. NVPL reseaRChl.brar.es mBL . 1 •jyMatiMaatitB^MHiMtaMIMMMlii mttm^u^^ammmMmauuttmm mttmammam^M AVERAGE COST PER FAMILY OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOOD FROM REPORTS OF 2,567 AMERICAN FAMILIES ARTICLE AVERAGE COST PER FAMILY $10 20 30 40 50 FRESH BEEF SALT BEEF FRESH PORK SALT PORK POULTRY FISH OTHER MEATS FLOUR, MEAL AND BREAD RICE POTATOES OTHER VEGETABLES EGGS MILK BUTTER CHEESE LARD MOLASSES SUGAR COFFEE TEA FRUIT VINEGAR, ETC. OTHER FOOD Ehitnrial EMlinu Sbitnr-tn-(flh\pf WtUtam M, l^auDy VOL. (ta^u X pblir Wflfarp THE N 1^ vV YORK] PUBLIC LIBRARY 391174 1907 KDITORIAL 32DITION I^IMITBD TO ONE THOT^SAXn t?OPIES Copyrisht 1W5, By John D. Morris & Company. Copyright 1906, By The Making of America Co. Copyright 1903, 1905, By Charles Hlggins. Copyright 1901, 1902, 1903, By Araeric-an Academy of Political and Social Science. Copyright 1904, By TheChautauquan Press. Copyright 1903, By The Outlook Company. Copyright 1904, By D. Appleton & Company. Copyright 1903, By Educational Review Publishing Company. Copyright 1900, By Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Copyright 1903, By Charities. Copyright 1900, By Brooklyn Ethical Association. Copyright 1903, By Evening Post Company. CONTKXTS VOLUME X. PUBLIC WELFARE. Charity, — Theory and Practice. BY Charles Richmond Henderson 1 ^ The Expansion of Organized Charity. BY Alfred O. Crozier 18 Benevolent Institutions. BY John Koren 22 Science in Philanthropy. BY Charles Richmond Henderson 40 ^ Educational Philanthropy as an Investment. BY Robert A. Woods 50 Jewish Charities. BY Lee K» Frankel « . . . . 57 Emergency Relief in Great Disasters. BY Edward T. Devine 77 The Building of Hospitals. BY HoLLis W. Field 88 Institutions for the Blind. BY G. L. Smead 92 Provision for the Insane. BY William M. Edwards 104 Immigration and the Public Health. BY Allan McLaughlin 119 City Life, Crime and Poverty. BY John R. Commons 128 Poor Relief in the United States. BY Emil Munsterberg 139 iii IV CONTENTS The Drink Problem. By Thomas Davidson Crothers 176 Tenement House Regulation. BY Robert W. De Forest 193 Race Suicide in the United States. BY Walter F. Wilcox 207 American Women in Philanthropy. BY May Wilkinson Mount 218 The Fire Fighter of To-day. BY John Campion 222 Building and Loan Associations Make Both Men and Cities. BY Herbert Francis de Bower 226 Fraternal Insurance in the United States. BY B. H. Meyer 232 ^ Growth of Secret Societies. BY William Wallace Phelps 249 Principles of Reform in Penal Law. BY Charlton T. Lewis 254 Evolution in Reformative Methods. BY Lyman D. Drake 262 The Race Problem at the South. BY Hilary A. Herbert 270 y The Development of Public Libraries. BY Charles Ammi Cutter 275 The Adulteration of Food and INIedicine. BY Hamilton P. Duffield 288 Corruption in Public Life. BY Charles J. Bonaparte 301 The Reign of Law. BY Joseph Wingate Folk 307 General Index 317 CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE. BY CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON. [Charles Richmond Henderson, associate professor of sociology in the University of Chicago, is one of the world's foremost authorities on scientific philanthropy; he is a graduate of the old University of Chicago and of the University of Leipsic; he has traveled extensively in Europe; and America investigating applied philanthropy more especially in regard to prison conditions; he is probably the best known American writer on philanthropic subjects.] American farmers have long known the importance of importing the finest breeds of horses and cattle, of crossing strains and exchanging seeds. We are at least beginning to learn the value of cross fertilization in the realm of social practice. The only reliable basis for a law or method of ad- ministration, or for a social experiment, is knowledge of the experience of the civilized world. The conditions of modem life forbid provincialism in thinking and isolation of workers. The so called self made man who boasts of being practical is of all men frequently the most visionary schemer, because he lives on an island without communication with the continent and gives his petty vision validity for mankind. His ideas become dwarfs, hke the hens described by Hawthorne to il- ustrate the danger of in-and-in breeding. Dr. Lester F. Ward uses the happy epithet, 'Hhe illusion of the"near, ' ' to designate the mental myopia which comes from the habit of neglecting large general views of world movements. One who, climbing a mountain, loses himself in the tangles of brush and the gulches of the seamed flank, does not enjoy the beauty of the purple distance nor discover the order of the extended range. The central purpose of this article is to indicate the direction in which the apparently impulsive, emotional and chaotic efforts of philanthropy are tending, the outlines of a system of orderly approach to problems of management, and some of the unset- tled problems which confront and halt us at the frontier of present experience. Under the rule of thumb and the regime of merely prac- tical people the propagation of the feeble minded stock went on unchecked, with its accumulation of miseries. It was when Vol. 10—1 1 2 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON men began to mix theory with practice, and bring to bear the lessons of biology on the conduct of poor relief, that actual prog- ress was made toward a rational, humane and effective policy of segregation of the unfit. It was a philosophical state sec- retary, a companion of men of science, who crystallized the working hypothesis of segregation into this statement: *'By reason of years of study, we are coming to know what measures are preventive. These are practical and economical. Had they been known and could they have been adopted a generation ago, we should have a much smaller number of dependents to care for now. If, now that we know them, we utilize these preventive measures, there will be a great de- crease of dependents in the next generation." The last century ripened the products of growths which root themselves in the period anterior to the Reformation. Poor relief, in the history of Christian peoples, has assumed three types, in response to changing social conditions: the voluntary and congregational charity of the early churches, before Constantine; the medieval ecclesiastical methods of parishes, bishops, monasteries, orders and institutions; and the modem laic and political poor relief, supported by tax- ation and supplemented by individual and voluntary charity. The peoples of northern Europe, largely Teutonic and Prot- estant, have carried the system of public relief much farther than the romance countries of southern Europe; but France and Italy have embarked upon the same voj^age, urged by the same forces. In Germany the national feeling which created a central legislature at Berlin, a supreme court at Leipsic, and an imperial army and navy, could not brook the spectacle of a suffering citizen without right to relief, in whatever state or commune he might fall into destitution, or, neglected by chance individual charity, be driven to steal. The imperial poor law and the workingmen's insurance measures are ex- pressions of a civic conscience as well as of a consciousness of common interest. The creative thought does not seem to be merely to secure better administration, but to fulfill a national obHgation. So long as there is no legal system, with a basis in universal taxation, multitudes of the destitute must be ex- posed to all the uncertain chances of liberality or neglect which CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 3 characterize voluntary charity. The heroic fii:;ht of Thomas Chalmers against the introduction of the outdoor relief system of England into Scotland was lost, and the principle of individ- ualization by small districts, which he demonstrated l)y action, has never yet taken deep root in Great Britain, although it has triumphed in the German Elberfeld system, and struggles for life and growth in the charity organization society on both sides of the Atlantic. On the other hand, the obligation of the whole community to all its destitute members, which is the fimdamental principle of poor laws, seems destined to be ac- cepted by all the states of Christendom. The reaction against it in American cities is probably due to the general despair of securing honest and competent administration under the spoils system of municipal government ; for outside the cities the wis- dom of a poor law for outdoor relief is practically unquestioned. France, which long persisted in refusal to extend outdoor relief beyond the urgent cases of insanity and helpless infancy, has in recent years greatly enlarged its scope. The law of 1811 was modified in 1893 by placing medical relief under public administration. The next stage of development would seem inevitable, pensions for indigent aged people at cost of tax payers, and definite provision for all who are indigent and help- less. Italy, united politically into one kingdom, has patiently sought to bring some kind of order out of the chaos of medi- eval relief methods which filled her cities with beggars, and yet left the most miserable paupers of backward communes to starve. The endowed charities have been gradually brought under systematic control, dead branches have been pruned, hurtful and absurd methods have been corrected, and the foundation has been laid for a rational and modem relief system. But if the state enlarges its activities on behalf of the des- titute, it follows that there must be central regulation of the conditions under wliich relief may be granted. The state must lay the burden on local political divisions for direct ad- ministration and support. This involves, first of all, more stringent settlement laws. The movement of population from state to state and even from continent to continent is now so 4 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON easy and cheap, and the inducement for forwarding undesir- able citizens is so strong, that one community may find itself overwhelmed with a burden which rightly should be shared. Cities attract paupers, and country reheving officers are prone to furnish free transportation to places where mercy is blind, people too busy to investigate, and where questions are not asked except by inveterate organizationists, that tribe so hard of heart. One form of barrier is the immigration law against importation of European defectives and Chinese laborers with a pauper standard of life. Even Russia has been compelled to resort to settlement laws to prevent congestion of pauper- ism in centers of population. Germany, since 1870, under a unified imperial code, has reached a fairly satisfactory solu- tion. In the United States, which has felt so rich that it could endure almost any abuse, the evils of imregulated mi- gration of paupers are becoming so manifest as to call for more efficient measures. Massachusetts and New York may be taken as examples of old communities with inherited laws and traditions of ancient English customs, and with a long ex- perience of their own, and these have developed complicated settlement regulations, though of different types. The ideas of the eastern states travel slowly westward, as cities grow and the pressure of pauperism is more sensibly felt. So long as the hardships of the plain and of a pioneer life held feeble folk at a distance, the states of the west were not impelled to fix severe conditions of settlement. But when Atlantic cities shipped the children of inmiigrants, even of paupers and criminals, into their villages, instead of sending them back to Europe, or caring for them at home, the states, one after another, passed laws requiring at least security for their selection and super- vision. So long as there was free public land a large pop- ulation was desired, and quality was not so much a question. Malaria and revolvers, in certain districts, have represented natural and artificial selection, and settlement laws are grad- ually added to help nature. While the laws of settlement in Colorado are still quite mild, the invasion of consumptives has led to a discussion which will doubtless result in more adequate protection. The more complete organization of civil relief does not CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 5 imply the suppression of private and ecclesiastical benevolence, but only a better understanding^ and division of labor, a de- marcation of spheres of influence and activity. The German Evangelical Inner mission, for example, the rapid multiplica- tion of English philanthropic enterprises, and the devotion of means and personal service in America, show that a public system has strict limitations; and that the same civic con- science which supports a poor rate also calls for personal and associated efforts too delicate for the rude and cumbrous ma- chineiy of the state. The same tendencies are at work in Scandinavia, Holland, Scotland and elsewhere. Many of these agencies are not under ecclesiastical control, as the Red Cross society; but the church has been awakened to take to heart its ancient task of ministry to the poor. It is true that these tw^o systems have growTi up some- what independent of each other, and sometimes there is con- flict or competition between them. Even German municipal councilors may be heard to complain that the church parishes, especially those with large funds, do not cooperate with each other or with the city, in an harmonious plan of helping the poor. In the United States, where the horror of bureaucracy is so strong, we have reconciled ourselves to the tyranny and corruption of bossism and spoils, evils unknown in German ad- ministration of poor rehef. In many places our efforts to se- cure information to which every taxpayer has a moral and legal right, are often treated with that insolence which is evi- dence that investigation is both hated and feared. In many places no statistics of value are kept, and original records are burned at frequent intervals on the plea that imfortunate citizens in need of help should not have their names kept in a public record. In German cities the feehngs of dependents are more respected than here, and the administration is prac- tically effective through voluntary and impaid visitors, care- fully selected by the authorities. The Charity Organization society is therefore called for, not only in Great Britain and America, but even in countries like Germany, where its principles are actually embodied in the public system. Indeed, the organization movement is as wide as civilization. It is an effort to synthetize the sepa- 6 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON rately evolved agencies of state, church and private associa- tions. Another illustration of the tendency to federation of philanthropy, to form trusts of charity, may be taken from a recent organization of child saving societies of the middle west. The belief that the best place for a normal dependent child is not in a large cold storage establishment, but in a warm and real family home, has everywhere taken deep root. As the number of homeless children increases with population, and as neighborhood ties are broken up by the incidents of a shifting urban Hfe, the necessity of organized effort to find new homes, select them carefully and supervise them thor- oughly, has become generally apparent. Even where the state, as in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, has provided a temporary school and placing-out agency, with admirable ad- ministration, popular sentiment favors the support of vol- untary associations, and in most states this form of help is alone in the field. Independent in origin, associations of the same type have sprung up in the vast plain drained by the Mississippi river. Some of these societies were admirably managed from their experimental beginnings, while others were conducted by persons who had inadequate conceptions of the responsibihties they were assuming. Occasionally downright dishonesty has been discovered. There are still very large areas, especially in the south, in which many little waifs are thrust into poorhouses and even jails, and are with- out organized means of placing out the helpless and homeless. The necessity for federation, in order to correct abuses, guide action and enlarge the field of labor, became manifest to many persons, and these formed the National Children's Home society on the basis of a former society. The ideals of this organiza- tion have by no means been reached, but already the semi- annual meetings of executive officers for discussion, criticism, personal acquaintance and propagandism have clarified thought, brought essential regulative principles into light and clear expression, corrected abuses, prevented unwise enter- prises, adjusted differences, trained new workers, and extended agencies into destitute fields. A table of statistics published by this society May 31, 1902, showed the results of work done CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 7 ill twenty four states : Total n\im]")or of children cared for from beginning, 18,528; children now under supervision, 10,704; number of children placed in families for the first time, during the year reported, 1,900; expenditures, $193,768; value of lands, buildings and funds, $151,070. The figures show how large a work can be done with little dead capital. As persons of various occupations, trades, arts and pro- fessions federate and confer together with advantage to them- selves and the pubhc, inspire professional spirit, improve methods, so charitable workers and students are forming as- sociations in local, state, national and even international societies, for kindred purposes. This consideration brings us to a topic over w^hich dis- cussion growls hot in the United States, the problem of state supervision and control of pubhc and even private philan- throphy and relief. It is easily shown that we have here one phase of a world movement. The agitation, excitement and even the irritation of the debate will conduct us toward a sober and profitable consideration of the experience of civil- ized nations, especially of those where the science of adminis- tration has been more fully developed than with us. Some illustration from the older countries may serve to light the way to secure ground. In a study by the present writer, the documents relating to central administration of penal and correctional establishments were collected and made accessible to readers of Enghsh; and there it will be shown with considerable detail that in estabhshments of this class the necessity for central control has been everywhere legally recognized, except in the United States. In Germany alone there is no such system of pubhc supervision and reports in addition to outdoor reUef, except in Bavaria. Tliis defect seems due to the fact that the municipal rehef system has reached a high degree of perfection, is based on a common poor law, and is so independent of voluntary charity that no serious demand is made for state supervision of administration. It is admitted, however, by high authorities, that not only rural rehef but even urban administration would often be improved by the requirement of inspection and uniform reports of sta- tistics. Such inspection and even control is carried ver>^ far 8 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON in Great Britain. The bitter and costly experience under the tax methods previous to 1834, taught the English people a lesson which they have not yet forgotten. The local author- ities have, indeed, much responsibihty and freedom of in- itiative, but over England and Wales the local government board exercises control under a general law, and a similar sys- tem is organized both in Scotland and Ireland. For the in- spection of care of children and f amihes women are frequently appointed, and with excellent results. In Austria, state commissions have inspectors of local relief officers and they secure uniform, impartial, and efficient administration of the law. Local officials there, as everywhere, as a rule, lack training, refiabihty and accuracy, as compared with central officers, but they have the advantage of intimate knowledge of the conditions in their own neighborhoods. By combining central supervision with local responsibihty for details, the best results are obtained. In Switzerland, canton of Berne, under a recent law, a corps of inspectors keeps the central board of supervision in touch with district refieving officers. In Belguim a conmiission reports in terms of enthusi- asm on the results of state supervision, and calls the members of the staff of inspectors apostles of beneficence. France, true to its traditions of central control, extends its state admin- istration as far as government refief extends. These indica- tions of tendencies of European countries bring to fight certain principles which seem to fie at the basis of the discussion in which our people are now engaged. Those who imagine that the most perfectly discipfined administrators in the world permit themselves to execute law exempt from the influence of competent citizens would do well to study the numerous organizations which help to bring government into touch with daily fife. The German imperial and state governments have long since developed various de- vices for the representation of interests and of expert knowl- edge, both in the preparation of legislation and the execution of laws, as in relation to colonies, emigration, boards of trade, insurance, pubfic health, welfare of workingmen, postal ser- vice, agriculture, railroads, and stock raising. If, under the most scientific systems of administration, CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 9 both special commercial and public interests require represen- tation and hearing, how much more true is this of wards of charity, the insane, the imbecile, the homeless child, who are incompetent to plead for themselves. The direct and measurable effects of simple supervision and pubUcity, without legal control, are seen in the statistics of outdoor relief by the township trustees of Indiana. There the local officials are required to send to the state board of charities a report of every family which receives aid. These reports are tabulated, set in contrast and published. The cost to the public has been diminished, the poorhouses have not been crowded, and the more carefid scrutiny of individual cases has unquestionaV:)ly led to an improvement of their moral habits on which permanent welfare depends. First of all we need to make clear to ourselves the dis- tinction between state control of direct administration and or- ganization of public opinion as to policies and results. In the controversy much confusion has been introduced into papers and hot speeches by failure to note the difference between these aims of constitutional and popular governments. Dr. F. H. Wines brought out the point at Detroit and it ought to be insisted on to the end. Public control of administration must be in the hands of salaried experts ; agencies of public opin- ion should not be paid, unless for actual expenses, and they need not be professionals. In our jucUcial experience we recognize the difference between the judge and the ordinary juryman. In municipal administration we have salaried engineers and expert accountants on one side, and representa- tives of citizens on the other. In most state and national affairs the same distinction is familiar. A democracy is com- petent to judge of poHcies and results, if it has means of in- formation; and it will not long tolerate gross evils if they are simply brought to light. But in the work of actual admin- istration a body of professional salaried men is required, men who specialize their work and give themselves wholly to it. In the social enterprises of pubhc relief, indoor and outdoor, the same distinction should be clearly and frankly admitted. If we consider the reasons for pro^^ding a legal means of educating and expressing public sentiment about policies 10 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON and results they may be summarized in the form of maxims of experience. Helpless invahds, insane patients, paupers in remote poorhouses, feeble minded persons, can not defend themselves, can not reach the organ of influence, can not plead in courts of equity for themselves. A humane society will provide for a hearing in the forum of publicity. History teaches us that where abuses are possible they will occur; that professional officers are not to be trusted to inspect and report on their own conduct in office and be permitted to exercise irresponsible power. When officials resent interference from outside, the alarm should be sounded from every home. A democracy can not dictate a system of medical practice, but it can judge of a pohcy when its fruits are made known in com- parative tables of sickness and mortahty. The great pubfic is awkward enough, and sometimes foolish, but it is competent to see the difference between bad and good management of an institution by comparing the use made of severity and violence to secure order, and in the increase or decrease of disease due to filth or neglect. Therefore, granting, as the present writer does, that state boards of control, properly organized, are demanded by the teachings of world experience, it must also be insisted that this concession does not touch the question of supervision. Boards of control are salaried ad- ministrators, and if kept in office long enough may become experts. But when infallibihty is claimed for them, with audacity of assertion and paucity of proof, we must insist again on the argument that no body of officials has the moral right to pass on its own conduct of affairs. The fact is that we already have boards of control in all the states, perhaps too many of them; and the new movement is simply one to consoHdate them, pay them, and secure the advantages of economy and responsibihty which are hkely to result from the proposed arrangement. It is probable that a board of control for each great group of public institutions, penal, sanitary, educational, charitable, agricultural, etc., may prove to be a wise measure, and experiments are already on trial to test this hypothesis. But the inteUigent friends of the poor and helpless must hold together in making the demand that the voluntary service of inteUigent and benevolent representatives CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE ii of the public shall also be legally recognized; and boards of control should be the first to insist on this princ-iple. There are, of course, various methods of organizing for free and independent inspection of public administration. Thus in the English prison system a board of visitors has considerable influence. On the continent of Europe the societies of patron- age, for aiding prisoners and their families, have long exer- cised a wholesome influence on penal establishments and legis- lation, and more than once have broken through the crust of custom which often prevents the growth of ideas in officialdom. In German public charity the voluntary honor office is a large factor, and the bureaucracy, if they have any distrust or envy, seem to be successful in hiding their feehngs. In our own country the boards of county visitors in certain states have already accomplished much good, have exposed abuses, have wakened sleepy officers, and have collected facts of im- mense importance to legislatures. The New York Charities Aid association is a typical example of an independent society, legally recognized, and exercising vast influence. Various prison societies belong to the same type. The dangers which may be expected, especially in America, from boards of control without legal and capable agencies of supervision, are such as the following : A board which inspects, audits and passes on its own deeds, without check, soon comes to feel that it is infallible and omniscient ; or, if it escape this foible, it is more than human. One who is never contradicted may be excused if he rapidly acquires profound confidence in his own judgment. They soon feel the warm glow of satis- faction in the use of unobstructed power. It is a rare ab- solutist sovereign who begs for a constitution. Strong men like Bismarck chafed at the delays of parliamentary question- ers. It is asserted already by men near the heart of secrets that there are gentlemen w^ho rather enjoy seeing superin- tendents of asylums and hospitals, party leaders, legislators, office seekers, contractors, and even state university presi- dents cooling their heels in the anteroom of the star chamber of a state board of control. Even if the testimony is question- ed this result is inevitable. Secrecy, the cloud which hides all perils and abuses, is 12 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON unavoidable with a board of control without a legal method of supervision independent of it. Reports on forms provided by statute are deceptive ; there is no substitute for the inspec- tion of a hving person. Partisanship is charged, for the bi- partisan board is by no means synonymous with nonpartisan when it comes to redeeming ante-election pledges by the party in power. Such are the fears of most students of the situation, and the fact that the new boards have really rendered im- portant services during the short trial does not quiet anxiety. It follows from the principle of social interest and sohdar- ity of responsibihty that private charities must ultimately be subjected to governmental supervision and control. This suggestion will be resented by those who have been brought up in the frontier conditions of a new country, where distance of social atoms reduced friction and coUision. But with the growth of urban life, and the consequent intimacy of contact between persons and societies, more regulation becomes nec- essary. We are defining new crimes with every legislature, and soon we shall bring immoral and wasteful philanthropy under legal control. Some states have already made prog- ress in that direction, beginning with those associations which receive subsidies. It is true that such control is often a mere pretense, and, at the best, pubhc inspection is not infallible, even with national banks and interstate commerce boards. But this is true of administration generally in American cities and commonwealths, and the remedy lies in improving the service, not in inviting anarchy to remain. The perils of in- spection by private organizations is illustrated in a recent assault upon one of the best known representatives of charity organization by an irresponsible money gatherer, whose methods of sponging upon benevolent persons had been exposed and thwarted. In the absence of public supervision of alleged philanthropy private firms of detectives have de- rived considerable income from reporting to business men in regard to persons and associations who wish to be famous for goodness at the expense of the dear pubhc. Evidently where the owner of an automobile must take out a license before he can use the streets for his pleasure, some protection ought to be given generous people against the legion of well intentioned CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 13 sentimentalists and sharp knaves who infest the offices and homes of busy philanthropists with pleas which are plausible but without foundation in reason. It is plain enough to a student of world movements in charity that private agencies may be so conducted as to increase the number of dependents and throw heavier burdens upon taxpayers, as the history of beggars in Italy and France clearly proves, not to speak of innumerable facts in our own cities. Thus it is not uncommon for churches to support a family of dependents until they have remained long enough to acquire a legal settlement and then cast them upon the local government to care for l:)y outdoor and indoor methods, perhaps throughout generations. The first to welcome state inspection should be those generous benefactors whose methods are so wise that publicity would give them distinction and whose generosity is so splendid that its record would add luster to state history. But in- spection and regulation by the incompetent appointees of the spoils system would not jaeld desirable results, and the civil service reform is as vital in this connection as in relation to municipal government and state institutions. It is said to the reproach of workers in charity that they do not go to the root of the evil and that they are satisfied to mend and patch where radical measures are required for gen- eral and permanent rehef. Socialists and special reformers are particularly impatient with the entire range of philan- thropic activity. But at the present hour the demands of democratic sentiment and of the long look of science are heard and heeded in the ranks of those who come nearest to the low- est stratum of human misery. Intelligent visitors among the poor are also dissatisfied with alleviating measures where any- thing more satisfactory is possible, iDut under any system the call for relief will always be heard and make its appeal to so- cial sympathy. The independent and self respecting w^ork- ingmen emblazon on their banners, ''Not charity, but justice," and they organize to build the strongest dam possible against the overflowing flood of pauperism. Their struggle for a standard of life is the fight for civilization itself, and is not a mere class contest. Universal suffrage means death to prog- ress, unless the great majority of men have that taste for cul- 14 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON turo which comes with a taste of culture. If the pauper spirit were not detested by the multitude, we might easily return to a lax administration of poor laws, such as brought Eng- land to the verge of bankruptcy before the reforms of 1834. Scientiiic charity arrives at the same conclusion by another route. If a very large body of the population were trained by necessity to live upon alms, the taint of degeneration would poison national life. Parasitism breeds moral deca^^ . Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy is the signifi- cant title of a recent book, by Joseph Lee. which gives numer- ous and interesting illustrations of measures which show the influence of modern science on benevolent enterprises : savings banks, playgrounds, baths, gymnasiums, outings to the coun- try, clubs, industrial training. But the author of this book opens a small window into a future of preventive agencies which at present scarcely rise above the horizon^the insur- ance of workingmen against economic ruin from accidents, sickness, and the feebleness of old age. He speaks with nat- ural and proper hopefulness of those rare and suggestive ex- periments made by some of our great corporations, and he adds: ''It is said that one seventh of the railroad employes of the country are members of the insurance departments." But why only one seventh? Since it is unquestionably good for them, why not all employes, in all occupations where income is close upon the margin of need, as in Germany? So impor- tant has this subject of preventive methods seemed to many active workers among the poor, that the National Conference of Charities and Correction took the follo\\ing action : "The executive conmiittee recommends to the National Conference of Charities and Correction, without committing the conference to any particular system, in advance of investi- gation, to provide for the appointment of a commission of seven persons to consider plans of so called insurance for wage earnei's in case of accident, sickness, invahdism and old age, with special reference to their etlects on dependence and crime, the commission to be continued for at least three years before making its final report." The president of the conference appointed on this com- mission. F. L. Hoffman, S. G. Smith, John Graham Brooks, CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 15 Amos W. Bullor, Frank A. Fetter, E. T. Devine and Oiarles It. Henderson. This commission ha.s mapped out an investi- gation and divided the topics amonf^ them, and invites con- tributions of information. In Germany the value of such universal and compulsory insurance is as well reco^mized among charity workers a.s the value of compulsory school attendance. The prospect of securinfi; adequate protection of this kind by individual sav- ings or by private and voluntary initiative is about as hopeful as that of universal education without required attendance and public schools. It may not be out of place in this survey to suggest a few of the problems suitable for the studies of young graduates. Thus it seems very desirable to investigate at close range the question as to how far and in what ways various methods of poor relief affect the rate of wages in certain industries. The i>est results can be reached only by a wide and prolonged in- vestigation by the permanent census bureau of the general government. But private students might make experimental local studies which would help formulate the wider investi- gation of the government, and train agents for its service. In the history of poor relief the influence of grants in aid of wages has h>een disastrous in the extreme, and there are many kinds of evidence in the records of city and state offices which reveal a similar tendency even in America. But we have not as yet adequate statistical data for a judgment, although the teaching of history compels us to look for precisely the same results which have followed lax administration in similar situations. Unfortunately, history does not repeat itself where forces of the same kind are working on the same materials. It is especially in connection with what the Webbs call parasitic industries that we may first look for such effects of well known causes. There are certain branches of depart- ment stores of a low grade and sweated industries, where we may find the disastrous influence of living partly on wages and partly on public or private relief. Local studies have already made fairly clear the connection between this situa- tion and the increase of pauperism. An investigation on a i6 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON large scale is required to eliminate special causes and offer a demonstration which will convince practical men. The Consumers' league is urging with a tragic array of concrete illustrations the influence of the employment of chil- dren in factories, street occupations and mercantile establish- ments. At present the benevolent public tolerates this rob- bery of child hfe, this suppression of play and education, this obstacle to physical development and school training, for the profit of a few who do not propose to support those whose vitality they have despoiled before maturity was reached. Adults, the natural bread winners, are displaced by their own offspring, and even become accustomed to exploiting them as sources of income. This is getting something for nothing, and is permitted only because the public have not the facts spread before them in the bare ugliness of truth. The only investigations which impress the mind and conscience of the busy, kind hearted world are local in character. Imported statistics are like charged mineral water left in an open vessel; for the sparkle and zest are volatile. Facts lose their momen- tum if projected very far across state hnes. This remark applies to the bearing of drink habits upon pauperism. The temperance reformers have dulled the hear- ing of the people with their sensational din; and yet they have, with all their exaggeration, been unable to find adequate lan- guage to express the fact. It is now difficult to secure a hear- ing on the subject, for we have supped full of horrors. Local studies, conducted by methods as accurate as those of Wines, Koren and others for the Committee of Fifty, would be very impressive and might serve to prick the jaded attention of many communities, especially if, with an accurate display of the casual connection between drink and tax burdens, there could be proposed measures of improvement which are im- mediately practicable. To numerous graduates of our universities we may com- mend another field for local study — families and tribes of the degenerate stocks like the Jukes, Smoky Pilgrims and Tribe of Ishmael. The archives of secluded country almshouses in many parts of the land have the materials for studies which, even if they did not at once advance knowledge in general, CHARITY— THEORY AND PRACTICE 17 might serve important practical and local interests. The records of institutions for the feeble minded have not begun to yield up all they might under the guidance of trained in- vestigators; and it is only as one deals with particular facts of concrete reahty in the philosophic spirit and method that he comes into a world current of law. Vol. 10—3 THE EXPANSION OF ORGANIZED CHARITY. BY ALFRED O. CROZIER. [Alfred O. Crozier, treasurer of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, was for several years one of the guiding spirits in the Charity Organization society of Grand Rapids, Mich. ; because of the excellent results accomplished in that city he urg- es that similar steps should be taken in other cities.] Whether the extension of systematic and intelUgent meth- ods of pubHc and private charitable administration should be by design or left to mere accident is a problem soon to be faced and settled. The splendid idea expressed in the work of the summer school of philanthropic work in training men and women for charitable and associational effort will fall short of its am- bition if it simply results in turning out a lot of new candidates to bid for the positions now held by present occupants. It is notorious that the salaries usually paid for service of this kind are far below what such talents would command in business life. Will the salaries be increased or even main- tained, in the face of competition by a large number of new applicants stirred with a desire to do good, and willing to begin at almost any price to get a foothold and an opportunity to help in the great humanitarian work to which they have de- cided seriously to devote their lives? Unfortunately human nature is approximately the same, whether found in the em- ploying trustees of philanthropic institutions or in the man- agers of commercial enterprises. Charity workers are not unionized and probably never will be, and voluntary increases of salary in either philanthropy or business are rare, except when inspired by one motive, viz.: the fear of losing the ser- vices of a valuable if not indispensable employe. The law of supply and demand rules in the realm of philanthropy as in business. The nations of the world are struggling to find or develop new markets for the products of their industries. The meas- ure of their success determines the demand and prices for their products, and the wages of those producing them. China is 18 THE EXPANSION OF ORGANIZED CHARITY iq the most sought after plum, because so great in population that its consumption will be enormous once its masses gener- ally are taught to consume foreign importations. America, in her philanthropic, charitable, correctional, and sociological fields, contains hundreds of Chinas, rivaling the orient in disorganization and ignorance, but unlike the Celestial em- pire, eagerly welcoming improved knowledge and ways when they accidentally discover the blessings of modern methods in their communities. The inadequate wages of trained workers will be in- creased and more opportunity provided for those preparing for social service, only by opening new treat)^ ports in the hun- dreds of unorganized or disorganized communities of this country. Let a hundred or more cities get the new light and go hunting for trained and experienced persons to take charge of the active organization of such places, and there would certainly be a sudden awakening among the supporters of established agencies and an appreciation of the real value and worth of the patient, quiet, ill paid indispensable heroes whose love and devotion to humanity induce them to turn their backs upon more lucrative business positions or easy lives and to daily meet poverty, suffering and distress, face to face, as we ourselves could not be induced to do, and work out for us the problems which we all know to be fundamental for the safety of our institutions, the progress of society, and the welfare of our country. If it is wise that charity be organized, is it not wise to organize charity and not leave charitj^ to organize itself? If it has been established beyond dispute in many places, by years of toilsome experiences, that certain methods are the most successful and humane, should not other communities of our common country be given the benefit of this knowledge? If all cities were organized and in cooperation, using common and approved plans, would it not make the work in each easier and would not general progress be more certain and rapid? This being true, should this expansion be left to mere chance or accident, or be organized and wisely directed on an intelli- gent plan by those whose experience equips them to interest 20 ALFRED 0. CROZIER the right persons in other places, showing them the advantages and best methods of organization? When the writer first broached this subject at the Toronto session of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, he encountered the fear on the part of many that such effort would be unwise. But an agreeable change seems to be taking place in the minds of some earnest leaders, and there is con- fidence that something definite will soon be undertaken to take the light from under the bushel and hold it up to guide those in other places from the mire of antiquated ways to the rock of intelligent sympathy and business methods in philan- thropy. The experience of Grand Rapids, Mich., may serve to illustrate and give point to the above suggestions. There, up to fifteen years ago, alms and charity were, to most good citizens, synonymous. Twenty thousand to forty thousand dollars a year was dispensed in outdoor relief, practically without investigation, on the very poor judgment of human nature possessed by the poor director. Children were al- lowed to come regularly to the department for supphes. As high as five thousand people received aid at a time in that city. Many of these, it has since been discovered, owned houses and lots, were earning good wages or had bank accounts. Grown up, unmarried children who earned good wages, put their parents to public charity as a measure of economy. Politics played havoc with honesty in poor relief administration. About the only record kept was an inaccurate Hst of names. Each Thanksgiving day the best citizens, with sincere inten- tions, advertised widely by pulpit announcements and under glaring headlines in the newspapers, that the day was set apart for the practice of charity, that ail people who respected the divine injunction were expected to tote out their old clothes, buy a turkey or other tempting provisions, and send to the vacant store selected as headquarters for the occasion; and that everybody who was poor was to come to the headquarters and get in line to be practiced upon. They would get some- thing good and in the lottery might draw something of real value. It was always very successful, attracted splendid crowds, made a fine demonstration and drew forth prayers THE EXPANSION OF ORGANIZED CHARITY 21 and thanks for the manifestation of the presence in the hearts of so many citizens of the holy sentiment of charity and hu- manity. Indiscriminate giving was the rule, and sentiment the guide. Now the sad part of all this was that these people were honest and supposed they were doing real good. The writer then resided in that city and in common with other business men was ignorant of the actual conditions and their effect upon the real problems of povert5\ It never oc- curred to us, and no one ever told us, that these things were wrong, not to say vicious. We simply attended to business and put something extra on the plate on poor Sunday. It happened that a local clothing merchant once heard the general secretary of a New York state charity organization society deliver an address and was attracted thereby. He mentioned it to a prominent local banker and to the writer, and it was decided to invite N. Rosenau, of Buffalo, and Levi L. Barbour, of Detroit, to address an opera house meeting. With characteristic plainness of speech, Mr. Rosenau startled the assembly with a recital of conditions prevailing in the local public poor department, which his training had impelled him to investigate as soon as he had reached the city ; and he pointed out the direct and indirect effect of such conditions on the future of the city and its inhabitants. The effect will be understood when it is known that in three days annual pledges aggregating $6,500 were secured with which to start a charity organization society. A revolution in practice and public sentiment of course followed. All this was a mere accident. It should have been done years earlier. There were those who could have done it. The city grasped the undertaking eagerly when the opportunity offered. Are not those who know what is needed in other places, and know best how to bestow it, conscious of a feeling of personal responsibihty to cooperate to such an end? There are hundreds of American cities now in approxi- mately the same condition in which Grand Rapids slumbered fifteen years ago. Why not wake up? BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS. BY JOHN KOREN. [John Koren, statistician ; born Decorah, la., March 3, 1861; graduate Luther college and Concordia seminary; special expert for the United States department of labor; investigated the Gothenburg system of liquor selling ; expert for committee of 50 to investigate the liquor problem, 1894-9, and since then has been in state and national service. Author: Economic Aspect of the Liquor Problem, and other books, and of many articles in American and foreign reviews.] Of the 4,207 benevolent institutions in the United States 485 are designated as pubHc. The state of Ohio possesses the largest number of public institutions, followed by New York, Indiana, and Pennsylvania, in the order named. The prepon- derance of such establishments in Ohio and Indiana is due to the system of county homes for indigent children. The scar- city of institutions maintained at public cost in many com- munities points, among other things, to the fact that the care of the sick is largely a private enterprise, the communities contributing their share through subsidies to private institu- tions. Under private control are 2,359, or 56.1 per cent of the total, while 1,363, or 32.4 per cent, are managed, if not ex- clusively supported, by religious denominations, orders, or groups of churches. A more detailed inquiry would probably reveal a larger percentage of institutions owing their inception and maintenance to church bodies. The activity of the churches in charitable work of the kind under consideration is particularly notable in some of the newer communities. Thus in Idaho, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Washington about one half of all the benevolent institutions are denominational in the sense that they have been organized and are maintained by the churches. In the southern states, on the other hand, with the exception of Louisiana, the proportion of institutions under church management is comparatively insignificant. The total population of benevolent institutions on Janu- ary 1, 1904, was 283,809. During the ensuing twelve months 2,040,372 persons were admitted, and on the last day of 1904 there remained 284,362 inmates. Owing to the impossibility 22 BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 23 of securing accurate reports of population from some institu- tions the enumeration is not quite complete. The establish- ments for which figures are lacking arc, however, among the least important as to size. Could their population have been ascertained, the three totals given above would have been somewhat larger, particularly the number of admissions and the number of inmates remaining at the end of 1904. But the statistics given are sufficient to illustrate the size and move- ment of the institutional population. It should be observed that they are exclusive of the 156 dispensaries and the 166 nurseries. Neither class of institutions can be said to have inmates in the ordinary sense of the term ; moreover, in many instances, no count is made of the individuals frequenting them. The number of admissions during the year is extraordi- narily large and appears altogether out of proportion to the year's increase in the number of inmates. In other words, there were more than seven times as many persons admitted to benevolent institutions in the course of the twelve months as there were in them on the first and last daj^s of the year. The gain in population of the institutions for the year 1904 is represented as 553, but this is probably considerably lower than a perfect enumeration would have disclosed, as more institutions failed to report the number of inmates than to state population at the beginning of the year and the number of admissions. The movement of institutional population is greatest in the hospitals. In 1904 this class of institutions reported more than one half of the total admissions (1,064,512). Second in importance are the temporary homes, to which there were 868,657 admissions, or about three times the number of in- mates on the specified dates. Although the orphanages and permanent homes report, respectively, 70,825 and 29,353 ad- missions, their daily population is known to be largely in excess of these numbers. The institutions for the deaf and blind like- wise display a comparative stability in population, the number of admissions in the course of the year being about one half of the number of inmates on either of the census dates. For the whole of the United States the number of inmates of benevolent institutions in each 100,000 of population on 24 JOHN KOREN December 31, 1904, was 347, and the number of persons ad- mitted during the year in each 100,000 of population was 2,509.6. So far as the individual state or territory is con- cerned these proportions are clearly determined not so much by the number of institutions as by their kind. States with a pre- ponderance of institutions having a stable population, such as orphanages and homes for the aged and incurable, naturally show a higher proportion of inmates to population on a given date than a state whose institutions are mostly in the hospital class. On the other hand, the ratio of admissions to popula- tion is largely influenced by the extent of hospital conveniences, and where these are especially abimdant the state will rank accordingly. Oregon furnishes an illustration in point. In ratio of inmates of institutions on December 31, 1904, to the general population, it stands twenty fifth in the order of states, but in ratio of admissions to the general population during 1904 it stands third. California is first among the states and territories in the ratio of institution inmates to general population on the date specified, having proportionately twice as many as all but the first nine states. And among the first twenty five are the other young states, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Wash- ington, Montana, and Oregon. Again, among the first twenty five in number of admissions to institutions per 100,000 in- habitants are Oregon, which stands as number 3, Colorado, Washington, Montana, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico. The fact deserves mention, however, that in some of the newest communities, for instance, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico, many of the hospitals are maintained by mining corporations and are not intended for the general public. Although the number of admissions to institutions per 100,000 inhabitants is largely governed by existing hospital provisions, the extent of the latter does not always appear to stand in direct relation to the percentages of the urban popu- lation found in the different states. If that were the case, Rhode Island would stand at the top of the Ust instead of fourteenth, New Jersey would move down a few places, Oregon be relegated from the third to the twentieth place, etc. Yet in many instances there is a fairly close correspondence be- IRELAND I I — — SWITZERLAND j ENGLAND NORWAY HOLLAND -^-^— ^-^^— ITALY PRUSSIA - HUNGARY AUSTRIA GERMANY UNITED STATES SQOTLANp DENMARK ■"BELGIUIV SVyEDEN F[RANCE SWEDEN j -UNITED STATES — ire;land j ^ HOLLAND! ■"^—SWITZERLAND FRANCE ^-^-^^ GERMANY| AUSTRIA HUNGARY ITALY PRUSSIA -^ BELGIUM .sdoTLANb •ENGLAND DENMARK NORWAY rn > Z -i m > -J m o •n 3 m o o n BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 25 tween the relative strength of the urban population and the ratio of admissions to benevolent institutions. Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Maryland, Connecticut, and several other states furnish illustrations in point. How pre-eminently the care of persons in benevolent in- stitutions, as measured either by the number of inmates on the given dates or by the number of persons admitted during the given period, is a matter of private charity in the United States is a most striking fact. About 70 per cent of the insti- tutional population found on a particular date and about 80 per cent of all admitted in a year are beneficiaries of private charity (including, of course, that dispensed by the churches) as distinguished from maintenance solely at public cost. It is clear that the establishment and support of orphanages, hospi- tals, and temporary homes is left largely to private initiative. Permanent homes, measured by the number of inmates, are more generally made a matter of public concern, while most of the deaf and blind provided for in institutions are cared for by the public authorities. Of the three general classes of institutions considered, the percentages of inmates both at the beginning and end of 1904 are largest for those under ecclesiastical supervision. This is chiefly attributable to the large number of orphanages main- tained by churches. In point of admissions private institu- tions lead, because of the many hospitals imder this form of control. Judged by number of inmates and admissions, the or- phanages and children's homes under public management are of relatively little importance. This form of institutional charity is largely left to private initiative, since public insti- tutions claim but 10 per cent of the number of inmates and 10 per cent of the admissions. Although particularly a concern of the churches, the orphanages under denominational man- agement, while containing more inmates on January 1 and December 31, of 1904, than both the public and the private institutions combined, show a smaller percentage of admis- sions than the private class alone. This circumstance sug- gests that private orphanages are used more liberally as re- ceiving homes from which children are distributed among 26 JOHN KOREN families. It is interesting, also, to note that in point of per- manent population the orphanages show a larger percentage than any other group of institutions, having about 32 per cent, closely followed by the permanent homes, with more than 27 per cent, and the hospitals, with about 25 per cent. On the other hand, so far as admissions are concerned, the percentage orphanages contribute to the total for all institutions — 3.5 per cent — seems surprisingly low. Undoubtedly the hospital care of the sick is becoming more and more a public undertaking. But at the present time about two thirds of the patients receive treatment in hospitals managed by private corporations and denominational bodies, the former slightly leading in number of patients on the census dates and markedly in number of admissions. More than one half of the admissions to institutions are to hospitals. The permanent homes form a singular exception, inas- much as those designated public show percentages of inmates and admissions more than twice as large as those under private and ecclesiastical control combined. Wlien not provided for in almshouses, the aged, incurable, and other needy persons who make up the bulk of the population of the permanent homes are generally supposed to be cared for by private insti- tutions or organizations. The stability of the population in the permanent homes is indicated by the percentage of ad- missions, which is but 1.4 of the total "lumber of admissions to all institutions, while a little more ':haii 27 per cent of all in- mates are to be found in them at a given time. The difference between the percentage of inmates in pub- lic temporary homes and the percentage of those in private and ecclesiastical institutions of this class, and the dispropor- tionate number of admissions to the public institutions, are explained by the fact that most of the latter are municipal lodging houses that are practically without inmates who re- main longer than a night. The varying activities of institu- tions grouped as temporary homes also account for the circum- stance that the population of the homes under ecclesiastical control appears to be more stable than that of the same class of homes under private management. Institutional provisions for the deaf and blind, being BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 27 chiefly of an educational nature, are naturally for the greater part of public origin. The pul^lic institutions for the deaf and blind contain more than 70 per cent of the inmates of all such institutions, and show more than 86 per cent of all admissions. The number of deaf and blind under the care of ecclesiastical institutions is almost a negligible quantity. It is true, how- ever, that the deaf and blind under institutional care are far less in number than any of the other classes. Statements were sought from each institution covering: (1) the amount of annual subsidies from public funds; (2) the amount of income from pay inmates during 1903; and (3) the cost of maintenance during 1903, exclusive of improvements. Entirely satisfactory responses could not always be secured. A total of 43 institutions did not report the amount of annual subsidy from public funds, 225 omitted to give income, if any, from pay inmates, and 241 failed to supply cost of main- tenance. Aside from a not uncommon 'reluctance on the part of institutions to give even the general facts con- cerning income and cost, it appears that some institutions actually keep no adequate records, while others depend chiefly upon donations of all kinds, the value of which is not easily translatable into dollars and cents. It must not be under- stood, however, that the absence of statements greatly in- fluences the totals. As a matter of fact, most of the institu- tions from which financial statements are lacking are among the smallest of their kind. For general purposes the statistics of the extent to which institutions are subsidized out of public treasuries may be considered complete. The cost of mainte- nance as given is probably an understatement of from $200,000 to $500,000. For the whole of the United States the gross cost of main- taining benevolent institutions in 1903, exclusive of improve- ments, was $55,577,633, or, excepting the cost of institutions for the deaf and blind, $52,053,950. Deducting the income from pay inmates, the cost of maintenance was $40,729,125, and, exclusive of institutions for the deaf and blind, $37,306,- 135. The above gross cost of maintaining all benevolent insti- 28 JOHN KOREN tutions entailed a per capita expenditure of $0.70 for the United States. A presentation, by states, of the cost of maintenance for each inmate of institutions on the census dates or for each per- son admitted (a combination of the two being out of the ques- tion) would tend to misleading comparisons. It is suggestive, however, to note that the annual expenditure per inmate on the basis of the number remaining in institutions on December 31, 1904, appears to run from $489.50 in Arizona to $100.20 in Mississippi, where it is lowest. Corresponding figures for some other states make the rate for New Mexico, $418.46; Montana, $384.34; Massachusetts, $307.31; Wyoming, $280.88; North Dakota, $265.44; Nevada, $257.14; Connecticut, $250.44; Pennsylvania, $240; and New York, which occupies thirteenth place in point of cost, $228.55. It is perfectly natural that a high rate of cost should be chiefly characteristic of the newer Western states. Of the aggregate cost of maintenance 29.3 per cent was expended for public institutions, 43.5 per cent for private in- stitutions, and 27.2 per cent for ecclesiastical institutions. These per cents remain nearly the same when the institutions for the deaf and blind are excluded. Delaware is the only state that does not support a public institution of any character besides the almshouses and hos- pitals for the insane. The fact that the amount of public moneys voted for institutional purposes in some states exceeds the total expenditures for private and ecclesiastical institu- tions may indicate a paucity of conveniences of this character, as in the case of Arkansas, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Ten- nessee, or that the state undertakes special functions which elsewhere are left to private enterprise, as in the case of In- diana, Ohio, Kansas, and Wisconsin. In 17 states, including some in which benevolent institutional work has attained its largest development, the expenditures for the maintenance of private institutions are larger than those for public institu- tions. On the other hand, the aggregate cost of ecclesiastical institutions is larger than that of institutions under private management in the following 20 states and territories: Ala- BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 29 bama, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin. In all of the states and territories, except Idaho, Nevada, and Oklahoma, part of the cost of private and ecclesiastical institutions is defrayed from public funds. Frequently con- tributions are made by the local community, or suljsidies are voted by the legislatures. Both methods of subsidies involve a recognition of the fundamental duty of the community to provide institutional care for its sick and dependent members, but also indicate, in a more or less pronounced manner, a preference for a vicarious performance of this duty. In proportion to the aggregate cost of maintenance the ecclesiastical institutions receive a larger share of public bounty than the private; and in 10 states, namely, Alabama, Cali- fornia, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, New Mexico, New York, South Carolina, Texas, and Wisconsin, the former get the larger part of the actual amount of subsidies. The differing policies in the states with reference to annual payments out of public funds to private and to ecclesiastical institutions do not conform generally to the extent of insti- tutional operations, in the sense that dependence upon this form of income is greatest where the pressure upon these charities appears to be greatest. There are some notable exceptions, for instance. New York, Maryland, Connecticut, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. In each of these states the per- centage of total cost of maintenance derived from pubhc funds is from 19.2 upward. On the other hand, states like Massa- chusetts, lUinois, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Colorado, Minnesota, etc., each of which has an extensively developed system of institutions, get only from 1.1 to 5.0 per cent of the cost of maintenance from public treasuries. For the whole of the United States 26.7 per cent of the aggregate cost of maintenance in 1903 was covered by income from pay cases. Of the total amount received from this source ($14,848,508) 3.5 per cent was reported from public institutions, 51.7 per cent from private, and 44.8 per cent from ecclesiastical institutions. In proportion to the cost of main- 30 JOHN KOREN tenance the income from inmates was considerably larger in ecclesiastical institutions than in private, a fact which must be attributed to the numerous hospitals under church patronage that are largely maintained by the revenue from patients. There is only one state without a public benevolent insti- tution, but in 15 states there is no income whatsoever from inmates of public institutions. The explanation is that these states provide institutions at public cost only for the deaf and blind, to whom support and education as a rule are given gra- tis. In fact, less than one fifth of the income from pay cases received at public institutions is secured by all the public in- stitutions for the deaf and blind. The fact that the income from pay inmates of the public institutions of Massachusetts is much more than twice as large as that of any other state, and forms 30.1 per cent of the total for the United States, must be ascribed chiefly to the public hospitals in this commonwealth and the legal pro- visions made for the recovery of the cost of maintenance of indigent patients from the city or town in which they have a domicile. As regards both private and ecclesiastical institutions, the hospitals report most of the income from pay cases. Among the states in which denominational institutions obtain a larger share of income from pay cases than those designated as private, the following are conspicuous: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Illinois, Montana, New Jersey, South Carolina, Tennessee, Washington, and Wisconsin. The hospital class leads as to aggregate cost, a little more than one half of the entire sum expended for the maintenance of benevolent institutions being for the benefit of the sick in hospitals. Of the total amount of annual subsidies, hospitals receive 37.4 per cent, and 82 per cent of the entire income of institutions from pay inmates falls to the share of this class. In proportion to their activities, private hospitals receive a much heavier donation from public treasuries than hospitals under denominational management. On the other hand, in proportion to the aggregate cost of maintenance the ecclesi- astical hospitals receive a greater income from pay patients than the private hospitals. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 31 Of the total cost of maintenance, 18.1 per cent was ex- pended for the support of orphanages. Of the milUons of dollars annually expended for the cost and education of or- phans and otherwise dependent children, 44.7 per cent goes to the maintenance of those in institutions under ecclesiastical control which, it should be observed, also obtain proportion- ately a much larger share of the annual subsidies, and also a relatively larger income from inmates who pay something for their support. The third place in percentage of aggregate cost of main- tenance is occupied by the permanent homes, which are sup- ported at an annual cost of nearly ten million dollars, or only a very little less than the cost of all orphanages and children's homes. In proportion to the number of inmates cared for, the permanent homes are the most expensive of all institutions, a fact which is probably due partly to the character of the inmates and more especially to the circumstance that such a large group of these institutions is maintained at public cost. Only 3.1 per cent of the total annual subsidies is given to the permanent homes, and more than two thirds of the amount was secured by private homes. The latter also show a larger percentage of income from pay inmates than the public and ecclesiastical. Considering the number of persons cared for in the course of a year, the cost of supporting temporary homes is small, being but 5.5 per cent of the aggregate for all institutions. As is well known, in many temporary homes the inmates receive board and lodging in return for doing various kinds of work, not a little of which results in income, but not of the kind that can easily be put into terms of money, and for this reason the income from pay inmates appears smaller than it actually is. The temporary homes receive in cash from inmates 3.5 per cent of the aggregate for all institutions. The proportionately very large percentage given to ecclesiastical institutions of the annual subsidies received by temporary homes is perhaps to be explained by the fact that the ecclesiastical homes care for groups of unfortunates for whom not only 1 he most effec- tive appeal can be made, but who are in need of special in- 32 JOHN KOREN fluences that can not so easily be supplied by public institu- tions. A little more than three and one half million dollars is annually devoted to the care of the deaf and bUnd in institu- tions, or 6.3 per cent of the total expended for all institutions. Except as they are found in almshouses and other special in- stitutions, the deaf and blind are in many states exclusively, and in most states for the greater part, cared for at pubhc cost. Ecclesiastical charity enters this field only to a very limited extent, and private institutions for the deaf and blind, al- though comparatively extensive in operations, are in numerous instances maintained only in the absence of provisions of a public character. For this reason, presumably, the private institutions for the deaf and bhnd succeed in obtaining more than one half of their cost of maintenance from public grants. Although the cost of maintaining day nurseries is insig- nificant v/hen compared with the other classes of institutions, the total expended for them in the year aggregates $327,659. This class of establishments is also made a beneficiary through public subsidies, but probably without exception these sub- sidies are contributions from the communities in which the nurseries are located. About one fourth of all the benevolent institutions in the United States are devoted to the care of orphans or other de- pendent children. Private and ecclesiastical bodies each con- trol 478 establishments, and but 119 of the total are directly under public management. In making comparisons it should be remembered that the details in regard to orphanages in the different states are more or less influenced by the prevailing pohcy regarding the care of children. If the institutional policy is general, the number of institutions and inmates, cost of maintenance, etc., will be proportionately greater than in a state following a noninstitutional poUcy. In order to supply a perfect statistical picture of the care of dependent children, it would be necessary to account for all those placed in families without passing through institutions; but to do so is not within the province of this article. The state of Iowa may be taken as an example. It has but 12 orphanages, while New Jersey, with a smaller population, supports nearly four BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 33 times as many. Oloviously it would bo a mistake (o conclude that the apparent lack of inst itutional provisions in Iowa indi- cates that the dependent children in this state are relatively so few, or that they are inadequately cared for. The explanation lies in the difference of method. In many instances the actual number of children's insti- tutions in a state is closely related to the number of its inhab- itants; but there are sij^nificant exceptions, which su<2;<2;est in some cases lack of adequate provision for dependent children, and in others that they are largely cared for outside of insti- tutions. Indiana and Ohio are the only states having systems of county homes for children. As a result they are credited with nearly three fourths of the children's homes maintained at public cost. Twenty six states are without any public homes for children. In the following 22 states and territories the children's institutions under church management exceed in number those controlled by private secular corporations : Ala- bama, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Mon- tana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Arizona, Idaho, and Wyoming are as yet without any orphanages. The amount contributed from public sources to children's institutions in 1903 was $2,181,784, or 21.7 per cent of the total cost of maintenance. In Delaware, Mississippi, Ne- braska, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Utah no help of this kind was given. A little more than one tenth of the entire cost of main- taining orphanages and children's homes is covered by income from pay inmates who contribute annually about one million dollars. It is not known what part of this income is contrib- uted by relatives or friends of the children, and what part from public authorities who pay stipulated sums per week or month for the support of those who have become direct charges upon the community. In proportion to expenditures the amoimts collected from inmates are smallest in the south- ern and some of the newer western states. Vol. 10-3 34 JOHN KOREN Day nurseries as yet are located chiefly in a few eastern states with large urban population, and are not found in 26 states. Of the 166 day nurseries in the United States in 1904 no less than 113 are maintained in four states — Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. Thirty of the entire number are under church auspices and 136 are main- tained by private organizations or individuals. The total number reported as inmates on January 1, 1904, was 7,441, of which approximately one half were in institutions in the state of New York= On December 31 of the same year there was an increase in attendance of 176, which is an imder- statement, for a large number of institutions failed to report this detail. Of the total cost of maintenance in 1903 ($327,659) con- siderably more than one half was disbursed for the support of the day nurseries in Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. Of these states New Jersey is the only one in which day nurseries received assistance from the state, the other notable beneficiaries being in Maryland and Tennessee. The total state grants amounted to $7,675. Generally sub- sidies under this head must be imderstood as coming from the local community. Specific conclusions drawn from the number of hospitals in different states in proportion to population would be mean- ingless so long as it is impracticable to bring single institutions and their operations into comparison. Clearly, one hospital in a community may perform with even better success the work divided among three or more small institutions elsewhere. Yet the extent of the provisions made for the sick, as mani- fested by the number of hospitals, points not merely to the stress of fife under urban conditions and the like, but to prog- ress in humanitarian work. The figures compel the inference that hospital faciUties in many instances are not apportioned among states in accordance with needs, but reflect the extent of charitable enterprise. Attention has been drawn already to the fact that some commimities prefer to subsidize hospitals operated as private enterprises rather than to estabhsh institutions of their own. This accounts for the proportionately small number of hospi- BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 35 tals designated as public. Delaware, Idaho, Indian Territory, Kansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Vermont are without them, and in other states they are represented chiefly by federal institutions. The private hospitals outnumber the public by nearly four to one, and the ecclesiastical the public by two to one. Although the hospitals under private management are about twice as numerous for the whole country as those under church control, the latter are in the majority in the following states: Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, Washington, and Wisconsin. In all the eastern states the conditions are re- versed, but this must not be understood to signify less activity on the part of the churches; the charity simply does not take denominational form to as great an extent. There are in the United States about 87 patients in hos- pitals to each 100,000 of population, while in the same number of inhabitants more than 1,300 were persons admitted to hos- pitals during twelve months. These figures would, of course, receive substantial additions, were all patients accounted for who frequent hospitals not supported through benevolence in some form. Yet the ratios per population would probably not be materially increased, for the hospitals not enumerated are almost exclusively given over to the care of the compara- tively few rich or well to do. Not only are many hospitals very limited in facilities, but also the number of hospitals in a state gives little indica- tion of the extent of institutional operations. For example, Iowa has four times as many hospitals as Louisiana, or 41 against the latter's 10, yet, both as to number of admissions in a year and the number of patients to be found at any given time, the hospital work of Louisiana is on a larger scale. 22.6 per cent of the gross cost of maintenance was ex- pended for the hospitals classed as public institutions. The cost of the private and ecclesiastical reached a total of $21,594,- 784. Deducting for both these classes the amounts of income from pay patients and the annual grants from public funds, the sum which was raised through some other form of benevo- lence than appropriations from taxes was $7,580,504. Many hospitals receive substantial aid through donations in kind, 36 JOHN KOREN which dimmish the need of cash outlay. The value of these gifts can not be estimated. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Califor- nia and Ohio contain about 35 per cent of the total population of the country, yet contribute about two thirds of the cost of maintaining hospitals, or over eighteen million dollars, while the next 21 states, which contain almost exactly the same per- centage of inhabitants as the first 6, spend for this purpose less than six millions, or a little more than a fifth of the entire cost for the United States. The 5 states, Missouri, New Jersey Maryland, Minnesota, and Michigan, although containing but 13.6 per cent of the population, expend $3,698,224 for the sup- port of hospitals, while the last 17 states beginning with North Carolina and ending with Oklahoma have 15.5 per cent of the total population and gave but $898,419 for the support of hospitals. These financial comparisons indicate the conditions necessitating extensive hospital facilities rather than the advance in benevolent enterprises, though the latter is more generally a concomitant of settled and prosperous community life. The subsidies received by hospitals from public funds were $2,276,336, which equals 18.1 per cent of the cost of mainte- nance in 1903. The hospitals in the following states and territories were not aided by payments from taxes : California, Idaho, Indian Territory, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Utah. Elsewhere the subsidies run from $340 in Wyoming to $725,554 in Pennsylvania, and cover percent- ages of cost varying from 0.5 per cent in Minnesota to 24.5 per cent in the District of Columbia. Other states having institutions receiving notable amounts are Georgia, Connecti- cut, Pennsylvania, Alabama, Maryland, Rhode Island, Maine, New Jersey, Arizona, and New York. Institutions in 29 states are helped through subsidies to the extent of less than 8 per cent of the cost of maintenance. The total sum received by hospitals in pa3mGLent for care of patients was $12,181,484, which forms 43.2 per cent of the cost of maintenance. In 24 states, including some doing the largest hospital work, as New York, Pennsylvania, Massa- BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 37 chusetts, Ohio, etc., such income covers less than 50 per cent of the cost of maintenance; in 19 states it equals from 50 to 80 per cent of the cost of maintenance; in Indian Territory, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Oklahoma it was, respectively 94.1, 89.3, 96.5, and 82.9 per cent of the cost; and in Utah and Oregon the income actually exceeded the cost, the percentages being 116.2 and 109.7. There is an apparent contradiction in describing hospitals as benevolent institutions when the amount of money they receive from pay patients is equal to or in excess of the cost of maintenance ; but, in general, it should be remembered that to a very large extent the moneys termed income do not represent the personal contributions of the patients or their relatives and friends, but the amounts collected from the public authorities legally responsible for their support. Furthermore, the cost of maintenance as given does not include improvements or general equipment. A hospital may receive income, on ac- count of patients, equal to or larger than the bare cost of running it, yet deserve the appellation benevolent, because it owes its existence to generous endowment, and because the services of physicians and attendants are not reckoned among the items of cost. Although the dispensaries differ from other institutions in the respect that the persons frequenting them are occasional visitors rather than inmates, they are too conspicuous a part of the medical charity to be ignored. If certain out-patient departments had been counted as separate institutions, which would have been misleading, the total number of dispensaries would have been augmented. Dispensaries that are mere feeders to hospitals run for profit were excluded. For 27 states no dispensaries were reported. About two thirds of the entire number (156) are found in California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsyl- vania. In other words, dispensaries as separate institutions are peculiar to large urban centers. Only 11 were maintained at public cost, and 17 were supported by churches, the re- mainder (128) being under private control. From 33 dispensaries no statements were obtainable in regard to the number of cases treated during 1904. The total 38 JOHN KOREN given, 1,611,651, is therefore lower than the actual number, but gives a hint of the magnitude of the practically free medi- cal service obtainable through the dispensaries. On the basis of the above total the number of cases treated in them to 100,000 of population was, for the entire country, 1,982.3. Nowhere has the system of medical dispensaries reached such a development as in the state of New York, or more particu- larly the city of New York. There the ratio of cases treated to 100,000 inhabitants reached the remarkable figure of 10,- 848.5, a ratio nearly twice as large as that for any other state. Under the title permanent homes is comprehended a wide variety of benevolent undertakings. There are homes for aged dependents without means and for aged persons who can pay a liberal entrance fee, for persons afflicted with various incurable diseases or otherwise disabled, etc. Some of the homes make few distinctions as to the nature of dependence; others are devoted to a special class. To some only adults are admitted; others receive both adults and children, and are, in fact, permanent homes for adults, with orphanage annexes. A detailed classification of these institutions was not attempt- ed, in view of the incompleteness of the data at hand for this purppse. Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Utah are as yet without any permanent homes for dependents. The 753 whose existence could be traced are pretty evenly distrib- uted among the states, allowing for the necessity of a propor- tionately large number in the older communities. In propor- tion to population Massachusetts leads in institutions of this character. Sixty of the permanent homes are reported as maintained by public authorities. Of those under private management (constituting a large majority) some are endowed establishments and a few owe their origin, as well as continued existence, to the munificence of individuals. The permanent homes under church supervision are out- numbered by those termed private almost two to one, 13 states being without any. The states in which the ecclesiastical institutions of this land form the majority are Connecticut, Illinois, Minnesota, South Carolina, Washington, and Wiscon- sin and the District of Columbia. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS 39 How many institutions arc rcndorod practically self sup- porting through entrance fees is not known. There are un- doubtedly some homes for the aged whose main assets from the first are the anticipated entrance fees, while in many more instances the homes appear to look to this income to meet only a part of the running expenses. Other homes are fairly well endowed. SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY. BY CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON. [Charles Richmond Henderson, associate professor of sociology in the University of Chicago, is one of the world's foremost authorities on scientific philanthropy; he is a graduate of the old University of Chicago and of the University of Leipsic; he has traveled extensively in Europe and America investigating applied philanthropy more especially in regard to prison conditions; he is probably the best known American writer on philanthropic subjects.] Those who look on only occasionally at the methods of dealing with the so-called degenerate classes often declare that nothing is really known, that guesswork reigns, that one plan is as good as another. This cynical despair of social science is not justified by the facts. As the science of life borrows data and suggestion from the hospital practitioner, ,so the student of normal society finds a laboratory in the in- 'stitutions of defectives. Comte long ago said that sociology comes nearer actual scientific experiment in dealing with the defective than with the normal classes. In prisons and asy- lums we can more nearly control conditions than we can with free self governing families and communities. Social pathol- ogy offers an important side light on normal human relatitjns, because the laws of disease seem to "be the seamy side of the laws of health, and show them in larger pattern. Those who scoff at the possibiHty of building a social philosophy should recognize the fact that every attempt to concentrate all the forces of a commonwealth upon the solution of any specific problem more or less consciously proceeds upon some sort of theory of the ends and the resources of the com- monwealth. The art of statesmanship, the organization of a school system or of a system of charities and corrections, imply a theory of the community which would properly be called a sociology, if it were more accurate and complete. It ought not to be regarded as a presumptuous attempt for special scholars to bring out into clearer light, with reinforcement of knowledge at every point and from every special science, a view of society as a whole, when every rural legislator and every superintendent of schools is actually proceeding on the 40 SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY 41 basis of sociology, often without thinking of his scheme of Ufe under this somewhat novel title. When a community distinguishes classes of abnormal men, it tacitly acts with a standard of normal men and normal society before its mind. When a people, ])y legal means or by voluntary associations, constructs a system of institutions for the care of its abnormal mem])ers, it acts upon a theory of the objects of society and the normal order of its arrange- ments. This practical coordination of the special knowledge of economists, lawyers, physicians, educators, is a necessity of life. Sociologists are simply struggling to make this coor- dination as adequate as possible. A special science out of relations to a general theory of society is as helpless and futile as the mainspring of a watch lying in isolated abstraction outside the watch itself. Compare the methods of dealing with prisoners in the more advanced reformatories with that employed in back- ward communities, where the antiquated philosophy of vin- dictive justice dominates both law and discipline, and per- petuates the passions of lynching, feuds and murder. Modem criminology marks off, with increasing accuracy, the various classes of prisoners — criminals of passion, occasional criminals, habitual criminals, and those congenitally defective persons who should be in custodial asylums for imbeciles rather than in prisons. Criminologists lay stress upon the characters and capabilities of men; the traditionahsts persist in relying on definitions of acts, and in seeking to measure exact guilt in terms of time. Science deals with knowable qualities; tradition and popular passion grope for a standard of the un- knowable. We have already a few reformatory prisons in which the more advanced methods of education are employed with hope- ful results. A visit to one of these institutions for reformation, with its splendid equipment for regenerating the dwarfed and perverted offender in body, mind, and spirit, awakens ad- miration. But instantly the question starts in the mind: Why not use these appliances of education in advance of crime? Why not give our public schools the means of preventing the germination and formation of the anti social habit? 42 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON Indeed, all penological studies are driving us back to educational and other preventive measures. Reformation is costly and uncertain. Penalties have little influence upon minds not disciplined to foresight of consequences, incapable of connected reasoning. When wages are so low and fluctu- ating as they are in some ranks of labor, the prison becomes actually inviting, and its terror a paradise to many of the pro- letariat. Prison reform problems lead straight on to kinder- garten and manual training, the trade union, the minimum wage, and related agencies of prevention and degradation. Expert judgment has long since declared that for the socially unfit, liberty is an injury to the individual and a constant men- ace to society. Legal innocence sets free the recidivist at the end of a brief sentence, while the wild beast in him is yet un- tamed and the enfeebled will is unable to resist temptation. This cruel policy of mathematical justice is sustained by cus- tom and legal conservatism long after it is condemned by science. The sociological method of co-ordinating study is compelling the lawyers to bring fresh life into a formal text study, and just as truly compels theoretical specialists in anthropology to regard the legal point of view, the certainty, impersonality and impartiality of justice. The most glaring contrast between expert knowledge and popular custom and law is seen in the legal administration of local institutions — the jail and the county poorhouse. The mere description of an ordinary jail should suffice to condemn it, and would awaken intense horror if the public could know and picture the necessary results of average administration. The local prison is used as a place for the detention of prisoners awaiting trial, sometimes of insane persons, and even of wit- nesses, as well as for the infliction of short sentences for minor offenses. Frequently, men, women, and youths are confined in the same building, not seldom within sight or hearing of one another. The corridors of many jails are occupied all day long by a motley company of prisoners of all grades of depravity. In this free school of crime, the uninitiated take lessons from adepts in licentiousness and burglary, and thought- less children become the pupils and intimate companions of tramps and thieves. The local officials seem to have no stand- SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY 43 ard of comparison. They seldom have any knowlodp^o of the more civilized methods, and have contempt for theorists. In some instances of extraordinary foulness, where the jail may be in the court house cellar, the judges, if annoyed by odors and frightened by communical^le disease, are ready, perhaps, to order an investigation. But the essential evils of the sys- tem are not merely defects in sanitation. The detention of the insane even for a moment in a jail confuses nervous disease with crime, and helps to prolong the popular identification of insanity with demoniac possession or willful moral evil. The trial of children and youth in the same courts with older offenders, and their incarceration in jails and bridewells with adults, are causes of the perpetuation and increase of crime. Public opinion tolerates, through ig- norance, the punishment of drunken and disorderly persons in jails. It is not felt by unbashful vagabonds as punishment. The district workhouse should provide actual disciplinary labor for a term long enough to affect the habits and character of the demoralized person. The jail should be merely a place of temporary detention before trial, and the cells should be so constructed that no inmate could ever see or meet any other, and those yet uncondemned should not be thrust into purga- tory before trial. The average county poorhouse is another pathetic and disheartening illustration of the tardiness of popular knowl- edge and belated legal reform. If ordinary citizens knew what almshouses in most regions of the country actually are, in construction and administration, they would demand a change. Stories of abuses come from all quarters. There is absence of classification. On poor farms, men, women, and children herd together, and sometimes sleep in the same dor- mitory, without even curtains between their beds. In remote places, the demented insane are neglected and treated like animals. Feeble minded women, irresponsible creatures, wander about the country, and return to the asylum to give birth to idiots and perpetuate defect. Honest old people, who have served their country in the army of productive in- dustry for a half century, are shut in, during long winters, as intimate companions of worn out criminals. This does not 44 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON often occur, but it should never be permitted. Real work- ing people have a right to protest with bitterness against this unjust confusion of misfortune and crime. If counties are too penurious to provide separate homes for the aged and help- less poor, the commonwealth should interfere. Several states have in their service, at this hour, a small corps of very competent officials in charge of the feeble minded. Out of about one hundred thousand of these hapless children less than one tenth are in expert custody. The others are scattered in homes, in poorhouses, wander about as vagrants, or find their way to prisons and asylums for the insane. Under competent care, this class can be supported in rural colonies almost without expense to the public, educated as far as their limited faculties permit, made comparatively happy in the society of equals, shielded from the humiliations and sufferings of competition, and prevented from propagating their defects. Here is the beginning of actual social selection. The more ad- vanced states have already proved, under expert guidance, that charity the most tender is consistent with the ehmina- tion of the unfit. The ability to maintain life in competitive industry is a rough measure of fitness for parental responsibilities. The feeble minded are not competent to care for themselves. It is believed that many vagrants have the hereditary character of these degenerates. Their turn for ehmination will come next, and in the same merciful way, and then confirmed and hopeless dipsomaniacs may be treated rationally. The most helpful philanthropy is that which deals with de- pendent and neglected children, and in this endeavor certain principles have been established beyond reasonable skepti- cism. We know that infants without mothers cannot live in large dormitories. When a city continues to keep its foundhngs in a great institution, in face of the statistics of mortality, it is guilty of their death. The congregation in huge barracks of orphan and deserted children, past infancy, is now well understood to be injurious to them, so that the system of giving subsidies to church and other private institutions for the support of dependent children is a bounty on bad methods. It corrupts the conscience and SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY 45 blinds the jud.G^ment of ^ood mon and women; it dries up the fountains of vokintary benevolence, and it cripples the chil- dren. New York city and the state of California may be com- pared with Michigan and Minnesota, and the result will be ample evidence of the folly of the subsidy system. The policy of placing normal children in real homes, with natural family life and contact with ordinary community problems, may fairly be claimed as the only poHcy based on science. If ex- periment has any value in the study of the phenomena of society, then family care must be regarded as superior to in- stitutional custody. The reasons are economic, physiological, pedagogical, and political. The expense of support in insti- tutions is enormous; the health of children is exposed to need- less perils of contagion; the artificial training unfits the young person for the actual world; and the relation of the institution to politics, especially if it is a private institution seeking sub- sidies from public funds, is almost inevitably hurtful. Public outdoor relief, the assistance of dependent families in their homes, becomes more important with density of pop- ulation and growth of cities. Students and administrators in this country are divided in opinion as to the necessity and wisdom of raising money by taxation for this purpose. Many believe that pauperism in New York, Brooklyn, and Phila- delphia has been better cared for since official relief was abol- ished. But all acknowledge that, for a long time to come, a considerable sum must be given from voluntary or public sources for this purpose. In the distribution of this form of relief, general principles derived from long experience in many countries have been formulated, but are generally neglected by the sympathetic public. One who reasons from the world's best thought and knowl- edge would insist that each dependent person must be treated as an individual; that the relief should be temporary and the application frequently renewed; that the way to normal in- dustry should be kept open at every step, and be made prefer- able to the path of indolence and beggary. Trained opinion favors a system of cooperation of all benevolent persons and officials, with a common central record, with information ac- cessible to all who wish to aid the poor. The most successful 46 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON administration is that which reduces the material relief, and increases the capacity for self support; which tends to re- store sound social relations, and hft the decaying parasite into independence and manliness. This view of outdoor relief is exacting, and calls for a high order of abihty and a large number of friendly visitors. Surveying the actual practice in American cities, we dis- cover that every one of these principles is constantly and fla- grantly violated. The inquiry for causes is pronounced heart- less. The friendly visitor is declared to be a cruel and imper- tinent meddler, who would substitute good advice for food and warmth. The attempt to bring order and bookkeeping into the chaos of almsgiving is condemned as red tape and pre- sumption. Fortunate is the really thorough charity worker if he escapes the epithet of anarchist or communist because he discovers that individual and voluntary efforts are impotent in the presence of colossal misery, and because he invokes the cooperation of the entire community and the supreme power of the government. There are reasons for the slow rate of approximation of social practice to scientific demands. The pubhc finds the consideration of defects disagreeable and painful. It is pleas- ant to think of education, art, industry, and literature; but criminals are odious and idiots repulsive in common thought. Our natural repugnance for defectives tends to awaken contempt. Genius is demanded to discover the essentials of divine personahty in obscure intelligence and distorted nature. Comparatively few persons visit jails, prisons, and poorhouses, and most of these who do look about the abodes of misery with morbid curiosity alone, for they have no train- ing in observation and no criteria of judgment. They simply disturb the discipHne. It requires previous preparation and skillful guidance to derive benefit from examinations of this kind. Entrance is only too easily secured, in the case of public institutions in America; for an aimless ramble of sightseers, without knowledge or serious purpose, is positively harmful. Our system of outdoor rehef, both pubhc and private, unlike the German municipal system,which provides as visitors a large corps of capable men who serve without salary, erects SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY 47 a barrier l:)ctween the l^roken citizen and the prosperous. Our official methods are bureaucratic in the worst sense; hard, mechanical, rigid in routine, awkward and often corrupt in administration. Our busy people, eager to be rich, farm out their philanthropy, and pay relief societies to distribute their alms and the remnants left from charity balls. Our educated and comfortable ladies and gentlemen know not how the other half lives. If the Elberfeld system could be introduced, or the Boston corps of friendly visitors be organized in all towns, we should know more of the meaning of struggle ''down in the folks swamps." The principal inspirer of philanthropic feeling in the world is the church. But up to recent times the leaders of the church have been educated in a way not very favorable to a wise di- rection of charity. The separation of ecclesiastical from political power has insensibly weakened the sense of respon- sibility for wards of the state. Our theological seminaries are just beginning to provide for a study of the methods which best represent the doctrines and practice of the founder of the church in relation to the distressed. Those who give di- rection to the studies of the church leaders have still to learn much from the sajring of Dr. Arnold : ''It is clear that, in what- ever it is our duty to act, those matters also it is our duty to study." There is great reason to hope that another generation will take up the burden with ampler knowledge, wiser method, and more earnest consecration. In pioneer conditions only the rugged and dauntless push- ed to the frontier. Indians, fever, and hardship selected the feeble for extinction. Free land gave rude plenty to all who could survive, and pauperism was rare. But with our great cities have come new problems. Altruism must find a way to be merciful, and yet reduce the burden of the unfit. There is no prospect for the dependent classes in mere material alms. Many can be educated to self support, and to abandon the proletarian tendency to wear out mothers in bearing and rear- ing chilcken who must starve on insufficient income. The feeble minded and degenerate cannot be taught this funda- mental lesson. Fortunately, they are not very numerous, and can all be easily segregated in self supporting rural col- 48 CHARLES RICHMOND HENDERSON onies. When they are removed, the real workers will rise in earning power. Perhaps the most important means of improving the formerly corrupt and barbarous local charities and prisons in England was the establishment of central supervision. The centraHzation of supervising power and function in the home office has lifted rehef and corrective methods to a high level of efficiency and honesty. Most of our states, however, re- main on the plane where England was before this vital reform was introduced. The court house ring is only too generally the despot over taxpayers and paupers. The improvement immediately manifest from recent laws in Indiana and Ohio, requiring the local almoners to report in detail to the state board of charities, is a starthng evidence of the necessity for further changes in the same direction. It is not desirable to discourage local interest in rehef or discipHnary measures. Central control should seek to in- crease rather than to diminish the sense of responsibihty^ of township and county administrators. The state boards which are now established in most of the more advanced states are usually advisory bodies, whose influence is felt in constant and skillful investigations, pubhcation of abuses, distribution of information, education of the people, and guidance of leg- islators and administrators. The backward states, which have hitherto, through a mistaken notion of economy, refused to estabhsh such boards, are sacrificing the money of taxpayers, the comifort and fives of the dependents, and the efficiency of penal machinery. It is universally agreed that professional training is re- quired for superintendents and assistants in institutions of charity and correction. But few persons will spend years in school and in subordinate apprentice service, unless they see before them a reasonable assurance that skill and fidelity will be rewarded with advancement and permanence in office. The bearing of civil service reform on the improvement of our charitable and correctional institutions will be apparent. While all citizens should learn the essential principles of ameli- orative method, it is absurd to expect administrative ability in all. The supreme social question in relation to public benefi- SCIENCE IN PHILANTHROPY 49 cence is the question of securing; trained officials, and keeping; them in the full light of intelligent and sympathetic criticism. Progress in this matter depends upon concentrating the general thought and will on a single point, which for the present shall be civil service reform, with its examinations, eligible list, probation, promotion for merit, and security of tenure during the period of efficienc}'. Never before in the history of our country was intelli- gence upon social obligations so general as now, and the pro- cess of education is going forward rapidly. The National Con- ference of Charities and Corrections, the National Prison associ- ation, the International Prison congress, have published a body of valuable thought. Naturally, the contributions are of unequal value, but the agreement of experts on important principles shows that opinion is not provincial. Social science has no ready made set of rules w^hich can fit out a successful administrator; it does not pretend to offer a substitute for native talent, insight, sympathy, and tech- nical training. But it ever remains true that the world's experience, as formulated in history and theory, is needed to correct the narrowness, egotism, and blindness of merely individual experience. It is a hopeful feature in contem- porary philanthropy that associations bring together people of various kinds of knowledge and training, and that their publications increasingly influence legislation and adminis- tration. vol. 10^ EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY AS AN INVESTMENT. BY ROBERT A. WOODS. [Robort A. Woods, university settlomcnt worker; born Pittsburg Dec. 9, 1865; gradu- ated Amherst college, 188G; head of South End House, the university settlement of Boston, since 1891 ; lecturer on practical philanthropy in p]piscopal Theological school of Cambridge; member Boston public bath commission since 1897.] Philanthropy has corrected its mistakes in large measure by taking to itself the motive of education, and, nowadays, every sort of philanthropy which is worth anything endeavors in all its undertakings to secure educational result. Not only that, it endeavors more and more, as all wise systems of ed- ucation do, to put itself in a position to learn what the need is. The teacher must kneel before the child, must learn first of all from the pupil, in order that he may safely and effectually instruct the pupil. Educational philanthropy is educational, and has educational value because more and more it gives a great deal of time, takes a great deal of pains, in order to find out the actual conditions in which the people Hve who need to be influenced and helped. Mr. Seaver has pointed out to us very clearly that the prob- lem of educational expansion is first of all a financial problem. In educational philanthropy that financial problem is gradually being met by the concrete demonstration that comes from re- sults. An interesting study prepared by the institutions regis- tration department of Boston, presents the statistics for ju- venile arrests during the past ten years. It shows that during those ten years the number of juvenile arrests has decreased in a proportion varying from twelve to twenty per cent. The statistician who has prepared these tables gives a tentative explanation for the decrease. He says it has resulted in the first place from wiser ways in dealing with neglected children, and in the second place from the manifold efforts which are now being made throughout the city, to direct youthful energy in healthful channels. When educational philanthropy can present results of that kind, when the information as to those 50 EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY 51 rosiilts ran l")y a sort of vital proposs and motive ho i^ot into tho minds of thiidvin^ people throughout the city, such people are going to see the vakie of an investment of that sort, and are going to be willing to pay more in taxes for carrying on the work of educational philanthroj)y. A great part of the effort of those who are endeavoring to promote educational phihmthropy is to explain to intelligent persons tlu'oughout the community just what the need is of new enterprise in that direction, and to exi)lain to such persons in ver}^ concrete fashion its definite results. In other words, educational philanthropy has a mission to the educated classes and the resourceful classes quite as distinctly as to those who belong to the less privileged ranks in life. In the first place, those of us who arc interested in this method feel very strongly there must l)e a greater extension of effort in the way of physical education. We have now, in Boston, a remarkable series of pul)lic l^aths, public play grounds, and public indoor gymnasiums. All of these insti- tutions are used up to the limit of their capacity. The effort in the playgrounds and in the gymnasiums is constantly to raise the standards of instruction, and to make the opportu- nities of these institutions available in the fullest degree to l^oth sexes and to adults as well as to children and young people. One verj^ interesting use to which the gymnasiums are put is that of providing the right sort of physical training for young men who are later on to enter the city's service in the police department and fire department. Those depart- ments are an object of ambition to many young men in cliffer- ent parts of the city. These young men now find a chance such as they never had before to get the appropriate training. Since the city gymnasiums began their work five years ago the standard for the physical examination for entrance into these departments has risen nearly twenty per cent. It was formerly about sixty five per cent; it is now over eightv per cent. Here in very definite fashion is a result which the in- telligent taxpayer must in due time take account of. He must begin to see that it is an excellent financial investment for the city to pro\'ide agencies through which the men who are going to serve the city in important ways in the future shall 52 ROBERT A. WOODS receive a suitable training, and through which a higher and better type of man can be secured. Those of us who are in- terested in these city gymnasiums beheve that before many years go by we shall be able from definite statistics to prove that there has been a raised standard of pubhc health, of pub- Uc morals, and of the productive capacity of the mass of the people in the city as the result of the opportunities which the gymnasiums furnish. If that proves true, it is going to be possible to put before the thinking taxpayer a result which will show the value in dollars and cents of this type of pubhc investment. Then too, educational philanthropy concerns itself with what can not be spoken of more accurately than to call it social education. A great many people think that settlement work concerns itself largely with gaieties. It does. Many boys and girls in settlement clubs are more interested in dan- cing and in amateur dramatics than in anything else. But we find that interests of this sort may be made the means for securing the most important educational results. Often 3^ou can secure points in character when you speak of deportment which you never could secure in any direct way. Very often you can accompHsh in your dancing class certain ends which you could not accompHsh in your Sunday school class, in the way of permanent growth in character. I have many times seen boys that had never really made any achievement in their Hves before, who undertook to present a Uttle play, and who, perhaps, got tired before their parts were learned, and almost had to be galvanized into carrying rehearsals through and presenting the little play at the end; but having given the play in the face and eyes of their friends and neighbors, those boys came to have that wonderful sense of having brought something to pass, and the finished result gave them a self respect and a confidence which they never otherwise would have had. Achievement has registered a distinct upward step in the hves of those boys. In these simple ways educational philanthropy attempts to take the social fife of crowded neighborhoods, to begin with it where it is, and to direct it along helpful channels. We are beginning, I think, in all our great cities to see the absolute EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY 53 need of just that sort of social training. It is a curious fact that we are very slow about taking progressive steps for public improvement until we are compelled to. The history of sani- tary improvement in the cities both of Europe and of this coun- try will show that great steps in the direction of sanitary im- improvement have rarely been taken except as the result of some dire plague. Cholera or smallpox has compelled the cities of Europe and America to organize their Ijoards of health and to develop thorough, effective methods for urban sanita- tion. It may be that that will also be true with regard to the moral health of the cit}^ Certainly those who have watched the condition of things on the east side of New York during recent years must have seen that there is a moral contagion and pestilence that comes out of the life of a great tenement district, which in due time, by sure compulsion, will necessitate on the part of the city, either privately or pubhcly, the care- ful, systematic organi2ation of such facilities for social inter- course as shall lead in the direction of intelligence and char- acter instead of toward moral destruction. And then, too, educational philanthropy concerns itself quite definitely with experiments in the direction of training for vocation. One of the things that strike you most strongly in the Ufe of a working class district is the fact that boys and girls, as they leave our public schools, have no sort of training to fit them for entering upon some permanent employment. To a very large extent when they leave the grammar schools, they go into some sort of calling which is essentially juvenile. The boys become messenger boys or go into the newspaper or bootblack business, while the girls become cash girls in great stores. The difficult}^ with those callings is, that a young person will follow them for three or four years, and at the end of that time be no farther on in his substantial preparation for a life work than he was at the beginning. It is highly im- portant that we should develop educational resources for training those young people to fulfill some increasing use in hfe. The task of educational philanthropy, wherever it is found, is to a very large extent that of endeavoring to fit boys and girls during the years after the grammar school stage, for taking up some definite industrial career. 54 ROBERT A. WOODS Another significant aim of educational philanthropy is that which was suggested by Dr. Fehx Adler when he said that just as there are life saving stations along the seacoast, there should be talent saving stations along the shores of pov- erty. Throughout this country I believe only about six per cent of the boys and girls get beyond the grammar school. In a city like Boston, possibly as many as twenty per cent go beyond the grammar school, though that is perhaps a high estimate even for Boston. This means that eighty or ninety per cent of our boys and girls do not get beyond the grammar school. Take twenty per cent for Boston. That is, roughly speaking, the proportion of the population which may be cred- ited to the professional and commercial classes; the working classes amounting to about eighty per cent of the population of a great city. Speaking roughly then, the children of work- ing class famihes do not go beyond the grammar school. Any one who has worked in a crowded district in any of our great cities knows that there are numerous cases of exceptionally bright boys and girls who are prevented from going on into the secondary school on account of the poverty, or ignorance, or indifference, or all three combined, of their parents. It is cer- tainly an anomalous situation that if a boy or girl can persevere through the secondary stage and get as far as the collegiate stage, he finds very great resources to help him on through the collegiate stage of his education; while large numbers of promising boys and girls are stopped in the course of their education, at the beginning of the secondary stage. It seems to me there could hardly be any better investment of money than through the provision of scholarships by which exception- ally bright boys and girls whose parents are poor, too poor to second them through the secondary stage of their education, could be sent on through the high school. Some efforts are now being made in that direction, and there is certainly no more interesting Hne of experiment for educational philan- thropy. I feel very strongly that it is necessary for all of us to take upon ourselves the responsibility of educating the thoughtful people in the community as to the place which education has in the building up of the commmiity. We take EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY 55 that fact too much for granted ourselves, and we do not take measures to have other people understand it. For instance, in the city of Boston, with its enormous expenditure, involv- ing enormous drain upon the taxpayers, a great part of the expenditure which comes through taxation goes to support institutions which gather up the evil results that come from a bad and bungling scheme of civilization, from an insuffi- cient system and scheme of education. The city hospital, which is one of the finest institutions of its kind in the world, is yet rendering a service, the need of which might be in part obviated. The city hospital costs more than a thousand dol- lars per day. We have our houses of correction which cost $600 per day. We have our almshouses, and institutions for neglected children ; we have our police force, which comes next to the public schools as an item of pubHc expense. The ques- tion is going to be asked before long, from a purely financial point of view, whether there is not some way by which a por- tion of this vast outlay for the negative, superficial treatment of social e\dls can be cut off. In due time we shall l^e able to show to the hard headed taxpayer that by the estabhshment of public baths, pubUc gymnasiums, pubhc playgrounds, by experiments in the direction of educational philanthropy, a way may be foimd to cut off some of that expense, and to re- lieve the city decisively and permanently of some of that burden. But there is a far more forcible line of argument in support of these experiments in the direction of educational philan- thropy. The prime source of the wealth of any country or of any city consists in the productive capacity of its people. We have been depending all along upon importing productive capacity into the city from the village, American and European ; but we have got to learn some way now, by which we can de- velop productive capacity within the lights of the city itself. It is only through a broad thoroughgoing system of education that wall touch all sides of life, and provide for all the practical needs of Ufe, that we shall be able to develop that productive capacity. And if we can show to the thoughtful citizen, that education is reaching out in order to bring to the light, and to bring into full power the variety of latent productive capac- 56 ROBERT A. WOODS ity that is bom into the children of the mass of the people, then I believe that we shall have an invincible argument in favor of a higher rate of taxation for educational purposes, and larger appropriations for the support of educational enterprises. JEWISH CHARITIES. BY LEE K. FRANKEL. [Lee K. Frankel, magager United Hebrew Charities'; born Philadelphia, August 13, 1867; instructor in chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 1888-93; director Jewish Chautauqua society, 1897-99j member and secretary Ellis Island commission, ap- pointed by President Roosevelt, 1903; assistant secretary National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1902; in charge of summer school of philanthropy, Jewish Chautauqua society, 1902-03; chairman committee on needy families in their homes, National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1905-06. Editor, Jewish Charity.] On April 26, 1655, the board of directors of the Dutch West India company wrote to Governor Stuyvesant as fol- lows: ''After many consultations, we have decided and re- solved upon a certain petition made by certain Portuguese Jews, that they shall have permission to sell and to trade in New Netherland and to live and remain there, provided the poor among them shall not become a burden to the company, or to the community, but be supported by their own nation." The records of the department of charities of the city of New York now show that in a Jewish population approxi- mating 600,000 in Greater New York, in the almshouse oh Blackwell's island there are seventeen pauper Jews, of whom the majority were blind, idiotic or possessed of some peculiar defect which prevented admission to existing Jewish charitable institutions. What is true of New York Jews is true of their coreligion- ists everywhere. The Jew has always cared for his own poor. During the biblical period, the wise and humane laws of the Mosaic code made the welfare of the unfortunate a civic duty, and specified the manner in which assistance was to be given in order to do the least harm to the recipient. After the de- struction of the commonwealth, the common woe which fol- lowed the dispersion brought into play new forms of charitable effort to meet the need and distress occasioned by the acute poverty of the people. It is the irony of fate to say that the Jews provided for their poor during the middle ages and the centuries which preceded and followed them. Jewish charity was sectarian through compulsion. When every man's hand was raised against the Jew, rich or poor, it followed that any 57 58 LEE K. FRANKEL charitable provision for the latter class must of necessity be arranged by the former. And the pity of it all was that the charity of the Mosaic legislation was not narrow and sectarian. It could and did include within its scope the stranger and the non-Jew. It was broadly humanitarian, having regard for the servant as well as the master. It was a world wide scheme of philanthropy, the like of which is not to be found to-day, since it was grounded not merely on the bases of love and pity, but on justice. The gleanings of the field were not given to the poor man as a gift, but as his due. Similarly the tithes were exacted from all, rich and poor alike, in the nature of an assessment to carry out the principles of justice and righteous- ness on which the charity law was based. In our modern day, under more favorable conditions and auspices, the Jew has, to some extent, reverted to the non- sectarian idea, in his philanthropies. Hospitals, as a rule, supported and endowed by Jews, throw open their doors to sufferers irrespective of creed, color or nationality. Other in- stances could be cited of charities not medical, organized along similar lines. The free employment bureau of the United Hebrew charities makes no distinction with its applicants. The educational alliance offers its clubs and classes to Jew and Gentile alike. Jewish agencies, giving material relief, or to use a better term, those which care for the needy in their own homes, in the main confine their work to the beneficiaries of their faith, without, however, making any rigid distinction. On the other hand, the trend of Jewish charity has been in the direction of caring for the Jewish poor, solely through Jewish agencies, and without the intervention or cooperation of other sectarian or nonsectarian societies or institutions. Such a condition of affairs is the resultant of the compulsion of the centuries. The task which was at one time assumed of necessity has to-day become a proud duty. What in Stuy- vesant's day was obligatory and mandatory, is to-day accepted as a voluntary responsibility. To what extent and for what length of time the care of the Jewish poor may remain exclusively in Jewish hands, it is impossible to say. The question is hardly a religious one. Jewish poverty is due mainly to economic and industrial JEWISH CHARITIES 59 causes. It is true that religious persecution is largely at the bottom of these causes, but the condition which such per- secution has produced is not to be overcome by any organi- zation or set of organizations founded on purely religious lines. If the impoverished Jew requires the interference of his wealthier coreligionist, it is because the latter is better able to understand his needs and has a peculiar, speciaUzed knowledge of a peculiar class of individuals. Were it possi- ble for pubUc charities or for nonsectarian private charities to grasp the fundamentals of Jewish poverty, to obtain that keen insight into the modes of living and thought of a heter- ogeneous people whose common meeting point is their reli- gion, an insight so necessar}^ to bring the proper forms of relief into play, there is no reason why the poor Jew should not be the recipient of the charitable impulse of the entire com- munit3^ The Jew's religion per se is not a factor in the solu- tion of his physical needs. It is characteristic of his history that the greater his poverty and distress, the greater has been his religiosity and his steadfastness to his ethical and religious convictions. It is a far cry, however, to the time when the Jew will be able to lay down his self assumed burden and delegate it to others, not only ready and will- ing to shoulder it, but competent to unravel the intricacies of the Jewish character, whose roots are deeply grounded in centuries of tradition. For the present the Jew must care for the Jew. The problem of the Jewish charitable societies of the United States to-day is the problem of the care of the immi- grant. As such, it passes beyond merely local Hues. In some of its manifestations it is national in character and in few it has an international significance. The fact that the large bulk of the needy Jews in the United States reside in New York is accidental, and concerns the Jews of Denver and San Francisco equally with those of the eastern seaboard cities. Insofar the problem is a national one. Moreover, to deal inteUigently with the question re- quires a knowledge of the immigrant's antecedents, the im- pelling motive which brought him to the United States, and 6o LEE K. FRANKEL an acquaintance with his previous environment. And here the international phase of the question comes in. Roughly speaking, it may be said that there are no Am- erican bom Jewish poor. Of the 10,061 famihes who appHed for assistance to the United Hebrew charities of New York during its last fiscal year, 2 per cent were bom in the United States. And of these the majority of heads of famihes were of the first generation. Jewish dependents who have an an- cestry in the United States of more than two generations are practically imknown. Nor can it be stated that there have ever been enough native born dependent Jews to make an issue, since the Stuyvesant episode. In the report of the pres- ident of the above society for the year 1881, the statement is made that during no time since the formation of the society had there been less want than during the first six months of the fiscal year just ended. It must have been gratifying to those present at the meeting to leam that after all the poor in the city had been given adequate relief, there was still in the society's treasury a comfortable balance of over $14,000. During the following year, so large were the receipts of the society and so small the demands of the regular recipients, that the balance in the treasury at the end of the year had swelled to nearly $19,000. In the year 1881 began that great wave of emigration from eastem Europe, the end of which is not yet. Driven by a relentless persecution, which endangered not only their homes but frequently their lives, thousands of Jews were compelled to flee from their homes to seek new residence on these shores. The Russo-Jewish committee which originally undertook the work of caring for these immigrants tumed it over very shortly to the Hebrew Emigrant Aid society, which came into existence in December, 1881. In one year this society spent $250,000, $50,000 less than had been spent by the United Hebrew char- ities of New York in the seven years of its existence. In the first and only annual report of the Emigrant Aid society, its president outhned as tersely as possible the efforts that had been made to provide homes and occupations for the thousands of fleeing exiles who reached these shores during the momen- tous summer of 1882. In the month of July the committee JEWISH CHARITIES 6i spent for board and lodging alone over $11,700. Of the her- culean efforts of the members of the committee, of the sacri- fices of time and money, the report in its modesty makes but scant mention. The full history of the Emigrant Aid society is yet to be written. With the gradual falling off in immigration, the Emigrant Aid society went out of existence, and the care of the needy immigrant who remained in New York and who became im- poverished after residence, reverted to the United Hebrew charities. In 1885 immigration again began to grow heavier, and continued to grow in such numbers that in the following five years over 120,000 immigrants arrived at Castle Garden. In 1890 the immigration reached the figures of 32,321, the largest number ever recorded up to that time. With all that had been done, the real work of the charities was but to begin. In 1891 the rehgious persecution of the Russian Jews reached a climax. In the year ending September 30, 62,574 immigrants arrived at New York, of whom nearly 40,000 arrived between June and September. The entire charitable effort of the New York Jewish community was for the time directed out of the ordinary channels and applied to this monumental question of caring for the arriving Russian Jews. The Baron de Hirsch fund, instead of utilizing its in- come for its educational work, appropriated over $67,000 to the United Hebrew charities to assist in the work of the im- migration bureau. Over $175,000 was spent by the United Hebrew charities during this year. In September of 1891 it became apparent that there would be no cessation to the im- migration, and that much larger funds would be necessary to give anything like adequate assistance to the unfortunates who were arriving at the rate of 2,000 per week. The en- thusiasm which was aroused at a banquet tendered to the late Jesse Seligman brought into existence the Russian Transpor- tation fund, which added over $90,000 to the revenues of the United Hebrew charities and which was given by citizens of New York, irrespective of creed. Later in the year, a stand- ing committee of the society known as the Central Russian Refugees committee was organized, and was made up of repre- 62 LEE K. FRANKEL sentatives of the Baron de Hirsch fund, the Russian Trans- portation fund, the United Hebrew charities and the American committee for amehorating the condition of the Russian ex- iles. The last committee was organized to secure the cooper- ation of relief societies in other cities, in order that the various European societies who were assisting the persecuted Russians to emigrate should thoroughly understand the attitude of the New York organization. The year, October, 1891, to September, 1892, will ever be a memorable one in the history of Russian emigration and of Jewish philanthropy; 52,134 immigrants arriving at the barge office in that time. The treasurer of the United Hebrew charities paid out the enormous sum of $321,311.05, of which $145,200 was spent by the Russian Refugees committee be- tween February and September. Like the Hebrew Emigrant Aid society, the history of the central Russian Refugees com- mittee is still to be written. At present it is included in the bald statement of a treasurer's report. Should it ever be published, it will tell a tale of devotion, of altruistic effort, of sacrifice, of noble charitable impulse unparalleled in the his- tory of American Judaism. Since the year 1881, fully 600,000 Jewish immigrants have arrived at the port of New York alone. Of these the bulk comprise refugees from Russian and Roumanian persecution, Austrians and Galicians. They come from coimtries in which many of them lived under conditions of appalling poverty. The records of the immigration bureau show that from the standpoint of material wealth, these immigrants are below the average of immigrants from other European countries. Due to their previous condition a goodly percentage is illiter- ate. On the other hand, the number of skilled artisans and craftsmen is so large as to be distinctly noticeable. From the standpoint of dependency, it will be of interest to study to what exent this large body of immigrants has added to the dependent and delinquent classes of the communities in the United States. The only figures that are at hand are those of New York, which are higher than would be found in other cities and to\vns, for reasons that are ob\dous. In December, 1899, the \vriter made a study of 1,000 JEWISH CHARITIES 63 families who had originally applied to the United Hebrew charities for assistance in October, 1894. Of these 1,000 ap- plicants it was found that 602 had not applied for assistance after December, 1894. Of the balance, 67 families were de- pendent on the society to a greater or lesser extent in January, 1899. More detailed investigation disclosed the fact that nearly all of these 67 applicants were made up of families where the wage earner had died, leaving a widow with small children, or of respectable aged and infirm couples unable to be fully self supporting, or of families in which the wage earner had become incapacitated through illness. In other words, after five years over 93 per cent of the cases studied were in- dependent of charitable interference. While the above study was limited in its scope, and while the deduction which can be drawn from it must be accepted with reserve, it is nevertheless typical of Jewish charitable conditions. The marked feature in the care of the Jewish poor in the United States is the almost entire absence of the so-called pauper element. Even the sixty seven famiUes above mentioned can not be included in this category. Widow- hood is the resultant of purely natural conditions, and when it afflicts the poor mother with a family, it frequently produces a condition of dependence which has in it no characteristic of demoralization. The brightest and most hopeful chapter in the history of Jewish charity is the avidity and eagerness with which its beneficiaries, bereft of the main wage earner, become self supporting and independent as soon as the chil- dren are old enough to contribute to the family income. If there is one cause more than another leading up to this condition, it is the absence of the drink evil among the Jews. The instances in which drunkenness hes at the bottom of Jewish dependency are so infrequent that they may be ig- nored. Combined with the absence of this vice, there are other virtues engrafted on the Jew for centuries, all of which tend to the preservation of his self respect and his self esteem. Among these are the love of home, the inherent desire to preserve the purity of the family, and the remarkable eager- ness which he shows for education and self improvement. Poverty with the Jew does not spell degeneracy. He has 64 LEE K. FRANKEL known it too long to fear it, and even through its worst in- vasions, he has come forth stronger, more confident, more self reliant. Poverty he knew in darkest Europe, where it was forced upon him. He brought it with him when he came to the United States, and under the beneficent environment which encompassed him here, he has escaped from its clutches to a large extent. The small percentage who become or re- main dependent after a residence of any length in the United States are influenced by causes extraneous to the individual, and which are mainly the product of their environment. What these causes are will develop subsequently. This detailed exposition of Jewish poverty is timely, in view of the fear that has been expressed of late, that continued Jewish immigration, together with other immigration from oriental Europe, may develop potentialities harmful to Amer- ican customs and thought. It is feared that pauper elements will be introduced into American life, which may become ob- noxious and detrimental. A discussion of the question is outside the province of this paper. So far as the Jew is con- cerned, the fear is without warrant of fact. The history of the Jewish charities in the United States demonstrates nothing more forcibly than that the Jewish immigrant, be he German, Russian, Roumanian or Galician, readily adapts himself to his American environment, easily assimilates the customs and language of his adopted country, and even though he may temporarily require assistance, rapidly becomes independent of charitable interference. The immigrant Jew is frequently poverty stricken. He is rarely a pauper, in the sense in which the word is most commonly used. He is not found in the be- sotted, degenerate, hopeless mass of humanity constituting the flotsam and jetsam of society, the product of generations of vice and crime and debauchery, which makes up the scum of our present civilization. Given the opportunity and the proper surroundings, the immigrant Jew will become an ad- dition to the body politic and not a menace. From what has preceded, it will be comprehensible that the Jewish charities of the United States, having a special problem with which to deal, have instituted special methods for its solution. In the main, relief organizations have fol- JEWISH CHARITIES 65 lowed the orp;anizod methods of sister soeieties. In tlie past twenty years, new org;anizations of all kinds have sprung into existence to meet the demands made by the constantly in- creased immi Juration . To revert to New York, when the Cen- tral Russian K,efui2;ees committee went out of existence in Jan- uary, 1893, the decrease in immigrat'on no longer warrant- ing its continuance, the active work of assisting the arriving immigrants devolved upon the United Hebrew charities. The work of tliis society will be cited here somewhat in extenso, since it is typical of similar Jewish organizations throughout the United States. The report of the fiscal year ending Sej^t ember 30, 1902, shows that 10,061 individuals and families applied for assistance. Of these, 5,003 had applied for the first time. Material relief was granted to 8,125; 1,270 were found not to require assistance of this kind, and 600 were refused assistance for some cause or other. The society conducts an employment bureau which is free to employer and employe, and during the last fiscal year found employ- ment for 5,112 applicants. It grants relief in kind, including groceries, clothing, shoes, funnture, etc. The extent of the society's work in this direction will be gathered from the state- ment that 48,802 garments and pieces of furnitiu'e were dis- tributrd last year. The annual [disbursements for material relief alone amount to over $110,000 per annum. Ever since its organization twenty nine years ago, the society has en- deavored to uphold the principles of organized charity. In some instances it has antedated the charity organization so- cieties themselves. We need but mention the giving of relief in amounts adequate to make the recipient independent of further intervention on the part of the relief giving agency, and the establishment of a graded, carefully regulated and supervised system of pensions covering if necessary a long period of years. As a rule, these pensions are given only to families where the wage earner has died, and where, unless such provision were made, no recourse wouUl be left, except the breaking up of the family and the commitment of the child- ren to orphanages and similar institutions. To obviate the necessity of such commitment, the Ignited Hebrew charities disburses annually over $30,000 in pensions. In the history Vol. 10 6 66 LEE K. FRANKEL of the society there is no form of relief which shows such good returns for the investment made. Families so supported do not become pauperized, since the subsidy which is granted enables the surviving parent to devote her time to the proper rearing of her children so that they may become useful and intelligent citizens. To such children the society stands in loco parentis. Dependency of this kind does not lead to de- generacy. Where the home can be preserved, where children can develop under the care of the natural guardian, there is little likehhood of dependency extending to succeeding gen- erations. So far as the Jew at least is concerned, this fact has been too often and too amply evidenced to require further illustration. A word may be said here on the question of adequate re- lief. In the revulsion which accompanied the indiscriminate almsgiving of earlier decades, the so-called organized charities which resulted therefrom frequently went to the other ex- treme and withheld material relief in the fear of its baneful effect on the recipient. Nothing is more characteristic of our present day charities than the gradual return to the sound doc- trine that material relief is not the end desired, but merely a means to the end, and that it must be used, if necessary, equally with other forms of relief, and must be given adeqately if at all. Jewish charity has always upheld this belief. Grant- ed dependency, and material relief in many instances follows. Its danger lies in giving it as a dole. If it must be given, let the amount of it be proportionate to the applicant's needs and not to the amoimt that can be obtained from a more or less charitably disposed community. Along these lines the United Hebrew charities frequently grants assistance, presumably as a loan, in amomits varying from $50 to $250. These loans are made in special case^, where it is not possible to make the applicant self supporting through the ordinary channels of employment, etc. A wage earner who has been incapacitated through illness or injury and hence unable to follow any routine work, may still be established in some small business venture and be able to support his family. Thousands of dollars have been spent by the United Hebrew charities along these lines with the most gratifying JEWISH CHARITIES 67 results — not only have beneficiaries become independent of the society, but many of them have managed to repay the loans made to them. Of all the problems which confront the average charity organization, possibly the most perplexing is the one of the family in which the mother must be the wage earner. The kindergarten and the day nursery have by no means solved the problem. They are at best but makeshifts in an attempt to solve a situation which has its root in economic and indus- trial conditions. Again, the factory removes the mother from her sphere of influence over her children, and opens an oppor- tunity for the growth of incorrigibility and waywardness on the part of the latter. In the hope of partially overcoming this difficulty, the United Hebrew charities has for some years conducted a work room for unskilled women in which the latter are taught various needle industries, in the hope that they may eventually be sufficiently accomplished to work in their owTi homes, and in this fashion supplement the family income. The amoimt of such work that can be found is limited. More and more, daily, the factory is competing with home industry, to the exclusion of the latter. A study made by the society last year showed that work could be obtained for women to do at home in industries such as silk belt making, men's and women's neckwear, garters and hose supporters, paper boxes, slip covers for the furniture trade, over gaiters and leggings, dressing sacques, hats and caps, flowers and feathers, beaded purses and other beadwork, dress shields, incandescent light mantels, embroidery and art embroidery, passementerie work, bibs, knit goods, etc. In the society's workroom the effort has been made to teach such industries to unskilled women, so as to enable them to become at least partially self supporting. It is needless to state that in a system as comprehensive as the United Hebrew charities desires to be, provision has been made to alleviate distress in all its forms. Under the plan of dividing the city into districts, immediate relief can be given to emergency cases. These districts are in charge of cooperating societies known as sisterhoods, who are respon- sible for the condition of the poor who have been placed in their care. Each of these agencies is practically a miniature 68 LEE K. FRANKEL United Hebrew charities. Not only have they organized centers for the distribution of material rehef, but along the lines of a more progressive philanthropy, the sisterhoods have developed day nurseries, kindergartens, clubs and classes of various kinds, employment bureaus, mothers' meetings, and in fact have become a social center for the poor of their neigh- borhoods. Since a large percentage of the distress which is met with is occasioned by illness, medical relief of all kinds has been organized. Each district as a rule has its physician and its nurse, and where these are not at hand, cooperation has been effected with other organizations specially equipped for such work. In very recent years, the spread of tuberculosis among Jews has merited the earnest attention of the society, and among its other activities it has been a pioneer in developing a systematic plan for caring for such tuberculous applicants in their own homes, for whom no provision could be made in existing sanatoria. The campaign thus begun has been not only a charitable, but a social one. Not only have these un- fortmiates been given food, nourishment and medical care to aid them towards recovery, but in addition thereto, instruction has been given them in the rudiments of sanitation, and in the prevention of infection. It is significant that the work of the United Hebrew charities in this field has been followed to some extent by the recently organized committee on tuber- culosis of the Charity Organization society. So successful have the United Hebrew charities been in this undertaking, that it points with pride to the beneficiaries who have recover- ed their health and who have been made self supporting in outdoor pursuits in such a manner that the likelihood of a re- currence of the disease has been materially lessened. As stated before, the work of the United Hebrew charities of New York has been cited in detail, since it illustrates the methods adopted by practically all relief agencies in the United States. The name United Hebrew charities, as applied to the New York organization, is somewhat of a misnomer, since it does not include all Jewish charitable agencies in the city of New York. It would be more proper to speak of it as the con- solidation of all the purely relief societies which existed in New JEWISH CHARITIES 69 York prior to 1874. Aside from these, there are to-day hos- pitals, orphanages, technical schools for boys and girls, trade schools, day nurseries and kindergartens, guilds for crippled children, burial societies, loan societies, societies for maternity relief, and a goodly number of smaller organizations which have been founded by the immigrants of the last twenty years. It is estimated that there are over one thousand Jewish organizations and societies in the city of New York to-day, whose activities to a greater or less extent are directed along philanthropic lines. Practically all of the larger organizations, such as the hospitals, etc., work in cooperation with the United Hebrew charities. It is only a question of time until even the smallest will direct its activities in consonance with the work of the central society. In some of the other cities in the United States, where the question of the care of the poor is not so complex as in New York, closer cooperation has gone by leaps and bounds. In cities like Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland and others, the individual societies have formed federations of charities, the purpose of the federation being to express the philanthropic impulse of the community in terms of greatest economy, the smallest amount of friction and the highest pos- sible efficiency. In Philadelphia the federation is the com- mon treasury. It acts as the common collection agency of all moneys, and distributes them pro rata among the various societies and institutions whose autonomy is not impaired by this method. In other cities, this plan with some slight vari- ations is in force. In addition to these local federations, the various societies throughout the United States have joined together to form a national body known as the National Conference of Jewish charities. At present it comprises the relief organizations of fifty three cities. At the meeting of the National Conference of Jewish charities held in Detroit, the writer introduced a resolution advocating the establishment of a central bureau for the placing out and boarding out of dependent Jewish children in private homes. At that time the work of devising such a plan was delegated to the independent order of B'nai B'rith, 70 LEE K. FRANKEL a fraiemal Jewish order, which at present has the entire sub- ject under discussion, and has drafted a plan which has been submitted to the various Jewish societies and institutions throughout the country. Some idea of the extent to which Jewish charities have been developed in the United States may be gathered from the following : In practically every city and town there are benevolent societies which look after the interests of the poor in their midst. Jewish orphan asylums are established in the cities of Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Cin- cinnati, Cleveland, Newark, N. J., New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Rochester and San Francisco. In New York there are three institutions and in Philadelphia there are two. New York has four Jewish hospitals, and Philadelphia has two. Baltimore, Chicago, Cincinnati, Den- ver, New Orleans and San Francisco have each one. Homes for the aged and infirm are found in most of the large cities. Similarly, educational movements along philanthropic lines are developing throughout the country. These include or- ganizations such as the Hebrew Educational society of Brook- lyn, the Hebrew Education society of Philadelphia, the Jew- ish Training school of Chicago, the Hebrew Free and Industrial school society of St. Louis, the Hebrew Industrial school of Boston, the Clara de Hirsch home for working girls, the Hebrew Technical school for girls, the Hebrew Technical insti- tute, and the Baron de Hirsch trade school, the last four being situated in the city of New York. The Maxwell street Settlement of Chicago and the Neighborhood house in St. Paul are under Jewish auspices. Cincinnati, Milwaukee and Cleveland have Jewish settlements. In New York the educa- tional alliance, the largest institution of its kind in the United States, has within the past few years developed a set- tlement with resident workers. Earlier in this paper reference was made to the fact that much of the Jewish dependency in the United States and in particular in the large cities is due to causes that are not in- herent in the individual but are objective and not sub- jective; in other words, are a product of his environment. Of the million Jews in the United States nearly 600,000 reside in JEWISH CHARITIES 71 the city of New York and of the latter over 50 per cent reside in one square mile of territory on the east side of the borough of Manhattan. The recent agitation in regard to tenement house legislation in New York is still too fresh in the minds of students of this subject to require much further mention here. It will be remarked, however, that in the campaign which was made to preserve the vital features of the present tene- ment house law, the Jewish residents on the east side of New York were a unit in demanding that no drastic changes in the law be made. Similarly at a recent municipal election, it was the citizens and voters of this same district who rose en masse and in a campaign that was startling in its uniqueness and originality, purged their neighborhood of the vices and immorality which existed there. And this brings us to the point at issue. Whatever views the interested may have on this subject, it can not be denied that there are limits to the housing of in- dividuals in a restricted territory. Family Ufe can not be prop- erly maintained without a certain amount of privacy, and one of the essentials for the procurement of the latter is a suffi- ciency of room. The danger to morals which lies in over- crowding, is due primarily to the inability to carry on a natural home life. The unit of society, after all, is the family, and the preservation of the latter means the preservation of the social fabric. With this thought in mind, it is not difficult to imderstand how a people, who through the ages have been heralded as the champions of purity m the home, have through the conditions under which they live, taken on some of the attributes of their surroundings and absorbed some of the deteriorating effects of their environment. The natural con- comitants of overcrowding are disease and vice and crime. The Jew's power of assimilation is proverbial. It is but nat- ural therefore that he, along with his Christian neighbor, should be attacked in his moral fiber in the overcrowded tene- ments in which he lived; that he should contract diseases which were new and strange to him, and to which he had formerly not been liable. In fact, his apparent immunity to tuberculosis to-day, in spite of conditions, is a medical anomaly. The wonder is that a greater percentage of the Jewish popu- 72 LEE K. FRANKEL .ation residing in the so-called Ghetto of our large cities has not fallen victims to the vices and diseases which breed there. The concern of the thinking Jew lies in the fact that the per- centage of Jewish vice and crime and disease as found to-day in our large cities, small as it may be, is nevertheless distinctly larger than statistics show to have been the case heretofore. To the student of affairs, there is a menace in a condition of things which on its face shows such dangerous possibilities. Referring to New York in particular, it cannot be denied that the city, through its geographical position, has peculiar limita- tions with respect to population which cannot be overstepped without a serious injury to the community. As a matter of fact, certain sections of the city, particularly those in which the poorer elements of the population live, have long since passed the boundaries of normal housing, and there has resulted a harvest of poverty and vice, crime and disease which are the adjuncts of such abnormal congestion. So far as the Jews are concerned, nothing could be more indicative of these conditions than the amount of so-called juvenile delinquency. In the house of refuge on Randall's island, there are over 200 Jewish boys and girls. In the juve- nile asylum there are 230 Jewish children under sixteen years of age committed for various misdemeanors. Compared with the entire Jewish population of the city, the number is in- significant, and the ratio will probably be found to be consider- ably lower than that of the general population. To the Jew- ish philanthropist and sociologist, there is cause for alarm in these figures, because he sees that the crowded life of the streets, the lack of playgrounds and breathing spots, the ab- sence of proper home surroimdings, have injurious effects on the Jewish child, to whom the simplest legal misdemeanors were in the past unknown. And what is true of the child is true of the adult. Whatever parasitic poverty may exist among the Jews in the United States and in particular in New York, whatever percentage of criminals and vicious persons may have developed, the results are in the main due to the overcrowding and congestion, to which their poverty has subjected them. How can an increase of these evils be averted? The JEWISH CHARITIES 73 remedy is plain and at the same time simple. The unfor- tunates, whom poverty and oppression have thrown together in such close proximity and who are compelled to live under such unnatural conditions, must be given the opportunity to settle in localities where ample room will be given for normal, physical, intellectual and moral growth. In New York, with characteristic insight, many are realizing the impossibility of full development in their present restricted environment and are taking up residence in the less settled outlying section of the city. There is no doubt that the improvement in trans- portation facilities, resulting from subways and tunnels, will considerably diminish the population of the east side. To effect large results, some comprehensive scheme is necessary to reUeve the congestion and to prevent the possibility of a recurrence of this congestion. So far as the dependent Jewish classes are concerned, no scheme of philanthropy that can be introduced into the congested Jewish quarter of New York city can be more than palliative, that will permit of a continued increase in the num- ber of residents of that section. More hospitals may be built in the city, more orphan asylums be endowed, settlements and neighborhood work of all kinds be organized, and double and even treble the amount of money be spent in direct relief — all these agencies can be only remedial in nature. They are not distinctly curative. All of them, to use the words of Miss Richmond, merely tide over the sufferer into the miseries of next week. The causes which underlie the Jewish dependency as found in large cities are fundamental, and relief to be per- manent and preventive, must strike deep enough to reach the roots. An increase in institutions and agencies working under the existing conditions may, if any thing, increase the number of applicants for assistance. There is no doubt that the pres- ence of relief organizations, orphanages, etc., in a community, tends to weaken the moral responsibility of many a wage earner through the consciousness that if he shirks his obligations to his family, society will assume them. For this reason scientific Jewish philanthropy must de- velop along the lines of placing those who are now dependent and those who may become dependent, in such economic con- 74 LEE K. FRANKEL ditions that they may become independent. They must be located in communities and in surroundings where indus- trial competition is not so fierce that they can not, even with the best of effort, earn living wages; where it will not be necessary for relief organizations to expend a greater portion of their energy in supplementing insufficient earnings; where housing and living conditions are not of such a kind as to ag- gravate the trouble instead of improving it; where the wage- earner may have a chance to rear a home in the true sense of the word, to educate his children, to breathe fresh air and to live under sound sanitary conditions. There is one way to accomplish the above, — by the removal of large bodies of wage earners with their families to other cities, and in particu- lar to towns throughout the United States. Two years ago the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid society of New York city undertook to distribute Jewish residents of New York city, who were willing to go, to other places in the United States, where work had previously been found for them. In the first year the society sent out 1,800 persons, in the second year 3,200 persons. The plan of the society is to find industrial positions anywhere in the United States, and having found them, to obtain individuals able to fill them from New York and other large cities Hke Philadelphia, Chicago and Boston. In order to carry on the work as effectively as possible, the society cooperates with the independent order B'nai B'rith, which has lodges distributed throughout many of the smaller towns and communities in the United States, and with the benevolent organizations and societies represented in the National Conference of Jewish charities. It has an office in New York city known as the industrial removal office, which is the center of the activities of the society. From here all applicants who desire to leave the city are sent away, provided with the necessary transpor- tation and with the guarantee that provision will be made for them at their destination until such time as they become full fledged wage earners. Should conditions require it, it is not uncommon for the society to send the wage earner in advance and to make provision for the care of the family remaining here through the United Hebrew charities. As soon as the JEWISH CHARITIES 75 society hears from its correspondent that the wage earner is in a position to care for his family, the latter is sent on and a re- union of the family accomplished. The value of such a movement as this can not be over estimated. The United States still has possibilities for thou- sands and even hundreds of thousands of new immigrants. There are still vast tracts of territory unexplored and which in time will offer excellent opportunity for new settlers. Follow- ing out this thought, the organization above mentioned dis- tributes families to points as far south as El Paso, Texas, as far west as California, and as far north as Winnipeg. In fact no section of the United States has been ignored where it is possible to obtain work, nor has the employment sought been confined to any particular trades. All classes of laborers have been sent away, both skilled and unskilled. Aside from the fact that such a scheme as this will in time remove thousands from the congested centers of the large cities, its value for the future, however, hes in the fact that with each family sent away from New York city, or from Philadelphia, or from Boston, a new nucleus has been formed for the immigrant who may come in the next ten or twenty years. At present 70 per cent of ar- riving Jewish immigrants remain in the city of New York. The reason for this is obvious. The man who emigrates to the United States goes by preference to that place where he has either relatives or friends, or to the destination for which in many instances relatives have provided him and his family with the necessary transportation. So far as the immigrant himself is concerned, it matters little to him whether he goes to New York or to Saginaw; what he asks is an opportunity to earn his living for himself and his family. If 70 per cent of the Jewish immigrants remain in New York city, it is because practically all of the immigrants of the last twenty years have remained here. With the new nuclei and the new foci that are being formed in all sections of the United States through the move- ment inaugurated by the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid society, there is every likelihood that the percentage of Jewish immigrants remaining in New York will be decreased year by year. Finally, under the conditions existing in other communities, the Jews will again be able to renew the home life 76 LEE K. FRANKEL which is characteristic of them. Granted the opportunity to earn a Hving, to Hve decently in the sight of men, there need be no fear of an increase of Jewish dependency. In time the seaboard cities will be but stopping places en route. In time there will be built up throughout the length and breadth of the United States, Jewish communities whose least concern and least expense will be the care of the dependent and poverty stricken in their midst. EHERQENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS. BY EDWARD T. DEVINE. [Edward T. Dfivino, professor of philanthropy, Clolumbia univorsity ; gonoral secretary of the Charity Organization Society, and editor of Charities; born Union, Hardin countv, la.. May 6, l.Sfl7; graduated from Cornell college, (Iowa) 1887; fellow at the University of Pennsylvania in 1891 and 1893; served as a lecturer at the Oxford Sum- mer school in England. He has also been staff lecturer on economics for the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching.] Fortunately, the need for charitable relief in American communities is comparatively rare. It is not, as it has else- where become, a usual feature in the life of the ordinary laborer. Abnormal immigration, industrial crises, a wasteful and unwise relief policy, and such disasters as a great city fire, the overflowing of rivers, or the destructive sweep of the tor- nado, have caused at times acute and even widespread distress, which has led to the adoption of emergency relief measures. The questions arising from immigration — like those aris- ing from the presence of a race problem in the southern states — although they are essentially relief questions in a broad sense, are not of an emergency character, and are too complex to be dealt with briefly as a part of the present article. The problem of hard times and the distress caused by industrial displacement must also be set aside for the present ; although it is enumerated as one which is not to be disposed of by a consideration of such national policies as the currency, the tariff or other form of taxation, imperialism, or the manage- ment of trade unions. On the contrary, in every period of depression and unemployment there is likely to arise a need for exceptional relief; and in a progressive society in which mechanical processes are rapidly discarded to make way for better processes, such needs are likely to increase rather than diminish. The demand for relief which is created by unwise philan- thropy or lavish expenditure for public relief may likewise be passed over; although there is no doubt that a considerable part of the existing dependency is due directly to such causes. Immigration, hard times, industrial displacement^ the 17 78 EDWARD T. DEVINE congestion of population, and the race problem, are all to be considered as exceptional causes of distress, with which we shall one day know how to deal effectively. They are unlike sickness, accident, and death of the bread winner, unlike mere industrial inefficiency and moral defects, in that all of the latter can be remedied only by changes in human nature, or by the slow, if steady, advance of science; and yet all of these are but phases of the general problem of relief. Those who are to shape national and local policies must come to look upon them as parts of a general problem, to solve which clear and definite views are essential. From these we may distinguish, as less complex and baffling than many of the others, the task of dealing with exceptional emergencies — such as are caused by fire, flood, and famine. In the presence of such disasters as those at Heppner, Oregon, Armourdale, Kansas, and Marti- nique, there can be no doubt of the need for quick and effective assistance, and there can be no doubt of the wisdom of con- sidering the lessons to be gained from the study of such dis- asters, after they are passed. The first lesson which is written large in the experience of those who have been called upon to deal with such disasters is the folly and wastefulness of relying upon inexperienced, untrained, or incompetent agents for the distribution of relief and for the constructive work without which relief distribution may easily be productive of more harm than good. There are always at such times novel problems to be solved, but the experience of other communities under similar or analogous conditions will aid in their solution if it can be brought to bear. It may be, as at Chicago after the great fire, that the problem is primarily one of relief pending the resumption of trade and industry. It may be, as at Johnstown and at Heppner, that the problem of sanitation and public safety is equally impor- tant; or, as at Martinique, that the destruction of life is so complete that little relief is required except for the transpor- tation of the few survivors for whom no means of hvelihood remain. It may be that, as in Paterson after the fire and flood of March, 1902, and the tornado of 1903, the community as a whole remains self supporting, even though one portion is severely taxed to supply the necessities of other portions that EMERGENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS 79 have especially suffered, and that as a consequence no outside relief is needed; or, on the other hand, as at Galveston after the inundation in September, 1900, and at Kansas City, Kan- sas, 1903, that all classes have been so uniformly stricken that outside relief is imperative; or it may be, as at East St. Louis and adjoininfj; villa^i2;es, that relief is provided in sufficient quantity from towns and cities in the immediate vicinity, although not in sufficient amount from the stricken town or city itself. It is indispensable that there shall be a quick perception of the essential features of the existing situation in those who would lead a community and outside sympathizers to a wise conclusion in the face of impending or accomplished destruc- tion of life and property. AMien it has been decided that there is need of relief, whether in the form of money, of transportation, of labor, or of whatever form, then there should be summoned an execu- tive, if such a one can be found, who is endowed with financial capacity, a knowledge of human nature, experience in dealing with men, and acquaintance with the peculiar and difficult problems constantly arising in the attempt to relieve suffering and distress without injury to the self respect of those who are to be aided, and without injury to their neighbors. If the problem is a large and complicated one, numerous subcom- mittees will be requisite and a staff of assistants. There should be searching inquiry into the claims for relief where the facts are not fully know^n. The bureau of inquiry inaugu- rated at JohnstowTi by Mr. Tom L. Johnson, of Cleveland, speedily became one of the most important features of the whole relief system, and upon it eventually devolved the real decision as to the persons to be aided and as to the amounts they should receive. There should be an executive committee, whether called by that name, as in Chicago, or by some other designation, thoroughly acquainted with local conditions and in constant touch with the relief operations. AVhether this committee should have the full responsibility, or should itself be re- sponsible to a larger board or commission, will depend upon various conditions, and especially upon the extent of the area 8o EDWARD T. DEVINE from which donations are received. If contributions are made from distant commimities, it may be advisable that there should be representatives upon the controlling body from such communities, or at least there should be as members of it citizens of sufficient reputation and standing to inspire a feeling of confidence even in the most distant places. After the Johnstown flood, a commission was appointed by state authority on which there was comparatively little local repre- sentation, and the principal responsibility in Johnstown itself, during the period of greatest need, rested upon what was known as a finance committee. Although there are ad- vantages in an authoritative and widely representative com- mission, such as that which was then created, it is doubtful whether the resulting delays and the lack of familiarity with the actual situation are not fatal objections. It is certain that commissions, if made at a distance, should be influenced by the opinions of those who are on the spot. In any event, the real responsibility will naturally rest principally upon the local executive committee and its executive. The committee should lay down the principles on which aid is to be extended, and full responsibility for carrying them into effect should devolve upon the executive. Material should be preserved for the publication of a de- tailed report, including a detailed financial record both of receipts and disbursements. This is not only due to contribu- tors and to the public as a guide in future emergencies, but it is of advantage to those who are responsible for the relief measures, in order that, if criticism or controversies arise, a full statement can be made. The fire report of the Chicago Re- lief and Aid society and the report published in Calcutta of the Central Executive committee of the Indian Famine Char- itable Relief fund of 1900 may be cited as models of most com- plete and elaborate reports; and, although of briefer compass, the report of the secretary of the Johnstown Flood Relief commission, the report of the Jacksonville (1901) Relief association, and the report of the Minnesota State commis- sion for the relief of fire sufferers (September, 1894; report printed 1895) are equally explicit and valuable as sources of information. EMERGENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS 8i The failure to publish similar reports, or, indeed, anythinfz; that can be properly called a report or a financial statement, is one of the just criticisms made against the American National Red Cross. This society has taken part in the relief of the sufferers from the forest fires in Michigan in 1881, from the overflow of the Mississippi river in 1882 and of the Ohio in 1883, from the Mississippi cyclone in the same year, from the overflow of the Ohio and Mississippi in 1884, from the drouth in Texas in 1886, from the Charleston earthquake in the same year, from the Mount Vernon (Illinois) cyclone in 1888, from the yellow fever epidemic in Florida in the same year, from the Johnstowm disaster in 1889, from the inundation, hurricane, and tidal wave of the South Carolina coast in 1893 and 1894, and from the Galveston flood. In connection with these various enterprises, and others in which the Red Cross has been interested, large sums of money have been contributed to the Red Cross society, but for their disbursement no suitable public accounting appears to have been made in any instance. In the pamphlets and addresses issued by the society such paragraphs as the follow- ing take the place of definite statements concerning what was actually done and what relation such action bore to the relief work of other and often more important agencies: "The secretary brought together the women of Johns- town, bowed to the earth with sorrow and bereavement, and the most responsible were formed into conmiittees charged with definite duties towards the homeless and distraught of the community. Through them the wants of over three thou- sand families — more than twenty thousand persons — were made known in writing to the Red Cross, and by it supplied; the white wagons with the red symbol fetching and carrying for the stricken people." It is principally considerations of this kind that have led to the recent remonstrance from some of the most prominent members of the Red Cross society, and to an attempt, thus far unsuccessful, to bring about a reorganization of its manage- ment, especially on the financial side. In times of great calamity, such as we have been consider- ing, there are many who are ordinarily self supporting who Vol. 10-6 82 EDWARD T. DEVINE find themselves suddenly bereft of property, of accumulated savings, of the means of livelihood, and even of the barest neces- sities of life. The disaster may befall a community of high industrial standards, with few, if any, paupers or public de- pendents— a community in which there is little lawlessness and crime. Under such conditions, the principle of indenmity as distinct from that of charity may well have a very general application. The principle of indemnity is that of the fire insurance companies, and, in a modified form, also that of the life and accident insurance companies. It implies the rein- statement of the beneficiary as nearly as possible in the posi- tion from which he was hurled by the calamity which has be- fallen him. It implies that to the householder shall be given the use of a house, to the mechanic his tools, to the family its household furniture, to the laborer the opportunity of remun- erative employment. For the community as a whole it means the speedy restoration of such commercial and industrial ac- tivities as have been temporarily suspended, the rebuilding of bridges, the reopening of streets, the re-establishment of banks, business houses, churches, and schools. It requires that pro- tection shall be given to the defenseless, food and shelter to the homeless, suitable guardianship to the orphan, and, as nearly as possible, normal social and industrial conditions to all. The charitable principle takes account only of the neces- sities of those who apply for aid; the principle of indemnity gives greater weight to their material losses and the circum- stances under which they were previously placed. It is a vital question whether the principle of indemnity might not prop- erly have a wider application to ordinary relief than has usually been given to it, but we may be certain that the pauper- izing effects supposed to result from liberal relief have not been found to follow the most generous attempts to avert com- pletely the paralyzing and direful consequences of such disas- ters as we are now considering. Both in Chicago and in Johns- town hundreds of families were placed by gifts of money, or of house furniture, clothing, and tools, in a position practically as good as that which they had occupied before the fire or the flood respectively. There is ample testimony that in practi- cally all instances good results were obtained from this policy. EMERGENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS 83 In Chicago harmful consequences in the subsequent charitable history of the city have been traced to a retention of a portion of the money by those who were its custodians; and in Johns- town there was unquestionable hardship from the delay in its distribution and from the early indiscriminate grants made without knowledge of the circumstances of claimants; but in neither city were there well founded complaints of the results of discriminating and judicious disbursements in large amounts made with the avowed purpose of putting the recipients in a position to carry on their former or equally appropriate voca- tions. On several occasions the usefulness in great emergencies 01 detachments of the standing army which have happened to be near at hand has been demonstrated. The perfect disci- pline and the organization constantly maintained in the army may save days at a time when even hours are of the greatest importance. The national guard of the various states might render, and in some instances — notably at East St. Louis, Illinois, 1903 — has rendered, similar service. The sugges- tion made by Dr. F. H. Wines in the Charities Review for Jime, 1898, that soldiers are of great utility as an aid in emer- ergency relief work, was based upon an experience in the relief of sufferers from an overflow of the Ohio river at Shawneeto^\Ti, Illinois. The detail which came to his assistance on that occasion consisted of a sergeant and nine men, and their special duty was that of patrol and other similar service. Dr. Wines foimd that even then twenty men would have been better. Dr. Whines recommends that where any portion of the popula- tion of a given community requires the shelter of tents, a temporary canvas city provided by the state or nation should be organized and remam under control of the military author- ities. By maintaining strict military discipline the inhabitants of the emergency camp at Shawneetown, slightly exceeding at one time two hundred in number, of whom two thirds were negroes, were at all times under thorough control. By the aid of the mihtary force it became possible to provide for these refugees a care so sympathetic and paternal that it produced no pauperizing impression. For the temporary camp in Kansas City, Kansas, tents 84 EDWARD T. DEVINE were supplied from the federal post at Fort Leavenworth, and for the similar but smaller camp on the Missouri side, for residents of Kansas City who had been driven from their homes by the flood, tents were supplied by the state militia; and in both cities detachments of the national guard were called upon for patrol duty. One of the principal reasons for such a mili- tary patrol is the temporary disorganization of the community. The local constabulary is likely to be demoralized and excited, and the presence of state militia gives confidence and security to people who need temporary moral support. While soldiers may profitably be employed in the manner that has been indicated, it will not ordinarily be found ad- vantageous to place upon them responsibility for relief or for remedial measures. Military discipline has its limitations as well as its advantages, and it would unfit the average soldier or petty officer to exercise that discriminating judgment and personal influence which are so essential in dealing with people who have suddenly lost their possessions and require aid and counsel in readjusting their affairs and regaining a foothold in the industrial system. At the earliest practicable moment the ordinary municipal authority should be established and the necessity for military patrol overcome. At Johnstown one of the most interesting chapters in the history of the few months succeeding the flood is that which deals with the restoration of municipal borough authorities to the full exercise of their functions. In some of the boroughs affected by the flood there was left no building in which a meet- ing of the borough council could be held. Self constituted committees had temporarily managed police, health, and fire departments, and later such duties had been in part assumed by state authorities. Gradually, however, the adjutant gen- eral, representing the state government, sought out those who had been duly chosen to perform such duties, arranged suitable meeting places for councils and public boards, and transferred to them the duties which it had again become possible for them to perform. No legal or other controversies arose in connec- tion with these ultra constitutional arrangements, and no act of the legislature was thought necessary to legaUze what had been done in the interval during which ordinary mimicipal EMERGENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS 85 activities were suspended, or the acts performed by the re- organized and restored municipal authorities. One suggestion which is frequently made is that relief in emergencies should never be in money, but always in its equiva- lent. This suggestion is not to be adopted without considera- tion of the character of the proposed Ijeneficiaries. "it is prob- able that, so far as disbursements from puljUc funds are con- cerned, the poUcy suggested is wise, and that provision of employment where emergency relief measures are necessary is still better than relief in kind. Instead of opening free shelters, depots for free food and for the distribution of cloth- ing, as early as possible a reliable list should be made, based upon a knowledge of the portion of the community affected by the disaster. In Baltimore, after the recent tornado, the poUce, under the direction of the marshal, prepared a census of all the families residing within the storm area. When a reUable list of this kind has been prepared, apphcations may be compared with it and intelligent decisions reached as to the relief required. The conclusion reached by the Johnstown Flood commis- sion to make a distribution of money was eminently justified by the conditions that there prevailed. It was then proposed, and indeed at one time it had virtually been decided by the commission, instead of dividing the money in their hands after providing for various special needs, to establish large ware- houses and fill them with clothing and other necessaries of lite, to be distributed as occasion might require throughout the ensuing winter. The change of plan was made because of earnest and emphatic protests from prominent citizens of Johnstown who were personally acquainted with the people for whom this scheme of relief was proposed, and who appre- ciated the absurdity of applying to skilled mechanics and pros- perous trade people the principles which are based upon dis- trust either of the honesty or intelligence of ordinary applicants for relief. One can not commend the methods of those almoners in Johnstown who, instead of placing their funds in the hands of the relief committees, passed through the streets handing ten- dollar l^ills to every one whom they met. The criticism, how- 86 EDWARD T. DEVINE ever, lies not against their use of money, but against their lack of discrimination and common sense. Many of those to whom grants of one thousand dollars and upwards were made in- stantly became engaged in active industry and trade, and with- in a few months, except for the loss of relatives, neighbors, and friends, might have looked upon their experience as a night- mare to be forgotten in the waking hours of renewed active life. It is probable that so large a sum has never before been poured into a community of equal size with so little damage to the personal character of the citizens and so complete an absence of any pauperizing or demoralizing influences. In the opinion of good judges resident in the city both before and after the flood, this is due in part to the fact that money was given, and that those who received it were left free to decide for themselves how it should be expended. Two other considerations may be suggested. Special emergencies display in a high degree the need of local coopera- tion. In meeting such distress as is caused in populous com- munities by a tornado or a serious fire, there is a place for the activity of the chamber of commerce or merchants' associa- tion, or some other representative of the business interests of the community. The task relative to the large sums of money usually requisite can best be imdertaken by some such body. Any appeal having their indorsement will be likely to meet with generous and quick response. There is a place also for the charity organization societv, or bureau of charities, or provident association, or some other general agency whose officers and agents are trained in investigation and in the ad- ministration of funds. It may also be expedient, if no such general agency is in existence, to call upon the churches or upon such denominational bodies as the society of St. Vincent de Paul and the Hebrew charities. There may also be a need for children's aid societies or the representatives of orphan asylums to care for children who are left without guardianship ; and there is almost always an urgent demand for physicians, for a temporary ambulance and hospital service, and for trained nurses. Often the aid rendered by volunteer private citizens is more valuable than that of any organized agency, and often the absence of organized relief makes it imperative EMERGENCY RELIEF IN GREAT DISASTERS 87 that private citizens shall undertake to do what is essential, whether from choice or not. This leads to my final suggestion, which is that in the presence of even a serious disaster leaders of public opinion should attempt to preserve in the public mind a due sense of proportion. Even in the presence of urgent need at a distance, the continuing and probabty equally imperative needs at hand should not be forgotten. It is not surprising, in view of the frightful loss of life at Martinique and its proximity to our oa\ti shores, that the New York committee should have received some eighty thousand dollars more than they could disburse, in spite of an announce- ment by the committee that it would not take additional con- tributions. This was in part due to the fact that the eruption occurred in foreign territory, and that public appropriations were made both by the United States and France. I would not be understood as discountenancing large and immediate responses to such appeals. By no means all that is given to meet special emergencies is deducted from ordinaiy charitable resources. There should, however, be cultivated a sane and reasonable examination of the probable need; and the citizen who gives, even with great liberahty, should not on that account consider himself free from the obligation to con- sider also the needs of his immediate neighbor. The city, even in prosperous times, through its quick industrial changes and by the very conditions of life which it imposes, places upon some weak shoulders burdens which are not rightfully theirs, and which it is the duty — and it is an agreeable duty — of their neighbors to share. THE BUILDING OF HOSPITALS. BY MOLLIS W. FIELD. [Hollis W. Field, author and editor; bom Williamsburg, Mo., April 10, 1865; edu- cated in the public schools of Missouri ; began his career as a writer on the Kansas City Times, and afterwards became city editor of the San Antonio Express; removing to Chicago, he became connected with the Chicago Record, of which paper he became editorial writer and Hterary editor; writer of many articles for magazines and periodicals, chiefly on scientific and business topics.] Considering the building records of the civihzed world to-day, it is one of the anomalies of these first years of the twentieth century that one of the oldest institutions of man is experiencing a distinctly boom period. More hospitals are building or in course of organization and development in proportion to their numbers than there are of any other one kindred institution in the educational or religious world. The relation of the tubercle bacillus to con- sumption and of the mosquito to yellow fever are the two great stimulating discoveries leading to the hospital move- ment of the present. It was the hospital method that free' Havana of yellow fever after an unbroken record of 120 years' subjection to the disease. It was the same hospital method, that, under super- vision of United States authorities in Manila, reduced that city's death rate to the rate credited to Washington, D. C. Soap and water, vaccine virus, fire, and mosquito netting have been the direct agencies for these accomplishments. Hospital and sanitation have come to be sjmonymous in their meaning to the medical profession, and to the practitioner the pos- sibilities of careless infection are more to be considered to-day than the chances of cure to the infected. Thus in a double sense the hospital boom is active. Under modern conditions the sufferer is put into the hospital ward for his own convenience and ease, while in many of the contagious and infectious diseases he is there for the safety of his fellow men. Fifteen hundred years before Christ the Egyptians had hospitals for the care of the sick. Job is said to have main- 88 THE BUILDING OF HOSPITALS 89 taincd forty tallies for male strangers and twelve for widcnvs, the inference being that of these wayfarers there were the sick and ailing to be cared for. The history of the hospital dates back 300 years before Christ even in Europe, while in the four- teenth century there were 19,000 such places in that continent. Many of these institutions were of Roman Catholic origin, and to-day all over the world these hospitals under the care of the church are legion and wielding a tremendous influence upon the ills of both the flesh and the spirit. Burdett quotes figures from 2,000 hospitals in the British islands having an income of $36,500,000 ' In the United States are nearly twice as many institutions in that category, with an income in proportion, save as the small hospital in the small town is increasing, and thus lowering the aggregate. As an in- dex of the British interest in the hospital funds of the islands, the queen's jubilee year in 1897 brought $4,700,000 to the hospitals of the kingdom, w^hile the ordinary hospital Saturday and Sunday in Liverpool may net $115 to the 1,000 of popu- lation. As an index of the interest in the United States may be taken the tens of thousands of dollars donated every year by private individuals to the establishment of these institutions, and the hundreds of thousands that are voted by state legisla- tures for the establishment of new hospitals for specific dis- eases— especially for tuberculosis. The number of hospitals in New York and in Chicago in proportion to the death rate of these cities is significant of the hospital's importance in the metropolitan city. New York with 140 hospitals in 1904 had 96,000 deaths inside the Greater New York boundaries, w^hile Chicago, w^ith 62 hos- itals, had 26,311 deaths. Naturally the hospital figures much more largely in the cure of diseases than in the easement of the dying; if death be expected, the home may be the ideal place for dissolution; but if sanitary treatment for a curable iU is desired, the hospital is ideal. To the extent that the death rate may suggest the totals of the sick and maimed m those cities these figures are enlightening. Yet it is in these large centers of population in all the United States that the greatest hospital movement is felt. Tuberculosis is the agent of the movement. The dis- 90 HOLLIS W. FIELD covery of the disease germ and the proof of its infectious nature have done more to force the hospital idea upon the modern world than has any other discovery of the pathologist. Out of this knowledge of this most dreaded malady the hospital method in general has received its greater momentum among the people. Counting the 111,650 deaths from tuberculosis and ap- portioning the average death to every six having the disease in the United States, there were 666,354 cases of tuberculosis in this country last year, every one of which, in the judgment of the modern physician, should be segregated in some manner from the rest of the community and be led to observe and re- spect the laws, written and unwritten, against infection. The latest idea in this line is the consimiptive hospital that shall be erected by the state along institutional Unes, in- volvmg the expenditure of hundreds of thousands of dollars, and the home hospital, which may not be more than a tent in the back yard, or a cot bed in the attic, either bed to be used winter and summer, through the sunshine and the rains. The first hospital to be established by a state for the care of consumptives was the Muskoka cottage sanitarium at Grevenhurst, Ont., in 1897. This was for paying patients, and the result was so successful that another was established there five years later for the care of those unable to pay, the two institutions having a capacity of seventy five patients each. Since this experiment across the border, the United States has taken up the movement through its individual states until there is scarcely a geographical division in the union that is not interested in the establishment of a hospital for tuber- culosis patients. New Jersey, for instance, has let the con- tracts for a sanitarium to cost $225,000 exclusive of its equip- ment, the buildings to occupy a tract of 600 acres. To-day in the United States and Canada there are 135 institutions distributed through the states and provinces for the care of consumptives to the number of 8,400. Almost one third of these patients are cared for in the states of New York and Pennsylvania. Fourteen of these institutions were established in 1902, twenty four in 1903, and twenty one Id THE BUILDING OF HOSPITALS 91 1904, the growth indicating the interest that is awakening to the subject. But if scores of the larger institutions are springing up for the consumptive, there are hundreds of individual sani- tariums springing into form in the country, in the country town, and in the still more crowded city. To-day there is scarcely a case of tuberculosis in the United States which has not been l^rought to a reahzation of its infectiousness and the sufferer schooled to sanitary precautions against its spread. Somebody has said of the small sanitariums in general that a good doctor with one patient in a shanty in a pine forest makes a sanitarium that is bound to grow. One of the proposed new experiments with the tubercu- losis hospital movement is the establishment of the hospital on a community basis which shall leave the patients to live in the hospital and yet be within reach of their work or their interests, whatever they may be. The idea is especially adapt- ed to the small town and city where, owing to the absence of a municipal water supply and modern drainage, the threat of tuberculosis may be more than normal. In such a place the establishment of a hospital, built after the best sanitary design, offers a home better than the average boarding place, in which the sufferers are under supervision and yet within reach of their work, presupposing that under modern conditions the sufferer from the disease will be discovered and admitted be- fore he has lost vitality to the extent of disability. The small town which only a few years ago looked upon the hospital as one of the institutions of the great city, com- paring in a measure with a city prison and poorhouse, has come to look upon the hospital as a necessity for even the small community. There are hundreds of towns and cities, with from 4,500 to 7,000 population, where the hospital is looked upon to-day as one of the first institutions of the corporation. The citizen of the small town has been educated to the hospital method. He has learned that the home primarily is for well persons, just as the modern hospital is pre-eminently the home for the sick, and injured, and suffering. He has learned that treatment for the suffering may be better administered and more cheaply in the small hospital than m his home. He is 92 HOLLIS W. FIELD spared much of the anxiety of having the sick one in his home, where domestic work must be continued. For the mildly con- tagious diseases, too, the community shares the reUef that comes of the segregation. The hospital idea is every where. The hospital tent, the hospital ship, and even the hospital cruise into the arctic circle for the benefit of the tuberculous sufferer, are accepted to-day without a thought of question. It is only from the inner circle of the hospital managerial circle that one occasionally hears a murmur of disaffection. One of these, recently recounting his experiences in the work, recalls with some bitterness that in all the category of hospital work of the country so little of system has been evolv- ed for the common good of the institution. Among the super- intendents whom he knows, for instance, he recalls a few phy- sicians, a ward boss, an ex-newspaper reporter, a china factory hand, various clerks, and an assortment of clergymen. More business methods in an institution where business methods should pay big dividends is his cry, even to the extent of taking the hospital from the medical man and giving it over to the layman. INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND. BY Q. L. SMEAD. fCi. L. Smoad, suporintondont of the Ohio Statn school for tho blind at Columbus, O., hos been for years ono of thn leading authorities on tho education of the siphtless. He has devised many plans for adding? to the produrtivity of their labor and making them self supporting in part. He h;us also introduced many novel methods into the school of wliieli he is in charge and has delivered addresses and written articles tell- ing of his theories.] In Ohio, and I presume in other states, we have to con- tend against the asylum idea. Our school has been called the blind asylum from the beginning, and at the present day this name is oftencst upon the lips of the public. This may be partly due to the American tendency to give the shortest name to every thing, and then push on to pleasure or business. We have hardly time to call any thing by its full name. We designate thousands of miles of railroad by a few initials. The Ohio state university is 0. S. U. A laboratory is a lab. A gymnasiiun is a gym. The young ladies in the co-educational schools are called co-eds. In one state university the young ladies' waiting room is the gab room. A bic3'cle is a bike. And the sacred name of Christmas is cut short into Xmas. What wonder then, if some should give as short a name as possible to institutions for the education of the blind and call them asylums with the A sometimes left off. But the use of the term asylum in some sections of our state, at least, signifies an ignorance of the true purpose of our schools for the blind. I have had many contentions with friends of imbecile children for their admission to our school. Even members of the legis- lature have urged the admission of such children. A long petition of citizens was once presented to me for the same pur- pose, and that too after the child had been repeatedly rejected. We have applications from paralytics and epileptics and from those too old to go to school. And, what are your terms for the admission of patients? is a question sometimes asked, as though the school were a hospital. The board of state charities counts us as proper members of the association of charities and corrections, and we, as officers, are appointed delegates to the . ' ■ . 93 94 G. L. SMEAD state and national conventions of that body. And in our code of laws we have been classed as benevolent institutions. As American institutions for the blind, what are we then? Are we infirmaries, or asylums, or hospitals, or charitable institutions, or are we schools pure and simple? Some years ago we changed the legal title of the Ohio school, from the Ohio institution for the education of the blind to the Ohio state school for the blind. The Ohio school was founded for the instruction of the blind, and this change of title was urged by our alumni in protest against even the suggestion that it is any other than an educational institution. The National Educational association, in Boston, recog- nized our schools as belonging to the educational system of the United States by giving a place upon the program to a pres- entation of our means and methods of education. The edu- cational purpose of our schools is, I think, recognized by all the educators of the blind in the country. The influence of the American association of instructors of the blind is upon this side of the question. By resolution this association, in convention in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1902, expressed the approval of that body, of a real affiliation with the National Educational association, and that in connection with that association there be a department of special education. But how shall we exclude the principle of charity from our schools for the blind when so many extra things are being done for them? We feed them, clothe them to some extent, and supply means of instruction in literature, music, hand- icraft, and physical culture. We employ expensive apparatus in these different departments of education. If the educa- tional department of our schools costs fifty dollars per capita, probably twenty dollars is for music, which is an extra in schools for the seeing; and then board and clothing, are not these so much more than the expense of seeing schools? Look- ing at the question from a civil point of view, not from the sentimental side, what is the object of the state in educating its youth? Good citizenship is the bulwark of the nation. She is strong in proportion to the intelligence and integrity of her citizens; and the state is to so educate her children as to make of them self rehant, worthy men and women, who shall INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND 95 exalt our homos, and ho an honor to our country in praco and in war. The true warrant for a free education is good citizen- ship. To this end the government through its officers may ostabhsh schools, appoint teachers, build school houses, furnish them, select text books, make them free to those unable to buy them, compel attendance, and tax the people for their support. All these things we are doing for our schools for the seeing; and more, we are giving in our state universities the opportunity for a college education, and for special, technical training, in great part free; and all this that our young men and young women may be fitted for a more advanced and useful citizen- ship in the application of science to the useful arts. These students thus trained are to be our teachers in the specialties to which they have devoted themselves, whether it be domestic science, agriculture, engineering, mining, or manufacturing. They are to be leaders to train others for useful citizenship. The equipment of our common and high schools, of our state universities, the large number of students attending them, and the lavishing of money for their support, all witness to the fact that we do not consider this expenditure a charity, but a necessity for the highest development of our citizenship. But there are a part of our youth who are handicapped by the loss of hearing or of sight. What shall we do for them? Even in a horse race, allowance is made for a handicap, not for charity's sake, but to give an equal chance in the race. And may we not in the education of the blind do somewhat more in the way of help to an education than we do for our more for- tunate seeing children, and still not call it charity? Has not a blind man a right to be a good citizen? Is he not under the same obligation to be such, as the seeing man? Shall we not give him a fair chance to enjoy that right, and to meet that responsibility? Are not these added facilities necessary to the best, universal development of our citizenship? Are not we who are more fortunate exalting our own citizenship in helping our weaker brother to be, with us, a good, responsible citizen of the best country that God has given to man? But how shall we help our handicapped brother and sister? By supplying as well as we can the means by which his dep- rivation may be covered and counteracted. By putting into g6 G. L. SMEAD his education such extra faciUties as will make up to him in some measure what he lacks. We have our five or six senses given us to meet the conditions of this earthly life. What other special senses might have been given us, or will be given us in a higher state of existence, we do not know. Certain it is that there are some qualities of matter, of force and of mind which we have no special sense to perceive. We see as through a glass darkly in respect to many things that attract our curi- osity. But with our present senses we know, perhaps, as many of the properties of matter, of force, and of mind as we are capable of using. Each of the senses has its special function. They help each other, but each is confined to its own province. One sense gone, its special function is a blank in the experience of the person so lacking. But the other senses, each acting in its own sphere, may make up imperfectly for this want. Sight gone, and all qualities of matter that light gives are gone ; color, form and feature, the ink printed page, beauty of pictures, of landscape, of the starry heavens, none of these can minister to the sightless person with their refining influence. Then, too, there is the difficulty, in these days of machinery, of following any profitable handicraft for a livelihood, so much depends upon sight in the use of tools and machines. The sight is the educational sense. The student uses it in all departments of his course from kindergarten to high school and college. The printed page, methods and processes, scientific instruments, all, in our courses of study are adapted to sight. Hence special methods and apparatus adapted to the blind must be devised and employed in our schools, to meet their peculiar needs. In all our methods and appliances we must remember that the blind can not see. A truism, you say; but do we see- ing people fully take in the meaning of these commonplace words? Strangers to the blind do not always comprehend the physical fact, what are the possibilities of it, and what are the deprivations of the condition. To many, a blind child is a helpless curiosity, and they are surprised that any thing can be expected of such a person, and they wonder at the most com- monplace things that the blind can do, and then fail to under- INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND 97 stand the physical and mental deprivation under which the blind labor. A blind man of my acquaintance was a guest at the home of a stranger. At retiring time his host showed him to the guest room, and, wishing to be very land and thoughtful, taking him around the room said to him, here is the bed, here is a chair, here is the wash stand, and here is the looking glass. And those who have been familiar with the ])lind for many years may not fully take in the statement, the blind can not see. The want of sight involves not only physical conditions, but also mental, moral, and spiritual energies. It influences muscle, nerve and brain. It may be a spur to mental and physical action, or more likely, it may have a depressing effect upon all energy. It may influence the sense of personal re- sponsibility to self, to society, and to God. It will affect char- acter for good or e\'il. And intelligence, independence, and character are essential elements of good citizenship. Then too there are in some cases evil home influences and conditions which may be the cause of blindness, and the cause too of the most baleful influence of the affliction. If a blind child inherits bad habits and propensities, and also the disease that made him blind, he is doubly afflicted, and the problem of helping him out of his evil condition is a comphcated one. To make good citizens of the worthy and virtuous may not be so difficult, but to do this for the low and vicious may seem a hopeless task, when the mspiration of sight is lacking. Yet we are not to despair even of these. We must lay hold of the good in the heart, if we can find it, and by it raise the soul to a better and purer fife. Our blind pupils are with each other m our schools only for a time; then they go out among the seeing with whom they are to spend their lives; hence we must prepare them for the world in which they are to five. In educating our pupils for society and for the state we should have regard to three lines of training: physical, mental and moral ; and these lines of education wiU act and react upon each other. I wiU not go over the whole curriculum of our schools, but wifl touch only upon some special matters that are of impor- Vol. 10—7 98 G. L. SMEAD tance in our work, in order to justify the claim that our schools for the blind are educational institutions. Physical training is necessary to the highest efficiency in all education for the seeing, much more for the blind. Blind children are apt to form habits of sitting, standing and moving that need correcting; and with many of them there is an in- disposition to exertion, for lack of motive to overcome the difficulties incident to blindness. Hence they need special training to correct unsightly habits, and to arouse to activity. Physical training will have two forms, manual training and gymnastics. Manual training has for its object instruc- tion and practice in the use of tools. Gymnastics is concerned with correct posture and motion, with energetic exercise for the development of muscle. Physical training has to do with health and strength of body, with the efficient use of all its powers and their applica- tion to useful purposes. Physical training has also in it discipline of mind. It gives alertness and quickness to the power of attention. It trains the will to prompt action, and fosters the voluntary putting forth of effort, so necessary to any success in life. In short, physical training ought to have this ultimate result, the unifying of body and mind, with the body the efficient servant of the mind. This is especially needful for the blind ; for some- times it seems that their bodies and minds lack harmony of action, as though they did not belong to each other. Physical training for the blind is important because it tends to correct improper physical habits, and to arouse them from the inertia so characteristic of many blind persons. Mental training is the main object of all education. We might say that education has three objects : first to know something, second to do something, third to have the dis- position to do something; and that something may be physical, mental, or moral. The principles of education are the same for the blind as for the seeing, but the methods in some partic- ulars are different. Language training should receive special attention in the education of the bhnd. The power of expression is a source of pleasure and profit to the blind. The communication of INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND 99 thought hy spopoli Inkos tlio plaoo in somo mnisuro of sip;lit. If the ccluciilod blind man can not soo the form and features of his friend, he ean by exchanging thought in conversation enjoy the more interesting, inner Hfe of his friend, and he calls this seeing his friend. Much of the enjoyment of life is in the in- telligent conversation of congenial minds, and the blind are not shut out from this means of happiness. Then too there is the expression of thought in written language, and in ])ublic speech. Instruction in correct speak- ing and writing should be a specialty in our education. Equal in importance to the power of expression in good language is th? ability to readily understand what is written or spoken, to grasp the spoken thought quickly and retain it permanently. The multiplication of text books in raised print of late years is a valuable addition to our means of education. They relieve the teacher of some work and add to his efficiency. But it would be a mistake to depend too much upon the raised printed page. Such is the expense of raised printing, that we find it difficult to keep up with the times in text books, and pupils will not get the best results if depending upon books alone. Also we grade scholars according to scholarship and not ac- cording to ability to read raised print ; especially in the higher grades there will be a great difference in this respect. Hence oral instruction should have a prominent place in schools. Such teaching gives to the blind pupil the needed stimulus and training for acquiring knowledge. The enthusiastic teacher can impart his own enthusiasm to his class by the spoken description, by holding up before the students in all their meanings and bearings the principles and rules of the science which he is teaching. So much must be imparted by oral instruction in the literary department, in music, and in teaching handicraft, that it is of the utmost importance that pupils from the beginning and progressively be trained to seize at once upon the spoken thought. Much of the pleasure and profit in after life will come to pupils from being good listeners. Upon this ability will depend the pleasure and profit which they will derive from music, conversation, ser- mons, lectures, and speeches, in after life. Usually the most influential citizens are those who can 100 G. L. SMEAD talk and listen well in private and in public. Political in- fluence consists very much in the exchange of thought be- tween man and man. Good moral influence is exerted in the same way. Blind men and women are not deprived of this privilege of good citizenship by their affliction, provided they are prepared for it by training and intelligence. Every avail- able means should be employed to secure the correct use of language and the ready and efficient attention to what is spoken. Oral reading, oral instruction in the class room for the power of attention; and topical recitation, written com- position, and public speaking for the power of expression, all will be useful for the purpose proposed. While oral reading is very valuable for our pupils it should not be overdone. Too much inattentive listening will defeat the object which we have in view. It is well for the scholar to practice out of class the slower, more thoughtful reading of raised print books, of which we have now such a great variety. It has been sug- gested that in the schools we read too much orally and do not enough throw the pupils upon their own resources in reading for themselves. It may be so to some extent. Excessive reading to the pupils may dissipate the power of attention instead of increasing it. There is reason in all things. A just balance of means and methods wiU conduce to the highest efficiency. With the study of the EngHsh language there should be with the advanced pupils the study of some other language; either Latin, from which so many of our words are derived, and the study of whose structure is such a valuable discipline, or some modern language, or both, if possible, as the German or French for their practical value, and for the training they give in the thinking of other peoples. All the studies of the school curriculum are as valuable for the blind as for the seeing, but each may have its pecuHar adaptation to the bUnd. The study of geography, for it appeals to the blind child in his isolation and fixedness of place to lead him out into a comprehension of a larger place than his Httle, narrow, contracted world. The study of history is a pleasure to the bright, blind student. In this study he comes to reahze that there are other people in the world besides him- INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND loi self and his immediate friends, an idea that does not always penetrate the mind of the blintl child till he meets some of the rough knocks of hfe in school and out of school. The study of the sciences by the bUnd presents some diffi- culties, inasmuch as the processes and apparatus appeal to the sight. Yet the rehef models of physiology, working models of machinery, and machines themselves are tangible, and will give some valuable idea of the forces of nature as applied to machinery. A former pupil of ours went to the St. Louis exposition. He said that on his first visit all was confusion to him. But a friend made for him a model of the grounds and the position of the buildings. Then the general effect of the exposition was clear to him. He could not fill in all the details, but so much of the great exhibition was a great pleasure. Now this man was prepared for this enjoyment by long experience and study, as a blind man, in school and out. He had trained himself to look outside of himself into the world around him. At one time he gave in our school a very acceptable lecture upon the subject of Birds. The study of mathematics is a difficult one to the average blind student because so much depends upon mental opera- tions, and so little help can be obtained from written calcula- tions. Yet the science is valuable to the blind inasmuch as it leads them out from mere memorizing into independent thought. Mental science, moral science, and logic, for the more advanced pupils will give opportunity for uitrospection, coun- teracted by the application of thought and mind to practical duty and obligation, and also to the orderly arrangement of mental processes leading to right conclusions from the con- ditions and circumstances which may enter into their expe- rience. I would bespeak for our blind pupils as varied and ex- tensive a training as time and ability will admit, that they may be prepared for emergencies that may come to them in after Hfe. We never know to what use we may put our knowledge and ability till some necessity obliges us to exert ourselves according to what we know and can do. Scholars in our 102 G. L. SMEAD schools ask the old, old question, Of what use will this study or that study be to me? To some it seems a waste of time and effort to pursue a study which has no immediate prospect of a money remuneration, forgetting that it is not altogether knowl- edge that is at a premium in the world. It is not primarily, How much do you know? but what can you do? Knowing and doing should go together, but knowing without doing has little market value in the world. It is difficult to find remunerative employment for the blind; so few avenues are open to them, and we can teach so few handicrafts and professions in our institutions. But can not some of the blind, if trained to think and to reach out by effort into the world around them, find some special, unusual means of livelihood, and engage in some business or profession which we can not teach in our schools, but which their quick- ened apprehension finds adapted to their own special ability? Music is the specialty of the blind. To it they look for a livelihood, either as teachers or performers, or to its allied industry, piano tuning and repairing. But the divine art should be considered more than a mere commercial conamodity. One of the greatest deprivations of the blind is the lack of appreciation of beauty as it appeals to the eye. The beauty of form and feature, of painting and sculpture, of landscape with its ennobling grandeur of hills and valleys, of mountains which pierce the skies, of the broad expanse of plain and hill and dale as seen from some lofty peak, of the starry heavens, God's marvelous wonders, of the moon shining upon the glistening snow of winter — all these are lost to the person blind from birth. Music is the fine art of the blind, the substitute for all that the eye can perceive of beauty; and as a substitute it ought to call out the more refined sentiments of the soul. This higher development of mind is specially needed by the blind to call them out of themselves into the more lofty realm of unselfish feeling and thought up to an enjoyment not found in the lower application of the art to mere commercial value. We know that many will fail of this higher attainment, even though creditable performers upon instruments. But many, multitudes of seeing people, fail to perceive the beauty INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND 103 of art as it appeals to si^ht, fail of the uplifting power of paint- in^^and sculpture and architecture, antl of the beauties of na- ture; no wonder then, if some of our musicians fail of receiving the full, refining, exalting influence of their art. Yet it is worth while always to train for the highest, even for the sake of the few that reach it. There is no loss in the expression of aspira- tion for the highest and noblest in thought and feeling and purpose. Music in its supreme result is the expression of the loftiest sentiments of the soul, and has in it the reaching up toward that which is heavenly and divine. PROVISION FOR THE INSANE. BY WILLIAM M. EDWARDS. [William M. Edwards, medical superintendent of the Michigan asylum for the insane, is one of the most prominent alienists of Michigan, and by his research and the pub- lished results of his investigations has gained a fame throughout the nation among thos(^ who arc interested in the care of the insane. He has made a special study of the history of the development of the modern asylum for the care of this class of defectives.] In the earlier history of hospitals for the care of the insane in any state, conditions in many respects were materially differ- ent from what they became after a lapse of thirty, fifty or more years. In making provision for insane people it seems to have taken a long time for legislators and citizens generally to grasp the magnitude of the problem with which they had to deal. In Michigan the first attempt was the establishment of an asy- lum for the care of deaf and dumb, blind and insane, and well informed men seriously thought that one principal building would afford room for these classes for many years. Happily this triple alliance was dissolved before any insane persons were received, and a separate hospital for the care of that class estab- lished and completed ready for the reception of its first patient in 1859. When a second state hospital was proposed in 1876, violent opposition was encountered and even the chief execu- tive of the state doubted the expediency and wisdom of es- tablishing such an institution, giving as his chief reason that he did not believe there ever would be a sufficient number of persons in Michigan to make a second hospital at all necessary. In less than twenty five years from that time there were five state asylums. The newer states have perhaps profited by the mistakes made in the older ones, so that they have not repeated earlier blunders. In all newer asylums, particularly in the earlier histories of individual states, the character of the mal- ady treated seems to have been different from that prevailing at present. A greater number of acute conditions were received, patients recovered from a first attack and insanity was com- monly believed to be one of the most curable diseases until Dr. Pliny Earl, of Northampton, Mass., first showed the fallacy 104 PROVISION FOR THE INSANE 105 of this idea in his book on 1 ho rnrahihty of tho Insane. Thoro is to-day such a hroacUMiinfi; in tho appHoation of the term in- sanity that it inohidos many poopio that a pjonoration a,ii;o would not havo \)vcn considonMl appr()i)riatc candichitos for admission to hospitals of this kind. The very general aboli- tion of mochanioal restraint, tho ehanfi^o of methods of care and treatment, the establishment of training classes and in a word, tho hospitalization of asylums has begotten in the public mind a confidence in them that did not exist twenty five years ago. In any hospitnl of the ordinary type that has boon es- tablished a quarter of a century or more we shall find to-day, besides a large accumulation of chronic insane, that the admis- sion of old, feeble or paralyzed persons prevails to such a de- gree that less than 25 per cent of those entered in a given period may be considered curable. Formerly the recovery rate was greater than we are able to attain at present and such admis- sions account in part for this. Another factor causing this earlier excess was the recovery of periodical cases and their temporary departure only to return again sooner or later for further treatment. The management and medical officers of our hospitals have been freely criticised in the past for not effecting a greater number of cures or for not doing more for the relief of patients. The neurologist has had many suggestions to offer us, the g>Tie- cologist has criticised freely and pronounced us derelict in duty because we did not remove the ovaries of our women patients, the surgeon would have had us trephine the skull of every epileptic or operate on him in some other manner. The fad- dist and quack are always ready with some suggestion of a cure- all and even the lajonan thinks he can see many opportunities for improvement in the care and treatment of the insane. In- telligent criticism and suggestion are most gladly welcomed, but fault finding per so, advocacy of change and mere theories, without suggestion as to improvement, avail but little in solving the very important question involved in caring for defective or dependent people. I am sure that I can say, without fear of successful challenge, that no class of public workers are more earnestly and intelligently interested in obtaining that which shall benefit their charges than are those administering our io6 WILLIAM M. EDWARDS hospitals for the insane throughout the country. This is well illustrated in the constant effort made by boards of control and superintendents to improve the conditions under which the insane live and to afford every possible means for treatment with a view to their restoration to normal conditions or to such improvement as shall render them to a degree at least useful members of society or to place them in condition to obtain the greatest comfort in life while residents of the asylums. We long since determined that the reception and care of acute cases in the general ward of the asylum, given oyer to its more or less chronic inhabitants, was wrong in principle and detrimental to the interests of the curable case. The ideal surrounding for an acute case would probably be exclusive association with normal minds, but this condition is unattain- able for the insane person supported at public expense. One of the efforts to meet the requirements of acute cases was to establish separate asylums for the acute and chronic insane. The state of New York made such provision for the separation of cases by special asylums, but long since this theory was abandoned. Pennsylvania maintains one institution for chronic cases, but so far as I am able to learn, this is merely an asylum for the able-bodied working class, the frail, feeble, chronic patients having no part in it. Wisconsin has perhaps accomplished more effectively separation by the establish- ment of its hospitals at Mendota and Winnebago for the recent patients and the care of its more permanent cases in the several county institutions. Even here acute cases find their way into the county asylums, and as the theory upon which they are founded is custodial care these cases are deprived of the care, attention, nursing and medical treatment that their condition demands they should receive. In one state an effort was once made to estai3lish the medical condition of the patient by legal enactment, and it was declared that at the end of two years of asylum treatment patients were to be considered chronic and incurable and were to be transferred to special places provided for their cheaper care. In Indiana, congestion in state hospi- tals is relieved from time to time by returning to the county poorhouses from the oldest state asylum patients who are supposed to be incurable and to require only custodial care. PROVISION FOR THE INSANE 107 That these cases depjenerate in the county institutions without medical oversi-^_ ^~-^-~J. ^^<^ r Mont. ' NEBR. > IOWA ( iLl- > ''^. I -r- I «^AH / ^ ; ' COLO. I ^. \ I I j KANS. 1 MO. ' r I OKLA. - J W.MEX. I .. .r^;-|NO.Tl ARK., TEXAS 'i LA I .FEMALES • 'IN EXCESS MALES IN EXCESS LESS THAN 5 PER CENT 5 TO 10 PER CENT I I 10 TO 20 PER CENT 2 20 PER CENT AND OVER POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES i6i that in 1897, when tho first state hospital for crippled children was founded, the medical college of the state university was legally required for two years to treat the children gratuitously and care for them in every way; $5,000 was set apart for each year. The members of the medical faculty thereupon made a contract with the hospital, according to the terms of which the care of the children, with the exception of medical treatment, was committed to a superintendent. The university paid for this service weekly $3.75 for each child betw^een two and twelve years of age, and $4.50 for those between twelve and sixteen years. After an experience of tw^o years this arrangement was voluntarily continued. The hospital set apart a building with thirty beds for the exclusive use of crippled children, which at present is so full that some patients must be sheltered in the central building. The state hospital for crippled children thus became an independent institution, for whose support $16,000 were appropriated for the next two years. The movement for combating tuberculosis has made progress in America. The number of institutions thus far provided for dependent persons is not very great; the most important being the St. Joseph hospital in New York, wdth 350 beds, and the Cook county hospital in Dunning, 111., with 380; two institutions, with 125 and 200 beds in Massachusetts; one with 92 beds in Brooklyn; and one with 100 beds in Balti- more. A second sanatorium of the Montefiore home was recently opened, with 100 places, which they hope to increase to 350, so that with the one earlier erected it can provide for 500 sufferers. New institutions have been erected in New Hampshire, New York, and Connecticut. In Pennsylvania the society for preventing tuberculosis has erected a sana- torium. The Adirondack college sanatorium of Dr. Trudeau occupies a peculiar position. It has pubhshed its fifteenth annual report, and Liebe, in his book on public hygiene, re- marks that it must fill the German physicians in sanatoriums with a kind of en\^. It is a colony in which from 250 to 300 invalids are annually received. The extension of the care of the sick by trained nurses, who, during three or four years, are thoroughly instructed in schools connected with hospitals is very important. The work is satisfactory, and is by no means Vol. 10—11 i62 EMIL MUNSTERBERG regarded as of little value, as in Germany so often happens. It is as true of America as of England that the care of children belongs to the most promising field of relief effort. The physical and moral education of poor children, with the exception of those in poorhouses, is almost entirely neglected. They grow up in dirt, indolence, and sickness, and many fall victims to premature death, or are taken to prison. On the contrary, the health and mortality of children in the poorhouses are preserved; they receive an education which enables them to care for themselves. The arrangements for children correspond to those in other lands, — institutional care in great orphanages, of which America possesses some of the first rank, or in small homes; and the union of both systems by reception of the children at first in a central place, and their transfer hence to family care — the so-called state public school system, or the Michigan sys- tem, because it was first applied in Michigan, and now enjoys a great reputation in America. Along with the exclusively public and exclusively private care of children exists the sys- tem of subsidies from public means to private institutions. More and more the system of family care gains in im- portance, although at first it was hindered in the attempt to remove children from poorhouses by the tendency to replace poorhouses with splendid institutions for children. Life in a family, especially in a well ordered rural family, pre- pares the child for life far more satisfactorily than is possible in an institution. In an institution the children are taught rather too much of heavenly and too little of earthly things. The atmosphere is only too well adapted to train them in dependence. Shelter is provided; food is always ready; cloth- ing, good beds, warm rooms are at their disposal, without the least thought or care on the part of the children. Altogether different is family care. It is said in a report of Illinois in 1899: ''In a real domestic household all members of a family are bound together by reciprocal ties. In the nature of family life, persons help each other and make sacrifices in turn. There is the great world in small, and the relations of the mem- bers to each other correspond to those which the child will find •POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 163 in later years in society. It is a work place, a school of labor, where daily practice m household duties prepares the child for further duties." Family life nlone can teach the children aelf control, sul)- mission to the conditions of practical life, and capacity for independent action. From the standpoint of poor relief, we mention also the advantage that family care is essentially cheaper than that of the institution. If there is a reasonably general agreement that family care is theoretically the best form, this does not imply that institutions in a certain measure may not be accepted, and least of all requires us to shut our eyes to the dangers of inadequate family care. Institutions are most of all necessary to the reception of children, to ol^sei've them, and to select for them suitable homes. There are many children who, on accoimt of their character, or on account of their physical or psychical defects, are not adapted to home life, or proper families cannot be foimd in which to place them. By the extension of the group system in the larger institutions, and by the erection of homes, the danger which attends insti- tutional care is materially diminished. The dangers of inade- quate family care are very thoroughly proved in the reports of several authors; Hebberd especially goes into the subject fully, and illustrates with many examples how unscrupulously the placing of children is often conducted, how frequently the foster parents regard the care of the children simply as a source of income and exploit the labor power of the older chil- dren in the most shameless manner. It is remarkable that Englishmen and Americans, who are so sensitive about state paternalism in the field of rehef are ready to demand state supervision, and discover in this the best protection against abuses. Of essential importance for the entire development of child-helping work in America, as in England, is the activity of private societies Hke the children's aid societies. Such societies exist in most of the large cities. Help is afforded according to the individual case in many forms; indoor or outdoor relief, training for a calling, im- proving the health by summer outings, etc. Principally, however, the effort of the society is directed to removing chil- i64 EMIL MUNSTERBERG dren from the crowded city and placing them in the country under wholesome conditions of life, as apprentices or as foster children; an effort which, in view of the increasing current toward the greater cities and industrial centers of America, has great significance, and is worthy of thought in similar situations in Germany. In one year 581 children were sent to the country, of whom 326 found homes and 255 boarding places for payment. From neglected families came in all, 1,013 persons, mostly children, for whom in the state of New York work or other help was found through rich supporters, so that a total of 1,594 persons was removed from the city to the country. Of 245 children intrusted to the institutions, 170 were placed in families, the others returned to their relatives. In spite of the greater cost of the care exercised in selection and control required by the placing system, and although the conditions of life surrounding them were more wholesome and helpful to the development of the children, yet the cost of family care in the country fell greatly below that of institutions in the city; a child in a city institution costs yearly $120, as against $35 for rural family care. Two hundred and fifteen children were taught in the farm school in order to prepare them for positions in the country. From the farm school were sent 573 pupils, of whom 316 found situations; the others had left school for various reasons or were returned to their rela- tives. The society possesses twenty six day and evening schools, which were attended by 14,615 pupils with a daily average of 7,063. Three of the schools have special classes for defective and crippled children, for which special teachers and attendants are employed. The children are brought in con- veyances to the school, and returned to their homes in the same way. These auxiliary classes prove themselves very helpful, since needy crippled children grow up generally without in- struction and frequently without adequate care. Of greater importance are the visits which the teachers make in the homes of their pupils in order to gain insight into their surroundings, and to regulate attendance upon the schools. One year 17,970 such visits were made, with the result that 1,043 truant children were referred to the society and 7,583 cases of extreme neglect were made known and help POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 165 secured from the society. The lo(lf];ing houses of the society offered temporary shelter to 5,1G3 ])oys and ^irls; the average daily population being 413. For 797 of these children posi- tions were found, 215 went to the farm school, and 133 re- turned to their relatives. Private societies also have led the way for the legal pro- tection of children against cruelty and abuse ; the first of these was founded in New York in 1875. At present 157 of these exist, a part of which are also devoted to the protection of animals; and it is interesting to note that societies for the pre- vention of cmelty to animals existed in America before the organized efforts to protect children. The New York society has taken for its task the care of maltreated, neglected, criminal, and vicious children. It re- ceives complaint for investigation, brings charges in cases made knowTi to it, and enforces legal regulations for the protection of the children. The children left in the care of the society are placed in in- stitutions temporarily, or permanently placed in families; often, however, they remain under supervision with their relatives. The care for neglected children, which is partly included in the general laws on the subject, remams far behind the Eng- lish methods, since federal legislation is not involved, and the laws of particular states are indecisive. There exists in the more advanced states a tendency to exclude children and youths from the prisons and receive them into reform schools, which are called, as in England, reformatories, and industrial schools. The names have been changed repeatedly because it was observed that a certain reproach was attached to all of them after a time, which was an obstacle to the success of the pupil. In all institutions of this kind an essential factor for improvement and education is industrial training. Worthy of note, in respect to the condition of the reform schools for girls, is a study of the discipline in reformatory in- stitutions for youth. Since it was apparent that ver>^ defec- tive administration in a number of these institutions had led to excesses, the New Jersey State Charities Aid association sent out a schedule of sixteen questions, the principal of which i66 EMIL MUNSTERBERG were : principles of discipline, ordinary methods of discipline, corporal chastisement, cellular confuiement, immorality as a difficult factor in the problem of rescue, incorrigibles, special education of the officers and teachers, large institutions in con- trast with the group system. From the answers sent in, some of the principal typical suggestions will here be noticed : The object of education must first of all be to give the children to understand that the vokmtary obedience to the rule of the institution will serve their own welfare. Trespasses are to be punished only in extreme cases. Great importance is at- tached to individual treatment, since one method has quite different effects on children of different temperaments. Reports are also made upon the different methods of punishment, as the employment of a book of complaints, loss of certain privileges, exclusion from recreations, withdrawal of a mark of distinction ; all of which serves to spur the children to industry and good behavior. Whipping is declared by most of the directors to be mjurious, and therefore to be applied only in particular cases, while sohtary confinement is widely used, though in mild form. In respect to the difficult problem of immorality, almost all depends on the personality of the director. The education must be so directed as to keep the children free from unwholesome suggestions, as by means of fresh air, daily physical exercise, constant occupation of body and mind, cleanliness, and nutritious diet. On the whole, the judgment was that vices of this kind are prevented more by moral training than by corporal punishment. Of the two systems of education, the preference is given to the small group over the large institution. Of its kind quite unique, one may say genuinely American, is the undertaking called the George junior repubhc. It is a reform work for neglected children, and attempts to develop in boys and girls from the worst parts of New York a sense of individual responsibility and independence, economy, and reo-ard for law. They are made acquainted with the forms and importance of organized administration and they are taught sympathy and patriotism. The George junior repubhc is the creation of WiUiam R. George, of New York, and is a reform school on the basis of self government. Mr. George proceeds POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 167 from the conviction that nep;lected children, even those that come from the famiUes of criminals, can not merely by stem discipline be made into better men, but that education by the action of the children on each other, under the intelligent direction of an adult, will ripen the best fruit. Further, he believes that these children can best be educated to become useful members of civilized society, if they can be placed in relations similar to those of the world at large. Here as there the means of living can be obtained only by labor. No one is required to work, but ''he who will not work shall not eat." The teacher does not use compulsion, but the conditions them- selves, as m real life, are compulsory. Both these thoughts, self government and the compelling might of conditions, training to labor for support, are remarkably well carried out in the George junior republic, and have become so conspicuous, that the institution is imitated in the different parts of the United States. The whole arrangement, which originated in a vacation colony which Mr. George received at his house in the country near Freeville, and began with thirty very poor chil- dren, gradually developed into a permanent settlement with the form of a miniature state, in which the members them- selves exercise police power, hold court, and administer affairs. The republic has the rights of a corporation, and is conducted by a board of trustees at whose head Mr. George stands. The means of support, since the product of the chil- dren's work naturally covers but a small part of the expense, are furnished for the most part by an association called the repubhc association. The territory occupied by the repubUc contains forty acres; it is an elevated plateau in an attractive district of the state of New York, about a half hour from the town of Freeville. On the farm are several buildings, one of which is occupied by Mr. George and his family. All the houses are built by the boys under the direction of adult craftsmen, and it is hoped that after a time all the children will be placed in small separate houses in groups of ten or fifteen under an adult, each group with its own kitchen, table, and recreation room. At first Mr. George made himself president of the republic, and distributed the most important offices of the little state i68 EMIL MUNSTERBERG among adults. In the year 1896 these were removed from their offices and replaced by boys, since the children mider- stood better than the men how to get along with their com- rades, and the feeling of responsibility awakened in them self respect, and a striving for honorable behavior. In 1887 for the first time the president was also chosen from among them, and that for one year. By his side stands the legislature, con- sisting of a senate whose members are chosen for two weeks, and the house of representatives, whose appointments have force for only one week; so that all capable citizens can take part in the legislative work. Every occupation class elects one representative to twelve persons for the house, and also one for the senate. The laws of the republic are those of the state of New York, but amendments maybe made by the legislature and the president. For every offense the citizens are brought to account. If a complaint is laid, a session of the court is called to be held in the evening. In simple police cases only the accuser and the plaintiff appear before the judge, who alone renders a decision; in more important instances, six jurymen and several witnesses are called, and only in complicated cases attorneys. Punishments are usually fines, work, and con- finement. For repetition of an offense the punishment rises progressively. In exceptional cases other means are employed. For example, in the case of a girl on whom no punishment made an impression, her hair was shorn. That worked won- ders, so deeply did the child feel her honor touched. The in- corrigible are excluded from the republic. Those who conduct themselves exceptionally well under correction are admitted earlier to freedom. The office of policeman is about the most respectable and desirable in the republic. To attain it an ex- amination is required. The policemen are paid out of the taxes and are dressed in uniform. Each is responsible to the police board, 9.nd, like every officer, loses his position at once if he does not fill it conscientiously. He is severely pmiished for overlooking an offense or permitting a prisoner to escape; and a misuse of his power brings a penalty. The longer the children remain in the republic, the less frequently, as a rule, do they need correction. While in 1896, fourteen serious POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 169 offenses were registered, in 1897 but two were noted. It is remarkable that offenses which no reform school or prison was able to uproot have here disappeared. The work of the children includes every thing; necessary to be done. The girls perform household work, such as washing, ironing, sewing, cleaning, cooking, etc., in which they receive instruction. The other work falls to the boys, as building, carpentering, shoemaking, bookbinding, barbering, etc., under the direction of craftsmen ; the agricultural labors are directed by farmers in the neighborhood. The citizens are required to attend school until they are sixteen years of age, daily — Satur- day and Sunday excepted — from 10 to 12 and 1 to 3. For attendance each one receives weekly $1.75, but only when they work for their support. Besides school and work there is provided plentiful recreation and mental occupation. Com- munication of the children with their relatives during their stay in the republic is materially restricted. At first frequent correspondence is kept up, since they are usually homesick, but gradually it is neglected. They soon discover that their new views no longer correspond to those of their former companions. As they learn to despise their former sinful life, they can no longer value its environment. The conduct of their parents and old friends seems now to be objectionable, and if they con- tinue in contact with the home, it loses its influence over them. When the children grow up they are placed at trades or are otherwise instructed; but Mr and Mrs. George keep them in mind and correspond with them. If the employer complains of the conduct of his apprentice, the latter is given earnest advice, and, if necessity arises, is brought back to the republic. Of late, in Auburn, a society of former junior republicans has been formed and holds together with fidelity and in close rela- tionship with Mr. George. Such poor children may be developed into capable and good citizens, not merely by punishment and by a temporarily forced change of conduct, but by the pressure of surroimdings, voluntary choice, and better insight. Of particular methods of caring for children may be men- tioned, in conclusion, the sunmier colonies, to which great attention is given. 170 EMIL MUNSTERBERG Although the movement to establish these colonies in America reaches back to the first third of the nineteenth cen- tury, it found its first important expression in the work of a public school teacher, Miss E. Very, in 1879, who established, with the support of a woman's educational society, the first vacation school in Boston, whose purpose it was by instruction and play to act upon the children in their time out of school and withdraw them from the vicious influences of the street; a thought which found imitation and extension throughout the whole country. Originally the vacation schools were de- signed for children between the ages of two and twenty years, and the program, in order to win as many children as possible, laid emphasis upon amusement. After longer experience, the necessity of separating children according to age, work, and play became apparent ; so that now, in addition to the vacation schools proper, there are also play schools and open spaces, while for the smallest children school takes the character of a kindergarten. Children between the ages of ten and fifteen receive training in sloyd, instruction in drawing, and in natural history by means of holiday trips into the country or parks for the observation of animal and plant nature ; singing and indus- trial occupation, as tailoring, cooking, etc., always so far as possible adapted to the individual needs of the pupil or his home life. Not seldom the instruction in the vacation school helps to determine the choice of future vocations. The length of a course is from four to eight, as a rule six, weeks, the daily instruction usually of three hours ; two courses a day are given either successively, or in the forenoon and afternoon. The place of teaching is in a room of a pubfic building; the direction of the affairs is in the hands of trained teachers; the daily average cost per child varies between 5 and 25 cents. As in England, so also in America, private charities develop in a high degree. This corresponds not only to the peculiarities of American beneficence already indicated, but also to the fact that the pubfic poor authority is rather averse to outdoor relief, and limits itself, especially in the greater cities, to indoor relief, in poorhouses and other institutions. American charity has to contend in a higher measure than is true on the continent with the evils of division and absence POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 171 of S3^stcni. To the insiglit into tlie dangers of this condition many central societies owe their origin, which, according to the Enghsh example, are called charity organization societies. The principle of charity organization societies remains essen- tially the same, and yet we must refer to them again and again, because unfortunately, even in Germany, they are so common- ly neglected. When Johnson in his report for 1899 at the National Conference used the words, "In spite of the danger of being wearisome and of repeating what has been said 30 times before," every one who works in these matters practically will be disposed with him to employ the same introduction and to repeat for the thirtieth or the one hundredth time these things, just because it is so necessary to repeat fundamental prin- ciples. Glenn, in his paper on the necessity of organization, has formulated these principles very well : A charity organization society offers itself as a central point of information, where the leaders of various enterprises may secure information about each other, as well as about the poor, and as a clearing house of activities and ideas. It also collects materials relating to the poor and gives information to all who have an interest in them, prepares statements concerning the charitable provisions of the city, and offers a central point for obtaining counsel in help. All this is in the spirit of reciprocal confidence and with the view of re- pressing the abuses of charity in order to have all the more powder of assisting those who are needy. The general arrangements of these societies are every where similar, the chief aim being to unite the benevolent efforts and of providing particular kinds of help to serve special needs, as for example securing employment, provision of shelter and refuge for women, etc. The division of labor between standing committees is common to all, each being charged with a special task. They all emphasize the necessity of personal help, and constantly renew the appeal for cooperation. The title page of the Buffalo report is adorned with the words : ''Let no one think that he can discharge his duty to the poor by contributing to the society. You can never perform your full duty to the poor through a society; what we need is personal help, and this society was founded to secure it. Our 172 EMIL MUNSTERBERG effort is, through division into districts and in other ways, to find a personal friend for every poor family, and we earnestly request all to stand by us as voluntary helpers in benevolent activity." The societies, apart from their own enterprises, give none of their own means for support, but seek to investigate cases referred to them and to secure means in individual cases, and to refer cases for further aid to other institutions which stand in close relations with them. A peculiar position is occupied by the United Jewish chari- ties in New York. It grew out of the same discovery of un- systematic and divided charity to which the Charity Organiza- tion society owed its origin ; and after the experience of a quar- ter of a century it declares its satisfaction that its efforts have contributed materially to the diminution of these evils ; but at the same time it expresses the wish to have more means and more personal service at its disposal. It also has a number of standing committees and a number of institutions of its own, among which an educational institution for girls and an em- ployment bureau are conspicuous. Of special importance is the work for immigrants, who come mostly from Russia and Austria. Each year the society handles a population equal to that of a medium sized city, which arrives in America with- out knowledge of the language, often helpless, and by the regulations of the government threatened with the impossi- bility of obtaining employment. Counsel is given the immi- grants even when they are not in absolute want, the destitute are relieved, and means are provided for returning those re- jected by the public authorities. Up to 1890 the work was conducted for the most part by the Hebrew Immigrant Aid society, to which the association in 1884 joined its efforts, with a committee which worked especially at the landing places. In 1890 the Baron Hirsch fund was founded, whose adminis- trators were members of the committee of the association ; from this fund and from the Jewish Colonization society, founded by Baron Hirsch at the same time, the association received the means for assisting immigrants. In 1891-92 the Russian Transportation society, the American Association for the Relief of Russians, and the Central Russian Refugee committee were POOR RELIEF IN THE UNITED STATES 173 established, in which the central l)()ar(l of the association was represented. In the report the assistance of immij];ration authorities is praised. To the efforts of the association was due the chan^:)hus fever, and contagious diseases, they need isolation and treat- ment in special surroundings. We want a clear public recog- nition of these facts; then means will be adopted to prevent the victim from going on to chronic stages before any efforts are made to help him. The legal efforts to cure this evil are more fatal and dan- gerous than the saloon, by increasing the very evil they seek to remove. Thus saloons are Ucensed and protected, and, both directly and indirectly, the use of spirits is encouraged and made attractive. The victim is excused and tolerated until he reaches a chronic stage, and violates some law; then he is fined and imprisoned under conditions that intensify and increase his disease. Statistics show that ninety nine per cent of all victims who are punished by the courts the first time by fines and imprisonment relapse, and appear again and again for the same offense as long as they live. They receive the name of rounders, and are not infrequently sentenced himdreds of times in the course of years. The station house, jail, and machinery of law, from the absence of physical and mental aids, are fatal in their influence. Yet pubhc sentiment hugs this terrible delusion of vice, and sustains the police courts in efforts that make it more and more impossible for the victims to recover. Thus the law destroys the inebriate by punishment as a criminal, and the church disowns and drives him away as a sinner; society looks down upon him as having a vice that can be controlled at will. It is the same old superstitious theory of a theolog- ical or moral origin of evil, which from time to time has been used to explain every phenomenon of nature, that sustains and keeps up this delusion. Science has opened up a new field of remedial forces, and points out a solution of this drink problem, in special hospitals organized as industrial mihtary schools. Here the inebriates may be housed and kept for a lifetime if they are incurable. These hospitals are to be organized with every means to build up both body and mind, to protect the victim from himself, and to provide every hygienic and physiological agency req- uisite for a normal life. i88 THOMAS D. CROTHERS Laws should be passed authorizing the arrest of any one known to be drinking spirits continuously or at intervals. There should be no waiting until the victim is intoxicated or commits some overt offense. He should come under legal control as soon as evidence of his habitual use of spirits can be obtained. Thus all classes, from the poor pauper to the rich man or his son, who are in the early stages of inebriety, should be forced into conditions of sober, rational living, and continued under legal restraint, either in an asylum or out on parole, until their mental and physical health is restored and evidence of temperate living can be established. If such asylums were in operation and such laws in force, supported by public sentiment, this army of inebriates would disappear from our streets, and with- it the crime, losses, and suffering so apparent. The saloons and distilleries would pass away in obedience to a higher law than legal prohibition. This is the voice of science: to quarantine the inebriate in a hospital, as if suffering from a contagion ; to stop the dis- ease at the fountain, to remove the victim from all causes and conditions favoring inebriety. If the inebriate is curable, he can be restored to health and society again; if not, he should remain a ward of the state, and be kept under conditions most favorable for health and the public good. Industrial hospitals for this army of inebriates can be built and supported by a tax on liquor dealers, and thus re- lieve the producer and taxpayer. To a large extent, after they are established they can be made self supporting. The general principles and many of the details of these industrial hospitals are already practically worked out in most of the asylums, prisons, and reformatories of the country. The Elmira reformatory and many of the present inebriate asy- lums are literal demonstrations of this fact. In a wider sense, this solution of the drink problem prom- ises not only to house and check the present evils, but to place these victims in the best possible conditions for scientific study. Here the great underlying causes — physiological, psychological, and sociological — which have developed and set apart this vast army of what has been aptly termed border- line maniacs can be discovered and understood. There is no THE DRINK PROBLEM 189 way to comprehend inebriety except from exact studies of inebriates in the most favorable surroundings. It is something more than the impulse to use spirits to excess, more than a weak will and moral carelessness, which is the cause of inebriety. This disease is beyond cure by punishment or appeals to the emotions, beyond educational and religious influences, beyond remedy by license and pro- hibition. Back into these silent realms, where the great natu- ral laws of evolution and dissolution move in a majestic sweep, there we shall find its causes and the means of relief. Declaring the inebriate diseased and restraining him in special asylums for cure is not a new theory of modern times, but has been urged and discussed for over two thousand years. But, like all other great truths in the world's history, it has waited for an audience and a favorable time for acceptance. That time is rapidly approaching, and the principle is already recognized by an increasing number of scientific men in all parts of the country. The state of Connecticut has passed laws for the organization of such a hospital. Bills have been introduced in many of the state legislatures for this same pur- pose, but the opposition of moralists who still cling to the vice theor}^ has so far prevented any practical work. Empirics and charlatans, ever eager to profit by the half defined truths just dawning on the mental horizon, rush in with claims of secret specifics for the cure of inebriety, arousing enthusiasm among the poor victims and creating expectations that will only end in disappointment. This in itself is an un- mistakable sign of the rapid growth and evolution of the real truth, which is now passing through the empiric stages. We must have hospitals in every city and town for in- ebriates: First, for the paupers and criminals, the saloon loungers, and those who are constantly before the police courts for offenses of all kinds associated with excessive use of spirits. This class must be committed for five or ten years, or on in- determinate sentences depending upon their improvement and restoration, under certain conditions being permitted to go out on parole. Hospitals for their retention must be or- ganized in the country, on large farms, where all the inmates should be required to work every day at some profitable em- iQo THOMAS D. CROTHERS ployment, according to their capacity and strength. All the conditions of life and surroundings should be regulated with military exactness. All sources of debility and degeneration should be removed. Nutrition baths, healthful surroundings, exercise, mental and physical remedies to build up and restore all the energies of the body, should be enforced. Rest, in the highest sense of change and growth, should be favored by every means known to science, and all acts and conduct should be under the con- trol and guidance of others. Each man should be organized into the working force of the hospital, made a producer in some way, and kept in training not only for the purpose of self development, but also of increasing the value and use- fulness of the institution. If he shows capacity, or can do more than become self supporting, the surplus thus earned should be credited to him or his relatives. The possibilities are almost unlimited along this line. Vast numbers of inebriates, if they could be restrained from the use of spirits in such institutions and given medical care and work in the best conditions of health, would become active producers and support their famihes besides. After a long period of medical and institutional care and training, such cases would be restored, and in many cases become useful citizens. If after repeated trials on parole they should con- tinue to relapse, their commitment should be permanent. The incurables would thus be placed in the least harmful and most humane and economical conditions of life. The present losses and contagions which follow this class would be pre- vented. The crime, insanity, pauperism, and disease centers which are always found associated with them would disappear. Hospitals must be provided for a second class of persons who are not so far down the road to final dissolution. Ine- briates who are constant drinkers or who have periodic ex- cesses, and who keep up the delusion that they can stop any time and are not so bad as their friends represent — such per- sons are Uterally an army of exhausted, brain toppling drink- ers, who are on the verge of insanity, crime, suicide, and sud- den death. These should be committed to hospital care, the same as others. The same military control of exact obedience THE DRINK PROBLEM 191 and exact living — exact use of all means and appliances; every hygienic, physical, and mental remedy known — should be applied to build up and restore them to temperate living. The terms of confinement should be shorter, and the remedies suited to recent cases. Employment should be required of each one, and, if able, they should pay for their care in labor or otherwise. A third class of hospitals would be required for wealthy and recent cases. The general plan would be as before: military care and training, with nerve and brain rest. The same special object would exist, to ascertain the conditions and causes which provoked the inebriety, and remove them; also to build up the entire man to resist and overcome these disease impulses in the future. To this can be added all the moral forces of prayer, faith, and conversion, together with every possible stimulation of the higher brain centers. The application of such remedies where the physical health and surroundings are the most favorable would be followed by the best results. The study of inebriety in these hospitals would reveal many of the great underlying causes and laws which are active in producing this drink evil. The power and influence of the saloon and unregulated marriages would be seen and reaUzed. We have arrived at a period where all phenomena of loss, suffering, and evil must be regarded from a physical point of view. They are the results of tangible causes that may be known and understood. The drink phenomena and problem must be solved along this line. If we consider the great evolutionary principles which underlie and control all these movements of individuals and races, this subject appears in a new light. All students of science understand that disease and degeneration, either in- herited or acquired, come under the operation of great natural laws which may be studied and understood. Degeneration, disease, and premature death are condi- tions that are preventable beyond the wildest dream of the enthusiast, but along lines that are yet to be discovered. Al- ready the possibility of averting insanity, idiocy, criminality, pauperism, and other afflictions, looms up like the mountain 192 THOMAS D. CROTHERS ranges of a new continent that is yet to be explored and map- ped out. The armies of inebriates are the same degenerate, diseased victims, who become unfit, disabled, and sorely wounded, and are left on the field to die. In our ignorance we fail to realize this, and join in the delusion that they are yet to do battle for civilization. The laws of elimination go on crowding them out every where, and the losses and injuries they inflict on both the present and future generations are great obstacles to the sur- vival of the fittest. Here nature is teaching the true remedy in the elimination and separation of those unfit, and hurrying them on to death by insanity, criminality, and various allied degenerations: the grinding, crushing battle of civilization; the struggle of man upward and outward, with its exposure, its strains and drains; its shot and shell, wounding, crippling, and disabling; and its force of hereditary injuries, coming from the past and reaching out into the future. This is the struggle along the front line, in which over a million of poor victims are engaged. Nature separates, eliminates, and destroys. Science teaches that separation and isolation may be followed by restoration. The same laws and forces which accelerate dis- solution may be turned into currents of evolution. This army of inebriates can be halted and forced back to the rear, and diverted into conditions of growth and developmert. Al- ready the polluted springs of heredity and the recruiting sta- tions of the saloons and unregulated marriages are apparent. Already there are in sight vast ranges of causes and conditions that can be utilized and sent into practical operation for the prevention as well as the cure of inebriety. TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION. BY ROBERT W. DK FOREST. [Robert Weeks DeForest, lawyer; born New York, 1S4S; graduated Yale, 1870; ad- mitted to New York bar 1S71; general counsel since 1874, and vice president since 1902 of the Central railroad of New Jers(>y; president of the Charity Organization society since 1888, organizer of the first philanthropic pawn-broking establishment in America; chairman of the Tenement Commission of New York since 1900; president of the Municipal Art commission of New York, 1905.] When Theodore Roosevelt, then governor of the state of New York, attended the opening of the tenement house exhibi- tion of the Charity Organization society of New York, and looked over the models of tenements, old and new, and the charts which showed the close connection between the housing of the vast majority of that city's population and health, pauperism and crime, he said to the few of us who had or- ganized this exhibition: "Tell us at Albany what to do, and we will do it." The result was the New York State Tenement House commission of 1900, the enactment last year of the most advanced code of tenement house laws as yet put in force in any American city, and the creation for the first time in this country of a department directly charged with the oversight of the construction and proper maintenance of tenement houses. The tenement house problem we had to meet in New York was the most serious of any city in the civiUzed world ; for in New York, according to the last census, out of 3,437,202 in- habitants, 2,273,079, or more than two thirds, lived in tene- ment houses, and there were 82,652 of these tenements in the city. The interest in this particular phase of the housing ques- tion is not confined to New York. No one who has followed, even carelessly, pubhc opinion on this subject can fail to realize the hold it has upon the public conscience. It may be that some tremble at the effect upon their own fortunes of a possible social revolution, and seek to protect themselves, for their own sake, by trying to make what they call the lower classes more comfortable in their homes. But the large body of men and Vol. 10-13 193 194 ROBERT W. DE FOREST women in this country who are giving attention to this subject, are doing so from love of their fellow men, and an earnest de- sire to give them in their homes some of the healthful surround- ings and comforts they enjoy in their own. There are few large cities in America in which there is not some tenement regulation, and some agitation for its extension; nor is this activity confined to the larger cities. Kansas City in the west, Hartford in the east, Yonkers, Syracuse and Rochester in New York, are already moving in the same direc- tion, and the subject is receiving close attention in Washington, Cleveland and Pittsburg. The New York law of last winter was a state law, appli- cable to all cities of the first class. It included Buffalo as well as New York, and Buffalo did its full part in securing the en- actment of the law. Philadelphia is emphatically the city of homes, and not of tenements. Fortunately for Philadelphia, its working classes are almost exclusively housed in single family dwellings. It has, as most of you know, an admirable code of tenement house laws, which has proved very useful to us at New York in preparing ours, and it has its Octavia Hill association to advance the cause of housing reform. In some quarters benevolent people are proposing to build model tenements. That is good as far as it goes, but if at the same time other people, not benevolent, who have no motive but gain for themselves, are permitted to build tenements which are not models, the extent of progress is very limited. What we must do, first and foremost, is to secure proper legis- lation, using that term in its broadest sense, to include city ordinance, as well as state law. Legislation to regulate build- ing, so as to secure for new buildings proper air and light space and proper sanitation; legislation to regulate, in buildings old and new, their maintenance so that health conditions may be improved and at least not be impaired; legislation, moreover, that provides the means for its own enforcement, by proper inspection. Most of us have been brought up to believe that, as owners of real estate, we could build on it what we pleased, build as high as we pleased, and sink our buildings as low as we pleased. Our ideas of what constitutes property rights and what con- DEATH RATE IN RURAL DISTRICTS PER 1000 INHABITANTS § HI 15 TO 45 YEARS 1 1 UNDER 15 YEARS < 20 < r Ifi < < (/) >- £ w > H 1^ X § S ^ Ci > a u • 2 i z ^ c < z 1 '^ n 5 , 1 . 1 1 . ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 11 1 1 1 II 1 h DEATH RATE PER LOOO OF POPULATION:IN CITIES ^ ■■ 15 TO 45 YEARS | 1 UNDER 15 YEARS 40 s. < DC 1- u - I < - r i 0 < d Q 1 «* "» ^ Q < 25 ^ !*J O 1 3 I S^ 1 „ 3 i \ 20 U) U r 5 u a 15 C 1- D 2 u : h J o 1 ^ (A 10 1 1 5 1 1 . J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 . 1 1 ll 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 195 stitutes liberty are largely conventional. They vary with time and place. They are different in different countries. Liberty, proper liberty, to-day, may, under changing conditions, be- come license to-morrow. I came home from Europe not long since with a French friend, who had gone home to his native country to take possession of his ancestral estates. He told me of having found the trees grown up quite thickly around his father's country home, and of the difficulties he had en- countered in obtaining permission from the public authorities to cut down some of them, which was finally only granted on condition that he replant elsewhere. That his trees could only be cut down with the consent of the public authorities, and that he could properly be required to replant elsewhere as a condition of obtaining that consent, seemed to him a part of the eternal order of things. He no more questioned it in his mind than we, who live in cities, question the propriety of ob- taining from the city building department a permit to build, based upon approval of our architect's plans. Lecky, in one of his later books, speaking of sanitary legis- lation, says : "Few things are more curious than to observe how rapidly, during the past generation, the love of individual liberty has declined; how contentedly the English race are committing great departments of their lives to the web of regulations restricting and encircling them." It is not that love of liberty has declined; it is that the English race are meeting new conditions with the same genius with which they have evolved their great system of common law. Living, as most of them did a century ago, in separate houses, and in small villages or towns, every man could build as he pleased and could maintain his building as he pleased without seri- ousl}^ endangering the liberty of his neighbors; but with the steady movement of the population from the country to the city, and the marvelous growth of cities, not only horizontally but vertically, new conditions must be met, and the property rights and liberty of one neighbor must be limited to protect the property rights and liberty of another. If a man built an isolated house in the country, without light or air for the bed- rooms, and kept it in such filthy condition as to breed disease, it is a fair question whether his liberty should be infringed by 196 ROBERT W. DE FOREST any building or health regulation. He may be fairly left free to suffer the consequences of his own misuse of his Hberty. His death, and that of his family, from disease so caused may, as an awful example, do more to advance civilization by mak- ing his neighbors more careful, than would his hfe and theirs under enforced sanitary regulation. But if that same man is separated from you and me only by a board partition or twelve inch wall, and our families meet every time they go into the street or into the back yard, his liberty must be restricted in some degree in order to enable you and me to enjoy ours. How and why has tenement house law been evolved in American cities? In the same way in which the Anglo-Saxon mind deals with any such problems. Just as it evolved com- mon law, and for the same reasons. First a case — that is, an evil — to be remedied; afterward a decision — the application of the remedy, and the establishment of a principle or law by which similar evils shall be remedied. It is not according to the genius of our race to provide the remedy in advance of the supposed disease. Better be sure that the disease really exists, even if some few die from it, and then provide the reme- dy which will be sure to meet actual conditions, than to burden the community with advance remedies for diseases that after all may prove to be imaginary. Even if the disease be not imaginary, such remedies are apt to be worse than the disease itself. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon countries, a conflagration has usually preceded precautions against fire, and the evils of sunless, airless and unwholesome tenements have preceded any attempt to prevent these deplorable conditions. Eventually we act, and when we do we act practically. It may be well to define what is meant by a tenement house, for without definition there is infinite confusion in the use of this term. In one of the recent civil service examina- tions in New York, a candidate, evidently learned in the law, or supposing himself to be so, defined it as being ''that which is neither land nor hereditament." It has its popular and its legal meaning. Popularly, it is used to designate the habita- tions of the poorest classes, without much thought of the num- ber of families living under any particular roof. The National Cyclopedia significantly says: 'Tenement houses, commonly TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 197 speaking, are the poorest class of apartment houses. They are generally poorly built, without sufficient accommodation for light and ventilation, and are overcrowded. The middle rooms often receive no daylight, and it is not uncommon in them for several families to be crowded into one of their dark and unwholesome rooms. Bad air, want of sunlight, and filthy surroundings work the physical ruin of the wretched tenants, while their mental and moral condition is equally lowered. Attempts to reform the evils of tenement life have been going on for some time in many of the great cities of the world.' Legally, tenement is applied to any communal dwelling, inhabited by three, or in some cities four, or more families, living independently, who do their cooking on the premises. It includes apartment houses, flat-houses and flats, as well as what is popularly called a tenement, if only built to acconamo- date three, or as the case may be, four or more families who cook in the house. It is in its legal sense that I use the term. At first blush it may seem objectionable to class apartment houses, flat-houses and tenements, so-called, together, and sub- ject them to the same code of regulation. Practically, it has never been possible to draw any line of separation between different houses which are popularly designated by these different words. Nor has any one ever suggested any regula- tion proper for the poorest tenement, using the word now in its popular sense, which would not be voluntarily, and as a mat- ter of self interest, complied with in the most expensive apart- ment house. Nor is there any certainty that what to-day is popularly called an apartment house may not to-morrow, in popular parlance, be a tenement of the worst kind. My own grandmother, within my own recollection, lived in what was then one of the finest houses in one of the most fashionable streets of New York. Not long since I passed the house, and noticed on the front door a sign reading, ^Trench flats for colored people.'* In its earliest form (and many cities have not yet passed beyond the first stage) the tenement was a discredited private house or other building, not originally built for the occupation of several families, but altered for the purpose. Each floor of what was originally a private dwelling was changed so that it igS ROBERT W. DE FOREST could be occupied by a family. Later on — it may be at the beginning — each floor was subdivided between front and rear, so that it could be occupied by two families. One of the chief evils of such tenements arose from cellar occupation, and con- sequently some of the earliest tenement house regulations re- late to the occupation of cellars. In its second stage the tenement house is built for the pur- pose, imitating, not infrequently, in a servile manner, the ar- rangement of the altered house, with its dark rooms, and only gradually being adapted to a new architectural form growing out of its special use. The introduction of running water and city health regulations made it possible and desirable to locate water closets inside. Courts and air shafts increased in size. Fortunately, the process of evolution is not exhausted, and is still going on. The tenement is still regarded in many places as an exotic, not adapted to our climate. But, judging from the history of New York and other cities, west and east, the tenement house has come to stay, and is, perhaps, destined to crowd out other and better forms of housing. I remember well when the first tenement to be dignified by the term apartment house was built in New York. It was in the early 70's. Now it is a prevailing type of new building for dwelling purposes on Man- hattan island. There were no less than 82,652 tenements in Greater New York at the time of the last census. The develop- ment of the tenement has been largely influenced by legislation intended to prevent its worst evils. To test the reason for such legislation, and to define its limitations, a brief summary of particular subjects of regulation is desirable. Protection against fire is almost universal. Structural provisions directed to this end are contained in the building laws of all cities. In New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Jersey City, Providence, Syracuse and Nashville, all tenements must have fire escapes. AU tenements over two stories in height must have fire escapes in St. Louis, Baltimore, Louisville, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Denver, Toledo and Columbus. In Chicago, Cleveland and Cincinnati, this rule applies only to tenements over three stories in height. In many cities tene- ments must be fireproof throughout when over a certain height. TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 199 In Philadelphia this is t rue of all over four stories ; in Washing- ton of those over five stories ; in New York, Buffalo, Louisville, Minneapolis and Denver, of those over six stories in height. In Boston, the limit is 65 feet. Light and ventilation are protected by minimum open spaces. In Philadelphia there must be open spaces at the side or rear equal to one fifth of the lot area, and the minimum width of all spaces is eight feet. In Buffalo, under the local law in force before the general state act of 1901 was passed, the minimum width of any outer court was six feet in two story buildings, eight feet in three and four story buildings, and one additional foot in width for each additional story. The mini- mum interior court was eight by ten. In Boston, a clear open space at the rear must be left equal to one half the width of the street on which the tenement fronts, and there must be two open spaces at least ten feet wide. In some cities the required court area is expressed in square feet, without regard to mini- mum width or length, and increases proportionately with the height of the building. This principle is adopted in New York, where the minimum width of exterior courts in buildings five stories high is six feet on the lot line and twelve feet be- tw^een wings, and the minimum area of interior courts on the lot line in buildings of the same height is twelve by twenty four, reduced this winter in three story tenements to eight by four- teen. Such buildings must have an open yard at least twelve feet wide in the rear. The height of rooms is almost univer- sally regulated, the minimum usually being eight feet. The height of tenements is limited in many cities. Water supply is prescribed. In New York, water must be furnished on each floor. In Philadelphia and Buffalo, on each floor, for each set of rooms. In Boston, Chicago, Jersey City and Kansas City, in one or more places in the house or yard. Water closet accommodation is very generally prescribed. In Philadelphia, and in New York under the new law, there must be one for every apartment. Under the old law in New York, and at present in Chicago and Detroit, there must be one for every two families. In other cities the imit is the number of persons. It is twenty persons in Boston, Baltimore and Denver; ten persons in Rochester. 200 ROBERT W. DE FOREST The reasons for tenement regulation may be roughly classed as follows — precise classification is impossible, as it is seldom that any particular regulation is attributable solely to a single reason : The protection of property rights in adjacent property. Such is the reason for regulations requiring fireproof construc- tion in whole or in part. Such is the chief reason for limita- tions of height and for leaving an obligatory open space at the rear of each house so as to preserve thorough ventilation for the block. The protection of neighbors and the community from unsanitary conditions by which they might be affected, or which might breed contagion. Under this class falls the great body of sanitary law and tenement house regulation of a sanitary kind. That all legislation which falls within these classes can be justified as a proper restraint on the liberty and property rights of some, in order to protect and preserve the property rights and liberty of others, is clear. There is another and increasing class of regulations in- tended to protect the life and health of those who can not, it is supposed, protect themselves by any means within their con- trol. Fire escapes, which are almost universally required by law in nonfireproof tenement houses, belong to this class. There is no such regulation for private houses, and there is usually no such requirement for two-family houses. The reason for the fire escape in tenements and hotels must rest either on the supposed inability of the inmates to protect them- selves, as the owner of a private house can protect himself and his family, or else from the greater number of persons exposed to risk. Of such class also is the law providing that there be a separate water closet for each apartment, as in New York, or for every two families, as in Detroit and elsewhere, and that lights be kept burning in public halls at night. No such regu- lations exist for private houses. They can be only justified in tenement houses on the theory that the tenants in such houses must live in them, can not control their maintenance in these particulars, and are entitled to the protection of affirmative law for these necessities or conveniences. It may be an- swered that they need not rent rooms in houses not furnished with separate water closets, and the halls of which are not kept TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 201 lighted, unless they wish to, and that they should not be re- stricted m their liberty to rent rooms in such houses, it may be at a lower rent, if they so desire. The reply may be, and in some cities would properly l^e, that they would have no choice unless the law intervened to protect them. Moreover, it might be urged that in the provision for separate water closets for each apartment, and in the lighting of pubhc halls, there was an element of protection to pul^lic health and morals in which the community had an interest, and which the com- munity by regulation should insure. I have sought by these illustrations to point the closeness of the dividing line between justifiable restriction of the in- dividual liberty of the house builder and house owner, for the protection of the liberty of others, and paternalism. It is imdoubtedly true, as Mr. Lecky states in the concluding part of the paragraph to which I have already referred, that ''the marked tendency of these generations to extend the stringency and area of coercive legislation in the fields of sanitary reform is one that should be carefully watched. Its exaggerations may, in more ways than one, greatly injure the very classes it is intended to benefit." There is real danger lest in our eager- ness and earnestness to improve the condition of others, we legislate from the point of view of those fathers and mothers who are always ready to regulate the affairs of every family but their own, and break down the habit of self dependence and the spirit of individual responsibihty upon which the vigor of our American social fabric so largely depends. Perhaps the most important limitation to tenement house reform, in the construction of new tenements, is the question of cost. If tenements can not be rented at a profit, they will not be built. There are many things which it would be desira- ble to have in a tenement, each one of which adds to its cost ; and if they be required by law to an extent which makes it imremunerative, tenement building will cease. It is undoubt- edly desirable that all tenements should be fireproof through- out ; indeed, the same may be said of private houses. In 1892, Boston so prescribed; but few, if any, were erected, and the law was consequently modified in 1899. The amount of rent which the average American workuig- 202 ROBERT W. DE FOREST man in any particular city can pay approximates a fixed quantity. Any legislation which materially increases this rent, or which prevents building and therefore prevents his finding shelter, is quite certain to be repealed. This proposi- tion, however, is not so discouraging as it may appear at the outset. The standard of living among our working classes is steadily improving. What yesterday was a luxury, to-day is a necessity. In many cities, apartments which are not pro- vided with running water are unrentable. Bathing facilities are increasingly in demand, and are frequently being provided. Families that have once lived in apartments where the bed- rooms have light and air, will not hire apartments which are dark and unventilated. The supply must meet the demand. Interest rates are receding; economies in construction are being introduced, which some time ago were unknown, largely by the building of houses by the wholesale. The large profits which were demanded as the normal income on tenement houses in the past are no longer expected. Rooms up to the standard of the modern tenement house law can be provided without increasing the rental. Another limitation in many cities is the prevailing lot dimension. If Dante were to-day writing his Inferno, the lowest depth would be reserved for those men who invented the twenty five foot lot and imposed it on so many American cities. In unbuilt districts, where several lots, whatever be their dimensions, can be purchased and built upon together, the lot dimension does not necessarily control the frontage of the building, and the tendency in such districts in New York is to build tenement houses of wider frontage, which admit of better court arrangement, but there are usually so many lots separately owned, and so many which are situated between lots already built upon, so that their enlargement is impossible, that any proposed legislation prescribing court areas which, however desirable, puts the prevailing lot unit at a disadvan- tage, will meet with overwhelming resistance. There is another practical limitation, not necessarily to the enactment of tenement house law, but to its permanence, in the extent to which it, either actually or supposedly, interferes with the profits of builders and material men; and perhaps no TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 203 better illustration of this practical limitation can be given than a simple recital of the contest over the radical amendment of the New York law which was waged at Albany. The New York law of 1901 marked the longest step in advance that tenement house reform in that state has ever taken, though in its provisions for court areas, the particular point in which it was assailed, it does not go so far as the Philadelphia law, and but little further than the previous Buffalo law. It un- questionably increased the cost of construction by its fireproof provisions, as well as, though in a less degree, by its larger court areas. That there would be organized effort on the part of building and real estate interests to modify it was cer- tain and inevitable. Many bills were introduced amending it, but my illustration only concerns two, — the city adminis- tration bill, in the preparation of which I myself had part, and a bill introduced by a Brooklyn member of the legis- lature in the interest of Brooklyn builders and material men, who claimed that they represented the people of Brooklyn. One of the prevailing types of Brooklyn tenements is a three story house on a twenty five foot lot, with two families on a floor, making six families in all, each apartment running through from front to rear. These houses had been built Avith interior courts or air shafts about two and a half feet wide and ten feet long. These light shafts were supposed to light and ventilate the interior rooms of each apartment. As a matter of fact, they furnished little light or ventilation to any bedrooms be- low the top floor. The same type of air shaft in taller tenements of Manhattan was one of the chief evils against which the new law was directed. These evils were undoubtedl}^ less in a three story building, but still existed. The minimum interior court or air shaft permitted by the new law in such buildings was eleven feet wide by twenty two feet long. Such a court prevented the building of this type of house, and no tenements of this type were consequently built on twenty five foot lots from the time when the law went into effect. The Brooklyn bill sought to amend the law, as respects three and four story houses, by permitting a return to the old air shaft, with an in- creased width of six inches, and with a somewhat mcreased 204 ROBERT W. DE FOREST length, making it three by twelve. We conceded that under the law it was impossible to build this particular type of tene- ment on a twenty five foot lot, with each apartment running through from front to rear, but we demonstrated that it was perfectly practicable to build what seemed to us a much better two families on a floor tenement on such a lot, by putting one apartment in the front and another in the rear; that it was per- fectly practicable to build, under the law, apartments running through from front to rear on a somewhat larger lot, and that the law interfered with no other current type except the one in question. The separate front and rear apartments, which were practical under the new law, are usual in Manhattan, and the rent obtainable from the front apartment differs but little from that obtainable from the rear apartment. Brookljni insisted that though Brooklyn was a borough of New York and only separated from Manhattan by the East river, Brooklyn people were so accustomed to apartments running through from front to rear that they would not rent rear apartments, and indeed, that the social distinction between families who could afford to live in the front apartment, and those who would be forced to live in the rear apartment, was so great that they would not rent apartments in the same house. This proposition may seem strained, but we of the city administration were finally satisfied that so much regard should be paid to local habits and customs, that it was wise to modify our minimum court areas in three story houses to such a point as would permit the building of this particular type of Brook- lyn house. Plans were then made which demonstrated beyond peradventure that by reducing the minimum court area to 8x14, instead of 3x12, this particular type of house could be built, with bedrooms infinitely better lighted and better ven- tilated than those opening upon the narrow shaft. One would have supposed that this improved plan, which permitted Brooklyn builders to construct a front to rear apartment, for which they claimed so many advantages, would have been re- ceived with acclamation as a solution of the difficulty. Not at all. Some insisted that Brookljoi must have what it was accustomed to, narrow air shaft and all. Others more open- minded, while frankly admitting that the new plans made TENEMENT HOUSE REGULATION 205 better apartments, which should bring in an increased rental of from fifty cents to a dollar a month, insisted that tenants would not pay more rent, and that because the buildings under these new plans cost say $800 per house more than under the old plans, they would not be commercially profitable, and therefore would not be built. Not a word was said as to the interests of tenement dwellers. There was no dearth of apart- ments in Brooklyn at current rents. Indeed, the supply was far beyond the demand. The whole issue turned on the com- mercial profitableness of building under the law, as amended by the city administration bill, to meet this Brookljm con- dition. The Brookljai builders were perfectly frank in their arguments. They started with the premise that the building of tenements in Brooklj^i must be made commercially profit- able; that buildings under the new plan, with a minimum court area of 8x14, would not be commercially profitable, be- cause about $800 was added to their cost, and therefore in- sisted that the law should be amended to meet their ideas of commercial profitableness. That the purpose of the law was not to promote building operations, or increase the value of real estate, but to provide healthy habitation for tenement dwellers, and that that purpose was certainly being accom- plished under the new law so long as tenement dwellers could house themselves without any increase in rent, was ignored, nor if it had been urged, would it have seemed to them an argument worth considering. I am happy to say that they did not succeed, but they demonstratecl the influence which can be exerted upon the average legislator by men of their type through their trade and allied labor organizations; and had those who, at the moment, represented the unorganized public in the cities been less active, and had the force of pubhc opinion as voiced by the press been less outspoken, the result might have been different. The advance of tenement house reform undoubtedly means some diminution in the profit of the landlord, or some increase in rent. Improved tenements must cost more. Some one must pay that cost. If any material rise in rents would produce such opposition to the law as to repeal or mod- ify it, then either the cost must be borne by the landlord, or 2o6 ROBERT W. DE FOREST the law must be modified. Whether the landlord's rent will by the law proposed in any city be diminished below the point of legitimate profit, can not be certainly demonstrated until the experiment be tried. Some enlightened landlords, with a sense of their obligations toward their tenants, are perfectly willing to suffer this small diminution of income. Others are not, and the others, who usually constitute the majority, in alliance with the builders and material men, will always seek to prevent legislation which affects their pockets. Tenement house reform must always be militant, not only to gain ground, but to hold the ground that has once been gamed. There is something for almost every one to do. Let none suppose that our cities, however small, will remain free from the evils of the tenement house, which in larger cities has necessarily evolved in self protection tenement house regula- tion. The tenement has come to the United States, like the Canada thistle, to grow and to multiply. The smaller cities need not go through the bitter experience which is teaching New York and other cities their lesson. They can, by timely regulation, prevent the crystallization of unsanitary conditions into brick and mortar. I do not recommend the adoption in every city of the New York law. It was framed to meet the special conditions there existent. The remedy should be no greater than the prevailing or expected disease w^arrants. A few elementary regulations with regard to court areas, vacant spaces, and regular and official inspection to make certain that these simple regulations are followed in construction and that ordinary sanitary rules are complied with in maintenance, will suffice, if there always be a keen eye to look some years ahead, to meet future needs before they make themselves un- pleasantly manifest in your owti surroundings, and before conditions are created, as in New York, which can not be changed except at great cost to owners and to the municipality. RACE SUICIDE IN THE UNITED STATES. BY WALTER F. WILCOX. [Walter F. Wilcox, export special agent of th(! United States government appointed to investigate the fluctuations in the birth rate, has conducted other impcjrtant iiujuiries for the department of commerce and labor; upon his graduation from collegia he began a series of studies of social problems S(>curing his facts by original research, and his published reports of his investigations into municipal conditions, and the; life of the working classes have attracted wide attention.] The increase of a population aside from immigration de- pends not merely on the number or proportion of infants an- nually contributed to recruit or swell the ranks of the popula- tion; it depends also on the number successfully reared. The enumeration of children under 5 years of age is admitted by every one to be far more accurate and complete than the enu- meration of children under 1 year of age. The proportion of children is thus an approximately accurate and a significant clue to the amount of new blood that is being brought into the country by nature's processes of reproduction and growth. Even if the enumeration of adults is substantially complete and that of children far from complete, no valid ground has been shown for believing that the per cent of omissions among children differs widely from census to census. Each census is organized more efTiciently than the last and gathers its infor- mation from a better educated, less suspicious, and more friend- ly population. Hence such omissions should and probably do tend to become relatively less frequent. In that case the re- ported number of children would increase from census to cen- sus faster than the actual number, and the tendency of such a gradually disappearing error would be to mask rather than to exaggerate the real decline in the proportion of children. It is a debatable question whether the population with which the number of children is compared should be the total population, the adult population, the women of child bearing age, or the married women of child bearing age. Each method has its advantages. The proportion to the total population can be computed for a longer period than any other, and hence is better adapted for a preliminary survey of the general trend. 207 2o8 WALTER F. WILCOX But for most purposes a comparison with the number of women of child bearing; age seems the best. The number of married women of child bearing age is known only for 1890 and 1900. Partly for this reason, partly because many of the influences tending to decrease the birth rate tend also to decrease mar- riages, and partly because limiting the comparison to mar- ried women excludes the influence of illegitimacy, the com- parison between children and married women should be used only in a subsidiary way. The number of children under 5 years of age and also the number of women of child bearing age in the total population have been reported by the censuses only since 1850; the num- ber of children under 10 years of age has been reported by censuses since 1830. Accordingly, an accurate statement of the proportion of children under 10 years of age to the total population can be made for the last seventy years of the nine- teenth century. For 1800, 1810, and 1820 the number of free white children under 10 years of age was given, and for 1820 the number of free colored and slaves under 14 years of age. From this information an effort has been made to esti- mate approximately the total number of children under 10 years of age at each of these earlier censuses by aid of the assumption that as the negro population under 14 years of age in 1900 is to the negro population under 10 years of age in 1900, so is the negro population under 14 years of age in 1820 to the negro population under 10 years of age in 1820. For 1800 and 1810 the free colored and slave population under 14 years of age has first been estimated from the total free colored and slaves of all ages by assuming that the proportions of 1820 applied, and then from these estimates the free colored and slave population under 10 years of age has been estimated as in 1820. It is admitted that the results are only approximate, but it must be remembered that these estimates applied to only one sixth of the entire population under 10, five sixths of it being given by direct enumeration. No census can furnish all the information needed to com- pute the birth rate or number of births in a year to each thousand persons, nor has this information been obtained for the United States, or any considerable part of it, by any other AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS TO A PRIVATE FAMILY BY STATES AND TERRITORIES TIXAt NORTH CAROLINA INDIAN TERRITORr WEST VIRGINIA VIRGINIA TENNESSEE MINNESOTA SOUTH CAROLINA ARKANSAS KENTUCKY ALABAMA UTAH MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA NORTH DAKOTA MARYLAND LOUISIANA WISCONSIN NEBRASKA SOUTH DAKOTA DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA PENNSYLVANIA MISSOURI DELAWARE IOWA ILLINOIS OKLAHOMA KANSAS FLORIDA NEW JERSEY MASSACHUSETTS RHODE ISLAND CONNECTICUT INDIANA MICHIGAN OHIO NEW YORK OREGON WYOMING IDAHO WASHINGTON NEW MEXICO MAINE VERMONT NEW HAMPSHIRE CALIFORNIA COLORADO MONTANA ARIZONA HAWAII NEVADA ALASKA AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS TO A FAMILY FOR THE UNITED STATES: 1850 TO 1900 c ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1860 1870 1880 1890 90O ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 1 1 1 1 i 1 'It RACE SUICIDE IN THE UNITED STATES 209 agency. The attempts to approximate (he birth rate on the basis of census figures have been far from satisfactory. As a resuh the birth rate in the United States, past or present, is unknown. The ratio of the Uving children under 5 years of age to each 1,000 living women of child bearing age is used as the best available substitute for the birth rate during the last half of the nineteenth centur}^ The proportion of children under 10 years of age to the total population can be ascertained for a longer period. It has decreased almost uninterruptedly since the early part of the century, the number of such children constituting approxi- mately one third of the total population at the beginning of the century and less than one fourth at the end. The decrease in the corresponding proportion for whites began as early as 1810 and continued uninterruptedly to the end of the century. Since 1830, when the figures were first obtained, the pro- portion of negro children under 10 years of age to the total negro population has decreased. There w^as, however, an increase from 1860 to 1880. On the other hand, there was a rapid decrease from 1880 to 1900. The proportion of white children imder 5 years of age to the total population decreased steadily, except from 1850 to 1860, the number of such children being in 1900 about three fifths of what it was in 1830. The decrease during the last decade of the centur}^ was insignificant. The corresponding proportion for negroes was at its height in 1850 and 1880 and except for 1870 was least in 1890. The decades of great immigration and the Civil war showed the greatest ratio of decrease in the proportion of chil- dren. The decades immediately following those of great im- migration showed a reduction in the rate of decrease, probably because of the high birth rate among the immigrants. The reduction in the proportion of children to total population during the centur}^ suggests but does not prove that the birth rate was lower. The increase in the proportion of children among negroes from 1860 to 1880 and the decrease from 1880 to 1900 suggests a high birth rate during the twenty years following emancipation and a rapid fall in the bu*th rate there- after. Vol. 10-14. 210 WALTER F. WILCOX The proportion of children under 5 years of age to women of child bearing age increased from 1850, to 1860, but has de- creased since then, being in 1900 about three fourths of what it was in 1860. The decline in the proportion of children since 1860 has been less marked in the south than in the north and west. The proportion in the north and west in 1850 was about five sixths and in 1900 less than three fourths of that in the south. In 1900 the maximum proportion of children was in North Dakota and Indian Territory, where children under 5 years of age were about two thirds of the number of women. In 1890 the maximum was in North Dakota and Idaho. In 1900 the minimum number of children was in the District of Columbia and California, being about one third of the number of women. In 1890 it was in the District of Columbia and New Hampshire, In 1900 there was a band of states from Maine to Cali- fornia in which the proportion of children was below 500 to 1,000 women. This band was broken by Utah, where the influence of the Mormon church was felt. Except for Kansas the proportion for these states was below that for continental United States. In 1890 the regions in which the number of children was less than one half the number of women were separated. In the north Atlantic states, and in Virginia, West Vir- ginia, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Montana, New Mexico, and Nevada the proportion of children increased between 1890 and 1900. The increase in the north Atlantic division was proba- bly due to the high birth rate among the immigrants that en- tered from 1880 to 1890. In Maryland, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana the proportion of children has de- creased steadily since 1850. The decrease for the country during the past decade was due in the main to the controlling influence of the states west of the AUeghenies. From 1850 to 1880 the low proportion of children in New England and the high proportion in some of the western states, especially those under Mormon influence, were striking. The proportion of white children was high in the south, showing that the pro- RACE SUICIDE IN THE UNITED STATES 211 portion for iicf!;ro children was not the controlling factor in the proportion for the total population. In many of the states, particularly most of those in the Atlantic divisions, the relative number of white children in- creased from 1890 to 1900. The largest proportion of negro children was found in 1880 and the smallest in 1900, being only about three fourths of that in 1880. The proportion for negroes was uniformly larger than that for white. As compared with whites in the south, there was for negroes an excess, reaching a maximum in 1880, at every census except 1900, when there was an excess for whites. The proportion of children in cities was about two thirds of what it was in the count r}' in 1900. In the north there was little difference in the proportion for city and country. In the south the proportion in cities was hardly more than half as great as that in the country. In the west the ratio of the pro- portion for city and country was between the two extremes. In 1900 the proportion of children in the country was about one sixth greater for the colored population than that for the white. In cities the proportion of children among the whites was more than one half larger than that among the colored. It may be that the mortality among negro children in the city is high, as generally the birth rate is higher than for whites. The proportion of children for each race was low^ in south- em cities. From 1890 to 1900 the decrease in the proportion of children was much greater for the non-Caucasian than for the white race. At the beginning of the nineteenth century children imder 10 3^ears of age constituted one third and at the end less than one fourth of the population. A decline in the proportion of children began as early as the decade 1810 to 1820, and con- tinued almost uninterruptedly but by very different amounts until 1900. The average decrease has been about 1 per cent in a decade. The greatest decreases occurred in the decades 1840 to 1850 and 1880 to 1890. This was probably due to the enormous immigration which swelled the adult population with great rapidity. For the decade 1880 to 1890 this factor may have been remforced by the change in the form of the 212 WALTER F, WILCOX age question, although the influence of this upon the number of children under 10 is uncertain. The next largest decrease was in the decade from 1860 to 1870, when the direct and in- direct effects of the Civil war reduced the proportion of children. But this decrease was accentuated by the serious omissions of that census, especially in the southern states and among the negroes, for whom the proportion of children is very high. Statistics as a whole suggest that there has been an almost uninterrupted but irregular decrease in the birth rate from near the beginning of the nineteenth century. They do not prove this, for the decrease might be explained by the increasing vitality of the population, leading to a longer average duration of life and consequently the survival of a larger number of adults. The method of estimating the proportion of children, by comparing them with the number of women of child bearing age, may be applied for the period 1850 to 1900. This method has two advantages over the preceding. It makes it possible to limit the children to those under 5 years of age and to ex- clude from the second term of the comparison all males and the females not of child bearing age. Under these conditions any decrease in the proportion of children which the figures may show could not be explained as due to the increased vital- ity and longevity of the adult population. The limits of child- bearing age are usually assumed as 15 and 44, but for the censuses the limits must be taken as 15 and 49. The proportion of children increased from 1850 to 1860, and then decreased without a break but by very unequal amounts. The slight decrease from 1870 to 1880 was probably due in part to serious omissions in 1870 among the population having a large proportion of children. The slight decrease from 1890 to 1900 was probably due in part to the great pros- perity of the country between 1890 and 1900, especially in the last years of the decade, in part to the many children bom to the millions of immigrants of the preceding decade, and in part also to the change in the form of the age question. In 1900 there were only three fourths as many living chil- dren to each 1,000 potential mothers as in 1860. The assump- tion that there has been a progressive increase in the inaccu- RACE SUICIDE IN THE UNITED STATES 213 racy of the censuses leaclin' other member of the institution must do the same thing. It is just in his line when he is told further that every man must come up to the scratch with his dues before a cer- tain date early in the month or pay a fine into the treasury-. It is no shock to his sense of business to discover that a member can draw out only 95 per cent of his total interests in the asso- ciation previous to the maturity of his stock. He is satisfied, 228 HERBERT F. DE BOWER also, if, in lieu of this penalty, the man drawing out pays $1 or $2 a share for the privilege. All these provisions are directed at the careless or defaulting or failing type of man, and the sum of all these exactions will redound to his final profits. Easier than a savings bank for the man who wants to borrow money — safer and more profitable far to the man who wishes to deposit money — ^no fear of embezzlements, panicky runs, doped books, or wildcat speculations — all these possi- bilities are shown to the man who in his own local neighbor- hood or small city goes in with men whom he knows in a mu- tual agreement for community welfare and individual profit; and, above all, the fact that no one other than the secretary receives a salary compensation, from president down. Frankford, Pa., a suburb of Philadelphia, originated the scheme in the Oxford Provident Building and Loan association away back in 1831. Between 1840 and 1850 the building and loan association rose to the dignity of a permanent institution, and ever since the state of Pennsylvania has held the palm for numbers of associations and memberships. Ten years ago the scheme was in the height of its exploit- ing, favorable and unfavorable. Some trickeries and crooked- ness in certain ways and means, especially in the national companies, made bad odor for the association scheme. But the building and loan association, as a mutual organization for building loans and safe investments, is by no means dead or dying. Among these associations, local and national, which existed in 1893 there was a membership of 1,745,725 in 6,000 associations; there were $450,000,000 in shares out- standing; only 456,000 members of associations were borrow- ers; and in the life of the institutions then in existence only 8,400 mortgages had been foreclosed, valued at $12,217,000, and showing loans of only $450,000. Considering that 90 per cent of the membership in these institutions were without banldng experience or investment experience of any kind, could the showing be better? And especially could it be better when in the mere plans for the distribution of matured shares and earnings there were twenty six methods in use and nearly 100 plans for the reducing of dues and the adjustment of loan apportionments? PROPORTION OF HOMES OWNED FREE, OWNED ENCUMBERED, AND HIRED 1900 ALASKA NEW MEXICO OKLAHOMA IDAHO NEVADA UTAH NORTH DAKOTA ARIZONA MONTANA tOUTH DAKOTA MAINE OREGON WEST VIRGINIA WASHINGTON WYOMING KENTUCKY FLORIDA VIRGINIA ARKANSAS WISCONSIN TENNESSEE MINNESOTA NEW HAMPSHIRE KANSAS NORTH CAROLINA MICHIGAN TEXAS INDIANA IOWA OHIO COLORADO NEBRASKA VERMONT CALIFORNIA INDIAN TERRITORY MISSOURI ILLINOIS ALABAMA MARYLAND PENNSYLVANIA LOUISIANA MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA SOinH CAROLINA DELAWARE HAWAII CONNECTICUT MASSACHUSETTS NEW YORK RHODE ISLAND NEW JERSEY DIST. OF COLUMBIA m I 1 OWNED FREECm OWNED ENCUMBERED CU HIRED BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS 229 The first rock which the buildinf^; and loan association struck hard in its evolution was that condition when no mem- ber of the association desired to borrow any more money. His shares had matured, releasing his loans and obligations. There was no provision for loaning funds to any one but a member. The dues collected, and there were no takers com- ing forward with premiums or drawing schemes by lot. Out of the anomalous condition the forced loan was suggested. By the same lot drawing, somel)ody who didn't want the money was stuck with it for a loan period, whether he would or not. The result of this unexpected expedient led to another solution of the general difhculty. Much of this trouble had come about through the ruhng that the man coming into an association after its organization was required to pay all back dues upon the original first issue of shares. If only a month had intervened the difference was slight. If it were a year or tw^o years, the back dues were great enough to be almost wholly prohibitive. The first plan evolved for the perpetuity of the association provided for the issuance of a new share series w^henever occa- sion required. On this issue the new member paid just as the member in the first series paid, after his entry taking his pro- portionate earnings of the combination accordingly as his money had been used. Members were encouraged to withdraw shares near to maturity. The holding of free shares — shares not loaned upon — was less encouraged. As a result, the aver- age life of any one series was fixed at four years by these con- ditions. This serial plan virtually is the plan of the building and loan association of to-day, unless in individual communi- ties where it is the aim and wish of members that the termina- ting association is all that is needed. Not a Httle ingenuity has been expended in the many plans for choosing the preferred claimant for a building loan. As one of almost 100 methods the following is typical : A man has taken five shares in the association at $200 each. He needs the $1,000 that is on hand, and, especially as any premium he pays for the privilege goes into the general profit fmid of the association, he feels disposed to bid sharply with any possible competitor for the privilege. And he does. 230 HERBERT F. DE BOWER The bids run up until he gets the loan for a premium of 5 per cent. This $50 is taken from the full amount of the loan, leav- ing the borrower with $950 and yet obligated to pay the $1,000 principal and interest on that sum at 6 per cent. In the mean- time, at $1 a share each month, his dues are $60 a year, and his interest and his dues are continued until he can withdraw or until his shares mature and are canceled. In the meantime his security for the loan has been a first mortgage upon the property into which the $950 first went. In some companies the plan of determining the borrower is decided by the bidding system, but in another way. The man who will come forward with the largest number of dues to be paid in advance, accompanying these with the greatest sum of interest in advance, gets the loan. His dues are settled in advance for that period and no more interest is paid until the advance interest has been absorbed. But if a hundred plans for deciding upon the borrower have been necessary, the twenty six or more plans for the dis- tribution of profits to the memberships have been even more interesting and complicated to the casual demonstrator in arithmetical calculations. It was with the adoption of the new series idea that these figures became troublesome. Sometimes an association has found it necessary to issue a new share series every quarter. How to adjust the profits to each member has been difficult of solution. Out of the twenty six processes that have evolved, one is indicative of the general scheme. For illustration, it will be considered that an association has completed its fourth year, having issued four series of shares on the first of each January, and is preparing for a dis- tribution of $3,000 profits for the fourth year. In the first year 500 shares were issued, 600 shares in the second year, 400 shares in the third, and 500 shares in the fourth year, the pay- ments being $1 a month for each share. At the end of this fourth year under consideration the man who made a first payment on his shares has paid in $48, and there were 500 of these men, according to the illustration. Then through the whole four years the total dues on the four series paid in would stand: PROPORTION OF FARM HOMES OWNED FREE, OWNED ENCUMBERED, AND HIRED 1900 MISSOURI TEXAS KANSAS ILLINOIS NEBRASKA LOUieiAMA CEORGIA ALABAMA NEW JERSEY DEI-AWARE IOWA SOUTH CAROLINA MISSISSIPPI INDIAN TERRITOR lOWNED FREECZOWNED ENCUMBERED [ZZ! HIRED BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS 231 $48 by 500 $24,000 36 by 600 21,600 24 by 400 9,600 12 by 500 6,000 Total dues $61,200 According to the books of the association the shares in the first series before the fourth year apportionment are worth $38.87; in the second series they are worth $25.27; in the third they are worth $12.32, with the shares in the fourth year unde- termined. Determining these values of each share in the four series, the process is as follows: Dividing the $3,000 net profits of the fourth year by the $61,200 of aggregate dues for the whole period, the rate per cent of profit on these dues is 4.9019 for the year. With this rate established the rest is simple : Value Last each Profit. value. share $48 by .049019 $2.35 plus $38.87 plus $12 $53.22 36 by .049019 1.76 plus 25.27 plus 12 39.03 24 by .049019 1.18 plus 12.32 plus 12 25.50 12 by .049019 59 plus .... plus 12 12.59 When this calculation has been made with this sample piece of work, it is shown on the books that $2 remains still undivided profit, presumably for the reason that it would take more time to divide it than the $2 could be worth to any one. There are tens of thousands of home owners in the country who have owed their homes to the building and loan associa- tions. These in many instances have not been naturally sav- ing and careful. The example of some friend or friends in suburb or city neighborhood has stirred them to the possi- bilities of a home based upon a careful, systematic business principle, and in the exacting measures of an association of which the careless type is a full member the naturally delin- quent nature has been roused. In a dozen ways the headless local building and loan association has been building not only cities but men. FRATERNAL INSURANCE iN THE UNITED STATES. BY B. H. MEYER. [Balthasar Henry Meyer, professor University of Wisconsin, and mcmlocr of railroad commission, born Mequon, Ozaukee Co., Wis., May 28, 1866; educated at the Oshkosh normal school, University of Wisconsin, and University of Berlin; has conducted in- vestigations for the United States Census Bureau and Interstate Commerce commis- sion; now in charge of division of transportation, Carnegie institute. Author, Railway Legislation in the United States, etc.] There are in the neighborhood of six hundred fraternal beneficiary societies in the United States, with an aggregate membership of about five milUons. Approximately one half of these societies maintain systems of benefits which are chiefly remedial, and which can not properly be characterized as systems of insurance. During the year 1899, one of the largest orders providing this kind of benefits expended $3,119,- 125.47 in relief work. Yet the organization in question is not a fraternal insm-ance society. It simply does relief work on a grand scale. Very different in nature are the benefit systems and pro- tective features of the other half of the fraternal system. The societies of this class may engage in rehef work similar to that of the other class, but they attempt more and something fundamentally different. They bind themselves by contract to pay a certain sum of money as relief, benefit, or protection, on the occurrence of certain events; such as sickness, disabihty, death, etc. The important consideration in these cases is the fact that a specific sum of money is to be paid to some bene- ficiary as soon as certain designated contingencies have arisen. This sum of money is named in the certificate, together with the name of the beneficiary, the amount of his periodical con- tributions, etc. In view of the fact that so many persons con- nected with fraternal societies object to the use of old line terms, it may be well to explain that the writer selected the title of this paper, Fraternal Insurance, after some dehberation. It is his intention to confine this discussion to what is ex- pressed in the title ; namely, to insurance carried on l^y frater- nal societies. Here one is at once met by the objection that 232 FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 233 fraternal societies, as a class, do not enpjage in insurance busi- ness, and that they are far removed from the material motives of speculative hisurance companies. The answer to these objections is apparent: Any organization which guarantees the paj^ment of a definite sum of money, under certain circum- stances, dependent upon the contingencies of human life, in return for certain contributions, does an insurance business. We may call the document relating to this arrangement a certificate; the payments made periodically contril^utions, fees, dues, etc.; the final payment, on the occurrence of the specified contingencies, benefits; the whole is nevertheless an insurance contract, pure and simple, and the society issuing such a certificate is doing an insurance business, subject to all the laws and principles applicable to insurance in general. This last proposition, long accepted by a few fraternal societies and ignored or bitterly contested by many others, deserves especial emphasis. The dual nature of fraternal societies has proljably been partly responsible for the perpetuation of the fallacy that insurance is one thing and that fraternal insurance is another and a different thing. The fraternal societies falling wdthin the scope of this essay — one half of the total number — are both fraternities and insurance companies, the fraternal element sometimes overshadowing the beneficiary features, or vice versa. It is probable that the cohesive power of numerous societies doing an insurance business would fail, were not the fraternal features so potent. In the preservation and exten- sion of the field w^hich the fraternal element has gained, and in the thorough reformation of defective benefit systems must Ue the future development of the entire fraternal system. Evidence to show the existence of defective schemes of fraternal msurance is not far to seek. In a circular issued by one fraternal society the position is maintained that mor- tality experience cannot be reduced to law ! Another attempts to prove that the addition of new memljers w^ill ahvays keep the average age of the entire membership down to a cer- tain level, and that with additional effort the same can per- manently be reduced. How to do this — to follow the argu- ment to its logical conclusion — without ultimately including 234 B. H. MEYER the population of the world, and then making the populated globe larger, the author does not explain. Still another asserts that the death of some members soon after joining the order does not weaken the association. The first death in the order is a case in point. Our deceased friend held a $3,000 contract and had paid only one assessment of $3. The amount placed in the reserve fund by reason of his death was, therefore, $897. This was loaned at 5 per cent, and brings in $44.85 per year. If he had lived, the most he could have paid in twelve assess- ments would have been $36 a year. Yet the sum that his death added to the reserve fund is earning more than that, and in time will make good the amount paid to his beneficiaries. In spite of such gross fallacies this society is gaining members rapidly in one of our greatest commonwealths. It would be a thankless task to rehearse the long tale of failures among fraternal societies. Besides, old line companies and other departments of the mercantile world have had their epidemics of financial ruin. Yet, excepting paper money crazes, history probably affords no parallel to the blind and persistent adhesion which so many people in all parts of the United States have shown to hopelessly unsound schemes of fraternal insurance. An examination of many such schemes leaves upon one the impression that their promoters thought of certain sums of money to be paid as benefits under certain conditions on the one hand; and of certain contributions which it might be convenient to make, on the other; without appar- ently reflecting upon a possible causal connection between the two. The history of such organizations is quite generally the same. A rapid increase in membership, possibly also a simul- taneous reduction in the average age ; a gradual increase in the death rate, accompanied by increasing difficulty in securing new members; an increase in assessments or rates and loss of members, or an attempt to slide along without raising assess- ments; and finally, financial failure. That some fraternal societies are thoroughly sound, financially, and that others have successfully advanced rates and maintained the integrity of their organizations does not affect this general statement. On the other hand, the very fact that an increase in contribu- FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 235 tions was found necessary in various societies is prima facie evidence that the original scheme was financially unsound. A late and important failure illustrates this. At the time of organization no attention was paid to mortality tables. As the members began to grow old and the dues increased, it was found that the assessments had been fixed too low to meet the obligations. At various times since the institution of the order it has been found necessary to increase the assess- ments, but old members agreed to pay the increase because they had reached an age when insurance in a regular life com- pany could no longer be obtained. Another inducement for continuing m spite of the larger assessments was the fact that they had so much money invested in the organization that they felt they could not afford to lose it. The proceedings of the National Fraternal congress for 1899 found that the rates paid for the same kind of insurance, at the same age, in different societies, w^ere: at the age of 30 from 25 cents to $1.40; at the age of 50 from 65 cents to $3.80. Still more elaborate comparisons are made in the sub- joined table, exhibiting, except in columns 1, 11 and 12, level annual rates for $1,000 of w^hole fife insurance. Column 1 gives ages. Column 2 gives the net annual level premiums based upon the American experience table, with 4 per cent interest. Since net premiums provide for the so-called reserve and mortality elements only, but not for the loading or expense element, the premium actually collected, gross or oflftce pre- mium, must be considerably in excess of what is indicated in this column. The assumed rate of interest is perhaps too high for a time when a number of leading companies are going over to a 3 per cent basis. This would necessitate another addition to the net premium, for the lower the assumed rate of interest, the higher must the premium be. Column 3 contains the net annual level rate per $1,000 of w^hole life insurance, adopted and recommended by the National Fraternal congress. Columns 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show the rates collected by as many different fraternal societies for $1,000 of whole life insurance. For columns 5, 8 and 9 the annual rate was secured by multiplying the monthly rate by twelve. The product is 236 B. H. MEYER Comparative Exhibit of Fraternal and American Experience Tables. d bo Level Annual of Insurance. Premiums for $1,000. Probability of Dying. 1 24 34 4. 5.* 6. 7. 8.* 9* lO.t 11. 12. 21 13.95 10.63 7.08 r 4.80 4,80 f 9,60 f 8.40 7.56 14.73 .0078.55 .005035 23 13.34 10.93 7.32 '• 10,40 " 7.68 1.5.04 .ooiyoo .005071 23 13.54 11.34 7.68 " 11 • • 7.80 15.38 .007958 .005107 24 13.87 11.57 7.93 • ' •• J •' '• 7.92 15.74 .008011 .005153 35 14.21 11.92 8.16 1 " J • i 'I 8.04 16.11 .008065 .005201 2R 14.57 13.28 8.40 " • > • I '• 8.16 16.51 .008130 .005359 27 14.95 12.67 8 76 " 11 11 " 8.40 16.92 .008197 00.5318 28 15.35 13.08 9.00 " >• f 11.20 " 8.64 17.35 .008364 .005388 B9 15.77 13.51 9.36 f 5.40 r 5.40 " 8.88 17.81 .008345 .005469 30 16.31 13.96 9.73 1 f 10.08 9.02 18.38 008427 .005552 31 16.68 14.43 10.08 " 1 " I " 9.26 18.79 .008510 .005647 33 17.18 14.94 10.56 " >l j ^^;?^ •' 9.50 19.33 .008607 .005753 33 17.70 15.47 11.04 J " " " 9.74 19.87 008718 .005872 34 18.35 16.03 11.40 " r 6.00 i " " 9.98 30.46 .008831 .006004 35 18.84 16.62 11.76 " j 13.80 •• 10.23 31.08 .008946 .006149 3fi 19.46 17.34 13.24 " " 10.46 21.74 .009089 ,006307 37 30.13 17.90 13.73 • • i " 1 " f 12.00 10.70 33.43 009234 .006490 38 20.82 18.60 13.08 f 6 00 i> 1 " 11.06 33.16 .009408 .006698 39 31.57 19.34 13.80 '■ 6.60 1 13.60 •' 11.43 23.93 .009.586 .006931 40 22.35 20.11 14.40 " J " 12.00 24.75 .009794 .007171 41 33.19 30 93 15.13 • ' 11 { 14.40 " 13.20 35.63 .010008 .007448 42 24.08 21.80 15.84 r 6.60 ] 7.20 f " 14.40 26.54 .010253 .007766 43 25.03 22.73 16.56 " ^ 15.20 " 15.60 27.53 .010517 .008113 44 36.04 23.69 17.28 J • ' i " f 14.40 16.80 38.56 010839 .008481 45 37.13 24.72 18.13 • 1 7.80 { 16.80 " 17.00 39.67 .011163 .008867 46 28.27 25.81 18.96 " 8.40 " 18.30 30.84 .011562 009387 47 39 50 26.91 19.80 7.20 9.00 " 19.40 33.09 .013000 .009754 48 30.81 28 20 20.76 7.80 9.60 f 17.60 " 30.60 33.43 .013509 .0103693 49 33.21 29.51 21.72 8.40 10.30 \ " 31.80 34.85 .013106 .0108238 50 33.70 30.98 33.80 9.00 10.80 19,20 33.00 36.36 .013781 .0114440 51 35.39 33.39 34.00 9.60 11,40 37.97 .014541 .0131337 53 36.98 33.97 25.20 10 20 13,00 39.68 .01.5389 .0128970 53 88.79 35.65 26.64 10.80 13 60 41.51 .016333 .0137511 54 40.73 37.45 28.08 11.40 13,80 43.46 .017396 .0146767 55 43.79 39.36 13.00 15.00 45.54 .018571 .01570.54 5R 45.00 41.41 12.00 4T.76 .019885 .0168587 57 47.35 43 60 13.20 50.13 .021335 .0181200 58 49,87 45.94 13.80 53.66 023936 .0194994 5q 62.57 48.45 14.40 55.37 .034730 0210.513 fiO 55.45 51.13 15.00 58.37 .036693 .0237504 61 58. 54 15 60 .038880 .0346434 63 61 84 16.30 .031293 0267340 63 65.39 16.80 .033943 .0290380 64 69.18 17.40 .036873 .0315711 65 73.35 18.00 .040139 0343904 * Secured by multiplying the monthly rate by twelve. J Gross premiums. Net premiums. consequently too large, for monthly payments must neces- sarily be greater than one twelfth of the annual premium, to compensate for loss of interest and the lesser losses due to intervening mortality. Annual premiums are always sup- posed to be paid at the beginning of the year, thus giving the society the benefit of the interest earnings during the year. In case of monthly payments these earnings are appreciably smaller because of the reduced periods of time during which loans can be made. Column 10 exhibits the gross or office level annual premiums charged by a society which aims to provide pure insurance at the lowest possible cost under a FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 237 mutual system. This tabic has tho sanction of able actuaries. Columns 11 and 12 show the probability of dying according to the American experience and National Fraternal congress tables respectively. In these columns one finds the reason for the differences existing between columns 2 and 3, the prob- ability of dying being correspondingly lower in column 12. It will be noticed that the premiums in colunrn 3 are approximately one sixth lower than those in column 2, up to age thirty five; and that for ages above thirty five they are only about one tenth lower. Although the rates of column 4 are generally one third below those of the fraternal congress, they show system and careful calculation, as a comparison with columns 2 and 11 and 12 will readily reveal. Columns 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are fair examples of that type of fraternal societies which attempt to make the world believe that accept- ed mortality tables are thoroughly bad, and that they can furnish insurance or protection at rates from one half or one third to one fourth of old fine rates. They promise benefits out of all proportion to the contributions made, and sooner or later go into inevitable ruin. Column 10 shows the table of rates prepared by competent actuaries for a society which aims to furnish insurance at the lowest possible cost consistent with safety and efficiency. This society, furthermore, aims to eliminate the investment features from its insurance, and to restrict its business to the furnishing of mere life protection. If the relief work of many fraternal societies may be character- ized as remedial, the insurance of this society may be described as preventive, just as tout me and semi-tontine policies may be termed speculative. Modem life insurance as a whole is primarily preventive; whereas in its beginnings, insurance was chiefly remedial. The transition from the remedial to the preventive form was made possible only by the scientific formulation of accumulated experience, and the transaction of insurance business on the basis of this experience. Ac- cumulated experience eliminated gradually the chance or speculative element which was so prominent in some earlier forms of insurance, such as the maritime or sea loan, in con- nection with which some life underwriting was also done. Although an element of speculation still survives and the in- 238 B. F. MEYER vestment features of many policies are predominant, modem life insurance is the greatest engine of prevention which the world has known. Failure to recognize the scientific truth that the efficiency of this preventive work depends absolutely upon rigid adherence to health experience has not only brought disaster to thousands of fraternal societies, but has tended to throw the entire fraternal system into disrepute, as well as to discredit insurance in every other form. The fact is, therefore, worthy of emphasis that the Nation- al Fraternal congress has for some time recommended a table of rates (column 3) which is the result of years of work of a standing committee of this body. Like all other scientific tables of rates, this is based upon a mortality table. Only a part of the fraternal congress mortality table is given in col- umn 12. The committee took into consideration the published experience of old line companies in the United States and several foreign countries, and the experience of several of the largest and oldest fraternal societies in this coimtry. The conamittee was unanimously of the opinion that the actuaries' and American experience tables are too high both from the experience of the old line companies and from that of fraternal societies. Having reached this conclusion, the committee combined the various actual mortality experiences into a new mortality table. The latter was made the basis of the premium rates in column 3; and, in addition, of step-rate and modified step-rate plans. A fraternal society might accept the mortal- ity table without adopting the schedule of rates. For in- stance, column 3 assumes 4 per cent interest. This is probably too high for the present; hence, a society desiring to assume an interest basis of 3 or 34 per cent could construct its own tables on the basis of the mortality table, giving it, of course, a higher rate of net annual level premiums than those of col- unm 3. The chief significance of the work of this committee on rates Ues in the official recognition which has repeatedly been given by fraternalists to this kind of work, and the in- ference that any fraternal society whose experience is more unfavorable than that assumed in the fraternal congress tables is faulty either in plan or management, or both. It is doubt- ful, however, whether fraternalists as a body sufficiently FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 239 realize the a(lvaiita«z;e of assumin^i; a more unfavorable mortal- ity rate than their own experience realizes. No one will he inclined to question the desirability if not also the necessity of errinji; on this side of the line. Here we are confronted by the question of reserve and surplus. An ideal system of pure life insurance would be one in which the actual experience is identical with that assumed in the mortality table upon which the organization in question bases its tables of premium rates; in which the interest earn- ings are exactly equal to the assumed rate; in which the ex- penses of management absorb only the sums set apart as load- ing; and in which there exist no lapses, surrender values, etc. It is needless to add that such an ideal can never be fully real- ized in practice. To base gross premiums or assessments on the lowest possible death rate, a high rate of interest, and the least allowance for expenses of management, and then en- counter experience more unfavorable than that which was assumed in estimating premiums, in any one or more of these lines, if continued for a longer or shorter period of time, can result in nothing but failure. To assume too high a rate of mortality, too low a rate of interest, and too heavy an expense in administration, makes premiums unnecessarily high, and results in the accumulation of a large surplus. This is what fraternal societies object to ; yet, if an error is made, it should certainly be made in this rather than in the opposite direction; and with wise management, under a participating system, a distribution of these accumulated funds w411 ultimately be of benefit to the policy holder. With a relatively small number of exceptions, fraternal insurance societies have erred not only in neglecting scientific mortality tables, but also in assuming experiences much too favorable under present social condi- tions. On the other hand, their aim to provide pure insurance at the lowest possible cost is a laudable one, and, when ac- cepted business methods are pursued, capable of diffusing great benefits among members. The accumulation of an enormous surplus is considered inconsistent with fraternal principles; yet it should be added that the accumulation of no surplus whatever is probably always (except in natural plans) inconsistent with safe business principles, because it 240 B. F. MEYER signifies either that interest, cost of insurance, and loadrng, as assumed, are exactly reahzed in practice, in which case the ideal would have been attained; or, which would be disastrous, that experience is more unfavorable than the assumptions on which the business is based. Prudence would dictate that at least a small margin should be allowed for adverse conditions. So much for the question of a surplus. Somewhat different in nature but of even greater impor- tance is the question of a reserve. The National Fraternal congress has almost from the very first included this among the subjects for discussion, and the organization of an Amer- ican fraternal congress at Omaha, in October, 1898, making the chief quahfication for membership the adoption of a re- serve system, is significant in that it shows a well niarked division of opinion among fraternalists on the question of reserves. The National Fraternal congress has not yet taken steps making it obligatory on the part of its members to adopt a reserve fund; yet, speakers before this body have repeatedly urged the necessity of adopting reserve systems. A number of societies — consistent with the traditional fraternal dislike for old line terms— have established safety or emergency funds, which are technically reserve funds. Several prominent fraternalists expressed their approval of both a reserve and a natural plan before the National Fraternal congress of 1900, and similar utterances were made before the same congress during earlier years, notably in 1893, 1894 and 1898. ^ An ex- amination of all the proceedings of this congress gives the reader the impression that there is an unmistakable tendency among fraternal insurance societies toward the reserve or natural premium plans, especially the former. Disregarding several minor considerations, under a reserve plan the premiums are level, i. e., do not vary in amount during the premium paying period of the pohcy. Since the cost of insurance — i. e., moneys required to meet current mortality losses — increases with increasing age, it follows that under a level premium system the earlier premiums are greater and the later premium payments less than the cost of insurance for the age represented by the pohcy holder in question. That part of the level premiums which is in excess of the current cost of FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 241 insuranre is improved with intorosi and roscrvod to counter- balance the deficiencies of hiter level premiums. In other words, every level premium embraces an investment reserve, in addition to other elements which need not be discussed here, with which future losses are met. Under a natural premium plan the policy holder — again disregarding loading, etc. — pays just enough to cover the cost of insurance for his age, and no more. Natural premiums are, consequently, low during youth and increase with advancing years, until finally they become practically prohibitive. Assuming that the premiums are payable at the beginning of the year, it is evident that even under the natural system some reserve exists with which to meet losses during the year. This form of reserve may be termed insurance reserve. It is used to meet current losses and is greatest at the very opening of the year, gradually decreasing until at the end of the year it is completely ex- hausted. The tables of the fraternal congress admit of both the reserve and the natural premium plans. The reserve plan involves the adoption of a level premium table like that given in colunrn 3 of the comparative exhibit, and the natural plan is illustrated in the table given below. Both tables of rates are based upon the same mortality tables. The committee on rates of the fraternal congress has also prepared other modifi- cations of the natural plan, but this one will suffice for purposes of illustration. Step-Rate AND Modifications. 1. Ages. 2. Annual. 3. Monthly. 4. Monthly. 5. Monthly. 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61- $ 5.11 5.40 5.93 6.71 8.14 10.25 13.82 19.60 54.01 $ 45 48 52 59 72 90 1.21 1.72 4.73 $ 60 63 67 74 87 1.05 1.36 1.87 3.00 $ 75 78 82 89 1.02 1.20 1.51 2.02 2.50 Vol. 10—16 242 B. F. MEYER The report of the committee contains the following expla- nation of this table : Column 2 gives the annual rates for the natural step-rate to age 61, and a level rate from that age for the balance of life. Column 3, the monthly rates as derived from the annual rates, with allowance for slight loss due to that method of payment. These two columns are the basis for calculating columns 4 and 5. Column 4 shows a modifica- tion of the natural step-rate by means of an accumulation of 15 cents per month, which is used to reduce the level cost from age 61 to $3.00 per month. Column 5, a similar modification, but with an accumulation of 30 cents per month and a level cost from age 61 of $2.50 per month. Under either of these plans all members pay the same rates at the same attained ages. The purpose in view in these tables is to have a plan that requires but little detail in its operation, so as to be readily comprehended by the officers of the local lodges. It will be noticed that an accumulation is provided for in the rates, of colunms 4 and 5. This is technically a form of reserve, and in so far as these accumulated funds permit the payment of premiums at advanced ages smaller than the cost of insurance, they perform exactly the same function as those performed by the reserve under the level premium system. The expediency of such an accumulation plan can scarcely be questioned. Fraternal societies have suffered again and again from losses in membership due to an increase in the size and number of assessments, or both. Men seem to object to constantly in- creasing payments, and in this lies the inherent weakness of the natural premium plan. It is thoroughly sound. It can not fail, but as a method of doing business it has serious faults ; and, as long as human nature remains what it has been and still is, the natural plan is open to strong objections. Remem- bering that out of every thousand fraternal policies ninety four lapsed during the year 1898, and that in one society nearly 23 per cent dropped out, it is safe to assume that a more general introduction of the natural premium plan can only result in a continued high rate of lapses. The present high rate of lapses is unquestionably the result of a variety of causes, but it seems improbable that a system of premiums steadily increasing with the advancing years of the policy holder should FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 243 do anything to check this movemonl. From a business point of view the afloi)tion of level rates seems most expedionl. Furthermore, since fraternal societies avowedly find their constituencies among persons of limited financial resources, and whose earning capacity sometimes decreases rapidly after middle life has been reached, the introduction of limited pay- ment certificates or policies is worth consideration. Not only does the natural plan with its markedly rising cost of insurance in the higher ages levy a severe tax on the earnings of the small policy holder, but the level premiums even may become too burdensome. Fraternal societies strive to furnish, among other benefits, pure whole life insurance. When this involves lifelong annual or other periodical payments, the policy holder can see no end except death, to the number of his contribu- tions. This objection holds against all whole life, imlimited payments policies; and consequently all insurance organiza- tions must meet this proposition. It seems desirable that a person's heaviest contributions should fall within the most productive years of his life. Both the experience of fraternal societies with increasing assessments and the composition of their membership point to the desirability of the introduc- tion of some limited payment premium systems. Mortality tables can be elaborated with mathematical precision, and fraternal as well as commercial insurance ultimately rests upon the same insurance principles. Two important points of superiority claimed for fraternal insurance are better selection and lower expense rates. The former, it is claimed, is in part due to the double selection coincident with the lodge system, under which the medical examination of the applicant is supplemented by the test of meeting the approval of the mem- bership of the lodge. Points which might escape detection b}^ the medical examhier may be kno^^^l to individual lodge mem- bers, and this would be sufficient to reject the risk. The latter — the expense item — is made much of. By confining themselves to pure insurance, i. e., insurance free from invest- ment and speculative elements, fraternal societies claim that they can conduct their business with much greater economj^ Fraternal officers point ^^dth pride to an estimated average expense of $1.03 for ever}^ $1,000 of insurance in force among 244 B. F. MEYER the forty seven societies comprising the congress, while twenty eight old line companies, in their reports to insurance depart- ments, show an expense of $10.30 per $1,000, or exactly ten times as large. Because of the many differences existing in the two systems in the kinds of policies written, this comparison of expenses may require modification ; yet it must be admitted that the ambition of fraternal societies to furnish pure insur- ance at the lowest possible cost to the policy holder is a com- mendable one, and capable of diffusing the benefits of insur- ance among much wider circles than has hitherto been possible. Old line companies have been introducing reforms in their systems of paying commissions to agents; and the desirability of limiting, by statute, the aggregate amount of insurance in force in any one company has been seriously proposed by officials of our giant companies. The possibilities of the fra- ternal system, when once thoroughly reduced to a sound busi- ness basis, are practically unlimited. The demand for greater uniformity among the laws of the several states or for federal legislation is very strong. Some of the ablest and most prominent fraternal officials favor a federal law and national supervision. This involves consti- tutional questions concerning which nothing need be said in this connection. It also calls forth diverse opinions with respect to the question of greater centralization of power in the federal government. However, there can be but one opinion as to the desirability of greater uniformity, whether brought about by congressional action or by concerted move- ments in the different states. The National Fraternal congress, through its representatives, has for several years been striving to secure the adoption of the uniform bill, the chief contents of which can be briefly indicated. The bill is entitled. An act regulating fraternal beneficiary societies, orders or associations. Section 1 opens with a defini- tion, which is conspicuously wanting in most of the existing laws. This definition is but an elaboration of what were enu- merated as the essential characteristics of a fraternal society, at the organization meeting of the congress in 1886, and which have since been modified and repeated in successive editions of the constitution of the congress. No society is considered FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 245 fraternal unless it practices a ritual, has a system of lodges, a representative form of government, pays benefits, and does not conduct its business for profit. At the meetin^^ of the congress in 1900, a representative form of government was defined as **one in which there is a corporate meeting of the supreme legislative body, provided for as often as once every three years, to be composed of the officers and, in addition, delegates representing the membership; to which meeting sole power is given to adopt and amend by-laws, and to elect the chief officers of the order, and in which the term of no officer so elected shall be longer than until the next regular session of such governing body." Both the law and the constitution of the congress distinguish sharply between assessment and fra- ternal societies. A fraternal society may adopt an assessment system of benefits, but it must, in addition, possess all the other fraternal elements ; while an assessment society does not necessarily incorporate one or more of the fraternal charac- teristics. A fraternal society may consequently be an assess- ment society (imtil after the general adoption of level or step rates), but a pure assessment society is not a fraternal society. In some states special laws have been enacted to govern old line, assessment, and fraternal insurance organizations, re- spectively. Any society coming within the description just given, but organized under the laws of another state, may be admitted to a state having adopted the uniform law, by appointing the insurance commissioner as its legal representative, and filing its charter, constitution, etc., for which a small fee is charged. Societies of other states, on application, may be examined by the insurance commissioner at a cost not to exceed $50, in certain cases. The president of the last congress, in his annual report, favors a graduation of fees for examination, var^^ing from $100 to $500, depending upon the membership of the society examined. That the limitation of fees to be paid to examiners is necessary, the experience of one large order demonstrates. This society uncomplainingly paid $2,307.40 for an examination made, at its request, by the insurance de- partment of one of the states. Not long after, the officers of another state appeared, to make a similar examination. When 246 B. F. MEYER told of the thorough examination recently made by the officers of a different state, the society was informed that such an ex- amination could not be accepted by the department of this state. A second examination was made, for which the society paid $1,615.50. Irrespective of the merits of these two exami- nations, it is evident that in such damnable iteration hes a real evil which the law should remedy. A single thorough examination by competent men ought to be sufficient to satisfy every insurance department. The law allows a larger fee for the examination of societies which have a reserve fund, — the uniform bill providing that any fraternal beneficiary associa- tion may create, maintain, disburse and apply a reserve or emergency fund in accordance with its constitution or by-laws. The proposed law calls for an annual report to the commis- sioner of insurance, embracing twenty five items. Such report shall be in lieu of all other reports required by any other law, thus doing away with the objectionable multiphcity of reports. The twenty five items in the report, taken collectively, are sufficiently comprehensive in their scope to give the officers of the state an intelligent view of the condition of the organiza- tion submitting the same. However, the conmiissioner of insurance is authorized to address any additional inquiries to any such organization in relation to its doings or condition, or any other matter connected with its transactions. The incorporation of new societies is provided for; and the employ- ment of paid agents, except in the organization or building up of subordinate bodies, is prohibited. The present laws of several states contain an absurd provision making the em- ployment of a paid agent a chief test of the fraternal character of the organization. It is needless to add that the employment of any agent, paid or impaid, to solicit insurance for an organi- zation which does not provide insurance which is absolutely sound should be forbidden. That provision of the proposed law which makes a contract invalid if the beneficiary agrees to pay the dues of the member is of doubtful utility, because numerous instances may arise in which such a course of pro- cedure would be beneficial to both parties. The usual pen- alties are imposed for violations of the law; methods of judicial FRATERNAL INSURANCE IN AMERICA 247 procedure are described; and all previous laws inconsistent with the act repealed. The National Fraternal congress has repeatedly been men- tioned. Without fear of successful contradiction, one may say imhesitatingly that no other factor in the fraternal world to-day approaches in its importance the national congress. A careful study of the proceedings of this body will convince the student that from first to last it has stood for enlightened and progressive measures which have long begun to bear fruit in the reforms which have resulted from them. The idea of such a congress originated in the state of New York, where the local societies had organized a state federation for the promotion of their o\vn interests. In response to a call issued by the Ancient Order of United Workmen, the father of modem fratemalism in the United States, a convention of representatives of fraternal societies was held in Washington, D. C, in November, 1886. This organization session in- cluded delegates from seventeen orders with an aggregate membership of 535,000, carrying insurance to the amount of 1,200 millions. The latest congress embraced forty seven orders ^\ith an aggregate membership of 2,668,649, carrjdng insurance to the amount of 4,021 millions of dollars and having paid over thirty eight millions in benefits during the year. These statements reflect the magnitude of the interests cen- tered in the National Fraternal congress. The objects of the congress, as defined in its constitution, are declared to be the uniting permanently of all legitimate fraternal benefit societies for the purposes of mutual information, benefit and protection. Representation in the congress is graded according to the mem- bership of the respective societies. Eligibility for membership on the part of a society is contingent upon meeting the require- ments of the definition of a fraternal society, contained in the uniform bill discussed above, which, in turn, is but a modified statement of the distinctive features of a fraternal benefit society as enumerated in a clause of the constitution of the congress from the time of its organization. Membership in the congress further involves the payment of an annual fee, vary- ing from thirty five to one hundred and fifty dollars. The constitution institutes the usual set of officers with customary 248 B. F. MEYER duties, and establishes seven standing committees dealing with the constitution and laws, statutory legislation, credentials and finance, statistics and good of the orders, fraternal press, jurisprudence and medical examinations, respectively. The powers and duties of these committees are also defined. Fi- nally, the constitution repudiates the speculative societies, whose chief aim is to pay sums of money to members during life, without regard to distress or physical disability; and de- clares that the aims of such societies are entirely opposed to the principles upon which the fraternal beneficiary societies are founded, and by virtue of which they exist. The congress meets partly in sections, the two chief sections being the medi- cal and that on the fraternal press. The latter, by imifying and uniting the interests of the various fraternal publications, is capable of diffusing the knowledge which is essential for the permanent establishment of a sound understanding and the full recognition of true conditions. The former has been aim- ing at the improvement of medical selection. The personal element being so important in the fraternal system, greater care and efficiency in the selection of risks reacts favorably upon the personal habits of members. A thorough medical examination as a necessary preliminary for participation in a system of benefits is a valuable lesson in right living. A bureau of information has also been proposed and discussed. The helpfulness of such a bureau can scarcely be overestimated, for, as a whole, the system is suffering from want of sufficient and accurate information. Not until the accumulated experi- ence of fraternal societies has been scientifically formulated and appHed to their financial operations can fraternal insur- ance be said to have reached the dignity of an economic in- stitution. One society has adopted the combined experience of four other orders, until its own experience may have be- come sufficiently comprehensive. This is correct in principle, and will tend to banish the grotesque systems of guess work which at present are altogether too common. GROWTH OF SECRET SOCIETIES. BY WILLIAH WALLACE PHELPS. [William Wallace Phelps, attornoy; born Red Wing, Minn., 1869; educated at the University of Michigan and Yale university, graduating from the law department of Yale in 1894, since which time he has been engaged in the practice of law; has made a thorough study of secret societies, their history, methods and influence upon Amer- ican life. Author of many articles, especially on legal topics.] Every fifth man with whom you shake hands in the United States is a member of a secret organization, counting out his possible college fraternity. Ten years ago a liberal estimate was one man to every eight in secret orders. At the present rate of growth in the United States the present ratio of one to five may be three to five in 1914. For in the United States, where the population increases one tenth in a decade, the figures of the secret societies in ten years have been almost doubled. In the year of 1904 the figures of the secret orders, re- ported by the central organizations, show a membership of 7,414,173. In 1894 these figures, reported in the same manner, showed a membership of only 4,126,375. Thus while the population of the United States was in- creasing a possible 20,000,000, the memberships in the secret societies were increasing nearly 3,300,000 — a virtual doubling of these memberships. Considering these figures for ten years in their application to the whole country, there is a striking comparison in the statement that in the last year in Illinois the increase in the memberships of masonic lodges is greater than ever before in the history of the state. A tabulated statement of the memberships in secret so- cieties for 1894 and for 1904 shows in detail where these gains have come in for the secret orders. The table is not complete as to all organizations in detail, but the sums in total are as nearly correct as may be possible : 249 250 WILLIAM WALLACE PHELPS 1894. 1904. Oddfellows 746,484 1,193,749 Free Masons 722,333 965,000 Knights of Pythias 413,944 562,327 Ancient Order of United Workmen .... 325,000 460,000 Junior Order of United Mechanics 175,000 116,106 Improved Order of Red Men 153,550 334,495 Knights of Honor 129,128 52,000 Royal Arcanum 143,368 277,974 Ancient Order of Hibernians of America . 100,000 145,000 Ancient Order of Foresters of America 115,000 221,974 Knights of the Maccabees 96,338 350,441 Knights and Ladies of Honor 73,000 73,000 Modern Woodmen of America 85,617 711,923 Sons of Temperance 67,603 34,789 American Legion of Honor 62,303 Order of United Mechanics 50,464 43,582 Ladies of the Maccabees 130,268 Knights of the Modern Maccabees 115,522 Knights of Columbus 98,000 Ladies' Catholic Benevolent association 87,400 Knights of the Golden Eagle 70,000 Tribe of Ben Hur 68,813 Woodmen of the World 217,000 Knights of Malta 27,000 Equitable Aid union 37,460 National Union 34,678 67,223 Royal Templars of Temperance 27,311 Order of Chosen Friends 41,274 Cathohc Mutual Benefit association. . . 38,000 62,000 Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks 35,000 154,000 CathoHc Benevolent Legion 32,000 38,286 Ancient Order of Foresters 30,428 38,789 Independent Order of B'nai B'rith .... 30,000 30,000 Brotherhood of Raihvay Trainmen .... 25,000 Catholic Knights of America 24,000 Order of United Friends 20,164 Order of the Golden Cross 20,275 United Order of Pilgrim Fathers 15,600 Ancient Order of Druids 15,000 Improved Order of Heptasophs 15,217 57,255 Order of Eagles 67,000 GROWTH OF SECRET SOCIETIES 251 Court of Honor 66,449 Protected Hoiik^ Circh^ 55,000 B'rith Abraham Order 42,781 Brotherhood of American Yeomen 37,684 Order of Gleaners 37,400 Independent Order of Foresters 220,000 New England Order of Protection .... 14,996 33,361 Royal Society of Good Fellows 11,055 Smaller organizations 190,000 361,592 Total 4,126,375 7,414,173 Some of the societies not mentioned in the reports ten years ago are shown in the reports of the present year as having large memberships, while some of those making a showing at that time have disappeared altogether. At the head of the list, however, the Odd Fellows, the Freemasons, and the Knights of Pythias show where nearly 1,000,000 of the increase in memberships has come. Other fraternal organizations have outgrown these pio- neers in secret orders. With the accentuated insurance features of many of these, however, the comparisons are lost in great measure. Figures for the Modern Woodmen of America in- dicate a growth of more than 600,000 in ten years; the Inde- pendent Order of Foresters is listed for the first time with 220,- 000 members; the Woodmen of the World show 217,000; the Knights of the Maccabees show 160,000; and the Improved Order of Red Men nearly 200,000, while in the grouped smaller organizations the increase is nearly 200,000 in ten years. These phenomenal growths in secret societies in America probably will appeal as strongly to the anti-secret society element as they can to the secret orders themselves. Masonry, as one of the oldest of these orders, has been the target for attacks, criticisms, vituperations, and exposes, beyond the records of any other secret body. But its figures of growth are second only to those of the order of Odd Fellows. This growth, too, has been in the face of the admonition to all mem- bers of masonic orders that they shall not invite any man to become a mason. This admonition is as binding as a law, said Banker Leroy A. Goddard, grand treasurer of the grand lodge of free and 252 WILLIAM WALLACE PHELPS accepted masons of Illinois and the high priest of the royal arch masons of the state. Did any mason ever ask you to join his lodge? I think not; you might ask a hundred outsiders anjrwhere in the city and hear the same negative answer. Yet in view of this statement, the lodges of Illinois have shown a net increase of 4,254 members for the year ending on June 30, while the gross increase over all deaths, withdrawals, and ex- pulsions is 7,455. At that date, too, the total membership for the state was 70,921. For this phenomenal growth in the last year it would be hard to give a material reason ; that is, a reason showing causes over another year's figures. Good times always has its in- fluences upon new memberships, just as it influences other actions of men where money is to be expended for any purpose. But it may be said that ever since the Civil war the growth of masonry in this country has been steady and without a hitch. There is no other reason at the bottom than that masonry is holding out something to men which they can not get any- where else. It is the unspoken influence of the individual mason which impels the man outside the organization to ask to come into it. This individual, in seeking so come in, will be called upon for witnesses to his good character and to the good motives prompting him to seek entrance into the order. Two men at least will have to testify to these qualifications, and when these have testified, a committee takes up the ques- tion and passes finally upon the merits of the candidate. The greatest critic of masonry will not find ground for questioning the manner in which masonic memberships are acquired. And it may be said that when a lodge has been formed, its memberships will rank with any similar order or brotherhood in existence. There are 732 lodges in Illinois, for instance, and at the annual meeting of the grand lodge there are virtually 1,000 delegates to it, gathered into the hall. In the personality of these men there is no governmental body in the United States that will overshadow these delegates in character and intellect and genuine democracy. There is no caste spirit in masonry, and to this extent the mason in his lodge rooms is in an atmosphere that he can not find anywhere else. Out in the world, in any walk of life, he GROWTH OF SECRET SOCIETIES 253 feels the competition of casle, and wenltli, and plaro; in his lodge a mason is a mason, neither l)elter nor worse than an- other. No member could say, "1 am better than you," for the reason that there is no call for such a feeling, to say noth- ing of its expression. There are benefits in material ways in memberships in the \ masonic order, but they are benefits so wholly incidental that they fade into insignificance compared with the moral and spiritual benefits. So clearly is this recognized in the order, and so vital is the principle, that any candidate suspected of counting upon these material advantages would be denied ad- mission to the society. Death benefits and relief to the widow- ed and the orphaned grow out of the brotherhood when broth- erly sympathies have been awakened. They are not things to induce brotherhood as a mere means to a selfish end. It is recognized that the growth in all secret orders in this country in the main has l)een steady and large. Without taking to masonry too much of the glory possible to the condi- tions, I w^ould say at the least that the influence of masonry has been reflected in every one of these secret orders. Since the eighteenth century the influence of the organization has been felt among men. Attacks of all kinds have been made upon it, but it has grown steadily in spite of all. To-day, if a man would know what masonry is, let him judge by the ma- sons. PRINCIPLES OF REFORM IN PENAL LAW. BY CHARLTON T. LEWIS. [Charlton Thomas Lewis, lawyer; born West Chester, Pa., February 25, 1834; pre- pared for college at West Chester High school; graduated Yale, 1853; studied law 1853-4; studied for Methodist ministry, 1855-6; professor of languages, Illinois normal university, 1856-7; professor mathematics Troy university, 1858; Greek, 1859-62; U. S. Deputy commissioner of internal revenue, 1863-4; practiced law in New York, 1864-70; managing editor New York Post, 1870-1,; secretary and treasurer New York Chamber Life Insurance, 1873-7; practiced law in N'ew York since 1877.] The traditional methods of dealing with crime and the conceptions and habits of thought which sustain them form a stronghold of conservatism. To attack it is to meet the re- proach of devotion to mere theory and abandonment of practi- cal good sense. It is time for reformers to show that the re- proach properly falls upon prevaihng notions and practices, and that there is a pressing necessity for a scientific study of the subject in the light of human nature and of experience. Penal law as it exists has grown out of the theoretic study of crime as an entity. Its proper basis is the practical study of criminals as men. Its lack of a controlling principle is not merely a fatal defect in its theory, but makes it, if not value- less, of very imperfect utility. The end in view in society's dealing with crime should be its own protection. The ideal to be held before it is the elimi- nation of crime. This aim is already recognized in many branches of law and administration as a potent motive. The police system is organized for the prevention of crime. Pub- lic education is largely supported with the same end in view. Many costly institutions, such as houses of refuge, protectories and juvenile reformatories, are maintained by the state mainly in the hope that characters tending to criminality may be diverted to true citizenship. But the general system of deal- ing with actual offenders against the law has been framed with no such definite purpose. It has gradually grown up by the assumption on the part of organized society of the right of retaliation, modified more and more by a superficial conception of distributive justice. Our penal law now undertakes to assign to each offense a punishment proportioned to its de- 254 PRINCIPLES OF REFORM IN PENAL LAW 255 merits. The fundamental principle of any reform must lie in doing away entirely with the conception of a scale of desert among offenses, and in sul)stituting for it harmonious and consistent methods of dealing with each criminal, as the inter- ests of society demand. Instead of undertaking the impossi- ble task of inflicting just punishment for past acts, the law must seek to insure the avoidance of unsocial acts in the future. Thoughtful minds have been profoundly stirred in recent years by the obvious failure of our penal laws to suppress or diminish crime. Some of the causes of this failure are obvious, and efforts have been made in many jurisdictions to remove these by special laws or detailed amendments to existing codes. But these efforts have been largely fitful and experimental, not being founded upon any comprehensive principle inspiring the entire policy of the state. Among the obvious abuses of penal administration to which attention has been widely directed, the most conspicuous is the prevalent system of county jails. In the local prisons, for the detention of minor offenders and persons awaiting trial, the amelioration of conditions durmg the last century has been less marked than in any other public institutions known to our civiHzation. In 1827 the Reverend Sydney Smith \^Tote: "There are in every county in England large public schools, maintained at the expense of the county, for the encouragement of profligacy and vice and for providing for a proper succession of house breakers, profligates and thieves. They are schools, too, conducted without the slightest degree of partiality and favor, there being no man (however mean his birth or obscure his situation) who may not easily procure admission to them. The moment any yoimg person evidences the slightest propensity for these pursuits, he is pro- vided with good clothing and lodging and put to his studies under the most accomplished thieves and cut-throats the county can supply." These conditions have been largely changed in England, but they prevail to a surprising extent to-day in a majority of our states. It is a very general practice to pay the sheriffs or other officers in charge of the jails by a daily allowance for each prisoner, nominally for his support, but large enough to insure a substanial profit, so that the absolute master of the unfortunate inmates for the time being 256 CHARLTON T. LEWIS has a direct pecuniary interest in keeping them as long as possible in confinement and in feeding them cheaply. These jails are now the chief schools of crime and the great recruiting offices for the army of criminals. There are few habitual criminals but have been educated in them. In some counties there is no proper separation even of the sexes; in very many there is none between the convict and the accused, or even the witnesses under detention; between the profes- sional burglar or thief and the unruly boy. In nearly all, the inmates are chiefly idle. These monstrous conditions are main- tained by the local authorities, mainly on the pretext of econ- omy, in violation of the explicit laws of many states. They are attracting much attention, and in special instances have been mitigated. The fee system in the jails, too, must soon pass away. Reformers generally believe that all jails must be brought under the direct control of the state. Certain it is that the local jails in Great Britain, which were no better than ours before 1878, when they were brought under the cen- tralized administration of the home office, have been nearly freed from these evils. There has since been a large reduction of the number of inmates and even of the number of jails. There is reason to believe that the supply of criminals has been largely checked by the change. A similar centralization of control in our states would doubtless effect excellent results, if exclusion of political influences from the state prison au- thorities were assured. But another tendency is at work upon our laws which is at war with all reform. Every student must recognize the pernicious effect of short terms of imprisonment for minor offenses. Apart from the corrupting associations of most local jails, confinement for a few days or weeks is demoralizing and degrading. It brands the prisoner as a jail bird, and em- barrasses his future. He often comes out stripped of self respect, suspected and despised by others, and is driven per- manently into crime. Such sentences have no tendency to reform the erring. They are dictated solely by the absurd notion that they are fit punishment for minor offenses. But the number of such sentences is very great. Our police magistrates and petty tribunals are busy inflicting them. PRINCIPLES OF REFORM IN PENAL LAW 257 partly on rounders or habitual misdcmeananls, fic(|uently on the younj:; who have for once im{)ulsively or even inadver- tently gone wrong;. Now, while the uselessness and harmful- ness of such sentences are well understood, and while the courts, under the pressure of public opinion, are increasingly loath to inflict them, the number of offenses to which they are legally assigned is steadily increasing. As society grows in complexity and the standard of social conduct is raised, there is a constant increase in the recognized obligations of the individual. New rights and new duties emerge, and the violations of them become new crimes. It is often observed that the improvement of public order and of the general conscience are marked by an increase in the num- ber of legal offenders. For many acts are now prohibited as offenses upon which the laws w^ere formerly silent. Thus the business of criminal courts and prisons may be greater than before, when there is much less of real or serious crime. It has even been suggested that the increase of crime l^ecomes in this way a mark of advancing civilization. But the paradox is superficial, and turns upon an ambiguous use of the word crime. It is a fact, however, that legislatures in their desire to suppress any practice which is pernicious or inconvenient are prone to define it as a crime, and to make it punishable by a term in jail. Thus New York, within five years, has added about thirty to the list of offenses which the penal code de- nounces as worthy of imprisonment. Any person who lends or gives to another a newspaper chiefly made up of police re- ports must be sent to jail for at least ten days. One who sells a cigar on Sunday, or eats peanuts in a religious meetmg, or, bemg a nonresident, gathers oysters m the state, may be imprisoned for a few days or weeks. A multitude of acts which may easily be committed by mere inadvertence are made misdemeanors and may be punished by incarceration for any fraction of a year. The mother of a child whose eye is red from any cause, who does not at once inform a phj'sician ; the brakeman who couples a freight car after a passenger car; the citizen who advises his friend to leave the railroad service rather than wear a uniform; the layman who has an ounce of Vol. 10—17 258 CHARLTON T. LEWIS ether in his pocket without proof that he had no intention of improperly administering it as an anesthetic; each of these is a criminal before the law. If such statutes are enforced, they confound the public sense of justice, and become intolerably oppressive. But they can not be generally enforced, and their empty threats of severity bring law itself into contempt. The constant increase in the list of such offenses, however, adds materially to the number of moral and social victims of the local jails. In our modern penal codes, imprisonment has become the usual mode of punishment for almost every crime. The old fashioned spirit of vindictiveness which dictated the infliction of suffering upon offenders has passed away under humane influences. The whipping post, the pillory, mutilations of various kinds, have been superseded by terms of imprisonment, and the tendency of what is called scientific penal legislation is more and more to limit legal penalties to confinement of more or less severity and of greater or less duration. The question of what value there is in imprisonment, therefore, is of pressing importance, yet it can not be said ever to have been satis- factorily investigated. If imprisonment on the whole does good, it must be either, first, as a just retribution, the infliction of which satisfies the moral sense of the community; or, secondly, as disarming the enemy of society and so protecting the community against him; or, thirdly, as tending to the conciliation of the character at war with men, by making him fit for citizenship. A proper study of the subject will address itself to the actual efficiency of imprisonment as an agency for each of these three purposes. The conception of just punishment, though loosely held and associated vaguely with other ideas, is doubtless the foun- dation of penal law in the minds of most men. Incidentally it is at times insisted that the chief practical value of punishment lies in its deterrent influence. The fear of the penalty is sup- posed to prevent crime. This consideration often influences legislation, and sometimes shapes the sentences passed by courts; but all experience has shown that the real deterrent effectiveness of even the severest penalties is insignificant in its influence upon the volume of crime at large. In fact, it is PRINCIPLES OF REFORM IN PENAL LAW 259 hardly felt at all except by habitual criminals, and then mainly in determining them to avoid crimes which are easily detected. Upon offenses of sudden impulse, and upon the whole class of crimes which are first steps in a downward career, the threat of punishment has practically no influence. But the avowed purpose of every criminal code is to appor- tion penalties according to the demerit of offenses. If the attempt to do this is a failure the entire system must be re- jected as valueless. Now there is no superstition in the range of human thought more empty and unfounded than the belief that any penal code does or can assign punishments in any fair measure proportioned to the desert of offenses. The most superficial comparison of the codes of different states and coimtries will show, not only that no rational principle controls the actual assignment of penalties, but that no such principle can be found. Wio can measure the comparative merit of offenders by the names of particular acts which have been proved against them? The attempt to do so in legislation results in the most surprising inconsistencies. For example, as maximum penalties, Virginia inflicts six months' imprison- ment for incest, and eight years for bigamy, but Colorado assigns twenty years for incest and two years for bigamy. The guilt of forgery is to that of larceny as four to one in Kansas, and as one to four in Connecticut. The actual aver- age sentence inflicted in Maine for perjury is one year, but in Florida it is ten years. The average sentence for robbeiy in California is one year, in Alabama it is twenty two years. The man who in New York carries ether in his pocket, without proof that his intent is innocent, has precisely the same punish- ment denounced against him by law as the man who is guilty of incest or the man who attempts by poison to kill another; a penalty twice as great as is provided for the forger of stamps, the bigamist, the blackmailer, or the seducer under promise of marriage. These illustrations might be multiplied. There is not a page of any penal code in Christendom which does not suggest difficulties and embarrassments in the adjustment of punishments to crimes which are entirely insuperable. No rational purpose can be served by such a system. It is but the inertia of tradition and habit which preserves it. 26o CHARLTON T. LEWIS It being evident, then, that the conception of penal law as a system of just retribution is without validity and without utility, it remains to consider what service, if any, the practice of imprisonment renders to society. It must be admitted that life in confinement and cut off from association with others is unnatural. A long period of complete subjection to the will of others and without individual initiative, results, except for characters of unusual strength, in a paralysis of will. Nothing can unfit a man for society so surely as cutting him off from all society. It is, therefore, a first principle of reform that only necessity can justify imprisonment. A person who can be at large with safety to others ought never to be subject- ed to a term in prison. If it is unsafe for the community that he should be free, he must be confined; but the duration of con- finement must be determined by the duration of the necessity. In other words, the only rational system of imprisonment is that which limits its appHcation to those who can not be trusted in freedom with safety for the rights of others, and all such should be subjected to such influences as will, if possible, prepare them for freedom, and released when they have given satisfactory evidence that confinement is no longer necessary. This is the great principle of the indeterminate sentence, which is the recognized basis of reform legislation in many of the states of the union; but it has been as yet timidly and imper- fectly embodied even in the foremost penal codes. One of its most valuable features, to which too little attention has been directed, is that it leads to the permanent seclusion of the irreclaimable. If crime is ever to be extirpated, society must be resolute in its dealings with habitual and professional crimi- nals. Any system which treats a recognized enemy of human society on the basis of a single act, and fixes, in view of that act, a definite term at the end of which he must be freed, to prey upon his fellows, is a foreordained failure. It must not be disguised that these principles will neces- sarily lead to a large disuse of imprisonment. A growing sense of the evils which follow the practice, and especially of the fact that prisons and jails are the channels of supply for the criminal class at large, has already pressed strongly upon thoughtful men the necessity of finding a substitute for con- PRINCIPLES OF REFORM IN PENAL LAW 261 finement . The probation laws of Massachusetts and of several other states have made an important bc^inninj!; in this direc- tion. It has been found that multitudes of the young, who have seemingly set out on the way to a criminal life, can be diverted from it and made decent citizens, if instead of the contamination and weakening influence of imprisonment, they are subjected to proper moral and social supervision under the intelligent du-ection of the court. There can be no doul^t that the future progress of reform in penal law lies very largely in the direction of extending the scope of probation laws. In- deed, supervision and guidance by wise agencies wherever they have been applied to those who are discharged after a term of imprisonment, have been found at least as valualjle in their reformatory influence as the best systems of discipline and education within the walls of institutions. The more efficient- ly such supervision can be exercised, the more successful will be our campaign against crime ; and it is not too much to hope that in the progress of civilization the community at large will take, not only a deeper interest, but a progressively more active and useful part in this supervision. EVOLUTION IN REFORMATORY HETHODS. BY LYMAN D. DRAKE. [Lyman D. Drake, superintendent of the Iowa industrial home for boys, has been in charge of that institution since 1904; previously he was for sixteen years head of the manual training school at Boonville, Mo. ; Mr. Drake's theory is that the delinquent juveniles should be taught useful trades, and he has put these theories into practice by teaching such trades to more than 1,000 boys who have been under his direction.] Time writes many changes and has written them rapidly. This is true of institutions for juvenile delinquents, and the methods being pursued at present compared with those of the incipient days of so-called reformatories impress us with the rapid strides being made in this progressive age. Questions of economics and others of equal importance have claimed much of the best thought, and not until within the past quarter of a century has the social problem claimed more than passing attention and the scientific research neces- sary to the securing of best results. The achievements in this particular have been scarcely less than those attained by the arts and sciences. Each stimulated to greater activity in consequence of some material advancement, so that to-day in our retrospection we are filled with joy and satisfaction at the sight of nearly one hundred magnificent institutions, which are devoting both time and energy to the restoration of the delinquent children of our land. We must begin our investigation by going back to the seventeenth century, when the San Michale at Rome held the juvenile for restraint without thought for the welfare of the youth other than his confinement. Conditions did not im- prove with the establishment of other institutions, and not until late in the eighteenth century did the institutions of England and France of a similar character show any improve- ment. Early in the nineteenth century there came a ray of light and hope to the delinquent boy and girl, and this must be attributed to the wisdom of Dr. Wischern of Hamburg, Ger- many, who created Das Rauhe Haus in the year 1833, this institution being the first of the open institutions for the de- 262 EVOLUTION IN REFORMATORY METHODS 263 tent ion of juvenile offenders. The first institution founded in the United States was the result and consummation of a corporation organized in the city of New York. This was in the year 1824, and the institution above referred to afterward became the House of Refuge now located on Randal's island. In this house of refuge dependents, defectives, and delinquents were alike confined. Cellular confinement seemed to be the one idea; and while there was apparently sufficient philan- thropic zest upon the part of those in authority or control, one can scarcely reflect upon such action without a shudder. Massachusetts soon followed with the establishment of an institution which presented conditions somewhat more favor- able to those confined within its walls. Not long afterwards Ohio took up the inspiration and in the year 1855 a commission was appointed with instructions to visit the German institu- tion near Hamburg. Upon a thorough investigation they returned and in their report recommended to the general as- sembly of Ohio the estabhshment of an open or cottage system to be known as a reform farm school for the reformation of refractory youth, with some modifications, however, upon the German idea. We here note the first appearance of the word school attending an institution for the correction of juvenile delinquents. Changes are rapidly taking place, each year adding something of benefit. The idea of cellular confine- ment has given place to that of education and occupation. While there were many things in those institutions that did not reflect upon them a very considerable credit, yet the primitive idea was giving way to methods more advanced and beneficial. Still in this particular thej^ appeared more than a century be- hind the achievements of our modern methods, which have made it possible for over thirty thousand boys and girls to en- joy the benefits of an expenditure of more than twenty five millions of dollars. I alluded to the spirit that actuated the establishment of our institutions in earlier days by men of strong intellect, and possessed of such qualities as characterized them as being best fitted for the work undertaken; yet should I narrate incidents which were actual facts connected with institutions under their supervision, you would be disgusted with the very 264 LYMAN D. DRAKE thought, and regard the word reformatory as a misnomer. Within my own experience I have seen boys who were fed much after the manner you would feed dumb brutes. I have seen meats in a decaying state, intended for their food, cooked and thrown into a large pan in the center of a table, and after a display of civilization, insomuch that a pretense of asking the blessing was made, where the boy would cover his face with his hands, yet all the while looking through his fingers with his eyes fixed upon a piece of this flesh, waiting for a signal when all who were so fortunate might get his hand into this much sought-after pan and gather to himself something whereby his hunger might be appeased. I have also followed, with silent tread, a line of woe-be- gone fellows wending their way to a basement to partake of bread and water, this having been measured out to them as a punishment for some infraction of the rules of the institution; and the length of stay in this basement or the number of meals of bread and water depended upon the gravity of the offense committed. I saw a man who bore the title of officer subordinate in authority only to the superintendent, with a heavy cane in his hand, deal blows that would render his victim unconscious. I have seen boys placed in confinement for weeks at a time and fed upon bread and water, while their quarters were so infested with vermin, that their minds gradually gave way under the strain. I have also seen the stocks used as a punishment, compelling the boy to sit in a broiling sun, with feet and hands pinioned, not being able to move them — and all of this taking place within the last quarter of a century in the midst of a so- called Christian and philanthropic people. Do you wonder at the delight occasioned at the dawning of a new era? So on through the years we are witnessing a gradual change from those methods which would be regarded as barbarous to the modern, well equipped, well managed, industrial training schools of to-day. While it has been distressing to me to furnish so painful a picture, yet another may be seen that brings joy to the heart and an inspiration causing us to go forward in this great work of uplifting humanity. The cellular idea as heretofore referred to, has given place EVOLUTION IN REFORMATORY METHODS 265 to the cottage or home idea, where the neglected boy may en- joy the comforts and blessings of life that attend right living and right doing. An institution to-day without its schools and shops would be regarded with more or less suspicion. Our modem institution surrounds the boy with advantages second to none. His education in the school of letters is carefully looked after, he being under the instruction of capa])le, pains- taking teachers, who devote their entire time to his welfare, and many institutions make education the standard by which he may secure his release from the institution; the purpose being to give every boy a good, common school education. I am impressed, however, with this idea, that in order to have a well rounded man, we must have a well trained boy, one whose hands have been taught to work in harmony with his mind, becoming skilled in some useful occupation. In the years gone by, the primary consideration of a reformatory in- stitution was to create some sort of occupation that would bring to the state as great a revenue as possible. ''How much can a boy be made to earn?'* was the thought foremost in the minds of those in authority. Think of it. The boys of the state, the state's money invested in them, the state hoping at some future time to have a return for this, which should be its good citizenship, rather than to know they had by some rev- enue creating occupation been made to partially compensate the state for the money expended in their behalf. Such ideas are degrading and debasing, making the labor of the boy the primary consideration instead of his education and reforma- tion. I am happy to state that such conditions no longer exist, and nowhere within the United States to-day can be found an institution where the labor of its boys is being contracted, as was a fact in the years gone by. The state to-day is making a vastly different investment. Boys are still being placed in reformatory^ institutions; the state continues to invest her money in these boys. Why? because of the fact that to-day the returns are a sufficient guarantee to continue this, as from seventy to eighty per cent of all the boys sent to institutions for correction, go out into the world again reformed in the fullest sense of the term. Boys have now at their disposal skilled instructors, those 266 LYMAN D. DRAKE who are interested in their development, assuring a proper training. The services of our institution boys are being sought after in consequence of the thoroughness of their training. State prisons are not recruiting from the ranks of reformatories to the extent that has been done in the past. The institutions of to-day are engaging the best thought and zeal of the body politic. They are at last awakening to the fact that delin- quency is a factor injurious to the great social fabric, which in consequence of its contaminating influences has caused more or less of decadence. Psychologists, sociologists and anthropol- ogists are using their utmost endeavor to eradicate the evil through research and application. To arrest the cause is now the slogan. They are now engaging in the study of man, and the many influences used in this direction must of necessity result in great good. Reformatory institutions are and will be strong factors in the improvement of the substratum from which comes so much to contaminate. The advantages of an up-to-date institution are so many and varied that one scarcely realizes the importance attached thereto. While an institution may never receive the credit of giving to the world men of great renown, yet the foundation for a successful life may be laid ; the individual to be the archi- tect of his own success or failure. So many things come with- in the range of possibility, that we can not with accuracy judge the outcome of close application and attention to duty. A successful institution is measured by its system and method, both of which call for accuracy even in the minutest detail. This becomes more important as the youth is so susceptible of training; and where results are expected to be satisfactory, which is the outgrowth of impression, the necessity of perfect method and system becomes apparent. The completion of anything undertaken without making the importance of such an undertaking fully understood is harmful rather than beneficial, as impressions here find a lodg- ment and govern the future life of a boy to a greater or lesser degree. Our institutions of to-day are noting well the signifi- cance of this and each year adds greatly to the success at- tained. There is nothing in my opinion so important in the educa- EVOLUTION IN REFORMATORY METHODS 267 tion and training of our youth as to toach thom the nol^iUty of labor. Those who have said, ''The world owes me a living, and I am bound to have it," furnish this sad spectacle and to their own discomfiture. On the other hand, the honest toiler, who embraces every opportunity for self advancement by occupation and endeavor, can rise to a height which seems to be Hmitless in consequence of the ingenuity of the man who applies himself and ennobles labor. Our boys can have no l^etter teaching than this, all of which Vv ill assist them to rise above the necessities of to-day. That which tends toward the elevation of the boy will reflect itself in the man insomuch as the boy is said to be the father of the man. While the achievements of the nmeteenth century were marked in a degree in the advancement of our institution methods and reflect the zeal and labor fraught with more or less anxiety, it furnishes our workers of the present day with an inspiration to try to accomplish even greater things for those who require their help. The changes from the old to the new methods are certainly gratifying and satis- factory. To see the walls, bars, dungeons, stocks and chains, which were regarded as absolute necessities in the years gone by, disappear, and in their stead cottages or homes for boys with parks, lawTis, flowers and the handiwork of nature^s beauties to be seen on every side, certainly reflects the intelli- gence and zealous efforts of an advanced civilization. In conclusion, let me suggest what I might term a model refonnator}^ : First, an institution created by a mag- nanimous people for the sole purpose of reformation and not profit. The cottage system to be taken as the basic prin- ciple in its broadest sense. Boys to be carefully classified; congregating those only of like temperament, not to exceed thirty boys in a cottage; presided over by trained men and women, a living example worthy of the emulation of every boy; devoting their best thought and energy to the individual boy, transforming and reforaiing the crooked and gnarled into the symmetrical and stately. The occupation of the boys to be of such a character as may be best suited to the boy and his prob- able surroundings after returning to his home, with the miH- tary, music, and as many other influences as would feature the 268 LYMAN D. DRAKE institution, depriving it altogether, although an institution for juvenile delinquents, of a semblance of that which partakes of a penal institution. With athletics as prominent as is made by the highest and best institutions of learning through- out the land. With such inviting surroundings, boys would live in an altogether different atmosphere, dwelling in a re- freshing sunlight, which, in my opinion, would be absorbed by nearly the entire population, and only those who from heredi- tary tendencies would be found upon the debit side of the ledger when a final summing up was made. Such an institution as above described, is in my opinion, a possibility. Much has been done; more may be done. A superior business system in the management of institutions, together with the cooperation of a generous people augurs well for delinquent boys and girls. It has been my observa- tion all through my years of experience that the reformation of boys is regarded with too little importance, the primary thought being to rid society of a boy whom they considered a menace. If investigations were made leading to the cause for the neces- sity of such restraint, society would in all probability be found responsible. The neglect of the child has led in a majority of cases to its delinquency. It is difficult to appreciate the necessity for the proper supervision of children unless the mat- ter be made a personal one. When it concerns our immediate family, our interests become intensified and we wonder why conditions which have lead to certain effects have not in some way been counteracted before such injury was sustained. The world has been too busy with affairs of a vastly different character, and, as they are pleased to term it, of more impor- tance. Does it occur to you that there is any thing more im- portant than the saving to society of a human life? Were this question given the attention it merits, conditions would ere long show a greater improvement. People, generally speaking, are too unfamiliar with our institutions. The boys who go from them attract no particular attention. The good boy is never spoken of; the bad boy soon claims greater prominence than he deserves, and the school suffers accordingly. The public should be held responsible for this feeling, as their atti- tude toward the youth emerging from our institutions is such EVOLUTION IN REFORMATORY METHODS 269 as to make them feel that they are living in a disgrace that can not be overcome. We plead for charity, yet how uncharitable ! We ask for justice, yet how prejudiced we are, all of this having a tendency to destroy our labor with the boy. In this era of progress and reform may there not be more expected from the layman, giving inspiration and zeal to those whose lives are given to the work of scattering roses instead of thistles along the pathway of the unfortunate. THE RACE PROBLEM AT THE SOUTH. BY HILARY A. HERBERT. [Hilary Abner Herbert, ex-secretary of the navy; bom Laurensville, S. C, March 12, 1834; educated in the universities of Alabama and Virginia; admitted to the bar and practiced at Greenville, Ala.; captain and colonel of the 8th Alabama volunteers U.S.A.'; located in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1872, and resumed law practice; mem- ber of congress, 1877-93; secretary of navy, 1893-7.] This is a land of free speech. Americans may now discuss any where, north or south, even their negro question in all its bearings. This it has not always been easy to do, even in the historic city which claims the proud distinction of being the birthplace of American liberties. In 1859 George William Curtis became temporarily a hero by an antislavery speech in Philadelphia. A mob had gathered to prevent him, but the mayor of the city, backed by the police, succeeded in protect- ing the speaker, who delivered his address in spite of the mis- siles that were hurled into the room where he spoke. The next year, however, so violent were the passions of the day that the friends of that great orator could not hire a hall in that city for Mr. Curtis to lecture in, even on a subject totally discon- nected with the negro, or with politics. In those days the negro question was full of dynamite, because we then had in this country two systems, I might al- most say two civilizations, one founded on free and the other intimately interwoven with and largely dependent upon slave labor. They were in sharp conflict with each other, and there- fore it was that free discussion of the slavery question, or negro problem, was then sometimes difficult at the north, while it was every where impossible in the south. Abolition sentiment was proclaiming in the north that slavery must go, no matter at what cost. In the south, therefore, the stern law of self preservation demanded the rigid suppression of free speech on this question, lest discussion should incite insurrec- tion, and light the midnight torch of the incendiary. In the north the motive of the mobs which, like those who gathered around Mr. Curtis here in 1859, and who called themselves 270 THE RACE PROBLEM AT THE SOUTH 271 union men, was to prevent abolition speeches because they saw in them disunion or civil war, or it might be both civil war and disunion. The civil war came; it was terrible — more ter- rible than dreamer ever dreamed of. But it is over, and there will never be disunion ; no one fears it now, because now no one desires it. Slavery is dead, and can never be resurrected. So, therefore, there is now nothing to hinder free speech in our country about the race problem in the south. If in 1861 there was dynamite in the negro question, so when that dyna- mite had exploded, and when states had been wrecked and social and economic systems shattered, the problems that grew out of the negro question were quite as exciting when up for discussion as had been slavery itself. The most acute form in which this many-sided question then presented itself was suffrage, and every student now knows that political science played no part in its solution, that the reconstruction acts were passed and the fifteenth amend- ment was adopted when party spirit was more intolerant than it had ever been before, and the passions of war were still blaz- ing fiercely. The constitution of the fathers was framed in Philadelphia after mature deliberation behind closed doors. The fifteenth amendment, changing that instrument funda- mentally, was formulated after heated debate in congress, on the rostrimi, and in the newspapers throughout the land. In debating the question of granting suffrage by law to millions of ex-slaves, and then of cHnching the right by a constitutional provision intended to secure it forever, whether it worked for good or evil, the fundamental proposition for consideration should have been the fitness of the negro. Was he intellec- tually, by training and antecedents, competent to take part — often a controlling part — in the great business of government? But the case did not turn on that point, the discussion was always wide of that mark. The nearest approach to the question of the fitness of the ex-slave for the ballot was this argument : Did not the government free the negro? Was he not the ward of the nation? Did not the government owe him protection? And how could he protect himself without the ballot? This, though fitness was assumed without argument to 272 HILARY A. HERBERT support it, is the most defensible of all the grounds on which the fifteenth amendment became part of the constitution. If the negro had only possessed the qualifications which po- litical science tells us are essential in those on whose shoulders rest the burdens of republican government, with the ballot in hand he would not only have protected himself, but he would have given to the southern states, and he would have helped to give to the nation, the blessings of good government. But the fitness for the ballot that had been taken for granted did not exist. The political structures based on negro ballots, like the house of the unwise man in the Scriptures, fell because they were builded upon sand. Out of reconstruction and the fifteenth amendment have come many of the peculiar phases, and nearly all the aggra- vations which now beset the race problem of the south. In the days of reconstruction the teachings of political science as such, and of ethnology, its handmaid, had made but little impres- sion in America. Political science had been taught, it is true, in William and Mary college, to Jefferson and other Virginia statesmen prior to the Revolution, and there were, prior to 1860, in a few scattered American colleges, solitary professors lecturing occasionally on the subject, but great schools of political science are of recent growth. As our country expands it has need for wider knowledge. It is dealing now not only with its negroes in the south, but with Cuban and Porto Rican and Philippine populations, and it needs not only accurate knowledge of all these peoples; but, facing as we do a future that will bring to us questions as momentous as they will be novel, the time has come when we must search carefully for and familiarize our people with the lessons of our own history, that our experience may be a lamp to guide our feet. A few years ago Professor Cope, the great naturalist, made a notable contribution to the discussion of the race problem. It was a series of articles published in the Open Court, discussing, from the standpoint of a naturalist, the differences between the white man and the negro. He showed the inferiority of the negro, and contended that the mulatto was in many respects, which he carefully pointed out, inferior to both his parents. Then he left the firm ground of science on THE RACE PROBLEM AT THE SOUTH 273 which he was at homo, and surmised that intermarriage would hereafter become common in the south. If this surmise should be correct, then there would follow, as he had proven, the destruction of a large portion of the finest race upon earth, the whites of the south. To prevent this result he argued that the government could well afford, whatever might be the cost, to deport all the negroes from the south. This admixture of the races, let us hope, will not take place, and deportation is impossible. If these articles had been written and published in 1860 who can estimate the opprobium that would have been heaped upon Professor Cope and the University of Pennsylvania. But in the nineties the publication excited no comment. It was simply a scientific contribution to the discussion of the negro question. The day of free thought and free speech even on our race problem had come. So I am free to say that in my opinion the granting of universal suffrage to the negro was the mistake of the nine- teenth century. I say that, believing myself to be a friend to the negro, willing and anxious that he shall have fair play and the fullest opportunity under the law to develop himself to his utmost capacity. Suffrage wronged the negro, because he could only develop by practicing industry and economy, while learning frugality. It was a mistake to tempt him away from the field of labor into the field of politics, where, as a rule, he could understand nothing that was taught him except the color line. Negro suffrage was a wrong to the white man of the south, for it brought him face to face with a situation in which he concluded, after some years of trial, that in order to preserve his civilization he must resort to fraud in elections; and fraud in elections, wherever it may be practiced, is like the deadly upas tree — it scatters its poisons in every direction. Universal suffrage in the south has demoralized our politics there. It has created a bitterness between the present genera- tions of whites and blacks that had never existed between the ex-slave and his former master. Another crying evil that has resulted to the people of the south and of the whole union is that we now have an absolutely solid south, where the neces- sity for white supremacy is so dominant that no political ques- Vol. 10—18 274 HILARY A. HERBERT can be discussed on its merits, and whites do not divide them- selves between the two national parties. What we need in the southern states to-day, above all things, is two political parties, strong enough and able to deal with each other at arms' length. The negro's prospects for improvement, his development since emancipation, his industrial conditions, his relation to crime, the scanty results of the system of education that has been pursued, how that system can be bettered — all these questions as they exist to-day are before us. Here and there, among southern people, are some who in despair are advocat- ing that no more money be spent by the whites for the educa- tion of the blacks. This, I am glad to say, is not the prevailing sentiment. The southern people, as a rule, believe that we should continue to strive for the development of the negro and the lifting of him up to a higher plane, where he may be more useful to himself and to the state. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIESo BY CHARLES AMMI CUTLER. fCharlos Ammi Ciitlor, late librarian of the Forbes library, was ono of the most famous of American librarians, and his Rules for a Dictionary Catalog? and his expan- sive classitieation are permanent contributions to library economy; born in Boston in 1837. he graduated from Harvard university in 1855, becoming assistant in the Harvard college library, librarian of the Boston Athenieum in 1869 and of tin; Forlies library in 1893i he was editor of the Library Journal 1881-93.] In the first year of the nineteenth century the United States, with a popiihition of five and a third miUions, had 64 libraries intended for popular use, or, if we call the parochial libraries founded by Dr. Bray public, and assume that most of them survived the Revolution, there were 100 libraries con- taining perhaps 50,000 volumes in all. In the last year of the century there were over 10,000 libraries owning 40,000,000 volumes, half of these libraries having over 1,000 volumes each. Thus, while our territory is less than four times as large and our population is only fourteen or fifteen times as large, there are one hundred times as many libraries containing eight hun- dred times as many books. There is no means whatever of ascertaining how many volumes reached the readers of 1801, but it is unlikely that the output exceeded the stock, for it was a time of solid books and slow readers. In 1900, 50,000,000 volimies were issued; that is, the circulation has grown a thousandfold. Americans have always been a bookish people. The very first colonists brought books with them from Europe. There were books, few but prized, in many households, and in time some private libraries of size and fame. Public libraries have a history almost as old. The Puritans had hardly landed when they founded a college and with it a library. Harvard college library, born in 1638, was followed in 1700 by two others, Yale and WiUiam and Mary; and by twelve others in the following hundred years, so that the last century began with 15 col- lege libraries. It closed with over forty times as many. Joint stock libraries, implying cities and a certain amount of wealth, were of later origin. The first was founded in 1731 276 CHARLES AMMI CUTLER (twenty seven years before the first proprietary library was established at Liverpool, England). By the end of the eigh- teenth century there were 32 such libraries. There are many more now, for they spread gradually throughout the country, often under the name of atheneum in the cities, and of social library in the country. But they are not flourishing as a class, for the free public libraries are slowly ousting them. People in general will not pay for reading when they can have it for nothing. A few, either from old habit, or because they dislike the rush and bustle of a public library, or because membership is regarded as a social distinction, will frequent the proprietary library and pay their yearly dues, but the receipts from this source are too small for its whole support. With a large in- vested fund it may survive ; without one it is doomed either to be dissolved or to be absorbed by the free library. In those states, to be sure, where the latter has not gained a foothold, the proprietary library continues its good work, and new ones may spring up. They are then very useful in showing the people what libraries are and in preparing the way for the adop- tion of permissive or compulsory library laws. Many were founded in the decade before and the decade after the Civil war; yet in 1896 only 57 were reported that had over 1,000 volumes apiece The libraries of 1801 were small in a degree hard to realize, with our present ideas of necessary size. The oldest of them. Harvard college, had in 1790 only 12,000 volumes; the largest, the Philadelphia library company, after absorbing three similar libraries, had in 1807 only 18,391; in 1793 the New York society library had 5,000; in 1791 Yale college had only 2,700; in 1811 the Charleston society library had reached 7,000, and in 1809 the Boston atheneum, founded only two years earlier, could report 5,750. These were the giants; no other library had 2,500; not half a dozen had 1,000; the average was 500. The character of the libraries was much more solid, or, if one pleases, heavy, than now — necessarily so, for the books of that day were in greater proportion serious. The college libraries were of course designed to be learned, for the use of the professors chiefly. In them theology naturally held the DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES 277 leading place, as the colleges had been founded mainly to educate ministers. So in the Harvard college library cata- logue of 1790, 150 pages out of 350 are filled with theology, 10 with the Greek and Latin classics, 4 with books of travel, but only three fourths of a page with periodicals. In litera- ture, however, one finds Chaucer, Shakespeare, Spenser, Mil- ton, Dryden, Pope, Gay, the Gentleman's Magazine, Rabelais, La Fontaine, Voltaire, Boccaccio. In 1765 Yale college was ''well furnished with ancient authors, such as the fathers, his- torians, classics, many and valuable works of divinity, history, philosophy, and mathematics, but not many authors who have written within these thirty years." The social libraries were different. The library company of Philadelphia, whose selection probably was largely deter- mined by Franklin's taste, no doubt was imitated by other proprietary libraries. It had scarcely one theological book or controversial tract; politics was not prominent; history, travels, science, natural history, and especially the mechanic arts, formed the bulk of the stock (but it must be remembered that a dozen of our sciences and a score of our arts had no existence then). PoUte literature was scantily represented, especially in the department of fiction, the library committee in 1783 having instructed its London agent that though not averse to mingling the dulce with the utile, they did not care to have him buy any novels — a rule which has largely pre- vailed since. Art, which in the last decade has begun to fill so large a place on our shelves, was not to be found in any of the early libraries. The Boston atheneum, however, received in 1838 from a generous proprietor a large number of works of art, and became the pioneer of bibliothecal art development. The character of the reading differed somewhat from ours. It was in larger proportion the reading of the man who is curi- ous about some one branch of knowledge, or the reading of the man who in a general way wants to improve himself. Fiction, which supplies 75 per cent of the circulation of the modem town or cit}^ library, was not furnished by either the college or the association libraries. For that the readers went to the circulating libraries, which no doubt seemed to the Sir An- 278 CHARLES AMMI CUTLER thony Absolutes in this country, as they did in England twenty five years before, an evergreen tree of diabolical knowledge. But the proprietary libraries had been founded by gentlemen desirous of promoting the diffusion of useful knowledge and extending the means of information, and as Duche writes in 1774, 'Tor one person of distinction and fortune there were twenty tradesmen that frequented the library." These men came there to learn. It may be doubted whether women fre- quented the libraries at all. Amusement, the culture of the imagination, the culture of a love and appreciation of beauty, must have been very much in the background. The next variety of library to be established was the mer- cantile, with which are to be joined the young men's associa- tions, mechanics' institutions, and apprentices' libraries. They sprang up in connection with the marked educational movement of the second and third quarters of the century, were designed mainly for young men who could not afford to purchase a share in the joint stock libraries but could pay a small annual fee, and they usually had classes for evening in- struction and courses of lectures. They were another step in cheapening knowledge. Like the social libraries, they flour- ished for a time, and are still useful where they have be- come solidly established, or in states where the free library system has not yet penetrated, but they are destined to give way in time to their powerful rival. They had an effect probably not in the least contemplated by their founders. Like all libraries, they were continually in want of money; they obtained it by extending their member- ship beyond the merchants and clerks of the original plan to any one who would pay the annual fee. To attract the public, it was necessary to provide what the public wanted to read. Going into competition with the circulating library, they adopted its tactics, and the mercantile became as much lighter than the social as the social was lighter than the college library. So was the way prepared for the free public library, both by a lessened cost to readers and by a mitigated austerity in book selection. The inadequacy of these libraries for any thorough inves- tigation compelled the formation of special libraries — his- DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES 279 torical, theological, law, medical, scientific, oriental, and society. The century came in with five or six of these, and closed with as many hundred. The private libraries were intended for the owner and his friends; the collef2;e libraries for the professors and their stu- dents; the proprietary libraries for the stockholders and their families; the mercantile, at least primarily, for the merchants and their clerks; the other libraries for limited classes. So far there were none for all the people, and none free. But in the northern states all the people were beginning to want reading, and were rapidly becoming willing to tax themselves for it. With the second third of the century began a new era, which the Uttle town of Peterboro, in New Hampshire, had the honor of inaugurating. At the instance of the Unitarian minister, a free Ubrary was founded in 1833 by an appropriation that has l)een continued annually to this day. Thus America became the birthplace of the free hbrary, for the leaders of the move- ment, which resulted in the library law of 1850 in England, have said that they derived the idea from this country. But the town was in advance of its time. Thirteen years passed before another little town — Orange, in Massachusetts — ven- tured on the same step; four years later Wayland followed. Neither of these had any right to spend their money so, but their lawlessness was not rebuked, and perhaps contributed to the passage of the acts by which New Hampshire in 1849 and Massachusetts in 1851 authorized any town to tax itself for a free pul^lic library. A Bostonian has expressed his surprise that Boston, a city with traditions of intelligence and education, gave no indications of considering this matter of free libraries till it was over two hundred years old. He might have added that she spent a long time in considering; there were eleven years between the first suggestion and the decisive action in 1852; but when she finally adopted the idea there was no hesitation in carrying it out thoroughly. She has ended by collecting the largest stock, erecting the costliest building, and for the first forty years having the largest circulation of any city in America. Nor is this all. The library was in the hands of men who 28o CHARLES AMMI CUTLER felt that this new creation had in it the potency of all libraries; that it might do the work of all that had preceded it and its own peculiar work besides. In other places some parts of a library's function may have been better developed, but no- where yet has the happy combination of private and public liberality made it possible to at once so thoroughly suffice for learned research even of the specialist, gratify cultivated curi- osity, please the bibliomaniac and the dilettante, foster idle meditation, or stimulate vigorous thinking, while yet not neg- lecting to meet every want of the general reader, even the want of amusement and illusion, and, more than this, to attract to itself and to train adults who have never been in the habit of reading at all and children who have not yet learned to read with profit. If in any way the library falls short, it has been in this latter work, which western libraries have taken up enthusiastically and pursued most successfully. Another class of free institutions had its origin a little after the town libraries. In 1835 a law of New York per- mitted each school district to tax itself $20 to found and $10 a year to maintain a free public library. But as the people would not tax themselves, the friends of the measure persuaded the legislature in 1838 to appropriate $55,000 a year to pur- chase the books. Fifteen years later the libraries had over 1,600,000 volumes, but they were very little used, except in the cities, and the system was an entire failure. Eleven years later, after half a million more had been spent, there were half a million volumes less. A school district is perhaps too small a territory for a successful library, but the real cause of failure was that among a people who are not eager for it, reading will not take root except by wise management, and the charge of these libraries was in the hands of men who were not interested in them. A library always suffers when ruled by a school board — persons who, if not chosen for political reasons, are selected for their ability to administer an institution which has this only in common with libraries, that it is educational, but otherwise differs entirely in aims, personnel, material, and methods. In this case there was not even the safeguard of a librarian to look after the library's interests. The school trustees were often incompetent to select the books, and ac- DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES 281 cepted any rubbish that booksellers might offer. Such libra- ries, of course, did not attract readers. In 1892 New York wisely separated school libraries confined to school use under direction of school authorities from town libraries for public use under direction of trustees. The century's hbrary history falls into two main periods, the first three quarters and the last quarter. The first was char- acterized by paucity, poverty, slow increase, slow develop- ment of purposes and methods, by conservatism, limitation, and restriction. The latter period shows an astounding in- crease in number and size, money given in an increasing ratio, Hbrary buildings going up all over the land, their suitaljility to their purpose impro\dng, experiments making in adminis- tration, new channels of library influence constantly opening; the collection of books, though no longer considered the main object, going on more rapidly; the use of the books, now re- garded as the supreme consideration, daily spreading in all directions. The causes of this luxuriant growth are many. Chief, no doubt, was the increase in population and wealth, which has at the same time led to the foundation of hosts of new Ubraries and quickened the growth of those planted during the first period. Another cause was the spread of education and culture, furnishing an army of readers, wdth awakened minds. But it is to the librarians that are due the enlarged ideas of the library's mission and the discovery of the quicker and more effective ways of working which, by doubling the reach and power of libraries, have strengthened their hold upon popular favor and reinforced their appeal for philanthropic support. The change began when a hundred Hbrarians met at Phila- delphia during the Centennial exhibition to exchange views and make one another's acquaintance. The Hbrarian of 1876 was busy in his ow^n library, and seldom heard what others were doing. There was little spread of professional ideas and no cooperation. The American Library association, which was the result of the Philadelphia meeting, and the Library Journal, founded at the same time, changed all that and brought improvement into every branch of Hbrary economy. A previous convention in 1853, though it promised wtII, came to nothing. The greater success of the meeting of 1876 was 282 CHARLES AMMI CUTLER due in part no doubt to the ripeness of the time, to the ehmina- tion of the slavery question, to the greater culture of the na- tion, but mainly to the efforts of a small group of men who did not allow their interest to die out. The essays by the leading librarians of 1876, published in a thick volume by the national bureau of education, the papers and discussions at the conferences, and the other matter that fills the 13,000 pages of the Library Journal, treat mainly of the five classes of subjects in which there has been the most progress — library estabhshment, the profession, the building, the management, and the methods of reaching the pubhc. The trend of opinion is toward libraries established by legislation, supported by taxation, helped as far as possible by private generosity, managed by their own authorities, free to all — the library of the people, by the people, for the people. Such hbraries are coming into existence fast. To assist their establishment seventeen state library commissions have been organized, the first in Massachusetts in 1890. They work differently, according to the different needs of the states, but they all aim to fan library zeal where there are hbraries, to arouse the desire for them where there are none, to distribute public aid to poor towns, and to encourage private giving everywhere. But legislatures should take one step and oblige towns to have and properly maintain hbraries as they already require them to provide schools. The old writers on library topics were always prone to en- large upon the qualities needed by the librarian. They would have him in business a hustler, in learning a scholar, in book buying a critic — but a broad minded critic — in memory a Maghabecchi, in languages a Mezzofanti, in tact a Metternich, in administration an organizer and a disciplinarian, in temper an angel, and everywhere an enthusiast, for the librarian who is indifferent is lost. But such prodigies must always have been rare, and even they could not alone have met the demands of a modern library. He needs assistants. It was early seen by the association that the best work could be done only by specially educated persons; that librarians were constantly losing time in training new assistants; that libraries were con- tinually checked in their progress while librarians without DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRAPvIES 283 experience were learning their trade, and that many were con- demned to stagnation because the new Hbrarian simply plodded on Tsith more or less stumbling in the footsteps of his predecessors. The solution first suggested was apprentice- ship; the next, more radical and more efficient, was a hbrary school, corresponding in thoroughness to the schools that fit men to be doctors, lawyers, and ministers. There are now four such schools, whose graduates are eagerly absorljed )jy hbraries, to say nothing of the summer schools, which give those who can not afford a full course such a smattering of liljrary^ knowledge as can ])e acquired in six weeks. Besides this, a number of large libraries take apprentices, from whom their staff is recruited or the neighboring small hbraries are supplied. As a natural result a change has come about in the ap- pointment of librarians. Formerly it was too often the man who had failed in the pulpit, the court, the schoolroom, or even the shop, who got the votes of compassionate committees. It is an advance that these votes are often given now to men who have succeeded in some such occupation, vrith. the idea that they will therefore succeed in a Hbrar)\ Xor are these ap- pomtments always unfortunate; after all, ability is the main thing; yet they leave something to desii'e, for though it is true that a man may guide himself by the practice of his predeces- sors, yet the greatest success does not rise from followmg prece- dent, but from knowing when rules can be disregarded and when they can not — a knowledge that comes only from a thorough acquaintance with the subject matter. The next step will be for all appointing bodies to require, as many do now, both ability and experience. Architect lue has lagged behind other branches of Hbrary practice, partly because the needs of a Ubrary have been ex- panding so fast, partly because hl^raries have been designed not so much for use b}^ men who had used them and had learned their defects as for show by committees and builders. Bad ventilation is common, bad lighting universal; one hears of Hbraries without class rooms for the public or working rooms for the staff; they are continually made with no pro\'ision for enlargement, though nothing grows more surel}' than a libra- 284 CHARLES AMMI CUTLER ry's stock of books and number of readers. Some have been built too small even for the books that the library had already. Even for show they have not till very lately reached much success. We have not even found a characteristic style of architecture. Every one knows a church, a theater, a railroad station, when he sees it. One seldom knows a library if it is not labeled. The ordinary library building might be taken for a school, a bank, a courthouse, or a municipal building. Yet the way to a style was plain. A library has one need which should give rise to distinctive features. Its reading rooms, its study, and its working rooms must be very light — much lighter than the rooms of a dwelling house. This necessity ought to show in the design. The stack must not only be light, but must be lighted in a peculiar way, which alone would mark the building as a library, by a series of lofty, narrow windows, separated by still narrower columns or sections of wall, a difficult matter to treat without bareness and monotony, yet surely not beyond the capacity of the American architect. The library building of 1801 was in most cases one room, shelved around the walls. When too many books accumu- lated for the wall space, they were put into cases projecting from the sides. The evolution of a century has differentiated this single cell into a score of different parts, each with its own function — for work, the packing, accessioning, cataloguing and classifying, binding, printing, mechanics' rooms; for the per- sonnel, the trustees', librarian's, staff's, janitor's rooms; for the public, the cloak and hat, toilet, charging, reading, current periodical reading, and standard reading rooms, and some- times the dining room ; for special kinds of stock, the rooms for bound periodicals, manuscripts, maps, patents, public docu- ments; for special classes of users, the study, class, lecture, art rooms, the photographing room (with a developing closet), the music room (with a piano and deadened walls), the room for the blind, and the children's room. All of these are needed in the largest libraries; many of them are already to be found in them; the children's room is needed everyw^here. In the smaller libraries, of course, one room plays many parts. In the first years of the library awakening the most atten- tion was paid, as was natural, to details of management — the DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES 285 length of shelves, the form of the accession book and the bind- er's schedules, the size of cards and their ruling, to questions of movable or fixed shelves, movable or fixed location, stamping or embossing title pages; in fact, the things which are now taught in the hbrary schools — the a, b, c of the profession. This excited some ridicule, as also was natural. It was called pedantic; people said that too much time was spent in dis- tinguishing tweedledum from tweedlcdec; that the loss of orig- inality was too high a price to pay for a doubtfully desirable uniformity; that in absorption in mechanical details the things of the spirit would be forgotten. They were right and they were wrong. It was necessary that these questions should be settled before attacking the deeper problems. One must forge one's weapons before one goes into the fight. It is best to be thoroughly familiar with one's tools before one under- takes complicated work. Both dangers that were feared are real, but against them stand American inventiveness, which will not be made to halt at any one stage of achievement, and the missionary spirit, which can never be content with me- chanics, but must be saving souls — in the library way. The leaders had no fears, and they were justified. In the last half of the last quarter of the century, great as was the library prog- ress in every thing else, the progress in ways of reaching the public was even greater. Go into a modern library, and see the steady stream of books flowing into the hands of every class in the city, their time of waiting reduced to a minim lun; see hung up near the delivery desk lists of the best new books, made attractive by pictures and instructive by criticism; at the information desk watch the versatile clerk answering a constant succession of questions about the most diverse sub- jects, telling one where to look, rescuing another from a fruit- less search, explaining the reference books, directing to the shelves, guiding the reading; see in convenient nooks the por- traits of authors whose birthday is at hand, hung over tables covered by their writings and the works about them, or look at other tables spread with the best that the library has on approaching anniversaries, Christmas, Halloween, the dis- covery of America, at once showing the resources of the libra- ry, and suggesting to frequenters to read for some better object 286 CHARLES AMMI CUTLER than entertainment or novelty; go into the children's room, mark their satisfaction as they cluster round the shelves and discuss their favorite books, or sit absorbed, the older ones in magazines, the younger in picture books; see their friend the attendant helping them, or rather showing them how to help themselves, now and then putting in a word about their choice of books, but obtruding nothing; in a class room see a school teacher showing her scholars the books that illustrate their lessons ; go into the exhibition room and see the lines of photo- graphs illustrating some great painter, or the architecture and art galleries of some famous city, the dwellings and peasantry of some unknown country, the peaks and glaciers of a great range of mountains; hear in one room a man reading to the blind, in another a musician trying music, in a third see a photographer reproducing manuscript documents; here a clerk is dispatching books borrowed by a distant library for one of its clients, there another is choosing books which are sent once or twice a week to a delivery in an outlying village ; an intelligent assistant will go with them and, knowing all the borrowers, will recommend to each the book which will suit him best, gently leading him to better reading — a sort of pastoral care that it is not easy to give in the rush of the crowd- ed central delivery room ; note that this goes on ten or twelve hours every day in the year; that it is free to all; that if former- ly libraries were for the learned, now it is certainly to the ig- norant that the gospel of learning is given; and then say whether the public library is failing in its duty to the com- munity. From time to time some one is alarmed at the extension of library activity and cries '^panem et circenses." But the cir- censes, which being interpreted is novels, are so inextricably bound up with the educational work of the library, being the inducement to many to come and be taught, and they arc as now written so largely educational themselves, that their sup- ply will stand or fall with the libraries. For the panem, the solid work of the library, whose paying for out of the public pocket seems to certain theorists of dangerous tendency, only justified on socialistic grounds, the extremest individualist admits the necessity of combining for the public defense, and it DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES 287 is abundantly clear that general ignorance menaces an attack not merely on the republic but on civilization. Moreover, it is the Anglo-Saxon way — and we are still largely Anglo-Saxon — to make theories after trying experiments. We are at pres- ent thoroughly committed to the experiment of universal edu- cation. We are hoping to find that it not only imparts infor- mation and shai-pens intellects, but counteracts temptations and lessens crime, increases the earning power of the individual and the effective force of the nation. Few things can be made certain in sociology, but if after a time the prophylactic power of education appears probable, the existence of libraries is justified, for there is no doubt that they are educative. They take up the work where the schools are compelled to lay it down for the majority of the community, and they carry it on through hfe; they are doing this with greater and greater effect as the schools succeed more and more fully in giving to their pupils their best gift — the power of self education. THE ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND flEDIClNE. BY HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD. [Hamilton P. Duffield, surgeon of the Iowa soldier's home, has been a close student of charities in both theory and practice, and has taken a specially active part in de- vising means for making comfortable those who have served in the armies and navies of the United States and who are now dependent upon the bounty of a grateful gov- ernment for their livelihood. During recent years he has been connected with the Iowa soldier's home, but has found time to write on his favorite subjects.] The Mosaic code, given thirteen hundred years before the Christian era, has been the precedent and pattern of all sani- tary laws made in the interim between that time and this; and as the lime light of the twentieth century civilization falls upon it, it is seen to transcend all others, in restricting acts, that are not for man's physical well being. Moses' claim that these laws were inspired by Jehovah, and that penalty followed their violation, has been verified for hundreds of years, while man- made laws, and abuses without laws have kept step in the march of civilization. The Jew's care in the slaughter of animals and fowls is proverbial, and the Gentile is fortunate who can be his cus- tomer. The Justinian law, enacted through the influence of pious Jews in the sixth century, had sanitary as well as moral regulations. The mental and physical health of the people is a neces- sary element in the success and stability of a nation; and as the mental health is so dependent on the bodily health, we find of late the needs of the physical man making a paramount issue in government legislation. The first pure food law was per- haps enacted in Spain in 1283, and was against adulteration of food and delicacies, the sale of poisons and love potions, in- fection of the air by putrefying animal matters and so forth. In 1487, and also ten years later, ordinances were promulgated in Germany against the improvement of wine by sugar of lead; in later times beer was in a way supervised, although mainly under control of the guilds. Medical ordinances in cities are spoken of, one in Nuremburg in 1518 regarding the sale of food and adulteration of wine; the latter seems from very ancient times to have been doctored. 288 ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 289 The law of compensation observed in nature we also find operative in national crises. The existing law against im- porting adulterated drugs, passed in 1848, was enacted after an investigation of gross frauds in worthless drugs, which the surgeons claimed were ineffectual to cope with diseases brought on by the Mexican climate, and thus hundreds were sacrificed to foreign greed aided and abetted by guilty importers. The strenuous individual whose fearless statements started the embalmed beef investigation, did as much toward saving the lives and health of his fellow countrymen, by the agitation then begun, as an army of physicians. The publicity given the canners' frauds led to the arousal of a sentiment that will eventually crystallize in a national pure food law, that will enable rigid state laws to be made effective through control of interstate conunerce. This resulted primarily from the Span- ish-American war, whose cost in life and health will thus be compensated, by the saving of the same to posterity, if it does not benefit all our contemporaries. Through agitation consequent upon the loss of life from disease of our army in Mexico during the Mexican war, a com- mittee of physicians was appointed to investigate abuses in the drug importation from foreign countries. The difference in dosage of certain drugs was investigated ; sometimes fifteen or twenty times as large a dose w?s given in the western and southern states as in eastern localities. The result brought out the fact that there were pure drugs for eastern physicians, and inferior adulterated and sometimes v/orthless drugs, sent out for the western and southern states, and to sell by contract to the army. Europe at that time had stringent laws regulating the sale and dispensing of drugs, so the United States was a convenient and profitable dumping ground for these inferior goods. The college of pharmacy of New York had for years pro- tested against misnamed and sophisticated chemical prep- arations as imported, as being detrimental to the custom house, and to the health of the people. The Philadelphia college of pharmacy was founded for the purpose of exposing these frauds. Seven hundred pounds of rhubarb, practically worthless, passed the custom house invoiced at five cents per Vol. 10-19 290 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD pound, while East India costs forty five, and Russian two dollars and fifty cents per pound. Dr. J. M. Bailey was made examiner of drugs at the port of New York in 1846, and he testified before the committee, that more than one and a half million dollars' worth of drugs passed through that custom house annually, and more than one half were adulterated or deteriorated. Accepted contracts made by the bureau of medicine and surgery were taken to show evidence of adulteration and fraud, and to demonstrate the need of legislation. Peruvian bark, not powdered, con- tract price per pound fifty cents, market price seventy cents. Peruvian bark in powder per pound, price twenty five cents, market price seventy five cents. Eleterium, contract price per pound one dollar, market price, three dollars and fifty cents. Rhubarb, pulverized, contract price per pound seventy five cents, market price, one dollar and twenty five cents. A few more were added, and given only as samples of the ac- cepted contracts. The report of the committee led to the enactment of the law without debate. The following argument is quoted from the report of the committee: ^'The laws punish the use of the dagger, yet nothing protects the community from violence not less fatal, but better concealed under the popular name of trade. If a man write another's name, or pass a counterfeit bill, the prison is his doom; if he stop the mail on the highway, and thereby endanger life, he may be executed." To pass a counterfeit bill is a crime, but to pass a counterfeit medicine is not. Trade and correspondence are more valuable than life, because es- pecial laws are passed for their protection. To state the argu- ment is to refute it. Destitution and want may drive a man to seize upon that which is his neighbor's, and we might in pity overlook the crime, or cover it with the mantle of charity; but the cold blooded, deliberate, studied, and fatal deception practiced in articles designed for the relief of suffering and disease, can admit of no palliation — can find no excuse." The investigation resulting from the Spanish-American war crystallized public sentiment, and pure food laws were enacted in several states, some mildly restrictive, but others, as in Indiana, Washington, Illinois, California, and South ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 291 Dakota, of real efficiency. Without doubt the universal press agitation met the general demand for it, and was the control- ling force that induced the senate in 1899 to appoint a com- mittee to investigate food products, as for fifteen years food bills have been up for passage in the senate. In April, 1904, in a speech on the bill pending, Mr. Hey- burn said: ''Although twenty one or twenty two pure food bills have been before the senate, this is the first time any one of these measures has been discussed on the floor of the senate, under any circumstances." (As the senate really passed a bill which originated with the grange and which did not pass the house, it must have passed without discussion.) The senate investigation committee was appointed after the adoption of the following resolution: * 'Whereas it has been for years publicly charged that in the manufacture of articles of food and drink many manufacturers of the United States who transport their goods from one state to another, do most grossly adulterate such products, to the serious detriment of the public health and to the defrauding of purchasers: Therefore, resolved, that the committee on manufactures of the senate is hereby authorized and directed to investigate and ascertain what, if any, manufacturers are adulterating food and drink products, and which, if any, of said products are frauds upon the purchasers." Senator Mason of Illinois was chairman of the committee. Several food manufacturers and chemists of national fame testified before this committee in different cities of the United States. The most important evidence was given by Dr. Wiley who for many years has been chief chemist of the agricultural department of the United States. He said that nearly every kind of food in the market had been at some time adulterated, or mis-branded, rendering it either harmful or fraudulent. It was said that Davenport, Iowa, and other localities where maples did not grow, made Vermont maple sjT'up, made it too of cheap yellow sugar and vegetable extracts, sometimes ex- tract of hickory bark. Dr. Wiley testified that he had had occasion to make a careful examination of almost every variety of food that had ever been upon our markets for sale, also drinks, because you include in foods all the beverages and con- 292 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD diments which are used. He found adulterated milk the com- monest fraud, and that boric acid and formaldehyde were used in milk as preservatives. In butter mixtures, cotton seed oil and beef fat, and sometimes pork fat, all sold for pure butter; this before the oleomargarine act compelling proper labeling of such packages. Said that more than half the strained honey on the market was adulterated — jars of glucose, on which floated pieces of honeycomb. This senate committee said that in their investigation, they felt that many times they had not been able to get at the exact truth ; said they owed much to the services of Dr. Wiley, for his marked ability, and unselfish enthusiasm, and if people could see the horrible stuff sold to the poor, who must buy in the cheapest markets, the poisons that go into cheap soda water, the cheap poisonous stuffs sold for fruit jams and jellies, in poor quarters, the thousands of frauds practiced in the sale of foods upon the ignorant, poor, and sick, and upon the children of the country, the committee felt that all honest people would share Dr. Wiley's enthusiasm. Notwithstanding the fact that most condensed milk from the large factories of our country is pure and wholesome, made under good sanitary conditions, these factories, to protect themselves from dishonest competition, have to spend much time and money fighting an unwholesome product. The sugar of the country at present is generally pure, but it would be safer to have a law holding the trust to the present standard. In syrups the committee found four grades branded maple syrup, containing from twenty to eighty per cent of glucose. In extracts they found great frauds, and noted that only one manufacturer (which the evidence shows was Dr. Price of Chicago) invited them to go through his factory from top to bottom — this visit and subsequent analysis, showed that he had nothing to conceal. In examining baking powder, it was the avowed purpose to determine whether the fruit acid from the grape, cream of tartar, or the mineral acid from alum, was least harmful. While not broadly stated as the result of the report, the investigation and analysis showed the purity of both the Royal and Price's baking powders, and that they were made by the use of pure cream of tartar and soda; the ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 293 committee recommended that the use of alum in baking pow- ders be prohibited by law. The committee visited ninety two breweries and bought four hundred samples. They found salicylic acid most often in imported beers, and American beers for export. They found candy much adulterated and colored with aniline dyes, sometimes with terra alba and glucose constituents. Car- bonated still wine sold for champagne. Peanut and cocoa nut shells in spices, it was found, made the gromid spices cheaper than the whole, as the mixture paid for the grinding, and left a handsome profit. The evidence of the government chemist showed almost every sample of cream of tartar, purchased either at the drug or grocery stores, to be fraudulent, only one having a trace of it. This stuff is known by the cebalistic letters C. T. S. which to the initiated means cream of tartar substitute. This substitute is alum, and many housekeepers, to be on the safe side, make their own baking powder, with this fraudulent cream of tartar and common soda. The sale of the dried and imperfect berries of coffee (which do not have the taste of coffee) is prohibited in Germany, so they are screened, and sent to America by the ton, as black jack, and we have this thrice imported coffee in our breakfast beverage, with suffi- cient chicory to enrich it. Dr. Wiley fomid lard was adulterated with vegetable oils, or fats, under the name of refined lard, cotton seed oil being used as an ingredient. Concerning olive oil, he states that hun- dreds of barrels of cotton seed oil go to France and Italy yearly, for the purpose of being refined, and that it is returned to us as olive oil, containing only a mixture of olive oil. His evidence showed that ground mustard was chiefly flour and turmeric for coloring. Coffee, ground and ungroimd, roasted and im- roasted, was found adulterated with various substances. Molasses and flour is moulded and colored, to suit the purpose of mixing with green or roasted berries; sometimes twenty five per cent of artificial berries are found per pound. He said that ground coffee was often two thirds chicory. Coffee selling at forty cents per pound and chicory at about eight cents. Said that fillers were manufactured in large quantities, and in colors suitable for mixing with pepper, cinnamon, and 294 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD allspice, etc. ; these fillers were ground shells of nuts, or colored flour, and a filler for cream of tartar consisted of infusorial earth. In the making of beer, instead of malt, barley, glucose, rice, and hominy grits were used, generally, because they were cheaper. Some malt was used, but sometimes sixty or seventy per cent of other things were substituted. At glucose fac- tories there is an oil extracted from the germ of the grain, that is cheaper than linseed oil, and is largely used as an adulterant of that oil. Cider, alcohol, and malt vinegars all sold for pure cider vinegar. In the investigation conducted by the afore- said committee, adulterations were revealed that came under two classes : those simply f radulent, and those fraudulent and deleterious to health. Dr. Wiley, Professor Mitchell, of Wis- consin, and others testified that butter was sold, from which the milk fats had been substracted, and vegetable and animal fats substituted. Some testimony was given as to milk and butter being preserved by freezene (a solution of formaldehyde). Under the class rated as simply fraudulent, we find oleo- margarine, sold as butter, honey, adulterated with glucose, exhausted tea leaves, with willow leaf mixture, strawberry jam, made of glucose and timothy seed, buckwheat flour, made of rye and other cheap cereals, currant jelly, made of apple cores and parings, mustard seventy per cent starch, colored with turmeric. Pennsylvania statistics issued in May, 1900, showed that eighty seven million, eight hundred thou- sand pounds of olemargarine was sold in a year, in the United States. It costs seven cents per pound to make, and thirty three states prohibited by law its sale as butter ; but it was sold as butter, at butter prices, thus robbing the people of several million dollars. The oleomargarine, not being deleterious, should furnish the poor a good substitute for butter, at the poor man's price. Victor Vaughan, of the University of Mich- igan, in the Popular Science Monthly, says that the jelHes of commerce are made of apples, boiled with a preparation of tartarine, consisting of either dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, then flavored. John Bennett, dairy and food commissioner of Michigan, calculated that food adulteration reached fifteen per cent of ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 295 that sold in the United States. Vaiighan, to be conservative, places it at ten per cent. As the annual food supply amounts to four billion five hundred million dollars, we pay four hundred and fifty million dollars for fraudulent products. As a result of the enforcement of Michigan's excellent pure food laws. Inspector Bennett says, there has been at least seventy five per cent improvement ; and that more than sixteen miUion dollars is annually saved at an expense of only twenty thou- sand dollars per year. Vaughan says, ''When the flesh of dis- eased animals and substances which have undergone putre- factive decomposition, can be doctored up, and preserved by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time to demand restrictive measures." Many analyses have been made in recent years, and some of the pul)lished results are satisfactory, others tend to make us doubt the dealers : as when eleven out of forty five samples of coffee are impure, forty six out of forty nine jams; when out of five hundred and seventy four samples, forty one and a half per cent are adulterated. Judas betrays his Lord at the com- munion table, even now, when for the unfermented wine, he gives a weak solution of salicylic acid, flavored with grape juice. Flour, butter, and cheese are the products protected by government, and it is only a short time since there were more than eleven states having effective food laws, and a few more had some statutes not well enforced. Dr. Wiley, in Leslie's Weekly, writing on the action of preservatives, says that: ''WTiile as poisons in food, they are not powerful enough to produce death, they act on the organs of the body, gradually reducing their vitality, and finally endangering the health of the subject." Dr. Carl Kleineberger, of Germany, found that even small doses of salicylates gave rise to the urinary phenomena of nephritis, and also desquama- tive catarrh of the entire urinary tract. A long continued course of treatment for rheumatic trouble with salicylic acid, or salicylate of soda, will convince any observant phj^sician that it impairs digestion, and causes derangement of the kid- neys, unless quite an interim is given betw^een periods of dosage, for the stomach and kidneys to resume their normal functions, showing that daily rations of salicylic acid are not desirable. 296 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD The use of preservatives has reasonable advocates among physicians and chemists. Victor Vaughan advocates the use of borax, in such quantities as specified by the Enghsh commission: as the dusting of the surface of the hams and bacon to be transported long distances with one and one half per cent of the weight of the meat, with borax, or boric acid; as meat thus dusted does not become slimy. Much of this can be obliterated from solid food, by washing and soaking in clear water, and gives the minimum of evil, when contrasted with the danger of putrefaction. Where people are limited to long distance supplies, preservatives are admissible, but in most instances, they are inexcusable, and rest under the ban of suspicion. The New Hampshire state board of health made a crusade against the use of boric acid in tubs of oysters: its liberal use enabled the dealer to keep these bivalves on his counter, in warm weather, without ice. When the dealers informed the wholesalers, that they were not allowed to sell oysters so treated, the practice was abandoned, without any of them going out of the oyster trade. Of all the fraudulent adulterations of drugs, the patent medicine ranks first. Edward Bok did more for suffering humanity through his expose of patent medicine frauds, in the Ladies' Hopie Journal, than physicians can through medical journals, for the people using the nostrums are reached by Bok's journal. By giving the analyses of thirty six medicines, showing their per cent of alcohol, he no doubt shocked many good temperance women, addicted to their use. Har- per's Weekly says : ''The patent medicine is strongly intrenched in the affections of the newspaper." One paper owns to an income of forty thousand dollars per annum from this source. Many foreign countries control and regulate the sale of these medicines. Germany has passed strict laws, but has not yet entire control of the sale. Sweden controls by regulating the number of druggists, as there are only three hundred and fifty in the country. In Stockholm there is one druggist to fifteen thousand people, so that there is no need for the patent side in the apothecary shop. The law in Ohio fixes the standard for most foods and medicines : the enforcement of the law, b}^ convictions and fines of violators, has given adulterators of ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 297 the life and health giving forces a needed lesson. From 1897 to 1903, inclusive, nine thousand one hundred and seventeen samples of foods, drugs, and beverages were analyzed, of which five thousand six hundred and three were pure, and three thousand four hundred and seventy four were adulterated. At least seventy five per cent of all the food stuffs im- ported, come through the port of New York. Enabled by a government appropriation to prosecute the work, the depart- ment of agriculture, a few years ago, began a crusade against fraud in imported foods and drugs. They found that al^out one half of the importations were adulterated, in some form. By some it is claimed that at the present time, it is reduced to about five per cent. Cheap wines, from one section, were labeled as coming from other vintages, whose brand had a higher commercial value. The government can remove these labels, but they can be replaced, after entering into the Amer- ican trade, unless another strong hand intervenes between middle men and consumer. This is true of most other imports, but it is a great step to have the pure article landed at the seaboard. In January, 1902, Dr. Ernest Lederle was ap- pointed commissioner of health, under Mayor Seth Low. The health department kept pace with others during this reform administration. The total amount of injurious food con- demned in 1892 was twelve million two hundred and ninety three thousand seven hundred and sixty one pounds. Nine- teen thousand one hundred and eighteen dollars was collected in fines for violations of the sanitary code, as against six thousand two hundred and ninety two dollars, the previous year, and fifty two per cent of the milk was found adul- terated. Of three hundred and fifteen samples of one drug, phenacetin, only fifty eight were pure. It was principally adulterated with acetanilid, worth only one fourth as much. As the remedy is often taken without a physician's prescrip- tion, no heart depressant should be used as an admixture. In 1904 in New York city, out of eight himdred and seventy one samples of drugs, three hundred and ten were either impure or substitutes; throughout the state, nine hundred and seventy six drug samples were taken, and analysis showed four hundred and fifteen below the standard. Penn- 298 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD sylvania has been active in the enforcement of her pure food law with results comparable to those reached elsewhere. While the astute Yankee no longer has recourse to wooden nutmeg frauds, his fellow countrymen, in all sections, have found more scientific, fraudulent, and vastly more lucrative occupations. The New Hampshire state board of health has pubhshed a bulletin, giving analyses of fifteen brands of dia- betes flour, purporting to be made of gluten. The bulletin shows there is no pure gluten flour to be had : and the exorbi- tant price charged was about the only thing in which it differed from common flour. Most of the vanilla extract now sold is said to be made from coal tar. At the St. Louis fair, in the agricultural building, might have been seen exhibits of the state food and dairy commission of Minnesota, and those of the Massachusetts board of health, showing the use of aniline dyes, as used in foods and beverages. A handsome collection of cloths was exhibited, which had been colored with soda fountain syrups, tomato catsup, and other foods. These poisonous dyes are another reprehensible feature of adul- teration. In a milk crusade in Pennsylvania in 1903 only one town, Milton, failed to reveal a violation of the dairy laws. The New Jersey report of the chemical department, in 1903, showed forty and eight tenths per cent of food adulteration, seventy per cent of drugs, twenty nine and one tenth per cent mis- cellaneous. The agricultural station of New Haven published its report for 1902, from which is gleaned the following : Of ninety four samples of catsup, eighty four per cent were color- ed with coal tar dyes, and had chemical preservatives. Only one fourth of the vanilla was pure, one eighth of the lemon extract, nineteen per cent of jellies and jams. In 1903 in Massachusetts, from an analysis of over six thousand samples of milk, twenty eight per cent were adulterated; other food articles had eighteen per cent of impurities. In 1902 a pure food crusade was inaugurated, by swearing out warrants against the Kansas city beef company, and others, the result of an analysis of canned meats, showing sulphurous acid and boric acid. About eighty per cent of all the whisky sold in the United PER CENT OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE MADE FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES IN NORMAL FAMILIES, BY SIZE OF INCOME INCOME UNDER $200 $200 TO S300 S300 TO S400 $400 TO S500, $500 TO $600 IFOOD Irent jclothing Ifuel LIGHTING SUNDRIES t/} UJ 2 Q^ :d Q. in S ^n o LU Qef ^ ■< S > Urn tt •^ O "f u. o > Of UJ < -< 5 u. «« «VI oc u o a. ;/3 UJ H- 2 h" LD Q£ a 5^ § UJ o o. U. X UJ LU o •< > ■< 1 ; 1 ' 1 1 i 1 ' : 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 ' - ' o ^ ^ 5 ^ si f^ -1 ^ ^^ t t^ Z 2 < o =- SSgl *sL 03 "S o (O ' 1 1 ' 1 '■ 1 1 ' ' ' ' 1 1 ' ' 1 'J o 'i|!lal'!'''i'a'''iJI «o 1 il >||| 1 '■ ' il '-■Jll aJlalllB-lli^aipJlHlllll 1 ~'ll~|ll 1 III' O ^ o S s LU Q W 0= ^ a> >. iiJ ilsL [^ a ~L 1 ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 ai - Sh UJ o O t/5 - < UJ o. UJ __ O ■< •< e 1 1 1 ' '1 1 1 1 ' ' ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 II ^ i^ * o ll'iBl'|i''l''ai|| II 'IIIh iI-JJ ' '1 'bIhII ■■.■■■■JIBIh-IbIIBBB PER CENT OF FAMILIES HAVING AN EXPENDITURE IQQQD. i 1 1 1 1 1 EXPENDITURES FOR FOOD PRINCIPAL, INTEREST HUSBAND WIFE CHILDREN PROPERTY LIFE LABOR OTHER =NSILS PERS ACATION ORS PH RENT MORTGAGE FUEL LIGHTING CLOTHING TAXES INSURANCE ORGANIZATIONS RELIGION CHARITY FURNITURE AND UTE BOOKS AND NEWSPA AMUSEMENTS AND V INTOXICATING LIQU TOBACCO SICKNESS AND DEA' OTHER PURPOSES \ ADULTERATION OF FOOD AND MEDICINE 299 States is compounded, and while the chemist may not detect the difference in it and that ripened in the natural way, the stomach is a sure detective, and does not tolerate the fraud without protest. Fifteen year old whisky can be made in eighty minutes, by this way of compounding. Brandy is made in the same way, and many wines are innocent of grape juice. The law should compel proper labehng of all liquors. Many manufacturers are putting on the market, goods of prime quahty, while others sacrifice every thing for greed of gain. One of the most dangerous adulterants is wood alcohol, and unless 3^ou know the manufacturer, a test would be a safe precaution : as it enters largely into all liquid medicines con- taining alcohol made by dishonest firms; such as essence of ginger, lemon, peppermint, witchhazel, and bay rum. At the instance of the American Medical society, W. A. BuUer and Casy Wood, of New York, made a study of wood alcohol, and report a hundred and fifty three cases of blindness, and a hun- dred and twenty two deaths, from wood alcohol and remedies prepared from it. Although the United States Pharmacopea is the standard of the country, it is not a compulsory document, except it is made so by state enactment, hence we sometimes find a differ- ence of seventy or eighty per cent in the product of a drug as made by different manufacturers. Tinctures, fluid extracts, and so forth should be identical, within reasonable limits. Chemicals are often adulterated or impure, and chemical rea- gents marked C. P. in many cases can not be relied on. Tinc- tures have been found practically inert. A few years ago, a joint committee from the American Medical society and the American Pharmaceutical association, was appointed, to form some plan whereby pure and reliable drugs and chemicals could be produced, of definite strength and uniform action, to be used as remedial agents. In their report, they deplored the condition, but no practical plan was given as a remedy. Through greater facilities for purchase of the crude drug, a bet- ter understanding of what is necessary in its care and manip- ulation, one firm will produce a better and more rehable prod- uct of a certain kind of drug, than other firms. The same firm may fail to make the best brand of another drug. So it 300 HAMILTON P. DUFFIELD happens that physicians indicate their preference, by placing the initials of the manufacturer on their prescriptions. If another make of poorer quality is used in compounding the medicine, the druggist is guilty of adulteration by substitution. As the pure food and drug bill was killed in the senate, March 3, 1905, by substitution of another bill, the same fraud in filling prescriptions will for a time continue. CORRUPTION IN PUBLIC LIFE. BY CHARLES J. BONAPARTE. LCharloR JcToiin' Ronaparto, scrrctary of tlic navy; born Haltinioro, Md., June 9, 1S51; rccH'ivcd his early education at a boarding; school, and later prepared himself under private tutors for Harvard university, which he enti-red sis a junior, and from which he graduated in 1S71 ; in Sejjternber, IS? 4, was admittee sus- tained by the hearts and the consciences of the people. Cor- rupt men support a man for ofhce and expect in return the priviloi^o of licensed law Ijreakinj^. Ollicials are elected to enforce the law, and have no more right to permit lawlessness to repay personal obligations than they would have to use the public funds to pay a private debt. When all executive offi- cials are niled by law, no man could be above the law and the law would reign over all. Such a condition would be the highest form of civilization. Civilization rests upon law, and law upon the citizen. No more important lesson can l)e ])rought home than that of individual responsibility for the af- fairs of state and nation. The mdifference of electors is the weakness of a republican form of government . To arouse them to action is a question of supreme importance. Those who would destroy the laws are always active, and work while good citizens sleep; but once the latter are aroused, they are in- vincible. If the people want a reign of law they can get it, but they must fight for it. There is the same conflict between law and lawlessness as between the true and the false, the right and the wrong, the evil and the good. The people will uphold the laws when they understand the necessity of it, for the vast majority of the people will do right when they know right. There never was a time when unselfish teachers of the puljlic were needed more than now. Lawyers more than any other class should be the teachers of the people. They can do much, if they are true to their calling, to remedy the things that dis- honor. As they are ministers of the law, it is their duty to keep the fountains of law pure and undefiled. The person who in private life discharges the civic responsibihties resting upon him, may perform as great a pul)lic service as he who faithfully does his duty in public office. Indeed, the public official is a reflection of the private citizen, as the pubUc life of a nation is a reflection of its private life. Lawyers are in a position to wield a powerful influence by tongue and pen for the reign of law, so devoutly hoped for and so earnestly prayed for by all good citizens. The highest obligation of their call- 3i6 JOSEPH W. FOLK ing is to their country; their duty is to the pubhc above all. They are the sworn upholders of the law, and as they love free- dom and defend weakness, adore the right and hate the wrong, so they should revere the law because it is the law, and thus make their influence known and felt. GENERAL INDEX GENERAL INDEX A Abrasive materials, (J. II Pratt) ... VI 431 Grindstones VI 431 Occun-ence of VI 430-1 Scytlie stones VI 434 Whetstones VI 432 Abstinence (see drunkenness) Acaileniies I 156 (see also education, collofies, niilitao' and naval academies.) Academy, military (see military academy) Academy, naval (see naval academy) Accidents (see also factory- legis- lation) Actors (see theaters) Adams, CiTus C, Resources of United States IV 18 Adams, Edwin, player I 315 Adams, John II 13 Declaration of Independence ... II 16 Origin of independence II 99 Part of in freeing colonies II 11 Adams, John Quincy Monroe doctrine II 170 National guard IX 129 Proposed national observatory- .VII 63 Adams, Sanuiel Part of in freeing colonies II 12 Adler, Felix Education I 268 Adlum, John Catawba wine maker V 270 Part of in freeing colonics II 11 Adulteration of food and medicine (H. P. Duflleld) X 288 Alcoliolic beverages X 299 Baking powders X 292 Beer X 293-4 Bill of 1904 X 291 Dairy products X 294 Drugs X 290 Fruit preserves X 294 Historical X 28S Imported goods X 297 Lard X 293 Mason investigation X 291 Medicmes patent X 296 Milk crusade of 1903 X 298 MUk X 292 OUs X 293 Pharmacy's protest X 289 Advertising (A. L. Thomas) I ,387 Wliisky X 298 Agencies introduced I 394 Agencies' work I 394 American and European I 388 American progress, early I 392 Corporations I 393 Definition of I 387 Eighteenth century I 391 England second in I 392 L'lOstrange's journal I 391 Foreign investigation of American. I 388 Free in United States I 393 French forwardness in I 389 Magazine specialties I 396 Mail orders and I 396 Media, choice of I 397 Methods in general I 395 Milton as an advertiser I 390 Money spent in I 388 Newspaper, tirst I 389 Old, examples of I 390 Origin and genesis of I 389 Philosophy of I 398-9 Publications in Britain and U. S. number of I 392 Tax on I 390-1 Wording important in I 400 Writers well paid I 395 Africa American machinery in VII 202 American trade with IV 5-6 ;43 Agassiz, Louis American glaciers VII 51 Agate VI 344 Agate, moss VI 346 Agreements, international Britain on Lake Erie reef II 225 China and the powers II 227 Interoceanic canal II 229 Jolo, United States territory .... II 225 Me.xico for arbitration II 219 ilexico to pursue savages II 219 Modus Vivendi, nature of II 223 Other than treaties II 216 Power of conmianders to make agreements in war II 224 Power of president II 218 President authorized to make . II 218-9 Protocol in Spanish war II 225 Spanish claims commission II 222 Turkey Ijy protocol in l.s:iO .... il 226 319 320 GENERAL INDEX Agriculture Alkali reslstiug plants I 424 American, and foreign trade .... IV 103 And labor VIII 248 And population IV 254 And western population Ill 364 American and world's produc- tion compared Ill 2 American farmer of to-day (James Wilson) V 12 American surplus V 37 American tea V 412 And the church V 356 Area and production, statistics of V 5 Area and values vmder irriga- tion V 8 Artificial selection V 410 Bacteriology and V 430 Beef industry, (Garfield, J. R) ... V 174 Beet sugar industry. (C. F. Saylor) V 227 Botanical science, benefits of .... V 419 Boards of trade, influence of .... V 27 Botany, problems of American, (B. T. Galloway) V 414 Burbank, Luther, (Hollis W. Field) V 105, VII 106 Bureaus, farmers' V 361 California, growth of, in V 42 Cane sugar, (F. G. Freret) V 209 Capital, value of fixed V 41 Cattle-feeding, scientific V 10 Census of 1850 V 36 Census, eleventh V 52 Changes m fifty years V 104 City population, and V 24 Civil war, and V 379 Civil war, influence of V 43 Climate and tree planting V 10 Clogs in V 47 Colleges of V 59 Colleges, congress, and V 405 Commercial floriculture, (Leroy Thomas) V 363 Cord wood, age of V 431 Cotton, future demand for, (J. L. Watldiis) V 135 Cotton lands, expansion of V 45 Cotton machinery, (D. C. Roper) V 129 Cotton seed industry', (C. M. Daugherty) V 115 Cotton seed, appreciation of V 35 Crop lands, area of V 5 Crop statistics, total V 5 Crops on record, first American . . V 21 Crop values Ill 480 Crops, relative value of V 12 Crops in pictures, statistics of ... V 101 Crops, total value of V 14 Crops, total value of American . . V S Crops, variety of .Vinerican V 4 Agriculture — Continued. Cut flowers, profits in V 339 Dairy products, value of V 29 Dairj-ing, (Henry E. Alvord) V 194 Debt of, to science V 58 Defects m American system V 65 Department of agriculture (James Wilson) V 403 Department of, as an influence . . V 56 Department of, indifference of farmers to V 59 Department of, publications of . . V 59 Depression of values from '90 to '00 V 46 Earth molten V 1 Education, influence of V 26 Education needed V 421 Education of a farmer V 406 Electric age of V 441 Experiment stations V 61 Experiment stations established . V 414 Exports, consumers of Ameri- can V 395 Exports, determination of V 390 Exports, early Ill 17 Exports of 1904 V 389 Exports, percentages of V 391-2 Exports, value and quantities of different V 391 Exports, value of V 9 Europe, exhaustion of V 25 Farm areas in the west Ill 364 Farm acreage in various states . . V 38 Farm animals, number and value of American V 9 Farm animals, value of V 29 Farm animals, value of V 47 Farm area, increase in from 1850 V 54 Farm lands, causes of decrease of V 39 Farm lands, center of V 49 Farm lands, increase of since 1850 V 99 Farm property, value of V 40 Farm values from 1850 V 52 Farms, acreage of, in 1900 V 99 Farms, average size of V 37 Farms, increase in number of .... V 28 Farms, size of V 28 Farms, sizes of. by geographical divisions V 39 Fanns, statistics of American .... V 8 Farms, value of V 29 Farmer, growing riches of V 12 Farmers, character of American . V 55 Farmers, intellectual improve- ment of V 62 Farmers' institutes V 360 Farming in 20th century. (E. P. Powell) V 431 GENERAL INDEX 321 Agriculturo— f'ontiiiued. Fanning, intensive, attracting llic city man V 334 Kuriiiiiiff. intensive, business alfility V 335 FanuiiiK. intensive, capital for a small start V 330 Fannint;. intensive, experience neccssao' V 335 Farniintr, intensive, glass roofs important V 331 Farming, intensive, inviting llelds in V 330 Farming, intensive, need of di- versity on farm V 333 P'ederation of rural forces (K. L. Butterfleld) V 354 Federation of social forces, ( K. L. Butterfleld) V 355 Fertility variations V 102 Fertilization, improved V 33 Fertilization, principles of V 10 Fertilizers and soil redistribu- tion V 104 Fifty years of American, (LeGrand Powers) V 30 Floiu" milling, influence of V 44 Flower culture, capital for V 340 Food pnxlucts of west Ill 305 Foreign competition V 50 Foreign demand and population . V 54 Foreign demand, effects of V 50 Forests. U. S. policy on V 429 Fruits, statistics of American .... V 8 Fruits, substitution of domes- tic for foreign. (W. A. Taylor) . V 230 Future homes V 437 Futiu-e of food supply V 10 Futiu-e of social V 438 Future 'jroblems V 42'J Geological antecedents V 2 Georgia, banner state V 374 Government aid V 27 Government lands IV 254-5 Governments work VII 43 Grange, work of the V 357 Grapes and Raisins, (G. C. Husmann) V 252 Growth of north central, west- ern, and south central U.S. . V 48 Income, gross from V 49 Intensive farming, (B. T. Gallo- way) V 332 Hand labor period, close of V 40 Histoo'. early, in U. S V 51 Horse power in VII 214 Increase of from 1850 V 37 Improvement of American IV 31 Indian corn, (C. F. Millspaugh) , . V 158 Indians in V 18 Influence of gold on growth ... \' 42 .\gri( lilt uro— ('ontinue' V 103 Prices, range of staple V 103 Problems of American botany ... V 414 Production and prices. (G. K. Holmes) V 99 Products, statistics of V 30 Progress from 1840-50 V 32 Progress independent of farm- ers V 54 Pure science, application of V 420 Railroads and . . V 434 322 GENERAL INDEX Agriculture — Continued. Railroads and growth of V 44 Railroads, influence of V 25 Refrigerator cars V 45 Rice. (D. C. Roper) V 287 Rice, improving V 411 Rise of quiclc transportation V 42 Roads, 20th century V 430 Seeds V 299 Seeds, handling of V 299 Social agencies V 355 Societies V 26 Societies, growth of farmers' .... V 62 Soils, nature of V 3 South, changes in the V 55 Southern. (D. D. Wallace) V 37 Southern, and education V 385 Southern and New England farmers, early V 20 Southern, condition of V 373 Southern, improvement in V 381 Southern, needs of V 385 Southern farmer, credit of V 387 Southern, statistics of V 379 (Speed. John Gilmer) V 106 Starch. (H. W. Wiley) V 166 Statistics of agricultural colleges . . V 60 Steam and V 431 Sugar cane. (F. G. Freret) V 209 Surplus, national farm V 389 Surplus, percentage of V 391 Tea culture in U. S V 292 Tea gardens, American (G. R. Clarke) V 292 Tobacco. (J. H. Garber) V 277 Tobacco, improving V 403 Trend of modem, in U. S. (G. W. Hill) V 51 Tropical agriculture and U. S V 422 U. S. an agricultural country V 4 U. S. an agricultural country. ... IV 254 United States, its soils and their products. (H. W. WUey) . . .V 1 Values by geographical divisions 1850-70 V 52 Value of product per acre V 102 Values, acreage V 40 Variety of American IV 19 Waste, early American V 24 Weather bureau's work V 390 West, the, reclamation of, (F. H. Newell) V 343 Western agriculture and railroads. IV 210 Wheat average per acre V 333 Wine, American, (J. H. Garber) V 267 ( See also dairying) (See also flowers) (See also various cereals, fruits, and other products) Agricultural machinery American, early V 71 Behel, invention of V 91 Binder, Appleby's V 93 Gordon V 92 Heath's V 90 Locke, Sylvanus V 92 McPhitridge V 90 Marsh V 90 Marsh, first V 91 Nesen and Yost's V 90 Oslx>m V 91 Spaulding's V 92 Cradles, first American V 71 Cutter, Danford's V 96 Haines' V 98 Hazard Knowles' V 96 Hussey's V 81 JlcCormick's V 82 Wheeler's V 96 Cutters, grass first V 94 Deering, Wm., work of V 91 Dropper, Newcomb's V 87 Evolution of reaping machines. (Merritt F. Miller) V 67, 68 French and Hawkins inventions . V 78 Harvester, Haines' V 94 Harvester and thresher, com- bined V 94 Harvester, inventing the V 89 History, early V 67 HofThein type V 89 Hussey-McCormick contention ... V 81 Hussey and McCormick inven- tions of V 76 Hussey and McCormick, im- provements on V 84 McCormick's, L.J. .enterprises of .V 92 Miller, M. F., evolution of reap- ing machines V 67 Mower, Aultman and Miller's .... V 98 Hussey's V 95 Ketchum's V 95 Kirby's V 98 Mowers, early V 96 Patents, Maimy's V 87 Marsh and Johnson V 89 Miller, Luidsay. and McClintock Young V 88 Osborne and Kirby V 88 Osgood. R. T V 87 Purviance's V 86 Whitely V 89 Prices V 103 Production V 100 Rake, Dorsey's V 88 Reaper, Ambler, Enoch V 84 Bell's V 76 Boyce, Joseph V 73 Ogle's V 74 Mann's of 1820 V 74 Randall, Abraham V 85 GENERAL INDEX 323 Agricultural marhiuery — Continued. Smith's V ?:{ And mower, coinbinod V S8 Patent, llrst V 78 Tract ical, America birth- place of V 78 Reapers, earlier American V 78 Hoapin? machines, first V 7;t Loirt, Capel V 73 Pitt. William V 7;J i'liny V 72 Removers, automatic V 85 Schncll)y. Wlieeler. and Ree' power and size IX 312 Classes of IX 309 Concentration of gun fire IX 314 Cost of IX 311 Displacement of IX 310 Gun-power IX 313 Modem tactics IX 315 Oun-buildlng, principles of IX 313 Recent advance in, (J. D. J. Kelley) IX 308 Size of increased IX 311 Weight of IX 311 Weights of guns IX 313 Bauxites (J. Struthers) VI 26G Deposits of in Europe VI 267-8 Distribution of in U. S VI 266 History of in U. S VI 266 Mining of VI 267 Occurrence of VI 269 Properties of VI 268 Varieties of VI 267 Beach, A. Ely Tj-pewriter patents of VII 3G6 Beans, castor Area and production V 7 Beans, navj- Crops, first American V 21 Beardsley, Charles Tariff and the trusts Ill 301 Beaumont, Dr Researches on stomach VII 419 Bebel, August Woman I 406 Beef Beef industry, (J. R. Garfield) V 174 Cattle, raising V 175 E.xports V 32 Live stock, marketing V 174 ( See also packing) Beer Adulterated X 293-4 Beets, sugar Area and production V 6 ( See also sugar) Behel, Jacob Patents of V 91 Beliring Sea Supreme court in dispute con- cerning II 91 BelReld, W. T Researches of VII 421 Belgium Early trusts in II 354 Bell, Alexander Melville VII 171 Bell. Alexander Graham VII 9 Deaf mutas and X 159 Early experiments VI 1 177 Invention of telephone VII 171 328 GENERAL INDEX Bell Alexander Graham — Continued. Inventor of telephone VII 137 Undulatory theory of VII 174 Bell, John, phjsician VII 414 Bell, Louis Economy of electric power dis- tribution Ill 345 Electric lighting VII 154 Bell, Patrick Reaper of V 76 Bennington, U. S. gunboat IX 296 Bentley, Edward M., electrician VII 139 Benton, Thomas H Reduction of tariff in 1833 II 322 Beryls VI 329 Bessemer, Henry Process of VII 29 ( See also iron) Biddle, James Sword of IX 394 Bienville, Jean Baptiste de Foimded New Orleans II 268 Biglow, Henry J Ether, use of, publication of VII 416 Eigelow, Jacob, physician VII 412 Binney, Horace Confederation, American II 58 Biology (see zoology) Bird, Robert M., author I 356 Birkinbine, John Iron ores VI 61 Birkinbme, John Mechanical engineering in mining. VI 446 Progress of mining industry VI 446 Bitumen J. Struthers VI 395 Blackberries Burbank's VII 106 Blaine James G Monroe Doctrine II 187 Work of, for reciprocity II 380 Bland, Richard II 409 Blast furnaces VI 87 Size of American VI 87 (See also iron) Blind, the Education of X 96 Institutions for, (G. L. Smead) X 93 Institutions for, nature of X 94 Mental training X 98 Music and X 102 Physical culture for X 98 Problem of X 95 Blockades Of Spanish American ports for debts II 188 Proposed, of Venezuela, for debt.. .II 189 (See also diplomacy) Boats, submarine Gims in IX 391 (See also steamboats) Bobbs, John Stough, surgeon VII 434 Boer war • . . Intervention requested II 197 Bohn, Lawrence, physician VII 402 Bon Marche, the VIII 311 Bond, William C, astronomer VII 64-74 Bonds, U. S From 1846 to 1861 II 328 Increase from 1883 II 406 Books (see literature) Boots and shoes Horse power in VII 214 (See also shoes) Booth, Edwin I 312. 314 Borax (J. Struthers) VI 414 Chemistry of VI 417 Deposits of, in U. S VI 415 In California VI 416 Mining of VI 415 Mines, American VI 416 Occurrence and history of VI 414 Occurrence of VI 417 Preservative X 296 Production of VI 415 Reduction of VI 419 Uses of VI 418 Manufacture, various processes of VI 419 Bor6, Etienne de Sugar invention of V 211 Boshard, John A The Sewing machine VII 339 Boston Steam plants in VII 279 Boston, (U. S. cruiser) IX 292 Boston & Albany railroad Ownership of Ill 332 Boston & Maine railroad Ownership of Ill 332 Boston library American art, in I 334 Botany Problems of American V 414 World's debt to VII 32 Boucicault, Dion I 310 Boughton, D. H National guard IX 128 Bowditch, Nathaniel And early American astronomy.. VII 00 Bowditch, William, astronomer VII 71 de Bower, Edward W The American salesman IV 506 Bowman, Alexander H Architect, first supervising I 280 Boyce, Joseph Reaper of V 73 GENERAL INDEX 329 Boycotts. Compulsion not bafRaining Ill :514 (See also strikes, industry, and labor) Boyescn, II. H Old American sea fights IX 2G.3 Bradford, AVm., author I 350 Bradstreet, Anne, author I 350 Brainard, Daniel, surgeon VII 432 13randics, American V 254 Brazil, cotton growing V 140 Brewer, Supreme Justice David J. . . . Bribery (See corruption) Civic duty II 108 Brick Trusts HI 1C4 (See also clay) Bricklayers, conditions of VIII 20 Bridges, American, and bridge build- ing (Henry S. Jacoby) IV 400 American, building. (T. C. Clarke) IV 394 American, abroad IV 203 Advantage of one design IV 403 Boston-Cambridge IV 414 Brookl>-n IV 410 Chicago IV 413 C. & O. railway, great terminal of IV 407 Compared with European IV 396 Concrete and steel arch IV 412 Detail of designs IV 405 Duluth, unique IV 414 Engineer's part in growth of IV 395 Foreign bridges, noted IV 398 Great, Dcs Moines valley viaduct, the IV 407 Growth of, causes of IV 394 Highway, poor IV 409 Length of span IV 405 Markets for IV 394 Memphis IV 409 Minneapolis IV 411 Moving, notable IV 413 Niagara IV 41 1 Old, problems of replacing IV 415 Pittsburg IV 410 Plate girder IV 405 Railroad loading, uniform IV 401 Railroads an impetus to IV 400 Riveted bridges IV 406 Rockville, great stone IV 413 St. Louis, world famous IV 410 Standard material specified IV 402-3 Supremacy of, (Thomas Curtis Clarke) IV 394 Tests for material IV 402 Topeka. great steel IV 412 Truss, heavy American IV 407 Truss span, longest IV 407 Bridges — Continued. Truss, improvements in IV 408 Washington, over the Harlem IV 411 Brooklyn^ cruiser) IX 299 Brooklyn I'olyterhnic school VII 302 Brooks, Joim (iraiiam Trade union labels VIII 181 Broom corn, area and production V 7 Brophy,|Truman W American dentistiy VII 437 Brown, Archer Foundations of American iron industry VI 95 Bryant, William Cullen I 354 Brush, Charles F., electrician VII 138 Browne, Chas. F., humorist I 365 Brown, Jacob, soldier IX 4 Buchanan, James Message of on tariff II 328 Buck, D. A. A Watch, invention of VII 360 Buck. H. W Niagara power, utilization of VII 240 Buckland, W Glaciation Vll 51 Buckwheat Area and production V 5 Cultivation, early V 21 Buffaloes, in 1900 V 47 Building associations (see associa- tions, building and loan) .... Building trades English VIII 211 U. S.. in VIII 213 Unions of VIII 21 1 Buildings, high Caissons for I 290 Character of city I 285 Congestors of streets I 297 Conveniences in I 293 Drainage of I 293 Fire proofing : . . -I 288. 295 Floor construction I 288 Floor space in cellars I 292 Foundations of I 289 Frame of skyscraper I 287 Light obsciu"ed by I 296 New York I 296 Office, like bridges I 286 Jenney, W. L. B., originated by 289 People housed in I 293 Piles in foundations I 291 Power plants of I 293 Power used by VII 347 Rust of steel work of I 294 Safety of I 291 Skyscrapers, modern (A. W. French) I 285 Specifications for city I 286 Steel type construction I 285 Value of sites I 285 Vibration guarded against I 288 330 GENERAL INDEX Buildings, liigli — Continued. " Walls as ciu-tains I 286 Walls, how made I 288 Wind and high I 287 (See also tenements) Bull. Ephraim Wales Grape, culture of V 253 Bullock, Charles J Concentration of banking in U.S Ill 411 Good and bad of trusts Ill 121 Bunner, Henry C I 365 Burbank, Luther Methods of VII 108 Work of (H. W. Field) VII 105 Burdick, Francis M Lawyer's place in American life II 93 Burgess, John The state I 80 Burgess, John W Political scientist VII 94 Burglary Trust companies and Ill 435 Biu-goyne, Jolm, British soldier IX 19 Burke, Edmund Conciliation, speech on II 98 Burnett, Frances Hodgson I 305 Burr, Aaron As fmancier Ill 406 Bury, Richard, De Estimate of legal profession II 93 Butler, Nicholas Murray American colleges I 154 Principles of American education.... I 78 Business men Educational needs of I 218 University training for, (S. N. Patten) I 218 Butter Exports V 32 Butterfleld, Keuyon L Federation of rural social forces. . . .V 354 Butterine Exports V 32 c Cable, George W I 365 Cables (see telegraphs) Cactus Burbank's VII 107 Caissons High bvuldings, for I 290 Calico Cotton production V 142 Print machine, early VII 270 California Admitted to Union II 285 Ceded to U. S H 283 Cruiser IX 302 History H 281 California — Continued. Industries of Ill 366 Railroads, helped by IV 211 Raisins, first in V 244 Wines of V 261. 272 University of (see University of California) Califomite VI 333 Callender, G. S Pioneers of American industry Ill S Campbell, Helen Prisoners of poverty VIII 190 Campion. John Fire lighters X 222 Canada American trade, with IV 43 Behring Sea fishery cases II 91 Conquest of IX 15 Immigration smuggled through. ...X 124 Loyalty of in revolution IX 18 War of 1812 and IX 31-2 Canal, isthmian American internal trade IV 185-6 American policy defined II 235 American policy of 1858 II 240 American support of II 146 Asia, trade with IV 185 Attitude of American govern- ment II 228 Attitude of U. S. government toward. (Ira D. Travis) II 228 Britain and U. S. irreconcilable. ...II 244 Central west, and IV 189 Chicago Pacific coast trade IV 189 Clayton-Bulwer controversy II 237 Clayton- Bulwer treaty II 235 Cleveland's open policy II 245 Coal shipments IV 188 Colombian treaty of 1869 II 241 of 1870 II 241 Congress asserts need of II 230 Control, American attempt to secure exclusive II 241 Distances via, table of IV 183 Dutch company II 229 Economic aspects of, (Emory R. Johnson) IV 181 Exclusion, American polic.v of II 232 First American action on II 228 Freedom of declared II lOS Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty of 1884 1- 245 French company at Panama II 243 Gadsden treaty, effect of II 237 Grant's proposed survey H 240 Guaranty bill of 1891 II 246 Hawaiian trade IV 185 Hay&s, President, asserts Ameri- can supremacy of II 243 Hay-Pauncefote treaty H 246 GENERAL INDEX 331 Canal, isthmian — Continued. Historj'. diplomatic 11 -28 Iron trade and IV 188 JUjiiroo doctrine 11 '-^'^ Nicaratcuan treaty H 240 Pacific trade and IV 184 Panama, proposed by Now Granada. . II 2'}2 Panama road, protection of I 2:{8 Policy of 1881 -11 244 Railroads, American IV 1.92 Kfiisons for IV 181 Resolution of lt>35 11 230 of 1839 II 231 Rights of Central American republics II 239 Ship huildins IV 190 South American trade IV 184 Southern states and IV 186 Suez tomiaf^e IV 190 Tehuantepcc route, reservation in, American II 238 Tehaimtepec sliip railroad H 234 treaty with Mexico II 238 Tolls, rate of IV 19G-7 Tonnage and tolls IV 163 Trade, New York-Paciflc coast IV 188 Trade route, as a IV 182 Treaty of 184G II 233 Various bills for II 249 Wheaton, Henry II 232 (See also trade) t'unal, Panama (see Panama) Canals Chicago drainage and American machinery VII 204 Coal, early Ill 26 Development of early American. .Ill 25 lOnglish, profits in Ill 32 Financial ditficulties in early Anierican Ill 24 Internal American IV 150 Jefferson's policy Ill 9 Rariton, planned Ill 26 Suez, commercial influence of ....IV 20 treaty based on American principles II 168 Tonnage of Suez IV 196 Traffic on American IV 239 (See also Panama) Canning, George Monroe doctrine, supports U. S. in II 169 Canning and preserving (see specific heads) Canning industry Poisons and VII 34 Camion (see gims) Capital Concentration of Ill 49 Consolidation of, labor and Ill 96 Capital — C/ontinued. (VKjperation of labor and, (W. II. Pfahler) VIII 89 Corporal ioiLs, small for early HI 39 Detliiilion of capitalism HI '19 Duties of to lalM)r IV 516 Feudalism of mines VIII 32.S Foreign, early invitation to HI 32 Foreign capital in U. S., early. . .HI 31 Foreign in U. S. in 1830, esti- mate of Ill .33 Industrial commission on VIII 29 Industry, its part in VIII 90 its share of ^ HI 93 Labor, dispute of with VIII 91 Organization of VIII 91 Problem.s of VIH 139 Promoters help investment of . . . HI 232 Supplies of, early American HI 2'.) Trusts, overcapitalization of HI 205 West, demand for in early HI 24 (See also civic federation, labor, trusts, railroads, banks) Capron, Allyn K.. soldier, naval hero IX 39fl-7 Captain of mdustry. and his lieu- tenants, the (W. R. Lawson).III 244 Cars, railway Brakes IV 392 Capacity of freight IV 392 Character of IV 391 History of, early IV 391 Pullman's invention IV 391 Steel freight IV 392 The development of, (George A. Hutchins) IX 390 ( See also railroads) Carey, Henry C Increase of tariff in 1842 II 324 Carnegie, .\ndrew (C. M. Schwab) VI 147 Bvisiness purposes of VI 153 Cyclops plant founded VI 148 Edgar Thomson company VI 149 Employees' share in works of ..III 280 Enterprises, scope of VI 151 Futiu-e industry, forecast of Ill 2Sl Homestead works VI 150 Institute, motive of II 449 Iron and steel, uncertainty of.. Ill 278-9 Lucy stack, increase of IV 154 Organization of manufactiuring industries HI 273 Output of works VI 152 Partners, buying out his Ill 278 Peace arbitration, gift of to II 106 Pliilanthropy to employees IV 155 Success of, cause of VI 152 Success, tells the secret of his Ill 278 Wages, on investment of Ill 279 (See also iron, steel corporation. United States) 332 GENERAL INDEX Carnochan, John Murray, surgeon VII 432 Carolina, South Cotton, introduction of HI 20 Carolinas, the Lawyers in the early H ^^ Carroll, John II 24 Carter, James C Army and IX 114 Municipal government H 433 Cartridges (see guns) Castine, gimboat IX 297 Castlereagh, Lord Favored Holy ^Uliance H 169 Catlinite VI 338 Catholic, Roman (see Roman catho- lic) Catholic University, the (see Roman catholic) Cattle Railroad and monopoly IV 339 (See also live stock) Cement Trust, the HI 1^4 Cennabar ^I 293 Census, pro\'ision for by second congress II ^^ the trusts in the light of, (W. R. Merriam) HI 1^9 Central America Governments of and, isthmian canal H 230 Republics of, rights of, in canal grants II 239 Central Pacific railroad Military line HI 371 Cereals Area and production in U. S V 6 Cervera, Admiral, Spanish officer IX 243 Chalcedonies VI 344 Chapman, Nathaniel, physician VII 413 Charity Cuban H 303 Institutions for the blind, (G. L. Smead) X 93 Porto Rico H 301 Charities (C. R. Henderson) X 1 Abuses of in cities X 46 Blind and deaf IX 32 Child labor X 16 Children's homes X 33 Christian, early X 2 Churches and X 47 Cost of institutions by states X 28 Cuban II 309 Dispensaries X 37 Drink and X 16 Ellberfeld system X 3 Immigration and X 4 Charities — Continued. Institutions, benevolent. (John Koren) X 22 nimiber and inhabitants X 22 Italy, m X 3 Jewish, (Lee K. Frankel) X 57 Methods of organization X 9 National conference of X 14 Expansion of, (A. O. Crozier) X 18 Funding of institutions X 27 Grand Rapids movement X 20 Homes, permanent X 38 Hospital statistics X 34 Hospitals, cost of X 35 preponderance of X 30 Number of aided by states X 24 Number of aided in institutions. ...X 23 Nurseries X 34 Organization and federation of X 5 methods of X 19 Orphanages X 31 Pay of workers, inadequate ... .X 19 Poor laws X 2 Poorhouses X 43 Preventive means X 14 Private and public X 4 Private, primacy of X 25 Problems of X 15 Science in relief X 45 State control of X 7 dangers of X 11 inevitable X 12 State regulation of X 3 Supervision of in Austria X 8 in Belgiiun X 8 in Germany and Britain X 7 need of central X 48 Theory and practice of X 1 (See also insanity, Jews, philan- thropy, relief, poor) Charles River Bridge Co. vs. Warren Bridge H 71 Charleston, (U. S. cruiser) IX 292-302 Chase, Salmon P As financier HI 404 Decision on indestructibility of Union H 85 Indivisibility of Union II 75 Cheese Exports V 32 (See also dairying) Chelmers, Lionel American physician VII 405 Chemistry American VII 14 Debt to, world's VII 31 Industrial electro-chemistry (E. F. Roeber) VII 140 Industry, importance of in VII 84 Needs of in U. S VII 86 GENERAL INDEX 333 Pasteur VI r :;4 Plant life V 4 Kailroa/ls. used by VII 85 U. S. antl VII 84 ( See also electricity) Chemicals Trusts, statistics of HI 164 Cliicago Astronomy and VII 78 Buildings, high, originated in I 289 Crime in II 109 Grain speculation, renter of Ill 385 Immigrants and trades unions in VIII 226 Isthmian canal Pacific trade II 189 Lumber market Ill 361 Packing center, its rise as N' 176 Population, its lieterogeneous II 113 Western industn,-, and Ill 368 Chicago (U. S. cruiser) IX 292-3 Chicago & Great Western railroad. . . Ownership of Ill 332 Chicago. University of, (see Univer- sity of Chicago) Chickens Production V 30 Child labor VIII 15 Abuses of VIII 82 America, and VIII 1-5 Coal mines and VIII 354 Education and I 104 Education, compulsory VI^I 60 Employers, requirements of VIII 59 Exploited by machinery VI il 373 Factory acts, provoked VIII 73 Hours VIII 61 Ideal law VIII 65 Illiteracy laws VIII 60 Law, evatling VIII 63 Laws, in varioas states VIII 57 Inaflequacy of VIII 62 Legislation, early VIII 64 Legislation, (I'lorence Kelley)... VIII 56 Massachusetts laws VIII 56 Night work VIII 62 South, m the VIII 83 Children Aiding poor X 162 Charity and X 6 Cost of homes X 32 Criminal statistics of X 132 Crippled X 159 Cruelty to X 165 Defectives, care of X 157 George junior republic X 160 Girls, reform schools for X 1 66 Pubhc nurseries X 34 Race suicide and X 208 State aid for poor X 163 Summer colonies for X 169 (See also orphans) China jVgreement between and the powers 11 227 America the friend of II 260 American geographical advan- tages II 262 American rights to open d(X)r II 133 As buyer of American cotton IV 115 British and American trade with IV 8-9 fk)mmercial interest in II 248 ('otton, American supplies of. to III 100 Cotton mills of II 251 Europe, compared industrially with II 258 Exclusion act VIII 200 Exclusion of VIII 239 Immigration of VIII 247 Indastries, growth of its II 256 Laborers, as VIII 252 Lawyers in II 100 Opportimities for American capital II 251 Philippine conquest opens II 200 Philippines and the open door II 134 Solvency' in business II 254 Trade with, importance of IV 203 Trade with, not helped by Phil- ippine purchase II 132 Transportation rates and wages m IV 214 Trusts in HI 101 Wages and railroads in VIII 412 Chisholm vs. Georgia II 63 Marshall's opinion II 64 Chlorastrohte VI 334 Choate. Mrs. Wilham G Philanthropist X 220 Chromium Steel making, use of in VI 177 Chr>soprase VI 345 Church, the, (see religion) Churchill, Winston I 306 Cider Experiments, government VII 44 Cigar makers Conditions of VIII 190 Label, union, adopt VIII 182 Strikes of VIII 157 Cigars (see tobacco) Cigarettes (see tobacco) Cincinnati Packing center, decline of as V 177 Cities Appointment of police in II 430 Civil sen-ice reform, need of II 119 Congestion of II 429 Conscience, tone of popular II 121 Crime and poverty in, (J. R. Commons) X 128 Crime, their legal relation to II 109 334 GENERAL INDEX Cities — Continued. Criminal statistics of 1 ..X 131 Democratic rule a failure II 119 Gambling, dangers of in II 118 Garbage laws necessary in II 115 Growth of American II 429 Growth of Ill 347 Hurry of life in II HI Influx to, causes of X 130 Law, difficulty of enforcing in II 113 Laws, results of violating ui II 114 Meccas for cranks 11 110 Nation must morally master its II 119 Need of parks in II 114 Platting of, wisdom in II 113 Policing, too much, not good II 120 Policeman's lot in II 116 Political machine in II 430 Population of city and country X 128 Prosperity, centers of I 54 Saloons of II 117 Sites of American IV 29 Slums of, filth in II 113 Suicide, cause of, in II 118 Subways, New York IV 451 Track elevation in IV 238 (See also buildings) Citizenship, American (David J. Brewer) TI 108 (Grover Cleveland) II 1 Creed of, Grover Cleveland II 7 Education and I 241 Typical American I 7 Civic duty (David J. Brewer) II 108 Inattention to II 116 Civic federation Arbiter, not an VIII 101 Purpose of VIII 100 Work of, (O. S. Straus) VIII 100 Civil service Abraham Lincoln, and II 413 Corruption in II 407 Merit system in mimicipalities, (C. R. Woodruff) II 428 Pensions and II 414 Political evils of II 430 President's part in II 412 Reform act of 1883 II 406 Reform, beginning of II 410, English II 411 Need of, in cities II 119 Theory of II 412 Civil war Agriculture, influence of on V 43 Cause of II 29 Civilization Lawyers an index to II 105 War factories, and I 60 Clark, Alonzo Researches of VII 420 Clark, Alvan VII 58 Work of VII 5 Clark, E. C Naval Officer IX 298 Clark, John Bates Monopoly and the struggle of the classes VIII 127 Trusts and pote.itial competi- tion Ill 139 Clark, John B Political economist VII 95 Clark, Ransom Sword of IX 398 Clark, Thomas C Cyanide patent of VI 230 Clarke, F. W Chemistry in U. S VII 84 Clarke, Sir George Strategic value of West Indies — IX 400 Clarke, Grace Riley V 292 American tea gardens V 292 Tea culture in U. S V 292 Clarke, Thomas Curtis American bridge building IV 394 American supremacy in bridge buUding IV 394 Clay VI 312 BaU VI 313 Brick VI 313 Fire VI 313 Mining of VI 314 Paper VI 314 Pottery VI 315 Preparing, for market VI 315 Slip VI 314 Trust, the HI 164 Uses of VI 315-16 Vitrified VI 313 Clay Henry Canal, freedom of interoceanic II 168 Tariff II 320 Clayton-Bulwer treaty II 235 Controversy over II 237 Clemens, Samuel C I 362 Cleveland, Grover American good citizenship II 1 Capital and labor II 5 Creed of good citizenship II 7 Free trade, opposed to II 334 Good government II 6 Open canal, policy of II 245 Overconfidence of patriotism II 3 Political corruption II 4 Political duties II 6 Political partisanship II 8 Purpose of American govern- ment II 4 Venezuela boimdary dispute II 182 Cleveland Cliffs Iron company VIII 335 GENERAL INDEX 335 Climate Tree planting, and V 10 United States IV 25-6 ( See alseth N Philanthropist X 221 College archite<;ture (see architecture) College, naval war IX 368 Colleges (\. M. Ilutler) I 154 (C P. Huntington) I 240 Acatlemies, modem I 156 Agricultural, statistics of V 60 Alumni I 167 American, early I 154 Backward I 156 Benefactions for I 108 Cheap, needed I 170 Course, length of I 158 Cheap tuition and I 170 Cooperation, need of I 185 Courses, shortened I 162 Distribution, geograpliical I 171 Elective studies I 174 E.xpression of democracj' I 173 Finishing schools I 161 Four years term accidental I 160 Futtu"e of, plans for I 161 High schools, fed by I 173 Income of small I 182 Individualism, need of I 184 Junior I 181 Large, hostility to I 166 Length of course I 181 Migration I 178 Naval war, (H. Wilson) IX 366 Number of small, in U. S I 182 Old and new I 156-7 Permanency of I 164 Policy in, not definite I 157 Professional schools I 176 Reconstruction of I 162 Religion and I 172 Religious spirit m I 175 Replacing high schools I 183 Requirements of I 174 Salaries in I 177 Sameness of I 183-4 Secondary training and I 159 Small, advantages of I 165 Small, distinctively American I 171 Small, future of (W. R. Harper) ....I 164 Small, special demand for I 169 Small, SiTnpathy for I 167 State universities and I 1 78 336 GENERAL INDEX Colleges — Continued. Sun'ival of fittest I Teachers, heroism of I Transition places I Universities, transformed to I (See also education) Colombia, United States of Canal treaty of 1869 II of 1870 II Isthmian canal and II Colonies the Area of, problematical II British capital in IV British encouragement of manu- factures IV Commerce of IV Commerceof, Adam Smith IV Committee on grievances against Great Britain II Declaration of freedom of, by Virginia II Manufactiu"es, embargo on co- lonial IV English bottoms, law favoring. . . .IV Franklin's "Canada Pamphlet". . .IV Freedom of, del^ates of Jay, Duane, Livingstone, Rutledge .... II Hats, manufacture of IV Iron and steel, manufacture of IV Iron, pig, in southern IV John Adams, part of, in freeing. ...II Jolm Dickinson opponent of freedom of II Laws restraining commerce of IV Lawyers, led by II Literatiu-e in I Manufactm-es, restriction of, in IV Molasses, embargo on IV Sam Adams, Roger Sherman, Oliver Wolcott and George Wythe, part of, in freeing II Resolution of R. H. Lee freeing II Restraint, British, of trade and the revolution IV Restraining legislation, benefits of IV Territory claimed by II Tobacco, early importance of IV (See also trade, commerce, ship- building) Colonization Success of, conditions of Ill Colorado Admitted Ill Industries of Ill Territory of, formed II Cruiser IX Columbia school of mines VII Columbia university Architecture of I 272, Expansion of I 180 167 169 160 240 241 238 266 85 82 66 77 13 74 76 13 79 81 78 11 12 70 99 349 75 83 12 11 87 85 265 71 14 373 367 274 302 302 274 190 Combinations (see trusts, railroads, and banks II 248 Commerce American and the foreigner IV 204 Physical foundations of. IV 38 In Orient.. II 248 Trade and. (Victor H. Metcalf).. .IV 1 Army, the, and IV 517 Beginning of foreign trade, (Worthy P. Sterns) IV 89 British capital in colonies IV 85 British encouragement of co- lonial IV 82 British legislation on American... IV 67 British navy, early American fostered by IV 69 Business, early Ill 36-7 Business education, (S. N. Patten) I 218 Census, and IV 518 Chicago, east from Ill 363 Cliina's ability to pay II 255 Cloth, early trade in IV 72 Colonial, L. B. Lecky IV 66 Colonial commerce, Adam Smith IV 77 Commercial nations, influence of IV 253 Conditions, American, in 1812. ...Ill 16 Conditions in west, early Ill 16-17 Consulates, work of IV 519 Corporations, and bureau of IV 520 Cuba II 311 Cuba as gate to Latin trade IV 63 Department of, duties of the IV 578 Department of. scope of the IV 521 Early American, (W. J. Ashley). ..IV 65 Early American IV 66 East and west in U. S Ill 363 English bottoms, law favoring. . . .IV 74 Enumerating enactments of England IV 70 Expansion of American, (O. P. Austin) IV .33 Expansion of J American, assured... IV 61 Farm areas in the west Ill 364 Foreign enmity unavailing IV 39 Foreign trade of U. S IV 110 Franklin's Canada Pamphlet IV 76 Futureof American, in Orient. ... IV 200 Government and IV 517 Historical IV 33 Iron, colonial manufacture of IV 81 Labor bureau, and IV 520 Lake, and U. S. steel corpora- tion IV 146 Lake lading methods, excel- lence of IV 146 Laws restraining, in the colonies . . IV 70 GENERAL INDEX 337 Commerce — Continued. Lakes, great, of the (Ray S. Baker) IV 141 Ships of the IV 143 Tonnage of IV 145 Lumlier. American Ill 355 Manufactures, embargo on co- lonial IV 75 Molasses act of 1733. effect of IV 83 National trade policy, need of IV 126 Navy, the IV 517 Uailroafl regulation. (R. M. La Follette) IV 294 Railroads in American IV 199 Republican party cause of in- crease II 39:j Restraint of colonial, Edmund Burke IV 85 Restraining laws, benefits of. on.. .IV 85 Retaliation by Europe II 390 Revolution, American, British restraint and the IV 87 Revolution, cause of American ... .IV 60 Salesman, the American, (E. W. de Bower) IV 506 Seas, freedom of, established by U. S II 168 Shipbuilding, early American IV 68 Shipbuilding in 1820 IV 101 South, development of the, (Charles M. Harvey) Ill 371 Standard oil. and Ill 192 Statistics, bureau of IV 519 Statistics of American since 1870 IV 34 United States, supremacy of. in. I\' 34-8 Tobacco culture, England for- bade insular IV 72 Tobacco, early importance of IV 71 , elTect of enumeration on . . ..IV 73 Tonnage, American, and Euro- pean compared Ill 6 West, definition of the Ill 363 West, the, general effect of open- ing of Ill 22 Western. (L. M. Shaw) Ill 363 Wheat, influence of, on V 15G (See also industry, manufactures, trade. Great Lakes) Commerce, interstate, commission. . . Constitution, and the II 66-68 Constitution, and VII 271 Crippled IV 320 Early Ill 21 Gibbons vs. Ogden. decision in II 69 Commercialism Spirit of. in America IV 514 True spirit of IV 514 Commission, industrial (see indus- trial commission) Commons, John R vVmerican people, the I 1 Crime and poverty in cities X 128 Economist VIII 20 Lalx)r and immigration VIII 230 Open shop policy VIH 190 Communication United States, supremacy of ... .IV 37 Competition Foreign view of American. (Frederick. Emory) iv 51 Races superiority and l 66 Railroad rates iv 262 Wages and vill 270 Compressed air and its application in the me- chanical lines. ( W. O. Duntley) vil 246 Chisels, for vil 250 Coal mining, and VII 253 Convenience of VII 248 ^'^^^ VII 252 General uses of vil 248 Hammers vil 252 Handwork, replaces VII 249 Hoists VII 252 Mechanics, value of in VII 247 Painter's trade, and VII 250 Riveting vil 249 Rust cleaner vil 250 Saws VII 251 Street cleaning vil 252 Turbine engines vil 251 Comstock lode Development of VI 24 Fire of vi 21 Methods developed by VI 26 Sutro's work vi 25 Temperature in VI 26 Conant, Charles A American interests in Orient II 248 Concord. U. S. gimboat IX 29G Confederacy-, the Great names of IX 61 Strategically considered IX 190 Confederation, articles of II 29. 58 Congress Continental, work of II 10 Duties of. Justice John Mar- shall II 66 Labor legislation, and VIII 81 Pan American, of 1826 and 1890 ..II 198 Right of. to control trusts. (P. C. Knox) Ill 204 Treasury, power over, check to executive II 213 Connecticut, battleship IX 303 Connellsville Coke region. (F. E. Saward) VI 193 (See also coke) 338 GENERAL INDEX Conspiracy Labor and VIII 199-200 C-onsolidation (see trusts and banks) . Constitution, American Affecting railroads II 73 Basis for a world constitution II 31 Basis of II 78 Battleship IX 35 Civil war and II 72 Decision in Gibbons vs. Odgen ... .II 69 Of Harland on railroad rates... II 73 Supreme court on corporate franchises II 71 Dependencies, no place in, for II 202 DifTiculties. early, with 11 61 Filipinos under, rights of II 202 Gladstone. W. E II 60 Holds the union mdivisible II 75 Intepreted by Supreme court. ... II 73 Interstate conunerc«, and II 68 Legality of the union and II 64 Meaning of, John Marshall II 203 Morris, Gouverneur TI 202 Opinion on. Judge Cooley II 62 Organization of government under II 61 Representation and II 49 Safeguards of, unwTitten II 200 Supreme coiu-t and II 62 Tariff in II 315 Undesirable checks of II 202 Constitution, British II 57 Evils of unwritten II 57 Not unwTitten II 05 Constitution, United States, March of, (G. R. Peck) II 57 Ship IX 35 Consuls Commerce, as aid to IV 519 Consxilar service Foreign trade, value of in IV 117 Consumption American IV 2-4 Continental Congress Vote and debate on independ- ence II 18 Work of, in 1776 II 10 Convention, constitutional II 78 Meeting of II 59 Need of II 59 Veto power, plans for II 79 Converse, John H American locomotives IV 384 Convict labor Industrial commission on VIII 43 Convicts In Chicago jails II 109 Statistics of Joliet prison II 109 Cooke, Rose Terry Novelist I 365 Cooley, Judge The constitution II 62 Cooley, Thomas M Higher.education I 84 Cooper, James Fenimore I 354-5 Cooper, Peter Atlantic cables, and VII 129 Built first locomotive IV 384 Cooperation Dairying, and V 195 Cope, E. D Discoveries of VII 53 Copper American copper ores, (A. Lakes) VI 200 Arizona districts VI 263 Arizona mines VI 265 Development of in the west IV 291 Export trade in VI 256 History in U. S., early. .VI 252, 254, 262 How copper occurs VI 253 Japan in, industry VI 254 Lake Superior region VI 254 Lake Superior regions VI 264 Mexico, in industry, quick growth of VI 254 Mined and extracted, how VI 257 Ore in different parts of U. S VI 260 Principal American regions VI 261 Production of Ijy states VI 255 Production since ISOl VI 253 Properties of VI 256 Spain leads Europe in VI 254 Supremacy of U. S VI 253 Western beds VI 261 World's supply of, (Jos. 51. Sheahan) VI 252 Mining of, in U. S., early VI 4 (See also mining) Com (C. F. Millspaugh) V 158 Area and production V 5 Broom, (see broom corn) By-products, uses of V 164 Classification of V 158 Colonists, devastation of fields by V 161 Cooking, aboi'iginal methods of V 160 Crop, greatest of American V 163 Crop of 1904 IV 164 Exports V 31 First American crop V 21 History V 158 Incas, the,and V 159 Indians, cultivation by North American V 160 Mexican method of grinding V 161 Origin in the Andes V 159 Production V 30 Religious significance V 163 Starch and glucose V 166-71 Sweet corn, valued food V 162 Corners, on stock etc., (see specula- tion and individual names) . . . GENERAL INDEX 339 Corporal ions Uusiiioss, Oiirly Ill •"> Commerco, hiircaii of aiut IV 521 Delostcd in Jackson's times Ill 43 Influcncoof HI 377 Law and lawyers X 308 J'art in proffress, (W. R. Law- son) Ill ::~~ Hailroads, orjj:ani/.alion of, ((ieort^c T. Sampson) IV :i<>7 HiRhts of, decision of. Chief Justice Taney II ~ I (See also tnisl companies) CoiTes|K)iHlence .schools (See etliication) Corruption (J. W. Folk) X :;U7 Bribery evils X :'.l I Causes of oflicial X 302 Civic otricials II 122 Cure of onicial X 30,5 Machine in cities, the II 430 Nomination by po;)ular vote II 397 Political, following civil service act II 407 Coriuidum VI 327 Deposits VI 437 Emeralds VI 330 In U. S VI 327 Mining of VI 328 Xorth Carolina mines VI 328 Properties of VI 327 Topaz VI 330 Cos, General Soldier IX 41 Countryman, '\Vm. A Watches VII 351 Cotton American cotton belt V 1 lo Area and production V (> Brazil and V 140 Buyei"s of American V 143 By-products V 113 Calico and V 142 China as buyer of IV 1 1 5 Civil war, Lud the V 108 Colonies, in the V 107 Consumption, general increase in V 142 Consumption, and wool V 130 World's V 144 World's. 1870-1900 V 136 Crop, comparative value of V 114 Croi)s. first American V 21 Crops, other, and V 12 Cuba and IV 14 Culture of. in west, general elTect of Ill 22 Discriniinatiou, freight, reme- died Ill 21.'> Egyptian V 112 E.o'pt ian production V 141 European supply, early V MO Cotton continue*! Kxp(»rts, 1870-1904 V lOxports of raw V l-'armers. character of V Flax consumption, and V Foreign t rude in IV l''iiture demand for. (J. L. Wafkins) V I'ntiire of American (J. L \Vatkins)V i'nlure V. S. Ilelds V (icorgia, introduction of, into HI (iin. effect of the VII Influence of V (irowlli and exports.. . V History V Early V llorsei)ower in, mills VII India and V Indian exports V Industry, in the west, early Ill Japan, mills of, a menace II Linen and wool substitute V Decline of V Loom inventors. English V Machinery. (D. C. Roper) V Mill, first American V Oriental industry, changes in V Oriental trade IV Other fabrics, and V Peru, and V Philippine islands and IV Price and crop values V Prices, range of V Production, American and world's comi)ared Ill Production, recent Ill I'roduction since 1850 V Kiseof in U. S V Russia and Egypt V Russian production V Selection, artificial V Silk, a substitute for V Converted into V South American trade IV Manufactiu"es in Ill 175. V Mills in the IV (Speed, John Gilmer) V States, cotton, record of the V Supply, U. S. world's V Varieties of V Weaving of. first V West Indies, indigenous to V Western heniisphcre and V Whitney's invention V Wool, decline of V World dependence on U. S V 1 Cotton machinery ( Daniel C. Roper) V Bale press inventions V Bale pressing V <^apacify of new and old plants. . . V <;in. effects of V Ginnery, a modern V 143 31 111 1.57 13 135 1.^5 MO 20 272 109 lOX 106 129 214 110 141 18 231 13S 137 139 129 108 141 0 13G 107 11 6 103 374 30 140 145 143 411 138 139 8 113 62 106 110 142 112 106 107 107 109 137 44-5 129 133 132 131 132 131 340 GENERAL INDEX Cotton marhiuery— Continued. History V 129 Lint, preparing V 133 Cotton seed V 115 Allied industries V 124 Appreciation of V 35 By-products V 119 "Calte" V 120 "Calce," value of V 121 Capital invested V 1 23 Cliemical analysis V 120 Consumption, American V 120 Consumption, foreign and Amer- ican V 127 Control of, American V 125 Distribution, geograpliical, of industry V 122 Exports V 123 Exports of products V 121 Fertilizer V 1 23 Food for cattle V 119 Food, as human V 118 Forei^rn buyers, special, of V 126 Growth of industry V 116 History, early V 115-16 Hulls, value of V 120 Industry, C. M. Daugherty V 115 Abroad V 125 Oil a substitute for lard V 118 Oil, manufacture of V 120 Percentage of crop utilized V 124 Products of, uses of V 117 Stability of industry V 123 Statistics of industry V 122 Wages ui industry of V 123 Cows (see dairying) Courtright, Mortimer W Telegraplis, on recent progress of IV 480 Court. Supreme American System of, the, and what it acomplishes, (Simeon E. Baldwin) II 76 Constitution, and members of, in II 62, 91 Sugar trust decision Ill 208 Coimtryman, Wm. A Watchmaking VII 351 Crampton, Charlotte I 309 Crawford, Marion I 365 Cream (see dairying) Creelman, James New York's subways IV 451 Crime Jails, scliools for X 256 Legal aspect of, m cities, in state. In nation II 109 Lynchings X 134 Minor, too severely punished X 256 Negroes and X 133 Pauperism, percentage of. to criuie X 137 Crime — Continued. Prisons, good done by X 260 piu-pose of X 258 Races and X 134 Railroads and IV 245 Reformatory methods, evolution of, (L. D. Drake) X 262 Statistics of in Cliicago and Illinois Ll i09 (See also cities) Criminals Manual training and VIII 424 Normal men and X 41 Crockard, Frank H Blast furnaces VI 87 Crocker, F. B Advantages of electric motive power VII 228 Crops Value of Ill 480 (See also agricultiu-e, farmers) . . Crothers. Tliomas Davidson Drunkenness X 176 Crown Point horror VI 21 Crowell, Jno. Franklin American primacy in iron and steel VI 112 Sliipbuilding, present and future of American IV 129 Crozat, AntoLne Louisiana charter granted II 268 Crozier. Alfred O Expansion of organized cliarity . . .X 18 Cruger, Mrs. Van Renssalaer I 366 Cruisers (see navy, the) Crystal, rock VI 339 Cuba American, machuiery, in VII 201 As means to Latm trade IV 63 Cause of Spanish war IX 65 Charities II 309 Commerce of II 311 Cotton and IV 14 Death rate, changes in II 304 Education II 306 Improved in II 305 Foreign policy, effect of on II 127 Foreign relations and II 199 Hospitals II 310 Industry of, revived II 307 Prisons II 306 Railroads II 310 Rations distributed to poor of II 303 Rights of II 202 Sanitation II 303 Soldiers, relief of Cuban II 303 Spain notified to vacate II 200 Tariff reduced II 308 Tobacco and sugar II 307 What U. S. has done for, (C. R. Edwards) .II 302 GENERAL INDEX 341 Culture, physical Need of. education X 51 ("urrants First American V 245 Currency JMiilippine island II 293 ( Se«i iiis<) finance) Cusliinan. Charlotte I 309 Cuticrj' Workmen, American, and VIII 15 Cyanides Process in mininp: VI 227 (See also mining) O'clones (see weather, relief) .... t iisliinp. ■\Villiam R Feat of IX 261 Curtiss. Georpe B Tariir II 318 D Da Costa. Dr Researches of VII 420 Daft. Leo. electrician VII 1.39 Dairies Adulteration of products X 294 Dairy pnxlucts Value of V 29 Dair>'in!< (H. E. Alvord) V 194 Associated system of U. S V 195 Habcock te.st. influence of V 199 Uutter and cream, ratio of V 202 Machinery, new V 200 Package varieties V 200 Prices V 201 Prints and rolls V 201 Statistics V 200 Casein, manufacture of V 203 Value and luses of V 204 Cheese statistics V 204 Consiunption of dairy products m U. S V 207 Co-operat ion in. early V 1 96 Co-operation, failure of V 198 Cream {jatheriug V 198 Gathering, statistics of V 198 Sales, statistics of V 203 Separators tatistics V 199 Separators V 198 Exports V 208 Early V 196 History, early V 194 Increase of industry in U. S V 194 In U. S.. early V 196 Imports V 207-8 Milk, condensed V 205 Condensed, statistics V 206 Condensed, value of V 206 Consumption V 207 Production and prices V 207 Skim, sales V 203 Dairying — Continued. New England, in V 201 I*r(Mlucts. value of V 195 Statistics for 1900 V 1<.)5 Whey, production and value of. . . V 'Jor, Dakota Territory of formed II 274 Dakotas the Ilailroads, North and South Dakota helped by IV 21 1 Dalton. John, physician VII 419 Daly. -VugiLstin I 312 Danford. Ebenezer V 96 Daniels. George H Railroad Employes VIII 324 Railroads in American commer- cial growth IV 199 Danville, 111 ._ Home for soldiers at IX 428 Dartmouth college Case II 203 Charter case, legality of 11 101 Thayer school VII 302 Weljster. in charter case of II 102 Daugherty, Charles M Cotton seed industry V 115 Davenport, Thomas, electrician VII 127 Davidson, John Wynn Sword of IX 398 Davis, Cushman K Trusts, prophecy of, concerning. ..Ill 169 Davis, Hayne Declaration of independence II 26 Davis. Jefferson Western railroads surveyefl by IV 273 Davis, N. S., physician VII 417 Dawson Philip American steam engineering VII 278 Day, David T Platinum VI 297 Dayton, Ohio. Soldiers' home at IX 415 De (For French names see the patronymics) Deaf mutes Care of X 158 Helen Keller • X 159 Dearlx)ni, Heiu-y, soldier IX 3 Death Risks, insurance Ill 454 Death Valley Rora.x In VI 415 De Bower Edward W. The American salesman IV 506 De Bower. Herbert Francis lUiilding and loan associations X 226 Debt, national Industrj' after 1812. eflfect on Ill 30 Paid in 1832 Ill 32 Since 1898 Ill 392 342 GENERAL INDEX Decatur, Stephen Before Tripoli IX 20.5 Career of IX 255 Naval ollicer IX 35 Swonl taken by IX 397 Declaration of Independence (Ida M. Tarliell) II 10 Adams, John II 16 Brewer, David J II 108 Government, confided to the II 24 Jefferson, written by II 14 Outcome of II 26 Preserving the document II 24 Riots caused by II 22 Severely criticised by the congress II 18 Signhigof II 21 Deering, William Harvesters of V 91 Defectives Care of X 157 De Forest, Robert U Tenement house regulation X 193 Degeneration Dnmkenness and X 176 Deidesheimer, Pliillip, mining engineer VI 24 Delaware Vote of, on American independ- ence II 13 Demagogues Labor and IV 516 Democracy American, a farce I 247 Individualistic I 90 Australian, widest I 4 Education and, (Vida L. Scudder). ..I 245 Energj', incentive to I 53 Foundation of 1 4 Fmidament of II 162 Immigrants and I 3 Isolation of working classes I 245 Typical American I 7 Democratic party Resolution to fix majority of Supreme court II 80 Tariff and II 332 Dennison, A. L Watch industry and VII 354 Densmore, James, typewriter maker . . VII 307 Dentistry Association, first dental VII 440 Associations of, American VII 440 Education, modern VII 439 History, early VII 437 Improvement in instruments VII 442 Legislation upon VII 443 Literature, American dental VII 441 Progress of in U. S VII 437 School of, first VII 438 (See also medicine and surgery) Department stores Consumer, help the Ill 96 (See also trusts, indastry) Depoele, van, Charles J., electrician. .VII 139 Detmold, Wm. surgeon VII 432 Devine Edward T Emergency relief in disasters X 77 Dewers W. P., physician VII 414 Dewey, George IX 262 Manila bay, at IX 242 Sword of IX 393 Diamonds Blatchley's list of VI 327 Found in U. S VI 325 Mining of, in Africa VI 27 U. S. geological deposits, and VI 326 Dickinson, John Opponent of colonial freedom II 12 Dingley law II 337 Reciprocity and II 381 Diplomacy American (John Bassett Moore) II 158 (John Hay) II 144 (Richard Olney) II 124 Agreements other than treaties (Charles C. Hyde) II 21 G Alabama settlement, claims, terms of II lO.'J Arbitration, in -nternational II 173 Blockade, forces definition of valid II 167 Cable, support of Pacific II 146 Clayton-Bulwer treaty II 168 Democracy, fundamental II 162 Diplomats, charcter of Ameri- can II 214 Expansion, territorial, and II 173 Extradition II 172 Foreign born citizens, rights of II 171 France and neutral rights II 166 Frankness of II 161 French alliance, rejection of proposed in 1793 II 1.59 French army commissions pro- hbited II 162 French Revolution and II 161 Government, hindered by form of II 213 Growth of American II 124 Hay-Pauncefote treaty II 108 Holy Alliance and II 169 Hague convention, terms of II 220 Isthmian canal, and II 223 Freedom of, declared by C ay. ..II 168 History of II 229 Lawyers, American, in II 213 McKinley and II 147 Military policy of U. S., (Emory Upton) IX 110 Monroe doctrine II 145 Monroe doctrine, declaration of . . .II 170 GENERAL INDEX 343 Diplomacy — Cont i iiu('ee. Henry, on IX 1 36 Mexican war IX 138 Training of. ncce, use of IX .388 Maxim. H IX 386 Peace power of IX 308 Power of. various sizes of IX 390 Rapid fire guns IX 388 Rifles used by armies IX 387 Size of IX 389 Steel used in IX 388 Submarine boats and IX 391 Velocity of projectile IX 389 (See also battleships, navy, the) GunlK)ats (see navy, the) Gymnasia Need of X 51 (See also education) Gypsum VI 320 (S. B. Ladd) VI 407 Cement VI 412 Chemistry of VI 409 Composition of VI 407 Geology of VI 408 History, early VI 409 Occurrence VI 408 Plaster of Paris VI 410 Uses of VI 409 H Habeas Corpus Framed by lawyers II 99 Hadley. Arthur T Education and religion I 257 Trusts Ill 111 Hague, peace conference American commission II 209 Influence at II 200 Czar. the. and II 149 Foster. Jolm W., on II 220 Future of II 107 Holls. F. W.. on II 221 Lawyers' part in II 106 Peace conference II 27 Pius fund referretl to II 222 President of U. S.. power of the.. ..II 208 Principle of. leading II 201 Ratification of treaty II 208 Submission of cases to II 212 Terms of Hague convention II 220 356 GENERAL INDEX Haiiies. Jonathan Cutter of V 98 Harvester of V 94 Hale. Edward Everett I 366 Halle, von Trusts Ill 124 Halleck. Fitz Greene I 356 Halleck, H. W.. soldier IX 9 Hamilton. Alexander II •''2 Banks, his dislike for HI 403 Financier HI 402 Soldier IX 3 Hamilton, Andrew Zeuger libel suit, defender II 98 Hamilton Frank Hastings VII 432 Hamlin. Alfred D. F College arcliitecture in U. S I 271 Hammond, W. A., physician VII 421 Hampden, John II 101 Taxation, stand of, against II 99 Hampton, Celwyn E The army since the Spanish war IX 86 Hampton. Va Home for soldiers at IX 426 Hancock, John Signs declaration of independ- ence II 24 Hancock, Winfleld S Swords of IX 400 Handy, Rozelle Purnell Geology in U. S VII 47 Harbors American IV 21 European, deficiencies of IV 22 Harlan, John Marshall (asso. justice. Supreme court) Railroad rates, decision on II 73 Harland, Henry, novelist I 366 Harper, William R Future of small colleges I 164 Opportunity I 97 Harrington, Francis H Marine corps IX 378 Harris, Chapin A., dentist VII 438 Harris, Joel Chandler I 365 Harrison, Mrs. Burton I 366 Harte, Bret I 364 Harvard university Architecture of I 273 Expansion of I 190 In astronomy VII 64, 70, 76 Lawrence scientific school VII 300 Harvey, Charles M The army in Mexican war IX 39 The development of the South. . ..Ill 370 Harvey, H. A Armor plate of IX 333 Hats Colonial manufacture of IV 79 Havana Sanitary reform of II 304 Hawaii Annexation of II 218 Production in. increased IV 45 Rights of II 202 Hawkins, T. J Reaper of V 78 Hawthorne, Nathaniel I 357 Hay, Jolm As author I 364 Isthmian canal II 146 Monroe doctrine II 145 Paciflc islands, American policy in II 1.46 Peace, America's work for II 153 Triumphs of American diplo- macy II 144 Hay-Pauncefote treaty II 246 Hay Area and production V 6 Crops, relative value of V 13 Exports V 31 Production V 31 Hayden, Horace H., dentist VII 438 Hayes, Rutherford B Isthmian canal, asserts American supremacy over II 243 Health Immigrants, sick, table of X 120 Physical culture and X 52 Health, public Immigration and, (Allan Mc- Laughlin) IX 119 (See also adulteration) Hearst. Mrs. Plioebe Educational gifts of I 274 Heat Producer of, U. S. largest IV 35 Heath, John E Binder of V 90 Helena, gunljoat IX 300 Helmholtz, Hermaim von And the telephone VII 176 Hemp Area and production V 7 Henderson, Charles Richmond Charity X 1 Science in pliilanthropy X 40 Henry, John C, electrician VII 139 Henry, Joseph, electrician VII 114 Meteorology, and VII 10 Herald, New York I 374 Herbert, Hilary A Sea power and the navy .IX 185 Heredity Race superiority and ............ .1 48 Heme, James A ....,,.., I 311 Heron. MatUda J 309 GENERAL INDEX 357 Hewitt. Ahram S Tunnel i)lans of. in 1888 IV 454 L'lKicrjjround railway, proposed. ..IV 454 Hewitt, Peter <"()oi>er IJiofjraphical sketcli of VII 187 Three electrical inventions of. . . .Vll 183 Higgin.s. Charle.s American underground workers... VI 15 Mine workers VI 15 Hilkoir Prince .Michael Railroad man IV 207 Hill, George William Trend of modern a.^riciilture in U. S V 51 Hill, James J Nation's debt to railroads IV 253 Railroads profits IV 354 Workmen, methods with Ill 255 Hirsch, Emil G American university ideals I 197 Hirsch, Baron Mauritz de Fimd for Jews X 61 Hobson, John A Concentration of industry Ill 49 Hobson, Richmond P., sailor IX 249 Hotlge, H. L., physician VII 414 Hoe, Richard M., inventor I 370 Hoe, Robert Inventions of I 380 Hogs (see packing and swine) Holden, Edward S American astronomy VII 56 Holland, submarine boat IX 302 HoUis, Ira Xel.son Navy in Spanish war IX 239 \ Holls, F. W I Hague conference II 221 | Holmes, Bayard I Surgery in America VII 423 Holmes, George K Agricultural production and prices V 99 First American farmers V 18 The nation's farm surplus V 389 Holmes, Oliver Wendell I 360 Researches of VII 420 Hoist Von Texas annexation treaty II 218 Holy alliance Dissolution of II 169 South America, interference with II 167 Home, the Mine workers' VIII 353 Railroads, and IV 245 (See also woman) Homes Ladies' Christian imion X 219 Home, soldiers' (see army, the) Homestead works (see Carnegie Andrew) Hook. Van, Weller, surgeon VII 434 Hops Area and production V 7 Hopedale, town of VIII 333 Hopkins, ('aptain J. B Cruise of IX 206 Horner, Joseph Copying American machinery VII 260 Horner. W. P., physician VII 413 Horner. William Researches of VII 420 Horses Automobiles, and IV 504 First American V 23 Horticulture (see flowers) Horsack, David, Physician VII 411 Hosiery, Horse power in mills VII 214 Hospitals British X 89 Building of, (HoUis W. Field).. X 88 Cuban II .309 Cost of maintenance X 35 Death rate influenced by num- ber of X 89 History and uses of X 88 Preponderance of, in charity X 30 Publicizing of X J>6 Statistics of X 35 Tuberculosis X 89 United States, in X 89 (See also charities, insanity, medicine and surgery) Hotels ( W. A. Washburne) T '>9? Cost of ,T 299 Chefs of I 300 Clerk's duties I 304 Construction of I .''99 Dishwashing I 301 Food supplies of I 300 Illmnination I 303 Kitchens I 301 Laundry of I 303 Management of I 299 Power plants of I 303 Rates of I 305 Refrigeration I 303 Social life and I 298 Specialization in I 299 Steward's work I 304 Telephones in I 305 Wine cellars of I 302 Houdon American sculpture, in I 332 Houghton, George American shoes VII 316 Standardness of American shoe. .VII 316 Hourwich. LA Gold and silver mining VI 202 Lead and zinc ore VI 273 Trusts and prices Ill 145 3S8 GENERAL INDEX Houston, Sam ' In early Texas "Q 278 Soldier 1^ ^^ Howe. Elias, Jr Inventor of sewing machine VU 343 Howe, J.I Inventions of VII 329 Howells, William D I 362 Hueljner, Solomon Who owns the railroads Ill 330 Hugenots In U. S I 16 Hughes, R. E The public school system I 95 Hull, Isaac Career of IX 256 Naval officer IX 35 Hull, William War of 1812 and IX 31 Hunt, Walter Inventer of sewing machine VII 342 Himtington, C. P Education I 240 Hurricanes (see weather) Hussman, George C Grape and raisin production in the U. S V 252 Hussey Mower, of V 65 Hussey and McCormick, Cyrus H. . . Inventions of V 76 Hussey, Obed inventions and patents of V 80 Hutchins, George A Development of railway cars IV 390 Hyde, Charles Cheney Agreements other than treaties. . . . II 216 Hyde, James Hazen Insiirance schemes of Ill 467 Hyposcope, the. (see guns) I Iberville, Pierre de Mississippi river, visits II 268 Ice.. Geological formation of V 3 Ichthyology World's debt to VII 33 Idaho. Organized.. II 286 Territory of formed II 274 Ihering "Struggle for Law" II 103 Illinois Factory laws of VIII 52 Union label law VIII 195 Illinois, (battleship) IX 301 Illinois trust and savings bank Largest company Ill 438 Illinois Central railroad Ownership of Ill 332 Planned Ill 27 Immigration And labor, (J. R. Commons)... .VIII 236 Canada, smuggled through X 124 Character of immigrants II 439 Character of VIII 243 Charity and X 4 Dangers from physically inferior.. . X 125 Discrimination in, dangers of X 125 German I 40 Increase since 1861 Ill 372 Inspection for diseased X 121 Irish, causes of I 39 Italian I 42. 439 Cause of I 44 Jewish X 60 Negroes, white, vs VIII 405 Number of I 40 Paupers excluded X 136 Peasants a distinct race I 8 Policy on, American II 437 Population decline of and X 213 Pro))lems of (F. P. Sargent) II 437 Prosperity, and I 37 Public health and, (Allan Mc- Laughlin) X 119 Races, improves I 51 Relief of X 150 Religion and I 18 Scandinavian I 41 Settlements X 152 Sick immigrants, table of X 120 Standards for admi.ssable X 126 Statistics of from 1726 to 1903 II 438 Stature and I 51 Taxation and I 44 Trachoma, table of, afflicted with X 123 Tuberculosis and X 123 (See also trades unions, labor).. Imperialism Constitution, island possessions and II 202 Philippine war protracted by anti-imperialism II 206 Richard Olney. on II 136 Imports and exports Agricultural, imports, value of V 15 Automobiles IV 501 Imports, decrease of, in 1820 IV 91 Increase of IV 4 Increase of, under early tariff. . ..II 317 New Orleans, early Ill 16 South American IV 8 Watches VII 362 Independence, American New York, approved by II 23 Vote of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Dela- ware, and South CaroUua, on. . .II 13 GENERAL INDEX 359 Independence. Day. really July 2 II 19 Independence, Declaration of II 14 John Adams, on II 16 Mecklenburg declaration of II 15 India Caste system of I 5 Cotton exports V 141 Grower, as V 140 Suez canal- trade of. and IV 20 Indians Agriculture, and V 18 Indiana. U. S IX 298 Individual, the. government and II 447 The, society and II 451 Indo-Germanic race I 9 Indurite (see guns) Industrial commission Ill 105 Arbitration and strikes, on VIII 36 Congress, on powers of VIII 81 Employees, on protection to.. . .VIII 40 Pixperts employed by VIII 26 General conditions, on VIII 33 Injunctions, on VIII 39 Labor unions, on VIII 34 Profits, on VIII 29 Recommendations of VIII 42, 84 Report of VIII 25. 27 Sweat shops VIII 31 Unemployed the. on VIII 32 Wages, on VIII 30 (See also factories, trusts) Industry American captains of. (\V. R. Lawson) Ill 244 America historically favored Ill 304 American, id«^as, bigness of Ill 250 Causes of American manufac- turers' success. (J. F. Fraser) III 283 Methods copied VII 206 Supremacy admitted Ill 309 Vim Ill 297 Americans p. composite race Ill 288 To. devotion of Ill 287 Anarchy, reme Growth of American, early Ill 35 In practice, (O. J. Arnold) Ill 452 Investigation. (Gilbert E. Roe). Ill 459 Of 1877 Ill 467 Laws regulating Ill 470 Legal expenses of companies Ill 463 Insurance, life Mutual Life Co Ill 461 Policies, kinds o' life Ill 455 Policy-holder's profits Ill 456 Proxy juggling Ill 472 Reserve of companies Ill 458 Sources of income Ill 457 Surplus Ill 464 Uses of Ill 452 fSee also fraternities, benevolent) Interstate commerce (see commerce. interstate) Invention, American Bicycles VII 8 Capitalization, and VII 276 Electrical VII 10 Machinery, agricultural VII 7 Morse VII 27 Photography VII 10 Rails, steel VII 30 Telephone and graphophone VII 9 Tools VII 8 (See also industry) 362 GENERAL INDEX Invention and inventors United States leader in IV 36-7 Invention As a factor of American national wealth, (W. C. Dodge) VII 267 Bessemer process VII 29 British and American Ill 291 Edison on, of incandescent lamp. VII 194 Electric light VII 154 Encouraged in U. S VII 204 Machinery and light VII 199 Oliver Evans' engine IV 235 Patents, American VII 277 Sewing machine VII 339 Telephone. (A. G. Bell) VII 171 Telephones VII 137 Triumph of the American idea, (A. H. Ford) VII 198 Typewriters VII 365 Turbine engines VII 254 Wages, and VII 275 Watches VII 351 Wealth, cause of American VII 269 (See also boots and shoes, com- pressed air, electricity, tele- graphs, agricultural machinery, science) Iowa Agiculture, and Ill 365 Territory of, formed II 273 Ireland Scotch-Irish, the, and I 21 Irish, the Immigration of, causes of I 39 Girls in factories VIII 339 Iron American and British steel VI 126 Competition feared VI 125 American primacy in, (J. F. Crowell) VI 112 Belgian competition VI 124 Bessemer process, ores for VI 98 Influence VI 107 Blast furnace temperatures VI 88 Capacity of VI 88-9 New style VI 88 Blast furnaces, modern (F. H. Crockard) VI 88 Output of VI 87-8 Blowing engines VI 93 Bosh plates VI 92 Capital mining VI 81 Carnegie mills, scope of VI 151 Casting machine VI 91 Charcoal furnaces VI 108 Coal and VI 108 Fields. Pocahontas VI 96 Industry and VI 189 Coke, need of good VI 97 Production, growth of VI 97 Colonial manufacture of IV 81 Colorado VI 74 Iron — Continued. Connellsville district VI 96 Consolidations of capital in VI 102 Cyclops plant VI 148 Danger, future, from Europe VI 117 Demand on mining methods, effect of VI 85 Deposits. Appalachian chain VI 72 Delaware and Virginia VI 71 Duration of superior VI 99 Non- American VI 100 Ohio and Kentucky VI 72 Port Henry VI 68 Value of VI 75 Duquesne plant VI 89 England's priority VI 121 English ideals VI 121 Power, decline of VI 123 European trade, future of VI 127 German competition VI 124 Growth of industry in U. S VI 95 Of trade, eras of VI 114 Of U. S. steel trade. Cause of VI 116 Homestead works VI 150 Impulses Ln U. S., first VI 106 Industry, foimdations of Ameri- can (A. Brown) VI 95 Industry of U. S., (F. W. Tausigg) VI 105 In U. S., beginnings of VI 105 Ores and early VI 63 John Birkinbine VI 61 Lake Superior region VI 81 Manufactures, varieties of VI 132 Milling and drifting VI 78 Mills, horse power in VII 214 Mining Achievements of VI 84 Drama of VI 83 Finance of VI 86 Methods of VI 82 Of blast VI 85 Steam shovel VI 82 W. Fawcett VI 80 Missouri VI 73 Nails VI 134 National ideals in iron trade, (H. J. Skeltoa) VI 120 New England ores VI 70 New Mexico VI 74 Ore deposits, Allegheny VI 67 (Birmingham, Ala) VI 67 New York VI 69 Pennsylvania VI 70 Distribution and production .... VI 66 Region, Lake superior. VI 65 Regions, magnetite VI 68 Ores as basis of imliustry VI 97 Commercial iron VI 62 Composition of VI 62 Melting VI 90 GENERAL INDEX 363 Iron — Continued. Lake Champlain VI 68 Diirerem-eof. in U. S VI 70 .Methods of treatinj? VI 64 Quality of VI 76 Lseof VI 76 111 U. S., consumption of VI 66 jNIaKnetic VI O:} ( See also iron) Output of mines VI 81 I'u<;il'ic coast, on VI 74 Pittsburg's intiuence VI 106 Pig luul steel, production of VI 116 I'ijr iron, destiny of VI 131 In southern colonies VI 78 Production of VI 131 Plates, iron, destiny of VI 130. 133 Prices of VI 103 I'roducers, world's greatest VI 114 Products, niisceilanc'ous VI 135 I'rospect for world's trade VI 101 Purpose of, (Andrew Carnegie) . . . VI 153 Regions of U. S VI 108 liesources in U. S., natural VI 96 Rocky mountains VI 73 Skelp VI 135 South, deposits in Ill 374 In the VI 110 Steel hardening metals, (J. H.- Pratt) VI 177 Making, effects of VI 115 Ores for yi 98 Structural VI 135 Tariff not vital VI 100 Texas VI 73 Tin plate ^I 133 Trade union influence V'l 111 Transportation of VI 107 Triust movement and VI 109 United States in trade VI 113 In steel market, position of VI 110 Leads in ore VI 113 Steel corporation. (E. S. Meade) VI 137 Supremacy safe VI 127 Use of, in city and country VI 130 Uses of. (J. O'Donnell) VI 130 Wire rods, destiny of VI 134 Springs VI 135 Vv'yoming VI 73 Youngstown plant VI 89 See also trusts) (See also steel corporation. United States) Iron and steel Consolidation of, history of.... Ill 65 Exports of IV 51 Foreign demand for .\raerican. ... IV 51 Production. American and world's comparoti Ill 4 Steel trast, future of Ill 71 Schwab on the HI 68 Iron and steel — Continued. Statistics of Ill 162-3 I'ncertainty of, .\. Carnegie on, I II 278-9 U. S. ma-ster in VII 273 (See also foundries) Iron Claris (see armor plate, monitors, and navy, the) Ironsides, the New, ironclad IX 329 Irrigation (F. II. Newell) V 343 Arizona V 349 Benefits of V 352 Coloraflo V 348 Columbia river region V 350 Expenditures for VII 45 History of V 344 Idaho V 349 Interstate character of V 348 Lands, classes of irrigable V 346 Study of V 347-8 U.se of irrigable V 347 Law and funds V 347 Montana V 351 New Mexico V 350 Oregon, in V 351 Plant life, and V 423 Problems, principal, of V 345 Projects, some large V 348 Regions to be reclaimed V 346 Salvation army, work of V 352 Utah V 3.50 West, forest slopes of V 345 Physical features of V 346 The, reclamation of (F. H. Newell) V 343 Wyoming V 349 (See also agriculture) Irving. Washington I 352 Law yers in Knickerbocker II 95 Island possessions Production in, American IV 44 J Jackson. Andrew At New Orleans IX 36 National guard IX 129 Tariff, protective II 319 Jackson. Charles T Ether and VII 427 Jackson, James Researches of VII 420 Jackson, Samuel, physician VII 414 Jacoby. Henry S American bridge construction IV 400 Jails Schools for crime X 250 (See also crime) Jamaica Reciprocity with, opposition to. ...II 386 James I Irish conquest of I 21 364 GENERAL INDEX James, Edmund J Beginnings of representative government II 35 Representation, struggle of, basis of II 37 Slavery in representation II 48 States in representation II 40 James, Henry I 362 Jameson, David Sword of IX 398 Japan Cotton mills of, a menace II 257 Foreign trade of IT 256 Rail oads increase trade with IV 265 Trade with, British and Ameri- can .IV 9 Wages and railroads in VIII 412 Jay, John Debate of, on colonial freedom II 13 Jefferson, Joseph I 314 Jefferson, Thomas II 13, 14, 20, 21, 52 Canals, and HI 9 French army commissions, inter- diction of II 162 Republic recognized H 161 Mecklenburg declaration II 16 Neutrahty, defines II 163 Reason for veto of apportion- ment bUl II 53 Supreme court appointees, his II 82 Jenks, Jeremiah W FUipino labor VIII 252 How congress may control trusts. .Ill 222 Jenney, W. L. B Originator of high buildings I 289 Jesuits Discovered copper in U. S VI 4 Jewett, Sara Orne, novelist I 365 Jews Broadness of, in charity X 58 Character of the X 63 Charities of, (Lee K. Frankel) X 57 Extent of X 70 Charity, problems of X 59 Loans X 66 Cost of charities of X 61 Dependent X 73 Drunkenness among X 63 Emigrant societies of X 60 Employment for Jewish women X 67 Finance in HI 430 Hirsch fimd for X 61 Immigration of X 60 Since 1881 X 62 Indigent X 62 Juvenile delinquency of X 72 New York charities X 172 Not paupers X 64 Number of, in New York X 57 Population of New York X 71 Poverty of, m U. S X 60 Relief societies of X 68 Jews — Continued. Scattering of American X 74 Tuberculosis among X 68 United Hebrew charities, work of X 65 Vice among X 71 Johns Hopkins hospital VII 418 Johnson, Emory R Economic value of isthmian canal IV 1 81 Johnston, Mary I 366 Johnstown Military aid in flood X 84 Red cross at flood X 81 Jolo United States territory II 225 Jones, John Paul IX 208, 210 Bon Homme Richard and Serapis IX 254 Career of IX 252 Not an academy man IX 350 Providence, commander of the IX 253 Serapis, conquered IX 265 Sword captured by IX 394 Journalism (see newspapers) Judiciary, American Powers of II 77 Judiciary Checks to, evils of II 84 President, independent of II 91 Supreme court, proposal to flx majority of II 86 Judson, W. V West Indies strategic value IX 403 Justinian Code of, futility of the II 85 K Kansas Admitted HI 373 Railroads, helped by IV 210 Territory of iormed II 273 Kansas City Pacldng center V 177 Karch, Charles M Needles and pins VII 327 Kasson, John A., tariff commis- sioner II 385 Treaties of, criticized II 388 Reciprocity, made by II 384 Katahdm, ram IX 297 Kearsarge, battleship IX 300 Keller, Helen X 159 Kelley, Florence Cliild labor legislation VIII 56 Kelley, J. D. J Our advance in torpedo craft IX 317 Recent advance in battleships. ...IX 308 Kelsey, Carl Negro labor VIII 386 GENERAL INDEX 365 Kentucky IkittRshii) IX :J00 Opeiiinp of Ill 12 Ketchuni, William F Mower of V 95 Key, Francis Scott I 357 Kidd, Thomas I American workmen VIII 1 Kimball. F. A Introducefl lemons V 247 Kirby, O. W. A Mower of V 98 Patents of V 88 Kirchoff. Charles Mineral resources of U. S VI 1 Knapp, Martin A Government ownership of rail- roads IV 355 Knight, Walter II.. electrician VII 139 KniKhts of Labor VIII 222 Organization of VIII 144 Woman and VIII 384 Knowles, Hazard V 96 Knownothingism X 134 Knox, Philander, C Right of congress to control trusts in 204 Kaolin VI 313 Koren, John Benevolent institutions X 22 Kuhn. Adam, American physician — VII 407 Kuklux X 134-5 Kunz. George F Precious stones VI 324 Kmizitc VI 333 L Labor Abraham Lincoln on VIII 175 Ambition in VIII 254 American federation of VIII 25 Requirements of Ill 252 American underground workers, (C. Higgins) VI 15 Workman, (T. I. Kidd) VIII 1 And education, (W. J. Tucker). .VIII 426 And immigration, (John R. Commons) VIII 236 Building trades in England VIII 211 In U. S VIII 213 Capital, and. (Grover Cleveland). .II 5 Contention of. with VIII 91 Duties to IV 516 Independent of VIII 176 Cheap, not best VIII 265 Child. (Florence Kelley) VIII 56 Chinese, character of VIII 252 In U. S VIII 247 Climate and VIII 249 Labor- Com iniied Closed shop contracts. (W. Drew) VIII 215 Commerce an Morgan. C. E.. physician VII 421 ^lorgan, George W Sword of IX 398 Morgan. J. II Capture of IX 194 Morgan. J. Pierpont Banks, control of Ill 419 Steel exploits of Ill 67 Trust , opinion of steel VI 163 Wall street, power of, in Ill 381 Morgan, John, American physician.. .VII 406 Morgan, Thomas Vacuum sugar pan of V 213 Moros IX 79 Government of IX 82 Rebellion of IX 85 Morris. Clara I 309 Morris, Gouverneur Constitution, writer of the H 202 Morse. Moses L Pin machine of VII 329 Morse, Samuel F. B Merits of VII 123 Pauper VII 122 Telegraph, inventor of VII 117 (See also telegraphs) Morton. T. G.. surgeon VII 435 Morton, W. T. G Ether, applied, to surgery VII 415 Moseley. Charles S.. inventor VII 356 Moseley commission VIII 4. 8 Moss agate (see agate, moss) Motors (see automobiles and power, motive) Mott. Valentine, surgeon VII 431 Mounds, the Interpretation of VII 42 Mount, May Willvinson American women in philanthropy. .X 218 Mountains RaUroad grades in Rocky IV 277 Mulhali, Michael American greatness VII 271 Power IV 199 Mullaney, John F Roman Catholic universities I 207 Municipal ownership New York subway and IV 452 Wealth, street railroads of. as leveler of IV 310 Municipalities Carter, James C. on II 433 Freedom, need of local II 424 Importance of, prime II 433 Mayor and council II 425 Merit system in (C. R. WoodruJf.).II 428 Political, evils of II 418 Population congesterl II 429 Self government (E. B. Smith) H 417 376 GENERAL INDEX Municipalities — Continued. State, as agents of the II 424 Creatures of the II 418 Cleanliness in II 114 ( See also cities) Munsterberg, Emil Poor relief in U. S X 139 Munsterburg. Hugo American women I 402 Murf ree, Mary, novelist I 365 Murhpy, J. B Researches of VII 421 Surgeon VII 433 Music (A. J. Gantvoort) I 320 Awakening of, in America I 325 Blind, for the X 102 Education and I 324 Life national, influence of, on I 320 Public schools and I 328 Reforming force I 327 Social value of I 323 Teaching of I 254 War and I 322 Wise men on I 321 Mussey, Reuben Dimond. surgeon VII 430 Mutual Life Insurance Co Ill 461 N Napoleon Britian blockaded, declared II 166 Lawyers, on II 94 U. S. and wars of II 162 Wars, policy of II 138 Naptha VI 397 Nasby, Petroleum V I 365 Nashua Watch industry VII 356 Nashville, gimboat IX 300 Nation, the, problems befcre (Theodore Roosevelt) II 452 National Cash Register Co VIII 336 Natural gas (see gas, natural) National guard (See guard, national.) Naturalization Naturalized citizens, rights of II 171 Naval academy, the (W. G. Richardson) IX 350 Accomplishments taught IX 364 American science, and VII 59 Architecture, of I 272 Buildings and grotmds of IX 352 Cadets', expenses of IX 353 Qualifications of IX 353 Classics ignored IX 360 Cruising IX 361 Curriculum of IX 354 Discipline IX 363 Freshmen IX 361 Naval academy, the — Continued. Methods of IX 351 Obedience a principle IX 362 Origin of IX 350 Percentage number of gradua- tions IX 359 Regime, daily IX 364 Social life IX 364 Teaching methods IX 354 War college, the IX 368 Games IX 367 Navigation Rivers free II 168 Navy, the Act of 1809 IX 217 Apprentice system IX 372 Armour improvements IX 285 Plate making IX 326 Armoured ships of, first IX 331 List of IX 338 Battleships, recent advance in (J. D. J. KeUey) IX 308 BiU of 1883 IX 291 Birth of IX 186 Bon Homme Richard-Serapis fight IX 254 British bases near U. S IX 187 Building of the Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago IX 291 Charleston, invasion of IX 188 avfi war, the IX 189 After the IX 289 And IX 270 Destruction of union ships IX 1 90 Importance of, in IX 196 Operations of, in IX 192 Commerce, and IV 517 Continental, department IX 204 Cost of. annually IX 287 War ships. IX 286 Cruisers, modern IX 282 Of 1885 IX 292 Cushing's heroism IX 261 Decatur, Stephen, career of IX 255 Drills, daily IX 375 1812, in IX 269 Engineers in IX 341 Need of IX 341, 342 Engineering efficiency IX 342 Mellville's plans for IX 346 Supervision, inadequacy of IX 343 Farragut, D. G., career of IX 260 Fleet of 1779 IX 205 Future of, (W. H. Moody) IX 278 Goodrich's raids IX 202 Gxmboat system ended IX 215 Heroes of, (C. C. Fitzmorris) IX 252 Hollis, I. N., on the, in the Spanish war IX 239 Hopkins, Capt. J. B.. Cruise of. . .IX 206 Hull, Isaac, career of IX 256 GENERAL INDEX 377 Navy, the — Continued. Improved pains IX 2S.'j Machinery IX 284 In war of 1812, (J. R. Soley) IX 212 Isthmian canal, and IV 181 Jones, John Taul IX 208 Career of IX 225 Landsmen in IX .374 Life aboard ship IX 374 Losses in early battles IX 204 Marine corps, the (F. W. Harrington) IX 378 Duties of IX .383 Early history IX 378. 380 History IX 379 Importance of IX 381 Number of IX 3S2 Officers of IX 385 Merrimac and Monitor IX 259 Monitor type fails IX 290 Morgan, J. H., capture of IX 194 Morris, Robert, pljins of IX 208 Naval academy. (W. G. Richard- son) IX 350 Naval power, rank of U. S. in. . . .IX 288 New foreign policy, American. Increase of, by II 137 New navy, the (Fred Royce) IX 288 Building the IX 288 Newport, engagement off IX 205 Numerical strength of. in men IX 305 Old American sea fights, (H. H. Boyesen) IX 263 Oliver H. Perry, Career of IX 258 Policy of IX 271 Porter, Horace IX 268 Power aboardship IX 284 Prejudice against, early IX 216 Supported by Lloyd. Quincy. and Story IX 216 Puritan, the, monitor IX 291 Rations for men IX 370 Recruiting IX 371 Revolution, of the. (C. O. Paullin) IX 200 Operations of, in the IX 201 Sailors, need of IX 372 Sea power, ( H . A. Herbert) IX 185 Seamen, training of. (W. W. Phelps) IX 371 Seas, freedom of. established by U. S II ItiS Ship building, new ships impetus to IV 122 Ships of 1886 IX 293 Of 1887 IX 296 Of 1889 IX 297,8 Of 1891 IX 299 Of 1893 IX 299 Of 1894 IX .300 Of 1S95 IX 300 IX 301 .101 .102 .10.1 .101 366 2tt6 227 304 215 120 302 317 278 20.1 386 401 207 37.1 .{02 211 Navy — Sliipd— Continuod. Of 1890 IX Of 1807-H IX «)f MtOO IX Of 1902 IX Of 1903 IX TwentiPth renliir;, il.-.i.s in-mi tight ing shiiM, (I. V. I At') IX 2S1 Upbuilding of. iThoodor© nocMe- velt) IX 27;i War college, the na\al. f Henry Wil.son) War of 1812 Ship of 1S12 Size of. neetlfvl State of. in 1809 Steel .siiliK. first .Siihriiarine oxiwriinenis Torpedo craft, i J. 1>. J. Kelley) Training enlisted men IX Trumbull- Watt engagement IX Weapons of IX West Indies, strategic value of IX Whipple's e.vploits IX (See also armor plate, battle- ships, naval aca^lemy. tor- pedo-lx)ats) Nebraska Admitted Ill Battleship IX Railroads, helped by IV Needles (see pins and needles, sewing machines) Negro slavery Africa, conditions of, in VIII 387 AgriciUture, in V 383 The Ijest field for VIII 40tt Artisans, as VIII 400 Not good VIII 402 Backwardness of .1 .10 Birth and death rate of I 34 Cities, in VIII .102 Civilization of. in U. S VIII .1X7 Constitution and X 271 Crime and X 132-3 Criminals, as VIII 4ai Di.scasc and I 36 Distriliulion of. geographical. . ..VIII .193 Domestic servants VIII 390 Domestication of I 20 I)rep«v|om, effects of. on VIM .189 Future of, B.T. Washington, on. VIII 401 378 GENERAL INDEX Negro slavery — Continued. Improvement of X 274 Increase of I 32 Infiiistrial experiments for VIII 407 Inferiority of X 272 Kentucky, in VIII 393 Labor, (Carl Kelsey) VIII 386 Lynchings X 134 Jlississippi, in VIII 394 Morals, low, of VIII 404 Occupations of VIII 393 Packing industries, in VIII 227 Plantation, conditions of VIII 2.50 Political rights of I 26 Suppression of I 27 Population, movement of, and I 32-3 Post-bellum state of I 26 Progress when free I 2 Prostitution and I 34 Race characters of I 24 Problem in the south X 271 Redistribution of I 33 River regions, of the VIII 396 School problem of VIII 406 Seacoast, on the VIII 393 Segregation of VIII 390 Future of VIII 392 Slavery conditions VIII 388 Suffrage and X 271 A mistake X 273 Texas, in VIII 397 Trades, in the I 29 Unsanitary conditions of I 35 Unskilled laborers as VIII 391 White emigrants vs VIII 405 Neil, John, physician VII 419 Nelson, N. O VIII 334 Neutrality (see diplomacy) Nevada Admitted Ill 373 Territory organized II 286 New England Art, influence on I 332 Lawyers in early II 97 Music and I 325 Railroads, stock and share- holders of Ill 335 Shipbvulding industry, early IV 68 Water power in Ill 349 New Granada Canal treaty of 1846 II 233 Isthmian canal, and the II 232 Panama canal, proposed II 232 New Jersey Battleship IX 302 Independence, opposed to Amer- ican II 18 Vote of, on American II 13 Manufactures, early, of IV 101 New Mexico Ceded to U. S II 283 Territory of. formed II 285 New Orleans Founded II 208 New York Armored cruiser IX 296 Independence, approves Ameri- can II 23 Vote of, on American II 13 Lawyers in early II 97 New York city High buildings in I 296 Subways of IV 451 New York Central railroad Employees' clubs VIII 323 New York Life Insurance Co Ill 461 New Y'ork, university of (see univer- sity of New York) New Zealand Arbitration in VIII 37 Strikes m VIII 122 Wage solution of VIII 290 Newark, U. S. cruiser IX 292 Newcomb, J. E Patents of V 87 Newcomb, Simon VII 5 Astronomy, some aspects of American VII 67 Newell, F. H Reclamation of the west V 343 Newport (cruiser) IX 301 Newspapers American, (Medill McCormick) I 367 Early I 367 Associated press I 376 Change gradual, in I 376 Correspondence, early I 370 Special I 376 Cost of production I 378 Crudeness of early I 369 Earnings of I 378 Editorials, early I 370 Editors, strength of early I 372 History, early I 368 Hoe's inventions I 370 Mechanical improvement I 375 Mexican war's, influence on I 372 Modern era of I 375 Newsgathering, early I 371 Improvement of I 374 Systematized I 375 News secondary, in early I 371 Number of, in various states I 368 Paper used for I 373 Political growth and I 371 Power of, political I 372 Press invented I 370 Presses, cylinder I 373 First iron I 370 Modern I 377 Progress of. rapid I 375 Speed of service I 379 Stereotyping introduced 1 370 Telegraphs first used 1 373 GENERAL INDEX 379 Newspapors — rontiimod. Varieties of, in U. S I 368 (See also advertising) Niagara Motive power, how nse Turl)ine enj^inos at VII 2.'(7 Niblack. Lieut. Commander Battleship, the IX :!(is Nicarapua British blockades of II Ik,s Canal treaty of 1867 II 240 Nichols, Edward Discovered bauxite in U. S VI 266 Nicholson, Henry C, electrician VII 13:5 Nickel Hardening steel VI ITS Nitro cellulose (see guns) Nitroglycerine (see guns) Nitrous oxide VII 427 Surgery, applied to VII 415 Nixon, Lewis Shipbuilding, progress and prom- ise of American IV 119 North, S. N. D Typewriters, and VII 367 North the Representation of, in congress II 47 Northern Pacific railroad Military line Ill 371 Northwest territories Colonization, barred from, by President Monroe II 170 Oregon, President Polk on II 1 76 Nott, Joseph, C, surgeon VII 431 Nuts Production, trees and V s (See also fruits) o Oats Area and production V 5 Exports V 32 Production V 30 Observatories (see astronomy) Oceania American trade with IV 5, 43 Ochers VI 319 O'Donnell, John Uses to which iron is put VI 1 30 Office work Labor saving systems of, (H. S. FuUerton) VII 370 Ogden city Railroads of IV 279 Ogle. Henry Reaper of ..V 74 Ohio Munufac'turfM of, early Oil. coal (hco |M3troleuin) Oil Adulterut«»«l, , . CdiLsolidulioii of. Iiidiutlry.. I'"or«'iKn vu«w of Anirrican Fuel in rlci> indiLstry. an (.SiH* also cotton Mtsl. Stanilanl Oil triLSI) olipliant. F. il Natural giLS Petroleum Olives First American Industry. American Prixluction of American Olney. Richard Growth of our foreign iKilicy (^)maha Packing center, as O'Neil. <;harlcs Armor-plate making. . . Opals In U. S Mining of Open Door, the Oranges Experiments, in. government.. .. First American Ord. J. T Sword of Ores Iron. (J. Birkinbine) (See mining, also various mfiulsi Oregon .Vdmitted ISattlcship Hccomcs part of U. S. . President Polk on. Railroad-s. hel|)cd by.. Orient, the .\merican interests in .Vustralian foreign trade Capital. al>sorption of foreign. . . Openings for China comparc«l industrially with Europe Diplomacy, .\merican. aiul. European supremacy in thrrat- ened Japan's foreign trade Mills of Cluna and Japan Opportunity, equal in Railroads, ellect of. In tra I** •Solving of Trade of United Stales Orphans .\iding Cost of. supporting III .IV . V 72 57 2HH II 140 VI .IKO \I :iw V 340 V 249 V H V 243 II 12 1 V 177 l.\ 326 \ I 3.14 VI 335 VI 3.« II 25.S VII V 44 .'46 l.\ 3'J5 .VI 61 II 2S6 I.V 20H II 2.S4 II 176 IV 212 II 2 IS II 256 II 257 II 253 II 25H II 171 II 261 II 251 11 251 II 258 IV 265 11 2'. 1 II 140 -\ 162 X 31 38o GENERAL INDEX Osbom, J. D Binder of 1859 V 91 Osborne, D. M Patents of V 88 Osborne, John Ball Expansion through reciprocity. . . .II 375 O.sgood, R. T Patents of V 87 Ostriches Growing industry, a. ., V 47 Otis, James Assistance, attack of. on, writs of.. II 99 Outerbridge, A. E., Jr Premium system of wages VIII 291 Owen, Jolin Player I 315 P Pacific cable American support of II 146 Pacific ocean Trade, American, with lands of IV 15 Pacific islands U. S. policy in II 146 Packing Agriculture, influence on V 33 Animals cared for V 184 Beef, canning V 188 Preparing V 34 Salting V 187 Western supply, early V 176 By-products V 190 Description of V 192 Cars, ownership of V 189 Chicago methods, modern V 182 Rise of V 176 Cincinnati, decline of V 177 Dairy products, and V 190 Food saver, as V 33 House, a modern V 185 Integration of, industry V 1 88 Killing and dressing V 188 Labor, alien, in VIII 226 Division of V 185 Organized, and VIII 226 Lands, cattle raising V 182 Lard rendering V 189 Loading on cars V 189 Missouri cities, trans V 177 River, west of. Ill 366 Monopoly and railroads IV 336 Of products V 191 Prices V 191 Prosecution, meat trust Ill 215 Refrigeration, influence of V 176 Refrigerators, use of V 187 St. Louis in V 177 Sausage production V 189 Packing — Continued. Statistics Hog V 181 Percentage, for cities V 180 Receipts and slaughtering V 1 79 Texas live stock V 182 Weighing animals V 185 West, center in V 1 75 Paddock, J. S. V Army in the revolution IX 13 Paducah, gunboat IX 304 Page, Thomas Nelson I 365 Page, Charles, Grafton, electrician VII 124 Merits of VII 126 Paine, Thomas II 12, 16 Paints Bariiun VI 322 Gypsum VI 320 Metallic pamts VI 318 Ochers ^ VI 319 Venetian red VI 321 Painting (see art) Pan-American Congress of 1826 and 1890 II 198 .Panama canal Colon, cost of harbor at IV 177 Commission of 1889 IV 173 Powers of present IV 180 Cost, estimated of IV 175 Distances via, table of IV 183 Efforts, first American IV 170 French, original plans of the IV 172 Plant, price of IV 173 Plant, value of IV 174 Unwise criticism of IV 171 Labor, problem of. required IV 178 Lumber, and Ill 362 New Granada, canal proposed by II 232 Origin of IV 170 Plans, various, suggested IV 175 Property. American, in IV 174 Railroad monopoly IV 170 Rights, American landed IV 179 Salubrity of isthmus IV 178 Some engineering problems of (J. F. Wallace) IV 170 Treaties with Panama and Colon cities IV 179 Water supply and sewerage IV 178 Works incident to IV 177 Pancoast. Joseph, surgeon VII 431 Panics Of 1855 II 327 1857 VI 244 1883 II 406 Paper Statistics of paper Ill 164 Parks Need of, in cities II 114 Parker, Edward W Coal VI 182 GENERAL INDEX 381 Parker, William, surgeon VII 4.14 Parks, Charles T., surgeon VII 433 Partridge, Charles A The army in the civil war IX 51 Pasteur, Louis Work of VII 34 Paternalism (see socialism) Patent laws (O. H. Piatt) VII 384 American system, foundation of VII 382 Colonial VII 379 Defects in VII 387 Department created VII 383 History, early VII 370 KequLsites for VII 3S8 Rights, theory of VII 377 Of patentees VII 389 Patents Number granted in U. S VII 376 U. S., laws, (C. M. Anderson).... VII 376 (See also industry, inventions, science) Patriotism, American (^onlldence, danger of over II 3 Patten, Simon N., sociologist VII 98 University training of business men I 218 Paulding, J. K., author I 354 Paullin, Charles Oscar American navy of the revolu- tion IX 200 Paupers Immigration and X 1 36 Number in America X 23 Statistics of, in cities X 131 (See also charities) Pauperism Drink and X 16 (See also charities) Peace American government, draw- backs to. in 11 201 America's work for the world's. (John Hay) H 153 Carnegie's temple of II 107 Gift to 11 106 Disarmament. American II 155 Grant's, U. S , utterance II 153 Hague, American influence at II 200 Conference, future of II 107 Conference, leading principle of n 201 Conferences 11 27 Convention terms of II 220 McKinley and Roosevelt for II 154 Roosevelt's President, message in. 1 1 156 U. S. commissioners to II 209 Venezuela case, lawyers' part in II 106 Washington on H 155 Peace Dale, town of VllI 334 I H I 7 I he. II 57 vn 62 . ft4. 74 I'«.'as Area and production. . Peanuts Area and production. . Pcasantti DLstinct race Inferiority of. polltlrol Peck, George It. . . ConstitutiDii. the march of I he Peirce, Henjaniin, aMtrononier.. . Ponii-cntiary Joiiet convlctA, Btatistini of (See also crime) Penn. WUliani Iniiiiigrutiun. encouraged liy ' Old Haiicy. trial of, at II Pounuck, CM Inventor tlexible ■t«tbo«cu|N- Nil Pennsylvania Cruiser ..IX Independence, opposed to Amer- ican II Manufacturing, earlietit in IV Western, settlement of Ill Penology (see crime) Pensions Act of 1890 IX Appropriations for IX Civil service, and .11 Cost of. since 1890 IX Early, in U. 8 IX (Jood in IX Law. present IX Nuinlx'r of invalids' I-V Origin of present system IX Public ilpl)t ancr8) Pullman (leorge M Railway car. Invented IV 301 Town of Vlll 3.'H (See also railway coni) Pumice VI 438 Puritan, monitor IX 2U3 Puritans U. S, in I i»j Purviance. .\. J Patents of V 86 Pyrite (J. Struthers) VI 34H Deposits of. U. 9 VI 355 Occurrence of VI 355 U. S.. In VI 35« Uses of VI 357 Q Quartz VI 339. VII -l.'Jft Quicksilver (J. Struthers) VI 289 American deposits VI 294 Production VI 294 History, early VI 289 New Mexico industry VI 296 Occurrence of VI 291 Ore of VI 293 Oregon, industry of VI 295 Properties of VI 289 Uses of VI 292 Commercial VI 293 Vermilion VI 292 Quincy. Josiah Supports navy ... 1X216 R Race problem (see negroes) Race question, the (See negroes) Races Ability of I 15 Acclimatization of I W Agriculture and I !• Climatic adaptability I *• Competition and I •• Crime and X 134 Democracy incentive to energy I 53 Kcouomic foresight I 57 Energy of 1 51 Genius and I *! GermaiLs in U. S I 1* Government and I 52 Heredity, fallacies of I <^ Huguenots in U. S I 10 Immigration, improved by I 51 In America (see population) Indo-Germaiiic I ^ 386 GENERAL INDEX R aces — Continued. Martial superiority I 60 Mexican war and IX 40 Mongols, assimilating power of I 50 Moral excellence I 62 Standard of, rising I 66 Northern, superiority of I 49 Pride of blood I 64 Puritans in U. S I 16 Causes of race superiority. (E. A. Ross) I 48 Self-reliance and I 64 Standard of comfort and I 66 Statures, comparative I 51 Thrift and I 56 U. S., different, in I 14 Rae, J. H Cyanide process, inventor of VI 230 Raftery, John H Largest farm in world V 324 Rails (see steel) Railroad cars (see cars) Railroads Accidents IV 232 Advertising, benefit of, to com- merce IV 209 Agriculture, western and IV 210 And growth of -V 44 American, compared with foreign . IV 206 Early, and industry Ill 26 Pathways, early IV 270 Models for foreign IV 205 Statistics of IV 220 Travel, ease of IV 219 Boston & Albany, ownership of.... Ill 332 Boston & Maine, o\^Tiership of. ...Ill 332 Bridge supervisor, duties of IV 379 Bridges, American, abroad IV 203 Building materials, discrimina- tion in TV 263 Canadian Pacific, completion of.. .IV 277 Capital, early, for IV 236 Invested in Ill 103 Of, concentration of Ill 55 Vast new, needed IV 238 Capitalization of pooled roads IV 329 Car accountant, duties of IV 381 Cars, development of, (G. A. Hutchins) IV 390 Early history of IV 390 Central and Union Pacific, com- pletion of IV 276 Improved, routes of IV 280 Charges, minimum of IV 261 Chemistry, in VII 85 Chicago and Great Western, ownership of Ill 332 China and Russia, rates and wages in IV 214 Civilization, followed by IV 207 Civilizers, as IV 242 Railroads — Continued. Claim department, work of IV 373 Association, work of inter- national IV 377 Coal and IV 333. VI 189 Transported by VI 190 Colorado Midland route IV 282 Combination, remedies for IV 350 Companies, number of IV 229 Competition for markets IV 263 In rates IV 226 Consolidation of Ill 71 Backward in Ill 74 Constitution, and the II 72 Protected by IV 353 Construction department, duties of IV 371 New IV 372 Copper in the West, and IV 292 Cotton trade, and IV 266 Court decisions defied IV 350 Cuban II 310 Debt to, the nation's (J. J. Hill).. IV 253 Denver & Rio Grande, building of VI 277 Engineering of IV 280 New route of IV 282 Departments of law, real estate. and taxes IV 372 Development, post-bellum IV 221 Of American IV 234 Directors, statistics of Ill 343 Distances, magnificent American.. IV 216 Division superintendent, duties of ..IV 378 Early importance of IV 295 Earnings and investment IV 261 Increase of Ill 478 Increased IV 326 Of American IV 206 Elevation and increase of tracks... IV 238 Employees' earnings IV 230 Interest of, in IV 226 Laws protecting VIII 52 Number of IV 223 England the birthplace of IV 234 Ericsson, John, and IV 235 Evans, Ohver IV 235 Evils of discrimination IV 317 Exchange, facilitate IV 248 Export trade, and IV 225 Fares, service, and wages IV 21^ Financing, early, of IV 221 Finance methods, English IV 224 Proposed new IV 224 Flour monopoly and IV 336 Foreign trade, and IV 266 Freight Cars capacities of IV 2C8 Charges, American and foreign.. IV 214 Claims, magnitude of IV 377 Department, work of the IV 375 GENERAL INDEX 387 Railroads — Freight — Continued. ilaiulliuK, speed of IV 209 How, it is billed IV 370 Rates. American and Euro- pean IV 250 Statistics IV 220 Trafllc. annual IV 232 Transportation, cost of IV 220 EqualizinK cotton Ill 215 Government control of, (M. II. Smith) IV 310 Only adequate power to deal with IV 341 Opposition of, to IV 310 Opposition to IV 352 Ownership of IV 257 Government ownership (Martin A. Knapp) IV 355 Ills curable by IV 357 Need of IV 348 Objection to IV 356 Politics in IV 356 Grain monopoly and IV 334-5 Granger laws IV 290 And construction IV 302 Benefits of IV 300 Depression of, and IV 304 Earnings and IV 303 Repeal of IV 305 "Granger legislation" against IV 222 Great Northern system, needs of IV 201 Greatest impetus in America IV 230 Growth. comUry's, since 1830 IV 237 Part of, in American com- mercial IV 199 Post-bellum Ill 372 Since 1827 IV 228 Health, general and IV 245 High rates, power of, to main- tain IV 328 History of, American, early IV 217 Early, in America IV 235 Home, food, and clothing, and IV 249 Illinois Central, opening of IV 237 Owners of Ill 332 Planned Ill 27 Income and outgo IV 230 Industries, creators of new IV 251 Interference with, right of states to IV 312 Interstate commerce law IV 222. 257 Creation of IV 319 Interstate commission crippled — IV 320 Report for 1S9S IV 321 Law. proposed amendment or..iV 259 Isthmian, canal, and IV 192 Japanese trade, effect on IV 265 Labor and prices, effect of, on IV 256 Kailroa Legislation of 1902 u failure IV 322 Life, have inlonHJllixl IV 244 Living, ha%o change*! IV 24ft Locomotives, .\nicrlcan, abroad... IV 201 .Vnd cars. nuiiil>cr of IV 220 Hauling power of IV 20H Luiiil)or industry, and growth of. Ill 359 Manageinent of. sound. . . . IV 261 Master machanic. duties of the... IV :isl Materials of industry, and IV 247 Meat monopoly and IV 336 Mileage, American, greatest VII 271 And progress IV 206 And value of IV 251 Increase by stages IV 250 More ncotled IV 226 Yearly, of IV 229 Mining industry, as help to. . . .IV 211-13 Stimulated by IV 290 Missouri first to charter trans- continental IV 275 Trans-Missouri case IV 223 Monopolies as IV 349 Makers of IV 31S Nature of IV .350 Neville. Priestley IV 242 Northern PaciQc a military road Ill 371 Route of IV 285 Northern securities prosecution... II I 216 Ogden City of IV 279 Operation, statistics of IV 228 Opposition to. early IV 208 Organization, (G. T. Sampson) .. .IV 367 Organization, of the Central Pa- cillc and Union Pacitlc IV 275 Charts of IV 369 Oriental trade, and IV 265 Overcharges, remedy for IV 352 Ownership of, and the law IV 200 Change of HI 391 Degree of dilTusion of 1 11 398 Eastern, widely ditTused Ill 393 Individual HI 390 Stock, diffuse HI 439 Pacific coast, lumber IV 264 Railroads, general effects of ... I V 292 Passenger rates, basis of IV 226 Department, work of the IV 373 Statistics IV 229 Past, present, and future of American. (M. E. Ingalls) IV 217 Pennsylvania law of 1873 IV 333 Plants, maiutenonco of IV 371 388 GENERAL INDEX Railroads — Continued. Porto Rlcan II 298 Postal service, and IV 249 Power of, vast Ill 54 Preferential rate law IV 323 Prime importance of IV 255-6 Problem, (A. B. Stickney) IV 298 Problems, early American and European IV 237 Prosperity, depends on popular. . .IV 263 Publicity, need of IV 225 Rates, control of (C. A. Prouty). . .IV 348 Are made, how IV 262 Constantly increased IV 324 For staples, need of low IV 225 Increasing cheapness of IV 241 Unjust IV 350 Rebate injunction of 1904 Ill 212 Rebates IV 334 Railway regulation, (R. M. La FoUette) IV 294 Regulation, need of IV 310 Reorganization of, continual IV 367 Revenues, distribution of IV 231 Roadmaster, duties of IV 378 Rochester, and gro^vth of IV 209 Rocky mountain grades of IV 277 Russian, and American machin- ery VII 202 Extension of IV 207 Safety of travel IV 231 St. Paul, Minneapolis and Mani- toba IV 287 Santa Fe built IV 278 Albuquerque branch of IV 284 Ownersliip of Ill 333 Route of IV 283 Section foreman, duties of IV 379 Service, American and foreign. . . .IV 213 Share holding in different states, average Ill 339 Shops, organization of IV 382 Siberian, trans, and American steel IV 201 Six great groups of, the IV 329 Social and economic effects IV 244 Southern Pacific and Texas Pacific, opening of the IV 276 Route of IV 282 Speed, American, and other train facilities IV 214 Standard oil. and Ill 53 IV 349 Manipulated by Ill 173-5 State, commission proposed IV 313 States, new and Ill 373 Were first to control IV 298 Station agents, duties of IV 380 Stock and share holders, tables of Ill 334 Average holdings of Ill 336 Stockholders, number of, increas- ing Ill 337 Railroads — Continued. Suburban homes, and IV 245 Supreme court on IV 318 Taxing laws IV 223 Telegraph lines and IV 481 Tickets, how handled IV 374 Threaten industries IV 331 Time saved by IV 210 How multiplied IV 245 Trade unions and VIII 209 Traffic. British and American IV 240 Canal and river traffic, statistics of IV 239 Manager, duties of the IV 376 Increased, rates liigher IV 325 Train crews, duties of IV 380 Dispatcher, duties of IV 378 Transcontinental lines IV 270 Distances, table of IV 288 Capital and debt of IV 290 First needs for IV 274 First, proposed IV 274 Routes, earliest IV 274 Surveys, first IV 274 Trai;sportation companies, pow- ers of IV 296 Department, organization of . ...IV 377 Problem in N. Y IV 452 Trust breeders, as Ill 53 Trusts, grew like Ill 83 Rebates the cause of IV 351 Union and Central Pacific mili- tary Ill 371 Vice and IV 245 Wages IV 327 Wall street, power of Ill 57 Watered stock, profits on IV 354 Western commerce, and Ill 363 Topography of IV 278 Who owns the, (Solomon Hueb- ner) Ill 330 Willcox. John B., and IV 234 Wisconsin commission, causes of ...IV 309 Earnings in IV 308 Law of 1903 defeated IV 307 Law regtilating IV 301 Rates IV 307 (See also bridges, commerce, inter- state) Railroads (electric) Arnold's, Bion. J., predictions IV 447 Birth of electric traction IV 442 Commutator, use of the IV 447 Construction, principles of IV 443 Electric company, general IV 443 Growth of, rapid IV 444 Inventions in VII 139 Locomotive, the electric IV 444 Past, present, and future of elec- tric traction, (Frank J. Sprague) IV 442 GENERAL INDEX 389 Railroad — electric — Continued. Pennsylvania and New York Central, equipment of IV 140 Power used by, amount of VII 211 Richmond, first at IV 442 Sprapiie's multiple unit sys- tem IV 445 Thomson-Houston, development of IV 443 Third rail for elevated IV 445 Trunk Unas not probable IV 447 Railroads, (interurban) (Edward Dana Durand) IV 416 Causes of IV 419 Central states, of IV 420 Chicago system IV 422 Cities, to, most profitable IV 4.30 Classification IV 417 Country merchant, hurt the IV 432 Opinions of IV 433 Detroit system IV 421 Distance travel by. long IV 437 Earnings of, annual IV 422 And car-mileage IV 423 And tKjpuIation IV 425 Growth of IV 424 Electric, advantages of IV 427 Fares, comparative IV 427 Farmers, patronized by IV 429 Freight carriers IV 431 Mail, and express busi- ness of IV 423 Future of IV 440 Increased travel from IV 429 Indianapolis system IV 421 Lake Erie system IV 420 Limited service IV 431 Massachusetts systems IV 419 Mileage of Connecticut IV 418 Indiana IV 418 Maine IV 418 Massachusetts IV 418 Michigan IV 418 New Hampshire IV 418 Ohio IV 418 Pennsylvania IV 418 Virginia IV 418 Nature of IV 416 New England and middle states. of IV 419 Operating expenses IV 424 Pleasure, used for IV 430 Small towns. elTects on IV 432 Social importance of. growing IV 428 Steam changed to electric IV 440 Conversion of, to electric. growing I^' ■^^^ DifTerence between electrical and l\ •'-2 Fares, have rcducwl IV 437 Lines, competition met by IV 439 Railways, counter-policy of . . . IV 438 Railroads — intrrurban — Continual. Roadn. hurt lcx>al helpthrouKh trafilr of IV 437 Tralllc. a(Ti«<-t«'«I IV 4.^1 Whccling-IndiiiiinimlliichaJn of .IV 421 Railroads (underground) I'roiKJswI. Jlnit. for N. V. dty. IV 454 New York gubwayB, (Judm Creelman) IV 4fil Tunnel under Iludnnn. Pennsyl- vania. J-W. 000. 000 IV 451 New York Kubway And nnuifipal ownership IV' 453 Bids for construction of IV 4.'>5 Hill for IV 455 Building of IV 451 . 457 Capital raLsecl IV 450 <"apacity of IV 431 Cost of IV 456 Per mile IV 459 Equipment of IV 459 Dinicultics of tunnelinK IV 443 Financing of IV 452 Laying out route IV 455 Mayor Hewitt plans, in 18Ji8....IV 454 Municipal ownership of IV 453 New, propose*! IV 452 Present owners of. . . IV 457 Route of IV 458 Trains and fare of IV 456 New York city, history of transit in I V 453 Tunnel. Beach's N. V.. of 1868. ...IV 454 Rainfall United States, of IV 26 Raisins (G. C. Hussman) V 252 American, first V 258 California, first V 244 Climate and irrigation ..V 239 Grape and. prwiuction. in U. S.. ((i. C. llu.ssinun) V 232 Picking and packing V 260 Pro4i uUo ruilroadjt. canak, truu»- IM>rtatii>ii) RolKirts. Klli.H H . . . Inflow of gold. . VI 24_> Strength and weukiicKnof .Kmorl- can flnanre Ill 302 Roberts, Mn*. Murshall U.. philMi- thropist X 210 Robinson, ^«auri^•o H Investigating trust problom Ill 102 Rock crystal .VI 330 Rockefeller, John D tioldcn rule, and IV 352 Power in railroad world... .IV 345 Rodgcrs, gunboat IX 300 Roeber, E. F The development of indastrial electro-chemistry VII HO Roe, Gill)ert E Insurance investigation Ill 450 Rogers. Howard J Relation of education to com- mercial and industrial devel- opment Ill 300 Rolfe, Jolin To))acco grower, first V 27H-9 Roman Catholic Education, need of higher I 209 Universities (J. F. Mulluney> I 207 Central I 207 European, of I 207 Founding of the I 208 Functions of I -•- History I 2^3 Improvement of the I 21* Purpose of I 208 Spread of I 211 Universality of 1 215 Roosevelt. Theoilorc Law. as enforcer of H 122 Monroe d- IX 273 Wall street, check on HI 382 Roosevelt. Nicholas J Steamlwating and Root. Eliliu General staff of the army IX 109 Roper. Daniel (' Cotton machinery V 1 29 Rice . . V 2S7 Rosel>ery. Lord . . ". American indastry IV 54 Trusts IV 66 IV 154 392 GENERAL INDEX Ross, Edward A Race superiority I 48 Ross, WUliam A., sociologist VII 100 Rossiter, William S Printing and publishing I 380 Rothschilds, the Hessians, the, and the Ill 406 Royce, Frederic Submarine telegraphs IV 487 The new navy IX 288 Rubies (see corundum) Rimi Molasses act of 1733 IV 84 Rush, Benjamin VII 407 RusseU Walter, physician VII 402 Russia American Chinese trade, relation of. to II 133 Cotton m V 144-5 Lawyers in II 100 Transportation charges and wages in IV 214 Wheat production V 147 Rutile VI 180 Rutledge, Edward Debate of, on colonial freedom. . . .II 13 Rye American crops, first V 21 Area and production V 5 Production V 30 5 St. Clair, Arthur, soldier IX 2-3 St. Louis Cruiser IX 302 Manual training school, site of first VIII 421 Mounds of VII 42 Packing center as V 177 Salesmen Number of. in U. S IV 509 Services of IV 507 TheAmerican, (E. W. de Bower). IV 506 Types of IV 509 Volume of busmess IV 508 Saloons Danger of gilded II 117 Drunkenness and X 183 Salt Miners, work of VI 19 Saltus, Edgar I 366 Salvador Monroe doctrine. British block- ades of, and II 188 Salvation army Irrigation and V 352 Poor relief and X 173 Samoa American policy in II 146 Sampson, George T Railroad organization IV 367 San Francisco Harbor of IV 23 U. S. cruiser IX 296 San Juan Hill Battle of IX 70 Sanborn, Edward H Development of metal working machinery VI 283 Power employed in American manufactures VII 210 Sandys, George, writer I 350 Sanitation American shops, in VIII 14 Cuban II 304 Lecky. on X 195 Santa Fe railroad Ownership of Ill 333 Santa Monica, Calif Home for soldiers at IX 427 Santiago Landing of troops at IX 68 Santo Domingo Spanish sovereignity of, and American protest II 178 Sapphires (see corundum) Sargent, Frank P Problems of immigration II 437 Sault Ste. Marie Tonnage IV 145 Sausage (see packing) Saws, pneumatic VII 251 Saward. Frederick E Connellsville coke region VI 193 Saxe, John G., poet I 361 Saylor, Charles F Beet sugar industry of U. S V 227 Sayre, Lewis A., surgeon VII 432 Scholars In Europe VII 91 Scholarship, American I 200 Popiilarizlng fruits of I 204 Schools (see education) Schwab, Charles M Carnegie's enterprises VI 147 Steel trust, the HI 68 Science, American (E. S. Holden) VII 56 Advancement, general VII 4 American association for ad- vancement of VII 1 Journal of. foimdation of VII 60 Sociologist, (M. A. Lane) VII 91 And invention VII 7 Anthropology VII 19 Army officers in VII 57 Astronomy in U. S.. (Simon Newcomb) VII 67 Bacteriology VII 18 GENERAL INDEX 3^>3 Science, American — Continued. Burbank. L.. work of VII 106 Chemistry VII 1 4 In U. S., (F. W. Clarke) VII 84 Coast survey, beginning of VI I 57 Debt of world to pure, (J. .1. Stevenson) VII 24 Department of agriculture, work of VII 43 Electric light, (Louis Bell) VII 154 Endowments for VII 38 Engineering, progress of VII 290 Expenditures, government VI 1 40 Fifty years of, (W. J. McGee).. . .VII 1 Franklin, B.. work of VII 109 Geology VII 16 Geology. (Rozelle P. Handy) VII 47 Government patronage VII 40 Gould's Journal VII 60 Growth of nation and VII 2 Hewitt, electricjJ achievements of VII 183 History, early VII 50 Of electricity in U. S., (G. H. Stockbridge) VII 109 Industrial electro-chemistry, (E. F. Roeber) VII 140 Invention of telephone, (A. G. Bell) VII 171 Investigation, methods of VII 35 Langley, work of VII 4 Metals and precious stones, dis- coveries in VII 45 Meteorologj- VII 10 Naval academy, and VII 59 Obstacles to, early VII 2 Peirce, work of VII 62 Philanthropy, in X 41 Political economy VII 93 Practical character of VII 41 Progress of VII 1 Psychologj' VII 1 3 Scientific work of government, (M. A. Lane) VII 40 Smithson's foundation VII 37 Smithsonian institution, work of. VI I 42 Sociologj- VII 92 Sturgeon, work of VII 114 Trained Americans in VII 37 Tripler, work of VII 12 Universities, in I 191 Utilitarian-non VII 24 Weather bureau, work of VII 390 Wireless electricity. (N. Tesla). . .VII 163 Zoology VII 17 (See also the several sciences) . . . (See also medicine and surgery). Scotch-Irish Americans I 20 Composite race -I 20 History of I 21 Scotch-IriBh— Contlnuwl. I'ionw-rtj In U. H I ^' j Scttleni. early American I I'j Sr«)tt. Wlnlleld. soldier.... 1 .\ 7 Scuddor. Vidu L DeiiuKTury and o(lucattr)n I I'l."; Sculpture (sec art) Sage. Kusst'll Telegraplw, and IV 4S2 Sailors (.see navy, thci Seamon (soo navy the; Securities American Influence on. abroad IV ftO Invt-stmeiit iil)roafiH of HI Smith, Kdwln Miirrllt Mimiclpal wif government II Smith. Jarnra, physliiun \|| .Sinllh. Jdliii. author. . . | Smith. .Milton H Oovornmcnl control of railroads. .IV VII VII VU VII Nil VII II C5 77 13 417 407 liO 3in 411 420 4.(1 02 37 42 VI 424 VI 427 VI 420 \ I 42V I 218 VIII 338 Smith, .Natluin. phyMJclan Smith, Natliun. NurKoun Smith. Nathan Uyno. surgeon Smith. Kolliii E Tht! miKhtv river of whcii* V 147 Smithsonian institution . .\.stronomy. and Koundcr, and Us, . . Work of Smyth vs. Ames UccLsion in Snuff (see tobacco) Soapstone Mining of Occurrence Uses of Social question, the Education of bimincss men Factory, as element in life Machine shop, and mine. (C. B. Going) VIII 320 Labor and education. (W. J. Tucker) VIII 420 Improving condition of VIII 321 Machine shop conditions. i.M. Cokely) VIII 357 Machinery and lalx)r. (H. White) VIII 305 The social engineer, (W. H. Tolman) VIII 319 Universities and I 206 (See al.so education, wages, soci- ology*, labor, trades unions. socialism) Social!Heform club Union labels VIII 187 Social science VII I (i.t (See also sociolofo) Socialism .•\rbitration. compul.sory VIII 119 Capitali-sts and VIII 13.S Democratic \' 1 1 1 1 .30 Drift toward, American... VIII 1.38 Education and I 79 Future of \ III 131 Gain of. in America \ 1 1 129 Hopes of VIII 130 Impracticable VIII 130 LalMir. imorganized. and . . . V 1 1 1 1 S-'i Monopoly, cure for . . \ I II 1 28 Problems of VIII 139 396 GENERAL INDEX Socialism — Continued PuUman town and VIII 329 Tendency-non, to VIII 328 Trade unions, attitude of VIII 134 Wages and VIII 137 Ward, Lester F.. on VII 97 Woman and I 406 (See also sociology) Societies, farmers' (see farmers and agriculture) Societies, secret Growth of, (W. W. Phelps) X 249 Increase of X 251 List of, with membership X 250 Masons, power of X 252 Membership, total of , in U. S X 249 (See also fraternities, benevolent) Sociology American leaders VII 96 American, (M. A. Lane) VII 91 Ellwood, work of VII 101 Federation of rural forces, (K. L. Butterfield) V 354 Giddings, work of VII 99 Journals of VII 102 Patten VII 98 Ross, work of VII 100 Small, A. W.. on VII 101 Ward, Lester F., work of VII 97 Soldiers (see army, the) Society Railroads and IV 244 Soil (see agriciilture) Soley, James Russell Naval campaign of 1812 IX 212 "Soo," the (see Sault Ste. Marie). . . . South, the Activity, post-bellum Ill 372 Agricultural changes in V 55 Education in V 385 Agriculture, (D. D. Wallace) V 373 Conditions of V 373 Needs of. in V 385 Statistics of V 379 American art, and I 332 Commercial development of. (C. M. Harvey) Ill 370 Cotton manufactures in Ill 375 Recent production of Ill 374 Evolution of negro labor. (C. Kelsey) VIII 386 Farmer, credit of the V 387 History, early industrial Ill 370 Isthmian canal andltrade of . . . .IV 185-7 Negroes in agriculture V 383 Presidents, and American Ill 375 Race problem in X 271 Representation of II 49 In congress II 47 Revolution. American, and IX 20 War, recovery from Ill 374 South, the — Continued. Tariff opposed to early II 321 South Africa Boer war. U. S. intervention in. . ..II 197 South America American trade with IV 6 Cotton trade of IV 8 European trade with IV 7-8 Imports of IV 8 South Carolina Independence, American, vote of, on II 13 South Dakota, cruiser IX 302 Southern Pacific West, opened the Ill 371 Spain Claims commission. Spanish II 222 Cuba, notified to vacate II 200 Santo Domingo, sovereignty of. and American protest II 17S Spaulding. George H Binder of V 92 Spear. Thomas R., physician VII 415 Species Origin of VII 17 Speculation Banks, and Ill 381 Cliques in U. S Ill 38s Criminal Ill 381 European and American com- pared Ill 384 Freedom of. in U. S Ill 379 Gambling in U. S Ill 385 Gates an all arovmd plunger Ill 390 Gates, J. W., corner of Louis- ville stock Ill 380 Gates-Leiter wheat deal Ill 390 Gates' several corners Ill 390 Government bureaus, fostered by Ill 388 Grain, in Chicago Ill 385 Morgan's. J. P.. power Ill 381 Peril to U. S Ill 386 Produce exchanges Ill 387 Progress, its effect on Ill 377 Wall street Ill 379 (See also finance) Speed, John Gilmer Cotton V 106 Spencer, Herbert Education VII 313 Spirits (see drunkenness) Spodumene VI 333 Sprague, Frank J Past, present, and future of elec- tric traction IV 442 Siberia American interests in II 248 Isthmian canal, and IV 185 Railway, trans, and American steel IV 201 GENERAL INDEX 307 Sigourney, Lydia H., poetess I :{;j7 Stael, Mme. tie Germans VII <)l Stage, the (see theaters) Standard oil Agreement of the Pennsylvania railroad and Empire Trans. Co Ill 1S:{-1 With the Erie and New York Central Ill ls:{ With the Pennsylvania, N. Y. Central, and Erie roads Ill 177 With Pennsylvania railroad HI 1X5 With producers Ill 191 Alliances of 18S0 Ill 187 B. and O. railroad used Ill 174 Banks and Ill 418 Beginning of Ill 172 By-products, development of Ill 201 The uses of Ill 201 Capital increased in 1872 Ill 180 Capitalization of 1892 Ill 193 Combination, first effort at Ill 173 Competition, first attempts to crush Ill 174 Competitor, its present Ill 202 Congress ordered investigation III 179 Consolidation of U. S. Pipe and National Transit Co's Ill 195-6 Discoveries, oil Ill 176 Discrimination, railroad Ill 171 Of 1887 Ill 192 Empire Co., helps the Ill ISC War on the Ill 184 Erie railroad and Ill 175 Foreign trade of Ill 202 Freight rates appear Ill 174 G reat lakes as a lever Ill 175 Interstate commerce act Ill 192 Legal forms unimportant Ill 198 Methods of rule, present Ill 199 Monopoly complete in 1 877 1 1 1 185 National Transit Co., formation of Ill ISO Ohio and Pennsylvania com- panies combine Ill 180 Ohio, attacked by Ill 193 Answered Ill 194 Court, condemned by Ill 1 95 Grounds of Ill 193-4 Panic of 1872 Ill 179 Pennsylvania railroad, victory over the Ill 1S6 Pennsylvania Transportation Co. organized Ill 181 Pipe line system, first Ill 181 Development of Ill 182 Period from 1887 to 1892 Ill 193 Position in 1879 Ill 186 Prosperity and power, present HI 202 Standard oil -Conilnuod. Price. avoruKu. for 20 ye«« HI 147 Of crude Ill UC DecroaM) of. from 1892 Ill I UJ Early oil Ill 17 J How rfgulat«(l Ill 1 U1 l'ro70 Supreme in 1883 1" ItKJ Spy system charged m -0' Tariff, and the " 353 Tidewater Co.. the war on the — HI isg Surrenderor H' 1«0 Titusville mass meeting HI 178 Transit company-Pennsylvania. agreement HI • ^9-90 Trust descrilied. first HI 1K8 Dissolved in 1892 HI 195 Formation of the. in 1881 HI 1S7 The H 349 TriLstees. the original HI 1land Vineyard of ^ -*^- •'Star spangled banner" Authorship of ^ ^"^ Starch (H. W. WUey) \ '^ Gluten \ 'J- Glucose. residue ^ '^* Manufacture from potatoes V 173 Methods of \ '<^ Separators, germ ^^ '** Sources of ^' '<** 398 GENERAL INDEX state, the Burgess, John, on I 81 Government, distinguished from I 81 Honesty in I 238 Municipal government and II 417 Purpose of I 80 Representation, in II 40 The educated man and, (H. S. Pritchett) I 234 (See also government) Steam (see engineering, power, motive) Steamboats American, first IV 154 Best days of IV 157 Building yards, early IV 155 Clermont, run of the IV 153 Decline of river trade IV 101 Earnings, early, of IV 156 Fitch, John, inventor of IV 153 History, early IV 153 Lee-Natchez race IV 158 Robert E.-Natchez race IV 156 Mississippi and Ohio, first in IV 155 Missouri, the, on IV 156 New Orleans, the IV 155 Roosevelt, Nicholas J., and IV 154 Romance of the, (C. E. Fitz- morris) IV 152 West, m the early Ill 18 (See also trade) Steamsliips Oriental trade, for VII 205 (See also shipbuilding) Stearns, Joseph N., electrician VII 132 Steel American primacy in iron and steel. (J. F. Crowell) VI 112 Armour plate making IX 326 Bessemer converter, working a. ...VI 173 Process VII 28 Converting by VI 174 Carnegie output of VI 152 Works, scope of VI 151 Center of world of steel (W. Fawcett) VI 166 Chromite, uses of VI 178 Cobalt, hardened by VI 178 Edgar Thompson Co. foimded IV 149 Exports of American IV 52 Handling ore at Pittsburg VI 166-7 Hardening, metals for VI 177 Hauling molten iron VI 171 Horsepower of, mills VII 214 Machinery in, mills VIII 12 Macliinery of the mills VI 172 Methods, old furnace VI 167 Molybdenum, hardened by VI 180 Nickel for hardening VI 178 Perils to life in mills VI 169 Rails, American VII 30 Steel — Continued. Rohing of VI 175 Steel hardening metals, (J. H. Pratt) VI 177 Trust, the II 353 Trust, (C. S. Gleed) VI 157 Tungsten, hardened by VI 180 Steel corporation, United States Agreement of, first VI 159 Capitalization of VI 162 Carnegie interests and VI 144 Companies of. integral VI 142 Constituent companies VI 160 State of VI 161 Stoclcs of VI 162 Experiments VI 137 Factory methods of VI 166 First mention of VI 159 Frick controversy VI 145 Gates. John W., and Ill 382 Genesis of, (E. S. Meade) VI 37 Lakes, great, and the IV 146 Iron and steel compared VI 158 Markets of VI 164 Menace to foreign industry VI 163 Morgan's, J. P., opinion of VI 163 Organization of. conditions of. . .VI 137-8 Preliminary companies VI 139 Projectors of VI 159 Steel, early, in U. S VI 58 Uses of steel VI 159 Stock of VI 140-1 Subsidiary industries of VI 166 Sterns, Worthy P Beginning of America's foreign trade IV 89 Stevens, Emerson O National soldiers' home IX 411 Stevens institute VII 303 Stevenson, John J Debt of world to pure science VII 24 Stewart, Ethelbert Labor imions influence on immi- grants VIII 226 Wrecked labor organizations — VIII 221 Stewart. Merch B Army as social factor IX 152 Stickney. A. B Railroad problem IV 298 Stille. Henry Researches of VII 420 Stimson. F. J Labor laws VIII 194 Stock, live (see live stock) Stockbridge, George Herbert History of electricity in America. VII 109 Stockyards (see packing) Stone Trust Ill 164 Stones, precious (G. F. Kunz) VI 324 GENERAL INDEX 399 stones, precloiis — Continued. Government discoveries in Amer- ica VII .10 (See also several kinds of) Storey, JiuIko Opinion of. on Washington's veto of representation Ijill II 04 Storms (see weather) Story. Joseph Supports navy IX 216 Stowe, Harriet Beecher I 361 Strikes And the philosophy of the strik- ers. (F. K. Foster) VIII 152 Accomplish notliing Ill 315 American VIII 16 Arbitration, compulsory, labor opposed to VIII 166 Of good Ill 321 Bascom VIII 162 Breakers, and VIII IGO Business principles, antagonistic to Ill 315 Calling of VIII 170 Causes of VIII 156 Cigar makers, of VIII 157 Coal, of 1897 VIII 34S Of 1900 VIII 350 Of 1902 VIII 126 Of 1902 Ill 321 Of 1902, demoralization caused by Ill 3-^3 Of 1902. losses in HI 323 Of 1902, report on Ill 324 Compulsion not bargains HI 314 Conservatism in VIII 159 Cost of. statistics of VIII 148 Court decisions on VIII 201 Rulings on... VIII 163 Effects of. in figures VIII 151 Efficiency of VIII 152 Foimdries in VIII 92 Jay Gould VIII 279 Lawlessness, tend to Ill 315 Limited to few men VIII 120 Management of. (II. W. Field).. VIII 168 Motives of VIII 157 Object of. primary VIII 158 Open shops and VIII 199 Pullman VIII 329 Purpose of VIII 105, 153 Preparing for VIII 169 Social effect of Ill 317 Statistics VIII 130 Lockout VIII 148 Success of VIII 165 Successful VIII 149 Suppressed, should be Ill 317 Trade imions, and VIII 156 Treason, encourage m 324 Twenty years of. and lockouts, (F. J. Sullivan) VIII 148 III Mn 100 238 Strikes— ( "onilnuod. War. im (.Sm* al.su civic fcn, Induit- triul conimlwiiun, luUir. iuUu»- try) Straus. O. S Work of civic federation VIII Strawl)orriPs Williams, Roger, found In Amer- ica by V Struthers, J Asphultum and biluniiuous rock VI 305 Asphultum and bitumen VI 300 Bauxite VI 20« Borax VI 414 Crude mineral producta VI 318 Graphite VI 300 Mineral pigments VI 317 Phosphate rock VI 438 Quicksilver VI 289 Sulphur and pyrite VI 348 Stuart. James K The army in the Spanish war IX 04 Sturgeon. William Electrical scientist VII 114 Sulphur Prepared, how VI 352 Properties of VI 348 Uses of yi 340 Supply of. world's VI 360 Sulphuric acid fsee sulphur) Sulu, Sultan of I-X 82 Sun. the Motive power, as VII 259 Summer gardens City life, as factors in II Supreme court Achievements of II American invention II System of II Behring soa cases II Constitution, and I' As interpreter of H Con.structo-ne) ... .II 338 And I" »15 And the, (C. Beardsley) HI 361 And early H 347 Free trade no remedy for II 357 In Europe, and H 353 In Great Britain and II 351 No relation to H 352 Non-protected H ' 366 Protected by HI 363 United nations and H 30 Wages, and VIII 199 Walker's. Kobert J., bUI H 325 Watch industry and H 343 402 GENERAL INDEX Tarbell. Ida M Declaration of independence II 10 Tassin, Augustus G Sword of IX 401 Taussig, F. W American iron indiistry VI 105 Taxation Education and I 86 Taylor, F. W Premium wage system of VIII 294 Taylor, H. C, naval officer IX 369 Taylor, William A Substitution of domestic for foreign fruits V 236 Taylor, Zachary, soldier IX 46 Tea American, (J. Wilson) V 412 American, gardens, (G. R. Clarke) : V 292 Power, problems of V 296 Climate and soU V 294 Competition for U. S. grower V 295 Cost of manufactvu-e V 297 Culture in U. S., (Grace Clarke).. ..V 292 Early American V 292 Government garden in South Carolina V 293 Growth and profits of, cultiire in U. S V 293 Production of high priced V 296 Profit in American black V 295 Shepard, Charles, as grower V 293 Teachers (see trades unions) Technical education (see education) . Technology (see education, technical) Tehuantepic ship canal American reservation II 238 Ship railway II 234 Treaty of 1857 II 236 Telegraphs American Union company, organization of IV 482 Automatic IV 484 Business of American, annual IV 479 Companies unprogressive IV 483 Congress, action of, on early IV 462 First bill passed by IV 466 Opposition of, to IV 465 Congressional help IV 478 Conversations by, first IV 474 Early days of the first telegraph line (Stephen Vail) IV 460 Edison's inventions VII 132 Experiments of 1844 IV 469 Fire alarm IV 484 First instrument used IV 467 Gale and Vail associates of Morse IV 462 Gould and Russell Sage IV 482 Henry's first invention VII 115 Telegraphs — Continued. House committee, first report of, on IV 462 Invention, backwardness of IV 483 Line, opening of first IV 480 Lines, early IV 481 Message, first private IV 465 First public IV 467 Messenger call IV 485 Morse and Vail, merits of VII 123 Partnership of IV 464 Poverty of VII 122 Morse, early poverty of IV 480 Invention of VII 117 IV 460 On construction of lines IV 476 Morse's claims VII 121 Letter to Woodbiu-y IV 462 Proposal to congress IV 465 Report to secretary of treasury.. IV 475 Operating forces in 1845 IV 480 Overland line, building of IV 482 Philadelphia- New York line. : IV 476 Porto Rican II 298 Postal company IV 482 Profits in 1846 IV 480 Progress of 1844 IV 470 Railroad lines, and IV 481 Rates and rules of first line IV 478 Receipts, early IV 478 Recent progress of, (M. W. Coiutright) IV 480 Report, first, of national con- vention by IV 476 Steams, Nicholson, and Phelps. inventions of VII 132 Tesla on wireless VII 163 Vail as inventor of VII 119 Complaints of Morse IV 473 Cryptogram IV 467 Devices VII 120 Early experiments IV 464 Improvements IV 468 Later inventions IV 468 Letters in 1843 IV 466-7 Of 1846 IV 477 New alphabet IV 468 Western Union and American Union, consolidation of IV 482 Western Union, organization of. ..IV 481 Wheatstone system, operation of. IV 483 Wires, improvements in IV 485 ( See cables) Telegraphs (submarine) (Frederic Royce) IV 487 American Pacific cable IV 497 American- West Indian Imes. new, laid IV 496 Atlantic cables VII 129 Atlantic company, first IV 489 Cable, surveys for first IV 489 GENERAL INDEX 403 Telegraphs (submarine) — Continued. Australian-Vancouver cable laid IV 496 Beginnings of IV 487 British commission appointed IV 491 Cable of 1858. laying the IV 490 Civil war. work blocked by IV 490 Chinese- Australian cable laid IV 495 Cost of new Atlantic cable IV 492 Submarine messages IV 461 European, early IV 488 Field's early work IV 489 Field. Cvxus W.. Idea of IV 488 Money secured by IV 492 French- American cable laid IV 495 Second, cable laid IV 495 Gould cables laid IV 495 Great Eastern faUs IV 493 Final success IV 493 Purchased IV 493 New trial IV 493 Success IV 494 Improvement in submarine in ten years .IV 461 In methods and material IV 498 India cables, failure of the IV 490 Second IV 491 Irish- American cable laid IV 495 London-Cape Town cable laid IV 495 Mackey-Bennett cable laid IV 496 Mediterranean cable, first IV 491 New York-West Indies-Brazil cable laid IV 495 Nova Scotian, proposed IV 488 Routes of submarine IV 460 Speed of transmission, early IV 491 Statistics of IV 498 Telegraphy (see telegraphs) Telephone, the Beginnings of, (Alexander Gra- ham Bell) VII 171 Bell's early experiments VII 177 First idea VII 171 Currents, telephonic VII 173 Helmholtz' idea VII 1 76 Invention of VII 9-10 137 Inventors of VII 1 75 Perfected VII 181 Phonograph VII 372 Rival claims VII 137 Success, first VII 180 Temperance Labor, a requirement of Ameri- can HI 252 (See also drunkenness) Tenements Closet accommodation X 199 Cost of X 201 Definition of X 196 Fire protection for X 198 History X 197 Tenements— Continued. House rfguiution (Kolwrt W. Do Fon^it) X igj Law for regulation of X 104 Laws in U. ,S x 190 Limitation x 202 Need of X 200 Model X 194 Occupants in N. V.. nuinliorof X 108 Property rights and X 104 Rent from x 202 Sanitation and X 105 Size of X 202 Water supply of X 100 Tenuaut, John V. B., physician VII 407 Tennessee cruiser IX 303 Iron clad, structure of IX 330 Territories N. W Colonization, barretl from, ljy JMonroe II 1 67 Terror, (monitor) IX 293 Tesia, Nikola Karth currents. dLscovcrs VII 165 Plans of, for wireless plants VII 168 Transmission of electric energy without wires VII 163 Wireless electricity VII 168 Texas Annexation of II 279. IX 44 Hoist, Von, on II 218 Treaty of 1844 II 218 Cattle breeding, dominance of. In. . . V 182 Development and statistics of II 270 History, early II 277 Mexican war II 2X1 Republic declared II 278 Size of II 279 U. S. S IX 2u:J-4-5 ( See also war. Mexican) Textile fabrics Dilliculties, early, in America VII 270 Horsepower in. mills VII 214 Production. American and world's compared HI 2 Trusts controlling, statistics of III 164 (See also special fabric names)... Thayer school VII 302 Tlieaters American, (Otis Skinner) I 307 Original I 308 Booth, Kdwin I 312. 314 Cushman. Charlotte I 300 Daly's work I 312 Drews, the I 315 Foreign methods, study of I 307 Players m U. S I 307-8 Forrest. Edwin I 311 James .\. Heme I •''H Joseph Ji'lferson I 314 Players, early American I 309. 310 404 GENERAL INDEX Theaters — Continued. Union Square I 310 Rise of the American stage I 317 Thorne. C. R I 310 Thimmonier, Bartlielemy Inventor of sewing machine VII 341 Thomas, A. L American advertising I 387 Thomas, Leroy Commercial floriculture V 363 Thomson, Elihu, electrician VII 133 Thomsonite VI 334 Thoreau. Henry D I 359 Thunder (see weather) Thurston, Robert H Business principles in the con- duct of industries Ill 311 Tobacco (John H. Garber) V 277 Acreage, percentage to general V 280 Value V 280 Cigar production and consump- tion in U. S V 282 Cigarette statistics V 283-4 Commercial importance of, early IV 71 Crops, first American V 21 Cuban II 307 Cultivated first by Europeans V 278 England, growth forbidden in IV 72 Enumeration, effect of, on IV 73 Exports V 32 First V 279 Georgia, early cultivation in V 19 History, early V 277-8 Integration of, industry V 286 Manufacture, extent of, and methods V 281 Of chewing, and smoking, and snuff V 284 Machinery V 283 Porto Rican II 299 Production, American, 1900 V 280 Area and V 6 By states V 280 Cost of v.. 285 Early V 279 New England V 280 Increase of V 31 Seed V 319 Snuff V 285 Tariff, and V 282 Trust, the Ill 72 Trusts and Ill 72 Tolman, W. H The social engineer VIII 319 Tonnage Isthmian canal, increase of, and IV 195 Isthmian canal, possible, of IV 193 Toimage — Continued. Suez canal's IV 196 (See also commerce, trade, great lakes, shipbuilding) Tools VIII 360 Foreign estimate of American. . . .IV 56 (Sec also machinery) Topaz VI 329, 330 (See also corundum) Tornadoes (see weather, relief) Torpedo boats (J. D. J. Kelley) IX 317 Destroyers IX 318 Firing torpedoes IX 321 Improving. IX 323 Statistics IX 319 Types of IX 318 Whitehead to IX 321 Tourmaline Mining of VI 332 Townsend, George Alfred Early American financiers Ill 401 Trachoma Immigrants afflicted with X 121 Table of X 123 Traction (see railroads and subheads) Trade Agricultiure, American, and IV 103 American, and commerce, (Victor H. Metcalf) IV 1 Difficulties in IV 12 Of early IV 89 Ancient times, in IV 266 And railroads IV 266 Asia and Oceania IV S-6 As American fly wheel IV 114 Atlantic IV 21 Australia, British and American with IV 9 Beginning of American manu- factures and IV 99 Of foreign (Worthy P. Steams). ..IV 89 British and South America IV 7 Dependence on America IV 114 With South America IV 8 Canal and river traffic, statistics of American IV 239 Capital, first large use of for- eign IV 105 China and Japan, British and American with IV 8-9 China, American dependence on in cotton IV 115 Opened by PhUippine conquest. . II 200 Chinese, importance of IV 203 Consular service, value of IV 117 Cotton, American foreign, in IV 13 In Cuba and Philippines IV 13-14 Cuba as gate to Latin IV 63 Debts, our foreign IV 48 Diplomacy, American, ia Orient. .II 170 GENERAL INDEX 405 Trade — Continuetl. Eaiitern states, aud IV 97 Elevators, modern jrrain IV 103 Europe as a buyer in America. . . .IV 42 European, dellficncies of IV 22 Export of manufactures for 1904 IV 112 Permanency of U. S IV 110 Slow growlij of American IV 10 Exports and imports 1820-UO IV 105 Extension of our domestic and foreign, (G. B. Cortelyou) IV 514 Farmers, in U. S., dilliculties of early IV 94-5 Food shipper, U. S. as IV 93 For 1S20-30, balance of IV 107 Foreigner uses, what the IV 204 France with South America IV 8 Fur, early American IV 70 Harbors, American IV 21 How best promoted IV 117 History, early, U. S IV 89 Imports in 1S20, decrease of IV 91 In 1904 IV 13 Increase of Ill 478 From 1821 IV 104 Increasing complexity of IV 115 Intricacies of American IV 104 Istlvmian canal and IV 182 Lakes, annual, of great IV 148 Of the great IV 30 Locomotives, foreign, in IV 385 Machinery, American, in Eu- rope IV 113 Maintenance of IV 113 3Ianufacturing plants, distribu- tion of, in 1820 IV 100 Markets, accessibility of IV 111 Merchant marine, eammgs of, in 1820 IV 105 Navy, need of IV 16 Metals, foreign, in precious, for 1820-30 IV 107 National policy. neeanilMiatlnt(. i-arly Kuljtf Tariff legLslutioM. IkmIiIc, of 1815 IS I'ion»'«'rs of. and IV Tonnage. .\nieriign IV TraiLsportation, early American.. IV .\iid pioiHfring IV Wheat exixjrts. .\mprlcan IV World, uniting the IV (See also ek-vaiors, Indastry t . Trade, boards of Farmers, influence on V Tnnles Unions Alien lalxjr in packing VIII American federation of labor. (S. Gompers) VIII Americanizing force of VIII An influence for industrial jjoaco. (J. Duncan) VIII Arbitration, compuLsory, and... VI 1 1 ( )piM)St>or. VIII Chinese and VIII Civilization, products of VIII Closeil shops VIII 2 Combinaticm. a law VIII Conspiracy and VIII Decisions V ! 1 1 '2 Contracts, closed shop VIII LalH'l VIII Nature of . . .VIII Sanctity of. . . VIII Deflnition of opt>n shop. VIII Differentiation of VIII Effect of. agreement*! VIII Evolution, and VIII Fe:tti Tropics American jjroduction in I\' M ( See races ) Trowhridge. William F Shoe manufacturer \ 1 1 o.'.l Trusts CJ. AV. Folk) X 308 (Peter S. Grosscup) Ill 77 (Arthur T. Hadley) Ill 111 Halle, von. on Ill 124 John A. Iloljson. on Ill 49 Willoughby. W. F, on Ill 63 Trust companies Admiration for. American Ill 59 Alarm over, American Ill 60 And prices. (I. A. llourwich) Ill 11j Progress. ( \V. R. Lawson) Ill 377 Anti-triistlaw. inefhciency of Ill '20H Limitation of Ill 207 Arguments, general, against Ill 160 For. Ill 159 Banking, concentration of. in U. S.. (C. J. Bullock) Ill 411 Banks and Ill 434. 44s Bargains, do not dictate Ill I2S Burglary and Ill 435 Buy cheaply Ill 145 Capital in Ill 440 Invested Ill 103 Statistics of Ill 166 Capitalization of Ill 97 Caniegie company's power Ill 09 Causes of growth of Ill 52 Causes* of HI 105 Cement and clay Ill 104 Census, plan of taking, of Ill 161 Cheap lalx)r annK .ViiiPiii-an II An ,,,,,..-.,,1,1.. r,..„„:, III f..r III I ' Mil Kviln i III Whbiky. nut ihir tor In Ml Dynamite. Kuroi>ean II Karly history of HI Economirti of. . . .Ill In ailvertLiing and aolirliinic HI Economist*. American, and 111 Economy of. and mvention III Ely's view HI Employee*. Stat tat Ifsi of . HI Engiiuvrs. hclpc«l by HI Knten>ris<'- dami^'orr* of HI Evils, conspicuous, of. ..Ill Fai'lor system ..Ill Fat-tory system, gniwih of .Vnierlcan HI Favorite states for onrani/alton of HI Federal IncorpormtUm of IH Law. a gocxl HI aA7 141 I3S I3n 137 77H I la 1 .". I ."7 I I'l IM 311 907 3?2 '2 Hi 304 At •3 107 » H5 215 210 370 K7 IM \Zl IR9 204 4.M 131 .'.7 225 l.°M) 366 4i I2« 120 M 264 5H 107 •2AS 1. 1 1 2«k-'t ll« HO \M 227 22« 4o8 GENERAL INDEX Trust companies — Federal incor- poration of, Continued Objections to Ill --8 Financial change caused by Ill 81 Financier, the, and Ill 55 Fixed charges unaffected Ill 130-1 Flour monopoly IV 336 Food products, statistics of Ill 163 Foreign eyes, good in VIII 12 Trade, and IV 111 France, prohibited m II 354 Free trade no remedy II 357 Future, effects of Ill 74 Of, cloudy Ill 124 Questioned Ill 104 Germany in II 355 Good and bad of, (C. J. Bullock) .HI 121 Good in Ill 83 IV 267 Government control of IV 341 Interference, successful Ill 217 Ownership, impossible under. . . .IV 364 Grain monopoly, the IV 334-5 Great Britain, in II 352 356 Grosscup's definition of Ill 79 Remedy for Ill 89 Growth of Ill 434 History of, m U. S., early II 346 Illinois, largest Ill 438 In America, number of Ill 162 Incapable hands, in Ill 98 Incorporation of, first Ill 434 Increase of Ill 439 Independent concerns, rise of Ill 143 Individual advancement, would curtaU Ill 132 Industry Ill 431 Industrial commission, and Ill 105 Report of Ill 106 Competition, destructive Ill 108 Discriminations, unjust Ill 103 Forms taken by Ill 112 Growth, rapidity of Ill 106 Public control Ill 118 Tariff and Ill 115 In light of census, (W. R. Mer- riam) Ill 159 In U. S Ill 438 Investigating the, problem. (M. H. Robuason) Ill 102 Paid by steel Ill 163 Wages, influence on Ill 118 Interstate commerce, and Ill 206 Investigation of. (M. H. Robin- son Ill 102 Knox, on Ill 222 Law, and common Ill 218 How trusts dodge inter-state. ..Ill 225 Laws, need of Ill 217 Leather, statistics of Ill 164 Licensed, should be Ill 223 Lumber, statistics of HI 164 Trust companies — Continued. Machinery, aided by Ill 51 Manufacturing, legal Ill 208 Meat monopoly IV 336 Trust prosecution Ill 215 Menace to America Ill 50 Metal, statLstics of Ill 164 Miscellaneous, classed as Ill 164 Monopoly And classes. (J. B. Clark) VIII 127 Cannot establish Ill 134 Intolerable VIII 129 Losses of Ill 133 No advantage Ill 130 Not the object Ill 123 Power Ill 114 Predicted Ill 125 Private in U. S Ill 53 Safe Ill 139-40 ISIorgan, J. P., entrance of, in steel. Ill 67 Nation helpless Ill 210 Natural growth Ill 111 Nature of Ill 51 433 Necessaries of life and Ill 206 Non-protected Ill 366 Northern securities prosecution. ..Ill 216 Number of, in U. S Ill 437 Oil II 349 Price of, in eighteen cities Ill 155 Oils Ill 72 Overcapitalization, evil of Ill 205 Owners must be moral Ill 144 Of, benefactors Ill 86 Ownership Curtail popular Ill 88 New system of Ill 78 Public, only remedy Ill 142 Paper, statistics of Ill 164 Plants controlled, number of Ill 162 Popularly owned, will be Ill 79 Prevalence of, ultimate Ill 135 Progress and Ill 429 Policy, public, against Ill 58 Price table, Monnett's Ill 157 Prices, high natural Ill 13.7 Discrimination in HI 224 Fluctuations in oil Ill 150 Increase HI 114 Market unaffected by arbitrary .III 151 Mystery in oil HI 156 Of crude oil HI 145 Of foiu" staples and HI 154 Oil. below cost HI 149 Oil, for twenty years Ill 147 Oil, local discrimination in.. . .HI 153 OU. per barrel HI 148 Raised by HI 152 Speculation and oil HI 151 Pride for America IH 205 Product of, value HI 168 I'roduction, cause cheaper HI 127 GENERAL INDEX 409 Trust companies — ContinutHl. Production Economy of Ill 81 Total, of Ill 104 Products of prosont times Ill KO Profits, oil. rwlmed Ill 147 Property, statistics of Ill 160 Protection on trust ^oods Ill :102 Public supervision Ill 2J6 Publicity desirable HI '221 iNee2 Revolution, an industrial, bo- cause of Ill 82 Rights of capital, superintend- ence and labor Ill 9^ Rise and business of the Modern Trust Company (W. P. Gest) . .Ill 428 Roosevelt, on II 453 A check on. HI 382 First message on HI 204 Roseberj-. Lord, on American IV 55 Sherman act. II 350. Ill 82 Failure of HI 83 Law. eflicieucy of II 358 Organized since Ill 83 Socialism, at one with Ill 130 Only cure VIII 129 Socialist arguments accepted Ill 135 Speculative evils of HI 161 Standard oQ II 352 Policy Ill 150 State action ineffectual HI 222 States, question for the II 35.S The several, and HI 62. 210 Steel con.solidation. history of HI 65 Output, value of HI 163 Steel H 353 Steel. (C. S. Gleed) VI 157 Expansion of HI 69 Future of HI 71 Statistics of iron and HI 162-3 Total salar>- of HI 163 Trust, last phase of HI 68 Stock jobbing, a result of HI 132 Stock, value of fifty trusts HI 167 Stocks and bonds, statistics of... .Ill 165 Of. o\vned by the many HI 09 Sugar H 346 And tariff HI 371 Decision. Supreme court HI 208 Prosecution of IH 207 Tainted money and VIII 132 Trust i'(ini|innii'*i <'<>iitinuMi. Tariff, thf s !•;. l'»)im>. II ^^n Am aid lo. '('. |lr«ril»ley).. Ill Ml InvcntMii'iitii ruldi by III n7 No n*lalloii t-\ III 230 riiioi).s ui.d VIII m Tnwlnt imiiiiis. rauaoi by .VIII 121 I'. 8. not original In. II ."Ua V.liirl,.. Ktatistlciof Ill Ift4 \\ i.-.^. anri Ill K5 \'. - I ^< ■>- ' III IftH \ III 7(1 tion, Unit«d btalcB; . Tuljcrculoals Combatting X I'M Immigration and -'*^ '^l Jews, among X M Tucker. \V. J Consanguinity of Ubor uid edu- cation VIII 428 Tungsten Steel, for harrlenlng VI 190 Tunnels (sec railroads, underground) Turbine engines (C. C. Fitzmorris) VII 254 Advantages of VII 257 <'omprrsso5 Tidal and wave . VII ?5« Westinghouse. on ^" -'* Turkey American duty in Armenian massacres H 1 .19 Turquoise ^ ' ^^ Mining of. In U. 8 VI 337 Tutt. J. C Eminence of American army I-K 1«0 Twain. Mark (.See Clfinens. Samuel <' Twe<-«|. William 11 110 Twitt hell. Ames, aurgeon. VII 431 Typttictfore Marliiner>' and \ 1 1 1 369 Women In, unionx \ 1 1 1 384 TyiK>writers Beach's patents VII 3*6 Development of, (H. E li-rt-.nn VII 3«5 410 GENERAL INDEX Typewriters — Continued. Francis' patents VII 366 History, early VII 365 Inventors of, American VII 366 Uses of VII 368 Work of VII 370 Typewriting machines American, in Europe IV 57 Tides Motive power, as VII 258 Tilton. James, pliysician VII 407 Tin plate American wealtla, and VII 274 TarilT and II 246 ( See also iron) Titanium VI ISO u Unemployed, the, (see relief, poor) . . Union, American Wilson, Justice, opinion of, on II 64 Union, the Supreme court on II 75 Union Pacific railroad Military line Ill 371 Unions, labor (see trades unions) United nations Authorities of II 32 Bill of rights II 31 Modeled after U. S II 26 United States Agreements of, other than treaties, (C. C. Hyde) II 216 Agriculture IV 31 Alliances, foreign, possible II 141 Asiatic empire, an II 136 As a world power, (Simeon E. Baldwm) II 196 Birth as a nation II 158 Borrower, not a Ill 392 Climate of, causes of IV 25 Constitution, as planned by II 78 Held indivisible by II 75 Cuba and II 127 Expansion, territorial, of, (O. P. Austin) II 265 Foreign relations, growth of II 198 French proposed alliance in 1793 II 159 Great Britain's foreign policy, and II 137 Hague, commission to II 209 Isolation of, before Spanish war. . ..II 124 Mountauis of IV 26 Obstacles of. to world union II 30 Organization of, under consti- tution II 61 Peace, drawbacks to, in govern- ment of II 201 United States — Continued. PhUippine islands, duty of, to II 128 Powers, growth of president's II 221 Primacy of, on American con- tinents II 138 Producer, leads world as a IV 35-0 Races, blending of, in I 1 Ramfall of IV 26 Representation, and constitu- tion of II 49 First to accept full II 36 Representatives, shalien by ap- portionment of II 41 Resources, natural, of IV 18 Rivers of IV 28 Steel corporation (see steel cor- poration. United States) Supremacy of, in production and communication IV 37 Topography of IV 24 Town sites of IV 29 Treaties, as party to II 208 Wilson, Justice, opinion of, on union II 64 World power, evolution into a II 127 Universities American, (E. H. Warfield) I 186 Foundations, early I 187 Ideals, (E. G. Hirsch) I 197 Traditions, influence of I 198 Caste, breeders of I 240 Development of buildings I 191 Elective systems of I 193 Environment I 228 Expansion of Harvard and Yale I 190 Princeton, Pennsylvania and Columbia I 190 Extension I 195 Needs of I 205 Foreign influence, freedom of, from I 200 Free education and I 189 Future of, in U. S I 200 German influence on I 188 Growth of I 186 Home, influence on I 226 Idea, the I 177 Industry, and Ill 319 Migration of students I 178 Museums, deficient in I 200 Originality of American I 197 Popvilarizing knowledge by I 204 Practical needs, fill I 192 Professional schools and ... I 176, 189. 194 Relations of, general I 199 Research eencouraged I 191 In American I 202 Roman Catholic, (J. F. Mul- laney) I 207 Scholarship, American, and I 200 Scientific development of I 191 GENERAL INDEX 411 UniversitiPs — Continued. Social aspirations and I igg Question and I 200 Specialization in teaching I 103 State, anti-Christian I 179 State, vs. small colle(,'o I 17H Types, early, in U. S I 1 80 Various American I IU7 Training for business men, (S. N. ratten) I 21.S Virginia, of, curriculum of VII L'US Weakness of .\merican I I'Jti Working classes, not sought by I 245 (See also architecture, collegers, e- formed II 285 Utahite VI 337 Utopia Lawyers in II 05 V Vail, Alfred Inventor of telegraph VII 119 Merits of VII 123 Various devices of VII 120 (See also telegraplis) Vail, Stephen Telegraph line, first IV 406 Telegraphs, early, days of the first IV 460 Van (for all Dutch names beginning with Van see the patronymics; Vanadhmi ^ ^ l*^' Vandergrift and Foreman (see Stand- ard oil) Vanderlip, Frank A The indvLstrial and financial future of U. S I" 475 Varley. Cromwell Inventor of telephone VII 1 75 Vegetables Area and production V 7 Vehicle* HtatlHttdt of, trujitn Ill M4 Venetian n-*l . . \ 1 :i.'l Vone/ui'tu lU.H :..,.|, i,r..;...MH|, ut. lor di'l.l II me I'.'ill!. 1 I.-: ,||.,|, ,t,. II IH3 1..1W;, i„ 111. .luit»ul«. . . n : ..% \ iTMllllon , Viwuvlns. I'. 8, S . M Veto. Ilmitatiun of. . . , II 79 \icksburg Kuiileof IX 54 ."5 <'nii.>i*T IX Ml (S« . .. Virginia Colonies. dvclarmtioD of fresdom of II OnLstT 302 Lawyers forbidden fiiT. II 05 Settlenu'nt of wwt«ni ill 12 L'niversity of (see Uaivvrkily 0/ Virginia) VIzcaya, the .Spanish war. in. . IX 20 Volta VII Von (for all namcM lK>einninR with von see the patronynuoi Vosl)erg-nekow, I)r Manufactures. Amerir:.t; IV 58 vv Wages American, highe:>t ... . kill 2iU Workmen's VIII II Rank dcpo6it« of Ill UA Bisisof VIII 277 Caaso of liigh. in U. 8.. (A. M. Ix)w) VIII 2fl2 Cheap laltor not best . .VIII 20o Competition and VIII 260-70 Conilitions of .ser\lce VIII 2*0 '..on.solidation of. capital, and Ill 00 Contract system VIII 2H3 Hasis of VIII 2XS Otijertioiw to VIII 2H5 Co-oiK«ration VIII aas Co-oi>erative conccnw VIII 3 II System VIII 2W Cost of living and VIII 263 Deficiencies of. system VIII .307 Dolge's scheme VIII 202 Kducatij)n ne<»'le«l VIII 2H'J Employe's. atnenili Washington, city of Best governed city on con- tinent ... 11 119 Washington, state Cruiser. .IX 303 414 GENERAL INDEX Washington, state — Continued. Industries of Ill 366 Railroads, helped by IV 212 Territory formed II 286 Washington and Lee university VII 303 Watches ( W. A. Countryman) VII 351 Cheap watches VII 360 Cheapness of American VII 352 Dennison's, A. L., work VII 354 History, early VII 350 Imports and exports VII 362 Improvement in manufacture of VII 356 Logan liair springs VII 358 Machine made, superiority of. . . .VII 352 Making a watch VII 358 Nashua industry VII 356 Plant in U. S., first VII 353 Progress of invention in VII 356 Revolution in, making, (W. A. Coimtryman) VII 351 Swiss, origin of VII 351 Tariff II 343 Water Power, as VII 217 Tenement houses and X 199 (See also power, motive) Water power In falls Ill 348 New England Ill 349 Waters, Theodore Weather bureau, work of VII 390 Watkins, J. L., future demand for cotton V 135 Watson, John, surgeon VII 432 Waves Motor power, as VII 258 Way, Nicholas, physician VII 407 Wayne, Anthony, soldier IX 3 Wealth American, ( W. C. Dodge) VII 269 Cotton gin, effect of VII 272 Gain in American, annual VII 272 Weapons (see guns) Weather bureau (T. Waters) V 390 Charts VII 396 Forecasting VII 393 Lightning, statistics of . . VII 399 Recording the weather VII 391 Storms VII 397 Avoiding VII 400 Tornado statistics VII 397 Work of. (Theodore Waters) VII 390 Weavers Conditions of VIII 18 Webb, William H.. shipbuilder IX 327 Webster, Ambrose, inventor VII 356 Webster, Daniel Capital in U. S.. estimate of foreign Ill 33 Dartmouth college case II 102 Education I 86, 96 Hamilton, A Ill 402 Weights and measm-es U. S., in VII 46 Wells, Horace VII 42 Wells, H., dentist VII 427 Laughing gas, applied VII 415 West, the Agricultural resources of VI 222 California, industries of Ill 366 Capital in, early demand for Ill 23 Early Eastern Ill 25 Commerce and industries of, (L. M. Shaw) Ill 363 Commercial, early Ill 16 Definition of Ill 363 Farm areas in Ill 364 Food products of Ill 365 Future of Ill 368 Gold resources of VI 215 Industrial growth of early Ill 19 Industries of Colorado and Montana Ill 367 Of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota Ill 367 Of Washington state Ill 366 Irrigation of V 344 Manufactures of Ill 367 Opening of, first Ill 11 General effect of Ill 23 Packing in Ill 366 Population, increeise of Ill 364 Railroad for, ideal VI 223 Reclamation of, (F. H. Newell) ... .V 343 Washington state, industries of.... Ill 366 (See also commerce, industry, trade) West Indies Cotton growing, early V 140 Indigenous to V 107 Early naval weir, in IX 405 Strategic value of IX 403 Strategic value of, Mahan, A. T., on IX 406 Tropic agriculture and VII 44 West Point (C. W. Larned) IX 167 Aims of IX 177 Barbarism of IX 181 Candidates for IX 178 Centennial of IX 170 Character, maker of IX 179 Of the West Pointer IX 169 Civil war IX 174 Curriculum of IX 182 Graduates, fate of IX 175 In war IX 173 GENERAL INDEX 415 West Point — Graduates, Continuwl. Occupations t)f IX 171 Money spent on IX 172 Raison d'etre of military schools.. IX 107 Scientific center, as early VII 57 Spanish war IX 170 Technical education at VII 287. 2'JO (See also military academy, war, army, guard, national) West Virginia Admitted Ill 373 Battleship IX 302 V7estern, Lucille I 309 "Westinghouse, George Brake, invented IV 392 Turbine engines VII 254 (See also railway cars) Weston, Edward, electrician VII 138 Wadsworth, John, physician VII 403 Wheat American, lands IV 31 Area and production V 5 Best, gi-own in U. S V 147 Commerce, world's, inlluence on. . .V 158 Corners in V 160 Crop moving, effects of V 152 First American V 21 Crops, relative value of V 13 World's V 147 Duluth, shipments at V 157 Elevator system, Mmneapolis V 152 Elevators V 151 Work of V 154 European trade in IV 40 Exports V 31 Farm laborers, character of V 160 Grain elevators description of ... .IV 163 Leiter deal V 1 56 McCormick, industry '.s debt to V 1 49 Machinery in, growing V 150 Retiuirements in V 150 Marketing of, a science V 151 Minneapolis, receipt of. in V 153 Minnesota, priority of V 148 Northwest, pioneer growers In V 148 Vast farms of V 148 Pit, (W. R. Lawson) Ill 377 Preparing and planting V 149 Prices, range of V 103 Production V 30 Railroads, builds V 152 Russia second in production V 147 Sold on farms V 154 Speculation in V 155 Tlirashing V 151 The mighty river of, (Rollin E. Smith) V 147 Wheaton. Henr>- Isthmian canal 11 232 Wheatstone system (see telegraphs).. hcclor. Cyrenu* Cutter of . . . . Reaper of . . liwiUnK. cruiiRT hftstoncH (MMi abmsivc niktcrlaljii hippie. Abrahnin. . Naval olllccr. hippie, Wllliuiii hl.sk y. .\dulterate' in U. S....II1 ilkinson, James, .soldier IX ilson, Supremo Justice II Union, opinion on the 11 ilson, Allen B Sewing machine. Inventor of VII ilhon. Henry Naval war college IX ilson. James. .Vmeriran farnuT of to-r Wynn«'. Tliomujt, pliyHlrian Wyoiiiint; TiTrii«jn{c« CulonU'K. iiurt of. In frcclnB. . IX 74 II 2H0 .IV 457 VII 401 ii l.> Yale university E.xpanslon of I 1 00 Sheineld bchool VII 310 Yeast Government experimcnU VII 4 « Yellow fever Relief for Cuba H 304 Yorktown Siege of IX 21 U. S. gimboat IX 2M* YudeLson. Sophie Woman '.s place In labor VIII 375 j Young, M<-Clintock Patentsof V 8« Zenger, Peter. .. Famous lll)el ca.»;e <>t II 98 Zinc Development of, mines VI 2S1 History of, in r. S VI 277 Lead and. ore, (I. A. Hourwich) .VI 273 Mining and handling of VI 279 Zoology American. .VII