S. Raffles notices a species, (or as he terms it, variety),
agreeing with the Kra in colour, but far less in size, being un-
der a foot in length, and wanting the full tuft of hair on the
sides of the face, so remarkable in the Kra ; it is called ' Kra
Buku? by the Malays, and is found in Sumatra and the other
Malay islands.

We shall term it provisionally Semnopithecus Buku. Is
it the Presbytis mitrata of Eschscholtz ?

S. cristatus. Chingkau.

General colour silvered black ; the hairs, which are black throughout
the greater part of their length, having white tips. Face and limbs black ;
under surface of body more inclining to grey. The hairs of the forehead
diverge over the face, those on the top of the head are elevated into a peak-
ed crest. The hair of the body long and falling.

436 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

The chingkau when very young is of a reddish fawn colour, with black-
ish hands and feet ; when half grown of a. greyish brown, with black hands
and feet, the frontal hairs diverging forward, and the peaked crest being
distended.

The contour of body remarkably slender. Length nearly 2 feet ; tail 2
feet 6 inches.

This species is certainly not identical with the Simia
Maura of Schreber, as Fischer intimates, but with the Sem-
nopithecus pruinosus of Desmarest.

Habitat Sumatra, Java, &c.
Syn. — Simia cristata. Raffles, in Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 244.
Semnopithecus pruinosus. Desm.
Chingkau of the Malays.

S.femoralis, Horsf. White-thighed Monkey.

Top of the head and occipital tuft of hair, back, and shoulders to the el-
bows, dusky greyish brown ; the frontal hairs, which diverge forwards, the
sides of the head and body, the fore arms and outside of the thighs, the legs,
hands, feet, and tail, black, slightly grizzled, especially the fore arms, with
white; the chin white; as is also a line down the chest and abdomen to the
lower part, which is all white ; the inside of the humerus from the axilla,
and the inside of the thighs, white, with an abrupt margin. No tuft on the
sides of the face ; a line of short black hairs on the molar bones.
Length 19 inches; tail 22^ inches.
Habitat Sumatra, &c.
Syn. — '■' Simia Maura P " of Sir S. Raffles, in Linn. Trans, vol. xiii.
but not the S. Maura of Schreber.
Iuotong of the Malays.
Cercopithecus albo-cinereus, Desm. ?

S. Maurus.

We cannot but consider the Simia Maura of Schreber as distinct from
the S. cristata of Raffles, (the Semnopithecus pruinosus of Desm.); and we
have had the opportunity of examining a young individual, which we hesi-
tate not to regard as this species, and which closely agrees with the " mid-
dle-sized black monkey" of Edwards, vol. vii. plate 311. The specimen in
question was brought from India, but the exact locality could not be dis-
tinctly ascertained. The hair on the head is full, but does not rise into a
crest ; that on the forehead is directed forwards from a central point at the
top of the frontal bone : the hair on the sides of the face is long and bushy,
obscuring the ears : the fur is full and rather soft. Colour glossy black; a
grey indefinite mark underneath the root of the tail ; the thinly scattered
hairs between the thighs, white.

Length 18 inches ; tail 22^ inches.

That this is not S. cristata, in an intermediate stage, is ve-
ry plain, not only because there is no peaked crest on the
vertex, but because, in the middle age, this latter species is
dull greyish brown, with black hands and feet : neither is the
ridge of the nose between the orbits elevated, as in a young
S. cristata of the same size.
Syn. provisionally. — Simia Maura. Linn.

Simia Maura. Schreber.

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 437

Guenon negre. Buff. Supp. vii. p. 47.
Simiolus Ceylonicus. Seba.

Fischer, in his Synopsis, distinguishes the " middle-sized
black monkey" of Edwards, as the S. Edwardsii, regarding
it however as a doubtful species. He gives Guinea with a
query as its habitat, and considers it synonymous with the
Cercopithecus Maurus of Erxleben, and the C. afer of La-
treille, in Buff. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. Edwards, on whose au-
thority Fischer speaks, states that he was informed that his
monkey came from Guinea, but he does not assert it as a fact ;
he observes that the hair above the eyes was long, and also
on the temples, partly covering the ears ; and adds that he
had had an opportunity of seeing a black monkey something
like his species, called a spider monkey, from the thinness
and length of his limbs, with four fingers and a prehensile
tail, — in fact a species of the American genus Ateles, to which
we have already made allusion. Now we gain from this note
an important fact, viz., that the long and slender limbs of this
Ateles struck him as being like those of his " middle-sized
black monkey," thereby almost demonstrating that this ani-
mal must have been a Semnopithecus, (in which genus, the
character of the limbs is much the same as in Ateles) ; and
not a Cercopithecus ; indeed the figure given by Edwards,
though rude, has all the appearance of a young species of
Semnopithecus. That it was not an Ateles is proved by its
non-prehensile tail, and the presence of a thumb on the hands.

The Guenon negre is described by BufFon on the authority
of Edwards and Seba; the latter of whom terms it Si??iiolus
Ceylonicus, indicating by its specific title, that it is a native
of Ceylon; and Edwards observes that "in Siam is a large
species of monkey, probably different from this," — viz., the
"middle-sized black monkey." Shaw, combining the ac-
counts of Edwards and Seba, states the Simla Maura to be
a native both of Ceylon and Guinea. What Edwards's mon-
key really was, or whence it really came, is of course impos-
sible for us to determine ; and in referring the specimen here
described as Semnopithecus Maurus, to the species figured
by him, we are to be understood as only assuming a probabi-
lity, based upon the coincidence of his description with that
of the specimen before us.*

* Since writing the above we have had the opportunity of examining an
adult specimen of S. Maurus, from India. The general colour is deep
black, with a decided silvery grey patch on the under surface at the root of
the tail. The hairs of the head radiate from a centre, and those on the sides
of the head and face are long and bushy, completely overshrouding the ears.
The fur is full, glossy, and soft. Length of head and body 20 inches
Tail imperfect. It is evidently the adult of the young specimens to which
we have already alluded.

438 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

S. melalophus. Cuv. and Geoff.

Fine bright rust colour, or rufous chesnut, pure and rich on the limbs,
but slightly washed with a dusky tint on the back. The lower part of the
abdomen, and the inside of the limbs, straw yellow. Hair of head rising
into a long, peaked, compressed, vertical crest, of a fuliginous colour ; into
which merges a dusky black line, beginning over each eye, passing over the
temples, and turning up over each ear. Occiput on each side of crest pale
sandy red. Fur glossy, long, full, and falling. Palms of hands, soles of
feet, and nails, black.

Length of head and body 20£ inches ; tail 2 feet 8| 'inches.

Habitat Sumatra?
Syn. ?

Closely allied to this splendid monkey, if indeed it be not
a pale variety, as we strongly suspect, is a Semnopithecus,
several specimens of which were brought by the late Sir Tho-
mas Stamford Raffles from Sumatra, and described by him
under the title of Simla melalophos, in the thirteenth volume
of the c Linnean Transactions.' Recently the same animal,
as the specimen in the Museum at Paris proves, has been de-
scribed by Isidore Geoffroy, in the ' Supplement to Belanger's
Travels,' under the title of Semnopithecus Jlavimanus ; its
distinguishing character consisting in the yellow colour pre-
vailing on the lower portions of the extremities, the same
parts in the former species being bright rust. If admitted as
distinct from its more richly coloured congener, it will stand
as follows.

S. Jlavimanus ; Isid. Geoffroy. Sempai.

General colour sandy red, slightly washed with dusky black ; occiput,
neck, chest, and under parts, whiteish ; vertical crest long and peaked, the
sandy red passing into black at its point. Fore arms and legs pure pale
sandy yellow. Fur full, long, and falling. Palms of hands, soles of feet,
and nails, black. General form that of S. cristatus.

Length 1 foot 7 inches ; tail 2 feet 3 inches.

Habitat Sumatra.
Syn. — Simla melalophos. Raffles, in Linn. Trans, vol. xiii.
Simpai of the Malays.

S. Pyrrhus ; Horsfield, in i Zool. Researches.'

General colour bright sandy red, or fulvous ; hair long, soft, and silky,
very full on the head, where it forms a bushy, but not a pointed, tuft. —
Hands and feet pale yellow. Nails yellowish white.

Length 1 foot 7 inches ; tail 24 inches.

Habitat Java.

This beautiful species is closely allied to the preceding,
from which, however, it is sufficiently distinguishable. It
has been confounded by most writers with the following, from
which we regard it as separate.

Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus. 439

S. auratus.

Colour bright glossy golden yellow, washed with rufous about the back,
and passing into cinereous on the forearms and outside of the thighs. —
Hairs of the head long, but those on the body and limbs are rather short,
and inclined to be curly, being very different in character from the long
soft falling hairs of S. Pyrrhus, and S. melalophos.

The length from the neck, (the head being removed), to the insertion of
the tail, 18 inches; the tail being 22 inches: allowing 4 inches for the head,
the total length of the body would be, as that of the tail, 22 inches.

The above description is taken from an imperfect skin which
we have had an opportunity of examining.

S. fulvo-griseus ; Demoul. in ' Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat.'

General colour fulvous grey, passing into brown on the shoulders and
lower part of the four limbs ; the hands and feet black ; the face tan-co-
loured ; the moustaches, throat, and chin of a dull greyish white. The tail
consists of 32 vertebral bones, and is one fourth longer than the body, of
which the trunk is shortened, as in the lotong, by there being fewer lumbar
vertebra, namely 5. The fingers are very long and very slender, and their
phalanges are well arched ; the upper canines are very large, and furrowed
anteriorly.

M. Diard found this monkey at Java. Vide 'Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat.'
Of the above species we have not had the opportunity of
examining a specimen. It exists, however, in the Museum,
at Paris.

S. latibarbatus.

General colour deep blackish grey, becoming paler on the back of the
neck and head ; loins, hinder part of thighs, and tail, pale grey ; the end of
the tail becoming almost white ; a greyish white broadly triangular beard,
on the sides of the face and chin ; under parts light grey. Hands and feet
dull black, as are also the face and superciliary row of hairs.
Length of a young specimen 16 inches: tail 20 incher.
Habitat India ; (Ceylon).
Syn. — Cercopithecus leucopry annus. Otto, in ' Nova Acta Acad. Nat.
Cur.' xii.

Semnopithecus Nestor. Benn. in 'Proceeds, of Zool. Soc.' for
1833, p. 67.

Cercopithecus latibarbatus. Geoff. 'Ann. du Mus.' xix. p. 95.
Purple-faced Monkey. Pennant.

S. Johnii.

Superciliary bristles black; head and neck brownish grey; body, tail, and
limbs glossy black, a brownish tint being spread over the outside of the
thighs and anterior part of the humerus. No crest.

Length of the specimen not quite adult, I foot 9 inches ; tail 2 ft. 4 in.
Habitat India, (Malabar).
Syn. — Simia Johnii. Fischer.

Semnopithecus cucullatus. Isidore GeofTroy, in ' Supplement
to Belanger's Travels.'

Semnopithecus rufceps. Temm. ?

Vol. II.— No. 20. n. s. s s

440 Monograph of the Genus Semnopithecus.

S. obscurus ; Reid.

This species was lately described as new at the scientific
meeting of the Zoological Society, 1837. It is closely allied
to the preceding, and may perhaps eventually prove to be a
variety ; it has, however, an occipital crest.

Forehead blackish brown, passing into brown on the top of the head, this
colour merging into cinereous on the occipital crest; general colour brown-
ish black, especially along the central line of the back, merging into a grey-
ish tint on the outside of the thighs. Tail dusky cinereous. Hands and
feet black. Fur long and moderately soft.

Length 1 foot 7 inches ; tail 2 feet 5 inches.

Habitat India, (Ceylon, Siam ?)
Syn. — Semnopihecus leucomystax. Temm., in Van Hoeven's Journ.?

We have not seen the specimen described by M. Tem-
minck, but have reasons for believing it to be identical with
S. obscurus.

S. nasalis.

Nose enormously developed, forming a sort of proboscis, with the nasal
apertures situated as in man. Top of the head, occiput, and scapular por-
tion of the back chesnut brown, passing, on the body, into deep sandy red.
Sides of face and a stripe over the shoulders, yellow; rump, tail, fore arms,
legs, hands, and feet cinereous : under parts of body pale yellowish. Chin
without a decided beard.

Length from vertex to origin of tail 2 feet 2 inches ; tail 2 feet 1 inch.
Habitat Borneo and Cochinchina.
Syn. — Simia nasica. Linn.

Nasalis larvatus. GeofTr.
Simia nasuta. Shaw.

Guenon a museau allonge. Buffon ; ' Hist. Nat. Supp.' vii.
cum jigura.

S. recurvus.

The top of the head, sides of the face, and beard of the chin, bright ches-
nut, as is also the anterior part of the humerus. The chest is pale chesnut
red; back sandy brown, abruptly terminating at the rump, which, together
with the tail, is deep grey. Abdomen bright straw yellow; wrists and hands,
inside of arms, and of posterior extremities, together with the feet, dusky
grey; outside of thighs rufous, outside of legs sandy red.
Syn. — Nasalis recurvus. Vigors & Horsfield ; in ' Zool. Journal.'
I This species, under the title of Nasalis recurvus, was first
described by Mr. Vigors and Dr. Horsfield, in the 4th vol. of
the ' Zoological Journal,' p. 109, and stated to have been pro-
cured in Borneo, by a collector sent to that island by the late
Sir Stamford Raffles : it forms part of the Rafflesian collec-
tion in the museum of the Zoological Society. The nose in
this species, instead of being recumbent, as in the former, is
turned up, and also shorter in proportion; and the chin is
furnished with a prominent beard. Tn its general colour it

Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 441

resembles S. nasalis, but is much less in size. Whether it
may ultimately prove to be that species in an immature state
is yet to be determined. The specimen from which Mr. Vi-
gors and Dr. Horsfield took their description, is certainly that
of an animal not yet adult. We confess that we doubt much
its claim to the place of a distinct species ; until, however,
we possess a series of specimens, this point cannot be deter-
mined with certainty, and therefore we allow it to stand.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

The Academy of Sciences at Haarlem held its eighty-sixth
annual sitting on the 19th of May, 1838.

The President, M. W. P. Barnaard Van Bergen opened the
meeting by an address, in which he paid a j list tribute of praise
to the memory of the late illustrious Dr. M. Van Marum, who
had, through a long series of years, used every effort to raise
the Society to the high position in the scientific world, which
it at present occupies.

The Society has received, First, some additions to the re-
ply to the following question, previously forwarded. "Can
there be shown, in the fossil remains of organized bodies
which have existed in the different eras, from the earliest to
the latest times, a progressive developement in organization,
becoming more and more complex, and approaching to per-
fection ? " A reply, written in French, was sent to the presi-
dent in 1837, too late to be then brought under consideration.
The additions having been received this year in time, have
been examined with the memoirs. The Society found great
merit in this paper ; and considers that it is rich in interest-
ing facts, and that it bears proof of the extent of the author's
knowledge ; but the Society has decided, that the question is
not resolved in a manner sufficiently conclusive to allow of
the paper being crowned. The Society repeats the question,
in order that it may be replied to before the 1st January, 1840.

Secondly, a paper written in Dutch, upon the following
question. "What is the formation of wood ? Does it origi-
nate immediately from the sap or cambium under the bark, or
is it formed by vessels which descend from the buds and leaves,
as the observations of Du Petit Thouars and of Buzareignes
seem to prove ? And how can an exact knowledge of the
formation of wood be applied in the culture of useful trees ? "
The Society acknowledges that the author's experiments are
full of interest, and have great merit; it is judged, neverthe-

ss2

442 Annual Meeting of the

less, that the question is not resolved in a manner sufficiently
conclusive to allow of the prize being awarded to him ; and
the question is repeated for a reply before the 1st Jany. 1840.

Thirdly, a reply to the following question, written in Dutch.
Professor Brunner, of Berne, having proposed a new method
of analysing atmospheric air, a method which allows of the
employment of a larger volume of air than the ordinary mode
of procedure, and consequently furnishes more certain results ;
the Society proposes this question. — " To what degree is the
analyzation of the air perfected by the method just alluded to?
What improvement can be made in the apparatus of which
we are to make use, in order to analyse any quantity of air as
may be judged necessary ? What are the positive results ob-
tained in this manner? " The Society considers that this pa-
per does not merit the reward.

The Society has decided upon repeating the seven following
questions, replies to which are to be sent in before the 1st of
January, 1840.

I. — Since the metamorphoses and economy of a great num-
ber of insects are still unknown to us, and as it is desirable
that our knowledge in this respect should advance, especially
with regard to noxious insects, in order to deduce the best
means of arresting the increase of these animals ; the Society
is desirous of receiving, First, a treatise, illustrated by plates,
on the metamorphoses of at least fifty species of Coleopter-
ous insects ; as many as possible of which shall be indigenous
to Holland, and of which the metamorphoses and economy
are either unknown, or undescribed. Secondly, a methodical
distribution of Coleopterous insects, founded upon their me-
tamorphoses, and the structure of their larva and pupa. —
Thirdly, a paper of instructions, founded upon an acquain-
tance with their metamorphoses, pointing out the most effec-
tual means to obviate an excessive multiplication of these in-
jurious insects.

II. — What is known of the history of migratory fishes, es-
pecially of those which serve for the food or other purposes
of man ? It is requested that any works referred to may be
notified with precision ; and that, by a critical examination,
the degree of credit to be attached to the information made
use of, may be ascertained.

III. — However important may be the recent researches in
the chemistry of organic bodies, it cannot be denied that, for
the most part, they relate to the examination of vegetable ra-
ther than of animal substances. With a view therefore of con-
tributing something towards the promotion of animal chemis-
try, the Society requests an exact examination of the substan-

Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 443

ces known under the name of " animal extract," or " osma-
zone," a name common to them. all, notwithstanding the dif-
ference in their composition according to the diversity in the
animals, or parts of bodies from which they are drawn. Are
these substances individual principles, or are they rather com-
posed of other more simple elements of the animal body ? —
What are the differences in these substances, as obtained from
different animals, or from different parts of the same animal
body ?

IV. — What is the nature of chlorophylle, (phlylochlore,
chromale), in vegetables ? What is its form and composition ;
and what are the characters by which this substance differs
from other vegetable matter ? Is it different according to the
diversity of plants containing it, and what constitutes such a
difference ? What are the circumstances by which it is pro-
duced, and changed, or modified, in plants, during the process
of vegetation ? Vide Pelletier and Caventon, \ Annales de
Chimie et de Physique,' vol. ix. p. 194. Macaire-Princep.,
ibid., vol. xxxviii. p. 415. Mulder, Scheinkundig Archiv.
vol. ii. p. 1.

V. — The experiments of Lavoisier, Seguin, H. Davy, Pfaff,
Allen, Pepys, Dulong, Despretz, Prout, and others, relating
to respiration having in many cases produced contrary results,
and our chemical knowledge with regard to this subject be-
ing as yet very limited, the Society wishes for a critique up-
on, and, as far as may be judged expedient, a repetition of
these experiments, as well as a solution of the following ques-
tions. What is the difference in the composition of air, as
inhaled or expired ? Is the oxygen of the air returned in an
equal quantity, and in combination with carbon, in expirated
carbonic acid gas ? Is nitrogen separated from the blood in
respiration ? What do we generally remark during the respi-
ration of the different orders of animals ? What consequen-
ces may we draw from a more extended knowledge of respi-
ration, for explaining the changes which the blood undergoes
by its means ? The Society requests that in replying to these
questions, an adherence to facts may be observed, without
entering upon theoretical views.

VI. — What is the composition of the iron ores found in
Holland, and which are those that may be employed in the
preparation of iron of a good quality ? What kinds of iron
can be produced from the minerals of this country, and what
relation is there between the composition of these minerals,
and of the iron drawn from them ? What are the qualities
and the distinguishing characters of the different kinds of iron
prepared from different oxides ; and what are the modifica-

444 Annual Meeting of the

tions to which the processes now in use must be submitted,
in order to improve the quality of the metal ?

VII. — It appears to result from the experiments of M. Ja-
cobi. that the electro-magnetic force may be employed as a
new impelling power ; which, as much by the simplicity of
the apparatus, as by the absence of all danger, will be prefe-
rable to any other force of which we have hitherto availed
ourselves.

In consequence of this the Society request that it be prov-
ed by now researches, First, how far the impelling electro-
magnetic force may be augmented to this end ? Secondly,
what is the apparatus by which a given electro-magnetic force,
equivalent, for example, to three or four horses, can be pro-
duced ? Thirdly, what are the metals and acids which may
be employed with most advantage ? And what form is it ne-
cessary to give to these metals, and how must they be ar-
ranged, to reduce them into powerful electro-impellers, acting
with the least loss of metal, and the greatest economy of acid ?
Vide 'Memoire sur Fapplication de TElectro-magnetisme au
mouvement des machines,' by M. H. Jacobi, Doctor and
Professor at Dorpat : Potsdam, 1835. And Messrs. Steatingh
et Becker, Algem-Konst, en Letterbode, No. 54 and 55, " E-
lectro-magnetische Wagen."

The Society this year proposes the following ten questions
to be replied to before the 1st of January, 1840.

I. — No place in the kingdom of the Netherlands being as
yet determined with exactness by means of astronomical ob-
servations, the Society desires that the latitude and longitude
of one or more places in the Netherlands be determined by
astronomical observations. The decision of the Society will
depend more upon the exactitude of the observations, and the
neglecting no precautions which the present state of astrono-
my requires, than upon the instrument made use of; and it
is anxious that the observations made, should in no respect
yield in accuracy to those of other countries.

II. — The Society wishes for a clear and precise description,
as well as a complete theory, of the prismatic circle of reflec-
tion, invented by Steinheil, and perfected by Ertel ; with a
comparative examination of that instrument, as well as of the
nautical sextant, and the common circle of reflection.

The Society desires that the uses of this instrument in as-
tronomy and navigation be exactly explained ; and that the
advantages which it possesses over the above-named instru-
ments be pointed out, and the changes noticed which may
render it less expensive, and of more general use. Vide the

Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 445

'Astronomische Nackrichten de Schumacher,' Nos. 243 and
244 ; and above all consult M. Bessel's excellent paper upon
the prismatic circle, in the above-named Journal, Nos. 254
and 255.

III. — Among those discoveries which are most fertile in
results, and which appear more especially calculated to throw
new light upon the phenomena of living bodies, we must place
that of a new chemical action, which M. Berzelius has enti-
tled ' catalysis.' The Society requests that this action be stu-
died in all its relations ; that the substances which have shown
this action be brought to act on each other under every vari-
ety of circumstances ; that it be endeavoured to discover the
catalysis among bodies in which it has not yet been observ-
ed ; and that it be noticed whether it be observable in the or-
ganic tissue of plants and animals ; and finally, that in case
it should be there traced, an examination be made as to what
may be its consequences in explaining the phenomena of liv-
ing bodies.

IV. — Meteorologists are agreed, that great variations in
temperature reach us from the East, which is particularly
observable in winter, when the frost is usually felt some days
earlier at St. Petersburgh than at Amsterdam. The Society
desires that this meteorological phenomenon be examined in
all its details, and its causes determined with as much exact-
ness as possible.

V. — It appears to be proved by experiments made in Eng-
land, that the inference deduced from the law of the resist-
ance of water, that it would be impossible, in navigation, to
exceed a certain degree of rapidity, can no longer be admit-
ted ; but that when a certain degree of rapidity has been at-
tained, the vessel, being elevated from beneath, experiences
less resistance. The Society requests that this subject be il-
lustrated by fresh experiments ; and that it be proved, as far
as possible, by analytical researches, but above all, by prac-
tical experiments, — what influence the elevation towards the
surface, of boats of different constructions, may have upon the
relation between speed and distance, when the former becomes
very considerable. The Society then wishes that it be ana-
lytically deduced from the precedent facts, what form of ves-
sel, moving with great velocity, will experience the least re-
sistance.

VI. — Why in lofty stoves is the employment of air heated
to a high degree so advantageous ? Can this heated air be
employed with advantage in the other operations to which
iron is submitted, for different uses besides those in which it
is already employed ? Might its use advantageously replace

446 Annual Meeting of the

that of cold air, in the production of other substances besides
iron, where it is not yet employed ?

VII. — Geologists agree that the fossil remains of animals
and plants found in the different beds composing the crust of
the earth, contribute very much to characterise these beds. —
There exists, however, one great difficulty in this respect,
which is, that some of these beds, composed of the fragments
of more ancient ones, contain many fossil species of the lat-
ter mingled with the remains of animals and vegetables which
existed at the time of the deposition of the former. This
mixture may easily lead to erroneous conclusions ; and the
Society enquires, What are the beds in which this intermin-
gling takes place ? And by what means may we guard against
erroneous conclusions in consequence?

VIII. — Dr. Prevost, a celebrated Genevese naturalist, has
for a long time, and particularly recently, been endeavouring
to prove, by highly ingenious experiments, that muscular con-
traction, and consequently all the movements of animals, are
in immediate connexion with galvanic or magnetic currents,
which direct themselves along the nerves extending to the
muscular fibres. The Society, convinced that this opinion,
though not without some appearance of probability, is yet far
from being proved, desires that it be further examined ; that
the observations and experiments of Dr. Prevost be repeated,
and fresh experiments made, which may either put its cor-
rectness beyond doubt, or disprove its accuracy.

IX. — It has been proved by the experiments of the cele-
brated French naturalists, Brechet and Becquerel, that it is
possible not only to introduce metallic wires through the skin,
and the organs situated beneath it, into the interior of the hu-
man body, which fact had long before been ascertained ; but
farther, that we may direct along these wires a galvanic or
magnetic current, towards any one of the interior organs. —
The Society enquires, In what case can such a current, di-
rected against one of the diseased organs of the human body
contribute to its cure ? It is desired that by fresh and direct
experiments, this action may be studied, applying it imme-
diately to unhealthy organs in the human frame.

X. — Since the time of Celsius it has been believed that a
gradual elevation of the soil above the level of the Baltic sea
has been observable in some territories of Scandinavia. This
belief has recently been confirmed by the researches of the
celebrated English geologist, Lyell. In other countries, as
in England, and in France, we remark, not far from the coast,
the remains of marine animals, which prove that the soil in
which they repose, and which is now dry, was formerly co-

the Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 447

vered by the same sea, which, at an inferior level, now washes
their shores. On the other hand, the illustrious Swedish ge-
ologist, Nilson, has shown, that another part of Scandinavia
remains at the same level, or rather, that it sinks; so that the
phenomenon observed appears to consist in a see-saw move-
ment, upon an axis whose position is not thoroughly known.
The Society requests, that by a particular examination it be
discovered, whether in Holland, or the neighbouring states of
this kingdom, a similar elevation or depression be observable ;
or whether it can, on the contrary, be concluded, from the na-
ture of their soil and the fossil remains which they contain,
that nothing of the kind has taken place there.

The Society recapitulates that it has proposed, in preced-
ing years, the thirteen following questions, to be replied to
before the 1st of January, 1839.

I. — Sulphur, considered in relation to its existence in na-
ture, being met with in associations and localities widely dif-
fering from each other, some of which have given reason to
suppose that this substance is produced in a different man-
ner from the greater number of minerals, or, indeed, that it
may perhaps derive its origin from organic bodies ; — the So-
ciety requires the natural history of sulphur, particularly with
reference to the different combinations and relation under
which it presents itself; and the deductions which may be
thence gathered, concerning its origin and production.

II. — The progress of Chemistry having made known a great
number of methods by which, from very different materials,
sugar may be produced ; it is required, What are the differ-
ent species of such artificial sugar ? And what is the best
method of producing each kind ; Also, which of these kinds
is the most useful, and the most suitable to take the place of
cane-sugar, and other kinds now in use ?

III. — What are the different species of animals which,
by perforating, destroy the piles and other wooden works
which surround our shores and dykes, in many places ? —
What is the natural history and anatomy of these animals ?
What are the means which have hitherto been employed to
resist their devastations ? Finally, what will further research-
es into their natural history and comparative anatomy offer,
as a means of preservation preferable to those already known?
The Society does not wish that, in reply to these questions,
anything should be repeated which is already known. It re-
quires, on the contrary, that new researches should supply
what is deficient in the old ones.

Vol. II. — No. 20. n. s. t^

448 Annual Meeting of

IV. — An enormous quantity of different gases escapes from
the bosom of the earth with spring water, in almost all coun-
tries. The Society requires that this be examined in refer-
ence to the springs which are found in the kingdom of the
Netherlands. The Society is desirous that it should be as-
certained, by exact experiments, and by all the means which
Physics and Chemistry supply, whether gases really accom-
pany the waters of our springs at their exit from the earth ;
and if so, what is the composition of these gases ?

V. — The researches of Dr. Rathke have proved that the
fresh water crawfish undergoes no very considerable meta-
morphosis after quitting the egg ; while, according to the im-
portant discoveries of Mr. Thomson, crabs do not arrive at
their perfect state, until after having passed through many in-
termediate ones. This great difference between two genera
so nearly allied, has attracted the attention of the Society. —
It therefore requests that further enquiries may be made on
this subject; and that a description may be given, accompa-
nied with accurate figures, of the developement of one or more
species of crab, from their escape from the egg to their per-
fect state.

VI. — According to some botanists, Algce, of a very simple
structure, placed under favourable circumstances, develope,
and change into very different plants, belonging to genera
much more elevated in the scale of organic beings ; although
these same Algce, in the absence of such favourable circum-
stances, would be fertile, and reproduce their primitive form.
The Society judging that " if we could place these observa-
tions beyond dispute, and prove, in an undoubted manner,
the transmutation of two organized bodies, the one into the
other, we should have made an immense step in the know-
ledge of these bodies;" requires that these observations be
repeated with the greatest care ; that they be extended to
other plants, which have not yet been examined in this point
of view ; and that, finally, the reality or the falsity of this trans-
mutation of one organized body into another, be proved, by
exact descriptions, and by detailed figures.

VII. — What are the substances whose physical properties
are distinct, though their chemical composition is absolutely
the same ; since they contain the same elements, united in si-
milar numbers and in the same manner ?

VIII. — Many experiments, particularly those of M. Bec-
querel, having made known the influence exercised by Elec-
tricity and other physical forces, in the formation of crystals,
even in substances, the crystallization of which it had previ-

the Academy of Sciences at Haarlem. 449

ously been difficult to explain, such as quartz, and other very-
hard minerals : and considering that the knowledge of all the
circumstances which concur in the crystalline formation of
minerals, may serve to explain many points in geology ; it is
enquired, What are the observations and experiments which
demonstrate the influence of Electricity, Magnetism, Heat,
and Light, upon the crystallization of quartz and other mine-
rals insoluble in water ; and by which, at the same time, we
may be made acquainted with the other circumstances favor-
able to crystallization ? The Society is desirous that this
subject should be explained by fresh experiments.

IX. — The supposition of a spontaneous generation of In-
fusoria, and other small animals, having been considerably
checked, and in part refuted, by the numerous and important
observations of Professor Ehrenberg, relating to the organiza-
tion and reproduction of Infusoria; the Society proposes
this question. What are the animals formerly supposed to
multiply without fecundation, but the propagation of which
by sexual intercourse is now sufficiently established ? Which
on the contrary, are the animals, whose production, not pre-
ceded by fecundation, we must still admit ? Above all, what
notion may we form, in the present state of Zoology, of the
origin of intestinal animals ?

X. — How far are we acquainted with, or ought we to ad-
mit, those physical forces which M. Dutrochet believes him-
self to have discovered, and which he points out by the names
of "Endosmose et Exosmose," in his work entitled 'L'agent
immediat du mouvement vital, devoile dans la nature et dans
sa mode d'action, chez les vegetaux et chez les animaux.' —
Paris: 1826? See also, 'Annales de Chimie et de Physique,'
vol. xxxv. p. 393 ; and vol. xxvii. The Society is desirous
to see this subject cleared up as much as possible by fresh
researches.

XI. — It has been frequently observed among some living
plants, that in certain cases they emit a phosphoric light ; as
for instance, the Tropceolum, Calendula, Lilium bulbiferum,
Tagetes, Euphorbia phosphorea, Rhizomorpha, Sac. ; and the
Society requests, That by researches made for this express
purpose, it should be endeavoured to elucidate this pheno-
menon ; to ascertain how far what has been stated concerning
it is admissible as fact ; and what are the circumstances un-
der which it takes place, as well as what is the cause of it.
Vide 'Acta Suecica,' 1762 and 1768. Ingenhouz, 'Ver-
suche mitPflanzen,' 79; 151. Nees V. Esenbeck & Bischof;
' Nov. Act. Leop. Car. 11/ 605. L. C. Treviranus, < Zitschr.

t t 2

450 Annual Meeting of the

fur Physiol.' iii. 261. Martius, ' Reisenach Brasilien,' ii. 726.
'Flora,1 1837, p. 8.

XII. — What fossil remains of animals and plants are found
in the different beds of the soil in Holland, except the strata
around Maestricht ? What do they teach us respecting the
relative ages and succession of these beds ; as well as of the
changes which the soil of this country has undergone in past
ages ?

XIII. — What does experience teach us with regard to the
cause of violent tempests, like those which took place on the
9th of November, 1800, and the 29th of November, 1836 ? —
Had these two storms, and other anterior ones, been preced-
ed by phenomena announcing their approach ? Over what
space did the storm of November the 29th, 1836, rage with
the same violence as in this country, as far as can be judged
of from its effects ? In what paits of Europe did it com-
mence, and in what parts was it latest felt; and what may we
conclude from thence with regard to its course ? Is it known,
by positive accounts, that similarly violent storms have taken
place at the same time, or nearly the same time, in different
parts of the world, distant from each other ? What were the
most particular and remarkable phenomena observed during
the last storm ?

It is required that the papers and other authentic docu-
ments referred to in replying to this question, be pointed out.

Historical Question, to be replied to before the 1st of Ja-
nuary, 1840.

What may we know with certainty, by consulting History
and the researches of learned men, aided also by archives and
local tradition, concerning the successive changes which the
downs that border the shores of Holland have continually un-
dergone, since the times of the earliest written account to the
present day ; especially with regard to the losses sustained
by these downs on the side towards the sea; and, on the other
hand, with regard to what they have gained by encroaching
on the opposite side, by the progressive advance of the sand ;
and what has been the effect upon the woods, lands, and wa-
ters of the interior ?

The reward for a satisfactory reply to each of the above
questions, is a gold medal of the value of 150 florins ; and a
further reward of 150 florins Dutch, when the answer is judged
to be deserving of it. The answers must be legibly written
in Dutch, French, English, Latin, or German, in Italic cha-

Plumage of the Smew and Crossbill. 451

racters, and addressed, post paid, with billets, in the accus-
tomed manner, to the permanent secretary of the Society, at
Haarlem.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Plumage of the Smew Merganser.— I would remark that
the fact stated by my friend, Mr. Bartlett, at p. 398, of the
young male smew, is far from being of general occurrence, to
judge from a number of specimens which I have examined
late in the spring, with a view to ascertain whether they then
exhibited signs of moulting, (as in the golden-eye), which
proved not to be the case. The living specimen still in St.
James's Park certainly did not possess the marking adverted
to, during last summer, as I remember distinctly : it attained
its mature plumage at the autumn moult, which remained
unsullied until about six weeks ago, when it rapidly assumed
the colouring of the adult female, but without change of fea-
ther, as in the common duck and its allies), a metamorphosis
which also takes place in the male bay-breasted merganser,
(Mergus serrator), and doubtless in the large species, [M.
merganser) ; it is likewise effected very completely by the
common red-headed pochard, (Fuligula ferina). — E. Blyth.
—June 23rd, 1838.

Plumage of the Crossbill. — I have just received three re-
cent specimens of the common crossbill, (obtained in Merton,
Surrey), all birds of the present season, the plumage of which
is especially interesting, as demonstrably establishing the
fact, stated by me on previous occasions, that the saffron tint,
commonly described as peculiar to the old males, is also
sometimes assumed at the first moult : while, on the other
hand, I have long since ascertained, from personal observa-
tion, that many of the old males re-acquire the red plumage,
which, in such specimens, is always much finer and more vi-
vid than the young once moulted.

Of the three now before me, the first is a female, in the
striated nestling garb, unmingled with other feathers : the se-
cond a male, with a series of orange feathers on each side of
the breast, and a few elsewhere ; the rest unmoulted, and as
in the preceding : the third another male, in the plumage or-
dinarily described as that of the old bird only, but still retain-
ing many streaked nestling feathers on the belly and else-
where. The striated nestling garb of the male is considerably

452 Effects of the Cold of the last Winter.

more distinct and vividly contrasted than that of the female.
—lb.— July 25th, 1838.

Effects of the excessive and protracted cold of the last
Winter. — One of the natural consequences of the severity
and long continuance of the frost, as well as the great depth
of the snow, was the extreme boldness and destructiveness of
the wolves, which killed great numbers of men and cattle,
made inroads into provinces where they had long been ex-
tirpated; nay, they penetrated even into populous cities.

As early as the middle of January many of them made their
appearance in the neighbourhood of Stuttgart, either from
France or Switzerland ; they devoured a boy twelve years of
age, about five English miles from that city : but the eager-
ness with which they were persecuted put a stop to further
accidents.

Numerous reports from all parts of Hungary assert that the
wolves, prowling about in packs, have destroyed great num-
bers of men and cattle. In the night of the 7th of February,
ten wolves forced their way into the barn of a peasant, in the
village of Lekenek, near Agram ; whence they were not dis-
lodged until they had severely wounded eight head of cattle.

The eastern provinces of Prussia were much infested by the
wolves which crossed over the frozen rivers, from Poland. —
They met with a warm reception from the Prussian foresters,
which however did not hinder one of them from assailing a
horse in one of the busiest streets of Konigsberg, on the 27th
of February. The wolf was immediatly attacked, but suc-
ceeded in escaping from the city.

Many species of birds were obliged to migrate to countries
or resort to localities, which, in general, are not visited by
them. Among those which poured in from the north, the
wild swans excited most attention in Germany. Their flight
extended all over that country and the Netherlands ; when,
however, they fell in with a river running northwards, they
followed its course ; thus they were observed all along the
Rhine, and in Switzerland, having been seen not only on the
lake of Constance, but also on those of Biel and Waldstadlen.
They were often so exhausted that several were caught alive
in different parts of Germany.

About the end of January immense flocks of aquatic birds
particularly ducks of various species, arrived in the Departe-
ment des Landes, completely exhausted. Above 20,000 are
said to have been taken by the country people along the coast
of that district. W. Weissenborn. Weimar.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

SEPTEMBER, 1838.

Art. I. Some Observations on a Collection of Ferns from the Island
of Jamaica. By Robert Heward, Esq., F.L.S.

In submitting the accompanying remarks, my principal ob-
ject has been to point out the great facilities which exist for
extending our knowledge of the almost boundless stores of
vegetation, at present but imperfectly known, — and also the
opportunities for increasing our botanical collections from a
part of the world, which, although it has been nearly two
hundred years under the dominion of Great Britain, still
contains many botanical rarities which seldom reach this
country.

The West India islands, although within a month or six
weeks' sail from England, have been less botanically explor-
ed than many places at a much greater distance ; while the
luxuriance of their vegetation, and the ready communication
with this country, ought to put us in possession of many
plants, as yet known only through the works of Sloane, Plu-
mier, P. Browne, and Swartz *

My very limited knowledge and equally limited opportuni-
ties afforded me but few chances of collecting specimens ; yet

* Since the above was written I have seen the first part of the ' Flora of
Jamaica ' by Dr. MacFadyen, which appears to he a most excellent work,
and from that gentleman's long; residence in that island cannot fail to he
interesting- to the botanical world.

Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. u u

454 Observations on Ferns

with these drawbacks, I have sent or brought home upwards
of 80 species of ferns, and about 500 species of phaenogamous
plants. Now, if with the slender means that I possesed, T
was able to make such a collection, what might not be ex-
pected from any intelligent botanist, who would visit these
islands? I have no hesitation in saying his harvest would be
most abundant.

The number of ferns enumerated below amounts to seventy
five species. They were collected in the parishes of St. Eli-
zabeth, and Manchester, in the island of Jamaica, during my
residence there in the years 1823-4-5, and part of 1826. —
The time that I was enabled to appropriate to botanical pur-
suits was very limited; my avocations and a severe fit of illness
prevented me from devoting to the collection of specimens
so much time as I wished to do.

The portion of country in which I made my collections was
small, extending only, from east to west, about 25 miles, and
from north to south about 15 miles ; and in this small space,
nine-tenths of the ferns were collected in the eastern half,
which is a more mountainous and less settled district than
the western portion. I was particularly struck with the cir-
cumstance that few of the ferns growing in the western, or
more open district, were to be found in the eastern or more
wooded one, although the distance was so trifling, and in some
cases the habitats (stone walls) were the same. I will point
out a few instances ; but in the first place I should mention,
that the western portion of this district has been much long-
er under cultivation than the eastern, and that, consequently,
there is very little woodland left. The timbers are of a small
description, few of the trees exceeding ten inches in diame-
ter, and those growing mostly in places the cultivation of
which is given up, or in the local island phrase, " run to ru-
inate." These thickets, for they are little better, generally
consist of bully tree, {Achras, sp.), lance-wood, (Guatteria vir-
gata, Dunal.), maiden plum, (Comocladia iniegrifolia, Linn.),
birch, {Bursera gummifera, Jacq.), &c. A large portion of
this part also is a lowland district, the cultivated part prin-
cipally grass, the establishments being for the breeding of
horses, mules, and horned stock, and in some few places, the
sugar-cane is grown. The fences are either logwood, {Hce-
matoxylon campeachianum, Linn.), which, when clipped,
looks very like a hawthorn hedge, and forcibly reminds the
traveller of the well-trimmed hedges of home; pinguin, (Bro-
melia Pinguin, Linn.) ; or stone walls; these last are a favorite
habitat of ferns, the top being often crested with them for
their whole length.

brought from, the Island of Jamaica. 455

In the eastern part of this district there is much forest land
that has never been under cultivation, and the elevation is
considerable, compared with the western part. The Carpen-
ter and Mayday mountains being about 2500 feet above the
level of the sea. The principal cultivation in this part is cof-
fee. The fences are either stone walls or posts and rails,
but few live fences, it being too cold at that height for log-
wood or pinguin to be advantageously planted. The walls
here also are a favourite habitat for ferns, but of different spe-
cies, except in one or two instances, from those found in the
western part. The fern that I most frequently foimd in the
western part was Cheilanthes microphylla, Sw. ; with occa-
sionally, but not often, Poly podium incanum, Sw. In the
eastern part the fern that was in the greatest abundance in
similar situations, (stone walls), was the very graceful Poly-
podium pectinatum, Linn., in company with P. incanum, and
two new species which are described below.

Another favourite place of growth for ferns is the horizon-
tal branches of Bombax Ceiba, Linn., the towering silk-cot-
ton tree, which are always crowded with Filices, Orchidacece,
Bromeliacece, Aroidece, &c, forming beautiful gardens at a
considerable elevation above one's head. One thing that
struck me as very singular in these parasitic ferns was, that
the form of the fronds was always either simple or pinnate,
and I never observed a fern with a multifid frond grow-
ing in similar situations. I do not mean to assert that ferns
with multifid fronds do not grow on trees, but certainly 1 ne-
ver observed them, although I often searched.

The richest collections of ferns are generally to be found
on the sides of roads cut through the forests, each side being
generally densely clothed with filical rarities in such abun-
dance, that a newly-arrived botanist cannot but be struck
with wonder at such a display of ferns, mostly unknown to
him ; and he is enabled to make a plentiful collection at a
trifling expenditure of labour.

In the primaeval forests where the Bombax, Cedrela, and
Ficus grow to the enormous size of from 25 to 36 feet in cir-
cumference, and often from 50 to 60 feet in height before the
branches break forth, the tree ferns appear most to luxuriate.
In the district where I resided I never saw one above 25 feet
in height ; in fact, the average height is about 18 feet, with a
caudex of 6 inches in diameter : but in the Port Royal and
Liguanea mountains they attain a much greater altitude. —
They are very splendid in certain wooded districts, and ex-
ceedingly beautiful in their form ; the segments of their mul-
tifid fronds, moving with the slightest breath of air, are con-

u u 2

456 Observations on Ferns

stantly in motion, and give them a most elegant and graceful
appearance.

In enumerating the ferns that I brought to England, I have
quoted the best figure of each species that I have been able
to compare them with ; and by the very excellent plates in
the works of Sloane, Plumier, and the 'Icones Fincum' of
Hooker and Greville, I have been enabled to determine ma-
ny of my specimens.

GLEICHENEJE, R. Br.

Gleichenia, Sm.

G. immersa, Kaul. ; Icon. PEL t. 15; Kaul. Enum. p. 38. —
(Mertensia).

This species of Gleichenia has a straggling growth, supporting itself
among the surrounding bushes, and sometimes attaining a length of 15
or 20 feet.

Woodsides ; Mayday mountains, Jamaica.

OSMUNDACEM, R. Br.

Aneimia, Sw.

A. adiantifolia, Sw. ; Icon. Fil. t. 16; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v.
p. 94.

This graceful fern varies much in size : I have specimens from an
inch in height to 18 inches. The segments of the frond also vary con-
siderably in their configuration.

Growing in great abundance on a bank near Warwick plantation,
Manchester, Jamaica.

POLYPODIACEJE, R. Br.

POLYBOTRYA, Humb.

1. P. cervina, Kaul. ; Icon- Fil. t. 81 ; Kaul. Enum. p. 55.

I only found the variety with narrow fronds, (/3, var. lanceolata. H.
and G.), in Jamaica. It is very common, growing in large patches in
the woods of the Mayday mountains, but not often producing fertile
fronds. I have fine specimens of this fern with broad fronds, from Tri-
nidad.

2. P. cylindrica, Kaul. Enum. p. 56.

This is a scandent fern, growing to the height of 20 feet up the trunks
of trees, and is rather common. My specimens agree with Kaulfuss'
description, but he makes no mention of its being scandent. There is
no figure of it, that I am aware of.

Mayday Mountains. .

brought from the Island of Jamaica. 457

Acrostichum, Linn.

1. A. aureum, Linn.; Plum. Fil. £.104; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v.

p. 116.

This noble fern is very plentiful in morasses and water-courses in the
lowlands of Jamaica. It grows from 8 to 10 feet in height. I never
found it at any great elevation above the sea-shore.

Milk River, &c. Jamaica.

2. A. nicotiarHefolium, Sw. ; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 118.

Generally found at the margins of woods. The barren frond is of a
very bright green while growing, and the texture rather delicate.
Mayday mountains. 1 have it also from Trinidad.

Gymnogramma, Desv.

1. G. Love it, Hook. & Grev. ; Icon. Fil. t. 89.

This fern, which I have little doubt of being the same as the one fi-
gured in the splendid work quoted above, is an instance of the wide
range of habitats of ferns ; for the plant from which the figure was ta-
ken came from Madeira, growing at a height of between 2000 and 3000
feet; my specimens were found at about the same height, in the May-
day mountains.

2. G. gracile, n. s.

G. gracile, frondibus pilosis lanceolatis elongatis bipinnatifidis, pinnis
lanceolatis attenuatis alternis : infimis brevibus, laciniis linearibus apice
rotundato crenato.

Frons 2-pedalis utrinque pilosa. Pinnae 4-6 pollicares pinnatifidae. La-
ciniae 6-lineares apice crenato. Sori insidentes venis secondariis simplicibus.

I found this fern in the mountain woods in the parish of Manchester,
Jamaica, at the same elevation as the preceding species. It is not very
common.

3. G. tartarea, Desv.; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 131. (Hemi-

onitis dealbata).

This and the following species I found growing in a marl-pit, in the
same wood where I had previously found the two other species of this
genus.

4. G. calomelanos, Kaul. ; Plum. Fil. t. 40; Kaul. Enum. p. 76.

I think starved specimens of G. calomelanos often go under the name
of G. tartarea.

Grammitis, Sw.

1. G. etongata, Sw.; Spreng. Crypt, t. 3. Jig. 21 ; Willd. Sp.
PI. vol. v. p. 140.

Generally to be found on decaying trees in the deep mountain woods.
Manchester.

u u 3

458 Observations on Ferns

2. G. angustifolia, Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 153. [Polypo-
dium).

This is a true Grammitis ; Willdenow had not seen the fructifica-
tion. Polypodium dimorphum of Link is probably the true P. angus-
tifolium, which is figured in Raddi, t. 24, /. 2. This fern grows in
more open situations than the preceding.

Mayday Mountains.

T.ENITIS, Sw.

T. lanceolata, Kaul.; Plum. Fil. #.132; Kaul. Enum. p. 130.

I found this fern but once ; it was growing on the rotten stump of a
tree in a coffee-plantation in the Mayday Mountains.

Polypodium, Linn.

1. P. exiguum, n. s.

P. exiguum, frondibus glabris repandis, sterilibus oblongis, fertilibus li-
nearibus apice attenuato, caudice filiformi, soris solitariis.

Frons glabra, sterili semipollicari oblonga repanda ; fertili sesquipollica-
ri lineari repanda utrinque attenuata. Caudex filiformis repens setoso-pa-
leaceus.

This and the following species are rather common on stone walls in
the Mayday Mountains. I believe they have not been previously de-
scribed.

2. P. glabellum, n. s.

P. glabellum, frondibus glabris, sterilibus oblongis, fertilibus lineari-lan-
ceolatis bifidisque, margine reflexa, caudice filiformi repente, soris solitariis
immersis.

Frons glabra, margine reflexa, sterili pollicari oblonga; fertili bipollicari
lineari-lanceolata bifidaque. Sori solitarii immersi, margini approximati.
Caudex filiformis repens setoso-paleaceus.

I have specimens of this fern also from Trinidad.

3. P. serpens, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 121; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p.

148.

Common on the trunks of trees in the shady woods.
Mayday Mountains.

4. P. Phy llitidis, Linn.; Plum. Fil. #.130; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v.p. 157.
Common on the honey-combed limestone rocks in the Mayday
Mountains.

5. P. crassifolium, Linn. ; Plum. Fil. t. 123; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 161.
Veiy frequently found with the preceding species.

6. P. pectinatum, Linn. ; Bot. Cab. t. 748 ; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 180.

"brought from the Island of Jamaica. 459

Very common on stone walls in the Mayday Mountains.

7. P. incanum, Sw.; Schkuhr Fil. t. 11, b; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 174.
Generally growing with the last-named species, or with Cheilanthes
microphylla, in similar situations. It varies much in size. I have it
also from Trinidad, Brasil, and Sierra Leone.

8. P. sporadocarpum ? Willd. ; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 171.
This fern has very much the habit of P. aureum, except that the

lacinise of the fronds are broader in the middle, and much closer toge-
ther :' it belongs to a section of Polypodium extremely difficult to de-
termine without accurate figures. I mostly found it growing about
the spurs of large trees, in open districts in the Mayday Mountains.

9. P. loriceum, Linn. ; Plum. Fil. t. 78 ; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 176.

Found generally in the same situations as the preceding, but occa-
sionally in the woods.

10. P. simile, Linn.; Sloane Jam. t. 32; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 192.

Common on living trees in the woods near Wellington plantation*
on the western face of the Mayday Mountains, where it has a very
graceful appearance as it hangs down, the stipes being slender, and
unable to bear the fronds erect.

11. P. reptans, Sw.; Sloane Jam., tt. 29, 30; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 186.

Growing in a damp ravine in the woods near Old England planta-
tion, Manchester.

12. P. Smithianum, n. s.

P. Smithianum, frondibus pilosis late-lanceolatis pinnatis, pinnis lance"
olato-acuminatis subsessilibus profunde crenatis oppositis vel alternis, pin-
nis terminalibus petiolatis, venis stipiteque pilosis, soris medio venarum in-
sidentibus.

Frons sesquipedalis pilosa. Pinnae 4-pollicares profunde crenatis. Sori
pilosi.

I have great pleasure in dedicating this species to my old and valued
friend Mr. John Smith, the able Curator of the Royal Botanic Garden
at Kew, who has for many years successfully dedicated his time to the
growth of this most interesting family.

Common in the woods on the western face of the Mayday Mountains;
I have specimens also from Trinidad.

13. P. crenatum,Sw.; Plum. Fil. #.111; Willd. Sp. PL vol. v. p.

189.

Frequent in the mountain woods near Old England plantation, Man-
chester. I have this also from Trinidad.

u u 4

460 Observations on Ferns

14. P. Lunanianum, n. s.

P. Lunanianum, frondibus pilosis late lanceolatis pinnatis, apice pinna-
tifido, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis attenuatis basi cuneatis subsessilibus obli-
que crenatis: infimis brevibus, soris biserialibus.

Frons bipedalis. Stipes venaeque pilosi. Pinnae 4 pollicares, infimis
pollicaribus oblique crenatis.

I have named this species after John Lunan, Esq., author of the
* Hortus Jamaicensis,' 2 vols. 4to., a work highly creditable to a colo-
nial press.

This species is common in the woods near Wellington plantation,
Manchester.

15. P. miser, n. s.

P. miser, frondibus glabris deltoideis tri-pinnatis, pinnis alternis vel op-
positis lanceolatis, pinnulis primariis alternis, pinnulis secondariis subop-
positis profunde pinnatifidis, laciniis lanceolatis serratis remotis, soris mi-
nutis venis dichotomis terminalibus.

Frons 3-4 pedalis glabris subtus resinose-glandulosa. Stipes 2 pedales
canaliculati. Pinnae pedales. Pinnulae primariae 2-3 pollicares. Pinnu-
lae secondariae pollicares distantes profunde pinnatifidffi. Laciniae serratae.
Sori venas dichotomas terminantes.

Frequent in the mountain woods near Old England plantation, Man-
chester. This species is remarkable in bearing only a single frond at a
time from its root.

16. P. effusum, Sw.; Sloane Jam., t. 57,/. 3; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 208.

Common at the sides of the roads which are cut through the woods
in the Mayday Mountains.

Lomaria, Willd.

L. ? longifolia, Kaul.; Plum. Fil. t. 117, fig, dextra ; Radd.
Fil. t. 73 ? Kaul. Enum. p. 152.

I much doubt if this fern be a Lomaria, and am inclined to agree
with Willdenow, who places it in Acrostichum, for I have never satis-
fied myself that it has an indusium ; if it has one it must be very fu-
gacious. Lomaria fraxinifolia of Raddi I think is not distinct ; L.
fraxinea of Willdenow from the Mauritius I have never seen : he speaks
of it as very distinct from Acrostichum (Lomaria) sorbifolium, and as
having " indusia integerrima"

This is a scandent fern, growing to a considerable height up the trunks
of trees, and rather common in woods in the Carpenter and Mayday
Mountains : I have it also from Trinidad.

Antrophyum, Kaul.

A. lanceolatum, Kaul. ; Schkuhr Crypt, t. 6 ; Kaul. Enum.
p. 198.

This is scarcely an Antrophyum, for the sori are not immersed in
the substance of the frond.

brought from the Island of Jamaica. 461

Found sparingly in the woods both on living and dead trees. May-
day Mountains.

DlPLAZIUM, Sw.

1. D. plantagineum, Sw.; Schkuhr Crypt, t. 65; Willd. Sp.

PI. vol. v. p. 351.

Very common by roadsides in the Carpenter and Mayday Moun-
tains. I doubt if D. acuminatum of Raddi is distinct from this.

2. D. juglandifolium, Sw. ; Sloane Jam. t. 37 ; Willd. Sp.

PL vol. v. p. 352.

Frequent with the preceding species in the Mayday Mountains.

3. D. obtusum, Kaul. ined. ; Link Hort. Berol. vol. ii. p. 73.

Rather common in the woods near Old England plantation, Man-
chester.

Pteris, Linn.

1. P. longifolia, Linn.; Plum. Fil. t. 69 ; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 369.

On rocks in the open country, Manchester.

2. P. grandifolia, Linn.; Plum. Fil. £.105; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 369.

This elegant fern grows to the height of 8 feet. Tt is not common :
I only found it twice, in coffee-plantations that had been given up.
Mayday Mountains.

3. P. Plumerii, Willd. Supp. ; Spreng. Syst. vol. iv. p. 74.
Frequent in the woods near Old England plantation, Manchester.

4. P. concinna, n. s.

P. concinna, frondibus glabris deltoideis bipinnatifidis ; pinnis lanceola-
tis : infimis bipartitis, laciniis linearibus apice rotundato argute serrato.

Frons sesquipedalis et altior glabris. Stipes pedales. Pinnae 6 pollica-
res, infimis 2 pollicaribus. Laciniae pollicares.

I never saw this fern but once : it is very distinct from any Pteris I
have yet seen. 1 found it in the woods near Grant's Green plantation
on the western face of the Carpenter's Mountains, a few days previous
to my embarkation for England. It was the last fern I collected in
Jamaica.

5. P. heterophylla, Linn.; Plum. Fil. t. 29; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 394.
Occasionally found in the back woods of the Mayday Mountains.

6. P. caudata, Linn. ; Plum. Fil. t. 29 ; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 401.

462 Observations on Ferns

This fern is a great pest to the cultivator, in those soils in which it
has established itself, for there is great difficulty in eradicating it, the
roots running very deep into the earth. It grows 10 feet high, and
much resembles P. aquilina in habit.

Too common in St. Elizabeth's and Manchester.

Asplenium, Linn.

1. A.serratum, Linn.; Plum. Fil. 124; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 304.

Grows in large tufts on the honey-combed rocks in the Mayday
Mountains.

2. A. ambiguum, Raddi; Raddi Fil. tt. 54, 54 bis; Spreng.

Syst. vol. iv. p. 82; (A. Shepherdii).

I believe the fern figured by Raddi to be the same as Sprengel has
named A. Shepherdii : Raddi's name being the oldest, of course must
stand. It occasionally has the sori of a Diplazium.

Common in the woods near Old England plantation, Manchester.

*3c} I 3. A. obtusifolium, Linn.; Icon. Fil. t. 23J; Willd. Sp. PI.
vol. v. p. 314.
Common in similar situations, with the preceding.

4. A. brasiliense, Raddi; Raddi Fil. t. 51. Jig. 1.

Woodsides at the back of the Mayday Mountains-

5. A. auritum, Sw. ; Sloane Jam. t. 31. ff. 1, 2 ; Willd. Sp.

PI. vol. v. p. 326.
Found with the preceding.

6. A. dentatum, Linn. ; Icon. Fil. t. 72; Will. Sp. PI. vol. v.

p. 324.

On living trees in the woods between Old England and Albion plan-
tations, Manchester.

7. A. rhizhophorum, Linn. ; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 334.

Willdenow has quoted Sloane, tt. 29, 30, but those plates are figures
of Poly podium rep tans. The description answers very well for my plant,
except that the pinnce are scarcely " sub-auritis."

Rather common in damp ravines in woods in the Mayday Mountains.

8. A. praemorsum, Sw. ; Pluk. Aim. t. 73, p. 5 ; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 339.
Common in the woods; Mayday Mountains.

CjENOPTEMS, Berg.

C. myriophylla, Sw.; Willd. Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 301. {Darea).

brought from the Island of Jamaica. 463

In the woods between Old England and Bel Retiro plantations, Man-
chester. I have it also from Trinidad.

Blechnum, Linn.

B. occidental, Linn.; Plum. Fil. t. 62, f B ; Willd. Sp. PI.
vol. v. p. 412.

Very common at roadsides in the Santa Cruz and Mayday Moun-
tains.

Aspidium, Sw.
* Indusium peltatum.

1. A. trifoliatum, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 148; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 213.

Very common; generally growing on rocks in the parish of Man-
chester. It varies considerably in size.

2. A. macrophyllum, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 145 ; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 217.
Frequent at woodsides, Mayday Mountains.

3. A. ascendens, n. s.

A. ascendens, frondibus sterilibus glabris deltoideis bipinnatis longe sti-
pitatis, pinnis lanceolatis basi truncatis, pinnulis et laciniis lanceolatis ar-
gute serratis, laciniis inferioribus minoribus ; fertilibus bipinnatis, pinnis
superioribus pinnatifidis, inferioribus pinnatis, pinnulis rotundatis sinuatis,
soris solitariis, caudice scandente dense paleaceo.

Caudex scandens digitalis crassitudine. Paleae acerosae fuscse. Stipes
pedales scabriusculi. Frons sterilis 8-10 pollicaris glabra. Pinnae 3 pol-
licares suboppositae. Pinnulae pollicares. Laciniae lanceolatae argute ser-
ratae inferioribus minutis. Frons fertilis 5 pollicaris. Pinnae pollicares al-
ternae. Indusium peltatum glabrum.

This is a very remarkable species of Aspidium, and totally distinct
from any that I have ever seen : it is very common in the mountain fo-
rests round Old England plantation, Manchester, climbing 20 or 30
feet up the trunks of trees. I found the fertile fronds but twice ; they
are very remarkable, being so different in form to the sterile ones. —
There is a figure in Raddi of a sterile frond, (A. scandens, t. 49), that
appears to be nearly allied to this species, hut the form of the pinnulae
is different, and they are on longer footstalks. Raddi had not seen a
fertile frond.

** Indusium reniforme, (Nephrodium, Mich.)

4. A.exaltatum,Sw.; Raddi Fil. t. 46 ; Willd. Sp.Pl. vol. v. p.

229.

Very frequent in the woods in the Mayday Mountains, almost in-
variably growing on prostrate decaying trees, for their whole length.

464 Observations on Ferns

5. A. Hippocrepis, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 150; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 235.

This fern varies much in size ; Plunder's figure is from a small plant.
Common at roadsides, Manchester.

6. A. Sprengelii, Kaul.; Kaul. Enum. p. 239.

Frequent ahout Wellington plantation, on the western face of the
Mayday Mountains, generally growing on living trees, along with Po-
lypodium simile.

7. A. molle, Sw.; Schkuhr Crypt, t. 34, b.; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 246.

Common in the woods in the Mayday and Carpenter's Mountains.

8. A. invisum, Sw.; Sloane Jam. tt. 50, 51; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 244.

In great abundance at the roadside between Old England and Knock-
patrick plantations, Manchester. It is a very elegant fern, generally
attaining the height of 8 feet.

9. A. venustum, n. s.

A. venustum, frondibus glabris lanceolatis bipinnatifidis, pinnis lanceola-
tis basi truncatis subsessilibus alternis, laciniis falcatis rotundatis integer-
rimis ciliatis, soris minutis marginalibus.

Frons 3 pedalis glabra. Stipes pedales tomentosi. Pinnae 6 pullicares
vere alternae, infimis brevibus. Indusium reniforme glabrum.

This is a very gracefully growing fern, and conspicuous from its mar-
ginal fructification. I found it in the woods in the Mayday Mountains,
but not often.

10. A.pubescens, Sw.; Icon. Fil. t 162; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 271.

Rather frequent in the back woods of the Mayday Mountains.

11. A.? villosum, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 27; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 271.

I am not quite certain of being correct in assigning this name to my
plant, for I have never been able to detect any trace of an indusium on
my specimens ; but they are very like Plunder's figure, which Swartz
quotes, and as he changed it from Polypodium, I suppose mine must
have lost their indusium.

Frequent in the woods near Old England plantation, Manchester.

Adiantum, Linn.

1. A. macrophyllum, Sw.; Icon. Fil. t. 132; Willd. Sp. PI.
vol. v. p. 429.

I was only fortunate enough to find this truly elegant fern twice dur-
ing my residence in Jamaica ; once in a dense forest in the Mayday

brought from the Island of Jamaica. 465

Mountains, near Old England plantation, and a second time in a field
of ruinate coffee, on the southern face of the same mountains, and much
nearer the sea : they were only small plants on each occasion. I think
it is not a plant of frequent occurrence. I have specimens of it from
Trinidad.

2. A. serrulatum, Linn.; Sloane Jam. t. 35,/. 2; Willd. Sp.

PI. vol. v. p. 436.

The figure in Sloane is only pinnate, hut this species is more gene-
rally found hi-pinnate.

Common hy roadsides in the Mayday and Santa Cruz Mountains.

3. A. radiatum, Linn.; Plum. Fil. t. 100; Willd. Sp. PI.

vol. v. p. 437.

This pretty little fern is very common at roadsides in the Mayday
Mountains.

4. A. cristatum, Linn.; Plum. Fil. t. 97; Willd. Sp. PL vol.

v. p. 443.

In similar places to the preceding.

5. A. trapeziforme, Linn.; Sloane Jam. t. 59; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 447.

This very beautiful fern is rather common in the open forest land in
the Mayday Mountains. It has a most elegant appearance from the
contrast of its delicate green pinnulse with the shining black stipes and
rachis.

6. A. tenerum, Sw.; Pluk. Aim. t. 254, /. 2.; Willd. Sp. PL

vol. v. p. 450.

Frequent in cleared land in the Santa Cruz and Mayday Mountains.
The Adianti of Jamaica appear to prefer more open land than the ge-
nerality of ferns ; they are more commonly found in exposed situations,
as road sides and sunny banks, than most other Filices.

Cheilanthes, Sw.

C. microphylla, Sw.; Plum. Fil. t. 58; Willd. Sp.Pl. vol. v.

p. 458.
Very common on stone walls in the Santa Cruz Mountains.

Davallia, Sm.

D. alata, n. s.

D. alata, frondibus glabris deltoideis tripinnatis, pinnis pinnulisque lan-
ceolatis apice attenuate alternis, pinnulis alatis, laciniis sorophoris truncato-
incisis.

Frons 4 pedalis glabra. Stipes 2 pedales rubri. Pinnae pedales. Pin-
nulae 4 pollicares alatae. Latinise semipollicares sorophorae truncato-incisae.
Indusium urceolatum.

466 Observations on Ferns

Frequent at woodsides in the Mayday Mountains.

Dicksonia, Herit.

D. cicutaria, Sw.; Sloane Jam. t. 57, ff. 1, 2; Willd. Sp. PL
vol. v. p. 487.
Common with the preceding.

Woodsia, It. Br.

? W '. pubescens, Spreng.; Spreng. Syst. vol. iv. p. 125.

I am in much doubt if I am correct in this specimen, for I have on-
ly Sprengel's short description to compare it with. I found the fern
but once ; it was growing in a damp ravine in the Mayday Mountains.

Cyathea, Sm.

C. elegans, n. s.

C. elegans, frondibus glabris tripinnatifidis, pinnulis lineari-lanceolatis
apice acuminato, hasi truncatis subsessilibus pinnatifidis ; laciniis subfal-
catis obtuse serratis apice rotundato, sori venis primariis approximati, cau-
dice arboreo aspero, stipes rachesque aculeati, costs hirsutae.

Caudex arboreus asper 20 pedales. Stipes 3 pedales aculeati. Frons 6
pedalis. Pinnae primariae 2 pedales, secondariae 4 pollicares. Lacinias 4-
6 lineares obtuse serratae apice rotundato. Sori glabri venis primariis ap-
proximati. Indusium cyathoforme.

Frequent in the forests in the Mayday Mountains, varying in height
from 15 to 25 feet, with a caudex from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. It
has a most graceful appearance, the fronds waving with the slightest
breeze, are constantly in motion, and create a delicious coolness in
their vicinity.

HYMENOPHYLLEJE, Endl.

Trichomanes, Linn.

I T. sinuosum, Rich.; Icon. Fil. t. 13; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.
v. p. 502.

I once found this species climbing up the caudex of Cyathea ele-
gans ; it is not unfrequent in the woods in the Mayday Mountains.

2. T. crispum, Linn.; Icon. Fil. t. 12; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.

v. p. 504.

This species varies considerably; my specimens are more acumi-
nate and the pinnae more crowded than in the" figure quoted above,
but I believe them to be the same. I found it growing on a living tree,
(Achras, sp.), on the southern face of the Mayday Mountains.

3. T. scandens, Linn. ; Plum. Fil. t. 93, (not good) ; Willd.

Sp. PI. vol. v. p. 514.

brought from the Island of Jamaica. 467

In great abundance in a damp ravine near Old England plantation
Manchester.

LYCOPODINEjE, Sw.

Psilotum, Sw.

P. triquetrum, Sw. ; Plum. Fil. t 170, A. A. ; Willd. Sp. PI.
vol. v. p. 56, {Bernhardia dichotoma).
Santa Cruz Mountains, on the road to Black River.

Lycopodium, Linn.

L. cernuum, Linn. ; Plum. Fil. t. 165, A.; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.
v. p. 30.

My specimens were brought to me from a mountain morass near Mile
Gully, where I understood it grew in great abundance.

ENUMERATION.

SP. SP.

Gleichenia 1 48

Aneimia 1 Csenopteris

Polybotrya 2 Blechnum

Achrostichum 2 Aspidium v 1

Gymnogramma 4 Adiantum 6

Grammitis 2 Cheilanthes

Taenitis 1 Davallia

Polypodium 16 Dicksonia

Lomaria ? 1 Woodsia ?

Antrophyum , 1 Cyathea

Diplazium 3 Trichomanes

Pteris 6 Psilotum

Asplenium 8 Lycopodium

48 Total 77

468 Monograph of the Genus Leptocera.

Art. II. Monograph of the Genus Leptocera, Dejean; with De-
scriptions of two new Species found in the Isle of Bourbon. By
M. Julien Desjardins, Secretary of the Natural History Society
of the Mauritius.*

The subject of the present communication is a genus of in-
sects of the order Coleoptera, established by Count Dejean,
in the first edition of the catalogue of his collection, and to
which he has given the name of Leptocera, (slender horned).
This genus was formed for the reception of an insect which,
up to the present time, has been found only in our island. —
The most recent works that I have been able to consult con-
tain no mention of it's having been found elsewhere. It is
the Leptocera scripta, included by Fabricius in the great
genus Cerambyx, under the name of Cer. scriptus.

The genus Leptocera, Dej., was composed solely of this
single species, when M.M. Gory and Boisduval, two of the
most distinguished French entomologists, found occasion,
more recently, to add to it two more species, namely the Lep.
bilineata of Gory, and the Lep. graphica of Boisduval. The
latter is from New Holland ; and the first is given in the
" Iconographie du Regne Animal," by M. Guerin, from which
I have copied it ; and was probably described by M. Gory in
some work upon species.

Two other not less remarkable species appear to me to be
new. They were found in the commune of St. Suzanne, in the
Isle of Bourbon; whence our colleagues M. M. Bellier Beau-
mont and Lepeevauche Meziere have several times sent me
specimens, which have enabled me to ascertain the differen-
ces which distinguish them from each other, and from the
species found in Mauritius.

The genus is thus characterized by Latreille, in the 2nd
edition of the * Animal Kingdom.'

" No projection in the presternum; the antennce setaceous,
and much longer than the body, especially in the males ; the
corslet united, in forma truncated cone ; the abdomen and
elytra nearly triangular."

Leptocera scripta, Dej. Cat. ; Cerambyx scriptus, Fabr.

Colour of the upper parts brown with black ; that of the
under parts a silvery white, or sometimes verging upon a clear
yellow, disposed in a regular manner, and always deep.

* Communicated by the author. Read at the Society's Sitting, Aug. 3rd.
1837.

Monograph of the Genus Leptocera. 469

The suture is bordered by a white line, which occupies the
extremity of the elytra ; towards the base are three other
stripes ; the longest, which passes down the middle, is near-
est the suture, the second is very faint, and situated almost in
the angle, the third is below the angle, and is interrupted in
the midst of its course, upon which it returns upwards, and
terminates near the first. A large spot, or transverse stripe,
which seems formed of two oval hollows, succeeds. They nei-
ther join the sutural stripe nor the elongated border. Final-
ly, a very elongated spot occupies the extremity of the elytra,
and, in connection with the whole of the preceding, produces
a very pleasing effect.

The corslet, the lower part of which is of a darker colour
than the elytra, is ornamented with four longitudinal stripes
of the same colour as those on the elytra, and producing an
agreeable alternation of black and white. The front, which
is white, displays a black triangular spot on the upper part.
This white colour is continued over the face and mandibles,
and even over the eyes at the base of the antennae ; the lat-
ter are black ; the eyes are of a reddish brown ; the feet brown
with whitish stains, particularly on the claws.

The body is short and pyramidical ; the elytra terminated
by two points, and presenting a very distinct angle on each
side of the base. The corslet is very finely wrinkled trans-
versely, while the elytra are punctured ; these punctures and
wrinkles are visible without the aid of a magnifier. The
corslet is short, and tumid at the sides ; it is larger than the
head, and much narrower than the body. The legs are thick-
er towards the thighs, and of proportionate length. The an-
tennae are at least three times the length of the insect. They
consist of ten joints, of which the first is very short, and the
last very long, diminishing almost to the size of a horse-hair.

This species is very common in Mauritius, but we do not
find it in the Isle of Bourbon. About fifteen years ago, I,
for the first time, discovered it in considerable numbers in
the Plaines Wilhems; since that time I have procured a great
number at Flacq, in the months of January, February, May,
and November.

In its larva state it is said to live in the woods of the olive,
{Eleodendron orientate). It is very easily captured, and fre-
quently suffers itself to be caught in houses.

I have sent a great number of specimens of this species to
different collections in France and England; and two of the
most celebrated Parisian naturalists in particular have assured
me that it is the Leptocera. scripta of Dejean.

Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. xx

470 Monograph of the Genus Leptocera.

Leptocera Mezierei ; (Leptocere de Mezieres), Mihi.

This species is generally more vigorous than the preceding.
The longitudinal stripes of the corslet and the abdomen, as
well as some spots upon its flanks, instead of being of a silvery
white, as in the Lep. scripta, Dej., are of a ferruginous red,
which is very beautiful, particularly in the elytra. The re-
flections and the brown parts are not greenish, but of a beau-
tiful violet, and the eyes are reddish. All the rest is similar,
with regard to form and distribution of colours, except that
the latter are a little weaker. There is also the same punc-
turing on the elytra, and the same black and silver stripes
upon the abdomen. In some individuals the two intermediate
stripes of the corslet are white, whilst the other two are fer-
ruginous.

The Leptocera Mezierei inhabits the Isle of Bourbon. It
has been found in considerable numbers at St. Suzanne by my
colleague and friend, Lesserbanche Mezieres. I was ex-
tremely glad of the opportunity of dedicating to a corre-
spondent, as zealous as he is learned, a species which appeared
to me to belong exclusively to the little island in which he is
cultivating, with so much success, the different branches of
natural history.

Leptocera Beaumontii, Mihi.

True to the livery of its genus, this little species has, like
its fellows, clear stripes upon a brown ground ; but Nature
has so many ways of combining and varying even things the
most alike in appearance, and which bear the most intimate
relation to each other, that this one differs still more widely
from the two preceding species than they do from each other.

Upon a ground of a ripe brown colour, we perceive upon
each of the elytra, first, a stripe, which runs the whole length
of the suture, and which is larger than the analogous one in
the preceding species ; then succeed four elongated spots, of
which three are in the same line, or very nearly so, and the
fourth at the external angle towards the base. We do not
here observe the transverse stripe of the two preceding spe-
cies. Upon the corslet there are the same number of stripes,
but they are much larger, and indeed they so overpower the
ground, that of its tint, which is black, they leave scarcely
the thickness of a line. It should however be remarked, that
all these stripes and spots are of a warm dull colour. The
base of the elytra is greenish, particularly the external angle.
The abdomen is rather of a gold than silver colour. The legs
axe russet, and the antenna are very nearly the same colour,

Monograph of the Genus Leptocera. 471

but browner. The forehead and mandibles are gold colour.

The corslet, instead of being wrinkled, is punctured like
the elytra, and the puncturing is more decided than in the
preceding species.

The corslet is very little narrower than the body, which
gives to this species a more cylindrical and elongated form.

The antennae, are much shorter in the three specimens that
I have examined.

The Lep. Beaumontii inhabits the same locality as the
Lep. Mezierei, but appears to be more rare.

I have dedicated this species to the eminent individual to
whom I am indebted for it, — M. F. Bellier Beaumont, one of
our correspondents in the Isle of Bourbon.

Leptocera bilineata, Gory.

All the knowledge that I have of this species is from the
figure which M. F. Guerin has given of it, in the ' Iconogra-
phie du Regne Animal,' Jus., pi. 45., fig. 9. Two longitu-
dinal bands of a yellowish colour are observable through the
whole length of each of the elytra, and two others of the same
colour upon the corslet, which appear hairy and rounded; the
legs are yellowish ; the antenna brown and formed of eight
pieces.

Leptocera graphica. Boisd. 'Faune Entomologique du
Voyage de l'Astrolabe,' 2nd part, 8vo., Paris, 1835, p. 511, pi.
9, fig. 17. The following is M. Boisduval's description.

" Supra aenea, thorace nigricante, punctata, sub-cylindrica, lineis quat-
uor, albicantibus; elytris punctatis maculis tribus impressis suturaque pos-
tice albicantibus, antennis pedibusque nigris, femorum basi testacea.

" The upper part of a bronze colour, corslet blackish,
punctured, almost cylindrical, with four whitish lines ; the
elytra punctured, with three deep spots, and the posterior part
of the suture whitish ; antenna and legs black, with the base
of the thighs testaceous. "

This species is so near to the Lep. scripta, that if I had not
before me two specimens brought from New Holland, I should
have regarded it as a variety of rather smaller size.

It is smaller than Lep. scripta of the Isle of France, but its
form is the same, and it very much resembles it. The head
and the corslet are blackish, the latter is almost cylindrical,
punctured, and marked on the upper part with four small
whitish lines. The elytra are bronzed, with a slight coppery
reflection, covered with small deep punctures : they have be-
sides, three small white spots upon each of them, almost in a

xx2

472 On the Organs of Hearing in Insects.

longitudinal line : and at the base of each is usually observ-
able a small spot similar to the others. The posterior half
of the suture is bordered with a whitish colour. The extre-
mity of the elytra is terminated by two small points. The
breast and sides of the abdomen are whitish and shining. —
The antennae are black ; the legs are of the same colour, and
the base of the thighs testaceous.

It is noticed as being found in Vanikoro, but I have be-
fore me another specimen taken in the North of New Holland
by Mr. Cunningham.

Flacq, Mauritius, April 30th, 1838.

Art. III. On the Organs of Hearing in Insects. By Leonard
W. Clarke, Esq., Honorary Entomological Curator to the Royal
School of Medicine at Birmingham.

" The organ of hearing is excited by vibrations or undulations of air, of
water, or of some solid medium, recurring at intervals, with different de-
grees of frequency. These impulses are received upon the tympanum, or
ear-drum, thence they are communicated to the acoustic nerve, and are fi-
nally transmitted to the brain." — Cuvier.

In 1832, when Professor Rennie presumed to revive the
notion, — the " silly and absurd " supposition, — that the an-
tennae were the organs by which insects distinguished sound,
he was treated with contumely; — the idea was ridiculed with-
out any inquiry whatever ; — it was consigned to the " tomb
of the Capulets," and the "corroborating testimony of all
great naturalists " triumphed ; — the world was induced to be-
lieve as before, that insects use antennae as feelers, and not
as ears, " while the Professor for his pains was honoured with
the dunce's cap and bells- With this example before me it
may be asked whether I dare to revive the almost annihilated
idea ? I do, most certainly, though under different auspices,
and upon very different grounds.

The first consideration is whether insects are cognisant of
sound or not. Most entomologists admit that they are, but
confess their ignorance of the locality of the organs of hear-
ing. Some have imagined the antennae to be these organs ;
hitherto this has been no more than supposition, and of course
imagination and theory have failed to convince the multitude.
Are the antennae adapted for conveying sound ? Is there any
liquid in them similar to that which Scarpa discovered to fill
the labyrinth of the human ear ? Are there a tympanum, au-
ditory nerves, and an opening or external orifice through which
the vibrations of the air may be conveyed, by means of the
acoustic nerve to the first cerebroid ? Is there anything in

On the Organs of Hearing in Insects. 473

the structure of the external portion inducing us to suppose
they can be of service in arresting the undulations of sound ?
To each of these important questions I may answer yes, with-
out reservation and without a surmise. Observation places
the facts on grounds not to be disputed. But to proceed to
the proof.

During the time I was studying the utility of the antenna,
whilst walking in the garden between eight and nine o'clock
at night, T saw a specimen of Carabus memoralis, (Illiger)
in search of food, which consists of worms and small coleop-
terous insects, that conceal themselves in the earth, or on its
surface under stones &c. For rather more than a quarter of
an hour I amused myself with observing its motions on new-
ly turned up ground, without being inconvenienced by the
interruption of plants or weeds. It walked with the antennas
bent forward and somewhat arched, occasionally touching the
ground with them in its progress. On reaching a clod of
earth they were placed beneath, yet still arched. Could it be
feeling for anything ? No ! because, if so, they would have
been stretched out rather than arched. When it discovered
any worm-holes, the tips merely were inserted, or one of them,
and it paused as if listening for prey. I have sometimes seen
terrier dogs do the same, when waiting for a rat ! I returned
to the house, and taking an insect of the same species from
my collection, carefully inspected every joint of the antenna
one by one ; then bent them into the same form : I afterwards
turned both of them backward, over the thorax, so that the
tips met on the suture of the elytra, beyond the scutellum. —
Now looking in front I discovered an opening in the lob a.
I said in my last, that they were organs of hearing, even if
there be no external communication with the atmosphere : —
the if vanished; all doubt was removed ; and I perceived that
they could hear as plainly as I could myself; — much more so
indeed, because the upper part of the antennce has the power
of increasing the sound. My exertions were thus rewarded
by results that even my most sanguine expectations had not
dared to hope for, though I was previously convinced by dis-
section that the internal formation required this meatus. I
then determined to use this as my first test, as I had in my
possession nearly a hundred duplicate specimens on which I
could exercise my patience.

The antennce of this insect are filiform, and their situation
pre-ocular. a is the natural size, b magnified. 1 is the lo-
ba, 1 ° the scapus : the loba {torulus, Kirby) is not a distinct
articulation, but a process of the scapus. Each individual
joint also has an insertion, {c) that fits into the cup of the one

474 On Ike Organs of Hearing in Insects,

22

«, auricula, natural size ; b, magnified ; l,loba; 1°, scapus; 2, torulus;
3, antescapus; 4, cyanthis; 5 to 11, phonascus; c, one of the articulations
snowing the insertion ; rf, the two elevated stops ; e, the bristle on the sca-
pus ; /, the apex, showing the orifice : g, the scapus opened ; A, the loba,
side view; i, the same at the hack; k, to the front; /, from the inner side;
m, the operculum ; n, the tympanum.

On the Organs of Hearing in Insects. 47 b

below it, answering the same purpose as the rounded end of
bones in animals, with this difference, that the muscular pow-
er that gives motion to them is inserted on the outside of the
bone, in the antennae it is inserted and situated in the inte-
rior ; hence the idea of their being " perfectly solid " is erro-
neous. The loba is punctured on the exposed part, polished
and smooth on the inner side, where it may be lubricated by
synovia. The surface of the loba is also furnished with two
elevated points, which serve as stops to prevent the antenna
from working round, (see d). On the scapus, towards the up-
per end, is a stiff bristle, always present in this species, in-
serted into a reniform cavity, {e). What purpose this can
answer we will not at present inquire, but that it is important
we may learn from the care manifested in the structure of the
recess in which it is seated. The torulus (2) has not any
hairs upon it; the antescapus (3) a few towards the upper
end; the next, cyanthis, (4) is furnished with a coronet of
them; and the seven last (5 to 11) composing the phonascus
are entirely covered with minute brownish hairs. The last
segment (11) has a cup at the tip, concealed from view by the
hairs that surround it. These hairs may be removed by the
scalpel, and when the apex is submitted to the microscope,
the capsule (f) is easily distinguished, with the membrane
covering its surface.

The outer covering is the epidermis, very thin, and easily
scraped off: it is this that causes the polish on the surface.
The rete mucosum lies in connection with it, pitchy black.
Below this is the adepose tissue, whitish and vascular, imme-
diately in connection with the bone. The bone, or ossified
portion consists of the same substance as the bones of animals,
that is, cellular tissue, with depositions of earthy particles.

Each annulation is provided with distinct muscles, uniting
and forming two fasciculi within the loba : the auditory nerves
from them unite, and pass to the back of it. The white mat-
ter that fills the antenna consists of the medullary substance,
through which the nerves and muscles pass, which it keeps
moist. The cellular tissue lines the surface and ramifies
through every part. The medullary substance is of vital im-
portance in organization, whether of vegetable or of animal
existence : destroy the pith of trees, or injure the marrow in
the spinal column, and destruction of life is the ultimate con-
sequence. When near the brain, death takes place sooner
than if the injury be more remotely seated. From a know-
ledge of this fact, the matadors of Spain endeavour to discom-
fit their antagonists in the bull-fight : from the application of
this law, we deprive the most powerful of the feathered race

476 On Succinea amphibia.

of vitality as easily as the most puny. Concerning the me-
dullary substance Cuvier says, — " it possesses that most won-
derful of all properties, the power of transmitting to the mind
the impressions made on the external organs of sense, and
rendering the muscles subservient to the will. The brain
and spinal marrow are almost entirely composed of medullary
substance, and the nerves which are distributed through all
the organs capable of sensation, are in respect of their com-
position nothing but bundles or fasciculi of it." In the liv-
ing or recently destroyed insect, this substance is white and
pulpy, but in that which has become dry, it appears as minute
yellowish granules, — (g).

At the base of the auricula, (antenna), as mentioned before,
is the loba, to the front of which is found the meatus, ( h, k,
I), that conveys sound to the tympanum, (n). At the base
is a bony operculum, in the shape of a shield, concave, and
furnished with muscles, by which the animal may close the
orifice at pleasure, (m). On the side of the tube nearest the
cranium is a channel for the passage of the muscles, {I). —
At the end of the meatus interims is situated the tympanum,
beyond it the labyrinth.

My intention, as regards this matter, is to proceed with an
examination of one or more species in each order, and then
institute an enquiry into their comparative form, with the adap-
tation of the auricles to the habits of the creatures possessing
them.

Birmingham, July 16th, 1838.

Art. IV. On Succinea amphibia, (Drap.), and its varieties. By
Daniel Cooper, Esq. A.L.S., Curator to the Botanical Society of
London.*
The following short communication has been drawn up for
the purpose of pointing out some long prevailing errors re-
specting this mollusc, which, in marshy situations, is perhaps
the most common species in the neighbourhood of London,
and probably throughout the whole kingdom.

MOLLUSC A, (Cuv.).

First Section.— M OL LUSCA CEPHALA, (Ferrussac).

Class. — Gasteropoda, (Cuv.).

Order. — Pulmonifera, (Fleming).

Family. — Helicidce, (Jeffrys).

*Read before the Linnean Society of London, Deer. 19th, 1837.

On Succinea amphibia.

477

Genus Sue cine a, (Drap.) : Amber-shell.
Animal. — Tentacula short; the superior swollen, conical.
Shell.— Oval or oblong : aperture large, oblique : pillar spiral. Plane

of the aperture much inclined in front, in relation to the axis of

the shell : (Drap.).

1,2, var. /3, major ; 3, 4, var. y, media ; 5, 6, var. 8, minor.

1. S. amphibia, (Drap.). Common Amber-shell.
Animal blackish, thick, very glutinous, spotted, occupying the whole of the
shell, having four tentacula, the two superior longer than the inferior, at
the extremities of which are situated the eyes, also slightly rugose in the
centre.

Shell varying much in size, being from 4 to 9^ lines in
length, and from 3^ to 5 in breadth ; the usual size of full
grown specimens is about 8 lines in length and 4^ in breadth;
of somewhat an oval figure, pale amber or orange yellow, oc-
casionally slightly opaque, glossy, transparent, and striated
longitudinally. Spire composed of three oblique swollen vo-
lutions, of which the inferior is the larger, the remaining two
gradually tapering to an obtuse apex. Aperture covering -J
of the shell, oval, lip usually entire, simple, membranous at
the margin.

Succinea amphibia, Drap. Hist, des Moll. p. 58, t. 3,/. 22.

Beard, p. 72, t. 3,/. 1.

Sowerby, Genera,/. 3.

Lamarck, Hist, des Animaux sans Verteb., vi. p . 135.

Succinea Mulleri, Leach, Mollusca, p. 78.
Helix Succinea, Turt Diet. p. 67.

putris, Mont. p. 376, t. 16,/. 14.

limosa, Dillwyn, Cat. ii. p. 996.

Of this species Draparnaud makes three varieties : —
Var. 0, major, thicker and flesh coloured ; {Fig. 1 and 2).
Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. y y

478 On Succinea amphibia.

y, media, more elongated and deeper coloured ; {Fig. 3

and 4).
5; minor, with the aperture ovate ; {Fig. 5 and 6).

Var. £, major. This, the first variety, is abundantly met
with in the neighbourhood of London. The largest speci-
mens in my collection measure 94 lines in length, and 5 in
breadth. It is easily distinguished from the ordinary Succi-
nea amphibia by its larger size, thicker nature, and flesh-co-
loured appearance. In the vicinity of Richmond, Surrey, this
variety is most abundant.

Var. y, media. Much confusion has arisen with this vari-
ety. Dr. Turton in his ' Manual ' actually figures it for Suc-
cinea oblonga, (Drap.), by no means a common shell in the
vicinity of London, but occurs occasionally at Battersea. —
This then is the variety y of Beard, the Sue. oblonga of Dr.
Turton, and the Sue. gracilis of Mr. Alder, in ' Magazine
of Zoology and Botany.' It is most abundant in the River
Wandle, Surrey, and many other parts of the neighbourhood.
Mr. Alder mentions having observed them within a hundred
yards of Sue. amphibia, each retaining its characteristic marks
in the colour of the animal and shape of the shell. This I
cannot confirm, fori have observed them in several situations
high up the river Thames, and have gathered specimens of
this variety, actually intermingled with the true shell; confirm-
ing my opinion that Sue, gracilis of Mr. Alder is the variety
y of Drap. and therefore synonymous with Dr. Turton's Sue.
oblonga. This variety usually measures 6 lines in length and
nearly 3 in breadth ; is of a more slender form and a deeper
amber colour than the preceding.

Var. $, minor. I consider this to be the shell sent me by
Mr. Bean of Scarborough, under the name of Sue. intermedia,
(Bean). They are occasionally met with in the neighbour-
hood of London, as I am informed by Professor Thomas Bell,
beneath cow-dung. This variety comprises the smallest per-
fect shells of the amphibia I have seen ; measuring only 4
lines in length and 2^ in breadth. In addition to their cor-
responding with Draparnaud's description, they are of a light-
er and more opaline colour than any of the preceding varieties.

The Succinea amphibia and its varieties are found gene-
rally abundant in ponds, ditches, and marshy situations, at-
tached to the roots or other parts of aquatic plants overflowed
by the tide. The shell is very thin and fragile, much care is
therefore necessary in extracting the animal. I cannot alto-
gether agree with Mr. Jeffrys with respect to changing the
name from Sue. amphibia of Draparnaud to Sue. putris of
Linnaeus ; as I have frequently collected this species on va-

Remarks on the Habits of the Snake. 470

rious substances immersed in water; for instance, on the reeds
and other water plants on the banks of the Thames, when the
tide is up. During the winter months the animal forms an
epiphragm, of nearly the same consistence as its shell. When
dead shells are examined, the beautiful colour and transpa-
rency will be found to be entirely destroyed.

It is this species, according to Mr. Dikes, of Hull, in Mag.
Nat. Hist, that is the food of the bearded titmouse. He ex-
amined three specimens of this bird, and found the crop of
each to be filled with Sue. amphibia and Pupa muscorum.
He states that although the crop of one of them was not
larger than a hasel nut, it contained twenty of this species,
singularly packed together, and four of Pupa muscorum ; the
shells of all being perfectly uninjured. I cannot help think-
ing that the twenty species must have been those of the vari-
ety minor of Draparnaud.

Art. V. Some Remarks on the Habits of the Common Snake, (Co-
luber Natrix of Linn.). By Dr. W. B. Clarke.

Thinking that a few remarks respecting the habits of the
common snake may prove interesting to some of the general
readers of your Magazine, I venture to send the following,
requesting you to give them insertion, if you deem them wor-
thy to occupy a place in your interesting publication.

On a very fine day in June, 1837, whilst walking near the
outskirt of a wood in the neighbourhood of this town, I ob-
served a very fine snake reposing at the base of a sand bank,
evidently eujoying itself under the influence of the rays of a
nearly meridian sun. Upon my approaching it more nearly,
it became alarmed, and endeavoured to make off by ascend-
ing the bank near which it was lying. This it accomplished
with some difficulty, for, from the swollen appearance of the
body in the region of the stomach, it was evident that it had
swallowed some animal of considerable size ; and the side of
the bank, being perpendicular in its lower part for a height
nearly equalling two thirds of the animal's length, presented
a considerable barrier to its escape. On surmounting this
perpendicular part, which it effected by a zigzag disposition
of the anterior three fourths of the body, it gained the accli-
vity, and glided along the ascent among the grass, until it
reached a blackthorn bush, the branches of which were ex-
tremely numerous, the lowermost spreading on the ground so
as closely to cover a space of three or four feet in circumfe-

yy 2

480 Remarks on the Habits of the Snake.

rence. The snake glided into the midst of this, and availed
itself of the shelter it afforded, though evidently much embar-
rassed, and apparently sensible of its incapability, from its
state of repletion, to slip away, as it might probably have
done under ordinary circumstances. Whenever an attempt
was made to oppose its escape from this bush, that it might
reach the ferns and brushwood which abounded on all sides,
it would draw back its head, erect its slender neck, emit its
peculiar hissing sound, thrust out and rapidly vibrate its lit-
tle black and forked tongue, and at the same time gradually re-
treat to the opposite side of the bush. This was repeated
many times, until at length, in the act of turning to make its
escape from one part of the bush to another, it left a portion
of its body unprotected, by which it was seized, drawn from
its retreat, and secured. Upon examination it appeared to
have swallowed a frog or toad, so large that the part of the
body which contained it was distended to at least three times
its natural size, and the form of the animal's limbs could be
distinctly seen as it lay within the stomach of the snake, which
was afterwards placed in a large botanical box, and carried
home with great care. On reaching home we found that the
snake had disgorged its prey, which proved to be a very large
toad, quite dead, and entire, with the exception of two or
three lacerations on the left fore leg, where probably the snake
had first seized it. Upon taking the snake from the box, it
exhibited every sign of health and vigour, gliding from the
hands of those who attempted to take hold of it, and over the
floor of the room, making many efforts to escape. One very
remarkable instinctive character we observed in the snake,
which was exhibited on presenting to it a dead viper, [Colu-
ber berus, Linn.), which we had captured the same day, and
deprived of life, to avoid accidents. The snake was confined
in an upright basket, the sides of which were so high that it
could not escape over them ; upon presenting our hands to it,
the snake invariably receded, and endeavoured to escape, but
on presenting the viper so as to imitate, as nearly as possible,
the approach of a living one, the snake invariably erected its
head, and, darting out its neck, struck the head of the viper
with its own : this was several times repeated, with the same
result, until, not wishing to irritate or frighten the animal, we
discontinued thus to annoy it. It would appear that the snake,
naturally aware of the character of the viper, instinctively en-
deavoured to surprise the latter on its approach, which, in the
natural state of things, would have given the snake time to
escape, before the viper's recovery from the effects of the sud-
den attack.

Remarks on the Habits of the Snake. 431

In about four or five days from this time, we observed an
opacity in the corner of one eye, and in a day or two more a
similar appearance presented itself in the corresponding part
of the other eye, which continued to increase for ten or twelve
days, notwithstanding which the snake was capable of disco-
vering the approach of the hand, or any other body ; but it
gradually became more and more dormant, and disinclined to
move, yet, when fully roused, would glide over the hand or
arm of any one offering to handle it, or amongst the small
branches of a tree or bush, with nearly as much agility as be-
fore. The next morning, on looking into the box where it
was usually kept, it was found to have collected the hay into
one corner, and to have secreted itself beneath it. On remov-
ing the hay, the snake was found coiled up into a very small
space, and the cuticle around the upper jaw had begun to de-
squamate and turn upwards, giving the head a very rough and
peculiarly fierce appearance. The snake now appeared to be
extremely irritable, hissing violently, and endeavouring, in
every possible way, to secrete itself beneath the hay ; when
it found itself unable to do this, the quantity not being suffi-
cient, it moved with great rapidity out of the box. The box
was afterwards filled with hay, and the snake returned into it
and left unmolested for about two hours ; at the expiration of
this time we paid it another visit, and then found it in a very
remarkable condition : a great portion of the cuticle had de-
squamated, and appeared very much inflated, presenting the
appearance of a single coil or ring, about six inches in dia-
meter, completely enclosing the animal. Upon more closely
inspecting this inflated ring, we found that it was produced
by the snake, after having inverted a part of its skin over the
tail, having accidentally entered the open extremity of the in-
verted portion, while in the act of disengaging itself from the
remainder ; the exuviae were so far transparent, that we could
observe the yellow spots upon the neck and the dark folds of
the enclosed snake. After letting it remain some little time
in this situation, upon attempting to take it up, it made its
way through the skin, and gradually dragging on the smaller
part of its body which was not disengaged from the skin, af-
ter a short time it was slowly drawn from it, and the animal
moved about in its new and gaudy attire. Immediately after
this process was completed, the snake exhibited considerable
activity, gliding with much vigour out of the hands of those
who attempted to secure it. On being placed upon a grass
plot, it moved over it with great rapidity, and amongst the
boughs of a tree on which it was placed, it travelled with far
greater speed and vigour than I had ever observed it to do

482 Remarks on the Habits of the Snake,

before, passing over and among the branches in an incessantly
progressing movement, for a considerable time.

The fact related above was evidently accidental, and de-
pendant upon the peculiar direction of the animal's head as
it moved onward in the act of disengaging itself from the ex-
uvice. Under ordinary circumstances the process goes on as
follows. The desquamation of the skin begins by a separa-
tion taking place around the jaws, that from the upper jaw
turning upwards and backwards, whilst that from the lower
jaw turns downwards and backwards by its elasticity; and as
the animal glides through the surrounding grass, or similar
substances, the skin becomes inverted and drawn off from the
head downwards, to the very tip of the tail, and the animal
escapes, leaving the exuvice turned inside out. The skin di-
lates very much on separating from the body, which enables
the animal to draw it off with greater ease.

The movements of this species are highly elegant. Its
course among grass or underwood is performed in a zigzag
direction ; the head and neck are thrust forward alternately to
the right and left, whilst the rest of the body follows precisely
in the same course. In its progress the head pushes aside
the blades of grass or other yielding bodies, and the remain-
der of the body follows without communicating any motion
to them : and in this way a snake will often steal across a
meadow or through a thicket, unperceived by a person stand-
ing at a little distance. Its course is not indicated by any
sound, except when passing over dead and dry leaves, or si-
milar bodies, of which the friction of one against another will
produce a sound : thus silently and unperceived the snake is
able to steal upon its unwary prey, or to make its escape from
a more powerful assailant.

I am not aware that a snake is capable of ascending a tree
the trunk of which is lofty, and unprovided with branches
sufficiently close for the animal to extend its body from one
to another, although this part of the tree may be small enough
to be encompassed by the folds of the animal. We have ma-
ny times tried to induce this species to ascend the trunk of
such a tree, but always without success. But when there
are a number of branches or twigs sufficiently strong to
support the animal's weight, and within the necessary dis-
tance, the ascent is effected with considerable rapidity, and
the movements of the animal are extremely elegant during its
progress. Amongst the smaller branches of a tree the snake
moves with the greatest rapidity and elegance, gliding, at one
time, from bough to bough, following its general zigzag di-
rection, or progressing in an elegant spiral course from the

Remarks on the Habits of the Snake. 483

base to the extremity of a branch, assisted by the twigs pro-
jecting from it. In the latter movement it generally prefers
elevating its head, to pass over the axilla of a branch, rather
than to pass beneath it ; thus additional support is given to
the body, and the abdominal scales, {scuta), which are the
principal agents of progression, are made to act with greater
power. These transverse abdominal scales are of a peculiar
nature ; not only as they defend the lower part of the body
from external injury, but, having an intimate connection with
the ends of the ribs, are by them, through the agency of a se-
ries of powerful internal muscles, erected, and made to move
backwards and forwards upon each other, and thus each scu-
tum is, as it were, drawn after the preceding, and this, in rapid
succession, being continued throughout the entire series, gives
a progressive motion to the body of the serpent, which travels
onward, as if upon so many feet. Hence it is that a snake,
after having coiled its head and neck over a branch, is capa-
ble of drawing the remainder of the body over, in a gradually
progressing direction. It will sometimes extend itself from
the upper branches, by twisting its tail round a small one,
lowering the rest of its body, and extending itself to its full
length, pass its head and neck in a spiral course round a low-
er branch, then loosening its hold of the upper one, drop the
tail end of the body into the lower part of the tree, and, fol-
lowing the course which the head and neck had previously
taken, will travel on, drawing up the pendant part of its body,
and proceed as before. The snake is not only able to travel
with rapidity over the earth, but possesses the power of throw-
ing the whole length of its body from the ground, performing
a kind of leap : this is done by placing the body upon the
ground in the form of an involuted spire, the folds of the an-
terior part forming the centre of the figure ; then suddenly
extending itself in the form of a spiral spring, it will throw
itself to a distance. This movement may sometimes be seen
in very hot weather, by the banks of a stream, when snakes
will often lie basking in the sun, with their bodies coiled in
the manner just described, — the neck and head being direct-
ed from the centre to the circumference, above the folds.—-
This position seems to be preferred to any other by the snake
while reposing, and it is one from which the animal is ena-
bled to perform the most rapid movement upon a sudden sur-
prise ; for in a wood, from this position, they will leap, by an
instantaneous effort, into the brushwood, and thus elude our
most energetic efforts to secure them, or even to get sight of
them ; but by the side of a stream this movement may be bet-
ter seen, for on a sudden approach, they will leap from the

484 Remarks on Zoological Classification.

bank into the midst of the stream, swim to the opposite side,
ascend the bank, and secrete themselves. This movement
they perform with astonishing rapidity.

The progression of this species in the water is not so rapid
as upon land, for the undulations or serpentine movements of
the body are performed in such a way that no very great la-
teral action is induced upon the water, which action is most
energetically exerted in the motion of an eel, (which, among
fishes, is most nearly allied in form to a serpent), through that
medium. Besides, the nearly cylindrical shape of a serpent's
body is not that which would be supposed the best adapted
to propel the animal through the water.

This species is perfectly harmless, never attempting to bite
unless very much irritated, and is even then incapable of do-
ing injury. From its gentleness it becomes extremely inte-
resting and engaging. Several varieties are at times met with,
but the colour is generally of an olive green, with irregular
black spots. On each side of the neck is a characteristic yel-
low spot, with a dense black somewhat lunated one posterior to
it. The under part of the body is of a greenish white, ele-
gantly marked with large black patches. This species is said
to be found in many parts of Europe, frequenting moist hedg-
es, woods, and other shady places. It is in such situations
that it may be continually met with in different parts of our
own island. It preys upon toads, frogs, insects and worms.
It occasionally resorts to the water, and searches for its prey
while it swims down the sides of the stream. It preys also
upon mice, and will climb amongst thickets and brushwood
in search of the nestlings of small birds ; and after satisfying
its appetite, will remain many weeks without requiring ano-
ther supply. It deposits its eggs, in number from 12 to 20, in
some moist and warm situation, where they remain until they
are hatched. During the winter it remains concealed within
some hole in a bank, or hollow trunk of a tree, or similar si-
tuation, coming forth in the spring.

Ipswich, February 23rd, 1838.

Art. VI. Remarks on Zoological Classification. By Sir Edward
Ff. Bromhead, Bt. F.R.S. L. & E.
( Continued from p. 419,).
In 1828 Mr. John Stark published his ' Elements of Natu-
ral History,' bringing the whole Zoological Series up to
the highest level of Science at that time; but the subject has

Remarks on Zoological Classification. 485

since so entirely changed, that a reference to his Work will
not carry us very far. The Cuvierian Table to be found at
the end of Griffith's Translation, takes us nearer to the pre-
sent views of Classification, but the Scale of Genera is so ex-
tremely high and so inadequate to necessary subdivision, as
to remind us of the wide I iinnaean Genera. It will perhaps
be better to enumerate the references of the leading Struc-
tures, where these Publications principally fail us : — >

The Infusoria, Polypi, and other Elementary Structures are
as yet in the same loose state, as the Fungi, Lichens, and Al-
gae of Botany ; the place of many in the System is disputed,
and the stations deviate widely; Ehrenberg, Blainville, Milne
Edwards, and Farre may be consulted.

The Amgebales are the Gymnica, Epitricha, Pseudopodia;
Enantiotreta, and Allotreta of Ehrenbergh.

The Flustrales may represent the Bryozoa of Ehrenbergh,
and the Ciliobrachiata of Farre; they open with Ehienbergh's
Katotreta and Anopisthia.

Sertulariales may represent the Hydriform Polypes of
Farre ; Madreporales are nearly his Zoanthiform Polypes.
In the Echinales I have taken the limits of Agassiz. I fol-
low Agassiz in considering the Medu sales as the true pas-
sage, connecting the Echinales with the Ascidiales. The
Bryozoa are admitted to pass by Vorticella to the Infusoria,
and are said on the other hand to pass into the Ascidiales ;
but in laying stress on the Vent, we must recollect, that the
Vent may gradually approach the Mouth, until the two open-
ings may coincide.

The Families of Aviculales and Tridacnales are limited
from Dr. Flemming's Treatise on Mollusca.

The Crustacea are limited principally from Milne Ed-
wards : —

Gecarcinales are Oxyrhinques, Cyclometopes, Catome-
topes, Leucosiens-calappiens, and Qorystiens-dorypiens.

Hippales are Dromiens, Raniniens, Hippiens, Paguriens-
homaliens-pactoliens, and Porcellaniens.

PaLjEMOnales are Macroure cuirassees, Thalassiniens-as-
taciens, Salicoques ; Caridioides-bicuirassees, and Unicui-
rassees. Bopyridae-cymothoadae are his Cymothoadiens ;
Sphaeromadae-idoteadae-asellidae are his Idoteidiens ; Gam-
maridae-corophiadae are his Crevethiniens.

The Families of the Cephalose-Molluscs are easily dis-
tinguishable ; their order of Succession and that of the Alli-
ances are open to remark.

The Pisces are principally formed from the Groups of Cu-
vier.

Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. zz

486 Remarks on Zoological Classification.

In the Aves I have leaned to Swainson's Divisions, but his
Families seem frequently too small, nor am I now satisfied,
that I have sufficiently consolidated them : —

Meropidae are (Trogonidae) -Haley onidae -Meropidae ;

Trochilidae are Trochilidae-cinnyridae-promeropidaB ;

Meliphagadae are (Paradiseadae) -Meliphagadae ;

Muscicapadae are Ampelidae-Muscicapadae-Laniadae ;.

Corvidae are Corvidae-Sturnidae ;

Psittacidae are Psittacidae -Picidse ;

Cuculidae are Certhiadae-Cuculidae.

I have not any satisfactory reference for the families of the
Mammalia, which require new-casting, and which seem to
have retrograded since the arrangements of Desmarest, in con-
sequence of the Abuse of Characteristic Nomenclature.

Between Equidae and Suidae may lie Hippopotamus- mas-
todon-elephas-tapirus-pala&otherium-rhinoceros.

Didelphidae and Kanguridae may be compound, and the
parts lie in different Alliances.

From Felidae to Melesidae we may pass thus, Hyaena-canis-
vi verra-p ar adoxurus .

For Lumbricales, and Euniceales consult Milne Edwards;
Lumbricales are : —

Cephalobranches; Arenicoliens, Terricoles; Suceurs; Gas-
terobranchidae.
Euniceales are : —

Cephalees § A. ; Nereidiens, Euniciens, Amphynomiens-
aphrodisiens ; Sipunculi (Agassiz).

There will not be any difficulty in recognizing the Families
intended among the Insecta ; an attempt is made at a more
natural distribution of the great Groups ; Lamarck seems to
have been underestimated here. Mr. James Wilson in his
Treatise gives the Diptera from Meigen, who seems to have
divided the families much too far and beyond Lamarck : —

Hippoboscadae are Nycteribia-coriaceae ;

Muscadae are Trineurae-muscides ;

Conopsidae are Stomoxidae-conopsariae ;

Others are still more broken down.
Gamasales are from Duges : —

Acaridae are Bdelleae-acareae ;
Gamasidae are Ixodeae-gamaseae.
Furculariales are from Ehrenberg :

Monotrocha, Schizotrocha, Polytrocha, Zygotrocha nuda,
and Zygotrocha loricata.

Thurlhy Hall, Lincoln,
June 13*A, 1838.

Remarks on Mr. Eytorfs Arrangement of the Gulls. 487

Art. VIII. Remarks on Mr. Eyton s Arrangement vf the Gulls.
By Fred. Mc'Coy, Esq.

In taking up Part 2 of the ' History of the rarer species of
British Birds,' by T. C. Eyton, Esq., I was somewhat sur-
prised to find, under the head " Of the Gulls in general," a
new classification of these birds, or rather a combining of
those of Leach, Stephens, and Mr. Eyton himself. The au-
thor divides the gulls into four sub-genera, as follows : —

Sub-gen. 1. — Rissa, Leach; wanting the hind toe; tarsi moderate.

2, — Lotus , Stephens; hind toe perfect; tarsi strong; thighs fea-
thered nearly to the joints; head white in the summer and win-
ter plumage ; tail rounded,

3. — Chroicocephalus, Nobis ; hind toe perfect, tarsi slender ; thighs
much denuded ; tail rounded ; head dark coloured in the summer
plumage.

4> — Xema, Leach ; tail forked.

Before we go any farther, I am extremely anxious to know
under which of these sub-genera we are to place our common
gull, Larus canus, auct., with the pretty spotted head, which
of course will turn it out of the sub-genus Larus ; and it can-
not be admitted to a place in the new sub-genus, Croicoce-
phalus, because its head is not "dark-coloured in the summer
plumage." We will now begin with Xema, and work up-
wards towards Rissa. The only character, you will recollect,
given for Xema, is " tail forked ; " now by this we are to un-
derstand, that any gull having a forked tail, must belong to
the sub-genus Xema, that character alone, it seems, being
sufficient to point out its situation.

Now, it is stated in the 12th. volume of the Linnean
Transactions, near the end of the account of the Sabine Gull ,
that the tail of the kittiwake is slightly forked ; — I regret that
the only specimens I can get at immediately are stuffed, so
that I cannot examine them as minutely as I could wish ; the
Linnean Transactions, however, are quite sufficient for the
purpose ; we must therefore consider the kittiwake for the
future, (at least according to Mr. Ey ton's views), as a species
of Xema, the character of the forked tail being, in that gen-
tleman's opinion, sufficiently characteristic of the sub-genus.
Then as the kittiwake is given as the typical species of the
sub-genus Rissa, — and, as it has been shown, by his own cha-

488 Remarks on Mr. EytorCs

racters, to belong to the sub-genus Xema, we must unite the
two sub-genera Rissa and Xema, as having no characters to
separate them. As to Rissa wanting the hind toe, and the
tarsi being moderate, these can never be urged as distinctions,
for nothing is mentioned either of toes or tarsi among the
characters of Xema, the only given character, " tail forked, "
being evidently thought quite sufficient.

Leaving Xema for an instant, we will examine the author's
own sub-genus Chroicocephalus, which, to say the truth of it.
is by far the best of the groups, with the exception of Larus,
He says, " Under the sub-genus Larus, there has generally
been placed two distinct forms, which appear to us to require
further subdivision ; we therefore propose the name of Chro-
icocephalus, (derived from two Greek words, k%oiko$, coloured,
and H£<pahYi, head, signifying that the birds classed under that
name have coloured heads), for a new sub -genus under Larus,
Linn., for the reception of such gulls as have the tarsi slen-
der, thighs considerably denuded, hind toe very small, head
only, or head and upper part of the neck, dark coloured in
the summer plumage." And again, "The general contour of
these birds, (those belonging to the sub-genus Chroicocepha-
lus), is much lighter than that of Larus ; they generally feed
on the edge of the water, sometimes wading, for which their
partially naked thighs peculiarly adapt them." Now here we
have a perfect sketch of the habits of the sub-genus Xema,
or at least of the type of the sub-genus, the sabine or forked-
tail gull, as detailed by Capt. Sabine in the volume of the
Linnean Transactions already quoted ; indeed the habits of
the one would pass for those of the other without any altera-
tion whatever, at least as given by those two gentlemen. You
will perceive, from what I have just quoted from Mr. Eyton's
work, that his sheet-anchor is the colouring of the head in
the summer plumage in Chroicocephalus, and the head being
white both in the summer and winter plumage in L.arus : this
opinion, if any doubt existed, would be confirmed by his name,
which of course explains the most prominent character ; and
you will also observe that he thought the form of the tail of
so little importance, that it is not mentioned at all until we
find it placed among the characters of the sub-genus which
I have mentioned above. It is somewhat singular that the
original describer of the Larus Sabini, says ait will naturally
fall into the division of the gulls with the black heads," and
in this I think my readers will entirely agree with him ; for
on examination we find that there is absolutely no character,
with the exception of the difference in the forms of the tails,
to separate them, and this form of the tail T have shewn to

Arrangement of the Gulls. 489

constitute no more than its specific character, and it would
form even a very bad specific distinction when it is common
to two such distinct gulls as the kittiwake and the sabine.
So, leaving it out as a generic character, let us see how the
two groups stand. Mr. Eyton declares that the birds of his
new sub -genus have dark heads in their summer plumage ;—
on turning to the account of the Sabine Gull in the Linnean
Transactions, we find "Capite nigricante, torque cervicale
nigro," therefore the two sub-genera agree in what Mr. Eyton
pronounces to be the most important character of his sub-ge-
nus Chroicocephalus; as they agree in the most important,
we shall also find them agreeing in the most neglected cha-
racters, ; — for instance, " tarsi slender" and " thighs consider-
ably denuded" may be given as generic characters with equal
truth to both, Sabine's Gull possessing both characters to a
very eminent degree. The character, "hind toe perfect," be-
longs also equally to both, so that as the two groups agree
perfectly in their habits, as far as these are known, are per-
fectly alike in their organization, and when Xema possesses
in a very eminent degree the characters which have been
deemed most important in the sub-genus Chroicocephalus,
and as they agree in all the minor characters, with the ex-
ception of the form of the tail, (which I have shewn, by refe-
rence to the sub-genus Rissa, to be wholly unfit to be em-
ployed as a generic character), I am sure my readers will join
with me as to the propriety of uniting the two groups We
have now but to do with the two sub -genera Larus and Chroi-
cocephalus. On comparing the characters of these two groups
we shall find that they agree in almost every particular.
"Hind toe perfect" is given as the first character of both
groups ; the second character in Larus is "tarsi strong," and
in Chroicocephalus, "tarsi slender," but here two such vague
terms are employed, that we could not attach any exact mean-
ing to them, they appearing to leave it as quite a matter to
be decided by each individual's acceptation of the terms, and
I am quite satisfied that there is no universal difference in the
strength of the tarsi in the two groups. The third character
of Larus is " thighs feathered nearly to the joints." In Chroi-
cocephalus it is "thighs much denuded," which means pre-
cisely the same thing ; for, I think you will find that any gull
having his thighs much denuded, will be perfectly described
by the words "tarsi feathered nearly to the joints ;" the cha-
racters of the tail are the same in both, and now the only re-
maining character is "head white in the winter and summer
plumage" in Larus, and "head dark coloured in the summer
plumage" in Chroicocephalus. But when we consider that,

490 Notes on the Trumpeter Bird.

even according to the author's own admission, the head of
Chroicocephalus is dark coloured only in the summer plumage,
and that even then it does not possess the dark head, unless
the bird be in its mature plumage, and when we consider that
this is the only character separating it from Larus, we are
struck with the frivolity of the distinction. By what means
are we to know a Chroicocephalus in its immature or its win-
ter plumage from a Larus ? The only additional evidence to
prove the fallacy of the separation which we could require,
would be the discovery of some gull partaking of the charac-
ters of both, and this we find in the common gull Larus ca-
nus before referred to, whose head is spotted both in the sum-
mer and winter plumage, and which, were we to follow Mr.
Ey ton's rule, must have a "new sub-genus" established for
its reception. I hope the arguments I have given will be
thought sufficiently conclusive to warrant the union of the
two sub-genera, Larus and Chroicocephalus.

I am sorry to be obliged again to differ with Mr. Eyton, in
another part of his valuable work, in which he makes the
grey wagtail come under the sub-genus Budytes. According
to Swainson, the sub -genus Budytes has the tarsi and middle
toe equal, and the hind toe as long as the tarsus ; now, this
obviously can never apply to the grey wagtail, which, in my
opinion, belongs to the genus Motacilla, with which it agrees
in the character of its feet, &c.

French Street, Dublin.

Art. VIII. Notes on the Trumpeter Bird, or Waracobi of th Aro-
wahs of Guiana ; Psophia crepitans of Linnaeus. By Dr. John
Hancock, Corr. Memb. Zool. Soc, &c. &c.

This bird, which is about the size of a domestic fowl, has
many affinities with the genus Struthio. Its tail is short, the
wings are small, and it seldom flies ; but with the assistance
of its short wings it runs, or rather hops along, with much
rapidity.

The singular and social habits, and very antic gambols of
this bird, have frequently attracted the notice of travellers. —
It will stand on one leg, then hop and dance before the spec-
tator, and tumble over like a Merry- Andrew ; so that an Afri-
can noticing it, was not unapt in calling it the crazy bird. —
Like a dog, it shows great attachment to its keeper, and will
follow him wherever he goes, — a rare propensity in a bird. —
It is bold and pugnacious, and appears to be the master of

Notes on the Trumpeter Bird. 491

other birds on the ground, as the toucans are among the trees;
it domineers likewise over hogs, and various other animals,
jumping up and scratching with such violent motions, as ra-
ther to intimidate than conquer by fair combat.

The waracoba may with propriety be regarded as a real
ventriloquist ; the sound of its note actually proceeding from
its belly, although by some naturalists supposed to proceed
from the anus. This is the cause of that singular sound which
has induced naturalists to give it the name of Psophia crepi-
tans. M. de la Condamine is of opinion that this sound arises
from an organ quite opposite to that of the throat. M. Fer-
min observes that the most learned naturalists are ignorant of
its precise position, but he thinks it may one day or other be
discovered.*

Dr. Traill dissected one of these birds, which was sent home
by an active and spirited naturalist, Mr. Charles Parker, of
Liverpool. An interesting account of the same has been pub-
lished by the Doctor ; but it does not elucidate the present
question, respecting the organ of voice. Nor does M. Cuvier
afford any additional information on the subject : the species
best known in South America is, he says, "L'oiseau trompette,
{Psophia crepitans, Lin.), ainsi nomme de la faculte de faire
entendre un son sourd et profond, que semble d'abord venir
de Tanus." f

It should be observed that the male only utters this sound,
and the cause thereof is evident in the peculiar structure of
the trachea or windpipe, which runs down the belly immedi-
ately under the skin, to within about an inch of the anus,
where it is doubled back upon itself, returns and enters the
cavity of the chest, at the anterior part of the breast bone. —
No dissection is required to ascertain this point ; it is indeed
very palpable, for the trachea is plainly felt under the skin of
the abdomen, and the male and female may be thus distin-
guished. It is doubtless, then, this conformation alone that
has given rise to the idea that its obscure grunting sound pro-
ceeds from the anus. There is nothing very peculiar or com-
plex in the structure of the larynx, as observed in some birds
of song. It has been said that the structure of the trachea
here noticed is not common to all the males of the same spe-
cies : this is singular, if true, but it seems very improbable.

The Indians are fond of keeping the waracoba about their
houses, but it is seldom, if ever, known to breed in the do-
mestic state. Its eggs are not often discovered, as it forms
its nest, without much art or care, in the deepest recesses of

*' Hist, de Surinam.' f ' Regne Animal,' torn. i. p. 506.

492 Letter from Mr. Ogilby,

the forest ; depositing two light ash-coloured eggs, rather less
in size than those of the domestic fowl. When hatched, the
young ones are attended by both parents ; and during incu-
bation the male is constantly on guard, ready to give combat
to all obtruders. These birds, like the common fowl, scratch
up the ground amongst decayed leaves and rubbish, in search
of their food, which consists of various seeds, worms, and in-
sects.

It is singular that amongst the numerous useful birds that
are indigenous to Guiana, none are found to propagate among
the Indians : yet the common fowl (or Gallina as it is called
after the Spaniards) is reared in abundance throughout the
country. We find the term Gallina, or a corruption of it, in
use among all the native tribes ; a proof, I think, that this use-
ful bird was unknown in the country prior to the arrival of
Europeans ; although M. Sonnini imagined he had discover-
ed it existing in a wild or native state, in what he called the
" Coq de Guiane"

Art. IX. Letter from William Ogilby, Esq. in reference to Mr.
Strickland's Observations on the application of the term Simia.

Dear Sir,

It was not my intention to have troubled either you or
your readers with any farther remarks upon nomenclature. —
A passage in Mr. Strickland's last paper, (p. 328), however,
demands a reply ; and I confess myself rather disappointed
that Mr. Strickland has allowed two months to pass without
having himself corrected a misrepresentation, which I am sure
must have been unintentional, and which I had hoped was as
unworthy of Mr. Strickland as of me. Mr. Strickland has af-
firmed that both Linnaeus and Erxleben sanctioned his appli-
cation of the term Simia, that is, its confinement to the group
which Geoff roy calls Pithecus : I showed Mr. S. that he was
mistaken in this, in as far as Linnaeus applied the name in
question to the whole of the Anthropoid Cheiropeds, and Erx-
leben to the three modern genera Pithecus, Troglodytes, and
Hylobates, and partly to Macacus. Between candid and ho-
nourable disputants this ought to have been sufficient : at all
events I was not prepared to expect a flat contradiction from
a gentleman who acknowledges that "he had not Erxleben* s
work at hand to refer to." I had ; otherwise I should not
have taken it upon me to dispute Mr. Strickland's original po-

in reference to Mr. Strickland1* Observations. 493

sition, from mere recollection. The following are the diffe-
rential characters which Erxleben assigns to his genus Simia.
— " Mantis in palmis plantisque; Cauda nulla; " and he com-
prehends under it the species S. Satyrus, (including both the
orang and chimpanzee, the Pithecus Satyrus and Troglody-
tes niger of modem authors), S. longimana, {Hylobates of re-
cent naturalists), and S. Sylvanus and Inuus, {Macacus
Inuus). To demonstrate Mr. Strickland's error, I shall state
this in the form of an equation : let the genus Troglodytes be
represented by t, Pithecus by p, Hylobates byh, Macacus by
m, and Simia by S. Now according to Erxleben, —

but Mr. Strickland contends that S=p, and says that Erxle-
ben used it in that sense : therefore according to Mr. Strick-
land,—

p=zt+p + h + m,

which is a manifest absurdity. When therefore Mr. Strick-
land says, — "With regard to Erxleben, though I have not his
work at hand to refer to, yet I believe I am correct in stating
that he does apply the term Simia to the orang outangs, though
Mr. Ogilby asserts that he does not sanction its application
in that sense, " he makes an insinuation, I am sure uninten-
tionally, which is as uncourteous as it is unfounded, and which
I feel convinced Mr. Strickland was only led into by the care-
lessness of depending too much upon a fallacious memory.
In the passage here quoted there is moreover a mistatement
of my sentiments in a former paper : I never either asserted
or thought that Erxleben did not apply the term Simia to the
orang outangs ; what I said was that " he did not sanction
its application in the sense contended for by Mr. Strickland,"
(p. 279), or in other words, that he did not confine the term
to the orangs, which is a very different thing from what Mr.
Strickland has represented. I regret having been forced to
notice this subject; I regret still more that Mr. Strickland
has not himself corrected a mistatement which I cannot help
thinking he was not warranted to make upon the mere strength
of memory. To other parts of Mr. Strickland's paper I shall
not reply: the controversy between us has been pushed quite
far enough, and I see nothing that should induce me to break
the resolution expressed at the conclusion of my last paper,
to let the subject drop. I willingly give Mr. Strickland the
last word, as he had the first, and leave the balance of the
argument to those who take an interest in it. If it tend to
open the eyes of zoological legislators to their own fallibility,
Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. 3 a

494 Mr. Swainsons Reply to his Reviewers.

and to make them a little more moderate in their pretensions
and a little less dogmatical and inaccurate in their statements^
the controversy will have accomplished a very great deside-
ratum, and fulfilled my intentions.

Ever, Dear Sir,

Sincerely yours,

W. Ogilby.
19, Gowei St., Aug. 20th, 1838.
Editor of the Magazine of Natural History.

Art. X. " A Short 'Reply to my Reviewers." By W. Swainson, Esq.
A.G.G., F.R.S., H.M.C.P.S., F.L.S., &c.

Sir,
Although my time would, in all probability, be better em-
ployed in prosecuting science than in noticing my critics and
reviewers, an interval of leisure induces me to deviate from
my usual silence. The subjects upon which I shall touch
are chiefly contained in your Magazine, and as the following
observations in reply will elicit some scientific information,
they will not be altogether of a controversial nature.

In your first volume (p. 489) appears Mr. G. R. Gray's
maiden ornithological paper. As this gentleman has person-
ally assured me that he had not the least intention of giving
offence by the observations therein contained, I shall make
no comments on the tone which pervades that paper, but con-
fine myself to noticing its scientific contents. In the first
place I feel myself obliged to the author for showing that my
Malaconotus mollissimus had already been separated from the
Cubla of Le Vaillant, by my friend Professor Lichtenstein, in
a valuable, but little known German work. Not having a
specimen of the Cape species to compare with the Gambian,
when writing the description of the latter, I naturally thought
they were the same, and hence the mistake arose, a sort of
mistake which all of us are liable to, and are falling into al-
most daily. I have since procured a specimen of the true
Cubla from South Africa, which by no means verifies the ob-
servations of Mr. Gray on the difference he states to exist be-
tween these two closely-allied species. He observes, among
other points, that the gambensis of Lichtenstein is distin-
guished from the Cubla of Le Vaillant "by the colour of its
wings and back, which are fuscous." Now Le Vaillant ex-
pressly states that the male of his Cubla has the " manteau

Mr. Swainsoii's Reply to his Reviewers. 495

<Fun beau noir" not " fuscous, " which is only the plumage
of the female Cubla and also of the female gambensis, while
the back of the male Cubla is of the very same "beau noir"
in my specimen, as that of the male gambensis. As a further
point of distinction between the two, (and that upon which
Mr. Gray's specific characters are chiefly founded), he remarks
that if the longest quill in the Cubla is the fourth, and in gam-
bensis the third." My specimens neither exhibit these cha-
racters or differences. I find that in both the third quill is
^ in. shorter than the fourth ; in Cubla the fourth, fifth, and
sixth quills are perfectly equal, but in gambensis, the fourth
is rather longer than the fifth and sixth, the two latter being
almost imperceptibly graduated. These variations from Mr.
Gray's characters may possibly originate in the different age
of the specimens, rather than from error of description, but
in either case, it is quite manifest that no specific characters
between these birds can be drawn from the relative length of
their quill feathers.

Mr. G. R. Gray proposes to make the Thamnophilus Sabi-
ni of his brother, the type of a new sub -genus, and to do the
same with the Cubla and gambensis. I have already stated my
inability, after fifteen years study of this family, to determine
the natural genera; and as I have myself refrained from cha-
racterizing those which were artificial, it cannot be supposed
that I should adopt these of Mr. Gray's, founded, as it ap-
pears to me, on a very imperfect knowledge of the whole
group. I consider the Malaconotus Sabini which I examined
some years ago, as the most pre-eminent typical species I
have yet seen of the genus, while its striking representation
to the Conirostres, according to the theory of variation, may
be gathered from the confession of Mr. G. R. Gray, who says
that "the broad, smooth, and rounded culmen, gives it so
great an approximation, (or rather analogy), to the Australian
genus, Cracticus, that it may be considered an intermediate
link." Malaconotus Cubla and gambensis are equally types
of my genus ; and to remove them from it, is to destroy the
genus itself. If the group is to be divided, M. Vieillot's sub-
genus Laniarius must be adopted, which will separate the
bright coloured division from the above, but at present I can
discover no tangible characters, by which this can be effected.

A few words to Mr. Strickland, whose gentlemanly tone of
discussion will always insure him attention. Mr. Strick-
land observes, p. 203, "I cannot, however, withold the ex-
pression of my regret, that Mr. Swainson, after deprecating
in 1836 the extension of English names to foreign Ornitho-
logv, should, in 1837, have committed this very error, by in-

3a2

496 Mr. Swainsons Reply to his Reviewers.

troducing this unscientific, and worse than useless English
nomenclature, into his 'Birds of Western Africa.' " If Mr.
Strickland will again peruse what I wrote in 1836,* he will
no where find that I deprecated English names to foreign
birds, a practice that originated with Willughby and Ray,
and has been continued to the present time. My objections
are made not to the use, but to its abuse, — in having, for in-
stance, twenty-five different new English names expressive
of a parrot, or a woodpecker. But even were it otherwise
no "error" is committed, it is only a question of opinion,
amenable to no law of science, and with which, as I have
before observed, science has nothing to do ; so it cannot be
" unscientific." Whether it be " worse than useless " to have
an English nomenclature for foreign birds, is another matter
of opinion. If the generality of mankind had not thought this
plan both useful and convenient, English names would not
have spread into general use. I apprehend that people in
general would not prefer to call one bird a Gypogeranos in-
stead of serpent- eater, another Casmorhynchus instead of bell-
bird, or a third Dendrocolaptes instead of creeper. Such ver-
nacular names are for the multitude, not for naturalists, who
never use them when they wish to be clearly understood.

The reviewer of my "Muscicapidce" complains that a "care-
ful and exact definition" is not given of every genus, and la-
ments that there is not " appended a list of all the species
that are known." He may with just as much reason com-
plain that I have not made it a complete Sy sterna Avium. —
Here is a volume with upwards of thirty coloured plates, and
256 printed pages, all for six shillings, and yet fault is found
with it because it does not contain what would fill two or
three other volumes, although the reviewer himself says " it
is not one third the price at which many works of no greater
scientific value" are published ! The "careful and exact de-
finitions" have all been given in my • Classification of Birds;1
and as for a list of all the species, it will require a much abler
pen and greater knowledge than I possess, to do it ; and no
one, who knows the actual state of descriptive Ornithology,
would have made such a remark.

But these are not all the faults of my poor little volume. —
It appears, according to the learned reviewer, that it does not
even perform what it professes to do. "Indeed," he conti-
nues, " it cannot be considered as a complete synopsis even
of the genera, for several important generic forms, (such for

* Classification of Birds, i. 212.

Mr. Swainson's Reply to his Reviewers. 497

instance as the white-headed tody, and the so-called Musci-
capa leucocilla, are wholly omitted, possibly because Mr.
Swainson has not succeeded in making them square with the
quinary arrangement, or the theory of representation."*

I will now call upon this reviewer to name any one of these
" several important generic forms " which, according to my
definition of the family of Muscicapidae, has been "wholly
omitted." It is due to his own credit, and to the credit of
your Magazine, to substantiate this assertion. And in the
next place I call upon him, as another test of his knowledge
of this family, to tell the public what he knows of the white-
headed tody, and the "so-called Muscicapa leucocilla" more
than what he has gathered from the following passage at p.
90 of my second volume of Birds.

" Besides these genera there are several black and white coloured birds,
having a general resemblance to the foregoing, (Fluvicola, Perspicilla, Sec),
which would seem to enter among the water-chats ; yet as we have not suf-
ficiently analyzed the group, we must leave this point undetermined. A-
mong these are the white-headed tody of the old writers, which is either a
Tyrannula or an aberrant Fluvicola, as well as the Muscicapa leucocilla of
Hahl, which, in outward appearance, so much resembles a manakin, that
it may possibly prove a representative of that family."

Now it so happens that I have chanced to see and study
these two birds in South America, and their habits, no less
than their structure, exclude them from my definition of the
Muscicapidcc. Let the reviewer, therefore, who calls them
" important generic " (not subgeneric) " forms'" in my family,
state his grounds for this opinion. But I will not put his
presumed knowledge of this family to such a test, I will sim-
ply call upon him to tell us where he got the name of the "so-
called Muscicapa leucocilla, " except from my volume ? —
Where is this name to be found elsewhere ? And in what
work is the bird first described and figured ? If he cannot
answer these questions, he will confirm my strong suspicion,

*This assertion is just as well-founded as another in the same number of
your Magazine, p. 355 ; where it is said that " the kingfisher family (Hal-
cyonidce) only, is feebly represented in America by a few piscivorous spe-
cies; all the remainder being peculiar to the eastern hemisphere." Why!
America is actually the chief metropolis of the piscivorous kingfishers ! a
circumstance well known to every experienced ornithologist. With the ex-
ception, indeed, of my Ispida gigantea and bitorquata, and another, I am
unacquainted with any long-tailed kingfishers that are not found in Ame-
rica, where the largest and most powerful species abound on the banks of
all the great rivers. On the other hand, the short -tailed "feeble" race, re-
presented by A. ispida, is totally excluded from America; while those which
are " peculiar to the eastern hemisphere," (Halcyon, Sw.), are not piscivo-
rous, but almost entirely insectivorous.

498 Mr. Suainson's Reply to his Reviewers.

nay, my firm belief, that he has adroitly used the information
thus given him, as a weapon of offence against myself.

I cannot feel flattered by the " faint praise " the writer has
thought fit to sprinkle in his review. He lauds me for what
any one, at all conversant with technical Ornithology, is able
to do as well as myself; — he lauds, in short, only what he can
understand. But those higher objects of the science, those
generalizations of innumerable facts, which have cost me a
life to put together, these his limited knowledge renders him
wholly incapable of understanding : they are therefore called
" theoretical notions," — " which it is impossible to discuss ;"
— and in this latter he says most truly, for how can we discuss
a subject we have never studied ?

To " errors and misprints" I believe I must plead guilty ;
it is a fault I always have had, and am afraid I always shall
have. The revises, however, in the present instance, went to
Sir W. Jardine, for his perusal and correction, and therefore
the blame is as much his as mine.

If that captious and disputatious spirit which is now rife
among naturalists, particularly the j uniors, is to go on, I see
no other result than that the lovers of quiet should draw away
in disgust. Do we find this same spirit among botanists ? —
Certainly not ! For myself, I shall studiously avoid, in fu-
ture, all praise or blame to others. My greatest enemies, if
I have any, must confess that I have ever been impartial in
this respect, and as eager to exhibit the excellencies of my
predecessors, as to animadvert on what I thought their de-
fects. I wish to follow peace, and live in charity and good-
will with all men ; but to do this, as the world is now con-
structed, it is absolutely necessary, sometimes, to raise one's
voice against those who would trample upon a patient and
retired student, merely because, unfortunately for himself, he
has acquired some notoriety.

With many apologies to you and your readers for thus ob-
truding myself on their notice, at so much greater length than
I originally intended, I here conclude.

I remain, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

W. Swainson.

[Although we would much rather have avoided incurring the charge of

Mr. Swainson and his Reviewers. 499

suppressing a part of Mr. Swainson's vindicatory remarks, by placing be-
fore our readers the whole of that gentleman's Reply to his reviewers, yet,
as a portion of the communication with which he has favoured us, related
exclusively to an article in a contemporary journal, we trust that our mo-
tives for declining to give thus much of it insertion, will be so far appreci-
ated as to shield us from the suspicion of partiality or injustice. It would
doubtless have suited Mr. Swainson's convenience to kill as many birds as
possible with one stone, but we think he must, upon consideration, be sen-
sible that to have made the pages of the ' Magazine of Natural History ' a
vehicle for giving publicity to any thing in the shape of censure upon the
conductors of another Journal, unless that censure were to assume the form
of an editorial article, would on our part have involved, not only a breach
of courtesy, but an apparent violation of that good feeling which we trust
exists between the two periodicals in question.

As a general principle we think every one must admit the inexpediency
of publishing the replies which authors may think fit to make to the criti-
cisms of reviewers ; for if this course were to be frequently followed, the
public would be annoyed with endless controversies, in the place of obtain-
ing that literary information which it is the object of reviewers to supply.
Upon the present occasion however we have departed from this rule, and if
Mr. Swainson thinks he has been hardly dealt with, so far as the publica-
tion of his reply to our critique, (if it have been unjust,) can be any repara-
tion, we are happy to afford it him.

From the tenour of Mr. Swainson's remarks it is plain that he does not
identify us with the review of his volume upon Muscicapidce, and in this
instance, contrary to our usual custom, the criticisms were not those of our
own pen. We are fully conscious, however, that the editor of a journal is
the ostensible author of eveiy review which may appear in the work under
his superintendance, and, as such, answerable for the justness of everything
in the shape of editorial criticism which may there be put forth.

The remarks on the • Birds of Western Africa,' in common with most of
the critical notices which we have been able to give of works sent to us for
review, were by the editor ; and in the case of the 'Muscicapidce,' we availed
ourselves of the scientific knowledge and literary assistance of a friend, sole-
ly that this volume might not, in common with many others of the ' Natu-
ralist's Library,' lie unnoticed on our table, until a spare hour should bring
us leisure to peruse it. In saying this we do not in the least wish to shift
the responsibility from our own shoulders to those of the reviewer ; but in
publishing Mr. Swainson's Reply, we had the choice of only two courses to
follow, — either to explain the position in which we stand as to the review
in question, or to insert his rejoinder without note or comment.

Having said thus much for ourselves, we quote our reviewer for "scienti-
fic information."

" Mr. Swainson wishes to be informed what we know of
the white-headed tody, and the Muscicapa leucocilla, more
than what we have gathered from vol. ii. p. 90 of his ' Birds.'
Now the white-headed tody has been long ago described by
Latham and the " old writers," as Mr. Swainson admits, and
it is therefore unnecessary to consult the * Classification of
Birds ' with respect to this species. As to the Muscicapa
leucocilla of Hahn, we have no hesitation in saying that we
did acquire the name from Mr. Swainson's very useful volume.

500 Mr. Swainson and his Reviewers.

Yet we can assure him that we know a great deal more about
these birds than he has told us. Both of them are common
and well-known species, and it was not till we had carefully
studied several specimens of each, that we ventured to term
them " important generic forms " of Muscicapida, — as Mr.
Swain son has defined the family. His definition of Musci-
capidce is as follows : — (' Classif. of Birds,' vol. ii. p. 254).

" Stature small. Bill considerably depressed for its entire length,
broad : the edge of the upper mandible folding over that of the lower ; the
tip abruptly bent and notched. Rictus wide, defended with strong bristles
pointing forwards. Feet almost always short, small, and weak. Feed, sole-
ly upon insects captured during flight. Habits sedentary."

" Now if any one will compare specimens of the white-
headed tody and the Muscicapa leucocilla with the above de-
finition, he will find that in all respects of structure they con-
form to it. Of the habits of these birds we do not pretend
to speak ; and if Mr. Swainson can inform us of any marked
peculiarity in this respect, we shall be obliged for the infor-
mation, and will allow it due weight in forming our opinion.
But judging from structure alone, it is clear either that these
birds are Muscicapidce, or that Mr. Swainson's definition of
that family should be altered so as to exclude them.

" When we termed these birds " generic forms " we did not
mean to fix their precise value as compared with the genera
or the sub-genera of Mr. Swainson. Many, (we might say
most) naturalists disapprove of the term sub-genus, and pre-
fer following the rules of logic in calling the group next above
the species, a genus. But to a quinary author, sub-genera
are indispensable, as they enable him to dispose of any su-
perfluous groups which would otherwise raise the genera of a
family above their allotted limits of five or twenty -five."

Mr. Swainson appears somewhat indignant that the reviewer should
have made use of the expression " theoretical notions" in reference to the
representative system, and the quinary distribution of animals, &c. : now
as on other occasions we have ventured to hint that something of theory was,
to a greater or less extent, associated with what Mr. Swainson looks upon
as altogether a matter of absolute demonstration, we may in this particular
fairly identify ourselves with the sentiments put forward by our reviewer.

Mr. Swainson's impression that the non-adoption of the views which he
advocates, arises from our utter incapability of understanding them, is, in a
great measure, perfectly true ; and if this incapability depend upon our li-
mited acquaintance with zoological facts, it is some consolation to bear in
mind, how many naturalists there are whose scientific reputation is of an or-
der far beyond that which we are ever likely to attain, and who yet must be
placed in the same list of ignoramuses as ourselves, if the comprehension of
the natural system, as evolved by Mr. Swainson, is to be the test of a pro-
found insight into the science of Zoology.

British Association. 501

We can readily imagine the self-satisfaction accompanying Mr. Swain-
son's no less convenient than ingenious belief, that limited zoological
knowledge is the barrier to the comprehension of the natural system with
those who, like ourselves, have never come forward as converts to the prin-
ciples embodied in his views of zoological classification. There is, however,
one class of inquirers, whose opinions, in relation to this matter, must be
entitled to somewhat more consideration, since they cannot be disposed of
in quite so summary a manner as our own. It happens that an instance or
two have come under our notice, and possibly Mr. Swainson, were he to ex-
ert his powers of recollection, could call to mind the like occurrence, of
individuals, who at one time did possess the requisite amount of zoological
knowledge to admit all Mr. Swainson's positions, and to appreciate the force
of all his generalizations, but who having nevertheless their understandings
open to conviction, proceeded in the field of scientific research until a wider
sphere of observation, and a greater accumulation of experience, enabled
them to discriminate, perhaps with greater accuracy than formerly, between
positive truisms and assumed facts, between "theoretical notions" and mat-
ters capable of demonstration, — a condition of things bringing about, curi-
ously enough, an abandonment in toto on their part of the natural system.

The existence of such a class as this, we presume, Mr. Swainson will not
attempt to dispute ; and although he may argue that the individuals so
circumstanced merely constitute an aberrant group of non-conformists to
the quinary doctrines, yet it is plain that incapability of comprehension can-
not be brought to his assistance, as a solution of the phenomenon of
their recantation, and it will be necessary for Mr. Swainson to frame some
special rule applicable to the exigencies of the occasion, in order to remove
what must otherwise be a stumbling-block in the way of the general intro-
duction of his principles.

We understand the allusion to the disputatious spirit among the '"'•juni-
ors" and most certainly we yield the precedence both in years and experience
to the author of the Muscicapidce^but at the same time we venture to remark
that although he should live, as we sincerely trust he may, to the age of three-
score years and ten, and multiply his observations an hundred fold, the qui-
nary millennium, at the expiration of that period, may be as far distant as
at the present moment, unless the indications of the existence of the so-
called natural system, shall be shewn to admit of a nearer approach to-
wards legitimate demonstration, by a course of induction more logical in
its nature, more philosophical in its principles, than that which we can
gather from the writings of Mr. Swainson.] — Ed.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Meeting of the British Association. — We do not think it ne-
cessary to place before our readers an outline of the subjects
relating to Natural History, brought forward at the present
meeting of the British Association at Newcastle, because the
public have access to reports of its scientific proceedings
through so many readily accessible channels ; but we avail
ourselves of the Athenaeum, to transfer from the columns of
that journal an interesting letter from Lord Tankerville, on
the wild cattle in Chillingham Park, addressed to Mr. Hind-
Vol. II.— No. 21. n. s. 2 b

502 British Association.

marsh, of Alnwick, who read a paper upon these animals, the
history of which must be deeply interesting to all British Zo-
ologists.

"Grosvenor Square, 8t)i June, 1838.

" Sir,

" Some time since I promised to put down upon paper
whatever I knew as to the origin, or thought most deserving
of notice, in respect to the habits and peculiarities of the wild
cattle at Chillingham. I now proceed to redeem my promise,
begging pardon for the delay. In the first place, I must pre-
mise that our information as to their origin is very scanty ; all
that we know and believe in respect to it rests in great mea-
sure on conjecture, supported, however, by certain facts and
reasonings, which lead us to believe in their ancient origin,
not so much from any direct evidence, as from the improba-
bility of any hypothesis ascribing to them a more recent date.
I remember an old gardener of the name of Moscrop, who
died about thirty years ago, at the age of perhaps eighty, who
used to tell of what his father had told him as happening to
him, when a boy, relative to these wild cattle ; which were
then spoken of as wild cattle, and with the same sort of curi-
osity as exists with regard to them at the present day. In
my father and grandfather's time we know that the same ob-
scurity as to their origin prevailed ; and if we suppose (as
was no doubt the case) that there were old persons in their
time capable of carrying back their recollections to the con-
versation still antecedent to them, this enables us at once to
look back to a very considerable period, during which no
greater knowledge existed as to their origin than at the pre-
sent period. It is fair, however, to say, that I know of no
document in which they are mentioned at any past period. —
Any reasoning, however, that might be built on their not be-
ing so noticed, would equally apply to the want of evidence
of that which would be more easily remembered or recollect-
ed— the fact of their recent introduction. The probability is,
that they were the ancient breed of the island, inclosed long
since within the boundary of the park. Sir Walter Scott ra-
ther particularly supposes that they are the descendants of
those which inhabited the Great Caledonian Forest, extend-
ing from the Tweed to Glasgow, at the two extremities of
which, namely, Chillingham and Hamilton, they are found.
His lines in the ballad c Cadyow Castle ' describe them pretty
accurately at the present day : —

British Association. 503

" Mightiest of all the beasts of chace

" That roam o'er woody Caledon, .

" Crushing the forest in his race,

" The mountain bull comes thundering on :

" Fierce on the hunters' quiver'd band

" He rolls his eye of swarthy glow,

" Spurns with black hoof and horns the sand,

" And tosses high his mane of snow."

" I must observe, however, that those of Hamilton, if ever
they were of the same breed, have much degenerated.

" The park of Chillingham is a very ancient one. By a co-
py of the endowment of the vicarage, extracted from the re-
cords at Durham, and referring to a period certainly as early
as the reign of King John, about which time, viz. 1220, the
church of Chillingham was built, the vicar of Chillingham
was, by an agreement with Robert de Muschamp, to be al-
lowed as much timber as he wanted for repairs, of the best
oak out of the Great Wood of Chillingham, the remains of
which were extant in the time of my grandfather. The more
ancient part of the castle also appears to have been built in
the next reign, that of Henry III., since which it has been
held, without interruption, by the family of Grey. At what
period, or by what process the park became inclosed, it is
impossible to say ; but it was closely bounded by the domains
of the Percies on the one side, and by the Hibburnes on the
other, the latter of whom had been seated there since the time
of King John ; and as the chief branch of the Greys always
made Chillingham their principal residence, until it passed
into the hands of Lord Ossulston, by his marriage with the
daughter and heiress of Ford Lord Grey, it is reasonable to
suppose that, in order to secure their cattle, wild and tame,
they had recourse to an inclosure probably at an early period.
It is said there are some other places in which a similar breed
is found : Lymne Park, in Cheshire ; Hamilton, as I before
mentioned ; and Chartley Park, (Lord Ferrers). The first I
have not seen, but they are described as of a different colour,
and different in every respect. Those at Hamilton, or, rather,
Chatelherault, I have seen, and they in no degree resemble
those at Chillingham. They have no beauty, no marks of
high breeding, no wild habits, being kept, when I saw them,
in a sort of paddock ; and I could hear no history or tradition
about them, which entitled them to be called wild cattle. —
Those at Chartley Park, on the contrary, closely resemble ours
in every particular ; in their colour, except some small differ-
ence in the colour of their ears — their size — general appear-
ance : and, as well as I could collect, in their habits. This

2 b 2

504 British Association.

was a very ancient park, belonging formerly to Devereux,
Earl of Essex, who built the bridge on the Trent, to commu-
nicate with his chace at Channock, and Beaudesert, then be-
longing to him ; and the belief is, that these cattle had been
there from time immemorial. With respect to their habits, it
is probable that you will learn more from Cole, who has now
been park-keeper at Chillingham for many years, than from
any information I can give. I can mention, however, some
particulars. They have, in the first place, pre-eminently, all
the characteristics of wild animals, with some peculiarities
that are sometimes very curious and amusing. They hide their
young, feed in the night, basking or sleeping during the day;
— they are fierce when pressed, but, generally speaking, very
timorous, moving off on the appearance of any one, even at a
great distance. Yet, this varies very much in different sea-
sons of the year, according to the manner in which they are
approached. In summer, I have been for several weeks at a
time without getting a sight of them, — they, on the slightest
appearance of any one, retiring into a wood, which serves
them as a sanctuary. On the other hand, in winter, when
coming down for food into the inner park, and being in con-
tact with the people, they will let you almost come among
them, particularly if on horseback. But then they have also
a thousand peculiarities. They will be feeding sometimes
quietly, when if any one appear suddenly near them, — parti-
cularly coming down the wind, they will be struck with a sud-
den panic, and gallop off, running one after another, and never
stopping till they get into their sanctuary. It is observable
of them as of red deer, that they have a peculiar faculty of
taking advantage of the irregularities of the ground, so that
on being disturbed, they may traverse the whole park, and yet
you hardly get a sight of them. Their usual mode of retreat
is to get up slowly, set off in a walk, then a trot, and seldom
begin to gallop till they have put the ground between you
and them in the manner that I have described. In form they
are beautifully shaped, short legs, straight back, horns of a
very fine texture, thin skin, so that some of the bulls appear
of a cream colour ; and they have a cry, more like that of a
wild beast, than that of ordinary cattle. With all the marks
of high breeding, they have also some of its defects. They
are bad breeders, and are much subject to the rush, a com-
plaint common to animals bred in and in, which is unques-
tionably the case with these as long as we have any account
of them. When they come down into the lower part of the
park, which they do at stated hours, they move like a regi-
ment of cavalry in single jfiles, the bulls leading the van, as in

British Association. 505

retreat it is the bulls that bring up the rear. Lord Ossulston
was witness to a curious way in which they took possession
as it were, of a new pasture recently opened to them. It was
in the evening about sunset. They began by lining the front
of a small wood, which seemed quite alive with them, when
all of a sudden they made a dash forward altogether in a line,
and charging close by him across the plain, they then spread
out, and after a little time began feeding. Of their tenacity
of life the following is an instance. An old bull being to be
killed, one of the keepers had proceeded to separate him from
the rest of the herd, which were feeding in the outer park. —
This the bull resenting, and having been frustrated in several
attempts to join them by the keeper's interposing, (the latter
doing it incautiously), the bull made a rush at him and got
him down ; he then tossed him three several times, and after-
wards knelt down upon him, and broke several of his ribs. —
There being no other person present but a boy, the only as-
sistance that could be given him was, by letting loose a deer
hound belonging to Lord Ossulston, who immediately attack-
ed the bull, and by biting his heels drew him oiF the man and
eventually saved his life. The bull, however, never left the
keeper, but kept continually watching and returning to him,
giving him a toss from time to time. In this state of things,
and while the dog with singular sagacity and courage was
holding the bull at bay, a messenger came up to the castle,
when all the gentlemen came out with their rifles, and com-
menced a fire upon the bull, principally by a steady good
marksman, from behind a fence at the distance of twenty-five
yards ; but it was not till six or seven balls had actually en-
tered the head of the animal, (one of them passing in at the
eye), that he at last fell. During the whole time he never
flinched nor changed his ground, merely shaking his head as
he received the several shots. Many more stories might be
told of hair-breadth escapes, accidents of sundry kinds, and
an endless variety of peculiar habits observable in these ani-
mals, as more or less in all animals existing in a wild state :
but, 1 think I have recapitulated all that my memory suggests
to me, as most deserving of notice ; and will only add, that
if you continue in the intention of preparing a paper to be
read before the approaching Scientific Association at New-
castle, on this subject, you are welcome to append this letter
to it, as containing all the information I am able to give.— I
have the pleasure &c,

" Tankerville."
" To L. Hindmarsh, Esq."

506 Electric Eel. — Artesian Wells. — Galvanism.

Electric Eel. — At the last meeting of the Zoological Soci-
ety, a living specimen (we believe the first ever brought to
Europe), of the electric eel, from the river Amazon, was ex-
hibited by a gentleman of the name of Porter.

Most of the members present had the curiosity to feel the
shock given by this animal, the intensity of which varied ac-
cording to the mode of handling, or the excitement of the
fish.

This interesting scientific rarity has since been purchased
by the proprietors of the Adelaide St. gallery, for public ex-
hibition.

Artesian Wells. — The Moniteur gives an account of the
report lately made to the French Academy, by M. Arago, re-
specting the Artesian well which the municipality of Paris is
now engaged in boring, and which has already been sunk to
the depth of 410 metres. The council of the municipality
has granted fresh sums, butM. Arago, fearing that they would
relax in their zeal if well-founded hopes of a good result were
not offered, invited M. Elie de Beaumont to institute a geo-
gnostical inquiry into the strata which had been pierced, in
order to judge of those through which it would be necessary
to bore before water would rise above the surface of the
ground. M. de Beaumont believes from the chalk, in which
the bottom of the hole now is, being without flint, of a grey-
ish green colour, and containing but little alumina, that the
operation has been for some time proceeding in the marly
chalk which generally forms the stratum immediately under
the white chalk. He therefore thinks that only the tufaceous
chalk, the chloritic chalk, and that layer of clay which the
English geologists call " gault," are yet to be pierced, before
the instrument will penetrate into the layer of sand which
furnishes such rich springs at Tours and Elbceuf ; and he es-
timates the depth to which the instrument must be driven at
100 metres more. Though this prospect is rather encou-
raging, M. Arago is afraid that the high temperature of the
water rising from the depth of 510 metres, and perhaps more,
will be prejudicial to its usefulness for most purposes.

Electrical Telegraph. — Professor Steinheil, of Munich,
who is actively and most successfully engaged in perfecting
the methods of using galvanism for telegraphic purposes, has
made the important discovery that the earth may be used, to
a great extent, for conducting galvanic electricity. The ends
of the wires used need only be furnished with plates, and be
sunk a few inches in the ground, where it is sufficiently satu-
rated with moisture. The current may thus be made to tra-
verse distances of several leagues, without interruption.

Natural History. — Spontaneous Organization. 507

Natural History of Ncwaja Semlija and Caucasia. — The
report of the Russian minister of public instruction contains
an interesting chapter on the results obtained by the latest
travels of Russian Academicians and Professors. Those ob-
tained by M.M. de Baer and Nordman are particularly inte-
resting to the friends of Natural History. The number of
objects brought by the former from Nowaja Semlija is so con-
siderable, that the Natural History of those islands is now as
well known as that of other arctic countries which have been
frequently visited by scientific travellers. Prof. Nordmann
has been as successful a collector in the countries situated
near the eastern coast of the Black Sea. He has brought
with him 20 species of quadrupeds, 232 of birds, 89 of rep-
tiles, or amphibious animals, 492 of fishes, 340 of molluscous
animals, 3600 of insects, and about 13210 specimens of plants
comprising 950 species.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

The Doctrine of Spontaneous Organization. — The following
fact, stated in the new edition of Dr. Pilchard1 s l Researches
into the Physical History of Mankind,' (vol. i., pp. 40, 41),
may be quoted in reference to Dr. Weissenborn's paper on
Equivocal Generation.

After mentioning several instances of plants appearing in
newly turned up soil, the author narrates, that — " Another
fact of similar kind, which I likewise owe to Dr. Graham,
would serve to indicate, if there were any doubt on the sub-
ject, what is the true explanation of the preceding. To the
westward of Stirling there is a large peat-bog, a great part of
which has been flooded away by raising water from the river
Teith and discharging it into the Forth, the under soil of clay
being then cultivated. The clergyman of the parish standing
by while the workmen were forming a ditch in this clay, saw
some seeds in the clay which was thrown out of the ditch :
he took some of them up and sowed them j they germinated,
and produced a crop of Chrysanthemum segetum. What a
period of years must have elapsed while the seeds were get-
ting their covering of clay, and while this clay became buried
under fourteen feet of peat-earth ! "

In Dr. Weissenborn's paper adverted to, there is no allu-
sion to the circumstance of plants, in the instances which he
enumerates, being developed in the ordinary manner : where-

508 Doctrine of Spontaneous Organization.

as it is clear that all those animals which require to be tended
by a parent must have been first called into being in the adult
state, or they could not have subsisted. Even if we could
imagine, with Dr. Weissenborn, that a combination of cir-
cumstances may suffice to produce an organized being, still
it is necessary, in the case of most animals, and also numerous
plants, that a plurality of individuals comprising the two sex-
es should independently originate, or their species could not
be transmitted : hence we have not only to imagine an extra-
ordinary coincidence of circumstances concurring to produce
one adult elephant, (/. e. an animal old enough to support it-
self), but at least a couple of them, male and female ! The
very fact which Dr. Weissenborn calls particular attention to,
of the admirably minute adaptation of every species to its in-
digenous abode, furnishes but another argument against the
conclusions which he arrives at, when considered in relation
to the definite and distinct general types or separate plans of
structure on which they are so variously modified.

With reference to plants, Dr. Prichard continues (at p. 50),
- — "It would be easy to discover districts, situated respectively
in North America and in Europe, or in Equinoctial America,
Africa, and Asia, in which all the same physical conditions
exist, namely, a parallel temperature and elevation, a similar
soil, and the same degree of humidity in the atmosphere ; yet
the species of plants in these several districts will be far from
being identical. The vegetable tribes will present, in each
respectively, analogies of form and general character; but few,
if any, of the same species will be found in localities thus se-
parated.

" Instances may frequently be observed in which plants be-
come naturalized in countries where they had never existed
until they were conveyed by human agency, or by the acci-
dental transportation of seed. When this has once happened,
the results prove that the climate and all external conditions
are perfectly congenial to their nature, since they have spread,
in a short time, over extensive regions, and have appeared to
supplant, in some places, the indigenous tribes. Previously to
the importation of seeds, the physical conditions locally pre-
sent had no power of producing such plants, nor does it ap-
pear that their existence is so connected with external con-
ditions as to have been from the origin of things necessarily
or naturally co-extensive with them. When introduced they
multiply just as horses and oxen from Europe have produced
herds which cover the immense plains of Paraguay."

That the creative energy is at present in operation, it does
not appear to me that we are in possession of a single fact,

Observations on the Great Cashew Tree. 509

beyond the results afforded by the study of fossil remains,
which can justify us in entertaining the supposition: and with
regard to the general proposition contended for by Dr. Weis-
senborn, Cuvier has profoundly remarked, that — " La vie ex-
ercant sur les elemens qui font a chaque instant partie du
corps vivant, et sur ceux qu'elle y attire, une action contraire
a ce que produiraient sans elles les affmites chimiques ordi-
nances, il repugne quelle puisse etre elle-meme produite par
ces affinite's, et cependant Ton ne connait dans la nature au-
cune autre force capable de reunir des molecules auparavant
separees.*'1 The force of this reflection will appear the more
we consider it — Edw d . Blyth, Aug. 3rd, 1838.

Observations on the Oubudi, or Great Cashew Tree of Gui-
ana, a new and non-descript species of Anacardium ; natu-
ral order Terebinth acea. — There is, I believe, but one species
of Anacardium known to botanists ; namely, the A. occiden-
tal or the common cashew, — Meray of the natives of Gui-
ana : this being generally considered as identical with, or as
a mere variety of the oriental cashew, or Cassuvium. Besides
this, however, I have noticed in various parts of the forests
of Guiana, and not far distant from the European settlements,
what appears to be a nondescript species of this genus ; — a
large tree, growing to the height of a hundred feet or more,
and about four or five feet in diameter ; its trunk being often
observed straight and undivided to the height of sixty or se-
venty feet, where it begins to throw out its large and widely
spreading branches ; altogether resembling the oak in gene-
ral contour, but much larger.f

Of this interesting tree I purpose here to offer some eluci-
dation. The flowers are placed on large, divaricate, terminal
panicles, similar to those of A. occidentale ; their situation,
colour, size, and fragrance being likewise similar. The calyx
is five-parted, acute, very small. The corolla consists of five
lanced, acute petals, thrice the length of the cup. The sta-
mina are nine in number, unequal, growing upon a short pe-
dicil or elevated ridge, which encircles the germ ; two of them
are often wanting ; and one only, — a larger stamen with a
twin anther, appears to be fertile. The germ is obovate,
compressed, and large ; on one side, near the summit, is placed
the style, which has a capitate stigma, giving to the germ the
appearance of a beak. The pericarp is a reniform nut, seat-

* 'Introduction,' pp. 14, 15,

f In a paper read before the Medico-Botanical Society, in 1832v as well
as in an incidental notice in my pamphlet on Guiana, I have called this
tree Anacardium giganteum.

.510 Observations on the Great Cashew Tree.

ed on a large, pyriform, juicy receptacle, which is of a bright
purple colour, and of the most delicious flavour.* The em-
bryo, cotyledons, and radicle are nearly the same as in the
meray, or common cashew.

The leaves are scattered near the ends of the branches ; they
are smooth and shining on the upper surface, of a deep green
hue, obovate, entire, rounded at the extremity, narrowing or
cuneate towards the base, and furnished with short, channel-
led petioles. The branches are stout, and of a fragile, spongy
texture. The bark is very thick, of a deep red colour, astrin-
gent and slightly bitter, covered with a furrowed cuticle. —
The wood of the trunk is white, light, soft, and easily wrought,
not unlike deal, or the American white pine, although softer
than either of these woods ; it will furnish tolerable boards
and plank, and serves for canoes, but is subject to be bored
by the Teredo, and other species of worms.

Common report says that this tree flowers only once in
three years ; this, however, is not true. It flowers every year,
regularly in the months of January and February, although in
moist seasons it is subject to the blast or blight. There is no
tree in the forest, I presume, that does not put forth flowers
annually.

No tree affords a better shade, or a more delicious fruit,
than the one under consideration. The natives prepare a
most excellent wine from its fruit or pomaceous product ; and
it affords a rich and luscious harvest to a great diversity of
birds and other animals, particularly the pecarie and mypoo-
ne, (the bush-hog and the tapir), which the Indians say be-
come very fat during an abundant crop of this dainty fruit.

Another species of Anacardium called "Mercy de monta-
nia" grows on the mountains of Paraguay and Pacaraimo, to
the southward of the Orinoko. This is likewise a tall tree,
but of more slender form than the oubudi ; its fruit and leaves
being similar to those of the latter. This mountain species
may not improbably be identical with Rhinocarpus of Hum-
boldt and Bonpland ; and if so, no good reason, I should
think, could be assigned for forming a new genus. May not
these eminent travellers have erred by overlooking the style?
For it is the deflection and lateral position of this part which
give to the germ the peculiar snout-like form, from which, I
presume, they have taken the name Rhinocarpus. Mistakes

* Botanists will not admit the term fruit to be applicable to this anoma-
lous kind of receptacle in the Anacardium ; yet, as being a large, coloured,
sweet and juicy pomiform product, it seems most natural to consider it a
sort of fruit. Instead, however, of the seed being borne within, it is placed
upon, the pomum.

Tubularia indlvisa. 511

indeed, as well as a fondness for new names, not unfrequently
swell the list of genera and species. In Rhinocarpus, we are
told, the stamens are alternately sterile ; a knowledge of its
fruit appears still to be a desideratum.

Remarks on Tubularia indlvisa. — A few days since I met
with an unusually large specimen of Tubularia indlvisa. I
found it in a pool at low water, at one of our spring tides. —
I waited until the hole was dry round its circumference, in
order to ascertain if anything were growing in a place so well
adapted for delicate animals to live in, undisturbed ; for how-
ever rough the sea may be, the water in this pool, which is
about ten feet deep, is comparatively quiet. I need hardly
say how delighted I was to find about twenty clusters of these
animals growing round the circumference of the pool, at about
four feet from the surface. I had only time to strip and pro-
cure two clusters, before the tide returned, and I was obliged
to make a hasty retreat. I have been six times since, (a dis-
tance of seven miles), to the same place, and although I chose
the lowest tides, this hole has been uncovered but once, and
then I procured several groups of this Polypus, leaving plenty
to keep up the stock.

When 1 first found them (in May) they were evidently in
flower, if I may use the expression; for the specimens wiiich
I have since obtained, are not half the size of those which I
sent to you, although I observed no difference when I first
saw them.

I am of opinion that the specimens which I sent to you
(from the river Dart) are dwarf specimens of this Tubularia;
their small size being accounted for by the iriction to which
they are exposed, as they were found growing on the chains
of the floating bridge. I mean to dredge the river Dart, in
order to satisfy myself if there are any larger specimens ad-
hering to the stones in the neighbourhood of the chains. —
This Tubularia is by far the most beautiful of the Polypife-
rce; it is figured in Ellis's Corals, but so imperfectly as hard-
ly to be recognized. The first specimens that I procured, I
took home in ajar of sea water; but as I could not imitate
the tide, they began to droop in two days, before I could do-
mesticate them, as I have done the Caryophillia and several
Actinl<e. Their heads fell off on the second day, leaving a
thin film surrounding the top of the tube. On the third day
this film increased in size ; and on the fourth a small red sub-
stance was seen growing in the pink liquor with which the
tube was filled. On the fifth day this increased in size, and
put on the shape of the first body, but smaller. On the se-
venth day it burst the film ; and on the eighth a perfect To-

512 Light from Burning Corallines.

lypus was again formed, but with twelve feelers instead of
forty ; but in every respect adapted to perform its functions
of expansion and contraction, &c.

Between the central process and the feelers of the circum-
ference, are a number of small cells: these were enlarged
when I first saw the specimen, and had the appearance of a
bud. I should be inclined to fancy that the way in which
the young of this Polypus are produced, is this : these cells
enlarge, and after a certain time their contents either become
matured and fall off, like a flower, or they burst, and let out
either an egg or a Polypus, if the young be hatched alive be-
fore expulsion. My reason for supposing that this enlarge-
ment of the cells upon the body of the Tubularia, is their
mode of propagation, is strengthened by the fact that none of
those which I last found had their cells in this state, their
bodies being scarcely half the size of the former ones, as you
will see by the specimens which accompany this description.
— J. B. Harvey. — Teignmouth, Devonshire, July 20th, 1838.

Notes on Birds. — The carrion crow was observed, last sum-
mer, in the grounds of Sir Walter Carew, at Haccombe, to
steal a young duck; which it pounced upon while in the pond,
and carried off in its bill. The crow did not drop the duck
in order to kill it, but laid it down on the ground, walking
backwards and forwards and treading upon it, until it was
dead, when it was taken to the nest.

Mr. Wingett, Steward to Mr. Templer, of Lindridge, re-
marked, in various years, that certain trees were not built up-
on by the rooks, and if one built a nest, the others destroyed
it. He invariably found that such trees were decayed, and
were generally blown down during some storm.

Miss Kingston, of Islington, assures me that she has very
frequently seen the cuckoo fed by the wryneck. The latter
would lay down a worm, and the cuckoo, before picking it up,
fluttered its wings like a young bird while its parent is feed-
ing it. — Idem.

White Light from burning Corallines. — An intelligent
friend, Mr. Burnett, lately directed my attention to the very
beautiful white light produced by holding pieces of Coralli-
na officinalis close to the flame of a candle. I have not yet
had sufficient time to make many experiments with the dif-
ferent corallines found near us. I have tried the Sertu/arice,
but it appears that they do not contain sufficient phosphate
of lime in their composition to produce the light. Upon a
hasty consideration, it appears to me to be a very beautiful
practical illustration of the hydro-oxygen light ; the hydro-
gen being evolved by the candle, and the oxygen contained

Letter from Dr. Weissenborn. 513

in the coral and in the surrounding atmosphere, which, be-
ing decomposed, gives out a sufficient quantity of each to
unite in the proportions necessary to form this beautiful light.
I may be wrong in my solution of the cause, but the light is
so very brilliant, and so easily produced, that I shall be sa-
tisfied if I have the good fortune to draw the attention of any
chemist to the fact. I have sent you several specimens for
distribution among your friends, and will procure more for
you if you wish. — Idem.

Letter from Dr. Weissenborn. — It was not till yesterday
that I had an opportunity of seeing the numbers of your Jour-
nal from April to July inclusive ; and I feel particularly obli-
ged to you for the insertion of my articles, as I am quite aware
that, whatever share of intrinsic merit they may possess, the
concomitant circumstances must come in for a large one, to
make them sufficiently interesting to a public, whose Jour-
nals have become the depositories of almost all that genius
and talent, assisted by science, successively produce in your
country.

In perusing the article on the Bos urus I have found a few
errors of the press, which I shall avail myself of this oppor-
tunity to point out. At p. 239, 1. 12, (May number), read
' Haemus' for 'Hacmus;' p. 244,1. 23, read 'Monapos"1 for
'Monassos;'' p. 246, 1. 4 of the notes, read ' Sph<era* for
' Sphacera ; ' same page 1. 15, read ' acciperentur^ for 'acci-
pirentur ; ' 1. 17, read ' armentd* for ' arminta ; ' p. 251, 1.
26, and p. 252, 1. 2, read ' Masovia ? for ' Muscovia ; ' p. 252,
1. 12, read 'rather absenV for 'absent. ' Herberstein does not
say that he was absent when he received the present in ques-
tion, but it appears from what he states about it, that he paid
little attention to the carcass, which was sent to his kitchen.
See also the first note on p. 252. At p. 306, 1. 24, (June),
read 'and the frontal bone is convex? instead of 'and are con-
vex; ' p. 312, 1. 28, read 'an entozoon* for 'or entozoon?

My opinion that the Uerox of Mount Caucasus is of a spe-
cies different from that of Lithuania, which had already re-
ceived some confirmation by Prof. Nordmann's statement,
(see July No. ' Mag. Nat. Hist.'), " that the former descends
into the valleys in consequence of much snow falling in the
mountains," which proves it to be a mountain animal, — has
just received additional support through a communication in
the June No. (1838) of the Treussische Provinzialblatter," by
Dr. H. Pathke, the Director of the Zoological Museum of
Konigsberg, in Prussia. Among the remarks which he makes
on the stuffed specimen of the Bos urus which has lately been
added to the collection, I find that Dr. Koch, who has lately

514 Instinct oj Animals.- — Pulmonary Organ in Insects.

returned from a two years' residence in Caucasia, describes
the Uerox of that country as being essentially different from
that of Lithuania. — W. Weissenborn. — Weimar, Aug. 9th,
1838.

Instinct of Animals. — The following- curious statement is
copied from a letter which the late William Tischbein, the
well-known animal -painter, wrote in explanation of one of
his most beautiful coloured sketches, now in the possession
of Mr. Meyer, of Hildburghausen. It represents five little
red mice, in the presence of a young cat. " That instinct is
an inherent or innate quality of animals, is clearly proved by
experience. The cat possesses the instinct of catching and
eating mice, and the mouse that of shunning the cat as its
most dangerous enemy. Once, in Rome, I happened to open
a drawer which T seldom had occasion to use, when I saw a
mouse jumping out of it, and found among the papers a nest
with five young mice, naked and blind, and of a pale flesh
colour. I placed them on a table, handled them, &c, and
they evinced no symptoms of fright, nor any inclination to
get away, but only appeared eager to approach each other
for the sake of warmth. There happened to be in the house
a very young cat, which had never tasted anything but milk ;
I placed it near the little mice, by way of experiment, but to
my astonishment it did not even look at them, nor perceive
them, even when I turned its eyes in the proper direction,
until at last, when I had repeatedly approached its nose to
the mice, it suddenly caught a scent which made it tremble
with desire. The propensity became more and more violent,
and the cat smelled at the mice, touching them with its nose,
when all at once, the pale-coloured little creatures became
suffused with blood, and began to make great exertions to
get out of the way of imminent danger, whilst the cat as ea-
gerly followed them. — Id.

Pulmonary Orifice in Insects. — In searching for facts to
illustrate a course of entomological lectures that I have had
in preparation some months, I discovered in the abdomen of
Abraxas grossulariata, a cavity in the venter, immediately
behind the mesopedes. It may be seen in most insects, either
on the venter, or the sides thereabout ; some have it guarded
by a scale, others fringed with hairs ; a tensely stretched film
may be perceived within it in Plusia Gamma. It occurs in
Smerinthus populi, Musca domestica, Vespa vulgaris, Libel-
lula depressa, Mamestra brassica, &c. By examining the
interior we shall find it to assist in the aeration of the blood.
— Leonard W. Clarke.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

OCTOBER, 1838.

Art. I. — Notices of Irish Entozoa. By James L. Drummond,
M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Belfast Institution, Pre-
sident of the Belfast Natural History Society, &c.

In the present paper and in those which shall follow relating
to Entozoa, it is my intention to adopt almost solely the
classification and nomenclature of Rudolphi, not that I con-
sider either of these as being perfect, but because this branch
of Zoology is still in too backward a state to admit of much
certain, or probably permanent change, from the system laid
down by that illustrious naturalist. I have chosen the term
" Notices," as being in truth that which will best express the
character of the communications I shall have to make, name-
ly, not a systematic and connected enumeration of orders,
genera, and species, but such facts and observations as may
be the fruit of my inquiries, however isolated these may be
from any determinate arrangement. Without further pream-
ble, therefore, I proceed to mention first, an intestinal worm
which is particularly frequent in fishes of the cod tribe ; viz.
the Echinorynchus Acus.

The genus Echinorynchus is the only one included in the
second order of Rudolphi' s arrangement of the Entozoa, which
order is by him thus characterized.

Vol. II.— No. 22. n. s. 3d

516 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

Ordo II.

ACANTHOCEPHALA.

" Corpus teretiusculum, utriculare, elasticum. Proboscis seriatim unci-
nata retractilis. Individua alia mascula, alia fceminea." 'Entoz. Synops.'
p. 63.

At page 71 of the work cited the present species is thus
defined.

" Echinorynchus Acus. Ech. Proboscide lineari, uncinorum seriebus
viginti, collo nullo, corpore longissimo, retrorsum subattenuato."

24

a, Two figures of Echinorhynchus Acus, natural size, b, Proboscis mag-
nified, c, Ova and supposed cotyledons, d, An ovum magnified 500 di-
ameters. €j, Tail of male.

It is stated as being found in the intestines of the haddock,
the variable cod, the bearded cod, the whiting, hake, ling,
the green cod, and also in those of the Cottus Scorpius and
the Lophius piscatorius. To these habitats I have to add
that it is almost constantly abundant in the common cod, and
in the coal-fish {Merlangus carbonarius).

It is useful to have some preparatory knowledge in refer-
ence to this species, that we may be always aware of its pre-
sence, for so unlike a worm does it frequently appear on open-
ing the intestine, that it might readily be overlooked. It
is then almost always flaccid, shrivelled, squalid, flat, and
inert, having little resemblance to a living being. But when
the contents of the intestine have lain a few minutes in water,

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 517

the appearance is widely altered, and instead of an apparently
inanimate mass of sordid matter, we find also a number of
white, rigid, elastic, straight worms, from one to two inches,
or more, in length, and above half a line in diameter at their
broadest part.

While, then, the worm in its natural state, is soft, yielding,
rugose, and without any strongly marked outline, it becomes
when immersed for some time in fresh water the very reverse;
its form is then very distinct, its magnitude greatly increased,
its substance dense and elastic, and its whole appearance such
as to strike at once the most undiscerning eye.

This property belonging to the Ecliinorynchus of expand-
ing and becoming rigid in water has been long remarked.
Thus Muller in the first volume of the ' Zoologia Danica,' p.
47, says of his Ecliinorynchus candidus, which is the present
species, "Corpus teres fere aequale, in vivis subrugosum, in
spiras contortum, album, subgriseum, morte vero instante, et
post mortem, vel aquae fluviali immissum rigescit, rectaque
extenditur; coloremque candidum assumit." There is a mis-
take here respecting the animal becoming rigid during or af-
ter death, for it is only when immersed in fresh water that
the change takes place, and if the specimen die without be-
ing so situated, no such alteration happens. In the same
work Muller describes the Ecliinorynchus Acns, also, under
another name, viz., Ech. lineolatus, (p. 48), and as a species
distinct from his Ech. candidus, and says that worms of this
kind are rugose, "aquae vero fluviatili immissi rugositatem
et spiralem contorsionem amittebant, recti brevi et rigidi ex-
tensi, glabri facti sunt."

Rudolphi states farther of the Echinorytichi in general, that
according to the experiments made by Treutler and himself,
a part of the worm cut off becomes equally turgid as in the
entire animal, and that if a part be intercepted by a ligature,
or the proboscis be cut off, or the neck tied, the same thing
occurs ; whence he infers that the pores absorb equally on all
parts of the body. Vide 'Entoz. Hist. Nat.' vol. 1, p. 254 *

I find much difficulty in attempting to account for this re-
markable imbibiton of water. It is a process evidently diffe-
rent from the absorption of fluids by a vital action, as it takes
place as readily in the dead worm as in the living. I am
much inclined to attribute it to endosmosis, though I have
not been able to ascertain the existence of any counter cur-
rent of fluid from the interior. One circumstance, however,
which may seem favorable to this idea is, that in various fluids

*I have repeated these experiments and obtained similar results. — J. L. D .

3d2

518 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

which have a greater density than fresh water, the change
does not take place. Miiller remarks, in describing his Ecli.
candidus,* that specimens which had been distended by im-
mersion in fresh, and then removed into sea water again, be-
came lax and corrugated. I have made a similar experiment
frequently, by placing distended specimens in a solution of
common salt, of as nearly the strength of sea water as I could
determine by its taste, and a similar result followed. The
specimens, from being swelled to their utmost extent, from
being firm, rigid, smooth, without the slightest appearance
of motion or life, and with the proboscis extended, soon be-
came flaccid, with the proboscis drawn in, the body shorten-
ed to half its previous length, curved, rugose, and exhibiting
life and motion.

Such being the effects produced on these animals after
distention, it may be inferred, that if removed at once from
their natural habitat into salt water, they would not plump
up, as in fresh ; and I find that when so treated they become
even more shrivelled than before ; and also, that they will
then continue to live for several days, a circumstance which
I have found very convenient, as they can thus be preserved
for observation or experiment.f On placing a number of re-
cent specimens in skimmed milk, I found that no absorption
took place, they remained quite flaccid, and on the following
day seemed perfectly dead, but on being laid in fresh water
they plumped up as much as if they had been immersed in
it at first. In water slightly sweetened with sugar, and in
weak solutions of sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia,
carbonate of soda, and nitrate of potash, the same results fol-
lowed as in solution of common salt.

I may remark here, that the imbibition of water is not con-
fined to the Echinorynchi. I have observed it scarcely less
remarkable in some of the cavitary Entozoa, especially the
Cucullani, and from reiterated observation, I am satisfied that
the disruption of the body, with exclusion of the ovaries, and
a loop of the intestine, which has so often been remarked,!

* Vide Zool. Dan. vol I. p. 47.

f By this simple expedient I have been enabled to preserve various spe-
cies, such, for instance, as the delicate Bothriocephali of the cartilaginous
fishes, for a day or two living, whereas in fresh water they scarcely survive
an hour. The Echinorynchus Acus I have kept living for even eight days.

X Rudolphi has the following remark relating to the Cucullanus elegans,
a species found in the perch, and some other fresh water fishes. " Matrem
prolam suam per vulvam edidisse nunquam vidi, neque alius quidem ob-
servavit, sed ipsa loco incerto rumpitur, et oviductus prolapsi pluribus locis
pariter disrupti motu undulatorio eandem effundunt, ovorum tunicis adhce-
rentum." Entoz. Hist. Nat. vol. II. part I. p. 105.

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 519

is entirely owing to a forcible distention of the worm from
imbibed water. I have never known nor heard of any instance
of an Entozoon being seen in this state in its natural habitat,
and I believe that it will invariably be found that where the
disruption has occurred, the animal had been previously ex-
posed to the influence of fresh water. Moreover, in some
Cucullani which I lately obtained from the intestines of a ve-
ry large conger eel, (but the species I have not yet determi-
ned), the distention from fresh water, and a, return to the flac-
cid state in the salt solution took place exactly as in the
Echinorynchi ; and of two specimens which burst in a short
time, in distilled water, one was a male, (as was evident from
the exserted penis), and in it the spermatic tubes were explo-
ded from the rupture, along with a portion of the intestine,
the latter in form of a loop, owing to the continuity being un-
broken. In a future paper I will have to recur to this sub-
ject in referring to a very beautiful and singular phenomenon
connected with the protrusion of the ovaries in the Cuculla-
nus PlatisscB.

To return to our more immediate subject. The female
Echinorynchus Acus is above two inches in length, and is
said to attain the length even of three inches, but this I have
not observed. The male is generally about half an inch long
but sometimes nearly an inch. The colour is very various,
but generally white when distended, though frequently ac-
companied at the same time by a tinge of orange, pink, or
cinereous. Sometimes the whole animal is reddish orange,
(especially the male), and sometimes the whole is ivory white,
with a solitary minute crimson dot here and there. Two ob-
long longitudinal orange spots, more or less vivid, are placed
immediately behind the root of the proboscis ; these however
are sometimes very faint, and sometimes have the appearance
of a single mark. In the undistended state the colour of the
worm is not unfrequently a dirty umber, and so disposed as
to give an annulated appearance to the specimen ; but, in
short, the colour is extremely variable, though whether as
Fabricius conceived this is dependent on that of the contents
of the intestine, I am not fully satisfied. It is certain that
in a mass of individuals found in the same portion of intes-
tine, considerable diversity of colour prevails, and where
there has been only a transparent mucus present, I have found
specimens of a pure white, and others of a bright orange.

The sexes differ much from each other in thickness as well
as length, the male being of nearly the same diameter through-
out, while the female is anteriorly much thicker than else-
where.

620 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

The proboscis in the microscope, especially when the worm
has little colour, is a very beautiful object. It is cylindrical,
a little thickened anteriorly, crystalline, and armed with lon-
gitudinal rows of solitary, transparent, sharp, rigid hooks, bent
backwards. These hooks alternate with those of each neigh-
bouring series, and hence each transverse row is not directly
across the proboscis, but runs obliquely, as if it were a por-
tion of a spiral convolution. When the worm is in the flac-
cid state, the proboscis is generally retracted, and of course
invisible ; but when the specimen is distended it is always
protruded, and in an oblique direction. Cloquet, in his mas-
terly account of the Echinorynchus Gigas* has described
two kinds of motion belonging to the proboscis, one by which
the whole organ is at the same time protruded or retracted
without any alteration in its form. This is effected by eight
muscles, four protractors which protrude it, and as many re-
tractors which draw it in. The second motion is of a differ-
ent kind, but not less necessary to the animal ; in it the pro-
boscis is drawn in by inversion upon itself, so that what was
its outer surface when extended, becomes its inner when re-
tracted, and vice versa, when it is again protruded the inner
surface becomes the outer. It is an operation similar to that
by which a snail draws in and pushes out its horns.

This motion of the proboscis in the Echinorynchus Acus
has a very beautiful effect in the microscope, and a sure way
of seeing it is this. — A specimen is to be taken from the in-
testine, or, what is better, from the salt solution, as then it
will be freer from foreign matter, it is then to be placed on a
slip of glass, and its anterior end brought within the focus of
the microscope ; successive drops of fresh water are then to
be applied with a hair pencil. In a few moments the animal
shews symptoms of uneasiness, and begins to unfold and re-
tract the proboscis very often. The operation is generally
partial at first, but the instrument is soon launched out with
great force, and to its utmost extent, when a very evident
constriction or neck will be seen at its base. The power of
unfolding and retracting it, however, in this manner soon be-
comes more difficult, till at last it cannot be inverted at all,
and consequently, it continues fully distended ; and then it
may be seen protruded and drawn in alternately, but as a
whole, and not by a successive unfolding and drawing in of
its parts. The absorption of water still going on, the disten-
tion at length becomes so great, that the proboscis remains

*Anatomie des Vers Intestinaux, Ascaride Lombricoide et Ecliinorhyn-
quc Geant. Paris, 1824.

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 521

permanently extended, unless we put the specimen into the
salt solution for some time, and then the same phenomena
may be seen repeated.

I cannot pass over this double kind of motion in the pro-
boscis of the Echinorynchus, without adverting to the won-
derful design and contrivance evinced therein. On the slight-
est glance, it is obvious that the object of the hooked appa-
ratus is to fix the animal in the intestinal coats, and thereby
prevent its being carried off by the peristaltic action, and the
mechanical pressure of the ingesta in their passage. But
suppose that the worm could only move the proboscis as a
whole, we might then indeed conceive that by simply pushing
it forwards against the mucous coat, there might be a chance
on drawing it back of fixing some of its hooks, but having
done so, how is it to make farther progress into the intestinal
walls ? The proboscis having this only motion would be very
inefficient, but by its more complicated economy, it is per-
fectly adapted to its intended ends. It is not by the point,
nor by the sides of the instrument, but by the circumference
of its base, that it first grapples with the coats of the intes-
tine.

Let us suppose then that an Echinorynchus is commencing
the operation of fixing its proboscis in the intestinal coat ;
the instrument is lying inverted in its sheath, in the anterior
extremity of the animal, and its point is of course directed
backwards, as the end of the finger of a glove turned outside
in would be directed towards the wrist. The base, then, of
the proboscis thus situated, is the first part which comes in
contact with the mucous coat, and when the unfurling begins,
the hooks surrounding it are the first that are pushed into the
membrane, and as the eversion continues, the other and more
anterior hooks are successively expanded, so that those on the
point of the proboscis are the last which penetrate the intes-
tine, as those upon the base were the first. And now, I con-
ceive, comes the great utility of the motion of the proboscis
en masse, when it is now drawn back as a whole, the conse-
quence will be, that the hooks will be carried farther into the
intestinal walls, than they could be from the force applied by
the everting motion alone, and thus a more perfect hold will
be given.

Again, we find a most perfect adaptation of the form of the
hooks to their office ; their shape is very different from that
of a fishing hook, which would not at all answer. On the
contrary, they are curved only at their base, the rest and lon-
ger part being nearly straight. By this formation they occu-
py very little room in the inverted state of the proboscis, and

522 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

during its eversion their points are more directly pressed a-
gainst the intestinal coat, and when the entire proboscis is
retracted at once, a greater effect will be produced, the resis-
tance being opposed to their long axis. When the animal
wishes to let go its hold of the intestine, and shift its quar-
ters, it has only to reverse the order of action by which it be-
came fixed.

It is probable that the Echinorynchi soon become sensible
of the death of the animal they inhabit, which I would infer
from the circumstance of their being generally found loose in
the intestine. I have seen the present species sometimes ad-
hering in considerable number, but much more frequently ly-
ing detached, and often many individuals clustered together
so as to occupy almost the whole width of the intestine. It
is difficult to conceive how such numbers as often occur can
adhere to the intestine without causing much mischief, and
yet the fishes in which they are most numerous, seem to be
perfectly healthy, and well nourished. I have seldom exam-
ined a codling, without obtaining from ten to one hundred
specimens of Echinorynchus Acus, and on the first of the
present month, I found 216 in one which was under two lbs.
weight, and on the fourth, in another a little larger, I counted
219. I have not yet observed it in the haddock, which I
attribute to its feeding on Ophiurce, with fragments of which
the stomach and intestines of those I have hitherto examined
were literally crammed. These hard bodies act mechanically
as a vermifuge, and to a similar cause I believe it to be owing,
that I have not yet observed an Entozoon in the alimentary
canal of the gilaroo trout, or the thick-lipped gray mullet,
{Mugil Chelo), both of which subsist principally on Testacea.*

Ova. — When the female Echinorynchus, distended with wa-
ter, is either cut across, or an incision made into its side,' a
fluid rushes out, which to the naked eye has the appearance
of a milky cloud, but under the microscope this is found
chiefly to consist of thousands of ova, of a long, linear, ellip-
tical form, transparent, and of various dimensions, some be-
ing many times larger than others. Intermixed with these
spicular ova, are observed rounded or oval bodies, of a much
greater diameter, and having a spongy or cellular appearance,
(/. 24, c). Of the spicular ova the smaller are transparent
throughout, but the largest, which seem to be in their full
state of developement, have an appearance under a magnify-

* See the excellent account of the Mugil Chelo given by my indefatiga-
ble friend, W. Thompson, Esq., in the first volume of the Annals of Na-
tural History, page 350, et> seq.

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 523

ing power of 500 diameters, such as is represented at/. 24. d.

That the spicular bodies are the true ova, I believe there
can be little doubt ; but all that has been said respecting the
oval bodies is purely conjectural. That they are cotyledons
or placentulce as Rudolphi* and some other writers have ima-
gined, I see no grounds for believing. That the spicular ova
are ever inserted in them as Rudolphi has stated, ( "quibus in-
terdum etiam ovula inserta videmus" ), is, I am satisfied, a mis-
take which originated probably from viewing them with too
low a magnifier. In the compound microscope they are seen
to be quite unconnected by agitating in any way the water
around them. One of the larger bodies lying over or under
one or more of the spicular, will give the appearance of an
intimate union, which is altogether deceptive. When the ova
are dried on a slip of glass, they recover perfectly their ori-
ginal appearance when a little water is applied to them ; but
the oval bodies continue flattened, and seem more cellular
than when recent.

How are the ova of the Echinorynchus discharged ? Ru-
dolphi and some of the best helminthologists have imagined
that they were ejected from the proboscis, a notion which I
conceive could only have arisen from the circumstance that
no other aperture for their exit could be found. " Ostio isto
negato, vermis undique clausus foret, nam peculiare non ha-
betur vulvae vel ani foramen." Rud. 'Ent. Hist. Nat.' v. i. p.
253. He states also, page 292, that according to the experi-
ments of Gaeze, Zeder, and himself, when the body of the
Echinorynchus Gigas is compressed with the fingers, the ova
are seen to be disgorged from the apex of the proboscis. Clo-
quet found no such result, and he correctly, I believe, suppo-
ses that a fluid containing round globules which escapes from
the proboscis on pressure, and which sometimes is of a milky
colour, had given rise to the mistake.f I have myself examined
the Echinorynchus Acus with this view, and have compressed
the worm between plates of glass till the body has burst, but
without any appearance whatever of the escape of a single
ovum from the proboscis.

The ovary of the Echinorynchus has been long known as
a canal of delicate membrane, containing ova extending from
the sheath of the proboscis to the apex of the tail, J and Clo-

*Entoz. Hist. Nat. vol. I. p. 293.
f " Les auteurs qui disent avoir fait sortir les ceufs par le pore de la
trompe, en comprimant le corps du ver, ont sans doute pris pour eux le flu-
ide laiteux qui en suinte assez souvent pendant cette experience." Op.
Cit. p. 103, note

+ Rudolphi <Ent. Hist. Nat.' vol. I. p. 292.
Vol. II. -No. 22. n. s. 3e

524 On the Ornithology of Blackburn

quet observed a scarcely discernible pore opening at the lat-
ter situation, but did not observe the escape of any ova from it.
He remarks, page 101, "Mais une autre question s'offre na-
turellement ici, et me parait aussi importante a resoudre que
les precedentes : c'est la maniere dont les ceufs fecondes sor-
tent du corps. Est ce par la trompe, comme le veulent quel-
ques auteurs, ou bien par le . canal qui termine l'ovaire et
s'ouvre a Texterieur, par un pore a peine sensible sur le plus
grand nombre des individus ?"

" J'ai cherche en vain, sur tous les echinorhynques vivants
que j'ai eus a ma disposition, a voir sortir les ceufs par la
trompe et par la queue."

That the ova of the Echinorynchi are discharged as might
be naturally expected from a caudal pore, is sufficiently clear
from the following facts taken from my diary. On the fourth
of the present month, I examined in the microscope a num-
ber of specimens of the Echinorynchus Acus, which had been
twenty-four hours in the salt solution, distending them on a
slip of glass as before explained, by applying drops of fresh
water at intervals. In the examination of one specimen I
saw eight ova near the tail, but could not ascertain whence
they came. In that of another, thirty-two ova were in the
same situation, but none near any other -part of the animal.
In examining a third, which I treated with distilled water,
and kept my eye steadily directed to the caudal end, I obser-
ved after the lapse of a few minutes, 150 ova of different
sizes, ejected from the central point of the tail in one rush.
From a fourth specimen I obtained a similar result ; fifty-eight
eggs were ejected, some in rapid succession, and others one
by one, each starting out with a sudden jerk. In none of
these experiments was there any appearance of the supposed
cotyledonous bodies.

( To he continued).

Belfast, September, 1838.

Art. II. — On the Ornithology of Blackburn, and the North of
Lancashire. By John Skaife, Esq.

(Continued from page 433).

Order III.— SCANS ORES.
Gen. Picus.

1. Picus viridis. Green Woodpecker. Very rare.

and the North of Lancashire, 525

2. Picus major. Greater spotted Woodpecker. Occasionally met with,

but rare.
Gen. Yunx.

3. Yunx Torquilla. Wryneck. Very rare.
Gen. Cuculus.

4. Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo. Very common.*

Order IY.—GALLINjE.

Gen. Tetrao. — Sub-gen. 1. Lagopus.-f

1. Lagopus Britannicus. Red Grouse. The only species of grouse

found in Lancashire. It is met with sparingly on the moors to
the south of Blackburn, and is very abundant in the forest of Bow-
land.j:
Gen. Perdix. — Sub-gen. 1. Perdix.

2. Perdix cinerea. Common or grey Partridge. Abundant.§
Sub-gen. 2. Coturnix.

3. Coturnix dactylisonans. Common Quail. Very rare. A few years

since I shot one in the neighbourhood of Lancaster, and this is the
only specimen that I could ever meet with, though I have heard
of odd ones being shot occasionally by sportsmen, when in pursuit
of the partridge. Though rare, it still is sufficient to prove the
fact of this bird being met with as far north as Lancaster.
Gen. Columba.

4. Columba Palumbus. Ring Dove. Common. This is the only spe-

cies of wild pigeon met with in these parts. I have frequently
heard of a stock dove being shot, but on minute enquiry and in-
spection, the so-called stock dove has invariably turned out to be
the common ring dove.
Gen. Phasianus.

5. Phasianus Colchicus. Common Pheasant. Abundant. Though

this bird is omitted in the lists of Mr. Eyton and Dr. Moore, I
think it is fully entitled to rank as a British bird, from the abun-
dance in which it is found in a state of nature, in most, or at

* I heard this bird uttering his well-known note at 1 o'clock, A. M. on
Monday, May the 6th, 1833. The night was cold, but brilliantly clear and
moonlight, the moon having been full on the 3rd of the same month.

f Lagopus Britannicus. I have adopted this word as being of more ex-
tended signification than Scoticus, which is decidedly faulty : one might as
well at once say Anglicus or Hibernicus, as the bird is found abundantly in
both England and Ireland. British this bird decidedly is, and exclusively
so too, not being found on the continent, if I remember correctly. Dr.
Leach was the first naturalist who applied the specific term Britannicus to
the red grouse.

J In the autumn of the year 1835, an animal -preserver who resides at
Accrington, six miles east of Blackburn, had in his possession four remark-
able specimens of Lagopus Britannicus. The first was of a pure cream co-
lour throughout, without spot or shade ; the ground colour of the second
was of the same dusky hue, but the bird was freckled and marked through-
out with spots and streaks of light brown ; the other two birds had the usu-
al plumage of the grouse, except that the wings were white. These birds
were all shot out of the same covey or pack that season, on the moorlands
east of Blackburn.

§ Of the white partridge I have already made mention in the * Magazine
of Natural History,5 vol. ii. n. s. page 332.

3 e 2

526 On the Ornithology of Blackburn

least in many, parts of England. In the preserves of Sir Thomas
Hesketh, of Ruffbrd Hall, a few miles south of Preston, the gold-
en pheasant has become naturalized to a considerable extent ; be-
ing rigidly preserved they multiply with great rapidity. Last
shooting season but one I saw, in the hands of a bird preserver in
Preston, a young male golden pheasant, a bird of the year, which
had been shot by mistake by the gamekeeper of Sir Thomas Hes-
keth. I say by mistake, as the strictest injunctions are issued to
prevent their destruction. It was a most beautiful bird ; but ne-
ver having seen it in that state of plumage, I could not make it
out. It appeared to be in size about one third less than the hen
of the common pheasant.

Order Y.—GRALLjE.

Fam. i. — Pressirostres.

Gen. Charadrius. — Sub-gen. Charadrius.

1. Charadrius Pluvialis. Golden Plover. Common. These birds

breed on most of the moorlands mentioned in my topographical
sketch.

2. Charadrius Morinellus. Dottrel. Rare. The only specimens I

possess were shot near Lytham. I believe these birds build in the
mountains in Bowland, but am not quite certain : they certainly
breed in Dent, that is, on Pemgant and the neighbouring moun-
tains ; as, a short time ago, I saw both old and young specimens
sent from these localities.

3. Charadrius Hiaticula. Ringed Dottrel. Abundant about the es-

tuary of the Ribble.
Gen. Vanellus. — Sub-gen. 1. Squatarola.

4. Squatarola cinerea. Grey Plover. Very rare now, though I re-

member, several years back, when I was in the habit of shooting
waterfowl on the long line of coast between the embouchures of
the Ribble and Mersey, seeing them in large flocks, and occasion-
ally bringing down three or four at a shot.
Sub-gen. 2. Vanellus.

5. Vanellus cristatus. Lapwing. Very common. They breed abun-

dantly on the moors.
Gen. H^matopus.

6. Hcematopus Ostralegus. Oyster-catcher. Though not numerous,

they are generally to be met with on the coast.

Fam. ii. — Cultirostres.

Gen. Ardea. — Sub-gen. 1. Ardea.

7. Ardea cinerea. Common Heron. Frequently met with, though I

am not aware of any heronry in this neighbourhood nearer than
one on the banks of the Wyre, some twenty miles north.
Sub-gen. 2. Botaurus.

8. Botaurus stellaris. Bittern. Rare. I have a splendid specimen

shot at Heysham, on the southern shore of the Bay of Morecambe.

Fam. iii. — Longirostres.

Gen. Ibis. — Sub-gen. Numenius.

9. Numenius arquata. Curlew. Common enough on the coast. They

breed on the mountains in Bowland. I have frequently encoun-
tered them on the moors in the breeding season.
10. JNumenius phceopus. Whimbrel. Rare.

and the North of Lancashire. 527

Gen. Scolopax. — Sub-gen. Scolopax.

11. Scolopax rusticola. Woodcock. Common.

12. Scolopax major. Solitary Snipe. Rare. The capture of three of

these birds has come within my own observation. One was shot
on a piece of swampy ground close to Blackburn, on Thursday,
Sept. 25th, 1834, weight 8£ oz. avoirdupois : another was shot
about ten months previously, near Whitewell, in Bowland : and
a third specimen was killed about two years before, on the moors
near Haslingden, nine miles S. E. of Blackburn.

13. Scolopax Gallinago. Common Snipe. Abundant.

14. Scolopax Gallinula. Jack Snipe. Common; though nothing

near so abundant as S. Gallinago.*
Gen. Limosa.

15. Limosa rufa. Bar-tailed Godwit. Now only thinly scattered on
the coast, but I remember well the immense flocks I used former-
ly to meet with when shooting on the coast, as mentioned under
the grey plover. The ruff, I believe, is not now found in any part
of Lancashire ; though at no very distant date met with on the
borders of Martin Mere, an extensive lake or shallow piece of wa-
ter south of the Ribble, now drained and enclosed.

Gen. Tringa.

16. Tringa Canutus. Knot. Rare.

* Scolopax Sabini. In the winter of 1823, I was shooting woodcocks
with a friend in the north of Lancashire, some three miles from the West-
moreland border. My friend was an old sportsman, and a dead shot ; for
my own part I possess no such dexterity. The ground we were shooting
over was an immense wood, upwards of a mile in length, traversed by nu-
merous little rills of water ; without the wood were small spots of swampy
ground, and here and there small patches of brushwood. The country ge-
nerally was hilly. Some of the swamps were literally alive with snipes ; of
their numbers some idea may be formed from the fact of our shooting four-
teen in a space of less than half an acre. In the wood we met with a con-
siderable number of woodcocks. I observed one bird which we flushed
three or four times, at a distance of not more than ten yards ; it attracted
my notice from its small size and dark colour : I was anxious to obtain it,
and at last my friend brought it down by a well-directed shot. It flew dif-
ferently from the other woodcocks ; only a short distance at a time, and
confined itself principally to the edge of the wood. To my surprise, when
I examined it I found it not above half the size of the common woodcock,
and of a much darker hue ; my friend said it was the small black wood-
cock, a very rare bird, which he had not met with above twice or three times
before, although hundreds of woodcocks and thousands of snipes had fallen
before his gun. With this explanation, though anything but satisfactory,
I was obliged to be content. What it was I had no means of ascertaining ;
I had neither figure nor description of anything like it : and truly I mig-ht
well be puzzled with the bird, for I am now quite satisfied that it was a
specimen of the Scolopax Sabini. At that period Bewick's figure, which
would have been a sufficient guide, was not published. When I set my
eyes on Gould's charming figure of Scolopax Sabini, I recognized my bird
in a moment. I skinned the bird, but as I only rubbed the skin over with
pepper, snuff, and alum, it went to decay. Of late years I have looked over
hundreds of woodcocks in the hands of the dealers, and made minute en-
quiries amongst my sporting friends, in the hope of meeting with a second
specimen, but in vain.

528 On the Ornithology of Blackburn

17. Tringa subarquata. Pygmy Curlew. Occasionally met with in
the summer.

18. Tringa alpina. Dunlin or Purre. Common. It may give some
idea of the immense number of these birds, when I state that the
week before last a gentleman near Lytham, with a common fowl-
ing piece, killed thirty-four at one shot.

19. Tringa minuta. Little Stint. Rare.
Gen. Arenaria.

20. Arenaria Calidris. Sanderling. Sparingly scattered on the coast.
Gen. Phalaropus.

21. Phalaropus lobatus. Grey Phalarope. Rare. I have two speci-

mens ; one killed near Lytham, the other on Lancaster sands.
Gen. Strepsilas.

22. Strepsilas interpres. Turnstone. Though not numerous, speci-
mens are always attainable in the spring.

Gen. Totanus.

23. Totanus Calidris. Red-shank. Frequently met with on the coast.

24. Totanus oehropus. Green Sandpiper. Very rare in these parts.
For a notice of the capture of twos vide ' Mag. Nat. Hist.' vol. i.r
n. s., p. 555.

25. Totanus hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper. Met with abundantly
in all our brooks and rivers.

Fam. iv. — Macrodactyla.

Gen. Rallus.— Sub-gen. 1. Rallus.

26. Rallus aquaticus. Water Rail. Common.
Sub-gen. 2. Crex.

27. Crex pratensis. Land Rail. Generally speaking plentiful enough
in the summer, but this year, from some unknown cause, they are
remarkably scarce. I have heard them in but four localities.

28. Crex Porzana. Spotted Rail. Rare : though I have been inform-
ed by some farmers that in the neighbourhood of Martin's Meer
they are as abundant as Rallus aquaticus.

Gen. Gallinula.

29. Gallinula chloropus. Water Hen. Abundant.
Gen. Fulica.

30. Fulica atra. Coot. Very rare.

ORDER VI.— PALMIPEDES.

Fam. i. — Brachyptera.

Gen. Podiceps.

1. Podiceps cristatus. Crested Grebe. Very rare.

2. Podiceps rubricollis. Red-necked Grebe. Very rare. The only

specimen that I ever met with, I obtained last winter in the mar-
ket at Preston, on January the 23rd, 1838.

3. Podiceps minor. Little Grebe. Common. In this neighbourhood

it is frequently met with in the water-lodges formed in the hills
for the purpose of supplying the factories, bleach-works, &c.
Gen. Colymbus.

4. Colymbus glacialis. Northern Diver. Very rare. A few years since

an adult specimen was taken in the Fylde country, and since then
two young specimens have been caught at the mouth of the Ribble.

5. Colymbus arcticus. Black-throated Diver. Very rare. In the win-

ter of 1835-6 I saw a remarkably fine young specimen in the hands
of an animal-preserver of Preston : it was captured below Lytham.

and the North of Lancashire. 529

6. Colymbus septentrionalis. Red-throated Diver. Very rare. Within

the last three years I have seen three specimens, all young birds,
taken on the coast.
Gen. Uria.

7. Uria Troile. Foolish Guillemot. Rather common. Frequently

taken in the before-named lodges.
Gen. Mergulus.

8. Mergulus melanoleucos. Little Auk. Very rare. I have a beau-

tiful specimen in its winter plumage, that is, with the white throat,
taken alive on Lancaster sands, the day after a severe storm. It
lived three days, and was then put to death.
Gen. Fratercula.

9. Fratercula arctica. Puffin. Rare. Obtained occasionally in the

estuary of the Ribble, after severe weather ; probably driven from
the neighbouring rocky coast of Wales, where they are so numer-
ous that a small rocky islet, on which they breed in prodigious
numbers, is called after them " Puffin Island."
Gen. Alca.

10. Alca Tor da. Razor-billed Auk, and Black-billed Auk; for they

are undoubtedly one bird. Though not exactly common, they may
frequently be obtained on the coast, especially by sailing in a boat
a few miles from the land.

Fam. ii. — Longipennata.

Gen. Procellaria. — Sub-gen. Thalassidroma.

11. Thalassidroma pelagica. Stormy Petrel. Very rare, but occasion-
ally obtained on the coast and still more rarely inland, driven there
by stress of weather. Vide ' Mag. Nat. Hist' vol. ii. n. s. p. 332.

12. Thalassidroma Bullockii. Fork-tailed Petrel. Very rare. The
same remarks will apply to this as to the last species. Vide ' Mag.
Nat. Hist.' vol. i. n. s. p. 555.

Gen. Lestris.

13. Lestris Richardsonii. Richardson's Lestris. Very rare. I may

say with Dr. Moore, if the young of this bird and the black-toed
gull of Bewick are identical, (and I confess myself unable, even
with the assistance of Gould's exquisite plate, and that of Swain-
son, to determine the point satisfactorily), I some time since saw
two specimens which were taken on Lancaster sands.

14. Lestris parasiticus. Arctic Gull. Very rare. Two adult specimens
of this bird, shot on the coast, have come under my observation.

15. Lestris pomarinus. Pomarine Gull. Equally rare with the pre-
ceding. For the capture of two specimens vide the ' Magazine of
Natural History,' vol. ii. n. s. p. 333.

Gen. Larus. — Sub-gen. 1, Rissa.

16. Rissa cinerea. Kittiwake. Rare. Two beautiful specimens of

the young bird were shot on a water-lodge, two miles from Black-
burn; the first in the winter of 1836-7, the second in the spring
of 1837. They are also occasionally but very rarely met with on
the coast.
Sub-gen. 2, Larus.

17. Larus canus. Common Gull. Abundant. I have frequently ob-
served them in great numbers, following the plough and picking
up insects.

18. Larus argentatus. Herring Gull. Common.

19. Larus fuscus. Lesser black-backed Gull. Frequently met with

on the coast.

530 On the Ornithology of Blackburn

20. Larus marimis. Greater black-backed Gull. Though not exact-
ly common, these birds are generally to be met with on the coast.
Last week, at Blackpool, I saw fourteen together in a flock ; be-
ing without a gun they suffered me to approach very near. Out
of the fourteen only three were in the adult plumage. When fly-
ing they presented a most enormous expanse of wing.

21. Larus glaucus. Glaucous Gull. Very rare. This is the most

scarce of all the gulls proper.
Sub-gen. 3, Chroicocephalus.

22. Chroicocephalus rudibundus. Black-headed and red-legged Gull.
Common. Dr. Moore observes that in Devonshire this bird is ve-
ry scarce in the summer plumage ; now on our coasts the reverse
obtains, and they are generally observed in the summer plumage,
that is, with the black hood. On my recent visit to Blackpool I
observed numbers of them in this state of plumage ; I suppose
this is owing to their breeding somewhere about these parts. It
is well known that they do breed on the rocky coast of Wales to
the south, and on the isle of Walney to the north, as also in the
isle of Man. This is one of the great advantages of local Faunce,
that the habits and haunts of birds can be observed in so many
points simultaneously.

Gen. Sterna.

23. Sterna Anglica. Gull-billed Tern. Very rare. I have one spe-

cimen shot at Blackpool in the summer of 1832.

24. Sterna cantiaca. Sandwich Tern. Equally rare with S. Anglica.

25. Sterna arctica. Arctic Tern. Frequently met with on our coasts
but generally confounded with Sterna marina. I have seen se-
veral specimens shot at or near Blackpool ; and until the publi-
cation of Gould's beautiful plate of this bird, I fell into the com-
mon error of confounding it with the common tern, but can now
easily make the distinction.

26. Sterna marina. Great Tern or Common Tern. Abundant.

27. Sterna minuta. Little Tern. Very common.

28. Sterna nigra. Black Tern. Rare. I have one specimen shot in
the spring of 1832, on a bleach-works lodge.

Fam. iii. — Totipalmata.
Gen. Phalacrororax.

29. Phalacrororax Carlo. Cormorant. Often met with on the coast.
Gen. Sula.

30. Sula bassana. Gannet. Very rare ; occasionally shot in the estu-
ary of the Ribble after severe storms. In the spring of 1837 one
was taken in a rabbit-hole, near Lytham, into which it ran for
shelter on being pursued.

Fam. ir. — Lamellirostres.
Gen. Mergus.

31. Mergus Merganser. Goosander. Though not common it has seve-

ral times been taken on the Ribble and Hodder. I have a fine spe-
cimen of the male shot some years ago on the Hodder, in Bowland.

32. Mergus serrator. Red-breasted Merganser. Very rare. For the

capture of the only one that I ever met with, vide the * Magazine
of Natural History,' vol. ii. n. s. page 333.

33. Mergus albellus. Smew. Rare. For the capture of two vide the

'Magazine of Natural History,' vol. ii. n. s. page 331.
Gen. Fuligula.

34. Fuligula ferina. Pochard. Obtained occasionally on the coast.

and the North of Lancashire. 531

35. Fuligula cristata. Tufted Duck. Rare.

36. Fuligula Gesneri. Scaup Duck. Rare.
Gen. Oidemia.

37. Oidemia nigra. Scoter. Rare : I have met with four specimens.

38. Oidemia fusca. Great black Duck, or Velvet Duck. Very rare:
I have met with one specimen.

Gen. Clangula.

39. Clangula chrysophthalmos. Golden Eye. Frequently obtained in

the winter.
Gen. Anas. — Sub-gen. 1. Mareca.

40. Mareca Penelope. Widgeon. Common.
Sub-gen. 2, Querquedula.

41. Querquedula Crecca. Teal. Common.
Sub-gen. 3, Chauliodus.

42. Chauliodus strepera. Gadwell. Very rare.
Sub- gen. 4, Rhynchaspis.

43. Rhynchaspis clypeata. Shoveller. Very rare.
Sub-gen. 5, Anas.

44. Anas Boschas. Wild Duck. They breed abundantly with us.
Gen. Tadorna.

45. Tadorna Bellonii. Shieldrake. Frequently met with. On the
coast about Lytham, and again about the mouth of the Wyre, are
numerous sand hills, which are converted into rabbit-warrens, and
being rigidly preserved the shieldrakes breed there regularly.

*Gen. Anser. — Sub-gen. 1, Anser.

46. Anser segetum. Bean Goose. Rare. I saw one in the hands of

an animal-preserver in Preston, last winter.

47. Anser palustris. Wild Goose. Frequently passes over and through

the country in immense flocks.
Sub-gen. 2, Bernicla.

48. Bernicla leucopsis. Bernacle Goose. Rare.

49. Bernicla Brenta. Brent Goose. Frequently met with. Last win-

ter, in Preston, I saw several brent geese, but looked in vain for
a specimen of the bernacle. I find from several writers that the
brents and bernacles were once abundant in Lancashire ; times
have sadly changed for the worse since those days.
Gen. Cygnus.

50. Cygnus ferus. Wild Swan. Very rare. For particulars respect-
ing their capture last winter, vide ' Magazine of Natural History,'
vol. ii. n. s. page 333.

* Canada Goose. I have not inserted this bird in the text, though I a-
gree with Bewick, and a writer in a former volume of this Magazine, that
it is a good British bird, and, par consequence, a Lancashire bird. Vide
* Magazine of Natural History,' vol. ii. n. s. page 334.

Since the first part of this article was published, I have seen a pied fly-
catcher, which was shot two miles west of Blackburn, a few years ago; A
white sparrow was shot in September, 1836, in Lower Darwen, two miles
south of Blackburn. Four years since I had a beautiful pied blackbird ;
the wings were white, and there were large patches of white on other parts
of the body : as, however, it was badly preserved, and the moth began to
make its appearance, I was obliged to destroy it : the person who is in pos-
session of the white sparrow, has also a blackbird in the state of plumage
just named.

(To be continued.)
Vol. II.— No. 22. n. s. 3f

532 Observations on the Chameleon.

Art. III. — On the peculiar Insulation of the Nervous Currents in
the Chameleon ; with some Observations on Change of Colour in
that Creature. By W. Weissenborn, D. Ph.

Among the manifold conditions connected with the change
of colour in the chameleon, and which I had ample opportu-
nities of observing for nine months in the years 1834-5, dur-
ing which time I had a living specimen in my possession,
there was none which struck me more forcibly as being cu-
rious than that one lateral half of the animal is often of a co-
lour decidedly different from that of the other. In an article
on the habits, colours, tongue, &c, of the chameleon, which
I published in M. von Froriep's ' Notizen aus dem Gebiete
der Natur- und Heilkunde/ Nos. 965 and 966, June, 1835, I
stated that this peculiarity ought to be ascribed to a particu-
lar organization, in consequence of which the involuntary
nervous currents can be excited in one half of the animal's
body, independently of those in the other. I now feel
prompted to lay a somewhat greater stress on this point, to
establish it more fully, and to call the attention of the read-
ers of this Journal to it, as I believe that no animal is better
adapted for being made instrumental in promoting the solu-
tion of an important problem lately proposed by M. Matteucci,
as to the mode of operation of the galvanic currents in the
frog and other animals. In the state to which the question
has latterly been advanced, almost exclusively, by the inge-
nious researches of that philosopher, who, after inventing an
apparatus by means of which he obtained sparks from the
Torpedo, has lately deduced the most interesting laws from
the mode in which the nervous currents of the frog affect the
galvanometer, the ultimate solution of the problem rests now
chiefly on our overcoming two serious difficulties. — On the
one hand, the electrical currents in animals must, of course,
describe a full circuit. We therefore want to point out two
systems of organs, two peculiar sets of nervous filaments, one
of which serves to conduct the currents from their centre
towards the periphery, whereas the other must be instrumen-
tal in conducting them back towards the centre. — On the
other hand, we have to show how an electrical current can
pervade a nerve, or any other organized substance of equal
conducting power, without being dissipated in the rest of the
organs.

As to the former point, M. Matteucci adverts to different
circumstances which may assist us in our investigations ; for
instance, the peculiar functions of the well-known two diffe-

Observations on the Chameleon. 538

rent sets of nerves, the propagation of sensation and contrac-
tion on each side of a ligature tied round a nerve, as well as
to the curious law established by Lehot and Marianini : * as
to the latter, I think the physiological conditions through
which the circulation of the nervous currents in the chame-
leon is effected, with reference to each lateral half, divided
from the other by the perpendicular mesial plane of the bo-
dy, would, if known, throw much light on the general condi-
tions on which the limitation of the electrical currents in ani-
mals depend.

The remote cause of the difference of colour in the two la-
teral halves of the chameleon may, in most cases, be distinctly
referred to the manner in which the light acts upon the ani-
mal. The statement of Murray, that the side turned towards
the light is always of a darker colour than the other, is per-
fectly true. This rule holds good, as well with reference to
the direct and diffused light of the sun or moon, as to artifi-
cial light. Even when the animal was moving in the walks
of my garden, and happened to approach near enough to the
border to be shaded on one side by the box edging, that side
would instantly become less darkly coloured than the other.
As however the light in these cases but seldom illumines ex-
actly one lateral half of the animal in a more powerful man-
ner than the other, whereas the mesial line is constantly the
line of demarcation between the two different shades of co-
lour, we must evidently refer the different effects to two dif-
ferent centres, from which the nervous currents can only radi-
ate, under such circumstances, towards the organs situated on
one side of the mesial plane respectively.

Over these centres, without doubt, the organ of vision im-
mediately presides ; and indeed we ought not to wonder that
the action of light has such powerful effects on the highly ir-
ritable organism of the chameleon, considering that the eye
is by far the most active, and one of the most highly develop-
ed organs. The lungs are, under such circumstances, but se-
condarily affected ; but they are likewise more strongly ex-
cited on the darker side, which is constantly more convex
than the other.

Many other circumstances may be brought forward in fa-
vour of the opinion that the nervous currents in one lateral
half of the chameleon, are going on independently of those in
the other ; and that the animal has two lateral centres of per-
ception, sensation, and motion, besides the common one, in
which must reside the faculty of concentration. Notwith-

* Bibliotheque Univ. de Geneve, May, 1838.

534 Observations on the Chameleon.

standing the strictly symmetrical structure of the chameleon,
as to its two lateral halves, the eyes move independently of
each other, and convey different impressions to their respec-
tive centres of perception. The consequence is, that when
the animal is agitated, its movements appear like those of
two animals glued together. Each half wishes to move its
own way, and there is no symmetry of action. The result
not being in the direction of the diagonal determined by the
parellellogram of simultaneous or well-regulated forces, is sel-
dom in harmony with what, in the opinion of the observer,
the whole animal ought to do. The chameleon is therefore
not able to swim, like other animals ; it is so frightened if put
into water, that the faculty of concentration is lost, and it
tumbles about as if in a state of intoxication. On the other
hand, when the creature is undisturbed, the eye which re-
ceives the strongest impression propagates it to the common
centre, and prevails upon the other eye to follow that impres-
sion, and direct itself towards the same object; and if this
object be prey of any kind, the mesial line of the head is
moved in the direction of it, whereupon the two visual rays
form the angle into the vertex of which the butt-end of the
tongue is projected like a bolt.

The chameleon, moreover, may be asleep on one side and
awake on the other. When cautiously approaching my spe-
cimen at night, with a candle, so as not to awaken the whole
animal by the shaking of the room, the eye turned towards
the flame would open, and begin to move, and the correspond-
ing side to change its colour ; whereas the other side would
remain for several seconds longer in its torpid and unchange-
able state, with its eye shut.

In short, I could never look at my chameleon without sup-
posing it to look like twins adhering longitudinally to each
other, the more so, as the linea alba is like a strong suture ;
the palate longitudinally cleft ; and the toes in the hind feet
inversely divided as to those of the fore feet. In the latter,
two toes belong to the external, and three to the internal di-
vision ; whereas in the hind feet the respective numbers are
inverted : and I am inclined to think that the anatomy of the
embryo of the chameleon would lead to interesting results in
this respect.*

I ought to remark that I have several times felt what I

* I had no opportunity of dissecting the chameleon, having only the loan
of my specimen during its life, on a promise that I would send the carcass
to the Museum of Schneppenthal. I have only dissected and prepared the
tongue and its appendages.

Observations on the Chameleon. 535

thought was a slight electrical shock, when touching my cha-
meleon with the forefinger and thumb applied to the oppo-
site halves of the animal. On such occasions I have felt a
slight thrilling sensation, which struck me sufficiently to cause
me to invite M. Soret, of Geneva, who was then at Weimar,
and provided with the proper instruments, to submit the cha-
meleon to the test of the galvanometer. He had, however, so
little confidence in the success of the experiment, that I would
not have urged the point, had I not been much more confi-
dent myself.

I think it not unlikely that the nervous currents may di-
rectly co-operate in effecting the changes of colour in the
chameleon, or such tissues of other animals as are subject to
discoloration from various affections. The experiments of
M. Matteucci show that such changes may be effected by the
animal electricity, on the accession of certain chemical sub-
stances, and we need only suppose that such substances are
mixed with the juices of the chameleon, (one of them, oxy-
gen, certainly is so), and that these juices are instrumental in
completing the electrical circle, in order to account more fully
for the phenomenon in question.

My own observations on these changes all tend to prove
that they depend altogether on the degree in which the nerv-
ous system is stimulated or inactive. This principle is call-
ed into operation by more remote causes, as heat, light, and
mental affections ; and is instrumental in creating other and
more immediate causes, as by causing the cutaneous tissues
to become filled with gaseous and liquid fluids, or by effec-
ting the possible chemical actions and reactions which may
take place in various ways, under the influence of the nervous
currents, according to their intensity or quantity.

According to this view, I cannot but doubt the universality
of the principle on which Mr. Milne-Edwards has lately tried
to explain all the changes of colour in the Chameleon, by
showing that there exist in the skin of this creature two lay-
ers of membranous pigment placed the one above the other,
but arranged in such a way as to appear simultaneously un-
der the scarf skin, and sometimes so that the one may con-
ceal the other, and by assuming that every thing remarkable
in the changes of colour may be explained by the appearance
of the pigment of the deeper ( violet or blackish-red ) layer,
to an extent more or less considerable, in the midst of the
pigment of the superficial (greyish, or more or less yellowish
or white) layer, or from its disappearance underneath that
layer. ('Edinb. New Philos. Journal,' July— Oct., 1834).

536 Observations on the Chameleon.

Admitting that there are two pigments, a dark and a pale
one, each contained in a separate system of cells or follicles,
by means of which Mr. Milne-Edwards could make the co-
lour of a piece of skin, detached from the body, change from
the yellowish grey to the violet red, by pressing the deeper
pigment towards the upper surface of the skin, yet these pig-
ments themselves must possess the faculty of changing their
hues, as no mechanical mixture of two given colours could
produce those various tints which the skin of the chameleon
exhibits at different times, and among which I have even ob-
served the pure primary yellow and red. By the anatomical
discoveries of Mr. Milne-Edwards, the solution of the ques-
tion has, no doubt, been greatly advanced ; but there are
points which must be explained, before we can say that we
understand the phenomenon.

In availing myself of Mr. Milne-Edwards's discoveries, so
far as I think they are founded in fact, I am led by my own
observations to suppose that the layer of the cutaneous sys-
tem which contains the superficial or whitish pigment, (ex-
hibiting different tints under different circumstances), always
determines the general colour of the animal, when the latter
is quite undisturbed, relaxed, or torpid, in consequence of
the absence of external or internal irritation ; whereas one or
more hues, determined by the rising of the darker (likewise
changeable) pigment, begin to develope themselves, and pro-
ceed to a limit, determined by the degree and manner in which
the chameleon is affected, as soon as the organism and tissue
(probably erectile) containing the darker pigment is stimula-
ted^ also the superficial tissue containing the pale pigment
is depressed by the condition of the integuments. But in all
these changes, from the whitest to the darkest hue, heat, light,
the quantity of air which the animal inspires, and the differ-
ent mental affections, as anger, fear, &c, act a very prominent
part*

To enable the reader to judge better of the view I have
taken, I shall enumerate some of the circumstances under

* I may here observe that although the horny tubercles give rise to viri-
descent colours under the direct influence of the sun-beams, yet the pig-
ments in general present the true colour which they would show if naked.
In one instance, after my specimen had been very dark, in consequence of
its vitality having been fully excited, I perceived, on its subsequently be-
coming relaxed and whitish, that three or four tubercles remained black. —
The skin being cast a month after, I convinced myself that the pigment
must have burst, as several follicles were adhering in a dry state to the
inner surface of these tubercles, the others being perfectly colourless.

Observations on the Chameleon. 537

which the chameleon exhibits its almost uniform pale colour,
as well as those under which it assumes a different hue.

I. — the colour of the chameleon is of the pale, almost uni-
form kind : —

a. During sleep. (As long as the animal is sleeping, its
organism is extremely torpid, its large and thin purse-like ap-
pendages contain a considerable quantity of air, which is so
slowly deprived of its oxygen, that the process of respiration
is interrupted. I have watched the animal in this state ma-
ny times, for fifteen minutes or longer, but I have never seen
it respire. We may therefore suppose that the rest of the in-
voluntary functions are also greatly abolished, in consequence
of the nervous currents being extremely weak. When, how-
ever, some external agent, as moonlight, artificial light, shak-
ing of the room, &c, disturbs the sleep of the chameleon, I
have always observed its colour to be different from the nor-
mal pale hue. It was then commonly painted with green
spots and stripes.)

b. When the chameleon had been wrapped for some time
in flannel, &c, so as to exclude light, ah*, and other stimu-
lating agents, and had been left quiet in that state.

c. When the chameleon had been exposed for a consider-
able time to the direct influence of intense sunlight. (Its bo-
dy would then always assume the pale yellowish white color,
in consequence, no doubt, of the relaxation following the ex-
cess of stimulus to which its organism had been exposed. —
The animal then looked like a lump of mortar).

e. When dead.*

II. — The pale colour is exchanged for other hues under the
following circumstances : —

a. When the animal was taken out of a flannel wrapper,
and suddenly exposed to the rays of the sun ; the half turned
towards the sun would, within a minute, become bluish black,
after having successively exhibited grey, greyish red, drab-
violet, and other tints ; whereas the other half, within the
time stated, took a deeper colour, but did not advance be-
yond greyish brown. (In this experiment the greater activity

* My specimen died in a rabid fit, which lasted more than twenty-four
hours, and during which, though blind, the animal would bite at every ob-
ject that came within the reach of its jaws. It would not quit its hold for
many minutes. The disease began with cedema of the eyes, and its last
form was perhaps developed by my endeavouring to cure the animal with
large doses of a solution of phosphorus in sweet oil. The excessive irrita-
bility of the chameleon was most strikingly evinced in this last stage.

538 Observations on the Chameleon.

with which the nervous currents operate in the one lateral
half of the chameleon, is most beautifully exhibited, the cor-
responding side becoming, at the same time, considerably
more inflated than the other).

b. After the body has been heated by the sun to an equa-
ble temperature of about 26° R. (90^ F.), the animal is in the
fullest possession of its vital powers and functions, and its co-
lours are then most strikingly contrasted. The trapezoid
spots, situated in two longitudinal rows, (of 5 each), on each
side of the trunk, the colour of which, under all circumstan-
ces, diifers more or less from that of the surrounding skin,
then appear like plates of chalk on a ground of charcoal. —
(This state of colour was suddenly brought about when a dog
ran towards the chameleon, whilst it was in a walk of my gar-
den, in warm weather. The cause of its terror being remov-
ed, the colours soon subsided into a more equable state. The
chameleon very soon became accustomed to the dog).

c. When T took the chameleon in my hand, it being of its
pale colour, its respiration became accelerated and fuller, and
the change of colour which took place immediately, gave it
the spotted appearance of a trout.

d. At temperatures of less that 15° R., (63f F.), and in a
diffused light, the general colour of the animal was usually
bluish black, and the two constant rows of trapezoid spots
almost vanished from sight. The eye of the chameleon still
showed sufficient activity, within certain limits of a low tem-
perature, proving that the nervous currents were not inter-
rupted, even at 10° R., (54J F.), the animal never being ex-
posed to a much lower temperature so long as I had it. (In
this case I am inclined to ascribe the dark colour to the con-
traction of the integuments, whereby the pale pigment is de-
pressed, and the dark one meets the horny tubercles ; for on
cautiously warming the chameleon, it becomes generally pal-
er, though much spotted and striped with green, red, violet,
&c).

e. On approaching the pale-coloured sleeping chameleon
with a candle, and shaking the room by one's step, one would
generally see it awake, and become of a greyish, and subse-
quently of a darker colour.

f. If thrown into water at a common temperature, or ex-
posed to rain, it exhibited a beautiful dark ashy -blue colour,
with bright red and green spots and stripes. (The animal
was much agitated, and the integuments of course contract-
ed; the inspiration was very full).

g. If electrified on an insulated stand, the chameleon show-
ed changes of colour, which it would be endless to describe,

Deposits in the Valley of the Ttiames. 539

lot observed any i
ion.

Weimar, Aug. 2Uh, 1838.

as I have not observed any striking constancy in their tints
or distribution.

Art. JV. — On the Deposits containing Carnivora and other Mam-
malia in the Valley of the Thames. By John Morris, Esq.

The valley of the Thames contains, in many parts, an old
alluvial deposit, from which considerable quantities of brick
earth are obtained, not only on the banks of the river itself,
but also along the courses of those streams which empty them-
selves into it. In this deposit are found, rather abundantly,
the bones of Mammalia associated with extinct and recent
freshwater shells ; those of more common occurrence belong
to the Ruminantia, Pachydermata, and Rodentia, but recent
researches have produced from this deposit remains of Carni-
vora, as the bear, hyaena, &c, which have generally been con-
sidered as belonging only to cavern-deposits; they have been
chiefly noticed in the following localities.

The strata at Brentford were first described in a paper by
Mr. Trimmer, to the Royal Society, in 1813, and consist as
follow ; — in the first field half a mile north of the Thames,
surface twenty-five feet above low water : —

Sandy loam, lowest 2 feet calcareous 6 to 7 feet.

Sandy gravel, Shells and bones, afewinclies.

Calcareous loam, Bones of ox and deer with shells 1 to 5 feet.

A layer of peat here and there intervenes between this stratum and the
next below.

Gravel, (sand and clay intermixed)

Teeth and bones of two species of elephant \

- of hippopotamus L 2 to 10 feet.

- of ox J

The second field is one mile west of the former, one mile
from the Thames, and a quarter of a mile east of the river
Brent ; height above the Thames, forty feet.

Sandy loam, slightly calcareous 8 feet.

Sand becoming coarser towards lower part, and ending in sandy gravel.
Teeth and bones of hippopotamus abundant \

: : : ::f£!::::::::::::::::: k*'

- of ox, with shells j

Sandy loam, highly calcareous, varying in thickness,

Bones of ox and deer, with shells ,...1 to 7 feet.

Gravel and clay not dug into in this field.
Vol. II.— No. 22. n. s. 3g

540 Deposits in the Valley of the Tliames

In the excavation* for the reservoir of the new water works
close to Kew bridge, similar strata were dug into, containing
bones of the elephant, ox, and deer, with some lignite, but
no shells were observed ; the thickness of the strata was about
fifteen feet, and reposed on the London clay, on the surface
of which were found two large boulders of druid sandstone.

In the excavations for buildings in many parts of London
near the river, animal remains have been found ; as at Water-
loo Place, London Docks, Limehouse, Bethnal Green, &c.

The next large deposit of animal remains occurs at Ilford,
in Essex, from whence an extensive collection has been ob-
tained by Mr. Gibson, of Stratford ; remains of the horse, ele-
phant, (a tusk, 12 ft. 6 in. long), rhinoceros, deer, and two
species of ox : the bones are found in every stage of growth,
rarely broken or much rolled, and shells occur in abundance,
a list of which, with the other localities, will be appended to
this paper.

The physical character of the country between Stratford
and Ilford is rather level, gravel -pits being worked from about
twelve to twenty feet deep. It is here and there intersected
by streams on the Stratford side, flowing to the river Roding,
which runs at the entrance of Ilford, and empties itself into
the Thames at Barking Levels. There are three principal
brick-fields, the first, (Kilberton's), adjoining the river Roding;
the second, (Thomson's), a little beyond the first, about five
hundred yards from the river; and the third, (Curtis' s), is si-
tuate beyond the town on the left hand side of the road. The
strata of the three fields are nearly the same, merely varying
a little in thickness in each. The following is the average.

Gravel and vegetable mould 4 to 6 feet.

Brick earth with concretions 5 to 15 feet.

Sand, greyish green and brown, with concretions.

Bones and shells, round the bones more white and clay-
ey, 5 to 9 feet.

A vein of brick earth 2 feet.

Gravel and drift sand, loamy and bluish coloured, forming the base.

Similar deposits occur at Wickham, in Kent, in a valley
opening to the river, and consisting of brick earth, sand, and
gravel, 25 feet thick, and containing remains of the horse, ox,
and deer.

The deposit at Erith is situated to the south of the town,
extending nearly to Crayford, and averaging about 300 yards
wide. It reposes on the chalk, though sometimes separated
from it by a bed of coarse sand, containing rolled specimens

* May, 1837.

containing Mammalian Remains. 541

of the plastic clay shells. The brick-fields belong to four
different proprietors ; the first is situated on the right of the
road leading from Crayford to Erith, about half a mile north
of the former village : it is the property of Mr. Stoneham.
The excavation is about 300 feet square, with a depth of 69
feet to the chalk, being worked solely for the brick-earth it
contains. The following are the beds which occur in an as-
cending order, — viz.

Chalk.

Rough gravel, quartz, &c... 7 feet

Sand, (tooth of elephant) 3 feet.

Concreted sand, with sulphate of lime and veins of re-depo-
sited chalk 6 inches.

Brick-earth with veins, 25 feet.

Gravel, round and angular, with chalk pebbles, and bones. —

Varies in thickness , , 1 to 4 feet

Brick earth; shells , -.7 feet.

Dark coloured clay, containing shells and bones, {Unio of new

species probably 6 in. to 2 ft

The second (Hutchon's) is stratified as follows : —

Vegetable mould, loam, &c. 3 feet.

Confused mass of gravel, shells, race, sandy concretions, round
and angular flints, cemented by ferruginous sand, irre-
gular 4 to 5 feet.

Sand, more or less wavy, traversed by thin ferruginous veins,

numerous shells, bones, and brick-earth in patches 6 feet

Race and pebbles in clay and sand, varying in thickness, and
occasionally seen interstratified with wavy veins of sand;
bones and shells, — Cyrena, Cyclas, Unio, Sec 1 to 3 feet.

Brick-earth, few pebbles and concretions 7 feet.

Loamy sand, with veins of clay 4 feet.

Gravelly sand 8 feet

Vein of sand , 1 foot

Gravel and sand &.. 2 feet.

Iron flint bed, or bull's head 1 to 2 feet

Chalk excavated, few flints 14 feet

Third field, Mr. Clarke's.

Clay, loam, sand, gravel, broken shells, and concretions, very

irregular 12 feet.

Sandy gravel 1 foot.

Blue and brown clay, here and there veins of small round and

angular gravel 8 feet

Loamy sand and concretions 5 feet.

Pebbles and sandy concretions 1 foot.

Coarse grey sand with veins of pebbles and broken shells; —

{Cyrena, Cerithium) 12 feet

Chalk.

3 g 2

542 Deposits in the Valley of the Thames

Fourth field, Francis and White's.

Gravel and sand, irregular and wavy 12 feet.

Loamy sand and brick-earth, with concretions of both kinds, 20 feet.

Ferruginous sand and shells 6 feet.

Gravel.
Chalk.

Animal remains are rather abundant in these deposits ; a
good collection being in the possession of Mr. Grantham, of
Crayford. In which are the following: —

Elephant, Humerus, femur, scapula, Hyaena ; Teeth, &c. &c.

teeth, tusk, &c. Lion? Ditto and jaw, &c.

Irish Elk ? Horn. Horse ; Various bones.

Deer; Ditto, &c. Ox; Ditto.
Rhinoceros; Teeth, tusks, phalanges.

The mammaliferous deposit at Grays has been described in
Loudon's 'Mag. Nat. Hist.' for 1836, as also that at Copford
by Mr. Brown, and at Stutton by Mr. Wood, in the same
work for 1834.

Fossil bones are found off the coast of Walton and Har-
wich ; and on the Kentish side are constantly being dredged
up at Hearne Bay : they occur also in the same county along
the valleys of the Stour and Medway.*

The mineral character of the deposit at the various locali-
ties, especially where containing shells, is very similar. The
bones, though dispersed through the whole, are more nume-
rous in the bed of sand, which is either interstratified with,
or underlies the brick-earth. This bed of sand is also of con-
stant occurrence in other places yielding brick-earth along the
valley where mammalian remains have not yet been noticed.

* Magazine of Natural History,' vol. ix. page 593.

containing Mammalian Remains.

543

Fossil tooth of Bear, from Grays.

<^ «. era i

H

^

CD $5

71 tf'

CD ^

* *

* #

Brentford.

*

*

*

Wickham.

* *

*

* *

Ilford.

• ♦

* * * *

*

* *

Erith.

*

* *

*

* * *.

Grays.

*

*

*

Whitstable.

— o

Copford.

* *

*

Stutton.

* * *

* * *

Harwich.

* *

Gravesend.

*

Nine Elms.

*

Lewisham.

*

*

* *

Kingsland.

544 Deposits in the Valley of the Thames

A List of Shells occurring in the Mammaliferous Deposits.
E. Erith. G. Grays. C. Copford. S. Stutton. I. Ilford.

Bivalve.

Bulimus lubricus. S.

Cyrena trigonula. I. E. G. S.
Cyclas obliqua. S.

Limax S.

Lymnea auricularia. S. I.

cornea. S. G.

pereger. S. C. I.

pusilla. S.

fossaria. S.

Pisidium amnica. I. E. G. S.

palustris. S. G.

Anodon cygneus. G. S. E.

Planorbis carinatus. S. E. G.

Unio pictorum. G. S. I.

corneus. I. S. E.

(new species?) Erith. Jig. 27.

vortex. S. E.

Univalve.

contortus. S.

Succinea amphibia. G. S.
oblonga. I.

imbricatus. S.

nitidus. S.

Helix hortensis. I. S. G.

Paludina impura. S. G. E. I.

lucida. S.

?G.

fusca. S.

Valvata cristata. S.

rufescens. G. S.

piscinalis. S. C.

paludosa. S.

antiqua, ? G. ^r. 26.

hispida. E. S. G. I.

Ancylus lacustris. S.

trochiformis. S.

Jluviatilis. S. G.

Carychium minimum. S. E. G.

Crustacea.

Pupa marginata. S. E. G.

Cypris S.

sexdentata. S.

Having in the preceding observations pointed out the lo-
calities, and described the mineral character of the mammal-
iferous stratum, it may be interesting to enquire into its com-
parative age, and the circumstances under which it was de-
posited. The remains, as before stated, belong chiefly to the
Ruminanlia and Carnivora, the former of which occur abun-
dantly, but the latter are rather sparingly distributed. The
bones are seldom much rolled or broken, but are generally
well preserved, and frequently perfect ; some indeed appear
to have undergone partial decomposition, but this might have
been occasioned by exposure to the atmosphere, previously
to their becoming imbedded. With these remains are asso-
ciated about thirty-eight species of terrestrial and fluviatile
Testacea, all of which, with the exception of two species, are
still in existence; and the extinction of these two is probably
confined to this country, as one of them {Cyrena) appears to
be closely allied to a species now living in the Nile, and the
other (Unio) strikingly resembles one which inhabits the ri-
vers of the south of France.*

The living genera of some of the Mammalia are now only
found in or near the tropical regions ; but as their remains
are presumed to have belonged to extinct species, and being

*See observations by Mr. G. B. Sowerby.

containing Mammalian Remains. 545

accompanied by others which still inhabit the temperate zones,
together with the evidence afforded by the Testacea, it is more
reasonable to conclude that those species, from a peculiarity
of constitution,* were enabled to endure a climate not widely
differing from the present, than to infer that these latitudes
formerly possessed a higher temperature.

It may not be irrelevant to remark, that in these deposits
we find scarcely any trace of vegetable remains 5 and yet it is
clear that vegetation was profusely abundant, if we reflect
that the Carnivora must have been supported by numerous
liuminantia, which, from the uninjured state of their remains,
there is every reason to conclude pastured in the valleys where
they and their destroyers now lie entombed.

Professor Philips, in his ' Treatise on Geology,' p. 298, has
the following passage. — " From the occurrence of the bones
of land Mammalia among some of the diluvial gravel and
clays, that the track of the watery currents was, in places at
least, over the solid land ; though it seems not necessary to
imagine that the ossiferous accumulations in question, (Brands-
burton gravel hills, Overton near York, Harwich, Ilford in
Essex, Brentford, &c), were heaped upon the land. They
might be finally aggregated in the sea ; and thus the seem-
ingly contradictory evidence of marine shells and quadruped-
al bones, in the same set of deposits, be reconciled." Now
in the. two last localities the bones are associated with fresh-
water shells, and I have mentioned this error from a convic-
tion that these remains are more constant and abundant in
ancient fluviatile and lacustrine than in marine or diluvial ac-
cumulations, though it cannot be doubted that marine depo-
sits co-existed.

The general occurrence of these fluviatile alluviums along
the courses and margins of our present rivers, would lead us
to infer that not much alteration has been effected in the phy-
sical features of the country since their deposition, although
subsequently denuded and modified by existing streams ; for
at Erith they occur about 40 feet above the Thames, and at
Maidstone more than 60 feet above the Medway.

•"Numerous circumstances, quite independent of osseous structure,
might have caused animals of the same species to inhabit widely different
climates : we must therefore proceed with the greatest caution, in speaking
of the peculiarities of species which formerly existed, when we have no
other circumstances to guide us than the mere structure of the skeleton."
'On the Wisdom and Goodness of God as displayed in the Animal Crea-
tion,' by C. M. Burnett, 1838. See also remarks by Dr. Fleming on ani-
mals of a near resemblance in form and structure, not having a similar ge-
ographical distribution. « Edinb. New Phil. Journ.' 1829, No. 12, p. 282 :
and Lyell, 'Geol.' vol. i. p. 146.

546 Deposits in the Valley of the Thames

Are then our gravel beds anterior or posterior to these flu-
viatile alluviums ? Or is the mammaliferous stratum overly-
ing the crag a marine deposition of the same period ? The
bones found at Whitstable being dredged from the bed of the
sea, it is impossible to know whether they belong to an an-
cient fluviatile or to a marine deposit, which extended along
this coast, as well as the opposite one of Norfolk and Suffolk,
where mammalian remains are even more abundant. The
connexion of these deposits with the ancient beds of gravel,
is a subject requiring further elucidation, and I would beg to
call the attention of geologists to some valuable observations
by Croizet and Iobert* on similar fluviatile strata in the Au-
vergne district, which had been referred to diluvial action,
and from whose work the following passage is quoted as bear-
ing on the question.

" On a souvent, en effet, attribue aux eaux marines des ef-
fets qu'elles n'ont jamais produits. Lorsq'on a rencontre des
masses alluviales de plusieurs centaines de metres d'epais-
seur, on a cru que des eaux d'une elevation immense avaient
seules performer ces depots ; on n'a pas meme songe a re-
chercher si une partie du sol etait alors a decouvert, ou si la
matiere avait son origine et sa source dans le lieu meme ou
elle s'etait deposee, et la science ainsi detournee de sa veri-
table route, s'est perdue dans les systemes."

Kensington, August, 1838.

Comparison of Cyrena, Valvata, and Unio, found at Grays, with
recent Species. By G. B. Sowerby, Esq., F.L.S., &c.

Cyrena.^

The nearest recent species known to me is one which
abounds in the canal of Alexandria. The recent one is rather
thinner and more perfectly equilateral than the fossil. The
anterior side of the fossil is comparatively shorter than the
same side of the recent species ; and the posterior extremity
is more truncated in the recent than in the fossil. All the
teeth are larger and more prominent, and the fulcrum to
which the ligament is attached, is smaller in the fossil than
in the recent. The curve at the anterior part of the anterior

* ' Recherches sur les Ossem. Foss. du Dept. du Puy de Dome,' 1828,
p. 35, et p. 90-97.

t Several figures of this very interesting shell are given in the * Magazine
of Natural History,' vol. vii. page 275. — Ed.

containing Mammalian Remains.

547

elongated lateral tooth in the right valve of the recent, is
much more strongly marked than in the fossil, and there is
a corresponding difference in the anterior lateral tooth of the
left valves. Several other marks of difference are to be
observed in the forms of the hinge teeth.

Valvata.

Fossil Valvata from Grays, Essex ; magnified.

It appears that two recent species are commonly con-
founded under the name of Valvata piscinalis. This fossil
differs from both in several particulars which I have pointed
out in the following table, in which I have designated the
fossil species as No. 1, the larger recent species as No. 2,
and the smaller recent species as No. 3.

COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE THREE VALVATM.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

Length

0.34

0.24

0.14

Breadth

0.26

0.24

0.16

Sutures

deep

deep

much less deep

Volutions

gradually increasing

regularly rounded

gradually increasg

rounded below,

5 in number.

4i in number.

6 in number.

Umbilicus

small

large

small

Unio.

The recent Unio, which approaches most nearly to this
fossil, is the Unio littoralis of Draparnaud, which I have re-
ceived from Auvergne. The approximation is certainly very
close, nevertheless there are a few points of difference, which
I will proceed to notice. In the first place, the posterior
extremity is much more aslope in the U littoralis than in
the fossil ; then the anterior muscular impression is wider,
the lateral teeth are shorter, and the cardinal teeth are more
prominent in the recent than in the fossil shell. The form
and direction of the cardinal teeth and of the anterior slope
are also different ; the above are the most obvious marks of
difference that are at present observable ; it should, however,

Vol. II.— No. 22. h. s.

3 H

548

Researches in Fossil Zoology.

be remembered that the state of the fossil (though very good
for a Unio) is such as to render it impossible to institute a
comparison in all points.

Valves of fossil Unio from Grays.

Art. V. — Recent Researches in Fossil Zoology. By Hermann
Von Meyer.*

Under the name of Palinurus Sueri, Desmarest mentions a
crab, which I find to constitute a peculiar genus : this I have
called Pemphia, and upon it I intend to publish a detailed
description. This genus, two species of which are already
known to me, viz., Pern. Sueri and Pern. Alberti, has hither-
to belonged to the muschelkalk. My Pern. Alberti has only
been found in the dolomitic marl of the muschelkalk, near
Horgen, in the Black Forest, and is very rare ; whilst Pern.
Sueri, of which I have examined more than a hundred spe-
cimens, chiefly found in Suabia, is principally abundant in
the upper division of the muschelkalk formation, or chalk of
Fredericshall. In other parts they are more scarce, and in
some they have not been found at all in the muschelkalk of
this age. I know also of this species in the dolomitic marl

* The English is that of Dr. I. Lenau, who, in conjunction with Count
Munster and Hermann Von Meyer, is about to publish an extensive work
on fossils, to which the present article has reference. Not having the ori-
ginal German manuscript to consult, we have been unable to correct some
passages, the exact meaning of which is not clearly apparent. — Ed.

Researches in Fossil Zoology. 549

of the lower division of the muschelkalk, near Durlach, in the
Grand Duchy of Baden, where it lies immediately upon the
variegated sandstone, [bunter sandstein]. The muschelkalk
has produced only this single species of the Macroura ; but
this formation likewise encloses Crustacea of the division of
the Entomostraca, viz., the genus Limulus, of which Count
Munster found a species, Lim. prisons, near Baireuth, and I
examined another species in the dolomitic muschelkalk near
Kottweil, which I intend to make known under the name of
Lim. agnotus. These petrifactions are great rarities.

I am convinced, by the collections at Strasbourg, that
the Macroura are older than the muschelkalk. I found in
them crabs from the variegated sandstone of Souly-les-Bains,
among which, one has some similarity to Galathea, and the
other to Gebia ; to these I shall give the names of Galathea
audax and Gebia obscura. My Erion Hackmanni from the
environs of Goppingen, a splendid specimen of which I have
described in 'Act. Acad. Cur. Leop. Carol. Nat. Cur.' xviii.
p. 263, tt. 11, 12, more usually occurs in lias; it has been
found in the lias of Banz and the Ahorn valley, (Maple val-
ley), near Rabenstein, and it is said to exist in the lias of
Lyme Regis. The genus Erion is oftener embedded in Sol-
lenhofer slate, but then it appears in other forms. Besides
those already known, I have described a new species under
the name of Er. Schuberti, and have further ascertained the
existence of another, which is of a much larger size than Er.
Hackmanni, and this I have named Er. Rhemani.

In the different structures of the Jura formation, or the
oolitic range, a certain genus of Macroura, viz., my genus
Glyphea, presents an extraordinary appearance. It is rich
in species. The lias of Suabia has only two, viz., Glyphea
grandis, the largest known to me, and a smaller species. —
The others, arranged by me, are Gly. Reglegani, ventrosa,
and Munsteria, from the ground at Chailles, in the depart-
ment of the Haute-Saone, in France. Glyphea Dressieri from
the ground at Chailles, near Besan§on, and from the coral
reef near Derneberg, [Hanover]. Glyphea pustulosa from
the Bradford clay near Buxweiler, and the coral reef near
Heldersheim ; and Glyphea Mandelslohi, from the Oxford
clay, from Ravenstein, Thurnan, and Mossingen.

I have also discovered another genus of fossil crabs, but
have not yet been able to ascertain if it belongs to the Ma-
croura or to the Brachyura. I have named it Prosophon, and
am acquainted with three species ; one, the Pro. simplex, is
embedded in the Scyphian limestone belonging to the lower
coral reef near Streitberg ; the second species, Pro. helies, is

3h2

550 Researches in Fossil Zoology.

found in the lower oolite of Caene, department of the Mo-
selle ; and the third, from a formation at Boucherons, in the
Jura department, respecting which it could not be decided
whether it belong to the Jura formation, or to the chalk, or
to a creta-jurassic formation.

From the upper keuper, in the environs of Neuremberg, I
have examined a nearly complete set of bones of the extre-
mities, and the vertebra, of a new gigantic saurian : I have
named it Plateosaurus. These bones are furnished with a
marrow-tube, now filled with carbonate of lime, and beauti-
ful crystals of hydro -oxide of iron, * * similar to some
which Phillips has examined, from the environs of Bristol. —
The origin of these small and pretty crystals in the hermeti-
cally closed marrow-tubes of the Reteosaurus is very remark-
able.

I made an interesting discovery in the fragment of a tooth
of the Mastodonsaurus, taken from the alum slate near Geil-
dorf. The substance is not homogeneous, but consists only
of strong curved lamellae, from the different substances of the
teeth, presenting a curious appearance when examined with
a magnifier on the surface of the fracture. I have moreover
examined teeth of the Mastodonsaurus from the keuper sand-
stone near Wurzburg and Gotha, as well as from the mus-
chelkalk.

The fossil remains of the muschelkalk, considered by Cu-
vier to be those of Plesiosaurus and Chelonia gigantea, do
not belong to either of these genera. They really belong to
the saurians which are partly formed after the type of the
Plesiosaurus, from the great number of vertebra of which the
neck consists.

The muschelkalk generally produces a great number of
saurians ; descriptions of which, in conjunction with Count
Munster, I intend to undertake and publish. The greater
part of the material for this heavy task, is chiefly drawn from
the extensive collections of the Count, formed during many
years, principally from the Nithosaurus and Dracosaurus of
the muschelkalk, near Baireuth, as well as from specimens in
the collection of the Provincial Institution of that town. In
the latter collection are a nearly complete vertebra and a skull
of the Nothosaurus, and a lower jaw of the same animal. —
But we do not intend to confine ourselves merely to the fos-
sil bones of the muschelkalk, of the environs of Baireuth ; we
shall, on the contrary, endeavour to include in our examina-
tions all the fossil bones which have been found in the mus-
chelkalk of other localities, besides the remains of such clay
and dolomitic marl of the Thuringian muschelkalk as are re-

Researches in Fossil Zoology. 551

markable for the small size of their saurians. From these I
have already described the fragments of a skull of my Condri-
osaurus elevatus, [Museum Senkenberg, I. s. 8, t. i. Jig. 3, 4]
of this Saurus minor I have likewise seen the lower jaw-bone.
There have also been found in these marls of the muschel-
kalk near Guerfurt, and near Esperstat, remains of another
Saurus minor, with tolerably strong teeth ; these I shall de-
scribe as Charitosaurus Ischidii. From the variegated sand-
stone of Souly-les-Bains, I have seen fragments of larger and
smaller saurians, which seem to be nearly related to those of
the muschelkalk.

In a short time will appear, by the Count Munster and
myself, some sheets entitled " Supplement to the Knowledge
of Petrifactions," fifteen plates of which are already engraved.

This supplement, in which I have only undertaken to de-
scribe the vertebrata [Wirbel-thiere] , contains the new spe-
cies of fossil animals. I describe the saurians as distinct
from those called Plesioraurus Goldfusii, and they are illus-
trated from the lithographic slate of Daiting ; in addition are
also a large and smaller turtle from the same formations as
that of Solenhofen and Kehlheim, the structure of which is
very interesting : for instance the vertebral plates [Wirbel-
platten] of the turtle minor are small in a very remarkable
degree, and differ among themselves, some are even wanting;
and it also appears they have a peculiarity in their feet.
Since I have been occupied in examining the turtles from
the turf moors near Frankfort and Durheim, Mus. Senk. ii.
s. 47, and that I have commenced restoring parts of their
plastron [Panger-theile], I am able to show very distinctly
which situations those isolated bone-plates have occupied,
and by this means I have found it possible to bring into
order and fix very distinctly the situation of the bone-plates,
nay, even to arrange fragments of fossil turtles. Nevertheless
it requires great caution in generalizing, as any remarkable
deviation which single individuals show ought to be con-
sidered very carefully. For example, I find the skeleton of
an Emys may often possess in certain parts the type of
Testudo, and to such a degree that if these parts only
were to be found as fossils, the most learned and skilful
osteologist would not be able to tell whether the animals to
which they belonged were Emys or Testudo, nay, he might
probably decide for the latter, whilst the ground of such
decisions would be simply individual variation, and not even
a specific character. From this, and other individual ap-
pearances in the form and number of the single plates of the
shell (mail) of the turtle, which we acknowledge in Natural

552 Researches in Fossil Zoology.

History as the basis of species or genera, which also prove
the mistake of those arguments, founded on analogy, of which
Cuvier could have had no idea, when he insisted on deciding
the species itself from a small fragment, I have given a se-
ries of examples in my before-mentioned description of the
turtles from the turf moors. During my journey in Swit-
zerland, last June [1837], all the fossil bones from the ter-
tiary formation of Switzerland, with some others from an
older deposit, were opened to my examinations, and all re-
quisite information was afforded me. I found amongst the
various specimens a kind of slate, which incloses several fish
and Chelonia Knorri. This kind of slate, which appears in
the Plattenberg [Canton Glacis], is now determined to be
limestone. Of these kind of turtles there exists only one
representation in Andrews' ' Letters on Switzerland.' Upon
this old figure rests the examination of Cuvier, and he gives
a copy of it in his 'Oss. Foss.' I have now made a new draw-
ing of this rare petrifaction, and have well examined the
original itself. During my examination of the celebrated
collection of Lavater at Zurich, I fortunately discovered in
some plates [platten] of the Senhofer slate, several fragments
of the Pterodactylus, which have not been noticed until
now, although they certainly must have been long since in
the collection. They consist of two plates, one containing
the elongated digit, the other the humerus with the radius
and the ulna. This finger differs so much from all those
hitherto known of Pterodactylus, that it must be the remains
of a new species, and which I shall describe more exactly
as Pterodactylus Lavateri. This species resembles in size
the Pter. crassirostris, or Pter. medius.

The observations about the construction of the Pterodac-
tylus are quite new. I allude to the following which I made
on the remains of the Pterodactylus Macronyx in the lias
from' the environs of Baireuth, viz. that certain bones are not
only hollow, but that they also have air holes [Luftlcecher]
in which they bear a great resemblance to certain bones of
birds. I found likewise confirmed the truth of my conjec-
tures respecting the fragments of the jaw bones in the same
lias, and in the lias of Baney, that those teeth which Buck-
land [Geolog. Trans, iii. 2. s. 27, p. 3.] supposed to belong
to Pterodactylus Macronyx are not from this animal. In
the rich collection of fossil bones which M. Hugi, of Solo-
than, has collected from the Portland stone of the Jura, I
found no bones of birds. All those which were considered
as the remains of birds, are the bones of Pterodactylus.
Some of the remains supposed to have been found in the

On the Muscle in the Eyes of Fishes. 553

Portland stone of the said country, belong, without doubt,
to Mammalia, and partly to the species only known in the
tertiary formation. Still it remains to be shown that these
remains of Mammalia have really been found in the solid
banks of the Portland stone. Nevertheless, the nature of
the masses which surround these remains, and the place in
which they are situated, seem to prove that these Mammalia
have been probably surrounded later by the dissolved Port-
land stone. We find in the Portland stone of the Jura moun-
tains of Switzerland, and in some other places in Germany,
especially in the Kahlenberg, teeth of a blunted conical form,
dense and striped, belonging to the saurian which I designate
Machino Saurius Hugii, it is characteristic of the said for-
mations.

(To be Continued.)

Art. VI. — Reply to Mr. Dalrymple " On an undescribed Muscle in
the Eyes of Fishes." By Dr. W. C. Wallace, Oculist.

In the ' Magazine of Natural History ' for March last, Mr.
Dalrymple states that some years ago he observed a small
grey-coloured body attached to the lens of a pike, and that
"the preparations then made were exhibited to some young
American gentlemen attending the practice of the Moorfields
Ophthalmic Hospital."

As an account of a similar body had been published in
6 Silliman's Journal,' Mr. Dalrymple further states, — " From
the circumstance of my not being being aware of being per-
sonally acquainted with Mr. Wallace, / cannot help suspect-
ing that he is one of the Americans to whom the observations
made by me were imparted at the Ophthalmic Hospital some
years ago."

I am not an American, therefore the gentlemen thus round-
ly accused are fully exculpated. As there was nothing on
the subject in Mr. Dalrymple's book, a copy of my paper was
forwarded to him soon after his publication appeared. If dis-
posed to deviate so far from candour and courtesy as he has
done, I might say, with far more plausibility, / cannot help
suspecting that he is one of those to whom the observations
made by me were imparted through the medium of i Silli-
man's Journal ' in 1834, and now published as his own in
the 'Magazine of Natural History' in 1838.

In my paper I gave the following quotation, translated
from Cuvier. " In a great number of fishes there is a falci-

554 On the Muscle in the Eyes of Fishes.

form ligament, which passes through a slit in the retina, and
penetrates the vitreous humour. It contains blood-vessels
and nerves, and is attached to the capsule of the crystalline
at its inferior surface, sometimes by a simple elevation, or by
a fold a little more opaque ; at other times by means of a
grain or tubercle, transparent, and harder than the vitreous
humour in which it is placed." " Jurin has named this the
ganglion of the crystalline." Porterfield states that some
have asserted there is a distinct instrument in fishes for regu-
lating the focus of the lens, though he gives no credit to the
assertion.

I admit that my publication was premature, and that it
contains several inaccuracies which I shall endeavour to cor-
rect in another edition of my ' Treatise on the Eye.'

On the western shores of the Atlantic there are many fishes
uncommon on the coast of Europe. In some of these the
muscle is so large that there cannot be a doubt of its charac-
ter ; while in others it is so small, that unless exhibited on a
larger scale its function might seem uncertain. Its position
and attachments ; its absence when there are other instru-
ments for acting on the lens ; and the origin of its nerve ; are
all in favour of the opinion which I advanced.

As when the crystalline lens is a sphere, and of course for
the reflection of light presenting a medium of the same extent
and density whichever way it be turned, more instruments
than one for the regulation of its focus would be superfluous;
so when the lens is greater than a sphere, as in the cuttle-
fish, or less than a sphere, as in the porpoise, the shark, and
in animals which live in air, the relative extent of the passage
of light through the denser medium would be changed if act-
ed upon only at one point, and the rays would not be brought
to & focus. Accordingly we find that when the lens is greater
or less than a sphere, there are from sixty to eighty instru-
ments arranged round its circumference, and attached to the
capsule. These instruments, (the ciliary processes), are fine
membranes, very vascular, and surrounded by muscular fibres.
The arteries which supply them pass to the ciliary body at
the equator of the eye, and send off a branch to each mem-
brane. When the returning veins are compressed by the
muscular fibres, the processes become extended, and the lens
is drawn forward. To the action of the single muscle there
seems to be no other opposing force than the elasticity of the
fine membranes of the vitreous humour : . in like manner the
elasticity of the membranes adhering to the posterior surface
of the lens, draw it back when the muscular fibres surround-
ing the processes are relaxed. During the paralysing effects

A few words on Mr. Ogilby s Remarks. 555

of Belladonna there is difficulty in distinguishing near ob-
jects; while, as has been observed by Professor Tully of New-
haven, aged persons can do without their spectacles during
the operation of strychnine.

I have demonstrated the way in which the eye is adjusted
to distances in different animals, to many gentlemen of the
highest rank in the profession, and there was no difference of
opinion about the structure and uses of the various parts of
the organ. An attentive examination is all that is required
to make the adjustment of the eye as plain as any other truth
in physiology.

New York, 3rd August, 1838.

Art. VII. — A few words of explanation in reference to Mr. Ogilbys
Letter at p. 492. By H. E. Strickland, Esq.

Mr. Ogilby' s remarks in the last No. of this Magazine, com-
pel me, much against my inclination, to say a few " more last
words" on this exhausted subject. In the first place I must
express my regret if anything I have written has given pain
to Mr. Ogilby, for whom I have the greatest respect, and whom
I never had the slightest wish to offend. Indeed so far am
I from intending it in this instance, that I cannot yet perceive
any just cause of offence in the passage which he has quoted.
All that I said was, " I believe I am correct in stating that
Erxleben does apply the term Simla to the orang outangs."
This, which I stated on belief, Mr. Ogilby admits to be the
fact, and yet he terms it a " flat contradiction " of his own
assertions. All this misconception arises from my having
inadvertently used the restricted term orang outangs, instead
of the more general one apes or tailless Quadrumana. All
that I intended to assert, and which I still maintain, is that
the term Simia of Erxleben is, on the whole, equivalent to
the term Pithecus of Ogilby, and ought, therefore, on the
ground of priority, to supersede it. It is true that Mr. Ogil-
by in his last letter makes mention of the genera Troglodytes
and Hylobates, as forming part of Erxleben's genus, but it
will be seen that in his arrangement of the Cheiropoda, vol.
i., n. s., p. 525, as well as in the ' Penny Cyclopaedia/ article
Ape, he includes them in his genus Pithecus. Therefore to
state the case algebraically, let Simia, Erx., ==#; Pithecus,
Og., ==P; Pithecus, Geoff. =p ; Troglodytes, =t ; Hyloba-
tes, =h. Then,

Vol. II.— No. 22. n. s. 3 i

556 First Excursion of the

but S = p -f t + A,*

therefore S = P. Q. E. D.

This is the same conclusion as that at which I arrived in
my former communications, nor, if Erxleben's work had been
at hand when I wrote them, should I have arrived at any
other. Having therefore, as I trust, vindicated myself from
the charge of a fallacious memory, and from the far greater
one of a want of courtesy to Mr. Ogilby, I once more bid
adieu to the subject.

P.S. If zoologists decide upon retaining the chimpanzee as
a distinct genus, the generic term Troglodytes must be can-
celled, having been long appropriated to a genus of birds. —
Perhaps, therefore, the best way of making peace between
contending parties will be to retain the term Pithecus, Geoff,
for the orangs proper, and to bestow the term Simla on the
chimpanzee, calling it Simla troglodytes.

Cracombe, Evesham,

Sept. 10th, 1838.

Art. VIII. — Details of the First Excursion made this Summer by
the Members of the Botanical Society of London : with Observa-
tions on varieties of Plants. By Daniel Cooper, Esq., A.L.S.,
Curator to the Society, f

The first excursion made by the members of this Society was
to a spot situated about twenty-five miles from London, call-
ed Woking. This spot was chosen on account of the easy
access by the London and Southampton railway. Upon
alighting at the station at Woking Common, and proceeding
to the right of the carriage-road leading to Guildford, on to
the common, great abundance of JJlex nanus, Car ex GEderi,
Alra caryophyllea and Air a pr<ecox were observed. One of
the party discovered a single specimen of Teesdalla nudi-

* I make no scruple in leaving m (Macacus inuus) out of this equation,
because it does not even agree with Erxleben's definition, " cauda nulla, "
as it possesses a small caudal tubercle, besides having the general structure
of Macacus. Therefore we must suppose that Erxleben classed it as a Si-
mla, either through imperfect knowledge of the animal, or from having no
better genus provided for it, — an arrangement which could not be defend-
ed at the present day. The mere removal of this species cannot therefore
affect the integrity of the rest of Erxleben's genus Simla, as the true equi-
valent to Pithecus, Ogilb.

fRead before the Society August the 3rd, 1838.

Botanical Society of London. 557

caulis, which appeared to be very scarce in this locality, as
no other specimen was noticed by any other individual.

Passing beneath the archway of the railroad, (the railroad
dividing the common into two parts), and turning a short dis-
tance to the left, on the borders of small water-courses Ly-
copodium clavatum and Lye. Selago are to be sparingly found ;
the latter species being exceedingly unfrequent in the neigh-
bourhood of London, never having before met with it. It
would be as well to state that it was not in fructification, while
the other species, Lye. clavatum, was in excellent condition.
I do not see any reason why Lycopodium inundatum, which
is so plentiful on Wimbledon and other commons around
London, should not be found on Woking Common, as the
subsoil and situation are very similar.

In the opposite direction, towards the small wooden bridge
that crosses the canal, a large sandy plot of ground will be
observed, abounding in Littorella lacustris, Hypericum elo-
des, Anagallis tenella, Helosciadium inundatum, Carex stel-
lulata, C. jlava, C. (Ederi, Juncus uliginosus var, bulbosus,
Juncus bufonius, Eleocharis palustris and caspitosa, Ranun-
culus Flammula var. reptans, and Scirpus fluitans. In dry
sandy ground Blechnum boreale. On the slopes of the canal
near the wooden bridge, Ervum hirsutum, and the variety <3
of Luzula campestris, called Luz. congesta, from the flowers
being capitate, and the capitidi being collected into an orbi-
cular sessile head. This is the Luciola congesta of ' English
Botany,' plate 2718. In the canal Myriophyllum spicatum,
Ranunculus aquatilis and Potamogeton densum were observ-
ed. I have no doubt that in the months of July and August
this locality offers an extensive field for the practical botanist.

I must not however leave this locality without noticing a
variety of the Calluna vulgaris altogether new to me, although
mentioned by the older writers to occur occasionally on the
heaths and commons in various parts of the country: — I al-
lude to the & Erica vulgaris of Gerarde, 1380, and mentioned
in Ray's ' Synopsis Stirpium Britannicarum,' p. 471, as fol-
lows.—

'f Myricee folio hirsute, Carolus Bauhin, 485. Myricae folio to-
mentosis et incanis foliis Clusii, Johannes Bauhin, 1, 355. Vulgaris
hirsutior, Parkinson, 1480. Common rough-leaved heath. Cum pri-
ore, a qua certe non puto specie differe, (Doodio vero Synopsis ed. 2,
Appendix, 345), di versa fuit visa, propterea prsecipue quia per totum
ericetuin Bagshot ut et Redkill, per 6 aut 8 milliarum iter, vix alia
occurrat Erica. Eaque Chamajcyparissum canitie semuletur."

3 i 2

558 Excursion of the Botanical Society:

Again, in Ray's 'Catalogus Plantarum Angliae,' 2nd edn.,
published in 1677, he further adds : —

" Locis incultis supra Windesoram invenit Clusius. Quin et pas-
sim occurrit non minus frequens quam vulgaris glabra, a qua, nostra
sententia, non differt specifie, cum ei prater hirsutiem per omnia simi-
lis sit : nam glabra quoque alibi elatior est, alibi humilior et nunc di-
lutiore nunc saturatiore, ac proinde notse illse Clusii nihil valent."

Smith, in his ' English Flora,' vol. ii, p. 225, mentions the
Erica vulgaris hirsuta, Ray's Synopsis ; Erica ciliaris, Hud-
son, ed. 1, 144, not of Linnaeus.

From these observations of the older botanists it appears
that the variety Calluna vulgaris hirsuta, or as they term it,
Erica vulgaris hirsuta, was known to them ; and from the
description given in the two works of Ray, corresponds ex-
actly to the variety in question. But although this variety
is mentioned as far back as the year 1677, yet it has not found
a place in any of the recently published Floras. In Macgil-
levray's edition of Withering's Botany, published in 1833,
there is no mention of it. Dr. Macreight, in his ' Manual of
British Botany,' published in 1837, does not notice it. Nor
does Dr. Lindley, in his c Synopsis of the British Flora.' Dr.
Hooker, however, in his ' British Flora,' 3rd ed., p. 181, men-
tions var. jS, Smith, as being hairy, and states that it is the
Erica ciliaris of Hudson, not of Linnaeus. This extreme
degree of hairiness is, I think, a sufficient character to war-
rant its introduction into the other British Floras, as the
Calluna vulgaris, var. @, hirsuta, (Gerard e).

Proceeding by the carriage-road to Guildford, Littorella
lacustris was also observed on the right, in low marshy spots
by the wayside, near to the village of Stoke ; together with
Hottonia palustris, in a ditch by the road. Between Stoke
and Merrow, shortly after leaving the former place, on the left
is a barren piece of land, upon which was found Trigonella
ornithopodio'ides ; and on the right, a large marshy plot of
ground, covered to the extent of two acres or more with Lit-
torella lacustris, both in and out of the water.

Taking the path to the left, which leads to a large park,
through which passes the river Wey, Cardamine hirsuta,
Ervum hirsutum, and Erv. tetraspermum were observed. —
In the meadows one specimen of Orchis Morio was found,
with delicate fawn-coloured flowers, a state in which I had
never before observed that plant. There were numerous spe-
cimens in the ordinary state, but only one with the fawn-co-
loured flowers. I cannot find this variety mentioned in any

New Works on Bees. 559

of our British Floras ; I therefore conclude that it is exceed-
ingly rare, as it would undoubtedly be recorded, if it were
only for its extremely delicate colour. Numbers of the Or-
chis mascula were also found interspersed with it, as was al-
so a white variety of Ajuga reptans.

The only remaining plant to be noticed is the Hyoscyamus
niger, three specimens of which were found nearer to Guild-
ford.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. — The Honey Bee, its Natural History, Physiology, and Ma-
nagement. By Edward Bevan, M.D. London : Van Voorst.
1838. Small 8vo., pp. 447, with many woodcuts. [Second Edn].

2. The Bee-Keeper s Manual ; or Practical Hints on the Manage-
ment and complete Preservation of the Honey Bee, and in particu-
lar in Collateral Hives. By Henry Taylor. London: Groom-
bridge. 1838. 12mo., pp. 78, with woodcuts.

3. A Short and Simple Letier to Cottagers, from a Conservative Bee-
Keeper, Sm 8vo., pp. 24.

The honey bee, {Apis mellifica, Linn.), both in respect to its
extraordinary economy and instincts, and to the various plans
which have been suggested for the more successful cultiva-
tion of the insect, is an almost endless subject for the pro-
fessed entomologist and the practical bee-keeper. The won-
ders of the hive have attracted the notice of the most philo-
sophical naturalists, who have nevertheless left many intricate
points in the natural history of the insect, unascertained. —
The anatomist has investigated its structure, and the practical
apiarian has endeavoured, in a variety of ways, to effect the
very desirable end of obtaining the honey without destroying
the insects. The two works last mentioned at the head of
this article are of the latter kind, while the first is a complete
summary of our knowledge of the honey bee in all its bearings.
Dr. Bevan's work, the first edition of which appeared seve-
ral years ago, and which we are now happy to welcome in a
second and improved edition, appears to us to be by far the
best summary of bee-knowledge in our language. It is writ-
ten in a straightforward style, destitute of that would-be phi-
losophy and aiming at effect, which spoils so many good
works. It has likewise the advantage of being well arranged,
and is furnished with an ample index. In the present edi-
tion Dr. Bevan has received the assistance of several distin-

560 New Works on Bees.

guished entomologists and eminent apiarians, and has embo-
died in his work much valuable matter which has appeared
since the publication of the former edition.

In treating of the various individuals of which a hive is
composed, we could have wished to see a further investiga-
tion into the nature of those individuals which are called cap-
tains and black bees. In like manner it would be very in-
teresting to ascertain the peculiarities attendant upon the
relative developement of the two kinds of workers, namely,
the nursery bees and the wax workers. Every bee keeper is
aware of the difference of these latter individuals, first pointed
out by Huber, and very recently confirmed, as regards the
humble bees, by Mr. Newport. In speaking of the develope-
ment of the queen bee, Dr. Bevan says, — " the most incom-
prehensible part of the process is that increasing the size and
changing the direction of the cells, and feeding the larva with
a more pungent food, should not only allow the sexual organs
of the insect to be fully developed, but should alter the shape
of her tongue, her jaws, and her sting, deprive her of the pow-
er of secreting wax, and obliterate the baskets which, but for
the changes just referred to, would have been formed upon
her thighs." Now it appears to us that this is not the "most
incomprehensible part of the process;" the queen bee is nor-
mally a perfectly developed female ; — the various queens pro-
duced in a hive are also normally perfect. The neuters, on
the other hand, are normally imperfect ; it is essential for the
well being of the hive, that their sexual instincts should be
obliterated ; the hive could not exist were not this the case.
Now we affirm that the most incomprehensible part of the
process is, that in a community consisting of 52,001 indivi-
duals, (viz., 1 queen, 2,000 drones, and 50,000 workers), the
surprising number of 50,000 of the inhabitants are reared up
in a state of imperfection. Fed with a different kind of food,
their structure is modified and their instincts completely al-
tered. Now the knowledge we possess of the power which
the bees enjoy of effecting this alteration, leads us to conjec-
ture that they also possess a power of still further modifying
the nature of the neuter bees themselves, so as to produce the
different kinds of neuters mentioned above. We throw out
this hint to the philosophical observer of the economy of the
hive.

In the anatomical part of the work we find the descriptions
of the various parts of the mouth much simplified ; but the
paragraphs in p. 297 appear to have been disarranged, for
after describing the lower lip and maxillae, which, when in

New Works on Bees. 561

action, conjointly constitute the bee's tongue as it is termed,
there follows the description of the mandible, after which is
a passage referring to " this compound and truly wonderful
apparatus," meaning the tongue, trunk, or proboscis, inde-
pendent of the mandibles.

We must not omit to notice the admirable taste in which
the Dedication to the Queen is penned ; one passage will
show its style. " The queen bee of every bee community has
been destined to fill her high station from a very early age,
(not always from her birth) ; she has the most diligent atten-
tion bestowed upon her, to qualify her for the important func-
tions which she has to perform : and she is, at all times, se-
dulously guarded from those hazards to which it is the lot of
bees more humbly born and educated to be exposed. In all
these particulars, I presume that a perfect analogy with your
Majesty may be drawn."

Mr. Taylor's little work is written for the amateur bee-keep-
er ; for although the principles it inculcates upon the humane
or depriving system, are applicable to every hive, yet the cot-
tager, we fear, will never be able to follow them out in prac-
tice. The elegant pavilion represented, with ground plans
&c, is well adapted for a suburban garden, where everything
is kept in trim order, but the greater number of bee-growers
will, we fear, stick to the old plan of wicker hives, because
they are old fashioned, and, what is of more consequence, be-
cause they are cheaper than the " improved collateral venti-
lating hives." Upon this subject, however, Mr. Taylor says,
— " perhaps the hives in common use in most parts of this
country, are the worst adapted to their wants and habits, and
seldom last longer than three years, even when they are not
sooner consigned to the brimstone pit of destruction. These
are of straw, without any provision for enlargement and ven-
tilation, and are altogether anything but ornamental to a neat
garden." Thus if the cottager could but be induced to adopt
the wooden ventilating hives, he would be a gainer in the end.

Mr. Taylor judiciously gives us directions for the manage-
ment of the hive in each season of the year.

Without going to the length of an author who tells us of
a bee-master who always saw the ghosts of the bees the night
after he had burned them, the cottager should be instructed
by line upon line, and precept upon precept, that he can ob-
tain much more honey without killing the bees ; and it is on
this account that we approve of the two-penny tract, being
the third on our list, printed for distribution by the Ashmo-
lean Natural History Society, and understood to be from the
pen of Mr. Cotton, of Christ Church ; one of whose maxims

562 Insects mentioned in Shakspeare.

is, never kill a bee ; and who recommends the stupifying the
bees by burnt puff-ball, when it is necessary to make any
alteration in the hive.

Art. IT. — Letters on the Natural History of the Insects mentioned
in Shakspeare s Plays ; with Incidental Notices of the Entomolo-
gy of Ireland. By Robert Patterson, Treasurer of the Natural
History Society of Belfast. London: Orr and Co.; 1838; pp. 270.
12mo., with woodcuts.

There are, we believe, some worshippers of our great bard,
who conceive that because a number of passages occur in his
plays having a legal turn of expression, he must have been
brought up in an attorney's office. But the naturalist finds
just as ample proof of a long study of nature in the pages of
the bard of Avon ; so that this line of argument only tends to
prove that his was a mind of the keenest observation ; thus,
whilst Milton and the other poets had strung together in their
descriptions the blossoms of spring and the flowers of sum-
mer, Shakspeare has placed in one group those only which
may be found in bloom at the same time. On carefully pe-
rusing the plays of Shakspeare, the number of passages found
by Mr. Patterson relating to natural objects, occupied "one
hundred closely written pages of letter paper." From these
he has selected those relating to insects, and has contrived to
form them into a very pleasing little volume, which will be
sure of a welcome, not only from the lovers of Shakspeare,
who will find many obscure passages elucidated by the natu-
ral history of the insects, but also from the entomologist, who
will be happy to see the objects of his pursuits in such a de-
lightful garb. The manner in which the various passages are
treated is very agreeable ; and from the number of illustra-
tions, some of which, (Queen Mab's triumph for instance), are
very elegant, we should surmise that this will become a po-
pular work. There are numerous original notices interspersed,
one of which we have quoted below, as it bears upon the sub-
ject of one of Dr. Weissenborn's late papers communicated
to this Magazine.

" On the site where the new wing of the Royal Academical Institution
[of Belfast] now stands, my friend, the Rev. H. Montgomery, LL.D., was
in the habit of raising a few culinary vegetables. In the spring of 1830,
he sowed, at the usual period, a considerable quantity of parsley seed ; it
yielded no return. The ground was raked over again, and fresh seed sown,
but with no better success. Between March and August the operation was
repeated four times, the ground being twice dug over, but not a leaf ap-

Useful and Injurious Insects. 563

peared. The next year the same piece of ground was planted with peas
and cabbages, but no parsley showed itself. Early in the spring of the third
year, (1 832), and without any further labour or care, save that of digging to
prepare for another crop, the place was covered with one dense and luxuri-
ant mass of parsley, so thick and plentiful, that every seed which had lain
dormant for the preceding seasons, seemed to have been endued at once
with all the power requisite for a vigorous and fertile existence."

Art. III. — 1. Die Forst-Insecten oder Abbildung und Beschrcbung
§■<?. Forest-Insects, or Descriptions and Figures of the Species of
Insects whtch are obnoxious or beneficial to Forest Trees in Prus-
sia, fyc. By I. T. C. Ratzeburg. 1st part, Beetles. Berlin:
1837 ; 4to., pp. 202, with 21 plates.

2. Kort Underrattelse om Skandinariska Insekters, fyc. Account of
the various species of noxious and beneficial Insects found in Scan-
dinavia. By G. Dahlbom. Lund: 1837. 8vo. pp.340, 2 pi.

On several former occasions we have taken occasion to show
that the investigation of the species of obnoxious insects, in
their different states, is the only satisfactory means of arriv-
ing at any possible method of checking their ravages ; the
works of Kollar, Hammerschmidt and Audouing having been
cited to prove that this branch of Entomology was rapidly
gaining ground. The two works noticed above are further
evidences of the same fact. Dr. Ratzeburg's work is a valu-
able addition to our knowledge of the natural history of the
lignivorous Coleoptera, complete memoirs of the different spe-
cies being given, illustrated with beautiful figures, both of the
insects, larva, pupa, and details, and also of the modes of their
attack. The work is especially valuable as containing ac-
counts of the early states of such rare genera as Thanasimus,
Agrilus, Lymexylon, Hyleccetus, Apoderus, Anthribus, Apate,
Platypus, Colydium, Bostrichus, Capercomus, &c, as well as
monographs, beautifully illustrated by that able artist, Weber,
of the genera Tornicus, Bylargus, and other small Xylophaga.

The work of Dr. Dahlbom has the merit of being the first
book of the kind published in Sweden, and it has met with
the most nattering success, the whole impression having been
already sold, as we learn from a correspondent at Lund, our
own copy being, we believe, the only one which has arrived
in this country. The work comprises insects of all the orders,
a couple of pages being the ordinary space given to each spe-
cies. Tables are given of the species arranged according to
their noxious or beneficial qualities, and the nature of the in-
juries they commit, and the body of the work is arranged ac-
cording to the system of Latreille.

Vol. II.— No. 22. n. s. 3 k

564 lire's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, fyc.

Art. IV. — A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines: con-
taining a clear exposition of their principles and practice. By
Andrew Ure, M.D. Part 1. London : Longman & Co.

That the objects contemplated by the author in undertaking
the present publication are of a very important and compre-
hensive kind, may be judged from the following passage in
the Address. The Dictionary is, —

" In the first place, to instruct the manufacturer, metallurgist, and
tradesman, in the principles of their respective processes, so as to ren-
der them in reality the masters of their husiness, and to emancipate
them from a state of "bondage to operatives, too commonly the slaves of
blind prejudice and vicious routine;

" Secondly, to afford to merchants, brokers, drysalters, druggists and
officers of the revenue, characteristic descriptions of the commodities
which pass through their hands ;

" Thirdly, by exhibiting some of the finest developements of che-
mistry and physics, to lay open an excellent practical school to students
of those kindred sciences ;

"Fourthly, to teach capitalists, who may be desirous of placing their
funds in some productive bank of industry, to select j udiciously among
plausible claimants ;

" Fifthly, to make gentlemen of the law well acquainted with the na-
ture of those patent schemes which are so apt to become subjects of li-
tigation ;

" Sixthly, to present to legislators such a clear exposition of our sta-
ple manufactures as may prevent them from enacting laws which ob-
struct industry, or cherish one brauch of it to the injury of many others ;
and

" Lastly, to give the general reader, intent chiefly on intellectual cul-
tivation, a view of many of the noblest achievements of science, where
its "boundless resources have most ingeniously effected those grand
transformations of matter to which Great Britain owes her paramount
wealth, rank, and power, among the kingdoms."

Dr. Ure has been for a long period actively and laboriously
engaged in the prosecution of those departments of scientific
research, immediately connected with the various chemical
operations to which the products of our mines and manufac-
tures are in so many instances subjected ; and the right un-
derstanding of which, both as regards principle and practice,
is of such vital importance to the economist. There is a large
class of persons who will be glad to avail themselves of the
information here put together ; and so far as we are capable
of forming an opinion from a casual perusal of some portions
of the first part, the matter is well adapted for the attainment
of the ends contemplated by the author. The great deside-
ratum is to be sufficiently exact, and yet to compress the

Rymer*s Outline of the Animal Kingdom. 565

amount of matter within such limits as shall render the work
neither inconveniently bulky nor expensive ; but the difficul-
ty of effecting this must always more or less be felt in the ex-
ecution of comprehensive works, intended for practical pur-
poses.

The principal articles are Acetic Acid, Alcohol, Alum, An-
chor, Amber, Anthracite, Assay, and Beer.

In the account of Artesian Wells, the reader finds nothing
to give him an idea of the depth to which they have been sunk
by the process of boring, though the operation itself is fully
described ; nor is there a word said about the usual cost at-
tending this important means of obtaining water ; two points
which we think might have been noticed with advantage.

Art. V. — A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom. By Thomas
Rymer Jones, F.Z.S. Part 1. London : John Van Voorst. 1838.

As an accompaniment to the valuable series of works on spe-
cific branches of British Zoology now in the course of publi-
cation by Mr. Van Voorst, the present outline of the Animal
Kingdom by Professor Jones promises to be a most valuable
acquisition ; and its contents, we feel confident, will be made
very generally available by those students of Natural History
who, in directing their attention to the organic and animate
portion of creation, do not rest satisfied with the mere ac-
quirement of a familiarity with the subjects of some one or
more restricted departments of so comprehensive a science as
Zoology, but who would wish to gain some general insight
into the various types of organisation, existing throughout
the known animal world, and a knowledge of those principles
of systematic arrangement, which are based upon the careful
examination of the structure and functions peculiar to the re-
spective classes composing it.

The first number includes a brief sketch of the principles of
classification which will be adopted in the work, and the his-
tory of the sponges and polyps. The descriptive details are
given in the most accurate and careful manner ; there is an
absence of everything like hasty generalization ; while the
matter indicates the author's qualifications for the task he is
engaged upon, to be of a very high order. "We may also add
that the illustrations which accompany the letterpress, are
drawn and engraved in the most faithful and beautiful manner.

566 Zoological Gardens. — Echinorhynchus Acus.

Art. VI. — The Zoological Gardens. A Hand-Booh for Visitors. —

London: Robert Tyas. 1838.
This is a neat little volume, containing notices of all the more
important animals at the Menagerie in the Regent's Park, ac-
companied with illustrations on wood. The cuts are not ex-
ecuted in a very superior manner, but are sufficiently accu-
rate for the use of those who visit the gardens merely as a
place of popular exhibition.

The author states in his Preface, that " to the Synopsis of
the Society, and to the valuable work of Mr. Bennett, the sub-
secretary, he is especially indebted." As the work professes
to be a compilation, a few errors in the scientific details may
be readily excused ; but the blunders which the author com-
mits when speaking of the Society, are unpardonable. Visit-
ors are told that the Society's Museum is in Bruton Street, at
which place they can procure tickets of admission to the gar-
dens ; and the ground in the Regent's Park, occupied by the
latter, is stated to have been presented to the Society by Go-
vernment. Such erroneous statements in a person professing
to write for the instruction of others, are inexcusable, because
the means of procuring accurate information are so very ea-
sily accessible.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Mr. Swainson s Reply to his Reviewers. — We have received
a letter from Mr. Swainson, stating in reference to the remarks
in our last number, that he does not admit that any experienced
naturalist has, after adopting his quinary theory, abandoned
it ; and wishing to know if our pages were open to him to
reply to our own and our reviewer's observations. A discus-
sion which must necessarily be carried on by the editor, and
a reviewer writing anonymously, on the one side, and Mr.
Swainson on the other, would make the controversy such a
complicated business, that we have declined its renewal. — Ed.

[We regret that although we kept the press waiting as long as we possi-
bly could, Dr. Drummond's article on the Echinorynchus Acus was worked
off before we received his proof, containing the following addition, which
should have appeared in page 524. — Ed.']

Echinorhynchus Acus. — Tail obtuse, rounded, and fre-
quently tipped with a brown or orange -coloured solid oper-
culum, composed of foreign matter, probably mucus harden-
ed. In the male, a transparent globular vescicle is often seen
protruding obliquely, as is represented in Jig. 24, e, p. 516.
— J. L. Drummond. — Belfast, Sept. 23rd, 1838.

Arrangement of the Gulls. — Flight of Pigeons. 567

Mr. Eyton's Arrangement of the Gulls. — Having observed
in your valuable Magazine, of last month, some elaborate re-
marks on my 'Arrangement of the British Gulls,' by Mr. M'
Coy, I hope you will allow me the opportunity of stating that
I believe his manifold difficulties will be at once accounted
for, and an omission corrected, (to which I am obliged to him
for calling my attention), which I had certainly overlooked
in revision, by the insertion of " head coloured in the sum-
mer plumage," after the character at present given of Zema.
—T. C. Eyton. — Donnerville, Sept. llth, 1838.

Gypaetos barbatus. — Last week a specimen of the Gypaetos
barbatus of immense size was shot among the rocks of the
Stockhorn-mountain. Its height was more than 3 ft., and it
measured above 10 ft. from tip to tip. This is probably the
same individual which was observed in the months of May,
1837 and 1838, not far from St. Maurice in the Canton of
Wallis, where it had carried away two children, but succeeded
in escaping destruction ; its nest only being discovered,
during the absence of the old birds among the rocks of the
Dent du Midi, and its two young taken out of it. The latter
were then 6 or 7 weeks old, but measured 2 ft. in height, and
8 ft. from tip to tip. The first child which the bird destroyed
in 1837 was a girl 7 or 8 years old, who had been sent by her
parents to collect dry leaves. The child did not return, and
a few days after, her shoes, part of her clothes, and a few
eagle-feathers were found on a glade in the wood. This
year a child disappeared in the same neighbourhood, who
was gathering flowers near the outskirts of the wood. On
the spot where it had been seen last, there was found one of
its shoes and scraps of its stockings. The shoe of a child is
said to have been discovered in the aery on the Stockhorn.
On the supposition that this shoe had belonged to the child
last mentioned, the latter must have been carried through
the air a distance of 15 leagues over the mountains of the
Pays de Vaud, the Saanenland of Bern, and the Simmenthal.
—Thun, Aug. 16th. Communicated by Dr. Weissenborn.

Flight of Pigeons. — Towards the latter end of July thirty-
two male-pigeons brought to Dresden from the little town of
Herve, between Liege and Virviers, were let loose, after
having been marked with the arms of the magistrate. The
weather was fine, and they took their departure 5 minutes
after 6, A. M. They first flew towards the east, but soon
collecting themselves, took a westerly direction, and vanished
within a few seconds. Only two of them reached Herve.
The distance is 320 geographical miles (60 to a degree), the
mean quickness of their flight has been calculated at 860ft.
(390,000 to a degree) a minute. — Id.

568 Jealousy in a Dog. — Collecting Swallows' Nests.

Jealousy in a Dog. — A wood-dealer residing near Quai St.
Michael, Paris, had a fine English bnll-dog, which was a
great favourite of his wife, who used to caress the animal.
On the 10th of August last she was sitting not far from the
kennel caressing her child, which was five years old. The
dog became jealous of it, and at last so furious that he burst
his chain, rushed at the child, worried it, and did not quit
his hold, until he was killed with a knife. The child was so
severely hurt, that its life was despaired of. — Id.

New hot spring at Carlsbad. — The subterraneous hot
water of Carlsbad has found a new issue in the square of
that town. Two talented young chemists, Dr. Wolf, and
Mr. John Knewkowsky, have analyzed the water of this new
spring, and have found in it both bromine and iodine, the
presence of which elements in the waters of Carlsbad was
first discovered by Professor Pleisdel. — Id.

Hybernation of the Marmot. — Mr. Bonafont, of Geneva,
has made a few experiments with reference to the hyberna-
tion of the marmot. Having procured four specimens, he
exposed them suddenly to a temperature of — 10° cent. ; but
the impression was so strong and painful that they did not
fall asleep. The cold being diminished, three fell asleep,
whilst the fourth escaped. A fortnight after, a servant was
sent to fetch something from a deep cave, but was unable to
open the door. It was found necessary to break it, when
there was found behind it a high heap of rubbish. The
marmot had converted the cave into a sort of fortress ; it had
entered through an opening in the vault, and barricaded the
door with the earth it had dug up, as well as with mortar
which it had scraped from the wall. It was found asleep
in a corner, on a bed of soft straw, 8 — 10 inches thick, which
it had unrolled from more than twenty bottles. That its
repose might not be disturbed by the rats, it had erected
around its couch a double wall of fragments of bottles, which
the rats could not surmount. — Id.

Collecting the Nests of the Hirundo esculenta. — (Ex-
tracted from the letter of a German, dated Karambolang, on
the South coast of Java, 26th March, 1838.) " For the last
week our place has become very busy, as this is one of the
seasons when the nests of the swallows are collected, which
is repeated every 100 days. On these occasions we receive
the visit of a few civil officers, with numerous attendants,
from Pruworedjo, who give the necessary orders for the har-
vest and superintend it. Coolies must be furnished from the
neighbourhood for that dangerous task. The place where
the nests are found is about half a league distant from here.

Tlie Ixike of Arendsee. 569

There are a few rocky cliffs overhanging the sea where many-
thousands of the swallows have fixed their little nests, which,
unfortunately for the poor birds, are thought a delicacy.
To obtain them, bamboo scaffoldings are suspended from
the cliffs, but no caution can prevent the numerous accidents
which take place in the course of every harvest. The nests,
of which there are always two together, one above the other,
are scraped off without any consideration to what may be in
them. Thus a great many unfledged young perish, which,
if boiled, taste exactly like the nests. The collecting and
cleaning of the latter is performed within fourteen or twenty
days, whereupon all our guests leave us. The harvest is first
brought to Solo, because the emperor of Solo, our most
powerful vassal in Java, receives a certain proportion of the
value. The nests which are collected here belong to the
grey sort, the white one being found on the South coast of
Borneo. With reference to the constituent principles of
these nests, as well as to the circumstance, that, though they
are no doubt from the animal kingdom, they are very little
subject to putrefaction, the philosophers are not yet agreed.
In my opinion, the decomposition is arrested by the great
quantity of salt-petre on the surface of the rocks where the
swallows build, as well as by the sea-salt and spray with
which the nests are impregnated during their construction.
I have observed that different caverns which were formerly
constantly dripping with dissolved salt-petre, and where a
few of these birds used to build, have been forsaken by the
latter after salt-petre had ceased to form there, and that the
nests are fast crumbling off. This may also be the reason
why these birds construct their nests in such vast numbers
on a few particular cliffs, though there be numbers at hand,
quite similar to the former, but destitute of salt-petre. It is
not true, though many travellers have stated it to be the
case, that shooting in this neighbourhood is strictly forbidden,
for I use my gun very frequently without finding any oppo-
sition on the part of the authorities. But there exists a law
that no Chinese should approach Karambolang within six
paals (3 leagues) and the ferrymen near the mouth of the
river Lara, which joins the sea at this place, are strictly pro-
hibited to ferry over individuals belonging to that nation.
In the direction of the Banjumaas the sentinels of the Prad-
juriets have also the strictest orders not to let any Chinese
pass. This is, as far as I know, the only precaution taken
with reference to insuring the harvest of the nests." — Id.

Lake of Arendsee. — Near Arendsee, in the circle of Mag-
deburg, there is a remarkable lake of the considerable
extent of about a German square mile, or about eighteen

570 The Lake of Arendsee.

English square miles. It has been formed in a flat country,
within the historical times, probably by the superficial strata
sinking into an immense cavern excavated by subterraneous
currents of water. According to Aimonius, this event
appears to have taken place about a thousand years ago.
The lake was considered as unfathomable, and within the
memory of man it had never been frozen, the great depth of
its water preventing the latter to take a sufficiently low tem-
perature through that severity and duration of frost which
the winters of Northern Germany commonly present. Last
winter, however, this rare phenomenon did occur, long after
the greatest rivers had been covered with a solid crust ; and
after having spent its free caloric in large masses of vapour,
which for many days hovered over its surface and banks,
the morning of the 31st of January exhibited it all covered
with one smooth and polished plate of ice. The thickness
of the latter was nine inches, and in a few places not above
four or five inches. This was a convenient opportunity for
taking accurate measurements of the depth of the lake, and
it was then first ascertained that the opinion of its being
unfathomable is unfounded. The general depth does not
exceed 157 feet, only near the ruins of an old convent, at a
distance of 400 steps from the bank, it was found as deep as
1 6 1 feet, which may be taken for its greatest depth. Begin-
ning from the south bank, at a place where a large piece of
ground sunk in 1685, the depth increased within distances
of 400 steps each, at the following rate: 42 J feet, 87, 116,
137, 157.

Among the many remarkable phenomena presented by this
lake, the one, that it throws out yellow amber is, perhaps,
the most striking. This substance is only found on its
eastern bank, and the more violently the west winds blow,
the more yellow amber is there collected. The size of the
fragments does not, however, generally exceed that of a
French bean. As the whole tract from Magdeburg to the
Baltic Sea is pretty uniform, we may conclude that in one of
its strata it contains an almost continuous bed of yellow
amber, which on the shores of the Baltic is exposed in a
great part of its length, whereas near Arendsee it has been
accidentally opened by the sinking of the ground. Many
petrifactions of wood and other substances are likewise
thrown out. Innumerable fish, as eels, pike, tench,
perch, &c. inhabit its waters. The fishery is, however,
comparatively little productive, on account of the great
depth of the lake. Pikes of the enormous weight of 50lbs.,
and eels of 15 lbs. are not unfrequently caught. — Id.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

NOVEMBER, 1838.

Art. I. — Notices of Irish Entozoa. By James L. Drummond,
M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Belfast Institution, Pre-
sident of the Belfast Natural History Society, &c.

(Continued from page 424).

Tetrarhynchvs grossus.

" Tetr. capitis ovalis discreti-hothriis ohlongis profundis marginatis, cor-
pore depresso recto, apice papillari." — Rud.' Entoz. Syn. p. 129, t. ii.f. 9, 10.

On the 24th of June, 1838, 1 found a very perfect specimen
of this species adhering to the peritoneal coat of the rectum
of a salmon ; it was still living, and showed a little contrac-
tile motion. It lay loose in the abdominal cavity, its head
excepted, which was fixed to the intestine ; its caudal end
was directed forwards. It was two inches long ; and a quar-
ter of an inch broad at its greatest transverse diameter : its
colour white, except half an inch of the anterior end, which
was reddish, and seemed almost like a reflection of the outer
coat of the intestine to which the animal adhered. This part
was firm, and nearly cylindrical, the rest flatter, especially
towards the lower end, which terminated in a delicate pro-
cess of about a line in length. The inferior broadened part
was finely crenate at the edges, and had a sub-articulate ap-
pearance from numerous transverse stria, giving an imperfect
resemblance to the structure of a tape-worm. Two of the
proboscides were free, and the other two fixed in the intestine.
I have only met with this one specimen.

Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3l

572

Notices of Irish Eniozoa.

Rudolphi, in a vial sent him by Tilesius, containing a num-
ber of Vermes taken from fishes, found a single specimen of
this species, but could not ascertain from what fish it had
been taken. He observes, 'Synopsis,' p. 130,— "Hab. in
pisce maris Japonici ; an Squalo ? Tilesius misit, locum qua
invenerit oblitus ; " and as its proboscides were retracted, and
he had not then seen a Tetrarhynchus, he was much perplex-
ed concerning it. " Cum acciperem Tetrarhynchum nondum
videram, ut specimen hocce proboscidibus retractis diu me
vexaverit."— P. 448.

He describes the specimen alluded to as being flat and
thick ; margins straight, and obtuse ; sixteen lines long, of
which the head occupied four and a half; body posteriorly
three, and anteriorly, as also the head, two lines broad. —
Head oval, thicker than the body, with a solitary very narrow
or linear bothriwn, divided by a longitudinal raised line on
each side. Body somewhat narrower anteriorly, elongated,
obtuse behind, and terminating in a roundish papilla, rugose
on each surface.

My specimen, preserved in alcohol, agrees exactly with
this description, except that it is larger. The outline, {fig.
28, a) which was taken from the recent animal, gives a more

28

a, Tetrarhynchus grossus, na-
tural size.

by A portion of intestine, in
which two of the probosci-
des are buried, and there-
in fore invisible.

c, Part of the head magnifi-
ed.

d, Two of the proboscides.

e, Linear bothrium.

Tetrarhynchus grossus, Rud.
correct representation than Rudolphi's figures, which were
necessarily taken from a specimen contracted by immersion
in spirits.

Notices of Irish Entozoa.

573

Tetrarhynchus solidus.

Tetr. capite truncato, utrinque botlirio angusto, corpore antice magno-
pere incrassato, cauda obtusa rotundata. — J. L. D.

On the same day on which I found the last species {Tel.
grossus), I obtained from the peritoneal coat of another salmon
two specimens of a Tetrarhynchus which has not yet, I be-
lieve, been described.* The first of these was included in
the loose peritoneal web which connects the pyloric caeca to
each other, and the second was involved in the mesentery,
being also surrounded by a peritoneal covering. On the 25th
of July I found a third specimen in the mesentery of a salmon,
and since that a fourth, involved in the peritoneal coat of the
rectum of the same fish.

Description. — White, with a scarcely perceptible tinge of rose colour ;
length an inch and a quarter ; head truncated, with a linear bothrium a
line and a half long on each of the two flat surfaces, and with a raised
fleshy margin ; proboscides four, very distinct, cylindrical, rounded at the
ends, and armed with numerous transparent, rigid hooks ; body thick an-
teriorly, but contracting gradually to a little below the middle, from which
it continues of equal diameter to the tail end, which is slightly thickened,
rounded at the point and very obtuse.

29 ^Ev^/ik ^k&*r 7 a> Tetrarhynchus solid -

us, a straight speci-
men.
b, Ditto, a crooked spe-
cimen attached to a
portion of the rectum
of a salmon.
e, Part of the head
magnified.

d, The torn proboscides.

e, Bothrium, its edges
separated artificially
from each other in a
specimen preserved
in alcohol.

/, Front view of the
points of the probos-
cides.

Tetrarhynchus solidus. Drum.

The whole animal is cylindrical and sub-depressed. Two
of the specimens were nearly straight, (Jig. 29, «), the others
had each two very abrupt geniculate bends, [Jig. 29, b)9 and
so very firm was the substance of the worm that these could

* It is impossible, in a provincial town like Belfast, to have access to all
the books one could wish, especially to foreign works; but should I on any
occasion bring forward a species as new, and find afterwards that it had al-
ready been described, I will of course, at the earliest opportunity, rectify
the mistake.

3 l 2

574 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

not be straightened ; it is everywhere indeed remarkably solid
and unyielding, and hence the specific term which I have ap-
plied to it.

I preserved two specimens in alcohol, and dried the others
on a slip of glass. The former have retained their original
appearance and dimensions, and the latter are like horn, and
of about half their former thickness. The proboscides dried
white. None of the specimens, when found, showed any
symptoms of life ; and, excepting some obsolete transverse
striae on the narrow portion of the body, there was not the
least mark of articulation.

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS pUUCtatllS.

" Both, capite bothriisque marginalibus oblongis, collo nullo, articulis
corporis plani anterioribus elongatis, reliquis sub-quadratis." — Rud. ' Ent.
Synops.' p. 138.

Tcenia Scorpii, 'Zool. Dan.' vol. ii. p. 5. t. 44,/. 5 — 11.

Habitat intestines of the father lasher, Coitus Scorpius,
Gadus minutus, turbot, brill, Pleuronectes Boscii, Pleur. Pe-
gosa, sole, and Trigla Adriatica.

I have as yet detected this species only in the Cottus Scor-
pius and Cot. bubalis, the brill, or, as it is here named, the
brett, (Pleuronectes rhombus), and the turbot. lit is usually
found with its head and anterior part lodged in the pyloric
coeca, while the posterior end hangs free in the duodenum. —
It is very common in the Cottus Scorpius, and Cot. bubalis,
when they have acquired nearly their adult growth, but is
rare in younger specimens. I have found it largest in the
brett, exceeding even three feet in length and as many lines
in breadth ; in the Cottus I have found it two lines broad
and from twelve to eighteen inches long ; but in the turbot,
so far as my observation has as yet gone, it is seldom more
than a line broad, and varies in length from eight to eighteen
inches. But in this fish it is often exceedingly numerous,
and involved in a mucus almost as tough as birdlime. I have
preserved in alcohol, from one fish, fully two hundred speci-
mens ; and from another, a number considerably greater.

The description of this species, which was first discovered
by Liewenhoeck, has been so fully particularized by Miiller
and lludolphi, that little is left but to follow their statements.
According to the account given by the latter, this worm is
from one to two feet long, and from half a line to a line and
a half broad, white, the ovaries frequently blackish.

Head polymorphous, assuming various forms while living,
and not always the same when dead : generally oblong, and

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 575

often greatly elongated, compressed on each side, very nar-
row, truncated anteriorly, or terminated by a tumid margin,
projecting on each side ; at other times inversely conical, be-
ing very broad in front, and flattish above and below ; more
rarely sub-orbiculate, or ovate, acute anteriorly, carinated in
the centre, but otherwise flat on both sides. Fovea marginal,
oblong, or nearly obovate, and deep. Neck none. Body flat,
its margin crenate. Joints, those nearest the head for the
most part very long, very narrow, and nearly wedge-shaped ;
the posterior margin on each side a little prominent, but of-
ten, especially after the animal is dead, contracted, and ap-
pearing scarcely longer than the others. The joints next to
these shorter and gradually broader, the posterior joints near-
ly equal, mostly square, and for the most part broader than
long, and sometimes composed as it were of two or three amal-
gamated together. Ultimate joint obtuse.

A longitudinal line runs on each side through the larger ar-
ticulations, and in the space bounded by these the reproduc-
tive organs are placed, the joints on the dorsal surface exhi-
biting an orbicular, simple or double nodule, of a whitish,
brown, or blackish colour ; in like manner, on the ventral
surface, a simple or double, but less prominent nodule is pla-
ced, and which appears to be perforated ; and the body being
pellucid, a central but generally irregular line arises from the
presence of the nodules. The latter being open are continu-
ous with the ovaries, and are filled with moderately sized el-
liptical ova, which are often also effused around them.*

Rudolphi farther observes that this species, when recent,
is generally entirely white, but after being immersed for some
hours or a day or two in water, the ovaries of the larger arti-
culations become brown or blackish, which colour they after-
wards retain in spirits. This change he supposes to depend
on a certain state of the ovaries, as it does not take place in
every specimen. I have observed this change of colour much
more remarkable in specimens from the Cottus than in those
from the brill or turbot ; and as I have generally found the
Entozoon more developed in the former fish than in the two
latter, I would conjecture that the more mature the ova, the
more certainly would the change take place. I have seen
specimens originally almost quite white, exhibit on every pos-
terior joint, after lying a night in water, a spot of a line in di-
ameter, and as black as ink.

The frequent change of shape in the head adverted to above,
is caused by the efforts of the animal to move forwards. Tn

•Rudolphi, ' Entoz. Hist. Nat' vol. ii. part 2, pp. 51, 52.
3 l 3

576 Notices of Irish Eidozoa.

its native home the head is lodged in one of the pyloric cceca,
to the walls of which it adheres by using one or more of its
bothria as a sucker; and I have repeatedly seen it attach it-
self in this way to the bottom of a dish so firmly, that the an-
terior third of the body could be pulled out to the fineness of
a hair before it would let go its hold. When placed on a slip
of glass and examined in the microscope, it appears to me in
the first place to expand its lower fovea or bothrium on the
surface of the glass, so as to act as a sucker ; it then contracts
the head and cervical joints, by which the anterior part of
the body is drawn forward ; it then loosens its hold, pushes
out the head to its utmost extent, becomes fastened to the
glass as before, and again contracts or shortens the anterior
articulations, and by a continued repetition of this action it
advances forwards, longing, no doubt, for what it will never
reach, — a safe lodgement in its old habitation. Thus the
head assumes, in its various states of contraction, every in-
termediate form from long and linear, when it is fully stretch-
ed out, to broad and heart-shaped, when it is fully contracted.

From long and patient examination of this species in the
microscope, I am almost fully satisfied that it has four both-
ria, and not two only, as has been supposed. While the low-
er one has been expanded on the glass, and I was pretty cer-
tain of two lateral ones besides, I have seen the top of the
head to open almost from end to end, leaving a transparent
space in the middle, remaining thus for a considerable time,
or opening and shutting at short intervals, the edges of the
linear cavity being quite distinct, though when the opening
was closed no line or mark was perceptible, to indicate that
there could be anything of the kind.

This species, when taken from a fish not long out of wa-
ter, is often almost pellucid ; but placed in fresh water it
soon becomes very opaque and white, increases in breadth
and thickness, and soon appears to be dead. In the salt so-
lution mentioned in my last, it in a great measure retains its
pellucidity, and will continue alive forty-eight hours, or long-
er.* In the salt solution, too, it has a great tendency to twist
in spires, like a cork-screw, which I have observed also when
alive and vigorous in the intestinal mucus ; on this account,
when many are put together in the salt solution they get so
entangled that is very difficult to separate any one from the

* On Saturday, the 5th of August last, I placed a number of specimens
from a Cotlus bubalis, caught on the morning of the same day, in the salt
solution ; and on the following Wednesday, though very languid, they were
still living. Others placed at the same time in fresh water, were motion-
less and apparently dead in less than two hours.

Notices of Irish Entozoa.

577

rest. When the saline fluid is poured off, and fresh water
put in its place, they swell, and in a great measure get un-
twisted ; but if they have been very numerous, some will still
remain so ravelled that it will be found impossible to disen-
tangle them.

I have only farther to remark that notwithstanding the ap-
parent delicacy of this species, it is capable of bearing a great
strain before it will break ; but in it, and several other species,
we may remark that the posterior joints, when the ova are
fully developed, will separate almost by a touch, while the
rest of the animal will resist a force far beyond what we could
expect. As the seeds of a plant, when perfected, are easily
dispersed by any external agency, or by the mechanism of the
seed-vessel itself, so the joints of this and various other Ces-
toidea are ready to drop off when ripe, and being carried
abroad, their ova may be hatched into active life and being,
whenever they happen to be cast on a situation congenial to
their nature.

b, c, Head of Bo-
thriocephalus punc-
tatus, in various
forms.

A number of joints
amalgamated their
septa having disap-
peared.

Ova filled with gra-
nules.
The figures are all
magnified more or
less.

Bothriocephalus punctatus, Rud.
(To be continued).

Belfast, Sept. 24th, 1838.

3 l4

578 Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata.

Art. II. — On the Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiate Conchiferous
Animals. By Robert Garner, Esq. F.L.S.*

Whilst the study of Conchology, or of the differences of the
testaceous coverings of the molluscous classes, with a view to
their recognition, independently of all consideration of the
animals which inhabit them, has been cultivated with great
ardour, the anatomy of the soft parts or organs contained in
the shells, the study of their functions, and of the varieties of
form in the animal giving rise to the great diversity of the co-
verings, has been comparatively neglected. Thus in the la-
mellibranchiate Conchifera, the subjects of this paper, no
addition, with the exception of the partial labours of Cuvier,t
Bojanus,t Home,§ and Blainville,|| has been made to our
zootomical knowledge, since the publication of the great work
of Poli.H Whilst the shells of every locality, and of every
geological formation, are collected and studied, the inhabit-
ants of many of those of our own country are unknown : and
foreign shells are seldom brought hither in an unemptied state,
or, if so, are consigned unexamined to our museums. Hence
the errors seen in most conchological works, and the imper-
fect understanding we have of the remarkable forms of many
fossil shells. A minute attention to the differences of shells
is of the greatest importance, particularly in a geological
point of view ; but the organization of the soft parts is equally
interesting. The character of all the genera of recent shells
might, and should be mainly derived from internal structure.
From such considerations alone can they be well arranged.
There is an organization of the soft parts peculiar to each im-
portant difference of the calcareous envelope.

The class of Acephala — those Mollusca destitute of a head,
having the mouth situated in a more or less closed cavity,

* Communicated by the author. An abstract of this memoir has appear-
ed in the ' Transactions of the Zoological Society,' vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 87. — Ed.
f ' Le§ons d' Anatomie Comp.' and 'Regne Animal,' t. iii.
I' Journal de Physique,' t. lxxxix.
§'Phil. Transactions,' and 'Lect. on Comp. Anatomy.'
||' Manuel de Malacologie,' * Journ. de Physique,' t. lxxxix., and 'Annales
des Sciences Naturelles,' t. xiv.
U* Testacea utriusque Sicilise.' Of the older anatomists the following may
be mentioned. Dicquemare, on the oyster, 'Phil. Trans.' 1786; Heyde,
'Anatomia Mytuli, &c.' 1684 ; Lister, 'Exercit. Anat. tert.' and 'Anatomy
of the Scallop, Pectunculns, Oyster, Pholas, &c.' 1696; Mery, sur la Moule
&c. 'Acad, des Sciences,' 1710 ; Pinel, sur 1' Huitre, ' Bull. Soc. Phil.' No.
20 ; Poupart, sur les Bivalves, ' Mem. Acad. Sciences Par.' 1706 ; Reau-
mur, id. loc. 1710-11-17 ; Willis, ' De Anima Brutorum.'

Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata. 579

formed by the mantle, which also contains certain pectinated
organs for respiration, &c, being destitute of any distinction
of sex, — may be divided into such as have a calcareous shell
or valves* secreted by the mantle, (Conchifera) ; and others
which are surrounded by a membranous envelope, (Tunicata).f
The conchiferous or bivalve Acephala may be subdivided in-
to the Brachiopoda, in which the mantle has an upper and a
lower lobe or lamina, secreting a superior and an inferior
valve ; being destitute of any elastic cartilage to open the
shell ; the mouth situated under the upper lobe of the mantle,
and furnished with two muscular, extensile, pectinated arms;
the rectum opening laterally, and respiration effected by the
internal surface of the mantle ; — and into the Lamellibranchi-
ata, Blainv., in which the animal is compressed in a different
direction ; having two lateral lobes to the mantle, secreting a
right and a left valve ; having commonly an elastic interval -
vular cartilage ;X the mouth opening anteriorly at the junc-
tion of the lobes of the mantle ; the rectum in the opposite
direction ; and commonly furnished with four fixed, mem-
branous, pectinated tentacles at the mouth, and four others
for the purpose of respiration. To the anatomy of the latter
order the author trusts the following pages will not be an un-
acceptable addition.

The Anomia is a genus intermediate between the two or-
ders. The structure of it, in several respects, approaches that
of the Orbicula.^ In the latter, however, the apex of the
upper valve is nearly central, whilst, in the Anomia, it is mar-
ginal. || The Anomia has this valve destitute of the wider
portion of the former, between the apex and the margin. —
Were this part, and the corresponding portion of the mantle
supplied, the mouth would then be situated in the same po-
sition under the upper valve. Two of the ordinary tentacles
of the LamellibranchiatahsLvebecome exceedingly long, and
nearly free, also of a similar structure. There is under the

* The two pieces composing the shell are called valves.

f In some of the Tunicata there are calcareous pieces, though overlooked
by Savigny. They consist of two small, conical tubes, curiously reticulate
in their structure, situated one in each orifice of the cartilaginous tunic, and
projecting from it externally. The water &c. must pass through them. —
The author has found them in several British species. They are noticed by
Eysenhardt, « Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Cur.' vol. xii.

I The genus Myastropha of Gray has no cartilage, but a muscle in its
place : some of the Pholades, Teredines, &c. have no cartilage.

§ See the excellent paper ' On the Anatomy of the Brachyopoda of Cuvi-
er,' by Mr. Owen, 'Trans. Zool. Soc' 1833, to which the author is indebted
for the anatomy of the Orbicula.

|| In some species, however, not quite so, according to Turton.

580 Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata.

mouth a rudiment of the semilunar lip of the Orbicula. The
intestinal canal is equally short, much shorter than in any
other lamellibranchiate bivalve. The ovaries are ramified in
the same way in the mantle. In the Anemia, however, the
body is, as it were, awry, having a tendency to assume the or-
dinary position in the shells of the Lamellibranchiata ; the
mouth is oblique, and the intestine altered in direction, from
the same displacement. The left ventricle of the. Orbicula
is, in the Anomia, dragged to its fellow, forming a single
heart upon the intestine. The four bronchia of the Anomia,
and the two tentacles which are undeveloped, appear to go,
in the Orbicula, to form the four upper and two lower sets of
branchial vessels. The Anomia has the muscular foot of the
Orbicula, though little developed, the animal adhering not by
it, but by a calcareous operculum. The muscular system is
very different from that of the other Lamellibranchiata, though
it is in some respects analogous.

The fossil Spharulites were probably allied to the Anomia.
An acquaintance with the anatomy of some unknown living
animals, as Thecidea, Crania, Placuna, and of the different
species of Terebratula, Anomia, &c, would probably enable
us to form a more correct idea of many of the fossil Acephala,
so common in various strata.

In arranging the Lamellibranchiata, a prior division into
Monomyaria and JJimyaria, as was done by Lamarck, may
be made. The former have but one muscle to close the valves ;
the mantle unfurnished with separate orifices or tubes, and
open in its circumference, except on the dorsal side ; the
valves are commonly orbicular, or if lengthened, are so in the
vertical direction, and are often eared at the hinge ; there is
generally a degree of obliquity in the animal, and an irregula-
rity of the valves arising from a tendency to assume the position
which the brachyopodous animal has in its shell. Notwith-
standing this last circumstance, however, we can more cor-
rectly consider the valves as lateral, than as superior and in-
ferior ; though one, from its adherence to foreign bodies, may
be inferior when in the natural position. The most convex
valve is commonly the adherent one ; in the oyster this is the
left ; in the Spondylus, Pedum, &c, it is the right. The foot
in the Monomyaria is little developed, not being used for an
organ of movement. The Dimyaria have two adductor mus-
cles of the valves, an anterior one being added to that of the
Monomyaria ; the form of the valves is commonly more ho-
rizontally lengthened ; the shell is generally equivalve, and,
when at all unsymmetrical, is only so from the nature of the
hinge requiring a greater convexity of one valve than of the

Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata. 581

other ; the foot is developed into an organ of different forms
and functions ; the mantle commonly has orifices or tubes
for the inlet and exit of the water.

Some Lamellibranchiata, from their elongated form, may
be said to be allied to the Annelida. From the description
of M. Deshayes,* the animal of the Dentalium is intermedi-
ate in its position between the Teredo and the Serpulacece.
In some Pholades we see a tendency of the valves to separate
at the insertion of the siphons, and in the Teredo, &c, we
find two small anterior valves, encased in a long calcareous
tube. Of the Gastropoda, the Chiton and Patella come near-
est to the Lamellibranchiata in structure; the valves of the
former seem analogous to the dorsal lamina of the Pho-
lades, whilst the shell of the Patella, Emarginula, &c, ap-
pears to be formed of the two united valves of the ordinary
Lamellibranchiata.

The Brachiopoda seem to be most naturally placed between
the Lamellibranchiata and the Cirrhopoda ; and considera-
ble analogy seems to exist between the Rudista of Lamarck,
and some of the sessile cirrhopodous animals. t

The valves increase in size by the addition of new layers,
each secreted within the preceding one, and projecting be-
yond it. Their shape is determined solely by that of the man-
tle, which secretes them. Their degree of vertical convexity
commonly diminishes at the lower edge, or last-formed part
of a valve; however occasionally, as in some varieties of My-
tilus, the reverse takes place.

In the opposite direction, likewise, the valves present dif-
ferences in the degree of convexity. Thus an impression (lu-
nule) often exists anteriorly before the beaks ; and a similar
one is sometimes present behind them, {Jissure), supporting
two prominences, (nympha), to which the cartilage is com-
monly attached. The calcareous layers of the valves are
sometimes at a distance from each other ; in this case we oc-
casionally see a fluid interposed between the last of the lay-
ers ; and between the preceding ones masses of carbonate of
lime of an uncrystallized appearance are seen, which appear
to enter the cells by a transudation.! These internal layers
appear to be secreted by the corresponding central portion
of the lobes of the mantle. In some of the fossil genera, one
of the valves takes an elongated and multilocular form. The

* Blainville's Malacologie.
f Desmoulins, sur les Sphcerulites, Isis, 1829.
I In the Cardita concamerata, Sowerby describes a sort of cup in the in-
terior of each valve, which he supposes contains the ovaries. Do the inter-
nal processes of the Photos correspond to these ? ' Zool. Journ vol. ii.

582 Anatomy of the Lamellibranchiata.

particular form of a valve is not dependant on the greater or
less protrusion of the lamina at different points, or their great-
er or less distance from each other, or on their being depo-
sited at a greater or less angle with those preceding, but is the
same at all ages, depending upon the specific configuration
of the animal. We do, however, see slight differences of form
in the young and old animal. In the fry of the Cyclades for
instance, the valves are much flatter than in the mature state,
and the posterior extremity of young shells generally is little
developed : the openings of those shells which, in the mature
state, are naturally gaping, are often less apparent in the
young, from the imperfect developement of the foot, siphons,
&c, which protrude by them. In the Tridacna on the con-
trary, the opening of the shell becomes closed in the mature
animal.*

The valves differ infinitely in form in the different species.
Sometimes the valve is longest in the vertical direction, as
in Lima, Malleus, &c. ; sometimes of the greatest diameter
in the opposite horizontal direction, as in Solen. In the ge-
nus Solemya the greatest side of the valve is anterior to the
beaks, or commencing points of growth; whilst in others,
as in many Solenides, the valves are totally post-apical. —
When both sides of the same valve are equal, it is termed
equilateral ; when they are not perfectly alike it is inequila-
teral^ The beaks look towards the shortest side of the
valves ; thus they look forwards in Venus and backwards in
Donax. The figure and size of the foot influence most ma-
terially the form of the anterior part of the shell ; the con-
formation of the siphons that of the posterior part. Thus in
Donax the anterior part of the valves is large, to protect and
encase the voluminous foot. The orbicular species of Venus
have a broad securiform foot; the oval species have it oval or
lanceolate ; the cylindrically valved animals elongated or
club-shaped.

We see the same ridges, strife, laminae, spines, &c, in bi-
valves as in other shells, marking the greater activity at cer-
tain times of the mantle. % An important point in Conchology
is the beaks being remote or proximate. The former circum-

* Blainville.

f The reversion of the shell, so common in univalves, occasionally occurs
in bivalves. Gray, ' Zool. Journ.' vol. i.

% On examining- the surface of some shells with a lens, we notice fine
punctuations, as m the Pinna, Avicula, and certain Brachiopoda ; also fine
striee, as in many Tellina, where they are often oblique, and sometimes only
on one valve. In the Tel.fabula, Fleming says these are on the left valve;
in the Sussex specimens they are on the right.

Researches in Fossil Zoology. 583

stance can only happen when there is a giving way or erosion of
the cartilage, as by means of this structure the beaks are always
originally in connection. In lsocardia, for instance, we see
the beaks far separate, and the valves volute j* and it may
be seen that as the cartilage increases behind, it gives way
and becomes bifurcate before. The same spiral disposition
may be seen in the Chama, when the beak is nearly in the
centre of the valve ; and a still higher degree of remoteness
of the beaks is present in the fossil Diceras.

We cannot account for the form of some shells without ad-
mitting that the animal has the power of lessening them at
certain points ; thus, in the Anomia the process of the under
valve to which the cartilage is attached remaining always in
the same place, and the notch being at all ages nearly a com-
plete foramen, how can this opening be enlarged for the in-
sertion of the increasing operculum,, without the possession
of such a power by the animal ? This effect appears to be
produced by currents of water directed against the edge of the
valve by the valvular organs of the animal.
(To he continued).

Art. III. — Recent Researches in Fossil Zoology. By Hermann
Von Meyer.

( Continued from page 553).

In the grey chalk marl which underlies the yellow lime-
stone, near Neuf-Chatel, different vertebra [Wirbel] have
been found, and a large Saurus, which has been supposed to
be the Ichthyosaurus. Those vertebra which have a con-
cave surface belong neither to the Ichthyosaurus nor to the
Mososaurus :f the latter of which appears in the chalk for-
mation of the eastern and western world. My examination
of these is not yet finished.

In my investigation and determination of the formation of
the environs of Neufchatel, it was of very important service
to me that the assembly of the Naturalists' Society of Switzer-
land gave me a crab to examine which was found in the yel-
low limestone, and which I recognized as the Ascotus longi-
manus of De la Beche, from the greensand near Lyme. It
is therefore no longer doubtful that the yellow limestone of

* Sometimes, though rarely, the beaks of the two valves are volute in op-
posite directions, as in Inoceramus.

f We must again remind our readers, that we received this article trans-
lated from the author's own German MSS. by Dr. Lenau. — Ed.

584 Researches- in Fossil Zoology.

Neufchatel, with the green marl lying beneath it, belong to
the cretaceous group.

My examination of Vertebrata from the tertiary marl slate
of CEningen rests chiefly on the Chalydra Murckisomi, Bell,
and upon the rodent of the same formation. The remains of
the turtle in the Zurich collection afforded me a new idea
of these animals in general, and particularly of the mail-
bellied turtle, [Bauch panzer]. I have greatly reduced the
species of fossil rodents described as occurring at CEningen.
Three distinct species from this formation have always been
allowed. I had occasion to examine the remains upon which
these species are founded. I have determined that they be-
long to a single species only : this has been called by M. Ko-
nig, Anosma, which cannot be correct ; for as I tried to take
away the matrix that the fossil might be more distinctly seen,
I found some very small cutting teeth [Schneiderzahn] in the
upper jaw-bone; moreover, they cannot be those of Ancema,
from the number of the toes. This animal, on the contra-
ry, seems to be a kind of hare, similar to Lagomys : I shall
describe it as Lagomys (Eningensis ; it belongs to the few
and rare fossils of the CEningen slate, and of it I know several
specimens : there are at least three in the Zurich collection.
The best 1 have seen are preserved in Carlsruhe, of which I
have made drawings.

The tertiary deposits of Switzerland are richer in fossil
bones than I had expected. These occur in solid sandstone,
sand, clay, and pit coal, of the Molasse. The lithological
character of this great formation seems not to be without re-
ference to the importance of the animals ; and the structures
of one and the same nature appear to differ in this respect, —
their difference of situation.

Although I have not yet finished my examination, still I
am able to give some explanation of the manifold variety of
the fossils of the Swiss molassic formation, and to divide
them as follows. From the solid molasse-sand of Bollengen,
which is surrounded by pebbles of primitive rocks, was taken
half of the lower jaw-bone of a new Palacotherium, which I
shall describe as Pal. Ichingii. This animal is in size be-
tween Pal. magnum and medium, or crassum. From fine
molasse-sand near Buchberg, I examined the half of a most
interesting lower jaw-bone of a young Mastodon, in which it
may be seen that thefirst grinders had two, and the second and
third three rows ; the third grinder was still concealed in the
jaw, and was discovered by accident.

But the molasse sandstone from Stein on the Rhine, near
Schaffhausen is much richer. I examined from that locality

Researches in Fossil Zoology. 585

the last milk tooth from the left lower jaw of a ruminant,
scarcely the size of a roebuck ; and the structure of this
tooth differs very much from both the recent and extinct ru-
minating animals of the diluvial strata. This tooth is of the
same shape as of those ruminants which I have called alto-
gether Palacomeryx. The same sort of tooth T examined in
the Bohnerzablagerung of Mosskirch. In the molasse of
Stein were moreover found the tooth of a large Saurus ; the
seventh edge-plate of the mailed back turtle, [Ruckenpanzer];
the fourth rand-plate of the mailed belly turtle, [Bauchpan-
zer], resembling the type of the testudo-formed turtle; and
the femora of a bird resembling the domestic fowl.

From the finer molasse-sandstone at Seelmatte has been tak-
en the lower grinder, as it has hitherto been considered, of
the Palacother him, but it belongs to the Rhinoceros incisivus;
and from the brown coal [braunkohln] of Seehatten has been
produced a sharp edged tooth [Schneiderzahn], which indi-
cates a certain pachyderm. From the brown coal near Greit,
on the northern declivity of the Haute Rhone, near the vil-
lage of Meinzingen, only the remains of the Rhinoceros Gold-
fussii are known to me.

The layers of the pitch coal of Kapfnaden and Elgg are
very celebrated for the many fossil bones they contain. Near
Kapfnaden have been found the most numerous remains of
Mastodon angastidens, and also a rodent. From the upper
jaw of the Mastodon angustidens I examined the first grinder,
which has two indentations, and the fourth grinder has three ;
then in the lower jaw the fourth grinder has also three inden-
tations, to which a piece of the fifth grinder is attached. I
also examined the remains of the gnawing teeth of at least
fourteen individuals of the rodent, and ascertained the form
of the teeth in the upper and lower jaw-bones, as well as the
form of the lower jaw-bone itself. This animal comes very
near to the beaver, and I do not find it differs from those in
the layers of Eppersheim, known as Chalicomys Jagerii, from
the pitch coal of Kapfnach. This coal also contains three
genera of ruminating animals, which differ in the structure of
their teeth. One of these genera resembles very much our
living ruminating species ; another is like those designated
by me Palacomeryx ; and the third is quite new : I call it
Ozygotherium Escherii. Each of these three genera has six
grinders in the lower half of their jaw-bones.

The pit coal near Elgg contains quite different animals. —
A peculiar species of Mastodon is often found here, the Mas-
todon Luricense ; of which I examined the milk tooth of the
upper jaw, and the corresponding tooth of the first grinder,

586 Researches in Fossil Zoology.

which had two ridges ; as also the second, third, fifth, and
seventh grinders, all with three indentations [Reihig]. The
deciduous tooth in the upper jaw has not been deeply in-
dented, neither much curved, and only its exterior covered
with enamel. Some cutting teeth of the lower jaw have also
been found. In the pit coal of Elgg Rhinoceros incisivus is not
rare ; I examined some remains of different individuals, under
which were a quantity of skull-fragments with rows of grind-
ers. The assertion of Cuvier as to the appearance of the
Rhinoceros tichorhinus is amply refuted by this, as neither at
Elgg, nor in any other formation of pit coal, have I ever found
any remains of that animal, which belongs to the diluvium.

From Elgg is further taken a peculiar animal resembling a
pig, from which I have seen the teeth belonging to the upper
jaw. This animal must have been the size of my Hyotheri-
um, but is otherwise different from it. Half of the lower jaw
of a rodent belonging to the Palicomyx was also found. —
This must have been but half the size of the species buried
at Knapfden ; I have consequently named it Chalicomus mi-
nutus. I likewise found one in shape the type of the testu-
do-formed turtle, half of the back of the mailed belly turtle.

Near Aaran, and even under the houses of this town, fossil
bones have been discovered in the molasse ; these are in the
collection of the late M. Rengger, a geologist there. The re-
mains of two ruminating animals exist, one of them belongs
to Palocomyx, the other is similar in the structure of the teeth
to the living ruminating animals. By some other teeth we
might suppose there must have existed a larger pachyderm,
but these fragments are very imperfect. The most interest-
ing to me was the lower jaw of a small mammiferous ani-
mal, which might be placed, with respect to the structure of
its teeth, between the ruminating and pachydermatous ani-
mals, and I have named it Microtherium Rengen.

Turtles seem to be numerous in this molasse : I examined
from it fragments of the mailed back turtle, of a Tryonyx, and
other fragments from the back of the mailed belly one, of the
type of the Emys constructed turtle, which I call Emys Heis-
cheri. I have not determined in what class I shall place the
other.

In the collection of Berne are fossil bones from the molasse
of the different cantons of Switzerland ; to those from Rap-
penflich and Maggerwyl particular attention should be given.
From the molasse of Rappenflich near Aaberg I examined
the same remains of turtles with which M. Bourdet was for-
merly long occupied ; and from the same deposit were taken
bones of a ruminating animal, and the tooth of another, sup-

Researches in Fossil Zoology. 587

posed to be the Anoplotherium or Cheropotamus ; and the
fragments of a lower jaw-bone, which I determined by a draw-
ing of M. Meissner to be his peculiar species, Cheropotamus
Meissneri ; but I shall further examine this fossil.

The molasse sandstone of Maggenwyl near Lenzburg is
also very interesting ; the collection at Zurich contains some
teeth of the Rhinoceros incisivus.

Tn the collection of the Prince of Furstenberg at Donan-
schwingen, are preserved the fossil bones found in the tertiary
Bohnerz formation of Mosskirch. I am now occupied with
their examination. Rhinoceros incisivus, accompanied by the
larger Rhin. Goldfussii, and a smaller species, are very fre-
quent in it. The remains of the Mastodon angustidens, next
to those of the Rhinoceros, appear to be most numerous ; the
teeth also of the saurians seem to be frequent. There are
likewise different species of a kind of stag, the teeth of which
in their structure seem to agree with Palacomeryx, and one
among them similar to living ruminating animals. Further-
more there have been found the remains of an animal resem-
bling a pig, and two species of Dinotherium, one of which
resembles the Din. Bavaricum, the other of a genuiue tapir,
and Palecotfierium crassum.

Different carnivorous animals are also imbedded in the
Bohnerz. Those found in the tertiary formation offer many
peculiarities, and much that is new is confirmed by these re-
mains. From the new genus, which seems to be the largest
of all the known carnivorous animals taken from it ; by the
collection at Berne it is also seen that land Mammalia have
been buried in it, but it seems still that aquatic Mammalia
were more frequent. I saw moreover the right half of the
upper jaw of an animal which bears some comparison with
Manatus ; this will be explained by me under the name Ma-
nutus Studeri. In the Jura of Switzerland are also to be
found tertiary formations with bones in them. At the meet-
ing of the Professors of Natural History at Neufchatel, in
July, 1837, I was shown a tooth from the pit coal of Lock,
which is subordinate to the freshwater limestone, but is situ-
ated above the marine molasse ; this tooth I recognised as
the principal grinder of the Dinotherium giganteum.

I am also occupied with the fossil bones of the Bohnerz
formation, and the molasse of the Suabian Alps. At Professor
Fleischer's I saw a human tooth at Aaran, taken from the
Bohnerz ; it is the last grinder but one of the right side of the
lower jaw. Its condition, shape, and quality agree with those
teeth found at the same time, and which are all from extinct
genera, and belong to the tertiary period.

Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3 m

588 Researches in Fossil Zoology.

I examined the great canine [Reisszahn] of the upper jaw,
which indicates a remarkable transition from Felis to Hyena.
I call the animal Harpagodon maximus. Thin and long cor-
ner teeth indicate a smaller carnivorous animal. Beyond
the grinders some of them are very singular with respect to
their fangs [Kronen], which are formed in a carnivorous
shape, and the roots, from their swollen appearante, resem-
ble the teeth of a certain phoxen ; but in comparison with
them these fossil teeth are of an immense size.

Many undetermined bones have been found in it, which
seem to have been taken from the head of an enormous ani-
mal. On the surface are some furrows, similar to the impres-
sions of the mailed coat turtle [Scheldhroten Panzer], on
which are bound two shields of exterior covering, but it is not
known if the skulls of turtles have had such impressions of
their boundaries, [Grenzeindruhen]. If this bone have been
taken from a turtle, it would prove to be an animal of the same
size as those fossil remains discovered in the Sivvalix moun-
tains in India, called Megalochelys. These layers of Bohn-
erz and molasse of the Suabian Alps contain besides numer-
ous remains of fish, which indicate the tertiary formation. —
By the agreement of these fish and Mammalia, I came to
the result that the tertiary lime in the Rhenish basin near
Mayence, the tertiary sandstone and sand, to which belong
the very rich fossil formations of Eppelsheim and Flersheim,
and the Bohnerz and molasse formation in Suabia and Swit-
zerland, are only the different localities of a vast superficial
tertiary formation, which extends over a great part of the
European continent, and perhaps may also be met with in
other parts of the world, as in Asia and America, especially
in the basin of the Pampas.

The tertiary gypsum from Hohenhoven contained besides
the Testudo antiqua, the remains of a large and small rumi-
nating animal, as well as those of a large pachyderm.

I have illustrated these examinations by figures and copies
of the originals, by a certain method which, without injuring
the picturesque effect, represents the objects in such a manner
that we are able to measure them with the compass.

Descriptions of the Strepitores. 589

Art. IV. — Analytic Descriptions of the Groups of Birds composing
the Order Strepitores. By Edward Blyth, Esq.

No. 3. — Buceroides, or the Hornbill and Hoopoe Tribes.

For the first intimation of the particular affinity subsisting
between the hornbills and the hoopoes, I am indebted to my
friend Mr. Gould, who, judging from external structure and
habits alone, has long suspected these genera to be especially
allied. I arrived at the same conclusion, however, by a dif-
ferent train of investigation, and gradually, as I obtained some
knowledge of the leading details of their anatomy ; and have
since long hesitated with respect to the amount of their ap-
proximation, as to whether it would be more consistent to
regard them as distinct tribes, equivalent to the Cylindriros-
tres, Angulirostres, and Serratirostres respectively, into
which the Halcyoides are primarily distributed, or merely as
different families of the same tribe, analogous to the Todidce
(todies), and {xalbulidce (jacamars), which together compose
my tribal group Angulirostres. A recent opportunity of stu-
dying some living hoopoes has now decided me to adopt the
former course, and [ shall accordingly designate the insulated
genera in question Appendirostres (contracted from Appendi-
cirostres) and Arculirostres.

On inspecting the skeletons of these birds,* it is at once
apparent that they require separation from the Caniores ; and
the digestive and vocal organs indicate the propriety of ad-
mitting them among the series of groups which compose the
present order. The connected toes of the hornbills then tend
to approximate that genus to the other Syndactyli, one tribe
of which (the Cylindrirostres) both the hornbills and hoopoes
further resemble in the very short, heart-shaped form of the
tongue, while the beak is analogously much elongated ; and
also in a circumstance connected with the digestive function,
manifested by the peculiar fact of their nest-holes being ren-
dered exteriorly fetid and conspicuous by the accumulating
fodces of the young, — the liquid consistence of which (unen-
closed by a film) unfits it for removal by the parents, a par-
ticular which is likewise in accordance with the Raptores. —
The first plumage, also, of these birds (as in the Cylindriros-
tres) is similar in character to that of the adult ; and there is
every reason to believe, that, in the hornbills as in the hoo-

* There are specimens of both in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons.

3 m2

590 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

poes, it is in like manner not renewed till after the following
breeding season.

The sterna of the Buceroides (hornbills and hoopoes toge-
ther), however, differ from those of the Halcyoides in present-
ing but one pair of notches posteriorly ; the single emargina-
tion adverted to being slight in the Buceridae (or hornbills),
and much deeper in the Upupidce (or hoopoes) : and the con-
figuration of the entire sternal apparatus, in these two fami-
lies, though by no means closely similar, yet mutually ap-
proximates more than either does to that of any other group
of birds, or than is observable in the analogous instance of
the kingfishers and jacamars among the Haley oides. I have
examined the skeletons of six or seven species of Buceridae,
which has afforded an opportunity of remarking the rigid con-
stancy of form maintained by the sternum and its accessories,
and the importance, consequently, of the character which is
thence derivable, as a guide to sound classification.

Exteriorly, the Buceroides differ from the Halcyoides in
the absence of bright colouring, so prevalent among the lat-
ter, and in possessing only ten tail-feathers, whereas the others
have twelve ; their body-feathers have no accessory shaft. —
It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that all Insesso-
res (auct.) which have fewer than twelve caudal rectrices, pos-
sess the distinctive characters of my great ordinal group Stre-
pitores.

The Buceroides, finally, are confined in their distribution
to the eastern hemisphere. I shall now proceed to treat of
the two tribal families separately in detail.

I. — Appendirostres, (or with beaks furnished with an ap-
pendage). The strongly characterized group of hornbills
contains the largest species of Strejriiores : but the superior
dimensions of these birds are attained, as it were, in great
measure by inflation ; their skeletons being excessively light,
and more completely permeated by air than in any other birds
whatever, even than the gannets, — for the phalanges of the
toes are hollow to their extremities. Their formidable-look-
ing beak is in like manner chiefly so in appearance ; and may
be briefly described as of large size, thick, tapering, and much
arched, with originally serrated edges to the mandibles, that
become obliterated by use, which at the same time renders
them irregularly jagged after their primitive edge has disap-
peared : this organ is also mostly provided with an extraor-
dinary protuberance, of varied form and size in the different
species, which gradually appears and enlarges, as they ad-
vance in age, upon the ridge of the upper mandible, till in
some species it almost equals in dimesions the immense beak

in the Order Strepitores. 591

itself; in the young, when first hatched, no indication of it is
visible ; and in numerous species it fails to attain a conspi-
cuous magnitude at any age; excepting in one species, where-
in it acquires a medium size, and is quite solid, and conse-
quently very weighty, the internal structure of this prodigious
excrescence is extremely slight and reticulate, or in other
words hollow, and permeated by a fragile network of osseous
fibres, similar to what pervade the huge bills of the toucans :*
its purport has not hitherto been ascertained ; but, that it has
a use, would seem to be intimated by the presence of stout
eye-lashes, as if to protect the eyes from falling particles dis-
engaged by its agency in some particular employment. Now,
it may be remarked that eye-lashes are not of common occur-
rence in the class of birds ;f and the only additional Strepi-
tores which possess them are certain Cuculidce, one genus of
which, that of the ani (Crotophaga), presents likewise a ros-
tral protuberance, very similar to that of several of the small-
er hornbills. Observation alone will probably detect the pre-
cise object to which this structure is especially subservient:
and it will require somewhat nice and acute discrimination to
discover the intent of the various modifications of form which
the protuberance undergoes in different species.

It would be needless to describe further the outward con-
formation of these remarkable birds, with which every reader
is doubtless familiar. Their digestive organs are not widely
different from those of the toucans ; and probably resemble a
good deal those of the Serratirostres, or motmots : there being
a large gall-bladder present, which receptacle does not exist
in the toucan family. " The tongue," remarks Mr. Owen, " is
extremely short, of a triangular form, and smooth : and the
oesophagus, as in the toucans, is very wide, and of nearly
equal diameter as far as the gizzard. The gizzard is thicker
in its coats, and of a more elongated form, than in the toucan ;
its cuticular lining is very tough, and disposed in longitudi-
nal ridges. There are no coeca : and the intestines are ar-
ranged in long and narrow loops, as in the raven." Mr.
Owen further states that "the individual" (one of the common
Indian Buceros clavatus) " was observed to be more attached
to animal than vegetable food, and would quit any other sub-

* Beautiful sections of the hills of hoth the hornhills and toucans may
he seen in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and also in that
of comparative anatomy at Guy's Hospital.

f They are, in all cases, simply harhless feathers, which are developed
and annually moulted like other feathers ; and the same holds true of the
notorial and other vibrissa of hirds, as may he readily seen on examining
their condition in a nestling.

3 m3

592 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

stance if a dead mouse were offered to it. This it would
swallow entire, after squeezing it twice or thrice with the bill :
and no castings were noticed. Petiver, however, has borne
testimony to its regurgitating habits.1'* Le Vaillant was of
opinion that the hornbills are not naturally vegetable feeders,
even in part : and he remarks their deficiency of intelligence,
wherein they accord with the great majority of other Strepi-
tores.

But little can now be added to the excellent general de-
scription which Le Vaillant prefixed to his monograph of
this group of birds. They are undoubtedly very miscellane-
ous feeders, as regards animal nourishment ; and are rather
celebrated for their skill in discovering snakes, on the eggs of
which, as well as on birds' eggs, and even fish, they have been
described to feed : and it is said that on passing over a spot
where one of these reptiles has concealed itself, the hornbill
immediately begins digging, till it has uncovered it,t — most
probably assisting to burrow with its feet. They are known
likewise to prey on small mammalians, weakly birds, and in-
sects ; and do not hesitate to feed on carrion and garbage,
ranking among the numerous scavengers of the torrid regions
which they inhabit. Le Vaillant relates, of the small Cape
species, that he saw one day a flock of more than five hun-
dred of them, assembling with crows and vultures, preying on
the remains of slaughtered elephants : at other times, he says,
they are to be found in woods, perching on high withered
trees. The larger species are excessively wary birds, and
consequently very difficult of approach, which more than their
rarity has impeded the study of their economy : they all pre-
fer to sit on the exposed dead branches of trees, where their
vision can command a wide range, to those which are clad in
foliage. Their flight is steady, with little movement of the
wings, and is compared by Dr. Smith to that of a crow : and
on the ground they advance by a leaping mode of progres-
sion, assisted by the wings. They breed in the hollows of
decayed trees, and produce generally four rounded white eggs.

The geographic range of the hornbills extends along Asia
southward of the Himmalayas, the islands of the Indian
ocean, and Africa. There are none in Europe, nor in what
may be termed the European region of Asia ; though one if
not more exists on the southern slopes of the Himmalaya
mountains. They are likewise absent from Australia.

It is said that, on account of the shortness of the tongue,

*' Zoological Proceedings,' iii. p. 103.
f Stanley's ' Familiar History of Birds,' ii. 212.

in the Order Strepitores. 593

these birds are necessitated to throw up their food, and catch
it in the throat ; which is not improbable. The same, how-
ever, is asserted by Bechstein of the hoopoes, which I have
never seen do so : the latter generally transfer their food to
the throat by a jerk of the head, just as a godwit may be seen
to pick up barley. The habit of throwing up the food and
catching it in a favourable position for deglutition, is also more
or less observable in the rollers, toucans, the larger Tyranni-
dce,* the storks and some allied genera, and the cormorants,
gannets, tachypete, and probably all other Totipalmati of
Cuvier ; the whole of which have the tongue either extreme-
ly short, or of a form unfit to assist in turning the food back-
wards. The struthious birds, likewise, are analogously oblig-
ed to jerk the head, as stated of the godwits.

II. — Arculirostres (or with slightly arcuated bills) . The hoo-
poes present so many peculiar characters, that I have no he-
sitation in assigning them this tribal rank in the system : they
cannot be more nearly approximated to any other group. —
From the creepers, and all other Cantores, they are at once
widely separated by their anatomy, which, as before stated,
brings them conclusively within the pale of the Strepitores.
The sternum is narrow across, and emarginated somewhat as
in the Cantores, though less angularly ; but there is no fur-
ther resemblance whatever to the invariable conformation ob-
servable throughout that extensive order : the medial ridge of
this bone is considerably developed, and rounded anteriorly,
(differing much in form from that of the hornbills, wherein
this process is low, and comparatively angular) ; the costal
processes are not dilated as in the Cantores ; neither does
the manubrial process, to which the coracoid ligaments are
attached, protrude so as to assume that elongated, obliquely
truncate, bifurcate form, so constant in all those birds : again,
the perpendicular appendage to the furcula, found in all the
Cantores, is wanting in the hoopoes : their vocal organ is
simple ; " the stomach," according to Mr. Selby, " is a mem-
branous bag ; intestines of considerable diameter, but short, "
and doubtless without cwca : and finally the external charac-
ter of possessing only ten tail-feathers, as already noticed,
while every cantorial bird has twelve, — all combine to sepa-
rate this curious genus from the Certhiadce, Promeropidce,
&c, with which it has been associated by every preceding
systematist, and intimate its true position to be as here as-
signed, f

* Nuttall.
f I believe there is no eantorial bird which retains its nestling* clothing

3 m 4

594 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

They differ unexpectedly, however, from probably all other
Strepitores, in the curious particular of being as remarkable
for intelligence, as the latter are for obtuseness and deficien-
cy of intellect : indeed there are very few birds, throughout
the class, which will bear comparison with the hoopoes in
this respect. They are lively and energetic in their aspect
and manners, and run about with exactly the same gait as a
lark ; they likewise ascend steep surfaces, in the manner of a
woodpecker, which last-named group they resemble in ano-
ther particular, that of possessing the capability of striking
rapidly with the bill, — an action which I have several times
witnessed. Their bill is of peculiar form, — very long, slen-
der, a little incurved, unemarginate, and obtusely terminated;
interior of the mandibles flat, not even grooved ; the upper a
little exceeding the under one in length : gape wide, as in the
rest of the Syndactyli ; the tongue shaped as in the hornbills.
The feet are not syndactyle, any more than in the rollers ;
while they are typically so in several Cantores, as Eurylai-
mus, Calyptomena, Pipra : the outer and middle toes, how-
ever, are basally connected, as in all the Cantores ; being the
only instance of what I designate the cosnodactyle structure
occurring elsewhere than in that order. The foot of the hoo-
poe is indeed not very dissimilar from that of the lark ; but so
modified that the tarsal joint can be rested on when ascend-
ing a steep surface : it would appear, however, to be only mo-
derately adapted for clinging; as the middle claw has an
expanded inner edge, and all the front claws are but slightly
curved : but the strength and stoutness of that on the hinder
toe would seem to be calculated to render it an efficient prop
while the body can so lean forward as to preserve its balance.
I have seen a hoopoe creep, by successive springs, up the
wiry front of its cage with much facility. They pass their
time chiefly on the ground ; and Temminck remarks — " Elle
se pose plus rarement sur les arbres, ou cependant on le voit
suspendue aux branches, et se balancant pour saisir les in-
sectes qui s'attachent au dessous des feuilles, et ou le male
se pose ordinairement lorsqu' il fait entendre son chant lan-
gouroux : " on such occasions, he elevates and expands, from
time to time, his beautiful crest ; an action which is likewise
expressive of distrust, or rather of anger and defiance : in ge-

feathers till the second autumn, as is the case with the hoopoes. Mr. Yar-
rell, on the authority of Mr. Hoy, indeed states this of the common British
wood-wren; but I have specimens, with their primaries scarcely grown,
which prove the contrary.

in the Order Strepitores. 595

neral, or when unexcited, this large and conspicuous orna-
ment falls back closed, as in the sulphur-crested cockatoo.

On beholding" six of these birds, confined in a very roomy
cage, I was particularly struck with their vivacity, and quick
and expressive physiognomy : and a scene not a little amus-
ing was exhibited on holding to them a morsel of meat : in
a moment they all crowded eagerly to seize it, uttering a
wheezing cry, and following my hand with rapidity about the
cage; one or two of them sometimes clinging to the wires:
and when at Jength two or three pieces were given to them,
the scramble, although they could not have been very hungry,
and subsequent struggle for possession, was maintained with
a pertinacity that was truly surprising : two might be seen
tugging with might and main at the same morsel, till wearied
with repeated efforts they would give over for a while, still
retaining, however, their hold, to renew the contest after an
interval of rest ; and it was not unusual, on such occasions,
for a third individual, generally a smaller and weaker bird, to
quietly watch the issue of the contest, when it would endea-
vour to deprive the victor of its prize. Certainly, I never saw
birds struggle so vigorously before, nor pull with such deter-
mined force and energy, tumbling over not unfrequently from
the violence of their efforts.

Bechstein relates, of the European species, that (in Thu-
ringia) — "it may be continually seen in fields, searching for
its favourite insects among cow-dung and the droppings of
other animals. It remains, during summer, in woods near
meadows, and pasture land. In the middle of August, after
hay -harvest, it goes in flocks into the plains : it departs in
September, and does not return till the end of the following
April."

The flight of the hoopoe is undulatory, and capable of very
considerable protraction. The Bishop of Norwich relates,
that — " one approached a vessel in the middle of the Atlantic,
and kept company with it a good way, but did not settle on
board, which it would probably have done had it been tired."*
An individual occurred on one of the Scilly islands in Janu-
ary, during the winter before last.

It nestles by choice in the hollows of decayed trees, (like
the hornbill), and only when such situations cannot be ob-
tained, in the crevices of walls and rocks ; collecting a rude
nest, composed generally of dry cow- dung, mingled with fi-
brous roots and lined with any sort of soft material : the eggs
are from two to five in number, of a greyish white, sometimes

* Stanley's 'Familiar History of Birds,' ii. 69.

596 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

speckled with yellow-brown ; and the young differ only from
their parents in the comparative shortness of the beak and crest
A correspondent of Bechstein " succeeded in rearing two
young ones, taken from a nest which was placed at the sum-
mit of an oak tree. " ( ! ) * * These birds "would never
touch earth-worms, but were very fond of the larger Coleop-
tera : these they first killed, and then beat them with their
beak into a kind of oblong ball ; when this was done, they
threw it into the air, that they might catch and swallow it
lengthwise ; if it fell across the throat, they were obliged to
begin again." Dr. A. Smith informs me, that he has observ-
ed the hoopoes to roll their food in the dust, so as to render
it always very dry before swallowing it. ; and I have ascer-
tained that it is only when they have an opportunity of doing
so that they will eat earth-worms, which they will then feed
on readily. The stomach of a specimen examined by Mr.
Selby " was filled with the larvae of TipulcB and Phalcenae ;
no remains of perfect insects, nor any snards of beetles being
visible." To recur to M. BechstehVs friend, that observer
states, that — " Instead of bathing, they roll in the sand. I took
them one day into a neighbouring field, that they might catch
insects for themselves, and had then an opportunity of remark-
ing their innate fear of birds of prey, and their instinct under
it. -No sooner did they perceive a raven, or even a pigeon,
than they were on their bellies in an instant, their wings
stretched out by the side of the head, so that the large quill-
feathers touched; they were thus surrounded by a sort of
crown, formed by the feathers of the tail and wings, the head
leaning on the back, with the beak pointing upwards ; in this
curious posture they might be taken for an old rag. As soon
as the bird that frightened them was gone, they rose up im-
mediately, uttering cries of joy. They were very fond of lying
in the sun, and showed their content by repeating in a qui-
vering tone, vec, vec, vec ; when angry, their notes are harsh,
and the male, which is known by his colour being redder, cries
hoop, hoop. These amusing birds would follow their owner
everywhere, and on hearing him at a distance expressed their
joy by a peculiar chirping, rose into the air, and as soon as
he was seated climbed on his clothes, particularly when giv-
ing them their food from a pan of milk, the cream of which
they swallowed eagerly ; they climbed higher and higher, till
at last they perched on his shoulders, and sometimes on his
head, caressing him with much fondness : notwithstanding
which, a word was sufficient to rid him of their company, and
they would immediately retire to the stove. These birds
would observe the eyes of their owner, to discern what his

in the Order Strepitores. 597

inclination might be towards them, that they might act accord-
ingly." This capability of attachment is fully corroborated
by the personal observation of Buffon. "I once saw," relates
that naturalist, " one of these birds that had been taken in a
net, and being then old, or at least adult, must have acquired
its natural habits : its attachment to the person who took care
of it was very strong, and even exclusive. It appeared to be
happy only when along with her ; if strangers came unexpec-
tedly, it raised its crest with surprise and fear, and hid itself
on the top of a bed which was in the room. After a while, it
was sometimes bold enough to come from its asylum ; but it
flew directly to its mistress, and seemed to perceive no one
but her. It had two very different tones : one soft; as if from
within, which it addressed to its mistress; the other sharp,
and more piercing, which expressed anger and fear. It was
never kept in a cage by day or night, and was suffered to range
the house at pleasure : yet, though the windows were often
open, it never showed the least desire to escape, its wish for
liberty being less strong than its attachment." Bechstein re-
marks, that, " in a captive state, the droll actions of the hoo-
poe are very amusing : for instance, it makes a continual mo-
tion with its head, tapping the floor with its beak as if walk-
ing with a stick, at the same time shaking its crest, wings,
and tail. When any one looks steadfastly at them, they im-
mediately begin to act thus."

The hoopoes which I saw alive exhibited nothing extraor-
dinary in their deportment : but they were young birds, though
old enough to shift for themselves in a state of nature. How-
ever, I have sufficient confidence in the veracity of Bechstein,
from personal knowledge of the accuracy of all that he relates
of numerous other species, to refrain from expressing any scep-
ticism on the present occasion : it is true that he often de-
scends to frivolous minutiae and twaddle, characteristic of the
bird-fancier ; but whatever he affirms, on his own personal
testimony, may, I have reason to think, be implicitly relied on.

The hoopoe is by no means so difficult to maintain in
health in captivity as has been generally stated. The Earl
of Derby has possessed living specimens for some years ; a
pair of which built and incubated last season, but with what
result I have not yet been informed. It is to be regretted that
the cupidity of collectors prevents this interesting species from
effecting a permanent settlement in the British islands, which
it would certainly do, if allowed to breed unmolested ; for
specimens are obtained every season in different parts of the
country, and some few cases have occurred of their multiply-
ing in the southern counties. The geographic range of the

598 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

form extends, during summer, nearly throughout Asia, Eu-
rope, and Africa, including some of the islands of the Indian
ocean ; the number of species, however, would appear to be
limited to two or at most three, which are very intimately al-
lied, and barely distinguishable.

Having now brought my descriptions of Strepitores Syn-
dactyli to a close, I may avail myself of this opportunity to
remark, that, since treating of the Cylindrirostres, I have se-
veral times heard the jarring note of the great Dacelo, in the
Zoological Gardens : it consists of a long, continuous, shak-
ing, and very loud harsh cry, considerably modulated in the
course of its delivery, but always exactly the same at each
repetition : considering the simple structure of its vocal ap-
paratus, which may be presumed to be similar to that of all
other Strepitores, the modulation of tone adverted to is much
greater than would perhaps have been anticipated.

In corroboration of an opinion, also, which I have express-
ed, that probably none of the Strepitores require to drink, it
may be remarked that Azara states, of his captive motmots,
that he never saw one attempt to do so ; which is the more
worthy of notice in this instance, because the bill and tongue
of those birds are not (as in the Cylindrirostres, and both
tribes of Buceroides), of a structure ill adapted to take up wa-
ter. In this, therefore, as in several other particulars, we dis-
cern an analogy, if not relationship, between the Strepitores
and Raptores, which orders I have alwaysplaced in apposition.

Finally, it may be remarked, here, that Mr. Swainson has,
I perceive, been somewhat captious in quoting an assertion
of mine (see p. 497) respecting the distribution of the Cylin-
drirostres ; the import of wrhich he has in great measure mis-
understood, and might therefore have moderated his exulta-
tions, since this very subordinate item of the general subject
of my communication (by no means affecting the determina-
tion of the main question at issue, that of accurate classifica-
tion based on affinities), appears to be all that even he can
venture to call in question, — a circumstance not the less sa-
tisfactory, as some novel facts (even to "experienced ornitho-
logists" ) and generalizations were contained in the paper
which he refers to, certain of which, he cannot but have re-
marked, are utterly and very widely irreconcileable with his
published views respecting the affinities of particular genera,
that of the todies [Todus) for instance, more especially, which
he may ponder with some considerable advantage. — What I
obviously intended was (in the passage cited), that, of the en-

in the Order Strepitores. 599

tire group Cylindrirostres, " the kingfisher family (Halcyon-
idce) only, is feebly represented in America by a few piscivo-
rous species ; all the remainder [that is, of course, the rest of
the Halcyonida— necessarily comprising the whole extensive
group of insectivorous species, together with every member
of the Meropidce and Coracidce], being peculiar to the east-
ern hemisphere." Now this Mr. Swainson designates an
" unfounded assertion " ! And proceeds to enlighten us in
the following flighty strain. — " Why ! America is actually the
chief metropolis of the piscivorous kingfishers ! a circum-
stance well known to every experienced ornithologist. With
the exception, indeed, of my Ispida gigantea and bitorquata,
and another, I am unacquainted with any long-tailed king-
fishers that are not found in America, where the largest and
most powerful species abound on the banks of all the great
rivers. On the other hand, the short-tailed ' feeble ' race
[feeble between inverted commas], represented by Aleedo is-
pida, is totally excluded from America, while those 'which
are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere ' (Halcyon, Sw.) are not
piscivorous, but almost entirely insectivorous." — In reply to
all this, I must observe that the latter remarks are superfluous,
as coinciding with my statement; from which, moreover, I do
not perceive how it could have been gathered that the Ame-
rican kingfishers are " feeble." Mr. Swainson, too, is over
hasty in what he remarks of the " long-tailed " species of the
eastern hemisphere ; for he must necessarily be well acquaint-
ed with the common Aleedo (or Syma) rudis, and guttata,
figured in Gould's Century. Then, with regard to the num-
ber of species inhabiting the New World, I can learn only of
Aleedo halcyon in all North America ; while Lesson gives but
four additional species to the whole southern continent, where,
it would appear from Mr. Swainson1 s flourishing correction,
(assuming that his kingfishers are more definitely character-
ized than his todies), that more have since been discovered
than I was aware of: and this is the extent of my unlucky
defalcation. The following corrigendum will therefore suf-
fice. Instead of " feebly represented in America by a few
piscivorous species," read — " represented in America by pis-
civorous species only." It will be remembered that I con-
fessedly wrote as much to elicit as to convey information : for
I freely confess that my studies have generally had reference
to forms, rather than to species, — to those fundamental and
distinctive characters of groups, which do not, like the se-
condary or adaptive characters (which have reference to ha-
bit), the comparatively superficial modifications on which the
quinary system of birds is fabricated, grade and pass insen-

600 Descriptions of the Groups of Birds

sibly away through a series of species. Which is the more
important to trace, in order to arrive at the basis of a sound
classification, I leave to the philosophic naturalist to deter-
mine.

There may be some difference of opinion as to which con-
stitutes the more " experienced ornithologist," to possess an
acquaintance, altogether superficial, with a vast number of
species, or to know a moderate number, perhaps including all
the different types or models of structure comparatively well.
For of what avail, may I ask, is it for Mr. Swainson to assume
a lofty tone in asserting that his notions are deemed " theo-
retical" merely for want of sufficient information to. compre-
hend them, when it can be demonstrated, by reference to every
detail of internal structure, that many of his groups are com-
posed of the most heterogeneous materials, respectively se-
vered from the forms with which they intimately correspond :
and that, consequently, his bases being unsound, the entire
superstructure, however plausible and ingenious, must neces-
sarily be fanciful and frivolous ? Surely it requires no ex-
traordinary amount of information to discover, on actual com-
parison of entire specimens, whether the systematic relations
predicated of them, from examination of their exterior only,
be real or imaginary! And if, on subjecting them to the cru-
cial test of anatomy, the assigned station and associations
prove to be altogether palpably erroneous, as I have shown
to be the case with Mr. Swainson' s allocation of the todies,
of the hoopoes, &c, and as I shall have occasion to show in
numerous other instances, why then, are those who detect and
expose such fallacies to be accused of "a captious and dispu-
tatious spirit, " because they of course refuse to yield implicit
deference to the dicta of what they must feel and know to be
very questionable (even because biassed) authority ? No ! —
Let the charge of deficiency of needful information to be able
to form a correct judgment be transferred, or at all events
extended, to the party proved to be in error !

It is easy enough to dogmatise ; to make assertions with-
out sufficient proof; to affirm, for instance, as Mr. Swainson
does repeatedly, that Phitotoma constitutes a satisfactory link
between the finches and the touracos ! merely because, like
the latter, it happens to have serrated mandibles ; and on this
slender ground alone (so far as I can discover) to bring the
Musophagidae into the "circle" of Conirostres: or to pronounce,
with Sir E. Bromhead (p. 486), that " Psittacidce are Psitta-
cidae-Picidae ; Cuculidce are Cuculidce-Certhiadce, &c. ! — But
Phitotoma, it so happens, is in every detail of its conforma-
tion a member of my distinct order Cantores, just as widely

in the Order Strepitores.

601

removed from the touracos as any other song-bird :* and I
respectfully invite Sir E. Bromhead, or any other systematist,
to point out a single structural accordancy, either internal or
external, — to name any definite character whatever, that can
justify him even in approximating the families in question,
much less in attempting to unite them as he has done.

I will only further trespass on the reader's attention on the
present occasion, to direct it, once more, to an important fact
sufficiently at variance with the doctrines of the quinarians,
namely, the utter absence of any approach or tendency even
to a passage or transition occurring from one to another of any
of the eight family groups which together compose my Stre-
pitores Syndactyli. To save trouble in reference, I subjoin
a tabular view of the series of them.

En
5Q

Buceroides

Halcyoides

Appendirostres
Arculirostres

Cylindriros tres

Angulirostres
^Serratirostres

Buceridee,

Upupida,

Meropida,

CoracidcB,

Halcyonidce,

Todidce,

Galbulidce,

Prionitida,

Hornbills.

Hoopoes.

Bee-eaters.

Rollers.

Kingfishers.

Todies.

Jacamars.

Motmots.

Next follow the toucans {Rhamphastidw), which commence
the Zygodactyly

September 30th, 1838.

Art. V.— Notes on the Natural History of the Ant-Lion, (Myrme-

leon formicarium, Linn.) By J. O. Westwood, Esq., F.L.S.
During a pleasant entomological excursion to the Pare de
Belle Vue, near Paris, in the month of July, 1837, my atten-
tion was directed, by my friend Audouin, to many of the cells
of the ant-lion, at the foot of a very high sand-bank, and where
the sand was exceedingly fine. These holes were of various
sizes, but none exceeded an inch and a half or two inches in
diameter, and two thirds of an inch deep. The ant-lions were
of various sizes, corresponding with the size of their retreats.

* It agrees in this respect, loosely, with the touracos, that the intestinal
canal is remarkably short and wide; but there is no similitude in the struc-
ture of the parts.

602 Notes on the Ant- Lion.

I brought many of them to Paris, placing several together in
a box filled with the sand ; they however destroyed one ano-
ther whilst shut up in these boxes, and I only succeeded in
bringing three of them alive to England ; one of which al-
most immediately afterwards (on the 23rd July) enclosed it-
self in a globular cocoon of fine sand. The other two afford-
ed me many opportunities of observing their proceedings. —
They were unable to walk forwards, an anomalous circum-
stance not often met with in animals furnished with well-de-
veloped legs. It is generally backwards, working in a spiral
direction, that the creature moves, pushing itself backwards
and downwards at the same time ; the head being carried
horizontally, the back much arched, so that the extremity of
the body is forced into the sand. In this manner it proceeds
backwards, (to use an Hibernianism), forming little mole-
hills in the sand, like Rosel's tab. 17, jig. 7 ; but it does not
appear to me that this retrograde motion has anything to do
with the actual formation of the cell, since as soon as it has
fixed upon a spot for its retreat, it commences throwing up
the sand with the back of its head, jerking the sand either
behind its back, —

" Ossaque post tergum, magnae j aetata parentis," — Ovid,

or on one or the other side. It shuts its long jaws, forming
them into a kind of shovel, the sharp edges of which it thrusts
laterally into the sand on each side of the head, and thereby
contrives to lodge a quantity of the sand upon the head, as
well as the jaws. The motion is, in fact, something like that
of the head of a goat, especially when butting sideways in
play. In this manner it contrives to throw away the sand,
and by degrees to make a hole entirely with its head, the fore
legs not affording the slightest assistance in the operation. —
During this performance the head only is exposed, the insect
having previously pushed itself beneath the surface of the
sand, but when it has made the hole sufficiently deep, it with-
draws the head also, leaving only the jaws exposed, which

are spread open in a line thus, «. r s and laid upon

the sand so as to be scarcely visible. If alarmed, the insect
immediately takes a step backwards, withdrawing the jaws;
but when an insect falls into the hole, the jaws are instanta-
neously and instinctively closed, and the insect seized by the
legs, wing, or body, just as it may chance to fall within the
reach of the ant-lion's jaws. If, however, the insect be not
seized, but attempts to escape, no matter in what direction,
the ant-lion immediately begins twisting its head about, and
shovelling up the sand with the greatest agility, jerking it

Notes on the Ant- Lion.

603

about on each side and backwards, (but never forwards, as
misrepresented in some figures), until the hole is made so
much deeper, and such a disturbance caused in the sides of
the hole, that the insect is almost sure to be brought down to
the bottom, when it is seized by the ant-lion, which immedi-
ately endeavours to draw it beneath the sand ; if it be very
boisterous, the ant-lion beats it about, holding it firmly with
its jaws, until it is too weak for further resistance. Hence,
as the head of the ant-lion is immersed in the sand, it is evi-
dent that the accounts given in popular works of the instinct
by which it throws the sand exactly in the direction of the
escaping prey, is not quite correct ; the act of throwing up
the sand when an insect has fallen into the pit and attempts
to escape, having evidently for its chief object, that of making
the pit deeper and more conical, and therefore more difficult
of ascent.

On placing it on a flat surface of sand it first thrusts the
extremity of its body to a short distance in the sand, and then
by the assistance of its hind pair of legs drags itself back-
wards, its four fore legs being extended and trailing after it

immoveably. Fig. 31,
A, represents a glass
containing sand ; a are
the traces on the sur-
face of the sand left by
the forelegs and jaws ;
b is the downward track
of the larva, gradually
deepening; c the jaws
of the larva exposed;
and d a little hillock of
sand raised by the body
of the ant-lion under-
neath. At this period
of the formation of its
burrow, the insect is en-
gaged in throwing back the sand. There is a very great ana-
logy between the motions of the head of this insect, and the
shutting of its jaws, and those of the larva of Cicindela. In
the ant-lion the head is lower, the neck being suddenly de-
flexed, and the base of the head beneath is very convex, and
is lower than the neck, just as in the larva of Cicindela.

By watching the motions of the larva whilst on the surface

of the sand, and before it has immersed itself, I perceived that

it is by the retrograde motion of the hind pair of legs, which

are directed backwards, that the insect effects its motions. —

Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3 n

604 On the artificial Arrangement

Moreover, when digging vigorously the creature makes a short
step backwards, by which means a portion of the sand is
thrown on the head: owing to the hump-like form of the back
this is immediately jerked away, the body at the same time
advancing another step in its backward and spiral motion.

I placed one of my larva? in spirits ; the other underwent
a three weeks' fast during the following months of August and
September ; but on my return from the country it devoured
flies with its ordinary activity. About the middle of Septem-
ber the specimen which had enclosed itself in a cocoon at the
end of July, produced a winged ant-lion fly, the skin of the
pupa being attached to the edges of a small hole made in the
cocoon. The larva which I kept in my study continued ac-
tive till the cold weather set in, when it became torpid although
near the fire-place ; but at the middle of March, and before
the flies were abroad, a few Trichocera only being occasion-
ally seen, the ant-lion resumed its habits and made a small
burrow ; it died, however, in the following month.

Art. VI. — On the artificial arrangement of some of the more exten-
sive Natural Orders of British Plants. By Frederic John
Bird, Esq.*

Having frequently experienced considerable difficulty in de-
termining certain genera and species of plants, belonging to the
more extensive natural orders, especially during botanical ex-
cursions, when we are necessarily deprived of microscopic aid,
I have been led to construct the following tabular analyses of
genera, in which many of the more obscure features are disre-
garded, and the name of the genus arrived at without having
recourse to minute dissection, or indefinite characters. These
analyses, drawn up in accordance with suggestions originally
made by my brother, Dr. Golding Bird, are entirely restricted
to an examination of the floral envelopes and fruit, without
any minute dissection of the latter, a process which is often
impracticable whilst studying in the field. Two or rarely
three characters are taken in each binary division ; such as
are most obvious have in every case been selected, and those
contained in the first line are exactly the converse of the fea-
tures met with in the second ; thus avoiding any serious error
which might arise from the too close resemblance in structure.

* Communicated by Golding Bird, M.D., F.L.S., G.S., &c, Lecturer
on Natural Philosophy at Guy's Hospital, &c.

of British Plants. 605

The chief object of this arrangement is simplicity; and is
so far, for the junior student preferable to those hitherto adopt-
ed, which, although perhaps more scientific, are yet difficult
and almost useless until he has acquired some experience in
the science. Perhaps this is is not better illustrated by any
order than Crucifera (Brassicacea), in which, according to
the Synopsis of Dr. Lindley, (the one most generally and de-
servedly made use of), the student has first to determine to
which of the sub-orders his plant is referable, these divisions
being founded upon the position and direction of the radicle
and cotyledons ; as, —

Pleurorhizece,... Radicle applied to the edges of the cotyledons.

iy , i • f Radicle applied to the back of the cotyledons; cotyledons

[ licit.

n 7 7 j Radicle applied to the back of the cotyledons ; cotyledons

urthoplocea, .. j folded lengtllwise#

To arrive at this determination is often a matter of no small
difficulty and uncertainty, and indeed, in many cases, cannot
be effected without very careful dissection and microscopic
assistance ; and unless the plant in question can be satisfac-
torily classed under one of these (the sub-orders), no assist-
ance can be obtained by reference to the " tribes," since the
distinguishing characters of those ranked under Pleurorhi-
zece, are also common to Notorhizece and Orthoplocew.

For the purpose then of assisting in the removal of these
difficulties, and more easily determining the names of genera
and species, whenever either are unusually numerous, I have
applied the arrangement here introduced to the natural orders
Cruciferce, Labiates, Leguminosce, Umbelliferce, Graminacea,
the genus Carex, &c. &c, as perhaps offering more difficul-
ties than any others that come under the observation of the
student of English Botany.

The application of the following tables is sufficiently obvi-
ous ; it is only necessary to begin by comparing the plant (of
which the generic name is required) with the characters given
in the first binary division, A, from whence reference is made
to other divisions, until its correspondence with the essential
features there expressed at once points out its name. Thus,
in the cruciferous genus Barbarea, it is readily seen that it
possesses the peculiarities contained in the second line of the
first division ; which, having the letter B affixed to it, indi-
cates that a further description is contained in the division of
that name ; here it is but necessary to determine whether the
sepals of the plant are patulous or connivent, when the for-
mer being found to be the case, it is only required to pass to
the division pointed out by the letter placed against the line,

3n2

606 On the artificial Arrangement

when the genus becomes determined, its name being found
on the same line with the corresponding description. In the
instance I have quoted, as in all genera of the order Crucife-
r<e, it is requisite firstly to determine to which of the sub-or-
ders it appertains.

CRUCIFERJE.

{BRASSICACEJE, Lindl.).

This order comprehends the plants which fall under the
Linnsean divisions of Tetradynamia Siliquosa and Siliculosa.

SUB-ORDERS.

Fruit a Siliqua 9*

Fruit a Silicula i$*

» f Siliqua sub-articulated, valveless Raphanus.

(Siliqua not articulated B.

t» | Sepals gaping or patulous , C

( Sepals erect or connivent H.

p (Siliqua 4-angled Barbarea.

( Siliqua nearly cylindrical D.

j^ J Stigma quite entire E.

(Stigma notched F.

p ( Siliqua decimate, short, and turgid Nasturtium.

X Siliqua erect, nearly cylindrical Sisymbrium.

p (Flowers white or purplish Cardamine.

' 1 Flowers yellow G.

p (Seeds in one row Sinapis.

(Seeds in two rows Diplotaxis.

tt fCalyx with two sacs at the base I.

(.Calyx equal at the base, or nearly so L.

j CGlands between the short stamens and ovary. ..Hesperis.

\ Glands on each side of the short stamens K.

XT- fLobes of the stigma spreading, flowers ye\low..Cheirantkus

\L6bes of the stigma connivent, flow. Tpurplish.. Matthiola.
T C Stigma notched M.

(^Stigma quite entire O.

--, CSiliqua lanceolate, purplish flowers Dentaria.

' ^Siliqua 4-angled, flowers white or yellow N.

^ CCalyx lax, flowers white Alliaria.

' ^Calyx closed, flowers yellow Erysimum.

^v CFlowers yellow, seeds globose Brassica.

' ^Flowers white, seeds oval P.

p f Seeds in one row in each cell Arabis.

\ Seeds in two rows in each cell Turritis.

B

of British Plants. 607

».

Silicula jointed B.

Silicula not jointed C.

Filaments simple Cakile.

Four filaments forked Crambe.

Silicula one-celled Isatis.

Silicula two-celled D.

yy S Silicula val veless, crested or wrinkled Coronopus.

Silicula two-valved E.

Silicula entire F.

Silicula notched at its apex N.

Cells one or two seeded G.

Cells three, four, or many seeded H.

Cells one-seeded, silicula nearly round Glyce.

Cells two-seeded, silicula elliptical..... Hutchinsia.

Cells three or four seeded, style leaf-like Carrichtera.

Cells many-seeded I.

Silicula nearly flat K.

Silicula ventricose L.

Petals entire. Draba.

Petals bifid Erophila.

Flowers yellow Camelina.

Flowers white M.

Silicula turgid, style very short Cochlearia.

Silicula compressed, style absent Subularia.

Seeds numerous O.

Seeds one or two in each cell P.

Silicula winged Thlaspi.

Silicula wingless Capsella.

Two petals larger than the remaining ones Iberis.

Petals all equal Q.

Filaments with a scale on their inner sides Teesdalia.

Filaments not scale-bearing, cells 1 -seeded Lepidium.

SCROPHULARIACEJE.

E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.

Stamens 5, fertile, corolla rotate Verbascum.

Stamens 2 Veronica.

\ Ovary 2-seeded Melampyrum.

^Ovary many-seeded C.

r CCalyx 4-fid D.

(.Calyx 5-fid E.

-p. C Calyx ventricose, inflated Rhinanthus.

^Calyx close F.

E S Upper lip of corolla notched Euphrasia.

^ Upper lip of corolla entire Bartsia.

v C Fruit 2-celled, calyx ventricose Pedicularis.

<_Fruit 2-celled, calyx close G.

3n3

K.

608 On the artificial Arrangement

p CCorolla campanulate H.

3 Coralia not campanulate I.

tt ("Corolla ventricose, 4-lobed Digitalis.

(^Corolla nearly equal, 5-lobed Limosella.

j CCorolla rotate Sibthorpia.

Corolla not rotate J.

j CCorolla spurred Linaria.

Corolla not spurred K.

Corolla globose, inflated Scrophularia.

Corolla oblong, gibbous at the base Antirrhinum.

I have placed the genus Verbascum in the order Scrophu-
lariacece, although it is still referred by many high authorities
to the nearly-allied family of Solanacece; the grounds of divi-
sion between the two are but weakly marked, and this genus
certainly presents a nearly equal affinity to both ; although,
like Celsia, it may justly be considered as the connecting link
between the two, yet some of its relations appear to be more
with the former than the latter. The principal scrophularina-
ceous features of the genus consist in the general habit, straight
embryo and imbricated corolla, the irregularity of the latter
organ not being included, some of the true Solanacea present-
ing this peculiarity, as Hyoscyamus and its allies. The chief
points in favour of referring Verbascum to the latter family
are its pentandrous stamens, and 5-lobed corolla; and the for-
mer character is but of secondary importance, as in Digitalis
there is an attempt to produce five stamens, the only point of
difference being that the fifth is generally abortive.

LAB I ATM.

{L AMI ACE M, Lindl.)

This order corresponds very nearly to the Linnaean group
Didynamia Gymnospermia ; two genera, Lycopus and Salvia,
alone forming the exceptions.

* (Stamens two B.

(Stamens four C.

-d ( Calyx 5-fid, filaments entire Lycopus.

( Calyx 2-lipped, filaments forked Salvia.

p (Corolla regular, or nearly so D.

(Corolla distinctly labiate E.

■pw (Calyx 5-toothed, equal Mentha.

Um (Calyx 2-lipped F.

j? ( Flowers imbricated, with coloured bracts Origanum.

(Flowers loose Thymus.

-ri C Upper lip of corolla truncated G.

F. |fi

Both lips present H.

G.
H.

K.

Observations on a rare British Dolphin. 609

Upper lip very small Ajuga.

Upper lip deeply bifid, segments distant Teucrium.

Calyx 2-lipped I.

Calyx not 2-lipped K.

CCalyx 5-fid L.

Calyx 2- or 4-fid M.

Filaments 2-forked Prunella.

Filaments not forked Melissa.

L fFlowers verticillate Melittis.

{Flowers solitary Scutellaria.

M, J Divisions of calyx equal N.

Divisions of calyx unequal O.

N 5 Upper lip of corolla crenate Ballota.

\ Upper lip of corolla bifid Marrubium.

q . C Anthers with white opaque dots Leonurus,

Anthers without dots P.

Lateral segments of corolla reflexed Stachys.

Lateral segments of corolla not reflexed Q.

O § Upper stamens longer than the lower Nepeta.

Upper stamens not the longest R.

Upper lip of corolla crenate Galeopsis.

Upper lip of coralla entire Lamium,

(To be continued).

R

Art. VII. — Observations on a rare British Dolphin. By Thomas
Wright, Esq., M.R.C.S., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology.

Impressed with the value of every new fact illustrative of the
organisation, history, and geographical range of British Ce-
tacea, I send for insertion in your Magazine the following
observations on a rare species of dolphin, Delphinus Tursio,
shot near Torquay. The individual now before me is the se-
cond or third specimen of this species which has been cap-
tured within the geographical limits of the British Fauna. —
The fact that troops of four or five individuals are frequently
seen in company off the southern coast of Devon, sanctions
the inference that Delph. Tursio ought to be considered as an
indigenous species ; whilst a probable reason for its extreme
rarity may be found in the enormous locomotive powers
which it possesses, swimming with inconceivable velocity in
pursuit of prey, or seeking temporary refuge in the silent depths
of the ocean on the most distant appearance of an enemy.

The capture and preservation of this specimen I regard as
an acquisition to British Zoology, inasmuch as it may serve

610 Observations on a rare British Dolphin.

to clear up some doubts as to the identity of the small bottle-
nose whale of Hunter, and Delph. Delphis of the schools ;
and likewise whether Delph. truncatus of Montague is the
Delph. Tnrsio of Fabricius, or ought rather, from the short-
ness of its muzzle, to be referred to the Phocaean of Cuvier.

On the 3rd of September, 1838, whilst the Rev. Mr. Kin-
sey and a party were sailing off Torquay, they observed four
cetaceans near the vessel, which were recognised to be the
same that had, for several days before, been seen from the
shore. As the party approached them it was found that one
of the troop had got partially entangled in the line of a net ;
and W. Loudon, the Rev. Mr. Kinsey's servant, succeeded in
lodging a ball in the left side of its head, and others in diffe-
rent parts of the trunk ; the vital fluid flowed profusely from
the wounds, and the piteous sobs and moans of their victim
announced that the conflict had been fatal to the vanquished.
At the commencement of the rencontre, the three companions
of the deceased, which were about the same size, and of the
same species, passed under the lines and bounded up the
coast with inconceivable velocity, leaving the party several
miles off in the short space of a few minutes. As soon as the
vital spark was extinct, a thick rope was cast round the tail
of the dolphin, and it was safely towed ashore by the united
strength of seven men. The specimen proved to be a female,
and measured eleven feet in length, and Jive feet six inches
in circumference at the dorsal fin. It is important to note
these particulars, as the salting of the skin to preserve it for
exportation has caused it to shrink considerably.

The skin was first carefully dissected off, leaving the skull,
fins, and tail in situ. The adipose layer yielded about five
gallons of good oil. The skin, when freed from the viscera,
weighed 120 lbs., and was forwarded by the Rev. Mr. Kinsey
as a contribution to the Museum of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Institution of Cheltenham. Having for some years
past taken an active part in the zoological department of our
Institution, the specimen was forwarded to my house for in-
spection ; and after an attentive examination of its generic
and specific characters, I decided that it was a fine female of
a rare British dolphin, Delphinus Tursio, Fabr.

The authentic facts which we possess relating to this inte-
resting species, considered as belonging to the British Fauna,
being exceedingly meager, I regard the capture of the sub-
ject of this paper as a great acquisition to our knowledge of
native Cetacea. These dolphins are frequently seen sporting
in the water not far from the shore, along the coasts of Devon
and Somerset; but no individual of the same species had

Observations on a rare British Dolphin. 611

ever been seen ashore by those who are well acquainted with
the oceanic natives of the Devon coast. The only authentic
notice of a species approaching in its characters the one now
before me, is the individual captured in Duncannon Pool,
near Stoke Gabriel, about five miles up the River Dart, in
July, 1814; an account of which was published by Col. Mon-
tague in the Wernerian Memoirs,* and described by that ex-
cellent and industrious naturalist under the name of Delphinus
truncatus. It was 12 feet in length, and 8 feet in circumfer-
ence, and measured from the snout to the blowhole 144 inches.
The summits of the teeth were even with the gums, and it was
of a black colour above, and whitish below; the skull, includ-
ing the upper jaw, measured 20^ inches, and the breadth
across the posterior molars was 5 inches ; on each side there
were sockets for 20 teeth ; the lower jaw was longer than the
upper, and contained 23 teeth on each side. The sockets
were variable in size, and without order, showing that some
teeth were double the size of others, and the approximation
of the sockets evinces the contiguity of the teeth, so that the
teeth of both jaws must have opposed their surfaces to each
other.f

This imperfect sketch of Col. Montague's specimen is, I
trust, sufficient to enable me to show that the cetacean cap-
tured in the Dart was not the true Delphinus Tursio of Fa-
bricius, if we may be allowed to judge from a comparison of
the measurement of Montague's specimen, with the fine per-
fect one now before me. Thus, Montague gives 12 feet in
length and 8 feet in circumference as the proportional mea-
surement of Delph. truncatus ; that now before me was 11
feet long by 5-£ in circumference : from the snout to the blow-
hole of the cetacean of the Dart was 14^ inches; the subject
of this paper measures 16^ inches from the extremity of the
rostrum to the centre of the breathing -hole. The teeth in
Montague's were approximated ; the teeth in our specimen
are set in distinct alveoli at definite intervals apart from each
other : the teeth in Delph. truncatus were unequal, some be-
ing double the size of others; those in our specimen are equal
in volume throughout, except the two anterior of both jaws,
which appear to have recently pierced the gum : the teeth of
Delph. Tursio lock into each other, although they have fre-
quently opposed their surfaces, as indicated by the worn ap-
pearance which their blunt summits present. From the dis-
similarity in the specific characters shown by this parallel,

* Vol. iii. page 75. tab. 3.
f Fleming's ' British Animals,' page 35.
Vol. IT.— No. 23. n. s. 3 o

612 Observations on a rare British Dolphin.

it is a question with me how far we are justified in regarding,
as some have done,* the cetacean captured in the Dart as
identical with the Delph. Tursio of Fabricius.

The whale caught in the Severn near Berkeley, and for-
warded by the immortal Jenner to the equally immortal John
Hunter, and described and figured by the latter in the * Phi-
losophical Transactions^ under the name of "the small bot-
tle-nose whale," is, I think, on comparing the figure with our
specimen, not Delph. Delphis, as supposed by Hunter J and
Fleming, § but the Delph. Tursio of Fabricius. In fact Hunt-
er's figure || of his small bottle-nose whale is a tolerable re-
presentation of our specimen ; the dorsal fin in his drawing
is, however, placed nearer to the muzzle than the tail, where-
as in our specimen that organ is situated six inches nearer to
the tail than the rostrum : another error consists in the situ-
ation of the pectoral fins, which, in the specimen, are closely
approximated to the angle of the lower jaw, and placed very
low down ; but they are figured at a considerable distance
■ from those parts; and the body, from the dorsal fin to the tail,
is not so conical as in the preparation. The eye is likewise
placed rather too high, and the convexity of the frontal emi-
nence is not sufficiently defined.

Not having at the present moment an opportunity of refer-
ring to Professor Bell's beautiful volume on ' British Quad-
rupeds, I am unable to state whether that excellent naturalist
has added any new facts to our knowledge of Delph. Tursio
since the appearance of Professor Fleming's Synopsis. I have
drawn up with great care the accompanying table, and only
regret that it has not been in my power to add more that is
really new concerning the internal organisation of this rare
British cetacean.

Description. — The body was of a bright bluish black above
and along the flanks, and of a pure white beneath. The di-
ameter of the body gradually increases from the neck to the
anterior origin of the dorsal fin, where it attains its maximum.
At the posterior root of that organ the circumference is less,
and from this point to the origin of the caudal fin it becomes
more and more slender. A section of the body made at the
dorsal fin would represent an elongated cone, with its apex
turned backwards.

* Fleming's * Br. Animals.' Turton & Kingston's ' Nat. Hist, of Devon.'

f*Phil. Trans.' 1787, p. 450, tab. 18.

t'Phil. Trans.' lxxvii. tab. 18.

§ « Phil. Trans.' lxxvii. 1787. |J.' British Animals,' p. 35.

Observations on a rare British Dolphin. 6*13

The following tables exhibit the dimensions of the stuffed
specimen.

Body.

FT. IN.

From the extremity of the muzzle to the termination of the

caudal lobes 8 10

Circumference of the neck 3 8

Ditto at the anterior origin of the dorsal fin 4 6

Ditto at the posterior root of ditto 4 1

Ditto midway between the dorsal and caudal 2 7

Ditto at the origin of the caudal lobes 1 2

Head.

Forehead convex ; from its base the superior maxillcB are
abruptly developed to form a slender elongated muzzle, with
a blunt rounded extremity, and having a slight inclination
upwards.

FT. IN.

Length from the symphysis, over the frontal eminence, to the

posterior boundary of the blow-hole 1 4£

Length of the rostrum , 4^

Ditto from the base of the frontal eminence to the blow-hole 1 0

Ditto across the forehead to the base of the upper jaw 1 5

Circumference of the rostrum, mouth closed 1 3

Length of the upper maxilla from the last molar to symphysis ,,11^

Width across the last superior molares „ 4f

Lower Jaw.

The inferior maxilla is half an inch longer than the upper;
its branches are slightly arched upwards, and gradually ap-
proach to form a blunt beak at the symphysis.

FT. IN.

Length from the last molar to the symphysis 1 0

Width across the last inferior rnolares „ 4£

Teeth

In the right superior maxilla 21 ; in the left 19, and two
empty sockets. In the lower jaw there are 21 in each ramus.

Eye.
This organ is placed nearly in a line with the angle of the
mouth, and immediately below the nostrils ; the eye-lids are
1^ inch in diameter ; and the distance from the inner angle
of the eye to the extremity of the muzzle is 14 inches; from
the upper eye-lid to the centre of the blow-hole is 1\ inches.

Blow-Hole.

This aperture is situated at the summit of the head, above
the orbit ; the valve is of a semilunar form, the convexity of

3o2

614 Observations on a rare British Dolphin.

which looks backwards, and is 1 inch in length and \\ in
breadth.

Anterior Extremities.

These organs of locomotion are situated very low down
towards the under part of the thorax ; and are —

FT. IN.

Distant from the extremity of the muzzle 1 9

Length of the anterior fin 1 4

Breadth of the carpus „ 6

Circumference of ditto 1 1

Dorsal Fin.

This organ rises about the middle of the back, but rather
nearer to the tail than the snout ; it is of a triangular form,
inclined backwards, convex along its anterior and concave at
the posterior border. The anterior root emerges, by a thick
fold of the common integument, at the distance of 3 feet 10
inches from the extremity of the muzzle, whilst its posterior
root is inserted at 3 feet 6 inches from the extreme expansion
of the tail. A prominent ridge extends from the posterior
root to the distance of 8 inches, where it gradually becomes
lost, but rises again into a well-defined raphe at about 18 in.
from the termination of the vertebral column. Its surface is
partially notched, and it serves to separate the caudal lobes.

FT. IN.

Length of the dorsal fin along its anterior border 1 5

Ditto ditto along its posterior margin 1 0

Expansion of the base of this organ 1 4

Tail.

The caudal fin is composed of two distinct lateral lobes ;
each arises by a distinct root: when viewed conjointly they
describe a crescent, the concavity of which is turned back-
wards. The extreme lateral expansion of the lobes is 22
inches, and each lobe measures from the raphe to its extremi-
ty, 1 foot.

Character of the Teeth. — Having already announced
that each side of both jaws contains twenty-one teeth, it re-
mains for me to make a few observations on the general cha-
racter of these prehensile instruments, as one of the most im-
portant specific characters is obtained from their form and
di position.

The five posterior molars of both jaws are conical recurved
spines, the convex surfaces of which look outwards: they ter-
minate in sharp points, which have been but partially blunted.
The remaining sixteen are conical stumps, the apices of which

Observations on a rare British Dolphin. 615

are truncated. From an attentive examination of these in-
struments it would appear that when the teeth originally
pierced the gum, they had a conical form, with sharp-pointed
summits, which have, however, been subsequently worn down
by friction against their antagonists of the opposite jaw. —
Although the teeth are disposed in distinct alveoli, set apart
from each other, so as mutually to lock into the spaces which
intervene between them, still nevertheless, the eleven anterior
molars have lost at least one half of the original length of
their crowns by this denuding process. The anterior aspect
of the teeth of the lower jaw, and the posterior surfaces of
those of the upper, likewise have a portion of their enamel
and ivory obliquely chiselled away, in consequence of the an-
tagonising teeth having frequently rubbed against each other.
These instruments are nearly all of a uniform size through-
out, and are embedded, as I have already observed, in distinct
alveoli, at the distance of a quarter of an inch apart ; the four in-
ternal incisors of both jaws are much smaller than the others,
and the two central teeth appear almost rudimentary. The
truncated summits of the molars look obliquely downwards
and inwards ; and this natural section displays to great ad-
vantage the rind of dense enamel enclosing the concentric
rings of ivory. This substance, however, has lost its natural
cream colour, and become much darkened from exposure to
the air and water.

It may be very justly asked, how does it happen that teeth
which lock into corresponding spaces of the opposite jaw,
become thus blunted ? To solve the problem it was neces-
sary that a careful examination should be made of the form of
the condyles of the lower jaw, and the glenoid cavity of the
temporals ; for it is evident that in order to effect the abra-
sion which I have described, it was necessary that the teeth
should have frequently opposed their crowns to each other,
and that there may be in the articulation of the lower jaw of
this species a special provision for vertical and lateral move-
ment ; and it may likewise admit of motion in the anteropos-
terior direction. In consequence of the condition of the parts
concerned in these movements when I received the specimen,
it was impossible to ascertain their anatomical structure.

Since the above was written, I have had an opportunity of
consulting the 4th vol. of Palmer's edition of Hunter's works,
with notes by Professor Owen. At page 334 that learned ana-
tomist observes, — " the small bottle-nose whale of Hunter is
not the common dolphin, Delphinus Delphis, Linn., but the
Delph. Tursio, Fabr., as is shown by the skull and other parts

616 Notes on British Plants.

which are preserved in the Hunterian collection, as well as
by the size of the specimen which Hunter describes."
Delphinus Delphis, Linn. Delphinus Tursio, Fabr.

Is from six to seven feet in length, Is from ten to eleven feet in length,
and has in each side of each jaw from and has in each side of each jaw from
42 to 47 sharp conical teeth. 21 to 23 teeth, generally blunted by

friction.

Professor Bell's 'British Quadrupeds' has likewise come to
hand. His figure, which is a reduced copy of Hunter's, is
liable to the objections already made to the original. Ano-
ther instance of the occurrence of this species in our seas is
adduced on the authority of Jenyns ; it was taken in the river
at Preston, and was 1 1 feet in length, and 7 feet 4 inches in
circumference. Prof. Bell has admitted with doubt the iden-
tity of this species with the Delph. truncatus of Montague.
It has afforded me much pleasure to find that the views of
these learned zoologists harmonise with the opinions I had
formed from the careful examination of the individual which
forms the subject of the present paper, before I became ac-
quainted with the sentiments recorded in their respective
works just quoted.

Nuneham House, Cheltenham,
October 8th, 1838.

Art. VIII. — Notes on a few British Plants. By Mr. George
Luxford, A.L.S., &c.

Allow me to make a few remarks on some of the plants men-
tioned by Mr. Cooper, in his ' Details of the First Excursion
of the Botanical Society of London, &c.,' at page 556 of this
Magazine.

Teesdalia nudicaulis. — I am rather surprised that no more
than one specimen of this pretty little plant should have been
met with; as, though rather rare, it is generally plentiful
where it does grow. I have seen one or two dry places on
Reigate Heath quite covered with it in the month of May. —
I once met with it in a very unusual state on Perry Barr Com-
mon, in Worcestershire ; the erect, central stalk varied in
height, in different specimens, from four to six inches ; the
radical leaves were present, but not one of the procumbent
stems which usually surround the naked stalk.

Lycopodium Selago. — This species is recorded by Dilleni-
us, on the authority of Mr. Manningham, as having been found
" in ericetis inter Godalmin et Wakehurst, comitatus Sus-

Notes on British Plants. 617

sexiae ;" (Ray's Synopsis, 106) : and I have heard of its oc-
currence, although sparingly, on Leith Hill Common, in Sur-
rey. The only place where I have ever observed it in any
quantity is a very wet bog on Moseley Common, in War-
wickshire ; where, some years ago, I collected exceedingly
fine specimens.

It is rather singular that this plant should not be mentioned
in Turner and Dillwyn's Botanist's Guide, seeing that Ray
(I. c.) says it grows " on Snowdon, Cader Idris, and the other
nigh mountains of Wales, as also the mountains of the Peak
in Derbyshire, Ingleborough in Yorkshire, &c. ; " to which
Dillenius has added the locality above quoted.

Lycopodium inundatum. — Mr. Cooper says, — " I do not
see any reason why Lycopodium inundatum, which is so
plentiful on Wimbledon and other commons around London,
should not be found on Woking common, as the sub-soil and
situation is very similar." There are many plants of which
the same remark may be made. Why should Dianthus Ca-
ryophyllus adorn one part of the ruinous walls of Rochester
castle, where it has been growing at least a hundred and se-
venty years, and not a single specimen be seen on other parts
of the same walls ? Why should Phyteuma orbiculare and
Campanula glomerata occur in some limited districts on the
Surrey chalk hills, and not throughout the whole range ? —
Why should the lovely Parnassia palustris grow, as I have
seen it growing, in profusion, in one particular part of a par-
ticular bog, and not an individual make its appearance in any
other spot for miles round, notwithstanding numerous locali-
ties, apparently equally well adapted for its growth, occur
within a few feet of the favoured one ?

There is, indeed, something inexplicable in what may be
termed the capriciousness of plants in their choice of habi-
tats ; for that they do exercise a choice no one, I think, who
has studied them in the field, can reasonably doubt. A thou-
sand instances might be adduced to prove this ; but, in addi-
tion to those above cited, I will only mention a few of the
many which have come under my own observation in the
course of the past season.

The elegant Statice spathulata is recorded by Ray (Syn.
202) on the authority of Mr. Dale, as growing " at Ramsgate,
in Kent." It still grows, in great luxuriance, on one part of
the chalk cliff between Ramsgate and Broadstairs, and is
there seen in such profusion as completely to cover several
yards of the face of the cliff, while on each side of this space
not a specimen is to be met with. Again, Crithmum mari-
t'nnum has long been known to grow on the chalk cliffs of the

618 Notes on British Plants.

Kentish coast, but it is only in certain places that it occurs ; as
at the eastern side of EastWear Bay, and at Lydden Spout,
both localities between Folkstone and Dover, and in both it
is associated with Statice spathulata. Reigate Hill again is
a recorded locality for Ajuga Chamcepitys ; but there I never
could meet with it, although it has been found on Buckland
Hill, to the west of Reigate, and eastward it grows most
abundantly in almost every field about Cobham, in Kent. The
name of this place reminds me of another illustration in the
exceedingly rare Althcea hirsuta, which was recorded as
growing near Cobham nearly fifty years ago, and there it still
grows, and has never been found in any other part of the
kingdom.

But amidst all this capriciousness in their choice of stations,
most plants evince such constancy in their attachment to par-
ticular soils, as would prove them to be mutually adapted to
each other. Take for example the genus Arenaria, the very
name of which is expressive of the attachment of most of its
species to a sandy soil, although this will not hold good with
all. Aren.peploides and marina are confined to the sea-coast
and its immediate vicinity, and do not ever occur inland. —
Aren. rubra, on the other hand, grows in barren sandy soil
inland, and sometimes in such quantities that the ground is
rendered quite purple with its blossoms. The favorite habi-
tats of Aren. serpyllifolia are the driest places, such as wall
tops and sandy fields ; on the contrary, Aren. trinervis de-
lights in moist, shady, hedge-banks. The only known Bri-
tish station for Aren. ciliata is on the limestone cliffs of a
mountain in Ireland ; while Aren. verna is found among frag-
ments of quartz, &c. on high mountains in the north of Eng-
land, Wales, and about Edinburgh, but not in the west of
Scotland: and its near ally, the pretty little Aren. rubella,
seems to be peculiar to the Breadalbane range in the High-
lands of Scotland.

There are, it is true, many plants which appear to be
common to situations the most opposite and soils the most
dissimilar ; but such species must be regarded merely as of-
fering exceptions to the general rule. Thus, to take for il-
lustrations some of our native Orchidacece, while we find the
Orchis maculata delighting equally in dry hilly ground and
in the wettest bogs, no botanist would ever dream of search-
ing for Orchis pyramidalis, O. fusca, or Ophrys apifera in
low damp meadows, or expect to find Orchis latifolia, Li-
paris Lceselii, or Malaxis paludosa, on dry chalk or lime-
stone hills.

There are also many other circumstances connected with

Notes on British Plants. 619

plants, which are quite as inexplicable as their choice of ha-
bitats. One of these is their alternate abundance and scar-
city in localities where certain species may always be found.
On Reigate Hill T have sometimes seen Ophrys apifera and
Oymnadenia conopsea (and particularly the latter) so abun-
dant as hardly to allow of a step being taken without some
of them being crushed by it ; and perhaps the very next year,
although the season might be apparently equally well adapted
for their developement, they would be but thinly scattered
over ground where they had previously abounded. Others
again j as many annuals, show themselves in plenty one sea-
son, then disappear, and are not again seen for many years.
In 1836 I found Silene Anglica growing all over a sandy field
near Reigate Heath ; I have been informed that it has not
been seen there since : and in 1837, Robert Hudson, Esq.,
of Clapham Common, and myself, observed Centaurea solsti-
tialis in tolerable plenty, in a clover field near the St. Ann's
Society schools, at Brixton ; this year it has not appeared.

These instances will, I think, abundantly prove that we
have yet much to learn concerning the laws which regulate
both the geological and the geographical distribution, not on-
ly of Lycopodium inundatum, but also of many other plants
of our own country.

Calluna vulgaris /3. — This variety is by no means uncom-
mon. I have observed it growing in many places ; among
others, in the Sussex forests, and, if my memory do not de-
ceive me, on Wandsworth Common : but nowhere have I met
with it in such profusion and beauty as on Moseley Common
before mentioned. In many parts of this Common it is quite
as plentiful as the more usual state of the plant. The great
degree of pubescence does not in the Calluna, as in hairy va-
rieties of many other naturally smooth plants, appear to de-
pend on its growing in a drier place than usual, since I have
noticed this variety in moist as well as dry situations, and
equally hairy in both.

My botanical visits to Moseley Common were generally
made in the morning, sometimes leaving Birmingham as early
as 3 o'clock. On one occasion my attention was attracted by
the appearance of water, at a spot where I knew there was
no water the last time I was there. On arriving at the spot,
I found that the appearance was occasioned by the rays of
the morning sun being reflected from a very heavy autumnal
dew, lying on the hoary ling, which at this place quite co-
vered some gently rising ground.

Calluna vulgaris, in all its states, is a very elegant plant.

Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3 r

620 Notes on British Plants.

The red and the white flowered varieties, with their smooth,
deep green, closely imbricated leaves, are pretty and delicate;
— the hoary variety is very beautiful, although not possessing
the exquisite silvery appearance of the stems and under side
of the leaves of Alchemilla alpina and Potentilla argentea ;
— but of all the varieties the pre-eminently lovely one is that
with double red flowers. This variety has been found wild
in Cornwall : a specimen in my herbarium has its branches
covered, for nearly their whole length, with the closely crowd-
ed flowers ; and sweeter miniature resemblances of wreaths
of roses cannot be conceived.

The mention of Calluna vulgaris reminds me of a curious
accidental variety of Erica Tetralix which I met with some
years since, on Perry Barr Common. Each of the corollas
was divided, nearly to the base, into several irregular seg-
ments, but the stamens remained unchanged in form. A few
weeks afterwards I observed several of the Erica in the con-
servatory of the Birmingham Botanic Garden, with their co-
rollas divided in a similar manner.

Orchis Morio. — In my Reigate Flora I have recorded the
circumstance of finding some specimens of this Orchis with
white flowers. I believe, like most persons when speaking
of varieties of birds &c, of a colour lighter than usual, that
I called them white, because they were not black ; cream-
coloured or fawn-coloured would perhaps have been more
correct.

Mr. Cooper will find that although his variety of Orchis
Morio may not have been specially recorded in any Flora,
botanists have long been acquainted with great variations in
the colour of the flowers. John Bauhin calls it " Orchis mi-
nor purpurea, et aliorum colorum, cum alis virentibus." —
Historia, vol ii. 761, published in 1650. Ray says, " Floram
color purpureus, rarius carneus aut albus" — Synopsis, 377,
2nd ed., 1724. Relhan also observes, — " Flores dilute pur-
purei, carnei vel albi" — Fl. Cantab., p. 359, 3rd ed., 1820.
and lastly, Sir J. E. Smith describes them as being " scent-
less, purple ; sometimes pale or flesh-coloured ; sometimes
varying to crimson, or to a light violet ; but the numerous
green ribs of the calyx-leaves are equally strong in all the va-
rieties."— Eng. Fl. vol. iv. p. 11. In my light-coloured spe-
cimens the ribs of the calyx were pink.

October 2nd, 1838.

On Spontaneous Generation. 621

Art. IX. — On Spontaneous Generation. By W. Weissenborn,

; Ph. D.

I hope I may be allowed to return once more to the subject
of spontaneous generation, in consequence of the objections
which Mr. Edward Blyth has raised (see the September No.
Mag. Nat. Hist.), p. 507). against the views expressed by me
in the July No. of this Journal.

Mr. Blyth first mentions a case where seeds of Chrysan
themum segetum, capable of germinating, were found in clay
under a stratum of peat earth fourteen feet thick. Without
taking into account that the yellow ox-eye or corn-marigold
is one of the hardiest and most common weeds, the seeds of
which might possibly have been flooded into the clay during
the tedious operations of draining and paring such a layer of
peat, and of trenching the clay, (particularly as it is stated,
that a great part of the peat-bog in question had been flooded
away by raising water from the river Teith, and discharging
it into the Forth, the under soil of clay being then cultivated)
such an exceptional case would only tend to confirm the ge-
neral rule, that healthy seeds of plants are not promiscuously
found, either in the deeper or more superficial strata of the
earth. Two years ago I had an opportunity of inspecting the
various samples of materials, as they were successively brought
to the surface out of an Artesian well sunk in this neighbour-
hood to the depth of 560 feet ; but I discovered in them no
traces of seeds. The two deep sandy strata lately discovered
in Hanover, (on which I reported in a former No. of this Ma-
gazine), samples of which, taken from different depths, were
subjected to the most accurate microscopic investigation,
both at Gottingen and in Berlin, consisted of the testa of ani-
malcules, with an occasional admixture of fir-pollen ; which
proves that the surface of the earth was covered with vegeta-
tion during the formation of some parts of these banks, yet no
trace of any seed was found in them. This is what we might
have anticipated, by considering what may become of the
seeds of plants, as they are successively scattered from their
parents. Those that remain near the surface must either ger-
minate or be decomposed ; such as are washed underground
must either be petrified or preserved (as by the tannin of peat
water), or be decomposed by slow chemical agency, unless in
some instances they become imbedded in media of a neutral
nature, which would dry quickly, where they might remain,
as if in good cellars or dry vaults, for an indefinite period,

3p2

622 On Spontaneous Generation.

just as we now and then find a living toad in a solid rock.
But I trust these rare cases do not justify a general conclu-
sion as to the means which nature employs for the preserva-
tion of plants or animals.

I have not alluded to any instances of plants being produ-
ced or transported to other localities in the ordinary manner,
or by known means, as I did not wish to lengthen my article
by the enumeration of observations which could not contri-
bute to render my views of the subject more plausible ; though
had I been aware of any fact in the whole range of ordinary
generation, which could altogether exclude the spontaneous
mode, I should not have undertaken to support the latter. —
But unless such a fact or facts be brought forward, I shall
adhere to what I think both rational and probable.

As to the necessity of animals which require to be tended
by a parent being first called into existence in the adult state,
I perfectly agree with Mr. Blyth ; nor do I see any reason
why a plurality of individuals, comprising the two sexes,
should not have originated at the same time in the same place.
The necessity of this latter condition is, however, not abso-
lute. As the female organism is plainly the connecting link
between the male organism and nature, we are rationally led
to suppose that only females were produced by spontaneous
generation, with reference to such animals as present distinct
individuals of different sexes. In these the creative conatus
may have proceeded to give rise to spontaneous conceptions,
which, on account of the symmetrical structure and antagon-
ism of the two lateral halves of the primary organism, were
perhaps those of twins, of different sexes. In the hermaphro-
ditical animals and plants this higher power of creative de-
velopement may have followed an exogenous direction, whilst
the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd botanical classes of Linnaeus pre-
sent different modifications of the same principle. It is not,
however, my intention to expatiate on such mere supposi-
tions, and I am induced to enter even so far into the subject,
only to give some reason why, in my opinion, M. Turpin
was not quite warranted in shouting "Io triumphe I " when
he discovered an egg in the newly-formed adult Acarusjior-
ridus of Mr. Crosse.

With reference to Mr. Prichard's observation, — " It would
be easy to discover districts situated respectively in North
America and in Europe, or in Equinoctial America, Africa,
and Asia, in which all the same physical conditions exist,
namely, a parallel temperature and elevation, a similar] soil,
and the same degree of humidity in the atmosphere, — yet the
species of plants in these several districts will be far from be-

On Spontaneous Generation. 623

ing identical ; the vegetable tribes will present, in each re-
spectively, analogies of form and general character; but few,
if any, of the same species will be found in localities thus
separated ;" — there can hardly be brought forward an argu-
ment which proves more in favour of the generatio cequivoca,
for had plants been propagated on the surface of the earth
by gradual migration from one locality adapted to their na-
ture, to another, we should find the very same species in every
place that " exists under the same physical circumstances ; "
whereas we find only analogous plants in similar places, be-
cause, though there are many places in America much like
others in Europe, so far as geological and climatic conditions
go, yet the telluric influences are far from being identical ;
and we need only advert to the difference of situation with
respect to the magnetic poles to make this sufficiently appa-
rent. Yet these localities are quite as well adapted to pro-
pagating the species brought thither from similar localities.

Nor do I see why the migrations of animals and plants,
which have retained their specific characters, from one con-
tinent to the other, and where human agency has been em-
ployed, can militate against the doctrine of spontaneous ge-
neration. Although, for example, the present continent of
Africa has not been able to produce a tapir, yet, if a couple
of this species were transported to some favourable locality
there, and to thrive and propagate, this fact could never be
brought forward as proving that the tapir might as well be an
aboriginal species of one continent as the other.

I hope Mr. Blyth will allow that Cuvier's remark, — " La
vie exer§ant sur les elemens qui font a chaque instant partie
du corps vivant, et sur ceux qu'elle attire une action contraire
a ce produiraient sans elle les affinites chimiques ordinaires,
il repugne qu'elle puisse etre elle-meme produite par ces affi-
nites, et cependant V on ne connait dans la nature aucune
force capable de reunir des molecules auparavant separees,"
cannot be fairly opposed to the grounds on which 1 have ven-
tured to support the generatio spontanea ; for I have dis-
tinctly alluded to that extra force of which Cuvier says we
know nothing, and cannot therefore be suspected of thinking
that the common chemical affinities can ever produce an or-
ganized body. We know that magnetism, galvanism, and com-
mon electricity, are either mere modifications of the same pow-
er, or determine each other : we know that there is a constant
electrical and magnetic tension, both in the solid crust of the
earth and in the atmosphere ; that the metallic veins (as shown
by Mr. I. W. Henwood), the plants, (as lately confirmed by
Mr. Golding Bird), and the animals (as proved by Mr. Mat-

024 Muscle in the Eyes of Fishes.

teucci), are pervaded by electrical or galvanic currents ; that
there is a telluric as well as an animal life, which prevents
the fluids in the earth, as animal life does the animal or-
ganization, from obeying the same chemical laws as when
taken out of their natural vessels : and lastly, that the prima-
ry animal organizations, which are the seat of galvanic cur-
rents, give rise to secondary or parasitic growths and animals ;
whereas many observations tend to prove that the earth is
still productive of plants, without their seeds pre-existing in
it, and the more I consider these premises, the more am
I led to the conclusion, not only that every organic body owes
its existence in the first instance to what is called spontane-
ous generation, but also that magnetism, galvanism, and elec-
tricity are the forces which, with the co-operation of other
imponderables, make organic matter combine into organic
arrangements.

Weimar, October 4th, 1838.

Art. X. — Letter from John Dalrymple, Esq., in Reply to Mr.
Wallace's Remarks at page 553.

My Dear Sir,

I perceive in the last Number of your 'Magazine of
Natural History,' a paper entitled a reply to Mr. Dalrymple,
" on an undescribed Muscle in the Eyes of Fishes." Allow
me space for a few observations, in order that I may put my-
self right with regard to the somewhat angry remarks of Mr.
Clay Wallace, of New York, the author of this reply.

I wish that gentleman had rightly copied the title of my
paper, — (" Some account of a Peculiar Structure in the Eyes
of Fishes''), since I appear, by this error of Mr. Wallace, to
be involved in the absurdity of calling that an " undescribed
muscle," three descriptions of which by others, 1 quote in my
paper.

The gravamen of Mr. Wallace's charge against me, is, that
having shown the preparations of this structure, made by me
many years ago, to some gentlemen from, or going to, Ame-
rica, then studying at the Ophthalmic Hospital in Moorfields,
I had suspected, in consequence of a paper sent to me from
New York about two years since, that Mr. Clay Wallace, the
author, was one of those gentlemen to whom the exhibition
was made. Mr. Wallace says he is not an American, and
consequently the American gentlemen are exempt from this

Muscle in the Eyes of Fishes. 625

suspicion. Be it so. That I should, however, have con-
ceived that Mr. Wallace, residing in, and attached to one of
the public establishments of, New York, was an American
either by birth or adoption, was at least a very pardonable
mistake, and one that involved him in no disgrace. He has,
however, retaliated on me by suspecting that I had read and
copied, without acknowledgement, the observations made by
him in Silliman's Journal in 1834. My answer is that I have
never seen that Journal, nor did I know anything of Mr. Wal-
lace's dissections until I received an abstract of his paper,
which I quoted at some length in the March number of your
Magazine for this year. And further, that my dissections
were made two years or more previous to the date of Mr.
Wallace's paper in Prof. Silliman's Journal.

In conclusion, — as I find Mr. Wallace has distinctly deni-
ed, in a recent number of Silliman's Journal, having either
seen or heard of my observations, I am bound in justice to
relieve him from any imputation, which I am now sorry I have
made. While anxious to clear myself from the suspicion of
plagiary, I can do no less than withdraw that portion of my
charge which relates to Mr. Wallace, in the March number
of your Magazine.

I am, My dear Sir,
Yours faithfully,

John Dalrymple.

8, New Broad St.
Oct. 3rd, 1838.

To the Editor of The Magazine of Natural History.

[We quote the following passage from Mr. Dalrymple's paper, p. 140,
of the present volume. "In a number of the American Journal of Science
and Arts, will he found a somewhat similar account of a muscle, discovered
in the eye of the streaked bass, (Perca nobilis vel Mitchellii), by Mr. W.
Clay Wallace, surgeon to the New York institution for the blind. This
gentleman did me the favour to send me over, about twelve months since,
his paper published in that journal. From the circumstance of my not
being aware of being personally acquainted with Mr. Wallace, I cannot
help suspecting that he is one of the Americans to whom the observations
made by me, were imparted at the ophthalmic hospital, some years ago." —
Mr. Wallace, by omitting in his reply the first part of the above paragraph,
ingeniously makes it appear that the only foundation for Mr. Dalrymple's
very natural supposition, was the publication of the original description in
an American Journal ; whereas it rested solely upon the circumstance of a
copy of the paper in question being sent to him by a party to whom he was
a perfect stranger.] — Ed.

626 New Species of Myrmica.

Art. XI. — Description of a new Species of Myrmica which has been
found in houses both in the Metropolis and Provinces. By W. E.
Shuckard, Esq.,Vice Presid. Entom. Soc, Librarian of the Royal
Society.

When Dr. Bostock's paper was read at the Entomological
Society in November, 1836,* I was referred to for the name
of the species of ant which was therein described as having
infested his house, to his own and his family's great annoy-
ance ; and which had also been found in many other houses
and warehouses, in the metropolis and provinces. I consi-
dered it with doubt to be the Myrmica unifasciata, Latr.,
and which I stated to have found occasionally in winter, in
a winged state, in moss in woods ; which led the President
to suspect that it might have been brought into dwelling-
houses, where it has since remained, with the fire-wood usu-
ally consumed. Since this occurred I have been led to the
investigation of the insect, by another and very distinct spe-
cies having been communicated to me, and I find that both
are extremely distinct from the Myr. unifasciata, Latr., and
that both are most probably of exotic and West Indian origin.
The species which led me back to the subject was found in
a hot-house in Chelsea, and has doubtlessly been imported
with plants ; but whether it still continues to be found, and
has located itself permanently, I do not not know, — the speci-
mens I have being all neuter. That the domestic one will
continue with us I think may be concluded from its very wide
dissemination, and the difficulty of extirpating it; as Dr.
Bostock has most amply proved by the very expensive expe-
riments he had recourse to, and which but few individuals
would voluntarily undertake. The Myr. unifasciata is indi-
genous, and has hitherto occurred only at large in the country.
The following descriptions will serve to discriminate the
species.

MYRMICA, Latr.
* Metathorax armed with two spines.
Myr. unifasciata, Latr.

Formica unifasciata, Latr., Hist. Nat. des Fourmis. P. 237.

Dilute ferruginea; metathorace postice bispinoso ; abdomine luteo-fer-
rugineo, fascia nigra transversa.

Length, Fern. 2 lines. Neut. H line.

The male I am unacquainted with.

*See 'Ent. Trans.' vol. ii. p. 65, and 'Journal of Proceedings,' vol. ii. p. 29.

West wood's Classification of Insects. 6*27

** Metathorax unarmed.

Myr. dorrtestica, Shuck.

Dilute ferruginea, abdomine apice fusco.

Length, Fern. 2 lines. Neut. f line.

Pale ferruginous, opaque, the abdomen shining, emarginate in front
for the reception of the nodose peduncle, with the margin of the first,
and the whole of the remaining segments, dark fuscous.

The male of this species I am also unacquainted with. Dr. Bos-
tock's paper before alluded to gives a full account of his endeavours to
eradicate this domestic intruder.

Myr. terminalis, Shuck.

Dilute ferruginea, nitida, capite et abdomine nigro.
Neut. length 1 line.

Pale ferruginous, shining, the head and the abdomen black, the lat-
ter not emarginate in front for the reception of the nodose peduncle,
but lanceolate.

I am unacquainted with both male and female of this species, which
was found by my friend A. Ingpen, Esq. in a hot-house in Chelsea. —
It forms a remarkable exception to the rest in the genus, from its lan-
ceolate abdomen, which is not emarginate in front. I possess other
minute species of this genus from various parts of the world, which I
will take another opportunity of describing, not having leisure at the
present moment.

31, Robert St., Chelsea. October 2Uhf 1838.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. — Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects;
founded on their Natural Habits and corresponding Organization:
with Observations on the Economy and Transformations of the
different Families. To which is added a descriptive Synopsis of
all the British Genera, and Notices of the more remarkable Fo-
reign Genera. By J. O. Westwood, F.L.S., Secretary to the
Entomological Society, of London, &c. &c. London : Longman
and Co. Parts 1 to 6. To be completed in about ten monthly
parts, with about 130 Engravings in wood, each containing nume-
rous figures, and one coloured Plate illustrative of the Orders.

Perhaps the chief characteristic of the modern classification
of every branch of zoological science, is founded upon the in-
vestigation of the natural relations existing between the va-
rious groups of species. In the Linnamn arrangement, al-
though we may find the name of a species if known to the great
Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3 q

62$ Westswood *s Modern Classification of Insects.

Swede, with tolerable accuracy, yet when we have done so,
we have gained all the knowledge to be derived from the
1 Systema Naturae,' — which at best was but a catalogue, in
which the different species were arranged with skill, but in
as artificial a manner as could be desired. Fabricius, the
great disciple of Linnaeus, left the science in an equally arti-
ficial, but far more difficult state than in the time of his mas-
ter ; for having divided the great Linnaean genera into many
groups which he regarded as equally entitled to generic dis-
tinction, he distributed them, if not at random, certainly
without much regard to their true relations. Thus while most
of the Linnaean Scarabcei are placed at the head of his Eleuthe-
rata, Trichius and Cetonia come nearly at the end. Further,
all these dismembered groups presented no indication of be-
longing to the great groups from which they had been
removed, and thus Trichius and Cetonia^ for example, were
each regarded as of equal rank with Buprestis and Cicindela.

Modern entomologists, on the other hand, with Latreille at
their head, have endeavoured to render the science more in
accordance with nature, — in the first place by establishing
" Families naturelles " for the reception of the various dis-
membered groups formed by Fabricius and others ; and in
the second place by investigating the relations existing be-
tween these various families, with the view to their arrange-
ment in a more natural manner than they were left by Fabri-
cius, &c. The latter part of their endeavours has rendered
requisite a careful investigation of the general structure of the
various species, not only in its perfect, but also in its prepa-
ratory states.

The subject is, however, so vast, owing to the immense
number of species, and the difficulty of examining the more
minute kinds, that hitherto but little progress has been made.
The knowledge of the larvae and pupce of insects, (at length
acknowledged to be of primary importance in establishing a
natural system), has been so much neglected, as well as the
investigation of the habits and natural economy of the differ-
ent species, that we cannot but think that Mr. Westwood has
acted judiciously in calling his work an 'Introduction to the
Modern Classification of Insects,' of which we now proceed
to lay a short notice before our readers.

The work commences with observations upon insects in
general, in which the views of recent authors on the extent
of the class Insecta are discussed, and the following charac-
ters given of the group as intended to be treated upon by the
author. — "Annulose animals breathing by trachew, having
the head distinct, and provided in the adult state with six ar-

WestwooW s Modern Classification of Insects. 6*29

ticulated legs, and antenna, subject also to a series of moult-
in gs previously to attaining perfection, whereby wings are
ordinarily developed." This definition comprises the winged
insects of Aristotle ; and these our author regards as espe-
cially entitled to the rank of a distinct and perfectly natural
group, since their metamorphoses are attended by the ulte-
rior developement of organs of flight, which exist in no other
group of Invertebrata.

We perceive that Mr. MacLeay has proposed in his recent-
ly-published memoir upon Dr. A. Smith's African Crustacea,
the theory that the Ptilota of Aristotle may be characterized
by their change of form occurring during their last two or
three stages of Ecdysis, while the metamorphosis of all the
other Annulosae only occurs during the first or second month
after leaving the egg : how this theory will bear investigation
has, however, yet to be proved. After determining the limits
of the class of insects, a sketch of their general structure fol-
lows, occupying thirteen pages, wherein are concisely describ-
ed the various organs in detail, and in which also are noticed the
chief researches of modern entomologists. The chapter re-
lative to the distribution of insects into orders, and the ar-
rangement of these orders, occupies twelve pages, in which
the systems of Swammerdam, Lamarck, Newman, Linnaeus,
De Geer, Fabricius, Latreille, MacLeay, Kirby and Spence,
and Stephens, are reviewed, and their peculiar merits discuss-
ed. Of these systems that of MacLeay appears to the author
to be the most natural, as it calls into action a greater num-
ber of relations than can be expressed by any other hitherto
proposed. With some slight modifications upon Mr. Mac
Leay's arrangement, the following is that adopted by Mr.
Westwood.

Class of Hexapod Metamorphottc Insects.

Sub-Class : Mouth with Jaws. Sub-Class : Mouth with a Sucker.

(Dacnostomata, W.) (Anthiostomata, W.)

Ord. Hymenoptera. Order Diptera.

? Osculant Order Strepsisptera. ? Osculant Order Homaloptera.

Order Coleoptera. ? Osculant Order Aphaniptera.

Osculant Order Euplexoptera. ?

Order Orthoptera. Order Heteroptera.

? (Thrips P) ?

Order Neuroptera. Order Homoptera.

? ?

Order Trichoptera. Order Lepidoptera.

? ?

Here the approach of the Trichoptera to the Hymenoptera,
and of the Lepidoptera to the Diptera, the direct passage

3 q2

630 Westwood's Modern Classification of Insects.

between the Trichoptera and Lepidoptera, and the analogous
relations existing between the opposite orders are to be borne
in mind. The places marked with doubt indicate those si-
tuations which theoretically remain to be filled up by the in-
tervention of groups intermediate in their structure between
the different orders.

Our author, however, instead of commencing with the Hy-
menoptera, has made the Coleoptera the first portion of the
descriptive part of his work ; and has given a long series of
bibliographical references to authors, classified according
to countries. The characters of the Coleoptera are then de-
tailed, and the various arrangements hitherto proposed, adopt-
ing (" with proper restrictions and allowances for occasional
exceptions,)'1 the tarsal system, dividing the Coleoptera ac-
cordingly into four groups, 1, Pentamera, 2, Heteromera, 3,
Pseudo-tetramera, W. {Tetramera, Latr., Cryptopentamera,
Burm.), and 4, Pseudo-trimera, {Trimera, Latr., Cryptote-
tramera, Burm.)

To this succeeds the illustration of the families of beetles,
which, with the introductory matter above mentioned, occu-
py the six numbers already published. It is this portion of
the work which will be of the greatest interest to the reader,
as in addition to ample details of the structure of the perfect
insect, we find almost every family illustrated by its prepa-
ratory states, many of which have never before been publish-
ed, to which are added ample accounts of the natural history,
economy, geograpical distribution, numerous bibliographical
references, &c, with notices of all the remarkable exotic ge-
nera, a knowledge of which is requisite for a general arrange-
ment of insects.

The generic synopsis of British insects is paged separately,
and comprises short (perhaps too short) characters of the ge-
nera, and includes the synonymes of the genera, and their
authors, the number of British species, the typical species,
and references to the best figures published in illustration of
the genera. With the exception of the coloured plate, the
other illustrations, on wood, are in outline; they are, however,
sufficiently characteristic, giving representations of the typi-
cal genera, with numerous details of the mouth and other or-
gans, and of the larva : they are, perhaps, too much crowded,
but the saving of space consequently effected is very great.

From this brief analysis our readers may form a general
notion of the plan and scope of Mr. Westwood's work ; but
to gain an insight into its real merits, and to fairly estimate
the high talent and comprehensive acquirement displayed by
the author in the prosecution of his subject, they must peruse

The Spirit of the Woods. 631

the book itself. At the present moment Entomology may
boast of a numerous and rapidly-increasing train of votaries,
while every separate department of Zoology has talent of the
very highest order devoted to its elucidation. The publica-
tion under review has long been known to us as in contem-
plation ; — so long indeed, that we began almost to despair of
seeing the author ultimately carry his intention into effect. —
In the mean time, however, Mr. Westwood has not been idle :
— our own pages, and those of many other periodicals, and
the Transactions of our scientific Societies, have amply testi-
fied to the unremitting ardour with which he has devoted
himself to entomological pursuits ; and the reputation thus
acquired will have paved the way for that success which we
are confident must accompany his present undertaking.

We shall probably lay before our readers an analysis of the
succeeding numbers as they appear. The work is announced
to be completed in ten parts, but the coleopterous families are
not yet finished, and the author appears to have such ample
materials at his command, that we do not see how he can
possibly finish it within the assigned limits. — We trust, how-
ever, that he will see the necessity of confining it within such
bounds that his subscribers shall have no reason to complain.

Art. IT— The Spirit of the Woods. By the Author of "The Moral
of Flowers." Pp. 306. London : Long-man & Co. 1837.

This is indeed a charming volume, and one which we think no
one, unless utterly devoid of all taste for that which is taste-
ful, can peruse without admiring the feeling and beautiful
manner in which the authoress introduces the ideas and asso-
ciations that, in so many instances, are inseparably connected
with our indigenous forest trees. There is something in the
very selection of the title, — " The Spirit of the Woods," — so
apt and expressive, as to prepare us for sterling matter be-
yond the title-page. But our readers may ask, what is there
for the naturalist ? No definitions of botanical families, ge-
nera, and species, certainly ; but illustrations from the pencil
of the authoress, which may meet, without offending, the eye
of even the scientific botanist; and descriptions, or rather
notices, of the subjects represented, which, if they do not af-
ford him instruction, will not be found beneath his perusal.

Trees have long been interwoven with poetry ; and though
they are objects which are constantly before us, it is surpris-

632 The Spirit of the Woods.

ing how few persons are acquainted with even the English
names of several of the more common and useful species. —
The list, however, is far from being a long one ; and we
think the possessors of this volume will hardly pass a'tree
which they may not have previously known, without recognis-
ing its species, and calling to mind some remark or other
which may here be found respecting it.

But we have perhaps not sufficiently denned the exact na-
ture of the work of which we are speaking so favourably. It
treats, then, of the British trees. — A coloured engraving of
the fruit and leaves of each species, is accompanied by ob-
servations upon its natural properties, and the historical as-
sociations with which it may chance to be connected, ^while
the tree itself is made the subject of a poem.

It is not often that poetical extracts appear in our pages,
but we venture upon one quotation. The subject is

The Ivy. — Hedera Helix.

" Hast thou e'er seen the moon's soft, splendour
Sleep, peaceful, on some ruin'd pile,
Gilding with radiance mild and tender
Each broken arch and mouldering aisle ?

Hast thou e'er seen the ivy clinging

Round fragments broken and decay 'd,
As if its mantling wreaths 'twere flinging

To hide the breaches time had made ?

Oh ! thus, should care or sorrow wound thee

Be friendship's soft endearments thine !
And fondest sympathy around thee

As close her thousand tendrils twine !

And when, at last, each youthful token

Shall yield to wasting and decay,
And thou, like arch or column broken,

Shalt feel proud manhood's strength give way ;

Oh ! then may love, by time unshaken,

Around its earliest prop still cling ;
(For when was mouldering arch forsaken

By the fond wreath it caused to spring ?)

Still may one smile, as moonbeam tender,

E'en to the last unwearied shine,
Gilding thy manhood's waning splendour ;

And Oh ! may that one smile be mine !"

Jones's Animal Kingdom. 633

" If the reader,1' says the authoress in her preface, " partake
the enthusiasm of the writer towards the whole leafy race, he
will at least approve her subject: for the manner in which
she has handled it she craves his indulgence."

CURRENT NUMBERS OF WORKS,

PREVIOUSLY NOTICED.

Outline of the Animal Kingdom. — Part II. — Professor
Rymer Jones. — The contents include the history of the Poly-
gastrica and Acephala, and some of the parenchymatous
Entozoa. The observations of Ehrenberg upon the digestive
apparatus and the disposition of the viscera in the Poly gas-
trica, are disputed in toto, and his views upon this subject
styled " imposing from their completeness." The author tells
us that he failed to detect the arrangement depicted in the
drawings of the illustrious German Professor, after the most
patient and long-continued efforts. He does not, however,
deny the existence of an intestine with appended stomachs,
(as described by Ehrenberg), simply because he was not able
to detect it, but urges reasons entirely independent of the re-
sults attending his own microscopical experiments. All that
Professor Jones has advanced upon' this subject, is espe-
cially worthy of attention. So far as the functions of diges-
tion and assimilation are concerned, he considers the organi-
zation of the Polygastrica essentially the same as that of the
common fresh water polypus, [Hydra viridis).

The illustrations to the chapter on the Acephala are nu-
merous and beautifully executed. We observe that the air-
bladder of the Physalus is stated to have two apertures,
through which the air readily escapes upon pressure. Now,
Mr. George Bennett remarks, in the ' Proceedings of the Zo-
ological Society' for 1837, page 43, that after the examina-
tion of an immense number of specimens, he could never
succeed in expelling any portion of the included air, without
a puncture being previously made in the bladder. He also
states that even when the bladder had entirely collapsed, the
animal still floated on the surface.

We may sincerely say that the contents of the second part
of this work have tended to augment rather than diminish the
highly favourable impression which a perusal of the preced-
ing number led us to form of the author's qualifications for
ably carrying into effect the objects set forth in his prospec-
tus : whilst an evident familiarity with the recorded labours

634 lire's Dictionary.

of naturalists both at home and abroad, has rendered him con-
versant with the condition of zoological science up to the
latest period, there are abundant indications of considerable
personal research, united with the most accurate and careful
observation.

Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. — Part II.
— Dr. Andrew Ure. — The contents of the present part relate
almost entirely to the arts and manufactures. The subjects
of the prominent articles axe— Bleaching, Bread, Brick, But-
ton-Manufacture, and Calico-Printing .

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

The Pied Fly-Catcher — In my * List of Devonshire Birds,
(Vol. i. n. s. p. 176), I stated that the pied fly-catcher (Mus-
cicapa atricapilla) was scarce in the county; its rarity still
continues, but I have to inform you that we have this sum-
mer obtained one specimen, a male, which was shot at Mount
Edgecumbe, April 29th, by a young man named Tucker, and
it is now in Bolitho's collection at Devonport. It appeared
to have but just arrived, and its pretty plumage attracted the
notice of the game-keeper, which led to its destruction. — E.
Moore. — Plymouth, September 29th, 1838.

Northern Diver. — The northern diver {Colymbus glacialis),
I observed in my list, was seldom seen here in mature plum-
age : we have this season been able to obtain one specimen,
which was shot near Plymouth last February, and is now in
Drew's collection. — Id.

Secale cornutum. — In several parts of Germany, the wet-
ness of this summer has caused such an extensive production
of those degenerated grains of the rye [Secale cereale) known
by the name of Secale cornutum [Spermoedia Clavus, Fries),
that regulations have been issued directing the corn-growers
to purify their rye before it is brought to market ; the millers
are threatened with penalties if they grind rye much adulte-
rated with that injurious substance, and the bakers are made
answerable for such poisonous qualities as may be given by
it to the flour which they use. — W. Weissenborn.

In assigning a reason last month (page 566) for not inserting Dr.
Drummond's corrections in his first paper on Irish Entozoa, we quite
unintentionally expressed ourselves in a manner that left room for sup-
posing there had been some neglect on his part. The cause of the
omission originated in our having miscalculated the time required to
convey the mail between London and Belfast, and not in Dr. Drum-
mond's detention of his article for the purpose of correction ; as the
proof sheet was put into the Belfast post-office (for London) within an
hour after it was in his possession. — Ed.

V- /:'/ ^. 1&?4£6za*Jm

' r *ZCO- s// ■'. i & V ~s? /'V/ fa. / .

THE MAGAZINE

OP

NATURAL HISTORY.

DECEMBER, 1838.

Art. I. — Description of the Male of Goliathus torquatus, an In-
sect belonging to the Order Coleoptera and Family Cetoniidae. By
G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., Curator to the Museum of the Zoolo-
gical Society, M.E.S.

In Drury's 'Illustrations of Natural History,' vol. iii. p. 60,
under the name of Scarab&us torquatus is described a beau-
tiful species of Lamarck's genus Goliathus. The insect from
which Drury's description is taken, and of which a figure is
given, (see pi. 44, Jig. 1 of the work quoted), is fortunately
still in existence, and graces the rich collection of Mr. Mac-
Leay. The specimen is a female ; and as the structure of the
tibiae and clypeus of the male sex have hitherto furnished the
chief characters upon which the subgenera of Goliathus have
been established, I gladly avail myself of the loan of a male
specimen to complete the account of this splendid insect.

This specimen, I may observe, forms part of a collection
of rare and interesting insects brought by Lieut. Strachan from
Sierra Leone : and this gentleman informs me that the spe-
cies must there be extremely scarce, since the individual from
which the following description is taken, was the only one
he had ever seen ; and upon its being shown to Mr. Fergus-
son, the staff surgeon, who has resided at Sierra Leone up-
wards of twenty years, and who had seen all the collections
which had been formed in the neighbourhood during that
time, he was perfectly unacquainted with the species.

Vol. II.— No. 24. n. s. 3 r

(>36 Description of the Male

Goliathvs torquatus.

Form. — Head quadrate, having on each side, in front of
the eyes, a short pointed process, the apex of which is slight-
ly recurved : clypeus produced anteriorly into a long, pointed,
and slightly recurved process. On the upper surface of this
process, and about midway between the base and apex, are
two small triangular projections, which are separated by a
longitudinal groove. Eyes somewhat prominent. Thorax
slightly convex, broader than long, — the length being about
equal to two-thirds of the width ; truncated anteriorly ; the
posterior margin slightly produced in the middle, but emar-
ginate opposite the scutellum. At the basal half of the tho-
rax the lateral margins are nearly parallel, but beyond this
they converge towards the head. The thorax is widest at the
base and most contracted in front, where it is in fact no wider
than the head : the posterior angles are rounded. Scutellwn
large, nearly triangular, rather longer than broad, with the
anterior margin somewhat rounded. Elytra depressed, con-
vex near the apex externally, but near the suture there is a
concavity ; longer than broad, — the width being about four-
fifths of the length : they are broadest at the base and nar-
rowest at the apex : their lateral margins approach nearly to
a straight line, but are slightly dilated in the middle, indis-
tinctly contracted near the shoulder, and dilated again and
rounded at the shoulder, or external anterior angle : at the
apex they are rounded, but near the suture there is a small
notch in each elytron, leaving an acute angle. The sternum
is produced anteriorly into a broad flat process, the lateral
margins of which are parallel, and the apex is obtusely point-
ed, and fits in between the coxae of the anterior pair of legs.
The upper plate of the terminal segment of the abdomen is
slightly convex, vertical in position, of a triangular form,
broader than long, and rounded at the apex. Femora sim-
ple. Anterior tibia dilated at the apex, externally into a
large, flattened, and pointed tooth, the apex of which is
slightly recurved ; and internally into a broad, forked pro-
cess : besides the external apical teeth there are two others,
the larger one about midway between the base and apex
of the tibia, and the other between this and the base ; and
between these external pointed processes the tibia is deep-
ly emarginated. On the inner side of the tibia, indepen-
dantly of the forked process mentioned, there are four denta-
tions, of which the two intermediate are the largest. The
tibia of the middle and posterior pairs of legs have a sharp

of Goliathus torquatus. 637

spine on the upper side, about midway between the base and
apex. The tibiae of the middle pair of legs are furnished with
five spines at the apex, and on the posterior tibia there are
four spines in the same situation, two of which are very large.
The tarsi exhibit nothing peculiar. The plantula or acces-
sory joint is very minute, pointed, and terminated by two
small bristles.

Colour fyc, — The upper parts are of a deep, rich, but dull
green,* having, in certain lights, a slight rust-like tint on the
disc of the elytra and thorax. The legs and under parts of
the body are likewise of a deep green, but glossy, and ex-
ceedingly changeable according to the direction of the light;
cupreous and brassy reflections being generally very conspi-
cuous. The upper side of the head and clypeus is white,f and
has a velvet-like appearance : the apical portion, as well as
the under side of the clypeus, however, is glossy and black :
the antenna are black. The thorax is broadly margined
with white at the sides, (with the exception of the extreme
edge), the white extending for a short distance on each side
in a narrow line along the posterior margin ; the anterior mar-
gin is narrowly edged with white : a longitudinal, narrow,
white line, commencing in front, runs along the centre of the
thorax, and extends about one-third of its length : on each
side of this line is a longitudinal, broad, white patch, which
extends backwards from the anterior margin of the thorax.
Within but near the outer margin of each elytron is an irre-
gular white band, which is somewhat interrupted in parts,
especially near the apex of the elytra, and at the apex it is
broken into irregular small spots, but near the suture is ex-
panded, and forms a large white patch : just above this patch
there are several irregular, small, confluent spots, having a
tendency to form one spot of a large size. On one of the ely-
tra there is a white line, running parallel with the suture, and
extending from the cluster of small spots to the large apical
patch. The terminal segment of the abdomen is of a dark
green colour, in tint and want of gloss resembling that of the
upper parts of the elytra, and has two large, irregular, white
patches, between which there is but a narrow green space :
at the apex of this segment is a fringe of dark yellow hairs.
The head is black beneath : near the eye on each side there
is a small, yellowish-white, velvet-like patch. The under-

* At this moment I cannot recollect any common insect to whose colour
I can compare the present species, unless it be Cicindela campestris; but
it is of a decidedly deeper hue than that insect.

f There is a slight brownish hue on this part at present, but Lieut. Strac-
han informs me that when the insect was fresh, the head was pure white.

3 r 2

638 Description of the Male of Goliathus torquatus.

side of the prothorax, or the prostemum, the anterior coxa,
and a large portion of the mesosternum, are covered with
velvet-like hairs of a pale buff colour, a space however on
each side and near the lateral margin of the prostemum is
green, like the upper side of the prothorax ; a fringe of deep
yellow hair springs from the anterior margin, and is closely
applied to the under side of the head. The sides of the me-
sosternum are glossy green, (like the remaining under parts),
and covered with long, deep yellow hairs. The spinous pro-
cesses of the legs are black, the tarsi and the under side of
the tibiae are also black ; on the hinder tibiae however there
is a greenish hue. A narrow line of a velvet-like substance
extends along the fore part of the femora of the anterior pair
of legs, which is of a yellowish-brown colour. The inner
side of the posterior tibia is furnished with a fringe of long-
ish deep yellow hair, and a fringe of the same character ex-
tends along the external margin of the elytra. Some very
faint indications of stria are observable on the elytra.

IN. L.

Total length 2 8

Length of head „ 8

Width of head in front of the eyes „ 4

Length of thorax „ 8

Width of ditto. 1 0£

Length of elytra 1 4£

Width of ditto at the "base 1 1£

near the apex „ 2f

Judging from Drury's figure and description, there are cer-
tain points in which his insect does not agree with the spe-
cimen here described, and which I presume are sexual, al-
though they are not such as might have been anticipated, as
in the case of the great developement of the clypeus, &c. I
allude more particularly to the circumstance of there being
two spines on the upper side of the intermediate tibia repre-
sented in the drawing, and there being no white longitudinal
line on the centre of the thorax. The fore part of the head
is described by Drury as being dusky green, and the hinder
part grey.

London, Nov. 20th, 1838.

Doubts respecting the Fossil Jaws of Stonesfield. 639

Art. TI. — Doubts respecting the Class, Family, and Genus to which
the Fossil Bones found at Stonesfield, and designated by the names
of Didelphis Prevostii and Did. Bucklandii, should be referred. —
By M. de Blainville.*

In a paper on the Megalosaurus, or great fossil lizard of
Stonesfield, published in 1823 in the ' Transactions of the
Geological Society of London,' vol. i. p. 399, the question
was first mooted, as to whether some fossil bones, found in
one of the more ancient secondary strata, belonged to a mam-
mal of the genus Didelphis : — and Professor Buckland first
announced the fact as established, from an examination of
two portions of lower jaws made by the late M. G. Cuvier.

This assertion (the importance of which Dr. Buckland was
so well qualified to appreciate) of the existence of the remains
of a terrestrial mammal in a formation much lower than the
chalk, an animal too belonging to a genus of which the living
analogues are only found in the New World and Australasia,
— although based upon such imposing authority, was yet re-
ceived with considerable caution, as has been remarked by
the author of an analytical article upon the ' Transactions of
the Geological Society of London,' in the 34th volume of the
'Quarterly Review,' p. 539. It was therefore of consequence
that the fact thus announced should be attentively examined,
not only in its geological relations, but also in a zoological
point of view ; nor indeed was it long before this investiga-
tion was entered upon.

*" Doutes sur le pretendu Didelphe fossil de Stonefield, ou a quelle classe,
a quelle famille, a quel genre, doit-on rapporter ranimal auquel ont apper-
tenus les ossements fossiles, a Stonefield, designes sous les noms de Didel-
phis Prevostii, et Did. Bucklandii, par les paleontologistes." — ! Compte
Rendu,' August 20th, 1838, p. 402.

The present article will put our readers in possession of the " doubts "
entertained by M. de Blainville, as to the correctness of the opinion first
given by Baron Cuvier, and subsequently confirmed by several English
zoologists, respecting the mammiferous and marsupial character of the
Stonesfield jaws Care has been taken to render the translation as faithful
as the occasional occurrence of somewhat obscure passages would allow, and
which in the original are of little importance, as the introduction of figures
renders the osteological details more easily understood. M. de Blainville
has been opposed, before the French Academy, by one of his fellow acade-
micians, M. Valenciennes, who with the exception of his considering the
jaw referable to an extinct genus of Marsupiala and not to Didelphis,
strongly supports the opinion held by Cuvier.

Very recently some additional observations entitled " Nouveaux doutes
sur le pretendue didelph de Stonefield" have appeared by M. de Blainville,
and the subject is one of such general interest and great geological impor-
tance, that we shall probably transfer these " new doubts," and the previous
paper of M. Valenciennes to our own pages. — Ed.

640 Doubts respecting

M. Constant Prevost, during a visit to England in 1825,
undertaken for the purpose of geological research, made it
one of his principal objects to visit Stonesfield; and even
during his stay at Oxford he sent to M. G. Cuvier a drawing
very carefully executed, of the half jaw possessed by the Ox-
ford Museum, which Dr. Buckland had immediately submit-
ted to his inspection. M. Cuvier, who had at first only ven-
tured to remark, — with regard to the bones of reptiles col-
lected at Stonesfield, — "among these innumerable marine
fossils, there are sometimes long bones, which appear to me
to belong to birds of the order of waders ; and there have
even been, as I am assured, two fragments of a lower jaw,
which, judging from a hasty inspection made at Oxford in
1818, appeared to me that of a Didelphis" — was now so
confirmed in his first idea or attempt at classification, that he
even proposed designating the fossil by the name of Didel-
phis Prevostii. Indeed on this subject we may refer to the
very text of the note which Cuvier has given in page 349 of
the 2nd part of Vol. v. of his c Recherches sur les Ossements
Fossiles,' published in 1826. — "M. C. Prevost, who is at
present travelling in England, has just sent me a sketch of
one of these jaws, which confirms the impression I had re-
ceived from their first inspection. It is that of a small carni-
vorous animal, the grinders of which very much resemble
those of the opossums, but there are ten teeth in a row, a num-
ber exceeding that of any of the known order of carnassiers.
Under all circumstances, if this animal be positively from the
Stonesfield slate, it is an exception to the rule, otherwise
so general, that beds of that age do not contain the remains
of Mammalia.''''

We see from this passage that the doubt related, not to the
recognition of the fossil as referable to an animal so much
resembling an opossum that Cuvier inserted it in that genus,
— but to the certainty of its position in the Stonesfield slate.

In this point of view it was that M. Prevost, upon his re-
turn from England, introduced the question in a report made
to the Philomathic Society, upon a memoir of M. Denoyers
published in the c Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1825.
After a rather detailed description of the portion of jaw un-
der observation, accompanied by a drawing twice the natural
size, made with the greatest care by the aid of a magnifier,
M. Prevost, without any preconceived idea, arrives at the con-
clusion (based almost exclusively upon the existence^of dou-
ble roots to the teeth, which I had myself pointed out), that
this jaw belonged to one of the insectivorous marsupials, ap-
parently having some affinity to the opossums, but which

the Fossil Jaws of Stonesfield. 641

ought rather to be considered as constituting a new genus. —
With regard to its geological position, M. Prevost endeavours
to invalidate all the arguments of Dr. Buckland and other
English geologists, as to the age of the rock in which the
bones are found, and refuses to admit, as sufficiently proved,
the fact that the calcareous schist of Stonesfield really con-
stitutes a part of the oolitic series.. Thus the supposed
exception appears to be brought back within the rule, that
the bones of Mammalia are found in a fossil state, only in
the strata which are of more recent origin than the chalk.

This explanation of so anomalous a fact was, however, en-
tertained but for a moment ; for Dr. Fitton, one of the most
distinguished English geologists, immediately showed, by a
very profound examination, that the rock which contained
the jaw-bones was certainly in the position, and forming a
part of the oolitic formation ; and from that time the paleon-
tological exception was re-admitted, although Mr. Samuel
Woodward appears to have forgotten it in his table of the fos-
sil remains of Great Britain.

Some years after this the subject was renewed in a manner
which appeared still more plausible, and scarcely open to
objection, by a description and figure of the second half jaw
spoken of by Dr. Buckland, which, after having been lost for
some years, fortunately fell under the notice of Mr. Broderip.
He counted in it four incisors, one canine, and seven molars,
which is, in fact, the dental formula in the Didelphis ; and
having besides remarked that the teeth in the fragment de-
scribed by M. Prevost appeared to differ, not only specifi-
cally but generically from that which he had before him, Mr.
Broderip thought it necessary to make of his a distinct spe-
cies, which he very properly dedicated to Dr. Buckland, un-
der the name of Didelphis Bucklandii.

From that time, that is to say, during the last ten years, all
the authors of treatises on Paleontology or Geology have ad-
mitted, as beyond all doubt, the existence of two species of
Didelphis, viz., the Did. Prevost it of Cuvier, and the Did.
Bucklandii of Broderip, occurring in the calcareous schist
of Stonesfield, which forms part of the oolitic series.

In a note at the end of my memoir upon the antiquity of
the existing order of insectivorous Mammalia, I have already
declared my opinion concerning a portion of a lower jaw
brought from Stonesfield by M. Brochant de Villiers and his
pupils MM. Elie de Beaumont and Dufrenoy; and which had
been supposed to belong to the same Didelphis as the two

642 Doubts respecting

preceding. I have indeed found the minute of my reply, in
which I said, that appertaining to a small animal of the sau-
rian tribe, rather than to a fish, it appeared certain to me that
this fragment could not have belonged to a mammal, whether
a Didelphis or not, as I had believed on the first inspection.

I ought to mention, to speak the truth more fully, that I
did not remember having made this reply seven years ago,
when a friend of mine, M. de Roissy, to whom I mentioned
my last memoir to the Academy, asked me if I should allude
in it to the insectivorous mammal of Stonesfield ; and on my
replying in the negative, he informed me that M. Agassiz, in
his German translation of Dr. Buckland's work on Geology,
was about to make mention of an opinion of Professor Grant,
that the supposed Didelphis of Stonesfield was not a mam-
miferous animal.

M. Elie de Beaumont, on the occasion of my note to the
Academy, informed us that the portion of bone which had
been submitted to my examination by M. Brochant de Vil-
liers, in 1831, belonged indeed to a reptile, as I had said ;
and that this was the opinion of M. G. Cuvier, who had also
examined it, and of M. Agassiz ; but that it was quite a dif-
ferent thing from the Did. Bucklandii, which was not the less
a mammal : so that the fact of the existence of the class
mammalia in the oolitic series was not weakened by the above
circumstance.

In the paragraph which M. Elie de Beaumont has added
to the extract from my memoir, he indeed says, that having
shown to Cuvier the jaw which had been brought to Paris,
Cuvier, in pointing out to him the objections to its mammife-
rous character, at the same time explained in what respects
it differed from the jaw previously found in the same locality,
— the Did. Bucklandii. Unfortunately, M. Elie de Beau-
mont does not describe these differences ; but they must have
been convincing, since M. Agassiz, according to my col-
league's information, had given up the idea entertained by
Professor Grant, that the jaw was not that of a mammal. —
Nevertheless, let us see if, the fragment which I have exa-
mined being already referred to the sub-type of oviparous Ver-
tebrata, sufficient reasons yet exist for retaining in the class
Mammalia the two other fragments found in the same locality.
In order that we may judge clearly of this question, let us
begin by giving descriptions of these fragments, taken from
the authors who have made us acquainted with their history,
and particularly from the figures which they have published ;
at the same time requesting the parties who possess the ori-
ginal specimens, to submit them to a fresh examination.

the Fossil Jaws of Stohesfield. 643

The first of these fragments, and the one which has been
longest known, is that in the Ashmolean Musem at Oxford ;
being the one seen by Cuvier at the residence of Dr. Buck-
land, at the time of his first visit to Oxford, and which was
afterwards so carefully examined and so accurately figured
by M. C. Prevost, in his memoir already cited ; and which has
since been re-figured by Dr. Buckland in his Bridgewater
Treatise. This, however, is not the most perfect of the frag-
ments in question.

It consists of the right half of the lower jaw, the outer as-
pect of which is visible, while the inner adheres strongly to
the rock in which it is fixed. In form it is long and narrow,
being only three lines in depth by nine or ten in length in its
horizontal ramus, which is almost straight, with its upper and
lower edges slightly bowed in opposite directions; the ascend-
ing ramus, of which little more than the impression remains,
is barely half the length of the horizontal one. A tolerably
large coronoid process may however be distinguished, with
edges somewhat arched ; a sort of angular process ; and mid-
way between these a rounded and but slightly projecting
condyle; so that the extremities of these three projections are
upon the same vertical line. The horizontal ramus, which
gradually attenuates in front, is imperfect, that is to say, form-
ed of two plates only in its posterior half; its anterior being
fortunately deprived of the external plate, which exposes to
view the roots of the teeth. We may feel pretty certain that
the anterior extremity is incomplete ; but it is impossible to
say anything more respecting the deficient portion, than that
its size must have been very inconsiderable.

The teeth are not quite in contact, but separated at equi-
distant intervals, and form a continued series throughout al-
most the whole length of the ramus, being about the same
shape and size ; they however decrease a little from the sixth
to the tenth posteriorly, and more particularly to the first in
front. They all appear as much compressed in their crowns
as in their roots. They are small, all of them tricuspid, with
the middle tubercle, particularly of the anterior teeth, generally
more elevated than the lateral ones ; the roots are all similarly
composed of two very slender fangs, which are very pointed,
and two or three times the length of the crown.

There cannot however be distinguished in this continued
series any teeth which we might look upon as anterior or pos-
terior molars, and still less canines or incisors ; we therefore
conclude, with the late M. G. Cuvier, that the two latter kinds
are entirely absent, and that all the teeth in the series may
be regarded as molars. And as a certain number of the hind-

Vol. II.— No. 24, n. s. 3 s

644 Doubts respecting

er teeth are broken in a vertical direction, we are easily able
to perceive that their crowns are entire ; whilst the loss of
the external plate of the anterior half of the jaw shows that
the anterior teeth are strongly fastened into their sockets, and
that the crown is separated from the root by a rather project-
ing ridge.

The second fossil fragment from Stonesfield, considered as
having belonged to a mammal of the genus Didelphis, is that
which was described and figured for the first time by Mr.
Broderip, [he. tit.), which figure Dr. Buckland has repeated
in plate 2 of his last work, adding to it some farther details,
and among others an enlarged figure of the fifth tooth, con-
sidered as a molar.

This fragment, which also consists of a ramus of the lower
jaw, is much more perfect than the first, and now forms part
of Mr. Broderip's collection. It is also from the right side,
but is perceptibly larger, being at least fifteen lines long. —
There is also less disproportion between its two rami, the ho-
rizontal one is deeper, and its edges are rather more bowed,
and not in opposite directions ; and the ascending ramus dis-
plays a large coronoid process, rounded, and much recurved
posteriorly ; and a condyloid apophysis, much more promi-
nent than in the first fragment, and exactly on the same lev-
el as the jaw itself.

There is no trace of an angular process, the lower edge
of the jaw being continued uninterruptedly as far as the con-
dyle. Notwithstanding this, it cannot be denied that this
fossil appears to bear a very great resemblance to the jaws
of certain species of Mammalia.

The number and disposition of the teeth contribute perhaps
still more to this resemblance. In fact, instead of a continu-
ous series of ten teeth occupying the entire edge of the jaw,
we perceive towards the obliquely rounded anterior extremity,
four teeth at some distance from each other, all about equally
conical and pointed, of which the two anterior are directed
forwards, while the two others stand upright; the last in par-
ticular appearing to incline a little backward. As this last is
rather higher and larger than the others, Mr. Broderip consi-
ders it to be a canine, and the three anterior ones incisors ;
it is however as little curved as they are.

At the very extremity of the jaw, before the first of these
teeth, is a void space, perhaps a little longer than that between
each of them ; and behind the last, or the supposed canine, is
a much larger space, forming a complete separation between
this first part of the dental system and the second.

the Fossil Jaws of Stonexjield. 645

The second part of this system, which occupies the remain-
der of the horizontal portion of the jaw, almost as far as the
anterior edge of the ascending branch, is formed by a series of
seven teeth, of which the posterior are much more closely set
than the anterior, without however being absolutely in con-
tact ; and are also rather more unequal than in the preceding
fragment; the terminal teeth being smaller than the others,
and regularly decreasing towards each extremity, beginning
from the fourth tooth, which thus forms the principal one. All
are, however, of very nearly the same compressed form, pro-
vided with two roots, and having the crown but little elevat-
ed, compressed, and tricuspid, with the exception of the fifth,
in which the terminal points are bilobate, so as to render the
crown pentacuspid, with a palmated form.

Thus by adding one more incisor in front, at the very point
of the jaw, and where, in fact, Mr. Broderip even thought he
perceived a socket, the number of teeth on one side of the low-
er maxilla will be four incisors, one canine and seven molars;
and as it appears that the animal to which this fragment be-
longed was an adult, Mr. Broderip has arrived at the conclu-
sion, that the dentition was the same as that of the opos-
sums. But in that case it would differ widely from what has
been established with regard to the first fragment; and there-
fore Mr. Broderip is of opinion that, as we have already said,
it indicates not oidy a different species, but quite a different
genus.

Such are the two fragments on which is founded the belief
of the presence of insectivorous marsupials in a formation
anterior to the chalk. And having now made ourselves ac-
quainted with one of the terms of comparison, let us exa-
mine the other, and in fact give a description and sketch of
the right maxillary bone of an opossum or of a perameles,
which most nearly resembles the fossil jaw.

The lower jaw of the opossum is narrow, elongated, par-
ticularly in its horizontal branch, which is much longer than
the ascending one, and somewhat curved lengthwise, and in the
same direction both above and below, being considerably at-
tenuated in front.

The vertical portion continues, to a considerable extent, to
follow the general curve, like that of a boat, insomuch that
the angle of junction is almost effaced; this ascending branch
has also a large coronoid process, rounded at the extremity,
and considerably hollowed on the outside ; a condyle, trans-
verse or rounded, projecting considerably beyond the perpen-
dicular line of the coronoid process, and always more or less
above the level of the dental line ; and finally, below the

3s 2

646 Doubts respecting

condyle, a large process for the insertion of muscles situat-
ed obliquely within and behind.

But it is the dental formula of the insectivorous marsupials
which more particularly demands our notice.

In the first place the three sets of teeth are as distinct in
disposition as in form ; the incisors being separated from the
canines by a space as large as that which divides the latter
from the molars.

The incisors, which are generally very small, are terminal,
and grouped together to the number of three or four at the ex-
tremity of the jaw, in a nearly straight and transverse line;
they have each only a single root, and the crown, though
rather diversiform, is never pointed nor conical, but is more
or less broad at the extremity.

The canine, which is always completely isolated, has the
usual conical form, a little compressed, widened at the base,
and rather strongly arched and pointed at the apex.

The molars, to the number of seven in the whole, consist
of three false and four true.

The first of the false or "avant-molaires" is often separated
from the other two by a greater space than that between the
rest ; the remainder, though often rather unequal, present the
same general shape, each having two conical diverging roots,
and the crown rather compressed, triangular, with a single
triangular tubercle, having an indication of a very small lobe
in front, and a more distinct posterior process {talon) occupy-
ing a lower position.

The four true molars, including the principal and three
hind molars, form an evenly serrated continuous series of sub-
equal teeth, of which the largest is usually the last but one,
and sometimes the last ; and the first is always the smallest.
They are a little thicker across than from back to front, and
approach more or less to a parallelogram in shape ; the crown
is always divided, as in the Insectivora, into two parts, se-
parated by a deep notch, — the one anterior, and in general
more elevated, prismatic, and always with three tubercles,
one of which is external and two internal ; — the other poste-
rior, almost equal, and with two tubercles, one external and
the other internal : so that the crown has five tubercles, more
marked however in the last tooth but one than in the others.

As to the roots, though they appear to be only two in num-
ber, one for each portion of the crown, as they are much wid-
er in the transverse direction than in the other, it is evident
that each, dividing itself into two, is certainly not conical. —
It must also be farther observed, that these roots are hardly
half as long again as the crown, which encroaches considera-

the Fossil Jaws of Stonesfield. 647

bly upon them ; and that they have below a large dental
canal, their summit being truncated by the dental orifice.

As we may have occasion to compare the fossil jaws from
Stonesfield with those of the placental Insectivora, let us ob-
tain an insight into the structure of the jaw of the Tupaia,
which appears most closely to resemble the fossils, especially
the Did. Prevostii of Cuvier ; although the maxillary bone
and its dental system among the tenrecs comes nearer to
what we have just described in the opossum. The jaw of the
Tupaia is in fact rather short, or moderately elongated in its
horizontal ramus, which is attenuated in front; with both
its edges slightly convex. The ascending ramus, which is
also of moderate size, is upon the whole very wide at its pos-
terior edge, and dilated into a kind of fan with three branches,
of which the narrow and rather curved summit of the coron-
oid process, and the transverse condyle and the somewhat
hooked angular process, bear some resemblance to the han-
dle of a crutch. The condyle is moreover considerably high-
er than the dental line.

The dental system consists of a very nearly continuous
series throughout, in which, however, we can easily distin-
guish three long incisors, directed forwards, and rather spa-
tulate ; a canine, which is almost straight and subcylindrical,
and but slightly pointed ; and finally six subcontiguous mo-
lars, two anterior, one principal, and three posterior ; of the
two front molars with the crown almost simple, the first has
one and the second two roots : the principal is of moderate
size, and has two blunt points anteriorly, and a posterior pro-
cess; and lastly, the three hinder molars have an almost square
crown, formed, as in the Insectivora generally, with an ante-
rior half more elevated than the posterior, trihedral, with three
tubercles ; the posterior half having two, except in the last,
which has but one, and is rather smaller than the two pre-
ceding it.

Let us now proceed to establish a comparison; and we
will begin with the fragment which constitutes the Did. Pre-
vostii of M. G. Cuvier.

I shall not occupy much time in considering the form of
the ascending ramus and its three processes, because it is
certain that the jaw is mutilated in this part ; and if we may
put absolute confidence in the representation of it given by
Dr. Buckland, there is no doubt that, except in the position
of the condyle which is in the plane of the dental line, the
same as in the Did. Bucklandii, and contrary to what takes
place in the opossums, as well as in the Insectivora, — this
branch bears scarcely any resemblance to that of Did. Buck-

648 Doubts respecting

landii, and has on the contrary something of the character
which we have just described in the Tupaia,

I shall not dwell upon the manner in which the latter jaw
terminates anteriorly, because it is possible that there is here
also some mutilation. It roust indeed have been so consi-
dered by the late M. G. Cuvier, since he regards all the re-
maining teeth as grinders ; I shall therefore confine myself to
observing, that this mode of terminating in a point, is much
the same as obtains in fishes and reptiles, but this we have
already pointed out in the Tupaia.

I shall however insist more largely upon the system of den-
tition. We have seen above that in the first half jaw from
Stonesfield the system consists of a regular and uninterrupt-
ed series of ten subequal teeth, subsimilar, with a crown very
much compressed, tricuspid, extremely small or low when
compared with their very long roots ; and these latter formed
of two radicles or branches, both very much pointed, entirely
buried in the jaw, and without any dental canal beneath
them.

Now in considering all these teeth as molars, as M. Cuvier
has done, and it is difficult to do otherwise, it is evident that
there is no comparison to be established with what we have
just described in an insectivorous didelph or monodelph.

None of these animals have more than seven molars.

In none of them are they regularly separated by interspaces.

In none of them are they so nearly similar, those in front
being scarcely smaller than the hinder ones.

We may also add that none of them have these teeth so
disproportionate in their crowns and roots.

Finally, if the first false molars of the opossums offer some
resemblance to the first molars of the Did. Prevostii in hav-
ing two roots, and the crown compressed, — yet here all re-
semblance ceases ; and to the other molars there is actually no
approach to be made in the way of comparison ; those of the
fossil being compressed and palmate, with three or four tu-
bercles, the largest occupying the middle of the tooth ; while
those of the insectivorous mammals are always thick, sub-
quadrate, with a dilated crown, raised, divided into two parts
by a deep median depression, and each part beset with points
without and within.

Finally in the fossil, notwithstanding the destruction of the
external plate, and of a part of the horizontal ramus, an ac-
cident which lays open to view the situation of the seven first
teeth, we perceive no trace of the dental canal, which in all
the Mammalia runs through the whole extent of the jaw;
and furthermore it appears, to judge from the representation,

the Fossil Jaws of Stonesfield. 649

that the roots of the teeth are enveloped on all sides by the
osseous substance.

Thus we might already, if we had only this piece of the
Stonesfield fossil, assure ourselves that it had not belonged to
an insectivorous mammal, either placental or marsupial, at
which conclusion we had long since arrived with regard to
the fragment submitted to our examination by M. Brochant
de Villiers. But we have yet to examine the second frag-
ment, the basis of the Did. Bucklandii of Mr. Broderip. And
here, we do not deny that the task is more difficult ; the more
so that we have as yet only figures, which are always insuffi-
cient when they are not accompanied by a detailed descrip-
tion.

We shall begin by remarking that this second fragment,
when compared with the first, appears so widely different in
its general form, and especially in the boat-like curve of its
horizontal ramus, in the form of the ascending branch depriv-
ed of the angular process, and especially in the dental
system, in which we have clearly distinguished three or four
incisors, one canine, and seven molars, differing both in form
and disposition, — that Mr. Broderip has not scrupled to ex-
press an opinion that his Did. Bucklandii could not be ad-
mitted even into the same genus as Did. Prevostii ; so that
even although we should arrive at proofs that the latter is not
a placental or marsupial quadruped, this would be no argu-
ment for extending the same conclusion to the former. Let
us then see how we may compare the Did. Bucklandii with
the two recent generic forms described above.

Without doubt we cannot deny that in its general aspect as
well as in the form and proportion of the two principal parts
of the fossil jaw, there is a marked resemblance to that of the
Did. Virginiana for example, especially if we suppose that
the hooked process of the latter would not be apparent in
consequence of its being concealed by the matrix ; at the same
time it bears but a very slight degree of resemblance to the
Did. Prevostii. We ought however to observe that the con-
dyle is rounded, and lies in the prolongation of the dental
line, as in the Did. Prevostii; and that in the opossums, on
the contrary, the condyle is always more or less transverse,
and constantly observed a considerable distance above this
line. We should also remark that throughout the whole ex-
tent of the horizontal ramus, there appears to be no trace of
the foramina in the chin, existing in all the other opossums,
which would lead us to think that they had no dental canal ;
another point of resemblance to the Did. Prevostii.

With respect to the dental system, confining ourselves to

650 Doubts respecting

a slight examination, we cannot help remarking some resem-
blance between the Stonesfield fossil and the Did. Virginia-
na ; and indeed admitting that a first tooth is wanting in the
extremity of the jaw, and that more are missing in the inter-
val from the presumed canine to the first molar, — we have in
reality the very same number of the three kinds of teeth as in
the opossum, and even with some similitude in the manner of
their disposition; but all analogy entirely ceases when we
examine the form of the teeth separately.

The incisors, instead of being very small, dilated and flat-
tened, or obtuse, and placed close together quite at the ex-
tremity of the jaw, as in the opossum, are strong, conical, dis-
tant, and almost all lateral.

The canine, instead of projecting forward and'being curved,
compressed, very pointed and very strong, especially as com-
pared with the incisors, is on the contrary quite straight, co-
nical, and hardly longer than they are.

Finally, the molars, instead of being arranged at very une-
qual distances, particularly the anterior ones, and sometimes
even remarkably unequal, as in the opossum, increase gradu-
ally from the first to the fourth, and then decrease as far as
the last. As to their form, which is almost uniform in the fos-
sil jaw, it has no similitude whatever either in the crown or
the roots, to the insectivorous arrangement displayed in so
great a degree by the four last molars of the opossum.

But if the palmated lobate form of the molar teeth of Did.
Bucklandii does not in any respect resemble that which ex-
ists among the placental or marsupial quadrupeds, this is not
the case with regard to the other Stonesfield jaw, brought in-
to notice by M. Prevost. The resemblance with regard to
this is nearly complete, excepting only in number ; so that if it
be impossible to consider these two jaws as belonging to indi-
viduals of the same species, which I readily allow, it is diffi-
cult to look upon them as belonging to animals of different
classes ; — the structure of the dental system, which furnishes
the particular masticating organs of each class of Vertebrata
being here absolutely the same.

Thus far we have been proving that the two fragments from
Stonesfield differ entirely from the jaws of the opossums, but
that they closely resemble each other, at least in the form of
the molars. It now remains for us to enquire if what we have
described in the dental system of the supposed Didelphis of
Stonesfield has any evident analogy with what we find in
any of the four classes of Vertebrata whose jaws are furnish-
ed with teeth ; that is to say, among the Mammalia, reptiles,
amphibious animals, and fishes.

the Fossil Jaws of Stonesjield. 651

In the jaws of animals provided with a dental appara-
tus, the teeth have either both crowns and roots simple, or one
of the two complex ; or else the complex structure in both is
associated ; the last is most generally the case in the mo-
lar teeth, especially the posterior ones ; while a simple struc-
ture of both these parts is the usual condition of the inci-
sors and canines.

In this class there has never yet been found a dental sys*
tern in which all the teeth are complex in both parts. A
small number of species have them all simple, both as regards
the crown and the root, as in all the Cetacea, and some seals ;
but in the greater number both kinds are associated, that is
teeth of simple structure placed in front and complex behind.

In animals of this class all the teeth have the root, whether
simple or complex, buried to a greater or less depth in an en-
tire socket, and these sockets communicate with the dental
canal, through which pass the nervous filaments that com-
municate with the teeth.

With the exception of the whales and the Ornithorhynchi,
all the Mammalia resemble each other as regards the system
of dentition.

In the Reptilia there is much more variation in this part
of their organization. In fact, if the teeth, which are almost
always simple, may yet sometimes have sub-complex crowns*,
as for example, among the iguanas, they are constantly simple
in their roots ; at least I have no example of a contrary nature,
if indeed there be any true root besides their base, in the
greatest number of cases.

These teeth differ so sometimes that we are able to dis-
tinguish them as incisors, canines, and molars, though these
last are almost always absolutely simple.

But the greatest variation presented by the dental system
of Reptiles is observed in its connexion with the jaws, in
Which relation we may indeed distinguish four distinct kinds.

In the first there is a hollow alveolus entirely surrounded by
the bone, and in which the tooth is loosely implanted, as is
seen for example in the crocodile.

In the second, the alveoli holding the teeth are also com-
prised between the two plates of the jaw, but in a manner so
closely united, that the tooth seems to form a portion of the
jaw itself, denticulating, as it were the edge, as is seen in the
geckoes, chameleons, dragons (Dracones), and even the
agamas.

The third mode, is that in which there is no alveolus, but
where the teeth are disposed between the internal wall of the
jaw and the " membrane gyngivale ;" this is the case in the

Vol. II.— No. 24, n. s. 3 t

652 t)ouhts respecting

iguanas for example ; and then the root of the tooth is "e-
chancree en ogive au cote interne de la base"

A fourth, is that of the venomous serpents, among which
the teeth being neither implanted, nor furnished with roots,
terminate by uniting themselves with the maxillary bone by a
kind of ossification of the "membrane gyngivale"

The class Amphibia, presents very nearly the same modi-
fications of the dental system, with which, however, these
animals are often altogether unprovided, and which is seldom
largely developed ; and their teeth present a constant simpli-
city in the two portions, of which one, namely the root, is
almost always wanting, an almost complete similitude in
the dental series of each species, and finally, a solid implan-
tation as in the Ccecilia, or a simple application, as in the
frogs.

The class of fishes presents still less uniformity with regard
to its dental system than that -of reptiles, even if we turn our
attention only to that part of it which occupies the jaws ;
being all that we require for our present purpose. In fact,
without speaking of the merely "dents gyngivales" which do
not actually penetrate into the bone, nor of those which being
in numerous rows, one within another, applied to the surface
of the bone or sunk into it, cannot serve here for purposes of
comparison, — there exist species in which the teeth being
provided with a root as long as the crown, are fixed deeply
in the jaw, in a definite order and proportion ; but I know
of none at present, which ever have either in whole or in part,
the crown, and still less the root, complex in its structure.

After this exposition of the essential characters presented
by the dental system in the four classes of vertebrated animals
which are provided with it, it seems we have reason to con-
clude, that the class of Mammalia being the only one in
wrhich, up to this time, posterior teeth having complex roots
and crowns, combined with anterior teeth that are simple in
both parts, and all these teeth firmly fixed into the jaw, have
been found ; — among which also there is an articulating con-
dyle, and a perfectly formed coronoid process, — the analogy
of one at least of the Stonefield jaws with this class, to have
been clearly demonstrated ; and that therefore the animal to
which it originally belonged must necessarily have been a
mammal. As to the other jaw, from which we acquired our
knowledge of the roots of the teeth, which are double and of
great length, and which jaw we have compared with the pre-
ceding, the resemblance we observe in the very remarkable
structure of the crowns hardly allows us to admit that where
the first is placed the second must not follow. We should

the Fossil Jaws of Stonesjield. 653

however add, that there yet remains something to be cleared
up with relation to it, for it is difficult to allow that the three
first molars can be analogous to the anterior teeth of the Did.
Bucklandii, of which Mr. Broderip makes incisors and a
canine tooth ; and we have as yet no example of a genus of
mammals in which the number of the molars thus increases
all at once by three on each side.

As to the question of knowing under what order, family,
and even genus of Mammalia the animal must be ranged,
which these fossil jaws of such great antiquity reveal to us,
we have I think placed it beyond all doubt, that it could not
have been an insectivorous didelph or monodelph, the den-
tal system being so entirely different. The form of the mo-
lars seems to approach much more to that of the seals, in
which they are as in this case, pretty nearly alike, and fre-
quently tricuspid ; but the anterior part of the dental system
of the Stonesfield fossil, differs widely from what is found in
the family of the Carnassiers ; so that in the hypothesis of
its ranking as a Mammal, we dare not pronounce upon its
family and order. It seems more probable that this animal
must form a distinct genus, to which might be given the name
of Heterotherium, or Amphitherium, in order to avoid the in-
ductions which might be drawn from the existence so far
back, of a Mammal of the family of opossums.

But if, in allowing our inquiry to be conducted by analo-
gous reasoning, and admitting all the evidence furnished by
figures and descriptions as incontestable, as for example, the
form and proportions of the three parts of the ascending ra-
mus, we have been led to infer, in establishing our comparison
with existing animals, that this must be a mammal sui gene-
ris ; would it be the same were we to carry on the compa-
rison to certain fossil genera ? To this question we must re-
ply in the negative. In fact M. le D. Harlan of Philadelphia
described and figured many years since, some gigantic fossil
bones, which he referred to a new genus of the class Reptilia,
named by him Basilosaurus. Now a portion of the jaw of
this animal displays implanted teeth of two kinds, the first
simple, among which there are even some resembling canines
larger than others ; the second compressed, triangular, and
provided with two roots, fixed in the jaws, and projecting
beyond their edges ; and as at the slightest glance we cannot
refuse to acknowledge their great analogy to what is described
and drawn of the Stonesfield animal, making the further ob-
servation that the teeth and the jaw which holds the former
are like the latter so imbedded in the matrix, that they seem
to form a part of it; so that at their first appearance, M. Har-
lan considered these bones as having belonged to an aquatic

3 t 2

654 Doubts respecting the Fossil Jaws of Stonesfield.

carnivorous mammal ; we can neither hesitate to admit thai
if this Basilosaurus be a reptile, which fact appears placed
beyond doubtby the form of the vertebra, humerus, &c, it is
more than probable that it is an animal of the same kind as
that found at Stonesfield.

The existence therefore of fossil bones belonging to an ani-
mal of the class Mammalia, even aquatic, is not yet added to
our knowledge of the science ; the supposed didelph of Stones-
field not belonging to this class.

For the rest, if the discussion upon which we have now en-
tered has not rendered the demonstration perfectly convincing
to every one, we may at least hope that its subsequent effect
will be to direct new investigations on the part of the skilful
observers who have at their disposal the only two specimens
of this fossil known at the present day, and in the end to
furnish new topics of argument for or against an opinion till
now admitted without sufficient examination, and consequent-
ly not demonstrated. We should indeed, in order to assist
our doubts upon the subject, invoke the opinion of M.M. Mey-
er, Grant, and Agassiz, who appear to agree with us in think-
ing that the Stonesfield fossil does not belong to a mamma-
liferous animal.

Meanwhile, in the present state of our information, it ap-
pears to me that we are authorized in drawing the following
conclusions. —

1st. The two solitary fragments found at Stonesfield and
referred to the genus Didelphis of the class Mammalia, have
none of the characters of animals of this class, and certainly
ought not to be arranged among them.

2nd. Neither can they be referred to an insectivorous mo-
nodelph allied to the Tupaia or tenrecs.

3rd. If we deem ourselves justified in regarding them as of
the class Mammalia, the molar portion of their dental sys-
tem brings them nearer to the family of the seals than to any
other.

4th. But it is infinitely more probable, from analogy with
what we know of the Basilosaurus found in America, in a for-
mation likewise secondary, that they ought to be referred to a
genus of the suborder of saurians.

5th. That in any case they must be distinguished by a dif-
ferent generic name, for which purpose we propose that of
Amphitherium, as indicating their ambiguous nature.

Lastly ; the existence of the remains of mammals anterior
to the formation of tertiary strata, is not at all proved by the
Stonesfield fossils on which we have now treated, although we
are far from asserting that mammals were not in existence
during the secondary period.

Notices of Irish Entozoa.

655

Art. III. — Notices of Irish Entozoa. By James L. Drummond,
M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Belfast Institution, Pre-
sident of the Belfast Natural History Society, &c.
( Continued from Page 577).

32

a, Anthocephalus paradoxus, as removed from a peritoneal tumor. V

the compound animal, as found in the intestine of the turbot, and viewed
through a pocket lens, e, Proboscis of the cestoid portion, d, appearance
of the parenchyma or substance of the latter when highly magnified, the
transparent spaces bearing a falseresemblance to ova. e, represents a com-
pressed between two pieces of glass, and magnified. /, end containing the
obcordate proboscis. g, the bothriated portion enclosed in the other end.
A, the same removed, compressed, and magnified. *, the four rostella pro-
truded. A, the sheaths in which they lie when retracted. /, four oblong
sacs in which the sheaths terminate, containing a fluid which is seen mov-
ing up and down the sheaths while the rostella are in motion ; passing up
from the sacs during their protrusion, and returning during their inversion.
m> portion of a rostellum highly magnified.

Anthocephalus paradoxus, J. L.D.

On the 4th of September last, while examining the contents
of the intestines of a turbot (Pleuronectes maximus), I ob-
served in the intestinal mucus a number of very white Ento-
zoa, which were generally of an ovate form, about two lines
in length and above a line broad ; the outline and size, how-
ever, of the animal varied considerably, but in every instance
a broad, obcordate proboscis was seen at one end, in a con-
stant state of protrusion and retraction. The animal was
very opaque and white, like coagulated albumen ; and though
I had never before met with it in the intestinal canal, yet I

656 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

recollected it as an old acquaintance which I had repeatedly
dislodged from small, white, vescicular tumors, common on
the outer surface of the stomach of the codling and young
coal fish.

On farther examination I was surprised at finding four dif-
ferent specimens joined in the strictest union to an Entozoon
of a very different appearance, the caudal end of the one be-
ing firmly coalesced, and continuous with that of the other,
without any mark or appearance whatever, to indicate that
they had ever existed separately. Had this happened in but
one, or even two instances, it might perhaps be attributed to
some fortuitous circumstance ; but occurring in four cases, it
appeared to me to be something beyond what could readily
happen in the chapter of accidents.

In referring to Fig. 32; b represents the two Entozoa unit-
ed, and slightly magnified, and it will at once be apparent
that the two individuals are of a very different conformation
from each other ; ft, it is obvious, is depressed, and at least
half as broad as it is long, while o is cylindrical, and much
longer than broad. On examining specimens of n which lay
in the intestine distinct and unconnected with o, the most re-
markable character which they presented was the terminal,
obcordate proboscis c, which was very often thrust out, and
again retracted to more than its own length within the body
of the animal. It was thickly ciliated with fine stiff hairs or
bristles, which projected beyond it at least its own length. — -
The margins of the animal were very various, being some-
times crenate, then, with several deep sinuosities, and some-
times quite even ; these differences depending on the various
states of muscular contraction. It had scarcely any appreci-
able progressive motion, though it could contract itself in
every possible direction. The colour of the whole was ex-
tremely white.

With respect to the other animal in the separate state, its
head exhibited four large, cup-like bothria, in perpetual mo-
tion, and having a striking resemblance to those of Bothrio-
cephalus auriculatus, or of Both, corollatus, when the rostella
of the latter are unprotruded. The body was cylindrical, and
generally speaking had a bulbous outline at the posterior ex-
tremity ; it was white and semitransparent.

The specimens thus ob served were placed in a weak solu-
tion of salt, and next day were quite alive. On washing one
of them with fresh water, and placing it under the microscope,
the animal, to my great surprise, threw out from the front of
the head four long, beautiful, crystalline rostella, armed with
numerous hooks, in all respects similar to the rostella of the

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 657

armed Bothriocephalic The same phenomenon appeared in
several others.

I made no farther observations respecting this anomalous
production till nearly a month afterwards, when, on the 2nd
of October, I examined a white sacculated tumor taken from
the outer surface of the stomach of a blockan, or young coal
fish, [Merlangus carbonarius). The outer covering of the
sac was composed of a very delicate, loose layer of peritone-
um ; under this was a much thicker and firmer, but transpa-
rent membranous capsule, entirely surrounding a very white
substance, apparently solid. On tearing open this second co-
vering, the enclosed Entozoon was dislodged by the slightest
pressure ; and on farther examination I found it to be pre-
cisely the same as that which formed the broad, flat division
of the compound animal in the intestine of the turbot. The
remarks I wrote down at the time are as follow.

" Pure white, solid, opaque ; proboscis when fully exserted,
obcordate, and beset with numerous very fine bristles, which
I believe clothe its whole surface; bristles long and subulate :
• — the proboscis is moved by eversion and inversion alone. —
On tearing the animal to pieces, after being killed by a drop
of alcohol, I could see nothing like ova, but one of the frag-
ments exhibited four cords, which seemed to be of the same
nature as the rostella of Anthocephalus paradoxus"

Two days afterwards (October 4th) I examined a similar
tumor, from the stomach of a blockan also. When dislodged
from its sac, the Entozoon was of the size marked a, Fig. 32 ;
in colour, proboscis, and everything else, it exactly resembled
the last. I cut it across through the middle, and with some
trouble extricated from the caudal end a distinct, living indi-
vidual, in all respects similar to the bothriated portion of the
compound animal seen in the turbot. Its four bothria were
in constant motion, giving the head that polymorphous ap-
pearance which is so remarkable in many of the bothriated
Certoidea.

After examining the specimen for some time, I applied re-
peated drops of fresh water with a hair pencil, and soon had
the satisfaction of seeing it protrude four long, beautiful, crys-
talline rostella, armed with very numerous retorted hooks. —
A second tumor examined in like manner exhibited the same
appearances ; and in both, the obcordate proboscis of the op-
posite separated end, continued its motions as before the di-
vision. Two other tumors from the stomach of another fish
of the same kind exhibited exactly similar appearances.

I next, on the 7th of October, compressed a specimen freed
from its envelopes, between two slips of glass, and on apply-

(358 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

ing the microscope found that the whole had a parenchyma-
tous, solid appearance, except at one end, where a contained
body, reminding me of & foetus wrapped up in its membranes,
was distinctly visible : Fig 32, e. This part I found to be
the bothriated animal, and in several other specimens which
I examined on the same day, the same phenomena occurred
in all.

On removing the pressure the animals resumed their origin
nal appearance, contracted their lateral outline into various
forms, and pushed out and retracted the obcordate proboscis.

On Monday the 8th of October I examined similar tumors
attached to the duodenum of a whiting, and one from another
blockan ; and on the 10th, various specimens of the same
kind from several parts of the abdominal cavity of the red
gurnard {Trigla pini), and of the common grey gurnard (TV.
Gurnardus). In both the latter, the specimens were more
immature than any I had previously examined, the animals
being more transparent, and the obcordate process less fully
developed, and not satisfactorily exhibiting the bristly arma-
ture; but the bothriated animal was in all respects perfect, and
precisely the same as those that I had examined in the other
fishes. The containing sac, too, in the grey gurnard espe-
cially, was unusually tough, and of a deep brown colour. —
The bothriated animal of these specimens, when compressed
between two slips of glass, was particularly beautiful. In
some specimens all the four rostella were protruded, forming
the most gracefully curved outlines, and seeming like trans-
parent crystal, adorned with innumerable hooks of similar ap-
pearance, as if formed of the same material, arranged with the
most admirable symmetry, and an exquisiteness of finishing
that might put human art, in its greatest triumphs, to the
blush on account of its imperfection, perfect as it is.

And yet we are to be told that the Entozoa are beings of
chance, that they are of equivocal generation, self-formed, and
originating from some fortuitous concourse or combination of
atoms, some clot of effused lymph, or a little intestinal mu-
cus ! But I shall have, at another time, to comment more
fully on the old theory, which has been so blindly (in my
opinion at least) adopted by many of the first physiologists
and naturalists of the present day. We know little or nothing,
it is true, of the origin of the Entozoa, but because we are as
yet ignorant of this, and may long continue to be so, are we
therefore, in the mean time, to attribute to chance, or acci-
dent, the formation of beings so perfect, and as wonderful in
their kind, and as properly constitutioned and constructed for
their mode of life, as any others in the vast field of vital be-

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 659

ing with which we are acquainted ? If we can admit that
the formation of any portion of almost any Entozoon can be
referred to spontaneous generation, there will be but a very
narrow step to the hypothesis that all other animals, not ex-
cluding even man himself, may have a similar origin.

Quitting this digression, I will now, though at the expense
of some repetition, note in a more systematic form the cha-
racters of the two individuals separately.

I. — Cestoid Individual. — Generally oval or ovate, but va-
rying much according to its state of muscular contraction;
generally snow-white, enclosed originally by an outer cover-
ing of peritoneal membrane, and under this completely sur-
rounded by a regular cyst, with which it does not seem to
have any solid or continuous connexion ; substance parenchy-
matous, and without any internal cavity, except a sheath at
one end for its own proboscis, and at the other, a space for
lodging the nematoid individual ; proboscis broad, obcordate,
fringed (if not covered) with bristles projecting almost its own
length, retractile, and capable of being buried and rendered
invisible in its sheath ; ova none, but many granular points
occupying its substance throughout; no perceptible vessels;
contractile motion in every part, but most active towards the
proboscideal end. Vitality great, as it lives for several days
after the death of the animal it inhabits, and when divided,
the separated portions continue for a long time to contract
and relax.

II. — Nematoid Individual. — When inclosed lies coiled in
a bent position, its head and body free, but its caudal point
attached to, and continuous with, the parenchyma or sub-
stance of the former ; can be easily detached entire, by tear-
ing the cestoid portion, but generally has a minute fragment
of the latter attached to its caudal apex, though it may some-
times be detached entirely free.

When fairly insulated the following appearances may ge-
nerally be observed. — The animal is in constant motion,
stretching out and drawing back its head, or turning it from
side to side, the bothria at the same time assuming the form
of four hollow cups or suckers, dilating and contracting, and
thereby presenting a variety of shapes which it wou^ be next
to impossible to describe. When the animal is allowed to
lie on a slip of glass, either moistened with a solution of salt
or only a small quantity of fresh water, it will exhibit for a
long time no further appearances than those now mentioned ;
but let it be well washed by passing repeated drops of fresh

Vol. II.— No. 23. n. s. 3 u

660 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

water over it, and in a short time the activity of its motion
will lessen, and the hitherto invisible rostella will begin to
protrude more or less rapidly. During the protrusion they
will be distinctly seen turning inside out, and when they re-
tract, (which they often do), as distinctly turning outside in.
They are represented as fully exserted at i, Fig. 32 ; but it is
to be recollected that the best engraving which could be ex-
ecuted would give only a faint resemblance of the exquisite
beauty and armature of the rostella themselves.

It would be tedious to enter farther into detail, as the fi-
gures will explain better than words perhaps could, whatever
may farther be noticeable in the animal's appearance. Al-
though I found both animals separate as well as united, in
the intestine of the turbot, I can scarcely be satisfied that
the bothriated end especially, can be the ultimate state of
the animal; and am inclined to conjecture that it may final-
ly become a Bothriocephalus.* As the tumor containing
the species is so common in the fishes that have been men-
tioned, and perhaps in many others, I hope that the subject
will be taken up and more fully investigated by others.

* From the circumstance of the two different individuals being conti-
nuous in substance with each other, the generic title Syngamus, which has
been applied to another entozoon characterized by a similar union, might
seem to be more proper than that of AnthocepJialus, but as the two indivi-
duals are also found separate, and as it is probable that more of their his-
tory will be ascertained, I have preferred, (for the present at least,) the
older appellation.

Mr. Owen> in the very able article " Entozoa1'* in the Cyclopaedia of
Anatomy, has the following passage in reference to the organic junction
Of the male and female Syngamus trachealis.

" In the Heteroura andropkora of Nitzch (Hersch and Gruber's Ency-
clopaedic, th. vi. p. 49, and th. ix. taf. 3. f. 7.) the male maintains an ha-
bitual connexion with the female, which has a horny prehensile process
for the purpose of retaining the male in this position. Here there is no
confluence of the substance of the bodies of the two sexes ; the individuals
are distinct in their superficies as in their internal organization. But this
singular species offers the transitional grade to that still more extraordinary
Entozoon, the Syngamus trachealis, in which the male is organically
blended by its caudal extremity with the female, immediately anterior to
the slit-shaped aperture of the vulva, which is situated as usual near the
anterior third of the body. By this union a kind of hermaphroditism is
produced ; but the male apparatus is furnished with its own peculiar nu-
trient system; and an individual animal is constituted distinct in every
respect, save in its terminal confluence with the body of the female. This
condition of animal life, which was conceived by Hunter as within the
circle of physiological possibilities, (see Anim. (Economy, p. 46,) has hi-
therto been only exemplified in this single species of Entozoon ; the dis-
covery of the true nature of which is due to the sagacity and patient
research of Dr. Charles Theodore Von Siebold."

Notices of Irish Entozoa. 661

P.S. — The rare opportunity of examining the char (Salmo
alpinus) having offered since writing the above, I beg leave
to add as an appendix, some account of an entozoic tumor
which I observed in that fish.

My friend Mr. Thompson having on the 20th of the pre-
sent month obtained, through the kindness of James Stewart
Esq., of Cairnsmore, near Newtonstewart, Wigtonshire, a con-
siderable number of recent specimens of the char, taken in
Loch Grannoch, I examined along with him the viscera of
fourteen, his object being to ascertain the nature of their food
&c, and mine the Entozoa they might contain.

Seven were males, and seven females, and in every one the
stomach was studded with white tubercles, generally of the
size of hemp-seed. Similar tubercles were also attached to
the oesophagus, the mesentery, the liver, (not only on the sur-
face, but also in the substance of the latter), the roe, and the
milt, as also the intestines. The stomach and cceca however
formed their chief habitats, and there they were in several in-
stances so numerous, as almost entirely to hide the surface.

I found that each of these tumors contained a living worm,
enclosed under two coverings ; the outer being an extremely
delicate layer of peritonceum, and under this a white, thick-
ish sac, but tender, and easily ruptured, so that the Entozoon
could be extricated with the greatest ease. The tumors were
round, oval, or slightly pyriform. The worm was in motion
the moment it came into view ; it was smooth, and had a
bluish transparency ; it wTas about half an inch in length and
a line broad, but some specimens exceeded, and others fell
short of these dimensions. Very soon after its liberation it
lost its smoothness, and became transversely rugose, polymor-
phous, and more opaque, changes evidently arising from its
muscular system being now thrown into a hitherto unaccus-
tomed action.

Description.— Head oblong, polymorphous, not distinct
from the body, with a lateral, long, and linear bothrium on
each side. The bothrium next the glass on which the ani-
mal lay, was sometimes so expanded as to give the head a
winged appearance ; neck none ; body parenchymatous, with-
out any appearance of internal cavity; in the microscope it
exhibited a granular structure, with very numerous transpa-
rent, orbicular spaces, like minute rings ; a few faint appear-
ances of longitudinal strice in some specimens, and not un-
frequently transverse, transparent lines, like pseudo-articula-
tions, but these were caused merely by muscular contraction.
Tail various in form, but mostly emarginate. Compression

3 u 2

662 Notices of Irish Entozoa.

elicited nothing farther, disclosed no appearance of proboscis
or internal organ, but a stream of opaque particles was seen
to flow from the caudal end. Some specimens were found in
the abdomen of the fish, unconnected with any tumor, but
these were few in number.

The effect of a night's maceration in fresh water exhibited
by a number of the worms which had been removed from the
tumors, was very remarkable : they were dead, and their ori-
ginal length was doubled, some of them measuring above an
inch ; their breadth was also somewhat increased. A few
that were placed in a solution of salt, a little stronger than
sea water, were much corrugated, and some living and in
constant motion.

In the duodenum of almost every fish I found some speci-
mens of a Bothriocephalus several inches long ; and in one a
single specimen of a minute Distoma.

Belfast, October 27th, 1838.

Since adding the above Mr. Thomson has received from
Lord Cole thirteen char, taken in Lough Melvin, county Fer-
managh ; and in every specimen tumors of a similar kind, and
containing the same species of worm, were attached to the
stomach. The head of the worm exhibited two linear lateral
bothria, but elsewhere it was homogeneous throughout. —
Some specimens of the worm were found free in the stomach
and duodenum, along with Boihriocephali several inches
long, and having also two similar lateral bothria.

On the cceca of a trout sent in the same parcel Mr. Thomp-
son observed a white tumor, which, on examination was found
to contain an Entozoon identical with that of the char.

[ In a private communication to the Editor, Dr. Drummond states, that
on examining the viscera of the fourteen char mentioned in the postcript
to the present article, and which were put into spirits, he found, about ten
days afterwards, a large number of the Entozoa, two hundred at the very
least computation, lying loose in the spirit, but no appearance of any rup-
ture in the tumors from which they could have escaped, and on opening
about twenty of the tumors an entire worm was contained in each. Hence
he concludes that the individuals found free had lain unperceived in the
intestines. He also remarks that though the char examined were Scotch
specimens, it is most probable that the same species of Entozoon is to be
found in the Irish fish, which his friend Mr. Thompson informs him is
found in the following Irish lakes : Lough Kindun and Gartan Lough, in
Donegal ; Lough Melvin in Firmauagh ; Lough Nabrack in Longford,
and Lough Dan in the county Wicklow.] — Ed.

Descriptive List of the Species of Rhysodes. 663

Art. IV. — A Descriptive List of the Species of Rhysodes. By
Edward Newman, Esq., F.L.S.

COLEOPTERA, PEJYTAMERA.

Genus Rhysodes, Dalman, Latreille in litt.

Clinidivm, Kirby.

Head porrected, slightly narrower than the prothorax. Antennce monili-
form, placed near the mouth, 11 -jointed, scarcely as long as the prothorax.
Labrum semicircular, with the front slightly produced hetween two bristles.
Mandibles longer than broad, tridentate at the tip. Maxillce broad at the
base, lacinia elongate, narrow and acute at the tip.* Maxipalpi 4-jointed;
the first and third joints short, the second about twice as long as the first,
and rather incrassated in the middle; the fourth twice as long as the second,
gradually diminishing to the tip, which is very acute, and projects beyond
the mouth. Labium small, triangular, and hidden by the large mentum.
Labipalpi 3-jointed, the joints of nearly equal length; the first is slender,
the second slender at the base but incrassated exteriorly, the third slender
at the base, incrassated in the middle, and acute at the tip. Tarsi 5-joint-
ed, claws simple.

The species of this genus inhabit the decayed wood and
bark of trees.

Geographical distribution. — Europe, Africa, Island of Java,
North and South America.
Authorities. —

Dalman : 'Analecta Entomological p. 93.
Gyllenhall : ' Insecta Suecica,' torn. i. pt. iv. p. 332.
Kirby : ' Zoological Journal,' vol. v. p. 6., under the name
Clinidium ; (by a reference to which paper the reader
will find that Mr. Kirby has described the genus as
new, from not being aware of M. Latreille's genus Rhy-
sodes, and not from any wish to separate his species
from that genus).
Westwood : ' Zoological Journal,' vol. v. p. 213 ; supple-
mentary plate xlvi. fig. 1. (This author's descriptions
of the mouth are quoted above nearly verbatim ; his
dissections also have been kindly placed in my hands).

Sp. I. Rhys, strabus. Niger, nitidus; caput subtrigonum, angulis
posticis quadratum, vertice profunde excavatum ; oculi distincti, late-
rales, subtrigoni, verticem versus subacuti ; prothorax profunde tri-
sulcatus ; elytra septem-striata, striis regulariter punctatis. (Corp;
long. .325 unc. lat. .085 unc.)
Colour shining black ; the head is nearly triangular, the posterior angles
being rather produced and clearly defined ; on the crown is a very deep fo-
vea, from which a deep furrow issues anteriorly, and, dividing to inclose a
raised glabrous space between the antennce, it again unites in a depressed
space adjoining the clypeus ; posteriorly a narrow furrow issues from the cen-

* I am uncertain whether the part here described is the galea or lacinia;
one or other of these parts appears to be obsolete.

664 Descriptive List of

tral fovea, and completely divides the vertical part of the head, which, thus
separated, consists of two highly raised, glabrous, reniform masses ; the eyes
are distant, distinct, lateral, and somewhat triangular, towards the hack of
the head they are rather acute, and altogether have the appearance of eyes
partially closed ; under a glass of high power, they exhibit very clearly the
usual hexagonally facetted appearance : the prothorax is narrower ante^.
riorly, somewhat convex laterally, and quadrate posteriorly, its lateral mar-
gins have a distinct ridge, and its dorsal surface has three deep longitudi-
nal furrows, neither of which quite reaches the anterior margin, and the
central one is slightly separated from the posterior margin, but the line of
separation is very attenuated and obscure, the lateral furrows are posterior,.
ly dilated, and reach the extreme margin ; the prothorax throughout is ir-
regularly but deeply punctured : each of the elytra has seven deep strice,
five of them dorsal and two lateral, these strice are regularly punctured, the
interstices between them smooth: the protibice have a sharp tooth before
their apex, curved forwards, and two sharp teeth at the apex, curved down-
wards.

Inhabits Java. The only specimen I have seen is in the
cabinet of the Entomological Club.

Sp. 2. Rhys, aratus. Piceus, nitidus ; caput subtrigonum, angulis pos^

ticis rotundatum, vertice profunde excavatum ; oculi parvi, ovales, la^

terales, pone antennas siti ; prothorax profunde trisulcatus ; elytra sep-

tem-striata, striis regulariter punctatis. (Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. .08

unc.

Rhysodes exaratus. Westwood, ' Zoological Journal,' sup. tab, xlvi. fig".

1. Vide ' Zool. Journ.' torn. v. p. 216, descriptio generica, vix spe^

cifica.

Colour shining pitchy black; the head is nearly triangular, the posterior
angles being rounded, the crown is divided by a deep impression, which
commences in a narrow posterior furrow, expands to a fovea between two
large raised convex glabrous masses, then divides anteriorly, reaches the
base of each antenna, and here incloses an elongate glabrous space, and fi-
nally unites and ceases in a depressed space adjoining the clypeus ; the eyes
are small, oval, lateral, and situate near the base of the antenna, and exhi-
bit the usual hexagonal facets ; the prothorax has the anterior and posterior
margins truncate, and of nearly equal diameter , the posterior angles are
quadrate, the lateral margins convex, and furnished with a distinct margin-
al ridge ; its dorsal surface has three deep longitudinal furrows, none of
which reach the anterior, but all of them the posterior margin ; they are of
equal length, and are alike dilated posteriorly. Each of the elytra has se-
ven distinct punctate strice, five of them dorsal, two lateral : the protibice
have "the inner edge produced at the tip, both above and below, into a bent
obtuse spine, below each of which there is a much smaller spine, and the
surface of which, between the spines, appears, both above and below, to be
emarginate and ciliated."*

Inhabits the United States of North America, and, if Mr.
Westwood' s informant prove correct, the continent of Europe
also ; but 1 am much inclined to doubt the latter habitat.

In the cabinet of Dr. Harris, Boston, U- S., who took it in
Alabama ; also in the cabinets of the Rev. F. W. Hope, and
Mr. Westwood, to whom I am indebted for the loan of specie
mens for description.

* Westwood, loc. cit. vide supra.

the Species of Rhysodes. 665

Sp. 3. Rhys, exaratus. (Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. .08 unc.)

„ „ Dalman ; 'Analecta Entomologica,' p. 93.

„ „ Gyllenhall ; * Insecta Suecica,' t. i. pt. iv. p. 332.

Rhys, europaus. Ahrens ; ' Fauna Ins. Eur.' fasc. vi. fig. 1.

Colour pitchy black, sometimes, probably when immature, inclining to
ferruginous; the head is somewhat triangular, with the posterior angles
rounded, on the crown are two deep fovea, from each of which issues a far-
row, anteriorly towards the clypeus, and posteriorly to the extreme margin
of the head; the vertical portion of the head is thus divided into three raised
glabrous masses; of these the lateral ones are reniform; immediately adjoin-
ing the clypeus is another small and abbreviated longitudinal furrow ; the
eyes are distant, lateral, somewhat oval, and but little prominent; the pro-
thorax is narrower anteriorly, convex laterally, and narrower again before
the posterior margin, which is quadrate, truncate, and has the angles very
slightly produced ; the lateral margins have a distinct ridge, and the dor-
sal surface has three deep longitudinal furrows ; of these the central one ex-
tends nearly to the anterior, and quite to the posterior margin, at both ends
it is rather dilated ; the lateral furrows reach the posterior margin, where
they are much dilated, but they cease considerably before the anterior mar-
gin ; the furrows are deeply punctured, but the interstices are smooth : the
elytra have seven regularly punctured strice, five of them dorsal and two la-
teral : the protibice have a tooth a little before their apex, curved forwards,
and at the apex two others, curved downwards.

Inhabits the continent of Europe. — Sweden, Hungary, Ger-
many, France, the Pyrenees, &c.

In the cabinet of the Entomological Club; also in that of
the Rev. F. W. Hope.

Sp. 4. Rhys, liratus. Piceo-niger, squamosus ; caput elongatum, ova-
tum, vertice bisulcatnm, angulis posticis rotundatum : oculi distincti,
distanti, fere rotundati ; prothorax profunde trisulcatus; elytra trisul-
cata, sulcis punctatis. (Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. .06 unc.)

Colour pitchy black, but covered in the depressed parts with a grey pilo-
sity, resembling scales, a character possessed in a less degree by all the spe-
cies of the genus : the head is more elongate, oval, and narrow than in either
of the species I have described ; the vertical portion consists of three ele-
vated glabrous longitudinal ridges, and of two deep furrows which serve to
separate them ; the central ridge ceases posteriorly before the union of the
head with the prothorax, and the furrows consequently unite at this point;
the lateral ridges extend to the base of the antennce ; exterior to each late-
ral ridge is a small but distinct and bright reniform eye, which projects but
little from the lateral surface of the head, and is situated about midway be-
tween the base of the antennce and the posterior margin of the head : the
prothorax is elongate, oval, and nearly of equal width at both extremities,
it has four glabrous longitudinal ridges dorsally, and two minor ones on
each side the dorsal ridge are separated by three deep equidistant furrows ;
of these the central one is dilated anteriorly, the lateral ones posteriorly,
none of them quite reach the anterior or posterior margins ; the elytra have
the scutellar region deeply impressed, each has four distinct ridges ; near
the suture is a distinct but slightly impressed stria, then follows a conspi-
cuous ridge, which ceases anteriorly in the scutellar depression, and poste-

6(56 Descriptive List of

riorly before the apex of the elytra, to the ridge succeeds a deep punctured
furrow, which does not reach either extremity of the elytron, then a second
ridge extending from the base to near the apex, then a second furrow, in-
distinctly punctured, extends from the base to the apical angle, where it
unites with the first, then another less elevated ridge, a broad but shallow
furrow slightly punctured, and a marginal ridge ; the protibice have an a-
cute tooth a little before the apex, curved forwards, and two long claw-like
teeth at the extremity, curved downwards.

Inhabits South America. Five specimens were captured by-
Mr. Darwin at Rio, and have been lent to me for description.

Sp. 5. Rhys, costatus.

„ „ Guerin; « Iconographie du Regne Animal. In-

secta.' Tab. xxvi. fig. 12.

Inhabits Brazil, and is nearly related to, but apparently not
identical with, Rhys, liratus above described, which is a more
linear insect.

Sp. 6. Rhys sculptilis. Piceo-rufus : caput sub-trigonum, angulis pos-
ticis rotundatum, vertice profunde sulcatum ; oculi fere invisi ; pro-
thorax medio longitudinater sulcatus, angulis posticis profunde fovea-
tus ; elytra sex-sulcata, sulcis obsolete punctatis. (Corp. long. .295
unc. lat. .05 unc.)

The colour is pitchy red ; the head is somewhat triangular, with the pos-
terior margins rounded ; the vertical portion is divided by a deep furrow,
which reaches the extreme posterior margin, and divides anteriorly, passing
the base of each antenna, and thence proceeds to the region of the clypeus,
enclosing a raised diamond-shaped glabrous space ; the vertical portion of
the head consists of two oblong glabrous spaces, divided by the furrow al-
ready described ; the sides of the head are produced into two roundish gla-
brous spaces, in which are situated the eyes, distinguishable only under a
very high power, and probably scarcely available to the insect as organs of
vision : the form of the prothorax is a long square, the sides being very
slightly convex, and having a marginal ridge ; a deep longitudinal furrow
extends throughout the dorsal surface, this is slightly dilated posteriorly :
in each of the posterior angles is a deep punctured fovea, which is anterior-
ly attenuated, and attains nearly a third of the entire length of the protho-
rax : the elytra in the region of the scutellum are deeply impressed ; each
elytronhas six furrows, four dorsal and two lateral; the dorsal ones are ma-
nifestly but not deeply punctured, the lateral ones are rugose but scarcely
punctured ; the sutural region of each elytron does not slope to the suture:
the first and third interstices do not reach the apex of the elytra, the second
and fourth are still more abbreviated, the fifth extends round the extremi-
ties of the other four to the suture, but anteriorly this interstice does not
reach the base of the elytra : the protibice have a tooth just before their
apex curving forwards, and two teeth at the apex curved downwards ; these
teeth are more elongate and acute than in either of the preceding species.

Inhabits the United States of America. One specimen in
the British Museum is from Wheeling ; two in the cabinet of
the Entomological Club from Mount Pleasant in Ohio, where
they were taken by Mr. Foster. ^

the Species of Rhysodes. 667

Sp. 7. Rhys. Guildingii, Newman. (Corp. long. .3 unc. lat. .05 unc.)

Clinidium Guildingii, Kirby ; 'Zool. Journ.' vol. v. p. 6. Icon.
tab. 2 Jig. I.

Colour varying from a pitchy black to a bright ferruginous : head longer
than broad, but not triangular ; the vertical portion is divided by a deep
broad longitudinal furrow, which divides anteriorly, and passing the base of
each antenna, terminates in the region of the clypeus, enclosing a glabrous
elongate diamond-shaped space ; behind each antenna a branch of this fur-
row goes off to the lateral margin of the head ; the posterior angles of the
head are slightly rounded ; the vertical surface consists of two raised oblong
glabrous spaces; the sides of the head are but slightly produced, and each
presents a perfectly glabrous oblong space, in which no trace of an eye has
yet been discovered : the prothorax is oblong, the anterior margin narrower
than the posterior, and both truncate, the sides are decidedly convex, and
are furnished with a. distinct ridge ; a deep longitudinal furrow extends
throughout the dorsal surface, and is slightly dilated in the middle; in each
of the posterior angles is a fovea, (originating in the extreme posterior mar-
gin), which becomes sulciform as it extends forwards, and terminates in an
acute point at nearly half the entire length of the prothorax : the elytra in
the region of the scutellum are depressed ; each elytron has five furrows, three
dorsal and two lateral, all indistinctly punctured ; the sutural portion of
each elytron slopes towards the suture ; the first ridge or interstice ceases
considerably before the apex of the elytron, the second and third are more
elongated, and unite in a point, the fourth extends round the other three to
the suture, enclosing a large deep sutural fovea : the protibice have the same
characters as in Rhys, sculptilis, except that the ante-apical tooth does not
curve forwards.

Inhabits the Island of St. Vincent, where it was captured
by the late Rev. Lansdowne Guilding, in decayed wood. —
The original specimen is in the cabinet of the Entomological
Society of London ; there are others in that of the Rev. F. W.
Hope, to whom I am indebted for the opportunity of describ-
ing the species.

Sp. 8. Rhys, monilis, Newman.

Ips monilis, Olivier; Tom. ii. No. 18. p. 4. Icon. No. 18. tab. 1.
fig. 6. a b.

This insect is described as being rather more than 3 lines in length and
£ a line in breadth. The antenna are moniliform and of the same length
as the prothorax ; the head is large and uneven, the prothorax furnished
with a marginal ridge, and dorsally impressed with four longitudinal fur-
rows, of which the two interior are short and near together : each elytron
has six striae, disposed in pairs.

Inhabits Senegal, and was presented to Olivier by M. Geof-
froy de Villeneuve.

The number of species of this genus will probably be much
increased by subsequent researches of entomologists. They
are usually considered to be referrible to the Rhysodes exara-
tus of Dalman, and as such have not received the careful in-
vestigation which they deserve. It is as well to say that all
the descriptions of species are from the insects themselves,
and have no reference to previous descriptions, uuless so ex-
pressed.

Vol. II.— No. 24. n. s. 3 x

668 Habits of the Electric Eel.

Art. V — Letter from Thomas Bradley, Esq. respecting the habits
of the Electric Eel as observed at the Royal Gallery of Prac-
tical Science, West Strand.

My Dear Sir,

Having had the care of the Gymnotus electricus
now in this Institution, for upwards of three months, I feel
persuaded that the few observations I can furnish on the ha-
bits of the animal, even in a state of confinement, may not be
uninteresting or without value to the naturalist.

The Gymnotus was brought to us on the 12th of August
last, obviously in a very debilitated state, owing, as I conjec-
ture, to the improper treatment it had been subjected to on
the voyage to this country. My first care was to remove it
into an apartment, the temperature of which could be main-
tained at about 75° F. ; and acting on the directions relative
to its treatment, given by Baron Humboldt in a letter to Pro-
fessor Faraday, which that gentleman kindly communicated
to me, — boiled meat, cut small, was put into the water for its
food; but the animal would touch neither the meat, nor
worms, small frogs, fish, nor bread, which were all tried in
succession. Recourse was then had to a plan adopted by the
London fishmongers for fattening the common eel, — that of
putting bullock's blood into the water in which they are kept;
this being practised with the Gymnotus, and care taken to
change the water daily, it was obvious that the plan had be-
neficial effects on the animal, which gradually improved in
health.

This plan was followed till the end of October, when hav-
ing obtained a few fresh gudgeons, I resolved to tempt the
Gymnotus with them once more, when, to my great pleasure,
the animal made a dart at the first gudgeon I threw into the
water, and swallowed it with avidity, as it did three others in
succession, immediately afterwards. Since that time the ani-
mal has been regularly fed with these fish, sometimes eating
only one in the day, sometimes two, three, or four ; but when
it has eaten more than one, it has refused to eat any on the
next or following days, so that one small fish a day may be
considered the average. The blood diet has, of course, been
discontinued since the animal took to a more congenial food.

The first interesting question which presents itself for so-
lution is, whether the extraordinary power possessed by the
animal of giving a severe electric shock to any creature com-
ing in contact with it, or even within a certain distance of it,
when immersed in the water, be given as a means of taking

Habits of the Electric Eel. 669

or securing its prey, or chiefly as a means of defence. I ob-
serve that when the eel is eager for food, if it see the prey
distinctly,* it swallows it without giving it a shock ; and yet
I have reason to believe that at the moment of seizing a fish,
the eel discharges its electricity through the water, since a
shock has been perceived by a person at that moment having
his hands immersed in the tub in which the eel is kept. If
the Gymnotus do not see the small fish, he appears to be a-
ware of its presence and seeks it ; and during the motions of
the two animals if the fish happen to touch the eel, it general-
ly receives a shock that paralyses it, causing the victim to
float, belly upwards, on the surface, till it comes under tho
notice of the eel, which instantly swallows it.

It frequently happens that a fish, put into the tub when the
eel is not inclined for food, will swim about, and even come
into collision repeatedly with the eel, without sustaining any
injury ; but at other times, under the same circumstances, the
eel has killed the fish on its accidentally touching him, and
has taken no further notice of it. Again, I have more than
once seen the eel absolutely swallow a fish, and disgorge it
again in a second or two, perfectly uninjured; the latter
living several days afterwards.

It is curious to observe the manner in which the eel, after
seizing a fish, turns it round in its mouth without letting it
go, for the purpose of swallowing it head foremost ; the rays
of the fins impeding its progress down the animal's throat if
he attempt to swallow it in the contrary direction.

As far as I have observed there is no particular part of the
body of the eel at which the shock is received by a single
contact, as happens when a fish simply swims against the
eel. In one instance a large perch, 8 or 10 inches long, hav
ing the axis of its body in a line with that of the eel, was
seized by the tail, and at the moment of seizure received a
shock which stunned it, from which it did not recover for
nearly twenty minutes. But for information relating to the
electric action of the Gymnotus, your readers must refer to
Professor Faraday's paper lately read at the Royal Society.

The eel is always most lively immediately after the water
is changed, when he amuses himself by swimming round his
tub for half an hour together, rubbing himself in the gravel at
the bottom, to free his skin from the mucus deposited on its
surface. The animal raises its head out of the water every

* I should state that the eel lost one of its eyes within a day or two
after its arrival at the gallery ; but whether from a blow or constitution-
al debility I have no means of ascertaining.

670 Transformation of Oats into Rye.

minute, in order to breathe out the air inhaled from the wa-
ter; and generally floats just beneath the surface, or with a
small portion of the back raised above it; and I have never
yet seen it manifest any inclination to bury itself in the sand.
If the animal live through the winter, I will communicate
any further observations I may make on its habits, provided
you think them worthy a place in your Magazine.

I remain, My dear Sir,

Yours very truly,

Thomas Bradley.

Royal Gallery of Practical Science,
Adelaide St., Nov. 20th, 1838.

Editor of the Mag. Nat. Hist.

Art. VI. — On the Transformation of Oats into Rye. By
W. Weissenborn, Ph. D.

I ventured, some time ago, to bring this subject before the
English public, promising, at the same time, that I would
communicate in the 1 Mag. Nat. Hist.' the results of new ex-
periments which were then about to be made in various pla-
ces m this country, and by scientific men. I have now an
opportunity of giving further publicity to fresh testimony in
favour of this anomalous transformation, and which comes
from a quarter that may be thought entitled to the attention
of the most incredulous. It is taken from the last annual re-
port of the Agricultural Society of Coburg, and runs thus : —
"With reference to the transformation of oats into rye,
which has been first observed in this neighbourhood by Lieu-
tenant Colonel de Schauroth, and afterwards by other mem-
bers of our society, this remarkable phenomenon has not on-
ly been verified by new experiments, but we have caused
again beds to be sown with oats, in order that we may be
able to convince all disbelievers, by sending them, at their
request, rye-stalks which spring from a caudex that still shows
the withered leaves of the oat-plant of the foregoing year.
We repeat, that this transformation takes place if the oats be
sown veiy late (about midsummer's-day) and cut twice as
green fodder before shooting into flower-stalks, whereupon a
considerable number of the oat-plants do not die in the course
of the winter, but are changed in the following spring into
rye, forming stalks which cannot be known from those of the
finest winter-rye. The society must expect that this fact will
be considered by many as a mere assertion, nay, there are

Transformation of Oats into Rye. 671

still a number of its own members who doubt it ; these how-
ever own, that they have either not made the experiment, or
that they have sown the oats too early, and therefore had to
cut the oats oftener than twice, in order to prevent it from
forming a flower-stalk, whereby the plant loses the power of
surviving the winter, and of being transformed into rye. We
cannot take notice of such adversaries as reject the result
without having put it to the test of experiment, or rest their
opposition on experiments that have not been conducted in
the right manner. Let any one sow the oats during the lat-
ter half of June, and the transformation in question will
certainly take place ! The time of sowing the oats did not
formerly appear of paramount importance to the Society, nor
was it believed that it could make any difference whether the
oats were clipped more than twice, as appears from its former
reports ; in consequence of which a few experiments have
failed here as well as in other places. Now, however, the
Society must consider, that if the transformation also take
place with oats that have been sown too early, it is merely an
accidental effect of a peculiar state of the weather, or other
accidental circumstances ; whereas the result is quite certain
if the oats be sown towards the end of June. If the soil be
too dry about that time, the reporter (Lieut. Donauer) con-
cludes from an experiment he made in 1837, that one water-
ing, so as to enable the oats to germinate, may be recom-
mended ; although if this be done repeatedly, the high tem-
perature of the season will cause the plants to grow so luxu-
riantly, that it becomes necessary to clip them three times
when about 1 J foot high, to prevent their forming the flower
shoot, whereby the object would be wholly or partially lost.
" If, however, among those who doubt the fact, there be
found charitable people who pity us because we trust more
to actual experiment than to theory, we should almost feel
tempted to pity theorists, whose self-sufficiency has prevent-
ed them from thoroughly investigating an important pheno-
menon which was noticed so many years ago ; nor could we
commend the discernment of such as are unable to discover
in the plants in question both the preceding year's dry stub-
ble and leaves of the oats, and the fresh stalks and leaves of
the rye, which latter form in May upon the caudex of the oat
plant, and produce fine winter rye. The Society takes credit
to itself for perseverance, in having struggled against the opi-
nion of the public for several years, in order to establish a
fact which no systematic physiologist would believe, because
people are always apt to. confound the laws of nature with
those of their systems."

672 Botanical Prizes given by the Apothecaries' Society.

I heartily hope that nature may prove as capricious in
England as she is reported to be at Coburg ; for though I
could make myself easy with regard to the Agricultural Soci-
ety of Coburg, if nature were found to be more systematic
than their report would represent her, 1 could hardly forgive
myself for having occupied so much of the space in your
Journal.

Weimar, Sept. 18th, 1838.

Art. VII. — Notice of the Examination of the Candidates for the
Botanical Prizes given by the Apothecaries' Society. Communi-
cated by N. B. Ward, Esq., F.L.S, &c.

The Examination of the candidates for the botanical prizes
annually given by the Society of Apothecaries, took place at
Apothecaries' Hall, on Wednesday, the 10th of October last;
the time allowed being from 10 o'clock in the morning till 10
in the evening.

The first prize was a gold medal, value 10 guineas; suc-
cessful candidate, Mr. Napier, of University College.

Second prize, a silver medal, with a set of DeCandolle's
' Organographie et Physiologie,' 5 vols., handsomely bound ;
successful candidate, Mr. Dodd, of King's College.

Third Prize, DeCandolle's ' Organographie et Physiologie,'
5 vols., handsomely bound ; successful candidate, Mr. King-
don, of King's College.

The prizes are now by a recent regulation of the Society,
open for competition to the Society's apprentices, as well as
to the general students of the metropolis.

The following were the questions proposed for the written
examination, by Mr. Ward, the examiner.

1. Describe the principal forms of inflorescence, giving examples

of each.

2. What is a calyx ?

3. Describe its various forms.

4. What are the supposed functions of the calyx ?

5. Describe the various kinds of roots.

6. What are the functions of the roots ?

7. What is the origin and nature of the disk ?

8. Describe the structure of the simple and the compound pistil.

9. What is meant by an inferior ovary ?

10. What are the laws which regulate the position of the dissepiments ?

11. Give examples of spurious dissepiments.

12. Describe the structure of the ovule before and after fecundation.

13. Give examples of the orthotropous, campulitropous, and anatro-
pous ovules.

Botanical Prizes by the Apothecaries' Society. 673

14. What is the usual direction of the seed with respect to the pericarp,

and of the embryo with respect to the seed ?

15. What are the various modes of dehiscence ?

16. What are the laws which influence the directions taken by the

organs of plants ?

17. Give the essential characters of the primary divisions of plants

according to the natural system.

18. What nearly allied natural orders are distinguished from each

other, —

1. By the presence or absence of dots on the leaves ?

2. By the number of ribs in their leaves ?

3. By the presence or absence of stipules ?

4. By the number of cells in the anther ?

5. By the outward or inward direction of their anthers ?

6. By the stamens being opposite to or alternate with the petals ?

19. What natural orders furnish plants possessing the following pro-
perties ?

1. Cathartic.

2. Emetic.

3. Astringent.

4. Bitter.

5. Acrid.

20. Give the distinctions between the following natural orders :

1. Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae, and Nymphaeaceae.

2. Magnoliaceae and Winteraceae.

3. Umbellaceae and Araliaceae.

4. Vitaceae and Pittosporaceae.

5. Melastomaceae and Myrtacese.

6. Cruciaceae and Capparidaceae.

7. Silenaceae and Alsinaceae.

8. Rosaceae and Leguminaceae.

9. Amyridaceae and Anacardiaceae.

10. Cupulaceae and Betulaceae.

11. Elaeagnaceae and Thymelaceee.

12. Proteaceae and its nearly allied orders.

13. Lauracese and Illigeraceae.

14. Chenopodiaceae, Phytolaccaceae, and Polygonaceae.

15. Lobeliacere and Campanulaceae.

16. Dipsaceae and Valerianaceae.

17. Labiacese and its nearly allied orders.

18. Apoc}rnacesb and Asclepiaceae.

19. Cycadaceae and Conaceae.

20. Zmgiberaceae, Marantaceae, and Musaceae.

21. Describe fully the plants numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; state the natural
orders to which they respectively belong, and their probable sen-
sible properties.

The following are the plants, which were given to the candidates
un-named.

Sonchus arvensis. Corydalis lutea. Ballota nigra. Rhamnus
cathorticus. Mercurialis annua.

674 Lower Freshwater Formation in Isle of Wight.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS.

Lower freshwater formation in the Isle of Wight. — In the
latter part of last May, accompanied by my friend Mr. White,
I paid a visit to Headon Hill, in the Isle of Wight, where ex-
tensive excavations then in progress enabled us to observe the
strata immediately overlying the thick bed of white sand
which is cut by the high- water mark. A deep excavation
had been made at a spot nearly opposite the Warren Cot-
tage, which extended a considerable distance into the base of
the hill ; much of the superincumbent sands and marls had
necessarily been removed, to prevent the mixture with, and
consequent deterioration of, the white sands beneath. This
offered a favorable opportunity for examining the inferior beds
of the lower freshwater formation of that district, which are
usually so covered up by the talus of the upper marine and
upper freshwater formation, as to render an examination of
them extremely difficult and unsatisfactory. We therefore
seized this favourable opportunity of placing upon record the
nature of the stratification of this highly interesting portion of
Headon Hill, while the section was yet fresh and unsullied
by the action of the weather ; and commencing our measure-
ments from the upper surface of the great bed of white sand,
and proceeding upwards, we found them to be as follows. —

Yellow sand , 9 inches.

Lignite 7

Grey marl passing into black at bottom 46

White sand, passing into yellow at bottom 45

Lignite 2

Greenish clay with veins of sand 135

Lignite 2

Grey sand 9

Covered up by talus from above , 84

Grey clay 72

Ash grey sand , 124

Ash grey clay 60

Above this latter stratum for 10 feet, the strata were so much
hidden by the talus from above, as to render examination
quite uncertain in its results ; but at about this height we
found the lowest of the bands of freshwater limestone abound-
ing in Lymnea, Planorbis, &c.

The whole of the beds enumerated were carefully examined
for fossil remains ; but excepting in the third bed above the
white sand, designated as " grey marl passing into black at
bottom," where we found a few fragments of bone, apparently
those of turtles, — and in the beds of lignite, where very ob-

Highgate Resin. 675

scure traces of vegetable matter were occasionally to be seen,
— we were unable to discover any traces of fossil remains.

The general aspect of these beds is strikingly like those si-
tuated immediately above the London clay at Hordwell, and
little doubt remained in the mind of either of us that they
were in reality identical with them. This opinion was far-
ther confirmed when we examined the beds occurring below
Webster's upper marine formation, at a small chine on the
north side of Totland Bay, where we found seams of white"
sand and of greenish marl, containing Potdmomya angustata
in as great abundance as in similar beds at Hordwell, and
presenting so close an approximation to those beds, both in
their mineral and fossiliferous characters, as to render it diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to determine from which locality a
hand specimen might have been taken. It is probable that
these seams at Headon Hill would be found equally abound-
ing in the Potamomya if we could obtain a view of the spa-
ces covered by the talus from the cliffs above. — J. S. Bower-
bank. — 19, Critchell Place, Hoxton ; Nov. 20th, 1838.

Highgate Resin.— & large, round, and rather flat specimen
of the resin obtained from the excavations of the London and
Birmingham railroad near Chalk Farm, was found on exami-
nation, to be very much impregnated With the sulphuret of
i'on. After exposure to the air for a short time, the mass se-
parated into several fragments, exhibiting rounded cavities
filled with solid iron pyrites, as if it had passed into the sub-
stance of the resin in a fluid state. The portion of the resin
in immediate contact with the pyrites was unchanged.

In another specimen which I discovered on breaking a Sep*
tarium from the Highgate Archway, vegetable remains were
quite close to the resin : this is an interesting fact, tending to
show that, like amber, it probably had its origin in vegetable
juices. I have not met with any remains of insects.

Like other resins it is electric, although in a less degree
than amber. The following are all the localities, as far as I
know, where it has been found. — Highgate Archway ; Isling-
ton excavations of the London and Birmingham railroad;
Bayswater ; and Wolchow.

From this place I have collected several London clay shells,
and among them is an unfigured volute closely resembling the
Voluta Lamberti of the crag, differing from it however in hav-
ing a longer spire, and in being more oval. Mr. J. D. C.
Sowerby has given it the name of Voluta Wether ellii.* — N.
T. Wetherell.— Highgate, Nov. 22nd, 1838.

* See the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal
of Science, Vol. ix. No. 56, December, 1836, p. 463.
Vol. II.— No. 24, n. s. 3 y

676 On Flints in the Chalk.

On Flints in the Chalk. — There appear to be two favorite
theories for explaining the existence of flint beds in the up-
per chalk formation. The one assumes that each bed of flint
is the result of the subsidence of siliceous matter from a semi-
fluid mixture of silex and chalk ; the supernatant chalk be-
ing supposed subsequently to solidify, and thus form a hard
bed, on which a second deposite of chalky matter may occur
by a second subsidence, and so on successively through the
series. The other theory attributes the collection of silex in-
to flint-beds, to the attraction of the particles for each other ;
the position of the beds being determined by the accidental
formation of a nucleus in any particular part of the semifluid
mass. This theory does not require the assistance of subsi-
dence, but supposes that the flint beds may have been form-
ing in different parts of the chalk at the same moment. On
considering these theories, it appeared to me that if subsi-
dence were the agent, or in other words, if gravity acted so
powerfully as to counteract the attraction upwards to a nu-
cleus, of any floating silex, then we might expect that such
particles would be detained in the gradually solidifying chalk
in different quantities, being in greater proportion towards the
plane of subsidence, and gradually decreasing as we proceed-
ed upwards from that plane. If, on the contrary, attraction
were the principal agent, then we should find that no such
gradual diminution of the proportion of silex would be ob-
served ; but that, owing to the more rapid and complete na-
ture of the attraction between particles, we might expect the
chalk to be pretty constant in its proportion of silex at any
distance above or below the layers of flint.

No. 1 was taken from the chalk 3 in. above the flint bed ;

No. 2 at 3 ft. 3 in. ; and

No. 3 at 6 ft. 3 in. On analysis —

No. 1 yielded 0.5 per cent, of silex ;

No. 2 also 0.5 per cent. ; and

No. 3 1.0 per cent.

From these results it is evident that no decrease occurs in
the proportion of silex in chalk, as we ascend from the flint
bed ; which I cannot help regarding as an argument against
subsidence, particularly whe observe that at 6 ft. 3 in. above
the flint-bed we have \ per cent, more silex present.

These facts are however in no way opposed to the theory
of aggregation by attraction, and the small quantity of silex
observed in the chalk shows a completeness of action on the
part of the aggregating power which is a strong argument in
favor of its having taken effect at small distances.

On the Geography of Insects. 677

The specimens of chalk wh'.ch were examined contained
alnmen and oxide of iron in small proportions ; and it is a
curious fact that these substances, as well as the silex, exist
in several crystallised forms of carbonate of lime in the same
proportions as in chalk.

Though I am far from believing that these remarks can lead
to any conclusive result, yet I trust they are sufficient to ren-
der it improbable that subsidence has been the principal ac-
tion by which the flint beds have been formed. I scarcely
need add that the nature of the organic remains observed in
the flints render it quite impossible that they can be of igne-
ous origin.— G. O. Rees, M.B., F.G.S., %c.—59, Guildford
St., Russell Square, Nov. Uth, 1838.

Note on the Geography of Insects. — Considering the globe
as two basins of water, each mostly surrounded by a bank of
land, the shore of each basin has or has had its peculiar race
of beings from man downwards, but in this note I allude on-
ly to insects. The lesser basin comprises the Atlantic Ocean,
and leaving Greenland, where nature meets in one animal
life, diverges more and more as we go southward, through
Europe on the one side, and through North America on the
other. In Africa and in South America the difference is still
greater; but at the Cape of Good Hope and in Patagonia the
mutual resemblance again grows stronger, thus forming a
continued series round the basin. The forms of insects on
the one side have corresponding forms on the other side in
the same degree of latitude, which is varied, however, by the
nature of the country ; but the likeness is much less than in
those on the line of longitude at an equal distance on either
side of the equator, where the sea hardly divides the land. —
A continued chain of links might be found by proceeding
from Canada, and stretching over the heights of the moun-
tains, and descending to the ocean at Cape Horn ; and again
on a smaller scale, beginning at a lower latitude, and taking
a less elevation on the mountains : and the same on the op-
posite coast.

The other basin, forming the Pacific Ocean and the Indian
Sea, is much larger, and its natural history is less known. It
is bordered by the chief mountains of the earth, which, in
America, extend from Chili to the Aleutian Isles, and in Asia
comprise the Japanese, Himalayan, and Caucasian moun-
tains ; and in Africa, Mount Atlas and the Mountains of the
Moon and Lupata, and rise eastward in Madagascar, the Mau-
ritius, Sumatra, &c. There is a general likeness among the
insects of the land from Madagascar, along the shores of the

678 German Association. — Zoological Transactions.

Indian Sea to the Philippine Isles. Some in the latter are
allied to those in Chili ; but the band of isles across the Pa-
cific being small and wide apart, they never have a high tem-
perature, and their insects are few, and not of tropical forms.
Some tribes of insects in the most southern parts of New
Holland, Africa, and America, though different, yet appear to
be representatives of each other. The study of insects along
opposite shores of capes and peninsulas, to observe how their
mutual likeness increases southward, would be an interesting
branch of their geography, which department of Entomolo-
gy is much neglected. It has been said of the Mediterrane-
an that the same tribes of insects surround its shores ; and
this remark will probably apply to every other sea. The
chain of mountains above mentioned divides the earth into
two groups, whose difference is greater between the tropics*
and disappears towards the poles. — F. Walker.

German Scientific Association. — This institution is essen-
tially different from the British Association, both in its ten-
dency and arrangements. It has no funds at its disposal,
and consequently can give no commissions for works to be
written at its expense ; a circumstance which the Germans
have no reason to regret, as very few first-rate scientific men
in this country are in circumstances that would allow them
to write one additional good work through encouragement of
that nature. The Association has no political tendency
whatever ; nor is it in any way intended to supply the want
of a sufficient number of academies and universities. Its on-
ly object is to form an annual centre of personal scientific
communication, of which the elements change, more or less,
every year, — and the quickening impulses radiate towards all
quarters . — W. Weissen born .

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

A new part of the ' Transactions of the Zoological Society
will be published in a few days, containing papers by Prof.
Owen on the osteology of the orangs, and on the anatomy of
the giraffe ; — Rev. R. T. Lowe on the fishes of Madeira ; —
Prof. Thos. Bell on the genus Galictis ; — Mr. Thompson on
a new British genus of tsenoid fish, (Echiodon) ; — Capt. Har
ris on a new African antilope.

GENERAL INDEX.

Acarus of Mr. Cross, 55; figured 57; addition- i
al inlbimation upon 101

Aetobatis, Muller and Henle, a new genus of I
cartilaginous fishes, 91

Afzelius, Professor, information respecting his
collection of natural objects, 50

Agassiz, M., opinion respecting the fishes of the
crag, 114

Aigocerus, new species of; 108

Alectura Gray, true affinities of, 257

Algyra, new species of, 94

Allantois hi the kangaroo, 94 ; letter by M. Coste
upon, with remarks by the editor, 157; me-
moir upon by Mr. Owen, 183

Amber, yellow, fact relating to, 570

Ammonites mar ginatus, found at Swanwich, 87
varicosus, found at Swanwich, 87

Ampelis garrulus, on the habits of, 52

Amphibia, dental system of, 652

Amphioxus lanceolatus, observations upon, 381

Amphitherium, 653 ; see Didclphis fossil

Anacardium, new genus of 502

Anglesea Morris see Leptocephahis Morrissii

Angostura bark tree, see Galipea officinalis.

Anomia, affinities of 579 ; formation of the notch
in its upper valve 583

Ancema referred to, 584

Anthocephahcs paradoxus, described and fi-
gured, 655

Antilope Ogilbii, (new species) noticed, 335

Antelope, see Aigocerus

Antennae of Insects, remarks upon by Mr. New-
man, 268; by Mr. L. W. Clarke, 393,472; of
Crustacea, 273

Ant-lion, see Myrmelconformicarium.

Apothecaries Society, botanical prizes given by,
672

Apteryx, body of presented by the Earl of Der-
by to the Zoological Society of London, 159

Arendsee, lake of described, 569

Argentine, see Scopelas Humboldtii.

Argonaut, experiments upon the animal of, 65 ;
parasitic nature of, 48

Ascotus longimanus found at Neufchatel, 583

Association, Scientific of Germany, 678

Asterice, best method of preserving, 100

Aueroch, see Bos urus.

Auk, little, see Mergula rnelanoleucos.

Avicula, external punctuations on the valves
of, 582

Baer, M. de, intelligence of, 49; 507.

Balani attached to bones in the crag, 347

Barbarea, reference made to, 605

Basilosaurus, referred to, 653

Batrachia, observations on the ova of, 187

Bear, fossil tooth of figured, 543

Beck, Dr., opinion respecting the fossils of the
crag, &c, 113

Bee-eater, see Merops Apiastcr

Bee, honey, review of Dr. Sevan's work, 559

Bialowicza, forest of desciibed, 239

Birds, domestic instincts of, 399 ; supposed ef-
fects of change of temperature upon, 53 ; fos-
sil remains of, 43 ; insessorial, new arrange-
ment of, 256 ; list of common to Europe and
North America, 237; supposed cause of death

when confined in cages, 293 ; transmission of
experience in, 50

Bird, trumpeter, see Psophia crepitans.

Bison, see Bos urus.

Blackburn, ornithology of, 426; 524

Bonassos, see Bos urus.

Bonplandia trifoliata, comparison of its cha-
racters with those of Galipea officinalis, 104

Bos americanus, comparison of with Bos unis,
305

gaums, remarks upon, 256

primogenius, remarks upon; 254

urus, natural history of, 239 ; additional

note upon, 321

Bothriocephalic auricidatus referred to, 656;
B. corollatus referred to, 656 ; B . punctatus
description of, 574 ; figured 577

Brassicacece, see Cruciferce

Brentford, fossil remains found at, 539

Brookite, locality for, 293

Bubale, see Bos urus.

Buceridce, affinities of, 589

Bustard, Hiede of capturing in Germany, 51

C&cilia, dental system of, 652

Calamites, remarks on 5

Calluna vulgaris and its varieties, 557; 619

Cantriccs, proposed new order of birds, 266

Capricorn captured at Berne, 341

Carbon, accumulation of in the state of coal, 6

Carbonic acid, 6

Carcharias, fossil teeth of, in the crag, 43

Carcharodon, Andr. Smith, new genus of carti-
laginous fishes, 37

Cardita concamerata, peculiarity in the valves
of, 581

C'arex cyperoides, curious fact relating to, 375

Carlsbad, hot spring of noticed, 568

Carnivora, fossil, in the valley of the Thames,
539

Cattle, wild, at Chillingham Park, 502

C'ebus, reference made to, 205

C'elsia, reference made to, 608

Centrophorus, Muller and Henle, new genus
of cartilaginous fishes, 89

C'epola rtibescens found on the beach at Teign-
mouth, 238 ; notes upon, 214

Ceratoptera, Muller and Henle, new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 91

Cercopitheci, remarks upon, 322

C'ercopithecus Martini, (new species) noticed,
330 ; Campbelli, (new species) noticed, 336

Certoidea, referred to, 657

Cetacea, dental system of, 651

CetoniidtE, see Goliathus torquatus

Chalicomus minutus, H. Von Meyer, new fos-
sil mammal, 586

Chalydra Murchisonii, occurrence of atCEnin-
gen, 584

Chama, spiral disposition of its valves, 583

Chameleon, new species of, 336 ; on the nervous
currents in, 532; cause of the changes of co-
lour, 533

Char, see Sahno alpinus

Charadrius morinelhis, observations on the La
bits of, 295; female specimen of described,
304

680

GENERAL INDEX.

Charitosaurus, H. Von Meyer, noticed, 551
Charlesworth, Mr. opinions of on the English

crag referred to, 115
Chalichomys Jagerii found at Kapfnaden, 585
Cheropotamus meissneri, reference made to, 587
Chiloscyllium, Muller and Henle, new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 34
Chiton, structure of referred to, 511
Chorion of the kangaroo, 95
Chrysanthemum segetum, fact respecting, 507
Chrysosplenium alterni/olium, observations on,

Cicindela campestris, colour of referred to, 637
C. hybrida, Linn., remarks upon, 342
Cirrhopoda, reference made to, 581
Cladobates, reference made to the term, 154
Classification, zoological, 412 ; 484
Clinidium, see Rhysodes
Coal, M. Ad. Brongniart's observations upon, 3

of South America, observations on, 339
Coburg, Agricultural Society of, 670
Cceca, value of as a distinctive character, 263
Cold, effects of during the winter of 1837, 452
Colobi, new species of, 335 ; remarks on, 321
Colobus Pennantii described, 335 ; C. Satanas
described, 335 ; C. ur sinus, notice of a perfect
skin 336
Colymbus glacialis, capture of, 634
Comatulce, best method of preserving, 100
Conferva, remarkable fact respecting, 378
Conifera: observations on, 10
Cottus scorpius, Entozoa found in, 574
Coptosoma, new genus described by Mr. West-
wood, 26
Cordylus, new species of, 30
Corallina officinalis, light produced on burn-
ing, 512 '
Crag, remains of Vertebrata in, 40; Mammalia
occurring in, 162 ; observations on the fossils
of, by M. Desnoyers, 111 ; its supposed iden-
tity with Diluvium, 285
Crania, reference made to, 580
Crossbill, remarks upon its plumage, 451
Crossorhinus, Muller and Henle, new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 34
Crow, carrion, fact relating to, 512
Crucifera, determination of the genera 605
Cryptogamia, observations on, 6
Crystals, remarks on their production, 43
Cubla, observations on, 494
Cuckoo fed by the wryneck, 512
Cucubalus baccifer discovered in the Isle of

Dogs, 44
Cuscuta Epilinum found in England, 343
Cycadece, observations on, 10
Cyclades, growth of the valves, 582
Cyrena, fossil, observations on, 547
Darwin's work upon the Zoology of the Voyage

of the Beagle, 286
Delphiuus bidentatus, remarks upon, 221

truncatus, Montagu, 610

Tursio captured near Torquay, 609

full description of 610
Dentalium, affinities of, 581 ; D. medium found

at Swanwich, 87
Deposits, tertiary, observations upon the classi-
fication of, by M. Desnoyers, 112 ; by the edi-
tor, 117
Deshayes, M. opinion of respecting the crag, 110
Diard, M., intelligence respecting, 109
Diceras, remoteness of its beaks, 583
Didelphis, fossil of Stonesfield, doubts respect-
ing mammiferous character of, 639
virginiana, comparison of with sup-
posed fossil Didelphis, 649
Didus ineptus, Linn., its extinction referred to,

68
Digitalis, reference made to, 608
Diluvium of Suffolk, its supposed identity with

crag, 285
Dinotkerium bavaricam, reference made to,

587 ; D. giganteum fossil tooth of, ib.
Dinotherium, skull of advertised for sale, 294
Dog, instance of jealousy in, 568
Dolphin, see Delphinus Tursio.
Donax, shape of the valves, 582
Dottrel, see Charadrius Morinellus.
Dreissena polymorpha, Pall., naturalization of

in Britain, 361
Dujardin, M., his views upon the fossil shells

of the crag, 113
Eagle, bald note respecting, 164 ; golden, note

respecting, 164; sea, note respecting, 164;

white-headed, capture of near Harwich, 292
Echinorhynchus Acus described and figd., 516
Echinodermata, best method of preserving, 99
Edwards, Dr. Milne, opinion respecting thePo-

lypi of the crag, 114
Eel, electric, see Gymnotus electricus.
Electricity, Mr. Cross's experiments in, 101
Elephant, fossil tooth of found at Clacton, 164
Emaryinula, structure of noticed, 581
Emys Heischeri, new fossil species, 586
Entozoa, Irish, notices of by Dr. Drummond,

516; 573; 655
Equiseta observations on, 5
Erith, fossil remains found at, 540
Errata in the article on the Bos urus pointed

out, 513
Erythrotis (new species) noticed, 335
Euryale amazonica, comparison of its charac-
ters with those of the genus Victoria, 106
Eulophus, new species of, 392
Euphony necessary in scientific nomenclature,

155
Faluns, geological observations on, by M. Des-
noyers, 111
Ferns from the Island of Jamaica, observations

on, 453
Festucafiuitans, spontaneous growth of, 376
Fishes, new mode of setting up, 350 ; peculiar

structure in the eyes of, 136, 553; figured,

Flint, occurrence of in chalk, 676

Flints found near London, remarks on, 218

Flower-gardens of the ancients, remarks on, 364

Formica rufa, fact respecting, 393

Fruits, fossil, forthcoming work on, 109

Gaimard, Dr. intelligence of, 49

Galeocerdo, Muller and Henle, new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 36
Galeus, fossil teeth of in the crag, 43
Galipea officinalis, observations on, 104
Gannet, see Sula Bassana.
Gaour, see Bos urus.
Generation, spontaneous, 621 ; remarks upon,

369; 507
Genetta poensis described, 335
Geology of the south east of Dorsetshire, 128
Giant beetle, see Goliathus torquatus.
Gibson, Mr. Jabez, death of noticed, 161
Ginglymostoma, Muller and Henle, new genus

of cartilaginous fishes, 35
Giraffe, remark on the gall-bladder of, 261
Glyphca, H. Von Meyer, fossil species of no-
ticed, 549
Goliathus torquatus, description of and plate,

635
G oose, Canada, specimens supposed British, 334
Goose, allusion to the embryo of, 195.
Gould, Mr. John, his departure for Australia

noticed, 107
Grafting, curious experiment in, 341
Grauwacke, vegetation of, 180
Gull, Iceland see Larus Islandicus, 18
Gull, Pomarine, capture of noticed, 333
Gulls, arrangement of by Mr. Eyton, 487;

567
Gymnotus electricus, notice respecting, 506; —

letter from Mr. Bradley on the habits of, 668
Gypaetos barbatus, scarcity of in the Alps, 08 ;

capture of recorded, 567

GENERAL INDEX.

081

Haarlem, prize-questions proposed by the Aca-
demy of Sciences at ; 441

Hcematococcus, fact relating to, 59

Hamster, see Mus cricetus.

Harpagodon maximus, H. Von Meyer, a new
fossil mammal, 588

Hedenborg, M. intelligence of, 50

Helix decollata reference to, 407

Hemiscyllium, Muller and Henle, new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 34

Hemitrygon, Muller and Henle, new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 90

Heterocarpella geminata, fact relating to, 59

Heterogenes, new order of birds, 315

Heterotherium, 653

Highgate, fossil resin of, 675

Hirundo esculenta, mode of collecting the nests
of, 568

Hoopoe, facts relating to its natural history, 594

Hornbills see BuceridcE.

Horns, fossil, found at Clacton, 163

Hugel, Baron, information respecting his col-
lection, 50

Hydrophobia occurring in foxes, 226

Hyoscyamus, reference made to, 608

Hyotherium, referred to, 586

Hypericum humifusum, fact relating to, 377

Hyperoodon honftoriensis, remarks upon, 221

Hypolophus, Muller and Henle, new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 90

Hypsiprimnus, various species of the genus
noticed, 336

Ianthina communis, new localities for, 21

Ilford, fossil remains at, 540

Infusoria, fossil, notice respecting, 338

Inoceramus, valves volute in opposite directions
583

Insectivora, dentition of described, 647

Insects, geographical description of, 677

Insects, gynandromorphous, remarks on, 393 ;
mentioned in Shakspeare, 562; Mr. West-
wood's classification of, reviewed, 627; pul-
monary orifice in, 516

Instinct, instance of in a kitten, 514

Isocardia, separation of the beaks of, 583

Ivy, verses on, 632

Jaws, fossil, see Didelphis

Kangaroo, generative organs described, 185

Kangaroo, existence of the allautois in, 94

Kew bridge, fossil remains found at, 540

Kitzbuhel, natural history of, 167

Labiata, artificial arrangement of the genera,
608

Lacerta, new species of, 92

Laemargus, Muller and Henle, new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 82

Lagomys, fossil species of, 584

Lagopus britannicus, varieties in the plumage
of, 525

Lamiacece, see Labiaitcc

Lamna, fossil teeth of in the crag, 43

Lancashire, ornithology of the north of, 426 524

Lancelet, see Amphioxus lanceolatus.

Larus Islandicus captured in Ayrshire, 18

Lasiopyga, remarks upon, 324

Lemna, elongated crystals in the roots of, 172;
experiments upon, 176

Lepidodendrons, remarks upon 5

Leptocharias, Andr. Smith, new genus of carti-
laginous fishes, 36

Leptocephalus Morrisii, specimen of captured
at Port Patrick, 20

Leptocera, monograph upon, 468

Lima, shape of the valves, 582

Limnoria terebrans existing in Plymouth har-
bour, 206

Limulus, fossil species found in the muschel-
kalk, 549

Loxodon, Muller and Henle, new genus of car-
tilaginous fishes, 36

Lutra, occurs fossil in the crag, 43

Lutra poensis, (new species) noticed, 335

Lycopodia remarks on, 5

Lycopodium inundatum, remarks relating to,
617

Lycopodium Selago, remarks relating to, 616

Lyell, Mr., opinion respecting the fossils of the
crag, &c, 113

Lythraceoe, remarks on the affinities of, 210

Machtnosaurus Hugii, H. Von Meyer, noticed,
553

Macrauchenia, notice of, 289

Magilus, observation upon, 407

Malleus, shape of the valves, 582

Mammal, term preferable to ' mammifere,' 155

Mammalia of the crag, 40 ; occurrence of in the
crag, 224 ; fossil in South America, 291 ; fos-
sil in the valley of the Thames, 539; fossil
remains of in the Portland stone, 553

Manatus, fossil species of, 687

Manganese, existence of in various plants, 175

Man, position of in the animal kingdom, 414 ;
influence of in effecting zoological changes, 65

Marmot, singular fact respecting its hyberna-
tion, 568

Marsupialia term more correct than Marsupia-
ta, 156 ; physiological condition of the ovum,
190

Marsupials, uteri of desci-ibed, 185

Mastodon, occurrence of in the crag and faluns
of the Loire, 114 ; remains of at Buchberg, —
584

M. a?igustidens found at Kapfnaden 685

M. luricense, found at Elgg, 585

Mastodonsaurus, peculiar* structure of the teeth
described, 560

Medal, Royal, lapse of, 159

Megalochelys, reference made to, 588

Megalosaurus, referred to, 639

Megapodius, affinities of, 257

Menura, affinities of, 257

Merganser, red-breasted, shot near Southport,
333

Mergula melanoleucos, captured at Witliam, 53

Mergus albcllus, specimen obtained at Preston,
331; plumage of the female, 395, 398, 451

Merops apiaster captured in Britain, 18

Meteors observed at Gratz, 120

Microscopes, improvements in, 345

Microtherium Bengen H. Von Meyer, new fos-
sil mammal, 516

Minnows not met with north of the Perth, 348

Molasse, fossil remains of, 584

Molluscs, lamellibranchiate conchiferous, 578 ;
testaceous, physiological experiments on, 63

Monassos, Aristotle's description of, 244

Moritz, M. intelligence of, 50

Morris, Rev. F. O., letter from to the editor 110

Muller, Professor, portrait of noticed, 160

Murex trunculus, experiments upon, 64

Murray, Dr. Alex, death of noticed, 160

Mus cricetus, Linn., damage occasioned by, 67

Muscicapa atricapilla, remarks relating to, 634
leucocilla, remarks upon, 497, 499

Mustela, remarks on the North American spe-
cies of, 37

Myastropha, referred to, 579

Myliobatis, fossil teeth of in the crag, 43

Myrmeleonformicarium, notes on the natural
history of, 601

Myrmica, new species of described, 626

Mytilus, growth of its valves, 581

Naja, new species of, 92

Nasalis, remarks upon, 324

Necrophorus humator, use of its antenna;, 394

Nemertes Borlasii, Cuv. taken at Port Patrick,
21

Nitzsch, Professor, death of, 50

Nomenclature, observations upon, by Mr. Ogil-
by 150, 275, 492; by Mr. Strickland, 198,

682

GENERAL INDEX.

326, 555 ; by Mr. Westwood, 204
Nordmann, Professor, intelligence respecting,

507
Northern diver, see Colymbus ylacialls.
Notldauus, fossil teeth of in the crag, 43
Nova Zembla, scientific expedition to, 40
Oats, transformation of into Rye, (570
Op. issum, fossil jaw of, see Dldelphls
Orang Utang, remarks on the habits of, 47; —

notice of a specimen of at Heidelberg, 49
Orblcnla, structure of referred to, 579
Orchis militaris, locality for, 39
Orchis Morio, remarks relating to, 020
Omlthorhynchus, co-existence of the chorion
and the vitelline membrane in the ovum of,
187 ; exception as to its dental system, 651
Ozyyolherium Esc her ti, H. Von Meyer, a new

fossil mammal, 585
Palacomeryx, genus of fossil ruminants, 585
Palacotherium, new species of, 584
Pampas, geology of the, 290
Parrot, instance of longevity in, 110
Partridges, white, covey of near Preston, 332
Patella, structure of referred to, 581
Pedum, reference made to, 580
Pemphla, new fossil genus of Crustacea, 548
Perca nobills, new muscle in the eye of, 140
Peru, dryness of its atmosphere, 340
Petaurus, developement of an allantois in, 191
Phalanyista, developement of an allantois in,

191
Phwce, extensive destruction of, 68
Physalus, observations upon, 633
Physeter macrocephalus, 370
Pied fly-catcher, see Musclcapa atricapllla.
Pigeons, instance of their power of flight, 567
Pike not met with north of the Perth, 348 ; of

enormous size, 570
Pinna, external punctuations on the valves of,

582
Plavuna, reference made to, 580
Plants rare species found at Tring, 38 ; British
artificial arrangement of, 604 ; British, notes
upon, 616
Platax, fossil remains of, 43
Plateosaurus, H. Von Meyer, new genus of fos-
sil saurians, 550
Plataspls, sub genus of insects proposed by Mr.

Westwood, 29
Platyrhina, Muller and Henle, a new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 90
Polyyastrica, observations respecting, 633
Polyommatus Arion, new locality for, 161 ; —

Acis, new locality for, 161
Polypodium, observations on the species of 141
PoplUla, new species of, 336, 392
Prichard, Dr., extract from his writings, 501
Prlstlophorus, Muller and Henle, new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 89
Prizes, botanical, see Apothecaries Society
Prosophon, H. Von Meyer, new genus of fossil

Crustacea, 649
Proteus, remarks on proposed change of name,

165
Protosphcerice, reference made to, 59
Protonema, reference made to, 59
Psophla crepitans, notes upon, 490
Psychology, use of the term criticised, 155
I'terodactylus, new facts in the history of, 552
Pteroplatea, Muller and Henle, anew genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 90
Purple ocean shell, see lanthina.
Pygathrlx, Geoffr. remarks upon, 326
Riputla aromatica, notes respecting, 97
Hay fish, new British species described and fi-
gured, 71
Bed baud fish, see Cepula rubescens.
Reptilia, non-occurrence of in the crag, 43 ;

variations in the dental system of, 651
BhinoctPOM imisicus, remains of found at Elgg

516; at Seehmiue 585 ; G ioliifussii found near
Or4t, ib.; R, tichorhinus observation relating
to 586
Rhymhobatus, Muller and Henle, anew genus

of cartilaginous fishes, 89
Rhysudes, species enumerated, 663
Rodentia, conditions of the ovum in, 190
Rodentia, fossil, found at CEniugen, 584 ; phy-
siological facts respecting, 190
Rook, notice of its habits in domestication, 349
Russegger, M. infoi-mation respecting, 180, 340
Rudista, natural affinities of, 581
Rye, obtained from oats, 670
Salmo alpinus, Entozoa from, 661
Sandstone, red, vegetation of, 180
Schimper, M. intelligence respecting, 108
Schist, argillaceous, flora of, 180
Scarabceus torquatus, see Goliatlius torquatus
Scoliodou, Muller and Henle,new genus, 35
Scolopax Sibini shot in the north of Lancashire

527
Scopelns Humboldtii, Yarr., occurrence of a
fourth British specimen, 22 ; remarks on by
Mr. Yarrell, 25
Scrophulariacece, artificial arrangement of the

genera, 607
Scymnus, Muller and Henle, new genus of car-
tilaginous fishes, 89
Sea long worm, see Nemertes Borlasli.
Seal, remarks on the habits of, 48
Secale comutwn, observation respecting, 630
Semnopithecus, monograph of, 320, 434
Scptaria, Lamarck, observations upon, 408
Shells, fossil, list of in mammaliferous deposits

544
Silex, occurrence of in various plants, 175
Simia,, justification of the term, 151
Simla, discussion on the application of the

term, 152
Simiadce, application of the term, 151
Skua, Pomarine, 396

Skylarks, diminution of the numbers of in Ger-
many, 69
Smew/see Mergns albellus.
Snake, common, habits of, 479
Society, Botanical, information respecting, 107

excursion made by, 556
Society, Royal, lapse of the medal for 1837, 159
Solemya, shape of the valves, 582
Solon, shape of the valves, 5<s2
Solenides, shape of the valves, 582
Solanum Lycopersicum, physiological experi-
ment upon, 173
Solarium ornatum found at Swanwich, 87
Sowerby, Mr. G. B. opinions respecting the fos-
sils of the crag, 114 .
Sphserulites, suggestions respecting their affini-
ties 580
Spnndylus varius, Sowerbv, camerated struc-
ture of described and figured, 407 ; analysis
of fluid contained in the chambers of, 412
Steyostom-', Muller and Henle, new genus, 33
Stonesfield fossil mammal, 639
Stork, black fact respecting, 70
Stork, white, protected in Holland, 70
Strata, calcareous, flora of, 177 ; of the south

east of Dorsetshire described, 79
Siiccinea amphibia, varieties of described and

figured, 477
Sula Bassaua, Briss. taken in fishing nets, 19
Swainson, Mr. replv to his reviewers, 494
Swan, Bewick's, variation in number of tail-
feathers, 2U1 ; wild, flock of near Preston 333
Sympteryyia, Muller and Henle, new genus 90
System, quinary, remarks upon, 259, 599
Synyamus tracheulis, referred to, 660
Tapirus, allusion to the name, 151
Taniura, Muller and Henle, new genus of car-
tilaginous fishes, 90
Tfcsdali'i nudiccfttlis, remarks relating to, Mo

GENERAL INDEX.

683

Telegraph, electrical, notice respecting, 506

Tellina, strict' on the valves of, 582

Teredo navalis, existence of in Plymouth har-
bour, 206

Teredo, valves of referred to, 581

Testudo antiqua, found at Hohenhoven, 588

Test, numerical, of Mr. Lyell and M.Deshayes

Tetrao rufus naturalised in Silesia, 70; note
upon 127, by the editor, 128

Tetrarhynchus yrossus described and figd. 572

Tetrar. solidus described and figured, 573

Thamnophilus Subini, observation upon, 495

Thetis, substitution of for the generic name —
Proteits, 54

Thecidece, reference made to, 580

Thur, see Bos urus.

Toxodon, notice of, 289

Tooth, fossil human, found at Aarau,587

Tridacua, growth of the valves, 582

Tricerwdon, Muller and Henle, a new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 36

Triakis, Muller and Henle, new genus of carti-
laginous fishes, 36

Triylochis, Muller and Henle, a new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 88

Triyonia ruyosa found at Swanwich, 87

Triton, fact in its physiological history, 187

Triton nodiferum, Lamarck, 64

Trochiscus', Sowerby, new genus in Concholo-
gy, 97

Trogon, long-tailed, see Troy on resplendens.

Troyon paradiseus, see Tr. resplendens.

Trogon resplendens, history of, 229

Tryyonorrhyna, Muller and Henle, new genus
of cartilaginous fishes, 90

Tubularia indivisa, remarks on, 511

Tupaia, dentition of described, 647

Turdus, diminution of its numbers in Germany
69

Turtles, fossil, remarks upon, 561

ITnio, fossil, observations on, 547

JJraptera, Muller and Henle, a new genus of

cartilaginous fishes, 90

Uroyymnus, Muller and Heide, a new genus of
cartilaginous fishes, 90

Urus, see Bos urus

Valvata, fossil figured, 547

Vegetables, saline combinations in the structure
of, 72 ; influence of the soil upon their distri-
bution, 167

Vegetation of the western Tyrol 167; primitive,
Brongniart upon, 1

Vermetus concavus found at Swanwich, 87

Vermetus yiyas, septa of described and fi-
gured, 408

Veronica Beccubunya, spontaneous growth of
376

Verbascum, natural affinities of, 608

Venus, shape of the va'ves, 582

Victoria Reyia, note by Dr. Lindley upon, 105
note respecting, 105

Vipera, new genus of, 92

Viper, curious fact respecting, 237

Voluta Lamberti referred to, 670; V. Wethe-
relli referred to, 675

Vochyaccce, remarks on the affinities of, 210

Vulture, New Holland, 257

Water clam, see Spondylus varius

Wells, artesian, notice of one in Paris, 506

Whale fishery, remarks upon, 67

Whale, bottle-head, remarks on, 221

Wickham, fossil remains found at, 540

Wight, Isle of, Gelogical notice of Headon Hill,
674

Wolf, history of, 123 ; rewards offered for ex-
tirpation of, 125

Woodcock, native, remark respecting, 396 ;
singular anecdote connected with, 69 ; breed-
ing in Ross-shire, 347

Wood, petrified, experiments upon, 340

Woodward, Mr. Samuel, death of noticed, 160

Zoology, fossil researches in, 548

Zubr, see Bos urus

CORRECTIONS.

l'AGE. ERRATA. CORRECTIONS.

43 Notidanis Notidanus

44 sulphuret sulphate

84 north of the chalk north as the chalk

„ 4270 paces 4450 paces

86 Pemfield Punfield

87 do do.

236 contributors conductors

381 Lancelot Lancelet

428 Brewsholme Browsholme

„ Boughbearer Bowbearer

563 Capercomus Bostrichus capucinus

Tornicus Tomicus

Bylargus Hulurgus

633 Acephala Acalephse

85 line 11. .omit beds between the chalk and
511 line 4. .add John Hancock M.D. after the word desideratum

END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

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