^^SSS^^^^^S!^?P'S''"!W''"WP"W"'"'"P"""" S^^'^'^^^^^M^V^Sv^^ THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES m-ii fl STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM GEOGRAPHY AND TRAA^EL (NEW ISSUE) SULTAN OF SULU, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. (Malay Type.) Frontispiece. STAXFOED'S COMPENDIUM or GEOGEAPHY AND TEAVEL (XE^y ISSUE) AUSTEALASIA VOL II. MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES EDITED AND GREATLY EXTENDED FROM DR. A. R. WALLACE'S " AUSTRALASL\ " F. H. H. GUILLEMAED, .ALA., M.D., Cantab. LATE LECTURER IN OEOGKAPHY AT THE UMIVERSITV OF CAMBRIDGE AUTHOR OF 'the cruise of the JIAJtCHSSA,' 'LIFE OF MAGELLAN,' ETC. MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS LONDON: EDAVAED STANFOED 26 & 27 COCKSPIJR STREET, CHARING CROSS, S.W. 1894 DU &1H PEEFACE The present volume — an enlargement of that part of Dr. A. E. Wallace's " Australasia '"' of the former series which deals with the great Malay islands and the numberless archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean — has been almost entirely re-written, and expanded to nearly twice the number of pages previously allotted to the section. The aim has been to present as comprehensive a view as possible of the regions described, and also to give the latest information obtainable. The history of the islands has been touched upon, fuller details and statistics of their trade afforded, and, lastly, a short sketch of the two capitals, Batavia and Manila, and of the life and manners of their inhabitants, has been added. As the volumes are intended for separate sale, the Introduction — which is even more needed for this than for the first volume — has, with a few slight alterations, been retained. Thanks are due to Mr. J. J. Lister of St. John's 727652 VllI COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL College, Cambridge, for the kind loan of various Poly- nesian photographs ; to the Hon. Walter Eothschild for permission to reproduce Mr. Frohawk's sketch of the Proechidna ; to Professor A. H. Keane and Mr. H. 0. Forbes for photographs of Negrito and Papuan types ; and to Mr. John Murray and Messrs. Macmillan and Co. for permission to use blocks borrowed from works published by them. CONTENTS CHAPTER I Introduction PAGE Definition and nomenclature — Extent and distribution of lands and islands — Geographical and physical features — Ocean depths — Races of mankind — Zoology and botany — Geological relations and past history — Geographical divisions . . . .1 MALAYSIA CHAPTER n General Features Geographical outline — Physical features ; volcanoes — The Malay race and language . . . . • ■ .13 CHAPTER HI The Philippine Islands General features — History — Geology — Climate, typhoons, earthquakes — Fauna and flora — Negritos, Malay tribes — Religion and education — Agriculture, trade, and commerce — Government and revenue — Population, provinces — The capital — Liizon — Mindoro — Panay — Negros — Zebu— Samar — Leyte — Bohol — Masbate — Mindanao — Sulu Islands — Calamianes — Palawan . . . .27 X COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL CHAPTEE IV The Dutch East Indies PAGE Extent and importance — Dutch policy and its effects on the native populations — Sj-stem of government of Netherlands India . 97 CHAPTER V Java General features — History — Volcanoes, geology — Climate and meteor- ology— Flora and fauna^Inhabitants and language — Religion and education — Antiquities — Trade and agriculture — Govern- ment : revenue — Population, provinces, and towns — The capital 101 CHAPTER VI Sumatra General features^History — Geology and orography — Eruption of Krakatau — Plains, valle^^s, lakes, and rivers — Climate and meteor- ology— Fauna and flora — Inhabitants and language — The delta and other islands — Bangka — Blitong — Religion and antiquities — Products, trade, and agriculture — Population and political divi- sions— Chief toM'ns ...... 154 CHAPTER VII Borneo General features — History— Geology and jDhysical features — Climate — Fauna and flora — Native races — Agriculture and products — P.ritish North Borneo — Labuan — Brunei — Sarawak — Dutch Borneo . . . . . . . .213 CONTENTS XI CHAPTER yill Celebes PAGE General features — History — Physical features — Climate — Fauna and flora — Native races — The Makassar district — The Menado Resi- dency— Trade and products — Islands .... 275 CHAPTER IX The Moluccas General description— Geology and natural history — Inhabitants — History and political divisions — Halmahera — Ternate— Tidor and the Lesser Moluccas — Buru — Ceram — Anihoina — Banda — Islands east of Ceram — The Ke group ..... 306 CHAPTER X The Lesser Sunda Islands General description — Bali — Lombok — Sumbawa — Flores — Solor and Allor groups — Wetta and tlie Serwatti grouyi — Timor Laut — Timor — Savu — Sumba ...... 345 MELANESIA CHAPTER XI New Guinea General description — Physical features — History — Geology — Climate — Flora and fauna — ^The Papuan race — Mission work in the island — Dutch New Guinea — German New Guinea — British New Guinea — The Papuan Islands ..... 376 CHAPTER XII Other Melanesiax Islands The Solomon Islands — Santa Cruz gi'oup — The New Hebrides — New Caledonia — The Loyalty Islands ..... 442 .\11 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL CHAPTER XIII The Fiji Islands PAGE General features — History — Geology and climate — Fauna and flora — Inhabitants — Religion and education — Agriculture and trade — Government : revenue — Population .... 467 POLYNESIA CHAPTER XIV The Friendly and other Islands Extent and component groups — The Polynesian race — The Tonga or Friendly Islands — Samoa — Nine or Savage Island — The Union group — Ellice Islands — Hervey Islands — Society Islands — Austral Islands — Paumotu, or Low Archipelago — Gambler group — Pitcairn — The Marquesas — Manahiki or Penrhyn group — Phoenix Islands — America Islands — Easter Island — The Sand- wich Islands or Hawaii . . . . . . 487 MIKEONESIA CHAPTER XV The Mikronesian Archipelagoes General description — Gilbert or Kingsmill group — Marshall Islands — Caroline Islands — -Pelew Islands — Ladrone or Marianne Islands . 542 LIST OF MAPS 1. A Cliart of Australasia 2. Chart of Submarine Bank of S.E. Asia 3. The Volcanic System of JIalaysia 4. Philippine Islands 5. Settlements in Malaysia 6. Java 7. Sumatra 8. Chart of Effects of Krakatau Eruptior 9. Borneo 10. Celebes 11. Moluccas 12. Lesser Sunda Islands 13. New Guinea . 14. The Solomon Islands 15. Fiji . 16. The Pacific Islands / ace page 1 ,, 6 , 13 , 27 97 , 101 , , 155 , 166 , , 213 , , 275 , 307 , 345 ,' : 377 :l : 443 ?r : 467 , 487 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS PAGE 1. Sultan of Sulu . ..... Front Ispiece 2. A Negrito of Luzon 48 3. Manila Hemp (Musa tcxtilis) . 57 4. Hut at Maimbun, Sulu Island 91 5. Native House, Java 123 6. Temple of Boio-bodor, Java . 133 7. Street in European Quarter, Batavia . 147 8. Residence of Governor-General, Buitenzorg 150 9. Rafflesia Arnoldii 178 10. Palace of a Sumatran Prince . 207 11. Dyak Village .... 236 12. Sandakan .... 251 13. Brunei ..... 258 H. Kuching, Sarawak 267 15. Mt. Klabat, from Kema Bay . 279 16. The Anoa {Anoa depressicornis) 284 17. The Babirusa {Sus bahirusa) . 286 18. House of Raja of Goa, S. Celebes 290 19. Menado, N. Celebes .... 296 20. Moluccan Cuscus (C ornatus) . 310 21. Wallace's Bird of Paradise 312 XVI COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TliAVEL 22. Coco-nut Grove, Ternate 23. Peak of Tidor from Ternate 24. Banda Volcano 25. Fruit of the jSTutmeg . 26. Royal Palace, Bali 27. Sultan of Bima, Sumbawa 28. Spiny Ant-eater (Proechidna) . 29. Bower of Amblyornis . 30. A Papuan of Dutch New Guinea 31. A Papuan of Dorei Bay 32. Korowaar 33. Native of Heath Island 34. View in "Waigiu Island 35. Papuan House, Dorei Bay 30. Natives of New Caledonia 37. New Caledonian Flute-player . 38. Suva Harbour, Fiji 39. A Native of Fiji 40. A Native of Tonga Islands 41. Tongan "Woman 42. Trilitlion at 'Sla.ni, Tonga Islands 43. Didunculus 44. View in Tahiti 45. Peak of ]\lourea. Society Islands 46. Ancient Stone Images, Easter Island 47. Head of Heniignathus . MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES CHAPTER I IXTEODUCTION 1. Definition and Nomenclature. The vast region which stretches half-way across the Pacific from the south-eastern extremity of Asia, com- prising within its boundaries the richest and largest islands in the world, has from time to time received various appellations : Australasia, the Eastern Archi- pelago, Oceania, etc. None of these, however, are par- ticularly satisfactory, for none are inclusive. But apart from the fact that some such inclusive name might conveniently serve for a title-page, there is little need to attempt to supply the deficiency. For the innumerable islands which come under our notice in the following pages by no means form a geographical unit, but exhibit many diversified characteristics, and have been divided into various groups, sometimes rather artificially perhaps, B 2 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL but on the whole fairly accurately. Thus, to the west we have the great islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java with strongly marked Asiatic affinities ; Celebes, occupy- ing a central position and exhibiting a fauna so peculiar as to justify separate consideration ; the Lesser Sunda Islands, New Guinea, Melanesia, and Australia ; the numerous lesser archipelagoes of the Pacific ; and, finally, New Zealand, a country so different from every other in its fauna, that of late many naturalists have considered that it should form a separate zoological region. Although, as just intimated, there are many reasons why Australia should not be treated apart from New Guinea, the rapid spread of civilisation in the former continent, and its situation to so large an extent within the temperate zone, have more or less differentiated it. Accordingly, since it has been found necessary to divide the " Australasia " of the present series into two volumes, the following pages will deal only with the tropical por- tion of the Eastern Archipelago, leaving Australia and New Zealand for treatment in a separate volume. The region which we shall now consider may be taken to consist of four divisions, each of which has a distinctive name. These are, — (1) The Malay Archipelago or Malaysia, including the islands from Sumatra to the Philippines and Moluccas, and forming the home of the true Malay race; (2) Melanesia, including the chief islands inhabited by the black, frizzly-haired race from New Guinea to the Fiji Islands; (3) Polynesia, includ- ing all the larger islands of the central Pacific from the Sandwich Islands southward ; and (4) Micronesia, in- cluding the smaller western islands of the North Pacific, inhabited by people of mixed origin. T^ese will be further subdivided as occasion requires, and will be taken in the order above indicated. MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES 2. Extent and Distribution of Lands and Islands. That portion of the equator stretching from Singa- pore across the Pacific to Guayaquil occupies ahnost exactly 180" of longitude, or half the circumference of the globe, and throughout almost the whole of this vast distance it traverses blue water. This boundless watery domain, which extends northward to Bering Straits, and southward to the Antarctic barrier of ice, is studded with many island groups, which are, nevertheless, very irregu- larly distributed over its surface. Its northern portion is almost unbroken ocean. Between latitude 30° N. and 30° S., reefs, islets, and groups of coral formation abound, and towards the southern limit of this belt larger islands appear. To the west and south are the great islands of the Malay Archipelago and Australia. In the central Pacific, islands almost wholly cease at the 30th parallel of south latitude. Again, in its eastern part, scarcely a single island is to be found until a few occur near the American coast. It thus appears that all the greater land masses of Australasia form an obvious southern and south-eastern extension of the great Asiatic continent, while beyond, the islands rapidly diminish in size and number till, in the far east and north, we reach a vast expanse of unbroken ocean. In actual land area this division of the globe is not much larger than Europe, but if we take into account the amount of space it occupies upon the globe, and the position of its extreme points, it at once rises to the first rank, surpassing even the vast extent of the Asiatic continent. From the north-western extremity of Suma- tra, in 95° E. long., to the Marquesas in 138° Wi, is a distance of 127 degrees, or more than one-third of the 4 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL circumference of the globe, and about 1000 miles longer than the greatest extent of Europe and Asia from Lisbon to Singapore. In a north and south direction it is less extensive; yet, from the Sandwich Islands in 22° IST. to Stewart Island, New Zealand, in 47° S., is a meridian distance of 69 degrees, or as much as the width of the great northern continent from the Xorth Cape to Ceylon. From the usual custom of representing the Eastern Archipelago within the limits of a single map, its vast size and extent are generally lost sight of. 3. Geographical and Physical Features. Within the limits above described are some of the most interesting countries of the world. Beginning at the west, w^e have the Malay Archipelago, comprising the largest islands on the globe, and unsurpassed for the luxuriance of its vegetation as well as for the variety and beauty of its forms of animal life. Farther to the east lie the countless islands of the Pacific, remarkable for their numbers and their beauty, and interesting from their association with the names of many of our greatest navigators. To the south is Australia, unique in its physical features ; and still farther in the Southern Ocean lies New Zealand, almost the antipodes of Great Britain, but possessing a milder climate and a more varied surface. Being thus almost wholly comprised between the northern tropic and the 40th degree of south latitude, this division of the globe possesses as tropical a character as Africa, while, owing to its being so completely oceanic and extending over so vast an area, it presents diversities of physical features and of organic life not to be found MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES 5 in any of the other divisions of the globe, except, per- haps, Asia. The most striking contrasts of geological structure are exhibited by the coral islands of the Pacific, the active volcanoes of the Malay islands, and the ex- tremely ancient rocks of New Zealand and Tasmania, The most opposite aspects of vegetation are presented by the luxuriant forests of the Moluccas and New Guinea, and the parched ground and thorny thickets of the Eastern Sunda Islands. Where the land surface is so much broken up into islands, we cannot expect to find any of the more promi- nent geographical features which characterise large con- tinents, and hence there are nowhere great lakes or rivers of large size. Mountains are numerous, but are for the most part volcanic, and are much higher in the islands than on the continent of Australia. In such remote localities as Sumatra, Borneo, the Sandwich Islands, and New Zealand, there are mountains which do not fall far short of 14,000 feet. Of the snow-covered Charles Louis range in Dutch New Guinea we have as yet no very trustworthy information, but there is little doubt that its peaks attain a very much greater eleva- tion. 4. Ocean Depths The land and water of the earth's surface is so un- equally distributed that it is possible to divide the globe into two equal parts, in one of which — the land hemi- sphere—land and water shall be almost exactly equal, while in the other— the water hemisphere — there shall be nearly eight times as much water as land. The centre of the former is in St. George's Channel, and of the latter at a spot some 600 miles S.S.E. of New Zealand. 6 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Australasia is therefore situated wholly within the water hemisphere, and many of its islands are surrounded hy an ocean which is not only the most extensive, but the deepest in the world. The Pacific Ocean is deepest north of the equator, where soundings of from 15,000 to 18,000 feet have been obtained over extensive areas, showing the existence of an enormous basin between Japan and San Francisco. Between the Philippines and the Ladrones a depth of nearly 27,000 feet has been obtained, and close to Japan as much as 23,400. But both these have been exceeded at a spot a little to the south of Simusir Island in the Kurile chain, where a depth of 27,930 feet, or about 5^ miles, was found — the greatest as yet recorded. In the South Pacific the depths appear to vary between 10,000 and 17,000 feet; but here, too, the deepest soundings have for the most part been obtained near the larger land masses, as between Sydney and ISTew Zealand (15,600 feet) and a little south-east of New Guinea (14,700), though very deep basins of small extent are found else- where. Such, for instance, are shown by the soundings of 19,866 feet near the Phoenix group, and 17,389 feet between the Tonga and Hervey Islands. A comparatively shallow sea extends round the coasts of Australia, which gradually deepens, till at a distance of from 300 to 500 miles on the east, south, and west, the oceanic depth of 1 5,0 0 0 feet is attained. The sea which separates Australia from New Guinea is very shallow, hardly exceeding eight or nine fathoms in depth. The Banda, Celebes, and Sulu Seas are all deep basins, affording maximum depths of 16,202, 15,600, and 15,298 feet respectively, and another such basin occurs in the China Sea a little west of Luzon, where soundings of 14,108 feet have been recorded. In the western portion of the region we are MALAYSIA A^^D THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES 7 considering, the sea shallows aln-uptlv, so that Borneo, Java, and Sumatra are connected with each other and ^taii/ord's Gcj^iJ^sla.b'. Ltmdoit. SUBMARINE BANK OF S.E. ASIA. with the Malay and Siamese peninsulas by a sulimarine bank rarely submero-ed more than 200 or 300 feet. 8 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL 5. Races of Mankind. In the variety of human races it exhibits, and the interesting problems which these present to the anthro- pologist, the Eastern Archipelago is hardly surpassed by the great continental divisions of the globe. Concerning the number of distinct races found within its boundaries there are still discrepancies of opinion. For the sake of convenience they may be divided into the two groups of brown and dark, the former including the true Malays, the Indonesians or Pre-Malays, and the allied race of Eastern Polynesians, and the latter the Papuans, the Australians, and the ISTegritos. The true Malays (see frontispiece), and the Indo- nesians who were the earlier settlers of these lands, inhabit all the western part of the Malay Archipelago from Sumatra to the Moluccas. To the eastward of the latter group are the Papuans, whose headquarters are New Guinea, but who range to Timor and Flores on the south- west, and to the Fiji Islands on the east (see illustrations pp. 399, 420). The Australians form a race admitted by most authorities to be distinct. The islands of Eastern Polynesia are for the most part inhabited by a brown people, who have been usually classed with the Malays on account of some similarity of language and colour, and erroneously termed Malayo-Polynesians. They present, however, so many and important differences, both physical and mental, from the true Malays, that the best authorities are agreed in considering them to be altogether distinct. Finally, we have the dark, dwarf, curly-haired Negritos, confined, so far as is known, to the four or five largest islands of the Philippines,^ and probably allied to the 1 The Karons of N. W. New Guinea are also considered hj some \vriters to be of Negrito stock. MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC AKCHIPELAGOES 9 Semangs of the Malay peninsula and the inhabitants of the Andamans (see illustration p. 48). The distinction that has been drawn between the Papuans proper and a special Melanesian type seems to rest upon insufficient grounds, and is not admitted by those most qualified to judge. The dark, frizzly-haired Papuan type is not only found in the Melanesian group, but traces of apparently the same dark race may be detected throughout almost the whole of Polynesia and Micronesia. In many of these islands we meet with individuals who in their dark complexions and crisp, frizzly hair closely resemble the Papuans. The light type, on the other hand, is repre- sented by the Malays and by the Polynesians, who in some places, such as Samoa and the Marquesas, are in no respect inferior to the average European, either in com- plexion, physical beauty, or nobility of expression (see illustration p. 489). Nevertheless, these higher tribes are all disappearing under the fatal influence of our much- vaunted civilisation, and nowhere is this process of extinction developing so rapidly and so inevitably as among the South Sea islanders. The Eastern Archipelago also affords us an unusual number of examples of immigration and colonisation by the higher races. Malaysia was the scene of the earliest European settlements in Eastern Asia. The Portuguese reached the Spice Islands in 1511, and the Spaniards the same goal ten years later, after discovering the Philip- pines on their way. Both were soon supplanted in many places by the Dutch, and the English were also not long in obtaining a footing. All these nations have colonies in the Malay islands, while the French have more recently established themselves in Xew Caledonia and Tahiti, and the Germans in New Guinea and else- 10 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TKAVEL where. Here, too, we have abundant examples of the overflow of the vast population of Chma. In almost every city and town in the Archipelago, from Malacca to the Aru Islands, and from Manila to Australia, the Chinese form a by no means unimportant part of the population, — nay, in some places, the bulk of it. In Java the vast ruins of Bora-bodor and other great temples testify to a Brahmmical occupation previous to the Mohammedan conquest of the country, and similar remains, though to a much smaller extent, occur in Sumatra and Borneo. And, finally, throughout the whole Archipelago and Polynesia we find evidences of a tolerably recent extension of the Malays at the expense of less civilised tribes. 6. Zoology and Botany. The eastern half of Australasia forms one of the great zoological regions of the earth — the Australian — char- acterised by the absence of all the higher and larger forms of mammals, and by the presence of a number of very peculiar types. Its mammalia almost all belong to the marsupials, which are only represented elsewhere by a few opossums in America. Cassowaries, bower-birds, birds -of- paradise, lyre-birds, and other striking genera, are confined to it, as well as numbers of very remarkable parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers, while such widespread and familiar types as vultures, pheasants, and woodpeckers are altogether wanting. The snakes and lizards are numerous and peculiar, and insects and land-shells abound, presenting numberless interesting and beautiful species. The western half possesses an abundance of the higher mammals, for the most part common to the Asiatic con- tinent — anthropoid apes, monkeys, the great Telidae, MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES 11 elephants, wild cattle, rhinoceros, and others ; all of which in the Australian region are unknown. It belongs, in fact, zoologically speaking, to tropical Asia, and pos- sesses almost all the various forms of life found in Siam and Burmah, although the actual species are to a large extent peculiar. Plants are equally interesting. The flora of Malaysia proper is a special development of that prevailing from the Himalayas to the Malay Peninsula and South China. Farther east this flora intermingles with that of Austraha. The latter, it may be remarked incidentally, is very peculiar and markedly rich in species, while that of New- Zealand is poor, though perhaps even more highly differ- entiated. 7. Geological Relations and Past History. The western portion of the Australasian Archipelago, as far as Java, Borneo, and perhaps the Philippines, has undoubtedly, at a comparatively recent period, formed a south-eastern extension of the Asiatic continent. This is indicated by the exceedingly shallow sea separating these islands from the mainland, but still more clearly by the essential unity of their animals and plants of which we have just spoken. But, as we go farther east to the Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia, we have to pass over seas of enormous depth, and there find our- selves among a set of animals for the most part totally unlike those of the Asiatic continent, or of any other part of the globe. Yet these have certain resemblances to the fauna of Europe during the Secondary period of geology, and it is very generally believed that the countries they now inhabit have been almost completely isolated since the time of the Oolitic formation. 12 .COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL New Guinea, the Moluccas, Celebes, and the island chain as far as Lombok — or some pre-existing lands from which these have been formed — were in all probability still attached to the Australian mainland for some time subsequent to its severance from Asia. Cape York, the northern point of AustraHa, is continued by a chain of high rocky islets all the way to New Guinea, while the depth of Torres Straits between these two countries no- where exceeds nine fathoms, as has already been stated. The Louisiade Archipelago is nothing more than a sub- merged portion of the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea. Tasmania must similarly be regarded as the true southern point of Australia, as the intervening Bass's Strait is shallow, and this island was undoubtedly con- nected with the mainland within comparatively recent geological times. Hence, in Peschel's opinion, Australia was formerly far more extensive than at present. It has clearly been encroached upon along its eastern seaboard, for here stretches the dreaded Great Barrier Eeef, whose coral walls sink to considerable depths below the surface, and still shadow forth the former limits of the coast-Hne in this direction. On this same eastern seaboard, though far removed from the mainland, we find some larger islands which may well have formed part of the Austrahan con- tinent, though perhaps before the Tertiary epoch. Con- spicuous among them is the non-volcanic island of New Caledonia, which is at present slowly subsiding. Australia must, in fact, be altogether regarded as a continent of the Secondary or early Tertiary period, now gradually dis- appearing, and this phenomenon of subsidence is displayed in many parts of the South Pacific Ocean. In the following chapter the leadmg characteristics of Malaysia — the first and most important division of the Australasian Archipelago — will be considered. c. C MALAYSIA, OR THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO CHAPTEK H GENERAL FEATURES 1. Geographical Outline. Of all the great island groups of the globe, the richest in every respect is the ]\Ialay Archipelago, lying between Southern Asia and Australia, and made up of fragments of the two continents, although now forming a distinct geographical unit. There is every reason to believe that Asia and Australia were united during the latter part of the Secondary epoch, while the processes of subsidence and upheaval resulting in the present insular formations were not fully developed till a much later period. The Australian continent was probably first broken up, as indicated by the very deep seas which now separate the several islands of the Moluccas from each other; while the Asiatic continent may have remained longer entire, and its comparatively recent subsidence is equally well shown by the very shallow sea — always under fifty fathoms deep — which separates the great islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo from each other and from the mainland of Southern Asia. The extensive submarine plateau comes 14 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL to an abrupt termination at the little island of Bali, east of Java, there being a channel of great depth, though very narrow, between it and the adjacent island of Lombok. The same deep channel is continued northwards through the Straits of Macassar to the Celebes Sea, where it divides, one arm passing between the islands of Mindanao and northern Celebes into the Pacific Ocean, and the other north-westward, between Sibutu and Tawi-tawi islands into the Sulu Sea. Hence one-half only of what is some- times called the East Indian Archipelago, and included in Asia, is really connected with that continent. The eastern half is essentially Australian, not only as regards the history of its origin, but also in its fauna and flora. Even ethnically this extensive insular system belongs to two clearly distinct peoples — the Malay and the Papuan — so that the current expression " Malay Archipelago," here adopted, is deficient in thorough accuracy. The line dividing the two races lies, however, considerably to the east of that which separates the two zoological regions, the Malays extending to Celebes, Sum- bawa, and most of the islands of the Moluccas. But, while conforming to the hitherto received custom of arbitrarily including under one appellation the whole of the archipelago as far as the Moluccas and Timor, we may still recognise it to be composed of several distinct groups. These groups are — in the north the Philippines, followed to the south by the Moluccas, and by the very remarkable and zoologically distinct island, Celebes. Finally, to the south and to the west are the Lesser and the Greater Sunda Archipelagoes, by the latter of which are understood the three large islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. All these groups — of which Sumatra, Java, and Borneo belonged in recent geological times to the Asiatic continent GENERAL FEATURES OF MALAYSIA 15 — are separated from each other by straits or passages, each bearing a distinctive name. By far the greater number belong politically to Holland, which here pos- sesses a colonial empire, with its seat of government in Java, rivalling in prosperity the British East Indian possessions. Of all the former extensive dominions of I'ortugal in these seas nothing now remains to her except a portion of the island of Timor. In the Philippines the Spaniard rules almost exclusively. At the north of Borneo we find two abnormal forms of government — an English raja ruling the extensive territory of Sarawak, while a private company, formed somewhat upon the lines of the old East India Company, admin- isters the neighbouring country now known as British JSTorth Borneo. Some islands and portions of islands are still independent, or subject to native sultans. 2. Physical Features — Volcanoes. The Malay Archipelago is traversed throughout its whole extent by one of the most extensive and con- tinuous volcanic belts upon the globe. Commencing in the north-western part of Sumatra, beyond the equator, it extends through that island and Java, then through the Lesser Sunda Islands to the east end of Timor. Here it turns in a north - easterly curve by Banda, Amboina, and Burn to Gilolo and Ternate. Thence, turning westward to the northern extremity of Celebes, it bends abruptly to the north by the Sangir Islands, and passes through the entire range of the Philippines to the extreme north of Luzon. The number of true volcanic peaks and craters in this belt is very great, and they form a continuous chain, with seldom more than an in- terval of a hundred miles from one to the other. A very 16 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL large proportion of them are in a state of activity, and several have devastated the surrounding country within the historic era. Many are perpetually smoking, while others have been frequently in eruption since the occupa- tion of the country by Europeans, and have often been accompanied by disastrous earthquakes. Hardly less remarkable than the extent and continuity of this belt of volcanoes is the complete absence of all volcanic vents in the surrounding districts. The great island of Borneo, and all of Celebes except the extreme northern point, are absolutely free from all signs of recent volcanic action ; and the same may be said of almost every island which lies on either side of the band — as the Peninsula of Malacca, Madura, Sumlm, Ceram, etc. In all these countries we have ancient crystalline rocks, granite, and extensive Tertiary beds, but no indication of volcanic outbursts. From the acknowledged fact of the very general vicinity of active volcanoes to the ocean, we may perhaps interpret this phenomenon as pointing out to us, in this great volcanic band, the outer limits of very ancient continents, while the lands on either side have once formed inland portions of those continents. This agrees sufficiently well with what we know of the exist- ing distribution of animal life, if we suppose Celebes and the other islands to the eastward, as far as the volcanic belt, to have been separated from Asia at a very early period, when its fauna assimilated much more with that of Australia than it does now ; while the islands to the west of Celebes were only separated from the continent at a very much later epoch, after they had participated in all the more recent and higher developments of its flora and fauna. This view will explain some of those great peculiarities of the fauna of Celebes to which we shall have to refer when treatiuQ- of that island. GENERAL FEATURES OF MALAYSIA 17 In this extensive chain of volcanic mountains many attain great heights, especially in Sumatra and Java. Each of these islands has one mountain about 12,000 feet high, while the former has four and the latter ten which exceed 10,000 feet. In no other part of the chain, except in Bali and Lombok, immediately east of Java, are there any heights which approach these. Lom- bok Peak is probably nearly 12,500 feet. The highest volcanoes of the Philippines and IsTorthern Celebes are about 7000 or 8000 feet, and those of the Moluccas from 5000 to 6000, if we except Labua in Batjan, which is probably over 7000 feet. Besides Lombok, there is only one mountain in the whole Malay Archipelago that ex- ceeds in height the lofty peaks of Sumatra and Java — the isolated mass of Kina Balu, near the northern extremity of Borneo, which is said to be 13,698 feet high, and which is probably far higher than any other mountain in the island, or than any non-volcanic mountain in the whole archipelago. The summit of Kina Balu is syenitic granite, and it probably represents a portion of the most ancient extension of the Asiatic continent in Tertiary or Secondary times, since it contains plants allied to some now only found in temperate Australia. Prom the position of these Malayan islands between 19° north and 10° south of the equator, they all enjoy that equability of climate and abundance of moisture which are so highly favourable to the growth of arboreal vegetation, and which have produced the great forest-belt everywhere girdling the earth in the equatorial zone. Hence the general condition of almost all the islands, where not interfered with by man, is to be co\'ered with luxuriant tropical forests, and this forest -covering is universal except on the very highest summits or pre- cipitous rocky slopes of the mountains. There is only c 18 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL one portion of the region where there appears to iDe a natural deficiency of forest, due to pecuharities of climate caused by the vicinity of the heated interior of Australia. From the east end of Java throughout the Lesser Sunda Archipelago to Timor Laut, the dense forests which everywhere cover the other islands are the exception rather than the rule, occurring only in valleys and on the moister slopes of the mountains. The country for the most part consists of grassy plains, dotted with palms and thorny bushes, which latter often form dense and impenetrable thickets. During the prevalence of the south-east monsoon, from April to October, scarcely any rain falls in this area, and towards the latter end of this dry season the drought is so great that many small streams dry up, and most of the trees lose their leaves. The heat is then intense ; and were it not that the nights are cool and a breeze always blowing, the climate w^ould approach in severity that of Central Australia. As it is, the chief effect of this long-continued dryness of the atmosphere is that it is inimical to that luxuriant forest growth which elsewhere in the equatorial zones clothes the earth with perennial verdure, and affords a constant protection from the rays of the vertical sun. The only other parts of the archipelago where any extent of open country occurs are in Northern Borneo, in Southern Celebes, and some of the Philippine Islands, but in these cases it is probably due to human agency aided by the introduction of cattle which have become wild. The densely peopled plains of Java and the elevated plateaus of Sumatra are highly cultivated, and have been so long the seat of an ancient civilisation that the absence of forest is clearly not to be considered a natural feature. GENERAL FEATURES OF MALAYSIA 1 9 3. The Malay Race and Language. Of the two chief peoples of the Eastern Archipelago^ — the Malays and the Papuans — the Malays are decidedly the more highly developed, the more numerous and im- portant. They have spread their language, their domestic animals, and some of their customs, widely throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, in many instances to islands where they have effected no sort of change in the physical or moral characteristics of the indigenous in- habitants. This wide diffusion of Malay influence is an extraordinary phenomenon, for the Malay race itself has by no means such an extensive range, although it has been by some supposed that all the brown tribes with straight or nearly straight hair, generally termed Poly- nesians, which are widely scattered in the tropical and sub-tropical South Sea Islands, belong to this division of mankind. Since Wilhelm von Humboldt's studies of the old Kawi language of Java, we know that the dominant race in Madagascar and the Comoro group also belongs to the Malay linguistic family. Hence has originated the common statement that this race has spread from the Comoros to Easter Island, and occupies the area between 45° E. long, and 110° W. long., or more than half the circumference of the globe. But this view as to the extent of the Malayan peoples is held by many modern writers to be quite erroneous, and they accordingly give the Malays a much more restricted habitation. Mr. A. E. Wallace has always maintained that the brown Polynesians are really quite distinct from the Malays, and, except in colour (though in this point he is at variance with most authorities), 20 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL seem to have more affinity with the dark, woolly-haired races of the Pacific, or are equally distinct from both. This view is supported by two writers who have great knowledge of the races and languages of the Pacific. Mr. W. S. W. Vaux, in a paper on the Probable Origin of the Maorics, read before the Anthropological Institute in 1876, maintains that the connection of the modern languages of the Eastern Polynesians with the Malay is by no means so intimate as many able philologists have asserted. Still more important and weighty is the evidence of Mr. W. L. Eanken, who, in a paper on the South Sea Islanders, read before the same society a few months later, proposes the native term " Mahori " for the Eastern Polynesians, and shows that their language is totally distinct from the Malay, has a different con- struction, has very few Malay roots, and only a few quite recent Malay words. Though resembling Malays both physically and mentally in some respects, the " Mahoris " differ greatly from them in others. They have a much greater average height, their features are much more of the European type, and their hair is typically wavy. He traces this race to Samoa as their first home in the Pacific, but primarily from some part of the Asiatic continent. We now come to the view held by perhaps the greatest authority on Australasian ethnology — Professor A. H. Keane — as published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute for February, 1880. In this paper the writer agrees with the opinion that the Eastern Polynesians are distinct from the Malays, but enters more fully into the question of the place of origin of the various races that people the archipelago. His conclusions may be shortly given as follows : — GENERAL FEATURES OF MALAYSIA 21 That the Negritos are the true autochthones of ludo- China and Western Mahaysia ; the Papuans of Eastern Malaysia and Western Polynesia. That Indo-China, at some very remote period, became occupied first by a fair Caucasian race, and later by a yellow Mongoloid people. The latter is now represented by the Burmese, Siamese, Laos, Annamese, etc., speaking mono- syllabic toned languages, and the former by the Kambojans, Chams, Kuys, and various hill-tribes, speaking polysyllabic untoned languages. That from these two races have sprung all the peoples — other than Negritos and Papuans — now occupying the entire Eastern Archipelago from Sumatra to the farthest jwint of Polynesia. That the earliest Avave of immigration was previous to the advent of the Mongol race, and furnished the archipelago with a people of nearly pure Caucasian stock, of whom the Mentawi islanders of western Sumatra and the Eastern Polynesians (Samoans, Tongans, Maoris, Tahitians, etc.) are now the only representatives. That later waves of immigration, after part fusion of Mongol and Caucasian, brought in a mixed people, but with a preponderance of Caucasian blood — the " Pre-Malays " or " Indonesians " of various writers — who are widely represented in the archipelago (Battaks, Dyaks, etc.) That at a still later period what is now known as the Malay race developed itself, the Mongol blood predominating. Of this people the Malays of the peninsula, the Javanese, Sundanese, Ache tribes of Sumatra, and Tagals and Bisayans of the Philippines may, among numerous others, be mentioned as examples. It will thus be noticed that the Malay is not ethnically distinct, but a mixture of two races. These views of Professor Keane ha^ve been accepted by many, as they appear to afford a tolerably complete explanation of the difficulties with which the question has been hitherto surrounded. There is in any case no doubt as to the radical distinctness of the Malays and the " brown Polynesians," and the term " Malayo-Poly- 22 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL nesian " should therefore be given up as entirely in- accurate and misleading. The Malays belong then, undoubtedly, to the so-called Mongolian division of mankind, and this is well illustrated by the strong resemblance between some of the higher types of each. The ordinary Malay is, of course, very different from the Chinaman, but in the island of Bali, Mr. A. E. "Wallace was unable to distinguish the natives from some Chinese immigrants w^ho had laid aside their national dress. They are of a light brown complexion and rather small, the men being on the average three or four inches below the mean European height. The face is of a somewhat square or rather rhomboid form, not much longer than broad, with high and prominent cheek- bones ; the expression often mild and not unpleasing ; eyes black, but rarely oblique ; mouth wide and large, with rather thick but well-cut lips ; broad lower jaw ; round and shapely chin ; nose small and short and rather broad, not liat like the Negro nor prominent like the European ; nostrils very dilated ; occiput flat and square, with thick, straight, black hair, but with weak and scanty beard, which is almost invariably plucked out by the roots. The sexes resemble each other not a little, and strangers are sometimes puzzled at first to distinguish between the two (see frontispiece). The Malay is naturally of an easy-going, indolent character. In his intercourse with others he betrays a certain reserve, diffidence, and even shyness, which has induced many to suppose that there must be some exaggeration in tlie current accounts of his savage and bloodthirsty nature. He never gives open expression to a sense of astonishment, surprise, or fear, and is probably little affected by such feelings. Slow and deliberate of speech, he leads up in roundabout ways to the subject GENEEAL FEATUEES OF MALAYSIA 2ii he may have come expressly to inquire into. In the more civilised parts, where the rules of the Koran are observed with greater strictness, botli women and children are timid, and shrink from the unexpected sight of a European. In the society of the male sex they are silent, and in general quiet and submissive. When alone the Malay is gloomy and taciturn, never either singing or talking to himself. But when paddling together in canoes they will occasionally chant a monotonous, wailing song. They seldom offend each other, nor are they prone to wrangling over money matters, scarcely venturing even to claim what is law- fully their own. Coarse horse-play is especially repug- nant to them, the Malay being extremely sensitive on all points of etiquette and of encroachments on his personal freedom. The upper classes are exceedingly courteous, comporting themselves with all the quiet dignity of a well-educated European. Yet this outward refinement, strange to say, co-exists in them with the most pitiless cruelty and contempt of human life, traits which belong to the dark side of their character. Herein lies the explanation of the many diametrically opposed judgments which have been given us by various travellers of their mental characteristics. Some tell us that these dwellers by the sea are ever hospitable and trustworthy, quiet and extremely indoleni , but with an insatiable passion for gambling, which all prohibitive measures have failed to suppress. Other accounts describe them as impulsive, without self-control, little to be relied upon, and of fickle disposition. Im- provident, lazy, and averse to work, they would gladly assume the role of superior beings whose lofty aspirations and sense of freedom are degraded by the menial occupa- tions necessary to secure a livelihood. They are, how- 24 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TEAVEL ever, distinguished by greater energy and acquisitiveness from the other races of the Indian Archipelago, though Islam has deprived even them of all higher aims in life, splitting up their local communes, and reducing their pursuits mainly to navigation and piracy. Theft and kidnapping are thought lightly of, while insults, real or imaginary, are savagely avenged on the spot. They are, at the same time, unforgetful of wrong, false and wily, so that solemn oaths are uttered with no intention of keep- ing them, and poisonings are very common. They are passionately fond of opium-smoking, though this is a less common vice than among the Chinese ; and of betting over their cock-fights, often staking their very selves and their personal freedom on the issue. On the other hand, they are very frugal ; and characteristic of their con- tentedness is the current expression asking for a present : " Ivechil presentie, tuan, poer makan " — " A little present, sir, to eat." Hence the eating-houses take the place of our drinking-houses, and are their chief places of resort. Here they indulge in dry rice, capsicums, little scraps of meat or fish, cooked vegetables, and sweet titbits handed round with a cup of hot water. The Malays are nominally Moslems, but lack the fanaticism of that religion. The Javanese, especially, consider they have done enough by observing the rite of circumcision, the prescribed ablutions, and the Eamazan fast, at the same time retaining many of the old Hindoo ideas. Some of them are Christians, that is to say, they attend the services of the Dutch Church, abstain from shaving their heads or filing down their teeth, and drink wine and spirits. The lingua franca of the whole East Indian Archi- pelago is the Low Malay, which contains no rough or harsh gutturals or other consonants difficult of utterance. GENERAL FEATURES OF MALAYSIA 25 but is soft and musical, in its liquid sounds somewhat resembling Italian. All Europeans in the Dutch and English possessions speak this language, which is easily and rapidly acquired. The Malays and Indonesians, to whom the preceding description is generally applicable, and who agree closely with those of the Malayan Peninsula, inhabit all the islands from Sumatra to Sumbawa, Celebes, the Philippines, Burn, and Ternate, with outlying settlements in Gilolo, Ceram, Amboina, Banda, and at several points on the Papuan islands. Only a small portion of these have Malay as their language, that tongue being found chiefly in the central plateau of Sumatra, and around the coast of Borneo. In every other part of the Malayan area other languages are spoken, some of them being merely dialects of Malay, others distinct but allied languages. Many, again, as the Bugis of Macassar, and especially the languages of the people of Ternate and Tidor, are totally unlike ]\ialay. Again, the Malays may be divided into two great groups — the savage and the semi-civilised peoples. The Dyaks of Borneo are the best example of the former. They have no writing or literature, no regular government or religion, and they wear only the scantiest clothing of the usual savage type. But they are by no means a low class of savages, for they build good houses, cultivate the ground, make pottery and canoes, work in iron, and even construct roads and bridges. In the same stage are some of the inland tribes of Sumatra, Celebes, and Burn. The semi-civilised people comprise all the other Malayan tribes. These possess written languages, and many of them peculiar alphabets ; they have some scanty literature, established governments, and some form of 26 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL religion ; they wear a regvilar costume, they spin and weave cotton or other textile fabrics, and make use of a considerable variety of tools and weapons. In the foregoing pages we have glanced at the leading features of the Malay Archipelago as a whole. We must now pass on to a more detailed consideration of the various geographical divisions of which it is composed. i CHAPTER III THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 1. General. The Philippines, the most valuable and extensive colonial possessions of Spain, extend almost due north and south from Formosa to Borneo and the Moluccas, embracing an extent of 16° of latitude and 9° of longitude. To the north the nearest land is the island of Formosa, distant about 175 miles. From Manila to Hongkong is 2^ days by steamer. To the west lies Cochin Chma, to the south Borneo and Celebes, and to the east the open sea. To the south and west the Sulu group and Palawan project like horns to within a few miles of the coast of Borneo, enclosing the deep basin known as the Sulu or Mindoro Sea. But though a series of stepping-stones are thus formed which would seem to indicate a recent union with that island, a closer examination does not confirm this idea. For the soundings in the Mindoro Strait, to the north of Palawan, although as yet incomplete, reveal a depth of 600 to 700 fathoms, while between Sibutu and Tawi-tawi Islands, in the Sulu group, a similar channel exists, though of less depth. This, and the shallowness of the sea between Borneo and Paltiw^an, appear to point to the conclusion that the latter is really Bornean rather than 28 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL Philippine — a theory which, as will presently be seen, is more or less borne out by what we know of the zoology of the island. To the west of the Philippine Archipelago is another deep basin separating it from Annam and Cochin China. Along its eastern boundaries, throughout their whole extent, the great ocean depths are soon reached ; but to the north a submarine bank connects Luzon with Formosa by way of the Bashi and Babuyan islands, although here also, as in the Mindoro and Sibutu Straits, we find a narrow but rather deep channel inter- vening close to Formosa. According to Spanish authors, the Philippines amount to 408 islands, exclusive of mere rocks and uninhabited islets. Two islands are pre-eminently large — Luzon, which is larger than Ireland by a half, and Mindanao, which exceeds it by a fifth. Seven others are of con- siderable size — Samar, Leyte, Zebu, Negros, Panay, Mindoro, and Palawan — the largest of these, Palawan, Samar, and Panay, being each about half as large as Sicily, and the smallest, Zebu, about one-fifth the size of that island. Then come two, Bohol and Masbate, about as large as Majorca ; after which are about twenty islands, such as the Calamianes, Marinduque, Basilan, and Catanduanes, all of which are larger than the Isle of Wight. The entire archipelago is said to contain an area of about 200,000 geographical square miles, but this must include the landlocked water-surface between the islands. The actual land area of all the islands, in- cluding Palawan, Balabac, and the Sulu group, is 113,400 square miles, of which Luzon furnishes nearly half, with an area of 47,600 square miles. Whether considered collectively or individually, the Philippines have their long axis, for the most part, north and south, and — if we disregard the southern groups — THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 29 are so closely and compactly situated, with such narrow straits between them, that their appearance is that of a single great island which has l^een broken up by submer- sion and volcanic action. There is, indeed, no other archipelago in the world which contains so many islands so compactly massed together. Lying entirely within the tropics, with an infinitely diversified coast outline, with mountain ranges having a mean elevation of 3000 to 4000 feet, and isolated volcanoes rising to a height of 8000 to 10,000 feet, the Philippines possess all the conditions for the most luxuriant tropical vegetation, and all the elements of the finest tropical scenery. Everywhere the land is abund- antly watered, and abounds in rivers and streams, and upland and lowland lakes. In truth, the archipelago is in almost every respect fully worthy to be compared with the most famous tropical regions, such as Brazil, Java, and Ceylon. The light green foliage of the low- lands contrasts vividly with the pine forests of the lofty mountain summits, for here the conifers are wedded to the palm, while the lowland streams are fringed with feathery bamboos. Half concealed by coco-nut palms lie the towns and villages, amid the vivid green of the rice fields and sugar plantations ; while the woodlands and gardens are beautiful with the dazzling hues of their blossoms and fruits. From this vegetation the native women seem to haA^e acquired the art of clothing them- selves in the brightest colours witliout offending our more educated taste. For here the wealth of colour in which plants, animals, and man himself are arrayed, harmonises perfectly with the fulness of light poured down by a fierce tropical sun on the bosom of the earth. But, despite this glorious vegetation, no more here than elsewhere does mankind enjoy the cup of 30 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL peaceful bliss undisturbed. The populous towns and villages are decimated by frightful epidemics — smallpox and Asiatic cholera ; while erratic flights of locusts, darkening the heavens like dense clouds, devour the young crops, leaving hunger and famine in their wake. With the change of the monsoons the swollen streams overflow the land; and when the industrious Tagal fancies he has escaped the devastating floods in his log hut or stone house, he is suddenly buried by an earth- quake beneath its ruins, stifled in a burning rain of cinders from some new-born volcano, or hurried to a still swifter death in the overwhelming waters of an earthquake-wave. 2. History. The Philippines will remain for ever famous as the scene of the death of the great Portuguese navigator, Magellan. The Spanish squadron of which he was in command, reduced by desertion and wreck to three ships, sighted the southern point of Samar Island on the 16 th March, 1521, but, finding the coast beset with shoals, bore away to the southward, and the admiral landed on the neighbouring island of Malhou the same night. The first place of any note visited by the squadron was Zebu, in the island of that name, and it was in fighting with a hostile tribe who occupied the islet of Mactan in front of the port that, on the 27th April, Magellan lost his life. To the archipelago thus discovered Magellan gave the name of St. Lazarus, for he had first sighted the group upon the day sacred to that saint. It was not till some time after — in 1542 — that Lopez de Villalobos gave them their present appellation of the Islas Filipinas in THE PPIILIPPINE ISLANDS 31 honour of Philip II., the son of Charles V. Meanwhile they became known to the Portuguese as the Eastern Islands, while the Spaniards called them the Islas del Poniente, for while the latter nation sailed westwards round the world, the Portuguese carried on their explorations in a contrary direction. This curious circumstance involved another. To the first circumnavigators the necessity of altering their day on passing the meridian of 180° w"as unknown, and so it came about that Hongkong and Manila called the same day Monday and Sunday, and it was not until the 31st December, 1844, that the matter was rectified by the omission of that day from the Manilau calendar. The more civilised people of the archipelago, when first seen by the Spaniards, were very far from being savages. They cultivated corn, wore textile fabrics, and worked iron and gold, had domestic animals for food and labour, and used a phonetic written character. The Spaniards owe their possession of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, who with a force of little more than 400 men reached Zebu in 15G5. In six years he had subdued the greater part of the archipelago. This facile conquest was effected without much bloodshed, and was not a little due to the efforts of a band of Augustine monks under Andrea de Urdaiieta, who had commanded a ship in Loyasa's ill-fated expedition. The gradual settlement and civilisation of the islands, indeed, have been to a very considerable extent the work of ecclesias- tics, who dominate the superstitious and /este- loving " Indian " without difficulty. In 1571 Manila was taken, the present city founded, and the greater part of Luzon brought under Spanish rule. Legaspi died the same year. Although at this period the Moors, as they were termed, were well known and numerous in many of the larger ports as traders, the inhabitants of all the northern 32 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL islands were pagans, and almost ignorant of civilisation of any kind. In Sulu and southern Mindanao the Spaniards found themselves in contact with a very differ- ent people. Then, as now, the inhabitants of that part of the archipelago were Mohammedans, fierce and in- tractable, skilled in navigation, and born pirates. They were, and have been for three centuries, the bitter enemies of the " Castillas," and expedition after expedition was vainly sent to subdue them. In 1731 a fleet of thirty Spanish vessels attacked Jolo, expecting an easy victory, but so well did the Sulus fight that they succeeded in capturing their enemies' colours, and the fleet shortly afterwards sailed away. It was not until 1871 that the Spaniards succeeded in establishing themselves upon the island, but to this day they are in no better position than are the Dutch at Ache. The Chinese and Japanese, especially the former, have played a considerable part in the history of the islands, but mostly upon pacific lines, as will be seen in a future page. It was otherwise with the Portuguese and the Dutch, who on more than one occasion sought, but in- effectually, to dispossess Spain. Their attempts were not, however, upon such a scale as to need detailed notice here. During the Seven Years' War, in 1762, the English fitted out an expedition from Madras composed of thirteen men-of-war and transports, and a force of 2300 men, and appeared before the walls of ]\Ianila. The Spaniards, who had not even heard of the outljreak of the war, were taken by surprise, the city was bombarded, captured, and sacked, and a ransom of >. four million dollars demanded. Only £200,000 could be furnished, however, and with this sum the commander of the expedition, Sir William Draper, had to be content. This not very creditable conquest .did not extend beyond Llanila. The city remained in THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 33 the hands of the English for ten months, and was then restored by the Treaty of Paris. Much of the archipelago yet remains not only to be subdued by the Spanish, but to be explored. In spite of their three centuries of occupation many of the islands are very little known — some, indeed, such as Palawan and Mindanao, hardly at all. The coasts have been very imperfectly surveyed, and the hydrography leaves much to be desired. 3. Geology. In few parts of the world are the great subterranean forces of the globe more in evidence than in the Philip- pine Archipelago. The islands form links in the volcanic chain which runs from Kamschatka southwards to join the even more important range which traverses the Sunda Islands. This chain is for the most part single, but in the Philippines it becomes wider. For, though in central Luzon the Caraballos ridge stands alone, as we progress southward we find it branching to form three main divisions. The eastern passes through Samar, Leyte, and eastern Mindanao to the Talautse Islands and Celebes, and is really the mam chaiiL The other two, curving off to the west by the Calamianes, Palawan, and Banguey in the one case, and Negros, western Mindanao, and Sulu in the other, come to an abrupt end, for Borneo, as already stated, is non-volcanic. The volcanoes will be separately considered in dealmg with the islands in which they occur. It is only necessary here to say that Mount Apo, with a height of 10,280 feet, according to Mr. Montano's observations, and ]\Iayon, which has been variously measured, and is probably not far short of 9000 feet, are the two most important volcanoes of the archipelago. D 34 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPtAVEL The active craters are numerous, the extinct innumerable, and there is scarcely an island which does not give evidence of volcanic action. Although hot springs are less frequently met with than in Japan, they are by no means rare, and fumaroles and solfataras join with the frequent earthquakes to remind the traveller that he can scarcely consider himself upon terra lirma. Throughout the archipelago raised sea-beaches and coralline lime- stones testify to the general upheaval that has taken place in recent years. But though volcanic action has had so much to do with the creation of the archipelago, it must not be supposed that the islands are all basalts, tuffs, and upheaved coral- line rock. The greater part of them is now known to comprise gneiss and schists and other metamorphic rocks, and granites, stratified sandstone, and conglomerates in the north of Luzon and other places. Gold seems to exist over a wide area, though not in any great quantities, and the beds of many rivers show " colour." That the metal has been known for some centuries is evident from Piga- fetta's diary of Magellan's voyage, where the natives are described as wearing gold ornaments, and offering to pre- sent the Captain-General with a bar of the metal. Mines are worked after a fashion in several places, the richest quartz being in the provinces of Benguet and Camarines Norte. At Misamis and other places in Mindanao a fair amount of the metal is produced. Copper is also abun- dant, especially in Lepanto, and the ore has been dug and smelted by some of the native tribes for as long as the islands have been known to Europeans, their vessels, ornaments, and weapons being commonly made of the metal. At Camillas, near Mount Data in north Luzon, are copper mines which should pay well, but for the expenses of transport and fuel. Lead occurs in Zebu, and THE nilLIlTINE ISLANDS 35 iron ores are very abundant in Luzon and ^Mindanao. That there are extensive coal-measures in the archipelago there is little doubt, but they have been little exploited, and coal forms one of the largest imports of the group. The Compostela mine only turned out 700 tons in 1881. As yet no deep shafts have been driven, and what has been obtained affords very rapid combustion, and is not well suited for steamers. Zebu and Negros are especially rich in this product. Since the archipelago lies midway between the great coal beds of northern Borneo and Formosa, it is probable that the mineral will in the future be worked to sreat advantage. 4. Climate, e^c. Situated between 4° and 20° of X. latitude, the Philippines exhibit a purely tropical climate. The mean temperature of Manila, deduced from data extending over ten years, is 81° Fahr. ; the extreme minimum 59°, and the extreme maximum 96°. But owing; to the great amount of sea which interpenetrates the islands, the sea breezes have free access to the land, and the heat is on the whole not excessive. At Artol, in the province of Ben- guet, the thermometer occasionally sinks to 38° Fahr. The rainfall is very great, in some places almost incessant. For, owing to their position and elevation, the islands attract the copious rains of each monsoon, and in some localities where the breadth of the land is much reduced, as at the S. Caraballos mountains and the volcano of Majaijay, the rainclouds of both monsoons discharge* their contents, and torrential showers fall almost every day. This superabundant rainfall is a leading feature of the group. The rivers overflow their banks and pour 36 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKATEL deluges of water over the surrounding country, the roada become utterly impassable, and the marshes are turned into lakes in which the unfortunate traveller finds his navigation impeded by the tree-tops. Such is the normal condition of things on the eastern seaboard when the north-east monsoon is blowing with its full strength. At this period the heavy sea running is such as to pre- clude safe navigation, and the fisherman becomes perforce an agriculturist, while upon the other side of the archi- pelago there is settled fine weather both on sea and land. The agricultural seasons thus vary with the locality, and when it is seed-time upon one slope of the Sierra the harvest is being gathered upon the other — a peculiarity which has been described by Jagor and some of the older writers. In the Sulu group there are two rainy seasons, occurring at the change of tlie monsoons, of which that commencing with the onset of the easterly monsoon is by far the heavier. Owing to the conformation of the land and the position of the ranges, the rainfall in the Philippines is subject to great local variation. The Davao Gulf in Mindanao, for example, has its dry season during the IST.E. monsoon, when the rain is falling in daily torrents on the east coast of the island. The annual rainfall of Manila is about 99 inches, of the Agusan Valley in Mindanao 156 inches, and of many parts of Luzon considerably more. Excepting in the southern islands — the Sulu group, Mindanao, and part of Palawan, which are too near the equator to suffer — the Philippines are subject to the most terrific typhoons, which occur almost invariably at the change of the monsoons, and especially in October, a month dreaded by the navigator of the China Sea. Originating in the Pacific, and progressing along a curved path in a more or less westerly direction, these hurricanes i THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 37 yearly cause incalculable damage in the islands over which they pass on their way to China. Within the last few years the establishment of the telegraph in Luzon has mitigated the loss of life and property resulting from them. Stations at the extremities and east coast of the island warn the Jesuits' Observatory at Manila of the approaching storm, and notice is immediately telegraphed to Hongkong. But in spite of these warnings the de- struction wrought is terrible. In 1831, during one of these storms, a vessel of 600 tons burden, which lay in the port of Cavite, was carried on to the ramparts of the fort. In 1856 a terrific typhoon is said to have de- stroyed 10,000 houses in Manila and the surrounding district. That of 1882, although causing less destruction of life, was almost as violent, the barometer falling to 28'66, and the velocity of the wind rising to 145 miles per hour. Earthquakes are far more frequent, and have wrought even greater havoc than the typhoons. The seismographs of the Manila Observatory reveal an almost constant vibration of the earth. Slight shocks are of the commonest occurrence. Warned by repeated disaster the Manilan now builds his house with a view to guard against accidents. The ground floor alone is stone, the upper story is of wood, and the heavy tiles which once formed the roofs are now abolished by law. In the rooms most frequented it is not unusual to see a sort of " man- hole " which acts as a shelter in emergencies, and the tables are made of great solidity for the same purpose. The careful householder screws down the clocks and other ornaments, and holds himself in readiness to dive beneath the table at a moment's notice. The most disastrous earthquakes of the present cen- tury occurred in 1827, 1828, 1863, 1874, and 1880, and of these that of 1863 will be longest remembered 38 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL from its having caused the collapse of the cathedral of Manila when packed with people, and a fearful loss of life in consequence. On the 18th July, 1880, a sudden shock reduced half the city to ruins, but not more than 150 persons were killed. The shocks were re- peated on tlie 20 th, and thenceforward daily and con- stantly until the 6th August, and to complete the misfortunes of the country, torrents of rain fell almost without intermission from July 21st to the 18tli August, and inundated the country. According to the observa- tions of Pere Faura, the head of the Manila Observatory, the first shock of this earthquake lasted 70 seconds. The oscillations were excessive, the greatest measured being 22° 11' to the east and 11° to the west. Notwithstanding the natural scourges to which the Philippine Islands are thus exposed, they cannot justly be said to be unhealthy. Formerly the natives died in hundreds from smallpox, but this disease has been much mitigated of late since the Spanish Government has established a training post for the instruction of native vaccinators, who are afterwards despatched to every part of the islands. Asiatic cholera, however, claims number- less victims. The most important diseases are dysentery, ulcers, — probably of parasitic origin, — and malarial fevers, but the latter are not of a severe type. Contrary to what is usual in tropical climates, frequent instances of extreme longevity have been recorded among the native inhabitants. 5. Fauna and Flora. The flora of the Philippines is not even yet thoroughly known, the difficulties till recently thrown by the Government in the way of scientific investigation, to- THE FHILirriNE ISLANDS 3& gether with the heavy cost of travelling, having deterred naturalists from visiting the country. Lately, however, Don Sebastian Vidal, Conservator of Forests in the Philip- pines, has added considerably to our knowledge by the publication of his Sinopsis de Familias y Generos de Plantas Lenosas de Filipinas, and Mr. K. A. Rolfe of Kew has rendered equal service to science by his able paper upon the flora of the archipelago,^ in which its derivation and the elucidation of the past history of the group re- ceive detailed consideration. So far as is at present known, 723 genera of 2108 species of Dicotyledons, and 273 genera of 1340 species of Monocotyledons exist. The proportion of the latter to the Dicotyledons is thus more than one-half, which — since in tropical insular floras it seldom exceeds one-fourth — must be considered very un- usual. In the ferns, of 467 species no less than 52 are peculiar, which is alone sufficient to stamp the islands with a marked individuality. But one of the most peculiar features is the large number of endemic species and the exceeding paucity of endemic genera. The former reach the large total of 769, but while Borneo has 28 endemic genera and Java 30, there are only 6 in the Philippines. The general features of the flora are certainly Malayan ; but at the same time a large number of typical Malayan genera have not yet been found in the archipelago, in spite of their occurring in Borneo. Yet more striking is the presence of a considerable Australian and Austro-Malayan element. Space will not permit detailed reference ; but the characteristic genera Stackhousia, Osbornia, Leptospermum, Psorcdea are found, and numerous like examples could be given. A considerable connection with Celebes would prob- ^ Jour. Linn. Soc. Dot., vol. xxi. No. 135. 40 COMI-ENDIU-M OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL ably be revealed if we were possessed of a better knowledge of the flora of that island. Three species are only known from Celebes and the Philippines, and besides these a number of plants collected at Gorontalo in the former island by Mr. Eiedel are considered by Mr. Eolfe to be either identical with, or closely allied to Philippine species. The connecting link is doubtless to be found in the south, in Mindanao and the Sulu islands, as indeed Mr. Burbidge's researches in the latter group have proved. Bearing in mind the existence of the submarine bank between Luzon and Formosa, and the shallowness of the sea intervening between the latter island and China, a northern element might certainly be expected to be found existing to a greater or less extent in the group. This surmise is borne out by facts, and although not extensive, the connection is very well marked. There are three en- demic species of Carex, a typical northern genus, as indeed is Pinus, of which we find two species — P. insularis and P. Herkusii. Other forms exist which, if not specifically identical with, are nevertheless closely allied to Chinese species. The genus Pinus only occurs in Luzon, and is confined to the western side, P. insularis not growing south of 15° IST.. although P. Merlcusii occurs in the province of Zambales in a restricted area, and is met with again in the island of Sumatra. The richness of the forests is shown by the fact that the timber of more than 200 different trees has been experimented on in the arsenal of Manila, resulting in the selection of six as specially adapted to shipbuilding. Two of these are species of Vitcx ( Verhenacece), one is a Vateria {Dipterocarpem) , another is a Sterculia. Of these Molave wood {Vitcx geniculata) is practically in- destructible, resisting alike the teredo and white ant. THE rHiLirrixi'; islands 41 as well as the destructive effects of climate. Djewoods are abundant, and the sapan-wood, produced by Ccesal- junia sappan, obtains the highest price in European markets. Teak is found in Mindanao and also in the Sulu group, although it is said not to occur elsewhere in the Malay Archipelago except in Java and Sumbawa. Gums, resins, and textile materials are also abundantly produced. Miisa textilis is largely grown for its fibre, which when prepared is known by the name of abaca or Manila hemp. This, with sugar, forms the chief export. The St. Ignatius's bean {Ignatia), yielding the deadly poison strychnine, is commonly sold in the market at Manila. Most of the fruits of the other Malayan countries abound, excepting the mangosteen and durian. For these a strictly equatorial climate appears to be indispensable, and they only thrive in the extreme south of the archipelago. If we pass to the fauna of the group we find that it bears out to a great extent what may be surmised from a study of the flora. Although generally agreeing with the fauna of the larger Malay islands, that of the Philippines exhibits some remarkable deficiencies. These are most prominent in the mammalia, which are very few in number as compared with those of Borneo or Java. Thus, the numerous apes and monkeys of those islands are represented in the Philippines only by the common Macacus cynomolgus and the curious little Tarsier, one of the lemurs. Of carnivora there are three species only, two civets and a wild cat, — all the larger felines, the weasels, bears, and wild dogs, being entirely wanting. Of the Ungulates there is a wild pig, a mouse-deer, which is confined to the Bornean islands, Balabac and Palawan, three kinds of deer, and a very curious representative of the Bovidce — Prohtihalus mindorensis, whose nearest 42 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ally is the antelopean buffalo of Celebes (Aiioa dejjressl- cornis). This interesting animal, which has only recently been obtained by Professor Steere's expedition, is confined to the island of INIindoro. There are no tapirs, rhinoceroses, or elephants. Even the small rodents are very scarce, there being only five squirrels, one flying squirrel, a porcupine, and two or three of the rat tribe. The flying mammals, on the other hand, are numerous, there being nearly thirty species of bats, many of which are peculiar. Some half-dozen insectivora only are known — the " flying lemur " (Galeopithecus), two or three shrews, and the curious squirrel-like Tupaia. The Edentata are represented by a Manis, which only occurs in Palawan. Altogether, although a few more may yet remain to be discovered, there are only twenty-three terrestrial mammals known to inhabit the Philippines, and of these several are confined to the island of Palawan, which, as has already been stated, cannot be said, geographically speaking, to form a portion of the Philippine Archipelago. Java has nearly 100 mammals, of which more than half are terrestrial, and it is therefore remarkable that the Philippines with a larger area should have so few. The birds show many peculiarities and deficiencies when compared with those of the great islands of western Malaysia. To the revised list published by Captain Wardlaw Eamsay in the appendix to the Marquis of Tweeddale's " Ornithological Works," Professor Steere has added 53 new species, bringing the total number of land birds to 303. And although many of these are subspecies, or species only slightly differentiated by more or less long-continued separation in different islands, the number is large as compared with the 270 odd species known from the much better explored island of Java. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 43 In Spite of this richness there are many very important genera found in all the other Malay islands which are wanting in the archipelago. This isolation is further marked by the fact that more than two-thirds of the Philippine species are peculiar to the group, and that they include such birds as cockatoos and mound-builders {Megajjodius), which are essentially typical of the Moluccas and the other eastern islands. Similarly the preponderance of parrots and pigeons points out a strong eastern connection, and although woodpeckers — a group characteristic of the western regions — are rather numerous, no pheasants exist, except upon Palawan, an island which, as has already been shown, is so con- clusively Bornean, that it should not be taken into consideration in discussing the geological history of the Philippine Archipelago. The only game birds found in the islands are the common jungle fowl {Gallics banldra) and one or two small quail. Of the other vertebrates little is known. There are crocodiles, lizards, and snakes in abundance, and among the latter are pythons, which destroy young cattle, and" are said in some cases to exceed 40 feet in length. In- sects are abundant and of great beauty. As in the case of the birds, mammals, and plants, they differ in many respects from those of the other Malay islands, and show in ■ numerous instances an affinity with those of the eastern islands. Instructive as is the distribution of all the foregoing classes of the animal kingdom in the archipelago, the land moUusca yield to none in interest, both in them- selves and in their relation to those of the neighbouring islands. Pre-eminent among them is the group known as Cochlostyla, a genus of large and handsome snails with affinities both with Helix and Bnlimus. This group, of 44 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAFHY AND TRAVEL which more than 200 species have been described, ap- pears to be quite peculiar to the Philippines, — the few extra-Philippine forms which have been referred to it being better grouped elsewhere. The Sandwich Islands alone in the Pacific form another instance of a group of islands possessing so large and so well-marked a genus of peculiar land-shells. A study of the various subgenera of Cochlostyla reveals several facts of importance. Firstly, with regard to the island of Mindoro, it appears that not only are two of them {Orthostylus and Hypsclostyla), which are abundant in Luzon and the central islands, entirely absent, but two well-marked subgenera {Chrysalis and Prochihis) occur which are found nowhere else in the archipelago. The small island of Luban, to the north-west of Mindoro, also has a peculiar subgenus. Siquihor, an island of equally small size lying between Mindanao and the central group, is likewise conspicuous as possessing the only species of Clausilia known from the Philippines. Three subgenera {Chlorcea, Corasia, and Calococlilca) are universally distributed, occurring on all the islands, and it seems probable that these were developed at a time wdien the Philippines were all united together, or, at all events, were much less of an archipelago than they now are. It is evident, from their isolation being so specially marked, that Mindoro and Luban became separate at a very early period. With regard to the land mollusca in general, and their relation to the neis;hbouring lands and islands, Mr. A. H. Cooke remarks that two distinct faunae, the Indo- Malayan and the Polynesian, find their meeting-place in the group. Palawan and the Sulu Islands form two arms or ridges which tend to connect the Philippines with Borneo. On these ridses the mollusca are of a THE PHILirPINE ISLANDS 45 mixed type — partly Philippine, partly Indo-Malayan ; but there can be little doubt that they have formed, at a period more or less remote, the passage by which the Indo-Malayan mollusca have entered the archipelago to mingle with the indigenous genera. Thus we find the great Nanincc and Cyclophori of the Sunda Islands largely represented, as well as Amphidromus, Kaliclla, and others, all of which are represented in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, as well as in India or Indo-China, but scarcely at all, or in greatly diminished numbers, in the islands farther east. The Polynesian and eastern connection is exemplified by the occurrence of Tornatellina, Eudodonta, niunerous species of Hclicina and Leptopoma, and a considerable number of Pupina and Diplommatina. About fifteen species of land shells are common to the Philippines and Amboina, and some w^riters have considered it probable that a land connection existed at one time with the countries to the east and south, but in this opinion Mr. Cooke does not share. Prom the foregoing it will be seen that the zoology of the group is of unusual interest, presenting problems in geographical distribution wdrich have as yet not been satisfactorily explained. Taking all the facts yet known, we find a wonderful amount of peculiarity throughout, great luxuriance of development in some of the lower groups, and many deficiencies in the higher, especially in the mammalia. This luxuriance and peculiarity, com- bined with poverty in the forms of life, implies great antiquity and long - continued isolation from adjacent countries. The presence of a tolerable variety of mam- malia, closely alHed to those of other Malayan countries, shows that the time from which the isolation dates is not very remote geologically ; but it is less easy to 46 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL account for the absence of so many important groups of mammalia. Two explanations are open to us. Either the former union with Borneo, and, perhaps, with For- mosa, w^as limited in extent and of short duration, so that only a few mammalian types ever entered the country ; or, the union having been more complete and of sufficient duration, the islands became well stocked with mammals, but a great amount of subsidence has since so reduced the land area and altered the physical conditions, that numbers of them, especially those of the largest size, have become extinct. This latter hypothesis is supported by the fact, that almost everywhere are found large tracts of elevated coral reefs containing shells simi- lar to those now living in the adjacent seas — proving that at a comparatively recent period the islands have been partially submerged, and therefore less extensive than they are now. Mr. Eolfe, too, considers the present flora to have been differentiated when the islands were much more immersed than is now the case. We know that all volcanic countries are subject to elevations and sub- sidences, and it is highly probable that so pre-eminently volcanic a district as the Philippines has been repeatedly subject to partial elevations and depressions ; at one time eliecting a union with adjacent lands, and thus favouring the introduction of new animals, at another submerging extensive areas, and thus leading to the extermination of many forms of life. Changes of this kind, if continued through the latter portion of the Tertiary period, would inevitably produce such a limited yet peculiar fauna as is now found to characterise these islands. Minute geo- logical investigation, combined with a more complete knowledge of the existing fauna and flora, will alone enable us to determine how far these suppositions are correct. There is not much doubt, however, that we have THE niiLirriNE islands 47 in Mindoro the sole remnant of a pre-existing land which was at one time unconnected with tlie great Malay islands, and probably prolonged to the east and south. 6. Inhabitants. The Philippines are inhabited, so far as the indigenous population is concerned, by two distinct races of men — the Negrito and the Malayan. Ethnologists are for the most part agreed in looking upon the former as the remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants of the group, who have been gradually supplanted and driven to the moun- tains by the more civilised and capable Malays. That this invasion took place at a very remote period there is every reason to believe. The Negritos are a diminutive, dark race, with crisp and woolly hair and a facial appearance of a Negroid type. They are found in Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, and Mindanao ; probably in Palawan according to March e, and possibly in Zebu. The pure race is now rare. Their total numbers are put by Blumentritt at 20,000, an estimate only 5000 short of that given by Crawfurd forty years ago. Although wild, and living in districts for the most part remote Irom civilisation, they have mixed very largely with the pagan Malay tribes, and traces of Negrito blood are very frequently to be seen. In the pure Negrito the height is said to average 4 ft. 10 in., but Semper's estimate is two or three inches less. The skull is brachycephalic, the chest small, the legs without calves, and the feet turned inwards. Their prognathous and deeply-lined faces give them an ape-like appearance. The nose is broad and flat, and the nostrils dilated, and the slender l)uild and small size of the body 48 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL cause the head to appear disproportionately large. They are somewhat timid and gentle l)^' nature, and OTeat aftec- A ^■EGRITO OF LUZON. tion exists between parents and children. The cliief or only weapons used by them are the l)ow and arrow, the former l)eing constructed of the midrib of a Caryota frond. The THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 49 arrows are always poisoned. Their intelligence is of a very low type, and according to Montano they are unable to count above five. Excepting where they have become partly civilised, they are more or less nomadic of haljit. Such reHgion as they have would appear to consist chietiy of a sort of ancestor-worship. They are monogamists without exception. The chief or headman is chosen from among the oldest and most respected of the tribe. Circumcision is universally practised. Little appears to be known of their language, except that spoken by them in some parts of Luzon. Oscar Peschel and some other ethnologists class the Negrito with the Papuan, an opinion httle likely to be shared by those who are well acquainted with the latter race. The slender build, flat nose, diminutive stature, and gentle retiring manners render such a classification impossible. Mr. J. Barnard Davis, from the examination of three fine crania, consideis the Negrito to be distinct from any other race. Taking all their physical characters into consideration, they seem more nearly to resemble the Andaman islanders and the Semangs of the Malay Peninsula than any other existing peoples. To the Spaniard of the present day the people of IMalayan stock who inhabit the Philippines are known as Tndios, Infidcs, and Moros — an ecclesiastical rather than scientific classification. The Indios are all those who have come under Spanish influence, and are professed Christians ; the InfiMes are the wilder pagans of the interior who have always rebelled against Spanish rule, and the Moros are the Sulus and other Mohammedan tribes occupying south-west Mindanao, the Sulu group, and part of Palawan. The people included in this nomenclature have certain characteristics in common which are collectively typical of the Malay race, namely, E 50 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL a moderate stature, an olive-coloured complexion, broad nose, full lips, a head broader than in Europeans, and hair straight, nearly black, and somewhat coarse. They are divided into numerous distinct tribes speaking different languages, of v^^hich there are twenty in the island of Luzon alone. Many are doubtless still unknown, par- ticularly m the unexplored recesses of Mindanao and Palawan. The two chief tribes are the Tagal and Bisayan, the former occupying the greater part of Luzon and the whole of the islands Marinduque and Mindoro, and numbering about 1,500,000 souls. They appear to be increasing somewhat rapidly, more by the assunilation of neighbouring tribes than anything else, and are the most civilised of all the Indios. The Bisayans occupy all the islands lying between Luzon and Mindanao, as well as a considerable portion of the north of the latter island, and number over 2,000,000. Their language is akin to Tagalog, but is spoken with an infinity of dialects. Formerly they had a peculiar alphabet, or rather sylla- bary, but this seems to be now unused. The Tagalog writing -system is still to be found, based like the other, according to Mr. Keane, upon the archaic Devanagiri of the Asoka inscriptions, though now departing greatly from that type in form. The Tagbuanas of Palawan appear to be allied to the Bisayans, and still make use of a very similar writing system, writing from the bottom of the page to the top in columns, and beginning on the right hand. These two peoples will probably in time include and assimilate their less powerful neighbours, but there are still other tribes of considerable importance, numerically or otherwise, in the archipelago, the chief of which are the Bicols and Ilocanos. The former inhabit the Cama- rines or southern peninsula of Luzon, the Catanduanes THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 51 Islands, part of Masbatc, and the islands lying between it and Luzon, and are related to the Tagals, especially by their language. They number about 350,000. The Ilocanos are more numerous, and occupy, with various tribes with which they have more or less intermingled, the northern part of Luzon. Besides these there are an infinity of other sub -Malayan peoples — Pangasinans, Pampangos, Tinguianes, Busaos, etc., to which particular reference is unnecessary. The Spanish apply the name Ygarrotes very loosely to a number of different tribes, but, strictly speaking, it should be given only to the natives of the mountains in the Benguet, Lepanto, and other neighbouring districts at the north of Luzon. They appear to differ not a little from the other Malayan inhabitants of the island, and according to some authors are a mixed race, partly of Japanese or Chinese origin. M. Marche, who visited them in 1880, describes them as being a short, hairy race with low forehead and thick lips, large thick feet, but small hands, the hair straight, black, and fine, and worn long by the men. A remark- able feature is the great elaboration of their tattooing, the designs being extremely florid and ornamental, with flowers, serpents, etc., and still more curious is their wood -carving. They dig and work gold, silver, and copper, and make very ornamental pipes, for which they themselves grow the tobacco. They breed both cattle and horses, and are great dog-fanciers. With all these characteristics, which serve to differentiate them markedly from their neighbours, they are nevertheless a wild and savage race, committing frequent raids, and at bitter enmity with the Spaniards, whose bullets have frequently thinned their ranks. The Moros, as the Spanish commonly term the Moham- medan inhabitants of the southern islands, are probably 52 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL as mixed a people as any in the Philippines. Centuries of piracy have recruited their harems with the women of numberless tribes of Malaysia — with Europeans even, for before the days of steamers few vessels were a match for the crowded praus of the Sulu pirates. In the south of Mindanao the Illanuns had their headquarters, while the Sulus make Sulu Island and Tawi-tawi the base of their operations. The sultans of Sulu claimed authority over the north-east end of Borneo, together with the island of Cagayan Sulu, as well as over their own group, but the former district was ceded some few years ago to the British North Borneo Company, and the rule of the sultans over their turbulent subjects does not ever appear to have been very strong. Such obedience as the Sulu nature is capable of rendering is paid to the small rajas, panglimas and datus, many of whom are not on the best of terms with tbeir sovereign. These rajas are in many cases of Bornean extraction, and the sultan has a species of court with numerous retainers after the fashion of the Sultan of Brunei. The Sulu language is closely allied to the Bisayan, although quite distinct from it, and contain- ing a large number of Javanese and Bugis words, but from the frequent intercourse with the Bornean Malays almost every Sulu is bilingual. The language is written in the Arabic character, and the manners and customs are Malay, but their adherence to the precepts of the Koran is anything but strict, as is shown by their in- dulgence in alcohol, and by the fact that their women are unveiled. The Chinese form a very important part of the popu- lation of the Philippines, amassing considerable wealth as merchants and shopkeepers. It is probable that they established themselves in the country from the very earliest times, and would long ago have overrun the THE PHILTl'PINE ISLANDS f)?, archipelago luit for the repressive measures adopted by the Spaniards. The history of Manila records several wholesale massacres of the " Sangleyes," the last of which took place in 1819, when they were accused of poisoning the wells. Their numbers were limited to 6000, but frequently rose to 30,000 or 40,000, only to be reduced by slaughter and exile. In 1603 some 23,000 were killed. Heavy taxes and strict regulations drove them to revolt in 1639, when over 30,000 of them fell victims. In 1762 they helped the Enghsh at the taking of Manila, and on our evacuation of the city some months later, an edict was published by the Sj)anish Governor that all the Chinese on the islands should be hanged, and this order was said to have been very generally carried out. Notwithstanding these checks to their increase they have thriven and prospered, and at the present time the pure race probably number about 55,000. Of those of mixed blood it is impossible to arrive at an estimate. The number of Chinese women who leave their country is infinitesimally small, and the Celestial has from time immemorial chosen his wife from the native women. To such an extent has this mixture of race been carried on that the Chinese element has left an indelible stamp upon the inhabitants of the Philippines, and its influence throughout the archipelago is very considerable. The number of Spaniards, who with the exception of the priests are chiefly resident in Manila, is stated to be 14,000. But here the same difficulty of estimation obtains as in the case of the Chinese, for, like the latter, they have mixed freely with half-castes and natives from the time of their first arrival. The Philippines, indeed, show as great confusion of races as any country in Australasia. Even the American element is present, for, 54 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL as Reclus points out, it must not be forgotten that the Acapulco galleons brought over a powerful colony of Peruvians and Mexicans, and history furnishes us with several instances of the establishment of Japanese in the north of Luzon and in Manila, where they were encour- aged to counteract the influence of the Chinese. The Negritos, as already stated, must be regarded as having in past ages formed the chief or sole population of the Philippines, but it seems probable that another race or races must at some epoch have lived there in great numbers. M. Marche and other naturalists have found numbers of cave burial-places in Marinduque, Catandu- anes, and other islands. These caves yielded remains of coffins with handles of carved wood, and urns containing crania, all of which had been deformed by art, pottery, both rough and glazed, some of the jars decorated with dragons in alto-relievo, and fragments of porcelain. Gold ornaments were also discovered, and small rings of that metal, of a form similar to those used in Japan as money in ancient times. These burial-places are supposed to be of great antiquity, and certainly point to the conclusion that the people by whom they were used were largely subject to both Chinese and Japanese influence. 7, Religion and Education, The Philippine Archipelago presents the anomalous instance of a country which has been conquered as much by ecclesiastical as by military power. Legaspi landed with his body of Augustiues, who were followed by the Dominicans and Franciscans, and later — but not until the main work had been accomplished — by the Jesuits. The administration, whether civil or " politico- THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 55 military," is aided in no small degree by the clergy, who have a great influence over the festa-loYmg and super- stitious natives. The Archbishop of Manila directs a large territory, the Ladrones, Carolines, and Pelew Islands being comprised in his province. He has as suffragans the Bishops of ISTueva Ca^eres (Camarines-Sur), Nueva Segovia (Ilocos-Sur), Zebu, and Jaro (Iloilo). The public exercise of any religion other than the Catholic is for- bidden. The Spanish secular clergy, about 400 in number, reside chiefly in Manila. The parishes are administered by the Spanish ecclesiastics of various orders, or by native clergy who receive their education in the large seminaries attached to each diocese. The Augustines number 500, the Dominicans and Franciscans each 200. The missionary work in the island of ]\Iin- danao is almost entirely carried on by the Jesuits. The Spanish regular clergy thus number about 1200. The Church is chiefly supported by a capitation tax and fees. The Christianised Indians have in a manner grafted their new religion upon their former cult. Deeply super- stitious and wdth boundless faith, the religious orders found them ready converts. The brilliant processions and rich robes and images of the Church appealed most strongly to them. Now the smallest village has its fetes and its band of musicians to accompany the processions, and plays of a religious or semi-religious nature are ver}- commonly given. The priest is the practical king of the village, and does not regard with a too favourable eye the spread of knowledge, except it be through himself. For, despite the censure, newspapers and posts have begun their work, and there is no doubt that the railway scheme, if completed, will bring a great change in the condition of the native. Not that education is by any means neglected. It is probable, indeed, that a larger 56 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL percentage of the Christian natives can read and write than the peasantry of Spain, but the education does not go far. In every village where there is a church there is a school where the children are taught to read and write Spanish. In 1886 there were 1608 such schools, afford- ing instruction to 177,113 pupils. Tagal and Bisayan alike have relinquished their peculiar alphabet, and the native officers are chosen, if possible, from those only who can speak the language of their European masters. There are eight or ten Spanish newspapers published in the islands, and a single paper in Tagalog, but all are subjected to ecclesiastical censure. 8. Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce. As in most parts of the Malay Archipelago, the system of agriculture is that of small holdings. Only one- fifteenth of the entire land area of the archipelago is cultivated. Pace is, of course, the staple crop, but the cultivation is not as careful as in Java and elsewhere. Maize, which is gathered in two months from the time of sowing, has been much grown of late, especially in Luzon, Zebu, and Mindanao, and partly takes its place, but large quantities of rice are annually imported. Abaca or Manila hemp is the chief export. It is the fibre of Musa tcxtilis or Musa abaca, a species of banana which produces a small and uneatable fruit, and requires peculiar conditions of soil and climate for its growth. It is cultivated in Saniar, Leyte, Zebu, and Bohol, but the best comes from the Camarines provinces and Albay in southern Luzon, Legaspi being the port of shipment to Manila. North of Manila this plant will not thrive. The export of the fibre THE PlIILIITINE ISLANDS 57 appears to 1)e increasing, although the drought of 1880 largely affected the suppl}'. Thus, while in 1880 it was MANILA HEJIP (Mt'.sa tcjiilis). returned at a value of £1,040,000, the total value of that exported in 1890 was £2,150,000, and even this large figure was less than the estimated value of ship- 58 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ment for the year 1889 by over £1,000,000 sterling. The variation in price of this article is enormous. Sugar is the export next on the list in point of importance, Panay being the principal island upon which it is grown, although it is also cultivated largely in Luzon and Zebu. Of late, owing to the fall in price and the manipulation of the American market, this produce has been much dis- couraged, and from a value of £2,600,000 in 1880 the total shipments of 1890 were only estimated at £1,330,000, which was not far short of a milhon less than the value of the 1889 crop. Much of this short- coming may, however, be explained by a severe plague of locusts, but the decrease in the export of many other products cannot be thus accounted for. Thus indigo fell from 354,500 lbs. to 37,400 lbs. in 1890, and sapan wood from 5000 tons to 2800 tons in the same year. Coffee, another export of importance, has suffered from the ravages of an insect which attacks the heart of the tree and kills it, and the 1890 shipments were only to the value of £420,000 — less by £80,000 than those of the preceding year. Other articles of export are hides, mother-of-pearl, gum-mastic, and the perfume ylang-ylang from the plant Uvaria aromatica. This is worth £9 per lb. in the Paris market, and has been a good deal planted lately in Luzon and Sulu Island. The tobacco culture of the Philippines demands a separate word. The policy of Spain in the islands has always been that of monopolies. Little by little she has had to rehnquish them. The last to fall, in July, 1882, was that of tobacco. First instituted by Governor Basco in 1780, it has always been productive of difficulties. The enforced culture of the plant in the chief tobacco districts entailed great hardship on the natives, who were unable to work their rice crops at the same time ; THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 59 while, on the other hand, it was found impossible to keep down illicit fields in the wilder districts and the sale of the leaf to private buyers. The abandonment of the r6gie is a step in advance, and will tend to improve the export in quantity, though possibly not in quality. The best tobacco comes from the province of Cagayan in the extreme north of Luzon, but since 1884 plantations have been established in Sulu Island for the growth of " wrappers " (as the outer leaves of cigars are technically termed) for the best Havana cigars, and with some suc- cess. In 1890 some 8000 tons of leaf tobacco and 110,000,000 cigars were exported from Manila, showing a slight falling off from the previous year. Manufactures are chiefly of two kinds — cigars and textiles. The great cigar factories of Manila employ several thousands of hands. The textile fabrics are chiefly made for home use, an immense quantity of abaca, cotton, and silk stuffs being produced. The fibre of the pine-apple, known in the islands as pina, is wrought into fabrics of excessive fineness, — to such a fineness even that some of the looms are protected with curtains to prevent the breaking of the thread by a current of air. These pina dresses often fetch enormous sums, a single one having been sold for over £300. The Philippines prac- tically clothe themselves, for there is very little importa- tion of stuffs for the people. Mat-making is also a great specialty, as well as hats and cigar cases, made from palm leaves and split rattans. The chief other native manufactures are gold filagree work a,nd coarse pottery. The buffalo is the chief beast of labour, and is bred in vast numbers. It is specially suited for a country in which the roads and tracks are for a great part of the year half under water, and utterly impassable for horses. In some of the islands both buffaloes and horses have 60 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL become completely wild : in many parts they are half- wild, being only caught and used as occasion demands. Oxen are bred numerously, but sheep are rarely seen. The principal ports in the Philippines are Manila and its secondary harbour of Cavite ; Iloilo in Panay ; Zebu ; Aparri in the extreme north of Luzon, the port of the tobacco district ; Ilocos, also in North Luzon ; and Capiz in Panay. About two-thirds of the shipping trade is British. In 1890 the number of British vessels which entered the port of Manila was 153. The import trade will, however, doubtless be checked by the establishment of a new Customs tariff, which has raised the duties considerably. This was promulgated in April, 1891, and is apparently protective in its aim, for by its provisions all Spanish manufactures arriving in Spanish vessels are admitted free of duty. The total value of imports and exports, according to the last published official report (1888) is as follows: Imports, £4,000,000; Exports, £5,000,000. After the British the German trade comes next in importance. A project for the establishment of a general network of railways throughout the most populous parts of Luzon and elsewhere has been under consideration for some years, but up to the present time the only line con- structed is the Manila-Dagupan, which is about 120 miles in length. This was opened for traffic in Novem- ber, 1892. The telegraph is confined to Luzon, and the service has been established in 59 towns and villages. It extends to both extremities of the island, and has been found of the greatest benefit in giving warning of the approach of typhoons. The postal service is largely carried on by the interinsular steamers, for in the less civilised districts the want of bridges and the execrable condition of the I'oads greatly impede inland communication. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 61 9. Government and Revenue. The supreme authority in the colony is vested in the hands of a Gobernador Capitdn General, under the direc- tion of the Crown and Cortes. Under his orders a General of Division commands the army and a Eear- Admiral the sea forces. The islands are divided for political purposes into four governments — Luzon, the Bisayas, Mindanao, and the Islas Adjacentes. The first is administered by the Governor-General, the others by general officers under his command. A Council of Administration, composed of the chief Spanish officials, assists the Governor-General in the exercise of his func- tions at Manila. These four districts are subdivided into provinces, fifty-three in total number, which are variously admin- istered by " Civil Governors," " Politico-Military Gover- nors," " Politico-Military Commandants," and " jMilitary Commandants," whose powers are sufficiently indicated by their titles. Eoughly speaking, the rule of the Luzon district is civil, that of the others military, but to this there are many exceptions. Each province is again divided into pueblos, which word should be rendered rather as small canton than as village. Each pueblo is ruled by its Gobernadorcillo, elected biennially, who is very often a native ; and every httle village or hamlet has its Teniente, responsible in turn to his gobernador- cillo. The latter acts as a magistrate, trying small cases and remitting the more important to the Alcalde, who is often at the same time the Governor of the province. The office of gobernadorcillo is unpaid, but much coveted for its position and the wealth it brings. The Ileal Audiencia at Manila constitutes a final Court of Appeal. 62 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TEAVEL The gobernadorcillo, in addition to acting as mayor and magistrate and headman of the district to whom (or to his teniente) the European traveller applies for men and animals to continue his journey, was formerly also the tax collector, or rather the collector of " tribute," for by this name was known the impost levied upon every person not of European parentage. Each married couple paid a tributa, amounting to about 4s. 4d. ; unmarried adults paid half that sum. In addition there was a forty days' corvee for road mending, which could be com- pounded for by an annual payment of 12s. In 1884 all this was abolished, and a passport {Cedula personal) system adopted. The passports are of nine classes from 2 5 dollars downwards ; those holding lower than a 3^ dollar rating being obliged to submit to 15 days' corvee, or to pay an equivalent of half a dollar per diem. Tliese passports are compulsory for every person above the age of 18 years of whatever nationality. The army is composed of seven regiments of in- fantry ; a squadron of cavalry ; a Guardia Civil of native troops numbering four regiments ; a battery of peninsula artillery ; a corps of engineers, with four native com- panies attached ; and a corps of carbineers. The total strength, on a peace footing, is 11,000 men, 12 guns, and 120 horses. Eecruiting is by conscription, and the length of service eight years, but a native can purchase freedom from conscription by the payment of about £10. The navy comprises 26 vessels, mostly of small tonnage, although a corvette of the first clas^ and three smaller unarmoured ships are stationed in the archipelago. Of the rest 13 are gunboats. One vessel is employed in survey work. The total number of officers and men on active service, including marines, is about 3000. At Cavite, the naval station of Manila, there is an arsenal and a slip. THE PHILIPriNE ISLANDS Go The revenue is derived from various sources, the most important being the passport tax above mentioned. Customs dues (considerably raised in 1891), State lotteries, post and telegraphs, excise on palm-wine, and licenses for cock-fighting — the ruling passion of the islanders — are the chief items. The Budget shows generally a deficit. In 1886 the expenditure was £2,326,000, the revenue £2,300,000. The estimates for 1891 are given as £2,145,763 and £2,119,467 respectively. 10. Population and Provinces. The population of the Philippines has been very variously estimated. It is chiefly arrived at by the number of those who paid the capitation tax. The last statistics of these given by Dr. Meyer show that 1,232,544 paid tribute in 1870, and the total popula- tion was estimated at six times this number, or in round numbers about 7|- millions. The persons living between the ages of 16 and 60 (the age of taxation) are usually about half the total population, so that the Christian natives and Chinese would together only amount to 2|- millions. The official census — if it can thus be termed — of 1877 gave 5,559,020 as the population of the Philippines, and 75,000 as that of the Sulu group. The latest estimate of the Archbishop of Manila places the total number of the inhabitants of the archipelago at 7,500,000, and calculates that of the Sulu group at 200,000 more. This latter is without doubt much too high an estunate. From the subjoined table given by Eeclus, which claims to be calculated from the latest available data, the total numbers appear as 6,142,452. Governments. Provinces. Cai>itals. PoyiuLa- lion. / 1. Manila Manila 324,367 2. Cavite Cavite 69,794 3. Laguiia Sta. Cruz 141,900 4. Morong Morong 48,663 5. Bulacau liulacan 264,375 6. Pampaiiga Bacolor 207,205 7. Bataau Balanga 49,273 8. Zani bales Iba 80,230 9. Tarlac Tarlac 57,713 10. Pansashiau Lingayen 252,892 11. La Union San Fernando 115,911 12. Benguet La Trinidad 9,311 13. IIocos Sur Vigan 114,675 14. Ilocos Norte Laoang 148,204 15. Abia Ikngued 37,791 / 16. Cagayan Tuguegarao 70,881 Luzon. S 17. Batanes San Domingo 500 IS. Isabela Turnaniui 39,391 19. Bontoc Bontoc 7,757 •20. Lcpanto Lepanto 18,009 ■21. Principe Baler 3,268 22. I^ueva Vizcaya Bayonibong 26,357 23. Nueva Ecija Siin Lsidro 92,970 24. Infanta Binangonan 8,483 25. Batangas I^atangas 308,110 26. Tayabas Tavaba.s 103,310 27. Camarines Xorte Daet 29,009 28. Camarines Sur Nueva Ca9eres 88,712 29. A lb ay Albay 245,972 30. Lsland of ]\Iindoro Calapan 37,648 31. Island of Buria.s Sau Pascual "j MaslDato - Romblon J 32. Island of Masbate 44,000 33. Romblon Islands f 1. Island of Zebu Zebu 518,032 2. Island of Leyte Tacloban 278,452 3. Island of Samar Catlialogan 183,000 4. Iloilo Iloilo 500,000 BlSAYAS. ( 5. Concepcion Concepcion 27,000 6. Anti(pic San Jose 106,000 7. Capiz Capiz 197,000 8. Island of Negros Bacolod 226,000 9. Islaml of Boliol Tagbilai'au 277,387 L Misamis Misamis 2. Surigao Surigao Mindanao. / 3." 4. Davao Bislig Davao or Vergara Bislig 650,000 5. Cottabato Cottabato 6. Zamboanga Zamboanga 7. Island of P)asilan Isabela 600 8. Jolo (Sulu) Jolo 100,000 ISLAS J 1. Calamianes Tai-tai 19,500 2. Puerto Princesa Princesa 12,000 Adjacentes. j 3. Balabac Balabac 800 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 65 11. The Capital — Life and Manners. The traveller visiting Manila for the lirst time will be struck by the scene of busy life which the port affords. The anchorage is full of shipping, and the quays thronged with people. Although the larger vessels anchor off the town, the quays afford sufficient depth of water to permit the greater number to warp alongside and discharge or load direct. The Pasig river, wdiich bisects the city, admits vessels of three or four hundred tons, but a new harbour is in course of construction in front of the citadel, which will materially advantage shipping. The Spanish men-of-war lie in the harbour of Cavite, about 10 miles to the south, where is the arsenal and slip. The Pasig is a small stream, some 150 yards in breadth, which drains the great lake known as the Laguna de Bay. It is less than 10 miles in length, but is lined with villages throughout its course, and but for a bar at its origin would admit vessels of considerable size into the lake. In its course through the city it is spanned by three bridges, which connect the old and fortified " Manila intramuros " with its populous suburbs. The city itself, situated at the head of a magnificent bay, on a navigable river leading to a lake whose w^aters teem with fish and whose shores are specially favourable for agriculture, possesses advantages of site which were at once recognised by Legaspi on his arrival in 1571, and he commenced its founding without delay. It is there- fore the oldest European town in the East after Goa. Before this. Zebu had served as capital for the first Spanish settlers. When the English seized Manila in 1762 the Spanish temporarily removed the seat of F G6 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL government to Bacolor in the province of Pampanga, to the north of Manila Bay. The old town, triangular in shape, is surrounded with walls of solid masonry, now cracked and shattered by innumerable earthquakes. To the north and south-west it is protected by the river and the sea respectively. The land-face has strong bastions and a double fosse, but the fortifications would be of little use against modern artillery, and only serve to render unhealthy the town which they enclose. Within, the streets are gloomy and narrow, and show frequent evidences of the earthquakes. Here are the chief official buildings, the cathedral, the convents, and the barracks, and outside the walls en the river-face are the wharves and a monument to Magellan. Commercial Manila lies across the river, upon its right bank, in the quarters of Tondo and Binondo, where the Chinese stalls and 'stores gradually give place to busy thoroughfares lined with European shops. Canals which become partly dry at low water intersect the streets, and leave much to be desired from a sanitary point of view. But otherwise this part of the city is well kept, and the main street — the Escolta — where are situated the chief cafes and shops, is well paved and lighted. The officials and merchants reside chiefly in the suburbs of San Miguel and San Sebastian, while Quiapo and Ermita are the most important native quarters. Three or four miles to the north is Malabon, with a gigantic cigar factory, which employs sometimes as many as 10,000 hands. Manila owns nothing of importance in the way of buildings. The cathedral built in 1654 was destroyed in the frightful earthquake of the 3rd June, 1863,^ but ^ The following account of this catastrophe is given by the German traveller Jagor : — " On the 3rd of June- 1863, at thirty-one minutes past seven in the even- THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 67 was aftenvai'ds rebuilt and consecrated in 3 879. There is a small nmseuni and a pulilic library, which are not too crowded. The Manilan prefers the promenade in the Paseo de la Liineta, whither he drives at top speed in his calesa when business is over for the day. Here the whole world of the city, from the cigarcra to the wife of the Governor, meets to chat and listen to the band, of which Manilans are justly proud. IMusic of some sort — good, l)ad, or indifferent — the Filipirio must have. Other amuse- ments are scanty enough. There is a European theatre, and two or three others where the performances are in Tagalog, but the evenings are chiefly devoted to tertulias, or " At Homes," of wdiich, as is not infrequently the case in other countries, it may be said that they are more numerous than amusing. The population of the old town in 1879 was 17,950, and that of the immediate suburbs 116,070, making a total of 134,620, but it appears that there has been some decrease of late years, since the official returns of 1891 give the number of inhabitants of the town and subuiljs as 107,171. There is apparently no agreement, however, as to wdiat should be described as IManila. The outlying iiig, after a day of tremendous lieat, while all Manila was busy in its prepara- tions for the festival of Corpus Christi, the ground suddenly rocked to and fro with great violence. The firmest buildings reeled visibly, walls crumbled, and beams snapped in two. The dreadful shock lasted half a minute ; but this little interval was enough to change the whole town into a mass of ruins, and to bury alive hundreds of its inhabitants. Tlie cathedral, the government house, the barracks, and all the public build- ings of ^lanila, were entirely destroyed, and the few jirivate houses which remained standing were seriously damaged. Subsequent examination showed that 46 public and 570 private Iniildings were thrown down, 2S public and 528 private buildings were nearly destroyed, while all left standing were more or less injured. Four hundred persons were killed, and two thousand injured, and the loss of property was estimated at eight millions of dollars." 68 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL villages are sometimes included, and the population mis- leadingly estimated at a quarter of a million or more. The Christianized natives of the Philippines are for the most part a simple race, — docile, easy-going, credulous, rather excitable, and very superstitious. The Spaniards say that they are as easily led by Europeans who take pains to understand them as the horse or the buffalo. They are, in tact, led, guided, and virtually governed by the Catholic priesthood, who may be truly said to have originally concpiered them, and to have maintained them ever since in subjection. This has made them less dignified and polished than some of the true Malays, but they yet have many estimable qualities. They are a good-natured, cheerful, contented, and hospitable people ; and though, when first visited by the Portuguese and Spaniards, they were inferior in civilisation to the Malays and Javanese, they may now be considered as equal if not superior to them. Of all Asiatic people they are perhaps those who have made the most advance under European rule. Mr. W. G. Palgrave calls them " as in- dustrious, steady, and persevering a race as any under a tropical sun." Most of these people wear a national costume some- what resembling that of the Malays ; the women a " camisa " and " saya," and the men a shirt hanging out- side the trousers like a blouse. On festa days and other holidays they are often very expensively clad in j:)i?la of fine texture freely embroidered. Their amusements, with one exception, are of a harmless and simple order. Plays, secular or semi - religious, the latter preponderating, dances, festas, and processions with as much music as can conveniently be introduced, for a brass band is a sine qud noil in every Tagal village : these are the chief. The exception is cock-fighting — " une veritable passion que THE riiiLipriNE islands 69 les Indiens des Philippines pousseiit jiisqu'au paroxysiue," as M. Montano justly remarks. Every village that can afford to pay the tax has its pit for the gallcras, each peasant rears his fighting-cock, which he carries with him almost wherever he goes, whether to market, fishing in his canoe, or working in his field. It is the possession by which he sets most store, and it is commonly said in the islands that in the event of fire the native flies to rescue his bird rather than his wife or child. The spurs used are made of razors ground to excessive thinness, and the issue of the combat is thus greatly an affair of chance. Despite this fact, the Tagal does not hesitate to stake all his available cash upon his bird, and it has been well remarked that the (jallcras work more ruin than the earthquakes and typhoons put together. Travel in the Philippines is not only expensive, from the high price of labour, but also an affair of no little difficulty owing to the condition of the country. Por six months in the year, and in some places for considerably more, much of the low country is under water, and so great is the deposit of mud left behind that it is impos- sible to ]3i"ogress either on foot or on horseback, and the buffalo is the beast of burden for the traveller and his baggage. The torrential rains tear up the roads and render them next to impassable, and swollen streams and rivers bar the track with annoying frequency. Since bridges are almost unknown except in the civilised dis- tricts, recourse must be had to cane rafts, which often lender the passage of these rivers a matter of consideralile danger. There are no inns of any kind, but hospitality is freely dispensed by the priest, or in his absence tlie traveller rests at the house of the gobernadorcillo, or establishes himself in the little court-house which serves equally the purposes of a town-hall and a dak-bungalow. 70 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKArHY AND TEAVEL 12. The Islands. Luzon. Luzon is the largest island of the Philippines, is as fertile as almost any island in Australasia, and is nearly as populous as Java and JMadura. It lies between north latitudes 12° 35' and 18° 43', and has a length of about 420 miles in a straight line, but owing to its irregular shape, its actual length is not less than 550 miles. In breadth it varies from al)0ut 140 miles in its northern part to less than five at the isthmus of Tayabas. Its total area is about twice as great as that of Ireland. Through- out its whole length it is traversed by mountain ranges, all of which are of moderate, but none of very great height. In the northern peninsula there are two parallel ranges. The highest mountain in Luzon is the Mayon volcano in the province of Albay, which has l^een lately measured and found to be 8970 feet. This height is exceeded by the mountains of Mindanao, and possibly by others, but accurate information upon the subject is wanting. The mountains are generally loftier towards the eastern coast of the island, where they form a bold and inaccessible shore exposed to heavy seas and bad weather during the prevalence of the N.E. monsoon. The soil here is poor and the population scanty, and the interinsular steamers do not ply north of the Catanduanes Islands. The island affords very different conditions of climate, agriculture, and race : the rainfall everywhere abundant, but very variable ; in the north the great tobacco district of Cagayan, and the Ilocanos, with numerous Negritos in the less known mountain fastnesses ; in the central provinces around Manila a careful but mixed agriculture THE PIIILIITINE ISLANDS 71 and the Tagals ; to the south the vast hemp-pi-oduoing regions, Albay and Camarines, with the Bicols as the chief inhabitants. Near Manihi there are the particular indus- tries connected with large cities, as the " petite culture " ; and land fetches a high price. One of the great sights of Luzon is Pateros, or Duck-town, as it may l)e rendered, where many hundreds of thousands of ducks are ainuudly reared for the Manila market. These establishments occupy the banks of the Pasig river for nearly two miles. The birds are hatched by incubators, and are fed upon shell-tish taken in Manila Bay. Ascending the Tasig, the great sheet of water known as the Laguna de Bay is reached, which has an average length and l^readth of about twenty-five miles. It has been suggested, and witli some probability, that it was formerly an arm of the sea which was cut off and formed into a lake by the eruption of one of the neighbouring volcanoes, as the lake of Taal a little further to the south undoubtedly has been. Sharks and other sea fish are reported to be found in its water.s. At the present time its surface is said to be 58 feet above the level of the sea, and its depth to average about 100 feet. Fifteen rivers flow into it, but the Pasig is the only exit. Its shores are extremely fertile and the scenery is beautiful, and owing to the number of towns and villages surrounding it, its waters are covered with native boats. Occupying the region to the north of Manila l^ay are the two provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga, which are perhaps the most flourishing parts of the island. ]\fagni- ficent haciendas and sugar plantations evince the fertility of the soil, but the earthquake of 1880 wrought tremen- dous damage, and its effects are still to be seen. Daily steamers connect the capital of the first-named pro^-ince with Manila. Farther north, in the pro\ince of North 72 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAYEL Ilocos, is Lavag, which claims to be the largest town in the archipelago after Manila, but it is without a port and is the centre of a purely agricultural district. Off the extreme northern point of Luzon lie the Bashi and Babuyanes groups, which are claimed by Spain. They have few inhabitants, and are not subjected to the passport or poll-tax. On the coast opposite the Babuyanes is Aparri, the port of the province of Cagayan, whence large quantities of tobacco are shipped to the capital to be made into cheroots. The district is a fertile valley — the Llano de Dijun — lying between the two great ranges of the Sierra Madre and the western Cordillera, and drained by the Piio Grande de Cagayan or Tajo, the largest river in Luzon, which is navigable by small vessels for a consider- able distance, and has a course of about 200 miles. The inhospitable east coast affords no important towns in its northern part, and scarcely a single harbour until Port Lampon, opposite Manila, is reached. Southern Luzon, but for its abaca, would be of less agricultural importance than the central parts of the island, but its geographical position is superior, and the San Bernardino Channel, which bounds it to the south and west, permits of navigation in most weathers. Legaspi, the port of shipment of the hemp, is used only in the summer. When the north-east monsoon is blowing the vessels lie at Sorsogon, and the produce is sent across the narrow isthmus to that port. The Albay district is con- spicuous for the excellence of its roads — a rare character- istic of any part of Luzon — and planting has been progressing with great energy and success of late years, the Government selling the unreclaimed forest land at from one shilling to half a crown the acre. But the district is famed not only for its abaca, but for its vol- canoes, and the peasant works under the shadow of the THE PIIILIITIXE ISLANDS To smoking cone of ^Mayoii with a full K-iiowiedge of tlie disaster which inuy at any moment befall him. The volcanoes of Luzon demand special consideration. Although, as has been already stated, the whole archi- pelago is more or less of volcanic origin, the acme of the manifestation of these subterranean forces appears to be reached in the southern part of the great island of which we are treating. Bulusan, situated within a few miles only of its terminal cape, is still partly active, but though two or three eruptions have taken place within the last half century, they have not occasioned any great destruc- tion. This cannot be said of ]\It. Mayon, whose stupen- dous cone of nearly 9000 feet dominates the town of Albay. The first eruption known to the Spaniards was in 1616, and another occurred in 1766, which was attended with great loss of life and property, but both of these were eclipsed by that of 1st February 181-1 — one of the most appalling of the many volcanic catas- trophes which have visited the islands of Australasia. The rain of ashes was such as to bury whole villages and their coco-nut groves to a depth of 120 feet or more, and more than 12,000 people lost their lives. In Manila, 208 miles distant, the ashes lay nearly two feet deep in the streets. Since then eruptions have been very fre- quent, but not so violent. The mountain has been ascended both by Jagor and von Drasche, and has been found to be without a crater — the steam and gas escaping from a mass of scorite. The shape of the volcano is a nearly perfect cone, an evidence that its formation has been due to constant and prolonged action. In the Bay of Sorsogon — celebrated as the harbour in which the Acapulco galleons were built and fitted out — the land has recently sunk five or six feet. At Tibi, on the coast to the N.E., are fumaroles and hot springs somewhat 74 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAYEL resembling those of the Xew Zealand " Pink Terrace," and phenomena of like nature exist in the surrounding country. To the north numerous volcanoes occur in the Cama- rines, forming a sort of group. The chief of them are Isarog, Kolasi, Labot, and Bernacci. At the present time they are extinct, but there is no doubt that at no very dis- tant epoch their eruptions added the Camarines and Albay provinces to Luzon, and that Allmy was also formerly a distinct island from the Camarines. Immediately south of the Laguna de Bay is another similar group — Majaijay or Banahao (7326 feet), S. Cristobal (7654 feet), Maqui- ling (3780 feet), and Taal being the principal peaks. All except Taal are inactive, but Maquiling has solfataras and hot springs at its base, and the latter, being of con- siderable therapeutic repute, are the site of a hospital which, though only commenced a few years ago, was never finished, and has now fallen into ruin. Taal is one of the most singular volcanoes on the surface of the globe. It consists of a volcanic cone emerging from a lake, which appears to occupy the enormous crater of an ancient volcano. This lake (Lake Taal or Bomlion), which is 17 miles long and 11 wide, is so surrounded with steep hills as to have the appearance of a huge cauldron of water. It is about 600 feet in depth, and from its centre rises the island cone, which, though 3 miles in its longest diameter, is only 767 feet high, and is thus remarkable as being probably the lowest active volcano in existence. The crater is an irregular oval, and is about three-quarters of a mile across in its widest part. At the bottom are two or three lakes, the water of one of which is of a brilliant apple-green in colour. Another, bright yellow, smokes and boils over perpetually. The principal eruptions of Taal occurred in the years 1709, THE rillLIPl'LXE ISLANDS 75 1716, 1740, 1754, 1867, and 1880— the most severe being that of 1754, when for eight days the crater threw out ashes and lava, darkening the sky to such an extent that artificial lights had to be used at mid-day in Manila, while the shocks of the explosions were sensible at a distance of 300 leagues. The red-hot lava falling into the lake raised the temperature of the neighbouring water to boiling point, and the fish, perishing in countless thousands, gave rise to an epidemic which is said to have cost the lives of 40,000 of the natives. The last eruption, that of July 1880, commenced before the great earthquake, and stones of enormous size were projected to some distance into the lake. The lake of Taal is bounded on its south-west side by a low isthmus, formed entirely of volc^aiic ashes, which separates it from the sea, and it is evident that at some past period the walls forming the ancient crater yielded at this spot, and that the sea irrupted. At a later date a succeeding volcanic eruption cut off this arm of the sea and turned it into a lake. It is said to be still partially salt, and to contain various marine fish. Previous to the 17 16 eruption the island itself used to be cultivated, but the great showers of ashes wdiich fell in 1754 destroyed everything, and in 1880 nothing was growing upon it but the coarse lalang grass. Since then this too has disappeared, and the island is now only a heap of cinders. Between Manila and the extreme north of Luzon there are few volcanoes, and none of them are active, but near Cape Engano, the north-east extremity of the island, Cagud (3920 feet) appears as the first of another isolated group. It is in a semi-active state, but has had no eruption in the present century. Of the Babuyanes Islands two are active, Camiguan and Babuyan Claro. In 1850 a volcano suddenly rose from the sea-shore of the island of 76 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL Dedica, and gradually grew till it attained its present height of about 800 feet. The lakes of Luzon are very numerous, especially in the province of Pampanga. The Laguna de Canaren, on the highest part of this plain, has two rivers flowing from it in opposite directions — one northward to the Gulf of Lingayan, the other south to Manila Bay. The Laguna de Cagayan in north Luzon is another great sheet of water. The term Pinag is applied to the temporary lakes which are so abundant in the rainy season from the overflow of the rivers. Of these one of the most import- ant is the Pinag de Candava, about 30 miles north of Manila. During the rains it is 15 miles or more in length, but in the dry season it becomes a verdant plain of grass with a few permanent pools of water. According to the latest estimate, the population of the island of Luzon is 2,964,933. It is divided among twenty -nine provinces, and there are many populous puellos of from 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. That a steady increase has taken place in some parts of the island is evident from the following statistics of the Tayabas Province : — Year Population 1754 .... 21,000 1831 .... 59,000 1850 .... 81,000 1882 .... 104,000 Manila, Sual (Lingayan), and Legaspi (Albay) are free ports, but few British vessels enter the two latter. MiNDORO. Mindoro, though one of the great islands, and the nearest to Manila, is one of the least known and least THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 77 inhabited. It lies immediately to the south of the Batangas district of Luzon, from which it is separated by a narrow strait about seven or eight miles in breadth. It has a length of about 90 miles, and is from 40 to 50 miles wide. Its area is about 4050 square miles. With the neighbouring islands of Marinduque and Lubang it forms one of the thirty -three provinces of the Luzon administration, its population amounting to 37,648. It is under a civil governor, who resides at Calapan on the north coast. There is no other village of large size in the island, and no civilisation except upon the coast. Mindoro was discovered by Legaspi, who sent his nephew, Juan de Salcedo, to take possession, a task which he accomplished with thirty Spaniards and some native allies. The island was always the haunt of Illanun and Sulu pirates, but the Spanish gunboats have now effectually suppressed them. Still, little attempt at cultivation and civilisation has been made of late. The Jesuits did much, l3ut since their evacuation there has been almost no advance. Many formerly populous j^uehlos in the interior are now deserted and ruined. The in- habitants of the coast are Tagals, but the people of the interior — the Manguianos— are in a state of almost complete savagery, though of harmless disposition. They are of sub-Malayan stock, speaking a peculiar language, and livmg in a very miserable manner on the products of a rude agriculture. Mindoro has lofty mountain ranges, which culminate in the north in Mount Halcon (8865 feet), and are covered everywhere with dense forest. Near the coast there is much marsh land, and the island bears the repu- tation of being extremely unhealthy. There are no active volcanoes in Mindoro, and its geological structure is almost unknown. In the north-west a valley crosses 78 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the island from Abra de Ylo to Mamburao, along which there is a road which can be traversed in the dry season, but is so flooded during the rains as to be impassable. In the north-east is a lake about five miles across, which lies in a depression behind the coast-range between the towns of Nanjan and Pola. The floods of the wet season leave an annual deposit of mud in this valley, which raises its level so rapidly that the church of the old town of Nanjan, situated near the lake, became buried in the course of fifteen years to the top of the arch of the door, and the town had to be removed to near the sea. The curious Anoa depressicornis, an antelope -like buffalo which is peculiar to the island of Celebes, has been reported to exist in Mindoro, but Dr. Steere's recent visit has shown that the wild bovine animal of the island is quite a distinct and new species, although apparently closely allied. The occurrence of this animal in Mindoro alone of all the islands is very remarkable. The land shells also show a striking peculiarity, and the avifauna, if not so distinctive, nevertheless comprises many peculiar species. Taking these facts into consideration, and that of the existence of very deep water completely surround- ing the island, it is probable that we have to do with a remnant of a very much older continent, which was at one time possibly connected with Celebes and land to the south and east in the direction of Australia. Panay. This island is situated to the south-east of Mindoro, and including Guimaras, has an area of 4831 square miles. It is in shape an irregular triangle, and the island of Guimaras to the south-east appears to have once formed a part of it. A chain of mountains runs from THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 79 the centre to each point, thus dividing the island into three natural districts, which form the provinces of Antique, Capiz, and Iloilo. The little province of Con- cepcion occupies the north-east corner, and is the smallest in the archipelago with the exception of Batanes — the group of islands at the extreme north. Panay is exceedingly fertile, being well irrigated by numerous mountain streams, and is very populous, the last returns giving 830,000 as the number of its inhabit- ants. It is, in fact, after Zebu, the most densely peopled and highly cultivated island of the group. The natives, with the exception of a few Negritos in the mountains, are exclusively Bisayans. The land near the coast is low, easily irrigated, and specially adapted for sugar growing. The mountains scarcely exceed 3000 feet. There are no active volcanoes, but fumaroles and other evidences of dormant volcanic forces exist in the province of Iloilo. Gold, copper, iron, and quicksilver have been found, and coal in Antique, but none of these are worked. Next to Manila, Iloilo is the most important town in the Philippines. It is a free port with an excellent harbour, and is frequented largely by British vessels. A municipal corporation was established in 1891, from which great benefits are expected to be derived with regard to public lighting, police, repair of roads, and other improvements which up to the present have been much neglected. The decrease in the price of sugar has, however, proved a great blow to the island, as it is upon this crop that its welfare chiefly depends. The export for the year 1890 amounted to 96,000 tons, and was less than that of the previous year by 14,000 tons. Tobacco is also largely grcv/n — to the amount of 2,314,100 lbs. in 1890, and large quantities of sapan wood, pina fabrics, cacao, coffee, and rice are produced. The latter cereal is, 80 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEA.PHV AND TRAVEL however, not grown in sufficient quantities for the con- sumption of the island, and some twenty or twenty-five thousand tons are annually imported. While in 1887 a total of 174 vessels entered the port, rather less than half that number were registered in 1890, and with in- creased taxes and dues the prosperity of the island seems seriously threatened. Negros. Negros lies to the south-east of Panay, from which it is separated by a strait about 15 miles in width. It is 130 miles long, and on the average about 30 miles wide. Its area is 4650 square miles. Its coast is comparatively little broken by bays or inlets, and it has no good harbours. A central chain of mountains runs through its entire length. For the most part these are of no great height, but the Malaspina or Canloon volcano, situated towards the northern end, forms an exception. Its height is estimated at 8192 feet, and it is in a state of intermittent activity. Owing to the narrowness of the island there are no navigable rivers. The inhabitants are chiefly Bisayans, and number with the Negritos, from whose abundance the island received its name, about 226,000. The island is fertile, and produces sugar, rice, tobacco, and the textiles abaca and piha, and in common with Zebu and Samar, a large amount of cacao. Its coal mines appear to be no longer worked. The capital is Bacolod on the west coast, opposite to Iloilo, where the " politico -military " governor resides, and there are numerous large villages around the coast, though few in the interior. Hinigaran, the former capital, contains over 12,000 inhabitants. THE riiiLiri'iNE islands 81 Zebu. Zebu or Cebn is a long and narrow island, lying im- mediately to the east of Negros, from which it is separated by a strait from 5 to 15 miles wide, and over 100 miles in length. Zebu is 1.30 miles long, and not more than 20 broad in its widest part, and contains 2275 .square miles, or rather less than half the area of Negros. Several chains of mountains of no great height traverse it from north to south, but little is known of its geology except that it produces gold, silver, and lead, and has no active volcanoes. Coal occurs abundantly, and is of fairly good quality, but the complete neglect of all mineral wealth by the Spaniards is exhibited here as else- where. The inhabitants are almost exclusively Bisayans, but there are said to be a few Negritos. The population has greatly increased of late years owing to the great de- velopment of the sugar and abaca cultivation, and now numbers 518,000, but locusts and low prices have recently dealt as heavy a blow to Zebu as to Panay. In all these islands sugar-growing will probably give place to hemp or some more paying crop. In 1890 only 3000 tons were exported as against 11,000 tons in 1889, and while in the latter year thirty-four vessels — almost all of which were British — entered the port, the number in 1800 only amounted to 14. The capital. Zebu, dignified by the title of city, is the oldest settlement in the Philippines, and was the seat of government until the founding of Manila. It w^as the first place of any importance visited by Magellan on his discovery of the group, and it was upon the little island of Mactan which forms the harbour of Zebu that he met with his death on the 27th April, 1521. Kfty years G 82 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TKAVEL later Legaspi planned and built the citj. It is pictur- esquely situated, and has a fine cathedral and several churches, but the population is not large. The island forms a province by itself, under the administration of a military governor. Samak. Samar lies within ten miles of the extreme southern point of Luzon, and is one of the larger islands of the archipelago, being about equal in size to Panay, and hav- ing an estimated area of 4680 square miles. From Luzon it is separated by the San Bernardino Channel, and from Leyte by the narrow winding sea-passage of S. Juanico, which has more the appearance of a river than a strait. The island is 150 miles in length, and is very moun- tainous. Its eastern shores are exposed to the full force of the north-east monsoon, and are very imperfectly known, but the western side has some tolerable harbours, and it is here that the capital, Catbalogan, is situated. The rivers are numerous, and owing to the irregular dis- position of the mountains, penetrate far into the country. Coal is found, but no attempt has been made to inves- tigate the minerals of the island. The interior is covered with dense forest, and only inhabited by a few scattered Negritos. There is hardly any trade, but there are large groves of coco-nut palms, and cacao is also grown. The population is estimated at 190,000, and is almost ex- clusively Bisayan. The thirty-six imcblos are administered by a politico -military governor. Leyte. Across the narrow Juanico Strait to the south-west THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 83 lies Leyte, an irregularly shaped island, whose southern arms approach within a few miles of Mindanao. It is about 110 miles long, has an area of 3075 square miles, and, like almost all the islands of the group, is moun- tainous, although the chain whicli traverses it from nortli to south is of no great elevation. Mount Sacripante, one of the highest peaks, is under 4000 feet. The formation is volcanic ; there are hot siliceous springs, and many ex- tinct craters which produce sulplnir in alxindance. Gold mines are worked, but in a desultory fashion. The east coast is said to be rising, while the west is being de- stroyed by the sea, Avhich at Orinog has advanced fift}- yards in six years. The rivers are all small and not navigable. There are two lakes, Jarnaran in the north- west, and Bito near the centre of the island, but botli are of insignificant size. The former is an old crater and has acid water. The inhabitants of Leyte are Bisayans, who are said by Jagor to be more idle and dirty than the Tagals, although friendly and tractaVjle, crime being almost unknown. The whole of the interior is forest, the settlements being on or near the coast. The capital town is Tacloban, at the southern entrance to the San Juanico Strait. It has direct communication with Manila, and is a free port, but there is no large trade as yet. A recent calculation gives the population of the island as 278,452. BOHOL. Bohol lies between Zebu and Leyte, and at no distant period probably formed a part of the latter island, to which it is joined by a submarine Ijank of coral reefs and rocks covered by very shallow water. It has an area of 1250 square miles, and is of remarkably compact shape, its length bems about 60 miles and its breadth 30. It 8-1 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL is hilly and volcanic, with abundant streams and a fertile soil, the chief product of which is tobacco, although almost all the crops usually cultivated in the archipelago are grown. It is united with the small island of Siquihor to form the province of Bohol, whose popula- tion, according to the latest census, numbers no less than 277,387 souls. The capital town is Tagbiloran, and there are fowr 2yueUos of over 10,000 inhabitants. The density of the population is, in fact, nearly as great as that of Zebu and Panay. The people are all Bisayans. Siquihor is notable for possessing an active or semi-active volcano. Masbate. Off the southern end of Luzon, and forming with Ticao Island a province of that government, is Masbate, partly peopled by Bicols and partly by Bisayans. It is rather smaller than Bohol, having an area of about 1200 square miles. A crescent-shaped mountain chain of con- siderable elevation occupies the middle of the island, probably composed of ancient crystalline rocks, as the river sands produce a considerable quantity of gold, and copper is also found. It possesses several good harbours, but in spite of this and its potential mineral wealth it is sparsely inhabited and cultivated, and has little or no trade. Mindanao. Mindanao, or Magindano as it was formerly called, is the most southern of the Philippines. In size it is scarcely inferior to Luzon, having a total area of 37,680 square miles. In shape it is very irregular, its outline being broken on every side by deep bays and gulfs. Its rough measurements from north to south and from east THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 85 to west are about oOO iniles, ami it may therefore be considered to be about ecjual in size to England, the shape of which, if the orientation be changed, it very much resembles. It is generally mountainous, with ex- tensive plains and valleys and numerous lakes. Three separate volcanic ranges traverse it from south to north. That from the western extremity, proceeding from the Sulu range, curves and passes north by Siquihor Island to the Bisayas. The middle chain is a continuation north of the volcanoes of Celebes and the Sangir islands, and is connected by the active crater of Camiguin Island with the ranges in the islands to the north. The third chain closely borders the east coast, and reappears in Leyte. The middle range exhibits the greatest alti- tudes, which culminate in Mount Apo, near the Gulf of Davao. This mountain, which is the highest in the whole archipelago, was ascended in 1880 by M. Montano, who assigns to it an altitude of 10,280 feet. It is in a state of semi-activity, its sides rent by a huge crevasse which emits dense sulphurous fumes. The summit is nearly Imre, but dotted here and there with stunted junipers, and is succeeded below by a zone of melastomas and rhododendrons. At the base of the mountain is a forest of huge tree ferns. Another active volcano is known to exist near the centre of the island, and there are boiling springs in the Surigao district. Of the recent elevation which has taken place Mindanao affords an excellent example in the valley of the Agusan river at the north- east, where huge coral masses are to be seen blocking the river bed at an altitude of some hundreds of feet above the sea-level. Mindanao, with high mountains, extensive plains, and exposed to a superabundant rainfall, is watered by many rivers, some of which are navigable. Of these the two 86 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL chief are the Mindanao, or Eio Grande, on the western side, and the Agusan river, which debouches into Butuan Bay in the Surigao district. The lakes are scarcely less numerous, but many are pinags, and disappear in the dry season. So little is the interior known that the position of Lake Mindanao, a large sheet of water re- ported to exist near the centre of the island, has never been determined. M. Montano, whose bold journey from the Davao Gulf to Butuan Bay in 1880 added consider- ably to our knowledge of the country, crossed the Linao Lake in lat. 8° 12' N., and found it to be of small size, and Mainit is only a crater lake. In the Cottabato or Cota Batu district Lakes Liguasan and Buluan feed the Eio Grande, and are said to unite in the rainy season. The whole island, being within ten degrees of the equator, avoids the terrible typhoons which so frequently devastate the islands to the north, but is by no means stormless. From November to April a heavy sea and strong currents render the navigation of the east coast very dangerous, the more so as it is almost without harbours. The climate is more equable than that of Luzon, and the rainfall still heavier. The inhabitants of Mindanao are of three, if not more, distinct peoples. A line drawn from Iligan Bay on the north coast to Davao roughly divides the island into halves, the west of which is inhabited by the Mows or Mohammedan Malays, who have gradually extended eastward from Borneo, while the eastern half is occupied by savage tribes of sub-Malayan stock, who appear to be allied to the Bisayans. A Negrito race is found in the mountains to the north-east. There are also the Man- dayas, a people of doubtful origin, whose height and fairness of skin have led some writers to suggest that they are partly European ! Of all the Mows, the Illanuns THE nilLIPriNE ISLANDS 87 bear the worst reputation. Tor centuries their pirate praus have been the terror of the Eastern seas, and the Spanish settlement at Zamboanga was estabhshed with the special object of suppressing them. At the present time it may be said that piracy is within measurable distance of extinction. The tribes of supposed Bisayan stock chiefly occupy north-eastern Mindanao, and are specially numerous in the Agusan valley. They are complete savages, constantly engaged in inter-tribal war, and are partly cannibals. Captives are made slaves, and there is a title of honour for those who have succeeded in slaughtering as many as sixty of their enemies — a distinction which M. Montano found to be far from uncommon. Of these tribes the best known are the ]\Iandayas of the Sahug Eiver and the Manobos of the Agusan. The former people number some 30,000, of whom about 8000 have been converted to Christianity. In some parts of the Davao Gulf these people are more civilised, knowing how to weave and to forge krisses, and breeding good horses. All the work in civilising the natives has been done by the Jesuits. Mindanao is both rich and fertile. It is probable that gold exists in tolerable quantities, and coal also. Sulphur is exported, and quicksilver has been discovered. There is considerable cultivation, especially in the north of the island ; and in addition to the ordinary vegetable products of the archipelago, cacao and coffee are grown, and of the latter, which is said to be of better quality than that of Puerto Eico, a considerable quantity appears to be exported. The island is densely forested, and grows a great deal of valuable timber, including ebony and teak. The latter tree is found nowhere else in these islands, ex- cepting in Sulu. The mangosteen and durian also abound, fruits which will not flourish farther to the north. 88 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The island is divided into six provinces, the largest and most populous of which is Misamis, extending along the north coast between E. long. 123° and 125°, the chief town, also called Misamis, Ijeing situated in a deep inlet of Iligan Bay, forming a secure harbour. East of this, occupying the whole northern peninsula, is Surigao, at the extremity of which is the chief town of the same name. On the east coast is Bislig, a small province, and of less importance even than Davao, a little explored territory around the gulf of that name. Cota Batu, wrongly written Cottabatto by the Spaniards, embraces not only the larger part of the southern land-mass of the island, but also the country around Illana Bay. Its capital, formerly termed Mindanao, is situated a short distance up the Piio Grande. Another Spanish settle- ment, Pollok, ten miles farther north, was at one time connected with it by an excellent road, but, like other undertakings in the Philippines, it has been neglected, and is now impassable. There are few settlers here, and the population is chiefly composed of the garrison and the officers of the gunboats, of which one or two are always kept on the station to watch the movements of suspicious craft on the neighbouring coast, which does not bear the best of reputations. Of all the Spanish settlements, however, Zamboanga is the best known. Lying at the entrance of the Sulu Sea, and guarding the Strait of Basilan, it is frequently made a port of call. It was established in 1635, and is of some size and commercial importance, boasting of being the healthiest town in the archipelago. Its inhabitants are chiefly half castes, descended from Tagal women and Spaniards, and speak pure but old-fashioned Spanish. The total population of Mindanao is estimated to be about 650,000. THE rillLirPIXE ISLANDS 89 The Sulu Islands. From Zamboanga south-westward to Borneo the Suhi Islands form, as it were, a series of stepping-stones. They number over 200, but are for the most part of very small size, the only exceptions being Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-tawi. They are remarkable for their beauty, and, until lately, for affording shelter to the praus of the most bloodthirsty pirates of the Eastern seas. Politically, they fall under the jurisdiction of the administrator of the Mindanao district, and form two provinces, Basilan and Jolo (as the Spaniards term Sulu) each of which is looked after by a military governor. Until lately the " Castil- lans " had enough to do to hold their own within the walls of their settlements, and did not venture to exercise any real authority over the fanatical and turbulent Sulus, except by means of occasional punitive expeditions. Nor had the Sultan of Sulu much more power over his law- less subjects. Each rendered obedience to his own panglima or small raja, who was often at war with his neighbour a mile or two distant, and hardly on better terms with his nominal sovereign. When Dr. Guillemard visited Sulu in 1883 and 1884, four or more of these small potentates were more or less at war with each other. Lately, however, with the establishment of fresh posts in the archipelago, the check to piracy, and the civilising influence of trade, the " Castillans " have been gradually gaining the upper hand. They have settle- ments at Basilan, Jolo, Siassi, and Lapac, Tataan in Tawi- tawi Island, and Bongao off its western extremity, and two or three gunboats are always stationed in the group. The establishment of the British North Borneo Company has also done much towards purging these seas of piracy. 90 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Basilan has been longest in the possession of the Spaniards, the sparseness of its population rendering its reduction easier than Sulu Island. It is thirty miles long by twenty broad, and is the largest island in the group. The capital is Isabela, on the north coast, a good harbour, which was considerably improved by the French during their occupation in 1845. A few plantations exist, and the natives have a good deal of intercourse with the Spaniards, but it is still hardly safe to travel alone in the interior. There is an arsenal here, where good foundry work is done by native workmen. Sulu Island has been for more than three centuries the scene of oft-recurring struggles between the Spanish and the natives. In 1628, 1637, 1731, and 1871 the former despatched large expeditions against it, but it was not until 1876 that they fairly established themselves on the island. Jolo was then completely destroyed, and the town rebuilt and surrounded with fortifications. The Sultan now lives at Maimbun, on the south side. The other settlements of the group are mere outposts guarded by a handful of soldiers. The network of reefs and mangrove islands round Tawi-tawi gave shelter to swarms of pirates, but these are gradually being driven out by the Spanish gunboats. This island, or at all events the southern part of it, is inhabited chiefly by the Bajaus or sea-gipsies, a people quite distinct from the Sulus, and of a much lower type. Sulu, which is about thirty miles in length, is vol- canic, well cultivated, and very fertile. There are no active volcanoes, and the last eruption occurred in 1641, but the ground is in many places covered with scoriae and pumice, upon which nothing but the coarse lalang grass flourishes. The teak tree grows well, as in Min- danao, and the durian and mangosteen are found. Deer THE riiiLirrixE islands 01 and wild pigs are numerous, and pig-sticking is one of the favourite native amusements. Tlie elephant is said to have been wild at the beginning of the present cen- HIT AT >r,\IMBrN, SUI.U ISLAND. tnry, but there is no doubt that this statement is entirely erroneous, although the sultans possessed these animals, and some may have escaped into the forest. The fauna 92 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and flora are distinctly Philippine, and widely different from Borneo. The inhabitants, as has been already stated, are Mohammedan Malays, speaking a peculiar language allied to Bisayan and written in the Arabic character. They are considerably advanced in civilisa- tion, making beautiful parangs, as the Sulu krisses are termed, and breeding horses with a special eye to racing them. Since 1885 the German Borneo Company has established tobacco plantations upon the island, the labourers being Chinese coolies from Singapore. The ylang-ylang plant is also cultivated. Liberian and Arabian coffee has been proved to do well, but there are as yet no white planters. Many valuable articles of commerce are produced, such as tortoise-shell, tripang, edible birds' nests, pearls, and pearl-shells. The islands are also a great mart for slaves, the piratical expeditions having for centuries brought captives from every part of the archipelago, so that here are to be found pure Malays from Sumatra, Papuans from New Guinea, and even natives from Siam in the north, and of Java and Timor in the south. These slaves are bartered with traders, and thus find their way to remote islands, and must have helped to produce those mixtures of various races which often render it difficult for the anthropologist to deter- mine the affinities of many of the so-called Malay peoples. Although the check upon piracy has also had considerable effect upon this trade, there is no douljt that it is still largely carried on, and the Spaniards are power- less to stop it. The chief market and port of export is Maimbun. Official returns give the population of the Sulu Archipelago at 100,000, which is probably too high an estimate. Between Tawi-tawi and Sibutu intervenes the deep channel known as the Sibutu Passage, which zoologically THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 93 and geographically separates the Philippine Islands from Borneo. The Calamianes and Cuyos Islands. These islands form, with part of Pahiwan, the pro- vince of Calamianes, which has a population of about 20,000. The principal islands of the first-named group are Busuanga and Culion, which are inhabited by a race of dark Bisayans. There is a certain amount of trade in birds' nests and tripang, as well as wax and tortoise- shell, and a steamer puts the group in monthly com- munication with Manila. In many of the islands are found the burial caves to which allusion has been already made, and a colony of Chinese seem to have been estab- lished in Culion in ancient days. The Cuyos are for the most part of very small size, but the Spaniards have had settlements on them for a long period. The island of Cuyo, which is entirely under cultivation, is now the capital of the Calamianes province — the former capital, Tai-tai, in north Palawan, having had to be abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. The town is provided wdth a large square fort, whose walls are 30 feet high by 12 feet in thickness, with towers at each of the four corners; but in 1884 there was only a single cannon serviceable. The military force is of the Guardia civil. Cattle form almost the only article of commerce. Palawan. The long and narrow island of Palawan, known to the French and Spanish as Paragua, projects like a horn from the northern extremity of Borneo, running north- east towards Mindoro. It has a length of about 250, 94 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and an average breadth of 20 miles, although at Ulugan Bay it is only 3 miles across. Its area is probably about 5000 square miles, and it is thus the third in size of the Philippine Islands. Its northern extremity is much broken, and studded with small islands, so as to form several good harbours, while its whole north- western coast is bordered by an extensive submarine bank, with numerous reefs and islets. Considering its breadth the island is very high throughout its whole extent, many of the peaks reaching 5000 feet, and one 6843 feet. Towards the north the coast is formed by vertical limestone cliffs. Although the island is not known to have any volcanoes, it is possible that they may exist, as there are two active craters on the island of Dumaran at its northern end. Politically Palawan is one of the Philippine Archi- pelago, but it cannot be considered so geographically. The soundings show that, together with the Calamianes and Cuyos islands, it is connected with Borneo by a bank which is hardly submerged 50 fathoms. North of the Calamianes, in the IMindoro Strait, the great depths of 700 to 800 fathoms are reached. Not one of the few mammals peculiar to the Philippines is known to inhabit Palawan, while, on the other hand, the genera Hystrix, Manis, and Mydaus, abundantly found in Borneo, occur there, but in no other island of the Philippines. The avifauna shows similar evidence of a preponderating western element, and of this element being the original,^ and we must therefore conclude that the island forms an integral portion of the Bornean group rather than of the Philippines. The greater part of Palawan is unexplored, owing in part to the untrustworthy character of the natives. 1 See Mr. A. H. Everett in Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1889, p. 220. THE PIIILirPINE ISLANDS 95 Along the eastern coast, especially iu its southern portion, many Sulus have established themselves, most of them being refugees from the pirate haunts of Sulu and Min- danao, Inland are Dusun and Murut Dyaks, and to the north a people of uncertain race, probably a mixture of Dyaks and Bisayans — the Tagbuanas — interesting as being an almost savage people who possess a peculiar alphabet, somewhat similar to that once used by the Bisayans, but distinct (see Marche, Luzon et Palaoan, p. 327). Negritos are said to exist. The only place upon the island which can really be said to be occupied by the Spaniards is Puerto Princesa, better known to the English as Port-Eoyalist, an excel- lent harbour on the east coast. Here is a convict settlement, looked after by two companies of a native regiment, a small arsenal, and a slip, and two gunboats are stationed at the port, which boasts of one of the few lighthouses existent in the Philippines. Tai-tai, at the north of the island, has been almost deserted by the Spaniards on account of its unhealthiness. There are few or no roads in Palawan except that crossing to Ulugan Bay, and very little is done in the way of trade or agriculture. Such trade as there is consists chiefly of forest and sea produce, and is in the hands of a few Chinamen on the east coast. But even these do not obtain their goods direct from the natives, but through the Sulus, who act as middlemen, and not in- frequently make a more rapid profit by murdering the Chinese and sacking their stores. Dumaran Island, to the north, was once covered with pine plantations, but a few years ago these were completely destroyed by a plague of rats. On Balabac Island, to the south of Palawan, the Spanish have established an agricultural convict colony, 96 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL but the experiment has not been attended with success. The Spanish and British North Borneo Company's steamers touch here, and the post is of some importance as commanding the Balabac Strait, but it has hitherto proved very unhealthy. Balabac forms the capital of the province of that name, which includes the neighbour- ing islands, together with Cagayan Sulu. Banguey, however, falls within the territory of the North Borneo Company. CHAPTEE IV THE DUTCH EAST INDIES 1. Extent "and Importance, Almost all the groups south of the Philippines — extend- ing from Pulo Mas on the west of Sumatra to the Aru Islands near New Guinea, a distance of nearly 2500 geographical miles — are comprised in the Dutch Colonies, forming altogether a state nearly twelve times the size of England, with a population of over 30,000,000, abound- ing in gold, tin, diamonds, pearls, coal, and salt, and pro- ducing pepper, cinnamon, tea, coffee, rice, tobacco, sugar, camphor, and spices. The actual land area is estimated at 562,540 square miles. Thus, these Dutch possessions rank next in importance to the British Empire in Asia, and their trade with the home country amounts to at least one-half of that carried on between the East Indies and England. The total value of the exports in 1890 amounted to £14,657,975, while the floating capital of this trade can scarcely be estimated at less than £25,000,000. Of all these great possessions the most important by far is the island of Java. It is intersected in every direction with railways and telegraphs, has been for centuries the seat of civilisation, and is as well known as most European countries. H 98 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 2. Dutch Policy, and its effects on the Native Populations. The army, and the policy pursued towards the natives, are the two mainstays of the Dutch power in these remote regions. Tlie army, purely of colonial origin, and amount- ing to about 30,000 men, of whom more than 14,000 are Europeans, is administered by the Indian Council of six members. About two-fifths of all the forces are stationed in Java, the heart of Netherlands India. They consist both of Dutch and Malays, drilled and officered by Europeans, who are very often mercenaries. The fleet numbers twenty-five vessels, and these combined forces have gradually overcome all resistance as far as they could reach ; so that the Dutch authority is firmly established, especially in Java, where one or two nomin- ally independent sultans are mere tools in the hands of the authorities in Batavia. The Dutch Government has a monopoly of salt, opium, and coffee, so that native planters are obliged to dispose of their coffee to the State on fixed terms. By this system a large revenue is obtained. Slaves are no longer employed on the plantations, slavery having been abolished some few years ago. But the natives are bound to a sort of statute labour, besides their obligation to serve their own sultans in the same way. Many of the hardships inherent to this " heerendienst " have been mitigated, but it still remains substantially true that the Dutch colonies are farmed for the benefit of the mother country. The natives feel the yoke, but endure it patiently— partly through obsequiousness to their sultans, who are so many Dutch puppets, partly through their own natural temperament. The Malays have, no doubt, some good qualities, but at the bottom of THE DUTCH EAST INDIES 99 their character lies a material and sensuous element ; for them the jpancm et circenscs argument has irresistible attractions ; they are satisfied with their rice, fish, and betel, which they easily earn as careful agriculturists and skilful mariners. If to these blessings be added an occa- sional exhibition of dancing girls, a concert, a visit to the play-house, or a cock-fight, they are more than rewarded, and think no longer of revolting. The natives even thrive under the system, as shown by the enormous increase of the population. That of Madura, for instance, rose from 393,426 in 1856 to 676,818 in 1871, thus almost doubhng itself in fifteen years. It \\\\\ also be readily allowed that the condition of afiairs in the districts under Dutch rule is far superior to that of the native states, where the old barbarous systems of slavery, piracy, and spoliation still flourish unrestrained. B. System of Government of Netherlands India. At the head of the Dutch East Indies is a Governor- General with the authority of a viceroy. He is supreme commander of the laud and sea forces, with the right of declaring peace and war, and concluding treaties with the native princes and peoples, within the limits of his in- structions from the Home Government. He is aided by a council of five of the his-her officials, who are nommated by himself. The colonies are divided into two main divisions, the first comprising Java with Madura, the second the so-called external possessions (Buitenbezit- tingen), that is, all the other possessions and tributary states. They are further subdivided into "Eesidencies" and " Governments." In Java there are twenty-one of these provinces^ each of which is administered by a " Eesident." 100 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL These, again, are split into "regencies," with a "regent" at their head. This regent is always a native chosen from the nobles, especially of former dynastic families, whose influence over their subjects, cemented as it is by religious associations, still remains undiminished. Under the regent are the district and " dessa " chiefs, charged with the collection of the taxes, who are chosen by the inhabitants, and who represent the interests of the " dessa" or commune, a social organisation somewhat resembling the Eussian " mir." With the regent, called by the Javanese " pangerang," " adhipatti," or " tummonggong," according to his rank, is associated a European " Assistant Eesident," who is instructed to treat his compeer as a younger brother, and while kee]3ing him well in hand to put him forward as ostensibly the real agent. Under the Assistant Eesidents are other European functionaries — " Controleurs " and others, who, besides their political duties, have the administration of justice or the super- intendence of the culture-system mainly in their hands. In the " Buitenbezittingen," omitting those of Sumatra and Borneo, there are tlie following residencies only : — Bali, Timor, Amboina, Ternate, and Menado. Of these Ternate is much the largest, as it embraces the large island of Gilolo, and the whole of Dutch New Guinea. The extent of Holland's possessions in the East Indies is so vast that she has done little to exploit them, but there are not very many even of the smaller groups of islands without some resident representative of the Government, whether " Controleur," " Posthouder," or a native in whom some authority is vested. THE ISLAM) OF -lAVA CHAPTEK V JAVA 1. General. Chief of the Dutch possessions is the fine island of Java, situated on the southern margin of the great Asiatic submarine plateau. Not only has it been a great source of wealth to the mother country, but it is remarkable for other reasons. It is one of the few islands of the Eastern Archipelago which possesses a history. Its antiquities are in point of size not far inferior to the Pyramids, and in workmanship far above them. It exhibits throughout its whole extent a series of volcanoes of great height, of which more than twenty are active, — such a series, in short, as cannot be surpassed by any other region of the globe. And, finally, its population has increased in a most astounding manner of late years, so much so, that the density per square mile considerably exceeds that of England, and most probably even that of Belgium. Java is separated from Sumatra on the west by the Straits of Sunda, at the narrowest part only fourteen miles wide, and from Bali on the east by a strait not two miles across. Borneo lies immediately north of it, at a distance of about 200 miles, while due south of it the Indian and Southern oceans extend uninterruptedly to 102 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the Antarctic continent. In form it is long and com- paratively narrow, lying in a nearly east and west direction. Its extreme length is 575 geographical miles, while its breadth varies from 28 to 105 miles. Its area has been computed at 49,176 square miles, or about one- third part larger than Ireland. Its north coast is some- what low and comparatively sheltered, and here are several small islands, the chief being the Karimon Java group, and Bawean ; and one large island, Madura, which at its western extremity is only separated from the main island by a strait a mile wide. The southern coast is bold and precipitous, and has only a few islands situated close to the shore, the most important being Barong towards the eastern extremity, and Kambangan a little west of the centre. The coast-line presents many bays on the north, but none of them penetrate deeply, so that there is only one good harbour, that of Surabaya, formed between the main island and Madura. The southern coast is still less indented, and is exposed to a heavy and dangerous surf, which rolls in upon the shore at all 'seasons. It is therefore little frequented, and it has hardly any safe harbour but that of Chilatjap, situated between the island of Kambangan and the mainland. The western part of Java, as far as Cheribon, is from 75 to 95 miles broad, and, except the plains on the northern coast, is very mountainous, the mountains being crowded together with narrow intervening valleys, but not reaching such great elevations as elsewhere, the highest being a little over 10,000 feet. This, however, is the most luxuriant part of the island, owing to the moister climate, so that the forests reach the summits of some of the highest mountains. Here is the country of the Sundanese, who speak a language distinct from the Javanese proper. Eastward as far as Samarang the island is hardly more JAVA 103 than 50 miles wide, mountainous in the centre, but with plains both on the north and south coasts. Here the mountains exceed 10,000 feet. Then comes a portion which is about 100 miles wide, as far as Surabaya, at which spot an extensive valley nearly crosses the island. Beyond this the eastern end is only 50 miles wide, yet it contains the great mountain of Semeru, over 12,000 feet in height, and the highest m all Java. Dr. Junghuhn estimated the mean height of the island at about IGOO feet. The island of Madura forms one of the " Eesidencies " of Java, and is always grouped with it in Dutch statistics. a position which physical geography tells us it has every right to occupy, for it has undoubtedly been separated from the main island at no very distant geological date. 2. History. Although from a very early period Java has been the seat of a more or less advanced civilisation, the records concerning it are remarkably scanty. It is probable that the Hindus established themselves upon the island about the sixth century of our era, but even this indefinite date is at best conjectural, and the date of the construction of their great temples, whose ruins still remain to astonish the traveller by their size and magnificence, is likewise in many instances doubtful or unknown. It is, however, a tolerably well established fact that the death-blow to Hindu influence was inflicted in 1478, when Majapahit, near Surabaya, the capital of the chief Hindu state, was destroyed by the Arab traders who had established them- selves upon the coast. Still, nothing much more was known of the island for a long period, and though Marco 104 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Polo, who passed through the archipelago in about 1290, makes mention of it by name, he did not visit it, and Ludovic Varthema, the Itahan traveller, was probably the first European to land upon its shores, in 1505. The taking of Malacca by Albuquerque in 1511 l^rought the Portuguese in close proximity to Java, and Antonio d'Abreu's fleet, despatched to the Spice Islands a month or two later, coasted its shores and passed through the narrow straits dividing it from Madura. But in spite of its known richness the Moluccas were considered to 'offer greater advantages, and d'Abreu did not attempt to open negotiations with the people, although he touched at Agacim, the present Gressi. The Portuguese, indeed, never established themselves upon the island, and had only a few trading posts upon its coasts. So little was it known, that fifty-two years after the taking of Malacca it was described by Barros as consisting of two islands. The Dutch landed for the first time in 1 5 9 5 under Hout- man, and in 1610 built a fort at Batavia, which, nine years later, the English helped the natives to take, but on its being relieved by the Dutch fleet the assailants retired. It was not imtil 1677 that any territorial acquisition was made, the principality of Jacatra being then ceded. From that time up to 1830 the Dutch have been engaged in five great wars, lasting from five to fifteen years each, but all ending in important acquisitions of territory. The last was the final effort of the natives, and Java is now securely in the hands of Holland. The British temporarily occupied Java for the five years from 1811 to 1816, a period which will always be remembered for the energetic, though not altogether successful, administration of Sir Stamford Baffles. JAVA 105 3. Geology and Physical Features. The southern coast-line of Java forms part of the lip of the vast basin of the Indian Ocean, and within a short distance of the shore the gi^eat ocean depths are reached. To the north and west a shallow sea dotted with many small islets separates it from Sumatra, Banka, and Blitong, while eastward a prolongation of Madura may be traced to Kangeang and the Paternosters, and Bali is separated by a strait barely a mile and a half wide, and having a depth of only nine fathoms. It was formerly believed that Java was almost exclu- sively volcanic, but it is now known that this is far from being the case, the volcanoes resting upon sedimentary rocks of which the greater part appear to be of the Tertiary period, although it has been lately shown that certain fossiliferous strata must be ascribed to the Quaternary period. Granite occurs at the western end of Java, but the plutonic rocks are not common, as in the neighbouring island of Sumatra. With these geological conditions it is not to be wondered at that few minerals are to be found. Coal, indeed, is plentiful, but it is poor, occurs in thin strata, and hardly repays working. Sul- phur is abundant, and a further exploitation of the mineral oils should give good results. The great mountains of Java are all volcanic cones. Two of them, Karang and Muria, are isolated from the others, which are situated for the most part near the central line of the island. In the west these volcanoes are grouped together in a mass, and spring from high ground. In the east they are more discrete, and the ground upon which they rest is lower and more open. There are not less than fifty volcanic peaks in the island. 106 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL about half of which are more or less active. The highest is SemeriT, with an altitude of 12,044 feet; ten exceed 10,000 feet, five more exceed 9000 feet, and ten are between 7000 and 9000 feet. The following are the names of the most important, with their heights. Those that are more or less active have the names given in italics : — Detached. Central and Eastern Group. Karang 5834 S'lamat . 11,240 Muria . 5234 Sundara 10,249 Prau 8,389 Western Group. Sumhing . 10,941 Merajn 9,404 Salak . 7266 Merbabu . 10,223 Gede . . . 9718 Lawu 10,676 Patuwa 7828 Wilis . 8,369 Tangkuhan Prau 6808 Penunggiingan 5,413 Malabar 7683 Arjuna 10,935 Tunggul . 7224 Butak (Kawi) . 9,381 Papandayang 8611 Ten gar . 8,937 Guntur 7362 Semerio . 12,044 Chikurai 9242 Lamongan 5,370 Galunggung 7313 Argopura 10,138 Cherimai . 10,073 PMun 10,925 Ijen (Merapi) . 9,187 Of the western group, Salak, which from its proximity to Buitenzorg is one of the best known of the volcanoes of Java, is now inactive, but was in 1699 the scene of a great catastrophe. Enormous masses of mud were ejected from the crater, and impeding the course of the rivers, caused the formation of lakes, which burst and devastated the country below them. Papandayang, or " the forge," so called from the deafening noise produced by its crater, exhibits a series of sulphurous mud pools, which boil and eject stones and mud. In 1772 occurred its last eruption, which was one of the most destructive in the history of the island, and was specially remarkable for its suddenness and short duration. A great part of the mountain is said to have been engulfed, and 40 villages JAVA 107 and 4000 people were destroyed. The eruptions of Guntur — " tlie mountain of thunder " — are innumerable. It is bare from base to summit, and although history does not show it to have been so destructive to human life as many other volcanoes of the island, it has never- theless ruined the coffee-plantations around it on many occasions. Terrible in their effects as have been many of the eruptions of the volcanoes of Java, few have been so disastrous as that of Mount Galunggung, a peak some few miles north-east of Papandayang. At noon on the 8th October, 1822, not a cloud was to be seen in the sky, and no preliminary earthquake or noises within the mountain gave warning of what was about to occur. Suddenly a frightful thundering was heard, and from the top of this apparently extinct volcano a dark dense mass was seen rising higher and higher into the air, and spreading itself out over the clear sky with such appalling rapidity that in a few moments the whole landscape was shrouded in the darkness of night. Through the thick darkness flashes of lightning gleamed incessantly in every direction, and many natives were instantly struck down to the earth by stones falling from the sky. Then a deluge of hot water and flowing mud shot up from the crater like a waterspout, and poured down the mountain-sides, sweeping away trees and beasts and human beings in its seething mass. At the same moment stones and ashes and sand were projected to an enormous height into the air, and, as they fell, destroyed nearly everything within a radius of twenty miles, while quantities of the ejecta fell even beyond the Eiver Tandoi, which is forty miles off. A few villages that were situated on high hills on the lower declivities of the mountain escaped the surrounding destruction by being raised above the streams 108 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL of hot water and flowing mud, while most of the stones and ashes and sand that were thrown out passed com- pletely over them, and destroyed villages that were farther removed from the centre of this great eruption. The thundering was first heard at half-past one o'clock. At four o'clock the extreme violence of the eruption was past ; at five, the sky began to grow clear once more, and the same sun that at noon had shed its light over a rich and peaceful landscape, at evening was shining over the same spot now changed into a scene of utter desolation. But this was not all. A second eruption followed on October 12th, even more violent than the first. Hot water and mud were again vomited forth, and great blocks of basalt were thrown to a distance of seven miles from the volcano. There was at the same time a violent earthquake ; the summit of the mountain was liroken down, and one side, which had been covered with forest, became an enormous semi-circular gulf. The rivers bore down to the sea the dead bodies of men and the carcases of deer, rhinoceroses, tigers, and other animals. The base of the mountain could not be approached for a month, and it was found that the surrounding country had been covered with a layer of greenish -blue mud, which in places was 50 feet in depth. The official accounts state that 114 villages were destroyed and 4000 persons killed. Passing to the central and eastern groups of volcanoes, we find them to be uniformly of greater height than those of the western portion of the island. No less than nine attain an altitude of over 10,000 feet. Of these S'lamat is remarkable as much for the regularity of its shape as for the thick cloud of smoke which it continually pours forth from its summit. Of the great crater of Prau one-half of the lip alone remains, the southern JAVA 109 portion having been blown away in some giant convulsion of Nature. On a small plateau, half within it, is the unduly celebrated Guwa Upas, or " Poison Valley," a small depression whence carbonic acid gas escapes, in no way more remarkable than the Grotto del Cane. Far more interesting are the numerous Hindu temples around, of which more than twenty remain tolerably entire, though many others have fallen into ruin. They are all Brahminical, and show no admixture of Buddhism as do those of Boro-bodor. Inscriptions have been found, but none bearing dates, although it is probable that the buildings were erected about the 12th century. Although Merbabu is inactive and cultivated nearly to its summit, its sister cone Merapi emits a constant jet of smoke, but an eruption seldom occurs. Lawu, and Wilis, "' the green mountain," are quiescent, only showing signs of their former activity by the hot springs and solfataras of their slopes. The first -named is chiefly noteworthy for the extraordinary phallic Hindu temples whose ruins occupy its slopes. Arjuna shows many remains of a similar cult, and with Kawi appears to be now nearly extinct. Not so Kelut, which, though of insignificant height, is much dreaded from the nature of its eruptions. In that of 1848 its terrific detonations were heard over the greater part of the Malay Archipelago. Semeru and Tenger are perhaps the most remarkable of all the Javanese volcanoes, the former as being the highest peak in the island, the latter as possessing the largest crater. There is little doubt that Tenger was at one time higher than its neighbour, and that some Titanic convulsion blew away the upper part of the mountain, leaving the base only to serve as the walls of a crater which is at the present time about six miles in its largest and four and a half in its smallest diameter. The floor 110 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TEAYEL is perfectly level, in one part sanely and barren, but else- %yhere covered with prairie and other grasses, and from its centre rises a little group of small peaks. The cliief of these (600 feet in height), known to the natives as Bromo (Brahma), is in a state of constant activity, and having been in past times a sacred mountain to those professing the Hindu rehgion, is still held in awe by the Javanese. Tenger is connected by a high ridge with Semeru, whose summit hes about eight miles south of it. The latter ejected in 1885 a stream of lava of considerable volume. Although the earthquakes occurring in Java are neither so frequent nor so terribly destructive as those of the Philippine Islands, they are nevertheless far from uncommon. The most celebrated is that of 5 th January 1699, on the occasion of the eruption of Salak akeady referred to, when 208 considerable shocks were felt, and many houses in Bata^da destroyed. Again, in 1867, a violent earthquake occurred in central Java, which caused great havoc and killed numbers of people. In the capital of Jokjokarta alone a thousand are said to have perished. In a country so eminently volcanic as Java, the occurrence of the rarer phenomena owing their existence to the agency of volcanic forces might be expected, and accordingly we find not only an abundance of hot springs, solfataras, and the like, but various manifestations of the great subterranean fires w^hich are not so frequently seen. The wondrous tales of the deadly " Poison Yalley " — the celebrated Guwa Upas — have long ago been proved to be mythical, as has been already stated, but they may perhaps have been confused with hearsay accounts of Pajagalon, a valley near the lake of Talaga Bodas, where the ground emits carbonic acid gas in sufficient quantities JAVA 111 to kill animals traversing it. Here may be found the bodies of civet-cats, squirrels, birds, etc., and, at the' time when Junghuhn wrote, of tigers and rhinoceroses. The fabulous stories of the deadly " Upas tree," which was said to destroy all creatures which slept beneath its shade, or any birds which flew over it, have originated in the word " upas " (poison) being applied to these places, and also to a tree — Antiaris toxiearia — which, though poisonous, has none of the deadly properties above mentioned. An analogous phenomenon is a lake in the crater of Taschem, in eastern Java, which is so strongly impregnated with sulphuric acid that no fish can live in it, or in the river which flows from it, and where the river empties itself into the sea it destroys or drives away all fish for a considerable distance. Jets or fountains of inflammable gas in one locality, at least, point to the existence of considerable quantities of petroleum. Brine springs are very numerous, especially in the province of Japara, where they are dispersed through a district several miles in circumference, forcing themselves upwards through apertures in the rocks with some violence and ebullition. The salt obtained by evaporation from these springs is of very fair quality. In this same district of Grobogan are some curious mud volcanoes which have been described by Dr. Horsfield as follows : — ■ " About the centre of this limestone district is found an extraordinary volcanic phenomenon. On approaching it from a distance, it is first discovered by large volumes of smoke rising and disappearing at intervals of a few seconds, resembling the vapours arising from a violent surf, while a dull noise is heard like that of distant thunder. Having advanced so near that the vision is no longer impeded by the smoke, a large hemispherical mass 112 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL is observed, consisting of black earth mixed with water, about sixteen feet in diameter, rising to the height of 20 or 30 feet in a perfectly regular manner, and, as it were, pushed up by a force beneath, which suddenly explodes with a dull noise, and scatters about a volume of black mud in every direction. After an interval of two or three, or sometimes four or five seconds, the hemispherical body of mud or earth rises and explodes again. In the same manner this volcanic ebullition goes on without interruption, throwing up a globular body of mud, and dispersing it with violence through the neighbouring plain. The spot where this occurs is nearly circular and perfectly level. It is covered with the earthy particles impregnated with salt which are thrown up from below. Its circumference is about half a mile. A strong, pungent, sulphurous smell, somewhat resembling that of petroleum, is perceived on standing near the explosion, and the mud recently thrown up possesses a degree of heat greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere. During the rainy season these explosions are more violent, the mud is thrown up much higher, and the noise is heard to a greater distance." On the southern coast, not far from the meridian of Surakarta, is the curious phenomenon known as Gunong- gunong Sewu — the Thousand Mountains — a plateau covered by innumerable and closely approximated white lunestone hills which are from 100 to 200 feet in height. A perfect labyrinth of narrow winding valleys and innumerable small lakes are thus formed, the milky waters of the latter being in many cases drained by subterranean channels into the sea, where they may be seen staining the water in patches at some distance from the shore. This district is spoken of by J unghuhn as one of the most beautiful in Java. JAVA 113 Besides the true volcanoes there are many hill ranges and lesser mountains in Java ; and skirting the southern shore there is a great range of low mountains about 3000 feet in height, formed of basalt, trap, and sometimes of limestone. This latter appears to be of Miocene age, as it contains shells and corals allied to those of the European Miocene, as well as others similar to those which now live in Eastern seas, three out of twenty-two being living species. The rivers of Java, especially on the north side, are almost innumerable, but from the form of the island they are of comparatively small size, and a few only are navigable for boats. Their rapid flow and perennial supply of water are excellently adapted for irrigation, to the practice of which much of the fertility of the country is due. The largest and most useful river of the island is that usually called the Solo Piiver, from its passing the native capital of that name. It has its source in one of the low ranges of hills towards the southern side of the island, and after a tortuous course of 310 miles empties itself into the sea by two mouths opposite the western end of Madura. Except for three months, from August to October, it is navigable by large boats, and at all times by small ones. It would even be accessible to ocean vessels but for the bar at its mouth. The next largest river is the Brantas, or river of Surabaya. This also rises near the southern coast, on the west side of the Semeru mountain, and after receiving many affluents, enters the sea by two mouths, one of which passes the town of Surabaya and contributes to form its harbour. In the west of Java the Chi Tarum (Chi, or Tji as it is usually written, being the Sundanese word for river) and the Chi jManuk are the most important rivers, but they I 114 COMPEN'DIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL are of little value except for irrigation. JMuch detritus is brought down by them in the rainy season, and from this and other causes their bars are silting up and the neighbouring land is encroaching upon the sea to the extent of over 21 feet annually. In like manner the Surabaya Strait has been filling up for years, and although much was gained in 1854 by the diversion of one branch of the Solo into a new channel, it is doubtful how long the improved condition of affairs will last, and steps are already being taken to prevent the closing of the harbour which again threatens. The valleys of Java, like its streams, are innumerable, but there are few inland plains of any extent. The physical conditions of the country are not favourable to their existence, and the same may be said concerning lakes, of which there are none worthy of particular mention. The most important plain, perhaps, is that of Surakarta. Of the valleys, in point of beauty, the palm must be yielded to Kadu, dominated as it is by the magnificent volcanoes IMerbabu and Merapi on the one side, and Sumbing and Sundara on the other. 4. Climate and Meteorology. The climate of Java is on the whole hot and uniform, as might be expected from its geographical position, but its elevated plains and plateaux, from 1000 to 5000 feet above the sea, afford a variety of climates, some of which are as near perfection as any that can be found. The wet season is from October to March, when the north-west monsoon blows, and the so-called dry season from April to the end of September, during the prevalence of the south-east winds ; but, as in all countries near the JAVA 115 equator, rain and sunshine are more or less distributed throughout the year. At the change of the monsoons the weather is often unsettled and tempestuous, with violent thunderstorms, which in the mountains are often destructive of life. Batavia experiences annually an average of over one hundred thunderstorms. That the permanent winds from the eastward prevail over the monsoons at the higher altitudes is made evident by the westerly direction taken by the smoke of the volcanoes, and the constancy of this current is shown by the erosion of the western side of the lips of the craters, as may be well seen in the case of Merapi. Land and sea breezes are experienced within fifteen miles of the northern and southern coasts, while in some parts of the east end, which exhibits a considerably greater aridity than the west, the south-east monsoon blows violently across the entire island. Although Java has not such a great rainfall as Sumatra, owing in a measure to its being protected by that island, it is nevertheless considerable, although naturally varying very much with the locality. At Batavia the mean annual rainfall is 75 inches, but at Buitenzorg, the hill -station of that city, it averages 185 inches, or more than four times that recorded from the eastern end of the island. December, January, and February are the most rainy months, averaging in Batavia about 18 inches in each month, while in July and August the amount recorded is little over 2 inches. The island, lying out of the track of typhoons, shows a very steady barometer, and during observations extending over some years '36 inch was recorded as its extreme range of variation. The variations of tem- perature are likewise very small upon the coast. The result of twelve years' observations at the Government 116 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL Observatory at Batavia show an extreme range of only 30° Fahr. during that period. The monthly mean tem- peratures do not differ more than 2°, that of January being 77°-48, and that of May 7 9 '-5 9. The usual daily range is from about 74° to 84°, and during the whole year the temperature seldom falls much below 70° or rises above 90°. At elevations of from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea the thermometer is usually about 20° lower than the figures above given, producing a climate very agreeable to European constitutions, and suitable to the corn, fruits, flowers, and vegetables of the temperate zone, which have long been acclimatised. Java may be said on the whole to be very fairly healthy. The malarial fevers are milder and less common than in the other great islands of the archipelago, and diseases of the lungs are rare. But on the other hand zymotic disorders are prevalent, beri-beri and smallpox are very fatal, and the towns are ravaged from time to time with severe epidemics of cholera. In 1889 no less than 16,000 persons fell victims to this scourge of the East. 5. Flora and Fauna. The botany of Java is exceedingly rich and diversified, and the peculiar Malayan flora is here developed in its highest luxuriance and beauty; over 9000 phanerogamous plants being known to exist in the island. The villages, and even the towns are in great part concealed from view by the luxuriant abundance and perpetual verdure of the vege- tation. Patches of sandy shore or of bare lava-coloured peaks are the exception, and quite one-fifth of the island is still covered with forest, despite the denseness of the population. The vegetation varies with the soil, whether JAVA 117 composed of the debris of volcanic matter, of calcareous rocks, or of sandstone ; but it varies far more according to the elevation of the land, which gives rise to at least six different botanical zones, which are thus described by Dr. Bleeker : — " On the low coast-lands we find superb palms, bananas, aroids, Amaraiithacete, papilionaceous plants, and poisonous Euphorbiaceee. Scarcely do we ascend 1000 feet above the sea when our eyes are struck by the quantity of ferns which already prepon- derate over other plants, and here, too, we find magnifi- cent groves of slender bamboos. The farther we ascend the greater is the change in the aspect of the vegetation. Palms and leguminous plants become rare, and bamboos less abundant. In place of these we find forests of Ftcus, with their tall trunks, spreading branches, and thick foliage, overshadowing more lowly trees and a variety of humble plants, and exhibiting a majesty which even sur- passes in splendour the palms of the coast. Here, too, the ferns increase in numbei', and beautiful tree-ferns abound, often covering the sides of the valleys with their aerial crowns of fronds. Orchideous plants now present themselves in considerable numbers, clothing the old trees with a parasitic vegetation. Higher still the figs are mingled with gigantic Liquidambars, with white trunks. To the Orchideee are added the curious Xepenthes, or pitcher-plants, while the numerous ferns are accompanied by Loranthacese and elegant Melastomas. Above these comes the region of oaks and laurels, and here the Mela- stomas and orchideous plants become still more abundant, while the vegetation receives a new ornament in the elegant Freycinetias, which are found as pseudo-parasites, rubiaceous plants being at the same time abundant, grow- ing by themselves, and flourishing in the shade. There is but one region above that of oaks and laurels, where 118 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Eubiacete, conifers, heaths, and other plants familiar to countries beyond the tropics, present to us the flora of higher latitudes. Cryptogamous plants, especially, are infinitely multiplied ; fungi are abundant, and mosses cover the ground and invest the trunks and branches of trees. The ferns are now smaller in size, but are of an infinite variety of forms, and constitute an important portion of the vegetation." The lowest zone is by far the most extensive, and is chiefly given up to cultivation, especially to rice. On the second zone are grown tea, coffee, cinchona, and the Sagueir palm (Arenga), while at still higher altitudes cabbages and potatoes are to be seen in the gardens. Another interesting feature of the higher mountains of Java is the appearance upon them of plants closely allied to those of northern Europe. On Pangerango, one of the peaks of the Gede volcano, we meet with eatable raspberries at 6000 feet, cypresses at 7000, while at 8000 feet we come upon such familiar types as the honeysuckle, St. John's wort, and guelder-rose ; and when we reach 9000 feet, we meet with the imperial cowslip, allied to species inhabiting Japan and the Himalayas, but of a peculiar species {Primula imperialis). The following genera, characteristic of north temperate regions, were found upon the summit by JVJr. Motley : — Two species of violet, three of ranunculus, eight or ten of rubus, and species of primrose, St. John's wort, swertia, lily of the valley, cranberry, rhododendron, gnaphalium, polygonum, foxglove, honeysuckle, plantain, wormwood, oak, and yew. Java affords many timber trees of considerable value, but as yet, with the exception of the Teak {Tedonia grandis), they have not received the attention they commercially deserve. Forests of this tree are to be JAVA 1 1 9 found throughout the island, l^ut they exist chieliy between Samarang and Surabaya in the lower ground. Injudicious felling had at one time reduced them con- siderably, but under careful management matters are now more satisfactory, and it is stated that at the present time the forests of this tree occupy an area of about 2500 square miles. Afforestation with the Blue Gum, Cassia fiorida, and other trees, has been of late largely carried out by the Government. In fruits the island is remarkably rich, and the markets of Batavia exhil^it innumerable different kinds, most of which are strange to European eyes. It is here that the durian, mangosteen, rambutan, and other typically Malayan fruits are tasted in perfection. While the zoological features of Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula are more or less identical, those of Java exhibit certain marked differences. The island is very rich in mammalia, possessing about 90 distinct kinds. The majority of these are identical with those of Sumatra and Borneo ; but many of the forms inhal)iting those two islands are wanting, and there are a few peculiar to Java, or common to it and the Siamese pen- insula, but wanting in the other islands. Thus, Java has no tapir, or elephant, or Malay-bear, or orang-utan, while the Javan rhinoceros and hare are identical with species found again in the Indo-Chinese countries. Among birds we meet with similar but still more remarkable facts. No less than 240 species of land-birds are known to inhabit the island, and at least forty are peculiar to it. There are, however, no less than sixteen genera found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, which are absent from Java, among which are such conspicuous birds as the Indian magpies (Dendrocitta), the green gaper (Cali/jJio- mena), the large bee-eater {Nyctiornis), the Argus and 120 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL fire-back pheasants, and the crested partridges {Rolluhis). On the other hand, there are twelve Javan birds whose nearest alhes (sometimes the identical species) occur in the Indo-Chinese countries or the Himalayas, while they are quite unknown in Sumatra and Borneo, the most popular example of which is the pea-fowl of Java, found also in Siam and Burmah, but not in the intervening islands.^ In reptiles, fresh-water fishes, and insects, Java is very rich, the forms agreeing generally with those prevalent in the other Malay islands, and in the Indo-Malay countries. The insects are especially fine, and among the beetles and butterflies are some of magnificent dimensions and gorgeous colours ; but, as in the birds, many of them are quite peculiar to the island and unlike those of Sumatra and Borneo. Among the more remarkable large animals of Java are the rhinoceros, the tiger, the leopard, the wild dog, the wild ox, and two species of wild swine. Deer are abundant and of several species, but there are no antelopes or goats. Squirrels are very plentiful, and there are several species of monkeys. A singular animal, somewhat intermediate in appearance between a polecat and a badger, is the Mydaus, remarkable for its distribution on the higher mountains only. Dr. Horsfield states that it is confined exclusively to those mountains which have an elevation of more than 7000 feet above the sea, and that on these it occurs with the regularity of some plants, extending from one end of the island to the other on the numerous disconnected mountain summits. It emits an offensive stench like the skunk of America. Besides the peacock. ^ For the details of these peculiarities and their probable causes, see Tlie Geofjrcq^Mcal Distrihutiun of Animals, by A. Pi. Wallace, vol, i. p. 349. JAVA 1 2 1 two species of jungle-fowl inhabit Java — one a very beau- tiful species {Gallus furcatus), peculiar to the island and those eastward of it as far as Suml^awa ; the other the common jungle-fowl of India and the Malay countries (Gallics hankiva), and the original stock of all our domestic poultry. There are also several species of partridge and quail, and some very beautiful pigeons, pre-eminent among which is the mountain fruit-dove {PtUopus roseicollis), whose entire head and neck are of an intense rosy-pink, contrasting exquisitely with its otherwise green plumage. 6. Inhabitants and Language. Setting aside Europeans and other immigrant races, the inhabitants of Java belong to three nations, speaking allied but distinct languages — the Sundanese, Javanese, and Madurese. The Sundanese inhabit the country west of the meridian of Cheribon, and from the mountainous character of the district have remained the purest race. There are fewer Sanscrit words in their languao;e than Javanese, owing; to the greater absence of Hindu influence, and although nominally of the Mohammedan religion, have retained and incorporated with it not a little of their former super- stitions and customs. The second nation, the Javanese, are by far the most numerous, comprising nearly three- quarters of the entire population, and extending over the entire centre and east of the island, excepting the northern portion of the eastern peninsula. They are the most civilised and advanced of the native inhabitants, their civilisation having been early brought about by the wave of Hindu immigration which spread with rapidity over a country well cultivated and easy of access. The Madurese inhabit Madura and a great part of the eastern 122 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL peninsula of Java Ij'ing directly to the south of it, and are increasing rapidly round Surabaya. They exceed the Sundanese in number. All these people are of Malay race, and are physically not easily distinguishable from the Malays of the other great islands and the Malacca peninsula, except for the fact of their being somewhat taller. Like all Malays they are of slight build, and Von Scherzer has recently called attention to the extreme fineness of the bones in female skeletons. As regards character, Crawfurd, who had long and intimate experience of them in the earlier part of this century, pronounced them to be peaceable, docile, sober and industrious, and the most truthful and straightforward Asiatic people he ever met with — an opinion that will probably be shared by most of the modern travellers who have known them. They have, without doubt, improved under a settled government, which has given them peace and security ; for an old writer, Bar- bosa, describes them, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, as being " very malicious, great deceivers, seldom speaking the truth, and prepared to do all manner of wickedness ; " and this was no doubt true, as the same terms will apply to many of the Malay people at the present day under the rule of despotic native princes, who govern by favouritism and intrigue, spend their lives in amusements and debauchery, and hold the property, the families, and even the lives of all their subjects at their disposal. Java was a populous and wealthy island long before it was known to Europeans, for the Portuguese found there a comparatively civilised people, carrying on a great trade with surrounding countries, which they supplied with rice and native manufactures. The Javanese are good agriculturists, and are especially skilful in irrigation. JAVA 12: Extensive valleys and mountain sides are terraced and levelled in steps, and water is carried from the mountain streams so that every plot can he flooded or dried at pleasure. These terraced lands are of very great antiquity, l)ut they are continually being extended, and they enalde the ground to produce a constant succession of crojjs all the year round, and year after year, without manure, because the fertilising; matter held in solution and sus- ^^^^^^^f^-^^5 NATIVE HOUSE, JAVA. pension by all streams is retained upon the land instead of being carried away to the sea and wasted. This mode of terracing the land and compelling the streams to fertilise it effectually, is probably the most perfect system of agriculture conceivable, and could it only l)e applied in our own country, it would enable us at once to solve the problem of the economical utilisation of sewage ; for we should then have, in all parts of the country, water ready to carry and dilute, and land ready levelled to receive the rich n:ianures that are now thrown into the sea, having 124 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL first contaminated our streams and done as much mischief as possible. The Javanese are careful and skilful workmen, whether in wood or iron. They build admirable boats and canoes, which cannot be surpassed for speed and elegance. Their krisscs or daggers are also excellent, the steel blades being finely figured, and the handles and sheaths worked in the finest woods or in ivory, and ornamented with gold or jewels. They weave native cloths of fine quality, often intermixed with gold thread, and of beautifully blended colours ; while they dye cottons in elaborate and tasteful patterns with a few simple tints obtained from earths and vegetables, whose permanence and artistic merit put our more gaudy and evanescent colours to shame. Like all Malays, and most uncivilised peoples, the Javanese are great gamblers, and are also very fond of cock-fighting. The upper classes, however, are fond of hunting, and are admirable horsemen. They hunt deer on horseback, killing them with a short sword ; and tigers are often surrounded and killed with spears. They have a peculiar kind of theatrical performance, in which the shadows of flat wooden figures are thrown upon a transparent screen, behind which the performer speaks the several parts, altering his voice to suit the different characters. In the ivajang, or puppet plays, the figures are dressed in leather and occupy the front of the stage. The pieces are almost always historical dramas, taken from the ancient and legendary history of the island. The Javanese excel in music, every chief or wealthy man having a gamelang, or Ijand of musicians, generally ten or twelve in number. The instruments consist of gongs of various sizes for the deeper tones, and strips of metal or bamboo for the higher notes, arranged in frames so that a set of each can be conveniently struck by the JAVA 125 performer. A Biola, or one-stringed violin, loads the band, which is in constant requisition at all festivals. Some of the musical pieces performed are long and elaborate, but all are played by ear, the perfornu'rs generally practising from childhood. On grand occasions, as at the wedding of a raja's daughter, the gamelang will keep on playing at short intervals day and night for several days in succession. Besides these three peoples — the Sundanese, Javanese, and ]\Iadurese — there are probably at least a million and a half, if not more, of other nationalities. Not the least numerous are the true Malays, the immigrants, that is to say, from the Peninsula and elsewhere. They are chiefly to be found in the great towns, whither trade and commerce attract them. So, too, with the Chinese, who act as opium merchants, compradores, money-lenders, and middlemen generally, and, as elsewhere in the archi- pelago, become men of property. According to a recent writer their possessions in the island are valued at over £11,000,000 sterling. Susioicious of their prosperity, the Dutch Government, in the early part of the century, forbade absolutely all immigration of Chinese, but this decree was rescinded in 1837. Even now some difficul- ties are made to their settling, and capitation fees, pass- ports, and lil)eral taxation place some check upon their increase. They number at the present time about 250,000 individuals, but a large proportion of these are Pcnalmi, or half-breeds, the children of Chinese fathers by native women. Of much the same trades and employ- ments as the Chinese are the Arabs. In part new arrivals, in part the descendants of the " Moros," whom the Portu- guese on their advent found established at all the ports of the East, they act as merchants of European goods, as pedlars, and so forth, while others, as talehs or scribes, 126 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL figure as learned men, and are held in great respect by the simple-minded Javanese. There are probably under 15,000 of this race, who are thus numerically far inferior to the Europeans. But as among the Chinese are reckoned the half-bred race who, little by Kttle, are becoming insen- sibly mingled with the Javanese, so the term European embraces all those who can claim European blood for two generations. Throughout the archipelago there is none of the feeling towards the Eurasian which is so marked a feature in India, and people of mixed blood are to be seen at almost every social gathering in the large towns — a result to which the long term of service without furlough endured by the Dutch officials has helped to contribute. Yet, despite this classification, the Europeans in Java are far from being numerous. Had the island been an English colony it would long ago have been the home of large numbers of planters, engineers, and professional men and artisans. The Dutch Government, however, have, until lately, discouraged the settler in every possible way, making the island, as it were, their private property. Even now, although these difficulties have been removed, and European immigrants are permitted, it cannot be said that much in the way of help or encouragement has been afforded them, and the settler is rarely permanent. Of all the languages spoken in Java, Javanese is the most important and most widely employed. Its alphabet is peculiar, it is based on the Dewanagari, and is found in inscriptions and manuscripts of the 12 th century, although in its present form it is not more than 400 years old. Professor Keane considers the language to be the most cultivated of all the Malayan tongues, and inter- mediate in structure between the simple Malay and the more developed Tagalog of the Phihppines. Omitting the kawi, or ancient language, there are two distinct forms JAVA 127 of it : the hrama or court speech, and the ngoko or vulgar dialect. Something of the same kind obtains in Malay, where we have the bahasa dalain and the haliasa dagancj, or " Eaja Malay," and " bazaar Malay," as they are often termed. But the two dialects of Javanese are more dis- tinct. The krama appears to be a factitious language made by changing all familiar words either by altering their terminations, or by adopting words from other lan- guages, and is undoubtedly a modification of Javanese by the Hindu conquerors. It is used by every one in addressing a person of higher rank than the speaker, while the person thus addressed replies in the ngoko, which includes tutoiement among its peculiarities. From this custom it is evident that the lower the rank of the individual, the more frequently he is called upon to use the krama, and the curious result ensues that the poorer class speak the court language far better than do those of high rank. In writing, this court language is always used, though addresses and proclamations are in the vulgar tongue. Still another language, a species of mixture between these two, appears to be in use — the madyo — which is employed among intimates, as is also the ngoko. The kawi, first brought prominently into notice by the labours of Wilhelm von Humboldt, was the ancient or religious language, and bears the same relation to the ngoko that Sanscrit does to the modern languages of Hindustan. In Bali and Lombok it is still the language of the priesthood, but in Java it is entirely a dead tongue, only found in ancient inscriptions and manuscripts. Kawi literature is abundant, and is wholly metrical, consisting of romances and histories founded on Hindu legends and ancient Javanese story, the authors and dates of which are entirely unknown. 128 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Sundanese is ruder and less cultivated, although still possessed, like Javanese, of the two forms of court and vulgar language. It is spoken purest in the west extremity of the island, and is believed to have been introduced by some of the Malay tribes of Sumatra, in parts of which it is also spoken. Madurese, though allied to Javanese, is still sufficiently distinct to take rank as a language. 7. Religion and Education. Little now remains, save the wonderful temples of Bram- banam and Boro-bodor, to mark the wave of Buddhism and Brahmanism that overspread the island in the Middle Ages. Almost all the Javanese are Mohammedans Ijy religion. But, just as the Hindu influence penetrated but little into the fastnesses of the western highlands, so the creed of the Prophet is considerably modified among the Sun- danese of the present day. Every Javanese, indeed, of whatever nation, is more or less of a pagan, whose beliefs and superstitions place him scarcely on a higher level than the Papuan. Attributing to the action of good or malevolent spirits every incident of their lives, and adopt- ing the saints of every calendar, they have succeeded in evolving a religion of their ow^n, so different from that enjoined by Mohammed, that it has even been dignified by the separate title of Javanism. " The whole life of the Javanese, indeed, is enveloped in a mesh of mystery ; not the stars only, and the heavens, rain influence, but from every object a spiritual emanation, invisible for the most part, but potent and exhaustless, flows forth to him for Ijlessing or for curse. Even Mohammedanism with its (3ne God has done little more than increase the number of supersensual beings to whom he prays. To Joseph he JAVA 129 presents offerings that he may obtain beautiful children, to Solomon for honour and rank, to Closes for bravery, to Jesus for learning. The ritual of his religion — and his whole round of life is part of his religion — is intricate almost beyond conception, and at the same time rigid and precise. Everything must be done by rule and rubric ; the unwritten law handed down from father to son admits of no curtailment or modification. Each individual class of offering must be prepared in its own peculiar way ; the rice, for example — which is one of the chief sacri- ficial substances — must now be white, now red, now hard, now soft." ^ The state of education in Java is far from being creditable to so cultured a people as the owners of the land. While in the Philippines we find a church in almost every village, and nearly 2000 schools which afford instruction to about 200,000 children, the Dutch have until lately studiously set their faces against both the education and the Christianising of the nati^•es. Java at the present day has under 11,000 Christian natives. Everything which tended to lessen the distance between the two races was discouraged. The island was to be farmed by the Government, and was looked upon as private property. Xothing which could in any way become a source of difticulties and complications was to he permitted, however right or desirable it might be. The island was ten^a clausa, and the missionary was con- sidered to have hardly more claim to enter it than the settler. Even as late as the second or third decade of this century the New Testament was considered a revolu- tionary work, and Herr Briickner, who translated it, had his edition destroyed by Government. All this, of course, is past, but so also is the opportunity for the moral and ^ Mr. H. A. Webster in i:?ici/c. Brit. K 130 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL intellectual improvement of the native. The prestige of race might very well have carried in its train both Chris- tianity and education, as it did v^ith the Spaniards in the Philippines, but it is now disappearing, to leave behind it a semi-pagan Islamism and the knowledge gained by attendance at Mohammedan schools. The " culture- system " of the Dutch in Java has often been severely attacked, but there is much to be said in favour of it, and a far more serious charge to which Holland has to answer is her neglect of the education and religion of her Javanese subjects in past years. 8, Antiquities. The original source of the Hindu religion in Java is not known. All that is known v/ith any certainty is the date of its overthrow. In 1478, as has been already stated, the principality of Majapahit was conquered by the Mohammedans, and its great city destroyed. But between the time of the Hindu immigration and this date, whether we place the former in the sixth century or earlier, a period of many centuries must have elapsed, and from time to time, at dates wliich are for the most part conjectural, a vast number of mag- nificent palaces, temples, and cities, together with sculptures and other works of art, were erected, whose ruins now astonish the traveller as he comes upon them in the midst of the forest or on the mountain side. Volumes have been written upon these ruins from the time they were first brought to the notice of the antiquarian world at the beginning of this century to the publication of Dr. Leemans' great work on Boro-bodor, in 1884, and it would be impossible to notice here a tenth part of those already known and described. The JAVA 131 riiins of the aucient city of ]\Iajapahit cover miles of ground, and consist of paved roads, walls, tombs, baths, and gateways, while sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses in hard trachytic rock are often found in the forest, or remain in situ in the temples. Some of these buildings were of brick, and in their ruins show a degree of perfection of workmanship perhaps not equalled in any other part of the world. The bricks are exceedingly fine-grained and hard, with very flat surfaces and sharp angles. They are laid together with the greatest accuracy without any perceptible mortar or cement, yet often joining so closely that a penknife cannot be inserted between them. The surfaces seem, in fact, to adhere together in some incomprehensible manner. These brick buildings were richly ornamented with mouldings, projecting courses, recessed panels, and bold cornices, so as to produce a very fine architectural effect. The great temples and religious buildings, how- ever, some of which remain in a sufficiently perfect state to give an idea of their size and beauty, were much more remarkable, and a short sketch of some of them will not be out of place. One of the most extensive collections of sacred buildings is at Brambanam, near the centre of Java, between the native capitals of Jokjokarta and Surakarta. One set, called Loro-jongran, which has lately been fully excavated, consisted of twenty separate buildings, six large and fourteen small, the larger supposed to have been 90 feet high. They were all constructed of solid stone, everywhere decorated with carvings and bas-reliefs, and adorned with numbers of statues, many of which still remain entire. At Chandi Sewu — the " Thousand Temples " — in the same neighbourhood, are many colossal figures. Captain Baker, who surveyed these ruins, said 132 COMI'EXDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL that he had never seen " such stupendous and finished specimens of human labour, and of the science and taste of ages long since forgot, crowded together in so small a compass as in this spot." They form a quadrangle of 540 by 510 feet, exactly facing the cardinal points, and consist of an outer row of 84 small temples, a second row of 76, a third of 64, a fourth of 44, and the fifth forming an inner parallelogram of 28 — in all 296 small temples, disposed in five regular parallelograms. In the centre is a large cruci- form temple surrounded by lofty flights of steps, richly ornamented with sculpture, and containing many apart- ments. The tropical vegetation has ruined most of the smaller temples, but some remain tolerably perfect, from which the effect of the whole may be gathered. About half a mile off is another temple, called Chandi Kali Bening, 72 feet square and about 60 feet in height, in very fine preservation, and covered with sculptures of Hindu mythology surpassing any that exist in India. Other ruins of palaces, halls, and temples, with abundance of sculptured deities, are found in the same neighbourhood. The great temple of Boro-bodor is situated in the Kedu residency, near the Praga Eiver, and not far from Jokjokarta. It is one of the largest and most striking ruins in the world, and may be roughly described as an enormous block of building 530 feet square and about 120 feet high, occupying the summit of a hill, and consisting of six terraces raised one above the other, and culminating in a dagoba-like cupola, which is surrounded by 72 smaller temples of a similar shape, arranged in a triple row. The terraced walls are surmounted by 400 sedent figures of Buddha in covered niches, and the walls of the terraces on both 134 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL sides are covered with bas-reliefs, elaborately executed in hard stone, and illustrative of Hindu mythology in the strangest mixture of Buddhism and Brahmanism. These sculptures have been estimated to occupy an extent of wall of nearly three miles in length, and the amount of labour and skill expended upon this stupendous temple must have been as great as, if not greater than, that required to build the Great Pyramid. Unlike the dagobas of Ceylon, the apical cupola — which is 50 feet in diameter — is a hollow chamber, which shows no trace of a shrine. The enigmatical verse, which, as in the case of the Hindus, serves as Javanese chronology, places the date of the construction of the building at a.d. 1344, which may possibly be correct, for the perfect preserva- tion of the greater part of the structure is against its being of any great antiquity. Although few or no remains of temples are to be found in the mountainous Sunda lands, where, indeed, the Hindu influence never established itself, the moun- tains of Central and Eastern Java were special objects of veneration by those who followed the cult of Siva, and innumerable chandis or temples are found upon their slopes and summits. The plateau of Dieng, over- looking the vast extinct crater of Gunong Prau, has the most remarkable group of this nature. Vast flights of steps lead up to it from opposite sides of the mountain, each flight consisting of more than 1000 steps. Traces of nearly 400 temples have been found here and in the neighbourhood, all of which appear to have been decorated with rich and delicate sculptures, and others of smaller size are met with at or near the actual summit of the mountain. Upon the great volcano Lawu, to the south- west of Samarang, are temples of a later date and different character. They rise in terraces one above the JAVA 135 other, are roughly built, and ornamented with sculptures of a grotesque and obscene nature and rude execution. There are no Hindu images, but representations of animals and monsters only, and the temples were no doubt dedicated to the worship of the Linga or Hindu Priapus in its grossest form. The whole country from Gunong Prau to Jokjokarta, a distance of 60 miles, abounds with ruins, so that fine sculptured images may be seen built into the walls of enclosures, or lying neglected in ditches. AVlien all these wonderful build- ings were in their full perfection Java must have presented a very different appearance from that of the present day, when wooden houses or low white-washed huts are alone to be seen through the greater part of the interior. The Mohammedans destroyed most of these temples as signs of paganism, and they are now looked upon by the natives as the work of superior beings or of demons, and the arts of architecture and sculpture are totally lost. 9. Agriculture and Trade. The Malay of Java is perhaps more essentially an agriculturist than any others of his race in the archipelago. Eice being the staple food, enormous quantities of it are needed and produced for the twenty-three million persons inhabiting the island, and the harvest may be put at an average of 4^ millions of tons. Very little is exported, and indeed in some years importation is even necessary. The common Oryza sativa is grown chiefly upon the irrigated lower grounds or saivatis, but other varieties of the cereal are used for the non-irrigated or tagal lands. Its culti- vation with the natives is almost a religion, and is hedged 136 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL about with countless superstitions which often interfere with good farming. On the whole, however, it may be said that the better part of the land is highly cultivated. In Madura, maize partly supplies the place of rice, owing to the flatter nature of the country. A system of com- munal ]3i'opi'ietorship obtains in most parts, the land being annually redivided, but much is held by individual owners. All new land won from the forest by clearing becomes the property of the person clearing it. Although there were in 1890 over five million acres of rice-land in cultivation in the lowlands, it is not to this, but to the higher botanical zones that the Govern- ment looks for its profit. Coffee has been said to be the pivot upon which everything in Java turns, though how much longer it will remain so is another question. It was first introduced in 1696, and early in the last century was being exported in fair quantity. Upon the introduction of the " culture-system " in 1830 a con- siderable increase took place, and before the devastation caused by the appearance of the Hemileia vastatrix in 1879, some 60,000 tons were annually sent to Holland. In 1887 the return was only 17,750 tons, and although that of the following year was somewhat better, the de- crease has been steady. In 1890, the lowest crop of the half century, 15,578 tons, was obtained, and that of 1891 was estimated at not more than 11,000 tons. This is the Government export ; that of private growers is rather greater in amount. At the last computation there were 114 million coffee trees in cultivation as against 250 millions in former years. The Government, while ad- mitting that the future prospects of the island in this respect are far from favourable, and that there is no pro- duct which in tlie immediate future can be looked for to take the place of coffee, are averse to a modification of JAVA 137 the existing culture-system, " which may result in a sacrifice of certain interests in order to secure otlier uncertain advantages." The favourable points of the case are that during the last two or three years a con- siderable area has been newly planted on cleared lands in eastern Java, and the cultivation of the disease-resisting Liberian tree has been largely instituted in the low-lying grounds. In spite of the events of recent years, the island is only surpassed by Brazil in the value of its annual crop. The Pasuruan and Preanger districts to- gether furnish more than half of the entire quantity grown upon the island. Sugar, like coft'ee, was formerly a Government monopoly, but is no longer so, and the greater proportion of it is grown by large companies. It is the most valu- able of all the island exports, for Java again holds the second place in the production of this article, and only yields to Cuba. The growth of sugar is an old industry which has much increased of late years, for while at the beginning of the present century the annual crop was only 6000 tons, that of 1890 amounted to 400,000 tons, of which 362,-344 — valued at over £4,000,000— were exported. The production has been very steady since 1884, and the improved returns of 1890 are ascribed to a new system of cultivation. Surabaya is the centre of the principal sugar-growing districts. Although the three crops above mentioned — rice, coffee, and sugar — may be said to be the staples of Java, the island yields many other valuable products in great abundance. The cinchona bark obtained in 1890 was not far short of 7 million lbs., and the estimated crop for 1891 nearly 8 million, or about four-sevenths of the world's consumption. Of greater value still is the tobacco, the worth of tlie 1890 crop being estimated at 138 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL about £2,000,000. Other noteAvorthy products, placed in the order of their value, are indigo, tea, hides, pepper, gum-dammar, copra, and coco-nuts, while large quantities of teak find their way from the Government forests to European shipbuilding yards. The import trade is a thriving one. Cotton goods to the value of two million pounds annually pass the custom-house, and the mineral oil lamps which light nearly every peasant's hut consume over 20 million gallons per annum. Concessions were granted in 1890, both in Java and Sumatra, for the working of petroleum, and the prospects are said to be very encouraging. The villages, embowered in fruit trees and coco-nut palms, appear like gardens. Vast quantities of bananas are grown, of many different A^arieties, among them a bright red plantain from 12 to 16 inches in length. Cassava and yams are also much cultivated. The island is said to be insufficiently stocked with cattle, especially in the Sunda districts. The census of January 1889 showed a slight increase. There were then 2,630,400 buffaloes, 2,208,100 bullocks, and 536,900 horses. The latter animals, although useful and strong for their size, are not equal to the smaller race from Sumbawa and Sandalwood Island, or even to the ponies of Sumatra. The total value of the exports from Java in 1890 amounted to £10,494,353. 10. Government and Revenue. The system of administration in Java has already been described (p. 99). It remains only to be said that the aim of the Government is to rule the natives by natives — if not actually, at all events nominally. The JAVA 139 native " Regent " is treated with a considerable amount of respect and ceremonial, but he is, nevertheless, a mere puppet in the hands of the Dutch. Drawing a large salary in virtue of his post, and having merely nominal duties, he is wise enough in most cases to carry out the wishes of his European masters. If not, he is dismissed, and dismissal means virtual ruin. Other native officials are the waidonos and mantris, with whom the Dutch " Controleur " is chiefly brought in contact. A large portion of the time of the latter officer is employed in business connected with the " culture-system." Xo account of Java would be complete without some description of this " culture-system," and its connection with the corvie, which has been so fiercely attacked since the publication of Max Havelaar. Introduced by General van den Bosch in 1830, it has survived in a modified form to the present day. It was based upon the plan, which has already been alluded to, of excluding Europeans and making the island a Government farm. It aimed at bringing the most scientific farming to bear upon the most remunerative products, and at utilising such time and labour of the peasant as was not needed for the cultivation of his necessary bread-stuffs. The natives of the dessas where the land appeared suitable were called upon to plant the various trees or seeds pro- vided for them by the Government. Their number or acreage was decided by the same authority, as were also the site, the season, and the method of cultivation. A fixed rate of wages was paid to the labourers engaged in clear- ing the ground and forming the plantations, and the produce was bought by Government at a fixed price. This money, after the deduction of a certain percentage for the chiefs, was divided among the labourers, the sum in good years being considerable. In this manner were 140 COMPENDIUiM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL established the greater part of the numerous plantations of coffee, sugar, tobacco, tea, pepper, and other products which cover the island. Of these, coffee alone is now thus grown, and even here the " system " has been con- siderably modified, no person being required to plant more than fifty trees annually, and the labourers being no longer called out en masse as was formerly the case. The Government cultivation of sugar was given up in 1890. In 1882 it was decided to commute part of the labour by the introduction of a capitation tax of one florin, and it was found that the sum thus obtained was larger than was required for carrying out the works pre- viously performed by corvde. For road repair, however, and various other minor duties, this system is still in force, and will probably remain so for some time. From a European point of view, the " culture-system " and its attendant corvie is no doubt indefensible. But it should be remembered that what is suitable among civilised nations is by no means always advisable in the case of a people who are socially and educationally im- mature. From time immemorial the natives of Java have been accustomed to render labour service to their chiefs and princes, and it is doubtful whether the substitution of money-taxes will be in any way more acceptable to them. The experiment of passing at one stride from the feudalism of the Middle Ages to the civilisation of the nineteenth century would not have been a wise one. The method of paternal government adopted by the Dutch has taught the people habits of steady industry and the art of scientific farming, and whether it be abolished now or retained for some years to come, it will still have served good purpose in bridging over this gulf, which with us has been filled up and effaced by many centuries of time. Taxation and the free admission of JAVA 141 the white man will be a doubtful benefit to tho lul)ourer, since it will open the way to greater commercial activity, which will lead to the gradual alienation of the land to capitalists, give an unnatural stimulus to the population, and inevitably introduce the evils of feverish competition, ])auperism, and crime, from which the country has hitherto been comparatively free. European rulers, im- bued with ideas of freedom of labour and of commerce, will not understand that a child-like people can only be raised to independence and national manhood by means of a paternal government. It may safely be predicted that if the Dutch Government freely throw open Java to the world, the result will be that many capitalists will make fortunes, but the native inhabitants will not be benefited. But the system must be judged by its results. The island may have been " bled to the extent of nearly 50 millions of pounds for the benefit of the mother-country," as has been alleged, but this bleeding has been done without any oppression of the natives, who are well fed, decently clothed, and as happy and contented as any people are likely to be under the rule of an alien race. One of the best tests of the general well-being of a community is that of the growth of the population ; for where this is steadily increasing, where there is no pauperism, where serious crime is rare, and where famine and rebellion on any important scale are almost unknown, the Government cannot be otherwise than suitable to the people governed. This is the case with Java. In 1850 the population was about 9^ millions, in 1890 it had increased to 23 millions, and notwithstanding that a large portion of its surface is covered with virgin forest and lofty mountains, it supports a population of greater density than Great Britain. With such facts as these before us, it must be conceded that however theoretically wrong the " culture- 142 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL system " may be, it has at least been productive of con- siderable benefit to the Javanese. The revenue and expenditure of Java occupies about two-thirds of the Netherlands India Budget, and upon the abundance or deficiency of its crops the variations in that document largely depend. Apart from customs and other dues the revenue is chiefly derived from coffee, the opium and salt monopolies, and the rent of land. The Budget for the eight years inclusive, from 1884 to 1891, shows extraordinary irregularity. Thus in 1887 the revenue exceeded the expenditure by £2,091,652, while in 1891 there was a deficiency of £1,702,194. The mean surplus for these eight years was about £75,000. No surplus, however, can safely be counted upon, and there is no doubt that the prosperity of Java, which was formerly so great as to admit of a large and certain annual contribution being made towards the revenue of the mother-country, has been for many years diminishing. 11, Population. Towns. In January, 1890, the census gave the united popula- tion of Java and Madura as 22,819,074, of which 233,717 were Chinese, and 13,365 "Arabs." The Europeans numbered 42,364. Central and some parts of Eastern Java and the island of Madura show the densest population, the Sunda lands being only sparsely inhabited. The mean density of the population of the nine provinces of Central Java is 657 to the square mile, while that of Belgium, the most thickly populated of European countries, is only 530. In the province of Bagelen the density reaches the astonishing figure of 964 to the square mile. It is said that in the year 1780 JAVA 143 the population was not much more than 2,000,000. At the end of 1892, it was certainly not much less than 24,000,000, and that there is room for still further increase is evident from the fact that not more than one-third of the entire island is under cultivation. The following are the names of the provinces and their capitals : — Division. Provinces. Capital. Ai-ca in .sq. Miles. r P)antam Seraug 3190 Batavia Batavia 2631 "Western Java . - Krawang Purwakarta 1785 Cherilion Clieribon 2608 Preaiiger Ptegencies Tagal Han do 11 g Tagal 8170 1466 Banyumas Banyumas 2147 ' Pekalongau Pekalongan 691 Central Java . - Bagelen Samaraug Purworejo Samarang 1324 2002 Kedu llagelang 791 V Jokjokarta Japara Surakarta Jolcjokarta Pati Surakarta 1192 1205 2404 Rembang Rembang 2910 iladiun Madiun 2506 Surabaya Kediri Surabaya Kediri 2091 2610 Eastern Java . , i'asuruan Pasuruan 2066 Proboliugo Probolingo 1126 Besuki Besuki 3723 (witli Baiiyuwangi) I Madura Pamekasan 2033 Total area of Java, 48,638 square miles; of Madura, 2033 — total, 50,671 square miles. There are three towns with over 100,000 inhabitants — Surabaya, Sura- karta, and Batavia. After Batavia, which, with its hill station, Buitenzorg, demands a separate notice, Sukabaya (pop. 129,000) is 144 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHV AND TRAVEL the chief town. In population and commercial import- ance it surpasses the capital, its port being the best in the island. It is, in fact, with the exception of Chilatjap on the south coast, the only natural harbour that Java possesses, the others being merely open roadsteads. The Government dockyards and arsenals are situated here, and large sums have been spent on the fortification of the place. The river is navigable by boats far into the in- terior, and is the means of bringing down an enormous quantity of rice, sugar, and other products, the sur- rounding province being exceedingly fertile and thickly populated. A little to the north is Gressi, now almost deserted, but at one time a place of considerable import- ance, and of interest as being the chief town frequented by the Portuguese after their conquest of Malacca. Samarang suffers, like most of the ports of Java, froip being without protection, and is a very dangerous anchor- age in the north-west monsoon. It is, nevertheless, one of the chief commercial cities of the island, and had a population of over 70,000 in 1886. It appears to be decreasing, for by the census of 1878 there were nearly 80,000 inhabitants, but there is no great falling off in the exports. Its situation is ill adapted both for health and commerce, a mile or more of low -lying marshy ground intervening between it and the sea, which is only to be reached by a raised causeway. As at Surabaya and other towns the river has been canalised, and piers protect its mouth. In many ways, however, Samarang rivals the last-mentioned port. The buildings are finer, and the town has been arranged after the home model. Chilatjap possesses the best harbour upon the south coast. It is an open port both for export and import trade, and its favourable position has caused a wonderful increase in its consequence. It is in connection Ijy the JAVA 145 Eastern Eailway system with Samarang and Surabaya, and a line is in course of construction to Garut and Chichalengka, which will join it with Batavia. It is guarded by the forts on Kambangan island and by batteries on the mainland, and has a considerable gar- rison. Cheeibon, a town almost opposite to it on the north side of the island, is of secondary rank only, and is chiefly celebrated for its horses. The above are the only towns in Java with many European residents. Sueakarta, or Solo, the chief junc- tion of the Eastern Eailway system, although almost entirely native, possesses a larger number of inhabitants than any of them, the population at the last census being over 130,000. It is here that the Susuhunan, or Em- peror of Java, still exercises a nominal sway over a province of more than a million of his subjects, but under the supervision of a Dutch Kesident, with a force of 500 soldiers and a fort. The Emperor lives in con- siderable state, and is surrounded by an amount of luxury and magnificence hardly surpassed by any of the native princes of India. Jokjokaeta, the capital of the pro- vince of that name, is not far from Surakarta, and, like it, is a native city ruled by a sultan. It is finely situated beneath the great cone of Merapi, and from the prox- imity of Brambanam and other ruins is very frequently visited by tourists. It has about 90,000 inhabitants. 12. The Capital: Life and Manners. Towards the end of the sixteenth century the Dutch formed their first settlement in Bantam, driving out the Portuguese, and making the city one of the most im- portant in the East, at a time when Batavia was not L 146 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL even in existence. It was only in 1619 that this latter city was estabUshed on the ruins of the Javanese town of Jacatra by the Dutch general Koen, but it was not long in supplanting its rival, and the capital is now of considerable extent, although its population, which, by the census of 1886, was 100,485, is inferior to that of Surabaya. Various misfortunes have hampered its growth. In 1699 the terrific eruption of jNIount Salak swept away its houses and gardens, choked its streams with mud, and rendered it so unhealthy from malaria that it is said that over a million people perished between 1730 and 1752. Until lately the shoaling of its roadstead has still further interfered with its prosperity. At the time of its founda- tion Batavia consisted of a citadel built at the mouth of the little river Liwong, and a small town to the soutli of it, situated in the bend of the stream and protected by a fosse and a wall of fortifications upon its eastern side. The streets were intersected by canals after the Dutch fashion, and these combined with the walls to aggravate the natural unhealthiness of the site, — a fact that was recognised early in the present century by Marshal Daen- dels, at that time Governor. Under his administration the mass of suburbs, of which "VVeltevreden is the nucleus, was first commenced about two miles to the south of the city, and in a few years the latter was deserted by Europeans for the new town. There is little either of interest or l^eauty in the first view of Batavia usually obtained by the traveller. His vessel anchors a mile and a half or more from the shore, the flatness of which is its most noticeable feature. The river, as in many of the Java ports, has been canalised, and here the canal extends not only to its mouth, l)ut is built out seaward for nearly three-quarters of a mile. Up this the traveller rows for some distance, past many 148 COMPENDIUM OF GEOCxRAPHY AND TRAVEL unsavoury native suburbs, to the city, whence the train, or a showy open cab drawn by a pair of horses, conveys him to the European quarter. By road he passes Molenvliet, a connecting link of houses and huts, sur- rounded by gardens, and bordered by a canal which joins the city to Noordwijk, Pdjswijk, and Weltevreden — the three European villages or districts grouped around the Koningsplein. This Koningsplein, which, in spite of latitude, reminds the Englishman not a little of Wool- wich Common, is similarly used by the troops here quartered, and its vast open space is no doubt of great service in ventilating the district, and freeing it from malaria. The walks and roads in these suburbs, although not equal to those of the towns of the Spice Islands, are nevertheless charming in their beauty and in the wealth of their tropical foliage, and the houses, with their neat appearance and characteristic white -pillared entrances, are equally attractive. The broad roads are bordered with trees meeting overhead to form arched avenues, and as most of the houses are low and are surrounded by gardens full of fruit trees, palms, and flowering shrubs, the general effect is very pleasing. While Batavia proper is given up to warehouses, shops, and offices, and peopled by Malays, Chinese, and Arabs, the European suburbs just named have within their limits all the chief hotels, clubs, museums, theatres, and other places of amusement. In Eijswijk is the Governor-General's resi- dence and the Government offices ; the museum and other public edifices are in the Koningsplein, and the barracks and civil and military hospital in Weltevreden. The Dutch in Java have done much to further science, and their various learned societies established here have published numerous valuable papers upon the fauna and flora as well as upon the ethnology of the islands, of JAVA 149 wliich their museums and the magnificent botanic gar- dens at Buitenzorg are excellently illustrative. Meester Cornelis, with 71,000 inhabitants, is a suburb still further to the south, but is hardly sufficiently connected with tlie capital to be included with it. It is memorable as the site of the engagement with Daendels in 1811, which brought Java under English rule. Two other towns, Tangerang and Bekasi, inhabited chiefiy by Chinese, lie respectively to the west and east of the old town, and much of the intervening ground is occupied by the huts and holdings of small cultivators, so that the city of Batavia, taken as a whole, occupies a very much wider area than might from its population be expected. Nevertheless, as has been said, it is neither the largest nor the most thriving city in the island, and the explana- tion of this doubtless lies partly in the difficulties that the roadstead offers to shipping. So rapidly does the land gain on the sea that the shore-line is over a mile seaward of its position on the founding of the city. After many proposals, it was at length settled to make an artificial harbour at Tanjong Priok, a point some six miles east of Batavia, and the work was successfully con- cluded in 1887. Two enormous piers, each over a mile in length, project from the shore into a depth of four fathoms, sheltering between them a sheet of water half a mile in width, which is capable of receiving the largest ships at low water. Two large dry docks are also in course of con- struction, and the new harbour is connected by road, rail- way, canal, and telegraph with Batavia. The only draw- back to this splendid harbour is its great unhealthiness. Although in no way a suburb of Batavia, from which it is distant some 45 miles, Buitenzorg may be mentioned here as the hill-station of that city, and the usual place of residence of the governors - general. The railway JAVA 151 renders it easy of access, and the European residents visit it in large numbers to escape the heat and malaria of the capital. Its height above the sea (870 feet) scarcely entitles it to be called a sanatorium, and for this purpose Sindang Laja, a station on the northern slopes of Gede at an elevation of 3 5 0 0 feet, is used, but the climate is delight- ful as a change from Batavia, the mornings and evenings being deliciously cool. Here are the celebrated botanic gardens, in which nearly every vegetable product of the East is cultivated ; to the number, it is said, of over 9000 species. The country around is wonderfully picturesque, and the view southward looking towards the striking peak of Salak is celebrated as one of the most beautiful in the world. Life in Batavia may be taken, mutatis mutandis, as a good example of life in any other settlement in the Dutch East Indies. In the lower town the Malays and Chinese lead a semi-aquatic existence around the canals, in whose unsavoury waters the germs of cholera may be said to be endemic. The same trades, the same street scenes are here as the traveller finds at Singapore, but there is an even greater mixture of nationalities. Eogge- wein, writing in the early part of the seventeenth century, speaks of this heterogeneous mixture of different races, and it is probable that they have increased rather than diminished since his day. Batavia is the great emporium of this vast archipelago of Australasia, and from almost every island come the praus of the traders laden with every sort of product, from the dye-woods of Sumatra to the paradise birds of New Guinea. The only industry specially characteristic of Batavia is the weaving of bamboo hats, mats, and boxes, which employs many thousands of people during a portion of the year. Vast numbers of these hats are made for the Paris market, and the value of the export is very considerable. 152 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL But if native life is much the same in Netherlands India as it is in our own Eastern possessions, the man- ners and customs of the Europeans show little similarity with those of the English in India. " Ccelum non ani- mum mutant," is less true of the Dutch than of our- selves, and there is more of England in India and the Straits than of Holland in Java. The inordinate length of service without furlough which the officials of the Netherlands India have to endure partly explains this, and it is partly due to many, both of this and the mer- chant class, making the island their permanent home. At Buitenzorg and in Weltevreden they are within reach of a wide social circle, and in command of every comfort of modern civilisation. The skies are kinder, and, the exigencies of fashion less strict than at home. In most parts of the East Indian Archipelago the Dutch ladies adopt the native dress in the morning — a silk sarong or petticoat, a loose lace-edged linen jacket (the kibaya), and a pair of gold-embroidered slippers, and in this costume walk about or take their customary morning drive. In the morning and late afternoon the merchant or official devotes himself to business, the midday hours being given up to the siesta. The midday meal or rijsttofel cor- responds to the French cUjeuner, and consists largely of curry dishes, for which Java and the Moluccas are cele- brated. Business over, the Dutchman seeks the " Har- monie," or club, drinks his pijtje, and plays a game of billiards or cards. Games demanding much exertion and sports do not find much favour in his eyes, albeit he has a taste for horse flesh, breeds most wonderful little ponies, and is always riding or driving. Afternoon calls are generally paid during the hour before late dinner, and if of a ceremonial nature, custom ordains that the gentleman must wear a black tail-coat, and at least JAVA 153 cany a hat, even if he do not wear it. Under ordinary circumstances no head-coverinsr is ever worn durincj the daily evening walk or drive. Balls are frequent, and the hospitality offered to the stranger in Java is on the most liberal scale. The ceremonial and state surround- ing the person of the Governor-General is as great as that attending our own Viceregal court in India, and some of the sultans have retinues and surroundings not less magnificent than those of our own native princes. Travel in Java has of late years been considerably simplified by the construction of an elaborate railway system, which serves chiefly the central and eastern parts of the island, placing Samarang, Surabaya, Surakarta, Jokjokarta, Chilatjap, and all the other large towns in communication with each other. Batavia is the starting- point of another system in the western portion of the island, which is very soon to connect with this at Chilatjap. At the beginning of 1890 there were 762 miles of railway open to traffic, of which about half belongs to the State. There are also nearly 150 miles of steam tramway. The magnificent road system, which forms a network over the whole of Java, connecting all the principal towns, is very largely due to the initiative of Marshal Daendels, who at the beginning of this cen- tury constructed the great trunk road from end to end of the island, 800 miles in length. The law which compels every peasant to give a certain number of days' work upon the roads, results in their being kept in ex- cellent condition, and the posting system which serves them is equally good, although extremely expensive. The post-houses are at short intervals along the main road, and the traveller may either get coolies or horses to carry him, day and night, at the rate of ten miles an hour. CHAPTEE VI SUMATEA 1. General. Sumatra, the westernmost of all the Dutch Indian pos- sessions, is one of the largest islands in the world, and in the archipelago is surpassed in size only by New Guinea and Borneo. Its extreme length is about 1060 miles, its greatest breadth 260, and its area, so far as an insufficient survey can admit of its being calculated, about 170,000 square miles. It lies with its long axis in a X.W. and S.E. direction, and is traversed from north to south by an almost unbroken chain of mountains, many of which are volcanoes. This chain lies close to the western shore, and hence the island may be roughly described as presenting a high, steep wall, and straight, almost harbourless coast-line, to the Indian Ocean, guarded by an outlying chain of large islands ; while the eastern portion, which goes to form the Strait of Malacca, is low, flat, and alluvial, intersected with large rivers forming great deltas, and consequently provided with numerous harbours. At the south, Sumatra is separated from Java by the great ocean highway known as the Straits of Sunda, and memorable of late years as the site of the appalling eruption of Krakatau. A considerable portion SUMATRA 155 of the centre of the island remains yet unexplored, and in the nortli the Dutch have for more than twenty years been vainly endeavouring to subdue Ache (Atjeh or Acheen), of the interior of which little or nothing is Icnown. While Java is throughout its whole extent brought under the influence of civilisation, and covered with a network of roads and railways, Sumatra still re- mains to all intents and purposes a wild and savage land ; the only parts at all well known and settled by the Dutch being the district lying between Palembang and Benkulen, the country around Padang and Deli, and the Lampongs. In this respect European civilisation has but followed in the footsteps of Hindu influence. We have seen Java to be everywhere strewn with the ruins of innumerable temples of the Indian cults, except perhaps in the Sunda lands, but here in Sumatra such remains are not nearly so common, and are of no architectural importance. The marked inferiority and lack of progress in Sumatra is not very easily explained ; it is certainly not to be entirely accounted for by any peculiar advan- tages of Javanese soil. 2. History. The first account which we have of Sumatra is that of Marco Polo, who states that he was delayed five months in one of its ports by the S.W. monsoon during his pass- age through the archipelago in 1291. He calls it Java Minor, and claims to have visited six out of the eight kingdoms into which it was said to be at that time divided, but much of the story is obviously fictional. Ludovic Varthema is the next European we know cer- tainly to have visited it, but not until more than 200 156 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL years later, landing at Pedir, in Ache, in 1505. He identifies the island with Taprobana, but calls it Sumatra, using the orthography of the present day. He speaks of the pepper, aloes, silks, and other products of the island, and states that it was divided into four kingdoms, that gold, silver, and tin coin was current, and that the practice of suttee or concremation was in vogue. Diego Lopes de Sequeira, with Magellan as one of his officers, landed at the same port in September 1509, and con- cluded a treaty with the raja. Thenceforward, and especially after the fall of Malacca in 1511, the island was frequently visited, and in Schoner's globe of 1523 we find it represented with very tolerable accuracy. In the Carta Universal of Diego Kibero, published in Seville in 1529, it is extraordinarily well plotted, both as regards outline and position ; while, on the other hand, it is curious to note that the northern coast of Java is alone depicted, so that it is probable that the former island had been circumnavigated before southern Java had been visited by Europeans. For many centuries before the arrival of the Portuguese in the archipelago, the com- merce of the ports had been in the hands of the Arabs, and in Ache this appears to have been especially the case, resulting to a certain extent in the fusion of the immi- grants w"ith the native population — a fact which may partially account for the marked difference in type of the Achenese of the present day from the other island tribes. From the earliest times the Hindus carried on trade with Sumatra, and there is sufficient evidence in the remains of Hindu temples to show that they had at one time established their religion among the natives. But it was earlier ousted by Islamism than was the case in Java, and Marco Polo found the people of the eastern coasts Mohammedans at the time of his visit in 1291. SUMATKA 157 At some period to which it is impossible to' assign a date, the southern part was largely colonised from Java, and the two kingdoms of ]\Ienangkabo and Palembang estab- lished, or at all events largely peopled. That this was long anterior to the advent of the Europeans is evident from the fact that Malacca was a colony founded by settlers from Palembang, and that the former city had been in existence for more than 200 years before its fall in 1511. The Portuguese never succeeded in establish- ing themselves in Sumatra any more than in Java, although they had many unimportant trading settlements, and were involved in many small wars with the natives. The Dutch first came in 1598, and in 1685 the Eng- lish, driven by them out of Bantam in Java, built a fort and factory at Benkulen. This was not, however, their first acquaintance with the island, for Sir James Lancas- ter, with a fleet of four vessels, had already borne a letter from Queen Elizabeth to the King of Ache in 1602, and had concluded a friendly treaty with him. The British tenure of Benkulen lasted until 1824, when the settlement was handed over to the Dutch in exchange for Malacca, after an expensive and useless occupation of 140 years. The history of the Dutch in Sumatra is that of slow but steady progress in the acquisition of territory, although the Ache war, which has lasted over twenty years, shows at present no sign of termination. 3. G-eology, Orography, etc. The physical structure of Sumatra is a combination of that of Java with that of the Malay peninsula. The great mountain masses appear to be composed largely of Palseozoic rocks; slates, and clay schists, etc., and much 158 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL granite, from amid which rise tlie peaks of volcanoes, both active and extinct. Carboniferous limestones and marls occur freely, but rocks of the Secondary Period are conspicuously absent. It is otherwise with the Tertiary formation, which is strongly developed. The coal-measures, which are recent, appear to be very extensive. The central mountainous ridge, the general name for which is Barisan or the " Chain," consists in the broadest parts of the island of more than one crest, the intervening plateaux, lakes, or valleys, and secondary connecting ranges. The nearness of this chain of mountains to the west coast causes the larger part of the drainage to find its way to the Straits of Malacca and the Java Sea, and hence the detritus from the mountains has been for ages forming the great alluvial belt which extends along the whole of the eastern side, and silting up the straits. The island, in point of fact, is slowly but surely altering its position, and gaining steadily to the eastward, so that the time is, geologically speaking, not far distant when it will have reunited itself to the mainland from which it has so long been separated. The two islands at the north end of Sumatra, Pulo Bras and Pulo Wai, familiar to all who navigate the Straits of Malacca, are in reality the commencement of the chain just mentioned. The first peak upon the mainland itself lies at no great distance from Ache, and is known to the natives as Selawa-jantan or Yamura (56G3 feet), and to the Dutch as Goudberg. Prom here a secondary range runs eastward to Diamond Cape, but the mountains are of no great height, and not comparable in grandeur to Mounts Abong-abong and Luse to the south. These volcanoes, being in the territory of the hostile Achenese, have never yet been ascended, but their SUMATRA 159 heights have been estimated at over 11,100 and 12,100 feet respectively, and if these be correct there is no doubt that Luse is the highest peak in Sumatra. A little farther to the south the main range forks, and at this point is the most important of the mountain lakes of Sumatra, many of which, it may be remarked, are formed in extinct craters. This sheet of water, known as Lake Toba, is of considerable size, being 45 miles in length and 15 in breadth, and is occupied in the centre by a large insuloid mass of land which is joined to the shore by the narrowest possible connection. This lake thus resembles very closely Lake Taal in the Philippines, for the central island, if we may so term it, although not now active, is, like that of Taal, a volcano, and the narrow connecting causeway has been formed by ashes ejected from its crater. The shores of Lake Toba are thickly populated by Battaks, among whom the Dutch are re- presented by a " Controleur." Almost on the equator is Mount Ophir (9610 feet), the isolated position and fine outline of which render it a well-known object to seamen. It is a volcano, but is now extinct. Merapi, the next peak of any importance, is very far from being so, and its eruptions have been more numerous than those of any other Sumatran volcano — at all events during the present century, a fact which partly explains its Malay name, the Fire Destroyer. Although by no means the loftiest mountain in the chain, the Malays have adapted a form of the story of the ark to it, and regard it as their Ararat. During the Central Sumatran Expedition of 1877, Mr. Veth ascended the Talang and Korinchi or Indra- pura volcanoes. The former, which is 8343 feet in height, dominates the city of Padang, and although now inactive, affords the natives an inexhaustible store of 160 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL sulphur. Korinchi, which was found to measure about 3600 metres, m other words, not far short of 12,000 feet, is a far finer peak, with an enormous crater, some hundreds of yards in depth, which appears to emit steam ahiiost without intermission. Other volcanoes, of scarcely less importance, occupy the more southern portion of the chain, the chief of which are Kaba and Dempo. The former, although of comparatively low altitude (5413 feet), has been cpiite recently the scene of a succession of eruptions which, though not destructive to human life, have covered the surrounding districts with sand, and destroyed its vegetation and animals. Dempo, visited and described by Mr. H. 0. Forbes, attains a height of 10,562 feet. It is in a state of constant activity, and every three or four years discharges a " sulphur rain " which injures or destroys all the crops in the adjacent country. The Merapi, or present active crater, is about half a mile in diameter, with a lake of liquid mud at the bottom, some 70 yards across, which is from time to time converted into a gigantic geyser. Mr. Forbes thus describes the phenomenon : — " We had sat thus for ten or twelve minutes when I noted that the centre of the white basin had become intensely black and scored with dark streaks. This area gradually increased The lake was becoming engulfed. A few minutes later a dull, sullen roar was heard, and I had just time to conjecture within myself whence it had proceeded, when the whole lake heaved and rose in the air for some hundreds of feet, not as if violently ejected, but with calm, majestic upheaval, and then fell back on itself with an awesome roar, which reverberated round and round the vast caldron, and echoed from rocky wall to rocky wall like the surge of an angry sea ; and the immense volume of steam, let SUMATKA 1 G 1 loose from its prison-house, dissipated itself into the air. The wave circles died away on the margin of the lake, which resumed its burnished face, and again reflected the blue sky, and silence reigned again until the geyser had gathered force for another expiration Thus all day long the lake was swallowed up and vomited forth once in every fifteen or twenty minutes." The most important mountain in the Lampong district is Tangkamus, better known to the Dutch as Keizers Spits, which dominates the head of Samangka Bay, and is estimated to be 7422 feet in height. The peaks at the extreme end of the island are of no great height. All the mountains we have mentioned are volcanoes, whether extinct or active, as are probably almost all in Sumatra. Their number has been estimated at sixty-six, but so much of the interior remains unexplored that these figures can only be approximate. Of all the volcanic eruptions known to have occurred, either in ancient or modern times, that of the island of Krakatau, in the Sunda Straits, which will be fresh in the mind of every reader, was at once the most stupendous, the most wide-spread in its effects, and the most destructive of human life. As far as regards the actual amount of matter ejected, and the area and duration of the darkness caused by the volcanic dust, other eruptions have exceeded it, as for example that of Tambora, in Sumbawa, in 1815, and of the Skaptar Jokull, in Iceland, in 1783. But in the suddenness and violence of the explosions, and in the disastrous effect of the resulting " seismic wave," it is without an equal. By this great eruption the volcano was completely eviscerated. A mass of matter, of not less than 1-i- cubic mile in size, was blown into the air in the course of a few hours, and nearly 40,000 people perished. M 162 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAYEL Of the former history of the volcano, geology tells us something. The island of Krakatau and its satellites, previous to the eruption, formed in reality only the lip or edse of a crater, the wreck of some former volcanic cone, which was probably not less than 10,000 or 12,000 feet high and 25 miles in circumference at its base. That this great mountain must have been gradually built up in comparatively modern times is evident from the fact that beneath the mass of which its ruins are com- posed there are deposits of post-Tertiary age, which in turn rest on the widely distribvited Tertiary rocks so well developed in Java and Sumatra. Subsequent to the ancient eruption which destroyed this mountain, secondary craters must at some time have formed within and around the eviscerated cone, and the volcano was in this condition when the great eruption of 1883 ensued. The only out- burst previously recorded in history occurred in 1680, when all the forests clothing the islands are said to have been destroyed. On the morning of May 20th, 1883, the dormant volcano again woke suddenly to life. The explosions were sufficiently violent to be heard at Batavia, 100 miles distant, where dust fell on the following day, and the officers of a German man-of-war in the vicinity estimated the height of the column of matter vomited forth as over 36,000 feet. Considerable as the dis- turbance must have been, it does not appear to have been attended with any very injurious results, and although the eruption lasted without intermission until the appalling finale on August 26th and 27th, it steadily decreased in violence until tlie end of June. Pleasure- parties were even arranged in Batavia to visit the island, and photographs were taken of the scene. Towards the beginning of July an exacerbation of the phenomena SUMATRA 163 took place, other craters having opened in the centre of the island. On the 11th August the island was approached upon its north-east side by Captain Ferzenaar, of the topographical staff of Bantam, who discovered that no less than three large and eleven secondary craters were in action. The whole island was covered with a thick white dust, and the forests and vegetation utterly destroyed. On Sunday the 26th August the volcano entered upon its paroxysmal and culminating stage of eruption. From the commanders of two or three vessels which were then passing through the strait, and in some remarkable manner escaped destruction by the frightful wave that submerged the villages on its shores, we have full accounts of the phenomena presented at this period. The various craters appear to have united, and the mountain was vomiting forth enormous columns of smoke which, according to one observer, presented the appear- ance of " an immense wall with bursts of forked lio-htning; like large serpents rushing through the air." Chains of fire appeared to ascend between the volcano and the sky, while on the south-west side huge white-hot fragments of lava rolled down the sides of the peak. On the ships the yard-arms and mast-heads were studded with " corpi- santi" and the entire deck and rigging were covered with brilliant phosphorescence, due to show^ers of warm mud which fell at times at the rate of six inches of depth in ten minutes. Occasionally a peculiar pinky flame ap- peared to come from the clouds and touch the mast- heads and yard-arms ; and the sounding-lead was hot when brought to the surface. A strong wind was blowing at the time, hot and choking, with a pungent sulphurous smell. The explosions, which began on the afternoon of Sunday, continuing at intervals of ten 164 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL minutes, increased in violence, until at night there was an almost continuous roar. The sounds thus caused were indescribable, as may indeed be easily conceived, seeing that we have only the discharge of heavy cannon or thunder to serve as means of comparison. By one observer they were stated to resemble discharges of artillery at every second of time, combined with a crackling noise which was probably due to the collision of the fragments of the ejecta. But at Buitenzorg, 100 miles distant, a similar comparison was used, and the noise compared to the firing of a park of artillery close at hand, — so violent, indeed, were the explosions that the windows were blown in and sleep was rendered almost impossible. Such were the phenomena witnessed by the onlookers who escaped with their lives from the horrors of the night of August 26 th. Precisely what occurred at the focus of eruption will always remain a matter of doubt, but it is probable that from long-continued eruptive action the lip of the crater became gradually removed, and the sea gained admission to the white-hot mass of lava in the interior. The extraordinary violence of the explosions may have been due to the immense amount of steam thus generated, or the inrush of a vast body of water may have had a merely mechanical action, blocking the vent like the clods of earth thrown in to cause the eruption of a geyser. It is not unlikely that the succession of smaller seismic waves which left the island at various times during the night of the 26 th, owed their origin to these causes, but the great wave, which will be presently referred to, and which was productive of the most wide-spread results, is considered by most authorities to have been aided, if not entirely caused, by some upheaval of the sea-bottom. It is worthy of remark, however, that at no time and SUMATKA 1 G 5 in no place was any earthquake recorded during the eruption. Throughout the 27th August the eruption continued, though with decreasing severity, but the exact nature of the phenomena then occurring is unknown, as the Straits of Sunda and much of the surrounding country were en- veloped in complete darkness during the whole day. The vast quantity of dust and watery vapour which had been ejected hung like a pall over the scene, assuming the " pine-tree " shape noticed in the eruptions of Vesuvius. But while in the latter the cloud has been recorded as only attaining the height of four miles, the enormous body of ejecta thrown out by Krakatau was estimated by various observers as being from seventeen to twenty-three miles high. Then, slowly, the mass began to descend. For the most part it seems to have been composed of fine dust and watery particles, which deposited as a smooth mud, but in other cases pieces of pumice fell, some of which were as large as a pumpkin. A great part of this volcanic dust was no doubt caused by the collision of the individual pieces of the ejecta as they were shot out from the mouth of the crater, for the pumice was of a peculiarly brittle character, and crumbled easily be- tween the fingers. The darkness in the straits only lasted during the 27th. On the morning of the 28th the explosions of the volcano, which had gradually been growing weaker and less frequent, finally ceased, and the great eruption of 1883 was at an end. The foregoing is a brief account of tlie events which occurred in the immediate neighbourhood of Krakatau at the time of the disaster. But, terrible as they were, the enormous loss of life which followed on them was not immediately suspected, while the wide-spread character of the resulting phenomena was not known until months 166 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL later. It may be said without exaggeration that the effects of the eruption manifested themselves in one way or another over the greater part of the surface of the globe. The changes at the focus of eruption are best realised by a comparison of the survey of the straits after the disaster with the former Admiralty charts. Shortly they consist of the blowing away of the whole of the northern part of the island of Krakatau, a mass of land 3 1- miles in length by 2 in width. Where there was formerly dry land there are now soundings of 90 fathoms, while in one place bottom was not reached at 164 fathoms. Of the two neighbouring islands one, Lang Island, remained much as before ; the other, Verlaten Island, was increased to more than thrice its original area. The bed of the sea for some five or six miles to the north appears to have been raised many fathoms, and in depths of 60 feet or more two islands were formed by the scoriae. These, however, were not able to resist the action of the sea and have since disappeared. That this elevation of the sea-bottom was connected with the production of the great seismic wave already mentioned, which overwhelmed all the villages of the littoral, is most probable. However produced, it will long be remembered as one of the most astonishing natural phenomena on record. It does not seem to have been felt bj'' any person on board the vessels at that moment in the neighbourhood of Krakatau, and although the sky and land phenomena were of such an appalling character as doubtless to divert attention in great measure, still it is evident that, had the wave approached the height it was recorded to measure on striking the shores of the strait, it would probably have overwhelmed the ships, and certainly could not have escaped observation. It may 1G8 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL therefore be assumed that the wave did not originate merely from the island, but from a wider submarine upheaval. The hjdrographic surveys subsequently under- taken show that over an area of 72 square miles the depths were greatly reduced by the eruption. Over a large portion of this there are now soundings of 12 feet only where formerly there was an uniform depth of 120 feet. Although, as has been stated, various seismic waves were recorded on the neighbouring shores, most of them were not of extraordinary height. The great loss of life and property was chiefly occasioned by the single gigantic wave which occurred at 1 0 o'clock on the morning of the 2 7th August. The destruction caused by it was immense. It may be said, roughly speaking, that all the coast villages and towns of the Straits of Sunda were over- whelmed. The actual height of the crest of the wave above sea -level has been variously estimated, and no doubt varied greatly according to the locality. Mr. Verbeek, in his plan, shows the hills of Merak to have been washed by the water to the height of 115 feet, and at Telok Betong, on the Sumatran coast, the water reached within 6 feet of the Eesidency, which stands on a hill 78 feet above the sea. A still better illustration of its height and volume is afforded in the case of the Dutch man-of-war " Berouw," anchored off this place, which was carried more than one mile and three-quarters inland, and left more than 30 feet above the level of the sea. Tlie distance to which this wave was propagated is very remarkable. It was felt not only in South Africa, distant some 5000 miles from the scene of the eruption, but also at Cape Horn (7500 miles), and, possibly, in the English Channel (11,000 miles). In Ceylon even the smaller waves were distinctly recorded. To the north the numberless islands of the archipelago soon destroyed SUMATEA 169 it, but to the south-east the tide gauges of West Australia showed marked evidences of its having reached those shores. Still more extraordinary were the air waves produced by the violent explosions. Here, again, we find, as in the case of the sea waves, that there was one pre-eminent in strength and volume. It appears very nearly to have coincided with the gigantic seismic wave just discussed, and the character of the disturbance would seem almost incredible, were it not for the fact that it is attested by the barograms of every great meteorological station on the world's surface. Shortly, it was this : that the circular wave or oscillation having Krakatau as its centre pro- pagated itself over the entire surface of the globe until it reached the antipodes of the volcano ; that it was thence reflected back or reproduced, travelling backwards to its point of origin, from which it again returned ; and that in this manner the occurrence of the wave was observed no fewer than seven times — four passages having been those of the wave travelling from Krakatau, and three those of the wave travelling from its antipodes. From this the time of its genesis could easily be calculated with tolerable exactitude. It is given by Lieutenant-General Strachey as 2 hours 56 minutes Greenwich mean time, which in local time would correspond with 9.58 o'clock on the morning of the 27th August. The distance at which the sounds of the eruption were audible is much in excess of anything previously recorded ; indeed, one of the reports is of special interest, as being the only instance known of sounds being heard at any- thing like so great a distance from their place of origin. The island of Eodriguez in the Indian Ocean is about 2968 miles from Krakatau in a direct line, yet the noise of the explosions was heard during the night of the 26th- 170 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 27th "like the distant roars of heavy guns." In the opposite direction Dr. Guillemard records that the sounds were audible on both days at Dorei Bay, on the north coast of New Guinea, 2014 miles distant. Eoughly speaking, the eruption was heard over one-thirteenth of the entire surface of the globe. It is very remarkable that in the more immediate neighbourhood of the volcano the sounds were inaudible after the culminating explosion at 10 a.m. on the 27th, and this curious phenomenon can only be accounted for by the supposition that the enormous mass of ejecta formed a sort of wall or curtain so thick as effectually to exclude all sound. With regard to the extraordinary sunset glows and coloured suns so widely noticed during the autumn of 1883 and at sub- sequent periods, Messrs. Archibald and EoUo Eussell's exhaustive treatise proves beyond all possibility of doubt that they were caused by the impalpable dust and vapour particles ejected from the crater of Krakatau during this memorable eruption. The pumice, which lay so thick in the Straits of Sunda that a bank of it was reported on one occasion to have almost stopped a vessel passing a few weeks later, drifted completely across the Indian Ocean from about 0° to 20° S., and reached Natal about the end of September 1884.^ Three years after the eruption the island was visited by Dr. Treub of the Buitenzorg Botanic Garden, who found the cinders and pumice entirely covered with fresh-water algoe of various species. He also collected eleven species of ferns and twenty other plants. The plains, table-lands, and valleys of the mountain region of Sumatra are often of great extent, and differ 1 For further information the reader is referred to "The Eruption of Krakatoa" — the Report of the Krakatau Committee of the Royal Society, and M. Verbeek's " Krakatau." SUMATRA 171 very much in character, some being forest-clad, others bare ; some extremely fertile, othei's sterile. Of the latter class is the plain of Pertibi, situated in the country of the Battaks, in lat. 1° 20' N"., on the eastern side of the mountains. Mr. Wilier, a Dutch writer, thus describes it : — ■" Descending from Gunong-Tuah we see unrolled before us a plain without horizon, and without variety except such as may be caused by the presence or absence of the rank and worthless lalang grass {Andropogon carico- sum). On this plain not a single living creature appears to move ; trees are rare, and have the appearance of being stunted and dwarfed. At the distance of miles we may descry, as an oasis in the desert, an insignificant thicket, or a small strip of brushwood along the banks of a marsh or brook. A fell, scorching wind blows for months together, and from the numerous conflagrations spreads a dull haze, through which the sunlight scarcely forces itself — wavering and heavy. In a word, all nature appears to have gone to an eternal sleep. Such is the appearance of Padang-luwas (spacious plain), whose naked and flat surface offers no other diversity than the ravines and morasses with which it is intersected. The upper soil is of the most meagre and unfruitful kind, and is seldom more than six inches in depth. Beneath, we come to layers of white clay, limestone, and sandstone. The climate is extremely variable. Frequently, in the afternoon, we have a temperature of from 92° to 97 Fahr., and in the night of from 63° to 66°. The heat is accompanied by great dryness. A violent storm, for the greatest part of the year, day after day bellows from the west over Padang-luwas. Like the mistral, this wind has a strong desiccating power, cracking the ground, and in a few minutes removing all traces of mud and rain." The neighbouring district of Mandeling, on the western 172 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL side of the watershed, offers a totally different aspect, and is thus described by the same writer : — " The appearance of Mandeling is as varied and luxuriant as that of Pertibi is monotonous and arid. To the south are high and naked mountains, over which the lalang grass again spreads its monotonous mantle. Here hamlets and cultivated tracts appear, stuck on frightful steeps, where unfruitfulness and poverty have established their hungry seat. The northern Ankola valley also presents some dry and desert places like those of Padang-luwas. But for the rest, the district consists of one chain of beautiful valleys hemming the banks of the Batang-gadis (Virgin Eiver), which runs between the central mountains of Sumatra. These valleys, like the river itself, become wider and wider as we proceed to the north and west. The high chains of mountains are covered to their sum- mits with stately forests, which afford abundance of good timber and other valuable products. On the lower mountains, too, are woods here and there, and these are commonly adorned with the wine-yielding Areng palm {Saguerus saccharifcrus). Here we see well-watered rice- fields, which, in small valleys like amphitheatres, climb up a considerable portion of the acclivities, and, in the distance, extend to an invisible boundary. Nowhere does the landscape weary. The eye rests constantly on orna- mental groups of bamboos and various trees, or on the small clumps of fruit-trees in which the villages lie con- cealed, their position being especially marked by the abundance of coco and areca palms. Towards evening we observe near the villages numerous herds of buffaloes, oxen, and goats ; while men, well fed and well clothed, and, what is more, a superabundance of children, prove that in this favoured region the greatest prosperity has reigned for some years." SUMATKA 173 To the great alluvial plain which occupies the entire eastern portion of Sumatra allusion has already been made. It is about 700 miles in length, and from 50 to 200 in breadth, and in area is equal to England. It is intersected with large and navigable rivers, by means of which trade is carried on almost to the opposite shores of the island. Much of it is flooded in the rainy season, and, with the rare exception of a few cultivated patches on the river banks, it is covered with a stupendous forest, coeval probably with the formation of the land itself. The greater part of this vast territory is of ample fertility, and suited to the growth of most of the products of tropical countries, but much of it is in the hands of rude tribes who are quite unable efiectually to cultivate it. Like Luzon, the great island of the Philippines, Sumatra abounds in lakes. But while in the former these are for the most part either inlets of the sea shut off by upheaval or by volcanic ejecta, or the temporary sheets of water occurring during the rainy season and known as Pinags, those of Sumatra are chiefly mountain lakes, many of which occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes. The largest of them is the Toba Lake in the Battak country (see p. 159), and although no others approach its area of nearly 500 square miles, there are several of considerable size. Lakes Singkara and INIaninju, near Padang, are each about 12 or 13 miles in length by 3 or 4 in breadth. The latter is fed by thermal springs which are much used for their curative powers by the natives. The Danau or Ranau Lake (Danau signifying lake in the Malay and other allied languages) is of similar nature. It was visited in 1881 by Mr. H. 0. Forbes, who describes it as appearing to occupy the site of an old crater at the foot of the Siminung volcano. It is about 12 miles in length, and is of ver}' 174 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL great depth. At various points round the margin hot springs of 127° Fahr. bubble up, and warm the western end some 10° higher than the temperature of the air. It is abundantly stocked with fish and bivalve mollusca, but when they approach too near the warmer shore the temperature instantly proves fatal to them.-^ This lake is widely celebrated throughout the Western Archipelago for- the tobacco grown upon its shores. The finest quality is made only from the topmost leaves, and commands a very high price. Two or three other mountain lakes occur in the Battak country, but little is known of them, and there are probably others in Ache. Of lowland lakes and swamps there are many in the neighbourhood of the great rivers. From the orography of the island it is evident that there can be no rivers of any length on the western side of the main range of mountains. Upon the other side, however, we find the alluvial plain intersected by streams of great size and depth, by which the whole interior of the country is rendered accessible to commerce. Owing to the great rainfall and the steepness of the Barisan chain the erosion which takes place is excessive, and the rivers bear down enormous quantities of debris which deposits around their mouths, blocking the channels and adding to the numerous islands and sandbanks by which they are beset. The change thus effected in the physical condition of the island is enormous. The rapid gaining of the east coast upon the Straits of Malacca has already been mentioned. It is said that at the time of the founding of Palembang the town was situated at the mouth of the river, from which it is now distant some 40 miles as the crow flies. Yet for the most part the rivers are not only of great size, but of considerable depth, 1 A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago, H. O. Forbes. SUiMATlLV 175 and admit of steamer service far into tlie interior. The Jambi Eiver, better known as the Batang-Hari, is the largest, and, disregarding the windings of the upper part of its course, exceeds 500 miles in length. It is prac- ticable for the transport of merchandise for quite 480 miles, and the Dutch Government vessel Barito, a paddle- wheel steamer with a draught of over five feet, navigated it for a distance of 370 miles without difficulty. It drains a vast area, and is connected with some of the most beautiful and fertile districts of the Padang high- lands by its affluents, many of which are of large size. It is thus not only valuable as affording an easy means of access to the Ombilin coal-fields, but eminently im- portant for commerce both with the eastern parts of the " West Coast Government " and with the inland districts of Jambi and Korinchi, and before long its farthest navigable point will doubtless be connected with the network of Government roads on the western side of the island. The Musi or Palembang Eiver is scarcely inferior to the Batang-Hari, being about 400 miles in length, of which distance the Barito was able to navigate rather more than half. The upper part, however, together with its numerous tributaries, is navigable right up to the mountain range by praus and rahits, or large bamboo rafts, upon which a vast amount of produce is carried to Palembang. From the fact of this district having been for some time settled, the trade is very considerable, and gutta, rattan, and other forest products, together with large numbers of buffaloes, are shipped from the large up-country towns of Muara-Ptupit, Tcbbing-Tinggi, Muara Inim, and Muara Dua, the river thus tapping the trade of the districts along the mountain range for a distance in width of more than 150 miles. Other great rivers are the Siak, navigable for large vessels for 80 miles, the 176 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Kampar, Kakan, and Indragiri, all of which form vast deltas with labyrinthine intersecting channels at their mouths. Upon the western side of the island the only river of importance is the Singkel, which debouches opposite Banyak Island, and is navigable for a consider- able distance by small vessels. 4. Climate and Heterology. Sumatra differs considerably in its climate and rain- fall from Java. In the latter country — at all events in its eastern portion — a strong S.E. monsoon blows from March to November, which produces a marked degree of aridity, causing trees to shed their leaves and filling the air with powdery dust. This dry season, produced by the winds sweeping over the parched and heated deserts of the Australian continent, becomes less and less marked as we increase our distance from the latter country, until at the Straits of Sunda it becomes almost non-existent. The position of Sumatra, bisected as it is by the equator, causes the winds and seasons of Ache to differ from those of the Lampongs at the southern extremity. For at the north the monsoons blow from the north-east and south-west ; in the centre is a wide belt of variable winds with alternating calms and squalls ; and in the south the monsoons blow from the south-east and north- west. A series of observations at Palembang show that from November to March the prevalent winds are westerly and north-westerly, this being the regular rainy season. April is the month of the change of the monsoons, when thunderstorms are most frequent. From May till Sep- tember easterly and south-easterly winds prevail, and the " kentering," or change of the monsoon, comes in September or October. During the shiftino- months of the S.E. SUMATRA 177 monsoon sailing vessels are often five or six weeks in making the passage from Singapore to Bangka Strait, and squalls are common. The heavy squalls affecting the eastern lowlands of Sumatra and the Straits of Malacca are as marked a feature of this region as the " Bora " is of the Adriatic. They are known to sailors as " Sumatras," and are gener- ally accompanied by heavy rain aud thunder. They occur most frequently during the S.W. monsoon, and are supposed to be due to the obstruction offered to the course of the wind by the Barisan chain. ISTot having strength at all times to overcome this barrier the current becomes pent-up and checked, and the condensed air thus formed at high altitudes rushes down to displace the heated and rarefied atmosphere of the east coast lowlands, and driven by the pent-up force of the monsoon, spreads far and wide over the straits. As in most equatorial climates rain occurs very generally at all seasons of the year, and the fall is excessively heavy, especially in the mountain districts. At Padang on the west coast the average is about 187 inches, and at Palembang it is said to be still heavier. This great humidity, combined with a continued higli temperature, makes the island unhealthy, and the low- lying alluvial plains of the east coast, half under water for some months in the year, generate paludal fevers of a severe type. Cholera, too, is more or less endemic, and the almost equally deadly " beri-beri " annually claims hundreds of victims. 5. Fauna and Flora. Sumatra may be regarded as exhibiting, with Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, the truly typical ]\Ialayan N 178 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TPAVEL fauna and flora. From Java it differs not a little in both. One of the most characteristic features of the Sumatran flora is the superabundance of the lalang and glaga — rank and worthless grasses which cover a vast extent of ground in the plateau region, and flourish at comparatively low altitudes, while in Java they are not met with much below 3000 feet. This pest is one of KAFFLESIA AR>'OLDII. the most troublesome with which the agriculturist has to deal, as cleared and fallow land becomes rapidly covered and the soil exhausted. Among characteristic plants are the enormous Majfflcsias {R. Arnoldii, li. Hasseltii), the largest flowers in the world, and the giant arum, Amorpho- jjliaUus titanum, sometimes seventeen feet or more in height, and with tubers seven feet in circumference. The Melastomas, Ternstroemiacese, Cyrtandracete, and Erio- SUMATRA 179 caulaceae are better rejDresented here than in Java, and in the highlands of the north Pinus Ilerkusii occurs — the only other locality for it in the archipelago being the island of Luzon in the Philippines. The island is speci- ally rich in its forest trees, which Mr. Forbes mentions as being larger than any he had ever seen ; and that the species are very numerous is evident from the fact that the Central Sumatran Expedition collected specimens of some 400 kinds of timber. It has often been remarked that, from a variety of circumstances, the flowers of tropical regions are less conspicuous, or at least form less showy masses of colour, than those of the temperate zones, but exceptions to this rule are not infrequent in Sumatra, as may be realised from Mr. Forbes's descriptions of the descent of the upper reaches of the Palembang Piiver : — " Very many trees were in flower and fruit — tall Melettias hung with immense pods, and wild nutmeg trees with their pretty, drop-like fruits. The oaks were one mass of white inflorescence, and formed a characteristic feature of the vegetation of the banks ; while bushy Sterculiaceous trees made a greater show of colour in the rich pink of their young foliage and the bright scarlet of their fruits than in their inconspicuous flowers. Between these more outstanding trees dark-foliaged figs and slender bamboos gracefully bending over the bank filled up the ranks shoulder to shoulder. Tall Sialang trees, with lightning- conductor-like stairs up their white stems, by wdiich the wild bees' nests are reached, and Pangiums, bearing six to seven hundred brown velvety fruits, each several pounds in weight, so that one marvels that the branches are able to sustain the load, marked the vicinity of villages. . . . Every lifeless stem, to the very tips of its withered arms, was festooned with dark foliaged climbers, yellow and 180 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL purple Papilionaccce and Convolvulacca:, like the grotesque shrubbery cut out of boxwood, but with all the natural grace which is conspicuously wanting in Dutch gardens. No tree, however, was more aljundant or brighter than the Lagcrstrcemia, whose fine red tops could be seen a long way off." Lower down " the Jambus {Jamhosa sp.) seemed to be among the most common trees, and their long white-stamened flowers falling on the water glided down the stream like so many stars. - The whole surface of the water was covered, absolutely in a close sheet, with petals, fruits, and leaves of innumerable species. . . . To recall the magnificent flora of the upper reaches of the river almost makes me retract the statement that the tropics present few flowers, for so blossom-spangled a road it would be difficult to match anywhere." From many of these trees and plants economic pro- ducts of great value are obtained. Sumatra exports large quantities of gutta-percha, rattan, dammar, and other gums and resins. Dammar is chiefly collected from various species of the Diptcrocarpccc, some of which are trees of enormous size, which will yield nearly a Imndred pounds weight of the resin. The " eye-danniiar," which is the best description, and is that sent to Europe, is the exuda- tion from Hopea dryobalanoidc^, but the common " stone- dammar," used chiefly for paying the seams of vessels, is obtained from Vatica cximia, also of the order Diptcrocaiyece. Benzoin, the gum of Siyrax benzoin, is also collected in considerable quantities, together with catechu and other medicinal products. Eecent travellers have remarked upon the reckless destruction of the forest by the natives, l)ut bearing in mind the vast area of land knriwn to be entirely covered Ijy virgin forest, it is unlikely that any real injury will result for many years to come. SUMATRA 181 Turning to the faiuui we find that it, too, offers great similarities to the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and differs much from that of Java. The orang-utan exists in the north-eastern part of the island, but probably very locally. The Siamang {Siamanga syndactyla), a very X)owerful animal, not nnich inferior in size to the orang, is common. It is not found in any other of the islands, the Malay Peninsula being the only other locality in which it occurs. On the whole Sumatra is rich in monkeys, and has probably as many species as Borneo. All the great mammalian forms of the continent are found here, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, and tiger, but of these species only the latter exists in Java. The elephant, considered by some authors as a peculiar species, has been driven out of some of the cultivated districts, but it is still very common in the Lampongs and in the thick jungles of the eastern lowlands. The rhinoceros {R. sumatranus) is rarer. It is a species peculiar to the island, smaller than that found in Java, and carrying two horns. It is found not only in the marshy jungles of the coast, but also, like its Javanese congener, at considerable altitudes, and Mr. Forbes noticed its spoor at a height of nearly 6000 feet on the Tengkamus mountain. Tigers are very plentiful, espe- cially in the east coast, in which district alone twenty-two deaths were registered by the Dutch officials as having been caused by them in 1889 — figures which probably do not represent a tithe of the loss of life really occa- sioned. The clouded tiger {F. macrosccHs) also exists, as does the ]\Ialay sun-bear and the wild dog, but the fine Banteng, Bos sondaicus, is not found. The " kambing- utan," or " wild sheep," is an antelope {Antilocarpa sumatrana) which frequents the mountain ranges, and of which not much is known. In addition to the above 182 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL there are a Mauis {M. javanicus), and a peculiar hare {Leidus netscheri), the common Malayan deer, and the muntjac. Between sixty and seventy mammals have been described, and the total number is possibly in excess of that of Borneo, for the numbers are about equal, while Sumatra is certainly less explored. The avifauna of Sumatra is practically the same as that of Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. Among the most striking lairds are the great Argus pheasant and the yet more showy Uiqjlocomus ; crimson-breasted Trogons ; bush-shrikes of a glossy cobalt-blue {Irena) ; vivid green gapers {Gcdyptomenci), and the curiously marked rain- birds {Cymlorhynclms) ; the lovely rose-crested bee-eater {Nydiornis amida), and the pheasant -cuckoos {Carpo- coccyx), besides numerous woodpeckers, barbets, spider- hunters, and brilliantly -coloured Pittas. The peacock does not exist, but is found in Java. There are but few peculiar species on the island, and the genus Fsilojjogon, which was supposed to be confined to it, has lately been discovered in the mountains of Perak. It is interesting to note that, as in the case of the flora, there is an occurrence of certain Himalayan forms in the high mountain regions, such as Niltava, Sibia, etc., most, if not all, of which are probably to be found in the elevated chain of the interior of the Peninsula. About 330 different species of birds are now known from Sumatra. 6. Inhabitants and Languages. Tlie natives of Sumatra, from Ache Heads to the Straits of Sunda, are all of the great Malayan stock, although the different triljes vary much in language, customs, and social condition. ISTo dark and woolly- SUMATPvA 183 haired race, such as exists in the rhihppines, has ever yet been found in the island, although it has by some been considered possible that the Kubus are partly of Negrito origin. Many different nations, speaking dis- tinct languages, inhabit the main island, while at least three others are found in the adjacent small islands. Most of these are comparatively civilised, building good houses, practising elaborate agriculture, weaving cloth, and having written languages, while others are almost pure savages, their civilisation on a par with that of the Dyaks of Borneo. At 'the extreme north lies the Sultanate of Ache, a country, roughly speaking, about the size of Ireland, which has remained unconquered and uninfluenced by the Dutch. For centuries one of the most important sites of commerce, its people — at all events those in the neighbourhood of the capital — yielded early to such civilisation as was introduced by the Arabs, and inter- married with them. For more than 700 years the Achenese have been Mohammedans, and although the Arab influence is less marked now than formerly, it is still evident in the dress of the well-to-do and the char- acter in wdiich their language is written. Other elements have been introduced to form the nation. The traders from the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, Ceylon, Pegu, and Tenasserim have mixed with them, and as they were formerly renowned as pirates, whose raids extended over a considerable portion of the Archipelago, it is proljable that their hareems were stocked by the women of many different nations. The language, as might be expected, is far from pure. It is written in the Arabic character, although it probably had at one time a native alphabet, as have the Battak, Eejang, and other tongues at the present day. The outcome of this mixture of races is 184 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL not without marked characteristics, as is evidenced by the vigour of the resistance which the Dutch have experienced. Physically the Achenese resemble the Malays, but are darker and slightly taller, and with none of the good looks of that people. They have long borne a bad name, both for treachery and cruelty, but since it is impossible to penetrate their country, and since all our accounts of them are derived from the accounts of their natural enemies the Dutch, it is possible that these char- acteristics may be exaggerated. They possess, at all events, the simpler virtues of courage and industry, and, considering the backward condition of their civilisation, are rather clever handicraftsmen, weaving cotton and other stuffs, and a peculiarly delicate silken fabric, and producing gold and silver filagree work of a very remark- able kind. They are, moreover, good shipwrights, and their vessels, which at one time used to sweep the seas far Ijeyond Java, are now, whenever they can escape the Dutch gunboats, engaged in trade with the Malacca coast and Singapore. In former days, when Queen Elizabeth and James I. sent tlieir duly accredited ambassadors to the court. Ache was a great kingdom, and embraced half the island of Sumatra. Captain Thomas Best, in his mission of 1613, speaks of the king as " a proper, gallant man of warre, strong by sea and land, his country populous, and his elephants many, whereof we saw one hundred sixty, or one hundred eighty at a time." He possessed "gallies and frigates carrying in them very good brasse ordnance," and made treaties with great nations. Little or no trace of this former greatness now remains, and the country, although nominally under a sultan, whose office is heredi- tary, is largely republican in its form of government. As among the Battaks and other peoples of this part of the SU.MATKA 185 world, the system is coinniuiuil. The coinitry is divided into sag ids, corresponding to the margas of the Lani- pongers and Battaks, to which we shall have presently to refer. There are three of these clans, called the "XXII," "XXV," and "XXVI Miikims;' from the number of districts each comprises — the mukim being a partly religious, partly political division. Formerly each of the three saguis was administered by a Chief Panglima of the Sultan, but the Dutch claim to have abolished the title. One died in battle, another is an adherent of the Dutch, and the third is one of their most redoubtable enemies, whose headquarters are at or near Pedir, and who is said to command about 100,000 men, of whom 20,000 are armed with breech -loading rifles of modern pattern. Each mukim is ruled by head- men, and in its turn is subdivided into hinasas or town- ships, each of which enjoys self-government, the law being administered by a council of elders. The Achenese are Mohammedans, but, like others of this sect in the archipelago, are by no means strict, and have never distinguished themselves by their persecution of other religionists. This tolerant spirit is illustrated by the saying current among their neighbours, that " an Achenese will curse a Christian, and then invite him to bread and salt." Their chief amusements appear to be fighting, gambling, and opium-smoking. The soil is for the most part not very fertile, but pepper, camphor, and other commodities are produced for the foreign market, and of late, in consequence of the war, a considerable quantity of rice for home consumption. The civets also yield a valuable product, and their breeding is said to form a special Ijranch of industry. The main characteristic of the Achenese is his lo^'e of fighting. Every man is a soldier, and every village thus 186 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL has its little army, which is bound to present itself equipped for service at the outbreak of war. This it is, combined with thick jungle and want of roads, which has caused, and is still causing, the Ache war. The constant acts of piracy in the Straits of Malacca led to the English Treaty of 1871, which gave Holland a free hand. Hos- tilities were commenced m 1872, but the Dutch suffered a reverse. It was not till a year later, and after a siege of forty-seven days, that the Sultan's fortress, situated about two miles inland from Olele, was captured. After a struggle of twenty years, an expenditure of over £20,000,000, and the loss of many thousands of lives, the Dutch find themselves in a hardly better position than at the beginning of the war. The greater part of the interior is still independent, and will probably remain so for many years to come. A new experiment has lately been tried, — the blockading of the various ports. By this means an opium and tobacco famine has been created, from which favourable results are anticipated. But the chief weapon upon which the Dutch rely to place Ache eventually in their hands is the want of cohesion among the numerous petty states of which a great part of the country is composed. Of these may be mentioned the Gaious and Alias, and the Karos, who inhabit the country between the Battaks and the Alias, of all of whom little or nothing is known. South of Ache comes the country of the Battaks, a territory of great extent, for people of this race extend south nearly as far as Mount Ophir, up to the head waters of the Siak river. They are essentially an inland, hill people, and are most thickly grouped around the Toba Lake, which tliey themselves consider as the cradle of their race. Those on the Ache border were visited by a Dutch Government expedition in 1891, and were SUMATRA 187 found inhabiting an immense plain country, for the most part covered with lalang grass and intersected with deep ravines. Eice was almost the only crop cultivated, and cattle were rarely seen. The more southern tribes have been long in contact with the Dutch, and are gradually becoming civilised. They nevertheless present, even to this present day, the extraordinary anomaly of a people who possess a written language of their own, yet are at the same time cannibals. The Battak is of Malayan stock, and has by some travellers been considered to resemble the Bornean Dyak. He is taller and darker than the true Malay and is more bearded, but the hair is straight, not frizzled, as in the Kubus, and if there be any Xegrito blood in the race, no trace of it is now evident. Some consider that they are partly of Hindu origin, and it is probable that they must have come under the influence of that race to a considerable extent at the time of its immigration. In their customs, however, there are few if any points of resemblance. The more civilised, and especially those around Lake Toba, are good agriculturists and stock farmers, and understand working in iron. They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and krisses, which are often of beautiful workmanship, and bake pottery ; l)ut their skill is especially exhibited in the construction of their houses, many of which are two-storied and with carved timbers, though in this form of decoration they do not approach the work of the natives in some parts of the Palembang district. The form of government ol)taining is not unlike that of the Achenese, as already described, the people being divided into clans, communes, and families — a system, it may be remarked, which is found through the greater part of Sumatra, and, with various modifications, in Java also. The kota of the Battaks 188 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGPUPHY AND TRAVEL and of the Menangkabo people corresponds with the mul-iiii of the Achenese, and there are thus districts known as the " XIII kotas," and the " IX kotas," just as there are the " XXII " and " XXV mukims." The cannibaHsin of the Battaks has doubtless existed for centuries, and we find Barros mentioning it in his Decades. It appears to have been practised rather from enmity, or as a punishment, than from any desire for human llesh as an article of food. Their victims are, or were, either criminals, prisoners of war, or occasionally slaves, and the established punishment for certain crimes, such as adultery with the wife of a Eaja, midnight robbery, or being taken prisoner in war, was to be cut to pieces and eaten alive. The Dutch have found no diffi- culty in abolishing these practices wherever they have sway, and when this is done the people are found to be no whit worse than their neighbours, among whom such customs did not exist. The civilised Battaks declare that cannibalism has entirely died out, but there is little doubt that it is still existent in the more out-of-the-way and unexplored districts. The race is still pagan, and is noteworthy as being the only example in the archipelago of a lettered people who have not embraced Moham- medanism, whose converts surround them on all sides. Their faith is apparently chiefiy confined to a belief in evil spirits ; but they recognise three deities, a Creator, a Preserver, and a Destroyer, and carry small images, of the nature of amulets, about with them, like the Papuans of New Guinea. It is probable that they will in time become converted to Islamism, but Christian missionaries have not met with much success. Tlie race is partly becoming absorbed in the Achenese and Malay tribes of the coast, and the constant wars of tribe ao;ainst tribe have done much to lessen their numbers. The art of SUMATRA 189 reading and writing is pretty generally understood. The alphabet, according to Professor Keane, is liased on the Dewanagiri, but others hold it to be probably original. It is written from left to right on palm leaves, and the character differs entirely from the llejang, Korinchi, and other of the peculiar Sumati'an languages, being curved and not rectilinear in its form. In the hill-country, near Mount Ophir, are two tribes — the Orang Lubu and Ulu — of whom next to nothing is known, except that they are pure savages and few in number. East of them, inhabiting the lowlands opposite Malacca and Singapore, are the Siak people, a pure Malay race, as are the Jambi tribes lower down on the same coast. But of all the true Malays inhabiting Sumatra, the most important and highly civilised are those occupy- ing the mountain district of IMenangkabo, above Padang. They comprise several tribes, and are divided into snlms and I'otas on the same principle as the Achenese and Lampongers. By many people this district is regarded as the original cradle of the ]\Ialay race. In spite of foreign influence this language has here remained singu- larly pure — purer, indeed, than in many places in the Peninsula — and few words of foreign origin have been introduced. According to the theory of others, these people are the remnant of the original conquerors of the island, and the word Menangkarbau — " buftklo's victory" — is held to commemorate symbolically the victory of the champion of Sumatra over its rival, the tiger, the representant of Java. Of all parts of the island this district is the most highly cultivated and prosperous. Sir Stamford EafHes, describing it, says : — • " As far as the eye could reach was one continued scene of cultivation, interspersed with innumerable towns and villages shaded by palms and fruit trees. I may safely 190 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TEAVEL say that the view equalled anything I ever saw in Java. The scenery is more majestic and grand, the population equally dense, the cultivation equally rich." The mar- riage system is matriarchal, as indeed is occasionally, but not habitually, the case among the Battaks. The hus- band cannot choose his wife from his own kota, and when married does not always reside with her. The children belong to the mother, and must remain in her village. Yet these customs, curiously enough, co-exist with the religion of Mohammed, in the practice of which these people are said to be more strict than is usual among Malays. At the early part of this century a new religion sprang up in Menangkabo — a noteworthy fact, as being the only instance of the kind ever known in the archi- pelago. The sect were known as the " Padris," from the missionary zeal inspiring them ; or the " Orang puti" or " white men," from the converts being dressed entirely in white. They prohibited the use of opium, and pun- ished with death all those found indulging in it; and tobacco and betel were also forbidden. Every man shaved his head and wore a skull-cap, and none was permitted to converse with his neighbour's wife. The women were- obliged to cover their faces with a white cloth, having only two small holes for their eyes, and no coloured garments of any description were allowed. The reformers in time became conquerors, subduing a large portion of the interior ; and it was through them, in- directly, that the Dutch acquired possession of the Menangkabo country. The neighbouring tribes appealed to be protected from them, and the Netherlands troops entered upon the campaign in 1837. It was not till 1840, however, that they were entirely subdued, and the sect subsequently became extinct. It could only have come into existence among the lax and easy-going SUMATRA 101 Malays by virtue of its very austerity, as Commonwealth followed upon Caroline manners, to be again succeeded by them ; and it was equally predestined to extinction ; but it served its turn in bringing Dutch influence and civilisation to bear upon a country that had been until then but little known. Menangkabo has met with more success in colonisation than in preaching the creed of the " Padris." About the fourteenth or fifteenth century a fleet of twelve ships is said to have left the neighbour- hood of Padang, and sailing northward, established settlements at various places along the coast, both in the Battak and Ache lands. Each ship founded a town, and hence this part is still sometimes called the Twelve Colonies, though to the British sailor it is perhaps better known as the Pepper Coast. The descendants of these settlers still retain the title of Datu, and have preserved both the race and language pure. To such an extent does this custom prevail, that any Malay marrying an Ache woman, or giving his daughter to one of that race, would be obliged to quit the country. Still proceeding southwards, after passing the Ko- rinchis, who are grouped on the eastern slopes of the Indrapura peak, and are a tolerably civilised sub-Malayan race, with a written language, the Eejang country is reached. These people are interesting as being the tribe with whom the English were brought in contact during the occupation of Benkulen. They, too, are of sub- Malayan stock, and are probably a niLxture of Malays with immigrant Javanese. South and east the Passuma and Lampong people border on them, and on the east the mixed riverine Palembang tribes. They are a numerous and civilised people, possessing a written language like the Korinchis and other nations already mentioned, but inscribed in a peculiar character of rectilinear form, 192 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL based on the Dewanagiri. The communal system, so widely spread in Sumatra, obtains among them, and the tribal divisions are known as siikus, as in the ]\Ienang- kabo lands, although the headmen and chiefs have the Javanese appellations of Pangerang and Adhipatti. Java- nese influence, indeed, has no doubt left its impress upon these as upon other of the southern peoples of the island, and has given them a good deal of their civilisa- tion. Mr. Marsden's description of the character of the Sumatran native is in reality drawn from the Eejang people, and as it is more or less accurate even at the present day, it may be reproduced here. " The Sumatran of the interior," he says, " though partaking in some degree of the Malayan vices, possesses many exclusive virtues, but they are more of the negative than the posi- tive kind. He is mild, peaceable, and forbearing, unless his anger be roused by ^'iolent provocation, when he is implacable in his resentments. He is temperate and sober, being equally abstemious in meat and drink. The diet of the natives is mostly vegetal)le. Water is their only beverage, and although they kill a fowl or a goat for a stranger, they are rarely guilty of that extrava- gance for themselves ; not even at their festivals, where there is plenty of meat, do they eat much of anything liut rice. Their hospitality is extreme, and liounded by their ability alone. Their manners are simple ; they are generally, except among the chiefs, devoid of the Malay cunning and chicane, yet endued with quickness of apprehension, and on many occasions discovering a considerable degree of penetration and sagacity. They are modest, particularly guarded in their expressions, courteous in their behaviour, grave in their deportment, ])cing seldom or never excited to laughter, and patient to a great degree. On the other hand, they are litigious, SUMATRA 10;> indolent, addicted to gaming, dishonest in their dealiiKrs with strangers, which they esteem no moral defect, sus- picious, regardless of truth, mean in their transactions, and servile. Although cleanly in their persons, they are dirty in their apparel, which they never wash. They are careless and improvident of the future, because their wants are few ; for though poor they are not needy, Nature supplying with extraordinary facility whate\-er she has made necessary for their existence." Of the tribes of the eastern lowlands, the Siak and Jambi have already been mentioned as true IMalays. The people inhabiting the Palembang valley are of like origin, but they have been much mixed with Javanese settlers from the earliest historical period, if, indeed, these latter were not the first inhabitants of the locality. They speak a mixed language in which Javanese words occur largely, and their manners and customs resemljle those of that people. The court language is Javanese, and is written in the peculiar character of Java. At the head waters of the Musi and Batang-Hari rivers, on the confines of the Jambi country, live the nomadic and totally wild Kubus, who probably correspond in the south with the Ulus and Lubus of the northern part of the island. From the accounts of Mr. H. 0. Forbes and other travellers, more is known of them than of the latter tribes. They inhabit the thickest forest country, making only temporary shelter-huts, and, like the Veddas of Ceylon, avoid all communication with those not of their own race. They cultivate no crops whatever, living on fruits, roots, and such animals as they are able to kill, and are without manufactures, even of the simplest kind. They collect beeswax, dammar, and other forest produce, and barter it with the Malay races, also by a method similar to that of the Veddas, laying the objects of barter 0 194 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL on tlie ground, disappearing until the Malay has in like manner deposited what is considered the equivalent, and then returning to carry it away. They appear extra- ordinarily timid, and have no sense of shame. Mono- gamy is the rule, but a few have two or more wives. Intermarriage with Malays is extremely rare. Yet, with all this, it would seem that they are in reality a Malay people, which have merely developed their characteristics by isolation. Their language, according to Forbes, is " a corrupted Malay with a peculiar accentuation," but they are said to have a language of their own, unintelligible to their neighbours. The skulls brought to Europe bear out the evidence afforded by their language, although a slight tendency to frizzling in the hair seems to indicate that the race may at some remote period have inter- mingled with Xegritos. South of the Palembang district, and occupying the terminal point of Sumatra, are the Lampongers, dwelling in a country fairly well known to Europeans, and leading a settled and agricultural life. They claim to be de- scended from the Menangkabo Malays, but that there has been a considerable admixture of Javanese blood there can be no doubt. The spoken language contains a very large number of corrupt Malay and Sundanese words, but the character employed is not Arabic or Javanese, but peculiar, as in the case of other of the Sumatran languages of which mention has been made. The communal system also exists, and here, as elsewhere on the island, the Dutch, in dividing the country for ad- ministrative purposes, have retained as far as possible the boundaries, of the old native districts, here called inargas. The country is not peculiarly favourable to agriculture, and the native does not seek to improve it by irrigation, so that the sawah or wet rice-fields are rare, and the SUMATRA 195 crops are taken for the most part from the cleared forest land. But a ready source of wealth lies at hand in the shape of pepper, and could the natives but abstain from gambling and cock-fighting, they might amass considerable fortunes. The unmarried women are often nearly covered with necklets, bracelets, and ear-rings of solid silver, their dowry being thus displayed on feast days and great occa- sions at the halai. This building is a characteristic in- stitution among the Lampongers, though halls or meeting- places of a somewhat similar nature are to be found not only in Sumatra, but as far east as New Guinea. It occupies the most central position in the village, and bears evidences of having much labour bestowed upon it. Mr. Forbes thus describes its uses : — " The Balai is in reality the town-hall of the Lamponger. It is the common property of every man, woman, and child in the village. In Mohammedan lands a man's house is sacred ; for a man rarely enters the dwelling of his neighbour, and never without the head of the house ; but the Balai is the assembly-room, the meeting-place for all. Its doors stand ever open. All business is transacted under its roof, all hicharas (discussions) are held there. At whatever hour one enters, its most characteristic occu- pants— lazy, sleeping villagers — are to be seen dotted over its floor. During the day the orang-jaga, or watch- man, who occupies an open guard-room during the night, makes the Balai his watch-tower. All travellers passing through the village are free to its shade and shelter. The orang-hcdagang or itinerant pedlar finds at once a free lodging, a market-place for his goods, and an eager crowd to listen to the news he brings. Here all civic feasts and festive gatherings are held. Here they enjoy the pleasures of the dance for unbroken days and nights. . . . Under its roof their love is consummated in the wedding and 196 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TEAVEL attendant ceremonies. Here before a crowded audience they are invested with their equivalent knighthoods and peerages ; and here, in many villages, they are at last laid out, and pass from it to the grave. Around the Balai, there- fore, centres as it were the whole life of a Lampong village." In brief, then, we may describe the inhabitants of Sumatra as consisting of various nations of either pure Malayan or sub-Malayan stock, those in the north being the most hybrid. The majority follow Islamism with more or less laxity, but the centre of the island is occupied by tribes of pure pagans, such as the Battaks, Ulus, Lubus, Kubus, and others. Of these, the Battaks are con- spicuous as affording the only known instance of lettered cannibalism. These pagans, chiefly on account of the in- accessibility of their country, have come very little under Dutch influence. The Ache people have resisted it to the death for the past twenty years, but it has spread steadily though slowly in the north-east, near Dili ; in the Palembang, Lampong, and Benkulen Eesidencies ; and, more especially around Padang and the upland districts behind it. In the south there are abundant evidences of a large Javanese immigration having occurred at some past epoch, while scattered ruins and sculptures in various parts of the island testify to the probability of the exist- ence of some Hindu influence at a remoter period, which influence, however, can never have in any way approached that which held sway in Java. Throughout a large portion of the island we find a communal system obtain- ing, upon which the Dutch attempt to graft their own administration. Lastly, the languages, which are all either pure Malay or sub-Malayan, are remarkable in certain instances (Battak, Korinchi, Eejang, Lampong) as being written in a peculiar character. SUMATRA 197 7. The Islands of Sumatra. The islands of Sumatra, omitting those of no great im- portance, may be divided into four groups. These are (1) the barrier islands off the west coast, from Simalu or Hog Island to Engano ; (2) the delta islands at the mouths of the great rivers of the east coast ; (3) the mass of small islands south of Singapore, known to the Dutch as the Ehio-Lingga Archipelago ; and (4) the two large and important islands, Bangka and Blitong (Billiton). (1) The islands of the west coast in their order, be- ginning from the north, are Simalu, the Banyak Islands, Nias, the Batu, Mentawi, and Nassau groups, and Engano. All possess certain features in common. They are situated at a tolerably uniform distance of from 70 to 80 miles from the coast ; are not simply of volcanic origin, but exhibit the older rocks of the main island, granites, sandstones, etc. ; and possess, roughly speaking, its fauna, although the larger animals, such as the tiger, elephant, and rhino- ceros are, as might be expected, wanting. Of Simalu, otherwise known as Pulo Babi, or Hog Island, not much is known. The inhabitants are partly Achenese and partly descendants of Menangkabo settlers, and profess the Mo- hammedan religion, but they are almost savages, and the Dutch have not attempted to establish a settlement either here or on the Banyak group, which may be described in similar terms. Nias is of far greater importance. Here, at Gunong Sitoli, a colony of Malays and Chinese, is established a Controleur, but very little has been under- taken in the way of exploration, and we are indebted for our knowledge of the people to the accounts of Signer Modigliani, who spent a year upon the island in 1885. It 198 COMPENDILFM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL is about 8 0 miles in length, and has an area of over 1700 square miles, and as its population has been estimated at about a quarter of a million, it is evidently thickly in- habited. The people of the south differ essentially from those of the north. They are taller and more robust, their hair is more curly, and their cheek-bones more promi- nent, and they exhibit a fierceness and irritability quite foreio;n to the milder inhabitant of the north. Each village appears to be at v^^ar with its neighbours, and the people are confirmed head-hunters. The houses are very skilfully constructed, and are raised on stout piles 12 or 15 feet from the ground, partly, it is said, on account of the earthquakes, which are both frequent and violent, but partly as a means of defence. They are oval in shape, and are often decorated with human heads, examples of the prowess of the owner against some neighbouring tribe. The Mas people, in spite of their barbarism, are good handicraftsmen, weaving cotton stuffs, forging weapons, and working in copper and gold. Their agri- culture is also good, the art of irrigation is understood, they make excellent roads, and have domestic animals, using oxen for ploughing. Eude attempts at carving are common, and statues of their deities adorn the villages, for the people are not Mohammedans, but pure pagans like the Battaks, of whom they are supposed by some to be an offshoot. Formerly a great trade in slaves was carried on, the Mas women being celebrated for their beauty, and even now the coast Malays of the mainland try to obtain them as wives. The island produces large quantities of coco-nut oil, but in this respect is sur- passed by the Nacco group of islets off its western coast, which Signor Modigliani describes as presenting the appearance of vast gardens of coco-palms, intermingled with plantations of rice and sweet potatoes. SUMATRA 199 The small group known as the Batu or Eock Islands come next in the chain. There are three chief islands — Pingi, Masa, and Bala, each of which is about 30 miles long. Their inhabitants seem to be a similar race to the Nias people, with whom they keep up a friendly inter- course. There are many Malays and Chinese settled on the coast, the latter, as in Nias, haAdng the whole trade in their hands. Upon the little islet Pulo Telo the Dutch have a resident Controleur. The Mentawi Islands are two only in number — Sibiru and Sipora — of which the former is much the larger, being not much inferior to Nias in size. The Nassau Islands — North and South Pagi or Poggy Islands — may conveniently be grouped with them as being in- habited by the same race — a people whom Von Eosenberg declares to be totally distinct in physique and speech from any other tribe of the adjacent islands and main- land, and strikingly like the Eastern Polynesians. Their language is soft, full of vowels, and of a very primitive character, possibly possessing affinities with some of the Polynesian dialects. They love to decorate themselves with flowers, tattoo themselves on the breast, and file their front teeth ; all of which customs are characteristic rather of the Pacific Islands than Malaysia. They are very peaceable in disposition, firearms are unknown, and their only weapons are the bow and arrow. They live chiefly by fishing, and rice seems to be little if at all cultivated, their chief food being the products of the sago and coco palms. Professor Keane regards these people as possibly autochthones — " the only remnant of the western Mahoris that has escaped contact and fusion with the intruding sub -Mongolian and other Asiatic races." Both the Nassau Islands are high and densely wooded, the largest about 30 miles 200 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL in length by 10 in breadth. Sibiru is said to have an active volcano. Enfjaiio, the last of this OTeat chain of islands, is not more than fifteen miles in length, and is surrounded by coral reefs. Its hills nowhere exceed 400 feet, and it is covered with timber, like all the islands in this chain. The inhabitants, under 1000 in number, are half savage, were unacquainted with the use of iron until a short time ago, and speak a language which is described as being wholly unintelligible to Malays. The coco-nut is largely grown, together with bananas, sugar-cane, and pine-apple. (2) The delta islands of the eastern coast, althougli of large size, are not important. Two, Mendang and Eupat, separated by a narrow strait, lie off the mouth of the Eakan river. Farther south, the Siak and Kampar Besar rivers disembogue by a network of canals to form a group of four large islands, each more than 3 0 miles in length — Bankalis, Padang, Eantau, and Panjor. Twt) others, Sabon and Mandol, are a little farther to the south. All these islands are alike in being low, flat, and densely jungled. They have a very sparse population, and pro- duce little besides sago. (3) The Ehio-Lingga Archipelago exhibits a vast col- lection of reefs, shoals, and islands clustered around the terminal point of the Malay Peninsula. The northern group has two chief islands, Batam and Bintang, while in the southern division there are also two which consider- ably exceed the rest in size — Lingga and Singkep. Geo- logically, all these islands are continuations southwards of the Malay Peninsula, showing the granites and sand- stones of that region, and in every w^ay differing from the low alluvial formations of the eastern coast of Sumatra. The islands are more or less undulating and hilly, and Lingga Peak rises to a height of 3920 feet. SUMATRA 201 Not long after the occupation of Singapore by the British, the Dutch established a post on Ehio Island, on the south-east side of Bintang. Originally designed to counteract the trade of Singapore, it has merely added to it, but has itself also become prosperous. The archi- pelago is the chief seat of the gambir trade, and some millions of pounds of this commodity are annually ex- ported. Black pepper is also much grown, and consider- able quantities of the forest products — gutta, dammar, wax, timber, etc. — find their way from here to the Singa- pore markets. All this trade has caused a large influx of Chinese and coast Malays, especially of the former, and the port of Ehio is A'isited by the Dutch lines of steamers. Innumerable ships pass through the Ehio Strait, for it is now the recognised highway in both monsoons for vessels proceeding eastwards, or bound through the Strait of Sunda. The only post of the Dutch in the southern group is upon Lingga, where an Assistant Eesident is established. The town is very prettily situated beneath a striking peak, upon a river nearly a mile from the sea, and con- tains 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, the Chinese having substantial houses of stone. The produce is chiefly rattans, gambir, and pepper. Gold is obtained in small quantities, but tin has not yet been discovered, although it occurs in the neighbouring island of Singkep. Tlie Ehio-Lingga Archipelago, together with the valley of the Indragiri river on the opposite shore of Sumatra, and the Anamba and Natuna Islands northwest of Borneo, forms the political district known as " Ehio and its Dependencies." (4) Bangka (Banca or Banka) is situated opposite the eastern coast of Palembang, from which it is separated by a long strait of a tolerably uniform width of 15 202 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL or 20 miles — well known to navigators as the Bangka Strait and as the chief highway for all shipping passing between the great islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Bangka is 138 miles in length, and has an area of nearly 5000 square miles. It is comparatively sterile, is full of small valleys and swamps, and is everywhere covered with thick forest. Its surface is rugged and irregular, and a series of high hills not disposed in ranges runs through its whole length, parallel with and of similar character to those of the Malay Peninsula. The greatest heights attained are those of Mount Maras, 2760 feet, and the Parmasang JNIountains, 1608 feet, but it is remarkable that, notwith- standing their low elevation, the summits of these hills are generally covered with clouds, which has caused their height to be much over-estimated by some writers. Like the islands of the lihio-Lingga Archipelago, and like its near neighbour Blitong, Bangka is Peninsular in its affinities, not Sumatran. The formation is principally granitic, and in situations of less elevation there occurs the red ironstone clay (laterite) which forms so marked a feature of the landscape in Singapore and Ceylon. In the lowest lands is an alluvial formation, intermixed with sandstones and breccias, in which is found the tin for which the island is famous. Zoology bears out the evidences afforded by geology. Although so near Sumatra, all the large Carnivora are absent, except the Malay bear, and neither the elephant, rhinoceros, nor tapir exist. More remarkable is the occurrence of numerous peculiar species of birds and a squirrel, which differ from those of Sumatra and Borneo sometimes more than the species of those islands differ from each other. There is therefore every reason to suppose that Bangka was once a southern extension of the Malay Peninsula, from which it has been isolated by subsidence of the intervening land. The SUMATRA 203 animals now inhabiting it may thus be the unmodified descendants of ancient Malayan species which in the larger islands have undergone progressive changes. The history of Bangka practically dates from the dis- covery of its tin, which occurred in 1709. From the Sultan of Palembang, to whom the island belonged, tlie Dutch acquired the monopoly of the metal. In 1811, when the English gained possession of the Sumatran settlements, the Sultan, in the hope of gaining favour with them, massacred all the Dutch in his dominions, an act of treachery which was fitly punished by his dethrone- ment by the British. From 1812 to 1816 the island remained a British possession, at which latter date it was again resigned to the Dutch, who, after a few native wars, have since remained in undisturbed possession of it. The original inhabitants of Bangka are few in number. They consist of hill tribes, said to resemble the Battaks, cultivating a little rice, but existing largely on the pro- ducts of the forest; and the Orang Laut, or fishermen, who live chiefly in their praus. The bulk of the popula- tion is immigrant, and is almost entirely formed by Malays from the north and by Chinese. The census of 1st January, 1887, gives the entire population as nearly 75,000, of which 21,000 are Chinese, over 53,000 Malays, and only 165 Europeans. The Chinese are chiefly engaged in digging, washing, and smelting the alluvial tin ore, which is widely spread and worked in many parts of the island, although chiefly in the north- west, around Merawang, of which district the well-pro- tected but narrow harbour of Klabat forms the port. Gold and iron are also worked, and lead, silver, copper, and arsenic have been found. The chief town of Bangka is Muntok, which is fortified and garrisoned, and is the seat of the Picsident. It has a population of about 4000, 204 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and is a port of call for all the mail steamers between Batavia and Singapore. The Dutch are represented by Controleurs at eight different towns and villages in various parts of the island. East of Bangka, and separated from it by the dangerous, reef-beset Gaspar Strait, lies Blitong (Billiton), a consider- able island of an irregular, sub-quadrangular form, and about 40 miles across. It has an area of about 1800 miles, and the highest point attains an elevation of 3117 feet. Geologically it resembles Bangka and exhibits the same alluvial deposits of tin, and hke that island it is covered with dense forest. The iron ore has been worked by the natives for a very long period, but the value of the tin deposits was only recognised about the year 1850. At the present time nearly as much is obtained from this island as from Bangka, but it is the extreme southern limit of the stanniferous formation. This begins in Tenasserim, and occupying more than 20° of latitude, is thus the most extensive in the world. The chief town of Blitong is Tanjong Pandang, on the Chiruchup river. There is but little trade except in forest produce and tin. The population of the island in 1887 was 35,000, of whom over 9000 were Chinese. The total output of tin for Bangka and Blitong in tons for the live years 1886-1890 was as follows: — 6175, 7906, 11,712, 10,383, 8876, and the average may therefore be placed at about 9000 tons. The industry is a Government monopoly, and is leased to a company. Of late the island has been politically separated from Bangka, and is now an Assistant Piesidency. 8. Religion. Antiquities. It is impossible now to fix the date of the introduction SUMATRA 205 of Hinduism into Sumatra, or to discover how far and to what extent it became adopted. The tempie-reniains, though found more or less all over the island, are very scattered, and nowhere do they approach in importance those of Java. At Kuta-bangan, in the Dili district, there is a stone temple about 60 feet square, having the figures of men and animals sculptured upon its walls, and various inscribed stones have been found in the neighbourhood. That the cult of Siva existed in the Jambi valley is evident from the statues of the bull Nandi, the vehicle of Mahadewa, and the elephant-headed god Ganesa discovered there. The images are carved out of granite, and were therefore probably made in the high- lands of the interior. At IMuara Takus, on the Kanipar river, are other Hindu ruins of importance, and the Menangkabo district has perhaps afibrded more examples than any other part of the island. The Hindu inliuence doubtless came as much from the south as from the north, with the stream of Javanese immigration which has more than once been alluded to. Of how long it lasted we have not much more knowledge than we have of its establish- ment. About the thirteenth century Islamism began to gain a footing, and is now the accepted religion of almost all the civilised and semi-civilised tribes. Over a vast area, however, pure paganism exists, and Christianit}-, both here and among the Mohammedans, has met with little or no success. 9. Products, Trade, and Agriculture. While Java may be regarded as the garden of the Netherlands India, where, under the "culture system," almost every tropical product has the benefit of the most 206 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL careful farming, Sumatra still labours under the dis- advantages of non-development, and a very large portion of her exports are forest products. The rice — although in certain districts almost as carefully cultivated as in Java — is for the most part grown by the ladang, or dry system, instead of by the carefully terraced and irrigated saioahs, or wet-field culture, which is the rule in the sister island. The same may be said of the less important food stuffs, though the IMenangkabo valleys form a marked exception, and show most careful farming. Almost all the fruits, cereals, and farinaceous roots belonging to Java and Malacca are found in the island, and some other commodities, such as benzoin, are only obtained here and in Borneo. The vast extent of lowland in the eastern part of the island, together with the large delta islands lying off' the mouths of the rivers in this part, produce sago in great abundance. But the product for which Sumatra is chiefly renowned is black pepper. For nearly two centuries the Dutch endeavoured to retain the monopoly of its culture, and the efforts of the British in Benkulen were directed to the same end. The western portion of the island was the chief seat of the trade, and this part was, and is still, known to mariners as the " Pepper Coast." The spice at the present time is most grown at the north and at the south extremities of the island — in the Ache and Lampong districts — and in a good year the export reaches the amount of nearly 18,000 tons, which is said to be two-thirds of the world's consumption. About eight years are needed for a pepper garden to reach maturity, but once in full bearing, the annual yield in value of each shrub should be about 10s. The only other products of great importance are coffee and tobacco. The returns have of late decreased considerably, but a few years since coffee was exported to SU.MATKA 207 the value of nearly half a millicni sterliiio- annually. It is grown principally in tlie npland districts around Padang, and finds a market chiefiy in the United States. The great agricultural feature of East Sumatra is the tobacco industry of the Dili district, which is of recent estah- lishment, l)ut has proved an un<|ualitied success. The TALACE OF A SUMATRAN PRINCE. Sumatra crop has now actually exceeded that of Jaxa in quantity, while the Cjuality is much superior. The ol)ject is largely, though not solely, the growth of what arc technically termed " wrappers " — leaves of great excel- lence l;)oth in quality and appearance, which are used as the outer or folding leaves of Havana cigars of the finest quality. These are sent to Europe, and thence re-exported to Cuba, while the smoking -tobacco remains for home 208 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL consumption in Holland. The industry is in the hands of a few large companies, and is not permitted to Chinese capitalists, although Chinese labour is very largely em- ployed on the fields, the Battaks and Malays, being less valuable as labourers. The export during the last decade has been very considerable. That of 1886 ex- ceeded 11,000 tons, and its estimated value was nearly £3,000,000, the crop averaging two shillings per lb. The sugar-cane is not cultivated. A great trade is carried on, on the east coast especially, in beeswax, cam- phor, gutta, dammar, benzoin, and other resins, rattans, gambir, cotton, and various sea-products such as beche- de-mcr. The mineral wealth of Sumatra still remains for the most part undeveloped, although it is probable that, before long, the rich coal-fields of Ombilin, which are situated towards the head waters of the Batang Hari, will be opened. They were discovered in 1869, and have been estimated by M. de Greve to contain 370,000,000 cubic metres. The mineral is of the Tertiary period, as it is probable that most of the Sumatran measures will prove to be. Mr. Forbes found coal in the Palembang district, and it exists near Malabu and other places in Ache. South of Padang, at Moko-moko, it is worked. Gold is even more widely distributed. The fields around Padang, which have been known for centuries, are now exhausted, but the Menangkabo placer diggings, which are equally ancient, are still in operation. The metal is found at Malabu in Ache, and at many places on the eastern slopes of the Barisan range, but the amount obtained is trivial, though, were a thorough exploration undertaken, it would prol^ably lead to good results. Tin exists on the eastern side in the Siak district, and there are copper mines in the Padang " bovenland," near the Merapi SUMATRA 2 0 D volcano, but the outpvit of both metals is insignificant. Iron has been dug and smelted for ages by the ]\Ieuaiig- kabo Malays. Concessions were granted in 1891 for working some petroleum wells lately discovered, sulphur is abundantly obtained from the craters of various vol- canoes, and it is probable that antimony is also existent. The industries of the island are not numerous. Krisses are largely made, especially in Menangkabo, and the work- manship is often excellent, as is the embossed gold-w(»rlv of their sheaths. The silk sarongs worked with gold thread are as fine as those made in Brunei, and as costly, but they are chiefly made by immigrant workmen. Palem- bang is celebrated for its manufacture of furniture, but this also is foreign labour, the greater part of it being constructed by Chinese. 10. Population and Political Divisions. The population of Sumatra has been given at 3|- millions, but it is probable that this is an under-estima- tion. So much of the country, however, is unknown, that guesswork rather than calculation comes into play. Ache, the highlands of Padang, and the Palembang divisions are all stated to have over 500,000 inhabitants, and the two first named are the most thickly populated portions of the island. The Dutch have divided the island and its satellites into nine administrative divisions, viz. (1) The Government of Ache and its Dependencies ; (2) the Government of the West Coast; (3) the Ptesi- dency of Benkulen ; (4) the Residency of the Lampongs ; (5) the Ptesidency of Palembang ; (6) the Ptesidency of the East Coast; (7) the Ptesidency of Rhio and its Dependencies ; (8) the Residency of Bangka and (9) the Assistant-Residency of Blitong. p 210 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The system of administration varies with the condition of the inhabitants. Thus the Ache " Government " is such only in name except at certain of the coast towns, and over a great portion of the centre of the island the Dutch have no rule or authority whatsoever. In other districts a species of suzerainty exists, the chiefs paying tribute or acknowledging the Government, but ruling their subjects without intervention. In others again the Dutch have engrafted their administration firmly upon the old communal native system, and rule much as they do in Java. The most settled districts are Dili, Benkulen, and the country between this town and Palembang, and the highlands of Padang. 11. Chief Towns. The four chief towns of Sumatra are Padang, Ache (Kota Eaja), Benkulen, and Palembang. Padang is in some ways the most important; it has about 16,000 inhabitants, and is a place of considerable trade, there being many European merchants, with Arabs, Chinese, Javanese, Battaks, and Mas islanders settled within its limits. The town presents the aspect of a beautiful park, and is situated on the right bank of the Padang river, whose mouth is dominated by the picturesque Apenberg. The port is inferior and exposed to westerly weather. The country to the north is flat, with extensive rice fields, and good roads shaded by avenues of trees lead inland. Westward, at a distance of a few miles, the hills begin, on ascending which the rich Padang plateau or " bovenland " is reached, where the climate is well suited for coffee cultivation. Here, at an elevation of about 3000 feet, are Port de Kock, the seat of the Eesident, and the garrison ; and a few miles to the south, in the SUMATRA 211 neighbourhood of the Singkara Lake, Fort van der Capellen. Ache, known to the Dutch and natives as Kota Eaja, hes some three miles from the port Olele, with which it is connected by railway. The latter town is built on piles on the shores of a creek, and, like many of the Sumatran sea-ports, is not very healthy. Kota Eaja is prettily placed and well built. The population numbers about 12,000 without the Europeans. The garrison is very large, five or six thousand troops being stationed here and at one or two villages on the coast. Owing to the enormous loss of life from beri-beri, the Dutch have given up many of the earlier forts and rebuilt others more in accordance with modern ideas on hygiene. It is indicative of the unsettled condition of the country that the windows of the railway carriage are made of steel plates, as the trains are frequently fired upon. Trenches surround all the fortified positions, artillery is mounted on elevated bastions, and powerful lights illundne the foreground at night. Like precautions have to be taken by the neighbouring friendly Achenese, sentinels keeping guard day and night from high watch-towers. The railway above mentioned, although the first constructed in Sumatra, is not the only line, another of 30 miles or more in length connecting Medan and other villages in the Dih districts with the sea-port. Benkulen, on the southern part of the west coast, and in about 4° south latitude, is chiefly interesting as having been a British possession for nearly a century and a half Driven out by Dutch influence from Bantam, the English established themselves here in 1685, and for a period of a hundred years — up to the time of the founda- tion of Penang in 1785 — held it as their sole possession in the Malay Archipelago. In 1824 they obtained Malacca from the Dutch and yielded them Benkulen in return. 212 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Tlie town has now lost whatever greatness it possessed. Although it is said to have 12,000 inhabitants, the trade is of no importance, the surrounding territory infertile, and the situation unhealthy. The coftee cultivation has been more or less abandoned, and earthquakes have partially destroyed some of the buildings and given an air of desolation to the town. Palembang differs greatly from Benkulen, being the seat of a vast and increasing trade. The town lies about 45 miles up the Sungsang or Palembang river, and is one of the largest and most curious in the whole archipelago. It is accessible at all times to vessels of the heaviest burden, the width of the stream at the town being about three-quarters of a mile, and its depth five or six fathoms close to the shore. The town lines both banks of the stream for a distance of 6 miles, and large numbers of the population inhabit the praus and rakits anchored in the river, much as the floating population of Canton and other Chinese cities, so that all marketing and general business is carried on by water. A Eesident and other officials reside here, and with various merchants number altogether about 100 Europeans. The entire population is estimated at from forty to fifty thousand, and, in spite of the surrounding marshes, the climate is considered so healthy that convalescent soldiers are sent here from Bangka. A small garrison is stationed here, and there is a kraton, or fort, of substantial construction, capable of containing 1500 men, with walls 8 feet thick and 50 feet high, and mounting eight guns on each of the bastions at the four corners. The export trade has already been alluded to. Owing to its numerous affluents, the river taps a vast area, and it is said that a hundred or more praus laden with produce often arrive from up country in the course of a single day. I \ CHAPTEE VII BOENEO 1. G-eneral. If we consider Australia to be more properly a continent, Borneo is undoubtedly the second island in the world in point of magnitude, for New Guinea alone surpasses it. Its extreme length is about 850 miles, and its greatest breadth 600. Its compact mass is somewhat pear- shaped, lying in a north-east and south-west direction. It has a coast line of about 3000 miles, without measur- ing the smaller bays and inlets, and its area is about 285,000 square miles, being nearly three and a half times as large as Great Britain. Extending from 7° o' K to 4° 10' S. latitude, and being nearly bisected by the Equator, Borneo occupies a central position amid the greater Malay islands, being, roughly speaking, equally distant from the Philippines on the north-east, from Celebes on the east, from Java on the south, and from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula on the west. It is thus removed from the violence of typhoons, and enjoys on all its coasts a tolerably calm sea. There are comparatively few islands around its shores, the most important being the Natunas off the western promontory, and Pulo Laut on the south-east ; but at the nortli-casl, 214 CO.\IPKNDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPtAVEL from the country now called British North Borneo, two separate chains of islands run to form conipecting- links with the main group of the Philippines, the most eastern being known as the Sulu Archipelago. The coast of Borneo is very little indented with bays, and nowhere by deep inlets. The few bays it possesses are towards the north-eastern extremity, where the coast is somewhat higher and more abrupt. As a rule the island is liordered throughout by a consideraljle width of swamp and lowland, except at a few points where there are high promontories or a small extent of hilly country. Various ranges of mountains, which may be roughly de- scribed as radiating from a common centre, divide the island into sections, the intervening land being low, flat, and marshy, and it has been pointed out that a subsidence of 500 feet would allow the sea to fill the great valleys of the Kapuas, Barito, and Koti rivers almost to the centre of the island, greatly reducing it in size, and causing it to assume a star-shaped outline much resembling that of the neighbourmg island of Celebes. Politically, Borneo is divided into four separate terri- tories— British North Borneo or Saba occupying the northern portion, and Sarawak the greater part of the north-western. Between them lies the small independent state of the Sultan of Brunei. The rest of the island be- longs to the Dutch, and is considerably larger than the aggregate of the other three territories. The island is, on the whole, very sparsely inhabited. It is impossible to obtain any exact data as to its population, but it is esti- mated as under 2,000,000. 2. History. So far as is known, the Italian traveller Varthema BORNEO 2 1 5 was the first European to visit Borneo, probably at the end of 1505, but he appears to have made no stay there. Malacca fell to the Portuguese in 1511, and it seems im- probable that for ten years after that date the island should have remained unvisited, especially when it is remembered that the far-distant islands of Banda and Ternate were reached before the year had ended. We have, however, no trustworthy account of any such visit, and the next mention of " Bornei " occurs in Pigafetta's diary. After the death of Magellan in the Philippines, the two remaining ships of his squadron sailed south-westward, and reached the city of Brunei in July, 1521. Pigafetta's description of the town would almost serve for the present day. The Malays had been long established there, and were in a high state of civilisation. They had forts mounting heavy guns, and used horses and trained elephants. In the king's house were silver candlesticks, and gold spoons of European shape were used at his table. Although Pigafetta makes no mention of Chinese being settled in the city, it is very probable that they had even then established themselves. Considerable Chinese trade must at all events have existed, as is proved by the descriptiou of the silks, brocades, and porcelain vases in the king's possession, while the currency was entirely of that country, bronze or brass coins pierced for stringing, and stamped with Chinese characters. Except for a possible visit by Lorenzo Gomez in 1518, the first acquaintance of the Portuguese with the island was in 1526, when Jorge de Meneses touched at Brunei on his way to the Moluccas. A few years later they established trading posts at various ports, but no attempt at conquest was made then or at any subsequent period. Oliver van Noort brought the Dutch to the island in 1598, and commerce was soon initiated by them, as it 216 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL was a few years later by the English, so that in the middle of the seventeenth century three European nations were busily engaged in trying to supplant each other at the various ports. For more than half a century, how- ever— from 1670 to 1733 — the Dutch left the field, and were followed by the Portuguese, and in 1707 the English, who had a settlement at Banjarmasin, then a place of considerable trade, were driven out by the natives. In 1733 the Dutch returned, and fifty-two years later a civil war placed them in possession of the large territory belonging to the Sultan of Banjarmasin. The country nevertheless remained undeveloped, and it was only subsequent to the restoration to the Dutch in 1816 of their Malayan dominion that anything was done in the way of settlement. Since that time considerable additions have been made to their possessions, and the entire island, with the exception of the Brunei, Sarawak, and British North Borneo Company's territories, now be- longs to Holland. The history of the English occupation of these latter countries wiil be separately considered on a later page. The medieval history of the island is chiefly con- jectural, and we have even less knowledge of it than of that of Java and Sumatra. Numerous ruins of Hindu temples in various parts of the island, as for example at Pontianak on the west, Sangkulirang on the east, and 400 miles in the interior on the Koti river, prove that the Borneans must in bygone ages have come under a western influence if not an actual dominion, but it is probable that the immigration took place largely from Java. Borneo, however, could at no time have been a political unit. Later, Malays from the Peninsula or from Sumatra invaded the island, and, settling on the coasts, drove the aborigines inland ; but although they brought BORNEO 217 with them a tolerably advanced civilisation, as we can see from Pigafetta's description, their influence did not pene- trate far into the interior. 3. Geology and Physical Features. Borneo in pre-Tertiary days exhibited a very different configuration from that of the present time. It consisted almost certainly of a mass of islands, now represented by the central range, Kinabalu, the Sarawak and western districts, the Tana Laut Mountains, etc., which in geological structure resembled the islands of Bangha and Blitong. In his work on the geology and minera- logy of Borneo, Dr. Tbeodor Posewitz remarks that in this ancient archipelago crystalline scliists played on]}' a subordinate part. " The rocks belonged mainly to the ' Old Slate Formation ' of Devonian age, and in the northern portion of the islands to the Carboniferous. The stratigraphical position of these strata was dis- turbed by the eruption of igneous rocks, granites, antl diorites. The eruption took place partly after the forma- tion of the Devonian, partly in pre-Devonian times. . . . Then began a deposition of sedimentary matter in the seas surrounding the islands. The Eocene strata contain- ing the thick coal-beds were formed, and then disturbed by the eruption of andesite. Further, younger Tertiary beds containing brown coal were deposited. The separate islands were now united, the Tertiary beds being de- posited not only between them, but also as a belt on all sides. The configuration of Borneo was thus brought nearer to its present shape, first acquiring a form similar to that possessed at the present day by the neighbouring island of Celebes. Wide arms of the sea ran far into the 218 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL interior. In the beginning of the Diluvial period these gulfs began slowly to give place to dry land ; a strip of flat land was formed along the foot of the mountains, and gold, diamonds, and platinum, swept down by running water, were here deposited. The seas became shallower and retreated, and the present period commenced." From the above sketch, the general configuration of Borneo of the present time can be gathered. We find a skeleton mountain formation in which the mountains, although arranged in chains, are not continuously elevated, but more or less separate and insular in nature ; a hill- land of Tertiary age surrounding it, and in turn bordered by a dry plain land, which merges imperceptibly into vast swamps and morasses, through which large and tor- tuous rivers find their way to a shallow sea. This rough outline does not, of course, hold equally good for all localities. Thus in British North Borneo the land is more elevated, and the older rocks in close approxima- tion to the sea, and the formation in Brunei and in the western promontory of the island is likewise irregular. It is in the southern and eastern portions that the char- acters mentioned are most apparent. Here we have four main basins, drained principally by the Kapuas, Barito, Koti, and Kayan rivers, and separated from each other by mountain chains. The Tertiary beds of which the hill and lower lands are composed have been separated into Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene. Dr. Posewitz states that " all four stages of the Eocene are developed in Borneo. The first or breccia stage, consisting of conglomerates and sandstones, is up to the present only known in West Borneo. The second, or sandstone stage, is of great thickness and wide development ; it yields the Indian coal, and consists of quartz, sandstones, shales, and coal seams. The third, or BOltXEO 219 marl stage, consists of marls and shales, with isolated nummulites, many orbitoids, lamellil>ranchs, and crusta- ceans. The fourth, or limestone stage, which forms coral reefs, contains numerous fossils, among which are num- mulites and many orbitoids. These strata are broken through and disturbed by basalts, augite- and hornblende- andesites, which are associated with breccias, conglomerates, and tuffs of eruptive origin. The age of these rocks is probably Miocene, for the limestone stage is also pierced by them. As to the composition of the younger Tertiary formations little is known. They appear, however, to consist also of sandstone, marl, and limestone beds, and the limestones are said to occur as coral reefs." The abundance and wide distribution of coal in the island is remarkable. In this respect Borneo is by far the richest of all the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Schwaner says : — " The occurrence of coal is more wide- spread than one might be led to think by a first examina- tion. In the whole of the hill-formation it constitutes a most important and almost never-failing factor. All fissures and openings that have been made use of for the investigation of the underground geology have led to the discovery of coal seams, and even the banks of the great rivers disclose them in many places." As far as is known, there is no coal of greater age than the Tertiary period. Most of it belongs to the Eocene, but the brown coals of the Miocene also occur plentifully. Mr. Motley, in his Eeport on the Geology of Labuan and neighbourhood, gives the following interesting de- scription of its peculiarities : — " The coal, dense and perfectly carbonised as it is, yet exhibits most unequivo- cally its vegetable origin ; and not only that, but even the kind of vegetation of which it has been composed is evident from the most cursory inspection of the heaps of 220 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL coal brought out of the levels. It is clearly the product, not of a bed of peat produced by the decay of small vegetation, but of a mass of huge timber. At least one half of the mass displays the grain and structure of wood, and frequently it separates naturally into the concentric layers of dicotyledonous wood. All the specimens I have examined have exactly the structure of the dipteraceous trees now forming the bulk of the timber growing above them. The trees must have been of vast dimensions. I traced one trunk upwards of 60 feet, and for the whole of that distance it was not less than 8 feet wide. They are all prostrate and slightly compressed, and lie crossing each other in all directions. What makes the resemblance of this coal to the wood of the Dipteracese still more striking is the existence in it of thickly scattered masses of semi-transparent resin dispersed through its substance. The clay below the coal contains a few carbonaceous particles, but no trace of Stigmaria or any other forms of fossil roots. In the shale above the coal are found occasionally erect trunks of small size, apparently, from the coats of their bark, dicotyledonous, but their whole substance converted into soft pulverulent coal ; and, more rarely, palm trunks, also erect but solidified, and excess- ively hard. Impressions- of leaves are in vast abundance, though rarely perfect. I have procured specimens of nine species of dicotyledons, of wliich two so closely re- semble an existing species of Barringtonia and a diptera- ceous plant which yields an oily resin named ' druing,' that it is difticult to believe them not identical. Besides these are two or three species of ferns, a large flag-shaped leaf like a Crinum, something closely resembling a large thick-stemmed confervoid alga, and four or five species of palms, one flabelliform and four pinnate, one of the latter very closely resembling an existing species. These vege- EOENEO 221 table remains are chiefly, but not entirely, in the lower part of the stratum. Sparingly among them, but more abundantly in the upper half of the thickness of the bed, are found a good many casts of bivalve shells, much like some species of Unio." In some adjacent beds of shale are found marine shells consisting of species of Cardium, Tridacna, Area, Ostrca, Tcllina, Murcx, Turho, Cerithium, and Pecten, all genera now living in the adjacent seas. It is remarkable that such an evidently recent forma- tion should be so much upheaved, the coal-measures of Labuan and Brunei dipping from an angle of 24° to nearly or quite vertical, the dip being N.N.W., or about at right angles to the direction of the great chain of mountains which rises nearly parallel to the coast. Mr. Motley's account of this coal formation would lead us to conclude that dense tropical forests growing on an extensive plain or river delta had been suddenly over- thrown by flood or earthquake, or by sudden depression of the land, and had been covered with a deposit of clays or sands. He well remarks on the quantities of trees and shrubs which in the tropics grow on the sea-shore, or even in the salt water, and thus accounts for the presence of marine shells in the shales, and even in the coal itself Until recently, Borneo was supposed to differ from all the other great islands of the archipelago in not possessiug a single volcano, either active or extinct, but this sup- position has lately been shown to be not quite correct. It is highly improbable that Ivinabalu is volcanic, as Mr. Little, who ascended one of its peaks in 1887, de- clared, but a small volcano, which is probably of late Miocene or Pliocene age, was discovered by the mining- engineer Van Schelle in the Menteradu district, situated to the west of the Bawang Mountains, and about 40 miles 222 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL from the most western point of Borneo. Other ancient volcanoes have been described lately (1889) as existing in the same district. They appear to occur in the region of the Old Slate formation of the Devonian age. Hot springs, though not common, exist in many places and are widely distributed, being found in South and West Borneo and in Sarawak. The exploration of the island having been of necessity chiefly carried out by the rivers, our knowledge of the mountains is exceedingly limited. Land travel is both difficult and dangerous. Few travellers have crossed any of the great ranges, and details of their height are thus almost entirely wanting. Even concerning Kinabalu, whose vast mass appears as one of the most conspicuous features of the country to those navigating on the northern coast, the differences of opinion are very great, and of the central mountain group nothing is known. Kinabalu, or the " Chinese widow," which is situated towards the extreme north of the island, is, however, almost certainly its loftiest mountain, and possibly is not excelled by any other in the archipelago. The results of a triangulation by Sir Edward Belcher made its altitude to be 13,698 feet. It is an isolated mountain mass, con- sisting of several peaks forming a vast wall, which is higher at the western part. The northern face appears as a gigantic precipice, but, owing to the size of the mountain and the difficulties connected with its ascent, its exact con- formation is unknown. ' Low was the first to attain the summit, but it has since been ascended, entirely or in part, by Spenser St. John, Bove, Hattou, Little, and Whitehead. The view from the higher peaks is said to be magnificent, and numerous ranges estimated at 7000 or 8000 feet in height are visible to the south. In a general south-west direction from Kinabalu an BOiiXEO 223 interrupted range extends at a tolerably uniform dis- tance of 80 or 90 miles from the coast, bending sharply at right angles towards its termination at Cape Datu, and forming the natural inland delimitation of the Sarawak and Brunei territories. In the greater part of its extent it is unknown, but Mounts Main and Marud at the head of the Brunei river are estimated at 8000 feet, and Mount Baling at over 7000. Between the Bataiig Lupar and the Seriang Lake the range appears to be dis- continuous, as it also is towards the western boundary of Sarawak, where the hills — for the elevation becomes much diminished — have frequently the character of abrupt isolated blocks. The highest elevation in this part is Mount Pu, in the neighbourhood of Tanjoiig Datu, which is believed to be about 6000 feet in heiuht. Still farther west, in the IMenteradu (Montrado) district, Mounts Bawang, Pandau, and others form a separate group of insignificant height. From near the middle of the chain just considered, three principal ranges are believed to originate, and not far from the centre of the nucleus thus formed lies Mount Tebang, which is as yet unvisited by Europeans. Native accounts on the whole concur in describing this mountain as of great height, and giving origin to tlie IVnir great rivers of Borneo, and it is further stated to l)a\e its summit white. It is, nevertheless, improbable tliat a snow mountain should exist without having been viewed by some of the many travellers who have ex- plored the rivers, and it may be concluded that the story in this respect is without foundation. The three main ranges have a general direction of K, S.S.E., and S.S.W., and mark out the basins of the Kayan, Mahakkani (Koti), Barito, and Kapuas. They are composed, for much of their extent, of isolated hills or mountains, so 224 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TEAVEL that it is often possible to pass from one river-basin to another without any great ascent, and this arrangement of the mountains may be regarded as a characteristic feature of the orography of the island. Borneo is remarkable both for its plains and rivers. The southern and eastern portions of the island are, in the main, areas of flatness and little elevation, as may be gathered from a glance at the map, which shows the rivers to be of almost phenomenal tortuousuess. In some places quite flat, in others gently undulating, these plains occupy the spot where, in pre-Tertiary days, the sea flowed. Towards the coast, and in the vicinity of rivers, this flat land often exists as vast and impassable morasses, wdiich in the wet season become much en- larged, so that enormous areas become submerged. Schwaner estimated that 160 square geographical miles are daily flooded by tidal action in the basin of the Barito, and 580 — or more than one-third of the entire basin — in the rainy season. Like phenomena may be witnessed upon many, if not most, other of these rivers, and Dr. Posewitz, in his work on the geology of the island, gives the following graphic description of the appearance of the district surrounding the Negara, an afliuent of the Barito. " During my first journey every- thing, as far as the eye could see, was covered with water : it appeared to extend to the mountain-chain skirting the eastern horizon, the foot of which is surrounded by steep Tertiary coral reefs. In the midst of the flooded district one could see ISTegara, an important seat of industry, extend- ing along the end of the great sheet of water, as if it were situated on an inland sea. In the swampy parts there were thick patches of rushes, which formed welcome resting-places for dense swarms of mosquitoes, and the oarsman in threading his way is obliged to keep a sharp BORNEO 225 look-out in order not to lose himself, for should this happen, he would be compelled to lie by until the following morning. In the dry season the district bore quite another aspect. The immense sheet of water had disappeared, its place being taken by a black soil, tra- versed by numerous canals and filled with clear dark- brown water. During the dry season, between Barabai and Amuntai, I could clearly distinguish the districts subject to periodic floods. The vegetation consists en- tirely of thickly tangled bushes, while the boundary was marked by the gigantic trees of the virgin forest." Few countries are so plentifully furnished with rivers as Borneo, and, although in most cases the existence of bars prevents the entrance of large vessels, small craft can navigate them for a very large portion of their course. The rivers of the north-west are necessarily the smallest, from the proximity of the mountain range to the seaboard. Taking them in their order from the north, the first of any importance is the Limbang, better known as the Brunei river. From the absence of nipa palm and mangrove, and the bareness of its banks, it differs greatly from the majority of the rivers of tropical Malaysia, and the plentiful outcrop of coal visible in ascending the stream renders it still more peculiar. It is supposed to admit vessels of 20 feet draught, but the entrance is very intricate and dangerous. The Picjang, a large stream which rises near the central mountain mass, and debouches by two mouths, is of more importance, and much forest produce descends its stream. It is the largest river in Sarawak, and will admit vessels of 1000 tons. The fort, where a President of the Sarawak service is stationed, lies 25 miles from the entrance, and ships can anchor off it in 7 fathoms. A small Government steamer ascends the river for 200 miles. The Bataug 226 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Lupar also adiiiits large vessels, but has a very much shorter course, and the Sarawak river is only of import- ance as the stream on which Kuching is built. It is not till we come to the more southern part of the island that the characteristic Bornean rivers are met with, and of these one of the largest is the Kapuas, which reaches the sea at Pontianak. It has its sources in the central moun- tains, probably near Mount Tebang, which is also reputed to give origin to the Barito, the Mahakkam, and the Kayan or Bulungan. Thence it pursues a tortuous course in a south-west direction, forming an enormous delta at its mouth. As it is beset by a bar carrying only 10 to 12 feet of water at high tide, it is un- navigable by large vessels, but small Government steamers ascend it for 200 miles. Until lately, large lakes were formed in the middle part of its course during the rainy season, a common feature in Bornean rivers, but now these have become to a great extent silted up, and the detritus brought down by the floods has caused the land to gain rapidly on the sea at the river's mouth. Between the Kapuas and the Barito occur various considerable rivers, the Lamandu, Pembuan, JMentaya, Katingan, Kahayan, and others, but they are of little im- portance commercially. It is otherwise with the great Barito, upon which Banjarmasin is situated. It is 3 miles wide at the mouth, is supposed to exceed 570 miles in length, and is thus the longest river in the Malay Archi- pelago. In its upper course it is very rapid, and is said to abound in waterfalls, and lower it expands in the w^et season into lakes and morasses, which occupy, as has already been stated, an area of some hundreds of square miles, in which respect it is almost equalled by the Mahakkam or Koti river. A bar prevents the entrance of large vessels, but the stream is navigable for smaller craft for some I BORNEO 227 fifty miles, and trading praus ascend it for an immense distance. The Mahakkam, like all the great rivers of Borneo, rises in the unexplored regions of Mount Tebang, and follows a south-east course for over 400 miles, to pour its waters into the Strait of Makassar. It receives numerous tributaries, and exhibits in a marked degree the phe- nomenon of lake expansion. The permanent lakes in its course are filling up gradually, but they are still of con- siderable depth, for Mr. Carl Bock, who lately travelled in this region, speaks of getting soundings of 8 0 feet or more. The Mahakkam has the large town of Samarinda at its mouth, and forms, like the Kapuas, a very considerable delta. Farther north, the rivers in Dutch territory are little known. The most important waterway in British North Borneo is the Kinabatangan, which debouches be- tween Darvel and Sandakan Bays, and is navigable by boats for about 200 miles. Certain marked characteristics, then, are exhibited by the majority of Bornean rivers, but more especially by those of the southern and eastern portions of the island, and these peculiarities are determined to a great extent by the flatness and slight elevation of the surrounding land. Most are surrounded in the lower part of their course with a greater or less extent of impassable morass. In most cases deltas are formed, sometimes of very large size, and here, aided by the mangroves, the land gains very rapidly on the sea. The slight fall in the river beds causes daily tidal inundation, and periodic flooding of vast areas occurs in the rainy season. For like reasons the rivers are extremely serpentine in their course, and in flood time the intervening land is often cut across at the narrow part of the bend. The old bed becomes partially blocked, and the phenomenon is thus 228 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL exhibited of a series of lakes lying on either side of the river. Occasionally, rivers change their beds entirely, or a complete network of anastomoses is formed with other streams, in which it is an easy matter for the traveller to lose his way. Finally, the mouths of almost all are beset with bars, which prevent the ingress of large ships. Borneo is, apparently, without permanent lakes of any great size. For many years a large sheet of water was represented in the maps as lying to the south of Ivina- balu, but recent travellers have shown that it is only low land submerged in the rainy season, similar to that existing on most rivers, as already described. In the upper basin of the Kapuas are two lakes of minor im- portance, the Seriang and the Luar. Mr. Crocker found the former a fine sheet of water with four Dutch gun- boats anchored in it, but it was said to have completely dried in 1877. It also appears to be subject to tre- mendous inundations. The diary of the same traveller records that a Malay, his informant, on the occasion of one of these floods, found a boy eating sugar-cane, and on asking where he got it, as he saw nothing but water, the boy told him he had dived down to their garden, which was at that time several feet under water. 4. Climate. Bisected as it is by the equator, Borneo is exposed to the action of the four monsoons : in the northern portion theoretically to the N.E. and S.W., and in the southern to the S.E. and N.W., but those winds become considerably altered with the locality. At Ban- jarmasin the westerly monsoon blows as a south-west or BORNEO 229 west-south-west wind, and is steady from December to IVIareh, when it blows more northerly. The south-east monsoon is prevalent from April to October, and brings the greatest amount of rain, though thunderstorms — of which there are on the average about fifty in the year — occur most frequently in December or at the change of the monsoon. There is, strictly speaking, no dry season on the island, although droughts — some of which have been severe — sometimes occur. In British North Borneo the wet season is from October to February, and April and May are the driest months. Eain occurs, however, at all seasons, and even during the severe drought which affected Borneo, Sumatra, and the Peninsula in 1885, the longest rain- less period registered in Sandakan was twenty-two days. The mean annual rainfall of that town is 124 uiclies, and the showers are sometimes extremely heavy. Thus in June, 1884, over 2 inches fell in forty minutes, and in January, 1886, 9 inches were registered in twenty-four hours. Mr. Whitehead, who spent eight mouths on Mount Kinabalu, records that the weather was extremely wet. Sometimes rain fell for three days without ceasing, and the general average was six hours per diem, generally from 1 P.M. to nightfall. The maximum temperature on this coast is considerably higher than that of Java, vary- ing from 81° in February to 93° Fahr. in April. In point of healthiness, Borneo must, on the whole, l^e con- sidered more trying to European constitutions than any country hitherto described, although it is probably superior to ^ew Guinea and to some parts of Sumatra. The large area of low and marshy land, suljject to alter- nate flood and drought, the heavy rainfall, and, in the new settlements, the disturbing of the soil, combine to generate malarial fevers, which, though not nearly so fatal 230 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAYEL as those of Western Africa, are often of a severe type. Beri-beri, the scourge of the native races in the Malay Archipelago and Eastern Asia, is a common disorder among the plantation coolies, and cholera, which appears, at all events in Northern Borneo, to he a disease of recent introduction, has upon more than one occasion caused great mortality in the coast towns. In August, 1882, the village of Kimanis numbered just under 300 souls, of whom 177 were attacked and 144 died. About the year 1870, smallpox ravaged Northern Borneo and carried off vast numbers of the natives ; so many, indeed, that it is said that more than one-half of the population perished. Lately, vaccination has been largely carried on, and the recurrence of any such epidemic rendered impossible. With regard to the prevalence of malaria, it may be said that the position of the European settle- ments, though at present unavoidable, is to a great extent responsible for it. They are situated for the most part either upon the sea-coast, often in close proximity to mangrove swamps, or upon rivers in the low country, and in this respect, therefore, it is not possible to make comparisons with a country such as Java, where the land has been for centuries cleared and settled. 5. Flora and Fauna. The vegetation of Borneo is exceedingly luxuriant, the whole island being, with few exceptions, one vast forest. It is especially rich in palms and forest trees, many of which have not yet been botanicaUy described. The vegetation is, of course, thoroughly Malayan, but the lofty mountain of Kinabalu contains a curious mixture of Indian, Malayan, and Australian plants. Here are BORNEO 2:U numerous rhododendrons, forming trees 20 feet higli, as in the Himalayas ; here the characteristic Mahiyan pitcher-plants {Nepenthes) reach their maximum of size, variety, and beauty ; and here are found such typical Australian genera as Leptospermum, Leucopogon, Cop- rosma, Dacrydium, and several others, among which is the Antarctic genus Drimys. In the lowlands, too, there are rhododendrons growing parasitically on trees or on exposed rocks ; ferns and orchids are in endless variety ; and the strange Vanda Lowii hangs down its elegant flowers, like crimson stars, strung upon slender cords sometimes 10 feet in length. The zoology of Borneo has its closest affinities with that of Sumatra, thus differing considerably from Java. It is rather remarkable that the tiger, which is connnon in both the latter islands, should be unknown. There are, however, two smaller felines, F. macroscelis, the Clouded Tiger, and F. marmoratm. The elephant is tolerably common in British North Borneo, but its range appears to be very limited— a curious fact when the suitability of the rest of the island is taken into con- sideration. Some naturalists have sought to explain the fact by suggesting that they are the descendants of tlie trained animals formerly in possession of the Sultans of Brunei, an explanation which is possible, but not probable. For the Sumatran rhinoceros shows tlie same tendency to confine itself to this north-eastern promontory, and here no similar explanation can hold good. Both animals are found quite close to Sandakan. The elephants have destroyed plantations in the vicinity of the town, and rhinoceros have been known to enter its suburbs. The tapir is also reported to exist. Wild cattle (Bos hanteng) are very numerous in parts, and here again we find that British North Borneo is the favourite 232 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY' AND TRAVEL locality. The island is very rich in monkeys, and has many peculiar species. The most remarkable, perhaps, are the Proboscis monkey {Prcsbytes nasutus), whose long and fleshy nose gives it a very man-like aspect, and the orang-utan, or " mias," of which there are two species, the largest being superior in size to all the anthropoid apes excepting the gorilla. The mias is abundant in the swampy forests of the south, and hardly less so in the Company's territory, and the smaller species is very readily domesticated. The birds of Borneo show few marked differences from those of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The island has no family confined to it alone, and only a very few genera, and even these become steadily reduced as our knowledge of the latter countries increases. The most notable peculiar genera are Chlamyclochcera among the Campophagidse, and the striking Lohiophasis among the pheasants. Hornbills are very varied, and the island may be regarded as the headquarters of the beautiful family of the Pittas, or ground-thrushes, and the long- billed Arachnotlieras, or spider-hunters. Mr. Whitehead's late zoological explorations of Kinabalu, during which he spent eight months upon the mountain at various alti- tudes, have added greatly to our knowledge of the Bornean fauna, have revealed many new and several most striking species, and have shown a marked connec- tion with the ornis of the Himalayan sub-regions. The Sumatran and Peninsular affinities have been confirmed, but no special connection with Javanese mountain species appears. A slight Celebesian element, however, is re- vealed by a JDiccciivi closely allied to a species found only in that island, and is strengthened by Mr. White- head's discovery of a small rat (IIiis musschcnhrocki), previously only known from Celebes. BORNEO 233 Eeptiles abound, as in all the Malayan islands, but there are in Borneo many peculiar species, including two kinds of crocodiles not found elsewhere. These are much feared by the natives, and not without reason, for in the southern division of Borneo forty-one persons are officially recorded as having been killed by them during 1889, and this probably does not represent anything like the true total. Insects are excessively abundant, and many are of the largest size and of extreme beauty, but they show no great divergence- from those of the Malay Peninsula. 6. Native Races. Occupying a central position in the archipelago, Borneo exhibits considerable diversification among its inhabitants. Briefly, the island is populated as follows : — In the centre — or more accurately, in almost every part with the exception of a belt extending round the coast — are an aboriginal race of Indonesians, collectively known as Dyaks. No ISTegritos are known to exist. All round the seaboard, except in the northern portion of the east coast, and settled for the most part at the mouths of the rivers, are a thriving population of IMohammedan IMalays. On the eastern and part of the southern coast the Bugis of Celebes — from time immemorial a race of traders — have settled themselves. The north-eastern part of the island is peopled by a large proportion of Sulus, that region having, until the advent of the British Xortli Borneo Company, formed part of the territory of the Sultan of Sulu. The Chinese are extremely numerous in Borneo, carrying on a flourishing trade in the sea- ports, and occupying large areas in Western Borneo, to the exclusion 234 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL of the Dyaks and ]\Ialays. Finally, the Bajaus, a race of Malays who have been well described as the " Sea- gipsies " of the archipelago, are well known in most of the creeks and rivers of the island. Dyak is the generic name applied to the wild tribes which were found living on the island when the Malays first settled upon its shores. Whether they are the aboriginal inhabitants, or whether they were preceded by a Negrito race, it is impossible to say. It is quite pos- sible that the latter may be the case, and that they are the descendants of a former immigrant pre -Malayan horde who overwhelmed a yet earlier race. They are divided into innumerable tribes, speaking distinct languages, forming distinct political units, and, in the wilder parts of the countr}^, engaged in constant inter- tribal warfare. I'hysically, these people differ little from the Malays except in being somewhat lighter, taller, and more active, and they are generally of a more cheerful and child-like disposition. In point of civilisation they vary considerably. Some are described as exceedingly low in the social scale, living, like the Lubus and other Sumatran tribes, as forest vagrants, building no houses, but only temporary shelters. Others, like some of the Milanaus, are almost as civilised as the Malays. But in this respect Borneo is far behind Sumatra, for while in the latter island several of the tribes have separately and independently invented writing, with rather complex alphabets, no instance of this kind is known in Borneo. The majority of the Dyaks are heathen, but in many places contact with the Malays has converted them to Islamism. Tattooing is very generally practised, and it is a favourite custom to wear a quantity of brass ear-rings, so that the lobe of the ear becomes enormously dilated, and hangs almost on the shoulder. The Milanaus cause the BORNEO 235 malformation of their children's heads hy boards, in tlio manner of some South American tribes. Others innnure their young girls for two or three years or more at the age of puberty, and there are many curious customs, especially among the Kayans, for the knowledge of wliich we are indebted to Mr. Dalton, who resided for a lon» period with the head-hunting Dyaks in 1828. As a rule the Dyak pagan tribes wear rude clothing of bark or cotton cloth, and the women deck them- selves with abundance of beads, brass wire, and plaited girdles. The men generally wear only the chawat — a long band of bark or strip of cotton cloth passed between the legs and round the loins, with sometimes a jacket. The women wear a short petticoat, and in some tribes have a belt of bark or bamboo bound together with brass wire or rattans, and sometimes also a jacket. The women, as with most savage tribes, do much hard labour, whereas among the Malays and other Mohammedans they are almost wholly confined to house- work, occasionally assisting in the fields at harvest-time. The practice of taking heads as trophies was common among almost all the Dyak tribes, but has been to a great extent abolished where European influence is pre- dominant. A young Dyak could not marry, nor a parent or widower leave off mourning, till a head was obtained. These heads were dried and carefully preserved in their houses. It was a custom, and as a custom was observed, but it did not imply any extraordinary barbarism or moral delinquency. On the contrary, it is the general opinion of all who know them well that the Dyaks are among the most pleasing of savages, that they are kind, truthful, and have many excellent qualities. The ])yak houses are generally very large, many families residing together, and there is in every village a halai, or council- 236 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL house, where the young unmarried men sleep, where councils are held, and where travellers are lodged. The houses are always raised on posts, often to a great height where subject to attacks from other tribes ; or they are built perched up on almost inaccessible mountains, only to be reached Ijy ladders up the face of lofty precipices. DYAK VILLAGE. The Dyaks cultivate rice and many kinds of vegetables, and have large plantations of fruit, which often cover whole mountain sides, and furnish them with an im- portant part of their food. They also grow tobacco and sugar-cane for luxuries. Their weapons are spears, the siimjntan or blow -pipe, snares, and pitfalls, and with these they capture all kinds of wild animals for food. They collect beeswax, edible birds' nests, and other pro- BORNEO 237 ducts of the forest, and exchange them for tools, clothing, or ornaments, and especially for brass wire, gongs, and brass guns, which constitute the wealth of every Dyak chief. Earthenware vases and other vessels are also greatly prized, and some of the chiefs houses are quite full of them. The Dyaks of the interior of Sarawak are celebrated for the construction of ingenious bamboo sus- pension bridges over the rivers, to enable them to cross to their plantations or to other villages during floods. Mr. St. John tells us that the rivers sometimes rise forty feet during a flood, and that even a single heavy shower will render the fords impassable. The bridges are gener- ally placed where large trees overhang the river. These are connected by strong bamboos lashed together, and supported at several points by cords of rattan. A light but shaky hand-rail is fixed a few feet above, but the whole is so slender and elastic, and the foothold on the smooth bamboo so insecure, that it requires some nerve in a European to cross such a bridge. It is worthy of note that the Dyaks of the northern and north-western part of the island show in many in- stances a striking resemblance to the Chinese. That the latter have been an important factor in the production of the race there can be no doubt. They have for centuries settled on the coast, and have taken their wives from the native women. The Dyak of pure blood is only to be found in the interior. A recent writer, in- deed, declares that in some parts of British North Borneo the Dyaks are more than half Chinese. Of the date of the arrival of the true Malays in Borneo nothing certain is known. Erom the condition of the court of Brunei as described by Pigafetta, it is evident that they must at that time have been long established. Some centuries must have been needed to build up so 238 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL solid a dominion. It is not necessary, however, to conclude that the ]\Ialay power was established by the single invasion of a conquering host, and it was more probably the outcome of the long- continued immigration and settlement of a trading people. The tradition current among these people is that they are the descendants of Malays from the great kingdom of Menangkabo in Sumatra, who left their country about 600 years ago. Whatever may have been the case, they are now found as settlers on the seaboard of the greater part of the island, gradually — though slowly — extending their influence over the tribes brought in contact with them, and converting them to Mohammedanism. Their headquarters are, as in bygone days, at Brunei. The Sultan of Brunei was in Pigafetta's time a great monarch, ruling actually a very large portion, and theoretically the whole of Borneo, and it is from his capital (the Burnai, Porne, Bornei, etc., of the old writers) that the whole island has obtained its name. It is on the western and north-western coasts that the Malay is most numerous and has made most progress. In the south he has mixed with and almost absorbed the Javanese, of which people there must at one time have been a considerable immi- gration, as is shown not only from the evidence of language, but possibly also from the numerous temple ruins ; for by some writers the Javanese are credited with the introduction into Borneo of the Buddhist and Brahman cults. The Sulus are found almost exclusively in British North Borneo, over part of which country their sultan ruled until the Company purchased his rights. They have preserved their own language, akin, as we have seen, to another widely spoken Philippine tongue, Bisayan, but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that BOIINEO 230 region. Of mixed blood, largely Arab and ]\Ialay, the Sulus of Borneo resemble those of the neighbouring archipelago in being independent, rather fanatical, and not very trustworthy; but they are good seamen and successful fishermen, and in addition carry on a certain amount of trade in forest produce. The Chinese are perhaps the most important people in Borneo. They have been traders and settlers on the coast from beyond historic times, and, as has just been stated, have for an equally long period mixed with the natives ; so that some Dyaks — the Dusuns especially — might almost be classed with them. They are not only traders who amass wealth merely to return with it to their own empire, but miners, agriculturists, and pro- ducers, without whom it would be ditticult to develop the country. The Philippines, Singapore, and Borneo receive, perhaps, a larger number of these immigrants than any other countries. In Borneo they are scattered over the whole seaboard, carrying on a good deal of the river trade, and supplanting in many ways the less energetic Malay. But they are chiefiy to be found in West Borneo, especially in the mining districts, as in Sambas and Montrado (Menteradu) in Dutch territory. Xumljcrs are settled around Bau and Bidi, in Sarawak, and in tlie capital, Kuching. In Xorth Borneo an irruption of some thousands occurred on the opening up of the country, and great numbers are employed on the tobacco plantations lately established. In Labuan, and in Peugaron m South Borneo, the coal mines were worked by Chinese, and they still act as sago-washers iri the former island. Bound together by societies with stringent laws, their system of co-operation enables them to prosper where others would fail. In West Borneo they thus became so powerful as to defy the Dutch Government, who had great difficulty in 240 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL subduing them. In Sarawak, also, they rose in revolt in 1857, obtained temporary possession of the capital, and nearly succeeded in killing Eajah Brooke, who only saved his life by swimming the river. His Malay subjects, however, inflicted a severe but well-deserved punishment upon the insurgents, and it is not likely that any similar incident will again happen. The Bajaus, who in Blitong and some parts of Borneo are known by the name of Sikas, are a wandering race of ^Malays, who pass their lives in boats from the cradle to the grave. In some places they have changed their mode of life, have built houses, and cultivated the ground ; but this is seldom the case, and the majority act as cattle-stealers, petty pilferers, and kidnappers, and are not averse from more serious .crimes if the occasion should ofter. They have given a good deal of trouble to the North Borneo Company's Government, some of whose officers they have murdered, while boats' crews have more than once been cut off by them. These occurrences are nevertheless rare, and are becoming still rarer as European influence extends. The days of piracy are practically over, thanks to the establishment of the Spanish in Sulu and the British in North Borneo, but hardly more than a decade ago these seas were scoured by the Illanuns and Balagnini, the most danger- ous and blood-thirsty pirates of the Malay Archipelago. The former are a race who had their original home in the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. They have of late been compelled to lead a less lawless life, and some have formed settlements in Borneo. The Balagnini, or Balangnini, inhabited an island of that name in the Sulu group, which is memorable as the scene of the most signal punishment ever inflicted on Malay pirates by a European power. " In 1848," says Mr. Crawfurd, " it was BORNEO 241 attacked and captured by a Spanish force of 650 infantry and artillery, with a squadron of three war-steamers and sixteen smaller armed vessels, under the Governor- General of the Philippines, and the resistance made will show the formidable character of these pirates. The Spaniards had 1 officer and 20 men killed, and 10 officers and 150 men wounded. They stormed four redoubts, captured 124 cannon, mostly of small calibre, and burnt 150 praus. Four hundred and fifty of the enemy were killed, refusing to take quarter, and 200 captives rescued from slavery. The forts and houses of the inhabitants were levelled to the ground, and in order to make the place uninhabitable the coco-palms were cut down to the number of between 7000 and 8000." In 1879 the Balagnini murdered or kidnapped sixty-live people in North Borneo, and have since then committed other minor acts of piracy, but it is believed that these outrages are now, practically speaking, things of tiie past. 7. Agriculture and Products. Agriculture, as we understand it, is hardly known except in those parts of the country where the people have been taught by Europeans. Horses and oxen are almost unknown among the Dyaks, but buffaloes are very numer- ous, and are specially suited for work in so marshy a country. A good account of the native system of cultivation is given by a writer in the Handbook of British North Borneo. " A piece of ground is selected — usually one that has undergone the same treatment a few years previously — the felling and clearing is conducted in the usual manner, after which Indian corn and paddy (rice) are planted simultaneously. Ploughs and hoes are R 242 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL quite unknown, and not a clod is turned over. The mode of operation is for a man and woman to walk one behind the other, the man in front, dibbling a hole with a sharpened stick, into which the other drops one or two seeds, and then scratches a little earth over the hole with her toes. In this manner a large field is very soon planted with crops without any lengthened operation. In seven or eight weeks the corn is ready to pull, the paddy in the intermediate lines between the corn being rather poor - looking in consequence of being over- shadowed by its long stalks. As soon as the corn is cleared off", however, the paddy springs up rapidly, and in two months more it too is ready for cutting. During the time the paddy is coming to maturity the fields require weeding three times. In some cases, while the paddy is half grown, tapioca cuttings are planted. In all cases no sooner is the paddy cut than something else is coming on, either tapioca, kaladi, or what not, and before such crops as the last named are ripe, banana suckers and sugar-cane are planted. The ground being cleared of the tapioca, sweet potatoes are put in round the bananas, no further weeding is undertaken, and the sweet potatoes are left to fight it out with the grass. As soon as the potatoes begin to ripen, the yield is continu- ous, but when the weeds finally get the mastery, the people desert that place and make a new start somewhere else. . . . These operations occupy a term of two years or so, during which time crops of one sort or another are following each other in quick succession and without intermission. Paddy they store up, but nothing else, and from year's end to year's end, whatever else they require for the day's consumption, they send into the fields and fetch." So prolific is nature that the inhabitants of six crowded huts on the Kinabatangan have been known to BORNEO 243 draw their entire subsistence, day after day, from a little plot under two acres in extent. It is only in the neighbourhood of the European settlement that the native embarks in agriculture fur trading purposes, and even then only under the direction of a civilised master, excepting in the case of the Chinese. Copra, coco-nuts, areca-nuts, rice, pepper, and tobacco are the only field products which appear in the export lists of Dutch Borneo. Gambir and pepper and a tolerable quantity of rice are cultivated in the Sarawak territory ; but coffee, sugar, and tapioca have not proved very remunerative. The Milanaus, however, grow large quantities of sago for export, and the trade is steadily increasing ; but this article may be regarded as a forest product rather than as the result of agriculture. British North Borneo has developed rapidly of late, not a little owing to the success of the tobacco plantations, of which there are now many in operation. The land has proved to be as suitable for the growth of the special quality used for " wrappers " of cigars as Dili in Sumatra, and the high price of three shillings per lb. has been obtained for the leaf in the London market. This, however, is almost the only agricultural product as yet worthy of mention, although it is very probable that both pepper and Manila hemp will eventually bring a large revenue into the country. The natural products of Borneo are innumerable, but the country being so little known, and the natives in many parts so untrustworthy, very little has as yet been done to develop them. Timber of many kinds, of which lilian — a species of ironwood resisting the attack of white ants — is perhaps the most valuable ; rattans ; the nipa and nibong palms — which furnish the material for the construction of almost every Bornean house; gum 244 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL dammar and gutta-percha — the latter a product of great vahie : all these are largely exported. Considerable quantities of beeswax are brought down to the coast by the natives, especially in North Borneo ; but, excepting rattan, by far the most important and valuable article of ex- port from this district is birds' nest. Probably not less than fifteen or twenty thousand pounds' worth are annually sent to Singapore and China. The nest in size and shape may be compared to the vertical half of a small teacup, and its appearance is that of having been constructed of threads or fibres of gelatine. The best are white and glassy-looking, and may fetch as much as fifty shillings per lb., but the inferior nests contain many impurities, and are perhaps worth not more than two shillings. This curious article of commerce is produced by a small swift of the genus Collocalia (C. llnchi and others), and is used by rich Chinese for making soup. Although a few nests are sometimes seen built against the sea-cliffs in the full glare of the sun, the vast majority occur in caves in the limestone rock, and are often in complete darkness. In such places the birds build in incredible numbers. Thus, the yield from the Gomanton caves is valued at over £5000 annually. The collecting is chiefly carried out by Buludupi Dyaks, who show the most extraordinary skill and daring, obtaining the nests even from the roofs of the caves, which are sometimes three or four hundred feet or more in height. Long bamboos with a candle affixed near the end are used for detaching the lower nests. To obtain the others slender rattan ladders are pegged against the walls, and skeleton stages of bamboo run out in what appear to be utterly inaccessible situations. When it is remembered that the work is carried on almost in darkness and at such dizzy heights, it is only remarkable that there are not more fatal accidents than BORN?:o 245 the few which occur. The first nests are taken in IMarch, and there are generally two, and sometimes three, suhse- quent collections. The result is arranged accordiiif to quality in three classes — the white, medium, and hlack. About twenty principal caves are known in the North Borneo Company's territory, and there are doubtless many others as yet undiscovered. A large quantity of nests are also exported from Sarawak. The harvest of the Bornean seas is as little reaped as that of the forests. Shark's fin and heche-de-mer are everywhere to be obtained, especially in the north, and a good deal finds its way, with the birds' nests, to the Chinese market. So also does kima — the giant clam (Tridacna) — whose shell is used in Europe for the aspersoria or stoups in Catholic churches. Seed pearls are chiefly found on the north and east coast, but the large pearl oyster, which also supplies the mother-of- pearl shell, is not to be obtained in any quantity west of the Sulu group. Tortoiseshell is also exported ; but of all these products few are as yet systematically worked by the English, and hardly any by the Dutch. Much the same may be said concerning the mineral wealth of the country, which is both considerable and widely spread. The coal measures are practically inex- haustible, and have been worked at various places in almost every part of the island, both by Europeans and natives. The results, however, have been almost uniformly unsuccess- ful ; but this failure must be ascribed to the undeveloped state of the country and other causes of secondary im- portance, and the mines will doubtless be worked with remunerative results in the future. The " Julia Her- mina" mine, near Banjarmasin, which promised well, was hardly completed when, in 1859, an insurrection took place, the European staff were murdei-ed, and the 246 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TKAVEL works completely destroyed. The Peiigaron coal mine, also in the neighbourhood of Martapura, was commenced in 1848, but did not average a larger annual output than about 6000 tons, and was abandoned in 1884, as was also the neighbouring Asahan mine, which had been working fourteen years with much the same results. A mine was also worked in Koti, abandoned, and once more reopened in 1886. In Sarawak the Eaja opened a mine on a tributary of the Sadong river in 1880, the prospects of which are promising, nearly 50,000 tons having been raised in 1886. He also purchased, two years later, a concession for the working of the seams at the mouth of the Brunei river. On the island of Labuan is a mine, till lately abandoned, which has caused the failure of three or more companies, but is now being successfully worked ; while in Pulo Laut, the large island at the south-east point of Borneo, about 5000 tons are yearly raised by the natives and supplied to Dutch steamers. There is httle doubt that petroleum, which has been found in many places, will eventually become a workable and most valuable product. Antimony is known both from South and West Borneo, but it is only worked in Sarawak territory, chiefly near Bidi. The average amount of ore raised is about 1500 tons annually, but the output seems of late to have fallen off. Mercury, too, occurs in the upper basin of the Sarawak river, existing as cinnabar, and it is mined to an annual value of from £30,000 to £100,000. Platinum occurs, and is obtained in small quantities as a by-product in gold -washing. Lead, tin, zinc, arsenic, copper, and iron have been found in various parts of the island, but none are worked, with the exception of iron, from which the natives make excellent krisses and parangs. A rich vein of silver was discovered in Sarawak BORNEO 247 near Bau in 1881, and in the following year some 1400 tons of ore, valued at over £13,000, were raised, but tlie vein rapidly became exhausted. It is, however, for gold and diamonds that Borneo is most celebrated. There are said to be few rivers in the island which are not auriferous. The metal is obtained almost entirely from river-washing or the drift gravel, and is chiefly worked by the Chinese, who have established themselves in the chief gold district for some centuries, especially about Sambas — this region being now generally known as the " Chinese Districts." Their powerful co-operative unions enabled them to render themselves independent of the native princes, and it cost the Dutch in 1850 a war of four years' duration to subdue them. It is here, in certain places in West Sarawak, in the valleys between the spurs of the Tana Laut range in the south-east and in the basin of the Kahayan, and on the Segama river in North Borneo, that gold occurs most plentifully. But, on the whole, although there must be large fields at present un- discovered, the output of the precious metal is not great, and it chiefly serves as the means of livehhood for large numbers of Chinese. What the actual amount may be is not known, but there is no doubt that it has of late decreased considerably. Diamonds are likewise very widely distributed, but they are chiefly found in the richest gold districts. The yield, like that of gold, is much less than in former years, but in the early part of the century it was considerable. Several diamonds of 60 or 70 carats, according to Dr. Posewitz, have been known to have been found, and many of the ]\Ialay Sultans and Piajas possess stones of large size. The art of diamond-cutting has been long know^n, and is carried on in many places both in South and West Borneo. It 248 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAYEL is said that Cape stones are largely imported to be sold to the Eajas as the production of the country. From what has been already written, it may be gathered that the arts and manufactures of Borneo are of a limited nature, and carried on by the Malays and Chinese rather than by the natives, whose industry in this way is chiefly confined to the manvifacture of weapons and the spinning and weaving of cotton. In some parts, especially in Northern Borneo, the richer chiefs are in possession of ancient blue jars of large size, which are extremely prized, and valued at ridiculous prices, but these have undoubtedly been imported from China. Potteries exist, however, in various places, and turn out a considerable quantity of coarse ware. Brunei is celebrated for its goldsmiths' work, and for its gongs, which are of very rich tone, due, it is said, to the large admixture of silver. The silk sarongs made in this city are in their way unrivalled, and being often much decorated with gold thread, are very costly. The diamond-cutting industry has been already alluded to. Bpjtish Noeth Borneo. In the year 1865 the American Consul then resident in Brunei obtained certain land concessions from the Sultan, which, though not actually co-extensive with the territory now known as British North Borneo, comprised a very large portion of it. The result was the formation of the American Trading Company of Borneo, and a large number of Chinese having been imported, a settlement was founded on the Kimanis river. The venture was a failure, the Chinese settlement was soon abandoned, and the Company practically ceased to exist. In December, 1877, Mr. Alfred Dent and Baron von BORNEO 249 Overbeck concluded negotiations with the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu, by which certain territories were granted to them by the latter in fee simple. A pro- visional company was formed, and a Eoyal Charter petitioned for. It was granted, and on the 1st November, 1881, the British Xorth Borneo Company, with an available capital of about £400,000, commenced its existence. Various inland districts and the small Mantanani Islands were acquired later; in 1889 tlie British Colony of Labuan was placed under the adminis- tration of the Company, and finally a British Protectorate, established in 1888, has materially strengthened the position of the country. Brunei and Sarawak being also under British protection, many difficulties with regard to external politics are removed, and trade having steadily improved, the new colony may be said to have a fair chance of ultimately succeeding. The territory thus acquired has, including the islands, an estimated area of 31,000 square miles. It extends from the Sipitong river in Brunei Bay to Sta. Lucia Bay on the east coast, and its coast-line measures about 1000 miles. It is thus slightly larger than Ceylon. It possesses a number of excellent harbours, the soil is both rich and fertile, and though it is without the numerous navigable rivers of Dutch Borneo, there are in most districts sufficient waterways into the interior to serve for the transport of produce. The central position of the country is likewise in its favour, while its proximity to China, and the marked preference the Chinese have always shown for Borneo, have considerably simplified the labour question. The Government is administered by a Governor, witli whom is associated a Colonial Secretary. There are two Itesidents and several Assistant Eesidents. The mode ot 250 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL administration is somewhat similar to that of a British Colony, but the Government require the native chiefs to maintain order and further justice, and with the example of Sarawak before them, have instituted a Legislative Council, composed of the higher European officials and the leading native chiefs. There is no army, but the con- stabulary, composed chiefly of Sikhs, and numbering about 300 men, preserve order, and act when required as a military force. By its Charter the Company binds itself to forbid the possession of slaves to any stranger, but is not obliged forcibly to put down slavery among the tribes, although it agrees " to discourage to the best of its power, and, as far as may be practicable, to abolish by degrees, any system of domestic servitude existing among the tribes of the coast or the interior." Although British North Borneo as a colony is still in its earliest infancy, its growth has, so far, been fairly promising. The capital, Sandakan — or, as it was at first named, Elopura — is situated on the northern shore of the bay of that name, which is without doubt the finest in the island. This harbour is completely landlocked, and is clear of dangers ; it has a depth of 1 5 and a breadth of 5 miles, admits the largest vessels, and has 13 rivers running into it. The town is built about a mile from the entrance, and contained in 1891 a population of 6350 persons, of whom 3200, or more than half, were Chinese, and 114 British. Vessels of large draught can lie along- side the pier, and supplies of all kinds are plentiful. A neat Government House dominates the anchorage ; there is a club, a hotel, jail, barracks, and hospital, besides numerous stores, and jinrickshaws supply the place of cabs. Yet, little more than a decade ago, Mr. Pryer found the site an uninhabited jungle, and the bay the resort of semi-piratical Bajaus. Kudat, which was 252 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL formerly the capital, is the next most important station. It is situated in Marudu Bay, at the extreme north of the island, and has the maritime advantage of being upon the Singapore" side of the difficult and dangerous Mallawalle Channel ; but its trade is considerably less than that of its rival, and it is no doubt less healthy. The other Government stations are Gaya, Papar, Silam, and ]\iempakol. The latter is a new settlement, chiefly occupied in consequence of Labuan having fallen under the administration of the Company. Silam, Papar, and Gaya are small stations, the former being chiefly im- portant from its experimental gardens, and Gaya as the port of the chief cattle district. The British North Borneo Company does not itself engage in trade, but is merely an administrative body, drawing its revenues from a native poll-tax, which can as yet be only very partially levied ; from various duties, among which is that of 10 per cent upon all jungle produce ; from opium and spirit licenses, which are farmed out ; and from stamp duties, etc. The revenue, which was $82,448 in 1884, has steadily risen. In 1887 it was 8142,687, and in 1891 $417,028. The expenditure for the same three years was $242,450, $204,343, and $509,535, so that apart from land sales the budget still shows a considerable deficit. The exports — the chief of which are tobacco, birds'-nests, gutta, rattans, and sago — have considerably increased, and in 1891 reached a value of $1,238,277. As yet, of course, only the seaboard of the great area owned by the Company has been at all brought under European influence. The interior is an unknown land which, at the risk of their lives, a few bold explorers have here and there crossed. But it is probable that not many years will elapse before it has been well BORNEO 253 mapped and its inhabitants rendered partially civilised. The Segama river has been proved to be rich in gold, and an attempt is being made to render its upper basin more accessible by the construction of a road. The develop- ment of the tobacco plantations, which has of late been extraordinarily rapid, will no doubt bring consider- able wealth to the colony. About ten of these are established, and the value of the export rose in 1891 to nearly 8700,000, but the opening up of the interior will depend chiefly upon its mineral resources. In this respect there is no reason to believe that the country will prove inferior to the neighbouring state of Sarawak. A telegraph line connects Labuan with the mainland, and is being carried to Sandakan and Silam. Two islands of a certain importance lie off the northern point of Borneo — Banguey and Balambangan — both of which are owned by the British North Borneo Company. Banguey is about 22 miles in length by 12 in breadth, and has an area of about 170 square miles. Geologically it resembles Borneo, exhibiting granites, gneisses, and mica-schists, but Banguey Peak is reported to be volcanic. It is inhabited chiefly by Dusun Dyaks. The soil is fertile, and two tobacco plantations have been established on the west side of the island. On the south is a fair harbour formed by three small islands, and here a small settlement — Mitford — has been established by the Company. Balambangan is much smaller, being only forty square miles in area, and is uninhabited, but it is memorable as the scene of a disaster to the English in 1775. When, in the middle of the last century, the Sultan of Sulu was found a prisoner in Manila on the occupation of that city by the British, Admiral Drake obtained from him the cession of Balambangan as a reward for his release. The British flag was accordingly 254 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL hoisted in 1763, and a post established on the island by the East India Company about the year 1770, which acted in some degree as a check upon the pirates with which these seas at that time swarmed. The garrison at first numbered nearly four hundred men, but the climate had told so severely upon them that only 7 5 infantry and 28 gunners were fit for duty on the occasion of which we are now speaking. The Spanish were at this time intriguing in Sulu, where opinion was divided among the Datus, some being in favour of the English, while others wished to expel them. Eventually the counsel of the latter prevailed, and on the 5th March, 1775, the place was surprised and taken by a force of 300 Sulu and Illanun pirates under the Datu Tenteng ; the whole garrison, with the exception of the Governor and two or three men, slaughtered ; and booty to the value of one million Spanish dollars seized. The Sultan of Sulu, although nominally repudiating this act, received a great part of the spoil, and no reparation appears to have been exacted by the English. Some little tune later the settlement was re-established, but it was again abandoned in 1803. A few overgrown ruins and traces of old clearings are all that now remain to mark the spot. Labuan. The island of Labuan is situated on the north-west coast of Borneo, opposite the mouth of Brunei Bay. It is 12 miles in length, and has an area of 32 square miles only. It was occupied in 1846 by the British, after difficulties with the Sultan of Brunei, and Sir James Brooke was appointed the first Governor. The import- ance of having some station, especially where coal was obtainable, midway loetweeu China and Singapore was BORNEO 255 partly the cause of its selection, but the island has not fulfilled the expectations formed of it, and in 1889 its administration was made over to the British Norlli Borneo Company. Labuan, as its name implies, is provided with an excellent harbour, but has few other advantages. It is low, flat, and swampy except at its northern end, and in spite of the greater part of the forest which covered it having been destroyed, the rainfall is excessive ; a large portion of the land is unfit for cultivation, and the soil is on the whole poor. The low and marshy ground is, however, suitable for growing the sago-palm, and rice is cultivated. Plantations of the West African oil-palm {Elccis guincensis) have been tried with more or less success, but the chief trade is in sago. Factories where the raw product, as used by the natives, is washed and dried into the European commercial article have been estab- lished for many years. The flour thus obtained is sent to Singapore for granulation, and forms the principal item in the list of exports. The population in 1891 was nearly 6000, and the greater part of the trade is carried on by Chinese. The existence of the Company in North Borneo materially affected the condition of the island during the period of rivalry, but under the new adminis- tration, and especially since the establishment of Mempakol — the station on the mainland — its prospects are better. The coal-mines are now being worked by the new Central Bornean Company, who have steamers running twice a month to Singapore. Their eftbrts are being directed to the reconstruction of the railway from the mines to Victoria Harbour, which is now nearly com- pleted ; and under an improved system of working, the output is expected to be a large one. 256 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPtAVEL Brunei. The territory of the Sultans of Brunei, whose power in former centuries extended actually over the greater part of Northern and North-western Borneo, and nominally over all the Malay settlements in the island, is now reduced to very narrow limits. It embraces, in fact, very little more than the lower part of the valley of the river Limbang, upon a side branch of which the capital is built. The first visit of the Spaniards in 1522, and the description given by Pigafetta of the court, have already been mentioned on a former page. The Sultan holds his office by right of heredity, and claims descent from the Menangkabo Malays of Sumatra. There is also a hereditary nobility ; but the power and glory of the state has departed, the Sultan's palace is little better than a barn, and the titles of his Datus and Pangerangs a barren honour. The city of Brunei, however, still remains in many particulars unchanged from its state as described by Pigafetta. There are, it is true, no batteries of trained elephants, and the number of inhabitants, if his account be correct, is at the present time much diminished, but the manner of life remains the same. Scarcely a traveller has described Brunei without speaking of it as the Venice of the East, and it is, on the whole, a not inapt comparison. The vast collection of houses is built on piles in the water, and placed in the centre of a lake-like expansion of the river 15 miles from the sea, shut in on all sides by hills which, though of insignificant height, are not lacking in picturesqueness. A most striking view is obtained from them of the city. Scarcely an inch of ground is to be seen anywhere, and many of the houses are built in BORNEO 257 deep water. In what may be termed the main street the larger vessels lie at anchor, while innumerable canoes dart about in every direction, from the Pangerangs' barges propelled ^^ by twenty paddles to the little tlat " dug-out " with a bare inch of freeboard, manned by a solitary naked native. The market is, perhaps, one of the most extraordinary sights the East has to show. Each stall is a canoe, and it would puzzle the spectator to form any estimate of their number, for the water is covered with craft of all sizes in incessant motion. At one moment there is a dense pack around some China- man or other trader, and each vociferates the prices of the produce on sale. At another there is a rush in the opposite direction, and the former buyer is deserted. A continuous onward movement is at the same time taking place, so that in the course of an hour or two the market has floated through a considerable part of the town. As in other countries, the vendors are almost without excep- tion women, each of whom wears a palm-leaf hat of enormous size, which serves the purpose of an umbrella also, for it is large enough to protect the whole body from either sun or rain. Several other towns in the Malay Archipelago resemble Brunei in being almost entirely aquatic ; as, for example, Palembang, but they are in nearly every case buUt close to a river bank, and hence the appearance presented is quite difierent. The population is estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. The trade of Brunei is of no importance. What exists is in the hands of a few prosperous Chinese. The gold- smiths and brass workers are renowned, and the krisses and gold-embroidered sarongs are of beautiful workmanship. Fishing and the cultivation of the sago-palm and rice are the chief occupations of the peasants, who have groaned beneath the burden of an intolerable taxation, and still S BOENEO 259 more intolerable extortion, on the part of tlie orang hayas, until they have ended in revolt. Of the ultimate ifate of this corrupt and ill-governed state there can be no doubt. Brunei is destined before very long to become incorporated with one or other of the European colonies by which she is hemmed in. It may be said that the large annual payments made in consideration of land grants by the Eaja of Sarawak and the British North Borneo Company have alone enabled her to preserve her autonomy so long. Sarawak. The territory of Sarawak, on the north-western coast of Borneo, is in many respects one of the most interest- ing spots in the wliole vast extent of the tropical world, for here an English gentleman rules as absolute monarch over a considerable population of Malays and Dyaks, to the complete satisfaction and contentment of both. The Eriglish rule has now lasted fifty years, and appears to be firmly established. It has withstood the early machinations of discontented Malay chiefs, an insurrection of Chinese miners, and the death of its founder ; but, as it has not relied for support upon either force or fraud, but has always existed for the well-being and through the goodwill of the people governed, it has taken firm root in the soil, and seems likely to endure for many generations, if the wise policy of its founder continues to be the guiding star of his successors. From the career of Sir James Brooke, Eaja of Sarawak, lessons of inestimable value in the management of a colony of uncivilised Asiatics may be learnt. Early in 1839, Mr. Brooke reached Sarawak in a vessel of his own, and finding the country in a state of 2G0 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL chronic iiisurrection, helped its ruler the Eaja ]\Iuda Hassim to suppress it, partly by an exhibition of force and partly by conciliation. Eventually, on the 24th September, 1841, JIassim abdicated in favour of Mr. Brooke, who thus became Eaja of Sarawak, with a terri- tory about 60 miles long by 50 wide. After some trouble and delay, the title was confirmed by the Malay Sultan of Borneo, on the 1st August, 1842, and Mr. Brooke, intensely interested in his strange acquisition, at once set himself to work to consolidate his power, to introduce just reforms, to estaljlish a code of laws, to develop commerce, and to suppress piracy. The con- dition of the country was such that the work might have appeared hopeless to a less wise and energetic ruler. Complete anarchy prevailed. Malays • were fighting against Malays, and Dyaks against Dyaks. The con- dition of the latter was miserable in the extreme ; they were exposed to every exaction, their children were taken from them for slaves, their villages were attacked and often destroyed by piratical tribes from the adjacent rivers, and the destruction of their crops often exposed them to the extremity of famine. To the Malays the Dyaks were people to be plundered in every way, and when it could not be done openly, it was effected by means of tax-collecting and forced trade, against which the poor Dyaks were at first afraid to complain. In a very few years this system was wholly changed ; the Dyaks were protected from plunder and imposition so long as they paid the moderate tax levied upon them, and the IMalay chiefs obtained their dues with more regularity, and without the need of supporting a crowd of followers who lived on plunder. The Malays who had formerly administered the internal affairs of the district were kept in office, and as no new laws were BORNEO 261 made without their advice and co-operation, neither their emoluments nor their dignity were seriously interfered with. The little opposition ]\Ir. Brooke experienced in making these radical changes was largely due to his extremely conciliating and dignified manner, so accordant with the Malay character ; and to his having acquired the Malay language by intercourse with the higher classes, and being able to speak it with great purity and ease. He was also tolerant of native prejudices, and had studied the native character so completely that he well knew how to influence it. His personal courage, and the sagacity and boldness with which he detected and put down some of the early conspiracies against his rule, won the better class of chiefs to his side ; and the great respect he always paid to the Mohammedan religion, even using the precepts of the Koran as the foundation of many of his amend- ments of the law, disarmed the opposition of the priests, and enabled him subsequently to introduce English missionaries among the Dyaks without exciting the least animosity. No less wisdom was shown by the mode in whicli justice was administered. Three courts were established — a police court, a general court, and a native religious court — the latter chiefly for the settlement of cases relat- ing to marriage or divorce. The police court dealt with the simplest cases, the general court with all other cases, civil and criminal. There were no lawyers, and hardly any forms. The parties in dispute appeared with their witnesses. They gave their evidence and were examined by the judge, assisted by the native chiefs, and by any European residents who chose to be present, and they obtained substantial, cheap, and speedy justice. The Eaja had associated with him in the government a small body 262 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL of Englishmen, carefully selected, who took tlieir tone and manner from him ; and every native knew well that if he were wronged he could get redress, and that the wealth or power of his oppressor would avail nothing with his judges. The success of this system of rule was never better shown than during the Chinese insurrection, when, having narrowly escaped with his life — his friends killed or wounded, his house burnt down, and much of the town destroyed — the whole population, Malay and Dyak alike, rallied round the English Eaja, drove out and almost exterminated the invaders, and triumphantly brought him back to rule over them. In what other country shall we find rulers alien in race, language, and religion, yet so endeared to their subjects ? And the phenomenon is still more marvellous when we consider that these subjects were themselves of two races — a superior and an inferior, an oppressing and an oppressed ; yet both alike joined to bring back the foreign ruler who had introduced equality and had stopped oppression. This example shows us that the art of governing half-civilised races is not so complex and difficult as has been supposed. It requires no peculiar legal, or diplomatic, or legislative training ; but chiefly patience, and good feeling, and the absence of prejudice. The great thing is, not to be in a hurry ; to avoid over- legislation, law-forms, and legal subtleties ; to aim first to make the people contented and happy in their own way, even if that way should be quite opposed to European theories of how they ought to be happy. On such prin- ciples Sir James Brooke's success was fou^ided. It is true, he spent a fortune instead of making one ; but he had his reward in having brought peace, and safety, and plenty where there was before war, and oppression, and famine, and in leaving behind him, over the whole of Northern BOENEO 263 Borneo, a reputation for wisdom, for goodness, and for honour which will dignify the name of Englishman for generations to come.^ Since the days of its founder, the State of Sarawak has much increased in extent. For a long time the Bintulu river formed its north-eastern boundary, which was afterwards extended to Baram Point. Later, diffi- culties occurring with regard to the Trusan river, in the east of Brunei, led to the cession of it to Sarawak, a wedge of territory thus being interposed between the North Borneo Company's land and that of the Sultan of Brunei. The constant revolts of the tribes on the Upper Limbang later brought about a similar result, but in this case the cession, which took place in 1890, was compulsory, not voluntary. On the 14th June, 1888, a British Pro- tectorate of Sarawak was proclaimed. The territory, which thus hardly allows of much further expansion, comprises a large area of valuable land within easy reach of Singapore, the great market of the Eastern Archipelago. It is rich in minerals and has several navigable rivers. It is progressing steadily, although the development of its resources can be hardly said as yet to have fairly begun. The government is an absolute monarchy, but is in effect very much that of an English Crown Colony. Associated with the Piaja is a Supreme Council of two European officials, and four natives of high rank, nominated by the Eaja. All ordinary legislative business is thus carried on, but the sovereign can at all times exercise his right of autocracy, though this step is not often taken. In addition to the Supreme Council, there is a General Council of fifty members, which meets triennially, or on special occasions. The country is divided 1 This account of Sir James Brooke's rule is chiefly founded on Mr. Wallace's personal observation. 264 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL into districts, each of which is administered by a Eesident, who is assisted by European, Eurasian, or native sub- ordinates. He acts as judge, using a modification of the Indian Criminal Code, but in certain cases there is a right of appeal to the Eaja. The State possesses a small standing army in the " Sarawak Eangers," a body of about 300 well-drilled natives, officered by Europeans, and armed with breech- loading rifles. There are forts on most of the rivers, mounting a few cannon only, but sufficiently strong to withstand native attacks. In addition, some twenty or thirty thousand men can be put in the field, the Dyaks of the Batang Lupar, Seribas, and other rivers constituting a reserve force to be called out in times of necessity. These men, who were in old days head-hunters, are far superior to any European troops for the work for which they are needed, being well trained, thoroughly accus- tomed to forest warfare, and unhampered by commis- sariat difficulties. In consideration of their services they are exempted from the poll-tax. The trade of Sarawak shows a slow but steady in- crease. The chief products are sago, which is exported to the value of about £70,000 annually; gambir and pepper ; coal, of which from the Muara mines there is now a large output ; various forest products, the most important being gutta-percha, dammar, and rattans ; and antimony, cinnabar, diamonds, and gold, the three first of which show a tendency to decrease. Planting has of late been much encouraged. The imports consist mostly of opium, salt, tobacco, cloth, crockery, and brass ware. The revenue is principally derived from the opium farm, i.e. the right to import the drug and control its sale, which is the monopoly of a single individual. Prac- tically, this is a sort of capitation tax on the Chinese, BORNEO 2G5 who are almost the sole consumers. It has been tniuul better to make it a private monopoly than to retain it in the hands of the Government. There is also a poll-tax, from which the reserve forces are exempt. The other chief returns are from mining royalties, customs, excise, etc. The revenue for 1890 was $413,112, and the expenditure $362,778. The tribes and peoples inhabiting Sarawak are various. The Malays proper abound most at the capital, Kuching, with a few settled on the banks of almost every river and creek. The Chinese are also chiefly settled at Kuching, and at the gold mines up the river. Others are at the Marup mines on the Batang Lupar, and they are found as petty traders everywhere. The " Land Dyaks " occupy Lundu and the interior of the Sarawak and Sadong river-basins, while the " Sea Dyaks " inhabit the country eastward. The Milanaus are settled at the mouths of the Eejang, Bintulu, and several of the smaller rivers. Several tattooed tribes known as Kanowits, Pakitans, Pengs, and Punans live inland in the Piejang and Bintulu districts, and beyond them are the Kayans, who have been already alluded to. The population oi Sarawak can only be roughly estimated, for some little portion of the country is still unknown, but it is probably between 350,000 and 400,000. There is both a Church of England and Ponian Catholic Mission in Sarawak. The Episcopal See of " Singapore, Labuan, and Sarawak " comprises all the Straits settlements, as well as the protected States of Borneo, and there were in 1892 twelve English mis- sionaries in the Piaja's territory, besides Chinese. Large boys' and girls' schools are established at Kuching, and religious and lay instruction is afforded at all the mission stations. Many churches and chapels are already buill. 26 G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The mission press has issued translations of the Bible in various dialects. The Eoman Catholic Mission has only- been recently established. As yet, however, only partial success can be said to have attended the efforts of either party, Dyak and Chinese being alike little influenced by religious feeling. No work is attempted among those of Mohammedan faith. It is not considered advisable by the authorities, and if undertaken would be almost certain to result in failure. Kuching, the capital, is a thriving town of about 20,000 inhabitants, situated about 25 miles up the Sarawak Eiver, which near its mouth is broken up into numerous channels and creeks, as is the. case with most Bornean rivers. At the town it is a strong stream, two or three hundred yards in width, and of suffi- cient depth to admit of the anchorage of British gun- boats, but it is much to be regretted that Kuching was not built at the mouth of the river, instead of in its present position, for without good pilots it is somewhat difficult of access. The situation is nevertheless very picturesque, and the shipping and busy life of the Chinese bazaars evince the activity of trade. Every- thing has the air of being well and solidly established. White battlemented forts overlook the anchorage, and there is a large court-house, barracks, museum, hospital, and prison. The Astana, or palace of the Eaja, is a fine castellated house, with a moss-grown tower, and with smooth lawns running down to the river. Good roads lead in various directions, and the bungalows of the Europeans are surrounded by beautifully -kept gardens. The present Eaja is Sir Charles Brooke, K.C.B., nephew of Sir James Brooke, and adopted as his son and suc- cessor by the Malay chiefs before Sir James finally lelt Borneo. 268 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL We may conclude with an extract from a Consular report made by Mr. Ussher upon the condition of Sarawak, which, though written in 1878, is equally applicable to the present date :■ — " It is not too much to say that Sarawak presents one of the few remaining chances of existence to the enervated and indolent race of ]\Ialays. Under such a government, which appears to strive to impress them with a sense of their duty to the State, as well as with a feeling of self-respect, by in- ducing and encouraging them to take an active part in the administration of public affairs, the Malays of Sarawak ought to prosper ; and they have, moreover, continually before their eyes the example of the mis- government and anarchy existing in the wretched king- dom of Borneo proper, which is apparently hastening to ruin and decay. " The policy of the Sarawak Government appears to me to be just and equitable towards the native Dyak and other races. It may fairly be assumed to be so, if we take as a test the fact that extensive tribes of savages have been transmuted from lawless head-hunters and pirates into comparatively peaceful agriculturists. . . . One of the principal recommendations attaching in the eyes of the native to European rule in Sarawak is the honesty of its administration, especially in pecuniary matters. The object of the Malay nobles in the olden times, and indeed now in the territories of Brunei, was to squeeze as much as might be from the wretched aborigines ; whereas the principal object of the European appears to them to be to solve the problem of how to carry on an effective government at the lightest possible cost to its subjects. " Another recommendation in the eyes of the native is the possi])ility of obtaining even-handed if rough justice. BOIJXEO 209 It is not necessary, as they see and admit wiili satisliK'- tion, that litigants should enter into a pecuniary eoniiti'ti- tion with their opponents to purchase the favour and countenance of their judges. " The occasions requiring the employment of armed force are becoming rare^ and disturbances are striclly local. The real power of Sarawak is based upon the remembrance and gratitude due to the late Kaja Sir James Brooke, as well as upon the firm administratinn and even-handed justice of the present government. oS'o one visiting Sarawak can fail to observe the respect and affection in which the present raja and his family are held by the entire community. The fact is as noticeable among Europeans as among the natives ; and I may observe that the European staff is socially on a ])ar witli the officials of the generality of our colonies. The mode of life among the European body is quiet and unostenta- tious, but of hospitality there is abundance, and no A^isitor leaves Sarawak without pleasant reminiscences of his stay." This authoritative statement as to the present condi- tion of Sarawak must be highly gratifying to all friends and admirers of the late Sir James Brooke. Under the cautious phraseology of an official report, we cannot f;iil to see the record of a splendid and almost unexampled success in the art of government — a success eff'ected under difficulties far above the average, and to be esti- mated by a. standard far truer than that of commercial development, namely, the happiness and contentment of the entire population. Dutch Borneo The possessions of the Dutch in Borneo are about 750 miles in length from north-east to south-west, and have 270 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL au average breadth of about 250 miles, thus exceeding in area all the other territories of the island. To the north they are bounded for a great part of their extent by the main, but nameless, range of the island, which runs from north-east to south-west. The seaboard thus extends from Tanjong Datu on the Saraw\ak border to a point high up on the east coast. The exact boundary on this side was for long a matter of dispute, the British ISTorth Borneo Company claiming as far as the Sibuku Eiver in about 4° IST. lat., while in their maps the Dutch marked the limit of their territory as extending to the southern horn of Darvel Bay; but the parallel of 4° 10' has lately been determined as the boundary. As has been already stated, the acquisition of these large possessions has been an affair of time, dating its commencement from 1606, when the Dutch were jfirst attracted to the coast by the pepper trade. It was not till many years later, at the end of the last century, that they aimed at the possession of something more than sites for their factories. The territory of the Sultan of Banjarmasin was the first to come under their suzerainty in 1785, and from this beginning they have become the owners of more than two-thirds of the island, although their rule in a great part of it is almost nominal. The only districts really settled are, roughly speaking, the basin of the Negara, an affluent of the Barito, and the country lying between Pontianak and the Sarawak territory. Dutch Borneo is divided for political purposes into two " Presidencies " — those of " West Borneo " and " South and East Borneo," of which the latter is con- siderably the larger. The former comprises the country drained by the Kapuas, and has its southern boundary near Cape Sambur. It is belie^'ed to contain about BORNEO 271 400,000 inhabitants, and is divided into two chief ])ru- vinces— Poutiauak and Montrado (Menteradu). Of the sixteen Government stations, all except one (Sukadana) lie on or to the north of the Kapuas. The Residency of Sonth and East Borneo has Banjarmasin for its capital. There are seventeen government stations, and the popula- tion is estimated at over 600,000. This division con- tains both the wildest and the most settled districts, the country round Amuntai and Negara being as populous and cultivated as many parts of Java, while the far in- terior, except on the rivers, remains still impenetraljle, or at least unpenetrated. Xorth of the Koti River even the coast is little known, though of late the boundary difficulty with the North Borneo Company has resulted in the frequent presence of gunboats, and a Controleur has been for some time stationed at the mouth of the Kay an or Bulangan Eiver. The system of government by the Dutch in Borneo is very much that adopted by them in Sumatra. Unable yet to control any but a small portion of the vast mass of the population nomin- ally under their rule, they are content to await their opportunity, permitting time slowly but surely to accomplish for them what would be less effectually gained by haste and force. Wherever feasible, an Assistant Piesident is appointed to the capital of the chief native prince, to act conjointly with him ; but in every case the orders are given to subordinates, and the general system of government is carried out by the native ruler. In many instances the official is supported by a small garrison, and in some places, uotai)ly in West Borneo, where the Chinese element prevails, and even now occa- sionally gives trouble, there are a good number of troops. The city of Pontianak, though not by any means the largest in the island, is sufficiently important from its 272 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL nearness to Batavia and Singapore, and from being situated upon one of the finest rivers in Borneo — the Kapuas. It is built about 15 miles from the sea, at the confluence of the Tambu, an affluent which rises in Mount Penrisan on the Sarawak border and is note- worthy as yielding diamonds. The buildings are of the usual Malay type, except where owned by Europeans, and the life is semi-aquatic, although in this respect it presents a much less characteristic and curious sight than Banjarmasin or Brunei. Each nation — ^ Dutch, Malay, Chinese, Bugis, etc. — has its own quarter, and the population is variously estimated at from 18,000 to 20,000. Coasting from Pontianak along the southern seaboard, the entrances of innumerable rivers are passed, all of which bring down much forest produce to the villages at their mouths, where it is collected by Bugis and other native traders. All these rivers have been explored almost to their sources by the Dutch, but no officials are stationed on their banks, except at Sampit Bay, and it is not till Banjarmasin is reached that civilisation reappears. Banjarmasin is the largest and most important city in the whole of Borneo. It contains between 40,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, and lies at the entrance of a most populous district, which has been civilised for centuries, and is rich in mineral wealth, especially in gold, diamonds, and coal. It is built not on the Barito itself, but on an affluent, the Pdamkina or Martapura, and its houses occupy the banks for a distance of two miles, while the river itself is blocked, except in mid- stream, by a dense pack of bamboo rafts, floating houses, pile dwellings, and craft of all descriptions and sizes. Here, in 1700, the English had a factory and fort, the garrison of which were surprised and massacred by the BORNEO 27;' natives seven years later. About 50 miles farther ii]i the river is Martapura, in the neighbcjurhood ot which are extensive coal-fields. It was in tliis district and the Negara valley that the first settlements of tlie Juvane.se were established, and various ruins of temples and other buildings still remain as memorials of Hindu intlucnee, and are especially numerous near Anumtai. On the east coast, some 50 miles nortli of I'ulo Laut. is Pasir, a small independent state, ruled by a Sultan, who, thougli under the suzerainty of Holhmd, has as yet no Dutch official attached to his court. The capital, of the same name, is situated about 40 miles up an estuary, and is said to have 20,000 inhabitants. Among them are large numbers of Bugis from the Celebes coast, who principally carry on the trade, which consists almost entirely of forest produce. The em- bouchure of the Mahakkam or Koti river is the seat of two or three large towns, and here likewise there is con- siderable commercial activity. The State is a semi- independent Sultanate, the nominal capital of which, Tangarung, is situated about 60 miles up the river. The real centre of trade is at Samariuda, where the Dutch have an Assistant Eesident. Here may be seen the same separation of the inhabitants into special quarters according to their nationality, and the same semi-aquatic life, which is noticeable in many Malay and most Bornean towns. The Bugis are especially strong in Samarinda, having their own laws and chiefs, and ruling the markets. The inhabitants of the upper waters of the Koti and Barito rivers are Kayans, the most powerful and widely-distributed race of all the Dyaks of Borneo. Three small archipelagoes of islands belonging to the Dutch lie off the north-western point of Borneo — the Natuna, Anamba, and Tambilan groups. They are all T 274 COMPE^'DIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL inhabited by people of jMalay stock, who carry on a trade in coco-nuts, sago, and mats with lihio and Singapore. Great jSTatuna is the principal island. It is about 40 miles in length, and has an estimated area of about 600 square miles, most of which is covered with forest. These groups are under the administration of the " Eesi- dency of lihio and Dependencies," but the Dutch have no resident officials on any of them. The value of the exports from Dutch Borneo in 1890 amounted to £400,000, of which £245,000 was from "West Borneo," and £155,000 from "South and East Borneo." In the former province the following articles head the list: — copra, £90,572; gutta, £77,207 ; rattan, £35,618 ; and coco-nut oil, £15,275. In the latter, gutta, £134,975 ; and rattan, £7568, are the most important items. w CELEBES • o CHAPTEK VIII CELEBES 1. General. Celebes is the fourth island in magnitude in the Eastern Archipelago, being surpassed only by Xew Guinea, Borneo, and Sumatra. It has Borneo — from which it is separated by the JNIakassar Strait — on the west, and the scattered islands of the Moluccas on the east. On the north it is washed by the Celebes Sea, which intervenes between it and the Philippines, while to the south an island-dotted stretch of ocean of no great depth- — the Flores Sea — separates it from the island of that name and others of the Sunda chain. It thus occupies a position midway between the great IMalay islands on the one hand and the Papuan group on the other, belonging, as will be seen, to neither of these divisions, but exhibit- ing zoological and other peculiarities of a most marked and interesting nature, which serve to isolate it in a remarkable manner from every other island in the archipelago. In shape Celebes is one of the most fantastic and curious islands in the world, although Gilolo to the east- ward seems almost a replica upon a smaller scale, and Borneo, as has already been mentioned, must in former 276 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ages have closely resembled it, the gulfs having only begun to be obliterated in the Tertiary period. It con- sists of a central mass, from which radiate four enormous arms forming three deep gulfs on the eastern side, while the western has a curved and nearly even coast-line. The northern peninsula sweeps north and east in a double curve for nearly 500 miles, having an average breadth of not more than 40 or 50 miles. The other peninsulas are shorter and a little wider, and the total area of the island is estimated at 68,200 square miles. Of this large island, upon which the Dutch have been settled for more than two centuries, very little is known. It is only at the extreme north and south points — in the Minahasa and Makassar districts — that any I'egular settlements have been formed and civilisation introduced. These are the great coffee districts. Else- where, for the most part, the country is a terra incognita, where the Dutch have not even native " postholders." Even the coast-line of the three gulfs is very little explored, and only roughly charted. All attempts, then, at estimating the population of the island cannot be other- wise than purely conjectural, although it is known to be scanty. It may roughly be placed at under a million. 2. History. It is uncertain when Europeans first visited Celebes. It is stated that a few Portuguese found their way to Makassar shortly after the taking of Malacca, but in Ribero's great map, published in Seville in 1529, no trace of the island is to l^e found, although Gilolo and the Moluccas are delineated. Eebello, writing forty years later, speaks of it in very vague terms as " possess- ing many kings and cattle and buffaloes and goats," and CELEBES 277 it is therefore unlikely that the Portnguese estahlished themselves on the island at an early period in the history of the archipelago. All eyes were then turned to the Moluccas and their spices, and Celebes, as we now know, yielded few of the products coveted by Europeans except gold, and for this reason carried on only a restricted trade. Whether Hindu rites ever came into anything like general use is unknown, but it is not at all probable, although sculptured remains indicative of the worship of Siva are said to exist. Mohammedanism was not intro- duced until about 1600 — a fact which, as has been remarked by Crawfurd, proves how small until then had been the intercourse of the western nations of Asia with Celebes, when it is remembered that Sumatra had been converted four centuries before. The Dutch commenced trading with Makassar in 1607, and definitely established a factory there in 1618. In 1660 a fleet under Van Dam effected the conquest of the kingdom, sinking six ships of the Portuguese, then allies of the king, and taking their fort. The Portuguese ejected, the Dutcli turned their attention to the north of the island, wlience they also expelled the Portuguese seventeen years later, and in 1703 built a fort at Menado. Little, however, was attempted in the way of civilisation in this part of the island until the beginning of this century. In 1822 the coffee-plant was introduced, and in 1849 ]\Ienado and Kema were made free ports. The English occupied JNIakassar for a short time at the beginning of the present century previous to the restoration of the Dutch posses- sions in 1816. 3. Physical Features. So little is really known of the interior of Celebes, 278 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL that it is not possible to give with certainty even a rough outline of its physical geography. Each peninsula is nevertheless known to have a central mountain chain. In the north and south this has a tolerably continuous elevation, while in the eastern limb it is believed to be for the most part of lower altitude and discontinuous. No active volcanoes are known except in Minahasa, the district at the extremity of the northern peninsula, but there are abundant evidences of their former existence in several places. These chains, which are believed to radiate from a high central m.ass, of which Mount Latimojong is possibly tlie nucleus, are found to be largely formed of gneisses and granites wherever they have been examined, and in various districts, but especially in the north, a great deal of auriferous quartz is found. At the southern extremity rises a mass of elevated land, composed of Secondary rocks and distinct from the main range, cul- minating in the Peak of Bonthain, which is said to be over 10,000 feet in height. The height of the Donda mountain, at the north-western angle of the island, is also stated to be nearly 10,000 feet, but in neither case does the appearance of the mountain justify such an estimate. JMount Klal^at a volcano situated at the extreme northern point, has an altitude of 6800 feet. As far as is yet known, these and Mount Tukala (8500 feet), in the eastern peninsula, are the most important peaks of Celebes. The northern peninsula, rugged and mountainous, and clothed with dense vegetatioii, terminates in Minahasa, one of the most fertile districts in the archipelago, and it is here only that the volcanic forces are still active which are traceable in other parts of the island. Gunong Sudara (4400 feet), Klabat, the Lokon peak (5240 feet), Saputan (5963 feet), Tongkoko, and others, are all vol- 280 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL canoes of recent origin, and several have been in eruption in the course of the present century. Other evidences of the character of this region occur in the shape of hot springs, mud volcanoes, and solfataras. Mr. Wallace thus describes some curious phenomena of this nature near Langauan, a little to the south of the Tondano Lake : — " A picturesque path among plantations and ravines brought us to a beautiful circular basin about 40 feet in diameter, bordered by a calcareous ledge, so uniform and truly curved that it looked like a work of art. It was filled with clear water very near the Ijoiling point, and emitted clouds of steam with a strong sulphureous odour. It overflows at one point and forms a little stream of hot water, which at a hundred yards distance is still too liot to bear the hand in." The mud- springs, which are about a mile from this place, are still more curious. " On a sloping tract of ground in a slight hollow is a small lake of liquid mud, in patches of blue, red, and white, and in many places boiling and bubbling most furiously. All around on the indurated clay are small wells and craters full of boiling mud. These seem to be forming continually, a small hole appearing first, which emits jets of steam and boiling mud, which on liardening forms a little cone with a crater in the middle. The ground for some distance is very unsafe, as it is evidently liquid at a small depth, and bends with pressure like thin ice." Hot springs exist also by the Limbotto Lake, and in various other places ; and at Tanjong A pi — a headland on the eastern peninsula opposite the Togian Islands — ^jets of inflammable gas are being constantly emitted. The rivers of Celebes are necessarily small, the largest being the Sadang, which is supposed to rise in the central plateau, and enters the sea on the west coast, some SO CELEBES 281 miles north of Makassar, after a course of about 200 miles. The Bahu Solo, which rises in the Tafuti Lake and debouches just north of Nipanipa Bay in the south- eastern peninsula, is hardly more than 120 miles in length. Neither of these are navigable for anything but small craft. The Chinrana, however, which runs into the Gulf of Boni close to the town of that name, admits large native vessels for a distance of 50 miles or more. Celebes has few of the temporary lakes which are so marked a characteristic of the Philippine Islands and Borneo. It exhibits none of the vast level stretches of low-lying post-Tertiary land which are daily flooded by tidal action as in the latter country. But it has several fresh-water reservoirs, which are in some cases of con- siderable extent, though not, apparently, of great depth. The largest of these is Lake Poso, in the centre of the island. Lake Tempe is drained by the Chinrana, and is about 20 miles in length. Two other sheets of water, Tafuti and Eanu, each not less than 10 miles long, are situated near the head of the Tomaiki or Tolo Gulf. All these are little known, but the Limbotto and Tondano lakes are in districts long settled, and have Eviropeans living on their shores. The former is close to Gorontalo, in a plain surrounded by mountains, and was doubtless formerly of nmch larger area. Now it does not exceed 7 miles in length. It is drained by the Gorontalo liiver, which has carved its way to the sea through the coast-range by a short but steep gorge. The Tondano Lake, which is of much the same size, lies in the midst of some of the most beautiful scenery in the archipelago, the centre of the fertile and thickly populated district of Minahasa. It has been described as occupying the crater of an ancient volcano, but upon what grounds it would be difficult to say, for there is nothing to support such a 282 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL theory. The river draining it debouches at Menado, making a descent of many hundreds of feet in its short course, and forming a waterfall of great beauty, the npper plunge of which is about 100 feet in height. 4. Climate. The central position of Celebes, its shape, and its physical characteristics have combined to render it the healthiest of all the large islands of Malaysia. The violence of the W. monsoon and the abundance of its rains are mitigated by Sumatra and Borneo, while in like manner the parching easterly winds which from April to October blow over the Sunda chain as far as the middle of Java, drying up the streams and causing the trees to shed their leaves, are less felt, and materially affect only the southern and south-eastern peninsulas. The shape of the island is such as to admit health-giving sea-breezes almost to its entire area, while the absence of the low -lying and frequently - inundated plains which form so large a portion of Sumatra and Borneo renders malaria far less common than in those countries. Not that paludal fevers and dysentery are unknown : the great infant mortality afflicting the Minahasa population is no doubt indirectly due to the former of these two maladies. But, on the whole, tropical disorders are far less frequent and severe here than in most other parts of the archipelago. Owing to the influence of the S.E. monsoon, the climate of the Makassar district differs from that of Minahasa, being divided into a distinct wet and dry season, while the latter region, lying close to the equator, has a more equably distributed rainfall, and though occasionally subject to droyght, is perennially verdant. CELEBES 283 The average annual rainfall of Makassar is 12S inches, and that of Menaclo 107 inches. 5. Fauna and Flora. The botany of Celebes is not yet well knoAvn. Eecent collections from the northern peninsula indicate a con- siderable affinity with the Plnlippine group, and many of the coast plants are identical with those of the adjacent islands, but it is probable from what is known of the Hora that it is distinct and peculiar. Of its zoology we have much more knowledge, and we find that its animals — considering the central position of the island — are wonderfully peculiar. Taking first its mammalia, we find that Celebes differs broadly from Borneo and Sumatra in having no tailed monkeys, no insectivora, no feline or canine animals, no elephant, rhinoceros, or tapir. It has only five large, and eleven or twelve small, terrestrial quadrupeds. The former are — (1) A large black tailless baboon or ape ; (2) a deer ; (3) a remarkable small wild buffalo, resembling an antelope (Anoa depressicornis) ; (4) a wild pig ; (5) the babirusa or " horned pig." The smaller animals are — the tarsier (one of the lemurs) ; a civet - cat ; five squirrels ; two rats ; and two kinds of cuscus, a mar- supial opossum-like creature. These animals may be divided into three groups. Some, as the deer, the civet, and the tarsier, are identical with species of Borneo and the western islands ; and, as all are kept as domestic pets by the Malays, they may have been introduced, and have escaped from captivity. Others, as the wild pig, the squirrels, and the rats, are peculiar species, but are allied to those of Borneo and Java, and thus indicate a more distant period of immigration. Others again, as 284 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TKAYEL the ape, the anoa, and the habirusa, are altogether peculiar.^ jSTo animals at all nearly allied to them are to be found in any of the Asiatic islands, or, in fact, anywhere else, if we except an allied form of the anoa which exists in the island of Mindoro in the Philippines ; and we are thus led to speculate on their THE ANOA {Anoa dcjircssicornis). transmission from a very remote epocli, when Celebes formed part of a continent which disappeared before the existing Asiatic islands were formed ; for on any other supposition it is most difficult to understand how these ^ It is true that the former occurs on the island of Batjan, and the liabirusa at the N.E. point of Burn, but it is most probable that they have been introduced by the agency of man. CELEBES 285 singular animals should have been preserved in Celeljes and nowhere else. And, lastly, we have the marsupial cuscus, indicating that the island has received some of its productions from the Moluccas or New Guinea, where alone these animals abound ; and we have also two forest rats of the sub-genus Gymnomys, which are allied to Australian species. Turning to the birds, we lind facts of equal interest ; and, considering how easy it is for this class to pass over narrow seas, even more extraordinary. There are now about 160 species of land-birds known from Celebes, belonging to 124 generic groups. About 90 of these species are peculiar to it and the small adjacent islands : while, of the remainder, about 50 come from the Asiatic and 20 from the Australian side. This is what we might expect, looking at the great extent of the opposing coasts of Borneo, which are much richer in birds than the Moluccas. The peculiar species of Celebes are generally related to birds characteristic of one side or the other, and in this way also we find the Asiatic side preponderat- ing in the proportion of 24 to 15. But if we look at the number of genera of land-birds, abundant in Borneo or the Moluccas, which are absent from Celebes, we find the most striking deficiency on the Bornean or Asiatic side. Thus, 8 important families, and 16 genera which are highly characteristic of Borneo or Java are unknown in Celebes ; while of the Moluccan groups of equal import- ance there are only 1 family and 12 genera absent. These remarkable deficiencies, quite as much as the species it actually possesses, stamp the character of the Celebesian fauna, and give a clue to its past history. Of the land mollusca we have as yet but scanty knowledge. Such genera as are known are for the most part found also in Borneo and Sumatra, but Planispira 286 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGKAPHY AND TliAYKL is a Moluecau form, aud Ohha and Obbimc, which occur in North Celebes, are purely Philippine. No peculiar genus has hitherto been discovered, but the material is as yet hardly sufficient to form deductions, and taking account THE BABIRUSA {Sus hihirusa). of both mammalia and Ijirds, of which two groups alone we possess sufficiently detailed information, we cannot doubt the great antiquity and extreme isolation of this island from the rest of the archipelago. The two re- markable mammals — the ape-baboon {Cynopithecus) and the four-tusked pig (Bahlrasa), as well as a curious bee- CELEBES U 8 7 eater (McrojJogon) ; three remarkable genera of starlings {Basilornis, Unodcs, and Scissirostrum) ; two peculiar magpies {Streptocitta and Charitornis) ; and an anomalous kingfisher {Ceycopsis), have none of them any near allies in the archipelago, and are only remotely connected with groups now inhabiting the Asiatic or African con- tinents. They appear, in fact, to be remnants of the Miocene fauna, at a period when the ancestors of all the chief types of both the temperate and tropical zones of the Eastern hemisphere were to be found in the Euro- Asiatic continent. The peculiarities of the animal life of Celebes may be best explained by supposing it to be an outlying portion of that Miocene continent, which became detached from it, and has since never been actually joined to any Asiatic or Australian land. It has thus preserved to us some descendants of ancient types, and these have become intermingled with such immigrants from both east and west as were enabled to establish themselves in competition with the ancient inhabitants. To the naturalist, therefore, Celebes is an island of ex- treme interest. It cannot be said to belong either to the eastern or the western divisions of the archi]Delago, but to stand almost exactly midway between them ; the relic of a more ancient land, and dating from a period perhaps anterior to the separate existence of any of the islands. The insects, although less perfectly known, offer analogous peculiarities to those presented by the higher animals. They are isolated alike from those of the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas, and present certain specialities of form and coloration not found elsewhere. The details are of too technical a nature to find a place here, but they are such as fully to confirm the general conclusion we have arrived at, as to the long-continued isolati(jn of this remarkable country. 288 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 6. Native Races. From what has been said of the extreme antiquity of Celebes, and the pecuharity and isolation of its animals, it might be expected that some equally peculiar tribes of mankind might be found here, or even some relic of primeval man. But it must be remembered that man is pre-eminently a migrating and an aggressive animal, the higher or more energetic races constantly displacing the lower or less physically powerful ; so that his present distribution may have little relation to the ancient his- tory of the countries he inhabits. It is highly probable that a low and primitive race did once inhabit Celebes ; but if so, it has, so far as we know, completely dis- appeared, and the whole island is now occupied by many distinct tribes in various stages of civilisation, but all belonging to the Malayan race. They may be roughly classed into two groups— the Mohammedan semi-civilised tribes, and the Pagans, who are more or less savages. The former read and write, and mostly have peculiar alphabetic characters ; they have fixed governments, regular clothing, and are considerably advanced in agri- culture and the arts, being, in fact, the equals of the true Malays and the Javanese. The latter are more or less complete savages, without writing or fixed govern- ments, usually with imperfect bark clothing, and without the arts of weaving or working metals. The most important of the Mohammedan peoples are the Bugis, the Mandars, and the Makassars. The Bugis occupied originally only the district of Boni in the southern peninsula, but have now extended over a consider- able area. They are composed of many tribes, of which the Waju are the most powerful, and are governed by in- cp:lebes 289 dependent liajas, banded toi^ether in cuntederucies. The Bugis are the most advanced of all the natives of Celebes, and W(juld seem, to judge from tiieir language, to have acquired their civilisation mainly from the Javanese. They invented a peculiar alphabetical character, and a calendar, the year consisting of 3G5 days, divided into 12' months, each with its native name. The development of this people appears to have been of recent date, for they are not even mentioned by the older Portuguese writers. Now they are the greatest maritime people and traders in the Malay Archipelago, navigating from the ftirthest point of Sumatra to Xew Guinea. They are, moreover, not only traders but settlers, and have established them- selves in most of the large towns in the different islands, dwelling apart in a separate " Bugis quarter," ruled over by their own chiefs under their own laws. These enterprising people are good shipbuilders, constructing praus {'padeioakan) of 50 or 60 tons burden, with which they trade eastward or westward according to the monsoon. Their energy contrasts strongly with the ordinary Malay character, but they resemble that nation in being both proud and vindictive. They are also as passionate as they are brave, and " running amok " is perhaps more frequent in Celebes than in any of the other islands. The Mandars occupy the western portion of the island, which projects out into the Strait of Makassar, north of Cape Mandar. They speak a distinct language, and are still partly pagan. They are energetic fishermen and traders, and their country produces edible birds' nests and some gold. The Makassars inhabit the southern and western extremity of the southern peninsula. Their chief town and the residence of the Piaja is Goa, only a few miles from Makassar, the Dutch capital. Their u 290 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL lansuag-e is likewise distinct, but contains more intro- duced words than Bucris. Like Mandar, it is written in HOUSE OF KAJA OF GOA, S. CELEBES. the Bugis character, as are also some languages of the northern peninsula and of the island of Sumliawa. All the remaining inhabitants of Celebes are, or have been until lately, in a state very similar to that of the CELEBES iJ'.ll Dyaks of Borneo. They are, some of them, head-hunters, and even cannibals. Human skulls ornament the chiefs houses, and, when he dies, it is necessary to ol)tain two fresh human skulls with which to adorn his grave. Some curious burying - places exist in the northern peninsula, near the village of Sawangan, which have been described by the American traveller Bickmore. These are what may be termed vertical coffins, consisting of solid rectangular upright stones, deeply hollowed out at the top, so as to receive the body, and covered with a roof- shaped capstone, adorned with rude carvings of liuman figures in a sitting attitude, the knees clasped by the hands. This elaborate mode of burial, if correctly described, is, it is believed, unique among savage tribes. These northern people, however, are different from the Dyak-like tribes farther south, and may have affinities with some of the indigenes of the Philippines, or of the islands of Northern Polynesia. In this peninsula the number of different languages is extraordinary. At its extremity, a small tract of country some 60 miles by 20, more than a dozen are spoken. Some of these may perhaps be more or less dialectic, but the majority are said to be quite distinct, and the people of the different tribes cannot make themselves understood except througli the medium of Malay, although, perhaps, their villages may be within three miles of one another. The ]\Ima- hasans have been almost all converted to Christianity, and have become an orderly, industrious, and intelligent people. At Tomore, on the eastern side of the central portion of the island (and probably elsewhere), the natives make bark cloth, closely resembling the " tapa " of the Polynesians. It is beaten out by wooden mallets till it becomes as thin and tough as parchment; it is then washed with an extract from some bark, which 292 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL gives it a glossy surface, and renders it capable of with- standing a good shower of rain, so that it becomes a really serviceable article of clothing. 7. The Dutch Settled Districts. In spite of its being in great part unexplored, the whole of the island of Celebes is claimed by the Dutch, and divided by them into three political departments, of which the " Government of Celebes and its Dependencies " is the most extensive, embracing not only the southern half of the islands, with Salaier and the Butung group, but also the island of Sumbawa and part of Flores. The Residency of Menadu includes the greater part of the northern peninsula and the shores of the Gorontalo Gulf, while the country drained by the rivers emptying themselves into the Gulf of Tolo are under the nominal administration of the Resident of Ternate. These divisions are, however, of little practical moment except to cartographers ; for, except at Labuan-dede, in Tontoli Bay, and Mendono, opposite Peling Island, there are no Europeans out of the Makassar and Menado districts. The Makassar District is the part which was earliest known to the western nations, and it was here, after the defeat of the Portuguese, that the Dutch first established themselves, building a fort in 1665. The country round is one of the most important coffee districts in the East, is traversed by good roads, and controlled by Dutch officials resident in fifteen different towns and villages. In the lowlands great quantities of rice are grown. Cotton is also cultivated, and the Makassar and Bugis women make sarongs — the skirt or petticoat universally worn by Malays of both sexes — which for durability and permanence of colour are unrivalled, and are highly CELEBES 1>0:> esteemed over the whole arcliipelago, tliose (n-iKiincntcil with gold thread bringing very high prices. Omitting the cities of Java, Makassar is tlie most important town in the whole of the Dutch East Indies — tlie centre of trade of a vast extent of country, a position it owes to the wonderful mercantile energy of the JUigis, a people who are to the archipelago what the Chinese are to Asia proper. Makassar may lie said to be the Hongkong of the Dutch, while Batavia is tlieir Singapore. Although an open roadstead, the port affords safe anchorage at almost all seasons. It has good piers, and is frequented by much shipping. The town is low and flat, but healthy, although from December to ]\Iarch the rains are heavy. It contains over 20,000 inhabitants. The business quarter, thick with powdery dust in the dry season, lines the shore for half Ci mile, and is crowded with Chinese, Bugis, and Arabs. Here are the offices and " godowns " of the Dutch and German merchants, the latter being strongly represented here, as in other ^lalay towns. Northward is a populous native suburb. The European quarter lies at the south of the town, the villas thickly shaded with trees, and near it is Fort Eotterdam, where the garrison is quartered, strongly built, but now useless against large ordnance. The town is walled, and many of the streets are kept clean by means of narrow canals into which the tidal waters are admitted at high tide and allowed to run out with the ebb. Northward of Makassar, and lining the coast for nearly 50 miles, lies the Spermonde Archipelago, a complex network of countless islands, reefs, and shoals, densely populated by tripang fishermen and covered with coco-palms. The Menado Residency consists of the volcanic region of Minahasa, about 70 miles long, and an extensive 294 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL district beyond forming the Assistant - Eesidency of Gorontalo. The whole of tliis country was formerly tributary to the Sultan of Ternate, and was inhabited by numerous savage triljes whose habits have already been described. When the Portuguese were expelled in 1677, it was taken possession of by the Dutch, and many of the natives were converted to Christianity. The country, however, did not begin to progress much till 1822, when it was found that the elevated plateau of the interior was admirably adapted to the growth of coffee. Native in- structors in the art of coffee cultivation were brought from Java; the native chiefs, under the title of Majors, were induced to encourage the formation of plantations by a grant of five per cent of the produce ; and a fixed price was paid for all properly cleaned coffee brought to the Government warehouses. European superintendents of the plantations were appointed to each district, good roads were made, the villages were gradually improved, and schools and churches built. Now there are 125,000 Christians in the district, with excellent schools estab- lished in all the villages. The country, moreover, has become a perfect garden. In many of the villages the streets are bordered with hedges of roses, which thrive admirably at from 2000 to 3000 feet elevation, and are in perpetual bloom ; the cottages are symmetrically arranged, nicely painted, and embowered in flowering shrubs and fruit trees ; while the people are all w^ell dressed and well fed, well behaved and contented, presenting a mar- vellous contrast to the naked savages of fifty years back who were the fathers and grandfathers of the present generation. A considerable portion of Minahasa is an uneven plateau, from 2500 to 3000 feet above the sea, with mountains rising to 6000 feet or more. The highest CELEBES 295 village is Eurukciii, 3500 feet above the sea; and liere, in the month of June, the thermometer is usually 62° Fahr. in the morning, and rarely rises above 80^ during the day. Here oranges thrive better tliau in the low- lands, bearing abundance of most delicious fruit, and rice produces good crops without irrigation. The scenery is magnificent. Numerous volcanic mountains clothed with the richest vegetation lend grandeur to the prospect, and form a charming contrast to the coffee plantations, the rice fields, the gardens, and the neat cottages that everywhere meet the eye. The chief towns of Minahasa are Menado and Kema, on opposite sides of the peninsula, the former used as the chief port during the eastern, and the latter during the western monsoon. They are less than tw^enty miles apart, and are connected by a good road. Menado is the capital town, and the place where the Eesident lives. It is a small but picturesque town, and as almost every house stands in a garden and is surrounded by beautiful shrubs, trees, and flowers, it has a very charming effect as compared wdth the more mercantile appearance of Makassar. Its population is over 4000. An excellent system of roads connects all the chief towns and villages of Minahasa. The district has of late become very populous, and there are now probably not less than 160,000 inhabitants. The coffee tree was first introduced into the Minahasa district in 1822, and at the end of 1889, 7,767,159 trees were under Government cultivation, without includ- ing private plantations. The industry has been the means of converting the country from a wilderness of jungle, peopled by head-hunting savages, into a well- cultivated garden tilled by natives who are almost with- out exception Christians. Yet this result has been CELEBES 2 It 7 brouglit about by a system which most Eiiglislimoii would condemn untried — that of enforced labour. Any person of the peasant class not having a trade is com- pelled by law to plant coffee. Each must, if required, plant 25 trees every year, but the number depends upon liis last year's production, and is regulated by the Contioleur. There are Government plantations in every village, and both the land and the seedlings are su])])lied by the State. The success of the industry is in great measure due to the equable rainfall, the north of Celebes herein differing greatly from Java, which is exposed to a long- continued drought during the easterly monsoon and excessive rains in the wet season. The berry is of ])ar- ticularly good flavour, and finds its market chielly in Eussia, bringing a far higher price than that jiroduced in Java. All the coffee thus grown by the natives has to be sold to Government at a fixed price. It is divided into two qualities, for which fourteen and seven guilders are resjDectively paid per picul of 133 lbs. This price is, however, not the actual cost to the Government, since presents have to be given to the head-men and " Majors," and as the crop is bought on the plantation, the cost of conveyance to the coast is considerable. Should a Dutchman wish to plant coffee, he is permitted to do so, the system being only a Government monopoly so far as the natives are concerned. He is allowed to take up land at a rental of one guilder per bouw (1|- acre), and pays a head-tax of a dollar on his coolies. The wages of the latter are six guilders, or rather less than ten shillings, a month, and a catty (1^ lb.) of rice per diem. Every adult male is, however, compelled to give thirty-six days in the year to the service of the Government for road repair and work of a like nature, or else to provide a substitute. 298 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The effect of tli'e Dutch " culture-system " is perhaps better seen in Minahasa than in Java, and no one could visit the district without being struck with the example of prosperity and happiness it affords. Some years ago Mr. Wallace pointed out that it is only by some such means that the gulf between savagery and advanced civilisation can be bridged, and that the experiment of introducing free trade and free labour among a childlike and irresponsible people must inevitaljly be fraught with disaster. Twenty years later Dr. Guillemard found the Minahasans " a contented, happy people, among whom drunkenness and crime were almost non-existent ; the land highly cultivated, and the villages neater and cleaner than in any part of the civilised world," and was con- strained to agree with Mr. Wallace. A still later traveller, the naturalist Dr. Hickson, who resided in Northern Celebes for a year in 1885, thus speaks of the corvde in Minahasa : — " The system of heercndicnst has been very severely criticised by many well-meaning per- sons as tyrannical and unjust, but I cannot help thinking that every one who is really acquainted with the circum- stances of these colonies and the character and condition of the people must admit that it is a service which is both necessary and just. The Dutch Government has brought to the people of Minahasa not only the blessings of peace and security, but also the possibilities of a very considerable civilisation and commercial prosperity. The natives are now able to sow their rice in perfect con- fidence that they will gather the harvest in due season ; they are able to send their corn, their chickens, and other produce to the markets without fear of being plundered on the road, and without experiencing the horrors of war and bloodshed ; they pass their lives in peace and quietude from the cradle to the grave. In I CELEBES 209 return for this it is only just that every able-bodied man should be compelled to lend a hand in maintaining this happy condition of afiairs. In a land where the neces- sities of life are so easily obtained, and the wants of the people are few, poverty is inexcusable and starvation unknown. Under such circumstances it would be im- possible for the Government to obtain a sufficient number of men to labour on the roads at a reasonable wage, and in consequence they would be either neglected or ex- tremely costly to maintain. The heerendienst is, tlien, the only system by which the roads can be kept in a proper state of repair without over - burdening the exchequer or increasing the taxation of the people beyond their capabilities. If it is true that some of the Dutch officials have occasionally used the heerendienst for their own personal service, it is the abuse of the system we should deprecate, not the system itself" West of Minahasa is Gorontalo, which gives its name to the great gulf intervening between the peninsula and the rest of the island. The district, which is inhabited by native tribes under chiefs or rajas, is administered by a Dutch Assistant-Eesident. Most of the people here are of a markedly different type from the short, light- coloured, and amiable-looking Minahasans, being taller, darker, and with crisper hair, but nevertheless showing no sign of Papuan blood. Many are Mohammedans, but the greater number pagans, as are ahnost all the tribes farther west, except on the coast, where are some settle- ments of Bugis and Mandars who trade with the people of the interior. The town of Gorontalo is situated close to the Limbotto Lake, and contains about 3000 inhabit- ants. Its chief exports are copra and copal. The Dutch have been settled here from the seventeenth cen- tury, and remains of an old fort still exist, willi \\alls oOO COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL 10 or 12 feet high, which is said to be of Portuguese construction. The country is in many places compara- tively bare of vegetation ; it is of granitic formation, and gold is widely distributed, although as yet no very rich quartz has been found. The natives of Pogoyama and Pagoat, westward of Gorontalo, pay tribute to the Dutch in gold dust. 8. Trade and Products. The total value of the exports from Celebes in 1890 is officially stated at £564,058. This includes Sumbawa, but the trade of this island is of very little importance. By far the most valuable product is coffee, of which 4110 tons were exported, valued at over £300,000. Of this the Menado district yields about one-eighth only. In the Makassar district the Government have no planta- tions, the industry being entirely in private hands, but of the Menado crop about three-fifths belongs to the State. The coffee of Minahasa is considered to be the best- tiavoured in the w^orld, and is chiefly sent to Piussia. The chief exports of Southern Celebes after coffee are dammar (£53,000) and tripang (£40,000), this latter Chinese edible being a special product of the surrounding seas, as is tortoiseshell (£12,000), no other part of the archipelago producing anything like the quantity. Nut- megs are also grown largely, the export being valued at nearly £13,000, an amount which is exceeded only by Banda and the west coast of Sumatra. The exports of Northern Celebes apart from coffee differ a good deal from those of the Makassar district, the most important being copal (£2 3,0 0 0), rattan (£1 5 ,0 0 0), tobacco (£8 000), and nutmegs and copra (each alwut £10,000). The vanilla orchid is grown in small quantities, and cacao CELEBES *] 0 1 promised well until lately, when many of tlie ])Iantatioiis were ruined by disease. The mineral products of Celebes are comparatively unimportant, although it is possible that further know- ledge of the country may reveal gold-lields of value. Coal is found in various places in the Makassar district, but is of poor quality and is not worked. Iron and copper are obtained in small quantities by the natives. The gold mines are chiefly in the northern peninsula, in the native states of Buiil, Mutong, and in the neighbour- hood of Pagoat, but the methods employed are primitive, and, the output passing into the hands of native traders, no satisfactory statistics are available. 9. Islands belonging to Celebes. Celebes is rich in islands, which are for the most part situated at or near the extremities of the four great peninsulas of which it is composed. Thus, from the north, the Banka, Talaut, Tulur, and Carcaralong groups form a series of stepping-stones, as it were, to the southern end of Mindanao in the Philippines. Around Balante, the eastern promontory of Celebes, are the Togian, Peling, and Xulla groups. Off the end of the south-eastern jDeninsula lie the large islands Muna and Butung (Boeton), while between the south promontory and riores the sea is covered with a multiplicity of reefs and islands, of which Salaier only is of importance. Of all these, the chain of islands to the north are the most interesting in every way. They have scarcely ever been visited by Englishmen, but Dr. Hickson's visit to them in 1885 has added considerably to our know- ledge of them. They were first seen by Europeans in 1521, when the two remaining vessels of Magellan's 302 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL squadron sailed southward for the Mokiccas after the death of their leader. As early as the sixteenth century the Portuguese missionaries laboured in Siau and Sangir, building churches whose ruins are still to be seen. The Spaniards also established themselves, but were driven out, as were the Portuguese, by the Dutch, who came formally into possession in 1677. The islands are now administered by Controleurs resident in Great Sangir and Salibabu,^ and there are three or four European missionaries stationed among the people. An attempt has been made at instruction by native teachers, but on the whole the people are in a state of semi-savagery, although peaceable among themselves and not ill-disposed to Europeans. It is uncertain whether the Salibabu group are volcanic, although the Nanusas, lying beyond them, are so. The main chain of islands, however, exhibits volcanoes almost throughout its length, and many of these are active. From the paucity of soundings, it is not known as yet whether a very deep channel does or does not exist in the submarine bank which is presumed to connect Northern Celebes with the Philippines, but the sounding of 930 fathoms obtained by H.M.S. Flying Fish in the Banka Passage indicates that the connection, if any, must have been at a comparatively remote period. It is probable that a still deeper channel exists a little to the south of the Phihppines, for the zoology of the Sangir chain appears to be far more Celebesian than Philippine. Taking the islands in order from the south, Talisse is the site of the coco-nut plantations of a Dutch ^ There is considerable confusion in the nomenclature of the groups to which these islands respectively belong, the names Tulur and Talaut having been applied to both. To avoid misapprehension, they are accordingly spoken of here as the Sangir and Salibabu groups. CELEBES 303 company, and the neighbouring island of Banka was once a noted resort of pirates, but is now only inhabited by a few fishermen. About 35 miles KN.E. lies Ruang, an active island-volcano about 2200 feet high, which, though of insignificant size, has been the scene of several eruptions, the most important in 187l, when 400 persons lost their lives, chietiy from a seismic wave which was said to have been over 80 feet in height. Siau Island, 2 0 miles to the north, is about 1 0 miles in length, and has four volcanic peaks, the most northern, 6000 feet high, being active. The Eajas of this island were in former days very powerful, sharing the rule of the Salibabu group with the Eajas of Sangir. We next come — passing over a number of small islands — to Great Sangir, the most important of the chain. It produces considerable quantities of copra, which is chiefly shipped by Chinese traders from Taruna, the capital, which is the residence of the Controleur, and a port of call for the Netherlands India S.S. Company's steamers. This island is about 2 5 miles in length, and has many extinct craters, and more than one active, the most important being Awu, which has an altitude of about 5000 feet, and has been one of the most formidable volcanoes in the archipelago. In 1711 its eruption caused the death of 2000 people, and in 1856 nearly 3000 perished. On the 7th June 1892a destructive eruption took place, which appears to have caused the loss of many hves, for within four days of its cessation the Controleur had recovered 300 bodies. Dr. Hickson describes the Sangir people as consisting of nobles, freemen, and slaves— a race of sailors, building excellent praus. A good cloth of banana fibre is made, and coco-nuts largely grown. The language is pecuHar, the marriage system matriarchal. North-east of Sangir, and some distance from the main chain of islands, is the 304 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Salibabu group, peopled by a timid, inoffensive race of semi-pagans, with a language closely allied to Sangirese. They live in large communal houses like the Dyaks of Borneo, practise circumcision, and are little acquainted with the metals, their weapons even being made of wood. At the time of Dr. Hickson's visit they were suffering from some form of malaria, which, aided by total neglect of sanitary laws, had then killed 3000 out of the 9000 inhabitants. The largest island in the group is 35 miles ill length. Due east of Celebes, beyond Peling Island, is the Sulla or XuUa group, consisting of two large islands, Xulla Tarlabu and XuUa Manggala, stretching in an east and west direction for about 100 miles, divided only by a narrow strait about the centre, with a smaller island, Xulla Basi, to the south. The western island is scantily inhabited by a race allied to those of the eastern penin- sula of Celebes and the island of Bangaai ; the others appear to have no indigenes, but to be colonised by the Malays from Ternate with their Papuan slaves, which has given rise to the report that these islands were inhabited by a people of Papuan race. Xulla Basi is much the most important island. It is about 26 miles long, is well cultivated, and produces much wax and honey. At Sanana Bay is a Dutch resident official, and a small fort has been built. Coal of an inferior quality is found on the island. The whole group is nominally subject to Ternate, but both geographically and zoologi- cally the islands belong to Celebes. They are inhabited by babirusas and deer, while their birds, which are toler- ably well known, resemble those of Celebes much more closely than those of the Moluccas. The Peling and Togian groups are inhabited by tripang and turtle lisher- meu, and very Httle is known of them. CELEBES :',0." Off the iS.E. promontory we come to the large islands of Mima and Butung (Boeton). The latter is over 100 miles long, and is composed chieHy of coralline limestone, although it is said to have an extinct volcano at its northern extremity. The united population of the two islands exceeds 20,000, and large quantities of cotton are grown. The island of Salaier, off the southern point of Celebes, is 40 miles in length, and is densely peopled, the popula- tion of the entire group being over 50,000. The Dutcli have a small settlement and a fort here, and have planted the teak tree with success. This completes the enumera- tion of the islands of any importance belonging to Celebes. The whole western and northern coast after leaving Makassar, for a distance of more than 800 miles, presents not a single island of the slightest importance. A deep sea everywhere approaches close to the shore, and prob- ably indicates that on this side the land has undergone little change, either of elevation or of subsidence, for a very long period. CHAPTEE IX THE MOLUCCAS 1. General. The term Moluccas, or Maluco Islands, was originally applied to the five small islands which are situated on the west side of Gilolo, or Halmahera, as the island is more properly termed, and in which alone the precious clove was produced. Now, it is extended so as to include almost all the islands which lie directly between Celebes and New Guinea. The three large islands which are considered geographically to form the most important portion of the Moluccan group are Gilolo, Ceram, and Burn ; but between and around these are a vast number of islands of various sizes, so connecting the Moluccas with the New Guinea and Timor groups that it is very difficult to define accurately what islands should be included in the one or the other. As we have already considered the Sangir and Salibabu islands to be extensions of Celebes, we have no difficulty in fixing on Morti or Morotai, to the north of Gilolo, as being the first island of the group in this direction. In like manner, having taken the Xulla islands as belong- ing to Celebes, we have the Batjan group. Obi, and Buru as the western limits of the Moluccas. To the m THE MOLUCCAS 307 east there is more difficulty. Waigiu and Misol are inhabited by true mop-headed Papuans and by birds-of- paradise, and therefore undoubtedly belong to New Guinea, with which country, moreover, they are con- nected by a shallow sea-bottom. It will be well, there- fore, to take the 100-fathom line as the boundary of the Papuan group, and we shall thus have the small group of Siang, Gebi, Gagi, and Popa as belonging to the Moluccas. Beyond the east end of Ceram we have a number of small islands leading on to the Ke group ; and as these agree with all the other islands we have been considering, in being forest-clad, while their pro- ductions ally them more to Ceram and Panda than to the Aru Islands, we shall take these as the farthest extension of the Moluccan group to the south-east. It is true that the Timor Laut group is not much farther to the south, but these islands begin to be bare of forest, and thus belong naturally to the comparatively arid Timor group. Thus limited, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, as they are sometimes called, extend about 600 miles from north 10 south, and about 500 from east to west, but they fall naturally into two subdivisions — that of Gilolo on the north, and that of Burn and Ceram on the south. Situated on both sides of the equator, and far enough removed from Australia to be unaffected by the arid winds which blow from it, these islands are all clothed with a magnificent vegetation, and enjoy a climate which, by its equability of temperature, combined with moisture, and tempered by perpetual breezes, is perhaps unsur- passed in any part of the tropics. For nearly two centuries they were the scene of ceaseless and sanguinary struggles between the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Dutch for their possession. At the present time their value is no longer what it was, but a certain amount of trade is 308 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL still carried on at Ternate, Amboina, and Banda. All the islands are in the possession of Holland, but the two largest, Gilolo — or Halmahera — and Ceram, are as yet comparatively little known. 2. Geology and Natural History. The great volcanic belt passes through the whole length of the Moluccas, and gives them their distinctive character, yet several of the islands are entirely without volcanoes, either active or extinct, and some appear to be wholly non-volcanic in structure. Beginning with Banda on the south, the line of volcanic action passes through Amboina to Buru, where a volcano is said to exist in the western part ; it then turns northward through Batjan, where there are boiling springs, to the Ime of active volcanoes running from Makian to the northern extremity of Gilolo, where are several volcanic peaks. In the vicinity of the volcanic districts there are usually abun- dant signs of upheaval, in the form of raised coral reefs or masses of coral limestone far inland. At the extreme north, the island of Morti is coralline and volcanic, but has no volcano. The centre and most of the southern peninsula of Gilolo is composed largely of coral rock. At Amboina we find a base of crystalhne rocks, with abundance of coralline limestone, forming hills of con- siderable elevation and very rugged, the hollows being filled with red clayey earth, probably decomposed volcanic ashes. Farther east, the small islands of Goram, Mano- wolko, and Matabello consist wholly of coral reefs raised to a considerable height, while Great Ke Island is also very largely composed of the same rock. The large island of Ceram, however, appears to offer a contrast to the rest of the Moluccas. No volcanoes are known in it, TIIK MOLUCCAS .".O!) and the rocks, so far as observed, appear to be ancient stratified deposits of a highly crystalline character, thougli limestone occurs at its eastern extremity. The great central mountain, Nusa Heli, is said to be nearly 10,000 feet high, but no European has ever visited it. The vegetation of the Moluccas is exceedingly rich and varied, and would well repay systematic exploration. Here is the native country of the most precious of spices, the clove ; and here are also wild nutmegs, cardamoms, the kanari nut, and the cajuput-oil tree. Palms and pandani are very abundant, dammar pines grow in the forests, while ferns, creepers, and flowering shrubs in end- less variety clothe the forest glades and the rocky beaches with exquisite drapery. The animal life is much better known, and enables us to decide that it belongs generally to the Australian type, and more particularly resembles the fauna of New Guinea. A few of the Asiatic forms of mammaha, re- sembling those of the western islands, are still found here ; such as the deer, which abounds in all the larger islands, and even in several of the smaller ones, since it occurs in Ternate and Tidor, in Banda, and in Ceram Laut. The species is almost, if not quite, identical with one common in all the great Malay islands, and it may very well have been introduced by the Llalay colonists. None of the islands have any monkeys, except Batjan, in which is found the tailless baboon-ape of Celebes ; while in Buru alone is found the babirusa, another of the peculiar forms of that island. Both of these are con- sidered by Mr. Wallace to liave been introduced by human agency. Pigs are abundant in all the islands, and some of them are Ijelieved to be peculiar species. The only carnivorous animal is the common civet-cat ( Vivcrra tangalnnga) ; and as the Malays often keep 310 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL these creatures for the purpose of obtaining the perfume, of which they are very fond, it has probably been in- troduced by them. The only other quadrupeds are bats, which are abundant, a shrew, and several marsupials MOLUCCAN cuscus (C. omatus). of the genus Cuscus, as well as a small flying-opossum reseml^liug those found in Australia. If, therefore, we leave out of the list those species which there is reason to think may have Ijeen introduced l>y man, we find an excessive poverty of mammals, hardly to l»e equalled anywhere else in the world under similar conditions. THE MOLUCCAS 3 1 1 Birds, on the other hand, are tolerably abundant, and are in many respects interesting. Their essentially Papuan character is indicated by the fact that out of the 78 genera in which the Moluccan land-birds are classed, no less than 70 are characteristic of Xew Guinea, while only six are peculiarly Indo-Malayan, The species, however, are to a great extent peculiar, more than 140 being entirely confined to these islands out of a total number of about 200 land-birds. A most remarkable feature is the immense preponderance of the three groups — parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers. These together form one-third of all the land-birds, while in continental India they only form one-twentieth. As these groups are rather above the average of size, and contain an unusual proportion of gaily-coloured species, they give to the birds of the Moluccas an air of special brilliancy. Among the most beautiful are the crimson lories, the racquet-tailed kingfishers, and the green fruit- doves ; and there are also some brilliant ground-thrushes and fly-catchers. In the islands of Batjan and Gilolo, and possibly in Obi, there is a peculiar species of the bird-of-paradise family — Semioptera ivallacei, discovered by Mr. Wallace in 1858 — the only one yet found beyond the Papuan region. Very curious, too, is the occurrence of the great wingless bird, the cassowary, in Ceram, distinct from the numerous species that inhabit New Guinea and the adjacent islands. The mound- building birds of the genus Megapodius are especially abundant in the Moluccas, being found even on the smallest islands and uninhabited islets. Regarded from the point of view of their land Mollusca, the Moluccas fall into two distinct groups — the northern comprising Ternate, Gilolo, Batjan, and Obi ; and the southern consisting of Burn, Ceram, Aniboina, and Wallace's bird ok paradise (S. wallacei). TIIK MOLUCCAS 313 the cliain of islands east of it. The funner shows a closer relation with New Guinea than does the latter group. Thus it exhibits seven species of the markedly Papuan genus, Papuina, as against one in the southern group. Again we find certain distinct points of con- nection with Celebes in the latter, which do not e.xist in the other. No distinct Australian influence is noticeable, although in the K^ Islands the one Limncca and two out of the four species of Isidora are common to North Australia. Equally splendid as the birds are the insects of these islands, wdiich in some particulars surpass those of any other part of the world. Here are butterflies of the largest size and most vivid colours — some of the most intense metallic blue, as Papilio ulysses, or the richest silky green, as Ornithoptera priavms ; while others exhibit golden yellow or the most vivid crimson hues, displayed in an endless variety of patterns on a velvety black ground. The beetles also are remarkable for size or beauty, the wonderful long-armed beetle of Amboina {Eiichirus Jongimanus) being one of the giants of the insect world. 3. Inhabitants. In the Moluccas at least three native races encounter each other and intermingle — the Malays, the Papuans, and the Indonesians or pre-Malays ; and with the very imperfect knowledge we at present possess it is not always easy to disentangle the one from the other, or to determine which are pure races and which the results of a more or less complex intermixture. People of Malny race and Mohammedans in religion inhabit the small islands of Ternate and Tidor, each under a native sultan, whose rule extends over a number of adjacent islands. They 314 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPAVEL speak distinct but closely allied languages, which are widely different from any of the western Malay tongues, and are probably compounded of some aboriginal dialects spoken by the indigenes and that of their conquerors. These are the most important of the Malay States of the Moluccas, but other tribes with a great variety of languages are found on the coasts of Ceram and in the smaller islands of Goram, while tribes of pagan Indonesians in a lower state of civilisation inhabit parts of Burn. The great island of Ceram, however, is inhabited by people who are perhaps of partly Papuan race, having frizzled hair and prominent features, with a darker skin and more lengthy limbs than the ]\Ialays. They are utter savages and head-hunters. ]\Iost of them are still in a state of absolute freedom in the mountains of the interior, but some have been collected in villages on the coast, and have become converted nominally to Christianity, while others are equally nominal Mohammedans. In Burn occurs a similar race, and also in some parts of Halmahera ; but in tlie northern peninsula of the latter island, and having their headquarters at Galela, there is a very inter- esting race, as light in colour as Malays, but tall and well made, with handsome prominent features, curly hair, and bearded. They resemble Polynesians in many respects, and may perhaps be a remnant of the early Caucasian immigration referred to on a former page, intermixed with the Papuan aborigines. They speak a highly peculiar language. They are good boat-builders, and wander all over the northern part of the Moluccas, collect- ing tripang and turtle-shell, hunting deer and pigs, and smoking the meat. They also make settlements on any uninhabited spot that suits them, cut down the forest, plant maize or rice, and seem altogether a more enter- prising and energetic people than those around them. THE MOLUCCAS 315 Besides these, we have iii all the chief towns of the Moluccas a number of the descendants of the early Portuguese settlers. These go by the name of " Orang Sirani," or Nazarenes. They speak Malay with a con- siderable intermixture of Portuguese words, but owing to their having been under Dutch rule for several centuries, they have become Protestants, and are altogether ignorant of their own origin. In addition to these sources of ethnological confusion, we must remember that slavery has long prevailed in these islands, and that, as already stated, by means of the piratical fleets, slaves have been brought from the remotest parts of the archipelago. The Ternate and Goram people are great traders to New Guinea, and Papuan slaves are very common. Again, we find in most places a considerable number of Chinese and Arab merchants, who all have native wives. For more than a century after the first discovery of the Spice Islands by the Portuguese, the ships of all nations — Spanish, Dutch, and English especially — crowded into the eastern seas to obtain a share in the traffic in spices, which was in those days as alluring as the search after gold, and even more profitable. Among the crews of these vessels there would be men of every race, and many of them would become temporary, and some permanent, settlers in these sunny isles, and leave behind them descendants who would add to the diversity of type among the apparently native races which is here so puzzling. 4. History and Political Divisions. Prom the remotest times the spices of the :Moluccas have been known to the civilised nations of the "West. The clove is mentioned by Phny, for the " cariofiluni " 316 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL or " gariofilum " of that author, which he describes as growing in an Indian grove, is hardly Ukely to be any- thing else. It was known to the Arabians and Persians, through whose hands it doubtless passed on its way to Europe ; but it was not until the Portuguese reached the Indies that any definite knowledge of the position of the Moluccas was obtained. Sequeira, visiting Malacca with his squadron in 1509, found the spice-laden ships in that port ; but some three or four years previously both Banda and Ternate (or Tidor) had actually been visited by the Italian Varthema, who probably gave a full account of them to Albuquerque before he returned to Europe and published his voyages. Immediately after the fall of Malacca, a small fleet of three vessels was despatched thither under Antonio d'Abreu, and visited Burn, Amboina, and Banda. The loss of one of the ships resulted in Francisco Serrao, the captain, being brought to Ternate, where he remained until his death. He found the islands in the possession of Mohammedan Malays, who had conquered them about half a century before. For ten years the Portuguese seem to have made no further effort to acquire the islands; but in 1522, a few months after the visit of the two remaining ships of Magellan's fleet, Antonio de Brito arrived with a squadron of seven vessels and established Portuguese rule, which for more ' than 60 years was characterised by the most atrocious cruelty and treachery. At the end of that time it was practically terminated by a rising of the islanders. Meanwhile, the Spaniards, in spite of having agreed in 1529 to renounce all claim to the Moluccas for the sum of 350,000 ducats, had not only intrigued against the Portuguese in the islands, but had even fitted out expeditions against them. In 1606 a squadron from Manila succeeded in taking both Tidor and Ternate, but TIIK MOLUCCAS 317 no garrison appears to have been established. The Dutch now came upon the scene, and in 1613 contrived to conclude a treaty with the Sultan of Ternate by which the latter agreed that the trade in cloves should be the exclusive property of Holland. Under the pretext of the infraction of the terms of the agreement, the various islands were soon reduced. Little by little the Moluccas thus passed into the hands of Holland, and though many revolts occurred, the intervals between each became longer, and in 1681 the last expiring effort was made, and made in vain. Thenceforward there have been no events worthy of record except the temporary occupation by the British at the period of the Napoleonic difhcidty. The Eesidencies of Ternate and Amboina share the administration of the islands at the present day. The former comprises a larger area of territory than any other residency in the Netherlands India, extending from the middle of Celebes to the eastern boundary of Dutch New Guinea, a distance of nearly 1500 miles. Such a division appears at first sight most unfitting and arbitrary, but it is not so in reality, for the territory thus united represents (together with the Amboina Eesidency) the ancient kingdoms of Ternate and Tidor. The Sultans of these two insignificant islands were in bygone days the most important in the archipelago, the Sultan of Ternate ruling southern Mindanao, the Sangir group, the greater part of the eastern half of Celebes, the Timor, Buru, and almost all the Ceram group ; while the Sultan of Tidor's possessions lay chiefly to the east, and comprised half Gilolo and Ceram, and the whole of western New Guinea and its islands. It is thus in virtue of their treaties with the Tidor potentate that the Dutch claim sovereignty over New Guinea up to the 141st degree of east longitude. 318 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL The Eesident of Amboina administers not only Bum and Cerani, but Banda, Ke, the Aru and Timor Laut groups, and all the small islands west of the last named up to, and inclusive of, Wetta. 5. Halmahera. The island of Halmahera or Gilolo, although almost as large as Ceram, is comparatively unimportant. It is of peculiar shape, very much resembling that of Celebes upon a smaller scale, and consisting of four peninsulas radiating from a small central mass, and divided by three deep gulfs on the eastern side. With the islets close to its coasts, it has an estimated area of 6500 square miles ; but it is very thinly peopled, owing to the prevalence of piracy until lately, and the entire population probably does not exceed 125,000. It is very mountainous and rugged, and has many volcanoes, especially in the northern peninsula. Four are situated close to the western coast, the most important perhaps being Gamakora. Tolo, at the northern extremity, has also had several eruptions, as has the little peak of Tarakan (620 feet) near the town of Galela. The highest point is stated to be 6500 feet. But, although not much is known of its geology, it is probable that the island is in the main of ancient formation, judging from zoology. The interior of the northern peninsula seems to be the only part possessing an indigenous population, and here we find the people with crisp hair, taller than Malays, and with prominent noses ; of Papuan type, but evidently far from pure as a race. Other Papuan affinities occur in the ornithology of the island, which may thus be said to be the meeting-ground of the races and fauna of these two sub-regions. The Galela district is highly cultivated, THE MOLUCCAS 319 producing large quantities of rice. Here and at Tatani, at the extremity of the south-east peninsula, are " Post- holders," and at Sidangoli in Dodinga Bay half a dozen native soldiers are stationed, but these are the only places in the whole extent of the island where representatives of the Dutch Government are to be found. Morti Island is practically uninhabited. 6. Ternate. As far as regards magnificence of scenery, Ternate is perhaps the finest harbour in the Dutch Indies, for it is formed by two volcanic islands whose peaks are nearly 6000 feet in height, and of wonderfully graceful outline. That of the island of Tidor, which shelters the anchorage to the south, rises majestically from a mass of wild and gloomy-looking hills, but Ternate consists of the volcano alone, which leaves little room for the town to nestle at its foot. Eastward, across a wide strait, are the rugged blue mountains of Halmahera, terminating towards the north by a group of three lofty volcanic peaks. The island of Ternate is nearly circular, is about 5 or 6 miles in diameter, and has an area of about 25 square miles. It is remarkably healtliy, and although rain falls on an average during 216 days in the year, the weather is very bright and sunny except during December and January. Owing to the position of the land, the monsoons become deflected, and blow from the north and south chiefly — from the former point during the first three months of the year, and from the latter from 'May to October. April, JSTovember, and December are the months of variable winds. The volcano is about 5600 feet in height, and con- stantly emits smoke. Between 1608 and 1840 there THE MOLUCCAS 321 have been as many as fourteen eruptions, many of them severe. A few miles to the east of the town a black, scoriaceous, rugged tract, called by the natives " Latu- angas" (burnt rock), marks the lava stream wliich descended to the sea during a great eruption about a century ago. The last great earthquake occurred on 2nd February, 1840, at midnight, during the festival of the Chinese New Year, a circumstance which prevented much loss of life, since all the inhabitants were up feast- ing, and seeing the processions and amusements. The shocks continued all night and part of the next day, throwing down every stone building, and more or less wrecking almost all the rest, and they did not wholly cease for a fortnight. Earth -waves moved along the streets like rollers on the sea, the earth opening and closing again ; but the line of disturbance was very narrow, the native town, a mile to the east, not suffering at all. It travelled from north to south through the islands of Tidor and Makian to Batjan, reaching the latter place, 100 miles distant, at four in the afternoon of the following day, so that the wave was propagated at the rate of only six miles an hour. Everywhere in the suburbs of the town may be seen ruined walls, and gate- pillars with the stones twisted on each other, and the remains of massive stone and brick buildings, gateways, and arches, showing the greater magnificence of the old town, till sad experience taught the superiority of wood and thatch as building materials in an earthquake- tortured country. Ternate is a free port, and is still a place of some im- portance. The population is about 9000, of whom 350 are Europeans, 300 descendants of the Portuguese and natives, 500 Chinese, and 100 Arabs, the remainder being Malays of this and surrounding islands. There is Y 322 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGPIAPHY AND TKAVEL a garrison, quartered in " Fort Oranje," a strong fortifica- tion with fosse and drawbridge, built, it is said, on the foundations of an old Portuguese structure. At the south end of the town, overgrown with jungle, are the remains of a small fortress, with beautifully laid courses, which is possibly that erected by De Brito in 1522. The trade has lessened of late, but Ternate is still the market of the northern Moluccas and some parts of New Guinea. The chief exports are gum-dammar and tobacco (each about £11,000), nutmegs (£7600), and gum-copal. A few birds-of-paradise are exported, but most of these are taken straight from the Aru Islands and the MacCluer Gulf to Makassar. Cloves, the ancient product of the true " Malucos " — Ternate, Tidor, Motir, Makian, and Batjan — now form no part of the commerce ; they are now grown chiefly in Celebes, Amboina, and Java. The early Dutch rulers extirpated the tree here in 1652 in order to secure the monopoly, which they endeavoured to do by restricting its cultivation to the island of Amlioina, of which they had exclusive possession There is now no Government monopoly, and the total annual export is about a quarter of a million lbs. for the entire archi- pelago. Slavery was abolished in Ternate and Tidor in 1879. 7. Tidor and the Lesser Moluccas. Immediately south of Ternate, which forms the northern link, runs a chain of small islands, parallel with and close to the west coast of Halmahera, which are sometimes termed the Lesser Moluccas. Three of these, like Ternate, are true volcanoes, while Mare is formed of upraised volcanic materials, and the Kaioa group, farther to the south, are raised coral reefs. All the islands are inhabited by Mohammedan Malays, each with their THE MOLUCCAS 323 peculiar language, the island of Makian having two. PEAK OF TIDOR FROM TER^■A11.. Tidor is the largest and most important, its Sultan having in past times ruled over a large territory in the 324 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL archipelago. It was here that the Trinidad and the Victoria, the two vessels of Magellan's squadron, were so hospitably received, and obtained their cargoes of cloves, the first brought from the islands by a European ship. The peak of Tidor is about 5900 feet in height, and of exceedingly graceful shape. Although there are hot springs at its base, it is now extinct, and there are no records of any eruption. The Dutch have a few soldiers upon the island, but no civil authority. The population is about 8000. Mar^, known as Potbakker's Island, from the useful clays found on it, is not otherwise of importance. Motir, with a peak 2800 feet in height, which was the scene of an eruption in the last century, has also few inhabitants. The next island, Makian, at one time most productive in cloves, is at present chiefly given over to the cultivation of tobacco, and is thickly populated. Its cone was for- merly thought to be extinct, but in 1646 a great erup- tion blew it up, leaving a vast crater, with a huge rugged chasm on one side of it, and destroying the greater part of the population. Then for two centuries it was quiet, the people who had escaped came back, houses were built, and twelve villages were formed on its shores. But on 29th December, 1862, it again burst forth with as great violence as before, and destroyed nearly the whole population. Over 4000 perished, the greater number from drowning, overcrowding the praus in their frantic efforts to escape. The sand and ashes thrown up by the volcano reached Ternate, thirty miles off, the next day, and formed a cloud so dense as to darken the air, and make it necessary to light lamps at midday. They fell to the thickness of three or four inches over that island, and even to a distance of fifty miles, destroying all the crops, and doing great injury to shrubs and fruit-trees. THE MOLUCCAS 325 Still farther south, but m the same north and south line, lie the two distinct and compact groups of JJatjan and Obi. In ancient times the former constituted an independent Sultanate, surrounded in every direction by the vast domains of tlie Sultans of Ternate and Tidor. The island has other reasons to be considered distinct, as, although volcanic in its northern portion, it is in the main composed of ancient rocks, as is also the Obi group. In length it exceeds 50 English miles, and the great mountain mass of Labua, at the southern end, is 7150 feet in height, and is believed to be non-volcanic. The interior is uninhabited, or nearly so, and the small littoral population, two or three thousand only in number, is composed of Ternate Malays, Galela men, and immi- grants from the west coast of Celebes. The clove is said to grow wild. The black Celebesian monkey, Cynopi- thecus nigrcscens, is found — the most eastern point of the distribution of the Quadrumana — but, as before stated, it is considered by Mr. "Wallace to have been most probal^ly imported by man. Here, too, is the beautiful and curious bird -of- paradise, Wallace's Standard -wing {Semioptera wallacei), the only representative of the Paradiseidaj found in the Moluccas. The Dutch have a Controleur and a small garrison stationed at the village of Batjan, on the west coast, and the present fort — Fort Barneveld — was built as long ago as 1615 upon the site of one erected many years before by the Portuguese. Near Batjan are some coal-mines which have been worked intermittently, though to no great profit, for nearly half a century ; and gold and copper are also found in small quantities. A Dutch company has established plantations of coffee and cacao, which have been only partly successful. Mr. Wallace considers that the island is one which would perhaps repay the researches of a botanist better than 326 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL any other in the whole archipelago. It contains a great variety of surface and of soil, abundance of large and small streams, some of which are navigable, alluvial plains, abrupt hills and lofty mountains, and a grand and luxuriant forest vegetation. Moreover, having no savage inhabitants, every part of it can be visited with safety. The other islands of this group are practically unin- habited. Obi Major, the chief of the Obi group, is a fine island about 45 miles in length by 20 in breadth. The mountains of the interior reach a height of 5000 feet or more, but appear to be clothed with forest to their summits, as, indeed, is the whole island. It is well- watered, and is apparently both fertile and healthy. Yet, strangely enough, the group is totally uninhabited, the only instance of the kind in the whole of the archipelago, and this, too, in spite of its central position. Now and then it is visited by fishermen from Batjan, who build huts and occupy themselves in curing fish or catching turtle ; but no permanent settlement exists, and it does not appear that any people of Papuan race ever estab- lished themselves here, as was the case in Halmahera to the north, and probably in Ceram to the south. Among the Ternate natives Obi bears the reputation of being haunted, which may perhaps account for the absence of population. It was inhabited in former times, and Dr. Guillemard found old sago and nutmeg plantations on the western side of the island, where are the ruins of an ancient Dutch fort. Obi is probably in no part volcanic, but appears to be composed of the older crystalline rocks. Coal and lignite exist, and probably gold, but no explorations have been made, and the existing charts of the island are extremely inaccurate. THE MOLUCCAS 327 8. Buru. We now come to the soutlicni Moluccas, \vliicli are under the administration of the Resident of Andjoina, oiu^ of the largest of wliich is Buru, an oval island ahout 90 English miles in length, witli an area of oo.SO square miles. Although a volcano is said to exist at the western extremity, the island is believed to be largely composed of the older stratified rocks. It is, in parts, of great elevation. Mount Tuniahu (8530 feet) being, apart from those in Ceram, the highest peak in the Moluccas, while others exceed 7000 feet. The elevation is highest towards the western end, while at the north and east it is comparatively low. Surrounding Kajeli Bay is a vast, circular, and level plain, which occupies nearly one-i'ourth of the island. In the north the country is somewliat bare, and much covered with coarse lalang grass, but the greater part of the rest of the island is forest-clad. 'J'lie villages round the coast are inhabited by semi-civilised Mohammedan Malays from the various surrounding islands, who have intermixed with the older inhabitants ; and a tribe of mild light-coloured people of Malay type, apparently allied to the natives of Eastern Celel)es, occupy the northern and western parts. The interior is peopled by a peculiar race, which, according to some authorities, is of Papuan type. If this be true, these " Alfuros " must have lost the chief characteristics of that race, judging from the description of Mr. H. 0. Forbes, the oidy naturalist who has visited the heart of the country. He describes them as averaging 5 feet 2 inches in height, of a brown or yellowish-brown colour, weak in build and somewhat effeminate, and very timid. They live for the most part in isolated houses, and 328 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL slavery is noii-existeut. The characteristic Papuan nose, which overhangs at tlie tip, is never seen, and there is very little hair on the face and body. Even the hair, though crisp or wavy, is not frizzled. There is there- fore an absence of all the chief Papuan characteristics, and the connection, if any, must date from a very remote period. Burn contains deer and the babirusa. The presence of the latter animal is difficult to account for, and it is especially remarkable that it should be confined, as far as is known, to the eastern extremity of the island. The Waikolo Lake, near the centre, is 1900 feet above the level of the sea, and, though some miles across, possibly occupies the site of an ancient crater. There are two resident Postholders, one at Kajeli Bay, and the other at Masareti, on the south-west coast. The former place is far the most important, large quantities of cajuput oil being manufactured. This product is obtained from the leaves of Melaleuca hajuputi, and is exported to the value of about £10,000 annually. The town is low and unhealthy, and the land here appears to be gaining rapidly on the sea. Fort Defensie, built in 1778 close to the water, now stands nearly half a mile inland. The population of Burn is estimated at about 60,000. 9. Ceram. Ceram is 216 English miles in length, and has an estimated area of 7000 square miles. It is therefore one of the great islands of the archipelago, but its im- portance is by no means in proportion to its size. It lies with its long axis east and west, and is traversed from end to end by a very fine range of mountains, which give it a grand and massive appearance from the sea. THE MOLUCCAS 329 The highest of these is Nusa-heH, the height of which has been found to be 9612 feet, and there are at least four other peaks exceeding 6000 feet. None of thein are beheved to be volcanic, and the mass of tlui island where it has been examined is found to be composed of plutonic and sedimentary rocks. Coal exists, but of what period does not seem clear. The only evidences of active volcanic forces are hot springs and the rather frequent occurrence of earthquakes. There is not a single good harbour in the whole island except at Amahai on the south coast, and there are no navigable rivers. Towards the western end two deep bays, nearly opposite each other, reduce the width of the island to about 15 miles. Here a native path crosses from shore to shore, and this is almost the only part of the interior known to Europeans. The coast villages, as is generally the case in these islands, are inhabited by a mixed Malay people, and in the neighbourhood of the Amboina group many are Orang Sirani, or so-called Christians, of whom a consider- able number can read and write. In the interior live a race who are perhaps of mixed Papuan descent, split up into different tribes, speaking different languages, and little, if at all more civilised than the pure Dyaks of Borneo. They are head-hunters, living in large villages, and cultivating sago, bananas, and a little rice. The whole island is densely covered with forest, and in all the swampy valleys the sago-palm grows wild, supplying the chief food of the inhabitants, as well as an article of trade, sago cakes being the provision with which every native boat is supplied for a voyage. The Dutch have four stations on the island, and an " Aspirant Controleur " lives at Wahai on the north coast, where there are Euro- pean coffee and coco plantations. The people are, how- 330 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL ever, poor, for little trade is carried on, and the abundance of sago gives them no inducement to cultivate the soil. There is hardly any part of the East where the traveller finds it so difficult to procure the usual tropical fruits and vegetables, or any food fit for the consumption of civilised beings. The population in 1878 was supposed to be about 226,000. 10. The Amboina Group. The Amboina group consists of the main island, Ambon — or, as it is known to the English, Amboina — and three smaller islands lying to the east-^Haruku, Saparua, and Nusa Laut. It was hither that the Dutch in the middle of the seventeenth century brought the clove cultivation, having extirpated the tree in its native islands of Ternate, Tidor, and Makian ; and, although this in- dustry is no longer a monopoly, and the spice exported in much reduced quantities, the good roads on the smaller islands, and the size of the capital, testify to a long- existent civilisation, which has affected all the native inhabitants. The main island is about 30 miles in length, and is so deeply indented by two bays on opposite sides that it forms practically two islands, the narrow, sandy, con- necting isthmus being only 30 yards wide. Across this — the " Paso " — the native praus are dragged, the passage between the town and the smaller islands being by this means greatly shortened. The total area of the island is about 260 square miles, and the population 32,000, of which rather more than half live in the town. The size of these Molucca towns thus falls far short of that of the populous cities of Java, Sumatra, and even Borneo, althouoh their trade has been renowned for centuries. THE MOLUCCAS ?,'M The island was originally one vast, unbroken forest, and is so still, except around the town. The highest peak attains an elevation of 4010 feet. In the north-west of the island is a volcano, which has been in eruption many times between 1674 and 1824, but since that date it has been so completely quiescent that most of the in- habitants will not believe that any volcano exists. They are supported in this opinion by the fact that no one now knows exactly where it is, there being no lofty cone, and nothing to distinguish it at a distance from tlie forest-clad hills which surround it. Neither is Amboina now much subject to earthquakes, although many have occurred, and may any day occur again. While Dampier was here in 1705 there was a great earthquake, which lasted two days, and did great mischief, the ground bursting open in many places, and swallowing up entire families in their houses. The ground swelled like a wave of the sea, and the massive walls of the fort were rent asunder in several places. Amboina was first known to Europeans in 1511, in which year Serrao, one of the commanders of the fleet of d'Abreu, who had been sent by Albuquerque to discover the Moluccas, landed with his crew, having been ship- wrecked on some reefs to the south. The town was taken from the Portugxiese by the Dutch in 1609. It is celel^rated as having been long the residence of the botanist Eumi^hius, who died here in 1693, and of Valentiju, the historian of the Dutch Indies. The inhabitants of the island, as might be surmised from its having been so long under foreign dominion and a centre of trade, are a mixed race, formed chiefly of ]\Ioluccan ]\ialays and indigenous Ceramese. They in- habit a number of villages round the coast, speak several different languages, and are all professedly either 332 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Mohammedans or Christians. The latter, the Orang Sirani (Nazarenes), strike the traveller at once on land- ing, dressed as they are from head to foot in black. Even the garments are altered, the Malay sarong being discarded for trousers, and the costume is utterly unsuited to the climate. These people, at all events in the town, are in many respects inferior to the Moham- medans, being lazy, proud, and untruthful, and their religion appears hardly better than a modified fetichism. " It seems," writes Mr. Forbes, " to lie on them like an awesome thraldom." Otherwise, they are much superior in point of civilisation to the ordinary coast natives of the islands, although a species of mild Mafia exists — the Kakian society — which seems to include persons of all nationalities and colour. The town of Amboina is situated on the south side of the western inlet, about ten miles from the open sea. It is a free port, carrying on trade over a wide area. It is well laid out with regular and broad streets and a wide green plein, and the red laterite roads and abundant flowers and foliage give it an attractive appearance. There is an imposing Government House, and Fort Victoria, originally built by the Portuguese, but enlarged and strengthened by the Dutch in 1609, is a massive building which has managed to survive the earthquakes, and still protects the large storehouses in which in former days the cloves were kept. Amboina may be regarded as, primarily, a mihtary station. Here, too, are the headquarters of the mission staff and schoolmasters. Amboina is celebrated for its shells, collections of which have been made by the natives ever since the days of Eumphius two centuries ago, and there is, perhaps, no one locality in the world where so many beautiful varieties are to be easily obtained, the traders bringing THE MOLUCCAS 333 them from New Guinea and many distant islands. From here they are sent in large quantities to Singapore. The celebrated Amboina wood, much esteemed for cabinet work, is obtained from the knotty i^rotuberances formed on certain forest trees growing in Ceram. The true seedless bread-fruit, very rarely found out of the Pacific Islands, grows in Amboina and the smaller adjacent islands. The island exhibits an extraordinary climatic abnor- mality, the period of the west monsoon, from October to April, being the fine season. At this time the monthly average of rainy days is 13 only, and the rainfall 8 inches, while during the remainder of the year 21 days out of every month are wet, and the monthly rainfall 27 inches. The total annual rainfall is thus 191 inches, and with the steady high temperature prevailing it might be imagined that the island would be particularly trying to Europeans, but this does not appear to be the case. The trade of Amboina is not large, as most of the Bugis who visit New Guinea and the remoter islands now carry their produce direct to Makassar or even to Singapore. Numbers of small native vessels, however, continually visit it, bringing the produce of the surround- ing coasts and islands. In 1890 turtle shell to the value of £5050 was exported, and 107,107 lbs. of cloves, valued at £3179, these being the chief exports from the islands. On the giving up of the monopoly of cloves, a tax was imposed upon the heads of families of the native population. In 1893 this was changed into a tax which is levied on the whole male population above sixteen years of age. 11. Banda. The Banda group, though small in extent, is important 34 COMPENDIUxM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL as havino; lonw been the exclusive nutmeo'-o-arden of tlie world, and it is still the place where this beautiful tree grows iu the greatest perfection. Omitting the small islets, it consists of six islands, situated about 60 miles south of Ceram and 130 miles from Amboina. Of these only three are of any importance : Banda Nera, upon BANDA VOLCANO. which the town is situated ; Banda Lontar, the site of the chief nutmeg parks ; and Gunong Api, the volcano. The largest is Banda Lontar, 7^ miles long, and of semilunar shape, having the other two islands in its concavity, while two islets projecting from its eastern horn form with it nearly half a circle, the only portion now remaining of what was at one time a gigantic crater. THE MOLUCCAS 335 From its now submarine floor the present active peak of Gunoug Api has risen as a secondary crater, whicli, though of small size, has been terribly destructive. It rises straight from the sea as a steep and almost perfect cone, 1858 feet in height and two miles in diameter at its base. Excepting close to the sea, where there is a little bush and some coco-imt palms, it is almost entirely bare of vegetation, and its dark gray mass of scoriie and ashes is only marked by the furrows of water-courses, and, on its summit, by large deposits of sulphur. It is perpetually smoking, and its periods of activity have not only been numerous but prolonged. During tlie last three centuries eruptions are recorded at fifteen distinct periods, some of them lasting several months, and l)eing generally accompanied by destructive eartlujuakes. On six occasions earthquakes have occurred unacconijiaiiicd by eruptions, the last great one being in 1852, when a wave swept over the islands and destroyed many acres of the nutmeg plantations. In 1690 and 1691 there was a succession of eruptions and earthquakes, which so devastated the place that many of the inhabitants emi- grated to Andioina and Celebes to escape destruction, and it was said that but for the firmness of the Eesident the islands would have been utterly aliandoned. These eruptions have been frequently followed Ijy severe epidemics, which have been even more fatal. Although the islands are over 17 00 miles distant from Krakatau, the appalling eruption of that volcano made itself felt even here as a small seismic wave which rushed through the harl30ur from the westward, but did no damage. A narrow creek — the Zonnegat — only navigable by small craft, separates Gunong Api from Banda Nera. It is on this island that the town is placed, the cool- looking white houses covering the whole length of its 336 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL southern shore, and forming one of the neatest and cleanest settlements in the whole of the Dutch Indies. In the western outskirts live the Chinese traders, dealers in and exporters of the varied products of New Guinea and the surrounding islands. In the middle of the town is Fort Nassau, built by the Dutch in 1609, and a ruined fortress built by the Portuguese more than 350 years ago stands at the eastern extremity of Lontar ; but the most important and largest — the most conspicuous building on the island both from its size and position — is Fort Belgica, pentagonal in shape and very massive, placed on a small plateau above the town. It was com- menced in 1611, and has remained unharmed through the many earthquakes it has experienced, so solidly has it been constructed. Behind it rises an abrupt jungle- covered rock, 800 feet in height, from which there is a beautiful view of the town, the volcano, and the nutmeg gardens, which cover most of the larger island. The nutmeg trees are here grown, as they grow in their native forests, under the shade of lofty forest trees ; the tree used here being the kanari, which grows to a great height, its nuts producing a valuable oil. The light volcanic soil, the partial shade, and the constant moisture of these islands, where it rains more or less every month in the year, seem highly favourable to the nutmeg tree, which here reaches a large size, produces abundance of fruit, and is quite free from those diseases which have led to the practical abandonment of nutmeg- growing in Singapore. The nutmeg tree was a native of Banda, and man's cultivation has followed the method of nature, without attempting to force her to an unduly rapid production. The Government monopoly has long since been given up, and every one is permitted to plant and sell as he pleases, but the industry is chiefly in the THE MOLUCCAS 37 hands of large proprietors. The trees are in fruit and blossom during the greater part of the year, and hear the ^•x:'nIEG fruit, splitting and showing mace. peach-like fruit at the end of the shoots. The fleshy exocarp is thrown away, the mace is removed and dried in ovens, and the nut is kept to dry slowly, enclosed in Z 338 COMPENDIUxM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL its shining outer shell, until ready for export. The fruits are devoured whole by certain large pigeons of the genus Carpophaga, which consequently fell in early days under the ban of the Dutch, who were endeavouring to restrict the tree to the Banda group, and feared that the birds would be the means of conveying it elsewhere. It is a very singular fact that the nutmeg — like the clove — is not, and does not appear ever to have been, used by the native races, and it is difficult to explain how they can have become known to civilised nations at so early a period in the world's history, especially in the case of the clove, where the product is so largely artificial. The Banda Islands were first visited by Varthema in about 1505, who, rather inaptly, speaks of them as being most wretched and gloomy in appearance. Six years later, Antonio d'Abreu reached them with his fleet of three vessels and brought a cargo of nutmegs back to Malacca, but some years elapsed ere the Portuguese fairly established themselves. They did not hold them long, being ejected by the Dutch in 1609. On this occasion the natives opposed the new-comers, and suc- ceeded in kiUing the admiral and sixty-five of his men. The result was a war of extermination ; 3000 were killed and over 1000 taken prisoners, and the rest fled the islands. The plantations, or " parks," as they were called, were divided among the conquerors, whose descendants — the " Perkeniers " — much mixed in blood, held them as freehold on condition that they delivered the entire produce to the Government at a fixed rate. The Bandanese having been exterminated, it became necessary to get other labour, and this was done by a wholesale system of slave -catching in the less known islands, Siau in the Sangir chain supplying a large number. Later, when the carrying trade in slaves THE MOLUCCAS 339 was abolished, the " parks " were worked by convict labour. The exports of Banda being incorporated in the official publications with those of Amboina, no exact details of the produce of the islands can be arrived at. From the latter port in the year 1890 nutmegs to the value of £36,000 and mace to that of £42,000 were sent to Europe, the greater part, if not all of which was grown in Banda. The population of the settlement is about 7000, and the inhabitants are a miscellaneous assemblage of all the races found in the far east. 12. Islands East of Ceram. East and south of Ceram are a number of small islands forming a series of stepping-stones to the more important and larger K^ group. First we have great and little Keffing close to the main island, and a little farther, but still connected by shoals and islets, Ceram Laut. North-west of the latter are two singular islands, Gisser and Kilwaru. The former is of annular shape, with a narrow entrance to the lake-like harbour. It was formerly a veritable nest of pirates, but has now been converted into a coal depot by the Government. Kilwaru corresponds to Dobbo Island in the Aru group, to which reference will presently be made, in being a great native market or bartering-place for the products of all the islands round. Hither come the Bugis traders from Celebes in the west monsoon, meeting the traders in pearls, tortoiseshell, dammar, etc., from the New Guinea coast, and the paradise-bird collectors, whose wares also include live birds and animals of every kind, cassowaries, brilliant lories, crowned pigeons, and other rare and beautiful species. The ^dllage is built 340 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TEAVEL around a small sand-bank, the houses standmg on piles half in the water, and quite concealing the land, so as to give the place a most singular appearance from a distance. Its eastern portion is under a native raja, and the western in Dutch hands, separated from the other by a strong stone wall, which also surrounds the island. About 30 miles farther on we come to the Goram group, consisting of the two islands of Goram and Manowolko, and the smaller island of Suruaki. These are governed by a native raja, and the inhabitants are generally known as Goram men. They are Moham- medans of Malay type, with a slight infusion of Papuan blood, who speak a pecuhar language, and are probably derived from a mixture of Bugis with Moluccan Malays. They are a race of traders and ships' pilots, making voyages every year to the K^ and Aru islands, and to New Guinea, selling their produce to Bugis traders, who take it to Makassar or Singapore. Although a Dutch postholder is resident here, money is unlaiown to them, and the chief barter is cotton twist. These islands consist of raised coral reefs, with chfi's and terraces rising two or three hundred feet high. In Manowolko there are no streams, but there are some in Goram, which probably has a substratum of harder rock. Goram is surrounded by an encirchng reef, entirely under water except at the lowest ebb tide, but affording excellent anchorage and smooth water within. Twenty miles farther to the south-east are the small Matabello islands, of coral rock raised to a considerable height, and with a closely encircling reef leaving a narrow but secure passage for native boats within it. The rugged hills of these islands are covered with coco-nut trees, and the natives get their living by making coco-nut oil, which they sell to the Bugis traders. The only water here is THE MOLUCCAS 341 obtained from a few small wells near the beach ; and as the people live high up on the hills, they rarely, if ever, use water for any purpose but for drinking. They are brown Papuans with frizzly hair, and are pagans, but from much association with the Bugis and Goram traders have obtained some small tincture of ]\Iohammedanism. Tior, the Nusa-tello, and Tionfoloka islands complete the chain between Ceram and the Ke group. They appear to be inhabited by a mixed race chieily Papuan in character. 13. The K6 Islands. This small but compact little archipelago lies between 5° and 6° S. Lat., and consists of three chief islands — IsTuhu Ju-ud or Great Ke, Nuhu Eoa or Little K^, and X.6 Dulan. They came formally iuto the possession of Holland as far back as 1665; but so little were they explored up till 1886, when they were surveyed by Cap- tain Langen, that not only their outhne, but even their number, was unknown. Their entire surface is covered with the densest jungle, and they are tolerably thickly peopled as compared with many islands in these seas. Though there are no active volcanoes, old craters have been found both on Ke Dulan and Ju-ud, and severe earthquakes have occurred. The islands differ consider- ably. Ju-ud or Great K^ is long, narrow, and elevated ; in shape like a club or bludgeon, its head lying to the north. Although 64 miles in length, its average breadth is not more than from 1 to 3 miles. It is said to be composed of sandstones and granites, but its northern peaks — the highest of which is 2200 feet — are probably volcanic. A long and narrow channel, apparently of deep water, separates this island from the others, which 342 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TKAVEL are massed together to form a labyrinthine archipelago of over thirty islands, beset with reefs and shoals. These are evidently of much more recent origin, the highest point of Nuhu Eoa attaining an altitude of 200 feet only, and being formed of coralline limestone and shells. Ke Dulan is celebrated for its harbour, which was visited by the Challenger in 1874. Here, at Tual, resides the Controleur and a small colony of Germans who are engaged in the timber trade. The islands have no season of drought such as is experienced by those farther to the west, the ultimate links in the great Sunda chain. The west monsoon brings a considerable amount of rain, with stormy and unsettled weather, but from April to October, when the easterly monsoon pre- vails, the weather is settled and fine. The average rain- fall is 102 inches. Captain Langen, who has resided for a considerable time on the group, divides the natives into three classes — the aborigines, the Papuans, and the immigrant Malay people, who are of varied nationality. He describes the true K^ natives as tall and strongly built, with well- shaped but large noses and high cheek-bones, with black and brown coloured beard, and long, wavy, but finely curled black hair, mixed with several lighter or darker shades of brown, reaching to the shoulder and projecting all round the head. The skin is in colour midway between the Papuan and Malay. True Papuans were at one tune established in several places, but especially on a small island which still bears the name of Pulo Papua ; but constant warfare existed between the two races, and the K6 people eventually succeeded in driving them out. They had nevertheless intermarried for many generations, and as a consequence a mixed semi-Papuan race is found in all parts. THE MOLUCCAS 343 The total population in 1887 was 20,030, of Miuch about 6000 were Mohammedans. In 1886 and 1887 smallpox carried off at least 3000. The islands are ruled by eighteen Eajas, whose title is hereditary, and who hold the silver or gold-mounted sticks which the Dutch confer upon the princes or chiefs subject to them throughout the archipelago. Villages are very numerous all round the coast of Great K.^. They are surrounded by stone walls, and the houses, which are here as else- where pile-built, are family, not communal, as in Borneo and New Guinea. A certain amount of uncultivated land belongs to each village, the boundaries of which are established by the chiefs ; and here, according to Captain Langeu, the native may cut sago-palms or timber, but the coco-nuts are regarded as general property, and are under the guardianship of the chiefs, who on certain days permit them to be gathered, the nuts being divided among the people in proportion to their rank. The Ke islanders exhibit the artistic skill of the Papuans, showing especial taste in carving, and under- standing the rudiments of drawing — a rare accomplish- ment in Malaysia. On the face of some sea-cliffs on the north-west coast of ISTuhu Roa are coloured, incised drawings of animals, praus, etc., which, if not ancient, are at all events not of recent date, and are looked upon by the natives as the work of spirits. But the industry in which they most excel, and for which they are celebrated throughout the archipelago, is shipbuilding. In this they are wonderfully clever, for the vessels are built not only with very simple tools, but without the use of iron, the solid planks being secured together by pegs and fastened to the ribs by rattan. So truly do they work, that planks 20 or 30 feet long are fitted to each other on the curved sides of a vessel with such accuracy 344 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL as to require very little caulking. Every plauk is cut out of the tree with an axe, each tree producing two only. In this manner craft of all sizes are made, from the smallest canoe to schooners of 150 tons, the latter being brought for sale to Banda and other places, or acquired by Bugis traders for the Aru trade and pearl- fishing. All the tools necessary for the work are con- structed ,by native blacksmiths, who are almost without exception from the island of Teor, some 80 miles north- west of the group. There is little trade in Ke excepting in timber ; the most important tree is a species of ironwood. Marinda citrifolia gives a yellow dye from its bast, of which 8 0 to 100 tons are annually exported. The fauna of the group is hardly known, but appears to be of Papuan type, and one of the small tree kangaroos {Dendrolagus) is found. ^ r HE S IJ N 1) A ISLANDS o CHAPTER X THE TIMOR GROUP, OR LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS 1. Greneral. From the east end of Java a chain of important islands stretches in a straight line for ahout 800 miles, till it seems to be turned aside by encountering the large island of Timor, and is then continued by a series of gradually diminishing islands for about 400 miles farther. From the eastern extremity of Timor another series extends to Timor Laut. Between the western end of Timor and Sumbawa the islands of Eotti, Savu, and Sumba, or Sandalwood, form a kind of loop-line to the principal chain. A volcanic belt, with many active volcanoes, runs in a direct line from Java to the east end of Timor, and thence through Timor Laut to the K4 group. Sumba Island and the western half of Timor appear to be non-volcanic. The whole group of islands we are now considering have a very different aspect from m-ost other parts of the Malay Archipelago, and especially from the Moluccas, being deficient in verdure, for the most part without forests, and often absolutely barren. This deficiency of forest-covering begins even in Bali, so close to luxuriant Java, and increases as we go eastward, till, in the great 346 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL island of Timor, such forests as are found in Borneo and the Moluccas are quite unknown, and are only repre- sented by dense thickets of thorny shrubs, scattered trees of eucalyptus, euphorbia, casuarina, and sandalwood, and patches of more luxuriant woods in some of the moister ravines. The country, in fact, resembles Australia much more than the Moluccas. Some of the purely volcanic islands near Timor, of which Wetta is an example, are bare in the extreme, reminding the traveller more of the burnt hills of Aden than the luxuriant vegetation of the Spice Islands. We can hardly err in tracing this remarkable aridity to the vicinity of the heated interior of Australia, directly to the south-east of the islands of this group. It is well known that this arid continent exercises a disturbing effect on the meteorology of all the surrounding countries, diverting the monsoons from their due course, and by its ascending currents of heated air preventing the deposition of moisture that would other- wise take place. The island of Bali is connected with Java by a very shallow sea, and has no doubt once formed part of that island, with which its vegetable and animal productions closely correspond. The strait separating Bali I'rom Lombok is, on the contrary, very deep ; and directly we cross it we come among a new set of animals, and appear to have left Asia for Australia. We at once meet with those singular birds the mound-builders (Megajyodiidce), brush-tongued lories, as well as friar-birds {Ti^opidorhyn- chus) and other honeysuckers, cockatoos, and many other groups found only in the Australian region ; while a number of animals, found in the larger Asiatic islands, suddenly disappear. We have no longer any elephants, rhinoceroses, tapirs, or tigers ; none of the carnivora but a common civet-cat ( Vivcrra) ; none of the insectivora but THE TIMOR GROUP 347 the small shrew (Tupaia) ; none of the numerous rodents but one or two squirrels, and even these do not extend as far as Timor. We thus have the Sunda chain divided distinctly and definitely into an Asiatic and an Australian portion, the dividing Hne coinciding with the deep-sea channel existing between Bali and Lombok. This boundary is now universally known as " Wallace's hne." The chain is also somewhat sharply divided between the two great races of the archipelago, the Malays and Papuans, although the boundary occurs at a different point, the former people extending as far east as Sum- bawa, while from Flores through all the other islands the latter prevail. 2. Bali. The two islands of Bah and Lombok are the only portion of the Malay Archipelago in which the old Hindu rehgion still regularly maintains itself, though Hindu Kajas also exercise rule in the Ke Islands. Bah is almost 90 statute miles in extreme length, and of irregular shape, with an area of about 2075 square miles. It is separated from the eastern extremity of Java by a strait hardly more than a mile wide, and like that island, is mountainous throughout, excepting a small portion in the south, the main chain running from west to east in apparent continuation of that of Java. There are several active volcanoes, the most important of which, perhaps, is Batur (whose height has been estimated by different observers at 3940 and 6400 feet), which is in constant activity, and caused great destruction by an eruption in 1815. Batu Kau (9600 feet) is also active, but Abang (7500 feet) and Agung (10,500 feet)— the latter the highest peak in the island — are beheved to be extinct, although Agung, or Bah Peak, as it is called by 348 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL mariners, broke into eruption in 1843. There are no navigable rivers, although small streams are numerous, and in many cases are entirely utilised for purposes of irrigation, an art which is brought to great perfection. Many become dried up in the east monsoon. A numlier of small lakes exist, some at considerable elevations, and formed either in old craters or in depressions caused by volcanic disturbances ; and these too are largely used as KOYAL PALACE, BALI. reservoirs to supply water for irrigation, the plains and lowlands being highly cultivated and exceedingly fertile. Bali has been well described as an old-fashioned Java. The manners and customs of that island as they existed a couple of hundred years ago are here preserved almost unchanged. The people are scarcely to be distinguished from the Javanese in appearance, excepting that they are perhaps a little taller and more sturdy in build. They live in villages surrounded by clay walls, and their houses THE TIMOE GROUP 349 have also walls of clay with a thatch of grass or palm leaves. Their agriculture is very perfect, and owing to the fertility of the volcanic soil and the constant supply of water for irrigation, their fields produce a continual succes- sion of crops, giving the country the appearance of a vast and highly-cultivated garden. The chief export is coffee, of which £43,750 worth was shipped in 1890. Tobacco, cattle, and copra to the amount of over £10,000 each were also exported, but there is not otherwise much trade, and these figures also include Lombok. The Balinese are fair handicraftsmen, especially m gold and iron, making excellent weapons with the rudest tools and appliances, including even long-barrelled guns with flint locks, used in war and for shooting wild cattle. The language, though written in the Javanese character, and, like it, having two different forms or dialects — the high and low Bahnese- — -is quite distinct. The ancient Kawi language, extinct in Java, is still used by the priests and in legal business. There is a written code, both civil and criminal. Literature was abundantly represented in almost all its branches, but a period of decadence has set in, and the Balinese are no longer the cultured race they were in former days. The religion prevalent is a mixture of Buddhism and Brahmanism, but numbers of the coast people are IMohammedans. The people are divided, as among the old Hindus, into four castes — priests, soldiers, merchants, and labourers, and there is also a Pariah class ; the second order, that of soldiers, includes almost all the rajas, gustis, and governing classes. Caste prejudice and laws are still very strong, and the burning of widows and slaves on the death of great men is apparently still practised, although the victims usually stab themselves before the fire is lighted. 350 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Bali and Lombok together form a separate Eesidency, the seat of government being at Buleleng on the north coast of the former island. There are still seven king- doms or districts ruled over by native princes, who are in many cases practically possessed of despotic power, though all are more or less subservient to European rule. The two Dutch provinces are Buleleng in the north and Jembrana in the west. The population of the island is very dense, a late estimate placing it at 802,930, or 386 to the square mile, which nearly equals that of the densely populated parts of Java. 3. Lombok. Lombok is thus called only by Europeans, from a village on the northern shore of the island. The Malay traders call it Tana Sasak, or the Sasak country, from the name of the people who inhabit it. To the Balinese, the conquerors of the island, it is known as Selaparang. The island is divided from Bali by the Lombok Strait, which, though only 23 miles in breadth, is of great depth. Larger and more compact than Bali, being of a sub-quadrangular shape, it is about 55 miles long by 45 broad, and has an area of 2090 square miles. Two mountain ranges traverse it from east to west, the northern volcanic and of great height, the southern of recent calcareous formation and low, but the chains are nearly joined by a lateral secondary range which divides the intervening valley into two. The eastern part of the northern chain is composed of the giant volcanic mass of Gunong Einjani, better known to Europeans as the Peak of Lombok. Its height has been variously given between the limits of 8000 and 14,000 feet, but Craw- furd, apparently on Dr. Zollinger's authority, fixes it at THE TIMOR GROUP 351 12,375, which measurement, since it coincides very nearly with one taken by Lieutenant K. ff". Powell, Pi.K, during the voyage of the Marchesa, may be considered tolerably accurate. This volcano is, like all the others in the island, practically extinct, although a thin hne of smoke is sometimes seen issuing from near the summit. It has never been ascended by any European. As in Bali, there are numerous lakes, mostly formed in extinct craters or depressions caused by volcanic action, and they are similarly used for irrigation purposes. The largest, Segara-anak, or the " Baby Sea," is at an elevation of nearly 9000 feet, but is of no great extent. The rivers are also small but numerous, and are unfit for navigation, but in the rainy season they bring down vast volumes of water, and are at all times used to irrigate the land by a system as elaborate and careful as that obtaining in BaH, if not more so. There are few places in Java so highly cultivated and tended as the fertile valley which occupies the middle of the island. Large crops of maize and rice are grown, the latter being ex- ported in considerable quantity. Coffee, cattle, and horses are also represented in the exports. The handi- crafts are not equal to those of Bah, the Sasaks being especially an agricultural people, but excellent krisses and other weapons are made, and a large quantity of cottons are woven. Chinese copper money is the only coin current with the natives of the interior. Lombok is less known and less civilised than Bah. The Sasaks — apparently the origiual inhabitants, for there is no trace of an earher race — are a Malay people allied to the Javanese and Bugis, but speaking a peculiar language akin to that of West Sumbawa, and written in the Balinese character, which, with a few minor differ- ences, is the same as the Javanese. They are Moham- 352 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL medans, though very lax in the practice of their tenets, and about a century ago were conquered by a prince of Karang-Asam in Bali, whose descendants now rule over the whole island — a soUtary example of Hindus having conquered and still keeping rule over Mohammedans. The Dutch have no civil representatives on the island, but there are a few Europeans resident at the towns of Ampanam and Labuan Tring. A number of Balinese are settled in the capital city of Mataram, and these are all of the Hindu religion. Mataram is only three miles inland from Ampanam, the chief port of Lombok, which consists of four kampongs or villages, inhabited respect- ively by Sasaks, BaUnese, Bugis, and Malays. Many whalers come here to obtain rice and provisions. The lading of ships is, however, very dangerous, owing to the heavy swell that breaks upon the steep beach, even in the calmest weather. Boats are continually upset and lives lost here, and the inhabitants often speak of the sea as a hungry monster, ever trying to devour them. When there is a little wind from the south or south-west, bringing in a swell from the Pacific, the rollers rise to an enormous height, breaking close to the beach, on which they fall with the noise of thunder,' and occasionally rush up with such fury as to render it very dangerous to walk near the high-water mark. The Bahnese appear to govern in Lombok with some skill and moderation, but the laws are very severe, theft being punished with death, while any one found in another's yard or house at night is lawfully stabbed and his body thrown into the street, when no inquiry takes place. The Piaja has a well-armed and drilled force of some thousand men. In the city of Mataram none but the ruling classes may ride on horseback, and every native on meeting a chief gets off his horse and sits on THE TIMOR GROUP .'3;') 3 the ground till he has passed. Here, as in Bali, the women are the chief traders ; and the market of Ampanam, held under a magnificent avenue of iig trees, is an interesting sight, where all the chief products of the country and the many races that inhabit or frequent it are to be found collected together. A few miles inland the Eaja has a park and pleasure-house called Gunong Sari, where there are handsome brick gateways with Hindu deities in stone, resembling those of the ruined cities of Java ; fish-ponds stocked with fish, which come to be fed on the striking of a gong ; and deer which will come out of the woods to take bread from tlic visitor's hand. There are also fantastic pavilions, gro- tesque statues, and groves of fruit trees, — altogether a very pretty place, though now much neglected, but still serving to show that these Eajas of Bali had once some love and admiration both for nature and art. The population is estimated at about 540,000, which is at the very high proportion of about 2 5 8 to the square mile. Of these about 30,000 only are Balinese, and about one-fifth of that number Bugis and Malays. The Sumbawa eruption of 1815 was the cause of the death of many thousands, the island being buried in ashes to the depth of 18 inches, and of late smallpox and chdlcra have also been very fatal. 4. Sumbawa. Crossing the Alias Strait from Lombok, only 1 0 miles in width, we come to the much larger island of Sumbawa, which is 170 miles long, and exceedingly irregular in shape, being almost cut in two by the deep and wide Sale Gulf. Its area is estimated at about 5300 square miles, or a little greater than that of Jamaica, and it is 2 A 354 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL surrounded by numerous small islands. Although the Dutch have had a footing on it for more than two hundred years, it still remains but little known. Like Bali and Lombok, Sumbawa seems to have its mountains ranged more or less in two lines, running from west to east, the volcanoes for the most part occupy- ing the more northern portion. Of these, both active and extinct, there are many. The most important are Ngenges (5560 feet) and Lante (5413 feet), in the western half of the island ; the gigantic Tambora (9040 feet), occupying the northern peninsula; Dende (5151 feet), Soro Mandi (4553 feet), and Aru Hassa (5568 feet), grouped together on the western side of Bima Bay ; and Sambori, Lambu, and Massi at the eastern end of the island. Gunong Api or Sangeang Island, off the north-east coast, is an active island-volcano of striking appearance, rising to a height of over 6000 feet from a base of only about 7 miles in diameter. The land in the south of Sumbawa is of lower elevation, and some of the mountains and hills, notably Tafelberg, at the extreme western end of the island, appear to be of sedi- mentary formation. Of the volcanoes above-mentioned, that of Tambora is incomparably the most important, causing, as it did in 1815, one of the most awful erup- tions ever recorded in history. It is said that previous to this catastrophe the peak was more than 13,000 feet high. Now it is variously estimated at from 8600 to 9040 feet, so that the apex for a height of about 4000 feet must have been blown into the air. That this may well have occurred is evident from the fact that the crater, as it at present appears, has a diameter of over 7 miles. The following account of the occurrence is taken chiefly from Sir Charles Lyell's PtHnciplcs of Geology : — The great eruption began on 5th April, 1815, was THE TIMOR GROUP 355 most violent on the lltli and 12tli, hikI did not entiivly cease till the following July. The sound of the explo- sions was heard at Benkulen in Sumatra, a distance of over 1100 miles in one direction, and at Ternate, a dis- tance of over 900 in a nearly opposite direction. Violent whirlwinds carried up men, horses, cattle, and whatever else came witliin their influence, into the air ; tore up the largest trees by the roots, and covered the sea v.-ith floating timber. Many streams of lava issued from the crater and flowed in different directions to the sea, destroying everything in their course. Even more destructive were the ashes, which fell in such quantities that the}^ broke through the Eesident's house at Bima, more than 60 miles to the eastward, and rendered most of the houses in that town uninhabitable. On the west towards Java, and on the north towards Celebes, the ashes darkened the air to a distance of 300 miles, while fine ashes fell in Amboina and Banda, more than 800 miles distant, and in such quantity at Brunei, the capital of Borneo, more than 900 miles north, that the event is remembered and used as a date-reckoner to this day. To the west of Sumbawa the sea was covered with a floating mass of fine ashes two feet thick, through which ships forced their way with difficulty. The darkness caused by the ashes in the daytime was more profound than that of the darkest nights, and this horrid pitcln- gloom extended a distance of 300 miles to the westward into Java. Along the sea-coast of Sumbawa and the neighbouring islands, the sea rose suddenly to the height of from 2 to 12 feet, so that every vessel was forced from its anchorage and driven on shore. The town of Tambora sank beneath the sea, and remained permanently 18 feet deep where there had been dry land before. The noises, the tremors of the earth, and the foil of ashes 356 COMrEXDIUM of geography and TltAVEL from this eruption extended over a circle of more than 2000 miles in diameter, and out of a population of 12,000 persons who inhabited the province of Tambora previous to the eruption, it is said that only 26 indi- viduals survived. The mountain is now quiescent, and few signs of the catastrophe remain, save that the course of the lava-streams may be traced by the inferior height of the jungle now covering them. The little island of Setonda, which is situated a mile or two to the north- west, is a secondary crater of Tambora, and, like it, appears to be extinct. Sumbawa has its coast-Hne broken in two or three places with curious fjord-like bays, of which the most important is Bima. The narrow entrance, barely 400 yards in width, and guarded by two old and ruined forts, opens into a spacious harbour surrounded by mountains, which is the only port visited by ships, and the sole point of contact between savagery and western civilisa- tion. The Sale Gulf is little known. Here, and about the island of ]\Iayo, pirates are said still to lurk, taking praus and making occasional descents on the callages, so that the shores of the gulf are more or less deserted for some distance inland, where the natives live in stockaded towns. The land south of the gulf is very low, and not more than nine or ten miles broad, and the monsoon blowing across it from April to October as a strong south-easterly wind parches the entire country, so that the trees shed their leaves, and the ground is thick with a very line, powdery dust. The difference between the seasons becomes more marked as we progress eastward in the Sunda chain, the drought being here more severe and the rainfall heavier tlian in Bali. The people may be divided into three groups — the Sundjawans proper, the Bugis and Makassar immigrants, 358 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and a race of people of whom almost nothing is known, and who may possibly represent the original inhabitants of the island. Of the first-named the affinities do not appear to be satisfactorily made out : they are of sub- Malayan stock, with linguistic peculiarities pointing rather to a connection with Celebes than with Bali or Lombok. The Buginese and Makassar people immi- grated in large numbers a few years after the great Tambora eruption, which is said to have caused the death of some 70,000 of the islanders. They are chiefly con- fined to the western portion of the island. Five distinct languages are spoken, and most of the people are Moham- medans, except the wild tribes above-mentioned, who are pagans. There are two Sultanates — Sumbawa and Bima. The Sultan of Bima's dominions extended not only over the eastern half of the island, but over Banta, Komodo, and the western part of Flores, and formerly over Sumba also. The Dutch rule is, however, acknowledged, and a Controleur and small garrison are established at Bima, the island, together with the western part of Flores, being under the administration of the Eesident at Makassar. There is, however, no direct jurisdiction, such authority as is exerted being carried out through the medium of the native rulers. Agriculture is nruch less advanced in Sumbawa than in Bali and Lombok. There are no natural reservoirs of water, and the streams are often precipitous, and run dry in the summer, so that irrigation would be difficult even to expert agriculturists. Some of the valleys are very fertile, and the frightful eruption of 1815, which for some little time after rendered the land unfit for cultivation, had as its eventual result a very greatly in- creased fertility when the volcanic ejecta had become thoroughly disintegrated. Eice is very largely grown, THE TIMnU GROUP 351) and forms the staple, lor neither the sago nor coco-nut palm is suited to the climate. The export trade is very small. Ponies are the most noteworthy feature of it, many being sent to Batavia, while every year a shipload is despatched to Mauritius. The animals are considered the best in the whole archipelago, and, though very small, are of good shape and powerful. In Dr. Zollinger's time the Sultan of Bima was said to own over ten thousand. Almost every native rides, and carries his spear even if at work in the fields. The mineral resources of the island are as yet unexplored, but gold and arsenic are known to exist, as well as petroleum. The island has been conjectured to have a population of about 150,000 : it is at all events thinly peopled as compared with Bah and Lombok. The towns of Bima and Sumbawa have each about 5000 inhabitants. There are hardly any Chinese settlers, but some hundreds of Klings are resident in or near Bima. 5. Flores. Passing eastward from Sumbawa, the Sapi Strait is first crossed. It was at one time much used by vessels, but now the Alias Strait is preferred, being both wider and easier. The small island of Komodo, which is of volcanic formation, is said to be practically uninhabited, being only temporarily used by fishermen. Next comes the Strait of Mangerai, which is almost unknown, and swept by tremendous currents, as are most of the passages through this great island barrier. Its eastern shores are formed by another small and uninhabited island, Rindia, which abounds in wild buhaloes and horses, and is separated from Flores by a narrow and reef-beset passage. Flores is 232 miles long and from 10 to 35 miles 360 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL wide, having an estimated area of about 6300 square miles. Its eastern part was, until 1859, claimed by the Portuguese, who had small settlements, protected by forts, at Larantuka, Ende Bay, and other places. It is very mountainous, and has numerous active and extinct volcanoes, but the older rocks would also seem to be represented, although to what extent is uncertain, for the interior is a terra incognita to Europeans. The liighest peak is Eomba, near the middle of the south coast, with an elevation of 9187 feet. Eokka, about 15 miles west of it, is also a fine volcano, reaching a height of 6562 feet. At the east end of Ende Bay, Gunong Api runs out as a promontory into the sea, and is in a state of constant activity, as also appears to be another peak a few miles eastward. At the eastern end of the island three fine volcanoes dominate the Flores Strait; at the southern entrance is Lobetobi, 7425 feet in height, a twin peak of which the lower crater is active ; at the northern narrows rises Illimandiri ( 5 1 7 0 feet), which appears extinct, but has hot springs at its base. Katabelo occupies the middle promontory, facing another volcano on Solor Island, and is 3600 feet high only. The island of Palani or Rusa Eaja, lying five or six miles seaward from the middle of the north coast, is also a volcano, the height of which has been found to be 4593 feet. These are the chief mountains at present known, but an exploration of the island would no doubt result in the discovery of others. On the coasts of the island, especially on the northern side, we find the usual intrusive foreign population. In 1847 a colony of Bima natives were settled in Bari Bay to serve as a check on the pirates who used to resort thither, and they are now found some distance inland and along the coast. A mixed race of Bugis people also TIIK TIMOR GliOUr .",01 form a large proportion of the littoral population, Imt according to Dr. Weber the true 15uginese arc hanlly seen except at Maumeri, where they construct the hirgc trading praus for which they are so famed. The ali- original inhabitants thus occupy the interior. They are totally distinct from the sub-Malayan peoples of the coast, and are by most observers considered t(t be of Papuan origin. They are tall and strongly luiilt, wiili somewhat of the unreserved and noisy manners of the New Guinea savage. The teeth are filed to points: tht- nose is large, rather prominent, and finely cut ; the skin dark, or, according to some travellers, sooty-black. The hair is frizzly and abundant, but waved, and less re- sistent than in the true Papuan ; and altogether the Flores aboriginals may perhaps be said to Idc most nearly allied to the Timorese. Tliey are not very friendly even near Larantuka, where Europeans have been long settled, and a Dutch expedition attempting to explore inland from the south coast in 1889 was attacked and driven to retreat, the leader and two Government officials having been wounded. These people are pure pagans, their creed being apparently a form of nature- worship. The earth is considered holy, and to be dis- turbed as little as possible, so that in the dry season they will only dig for water in the river-beds as a last resource. The coast dwellers are mostly IMohannnedans, but the Portuguese made some converts din-ing their tenure of the island, and a good number, especially of the mixed race of Portuguese blood in Larantuka, still call themselves Christians, and are said to be visited by the priests from Timor. There is also a Dutch Catholic mission at Maumeri and Sikka. The people inhabiting Paisa Eaja Island are pagans of the same race as those of the interior. 362, COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL There is not much trade in Flores, but Larantuka is visited in the westerly monsoon by the praus of the Celebes traders, who ship rice, birds' nests, tortoiseshell, wax, and so forth, and bring Butung sarongs in exchange. Sandalwood and cinnamon are also exported in small quantities, and a few ponies. The forests produce various dyes, such as sapan wood and another known as " kayu kuning " by the Malays, yielding a yellow dye. The thickets near the coast are rendered dangerous by the presence of a very poisonous shrub, probably one of the Uuphorhiacece, whose juice causes severe wounds and fever, and even blindness when it touches the eye. Copper, gold, and iron are known to exist, and tin is worked by the natives on the south coast, but the mines have never been visited by Europeans. Larantuka is the chief town, situated just within the northern entrance of the Flores Strait. It gives its name to the eastern portion of the island. The name Flores is seldom used in the archipelago in common parlance, the natives speaking of Mangarai, Ende, or Larantuka, according as they wish to refer to the western, central, or eastern part. The whole population of the island has been roughly estimated at 250,000. Flores falls under the administration of the Eesident of Timor, and besides the sub-Controleur at Larantuka, there are two Postholders on the island, one at Maumeri on the north coast, and another at Ambugaga in Ende Bay. 6. The Solor and Allor Groups. Between Flores and Timor lie the five smaller islands comprised in these two groups — Solor, Adenara, and Lomblen forming the first named, and Pantar and Allor (or Ombay) the Allor group. Solor and Adenara lie TIIK TIMOR GROUP .'^G."'. nearly north and south of each other, being separated by the narrow Solor Strait. Omitting this, there arc thus five breaks between Flores and Timor in this vast island chain — the Flores, Lamakwera or Boleng, Allor, and Pantar Straits, and the broad and profound channel known as the Ombay Passage. The latter is most used by vessels, but all are navigable, though more or less dangerous from the terrific currents which sweep through them, and at times render ships quite ungovernable. Their strength may be realised from the fact that mariners are ■ cautioned in sailing along the islands not to approach within 12 miles of the mouth of the Straits, lest tlicir ship should be drawn in. A vessel has been known, while experiencing strong southerly winds at the northern entrance of the Komodo Strait, west of Plores, to be drawn in at the rate of eleven miles an hour. Yet these Currents are most uncertain, and vessels are sometimes 'not only days, but weeks, endeavouring to pass througli. In March, 1868, some twenty or thirty sailing ships had been in vain trying to get eastward through the Ombay Passage, with the result of always losing by day what was gained at night. At length the captains of two shijis resolved to try the Lamakwera Strait. In two days the entrance was reached, and in two and a half hours they had passed through. All these islands are inhabited by a race similar to the people of the interior of Flores — dark, tall, and frizzly -haired, and httle known to Europeans — while on the coast are settled a few Bugis or oth^r Malays. They are nominally under the jurisdiction of the Residency of Timor, and there are Postholders at Terong in Adonara and Allor Ketjil in Ombay. The entii'e population of the two groups is believed to be about 125,000 inhabitants. Solor is the smallest of the five islands, and tlie 364 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AXD TRAVEL natives are said to be very hostile in parts. The Dutch as early as 1613 drove the Portuguese out of a small settlement they had established here. Adonara is more populous and larger ; its highest peak, the volcano Mount Wokka, attains a height of 4882 feet. Lomblen or Kawella is 55 miles long, and has an area of about 400 square miles. The coast is high, bold, and barren in appearance, and at least four volcanic peaks exist, of which Lamararap (5800 feet), at the southern extremity of the island, is the most lofty. It was through this group that the Victoria — the last remaining ship of Magellan's squadron — passed, most probably by the Flores Strait, and the islands are mentioned by Pigafetta. Pantar is about 28 miles long, and is said to be sparsely populated by natives who are not to be trusted. Ombay or Allor is the largest of the five islands, being about 65 miles in length by 15 in breadth. It is almost all high land, especially at the east end, and, unlike many others' of the chain, is covered with high trees to the summit of the mountains. The Victoria refitted here in 1522, and Pigafetta speaks of the natives as cannibals, and even at the present day they are said to be head-hunters in the interior. 7. Wetta and the Serwatti Group. East of the (3mbay Passage lies Kambing, a small island about 12 miles long, which is noteworthy as belonging to the Portuguese, although it is in no way connected with Timor, being separated from it by a channel nearly 2000 fathoms deep. It has a mountain 3273 feet in height, at the summit of which are numbers of small mud volcanoes, exhibiting eruptions at regular intervals. "Wetta is a considerable island, 70 miles in TJIE Tl.NKJU GKUUr 30") length, high and barren, the noith-west coast fonued l.y arid mountains about 4000 feet higli. The couiitrv seems absolutely bare of trees, looking like a rcc-nt volcanic product. The inhabitants are akin to those of Timor, and are said to be harmless and timid. There are a few Bugis settled on the coast, and the principal pro- duct is beeswax. The ]wpulation is believed to ho alu.ut 8000. The appellation Serwatti Islands includes the scattered groups which intervene between Wetta and Timor Laut. They have, however, no geographical unity, though ethnographically they are connected by the fact that they are for the most part inhabited not by people of Papuan or sub-Papuan race, as might be expected, but hy natives of Malay stock, numbers of whom are nominally Christians. In the last century the Dutch had small settlements on many of the islands, and the individuals then converted became, as a result of their education, the ruling class. Although many of the Dutch posts were given up, the islands relapsing into a terra incoynita which has only of late been re-explored, this curious state of things has persisted, and the people are industrious and peaceable instead of being head-hunting savages. Following the chain of the Lesser Sundas onwards, we come to Eoma, a compact island about 10 miles in diameter, with an area of 150 square miles. It has a single high peak, and is surrounded by a number of small islands, the exact position of which is not yet known. The soil is very fertile, and the inhabitants. of whom there are over 1000, are protessedly Christians. About 80 miles farther to the north-east hes a very similar group, the central and most important island (jf which is Damma, where, at the village of AVulur, a Post- holder is stationed. It has an active volcano oOOO feet 366 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL in height, and a fair harbour. The nutmeg is said to have grown here at one time, but to have been extirpated by the Dutch. About 70 miles farther in the same direction is Nila, with a small volcano which has been active in recent times. Finally, the chain terminates with Serua ; or possibly Manok Island, a small and isolated volcanic peak in 5° 33' S., may be the ultimate link. The remainder of the Serwatti islands form a chain connecting Wetta with the Timor Laut group, though whether situated on one and the same raised submarine bank is unknown, the soundings in these seas being few in number. Kissa is the most western, and is densely populated, for, though possessed of an area of less than 40 square miles, there were in 1 8 8 6 nearly 10,000 inhabitants. The Dutch formerly had settlements in two or more places on the island, but have now abandoned them, chiefly, it is said, owing to the droughts which so fre- quently occurred. In spite of the barren and mountain- ous character of the land, the soil is very fertile, and passing ships obtain provision abundantly and cheaply. The inhabitants are a tall and good-looking race of Chris- tian Malays, who are good agriculturists. Pura-pura, a village on the south-west coast, is the principal port of the Serwatti islands, and two miles inland is a walled town of some size, with a large church. The Letti group, of which Moa is the largest island, is peopled almost as thickly with a similar race. Many cattle are raised. The Karbau peak on Moa attains a height of 4100 feet, but the remainder of the island is flat and coralline. The group contains 11,000 inhabitants, and a representa- tive of the Dutch Government resides on Letti. Sermata, about 40 miles eastward, is little known. Leaving this Malayan oasis, we come again, at the Baba group, to a dark Papuan race, who bear a rather bad character. THE TIMOR CROUP The islands are nu lunger bare, but euvered with tbi. k forest, and there is little cultivation. The Dutch litivf a small coal-depot here, at Tepa, on the west coast of ih<- main island. 8. The Timor Laut Group. The Timor Laut or Teuimber Islands are a large and rather closely packed group situated aljout midway between Timor and Aru. They extend north and south over nearly 2° of latitude, and consist of three main islands — Larat, Yamdena, and Selaru, with tliirty or more of lesser area and importance. Such knowledge as we have of the soundings in the neighbourhood seem to point to the existence of deep water around the group, though not to the great depths wdiich appear to isolate Timor. Until 1882 almost nothing was known concern- ing this little archipelago. The Bugis and Gorani traders visited a few villages occasionally, and obtained trepaiig, tortoiseshell, and other products, but previous to 'Sh: H. 0. Forbes's visit no European had ever remained upon the group, and very few had even landed. In 1882 this enterprising naturalist, accompanied by his wife, was landed at Pdtabel in Larat, and remained tliure for a period of three months. It is to his obse'rvations that we are indebted for what little knowh'dge we possess of the islands. The chief island, Yamdena, is about 75 miles in length by 15 in breadth. Selaru is 30 miles long, and Larat not quite so large. The islands are all low, and apparently all composed of recently upheaved coralHne limestone, with the single exception of Laibobar Island, which attains a height of about 2000 feet, and is most probably a volcano. There are aljsolutely no inhabitants 368 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL in the interior, but along the coast, especially in the north, the villages are numerous. Mr. Forbes regards the natives as a mixed race of Papuan, Polynesian, and Malay blood. They use the fork-like hair-combs of the Papuans, and are very clever carvers of wood and ivory, the latter substance being brought as tusks from Singa- pore and Sumatra by Buginese traders. Drunkenness is rather common, the spirit used being distilled from the sap of the coco-palm. Tobacco is only grown for chew- ing. The constant tribal or village wars which appear everywhere to exist oblige the people to live in stockaded towns, set about with sharp-pointed bamboo stakes, and agriculture suffers in consequence, and not the less from a dearth of water. Maize is the staple, but sweet potato, manioc, and sugar are also grown. Neither rice nor sago appears to be cultivated, but the natives are industrious fishermen. Mr. Forbes found characteristic Australian trees con- spicuous by their absence. Eucalyptus, casuarinas, and phyllode-bearing acacias were not seen, but urostigmas, sterculias, and myrtles formed a conspicuous feature of the ilora. The avifauna is markedly Papuan, with a slight Timor element, and this Timorese affinity is also shown by the Lepidoptera. There are no deer, and the tree kangaroo {Dendrolagus), a striking Papuan form, has not been found, though existent, as we have seen, in the K^ Islands. On Yamdena large herds of buffalo have run wild. 9. Sumba, Savu, and Timor. Sumba, the little island of Savu, and the group of which Timor forms the main island, are in no way con- nected with the great Sunda chain just described. They form a group apart, but whether connected with each THE TIMOK GROUP 360 other by submarine banks is as yet unknown, although this is improbable. Between them and these eastern Sunda islands very deep water is known to exist. In the Ombay Passage, separating Timor from Ombay, the depth of water probably averages about 2000 fathoms, while between Sumba and Flores such soundings as have been taken show it to be about 700 to 900 fathoms. This separation is borne out by geological evidence, Timor consisting mainly of slates, schists, and sandstones, with limestone rocks of carboniferous age at the western extremit}', thus differing considerably from the chain of volcanic islands which run from Java to Banda. More- over, Timor is not only washed by deep water on its northern but also on its southern shores, for the great bank of soundings, which runs out for a vast distance from Northern Australia, suddenly ends about 90 miles from Timor, and gives place to great depths of from 1000 to 2000 fathoms. It might thus be expected that an isolation so long continued as these facts imply should be manifested by great singularity in the fauna and flora. This does not, however, appear to be the case, although collections are perhaps as yet too scanty to permit a judgrment, except possibly as far as regards the botany of the island. Timor, which lies with its long axis in a N.E. and S.W. direction, is almost exactly 300 miles long, and of tolerably regular outline, being for a great part of its length about 60 miles wide. It is therefore considerably larger than Ceram, and has an estimated area of 11,650 square miles. It is mountainous throughout, and its surface exceedingly broken and rugged. The ranges do not, however, often rise higher than 5000 or 6000 feet, and they are generally bare or thinly wooded, and often exceedingly sterile, especially on the Australian side. 2 B 370 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL The most important mountains are chiefly in the northern part, but Mount Alas, which has the greatest altitude, is situated about the middle of the island near the south coast, and is stated to reach the height of 12,250 feet. Another fine peak is Kabalaki, about 10,000 feet, not far from Dilli. The chief mountain in Dutch territory is Lakan (6500 feet). It was for long supposed that Timor was without volcanoes, but this is not the case, and there have been recent eruptions both in the eastern and western parts of the island. Mr. Scrope in his work on volcanoes speaks of Timor Peak as a mountain of great height, continually active before the year 1638, when it was blown up during an eruption and the peak replaced by a crater-lake. Before this occurrence the mountain was said to be visible 300 miles off, which, if true, would imply that it was the loftiest in the archi- pelago. Earthquakes are rather frequent, and mud volcanoes exist in Semang and Landu islands. Mr. Forbes speaks of the country at some distance inland from Dilli as presenting the most bizarre and fantastic appearance from the limestone formation pre- valent in that region. Superimposed clays make land- slips extraordinarily frequent, and he regards road-making as almost impossible in many places for this reason. The paths are deep ditches along which the ponies pass in single file, now ascending, now descending the abrupt ravines which are so marked a feature of the island. Iron occurs, as well as copper and gold, the two latter probably being abundant, and coal and petroleum are also found. The rivers are numerous but not navigable, and from the excessive drought of the dry season and the porous nature of the soil many at that time of year do not reach the sea. No lakes of any size are known. THE TIMOR GROUP 371 From a passage in Pigafetta's diaiy, it appears possil)le that the Portuguese may have reached Timor hetbre the visit of the Spaniards in 1522, but we have no definite record of any such occurrence, or of when they became estabHshed on the island. They were driven out of Kupang by the Dutch in 1613, and the two nations were engaged in frequent warfare during the eighteenth century. In 1859 the boundaries were settled by treaty, leaving, roughly speaking, the south-western moiety to the Dutch and the north-eastern to the Portuguese. The latter government, however, also own two .small districts within their neighbour's territory. The Dutch capital is Kupang, a neat little town near the southern extremity of the island, with a mixed population of about 7000, consisting of Malays, Chinese, Arabs, and natives, besides a considerable number of Dutch, living in well- built houses. The Resident administers the government of Sumba, Savu, and the Solor and Allor groups, in addi- tion to the many native " kingdoms " into which Timor is divided. The town is a place of some trade, and whalers, as well as many merchant ships, call here for provision and water. Trade is still carried on chieliy by barter, the most prized article of exchange, according to Mr. Forbes, being a species of bead of an ochreous rod colour, the place of manufacture of which is cpiitc unknown. A small string eight or nine inches long has a value of about £12. The Portuguese have their chief settlement at Dilh, a miserable town of hovels, half ruined and deserted, the houses and even the church being only of clay and thatch, without any attempt at decoration or even neat- ness. With the exception of the Governor, officials, and soldiers, there are hardly any Europeans, and the entire population is not above 3000. It is, moreover, very 372 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TltAVEL unhealthy, especially from November to April, when the westerly monsoon brings an abundant rainfall. There are not five miles of road in any direction, and the fine hills that rise at the back of the town have not even decent bridle-paths to make them accessible. A good force of police is required, as street robberies are frequent. The condition of the colony appears wretched, and a Portuguese writer to As Colonias Portuguezas complains that there are neither funds nor men to keep it going. Omitting the Dutch steamers, which touch regularly at the port, hardly any vessels visit it. In the year 1885 only twelve entered it, and of these seven were Dutch. The export trade in coffee has fallen off, although the berry is exceedingly good. The exports, which in 1888 amounted to the value of £110,000, had fallen in 1890 to £72,000. Of this latter sum coffee represented almost the whole, its value being given at £67,000 ; the remainder was practically confined to beeswax and sandal- wood. What trade exists is chiefly in the hands of Macao Chinese. Mr. H. 0. Forbes describes Timor as portioned out into small kingdoms ruled over by independent chiefs. In Portuguese Timor there are forty-seven such kinglets. Each kingdom is in turn divided into districts or Sulcus, ruled over by Datus. Most if not all of these native princes pay some sort of tribute, and it is said that each king- dom has a different language, or at all events a widely different dialect. Under an energetic government, and with some outlay in the construction of roads, the island might be prosperous, for wheat and potatoes of excellent quality are grown on the hills, and might be cultivated in sufficient quantity to supply the whole European population of the archipelago. Sheep also thrive on the hills, and though wool-bearing varieties have not been THE TIMOR GROUP r,73 introduced, the mutton is very good. In the Dutcli ]jiut, coffee is not grown for export, and there is very little trade, ponies and sandalwood forming the only items of any importance. The inhabitants of Timor are regarded by almost all travellers in that country as a very mixed race, in which the Malay, Polynesian, and Papuan elements are blended. It is impossible to find a typical Timor native, so much does individual differ from individual. On the whole, they somewhat approach the Papuan type, but the hair is much less frizzled and the features less prominent. There is also a marked tendency to yellowness in the colour of the skin. The Timorese have never inveuted writing, as have the Sumatran tribes, and in point of civilisation they are not more advanced than the Dyaks. They weave cotton cloths of a peculiar pattern, make curious wallets of cloth, and form ingenious umbrellas from palm-leaves. They carry signal pipes by which they can communicate with each other at great distances across ravines. They do not live in villages, but in scattered huts, or family hamlets, thus differing from almost all the peoples we have hitherto considered. The practice of tabu is in full force, and almost every settle- ment has a Luli house or temple, the most important object in which is the Vatu-hdi, or sacred stone, on which offerings are made to an indefinite deity or spirit. A species of nature-worship exists, and there are sacred groves wherein no branch may be broken or stone turned. The natives are still head-hunters in many parts, but the custom of sacrificing slaves at the interment of their chiefs and on other occasions has been checked to a certain extent by European rule. Some tribes have become Christian, or nominally so. Eice is grown to some extent, but the staple food of the natives is Indian 374 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL corn. The population of the island can only be con- jecturally estimated. By Senor Vaquinhas that of Por- tuguese Timor is thought to be over half a million, and of the Dutch possessions abo^it 250,000. Semao or Semang Island is only important as forming a Dutch coaling station. Eotti, distant only 8 miles to the south-west — for Landu is a peninsula, and not an island as usually represented — has an area of 6 5 5 square miles, and is chiefly of limestone formation with elevated coral-reefs, and is nowhere more than 800 feet high. The population is probably about 60,000, and the people of Malay origin, being short, smooth-haired, and brown- complexioned. They are very peaceable, and are ruled by eighteen Eajas, who are all under Dutch authority. A few are Christian, but the majority pagan. Eice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton are grown, and the miniature ponies of the island are renowned throughout the archi- pelago for their excellence. Though only about 20 miles in length and 185 square miles in area, the small island of Savu is thickly populated, and contained in 1884 over 20,000 people. Judging by some of the chiefs seen by Mr, Wallace in Timor, they are of a very superior type, resembling Hindus or Arabs rather than Malays, and having fine, well- formed features, with straight, thin noses and clear brown complexions. A Dutch postholder resides at Seba or Laipaka on the north-west coast, and a school has been established here. Large numbers of ponies are bred, some of which are exported. Sumba or Sandalwood Island is of considerable extent; containing about 4000 square miles, and having a length of 130 and a breadth of some 30 or 35 miles. It appears to be surrounded on all sides by very deep water, although the strait separating it from Mores is only 27 THE TIMOR GROUP 'Ai~> miles wide. It is believed to be chiefly composed of tli(! sedimentary rocks, and no volcanoes are known thougli they may quite possibly exist, as our knowledge of the island is very scanty. The northern coast is very high, forming precipitous, wall-like cliffs, which are about 1200 feet high, and remarkably uniform. The south-eastern portion is a level plain covered with grass and isolated trees. The people are very numerous, although the estimate of 400,000 which has been given is probabh' much exaggerated. They are of Malayan race, ami possessed of a certain civilisation. Their religion appears to be a vague nature-worship with some traces of Hindu influence. The country is well cultivated, rice and Indian corn are grown, and goats, buffaloes, and ponies bred. Of the latter, 1496 were exported, chiefly to Java and Mauritius, in 1889. Birds' nests are found in large quantities, and some beeswax and tortoiseshell, but sandalwood is almost unknown. The trade is carried on by Bugis, who visit the island regularly in their praus, and a few Arabs settled at Nangamessi — known to the Dutch as Waingapu — on the north coast. MELANESIA CHAPTEE XI NEW GUINEA AND THE PAPUANS Under the name of Melanesia we comprehend all the islands and groups of islands stretching from ISTew Guinea in the west to Viti or Fiji in the east ; that is to say, the domain chiefly occupied by the Papuan race. The series begins with New Guinea and its surrounding islands, and the Admiralty Isles, New Britain, and New Ireland, to the north-east. Proceeding still eastwards, or rather to the south-east, we meet with the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz or Queen Charlotte group, the New Hebrides, the French settlements of New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, and lastly, considerably farther east, the Fiji Archipelago. The present chapter treats of New Guinea, and the islands which are joined to it by a shallow sea, and have evidently, at no distant period, formed with it one extensive land. 1. General. The great island of New Guinea or Papua stretches in a N.N.W. and S.S.E. direction, beyond the Moluccan rowii to a shade which is not far fr(jni black, although never A PAPUAN OF DUTCH NEW GUINEA. reaching the true black of some of the African peoples. The skull is dolichocephalic, the jaw prognathous. The 4U0 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAVEL lips are full, but never like tliose of the negro, the face somewhat oval, the brows very prominent. The most characteristic feature is the nose, which is large, some- what curved, and high, but depressed at the tip. It is thick at the base and the nostrils are broad, and, owin;!, to the ala: nasi being attached at a higher level on the cheek than in Europeans, a large portion of the septum is left exposed. This is generally transfixed by a nose-bar of bone or shell, which fact is alone sufficient to shovv^ to what extent this condition obtains. The hair, dry, frizzly, and rough to the touch, acquires a consider- able length, forming a very large, crisp, and mop-like mass, which in its fullest development nuich resembles a guardsman's bearskin in size, and is the pride and glory of the wearer. The hair is curiously stiff and resilient, so much so that if the hanLY ISLANDS 4!)1) weapons, and dress. The Wesleyan Mission was estab- lished in 1826, and the people are now all Christians. Almost every one can read, and there is a regular and efficient government under a native king, the treaty between England and Germany in 1886 assuming the autonomy of the group. " It is to the credit of the new State," writes Captain Cyprian Bridge (Proc. Hoy. Geog. Soc, 1886), "that its public expenditure is small, that it has been for years perfectly orderly, and that there arc in the group probably five times as many miles of carriage road as there are in our own colony of Fiji." These latter are mostly made by prison labour, and the Tongans have always excelled in their construction. At the time of their conquest of Samoa, more than two centuries ago, they made numerous roads in those islands, the traces of which remain to the present day. The people are also admirable boat -builders and sailors, visiting all the adjacent islands in their fine canoes. Latter-day civil- isation has introduced cricket, of which they are very fond, and they have become good riders, horses having been introduced for some years. The Tongan dialect is harsher than the Saraoan, and is supposed to have been influenced by contact and admixture with the Fijians. The population has been variously estimated at froin 23,000 to 30,000, and it does not seem clear whether it is diminishing or increasing, for while in 1839 the estimate of the missionaries placed it at only 18,500, it was conjectured in 1847 to be between 40,000 and 50,000. Tongattibu, of which Niukalofa is the capital, is the most important and most visited island, although of no great size. Its area is 128 square miles, its dimensions being about 22 by 8 miles. It is very low, and its surface almost a dead level, its highest point being only 500 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL GO feet above the sea. Although purely coralline, the soil is remarkably fertile, though not very deep. The products are chiefly copra, sugar, cotton, coffee, and arrowroot, of which the first-named is the most import- ant export. The trade is mostly in the hands of the Germans, but lately the English have settled in some numbers. The total value of the exports in 1888 surpassed £66,000. In the southern part of the island there is a remarkable monument, consisting of two per- pendicular rectangular blocks of stone of great height, deeply morticed to support a large slab across the top, which at one time was surmounted in the middle by a large bowl of the same material. Its history is entirely unknown. A figure of this most interesting monument is here given. Bearing in mind the numerous other stone monuments scattered widely over the islands of the Pacific, from the Carolines to Easter Island, it may be safely concluded that some race, with a different, if not a higher civilisation, preceded that which now exists. The Tonga group suffer from a somewhat unhealthy climate, the rains being excessive, while both earthquakes and hurricanes are frequent. In October, 1885, a violent submarine volcanic eruption took place about 48 miles N.N.W. of Niukalofa, resulting in the emergence of an island nearly three miles in length by one in width. 4. The Samoa or Navigators' Islands. North of Tonga some 350 miles is situated the Samoa group, first discovered by Bougainville in 1768, and called by him the Isles des Navigateurs ; and visited nine- teen years later by La Perouse, who lost here by massacre De Langle, commandant of the Astrolabe, and eleven others. By the Treaty of Berlin of 1889 the autonomy of the 502 COxMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL islands is guaranteed by Great Britain, Germany, and America, but their future is still uncertain. Owino; to the intrigues of foreign adventurers, the government has Ijeen very unsettled ; a chronic native war has prevailed since 1875, and in 1893 a crisis occurred which added still further to the political difficulties which harass the little State. Under a settled government there is very little doubt that the islands would become prosperous enough. Samoa has been described as one of the loveliest, most agreeable, and productive of all the South Sea groups, and the fertility of the soil is such that the cultivation of tropical plants yields abundant returns, and the means of subsistence are perhaps more easily obtained than in any other part of the world. For all practical purposes Samoa may be described as consisting of four islands: two small — Tutuila and Manua; and two of considerably greater area — Savaii and Upolu. All are volcanic, and for the most part surrounded with fringing reefs, but the intervening seas are quite free from dangers ; and the presence of good harbours, and the fact that the islands lie in the steamer track between Sydney and San Francisco, render the group of importance. The total land -area is estimated at 1100 square miles. Savaii, the largest island, is compact and quadi'angular in shape, with a length of about 40 miles and an area of 657 square miles, or more than half that of the entire group. It is nevertheless the least fitted to support a large population, having been so recently subject to volcanic action that much of its surface is absolutely sterile. It has many extinct craters, chief among which is the peak of Mua, which rises to a height of 4000 feet, and another of 5413 feet in the centre of the island. Going inland from the district of Aopo, the traveller passes over a tract of country thickly strewn with scoriee SAMOA 503 and ashes, which are evidently of very recent origin, so that the native tradition of the last eruption having taken place only 200 years ago is probalily correct. In the north-west of the island are also many miles of lava- plains, but little altered ; and in the east there is an older and larger lava-bed partly decomposed and covered with a scanty vegetation. In spite of a considerable rainfall, Savaii possesses only a single river, owing to the porous nature of the vesicular lava, which offers a large extent of heated surface, so as to evaporate the greater part of the moisture, while the remainder sinks down and appears as springs near the coast. The mountainous interior is thus entirely waterless and barren, so that even the natives cannot traverse it. It is a solitude destitute of animal life, alternately parched by a tropical sun and deluged by fierce rain-storms, and affording neither food nor permanent water. The narrow belt of fertile soil which in places extends between the mountains and the sea is, however, exceedingly beautiful, covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and with lofty groves of coco-nut and fruit trees. It supports • a population of about 12,000. Upolu, the next island to the eastward, is the most important of the group. It is extremely fertile, and con- tains the capital, Apia, which is the residence of numer- ous Europeans. A range of small mountains, 2000 feet in height, runs through its entire length, the peak of Tafua, at the western end, forming a perfectly rounded lava-cone, with a crater filled with dense forest. Another, Lauto, forms a crater-lake. The island is forest-clad to its highest point, and the scenery of the southern shore is magnificent. The town of Apia contains numerous stores, chiefly German and American ; various schools and churches, hotels and other buildings. It is, in fact, 504 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAniY AND TRAVEL a European town, having a municipal government dis- tinct from Samoan legislation secured to it by treaty. A few ]niles to the west is the village of Malua, where the Training College of the London Missionary Society has been established for nearly fifty years. Here are trained the native missionaries, who are afterwards sent to every part of the Pacific. The college is almost entirely self- supporting, a large estate being farmed by the students, of whom there are generally not less than 100. Tutuila is chiefly noteworthy as the scene of the Astroluhc tragedy, and as possessing one of the finest har- bours in the South Sea Islands, Pango-pango, which by a treaty in 1878 was conceded to the United States as a naval and coaling station. Manua, and its two satellite islands, Ofu and Olosenga, form the easternmost limits of the group, but are of no importance. The Samoan Islands are very subject to hurricanes, which occur generally between December and April. In April, 1850, Apia was almost entirely destroyed by one, and on the 19th March, 1889, three German and three American men-of-war, together with several merchant vessels, were wrecked, and many lives lost, in one of these cyclones, H.M.S. Calliope being the only ship in Apia liarbour which escaped. Earthquakes are also fre- quent, but not at all severe, and they do little damage owing to the elasticity and strength of the buildings, which are entirely constructed of posts and light rafters securely lashed together. Evidences of volcanic activity, long past or recent, are abundant. In 1866, a sub- marine volcano came suddenly into eruption near Olosenga Island, vomiting forth rocks and mud to the height of 2000 feet, killing the fish and discolouring the sea for miles round. The famui, like that of most of these oceanic groups, SAMOA 505 is exceedingly liniitcil. An indigenous rat of small size is said to exist, and there are four s])ecies of snakes. Among" the birds is one most remarkalJe species — iJidunculus strigirostj'is — a gi'ound ]iigeon of metallic greenish -black colour, with bright chestnut back and wings, and a beak of extraordinary shape, which forms a link between the living African Treronince and the ex- tinct Dodo. It is now found only upon tlie island of DIDUNCULUS. Upolu, where it is very lare, and will prol)ably soon l)ecome extinct. The Samoans are said to be the ftrirest of all the Poly- nesian races, and although not so niucli advanced in the aits and manufactures as some of their neighbours, sur])ass them all in many of the characteristics of a true civilisation, (.'aptain ]^>skine remarks that they carry their habits of cleanliness and decency to a higher point than the most fastidious of civilised nations. Their ]»ul)lie meetings and discussions are carried on with a dignity and forbearance which Europeans never equal, 506 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL while even in the heat of war they have shown them- selves amenable to the influences of reason and religion. The former warlike and rapacious character of the Samoans has in fact undergone a cpmplete change since the year 1836, when the archipelago became a chief centre of missionary zeal. All, or almost all, are nomin- ally Christians, chiefly owing to the efforts of the London Missionary Society, who have over 200 native mission- aries in the group ; but the Roman Catholics and Wes- leyans are also well represented. The political dissensions of the last few years have gradually reduced agriculture to a very low ebb. The Consular Eeports of 1893 state that the Samoans have almost entirely neglected all cultivation of the soil, and are so indolent that they actually buy from traders the dried kava root to make their national beverage, sooner than take the trouble of planting a few kava shrubs near their huts, although when once planted the tree requires no trouble or attention. Coolies' wages vary from three to six shillings per diem, and labour is hard to obtain, although to supply this want natives of the Carolines and Marshall Islands have in recent years been frequently introduced. The imports and exports, which in 1883 were £93,607 and £52,074 respectively, sank in 1890 to £-13,626 and £20,509, and there has been only slight improvement subsequently. Almost every tropical product seems to succeed, but few are apparent in the list of exports. Copra to the value of £25,000 was exported in 1892, and about £2000 worth of cotton. A little fruit is sent to the Australian market, and cacao has recently been planted. The carrying trade is chiefly in German hands, that of 1892 being £40,000, as against £22,000 shipped by British vessels; but, on the other hand, the imports from the British colonies of Niui'i, UNION, AND ELLICE ISLANDS 507 Australia and New Zealand — for there is little or no direct trade with England — were nearly 2£ times greater in value than those of any other nation. The population is probably about 36,000, of whom about 300 are Europeans. Steam communication exists with Australia, New Zealand, San Francisco, and Tahiti, the latter island, like Samoa, being a great emporium of South Sea trade. 5. Savage Island. Savage Island, or Nine, situated nearly midway be- tween the Tonga and Samoa groups, is a small and very fertile island, about nine miles long, of raised coral rock, and interesting as having a population of mixed Samoan and Melanesian blood. They speak a Samoan dialect, and say their ancestors came from that island, and found a Ijlack population, with whom they have inter- mixed. They are now wholly converted to Christianity, and are found to be a very intelligent, mild, and interest- ing race, and by no means the dangerous savages they were long supposed to be. Their numbers in 18G4 were over 5000, and they are said to increase at the rate of 2-^ per cent annually. If this be true, we may probably attribute it to the fact that the island is too small to attract any visitors other than the missionaries ; and it becomes most valuable evidence that Polynesians may be civilised without being exterminated, if they are only protected from the rude competition, the vices, and the diseases which free intercourse with the ordinary class of Europeans invariably brings upon them. The popu- lation in 1892 was, however, said to number 5070, so that, unless emigration has taken place, this report of increase is incorrect. In Mr. Brenchley's Voyage of the 508 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Curagoa, is a most interesting account of this island and the condition of its population in 1865. 6. The Union and EUice Islands. The little Tokelau or Union group lies about 350 miles N.E. of the easternmost of the Navigators' group, and consists of three small islands, inhabited by a Christianised people closely resembling the Samoans, and speaking an allied dialect. The population is about 500, and the islands produce little but copra. The Ellice group, lately annexed by Great Britain, is about 700 miles iST.W. of Savaii, and consists of a number of low coral islands and atolls, arranged in nine clusters, extending over a distance of 360 miles in a N.W. by N^. and S.E. by S. direction, which axis is common to most of the groups of this part of the Pacific. The population numbers about 2500, and almost all are Christians, mission posts having been established on many islands. All can read, and most write. The in- habitants of iSTui speak the language of the Gilbert Islanders, and have a tradition that they came from that group. All the others speak a dialect of the Samoan language, and say they came from Samoa thirty genera- tions back. They have a very ancient spear or staff, which they claim to have brought from Samoa, nam- ing the particular valley they came from. This valley was visited by a missionary, to whom they lent this spear, and he found there a tradition of a large party having gone to sea and never returning, and, moreover, that the wood of which the spear was made was of a kind that grew there. We have here proof that traditions of migrations among the Polynesians may be trusted, even when so remote as thirty generations, or 600 years. In 1863 THE HERVEY ISLANDS 509 three-fourths of the population of the ishiinl of Xukulaihii were kidnapped by Peruvians, under the pretence that they were expected missionaries from Samoa. All tliese islands are coralline atolls of only a few feet elevation, covered with coco-nuts, and supplying only these, ]»an- danus fruit, and yams in the way of food. 7. The Hervey Islands or Cook's Archipelago. South-east of Samoa about 700 iniles is the scattered Hervey or Cook Archipelago, consisting of nine islands, either volcanic or coralline, and rendered difficult of access by dangerous reefs and the absence of harbours. Earotonga, the largest, is volcanic and hilly, with fertile and well-watered valleys. It is about 30 miles m cir- cumference, and its peak has an altitude of 2900 feet. It is inhabited by people who have legends of their migration from Samoa, and speak a closely allied language. They say they found black people on the island ; and tlie fact that they have more pronounced features, more wavy hair, and are darker and more energetic than the Samoans, is quite in accordance with this statement. In Mangaia, farther south, this Melanesian type predominates, the people being dark brown, with wavy or frizzled hair, and well bearded. They have still more prominent features than the Earotongans, and wilder manners, and forty years ago were fierce man-hunters and cannibals. The natives of this group are now in an advanced state of civilisation. They all read the Bil)le, dress after the European fashion, and live in stone dwellings grouped in little townships under separate chiefs. They number at present scarcely more than 11,000, of whom 3500 are in Earotonga alone. They petitioned in 1864 for annexation to Great Britain, and a protectorate was 510 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL established in 1888. The islands produce coco-nuts, bread-fruit, bananas, coffee, cotton, arrowroot, and tobacco. Many of the natives go as plantation coolies to Tahiti. 8. The Society Islands. We now come to a group of islands of some import- ance, which form the chief possession of France in the South Seas. This nation has acquired not only the Society group, but also the Paumotu or Low Archipelago, the Marquesas, the Tubuai or Austral Isles, and the Wallis and Gambler groups. She also claims Manahiki, and taking into consideration New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, the land area of her possessions in the South Pacific is probably as great as, if not greater than, that of any other European power. The Society Islands, eleven in number, and forming a chain in the direction from north-west to south-east, are amongst the best known in the South Sea, and are divided by a wide channel into the Leeward and Windward groups. Amongst the former are the so-called four king- doms of Huahine, Eaiatea, Tahaa, and Borabora, where the natives, aided Ijy the white settlers, for long mam- tained a spirit of independence, keeping aloof from the rest of the confederacy that earlier accepted the French prote(;torate. The eastern group includes Eimeo or Mocirea in the west, Maitea in the east, and Tahiti in tlie centre, this last famous for its enchanting scenery. All together have an area of 650 square miles, with a popu- lation of 18,000 souls. They were discovered by Quiros in 1606, but for a long time lost sight of, to be redis- covered by Wallis in 1767. Cook gave them the name by which they are now known, and it was on Tahiti that the transit of Venus was observed by him in THE SOCIETY ISLANDS 511 1769. From this and other observations the position of the island has been ascertained with as great or greater aecairacy than that of any other pomt in the Pacific. The Windward group came formally into the possession of France in 1880 ; the Leeward Islands were not ceded till 1888. The islands form one of the earliest posts of the London Missionary Society, who began work here in 1797. The French administration combines all the groups of islands above mentioned. The Governor resides in Tahiti, and has under him five chief officials, of whon:i the Ministers of the Interior and of Justice, together with two others nominated by the Governor, form the Privy Council. There is also a General Council of eighteen members elected by universal suffrage. The religion is chiefly Protestant, but there are a good number of Eoman Catholics, and a small colony of monogamous Mormons, who have built themselves a temple in the mountains of Tahiti. Tahiti, the Otaheite of Cook, is the principal member of the group. It is 35 miles long, has an area of over 600 square miles, and is populated by about 11,000 persons. It presents the appearance of two nearly circular islands united by a very low and narrow neck of land, each of which is of volcanic origin and very mountainous, rising in a succession of bold circular terraces towards the central peaks, and having a broad plain all round the seaboard, which is practically the only inhabited part. Its delightful and healthy climate brings to maturity all the products of the tropics, which are nowhere found in greater fulness and perfection than here. The wayfarer 512 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL is soothed by the fragrance of sweet-smelHng flowers, and delighted with the abundance of oranges, bananas, bread- VIEW IN TAHITI. fruit, and coco-nuts wliich supply perennial food to the natives. The guava, introduced at the beginning of this century, has run wild in such abundance as to have be- come almost a pest. Tbe beauty of the island has been THE SOCIETY ISLANDS 513 extolled by almost every traveller who lias visited it. In Captain Cook's description, he says : — " Perhaps there is scarcely a spot in the universe that affords a more luxuriant prospect than the south-east part of Otaheite. The hills are high and steep, and in many places craggy ; but they are covered to the very summit with trees and shrubs in such a manner that the spectator can scarcely help thinking that the very rocks possess the property of producing and supporting their verdant clothing. The flat land which bounds those hills towards the sea, and the interjacent valleys also, teem with various productions which grow with the most exuberant vigour, and at once fill the mind of the beholder with the idea that no place upon earth can outdo this in the strength and beauty of vegetation." Tahiti is entirely formed of lavas and other volcanic products, but it is so very ancient, and has suffered so much denudation, that its craters have entirely disap- peared, enormous valleys have been excavated, and a wide belt of excessively fertile soil been formed around its base. The American geologist Dana considered it to present the most wonderful and instructive example of volcanic rocks to be found on the globe. The fantastic shape of these is no doubt due largely to sudden up- heaval and disruption. Eemains of plants and insects similar to those now living in the country are found under some of the ancient lava flows, showing that the formation, as well as the denudation, of the island is, geologically, a recent phenomenon. This terrestrial Eden is peopled by one of the finest races in the world, whose slightly veiled, or even fully displayed, symmetrical proportions did not fail to excite the admiration of the first European discoverers. Eecent opinions, however, are less enthusiastic on the subject, 2 L 514 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and Von Popp, amongst others, remarks that if we now look in vain for the gigantic race described by Captain Cook, their deterioration is due, partly at least, to civilisa- tion and brandy ; notwithstanding which the natives of Tahiti are still a fine, well-proportioned people, tall and robust, with dark-brown complexion, broad nose, slightly protruding lips, beautiful teeth, black and mostly curling hair, but with slightly developed beard. With Chris- tianity some restraint has been introduced amongst the islanders, who formerly indulged in unbridled licentious- ness. At present we must visit the remoter villages to see, in their original forms, the seductive dances of the native women, gaily decked with flowers. But all this will soon vanish, with the people themselves, who, like the Sandwich Islanders, are decreasing with alarming rapidity. The idyllic scenes of former days have already mostly disappeared under the influence of the missions ; the short and picturesque national garb has been length- ened and rendered unsightly ; the Sunday songs and dances have been prohibited ; and to harsh treatment, intemperance, and epidemics thousands have fallen victims. One chief cause, probably, of the decreasing numbers of these people is the prevalence of habits of intoxication, in which they indulge as a substitute for the dance and song and varied amusements so injudiciously forbidden by the missionaries. A recent French traveller, M. Jules Garnier, informs us that the Tahitians now seek the mere sensual pleasure of intoxication, unenHvened by the social enjoyments of their ancient festivals. Most fatal gift of all, they have been taught to ferment the juice of the orange, so abundant and delicious in their island home, and thus produce a liquor with which to obtain the pleasures and the penalties of intoxication, which men, THE SOCIETY ISLANDS 515 women, and children alike enjoy and suffer. The orange has been for these people as the forbidden fruit of the garden of Eden — the tree of good and of evil. In the Society Islands, as in many other places in the Pacific, are to be found a number of buildings which testify to the existence in former times of a people of a higher development. They are generally in the form of terraces or platforms, placed in elevated spots, and formed of hewn blocks of stone which are often of great size. In the centre is placed a sort of massive altar. A very large building of this kind exists at Papawa in Tahiti. Prom a base measuring 270 feet by 94 feet rise ten steps or terraces, each about 6 feet in height. The object of th-ese morals, as they are termed, is not very clear. They were in many cases no doubt of a monu- mental, if not sepulchral, nature ; but sacrifices were apparently offered upon them in some instances, and it seems that they also served on occasion as forts or strongholds. The natives themselves only cultivate sufficient to supply their daily wants, and sell the surplus produce of their orange and coco-nut groves ; but on the southern side of the island, in the district of Atimano, a large plantation belonging to an English company was estab- lished some years ago. It possessed 10,000 acres of rich land, and imported 1600 Chinese coolies to cultivate it. The forest was cleared away, and the land planted with sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee, while broad roads bordered with plantains and fruit-trees traversed it in every direc- tion. The establishment of this gigantic farm formed a small town picturesquely situated near the sea, and the undertaking promised to be very successful, but reckless speculations caused its failure, and the land now lies waste. Attempts have been made by the French authorities to 516 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL induce the natives to encrage in acrriculture, but in vain. Imported labour has not hitherto succeeded, owing to the regulations not giving the planter sufficient hold over his men, and on the whole the agricultural outlook is not promising. The immigration of coolies from Tonquin is contemplated. The French have apparently done all in their power to remedy the state of atfairs. The Govern- ment even receives the produce of the small cultivators and exports it for them, so as to do away with the profits of the middlemen. The chief export is pearl-shell, the value of which in 1890 was nearly £60,000. That of copra is not much less. Cotton (£10,000), vanilla (£3000), and oranges (£2000) are the only other noticeable products. Papeete, capital of Tahiti, is a little city of the most violent contrasts. All the races here settled are repre- sented by a total population of about 5000, of whom about 1000 are Europeans. The " Paie de Rivoli," with its " Palais de Justice," " Tresor Colonial," etc., leads by Government House and the Eoyal Palace to the " Place de la Cathedrale." The " Rue de la Pologne " shows the bright and dark sides of this little Paris of the antipodes, while a row of Chinese " stores " and " tea-shops " recalls the Chinese quarter in San Francisco. Papeete is the emporium of trade for the products of the South Sea Islands east of 160" E. longitude. Small schooners of from 20 to 50 tons burden bring the produce of the various groups to Tahiti, whence they are shipped direct for Europe either by Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope, according to the season of the year. These schooners, of which about twenty fly the Tahitian flag, take back portions of the cargoes of vessels arriving from Europe for sale or barter amongst the islands. The harbour is good, and a despatch boat and four small k THE SOCIETY ISLANDS 517 gunboats form the local force, aud Tahiti is also the centre of the French Pacific squadron. The garrison is composed of a small force of infantry and artillery. PEAK OF MOOREA, SOCIETY ISLANDS. There is an arsenal, slip, barracks, cathedral, market, hospital, and other adjuncts of civilisation, as well as a botanic, or rather experimental, garden. A good carriage road leads all round the twin islands, only interrupted in 518 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL one place by the precipices of the S.E. coast. A railway is even proposed, but is not at present likely to be con- structed. Tahiti is in communication with Auckland, New Zealand, by means of steamers sailing every six weeks. The other windward islands are Maitea, an extinct volcano, which forms the eastern limit of the group ; and Eimeo or Moorea, also volcanic, but of larger size and very fertile, and extraordinarily rugged and broken as regards its surface. The chief leeward islands are Huahine, Eaiatea, and Borabora. All are mountainous and rugged. The first- named has a good harbour and a population of about 1300. Eaiatea and Tahaii resemble Tahiti in being twin islands, but, although surrounded by the same coral reef, they are not in actual contact. Eaiatea rises to a height of 3385 feet, and is well watered and very fertile, pro- ducing a considerable amount of cotton and copra. Its population of 2300 are all Protestants ; there are good schools and a native missionary college, and the island is the residence of the Administrator of the Leeward group. A well-preserved moral exists, built of enormous coral blocks. Borabora was formerly renowned for its warriors, but the natives do not now number more than 800. It has a large and good harbour, and its shapely cone, though only 2380 feet high, renders it a striking object from the sea. 9. The Austral Islands and Low Archipelago. The Tubuai or Austral group is seldom visited even by the French. It consists of four chief volcanic islands, surrounded by coral reefs, and situate almost on the tropic. The climate is thus very healthy, but, owing to THE AUSTRAL AND LOW LSLAXDS 519 the hi^h latitude, the bread-fruit does not flourish. The population does not exceed 1000; it was at one time very much larger, but of late has apparently been stationary. Eapa or Oparo is an outlier to the S.E.- — a very picturesque island about 7 miles long, with remark- able needle-like peaks 2000 feet high. The crater of an extinct volcano forms a good and fairly roomy harbour ; the cKmate is delightful, and it is said that, in spite of its unprotected situation, the island is at almost all seasons free from dangerous surf Coal, or rather lignite, exists. The population, at one time over 6000, sank to 110 a few years ago, but it is now over 200. There seems little doubt that Easter Island — which is known as Great Eapa — was peopled from here. Little known before, the island became important in 1867 as a coaling-station for the steamers of a Panama -Australia line. It was perhaps in consequence of this that it was visited by a French frigate in the same year, the captain of which, it is related, bought the island from the king for a gallon of rum and a suit of clothes. The most remarkable feature of Eapa is the existence of very curious buildings on the summits of the highest hills. Their exact nature seems to be uncertain, whether forts or onorais — the Polynesian monuments to their illustrious dead. There are terraces and walls constructed of well-shaped blocks, weighing as much as two tons, and joined accurately by cement. Whatever may have been their use or meaning, they are evidently akin to the raised terraces in Easter Island. The Paumotu, Tuamotu, or Low Archipelago forms a cluster of about eighty islands, of which about sixty are inhabited. Originally discovered by Quiros, they have apparently been peopled from the Marquesas. They are scattered over a vast area, the major axis of which is 520 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL considerably over 1000 miles in length, and will never be able to do much more than support the small popula- tion— less than 6000 souls — which inhabits them. Coco- nuts and pearl-shell are almost their only product, and the latter is in many localities beginning to fail. All, or almost all, are lagoon islands. The Gambler Islands form the S.E. prolongation of the preceding. They consist of five high volcanic islets inhabited by Eoman Catholic converts, whose numbers were increased in 1^78 by the immigration of the bulk of the inhabitants of Easter Island, 3 0 0 in number. The most important is Mangareva or Peard Island, Pitcairn Island, celebrated as having been colonised by the mutineers of the Bounty, lies at the extreme south- eastern limits of the Low Archipelago, and far out of sight of any other land. It is only two miles in extreme length, and three-quarters of a mile wide, with a fertile volcanic soil, but rocky and mountainous, rising to a height of 2500 feet, so that nuich of its surface must be too precipitous for cultivation. It is situated in 25° 3' S. lat., or just beyond the southern tropic, and has a fine climate, producing many tropical fruits and vegetables. It was in 1790 that nine British sailors, six Tahitian men, and twelve women arrived at this speck in the ocean. By discord and murder they were reduced in ten years to one man — an English sailor named Adams — the Tahitian women, and nineteen children. The story of how this ignorant English sailor suddenly rose to the responsibilities of his position, and trained up this little community to habits of industry and morality, and the practice of true religion, is one of the most wonderful and encouraging episodes in the social history of mankind. The little colony was first discovered in 1808 by an American ship, the Topaze, which brouoht the news to I'lTCAIRX ISLAND 521 England. They were afterwards visited by two frigates, the Briton and the Tagus, and in 1825 by Captain Beechey in the discovery ship Blossom, who found a community of sixty-six persons living in a state of un- interrupted peace and harmony, and in a veritable "garden of Eden." Groves of coco-nut and bread-fruit trees clothed the rocks down to the water's edge, while in the deep valleys tropical fruits and vegetables flourished luxuriantly. The village stood on a platform of rock shaded by plantains and fig-trees, and surrounding an open square covered with grass. It was encircled by palisades to keep out the hogs and goats which roamed over the island and, with fowls, supplied abundance of animal food. The houses of the islanders were clean and comfortable. Their clothing, entirely made from the bark of the paper-mulberry, was neat and grace- ful. They all lived as one united family, and crime, or even dissension, was unknown. Injudiciously, as we think, this intensely interesting social experiment was brought to an end by the inter- ference of well-meaning people. The Pitcairn Islanders were removed, first to Tahiti, then back again to Pitcairn Island. Then in 1856 they were all removed to Norfolk Island, far inferior to their own in climate and soil, though somewhat larger. In 1858 some of them returned to Pitcairn, where, in 1869, they were visited by Sir Charles Dilke, and were doing well. In 1873 Commander K. H. A. Mainwaring found seventy-six inhabitants on the island, and he remarks that epidemic or endemic diseases were unknown among them. In September, 1878, they were visited by Eear-Admiral A. F. E. De Horsey, who found them to have increased to ninety, all in good health, and quite happy; and he adds, that Captain Beechey 's testi- mony to their good qualities, given fifty-three years ago. 522 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL holds good to this day, since they still continue " to live together in perfect harmony and contentment ; to be virtuous, religious, cheerful, and hospitable ; to be patterns of conjugal and parental affection, and to have very few- vices." Admiral De Horsey concludes by saying, that no one acquainted with these islanders could fail to respect them, and' that they will lose rather than gain by contact with other communities. Although the island was quite uninhabited when the mutineers of the Bounty arrived there, many remains show that a considerable population must once have lived on it. Burial-places, large flat paving-stones, stone spear- heads and axes, round stone balls, and even stone images, sufficiently prove that this remote speck of land had not only been visited by stray savages, but had been the settled abode of a considerable population, who yet had time to devote to the carving of stone images with tools of the same material. 10. The Marquesas. ]N"orth of the Low Archipelago, and about 900 miles from Tahiti, are situated the Marquesas, consisting of eleven chief islands, of which seven are inhabited. They are divided into two groups — a north-westerly, comprising Uapu, Uahuka, ISTukahiva and Eiau ; and a south-eastern, of which Tauata, Fatuhiva, and Hiva-oa are the chief. They have a total area of some 500 square miles, and a population which has been very variously estimated, but is probably over 6000. They were first seen by Mendana in 1595, but the IST.W. group was not discovered till nearly 200 years later. The Marquesas, which are all of volcanic origin, re- semble the Navigators' group in their general appearance THE MAEQUESA ISLANDS 523 and the outline of their coasts. The interior is steep and hilly, most of the islands being about 3000 feet in height. All the coasts are free of coral reefs, with the exception of a somewhat extensive chain of rocks lying at no great distance from Uahuka. The islands abound in inlets, often forming havens, the approach to which is, however, frequently imperilled by the sudden gusts of wind from the hills. The soil is, on the whole, less fertile than that of Tahiti, and accordingly bears a less exuberant vegetation. On Nukahiva and Tauata the basalt towers to considerable heights, or at least crops out on the summits of the hills, thus often forming abrupt and jagged walls of imposing appearance. The ground is for the most part rocky, and only sparingly covered with humus, though still sufficient to produce a rich tropical vegetation. The climate is hot on the coasts, but as we ascend to the higher grounds this tropical heat gives place to a perceptible coolness, so that we might almost fancy ourselves at times transplanted to some upland valley of our mountain districts. In other respects the climate is salubrious, giving rise to little sickness either amongst the natives or strangers. None of the volcanoes are active, but there are thermal and mineral springs. The aborigines of the Marquesas are usually described as the very finest of all the South Sea islanders, and are said to surpass even the Tahitians in physical beauty. Their complexion is of a pure healthy yellow, with a soft ruddy bloom on the cheeks. According to Cook they excel, perhaps, all other races in their symmetrical pro- portions and the regularity of their features. Few of them remain, however, to enable us to judge of their characteristics. European vices and customs have done their work. The population of Nukahiva was estimated 524 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TPtAYEL by Krusenstern in 1804 as 18,000, and about eighty years later was said to be under 500. Captain Jouan of the French navy considered that the mortality was in part due to the revolting custom which until lately obtained of shutting up widows for days or even weeks with the putrefying corpse of their husbands ; but the unbridled immorality of the people and the introduction of intoxicants have no doubt also greatly contributed to the result. In their habits and religious practices the natives of the Marquesas resemble the Tahitians in many respects. They formerly worshipped a number of gods, for whom a moral was set up in every district, on which swine were sacrificed, for, although cannibals, they never offered up human victims. They were extremely hospitable, which, however, did not prevent them from indulging in sanguinary feuds among themselves. The efforts of the missionaries to evangelise them were long fruitless ; recently, however, the majority of the natives are said to have adopted the Koman Catholic form of Christianity. Nevertheless, according to Von Popp, they still remain perfect savages, nor have they yet altogether renounced cannibalism. The principal island in the Marquesas group is Nuka- liiva, formerly a French penal settlement. It is about 14 miles long by 10 broad, and is famous for the magnificent cascades which pour over its sea-cliffs. Here is the small but animated port of Taiohai, where resides the French Commissioner of the Marquesas, under whose protection several traders have here founded commercial houses. The islands are well adapted for the growth of cotton, but the people are worthless as agriculturists, and labour is exceedingly difficult to obtain. Moreover, long droughts are not uncommon, lasting as much as ten or THE PIKEXIX AND OTHER ISLANDS 525 even fourteen months, and the Marquesan cultivates little beyond his taro. In the island of Hiva-oa there is another French official, but the progress made towards civilising the natives is not very great. The Marquesas and Society Islands being the most easterly groups of non-coralline islands in the Pacific, it is interesting to notice the extreme poverty of their animal life. Indigenous terrestrial mammals are quite unknown ; neither are there any snakes, and only one lizard. Birds are much less ninnerous than in the more western islands, no less than twenty-five genera of the Fiji and Samoan groups being wanting, and there is only one new form to supply their place ^ — a peculiar fruit- pigeon (Serresiics galeatiis), which inhabits the western part of Nukahiva. Insects, also, are extremely scarce. This striking diminution of the forms of life indicates that the islands have been peopled by emigration from the west, and do not contain the relics of an ancient con- tinental fauna, as is sometimes supposed ; for in that case there would be no reason why the number of genera and species of birds, reptiles, and insects should regularly decrease from west to east as they undoubtedly do. 11. Manahiki, Phoenix, and other Islands. North of the Society group lie several widely scattered islets very seldom visited, several of which have been annexed by Great Britain. Caroline or Thornton Island, Manahiki, Penrhyn or Tongarewa, and perhaps Suwarrow, may be regarded as forming the Manahiki — or, as it is by some called, the Penrhyn — group. North of these are Starbuck and Maiden, both of which are British. Crossing the Equator, we come to another set of islets, lying between lat. 2° and 7° N. Finally, north of the 526 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAFHY AND TKAVEL Tokelau or Union group, and not a great distance from the Kingsmill Islands, is situated the Phoenix cluster. Most of these we have named are of the usual type of lagoon island, are scantily populated, and produce little else besides guano or a few tons of copra. Caroline Island was annexed in the year 1868. The few settlers raise stock and plant coco-nuts. Suwarrow, which is visited by the French, and has stores, a wharf, and a pearl fishery, is of importance as possessing a lagoon affording splendid anchorage. Manahiki or Hum- phrey Island has a population of 600 or more, who, as in many of these Pacific islands, are kept in a state of ex- treme submission by the native missionaries, aided by the Turi men or legislators. " If a Turi man suspects a man of having taken liquor," writes Mr. F. J. Moss, " he will stop him and order him to ' blow,' so that he may dis- cover if his breath has lost its normal sweetness. The decision then come to is conclusive, adopted as a judg- ment by his fellow Turi men, and the culprit fined accordingly. A curfew drum is beaten at eight o'clock, and after that hour if any one is seen abroad the Turi men are down upon him with a heavy fine next day. . . . The people must extinguish all lights and go properly to bed. . . . Their lovely moonlight nights bring no enjoy- ment to these people. At Funafuti and other islands the Turi men go further. They march round the village during the night and quietly steal into the houses to see if all is right. It was found that the house-dogs barked and gave notice of their approach, so they forthwith decreed the destruction of all dogs on the island, and again became masters of the situation." In other islands the use of tobacco is strictly forbidden. Such a system, as Mr. Moss observes, must inevitably result in bringing out the worst points in the native character, and a THE PHCENIX AND OTHEK ISLANDS 527 reaction will doubtless set in which ^vill leave the unhappy islanders in a worse state than before. Penrhyn or Ton- garewa was at one time the seat of several different tribes living in a state of perpetual war with each other, but some years ago a Peruvian ship made a descent on the island, and kidnapped a large number of the natives, almost depopulating it. Since then the copra trade has made the people almost rich, and they are renowned as the best divers in the Pacific, pearl-shell being abundant in their lagoon. Starbuck, about 5 miles in length and less than 2 in breadth, is a bare coral rock, without trees, lagoon, or proper landing-place — a worked-out guano island of little or no value. Maiden, about 150 miles to the N.IST.E., is populated, and in parts fertile. It produced a considerable quantity of guano, and still has on it the remains of some large morals — ancient sepulchral buildings to which refer- ence has already been made. On the central ridge of the island are more than a hundred platforms of cruciform shape, built of coral slabs three feet high, and filled in with a compact mass of coral, shells, and stones. There are also a number of shelter-places or huts formed by three coral blocks, with a fourth on the top. More than thirty wells were also found cut in the coral rock from six to nine feet deep, and a number of shallow graves contain- ing human bones much decayed, and shell ornaments. Christmas, Fanning, Palmyra, and the few islets in their neighbourhood have been termed the America Islands, from being chiefly frequented by people of that nation for the guano they afford. The first-named is noteworthy as being perhaps the largest lagoon island in the Pacific. The Phoenix group was at one time the seat of operations of the " Phoenix Guano Company," but the islands have been exhausted, and the wliarves and 528 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL buildings abandoned, and the population probably now does not exceed 200 souls. 12. Easter Island. Far out in mid-Pacific, 1400 miles beyond the lonely Pitcairn, over 2000 from the South American coast, and about 1900 from the island of Ptapa or Oparo, whence its inhabitants are believed to have come, lies Easter Island, the farthest outpost of the vast series of Pacific Islands. Triangular in shape, with its major diameter 13 miles in length, it is entirely volcanic, with several large extinct craters, of which that at the N.E. point is the highest (1968 feet). Terano Kau, at the southern end, has a crater 700 feet deep and 2^ miles in circumference, but is of lower altitude. The soil is composed entirely of decomposed lavas, and is very fertile. There is, however, no running water, although there are several springs near the shore, and deep pools in some of the craters. There are no trees, the tallest vegetation being bushes of Hibiscus, Edwardsia, and Broussonetia, 1 0 or 12 feet high. Decayed trunks of trees are neverthe- less found, and the paddles and other wooden articles in possession of the natives show that formerly there must have been wood in some plenty. The island was discovered on Easter Day, 1721, by Eoggewein, and visited both by Cook and La Perouse in their celebrated voyages, the latter giving a lengthy account of the curious monuments for which the island is celebrated. The population at that time was probably not less than about 3000, but in 1863 these numbers were greatly lessened by an atrocious outrage committed by some Peruvian vessels. Anchoring in the bay, these people rowed ashore and seized every person they could ■EASTER ISLAND 529 lay hands upon, taking them off to the guano diggings on the Chincha Islands, where the greater number of them perished. The following year a Jesuit missionary was sent from Tahiti with lay helpers, whose efforts in civilis- ing the natives were completely successful. The task was rendered easy by the amiable disposition of the latter, who appear to have had few vices except immorality and a propensity for petty theft. Their numbers, how- ever, were becoming so rapidly reduced that it was thought advisable to send some of them to Tahiti, and about 500 accordingly left in 1874. Four years later the missionaries left, taking with them 300 more, and establishing them on the Gambier group, the island having been purchased by Messrs. Salmon and Brander of Tahiti, to be converted into a stock farm. In 1891 there were only about 100 natives left. They are described as l)eing a remarkably fine -looking people, and are all Christians. They are without a priest, but read prayer among themselves regularly in their small chapel. Sweet potato, taro, and sugar-cane are grown, but no species of grain. Bananas are cultivated in a most singular manner, great pits of 20 to 30 feet deep being- dug and lined with masonry and the bananas planted within, so as to be sheltered from the wind. According to a recent writer there are on the island no less than 18,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and 70 horses, all belonging to the Tahitian firm above mentioned, but as the island only contains 45 square mUes, these figures are most probably erroneous. Easter Island is celebrated for its wonderful remains of some prehistoric people, consisting of stone houses, sculptured stones, and colossal stone images. Of these, various writers, from Cook and La Perouse, have given accounts, but one of the fullest and most recent is that 2 M 530 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL of ]Mr. Palmer in the Jommal of the Royal Geogrwpliical Society for 1870. At the extreme south-west end of the island are_ a great number (80 or 100) stone houses built in regular lines, with doors facing the sea. The walls are 5 feet thick and 5^ feet high, built of layers of irregular flat stones, but lined inside with upright flat slabs. Tlie inner dimensions are about 40 feet by 13 feet, and the I'oofing is formed by thin slabs overlappiug like tiles till the centre opening is about 5 feet wide, which is then covered in by long thin slabs of stone. The upright slabs inside are painted in red, black, and white, with figures of birds, faces, mythic animals, and geometric figures. Great quantities of a univalve shell were found in many of the houses, and in one of them a statue, 8 feet high and weighing 4 tons, now in the British Museum. Xear these houses, the rocks on the brink of the sea-cliffs are carved into strange shapes, resembling tortoises, or into odd faces. There are hundreds of these sculptures, often overgrown with bushes and grass. ]\Iuch more extraordinary are the platforms and images now to be described. ■ On nearly every headland round the coast of the island are enormous platforms of stone, now more or less in ruins. Towards the sea they present a wall 20 or 30 feet high and from 200 to 300 feet long, built of large stones often 6 feet long, and accu- rately fitted together without cement. Being built on sloping ground, the back wall is lower, usually about a yard high, leaving a platform at the top 30 feet wide, with square ends. Landwards a wide terrace, more than 100 feet broad, has been levelled, terminated by another step formed of stone. On these platforms are large slabs serving as pedestals to the images which once stood upon them, but which have now been thrown down in all directions and more or less mutilated. One of the most ■43 532 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPflY AND TRAVEL perfect of the platforms had fifteen images on it. These are trvmks terminating at the hips, the arms close to the side, the hands sculptured in very low relief on the haunches. They are flatter than the natural body. The usual size of these statues was 15 or 18 feet high, but some were as much as 37 feet, while others are only 4 or 5. The head is flat, the top being cut off level to allow a crown to be put on. These crowns were made of red vesicular tuff found only at a small crater called Terano Hau, about three miles from the stone houses, and north of the large crater Terano Kau. At this place there still remain thirty of these crowns waiting for re- moval to the several platforms, some of them being 10-^ feet diameter. The images, on the other hand, are made of a gray, compact, trachytic lava found only at the crater of Otuiti, quite the east end of the island, and about 8 miles from the " Crown " quarry. Near the crater is a large platform, on which a number of gigantic images are still standing, the only ones erect on the island. The face and neck of one of these measures 20 feet to the collar-bone, and is in good preservation. The faces of these images are square, massive, and disdainful in ex- pression, the aspect always slightly upwards. The lips are remarkably thin — the upper lip being short, and the lower lip thrust up. The eye-sockets are deep, and it is believed that eyeballs of obsidian were formerly inserted in them. The nose is broad, the nostrils expanded, the profile somewhat varied in the diflerent images, and the ears with long pendent lobes. The existing natives know nothing about these images. They possess, however, small figures carved in solid dark wood, with strongly aquiline profile differing from that of the images, the mouth grinning, and a small tuft on the chin. Wooden tablets, covered with strange hiero- THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 533 glyphics, have also been found, and it is evident that these wooden carvings, as well as those of stone, are the relics of a former age. The people have a tradition that many generations ago a migration took place from Oparo or Eapa-iti, one of the Austral group. Hence they call their present abode Eapa-nui, or Great Eapa, to dis- tinguish it from Eapa-iti, or Little Eapa. An imple- ment of stone, a mere long pebble with a chisel edge, is believed to have been the chief tool used in producing these wonderful statues ; but it is almost incredible that with such imperfect appliances works so gigantic could have been executed, literally by hundreds, in an island of such insignificant dimensions, and so completely isolated from the rest of the world. At present Easter Island is the great mystery of the Pacific, and the more we know of its strange antiquities, the less we are able to understand them. 13. The Sandwich Islands or Hawaii. Lying just within the northern tropic, over 2000 miles from San Francisco, and some 3000 from Fiji, is the isolated Hawaii or Sandwich Archipelago, forming a small and independent kingdom, though largely under the influence — both socially and politically — of the L^nited States. It consists of eight inhabited islands, Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahulaui, and Hawaii, of which the last is considerably the largest ; and the three small rocky islets, Lehua, Kaula, and Molokini, together with a few shoals and small islands stretching to the N.W. They extend in a JST.W. and S.E. direction over a distance of about 400 miles, and rise abruptly from great ocean depths of 16,000 to 18,000 feet. The land area is about 8500 square miles, and the population probably about 88,000. The islands are 534 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL generally described as having been first discovered by Cap- tain Cook, but there is no doubt that they were previously known to the Spaniards. They will always be connected with the name of the great navigator, however, as the place of his murder by the natives, on the loth February 1779; the scene of the tragedy being Kealakeakua Bay on the west side of the island of Hawaii. The Sandwich Islands are pre-eminently volcanic. Here, in Hawaii, rise three of the highest mountains in Polynesia — Mauna Kea, about 13,800 feet; Mauna Loa, hardly 200 feet less in elevation ; and Mauna Hualalai, about 8000 feet, the two last active volcanoes. On the eastern slope of Mauna Loa is Kilauea, a remarkable volcano in constant activity, scarcely elsewhere surpassed in the awe-inspiring grandeur of its cauldron of seething lava, when contemplated on a moonless night. Its crater, of comparatively easy access, forms a vast irregular abyss, in which there is usually visible a glowing lake of lava, rising and falling independently of the action of other volcanoes. After a silence of eleven years, Mauna Loa was the scene of a terrific eruption on the 14th February, 1877. Fiery clouds of smoke and vapour were at first vomited with astounding velocity to a height of more than 15,000 feet, covering the heavens for a space of 1 0 0 square miles, and emitting such a strong glare that the whole island was lit up as vividly as by the mid-day sun, the light being clearly visible on the distant Maui. Ten days afterwards there occurred a fresh and most remarkable eruption, from a submarine volcano in the Bay of Keala- keakua. Countless red, blue, and green flames flickered over the surface of the waters, and huge glowing masses of lava emitting large volumes of steam, and diffusing dense sulphureous exhalations, were hurled into the air. This was accompanied by a loud rumbling noise, while the THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 060 waters immediately over the crater were violently agitated and tossed about, as if rushing over high cliffs, or raised to the boiling-point by the subterraneous fires. Some vessels sailing near the spot were struck by the falling lava masses, without, however, suffering much damage. This eruption was preceded by a violent earthquake. Another great volcanic eruption took place in 1881. Craters large and small, thermal springs, and other evidences of volcanic acti\T.ty are common throughout the islands. Among them the most striking is, perhaps, the great crater on Maui Island, Haleakala, wliich is stated to be 15 miles in circumference and about 2000 feet deep. Notwithstanding these potentialities, for disaster, the Hawaiian group may be regarded as one of the most pleasant places of abode in the Pacific, rejoicing in a most healthful climate, a rich vegetation, and a merry, light-hearted race of natives. The mean coast temperature is about 74° Fahr., and the rainfall at Honolulu below 40 inches. For these and other reasons the group has become a sanatorium for Americans, com- munication with San Francisco being now frequent and regular. The only severe endemic disorder is leprosy, which is said not to have existed in former years, though now rather common. The sufferers are segregated in the island of Molokai, and the memory of Father Damien's life and death among them will long remain as a con- spicuous instance of heroic self-sacrifice. Of all the islands of the Pacific, the Sandwich grouj) are, so far as their fauna is concerned, the most interesting. In most cases, in Polynesia and Mikronesia, the birds and mammals are few in number, and apparently the descend- ants of stragglers from the west, which, in the course of centuries, have chanced upon these remote and lonely islets. In Hawaii, though the size of the islands is such 536 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL as to forbid the existence of many mammals, we find a curiously rich and highly specialised avifauna, and a still more astonishing development of the land moUusca. The richness of the Passerine birds is most strongly marked in the Drcpanididm, of which there are no less than 32 representatives, most of them belonging to the genera Himatione and Hemignathus. The latter genus is HEAD OF HEMIGNATHUS. characterised by the extraordinary peculiarity of the prolongation of the upper mandible, so that in some cases it is twice the length of the lower, or even more, and the genus may be regarded as a midway form between the original immigrants and the more highly specialised Drepanis, with long, curved, and ecpial mandibles. Until recently these birds were regarded as Meliphagine, and therefore as having their nearest affinities in the Australian region, but Dr. Hans Gadow has recently proved con- THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 537 clusively that this is not the case, and that they are allied to the Ccerebidcc, a point of great interest, since the latter are American. The leading featnres of Hawaiian orni- thology were first pointed out by Professor A. Xewton in Nature (I7th March, 1892), but are too technical to need more than mention here. It may be stated, how- ever, that various finches found on the group may possibly own an Asiatic origin, and that Acrulocercus and Cliceto- 2')tila, and the Ehipidura-like Chasiempis, point certainly to an Australian ancestry, although the three most numerous families of that region — parrots, kingfishers, and pigeons — are all wanting. The land mollusca of the Sandwich Islands are described by Mr. A. H. Cooke as standing in marked contrast to those of the other Polynesian groups, in the possession of three entirely peculiar genera — Acliatindla, Carelia, and Auriculclla. More than 300 of the former genus have been described, every mountain valley on some of the islands containing its own peculiar species. Partula, so characteristic of all the other groups, is absent, while the small land operculates, with the sole exception of Helicina, are also wanting. The occurrence of one of the Merope group of Rdix, otherwise known only from the Solomon Islands, is most remarkable. On the other hand, Patula, Microcystis, Tornatellina, and other small pan-Polynesian land pulmonata are well represented, and there is a rich development of Succinea. Among the marine littoral mollusca occur two Purpura, one of which is closely related to a troj)ical Mexican and the other to a temperate Californian species. On the whole, the molluscan fauna is unique in its peculiarities, both as regards its indigenous element and also as regards the apparently complicated relationships of the elements which are not indigenous. 538 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPAVEL It may thus be said that the Hawaiian Islands have received their fauna from the most varied and distant sources, and there is no doubt that a vast period of time has been necessary to bring about the differentiation of the species into such peculiar and interesting forms. The Kanakas, as the natives are called, are amongst the finest and most intelligent peoples of the Pacific, and have become thoroughly Europeanised, or perhaps rather Americanised. The ladies model themselves quite after the American fashion, and speak English in preference to their mother tongue. All classes can read and write. But here, as elsewhere in the Pacific, we find that a decrease in the population has ensued since the advent of Europeans which is little short of appalling. At the time of Cook's visit the people were believed to number 300,000, while at the present time there are not more than 40,000. To what point this reduction will proceed cannot with certainty be predicated. Although extinction would appear at first sight to be the inevitable result, yet, judging from other instances, it need not be so, at all events not in the immediate future. European contact seems almost invariably to produce a sudden and rapid decline of this kind, but it appears also that a point may be reached beyond which this decline may not proceed, and that the balance may in due course establish itself; the race, if ultimately doomed, losing itself by absorption or fusion, rather than by the inability of the individual to resist disease or cope with the altered conditions of his environment. What is the immediate cause of the depopulation of these and other islands of Polynesia, it is very difiiicult to say. Neither the diseases nor the ardent spirits intro- duced by Europeans are sufficient to account for it. By many writers who cannot be accused of bias, it is con- THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 539 sidered to be due in part to the missionaries, who, in their zeal to rescue the uncivilised natives, have not always gone to work with the necessary discretion. The re- pressive measures alluded to on a former page have entirely altered the life and customs of the native, and have been instrumental in depriving him of his former light -heartedness and freedom, which, among an un- developed, child -like race, is no small matter. The Hawaiian Consul-General, Mr. Manley Hopkins, considers that " the oppressive system of government, the cUs- continuance of ancient sports, and consequent change in the habits of the people, have been powerful agents in this work of depopulation ; and the ill-judged enforcement of cruel punishments and heavy penalties for breaches of chastity have much aided it, by giving an additional stimulus to the practice — always too common among Polynesian females — of causing abortion, of which prac- tice sterility is the natural result." And again : " The missionaries have not attained the measure of success which might have been expected from the long and strenuous efforts they have made. They have not truly Christianised or regenerated the nation. They have pre- sented Christianity as a severe, legal, Jewish religion, deprived of its dignity, beauty, tenderness, and amiability. They have not made the people love religion. In their rigorous Sabbatarian view of the Lord's day, in then- desire to enforce a Maine liquor law, and in some other matters, they have attempted to infringe on the natural rights of men, and have, in native eyes, reproduced the detested tabu system — the nightmare from which the nation escaped in 1820." The missionaries to whom these remarks apply are those of the Congregational denomina- tion of the United States, who, for nearly forty years, from 1820 to 1860, had almost undisputed possession of 540 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the field, and long exercised great influence over the government. That influence has now ceased, and a Church of England mission has been established ; but it may be impossible to neutrahse the evil effects of a system of repression and habits of hypocrisy which have been at work for nearly two generations. In 1888, out of a population of less than 87,000, no less than 23,000 were Chinese; coolies of that race having been imported in large numbers for work on the plantations. There are now not more than 20,000, but the Japanese number nearly 8000. At the period just stated there were about 19,000 Europeans, of whom over 10,000 were Portuguese. These are almost without exception natives of Madeira and the Azores, who, unable from overpopulation to get land in their own country, though excellent and most industrious agriculturists, found in the land of their adoption a soil almost as good as that of their own, and an even better climate. With regard to the 40,000 or so of Kanakas still remaining, it is worthy of note that the men are greatly in excess of the women in number, a fact that perhaps more than any other augurs ill for the continuance of the race. The main exports of the Hawaiian Islands are sugar and rice. American capital to the amount of five million sterling is invested in the sugar plantations, nearly five times that of any other nation ; and the annual export, which rapidly increases, may be reckoned at about 120,000 tons. All is sent to the United States. From 5000 to 6000 tons of rice are exported, and the consump- tion of the island may be calculated as even exceeding this, when the large number of Japanese and Chinese labourers, who live upon little else, is taken into considera- tion. The banana trade with the United States has largely increased, and about £27,000 worth of the fruit THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 541 was exported in 1889. Wool is another product of some importance, about half a million lbs. being annually shipped. The total value of the exports in 1889 scarcely fell short of three million sterling. The imports are chiefly manufactured goods, nearly four-fifths of which come from America. There is a small public debt of £200,000. Hawaii was, up till quite recently, an independent monarchy, with two chambers, the upper composed of chiefs elected by the landholders, the lower chosen by universal suffrage. Political squabbles, however, have of late destroyed the peace of the islands, and retarded their progress. They culminated on July 4th, 1894, in a coup d!6idt, when a Republic was proclaimed. It is quite possible, however, that this form of government may not be of long duration. The capital, Honolulu,' in the island of Oahu, has over 20,000 inhabitants, and is very progressive and European. Fine quays allow the largest steamers to lie alongside, the streets and shops are lit by electric light, and there are telephones every- where. Cabs, tramways, schools, homes for aged natives, a racecourse, an opera-house, and excellent bands con- tribute to the comfort and amusement of the people. In the island of Hawaii, Hilo is the most important town, with 5000 inhabitants. There are two short railways in the grovip, and' a good steamer service with San Francisco. IKEONESIA CHAPTEE XV THE GILBERT, MARSHALL, CAROLINE, PELEW, AND LADRONE GROUPS 1. G-eneral. North of the Equator, between New Guinea and the south coast of Japan, the great ocean is studded with countless little islands, which, in consequence of their remarkably small size, are collectively called Mikronesia. The most easterly are the Gilbert and Marshall groups. Farther west are the Caroline Islands, and the Pelews, which by some writers are called the Western Carolines, North of them are the Ladrones or Mariannes, now peopled by the descendants of the Tagals and Bisayans of the Philippines. The inhabitants of the rest of Mik- ronesia are of very mixed race, the main elements being probably Indonesian (pre-Malay) and Polynesian. But in many parts there is strong evidence of Negrito and Papuan blood, while the junks of China and Jajsan, which are not infrequently wrecked upon Mikronesian reefs, have no doubt brought other elements into the ancestry THE GILBERT Oil KINGSMILL ISLANDS 543 of the present inhabitants. The Gilbert or Kingsmill group are British, and the Marshall Islands a German possession, while the Ladrone, Pelew, and Caroline Islands belong to Spain. 2. The Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands. The Gilbert Archipelago, which was formally annexed by Great Britain in May, 1892, consists of sixteen islands, all coral reefs or atolls, and nowhere more than 20 feet above the sea. In some the land appears to be rising rather rapidly. The soil is only a few inches in depth, composed of coral sand and vegetable mould, in which hardly anything but coco-nuts and pandanus will grow spontaneously. There is no fern or grass, and not a single land bird with the exception of the migratory cuckoo JJrodynamis taiticnsis. A little taro {Arum cordi- foliuin) is grown in trenches with great care. The food of the people is mainly procured from the sea, and ranges from the whale to the sea-slug. Great nunlbers of fish are taken in the lagoons, and turtle are abun- dant in the season. In such a barren group of islands the means of procuring the necessaries of life seem scanty enough, and it must require a constant expenditure of labour and skill to maintain life, yet nowhere in the most favoured portions of the Pacific is the population more dense or more healthy than in these sterile islets. Elsewhere in Mikronesia the sparseness of the population is painful, but here the overflowing swarms are a continual source of surprise. Some of the islands seem to form one great village. The very smallest of these atolls, only two miles across, has a population of from 1500 to 2000, while Taputeuea has from 7000 to 8000. The population of the whole group is estimated at over 40,000, while 544 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the area of dry land is not more than 170 square miles, giving more than 230 persons per square mile, while in some of the islands it is said to reach 400 per square mile — a density of population certainly unequalled in the world in any area where the people depend for food solely on their own exertions. The natives here are said to be darker and coarser than in the more western islands, so that there has prob- ably been some intermixture of races, which, combined with the need for constant exertion in fishing, has created the energetic temperament which has rendered so large a population possible. They are tall and stout, 5 feet 8 inches or 5 feet 9 inches being the average height. They almost all go naked, except a conical hat of pan- danus leaf. They make a kind of armour of plaited coco-nut fibres to protect themselves in war from their formidable swords armed with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are constructed entirely of coco-nut wood boards, sewn neatly together and fastened to well -modelled frames. The American Mission has stations in some of the northernmost islands of the group, and many of the children have been taught to read. The southern islands are under the London Missionary Society. The natives of the large island of Taputeuea are said to differ from all the rest in their slender, well-proportioned bodies, fine black glossy hair, and projecting cheek-bones, and they are thought to have less of Polynesian blood than the inhabitants of the other islands. On the whole, this group offers one of the most remarkable social phenomena on the globe — a people in a state of almost complete bar- barism, living under the most adverse physical conditions, and yet presenting a density of population not surpassed, if equalled, among the most civilised peoples in the most fertile countries of the world. THE MARSHALL ISLANDS 545 3. The Marshall Islands. The Marshall Archipelago, running in a N.W. and S.E. direction for about 500 miles, is arranged in two parallel chains, that to the east being known as the Eadack, and that to the west as the Ealick, group. Of the entire number of forty-six islands, the eight smallest only are flat coral islands encircled by reefs, all the rest being atolls. The entire land area has been estimated at 150 square miles, and the population at about 10,000. First seen by Saavedra in 1529, the group came into the possession of Germany in 1885. Their rule is not par- ticularly successful, heavy taxes pressing hard upon the natives ; but the large copra trade renders the islands valuable, and several trading firms, chiefly German, are established in the archipelago. Jaluit is the capital and seat of administration, if such a term can be used. The vegetation of the Marshall group, though luxu- riant as compared with that of the barren Gilbert Islands, is still inferior in exuberance and variety to that of the Carolines, and continually diminishes and becomes more stunted as we proceed northwards. From the coco-nut and pandanus the natives draw their chief supplies of food, and in some islands the bread-fruit is also found. From the root of Tacca pinnatifida a sort of flour is pre- pared. Yams, banana, and taro are also cultivated, and some species of Hibiscus yield a strong description of bast. The natives, who are mostly pagans, are said to be decreasing rapidly in number, partly, no doubt, from the constant state of tribal war which prevails. Cap- tain Cyprian Bridge describes the men as tall, and the women as singularly short, but often very good-looking, 2 N 546 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL and extremely graceful. The former wear a short kilt of shreds of some vegetable fibre, but the women are clothed with tapa mats from the waist to the ankle. Tattooing is common, and the ear-lobes are distended to an enormous size by the insertion of a wooden hoop — the former custom showing evidence of Polynesian, the latter of Papuan influence. The natives are good sailors, making large canoes, in which they proceed on long voyages. " They actually make," Captain Bridge informs us, " curious charts of thin strips of wood tied together with fibres. Some of these indicate the position of the difl'erent islands with a surprising approach to accuracy. Others give the direction of the prevailing winds and currents." All the Marshall islanders speak dialects of one language, different from that of the Caroline Archi- pelago, though of similar grammatical structure. 4. The Caroline Islands. The Carolines, thus called after Charles 11. of Spain, lie between New Guinea to the south and the Ladrones to the north, and occupy a vast area. They form three main groups — the Eastern, Central, and Western — and the distance from Kusaie, on the east, to Babeltuap, the farthest western limit, is over 2000 miles. The Western group are better known as the Pelew Islands, and will be separately described under this name. The majority of the islands are comprised in the Central group, and are of the usual character — low and coralline, and arranged round a central lagoon. Ponape and Kusaie are exceptions, being high and rugged ; and Euk consists of a lagoon reef 150 miles in circuit, within which are a number of little hilly islets. The fauna ex- hibits extreme poverty. The climate, tempered by cool THE CAEOLIXE ISLANDS r>47 breezes, is very healthy, and where sufficient soil is found most of the fruits of the Malay Islands flourish, not even excepting the durian. Such a condition is, however, not very generally existent, and the coco-nut, pandanus, and banana afford the chief support of the natives after tlie Ijread-fruit, which here supplies the place filled by taro in the eastern islands of the Pacific. The archipelago has a considerable trade in copra, and several German, American, and English traders are established. The Carolines, like the Ladrones, belong to Spain, but were discovered by the Portuguese in the early part of the sixteenth century. At that period, with so much territory of value still unappropriated, they were not con- sidered worthy of notice, but in 1696 and 1721, canoes from the islands having reached the Philippines and Ladrones, the Spanish sent an expedition to them. They were subsequently claimed as a Spanish possession, but no attempt at government was made until 1886, when, in consequence of Germany attempting to gain a footing by hoisting her flag on Yap, a Governor was appointed. The entire garrison were murdered in the following year, and a further massacre took place in 1890. Since then order is said to have been restored. Politically, the archipelago is divided into an Eastern and Western group, the capitals being at Ponape and Yap. The natives of the Carolines are believed to number about 30,000, and the population is massed chiefly in the largest islands or groups — Euk, Yap, Lukunor, and Ponape. They exhibit a considerable mixture of race and variation of colour, the latter passing from a very dark copper in the west almost to a light brown in the eastern islands. Many are of unusually tall stature and strongly built. In the east, Polynesian blood is more evident, and on the island of Xukuor, according to Mr. F. 548 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL J. Moss, the language spoken is pure but antiquated Maori. The Polynesian custom of tattooing is universal, but the pierced septum nasi and enlarged ear-lobes, together with the widespread existence of club-houses, point to a con- siderable Papuan influence. The people are singularly good navigators — a rude kind of navigation and astro- nomy being actually taught formally in schools instituted by them for this purpose ; and charts are constructed much after the manner of those of the Marshall islanders. American missionaries have been established on the group for many years, but the progress hitherto made has not been great. The Euk Islands form the largest group of the Caro- lines, with an estimated population of about 15,000, and are the most densely peopled portion of the archipelago. Many different tribes inhabit them, and wars are thus of frequent occurrence. They are still regarded as danger- ous by traders, whose vessels have not seldom been overpowered and plundered. Yap is much more in touch with civilisation, yet even here the natives are not entirely trustworthy. On this island, which is 17 miles long and of very irregular outline, are many German traders, by whom the commerce of the archipelago is principally carried on. The currency still appears to be shell money, and — more remarkable still, since they are not put to any use — large millstones or discs of arra- gonite, sometimes three tons in weight and eighteen feet round, which are quarried in the Pelew Islands, and are generally the property of the township, not the individual. Kusaie or Ualan, a very picturesque island over 2000 feet in height, with a population not exceeding 300, is chiefly worthy of mention as the headquarters of the American Mission. Close to it is the little island of THE CAROLINE ISLANDS 549 Lele, remarkable for possessing ruins which appear to be very similar to those on Ponape, which we shall pre- sently describe. Captain Cyprian Bridge speaks of them as forming a sort of fortress with cyclopean walls of large basaltic blocks, and there are also numerous canals and presumably artificial harbours. Ponape, a rugged and mountainous island more or less circular in shape, and having a diameter of about 16 miles, is thickly wooded, and some of its trees attain a very large size. It has a population of 2500 living on the seaboard, but the interior is quite uninhabited. A coral reef extends round the island at about three miles from the shore, with nine openings, forming a number of excellent harbours. The climate is excessively equable, the extreme range of the thermometer during three years being only 19°, the mean temperature being 80^°. The trade winds blow for the greater part of the year ; violent storms, as well as electrical disturbances, are rare ; and rain falls more or less all the year round. The celebrated Malayan fruit, the durian, has been introduced here with success, and the vegetable-ivory nut flourishes. The soil is very fertile, but its surface in many parts is so covered with stones as to be unworkable. These con- sist almost entirely of regular basaltic prisms, and in their abundance and evident suitability for building pur- poses we have possibly two reasons to account for the extraordinary ruins on the eastern side of the island which have puzzled so many travellers. The ruins of Metalanium are situated at the mouth of the port of that name, upon innumerable islets of the coral reef, distant about a mile or more from the main- land. They consist of one main building, which has a more or less central position in the midst of a vast number of other constructions whose raison d'etre it is 550 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL not easy to conjecture. The islets are here very numer- ous and closely approximated, and over a large area these have been built up in their entire circumference with high sea-walls composed of natural basaltic prisms of large size. The effect produced is that of a vast series of canals- — " a Pacific Venice," as it has been termed by a traveller. These canals vary in width from 30 to 100 feet or more, and it is worthy of note that the walls, in many cases, have their bases submerged to some little depth — a fact which has led some observers to the not very certain conclusion that the land has sunk since their erection. On many of the islets raised platforms constructed of the same materials are to be seen. The main building above mentioned demands separate consideration. It has been well described in his Atolls and Islands by Mr. F. J. Moss, who gives a ground-plan of it with measurements and a photograph of a portion of the wall. It may be roughly described as a massive fjuadrangle with sides about 200 feet in length, within which is another of smaller area, centrally placed, and enclosing in its turn a covered vault, behind which is erected a raised platform. The walls both of the outer and inner courts are provided with a western entrance 15 feet in width, and there are three other vaults placed between the outer and inner walls on the north, east, and south sides respectiA^ely. The walls of both the quad- rangles are about 20 feet high, but while those of the inner have a uniform thickness of 10 feet, those of the outer are 18 feet thick at the base and only 8 feet in their upper part, so that a sort of terrace 1 0 feet wide is formed, which runs round the entire inner side at about 6 feet from the ground. The material of which these walls are composed is the same as that of those forming the canals, namely, natural basaltic prisms, without mortar. THE PELEW ISLANDS 551 held together by their own weight. These stones are laid in alternate transverse rows, and are in many instances of great size, some being, according to Mr. C. F. Wood, as much as 25 feet in length and 8 feet in circumference. The idea that these buildings could have been formed either by the present race of savages or by Spanish buccaneers, as some have thought, is preposterous, and they remain another mystery of the great Pacific, hardly inferior to that of Easter Island with its colossal images. There are other ruins in the island of a similar character, as well as mounds or platforms a quarter of a mile long and twelve feet high. The ruins on Lele Island, of which mention has already been made, closely resemble those of Ponape, but the latter are by far the most remarkable. 5. The Pelew Islands. These are the most westerly group of Mikronesia, and less than 600 miles east of the Philij^pines. They consist of one large and a few small islands, several of which are high and mountainous, others being low and of coralline formation. Their entire area is about 200 square miles, and their population between 12,000 and 14,000. Babeltuap, the largest, is 30 miles long, with a mountain at the northern end. They are well covered with timber trees, from some of which the natives make good canoes capable of holding thirty persons. Yams and coco-nuts are the chief articles of food, but bananas are also grown. The inhabitants are quite distinct from the Caroline Islanders and Polynesians who prevail farther .east, having a darker complexion and being of smaller stature. They are generally frizzly-haired, and paint their bodies in brilliant colours, especially yellow. Early voyagers were loud in praise of these people. 552 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Captain Wilson of the Antelope, packet, who was wrecked there in 1783, is said to have found the natives " delicate in their sentiments, friendly in their disposition, and, in short, a people that do honour to the human race " ; and Captain Cheyne says that they are far more intelligent and polished in their manners than the Caroline islanders. Captain Wilson brought home with him Prince Lee Boo, son of the king, Abba Thulle, a young man who evinced ■ so much aptitude for civilisation and such an excellent disposition, that his death from smallpox excited uni- versal regret throughout England. Later travellers have given a less favourable account of the Pelew islanders ; but, as in so many other cases, they have probably since had good reason to dislike their European visitors, and have had many injuries to revenge. Civilisation of a certain kind has reached the islands, and the customs are altering, but the wars still continue. Dr. Carl Semper, who spent nearly a year upon the Pelews, has given a full account of the peculiar customs and political organisation of the natives. They have invented an order of knighthood which the king has the exclusive right to award, as well as to take back from those who may have fallen into disgrace. It is called " Klilt," and its insignia is the first cervical vertebra of the dugong or sea-calf {Halicore). The investiture and resumption of the order are alike a very formidable pro- ceeding, the hand being violently thrust through the narrow ring of the fish-bone, whereby a finger is occasion- ally lost, and the skin in any case torn off Yet the honour is purchased from the State for so much tripang by seafarers. Still more curious are the clubs and con- fraternities into which the people of various ranks are associated, with intricate rules and ceremonies which cannot here be given in detail. The women form similar THE LADRONE OR MARIANNE ISLANDS 553 associations, which, like the others, have their leaders, and enjoy the privileges of recognised corporations. 6. The Ladrone or Marianne Islands. We have hitherto had to do almost entirely with groups of islands which have been arranged with their main axis in a direction roughly N.W. and S.E. The Ladrones form a marked exception to this rule. They lie in a single regular chain extending N. and S. for a distance of 500 miles ; not in an absolutely straight line, but in a slight but even curve, with its concavity west- ward, thus forming as it were a segment of a vast circle. They are, for the most part, small and steep volcanic islets, some of which have active craters. The more southern islands are larger, extremely fertile, and well watered. The chain consists of seventeen islands, which lie between 13° and 21° N. latitude, and have a total area of 450 square miles. They are a possession of Spain, the Governor, who is dependent on the Captain- General of the Philippines, residing in Guam. The total population is a little over 10,000. The Ladrones were discovered by Magellan in 1521, and were thus named by him from the thievish propensi- ties of the inhabitants. In 1528 Saavedra took nominal possession of them, as did Legaspi later, in 1565, but no settlements were made. In 1668 the Jesuit, Luis de San Vitores, established his mission in Guam. The island became the port of call for the great Spanish galleons which went yearly between Manila and Acapulco, and it was in its neighbourhood that Anson waited in 1743 in the Centurion for his famous prize the N. S. de Cavadonga, which he eventually captured off Samar, her value being estimated at half a million sterling. The Spanish rule of 554 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the islands was characterised by harshness and oppression, and a desultory war of extermination was carried on for many years. Wlien first known the islands had a popula- tion of at least 50,000. At the present day not one of the original race survives, and the islands are peopled chiefly by Tagals and Bisayans from the Philippines, witli a few Caroline islanders, and numerous half-breeds, but also by the mixed descendants of natives of South American tribes. The original Chamorros were in many ways a fine race. An ancient feudalism existed, the people being divided into nobles, priests, and plebeians. The religion was a sort of ancestor-worship. They have left behind them some memorials of a civilisation which was certainly higher than that existing among the natives at the present day. These structures, which are more numerous in Tinian than elsewhere, are very remarkable, and their service has never been satisfactorily explained. They consist of two ranges of massive stone columns, square in shape, 14 or more feet high, and about 6 feet in diameter. Enormous blocks of stone, in the shape of semi-glol:)es, form the capitals. It has been suggested by Freycinet and others that they were the supports for the roofs of large buildings, and the theory is not unreasonable, but according to old Spanish accounts cinerary urns were discovered in the capitals of some of the columns. What- ever they may have been, they are undoubtedly of great antiquity, for the Spaniards regarded them as such on their first arrival three centuries and a half ago. The Ladrones are favoured by a good and equable climate, but are occasionally visited by severe earthquakes and typhoons. The rainy season occurs in midsummer with the S.W. winds, but rain falls at intervals throughout the year, and droughts are rare. The thermometer varies THE LADKONE OK MARIANNE ISLANDS ODD between 70° and 80° Pahr. The country near Agana in Guam is said to afford views which cannot be excelled for beauty, and the vegetation is exuberant. Maize, tobacco, and sugar are the chief crops, but cotton, coffee, rice, cocoa, and Manila hemp are also grown, and the coco-palm is abundant. There is, however, no exportation, for the islands lie far from ordinary trade routes and are rarely visited. Little is known either of the fauna or flora. Deer are numerous, especially on Saipan, and cattle, hogs, and fowls have run wild on Tinian for more than a century. No snakes are known, but rats, probably of late introduc- tion, are numerous, and there is a peculiar species of Pteropus. The chain begins in the north with Farallon de Pajaros, an active volcano about 1000 feet in height, and is succeeded by the three rocky islets known as the Urracas. Assumption, a very striking volcanic peak rising sharply from the water to the height of 2848 feet, is partially active. Agrigan, about 7 miles in length, and exceedingly rugged and mountainous, is the first inhabited island. Pagan is said to have no less than three active cones, but it is nevertheless peopled by a few natives, who have large coco-nut plantations. Five islands follow, Alamagan, Guguan, Sariguan, Anataxan, and Farallon de Medinilla, all of which are uninhabited. The islands farther south are larger and more fertile. Saipan is nearly 15 miles in length, and has a population of about 1000 persons. According to M. Marche, who explored it a few years ago, it has no sign of volcanic action. Tinian, the next island, was at one time the most populous of the group, and is said to have had 30,000 inhabitants; but when Anson visited it in 1742 to recuperate his scurvy-stricken crew, he found it utterly deserted. It is now inhabited by about 300 natives, and serves, like Molokai in the 556 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL Sandwich Islands, as a place of segregation for lepers, Aguijan Island is of no importance, and Eota, though considerably larger, has only 500 inhabitants. Guam, the last island in the chain, is the most populous and important, and is the seat of the Spanish settlement. It is 32 miles in length, and is bordered by reefs in its southern portion. It has a population of 9000, two-thirds of whom are resident in the capital, Agaiia, and almost all the rest upon the seaboard, the country inland being almost uninhabited. The Spanish residents are hardly more than 20 in number. A small force of 200 Manila soldiery are quartered here, and the militia comprises nearly all the native male population, and is commanded by native officers. Agafia is also a convict settlement, the prisoners usually numbering about a hundred. The town is beautifully clean, and possesses a hospital, good Government offices, a church, and schools. In 1888 there were 18 schools on the island. Many of the natives speak a little English, and it is said that 90 per cent can read and write. There is postal communica- tion with the Ladrones only four times in the year, and they may be regarded as one of the most inaccessible and least-visited parts of the globe, but the occasional calling of the Spanish men-of-war brings them now somewhat more frequently in touch with the outside world than was formerly the case. According to the soundings of the Cliallenger expedition, one of the deepest parts of the Pacific Ocean (4475 fathoms) occurs to the south-south-west of the Ladrones. East of this chain and that of the Bonin Islands the great depths are quickly reached, and a trough of this deep water, averaging over 3000 fathoms, continues hence nearly to Japan. INDEX "^ Abaca, 41, 56, 80, 81 Abang volcano, 347 Abong-abong, Mouut, 158 Abreu, Antonio d.', 104, 316, 331, 338 Ache, 156, 157, 183, 211 Achenese language, 183 Admiralty Islands, 430 Adonara, 363, 364 Afzelia bijuga, 475 Agaua, 556 Agi-igan Island, 555 Aguijan Island, 556 Agung volcano, 347 Agusan river, 85 Alamagan Island, 555 Alas, Mount, 370 Albay, 71, 72, 74 Albert Edward, Mount, 423 Albert mountains, 380 Albertis, Signor d', explores Fly river, 384, 421 Allor {see Ombay) Amahai, 329 Amargura Island, 497 Amberno river, 381, 412 Amhlyornis musgravianus, 394 suhalaris, 394 Amboiua, 308, 316, 330 wood, 333 Ambrym Island, 451 America Islands, 527 Amorphophallus titanuvi, 178 Ampanam, 352 Amuutai, 273 Anamba Islands, 273 I Anataxan Island, 555 Andropogon austro-caledonicum, 462 caricosum, 171 Aneitium Island, 449 Anglican Melanesian Mission, 409, 451 Anoa depressicornis, 283 Anson captures Manila galleon, 553 Ansus, 429 Antiaris toxicaria, 111 Antilocarpa sumatrana, 181 Antimony mines, 246, 457 Antique, province of, 79 Aoba Island, 453 Aparri, 72 Ape, Celebesian {Cynopitliecus), 283, 286, 309, 325 Api Island, 451 Apia, 503, 504 Apo, Mount, 33, 85 Araucaria Cookii, 458 Arfak mountains, 379, 391 Argojjura, 106 Arjuua, 106, 109 Arsenic in Sumbawa, 359 Aru Hassa, 354 Ai'u Islands, 425 Asahan mine, 246 Assumption Island, 555 Astrolabe Bay, 415 Atimano farm, 515 Aurora Island, 451 Austral Islands, 518 Australasia, 1 extent of, 3 558 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Australasia, geographical and physical features of, 4 ocean depths, 5 races of, 8 zoological features of, 10 geological relations of, 11 Australia, connection with New Guinea, 12 Awu volcano, 303 Baba Islands, 366 Babeltuap, 551 Babirusa, 283, 304, 309, 328 Babuyanes Islands, 72, 75 Bacalod, 80 Bacolor, 66 Bahu Solo river, 281 Baiaus, 90, 234, 240 Bala Island, 199 Balabac, 95 Balade copper mines, 457 Balagnini pirates, 240 "Baled," 195 Balambangau Island, 253 Balbi, Mount, 442 Bali, 347 Baling, Mount, 223 Ballarod mines, 457 Bananas, 138 Banda, 316, 333 Baugka, 201 straits, 202 Banguey Island, 253 Banjarmasin, 228, 270, 272 Bauka or Banca {see Bangka) Banks Islands, 451 Bantam, 145, 157 Barisan lange, 158, 174 Barito river, 226 Bashi Islands, 72 Basilan, 90 Batam Island, 200 Batang-liari, 175 Batang Lupar, 226 Batauta Island, 427 Batavia, 145 suburbs of, 148 fort built at, 104 rainfall of, 115 Batjan, 308, 309, 321, 325 Battak country and people, 186 Batu-angas, 321 Batu Islands, 199 Batu Kau volcano, 347 Batur volcano, 347 Bekasi, 149 Beucoolen {see Benkulen) Benkulen, 157, 211 Benzoin, 180, 206 Beri-beri, 116, 177, 211, 230 Bernacci volcano, 74 Best, Captain Tliomas, 184 Biak Island, 429 Bible burnt by the Dutch in Java, 129 Bickmore, Mr., on Celebesiau burial, 291 Bicols. 50, 84 Bidi, 239, 246 Bilian wood, 243 Billiton {see Blitong) Bima, 356 Bintang Island, 200 Birds' nests (edible), 92, 93, 244, 375 Birds-of-Paradise, 311, 322, 325, 429 first brought to Europe, 381 various genera of, 393 Birds of the Philij^i^ine Islands, 42 of Java, 119 of Sumatra, 182 of Borneo, 232 of Celebes, 285 of Moluccas, 311 of Timor Laut, 368 of New Guinea, 392 of Solomon Island, 444 of New Caledouia, 458 of Samoa, 505 of Marquesas, 525 of Sandwich Islands, 536 Bisayans, 50, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 93, 554 Bislig, 88 Bismarck Archipelago, 413, 417, 430 range, 380, 415 Bito lake, 83 Blanche Bay, 417, 434 Blitong, 204' Bohol, 83 Bonthain peak, 278 Borabora, 518 Borneo, 213 history of, 214 geology of, 217 physical features of, 218, 221 mountains of, 222 INDEX 559 Borneo, plains and rivers of, 224 lakes of, 228 climate of, 228 flora and fauna of, 230 inhabitants of, 233 agriculture and products of, 241 British North Borneo, 248 Labuan, 254 Brunei, 256 Sarawak, 259 Dutcli Borneo, 269 Boro-bodor temple, 132 Bos banteng, 231 Bosch, Gen. van den, 139 Bougainville Island, 442 Bounty, mutiny of the, 520 Bourail penitentiary, 464 Brambanam ruins, 131 Brantas river, 113 Bread-fruit, 333 Brine springs, 111 British Noitli Borneo, 248 British occupation of Java, 104, 149 of Benkulen, 157, 211 mission to Ache, 184 occupation of Bangka, 203 settlement at Banjarmasin, 228, 272 protectorate of North Borneo, 249 occupation of Manila, 32 of Balambangan, 253 take Labuan, 254 occupy Makassar, 277 in the Moluccas, 317 annexation of New Guinea, 418 in Melanesia, 442, 467 in Polynesia, 508, 509, 525 in Mikronesia, 543 Brito, Antonio de, reaches Moluccas, 316, 322 Bromo volcano, 110 Brooke, Raja, 259, 261 Brown, Mount, 423 Brunei, 256 visited by Pigafetta, 215, 238 by Jorge de Meneses, 215 river, 225 Buffalo in the Philiijpines, 59 in Borneo, 241 Bugis language, 25 race, 233, 273, 288, 293, 299, 339, 358, 361, 365, 375, 426 " Buitenbezittingen," 99, 100 Buiteuzorg, 115, 149 Bulacan, 71 Buleleng, 350 Buluan lake, 86 Bnlusan, 73 Burn, 308, 309, 314, 316, 327 Busuanga Islands, 93 Butak volcano, 106 Butung Island, 305 Buiil, 301 Cacao in Pliilippines, 79, 80, 82, 87 Cagayan, 70 Cagud volcano, 75 Cajuput oil, 328 Calamianes Islands, 93 Calapan, 77 Calophylluyn inophyllum, 475 Camarines, 71 Campbell, Lord George, on Tonga islanders, 488 Canloon volcano, 80 Cannibalism in Sumatra, 187, 188 in New Guinea, 406, 433 in Solomon Islands, 446 in New Hebrides, 453 in Fiji, 477 in Marquesas, 524 Capiz province, 79 Caraballos mountains, 33, 35 Carestochelys, 395 Caroline Island, 526 Islands, 546 Carteret, Philip, visits Admiralty Islands, 430 ; Solomon Islands, 443 ; Santa Cruz, 447 Cassia ftorida, 119 Cassowary, 311, 395, 436 Casuarius hennetti, 436 Catbalogan, 82 Cattle in Java, 138 Cave burial in the Philijjpines, 54, 93 Cavite, 65 Celebes, 275 population of, 276 history of, 276 physical features of, 277 rivers of, 280 lakes of, 281 climate of, 282 fauna and flora of, 283 inhabitants of, 288 560 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Celebes, Dutch settled districts of, 292 trade and products of, 300 islands of, 301 Ceram, 308, 314, 328 Chalmers, Mr., 384 Chaiiiorros of the Ladrone Islands, 554 Chandi Sewu ruins, 131 Charles Louis mountains, 379 Chepenehe, 466 Cheribon, 145 Cherimai, 106 Cherry Island, 449 Chi Tarum, 113 Manuk, 113 Chikurai, 106 Chilatjaji, 144 Chinese in Australasia, 10 in Philippines, 52, 92 in Java, 125, 142 in Bangka, 203 in Borneo, 233, 237, 239, 247, 265 in Ternate, 321 in Sandwich Islands, 540 Chin ran a river, 381 Christmas Island, 527 Cholera, 116, 177, 230 Chrome, 457, 458 Cigar factories in Manila, 66 Cinchona, 137 Civets, bred by the Achenese, 185 in Moluccas, 309 Clarence, Mount, 423 Cloves, 309, 315, 317, 322, 324, 325, 330, 333 Coal in Philippines, 35, 79, 80, 81, 82, 87 in Java, 105 in Sumatra, 208 ' in Borneo, 219, 245, 255 in Celebes, 301, 304 in Moluccas, 325, 326, 329 in New Caledonia, 457 Cobalt, 457, 458 Cochlostyla, 43 Cock-fighting in the Philippines, 68, 69 Coffee in Philippines, 58, 79, 87, 92 in Java, 136 in Sumatra, 206 in Celebes, 294, 295, 300 in Moluccas, 325, 329 Coffee, in Bali, 349 in Timor, 372 in New Guinea, 418, 424 in New Caledonia, 462 Communal system, in Java, 136 in Sumatra, 185, 193 Conus millepunctatus, 402 Cook Archipelago, 509 Cook, Captain, 449, 456, 497 on Tahiti, 513 death of, 534 Cooke, Mr. A. H., on mollusca of Philippines, 44 of New Guinea, 396 of Hawaii, 537 Copal, 300 Copper in Philippines, 34, 79, 84 in Sumatra, 208 in Borneo, 246 in Celebes, 301 in Moluccas, 325 in Timor, 370 in New Hebrides, 453 in New Caledonia, 457, 458 Copra, 274, 300, 303, 349, 418, 424, 450, 506, 516 Corvee in Java, 139 in Minahasa, 297 Cota Batu, 88 Crocodiles, 233, 395 Crocodilus porosus, 395 Culion, 93 '■ Culture system," 139 in Celebes, 297 Currents of the Lesser Sunda Group, 363 Cuscus, 283, 310 Cuyo, 93 Cuyos Islands, 93 Cyclops, Mouut, 385 Cynoplthecus nigrescens, 283, 286, 309, 325 Daesdels, Marshal, 146, 149, 153 Dam, Van, defeats Portuguese off Makassar, 277 Damien, Father, 535 Damnia Island, 365 Dammar gum, ISO, 244, 300, 322 Dammara vitiensis, 475 Dampier visits New Guinea, 382, 431 Danau lake, 173 Davoa, 88 INDEX 561 Dayman, Mount, 423 Declica volcano, 76 Deep-sea soundings, 6, 556 Dempo volcano, 160 Dende mountain, 354 Dendrolagiis, in Ke Islands, 344 D'Entrecasteaux Islands, 386, 437 " Dewarra," 435 Diahot river, 456 Diamonds in Borneo, 247 Didunculus strigirostris, 505 Dieng plateau, 134 Dili, tobacco district of, 207 Dim, 371 Disraeli, Mount, 415 Dobbo, 426 "Dobbos,"403 Donda mountain, 278 Dorei, 411 Douglas, Mount, 423 Draper, Sir William, takes Manila, 32 Drawings, Rock, on Ke Islands, 343 Droughts of the Lesser Sundas, 18 Drums of New Hebrideans, 453 Duck-rearing establishment, 71 Duke of York Islands, 417 Dumarau Island and volcano, 94, 95 Dutch possessions in Australasia, 97 their government, 98, 99 their population, 99 Dyaks, 25, 234, 265 in Palawan, 95 Earthquakes in the Philippines, 37, 66, 71 in Java, 110 in Nias Island, 198 in Ternate, 321 in Ceram, 329 in Amboina, 331 in Banda, 335 in Timor, 370 in New Guinea, 386 in Fiji, 473 Easter Island, 528 peopled from Rapa, 519 Eiau Island, 522 Elasis guineensis, 255 Elephant in Sulu, 91 wanting in Java, 119 in Sumatra, 181 in Borneo, 231 Ellice Islands, 508 Ende Bay, 360, 362 Engaiio Island, 200 Erromanga, 450, 452 Erskine, Captain, on the Tongan islanders, 488 on the Samoans, 505 Espiritu Santo, 451 Eua Island, 497 Eucalyptus, 119 Euchirus longimanus, 313 Everill's, Captain, ascent of Strick- land river, 385, 421 Fannixg Island, 527 Farallon de Pajaros, 555 de Medinilla, 555 Fatuhiva, 522 Felis jiiacroscelis, 181, 231 viarvioratus, 231 Ferguson Island, 386, 437 Fiji Islands, 467 history of, 471 geology and climate of, 472 flora and fauna of, 475 natives of, 476 religion and education in, 480 agriculture and trade of, 482 government of, 484 population of, 485 Finisterre mountains, 415 Finschhafeu, 413 Flores, 359 Fly river, discovered, 383 mouth of, 421 Forbes, Mr. H. 0., on Dempo vol- cano, 160 on Danau lake, 173 on flora of Palembang river, 179 on the halai, 195 on natives of Burn, 327 on Timor Laut, 367 on Timor, 370 Forests of Malaysia, 17 Fort Defensie, 328 Barneveld, 325 de Kock, 210 van der Capellen, 211 Rotterdam, 293 Oranje, 322 Victoria, 332 Nassau, 336 Belgica, 336 2o 562 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL French possessions in Anstralasia, 9, 510 Friendly Islands, 497 Fruits of Java, 119, 138 ; of Sumatra, 179 Galela, 318 sub-Papuan race at, 314 G alius bankiva, 43, 121 furcatus, 121 Galunggung, 106, 107 Gamakora volcano, 318 Gambler Islands, 520, 529 Ganibir, 201, 243 "Gamilang," 124 Gas, Natural, at Tanjong Api, 280 Gaua Island, 451 Gaya, 252 Gazelle jieniusula, 434 Gede volcano, 106 its flora, 118 German Borneo Company, 92 German New Guinea, 412 German settlements in Australasia, 9, 412, 545 Gilbert Islands, 543 Gilolo [see Halmahera) Gisser, 339 Gladstone, Mount, 415 Gloucester, C, volcanoes, 435 Goa, 289 Gold in Philippines, 34, 79, 81, 83, 84, 87 in Rhio-Lingga Islands, 201 in Bangka, 203 in Sumatra, 208 in Borneo, 247, 253 in Celebes, 300, 301 in Moluccas, 325 in Sumbawa, 359 in Timor, 370 in New Guinea, 387, 437 in New Caledonia, 457 Gongs, of Brunei, 248 Goodenough, Commodore, 447, 472 Island, ^437 Goram, 340 Gorontalo, 299 Goudberg, 158 (ioura victor ice, 429 Gressi, 144 visited by Abreu, 104 Grobogan mud volcanoes, 111 Guadalcanar, 442 Guam, 555, 556 Guguan Island, 555 Guillemard, Dr., on Krakatau erup- tion, 170 on Minahasau people, 298 on Obi Major, 326 Guimaras, 78 Gunong Api, 334, 335 Gunong-gunong Sewu, 112 Gunter, 106, 107 Giippy, Mr., on Solomon Islands, 443, 445 Gutta, 274 Halcon, Mount, 77 Haleakala, 535 Halmahera (or Gilolo), 308, 314, 318 Hare, Javanese, 119 Sumatran, 182 Hat-making in Java, 151 Hatzfeldthafen, 416 Hawaii, 533 Head-hunting among Dyaks, 235 "Heerendienst," 98, 298 Hcmignathus, 536 Hemileia vastatrix, 136 Hervey Islands, 509 Hickson, Dr., on "Culture system." 298 on Sangir Islands, 301, 303 Hilo, 541 Himalayan genera found in Sumatra, 182 Hindu rule in Java, 103 its traces, 101, 109, 130 in Sumatra, 156, 196, 205 in Borneo, 216, 273 in Celebes, 277 Hiuigaran, 80 Hiva-oa, 522 Honolulu, 541 Hopea dryohalanoides, 180 Hopkins, Consul, on Polynesian de- })opulation, 539 Houses, Dvak, 236 Papuan,"403, 421, 425, 431, 433 of Solomon Islanders, 446 of New Hebrides, 453 of New Caledonia, 459 of Fiji, 478 of Polynesians, 491 Houtman lands in Java, 104 INDKX 56; Huahine, 518 Humboldt Bay, 412 Mount, 456 Humphrey Island, 526 Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, 391 IJEN, 106 Illanuns, 86, 240 Illimandiri, 360 Ilocanos, 50, 70 Iloilo, 79 Images, ancient, of Easter Island, 530 Indigo in the Philippines, 58 "Indies," 49 Indonesians, 8, 21, 25 Indragiri river, 176 Indrapura volcano, 159 " Infieles," 49 Iron in Philipjiines, 35, 79 in Bangka, 203 in Sumatra, 209 in Borneo, 246 in Celebes, 301 in Timor, 370 Isabela, 90 Isarog, Mount, 74 Islamism in Java, 128 in Sumatra, 156, 183, 205 in Borneo, 234 in Celebes, 277 Isle of Pines, 465 Jacatra (province) ceded, 104 (town), 146 Jaluit, 545 Jambi river, 175 tribes of, 189 Jamhosa, 180 Jappen {see Jobi) Jarnaran lake, 83 Java, 101 islands of, 102 history of, 103 geology of, 104 volcanoes of, 105 rivers of, 113 valleys of, 114 climate of, 114 diseases of, 116 flora of, 116 fauna of, 119 inhabitants of, 121 Java, languages of, 126 religion prevailing in, 128 education in, 129 antiquities of, 130 agriculture in, 122, 135 exports, 138 " culture system " in, 139 revenue of, 142 population of, 142 provinces and capitals of, 143 towns of, 143, 145 Javanese nation, 121 Jembrana, 350 Jesuits, their work in Mindanao, 87 in Guam, 553 Jobi Island, 429 Jokjokarta, 145 Jolo, sieges of, 32, 90 province of, 89 Julia Hermina mine, 245 Jungle-fowl, 43, 121 Ju-ud, 341 Kaba volcano, 160 Kabalaki, Mount, 370 Kadu valley, 114 Kaioa Islands, 322 Kaiserin Augusta river, 381, 385, 416 Kajeli Bay, 328 Kajuput-tree, 328 Kakian Society, 332 Kambing Island, 364 "Kambing utau," 181 Kamodo Island, 359 Kanipar river, 176 Kauala mines, 457 Kanari tree, 336 Kaudavu, 470, 472 Kao volcano, 497 Kapogo, Mount, 448 Kapuas river, 226, 272 Karaug volcano, 106 Karbau peak, 366 Karons of New Guinea, 412 Katabelo, 360 Kauri pine, 470 Kawella, 364 Kawi language, 126, 349 volcano, 106, 109 Kayan Dyaks, 273 "Kayu kuning," 362 Ke Islands, 341 564 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TItAVEL Kealakeakua Bay, 534 Keane, Professoi- A. H., on the peoples of Australasia, 20 on people of Nassau Islands, 199 on the Polynesian languages, 496 Keizers Spits, 161 Kelut volcano, 109 Kema, 295 Kermadec, Huon, 456 Kettlewell's, Mr., exploration of New Guinea, 384 Kilauea volcano, 534 Kilkerran, Mount, 437 Kilwaru, 339 Kimanis river, 248 Kinabalu, 17, 221, 222, 229, 230 Kinabatangan, 227 Kingfishers, racquet-tailed, 395 Kissa Island, 366 Kiwai Island, 421 Klabat, Port, 203 Mount, 278 Klings, 359 Knutsford, Mount, 423 Koen, General, founds Batavia, 146 Kolasi volcano, 74 Komodo strait, 363 Koningsplein, 148 Konstantinhafen, 415, 417 Koriuchi tribe, 191 volcano, 159 Korongo-eis tribe, 426 "Korowaar," 405 Kota Raja, 211 Koti (or Mahakkam) river, 227, 273 Krakatau, eruption of, 161, 335 Krama language, 127 Kriitke range, 415 Krisses of Java, 124 Menangkabo, 209 Kubu tribe, 183, 193 Kuching, 266 Kudat, 250 Kupang, 371 Kusaie Island, 546, 548 Kuta-baugan, ruins at, 205 Labot volcano, 74 Labour traffic in New Guinea, 418 in New Hebrides, 454 Labua, Mount, 325 Labuan, 254 coal mine, 246 Labuan-tring, 352 Ladrone Islands, 553 Lagerstroemia, 180 Laglaize, M. Leon, 384 Laguna de Bay, 71 de Cagayan, 76 de Canaren, 76 Laibobar Island, 367 Laipaka, 374 Lakahia, Mount, 379 Lakan, Mount, 370 Lalang grass, 171, 178 Laniararap volcano, 364 Lammas, Mount, 442 Lamongan, 106 Lampongs, people of the, 194 Lancaster, Sir James, visits Ache, 157 Landu Island, 370, 374 Langauan mud volcanoes, 280 Langen, Captain, on Ke islanders, 342 Languages of Malaysia, 24, 25 of Polynesia, 496 Lante volcano, 354 La Perouse visits Samoa, 500 visits Easter Island, 528 fate of, 447, 448 Larantuka, 360, 362 Larat, 367 Latimojoiig, Mount, 278 Latte, Mount, 497 Lauto, Mount, 503 Lavag, 72 Lawu, 106, 109, 134 Lead in Philippines, 34, 81 in Borneo, 246 in New Caledonia, 457, 458 Legaspi conquers the Philippines, 31, 54, 77 takes Ladrone Islands, 553 (town), 76 Lele, ruins at, 549 Leopard, 120 Lepers' Island, 453 Lepus netscheri, 182 Lesser Sunda Islands, 345 droughts of, IS Letti Islands, 366 Levuka, 468, 470, 486 Leyte, 82 Libocedrus papuana, 391 Lifu Island, 465, 466 INDEX 565 Liguasan lake, 86 Limbang river, 225 Limbotto lake, 280, 281 Linao lake, 86 Lingga Island, 200, 201 Liwong river, 146 Lobetobi volcano, 360 Lokon volcano, 278 Lombleu, 364 Lombok, 350 London Missionary Society, 409, 423, 504, 506, 511, 544 Loro-jongran ruins, 131 Louisiade Archipelago, 12 Islands, 436 Low Archij^elago, 519 Loyalty Islands, 465 Luar lake, 228 Lubu tribe, 189 Luse, Mount, 158 Luzon, 70 mountains of, 70, 73 lakes of, 76 population of, 76 Lycopodium clavatum, 391 Macacus cynomolgus, 41 Mace, 337, 339 Macgregor's, Sir W., exploration in New Guinea, 385, 421 "Maclay Coast," 384, 415 Macrodontism, 436 Madura, 99, 103, 143 population of, 99, 143 Madurese nation, 121 Maer Island, 466 Magellan visits Sumatra, 156 his ships in the Moluccas, 324 in the Timor gi'oup, 364 discovers Ladrones, 553 death-place of, 30, 81 Magindano {see Mindanao) Mahakkam (or Koti) river, 227, 273 Mahori, 20 language, 495 Maimbun, 90, 92 Maitea Island, 518 Majaijay volcano, 74 Majapahit, 103, 130, 131 Makassar district, 292 Makassarese, 289 Makian, 321, 322, 323, 324 Maklai, Miklukho, 384 Malabar volcano, 106 Malabu, mines of, 208 Malacca, taking of, 104 Malaspina volcano, 80 Malay language, 19, 24 race, 8, 19, 25 characters of, 22 Malayo-Polynesians, 8, 21 Malaysia, geographical outline of, 13 volcanoes of, 15 forests of, 17 ethnology of, 20 languages of, 25 Maiden Islands, 525, 527 Mallicolo, 451 Malu, Mount, 223 Malua, 504 Manahiki group, 525 Island, 526 Mandar people, 289, 299 Mandayas, 86, 87 Mandeling, 171 Mangaia, 509 Mangerai strait, 359 Mango Island, 473 Manguianos, 77 Manila founded, 31 taken by the English, 32, 53, 65 rainfall of, 36 description of, 65 population of, 67 Manila hemp, 41, 56, 80, 81 Maninju lake, 173 Manis javanicus, 1 82 Manna Island, 502, 504 Manobos, 87 Manok Island, 366 Manowolko, 340 Maquiling volcano, 74 Maras, Mount, 202 Marchesa' s exploration in New Guinea, 384 Marco Polo, 104, 155, 156 Mare, 322, 324 Mare Island, 465, 466 Marinda citrifolia, 344 Marionettes, 124 Marquesa Islands, 522 Marsden, Mr., on Rejang people, 192 Marshall Islands, 545 Marsupials of New Guinea, 392 Martapura, 272 Marud, Mount, 223 566 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Masa Island, 199 Masbate, 84 Matabello Islands, 340 Mataram, 352 Matema Islands, 448 Maui Island, 535 Maumeri, 361, 362 Mauna Kea, 534 Loa, 534 Hualalai, 534 Mayon, Mount, 33, 70, 73 Meester Cornells, 149 Megapodes, 311 Melaleuca viridiflora, 458 Mempakol, 252 Menado, 277, 293, 295 Menangkabo, 189, 238 kingdom founded, 157 Mendana discovers Solomon Islands, 443 Santa Cruz Islands, 447 Marquesas, 522 Meneses, Jorge de, visits Brunei, 215 discovers New Guinea, 381 Mentawi islanders, 21 Islands, 199 Merapi, Mount (Java), 106, 109 Merapi (Sumatra), 159 Merbabu, 106, 109 Metalanium, ruins at, 549 Meyer, Herr, in New Guinea, 384 Mikronesia, 542 Minahasa, 278, 293 people of, 291 Mindanao, 84 river, 86 lake, 86 Mindoro, 76 Mioko, 417, 434 Misamis, 88 Misol island, 427 Mission work in Sarawak, 265 in Minahasa, 294 in Sangir, 302 in New Guinea, 408, 434 in Santa Cruz, 448 in New Hebrides, 449 in Loyalty Islands, 464 in Fiji, 472, 480 in Tonga. 499 Mitford, 253 Moa Island, 366 Modigliani, Dr., on Nias Island, 197 Mohammedanism in Java, 128 in Sumatra, 156, 183 in Borneo, 234 in Celebes, 277 Molenvliet, 148 Mollusca of the Philippines, 43 of Celebes, 2S6 of the Moluccas, 311 of New Guinea, 396 of Sandwich Islands, 537 Molokai Island, 535 Moluccas, 306 first visited by the Portuguese, 9 geology and natural history of, 308, 315 inhabitants of, 313 "Residencies" of, 317 "Lesser Moluccas," 322 Monotremes of New Guinea, 392 Monsoons in Java, 114 in Sumatra, 176 in Borneo, 228 in Celebes, 282 in Moluccas, 319, 342 iu Sumbawa, 356 in New Guinea, 388 Montano's ascent of Mount Apo, 85 journey across Mindanao, 86 Moijrea Island, 518 Morais, 515, 518, 519, 527 Moresby, Captain, surveys S.E. New Guinea, 383, 436 "Moros," 49, ^1, 86, 125 Morti, 308 Moss, Mr. F. J., on the Turi system, 526 on Caroline Island ruius, 550 Motley, Mr., on geology of Borneo, 219 Mua peak, 502 Muara Takus, ruins at, 205 Mud volcanoes, 111, 364, 370 Muntok, 203 Muria volcano, 106 Murray Island, 466 Mus musschenbroeki, 232 Musa textilis, 41, 56 Music, Javanese, 124 Musi river, 175 Mutong, 301 Mydaus, 120 INDEX 567 Nacco Islands, 198 Naugamessi, 375 Nanjan lake, 78 Nanusa Islands, 302 Nassau Islands, 199 Natiina Islands, 273 Navigators' Islands, 500 Negara, 224, 273 Negrito race, 8, 21, 47, 54, 70, 80, 81, 82, 86, 95 Negros Island, 80 Nepenthes, 231 Neu Lauenburg {see Duke of York Islands) Neil Mecklenburg {see New Ireland) Neu Pommeru {see New Britain) New Britain, 434 New Caledonia, 12, 455 mountains of, 456 history of, 456 geology of, 457 climate of, 458 flora and fauna of, 458 natives of, 459 trade of, 462 administration of, 462 penal establishment in, 463 New Caledonian Company, 451 New Guinea, 376 title of Dutch to, 317 physical features of, 378 mountains of, 379 history of, 381, 419 annexation of S.E. by England, 384, 419 geology of, 385 climate of, 388 flora and fauna of, 390 the Papuans of, 397 political divisions of, 410 the Dutch territory, 410, 438, 440 the German territory, 412, 440 the British territory, 418, 439, 440 islands of, 424 "New Guinea Company," 413, 417, 434 New Hanover, 432 New Hebrides, 449 New Ireland, 432 Ne\vsf)apers of the Philippines, 56 Ngenges, Mount, 354 Ngoko language, 127 Nias Island, 197 Niauli-tree, 458 Nibong palm, 243 Nickel, 457, 458 Nila Island, 366 Nipa palm, 243 Nine, 507 Niukalofa, 499 Noordwijk, 148 Normanby Island, 437 Noumea, 465 Nufur language, 430 Papuans; 412, 430 Nuhu Roa,' 342 Nui Island, 508 Nukahiva, 523, 524 Nukulailai Island, 509 Nukuor Island, 547 Nusa-Heli, Mount, 309, 329 Nusa-Tello, 341 Niitmeg, 300, 322, 334, 336, 339, 366 Obi Islands, 326 Obree, Mount, 385, 423 Ofu Island, 504 Oil-palm, 255 Olele, 211 Olosenga Island, 504 Ombay, 363, 364 passage, 363, 369 Ombiliu coal-fields, 208 Onin peninsula, 379, 411 Oparo, 519, 533 Ophir, Mount, 159 Opium-farming in Sarawak, 264 "Oraug Sirani," 315, 329 Orang-utan, wanting in Java, 119 found in Sumatra, 181 in Borneo, 232 Order of the Sacred Heart, 410 Ornitho2)tera loriamus, 313 Otaheite, 511 Otuiti, Mount, 532 Ovalau, 470 Ovuluvi ovum, 402, 445 Owen Stanley, Mount, ascended by Sir W. Macgregor, 385, 422, 423 range, 380, 383, 422 plants of, 391 Owhyhee, 533 568 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Padang, 177, 210 Padaiig-luwas, 171 "Padris" sect, 190 Pagan Island, 555 Pagi Islands, 199 Pagoat, 300 Pajagalon, 110 Palawan (or Paragua), 93 Palembang, 174, 177, 209, 212 river, 175, 212 tribes of, 193 Palmyra Island, 527 Pam copper mines, 457 Pampanga, 71 Pauay, 78 Pangium fruit, 179 Pango-pango, 504 Pantar, 364 Papandayang, 106 Papar, 252 Papawa, ruins at, 515 Papeete, 516 Papilio penelope, 396 ulysses, 313 Papuan race, 8, 9, 21 Paragua (see Palawan) Parinarium lauriinim, 444 Pasig river, 65, 71 Pasir, 273 Patani, 319 Pateros, 71 Patippi Bay, 412 Patteson, Bishop, 447 Patuwa volcano, 106 Paumotu Archipelago, 519 Pea-fowl, 120 not found in Sumatra, 182 Pearls, 92, 245 Pearl-shell, 516 Pele Island, 453 Pelew Islands, 551 Peliiig Islands, 304 "Penakan," 125 Pengaron mine, 246 Penrhyn group, 525, 527 Penunggungan, 106 Pepper, 206, 243 "Pepper Coast," 191, 206 "Perkeniers," 338 Pertibi, plain of, 171 Petroleum in Java, 138 in Sumatra, 209 in Borneo, 246 Pheasant, Argus, 119, 182 fire-back, 120, 182 Philippine Islands, 27 area of, 28 history of, 30 conquest by Legaspi, 31 geology of, 33 climate of, 35 typhoons in, 36 earthquakes in, 37, 66, 71 diseases prevalent in, 38 fauna and flora of, 38 past history of, 46 natives of, 47, 53, 68 population of, 53, 63, 64, 92 religion and education in, 54 agriculture, trade, and commerce, 56 ports of, 60 railways in, 60 government and revenue of, 61 army and navy of, 62 budget of, 63 volcanoes of, 73, 80, 85 Phoenix group, 526, 527 Phosphate of lime, 418 Pigafetta describes Borneo, 215, mentions Ombay, 364 Pigeon, Nutmeg, 338 Crowned [Goura), 395, 429 Marquesan, 525 Piiia fabric, 59, 79, 80 "Pinag" 76 Pinag de Candava, 76 Pingi Island, 199 Pinus, genus, in the Philippines, 40 in Sumatra, 179 Piracy, 88, 89, 92, 240, 254, 356, 412 Pitcairn Island, 520 Poggy Islands (see Pagi) Pogoyama, 300 Poison shrub of Flores, 362 Pollok, 88 Polynesia, 487 Polynesian race, 9, 488 languages, 493, 495 Ponape Island, 546, 549 Ponies, Javanese, 138 Surabawan, 359 Tim.orese, 373 Rotti, 374 Sumban, 375 INDEX 569 Pontianak, 271 Population of Philippines, 63, 64 of Dutch possessions, 99 of Java, 141, 142 of Sumatra, 209 of Borneo, 214 of Celebes, 276 of Minahasa, 295 of Bali, 350 of Lombok, 353 of Timor, 374 of New Guinea, 424 of New Caledonia, 461, 465 of Fiji, 485 of Sandwich Islands, 540 Port Moresby, 423 Eoyalist, 95 Portuguese first visit Moluccas, 9, 316 possessions in Malaysia, 15 visit Sumatra, 156, 157 established in Moluccas, 316 in Timor, 370 Posewitz, Dr., on Bornean geology, 217, 218 on floods of Negara district, 224 on Bornean diamonds, 247 Poso, Lake, 281 Powell, Mr. W., in New Britain, 384, 435 Prau, 106, 108, 134 Presbytes nasutus, 232 Primula imperialis, 118 Prince Frederick Henry Island, 425 Probubalus mindorensis, 41, 78 Proechidna, 392 Ptilopus roseicollis, 121 Pu, Mount, 223 Puerto Princesa, 95 Pulo Babi, 197 Bras, 158 Wai, 158 Puppet-plays, 124 Pura-pura, 366 Purdy Islands, 418 Queen Charlotte Islands, 447 Quicksilver in Philippines, 79, 87 in Borneo, 246 in New Guinea, 388 in New Caledonia, 457 Quiros discovers New Hebrides, 449, 451 Quiros discovers the Society Islands, 510 the Low Archijielago, 519 Eaces of Australasia, 8, 14, 19 Radack grouji, 545 Raffles, Sir Stamford, 104 on Menangkabo, 189 Rafflesia, 178 Raiatea Island, 518 Railways in Philippine Islands, 60 in Java, 145, 153 in Sumatra, 211 in New Caledonia, 464 in Sandwich Islands, 541 Rainfall of Philippines, 36 of Manila, 36 of Java, 115 of Sumatra, 177 of Borneo, 229 of Makassar and Menado, 283 of Ternate, 319 of Amboina, 333 of Ke Islands, 342 of New Guinea, 388 of the Aru Islands, 425 of New Caledonia, 458 of Fiji, 473, 474 of Honolulu, 535 Rakan river, 176 Ralick group, 545 Rana guppyi, 444 Ranken, Mr. W. L., on the " Ma- horis," 20 Ranu lake, 281 Rapa Island, 519, 533 Rarotonga, 509 Rattan, 274, 300 Rattlesnake, H.M.S., survey of, 383 Raun volcano, 106 Rebello on Celebes, 276 Rejang river. 225 tribes, 191 Reptiles of New Guinea, 395 Retes, Ynigo Ortiz de, 382 Rewa river, 468 Rhinoceros, 119, 120, 181, 231 Rhinoceros simiatranus, 181, 231 Rhio Island, 201 Rhio-Lingga Archipelago, 200 Rhododendrons, 231 Riamkina river, 272 Rijswijk, 148 570 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL Rindia Island, 359 Ringgold Islands, 472 Ringworm, Pacific, 389 Rinjani, Mount, 350 Rio Grande de Cagayan, 72 Ritabel, 367 Roggevvein discovers Easter Island, 628 Rokka volcano, 360 Roma Island, 365 Romba mountain, 360 Rose-wood, 451 Rossel Island, 436 Rotti Island, 374 Rotuma Island, 472, 486 Ruang volcano, 303 Ruins in Java, 101, 109, 130 in Sumatra, 155, 205 in Borneo, 216, .238, 273 in Celebes, 277 on Espiritu Santo, 452 in Tonga Islands, 500 in Tahiti, 515 in Austral Islands, SW on Piteairn Island, 522 on Maiden Island, 527 on Easter Island, 529 in Caroline Islands, 549 in Ladrones, 554 Ruk Island, 546, 548 Rumphius, 331 Rurukan, 295 Rusa Raja Island, 360, 361 Saavedra, Alvaro de, 381, 545, 553 Sacrijiante, Mount, 83 Sadang river, 280 Sago, 243, 255, 264, 329 Saint Aignan, 437 goldfields of, 387 Saint Panie, Mount, 456 Saipau Island, 555 Salaier Island, 305 Salak volcano, 106, 110, 146, 151 Salcedo, Juan de, 77 Salibabu, 302, 304 Salwatti Island. 427 Samar, 82 Samarai, 424 Samarang, 144 Samarinda, 227, 273 Sambas district, 247 Samoa Islands, 500 Samsum (or Samson) river, 379 Sanana Bay, 304 San Bernardino channel, 72 San Cristobal, 442 Sandakan, 250 Sandalwood, 375, 450, 458, 475 Island (see Sumba) Sandwich Island, 451, 452 Islands, 533 Sangir Islands, 302 Santa Cruz Islands, 447 Sapan wood, 41, 58, 79, 362 Sapi strait, 359 Saputan mountain, 278 Sarawak, 259 government of, 263 army of, 264 trade of, 264 population of, 265 capital of, 266 Sariguan Island, 555 Sarongs of Sumatra, 209 of Borneo, 248 of Makassar, 292 Sasak, Tana, 350 race, 351 Sati, 349 Savage Island, 507 Savaii, 493, 502 Savo Island, 442 Savu Island, 374 Schouten Islands, 429 Scirpus ccespitosus, 391 Scratchley, Mount, 423 S. Cristobal volcano, 74 Seba, 374 Segaar Bay, 412 Segama river, 253 Selaparang, 350 Selaru, 367 Selawa-jantan, 158 Selwyn, Bishop, 448 Semao (or Semang) Island, 374 Semeru, 106, 109 Semioptcra ivallacei, 311, 312, 325 Sequeira, Diego Lopes de, 156 Seriang lake, 228 Sermata Island, 366 Serrao, Francisco, 331 Serresius galeatus, 525 Serua Island, 366 Serwatti Islands, 365 Shipbuilding among Ke islanders, 343 INDEX 571 Siak river, 175 tribes of, 189 Sialang tree, 179 Siamang, 181 Siamanga syndactyla , 181 Siau Island, 303, 338 Sibiru Island, 199 Sibutu passage, 92 Sidangoli, 319 Silam, 252 Silver in Philipi^ines, 81 in Borneo, 246 in New Caledonia, 457, 458 Simalu Island, 197 Simpson, Mount, 423 Sindang Laja, 151 Singkara lake, 173 Singkel river, 176 Singkep Island, 200 Sipora Island, 199 Siquihor Island, 84 "Sirani, Orang," 315, 329. 332 S'lamat, 106 Slavery in Sulu, 92 in Moluccas, 315, 322, 338 Socialism among the Papuans, 407 Societe Caledonienne des Nouvelles Hebrides, 455 Society Islands, 510 Solomon Islands, 442 Solo river, 113, 114 Solor, 363 Soro Mandi mountain, 354 Sorsogon, 72, 73 Soundings in the Pacific, 6 in Torres Straits, 12 off North Borneo, 94 on Celebes bank, 302 in Ombay passage, 369 near Ladrone Islands, 556 Spanish possessions, 15, 547, 553 their conquest, 31, 32, 547 settlements in Sulu group, 89 Spermonde Archipelago, 293 Spice Islands [see Moluccas) Starbuck Island, 525, 527 Stirling range, 380 Straits of Sunda, 101, 154 of Bali, 105 of Surabaya, 114 of Rhio, 201 of Bauka (Bangka), 202 of the Timor group, 363 Strickland river, 385, 421 Styrax benzoin, 180, 206 Sual, 76 Submarine bank of S.E. Asia, 7 Suckling, Mount, 423 Sudara, Gunong, 278 Sudest Island, 436 goldfields of, 387 Suk Island, 429 Sulla Islands, 304 Sulu, Simnish expeditions against, 32 natives of, 52, 233, 238 language of, 52 population of, 63, 64, 92 general description of, 89, 90 Sumatra, 154 history of, 155 geology, etc., of, 157 lakes of, 159, 173 volcanoes of, 159 plains of, 160 climate of, 171, 176 rivers of, 174 fauna and flora of, 177 inhabitants of, 182 languages of, 183 islands of. 197 religion and antiquities of, 204 agriculture and trade of, 205 population of, 209 provinces of, 209 chief towns of, 210 " Sumatras," 177 Sumba, 374 Sumbawa, 353 Sumbing, 106 Sunda straits, 101 Sundanese nation, 121 Sundara, 106, 108 Supiori Island, 429 Surabaya, 137, 143 Surakarta, 145 Surigao, 88 Suttee {see Sati) Suva, 468, 470, 486 Suwarrow Island, 526 Swallow Islands, 448 Taal lake and volcano, 74 Tahu among the Papuans, 406 Tacloban, 83 Tafua peak, 503 Tafuti lake, 281 572 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Tagals, 50, 71, 77, 554 Tagbiloran, 84 Tagbuanas, 50, 95 Tahiti, 511 Taiohai, 524 Tai-tai, 93, 95 Talang volcano, 159 Talaiit Islands, 302 Talisse Island, 302 Tambilan Islands, 273 Tambora volcano, 354 eruption of, 355, 358 Tambu river, 272 Tana Aropen, 412 Tangarung, 273 Tangerang, 149 Tangkamus mountain, 161 Tangkuban Prau, 106 Tanjong Priok, 149 Tanna, 450 Tapir absent from Java, 119 in Sumatra, 181 in Borneo, 231 Taprobana, 156 Taputeuea, 543, 544 Tarakan volcano, 318 Taraxacum officinale, 391 Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), 283 Taruua, 303 Taschem crater-lake. 111 Tasraan discovers Fiji, 471 Tonga. 497 Taviuni Island, 470 Tawi-tawi, 90 Tayabas, population of, 76 Teak, 87, 90, 118, 138, 305 Tebang, Mount, 223 Tempe lake, 281 Temples of Java, 103, 109, 130 of Sumatra, 155 of Borneo, 216, 373 of Fiji, 480 Tengar, 106, 109 Tenimber Islands (see Timor Laut) Tepa, 367 Terano Hau, 532 Kau, 528 Ternate, 313, 316, 319 Thakombau, King, 472 Tibi hot springs, 73 Tidor, 313, 31^6, 322 Tiger, 120, 124, 181 unknown in Borneo, 231 Timor, 15, 345, 369 Timor Laut Islands, 367 Tin in Bangka, 202, 203 in Blitong, 204 in Sumatra, 208 Tinakula Island, 448 Tinian, 554, 555 Tionfoloka Islands, 341 Tior Island, 341, 344 Toba lake, 159, 173 Tobacco in the Philippines, 58, 79 80, 84 in Java, 137 iu Sumatra, 207 in Borneo, 243, 253 in Celebes, 300 in Moluccas, 322 in Bali, 349 Togian Islands, 304 Tokelau Islands, 508 Tolo volcano, 318 Tondano lake, 281 Tonga Islands, 497 Tougarewa Island, 527 Tongatabu, 497, 499 Tongkoko mountain, 278 Torres, Luis Vaz de, 382, 436 Torres Straits, soundings in, 12 Tortoiseshell, 92, 93, 245, 300, 333 Totoya Island, 473 Touata Island, 522 Trade returns of Philippines, 60 of Netherlands India, 97 of Java, 136 of British North Borneo, 252 of Dutch Borneo, 274 of Celebes, 300 of Moluccas, 322, 333, 339 of Timor, 372 of New Guinea, 424 of New Caledonia, 462 of Fiji, 483 of Samoa, 506 of Tahiti, 516 of Sandwich Islands, 540 Tramways in Java, 153 Tridacna shell, 245 Trilithon in Tonga Islands, 500 Tripang, 92, 93, 245, 300, 424 Triton Bay, Dutch settlement at, 382 Trobriand Islands, 438 Trusan river ceded to Sarawak, 263 INDEX ^73 Tual, 342 Tuamotu AichiiDelago, 519 Tubuai Islands, 518 Tucopia Island, 448, 449 Tiifoa mouatain, 497 Tugere tribe, 412, 421 Tukala, Mount, 278 Tulur Islands, 302 Tumahii, Mount, 327 Tunggul, 106 Tupinier Island, 435 Tutuila Island, 502, 504 Typhoons of the Philippines, 36 Uahdka, 522, 523 Ualan Island, 548 Uapu Island, 522 Uea, 465, 466 Ulu tribe, 189 Union Islands, 508 Upas valley, 109, 110 tree. 111 Upolu Island, 503 Urdaiieta, Andrea de, 31 Urodynmnis taitiensis, 543 Urracas Islands, 555 Urville, Dumont d', 471 Ussher, Mr. , upon condition of Sara- wak, 268 Uvaria aromatica, 58 Uvea, 465, 466 Valentijn, 331 Vanapa river, 423 Vanda Lowii, 231 Vanikoro, 448 Vanilla, 300, 516 Vanua Lava, 451 Levu, 468 Varthema, Luigi, 104, 155, 214, 316, 338 Vate Island, 451, 452 Vatica exiviia, 180 Vaux, Mr. W. S. W., on Polynesian languages, 20 Vavau Island, 497 Vele Island, 453 Victor Emmanuel range, 417 Victory, Mount, 385 Viti (see Fiji) Viti Levu, 467, 468 Vitores, Luis de San, 553 Viverra tangalunga, 309 Volcano Island (Santa Cruz), 448 (New Guinea), 435 Volcanoes of Malaysia, 15 of the Philippines, 33 of Luzon, 73 of Palawan Islands, 94 of Java, 101, 105, 115 of Sumatra, 159 of Borneo, 221 of Celebes, 278 of Sangir, 303 of the Moluccas, 308, 318, 319, 324, 331, 334 of Lesser Sundas, 345, 347, 350, 354, 360, 364, 365, 366, 370 of New Guinea, 385, 431, 434, 435 of Melanesian Islands, 442, 452 of Polynesia, 497, 504, 534, 555 Wahai, 329 Waigiu, 427 Waikama hot springs, 470 Waikolo lake, 328 Waingapu, 375 "Wajang" (puppet-plays), 124 Waju tribe of Bugis, 288 Wallace, Mr., on Langauan mud volcanoes, 280 on "culture system," 298 on Batjan, 325 his residence in New Guinea, 383 on the characteristics of the Papuan, 400 "Wallace's line," 14, 347 Wa Sumsum river, 379 Waterfall, Tondano, 282 Weaving in Java, 124, 151 in Sumatra, 209 Weltevreden, 148 Wesleyan missions, 409, 480, 499, 506 Wetta Island, 364 Wheat - growing in New Caledonia, 462 Whitehead, Mr., on weather experi' enced on Kinabalu, 229 on Bornean birds, 232 Wilis volcano, 106, 109 Willem Schouten Islands, 429 Wilson's bii-d- of- paradise, 429 Winter Height, 423 Wokka, Mount, 364 574 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL Woodlark Island, 438 Wulur, 365 XuLLA Islands, 304 Yamdena, 367 Yamura, 158 Yap, 547, 548 Yasowa, Mount, 450 Ygarrotes, 51 Ylang-ylang, 58, 92 York, Duke of. Islands, 417 Ysabel Island, 442 Ysabela de Basilan, 90 Yule, Mount, 422 Zamboanga, 87, 88 Zebu, 81 Zinc in Borneo, 246 Zonnegat, 335 Zoology of Australasia, 10 of the Philippines, 41 of Sulu group, 91 of Palawan, 94 of Java, 119 of Sumatra, 181 of Bangka, 202 of Borneo, 231 of Celebes, 283 of Xulla Islands, 304 of Moluccas, 309 of Timor Laut, 368 of New Guinea, 391 of New Britain, 435 of Solomon Islands, 444 of New Caledonia, 458 of Fiji Islands, 476 of Samoa, 504 of Marquesas, 525 of Sand^vich Islands, 535 THE END Printed hy R. & R. Clakk, Edinburgh. REISSUE OF STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Revised and in great part rewritten. 12 Volumes. Large Crown Svo. Cloth. I'rice 15s. each. THE J 'OL UMES NO IV READ V ARE ;— AUSTRALASIA. — Vol. I. Australia and New Zealand. By Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. With Numerous Maps and Illustrations. "To the general reader, and especially to the subdivision of that extensive genus included in the term ' intending visitors ' to Australia, Dr. Wallace's book may be con- fidently recommended." — The Saturday Review. " So largely has this volume been modified and augmented, that it may be looked upon as a new work. Nearly twice the space is bestowed on the Australian Colonies than in the former edition, and numerous characteristic illustrations are introduced with happy effect." — The Geographical JournaL AUSTRALASIA. — Vol. II. Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes. By F. H. H. GuiLLEMARD, M.D., Author of "The Cruise of the Marchesa."' With numerous Maps and Illustrations. VOLUMES IN ACTIVE PREPARATION. NORTH AFRICA. By A. H. Keane, F.R.G.S., Author of 'Eastern Geography,'' Translator and Editor of "The Universal Geography '' by E. Reclus. ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR. SOUTH AFRICA. NORTH AND EASTERN ASIA. SOUTH AND WESTERN ASIA. London : EDWARD STANFORD, 26 & 27 CocKSPUR Street, Charing Cross, .S.W. ©cojrapfjcr to C^cv ^ajestp t^c ©uccii. STANFORD'S LEADING ATLASES. PROSPECTUS, GIVING CONTENTS OF EACH, ON APPLICATION. Second {folio) edition. DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN. Stanford's London Atlas of Universal Geography, exhibiting the physical and poHtical divisions of the various Countries of the World. loo maps, and an Alphabetical List of names with latitudes and longitudes. Imperial folio, half-morocco extra, with Thumb Index. Price ^12. Size, when shut, 16 inches by 23 inches. " In respect of its wealth of maps of the British Empire all over the world, it is prob- ably unsurpassed." — Times. Stanford's Family Atlas of General Geography, exhibiting the various physical and political divisions of the chief Countries of the World. 50 maps, with a list of lati- tudes and longitudes. Imperial folio, half-morocco. Price Five Guineas. Size, when shut, 16 inches by 23 inches. Fifth (^qiiarto) edition., j-evised and enlarged, Stanford's London Atlas of Universal Geography, containing 48 coloured maps, carefully drawn and beautifully engraved on steel and copper plates, and an Alphabetical List of over 30,000 names with latitudes and longitudes. Imperial 4to, half-morocco, cloth sides, gilt edges, 30s. Size, when shut, 12 inches by 15 inches. "We have used it constantly for years, and we have never found it surpassed for the combined merits of handiness, cheapness, accuracy, and clearness." — The Saturday Ri'viczv. Stanford's Octavo Atlas of Modern Geography, containing 38 maps, carefully drawn and beautifully engraved on copper plates ; also an Alphabetical List of over 30,000 names, with latitudes and longitudes. Second edition. Handsomely bound in morocco, gilt edges, price 21s. Size, when shut, 7;V inches by 12 inches. Stanford's Handy Atlas of Modern Geography, consisting of 30 maps, each 1 4 inches by 1 1 inches, engraved in the best style ; also an Alphabetical List of over 30,000 names, with latitudes and longitudes. Bound in cloth. Price I OS. 6d. Size, when shut, jh inches by 1 2 inches. Postage 6d. London: EDWARD STANFORD, 26 & 27 CocKSPUR Street, Charing Cross, S.W. ©cograpljcr to Pet ^ajcstp t\)e ©uceit. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. NOV 2 81962 p, Op OCT 2 81959 ':D MAR4i198 1965 PM ^- 10 Form L9-10»t-l.'52 (9291)444 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 001 095 881 7